Jaina Literature in Tamil

Author(s): A Chakravarti, K V Ramesh
Publisher: Bharatiya Gyanpith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001627/1

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL A. CHAKRAVARTI with An introduction, Footnotes, Appendix and Index K. V. RAMESH BHARATIYA JNANAPITHA PUBLICATION First Revisca Edition -

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JSANAPITHA MURTIDEVI GRANTHAMALA: English Series 3 Published on the Occasion of the Celebration of the 2500th Nirvana Mahotsava of Bhagavan Mahavira JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL by The Late Prof. A. CHAKRAVARTI, M.A., I.E.S. (Retd.) with An Introduction, Footnotes, Appendix and Index by Dr. K. V. RAMESH Deputy Superintending Epigraphist, Archacological Survey of India, Mysore KA BHARATIYA JNANAPITHA PUBLICATION VIRA NIRVANA SAMVAT 2500, VIKRAMA SAMVAT 2031, 1974, A.D. First Revised Edition : Price Rs. 20-00

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BHARATIYA JNANAPITHA MURTIDEVI JAINA GRANTHAMALA FOUNDED BY SAHU SHANTIPRASAD JAIN IN MEMORY OF HIS LATE BENEVOLENT MOTHER SHRI MURTIDEVI In this Granthamala critically edited Jaina Agamic, Philosophical, Pauranic, Literary, Historical and other original texts available in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Ilindi, Kannada, Tamil etc., are being published in their respective languages with their translations in modern languages AND Catalogues of Jaina Bhandaras, Inscriptions, Studies of competent scholars & popular Jain literature are also being published. General Editors Dr. A. N. Upadhye Pt. Kailash Chandra Shastri Published by Bharatiya Jnanapitha Head office : B45-47, Connaught Place, New Delhi-110001. Printed at The Vidyasagar Printing and Publishing House, Mysore-570009 ----- --- Founded on Phalguna Krishna 9, Vira Sam. 2470, Vikrana Sam. 2000., 18ti Fcb., 19.14 All Rights Reserved

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Table of Contents Pages General Editorial Introduction Preface (first edition) Prof. A. Chakravarti (A Biography) Jaina Literature in Tamil Cultural Background of Jainism Jainas in the Tamil Country Three Sargams and Jaina Influence Tolkappiyam and its commentaries Kusal : Its Authorship and date Nalatiyar Minor Didactic Works Kavya Literature Silappadikaram : Its Author and contents Jivaka Cintamani : Its contents Minor Kavyas Yasodhara Kavya Cujamani : Its contents Nilakesi : its Analysis Perudikathai Merumandira puragam Sripurana Works on Prosody and Grammar Tamil Lexicons Miscellaneous Works Estimate of Jaina Influence Appendix: Jaina Epigraphs in Tamil Index XX xxi 1-137 1-10 10-14 14-19 19-28 28-40 40-44 44-48 48-50 50-63 63-83 83-110 84-90 90-94 94-110 110-118 118-126 126-127 127-131 131-134 134-136 136-137 139-205 206-232

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General Editorial 'Jaina Literature in Tamil' by the renowned Tamil scholar, the late Prof. A. Chakravarti, M.A.,I.E.S. (Retd.), was published as early as July, 1941 by the Jaina Siddhanta Bhavana, Arrah. This learned introduction to the contribution of the Jainas in the field of Tamil literature had been long out of print. The thought of having the book reprinted with the addition of upto-date information and all necessary references had occurred to one of us more than a decade ago; and all along attempts were being made to find a suitable scholar who could be entrusted with this onerous task. It was only some two years ago that our friend Dr. G. S. Gai, Chief Epigraphist, Archaeological Survey of India, Mysore kindly suggested the name of Dr. K.V. Ramesh, serving as Deputy Superintending Epigraphist in his office, to whom this work was assigned. It was so good of Dr. Ramesh that, in the midst of his official duties, he was able to devote time and attention to this work. He has revised and enlarged Prof. Chakravarti's book by providing exhaustive footnotes containing additional information, references, bibliography, etc. He has also given, in an appendix, the texts of some published Jaina Tamil epigraphs besides providing an exhaustive index at the end. We are so thankful to him that he undertook this responsibility and discharged it quite satisfactorily. It is fondly hoped that this revised edition of the late Professor's pioneering work will be found useful by students and scholars interested in the

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history of Jainism in South India and that it would prove a substantial aid for further studies in Tamil Literature. The 2500th Nirvana Anniversary of Bhagavan Mahavira is being celebrated from November 13, 1974 onwards for a period of one year. It is to mark this great event that the Bharatiya Jnanapitha is publishing the late Professor A. Chakravarti's 'Jaina Literature in Tamil' in its present revised form. Words are inadequate to express how much we feel obliged to the authorities of the Bharatiya Jnanapitha, especially to its enlightened President, Shrimati Rama Jain, and to its benign Patron, Shri Sahu Shanti Prasadaji, for arranging the publication of this work. Our thanks are due to Shri Lakshmi Chandra Jain who is enthusiastically implementing the scheme of publications undertaken by the Jnanpith. A. N. UPADHYE Kailash CHANDRA SHASTRI November 13, 1974

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INTRODUCTION Apart from their distinctive Ahimsa doctrine in the field of religious thought and practice, the most lasting contributions of the Jainas to the wealth of our national heritage lie in the fields of literature and art and architecture. In particular, the role which Jaina scholars, poets and authors have played in enriching Prakrit and Sanskrit literature and grammar at the all-India level and as pioneers in the growth of Tamil and Kannada literature and grammar as far as South India is concerned is, it may be safely asserted, varied and, from a practical stand-point, highly utilitarian. Though the early literature of the Jainas is in Prakrit, in the different linguistic regions to which their missionary zeal had taken them in the distant past, they unhesitatingly adopted, as the media of their doctrinal preachings and instructions and their prolific writings, the different local dialects and languages which were being spoken in those regions. Thereby Jaina scholars have been able to make, through successive centuries and in a phenomenal measure, pioneering and lasting contributions to the growth of the various branches of literature in such regional languages as Rajasthani, Hindi and Gujarati in the north and Kannada and Tamil in the south. The present work by Prof. A. Chakravarti being a learned introduction to Tamil works written by Jaina authors, treating of their kavyas and mahakavyas, puranas and didactic and devotional poems, lyrics, tales, romances and allegories, their works on logic,

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vi dialectics, ethics, politics, grammar, poetics and prosody, lexicon and medicine, it will not be out of place to trace here briefly the history of the advent, growth and decline of Jainism in Tamilnadu, based on the scanty historical evidence that is available. The questions as to when exactly Jainism entered the Tamil country and whether it did so through Andhra or via Karnataka are matters of mere academic interest. While the presence of Jainism in Ceylon as early as in the 4th century B.C. indirectly hints at the possible prevalence of that faith in the Tamil country at that early period, on the strength of the credible tradition as recorded by Ratnanandi of the 15th century in his Bhadrabahu-carita and by Devacandra of the last century in his Rajavali-kathe, it may be safely concluded that the Jaina faith had entered the Cola and Pandya kingdoms at the latest by the 3rd century B.C. through the missionary activities of Visakhacarya, the accredited disciple of Bhadrabahu. "The spread of the faith in the south after Bhadrabahu is attested by the presence of Jain vestiges in the natural caverns to which Jain ascetics resorted for their penance. Inside these caverns are 'beds' with 'pillows' cut on the floor and on their brows are long and deep 'driplines' scooped out to prevent rain water from running into the caverns. In some of these caverns, particularly in the districts of Trichinopoly including Pudukkottai, Madurai, Ramnad and Tirunelveli, there are also 1. See P. B. Desai: Jainism in South India (Sholapur, 1957), pp. 25-27,

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vii inscriptions"1. The fact that many, if not all of these early cave inscriptions which, as revealed by their palaeography, were written in Brahmi characters during 3rd century B.C.-3rd century A.D., were caused to be engraved by the early Jainas of the Tamil country affords historical support to the alleged antiquity of Jainism in Tamilnadu. The existence of Jaina pallis, sramanas and their abodes in the Madurai-Tiruchirappalli region during this early period is clearly borne out by these inscriptions. Later inscriptions afford evidence that these caverns were occupied as late as the 12th century A.D. The celebrated literary giant Kundakundacarya, who probably belonged to the 1st century A.D., is the earliest tangible historical personality in the annals of Tamilnadu Jainism. He is believed to have founded the Mula-samgha; tradition gives him the secondary name of Elacarya and attributes to him the authorship of the Tirukkural, revered by the Tamilians as the Tamil Veda. The 2nd century A. D. saw Jainism making further strides in the Tamil country through the efforts of another important Jaina scholar, Samantabhadra, 'one of those prominent Jaina gurus of early times who were responsible for the diffusion of Jainism in the Tamil country'. The Kathakosas of Prabha1. K.R. Venkatarama Ayyar : Transactions for the Year 4 1957-58 Archaeological Society of South India, pp. 24-25. P.B. Desai; Op. cit., p. 55. 2. 3. See below, p. 29 4. B.A. Saletore: Mediaeval Jainism (Bombay, 1938), p. 224; M.S. Ramaswamy Ayyangar: Studies in the South Indian Jainism (Madras, 1922), p. 44.

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viii candra (11th century) and Nemidatta (16th century) describe him as the naked ascetic of Kanci. Pujyapada was yet another Jaina luminary and the credit of reviving Kundakundacarya's Mulasamgha under the name of Dravida-samgha in the 5th century A.D. with Madurai for its headquarters, goes to his disciple Vajranandi. "There is an account in the Periyapuranam of a host of 'Karnataka Jainas pouring into Madurai like a cloud-burst and uprooting the ruling dynasty ; this might have preceded the formation in that city of the Dravida-sangha of the Jains by Vajranandi ..... The Samgha perhaps became a proselytising centre with branches all over the Tamil country." It was in the 5th century (in 458 A.D.) that the Lokavibhaga, a Digambara work in Sanskrit on Jaina cosmography, was copied by Sarvanandi in the village Patalika, i.e., modern Tiruppadirippuliyur (South Arcot District). In the history of Tamilnalu, the first three centuries of the Christian era have come to be popularly known to students of history as the "Sangam age' and it was during this age and in the three succeeding centuries that Jainism reached its zenith in the Tamil country. It was during the post-Sangam age (4th-6th centuries A.D.), an otherwise historically dark period, that most of the 'Eighteen minor works' (padinenkilkkanakku) and the Silappadikaram and Manimekalai were written, many of them by Jaina authors. As for the prevalence 1. K.R. Venkatarama Ayyar, Op. cit., p. 25. 2. Mys. Arch. Rep., 1909-10, P, 45,

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ix and popularity of Jainism in Tamilnadu during the Sargam age, N. Subramaniam says "During the period lighted by the Sangam literature, we see as much of Jainism as of Buddhism but both are clearly subordinate to the indigenous practices of the Brahmanical Vedic religion. There were in important cities like Puhar a concentration of Jains known as the Samanar and their places of stay were called Samanappalli or Amanappalli. Cavakar, (a common designation of a Jaina layman), a sect among Jainas, are mentioned in the Maduraikkanci; they were householders observing religious observances; the lay Jains were called Ulaga-Nonbigal. At Uraiyur there was an Aruhan temple called 'Sri Kandappalli', also called 'Nikkandappalli'(nikkanda = nirgrantha, a Jaina) or Nikkandakkottam' and the deity in the Uraiyur Jaina temple was called 'Uraiyur Sri Koil Nayanar'. Nikkanda-kkottam was usually abbreviated as Kandakkottam and it was easy to confuse this, at a later period, with a Murugan temple; the expression Kottam' usually associated with Jaina Pallis will give away its origin, anyway.... The Amanappallis were retiring or resting places of the Jaina anchorites and these places were surrounded by gardens full of flowering plants". We learn from the Manimekalai that the Jaina philosophical system was one of the subjects of study at Kanci, one of the most important centres of education in early South India'. 1. Samgam Polity (1966), p. 367. 2. The contents within the brackets are mine (-K.V.R.] 3. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri : A History of South India (III edn., 1966), p. 423.

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In the post-Sangam period, particularly from the sixth century onwards, Jainism claimed, off and on and in varying degrees, the patronage of such powerful dynasties as the Pallava, Pandya and Cala. Pallava Simhavarman (550-60 A.D.) of Kanci and his son Simhavisnu (560-80 A.D.) were great patrons of Jainism. The Pallankovil copper-plate grant records' that Simhavarman'gave away, in the sixth year of his reign, the village called Sramanasrama or Amangerkkai to the great ascetic Vajranandi of the Nandi-sangha at the holy place Vardhamanesvara-dharmatirtha for the purpose of worshipping the groups of Jinendra, Jainendras and Munindras. The mother of Simhavisnu was an ardent Jaina devotee and, according to the Hosakote plates of Western Garga Avinita, she got constructed a temple for the god Arhat for the glory of her husband's family. Pallava Mahendravarman I (580-630 A.D.) and Pandya Arikesari Parankusa Nedumaran (670-710 A.D.) were both Jainas by persuasion. "Under royal support Kanci with the surrounding villages and Madurai with the surrounding hills teemed with a considerable Jain population, and the present day site of Jinakanci bears sufficient testimony to this"4. Nevertheless, Jainism did meet with stout opposition in Tamilnadu even from early times. "This was during the period of the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. 1. TASSI., 1951-59, p. 43. See below, Appendix, Inscription No. 5 2. Mys. Arch. Rep., 1938, pp. 80-90. 4. TASSI., 1957-58, p. 25. 3. P.B. Desai: Op. cit., p. 81,

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to start with; and its opponents were the champions of the Saivite and Vaisnavite faiths of the Brahmanical religion. Almost simultaneously, under the leadership of Appar and Sambandhar, the advocates of the Saivite school launched ruthless attacks against the adherents of the Jaina law and earned signal success in the Pallava and Pandya kingdoms. Pallava Mahendravarman I and Pandya Nelumaran were converted to the Saiva faith, the former by Appar and the latter by Sambandhari. The movement aimed at curbing the popularity and further growth of Jainism in Tamilnalu, particularly in the Pandyan kingdom which had been practically permeated by Jainism in the 5th-6th centuries A.D., was spearheaded by the Saivite nayanars Tirunavukkarasu or Appar and Tirujnanasambandhar and Vaisnavite alvars Tirumalisai, Tirumangai and Tondaradippoti. Appar, a contemporary of Pallava Mahendravarman I, was a Saivite by birth but was drawn towards Jainism and he actually joined the Jaina monastery at Cuddalore, the South Indian Pataliputra, as a monk. However, through the persistent efforts of his elder sister, he not only re-entered the fold of Saivisin but also succeeded in converting the Pallava emperor, till then a devout Jain, to the Saiva faith. His younger contemporary Tirujnanasambandhar has the reputation of having vanquished all the Jaina scholars of Madurai, the Pandyan capital, and of having converted the Pandyan ruler, either Mazavar 1. TASSI., 1957-58, p. 25

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xii man Avanisulamani (A.D. 620-44) or his grandson Arikesari Maravarman (A.D. 670-700), till then a Jain, to the Saiva faith. There is a tradition that the newly converted Pandyan ruler persecuted and impaled 8000 Jainas at the instance of Tirujnanasambandhar and a series of frescoes on the mandapa of the famous Minaksi temple tank at Madurai illustrates this gruesome event. Exaggeration apart, the Periyapuranam account of the saints and the hymns of Appar also make it evident that both in the Pallava and Pandya countries the Jainas were subjected to some degree of persecution in the 7th-8th centuries A.D. Of the alvar saints, Tirumalisai, an elder contemporary of Mahendravarman I, had for sometime been a follower of Jainism before he finally became an ardent Vaisnava saint; Tirumangai, who lived in the middle of the 8th century and Tondaradippodi, who followed him a century later, included in their hymns attacks and invectives against Jainism1. This organised and sustained campaign conducted during the 7th-10th centuries did finally break all tangible resistance on the part of Jainism which lost much ground in Tamilnadu during the later part of Pallava and Pandya rule. Flourishing Jaina strongholds such as Pataliputra (modern Tiruppapuliyur, Cuddalore), Arpakkam, Magaral and Madurai, lost their importance". In the subsequent period, the Colas, who were 1. See M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar : Studies in South Indian Jainism (1922, Madras), pp. 67, 79; K.A. Nilakanta Sastri: History of South India (III edn., 1966), pp. 424 and 426. 2. TASSI, 1957-58, p. 25.

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Xiji ardent followers of Saivism, were not inclined to actively support the cause of Jainism. It may, therefore, be concluded that from the 10th century onwards Jainism lost its importance in the Tamil country after having thrived as a great vehicle of faith and knowledge for centuries at a stretch. Nevertheless, as one scholar has rightly pointed out', even during the period of it decadence, Jainism retained its intellectual vitality as is borne out by the composition of many books on grammar, lexicon and astronomy besides the Jivakacintamani, which made its appearance sometime after the 8th century A.D.; and Pavanandi's Nannul was composed in the 13th century A.D. The occurrence of Jaina epigraphs right down to the 16th century. A.D. at Tirupparuttikkunram, popularly known as Jinakanci also attests to the fact that Jainism continued to be a religious force to reckon with atleast in some pockets in Tamilnalu for long after its overall popularity had waned. In attempting to delineate briefly the chequered history of Jainism in Tamilnalu from the sixth century onwards, culling out and interpreting the information that is available from Jaina epigraphs, most of which find place in the appendix appearing at the end of this work, one can do no better than quote K.R. Venkatarama Ayyar. "The vitality of Jainism was not exhausted, Saiva and Vaisnava opposition notwithstanding. Jaina 1. M.S. Ramswami Ayngar: Op. cit., p. 73. 2. TASSI., 1957-58pp. 25-28.

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xiv scholars enriched the Tamil language, they composed elegant poems, wrote books on grammar and prosody, compiled lexicons, and presented lofty ideals of ethics in pithy verses. This gave them quite a strong hold on the minds of the people until after the ninth century, by which time had grown up a vast literature of Saivism and Vaisnavism. Both by example and precept monks and nuns in their monastic retreats influenced the lives of the people. Among such monastic centres were Chitral or Tiruccanarrumalai (South Travancore) and Tirukkattamballi in KurandiVenbunadu (Madurai-Ramnad). Ajjanandi Astopavasi, Gunasena, Naganandi, Gunavira and others of these establishments were teachers of eminence. An inscription in the Ainnurruva-peurmballi (called after the merchant corporation, the 'Five Hundred') now in ruins at Tiruvennayil (now called Chettipatti in Pudukottai), built during the reign of Rajaraja I (985-1016), mentions Matisagara, the guru of Dayapala and Vadiraja. Ammachatram (Pudukottai) had more than one palli, and inscriptions mention two acaryas of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Cholavandipurm (South Arcot) and Tirumalai and Tirakkol (North Arcot) were other large centres mentioned in the inscriptions. At Tiruppanmalai (North Arcot) is an image of Naganandi. Aristanemi, a pupil of Paravadimalla, lived in Tiruppanmalai, where one of his pupils, the nun Patttinattuk-kuratti opened a celebrated nunnery. In the large monastery at Velal (North Arcot) misunderstanding arose among the monks on the one hand and the chief nun and her disciples on the other, and the intrepid nun took upon

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khu herself the responsibility of running the feeding house attached to the monastery. Kirapakkam (Chingleput) was the centre of the Yapaniya-sangha, Kumila-gana. At Ponnur (Sanskrit: Hemagrama or Svarnapuri) Elacarya popularised the Jvalamalini (Vahnidevata) cult and built a temple for that goddess. His teachings were later codified by Indranandi in his Jvalamalinikalpa. The Jinagiripalli at Anandamangalam (Chingleput) was a monastery of considerable importance, and so was Val?imalai where is enshrined the image of Devasena, a pupil of Bhavanandin. A Munibhadra and Samantabhadra, disciples of Puspasena, figure in the inscriptions from Karandai (North Arcot). The grammarian Mandala purusa and the prosadist Amitasagara also deserve mention. And Jinakanci (Tirupparuttikunram) boasts of a line of Rsi-samudaya, among whom the names of Mallisena, Vamana and Puspasena are still cherished. From the seventh century onwards, the Tamil country was studded with temples to Siva and Visnu. The Pallavas, the Pandyas and then the Celas set the lead by building new temples and richly endowing them. Since Jainism was no longer the faith of the ruling houses, the erection of prillis and temples was mostly the work of the Sangha drawing what help it could from the State, the local assemblies and the merchant guilds. Tamil kings on their purt were neither slow nor parsimonious in their benefactions to their Jaina subjects. The Sittannavasai Jaina cave temple, which was till lately believed to have been built by Mahendravarman 1, is now known to have definite

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xvi Pandya associations. The Candraprabha temple at Jinakanci was fostered by a Pallava king of the eighth or ninth century. Rajasimha II Pandya (900-920) endowed severa! palliccandams. Kundavai, sister of Rajaraja I, a princess remarkable for learning and charity alike, built two Jaina temples, one at Tirumalai and the other at Rajarajapuram (now called Dadapuram) and these shared with the numerous Siva temples that she built, costly presents of vessels and ornaments of gold, silver and pearls. Virasola, a Lata vassal of Rajaraja 1, remitted at the request of his queen, taxes payable by the Tiruppanmalaipalli. A perumballi at Karandai was named after VirarajendraCola (1063-9) and another at Kuhur (Tanjore) after Kulottunga I (1070-1120). Among the donors to the temple at Tirunarungondai (South Arcot) were Virkamacola (1128) and Vikrama Pandya (1187) and the Kadavarayas of Sendamangalam, and those of Sirramur and Perumandur (South Arcot) were the Sambuvaraya chiefs of the twelfth century. An image at Tudiyurmamalai (Singipatti, Tirunelveli) was named after a minister of Maravarman Sundara Pandya II (1238-54). Pandya benefactions to the monasterics at Sadayapparai, near Pudukottai town, and at Narttamalai are also on record. The incursion of an Oriya force under Kapilesvara Gajapati (1465) as far south as the Kaveri left villages robbed and deserted, and temples of all the sects looted and closed. Saluva Narasimha (1486-91) restored worship in all these temples including the Jaina temples. and exempted their lands from taxes. The jodi imposed by the Vijayanagar agent Ramappa Nayak hit temples hard,

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Xvii and Krsnadevaraya gave them relief by converting their lands into sarvamanya. Jinakanci temples shared in the lavish endowments that Krsnadevaraya (1509-29) made to religious institutions in the south. Acyutaraya's (530-42) gift to a Jaina temple at the request of Velur Bomma Nayaka (1532) also deserves notice. That the grants of lands to jaina pallis were considered as sacred and irrevocable as devadanam or brahmade yam lands is proved by the careful exclusion of all palliccandam lands in sales or gifts of villages to Siva or Visnu temple or private individuals. Like Siva and Visnu temples, Jaina temples also held lands in absolute ownership (tirunamattukkani) and also enjoyed lands made over for festivals (tiruvilappuram), sivigaippuram, etc.,) and for specified services (tirupalli elucci), etc. The palsiccandam lands were demarcated by stones with triple umbrella carved on them (tirumukkudaikkal). The establishment of Muslim rule in Madurai spelt the ruin of Jaina temples in common with those of the other sects. There was a partial revival under Vijayanagar rule: but the Nayak principalities of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries neglected Jaina institutions, which succumbed to inanition. Except in a few villages and towns such as Jinakanci, Sirramur, Tirumalai, and Kumbakonam, Jainism has practically disappeared form the Tamil country.' The late Prof. Chakravarti's work which is now placed in the hands of the scholars in its revised and

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xviii enlarged version, ably succeeds in narrating the glorious contributions made by Jaina scholars in the field of Tamil literature not only during the period of Jaina ascendancy in Tamilnadu but also in the subsequent centuries. Dr. A. N. Upadhye, who had rightly felt that the work, published more than three decades ago, would be much useful as a source book if it is made up-to-date and if neccessary references are provided, kindly entrusted the pleasant task to me at the instance of my vocational teacher and guide Dr. G.S. Gai, Chief Epigraphist, Archaeological Survey of India, Mysore. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Upadhye and Dr. Gai for the confidence they have reposed in me. In providing references, I have not merely confined myself to those source books which the late Professor might have consulted at the time of writing his book but have also referred to subsequent publications. I have also given detailed information in the footnotes on some works, not mentioncd by the author, which had subsequently been dicided upon as the creations of Jaina authors. At the instance of Dr. Upadhye, I have also provided, as far as possible, exhaustive lists of different publications and editions with regard to each of the works discussed by Prof. Chakravarti. An important feature of this second edition is the inclusion of the texts of Tamil Jaina inscriptions. All of them are already published in different publications and are brought together here for the first time. These epigraphs are not only an index to the antiquity and

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xix popularity of Jainism in the Tamil country but also contain many words and expressions of lexical interest, justifying the claim of scholars that Jainism has made distinct contributions to the growth of Tamil language and literature. I record my sincere thanks to the authorities of the Bharatiya Jnanapitha, especially to its Secretary, Shri L. C. Jain but for whose personal interest this book would not have seen light so early as this. I also thank my friend Shri M. D. Sampath of the Institute of Kannada Studies, Mysore University, Mysore who has rendered me considerable help in correcting the proofs. My thanks are due to the Partners, Vidyasagar Printing and Publishing House, Mysore for their neat execution of the printing work. In conclusion, I would like to add my voice to the hope expressed in the General Editorial that this revised edition of Prof. Chakravarti's "Jaina Literature in Tamil would prove "a substantial aid for further studies in Tamil literature'. K. V. RAMESH Mysore 13-11-1974

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PREFACE (First edition) Jaina authors have made remarkable contributions to the various domains of Indian literature in Sanskrit, Prakrit and other languages. The classical dignity and literary refinement which Tamil and Kannada languages have reached are entirely due to the pioneer work of Jaina authors in the field. Jainism being a religion of pre-eminently humanitarian values, these authors have left behind a noble heritage for the benefit of the society through their literary productions. In the following pages a modest attempt has been made to take a survey of Jaina contributions to Tamil literature. Prof. A. Chakravarti is a great Tamil scholar; and there could not have been a better choice for this undertaking. This survey, we are sure, would be quite useful for preparing a systematic history of Tamil literature on the one hand and for a comparative study of Jaina literature in different languages on the other. It was very kind of Prof. Chakravarti to have allowed the Editors to publish this excellent essay in the Jaina Antiquary; for this they are highly thankful to him. It is their earnest desire to publish similar monographs in English on the Jaina contributions to Sanskrit, Prakrit, Kannada, Telugu, Hindi and Gujarati literatures with the co-operation of different specialists. Thanks are due to Dr. Raghavan, Madras University, who kindly added diacritical points on Tamil words in the press-copy. The Table of contents and Index are added by Dr. A. N. Upadhye hoping that they would heighten the referential value of the book.

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Prof. A. Chakravarti Nayanar A Biography The late lamented Prof. Chakravarti was born in the year 1880. After passing his M.A. with distinction from the Christian College, Madras in 1905, he saw service for a year or two, first as teacher in the Wesley Girls' School and then as a clerk in the Accountant Gencral's Office, Madras. He entered the academic field in 1906 when he was appointed Assistant Professor of Philosophy in the Presidency College, Madras. He became Professor in 1917 and in the course of over three decades of useful academic career he served with distinction in the Government Colleges at Rajahmundry, Madras and Kumbakonam before finally retiring from active service as Principal in 1938. In the same year the title of Rao Bahadur was conferred upon him in recognition of the meritorious service rendered by him in the fields of learning, research and education. A pious Jaina sravaka and a deep scholar of Jainism, Prof. Chakravarti was also well-versed in the various schools of western philosophy and brought his wide learning and erudition to bear upon his studies of Jaina Philosophy. His introduction to the Pancusrikara (Arrah, 1920) is a valuable exposition of Jaina metaphysics and ontology. In 1937 he delivered Principal Miller Lectures which are published under the title 'Humanism and Indian Thought'. The late Pros. Chakravarti has edited a number of Tamil works by Jaina authors with their commentaries and in some cases, with his learned exposition in English. For instance, Neelakesi, the text, and the commentary of Samaya Divakara Muni, along with his elaborate introduction in English, were published in 1936 (Madras); his edition of Tirukkural by Tevar, along with the Tamil commentary by Kaviraja Panditar, has been published by the Bharatiya Jnana Pitha as No. 1 in their Tamil series, with an English

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xxii introduction (Madras, 1949). Professor Chakravarti has also edited the Tirukkural with English translation and commentary and an exhaustive introduction which has been hailed as 'an indispensable aid to the study of Tirukkural'. He has also edited the Merumandirapuranam in Tamil. His 'Religion of Ahimsa', a learned exposition in English of some aspects of Jainism, is published by Shri Ratanchand Hirachand (Bombay 1957). He has written a commentary in English on the Samayasara of Kundakunda (Bharatiya Jnanapitha, 1971). Based mainly on the Sanskrit commentary of Amrtacandra, his exposition and his evaluation of the contents of Samayasara have rendered the principles of Kundakunda intelligible to the modern world. Besides contributing an elaborate and scholarly essay on Jainism in the perstigious publication 'Cultural Heritage of India', Prof. Chakravarti has contributed a number of essays and articles on Jainism, Ahimsa and contemporary thought to various other publications such as Philosophy of the East and West, Jaina Gazette, Aryan Path and Tamil Academy. Some of his papers are reprinted in the 'Yesterday and To-day' Madras, 1946. He was a member of a number of Associations and Institutions in Madras. Prof. Chakravarti's abiding interest in Jaina Tamil literature prompted him to write 'Jaina Literature in Tamil' (Arrah, 1941), which highlights in a lucid way the noteworthy contributions made by Jaina authors to Tamil literature. Through the generous patronage of the Bharatiya Jnanapitha, of which Prof. Chakravarti was a wellwisher, this work is now being reprinted with the addition of useful references, index, an appendix of Tamil Jaina epigraphs and an Introduction. It is hoped that the present edition will serve the purpose of introducing to the world of scholars and rousing their interest in Tamil works on different subjects by Jaina authors of yore so that the pioneering work done by the late Professor will pave the way for further research and studies on Jainism in the Tamil country.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL A casual perusal of Tamil Literature will reveal the fact that, from the earliest times, it was influenced by Jaina culture and religion. It is a well-known fact that Jainism was a religion originated in Northern India and thus must be associated with Aryan culture. When the Jainas migrated to the South and how they came in contact with the original Tamilians are problems which still remain obscure. But some light may be thrown on these problems if we turn our attention to the fact that even from the earliest times of Aryan settlement in the Indus valley, there was a section among the Aryans which was opposed to the religion of sacrifice and which was standing by the doctrine of ahimsa. Even in the Rgveda Hymns we have evidence to substantiate this proposition. The story of Sunahsepha, a Brahmin youth, who was released by Visvamitra from being sacrificed is an important fact. The conflict between the Rajarsi Visvamitra and Vasistha' probably represents the start 1 Rgveda Samhita, I-24-12/13, V-2-7; For an English rendering, see R.T.H. Griffith: The Hymns of the Rigveda, Vol. I (1920), pp. 31-32, 467; See also, Vedic Index, Vol. II (1912), pp. 311, 385-86; Winternitz: A History of Indian Literature, Vol. I (1927), pp. 213-16; P.V. Kane: History of Dharmasastra, Vol. II (1941), p. 35; The Vedic Age (1951), p. 285. 2 Muir: Original Sanskrit Texts, part 1, pp. 75 ff.; Vedic Index, Vol. II, pp. 274-77; Weber: The History of Indian Literature (1914), pp. 37-38; The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Ancient (Contd.)

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : ing point of a great conflict between the school of sacrificial ritualism led by brahmana Ksis and the anti-sacrificial doctrine of ahimsa led by the ksatriya heroes. Even in the Kgveda Samhita we have references to ksabha, Aristanemi", the former the first of the Jaina Tirtharkaras, and the latter the 22nd Tirthankara, a cousin of Sri Krsna. When we leave the period of the Samhitas and enter the second period known as the period of the Brahmanas, we come across some interesting facts relating to this cleavage among the Aryans. About this time the Aryans migrated towards the Gangetic valley, and they built kingdoms and settled down in the countries of Kasi, Kosala, Videha and Magadha'. Aryans living in these countries were generally designated as the Eastern Aryans (pracya) as distinguished from the Western Aryans living in the Kuru Pancala countries of the Indus valley. The latter looked down upon the Eastern Aryans as distinctly inferior to themselves in as much as they lost the orthodoxy India (1922), pp. 82-83; Winternitz : op. cit., pp. 402-03 ; V. Rangacharya : Pre-Musalman India, Vol. II, Vedic India, Part I (1937), pr. 191-95; The Vedic Age, p. 245. 1 Rgveda Samhita, VI-16-47, VI-28-8, X-91-14, X-166-1; See Vedic In:lex, Vol. I (1912), p. 115, wherein it is stated that the word Rsabha, occurring in the Rgreda' is the common name of the bull'. 2. Rgveda Samhita, I-89-6, 1-180-10, III-53-17, X-178-1. 3. The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Ancient India, p. 117 ; The Vedic Age, p. 255.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL S associated with the Kuru Pancala Aryans. The Orientalists suggest ? that the Eastern Aryans in the Gangetic valley probably represent an earlier wave of invaders who were pushed towards the east by the later invading hordes who settled down in the Indus valley. It is necessary to hold some such view in order to explain certain fundamentale differences between the sections. The Brahmana literature distinctly reveals the existence of poltical and cultural differences between the two groups of Aryans. On several occasions, armies were led to the eastern country against the Eastern Aryans. But there are two or three important facts mentioned in the Brahmana literature which constitute interesting evidence as to the difference of culture. In the Satapatha Brahmana the orthodox brahmanas of the Kuru Pancala countries are warned about their treatment in the eastern countries of Kasi, Kosala, Videha and Magadha. It is mentioned there I The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Ancient India, pp. 123-24. 2 Vedic Index, Vol. I, pp. 168-69 ; The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Ancient India, p. 123; V. Rangacharya: op. cit., pp. 349-50. 3 The Vedic Age, p. 255. 4 I am not aware of any such specific injunction in the Satapatha Brahmana. However, Baudhayana Dharmasastra, Mitak sara, the commentary on Yajnavalk ya-smrti and Aditya Purana speak of countries outside Aryavarta, among them Kalinga in the east, as unfit for Brahmanas. See P. V. Kane : History of Dharmasastra, Vol. II, part I, pp. 16 and notes and 18 and note; The Mahubhasya (Bombay), Vol. II (1906), pp. 119-20, 111-2-115. See J. N. Samaddar: The Glories of Magadha (Il edn., 1927), pp. 6 ff.

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4 that it is not safe for the brahmanas of the Kuru Pancala countries to go to these countries of the east 'because Aryans in these countries have forgotten their dharmas of Vedic ritualism; not merely that they have given up the sacrifice but they have started a new dharma according to which non-sacrificing is itself real dharma. What kind of respect can you expect from such a lot of heterodox Aryans who have lost reverence to dharma? Not merely this, they have also lost touch with the language of the Vedas. They cannot pronounce Sanskrit words with accuracy. For example, wherever ra occurs in Sanskrit words they can pronounce only la1. A. CHAKRAVARTI 2 Again, in these eastern countries, ksatriyas have attained social supremacy in as much they claim to be higher than the brahmanas. Consistent with the social aggrandisement, the eastern Aryans led by the ksatriyas maintain that Rajasuya-yaga is the highest type of sacrifice as against the Vajapeya sacrifice which is the highest according to the orthodox Kuru Pancalas. These are some of the reasons given why orthodox Kuru Pancala brahmanas should avoid travelling in the eastern countries. 1 Satapatha Brahmana, III-2-1-23 and 24. However, while writing on Jainism elsewhere, the author attributes (The Cultural Heritage of India, Calcutta, p, 187) this statement on the language inferiority of the easterners to the Vajasaneyi Samhita. 2 Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 204, note 11. 3 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 281.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL Again from an evidence in the Pancavimsa Brahmana' it may be inferred that on certain periods antiritualistic sections among the Aryans were more dominant and thus preached against Indra worship which did involve sacrifice. The persons who preached against Indra worship and anti-sacrificial ritualism are described as yatis with clean-shaven heads. When Indra worship was revived once again by a powerful king, under the influence of the orthodox section, the revivalism led to the destruction of these yatis whose heads were cut off and cast to the wolves. These facts given from non-Jaina literature are of great value in as much as they give us an inkling as to the antiquity of the religion of ahimsa. Now turn to the Jaina literature. What do you find there? Of the. 24 Jaina Tirthankaras beginning with Rsabha and ending with Mahavira, all are from the ksatriya clan. It is said that Lord Rsabha, the first of the Tirtharkaras, was the first to preach the doctrine of ahimsa and turn the attention of the thinkers to the realisation of Self or atman by the path of tapas or yoga. Most of these Jaina leaders of religion are associated with eastern countries; Rsabha from Ayodhya and Mahavira from Magadha and of the intervening 22 mostly from countries generally grouped 1 Pancavimsa Brahmana, 8-1-4, 13-8-17, 14-11-28; Muir: op. cit., Vol. IV, pp. 491-93; P.V. Kane: op. cit., Vol. II, part I, pp. 418-19.

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6 as Eastern Aryan countries.1 The language in which the Jainas preached their message was not Sanskrit, but a dialect of Sanskrit in the form of Magadhi Prakrit. The early sacred literature of the Jainas is mostly in Prakrit language evidently a spoken language of the masses in those days. This liberal section of the Aryans evidently adopted this spoken language for the purpose of preaching to the masses their religious doctrine of ahimsa. A. CHAKRAVARTI: 3 When we come down to the period of the Upanisads we see again the clash between the two different cultures: the sacrificial ritualism of the Kuru Pancalas and the atmavidya of the Eastern Aryans. The Upanisadic doctrine of atmavidya is associated mainly with ksatriya heroes, and scholars from the Kuru Pancala countries are seen at the courts of these eastern kings,* waiting for the purpose of being initiated into the new wisdom of atmavidya. The Upanisadic world represents a stage at which these two sections were attempting to come to an understanding and compromise. 1 Jaini: Outlines of Jainism (1940), Table opp. p. 6; V. Rangacharya (op. cit., pp. 348-49) holds that Buddhism and Jainism were movements organised by the eastern Ksatriyas. 2 Winternitz: op. cit., Vol. II (1933), p. 427. 3 Winternitz op. cit., Vol. I (1927), pp. 227-32; See Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 272 wherein it is argued that 'the home of the philosophy of the Upanisads was in the Kuru Pancala country rather than in the east'; but see below, p. 7, note 1. 4 Macdonell: A History of Sanskrit Literature (1925), pp. 213-14.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL King Janaka represents such a spirit of compromise and Yajnavalkya, an eastern Aryan scholar,1 probably represents the force that effected the compromise and adjustment. The old sacrificial ritualism, instead of being discarded altogether, is retained as an inferior culture side by side with the new wisdom of atmavidya which is recognised as distinctly higher. Such a compromise, no doubt, was a victory to the orthodox section of the Aryans. But such a compromise must have been unacceptable to the members of the liberal school who must have stood aloof; that such was the fact is evidenced by a small instance mentioned in the Jaina Ramayana. When there was a talk of Rama's marriage mooted in Dasaratha's court one of the ministers suggested that Janaka's daughter Sita would be the proper bride. But it was seriously objected to by many ministers who pointed out that Janaka was no more the follower of the doctrine of ahimsa in as much as he went back to the opposite camp. But it was finally decided that, from the political and military point of view, the alliance would be desirable in spite of this religious difference. This fact clearly suggests that Janaka was considered 7 1 The authors of the Vedic Index (Vol. II, p. 190) hold that the suggestion that Yajnavalkya was an eastern Aryan is not wholly acceptable. However, Macdonell, one of the authors of the Vedic Index, says in his History of Sanskrit Literature (1925) that certain passages of the Satapatha Brahmana 'render it highly probable that Yajnavalkya was a native of Videha', which is an eastern country.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : as one of the liberal Aryans till he changed side. It would not be far wrong to suggest that the Eastern Aryans who were opposed to the sacrificial ritualism and who were led by the ksatriya heroes were believers in ahimsa doctrines and as such the forefathers of the Jainas. This liberal school created out of itself, about the time of Mahavira, another radical school led by another ksatriya hero in the person of Gautama sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism. In the life of Gautama Buddha the Sakya clan to which he belongs is traced? to the Iksvaku dynasty which played a very important part in shaping the culture of ancient India. But even in Puranic Hinduism the services of the ksatriya heroes are recognised in as much as they are elevated as avataras of Visnu for whom temples are raised and worship is conducted. It is strange that this doctrine of ahimsa should be preached by ksatriya heroes who were generally associated with military exploits and who went about with bow and arrow. How ahimsa came to be associated with them remains a mystery. But the fact that they were the founders of the doctrine of ahimsa is a fact which cannot be doubted. That these ksatriya leaders, wher 1 For a detailed discussion of the sources which trace the origin of the Sakya clan to the Iksvakus, see B. C. Law: Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India (1924), pp. 162 f. Also see Sumangalavilasini, part I, pp. 258-60 ; Mahavamsa (Ed. Geiger), Chapter II, verses 1-24; Visnu Purana (Ed. Wilson), Vol. IV, Chapter XXII, pp. 167-72; Mahavastu (Ed. Senart), Vol. I, pp. 348-52.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL ever they went, carried with them their fundamental doctrine of ahimsa, preached against animal sacrifice and promulgated vegetarianism are facts which every student of Indian History ought to acknowledge. In the drama Uttararamacarita by Bhavabhuti this fact is well borne out in one of the scenes laid in Valmiki's asrama. Both Janaka and Vasistha visit the asrama as guests. When Janaka is entertained as guest he is given pure vegetarian food and the asrama is cleaned and kept pure. But on the day when Vasistha visits the asrama, a fat calf is killed in honour of his visit. One of the disciples of the asrama cynically asks a codisciple of his whether any tiger had visited the asrama; and the other rebukes him for his disrespectful references to Vasistha. The former apologises and explains himself by saying that, because a fat calf did disappear, I had to infer that some carnivorous animal like tiger must have entered the asrama,' over which the former offers the explanation that the Rajarsi being a strict vegetarian must be entertained accordingly, whereas Vasistha not being a strict vegetarian was entertained to suit his taste. These facts clearly indicate the significance and potency of the ahimsa doctrine, and it is well reflected in Tamil literature after the migration of the Jainas to the south and due to their participation in the creation of Tamil literature. The early Jainas should have adopted the propaganda work of their 1. Bhavabhuti's Uttararamacaritam (Ed. M. R. Kale, 1934, pp. 99-103), Act iv, dialogue between Sandhyataki and Dandayapa..

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10 A. CHAKRAVARTI : religion and hence they freely mixed with the aboriginal people of the land. This is again borne out by the fact of their friendly relations with the aboriginal people. The people of the land against whom the Aryans had to fight their way were called Dasyus, who, though described in uncomplementary terms elsewhere, are all described with a certain amount of respect in Jaina literature. To give one single illustration the monkeys and Raksasas who figure in Valmiki's Ramayana are all described as Vidyadharas in the Jaina Ramayana.' It is also clear from the Jaina literature that ksatriya heroes belonging to the Aryan clan freely married the princesses from the Vidyadhara clan. Such a matrimonial alliance, most probably contracted for military and political reasons, must have paved the way for the introduction of the ahimsa doctrine among the original inhabitants of the land. Some such reason must be assumed as the cause for the migration of the people from the north to the Tamil country and for introducing their culture, based upon ahimsa. The orthodox school of the Aryans must have appeared in the field of the Tamil country much later as is quite clear from the fact of later Hindu revivalism which led to the downfall of Jaina supremacy in the South. The migration of the Jainas to South India is generally supposed 2 to be at the time of Bhadrabahu, 1 Winternitz : op. cit., Vol. II (1933), p. 491. 2 The Bhadrabahu-Candragupta tradition is of a fairly ancient origin. The Bshatkathakosa of Harisena, a Sanskrit work of the 10th century, the Bhadrabahucarita of Ratnanandi, (Contd.)

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL the guru of Candragupta Maurya. That at the approach of a terrible famine of twelve years in the North, Bhadrabahu led a whole Jaina Sangha towards the Deccan, that he was followed by his disciple Candragupta who abdicated his throne in favour of his son and that they came and settled for sometime in the Mysore region that Bhadrabahu and Candragupta lost their lives on Candragiri at Sravana Belagola and the rest migrated to the Tamil country are facts generally accepted by oriental scholars. But, as I mentioned elsewhere, this could not be taken as the first approach of the Jainas towards the South. That the migration to the South must have been conducted with a hope of another Sanskrit work of the 15th century, the Munivamsabhyudaya of Cidanandakavi, a Kannada work of the 17th century and the Rajavasikathe of Devacandra, another Kannada work of the 19th century contain variant versions of this tradition. Some inscriptions in Sravanabelagola (Hassan District, Karnataka State), ranging in date from the 7th to the 15th centuries A.D. (Ep. carn., Vol. II, Nos. 1, 31, 67, 166 and 258) and two 10th century inscriptions from the vicinity of Srirangapatna (Ep. Carn., Vol. III, Sr. 147-48) contain references either to the migration of Bhadrabahu to the South or to him and Candragupta as master and disciple. 1 B. L. Rice: Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptions (1909), pp. 3-9; R. Narasimhacharya : Ep. Carn., Vol. II (1923), p. 9; M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar: Studies in South Indian Jainism (1922), part I, South Indian Jainism, pp. 19-24; P. B. Desai : Jainism in South India (1957), pp. 26-27. However, see Ind. Ant., Vol XXI, pp. 156 ff. and The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol. II, The Age of Imperial Unity (1951) where this tradition is held to be unacceptable.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI :: hearty welcome from a friendly race for thousands of monks is the only reasonable suggestion. It is clear from the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela that the Pandyan king sent shiploads of presents to King Kharayela at the time of the latter's rajyabhiseka.That Kharavela was an important Jaina emperors and that the Pandyan king was also the follower of the same religions are facts independently borne out by the inscription and Tamil literature. In connection with the Tamil work called Naladiyar, it is said that eight thousand Jaina monks who came and settled in the Pandyan country on account of the famine in the north wanted to go back to their country, which the Pandyan prince did not like. Hence they all left in a body the Pandyan capital, one night, each recording a stanza on a palm leaf which was left behind. The collection of these individual stanzas constitutes a book 1 Ep. Ind., Vol. XX, pp. 71-89. 2 The relevant part of the text (p. 80, text line 13) says that Kharavela caused horses, elephants, jewels and rubies as well as numerous pearls in hundreds to be brought from the Pandya king. There is no reference to Kharavela's coronation and to 'ship loads' in that context. 3 The Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, Ancient India (1922), pp. 64, 166, 223; P. B. Desai : op. cit., p. 17. 4 Kharavela's inscription does not say that the Pandya ruler was a Jaina by faith. Nor is it possible to deduce from available Tamil Literature that the Pandya contemporary of Kharavela was a Jaina 5 The Naladiyar or The Four Hundred Quatrains in Tamil (Ed. G. U. Pope, 1893), General Introduction, pp. viii-ix,

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 13 called Naladiyar ; and this tradition is generally accepted in the south both among the Jainas and the nonJainas. This fact also supports the view that even before the migration of Bhadrabahu there must have been Jaina princes in the Tamil land. This naturally creates a problem as to the exact period of the migration of the Jainas to the Tamil land and what occasioned this. But it is enough for our purpose if we maintain that the introduction of Jainism in the south must be somewhere prior to the 4th century B. C. This view is in conformity with the conclusions obtained by the Tamil scholars after careful research. Mr. Sivaraja Pillai in his Chronology of the Early Tamils writes about the early Tamilians : "Before their contact with the Aryans, Dravidians, as I have elsewhere pointed out, were mainly engaged in buildng up material civilisiation and securing for themselves the many amenities of life, individual and communal. Naturally, therefore, their lives took on a secular colour and came to be reflected as such in the literature of that period. The impulse of religion, which came to possess them at a later period, was then absent. And when the first infiltration of the Aryans began, the Jains and Buddhists 1. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar : History of the Tamils (1929), p. 246; P. B. Desai : op. cit., pp. 25-26; M. S. Venkataswamy: S'ainanamum Tamilum (1959), pp. 36-40. 2 K. N. Sivaraja Pillai : Chronology of the Early Tamils (1932), pp. 15-19.

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14 seem to have been the earlier batch, all facts and traditions considered. These heretical sects finding in the Tamil land no Brahmanic religion on any scale to oppose had to contend themselves with the composition of works mostly ethical and literary. The Tamils too seem to have taken themselves readily to this impulse which ran in the direction of their national bent, and the second period accordingly was throughout ethical and literary in substance and tone and seems to have been ushered in by the writing of such works as the Kural, Tolkappiyam, etc. The Hindu Aryans were the last to come, and with their arrival was opened quite a new channel of national activity into which the whole of Dravidian life and thought have flowed since." A. CHAKRAVARTI: We cannot talk of Tamil literature without reference to what is known as the 3 Sangams. Tamil literature, especially the latter one, refers to the 3 Sangams or Academies under whose guidance Tamil literature was cultivated. The story of the Sangam is shrouded in a good deal of mythology. In the earlier works supposed to be Sangam literature the several collections such as the 8 collections, the 10 idylls etc., there is no reference to Sangam literature." The modern oriental scholars rightly conclude that the 1 V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar: Studies in Tamil Literature and History (1930), pp. 15-19; K. N. Sivaraja Pillai op.cit., pp. 19-20; U. V. Swaminatha Iyer: Sangattamilum Pirkalattamilum (1934), pp. 18-20; M. Rajamanikkanar: Tamilmoli Ilakkiya Varalaru (1963), pp. 35-42. 2 K. N. Sivaraja Pillai : op. cit., pp. 25.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL whole tradition is fictitious and was created by some fertile imagination. The same author Mr. Sivaraja Pillai, referred to above, after an elaborate discussion about the Sangam tradition, writes thusa - "Reasons so many and substantial as these should lead any fair-minded scholar to reject the Sangam tradition as entirely apocryphal and not deserving of any serious historical consideration. It will, however, furnish a chapter in the study of myths and the psychological tendencies of the age in which it arose. Though worthless as testifying to any objective facts of Tamil history, the tradition itself claims our notice as a phenomenon of a certain type at a particular period of a nation's thought. I strongly suspect whether the eighth century tradition is not after all a faint reflex of the earlier Sangam movement of the Jains. We have testimony to the fact that one Vajranandi a Jain Grammarian and Scholar and the pupil of Devanandi Pujyapada, an accomplished Jaina Sanskrit Grammarian, in the Kanarese country, of the sixth century A.D., and the author of a grammatical treatise, "Jainendra', one of the eight principal authorities on Sanskrit Grammar, went over to Madura with the object of founding a Sangam there. Of course, that "Sangam' could not have been anything else than a college of Jain ascetics and scholars engaged in a religious propaganda of their own. This movement 1. Sce M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar : op. cit., pp. 161-66, App. c: The so-called Sangam Age. 2. K. N. Sivaraja Pillai : op cit., pp. 26-27.

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16 A. CHAKRAVARTI : must have first brought in the idea of a Sargam to the Tamil country. It is more than likely that, following closely the persecution of the Jains ruthlessly carried out in the 7th century A. D., the orthodox Hindu party must have tried to put their own house in order and resorted to the creation of Sangams with divinity too playing a part therein, for the purpose of adding to the authority and dignity of their literature. It was the sacerdotal 'Sangam' of the early Jains that most probably supplied the orthodox party with a clue for the story of a literary Sargam of their own on that model. The very name 'Sangam', unknown to the early Tamils, proclaims its late origin and to attempt to foisting the idea it signified on the so-called Sangam literature as its inspiring cause is little short of perpetrating a glaring and absurd anachronism." The only thing that I want to add to this is the existence of the Dravida Sangha, otherwise known as Mula Sangha, about the first century B. C. at the southern Pataliputra, identified with modern Tiruppappuliyur, a suburb of Cuddalore. This Dravida Sangha 1 See Ep. Ind., Vol. XIV (1917-18), p.334; P. B. Desai (op. cit., pp. 48-49) says "Pataliputra in the South Arcot Dt. was another center of Jaina preceptors. The Digambara Jaina work named Lokavibhaga which was rendered into Sanskrit by Simhasuri contains a reference to the effect that it was written (possibly in Prakrit) by Muni Sarvanandi in Saka 380 or A.D. 458 at a place called Patalika in Pana Rastra. This Patalika has been identified with Patalipura, Padirippuliyuror Tiruppappuliyur, a suburb of Cuddalore in South Arcot Dt. It is believed that there existed the Dravida Samgha in this place about the 1st century B.C."

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 17 was presided over by Sri Kundakundacarya, a great Jaina teacher who is held in high veneration by the Jainas all over India. The attempt by Vajranandi to revive the Tamil Sangam in Tamil Nadu' implies rather the downfall of the earlier Mula Sangha associated with Sri Kundakundacarya. This fact is mentioned merely for the information of research students who may be interested in the chronology of the Jaina influence in the Tamil land. One rather interesting fact which deserves to be mentioned, in this connection, is the reference to the Praksta language and its prevalence in all countries. The collection of sutras supposed to be the remnants of the great grammatical 1. Devasena, in his Darsanasara, written in 853 A.D., says that Vajranandi, the pupil of Sri Pujyapada, founded the Dravida Sangha in Mathura in the South in V.E. 525 =468-69 A.D. - Siri-Pujjapada-siso Davida-Samghassa-karago duttho 1 namena Vajjanamdi pahuda-vedi mahasatto 11 pamca-sae chal vise Vikkamarayassa marana-pattassa 1 dakkhina-Mahura-jado Davida-samgho mahamoho | (See JBBAS., Vol. XVII, part I, No. xlvi, p. 74 ; P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar : op. cit., p. 247). It has been suggested elsewhere [T. V. Sadasiva Pandarattar: A History of Tamil Literature (250-600 A. D.), 1957 (Tamil, pp. 26-27)] that three works, Nariviruttam, Eliviruttam and Kiliviruttam, the first one mentioned by the Saiva saint-poet Tirunavukkarasu and the next two mentioned by his contemporary, Tirujnana-Sambandar, may be assigned to about the 5th century A.D., and that they were, in all probability, written by Jaina authors who belonged to the Jaina Sangha established at Madurai by Vajranandi.

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1.8 A. CHAKRAVARTI : work of Agastya contains a section on northern languages, the Sanskritic languages. Here, after referring to Sanskrit and Apabhramsa, it speaks of 'Pahatam' as a language used by all the countries.1 On a former occasion we had to refer to the fact of Prakrta being specially associated with the Jaina leaders of thought in the North. A reference to this in the Tamil grammar as a language spoken all over the land is a very significant fact in as much as it would imply the early introduction of Prakrta literature and the migration of Prakrta-speaking people into the Tamil land. Another relevant fact is the description of vadakkiruttal or sallekhana found in some of the so-called Sangam collections. This vadakkiruttal is said to be practised by some kings who were followed by their friends. An important religious practice associated with the Jainas is known as sallekhana. When a person, suffering from illness or otherwise, realises that death is at hand and that it is no use to waste time in drugging the body he resolves to spend the rest of his life in meditation and prayer. He no more accepts food or medicine till the end of life. This practice is called sallekhana and a reference to this is found in the earliest Tamil collec tions where it is spoken of as vadakkiruttal. 3 1. Sentami! (Madurai), Vol. VIII (1909-10), p. 471, Peragattiyam, Vadapadappadalam. Pakatam is described therein as 'ella nattilum iyalvadu', i.e. 'current in all countries'. 2. The Cultural Heritage of India (Ramakrishna centenary Memorial Volume), Vol. I, p. 187. 3. Purananuru (Ed. by U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 1894), Purams 65-66, 191, 214, 218-20, 223, 236; Sirupancamulam, 73.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 19 There is some doubt as to the derivation of this word, though the significance is quite clear. All these facts taken together constrain us to believe that we have traces of Jaina influence discernible even in the earliest Tamil literature extant, not to speak of the Jaina contributions to the literature with which we are directly concerned. 1. Tolkappiyam"--This authoritative work on Tamil grammar is supposed to be written by a Jaina 1. M.S. Venkataswamy (op. cit., p. 182) is of the opinion that vadakkiruttal is merely the Tamil equivalent of sallekhana. According to him the term originated from the fact that, since all the Tirtharkaras ended their worldly existence in the north, the Jainas, at the time of observing sallekhana, faced the holy north and hence the term vadakkiruttal (vadakku= north, iruttal= seated' or lying). Also see N. Subramanian: Pre-Pallavan Tamil Index (1969), p. 729: "Vadakkiruttal : The penance of starving facing the north and self-immolation by slow starvation". 2. The following are some of the editions, either in full or in part, of Tolkappiyam and research treatises on that work : (i) Colladikaram with Naccinarkkiniyar's commentary--Ed. by C.V. Damodaran Pillai, Nandana (1892); . (ii) Tolcapyam with Naccinarkkinier's commentaryEd. by S. Bavanandam Pillai, Vols. I and II (1916) and Vols. III and IV (1917); (iii) Eluttadikaram with Naccinarkkiniyar's commentary---Ed. by T. Kanakasundaram Pillai, 2nd Edn. (1933); .. (iv). Eluttadikaram and Colladikaram-Ed. by Namachchivaya Mudaliar (1922); (v) Poruladikaram--English translation by R. Vasudeva Sarma (1933); (Contd.)

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : scholar. The fact is disputed by some scholars and various views' are entertained as to the religion of the author. We shall merely state some of the facts of internal evidence and leave it to the reader to judge for himself. Though it is a work of grammar, it contains a mine of information about the social polity of the early Tamilians; and research scholars are mainly dependent upon this work for information relating to the customs and manners of the early Tamilians. It has not been fully availed of by students of historical research. It is supposed to be based on earlier works on grammar such as Aindra which probably refers to a system of Sanskrit grammar. This is considered to be an authoritative work on grammar, and all later writers in Tamil language faithfully conform to the rules of diction enunciated therein. The author of this work, Tolkappiyam, was supposed to be a student (vi) Colladikaram with Senavaraiyar's commentaryEd. by Arumuga Navalar (1934); (vii) Eluttadikaravaraycci by V. Venkatarajulu Reddiyar (1944); (viii) Colladikaram with an English commentary by P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri (Annamalai University Tamil Series, No. 9, 1945); (ix) Poruladikaram with Naccinarkkiniyar's commentary-Ed. by K. Sundaramurti (1965). 3 1. See K. Vellaivarananar: 'Tolkappiyam', pp. 159-72 for the differing views of scholars on the religious leanings of the author of Tolkappiyam.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 2 of Agastya, the mythical founder of Tamil literature.1 It contains a preface by a contemporary author, Panamparanar, who certifies that the Aindiram-nirainca Tolkappiyam, i.e., the Tolkappiyam full of the Aindra grammar system, was read in the Pandyan assembly and approved by Adamkottasan. Dr.Burnell maintains3 that the author of the Tolkappiyam was a Buddhist or Jaina and that he is one of the unquestionably old Tamil authors. In the same preface of Panamparanar, Tolkappiyar is referred to as the "great and famous Padimaiyon". The word Padimaiyon is explained by the commentator as one who performs tapas. It is well known to students of Jaina literature that Pratima-yoga is a Jaina technical term and some Jaina yogis were spoken of as Pradhana-Yogadharis. On this basis, 5 p. 1. 1. The prefatory verses of Pannirupadalam, Purapporulvenbamalai and Agapporul-vilakkam make this claim. For relevant quotations, see K. N. Sivaraja Pillai: Agastya in the Tamil Land, p. 47. 2. The relevant lines read: 21 nilan- taru tiruvir-Pandiyan avaiyattu aranganai navin nanmarai murriya Adankottasarku ariltapatterittu. See, also, S. Vaiyapuri Pillai : Tamil-ccudarmaniga! (1949), 3. The Aindra System of Sanskrit Grammar (1875). 4. 'Pal-pugal-nirutta Padimaiyon'. 5. The commentator Ilampuranavadigal explains Padimaiyon as 'tavav-ofukkattinaiy-udaiyon', i. e., 'he who observes the norms of tapas'. Pratima is a Jaina technical term. It refers to the stages of religious life of a pious householder. There are eleven Pratimas.

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22 'A. CHAKRAVARTI : . scholars like S. Vaiyapuri Pillai' infer that the author of Tolkappiyam was a Jaina by religion. The same author strengthens his conclusion by quoting the sutrasa from Tolkappiyam referring to the classification of jivas according to the sense-organs possessed by the jivas. In the section called Marabiyal, Tolkappiyam speaks of jivas with one sense, such as grass and trees, jivas with two senses such as snails, jivas with three senses such as ants, jivas with four senses such as crabs and jivas of five senses, such as higher animals and jivas with six senses such as human beings. It is not necessary for me to point out and emphasise the fact that this forms a philosophical doctrine of Jaina thought. This classification of jivas is found in all the important Jaina philosophical works both in Sanskrit and Tamil. Works, such as Merumandirapuranam and Nilakesi, two of the important Jaina philosophical works, contain description of jivas in this manner. It is but natural to conclude that this refers to the Jaina conception of life, and it goes without saying that the author was well-versed in Jaina philosophy. There is one other fact, not noticed by the research students, which must also be considered as an important evidence in favour of this conclusion. 1. Sentamil, Vol. XVIII (1919-20), p. 339; S. Vaiyapuri Pillai : op. cit., pp. 7-11. Also see M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar: op. cit., p. 39, footnote 3. 2. The sutras quoted by Vaiyapuri Pillai are Marabiyal, 27-33. 3. Merumandira Puranam, Vaccirayudananuttam, 10, 11 ; Neelakesi (Ed. by A. Chakravarti, 1936), p. 139.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 23 In another sutra in the same Marabiyal, Tolkappiyam introduces the classification of literary works, according to Tamil tradition, into mudal-nul and vali-nul, primary and basic work and secondary and derivative work. When he defines 'primary and basic work', mudal-nul, he speaks of mudal-nul as that which is revealed by the Lord of Jnana obtained after complete liberation from karmas,' i.e., knowledge revealed by Sarvajna after karmaksaya. It is not necessary to emphasise the fact that, according to Jaina tradition, almost every writer would trace the first source of his information through his previous acaryas and through ganadharas to the Tirtharkara himself propounding his dharma in the Samavasarana. But to every unbiased student who is acquainted with this Jaina tradition it would be clear that the reference contained in this definition of the basic work is distinctly a reference to Sarvajna-Vitaraga as the fountain source of all knowledge. From all these it would be clear that the view that the author was a Jaina is more probable than the opposite view. The persons who tried to reject this suggestion have cited no serious argument in support of their view. One critic refers to the fact that such a classfication of jivas as is contained in this work is also contained in an obscure tantra work. But the verses referred to are not fully quoted. Even granting for argument's sake that it is referred to in that tantra work, it will be of doubtful value as an 1. Vinaiy-ningi visangiyav-asivin mudanul-agum (Tolkappiyam, 649). Munaivan kandadu

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24 A. CHAKRAVARTI: evidence. Here it is necessary to point out that this classification of jivas based on sense-organs is not found in any of the other darsanas or systems of Indian thought. It is peculiar to Jaina philosophy and Jaina philosophy alone. We may leave further discussion of this point to other competent scholars interested in such research. It is enough for us to note, at this stage, that the composition of this work on grammar, one of the earliest Tamil works, was probably by a Jaina author who was equally well-versed in Sanskrit grammar and literature. As to the exact age at which it was composed there is a good deal of controversy,' and we need not enter into that discussion for the present. This grammatical treatise consists of three great chapters Eluttu, Sol and Poru!-letters, words and meaning respectively. Each chapter consists of nine Iyals or sections. On the whole it contains 1612 sutras. This forms the foundation of the later grammatical 1. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar op. cit., pp. 132-35. For a well documented and convincing argument for assigning Tolkappiyanar to the 4th-5th century A. D., see S. Vaiyapuri Pillai Tamil-ccudarmanigal (1949), pp. 27-39. In an equally painstaking dissertation K. N. Sivaraja Pillai arrives at the conclusion (Chronology of the Early Tamils, App. XV, 258-65, The Age of Tolkappiyam) that the author of that work could not have lived earlier than the 6th century A.D. Among recent opinions expressed on the subject, that of M. Rajamanikkanar (Tamil-moli Ilakkiya Varalanu, 1963, p. 84) would place Tolkappiyanar in about 300 B. C.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 25 works in the Tamil language. Unlike the Sanskrit grammar or vyakarana which has the 1st and 2nd alone, this contains three chapters, the third being on porul. This 3rd chapter contains a lot of extra-grammatical matter dealing with love and war, and thus offers many useful suggestions for reconstructing the history of the early Dravidians. It is said that there are five commentaries on this treatise written by 1. llampuranar 2. Perasiriyar 3. Senavaraiyar 4. Naccinarkkiniyar 5. Kalladar The first is the oldest of the commentators and is generally referred to as "The Commentator' by the later ones. This great work of Tamil grammar is assigned by tradition to the second Sangam period. We know that all the existing Tamil works are generally assigned to the last and the third Sangam period. Hence this Tolkappiyam must be assumed to be anterior to practically the whole of the existing Tamil literature. This would be a curious tradition to be accepted, for it is not likely that a work of grammar would precede all the other works in a particular language. As a matter 1. Traiyanaragapporul with Nakkiranar's commentary (Ed. by C. V. Damodaran Pillai, Vikari), p.5.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI: of fact, grammar is but a science of language codifying the literary usages and as such must presuppose the existence of a vast literature in that particular language. Even the Tamil grammarians have recognised this fact in as much as they speak of literature first and grammar second'. Hence if we are to accept the tradition that Tolkappiyam belongs to the period of the middle Sangam, we have to assume a vast literature prior to that, now somehow lost completely. Such a supposition would not be altogether improbable, if we call to our mind the condition of the early Dravidian civilisation. About the time of Asoka, the Tamil land consisted of three great kingdoms, Cera, Cala and Pandya. Asoka does not refer to having subdued these kingdoms. They are mentioned in the list as friendly states around the Asokan empire. That the Tamil land contained excellent harbours, carried a flourishing sea-borne trade with the European nations around the Mediterranean basin, that the Tamil language contributed important words to foreign vocabulary* and that Roman gold coins indicating contact with the Roman empire are found in various places in the Tamil countrys are all facts well known to students 1. Radhagovinda Basak : Asokan Inscriptions (1959), p. 5. 2. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar : op. cit., pp. 189, 293-300. 3. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar : Ibid., pp. 36-43, 96-102, 12934, 192-206, 301-21. 4. Caldwell : A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages (1915), pp. 89-91 ; S. Vaiyapuri Pillai : History of Tamil Language and Literature (1956), pp. 8-10. 5. TRAS., 1904, pp. 623-34 ; Ancient India (Archaeological Survey of India, 1949), No. 2, pp. 118-19, 121.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL of history. This, taken together with the recent explorations and discoveries in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, reveals a civilisation prior to that of the Aryans1 and gives us an idea of the high state of civilisation that must have been attained by the early Dravidians. For the present all these would remain in the field of speculation till we come across sufficient evidence to reconstruct this early Dravidian culture. Since the extant Tamil literature is said mainly to belong to the 3rd Sangam period, most of the works that we are going to consider must be assigned to this period. This would probably mean from 2nd century B. C. to the 7th century A. D. Since the institution of the Sangam or Academy is taken to be a doubtful entity, the term Sangam is merely used as a conventional term to indicate a certain period in the history of the Tamils. 27 The classification of Tamil literature into three distinct periods, viz., natural, ethical and religious suggestedby Mr. Sivaraja Pillai may be taken as a convenient frame-work, since it broadly represents the historical developments of Tamil literature. Some of the ethical works such as the Kural and Naladiyar are freely quoted in the later literature. Hence it could not be altogether a mistake if we suppose that ethical literature seems to be earlier than the kavya literature. In this group of ethical literature, the influence of Jaina teachers is 1. There is no unanimity among scholars on whether the Indus Valley (Harappa and Mohenjodaro) Civilisation is preAryan, Aryan or Dravidian. 2. K. N. Sivaraja Pillai: op. cit., pp. 8-10.

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28 ACHAKRAVARTI : prominently felt. The two great works, Kuras and Naladiyar, were the work of Jaina teachers who settled down in the Tamil country. Kural'--The ethical work called KuraI is a most 1. The following are the editions, either in full or in part of Tirukkural : (i) Tirukkural, 11-20 adikarams-Ed. by U. Pushparatha Chettiyar, Madras, 1868; (ii) Tirukkural, text - Ed. by U. Pushparatha Chettiyar, Madras, 1868; (iii) Tirukkural with Saravanapperumalaiyar's commentary-Ed. by Karunananda Swamigal and Kesava Mudaliyar, Madras, 1869; (iv) Nujukura(100 select kurals)- Ed. by H. W. Lorry, Madras, 1870 and 1876; (v) Tiruvalluvarin Kural, text and commentary-Ed. by R. M. Babu, 1870; (vi) Tirukkural with Padavurai, 31-40 adikarams with English translation, 1873; (vii) Tirukkural-Ed. by Itta Kuppusami Nayudu, Madras, 1873; (viii) Kufa! (Apattuppal and Porulpal), text and commentary-Ed. by E. F. Hobusch, Tarangampadi, 1873; (ix) Tirukkupal, text and commentary-Ed. by Veera sami Pillai, 1875; (x) Tirukkural, text and commentary-Ed. by Ponnusami Mudaliyar, 1884; (xi) Tirukkural-Ed. by Subbaraya Chettiyar, Madras, 1885; (xii) Tirukkural with Parimelalagar's commentaryEd. by Murugesa Mudaliyar, Madras, 1885; (xiii) Tirukkural, text-Ed. by A. Ramaswami, Madras, 1886; (xiv) The Sacred Kurral, text-Ed. with Translation by G. U. Pope, London, 1886; (Contd.)

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 29 important work in Tamil literature, judged from its popularity among the Tamil speaking people. It is composed in the form of couplets known as Kuralvenba, a metre peculiar to the Tamil literature. The term kural means "short' as opposed to the other type of venba which is also a metre peculiar to the Tamil litrature. The book derives its name Kuratfrom the metre employed in its composition. It is a work based on the doctrine of ahimsa; and throughout, you have the praising of this ahimsa-dharma and the criticism of views opposed to this. The work is considered so important by the Tamils that they use various names to designate this great work, such as Uttaraveda, Tamilveda, 'divine scripture,' 'the great truth,' 'non-denominational Veda' and so on. The work is claimed by (xv) Tirukkural with Parimelalagar's commentary--Ed. by S. P. Rajaram, Madras, 1907; (xvi) The Kural or The Maxims of Tiruvalluvar--English Translation by V. V. S. Aiyar, Madras, 1915, 1925, 1952, 1961; (xvii) Tirukkural, Asattuppal with Parimelalagar's commentary (with notes by V. M. Sadagoparamanujacharya Swamigal), 1937; (xviii) Tirukkural-Poruspal and Kamattuppal with Parimelalagar's commentary, 1938; (xix) Tirukkural-Kamattuppal with Kalingar and Paripperumal's commentaries--Ed. by T. P. Palaniappa Pillai, Tirupati, 1945; (xx) Tirukkural - Porulpal with Kalingar and Paripperumal's commentaries-Ed. by T.P. Palaniappa Pillai, Tirupati, 1948; (xxi) Tirukkural, text, Tamil Paraphrase, English translation-Ed. by A. Ranganada Mudaliar, Madras, 1949; (xxii) Tirukkural, text, commentary and exhaustive introduction-Ed. by A. Chakravarti, 1949.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : ! almost all the religious sects of the Tamil land. The Saivaite claims that it was composed by a Saivaite author. The Vaisnavaites claim it as their own. The Reverend Pope who translated this into English even suggests that it is the work of an author influenced by Christianity. The fact that the different communities are vying with one another in their claim to the authorship of this great work is itself an indication of its great eminence and importance. In the midst of all such various claimants we have the Jaina who maintains that it is the work of a great Jaina acarya. The Jaina tradition associates this great ethical work with Elacariyar which is the other name for Sri Kundakundacarya. The period of Sri Kundakundacarya is covered by the later half of the first century B. C. and the former half of the first century A. D. We have referred to Sri Kundakundacarya as the chief of the Dravidian Sangha at southern Patalipura.* We are not merely to depend upon this tradition to base our conclusions. We have sufficient internal evidence as well as circumstantial evidence to substantiate our view. To any unbiased student who critically examines the con .. 1. See V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar: op. cit., pp. 136-38 where Tiruvalluvar's religious outlook is discussed vis-a-vis Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, Vaisnavism and Saivism. 2. The Sacred KurraI (1886), Introduction, pp. ii-iv and vi. 3. M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar : op. cit., pp. 43-44. 4. Above, pp. 8-9.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 1 tents of this work it would be quite clear that it is replete with the ahimsa doctrine and therefore must be a product of Jaina imagination. Unbiased Tamil scholars who are entitled to pronounce opinion on this point have expressed similar opinion as to the authorship of this work. But the majority of the Tamil scholars among the non-Jainas are not willing to accept such a verdict based upon scientific investigation This opposition is mainly traceable to religious feeling. About the time of the Hindu revival (about the 7th century A. D.) the clash between the Jaina religion and the Vedic sacrificial religion of the Hindu reformers must have been so tremendous that echoes of it are felt even now. In this conflict the Jaina teachers were evidently worsted by the Hindu revivalists who had the support of the newly converted Pandyan king on their side. As a result of this it is said that several Jaina teachers were put to death by impaling them.' How much of this is history and how much of this is the creation of fertile imagination fed by religious animosity, we are not able to assess clearly. But even to this day we have this story of impaling the Jainas painted on the walls of the Madura temple, and annual festivals are conducted celebrating the defeat and destruction of religious rivals. This would give us an insight into the attitude of the Tamil scholars towards 1. Caldwell (A Comparative Grammar of Dravidian Languages, II edn., 1875, Introduction. pp. 139-40) is of the opinion that it was Sundarapandya, a Pandya ruler of the 12th century, who was responsible for the persecution of the Jains of the Tamil country.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : the early Jainas. It is no secret, therefore, that they generally resent the very suggestion that this great ethical work must have been written by a Jaina scholar. According to one tradition the author of this work is said to be one Tiruvalluvar about whom nothing is known except what is concocted by the imagination of a modern writer who is responsible for the fictitious story relating to Tiruvalluvar. That he is born of a Candala woman, that he was a brother and contemporary of almost all great Tamil writers are some of the absurd instances mentioned in this life of Tiruvalluvar. To mention it is enough to discredit it. But the more enthusiastic among the modern Tamil scholars and modern Tamils have elevated him into a Godhead and built temples in his name and conducted annual festivals analogous to the festivals associated with the other Hindu deities. And the author is claimed to be one of the Hindu deities and the work is considered to be the revelation by such a deity. From such quarters, one cannot ordinarily expect application of historical criticism. So much so, whenever any hypothesis is suggested as a result of critical examination of the contents, it is rejected with a vehemence characteristic of uninstructed religious zeal. Many so-called critics who have written something or other about this great work have been careful to maintain that peculiar intellectual attitude which Samuel Johnson had when 1. G. U. Pope: The Sacred Kurra! (1886), Introduction, pp. i-ii.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 33 he had to report the proceedings of the House of Commons. He was particular to see that the Whigs had not the better of it. When such is the general mentality of the Tamil students and when the real spirit of research adopting the scientific and historical method is still in its infancy, it is no wonder that we have nothing worth the name of Tamil literature. Hence we are handicapped in our own attempt in presenting anything like a historical account of Jaina literature. Turning from this digression to an examination of our work, we have to mention certain salient facts contained in the book itself. The book contains three great topics, aram, porul, inbam i.e., dharma, artha and kama. These three topics are interpreted and expounded as to be in thorough conformity with the basic doctrine of ahimsa. Hence it need not be emphasised that the terms here mean slightly different from what they imply in the ordinary Hindu religious works. Later Hindu religious systems, in as much as they are resting on the Vedic sacrificial ritualism, cannot completely throw overboard the practice of animal sacrifice enjoined in the Vedas. The term dharma could mean, therefore, to them only varnasramadharma based upon Vedic sacrifice. Only three Indian systems were opposed to this doctrine of Vedic sacrifice: Jaina darsana, Sankhya darsana and Bauddha darsana. Representatives of these three darsanas were present in the Tamil land in the pre-revivalistic period. In the very

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34 A. CHAKRAVARTI : beginning of the work, in the chapter on dharma, the author gives this as his own view that it is far better and more virtuous to abstain from killing and eating any animal than to perform 1000 sacrifices. This one single verse is enough to point out that the author would not have acquiesced in any form of such sacrificial ritualism. The verse is nothing more than the paraphrase of the Sanskrit words ahimsa paramo dharmah. I was surprised to see this same verse quoted by a Saivaite Tamil scholar to prove that the author had as his religion Vedic sacrificial ritualism. In the same section devoted to vegetarian food the author distinctly condemns the Bauddha principle of purchasing meat from the butcher. Buddhists who offer lip service to the doctrine of ahimsa console themselves by saying that they are not to kill with their own hands but may purchase meat from the slaughter-house. The author of the Kural in unmistakable terms points out that the butcher's trade thrives only because of the 1. The relevant kural reads : Avi-sorind -ayiram vet tali-onran uyirsegutt-unnamai nanru (1-26-9). 'Than thousand rich oblations, with libations rare, Better the flesh of slaughtered beings not to share'. (G.U. Pope). 2. The relevant kural reads : Tinar-porut tur-kollad-ulagenin yurumi vilai-pporullal-unraruvur-il (1-26-6). "We eat the slain', you say, 'by us no living creatures die; Who'd kill and sell, I pray, if none come there the flesh to buy?' (G.U. Pope).

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 35 demand for meat. The butcher's interest is merely to make money and hence he adopts a particular trade determined by the principle of 'supply and demand.' Therefore the responsibility of killing animals for food is mainly on your head and not upon the butcher's. When there is such an open condemnation of animal sacrifice sanctioned by Vedic ritualism and the Buddhistic practice of eating meat by a convenient interpretation of the ahinsa doctrine, it is clear by a process of elimination that the only religion that conforms to the principles enunciated in the book is the religion of ahimsa as upheld by the Jainas. It is maintained by a well-known Tamil scholar living, that the work is a faithful translation of the Dharma-sastra by Bodhayana. Though very many Sanskrit words are found in this work and though from among the traditional doctrines some are also treated therein, still it would not be accurate to maintain that it is merely an echo of what appeared in the Sanskrit literature because many of these doctrines are re-interpreted and re-emphasised in the light of the ahimsa doctrine. It is enough to mention only two points. This Bodhayana-Dharmasastra, since it is based upon the traditional varnasrama, keeps to the traditional four castes and their duties. According to this conception of dharma, cultivation of the land is left to the last class of sudras and would certainly be infra dig for the upper classes to have any 1. Cl. eg. Baudhayana-Dharma-sutra (Kashi Sanskrit Series, No. 104, Benaras, 1934), Ist prasna, 16th khanda, 1st sutra : 'Catvaro varna brahmana-ksatriya-viu-sudrah'.

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36 A. CHAKRAVARTI : thing to do with agriculture'. The author of the Kural, on the other hand, probably because of the fact that he is one of the velala or the agricultural class of the land, placed agriculture first among the professions. For he says, "living par excellence is living by tilling the land and every other mode of life is parasitical and hence next to that of the tiller of the soil."2 It is too much to swallow that such a doctrine is borrowed from the Sanskrit Dharma-sastras. Another interesting fact mentioned in the Dharma-sastras is the mode of entertaining guests by the householders. Such an entertainment is always associated with killing a fat calf; the chapter on guests in Bodhayana-Dharma-sastra gives a list of animals that ought to be killed for the 1. Dharma-sastra authors are not unanimous in assigning specific duties and functions to the four castes. While Manu (Manu-smsti-Ed. by Vasudeva Sarma, Bombay, 1925, chapter 13) prohibits brahmanas and ksatriyas from cultivation of land which, according to him, is the duty of the vaisyas, Bodhayana (Baudhayana-Dharma-sutra, Kashi Sanskrit Series, No. 104, Benaras, 1934), who also assigns cultivation of land as the task of the vais yas (1st prasna, 18th khanda, 4th sutra: Vitsv-adhyayanayajana-dana-krsi-vanijya-pasupalana-samyuktam karmanam vsdhyai), prohibits the brahmanas from cultivating lands only if that should come in the way of their Vedic studies (ibid., 1st prasna, 10th khanda, 31st sutra: Vedah kssi-vinasaya krsir-Veda-vinas ini I Saktinan-ubhayam kuryad-asaktas-tu krsiin tyajet 11). 2. The relevant kural reads: ulud-undu valvare valvar marr-ellantolud-undu pin-selbavar (2-104-3). 'Who ploughing eat their food they truly live; The rest to others bend subservient, eating what they give'. (G. U. Pope).

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 37 purpose of entertaining guests. This is a necessary part of dharma and that violation of it will entail curse from the guests is the firm belief of those who accept Vedic ritualism as religion. A cursory glance at the corresponding chapter in the Kural will convince any reader that dharma here means quite a different thing from what it means in the DharmaSastras of the Hindus. Hence we have to reject this suggestion that the work represents merely a translation of the Dharma-sastras for the benefit of the Tamil reading public. Turning to circumstantial evidence, we have to note the following facts. The Jaina commentator of the Tamil work called Nilakesi freely quotes from this Kural; and whenever he quotes he introduces the quotation with the words "as is mentioned in our scripture."3 From this it is clear that the commentator considered this work as an important Jaina scripture in Tamil. Secondly, the same implication is found in a non-Jaina Tamil work called Prabodhacandrodaya". This Tamil work is evidently modelled 1. Baudhayana-Dharma-sutra, 3rd prasna, 3rd khanda, 6th sutra. 2. Tirukkural, Arattuppal, chapter 9, verses 1-10. 3. The expression used by the commentator, emm-ottu, is rendered into English by M. S. Ramaswamy Ayyangar (op. cit., pp. 42-43) as 'Our own Bible'. 4. The following are the editions of this work : (i) Prabodhacandrodayam-Ed. by Arumugaswamigal, 1876; (Contd.)

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38 A. CHAKRAVARTI : after the Sanskrit drama Prabodhacandrodaya. This Tamil work is in viruttam metre, consisting of four lines. It is also in the form of a drama where the representatives of the various religions are introduced on the stage. Each one is introduced while reciting a characteristic verse containing the essence of his religion. When the Jaina sanyasi appears on the stage, he is made to recite that particular verse from the Kura! which praises the ahimsa doctrine that "not killing a single life for the purpose of eating is far better than performing 1000 yagas." It will not be far wrong to suggest that in the eyes of this dramatist the Kural was characteristically a Jaina work. Otherwise he would not have put this verse in the mouth of the nigantavadi. This much is enough. We may end this discussion by saying that this great ethical work is specially composed for the purpose of inculcating the principle of ahimsa in all its multifarious aspects, probably by a great Jaina scholar of eminence about the first century of the Christian era. This great ethical work, which contains the essence of Tamil wisdom, consists of three parts and of 133 chapters. Each chapter contains 10 verses. (ii) Prabodhacandrodayam-Ed. by Subbarayaswamigal, Ramanuja Mudaliar and Venkataramayyar, Madras, 1898. 1. See, above, p. 34, footnote 1. 2. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (History of Tamil Language and Literature, 1956, pp. 81-85) is of the view that Tiruvalluvar lived about 600 A.D. wote 1

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39 JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL Thus we have 1330 verses in the form of couplets. It has three or four important commentaries. Of these, one is by the great commentator Naccinarkkiniyar. It is supposed to be by a Jaina according to the Jaina tradition, but is unfortunatety lost to the world. The commentary that is popular at present is by one Parimelalagar and it is certainly later than Naccinarkkiniyar's and differs from the latter in the interpretation of many important points. Recently another commentary by Manakkudavar was published. Students of Tamil literature entertain the hope of obtaining and and publishing the commentary by the great Naccinarkkiniyar. But up to the present there has not been any trace of it. The work is translated into almost all the European languages, the very good English translation being the the work of Rev. G. U. Pope. This great work, together with the other work Naladiyar, of which we shall speak presently, must have been one of the important factors in shaping the character and ideals of the Tamil people. Speaking of these two ethical masterpieces, Dr. Pope writes as follows:- "Yet pervading these verses there seems to me to be a strong sense of moral obligation, an earnest aspiration after righteousness, a fervant and unselfish charity and generally a loftiness of aim that are very impressive. I have felt sometimes as if there must be a blessing in 1. G. U. Pope: The Nalatiyar or the Four Hundred Quatrains in Tamil (1883), General Introduction, p. xi.

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40 A. CHAKRAVARTI : store for a people that delight so utterly in composition thus remarkably expressive of a hunger and thirst after righteousness. They are the foremost among the peoples of India, and the Kural and Naladi have helped to make them so." Let us turn our attention to the last mentioned work Nalaaiyar". Kural and Naladiyar serve as mutual commentaries and together throw a flood of light upon the whole ethical and social philosophy of the Tamil people." Nalatiyar derives its name from the nature of the metre, just as the Kura!. Naladiyar means a quatrain or 4 lines in venba metre. The work consists of 400 quatrains and is also called the Velalar-vedam, 1. The following are the editions of Naladiyar : (i) Nalad iyar, text-Ed. by U. Pushparatha Chettiyar, Madras, 1869; (ii) Naladiyar (Naladi-nanuru), text and commentary-Ed. by U. Pushparatha Chettiyar, Madras, 1873; (iii) Naladiyar, text and commentary-Ed. by Maunaguru Rudramurthi, 1883; (iv) Naladiyar, text and explanatory notes, Madras, 1885; (v) Nalaaiyar, text-Ed. by A. Ramaswamigal, Madras, 1886; (vi) Naladiyar, text, commentary and English translation, Madras, 1892; (vii) The Naladiyar or The Four Hundred Quatrains in Tamil-Ed. with English translation by G. U. Pope, Oxford, 1893. 2. G. U. Pope: The Naladiyar or The Four Hundred Quatrains in Tamil, Oxford, 1893, General Introduction, p. xi.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 41 the Bible of the cultivators. It is not the work of a single author. Tradition supposes that each verse is composed by a separate Jaina monk. The current tradition is briefly this. Once upon a time 8000 Jaina ascetics, driven by famine in the north, migrated to to the Pandyan country whose king supported them. When the period of famine was over they wanted to return to their country, while the king desired to retain these scholars at his court. At last the ascetics resolved to depart secretly without the knowledge of the king. Thus they left in a body one night. In the next morning it was found that each had left on his seat a palm leaf containing a quatrain. The king ordered them to be thrown into the river Vaigai, when it was found that some of the palm leaves were seen swimming up the river against the current and came to the bank. These were collected by the order of the king and this collection is known by the name Nalatiyar. We are not in a position to estimate the amount of historical truth contained in this tradition. We have to connect these 8000 Jaina ascetics with the followers of Bhadrabahu who migrated to the south on account of the 12 years famine in northern India ; and this would place the composition of this work somewhere about the 3rd century B.C. We cannot dogmatise upon it. All that we can say, with a certain amount of certainty, is that it is one of the earliest didactic works in the Tamil language and is probably of the same age or slightly 1. See G. U. Pope : Ibid., p. vii. 2. G. U. Pope : Ibid., p. viii; M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar : op. cit., pp. 56-67.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : earlier than the Kural. The 400 isolated stanzas are arranged according to a certain plan after the model of the Kural. Each chapter consists of 10 stanzas. The first part on aram i.e., dharma, consists of 13 chapters and 130 quatrains. The second section on porul i.e., artha, contains 26 chapters and 260 quatrains; and the 3rd chapter on 'love' contains 10 quatrains. Thus 400 quatrains are arranged into 3 sections. This arrangement is attributed by one tradition to the Pandya king, Ugraperuvaludi,' and by another tradition to the Jaina scholar named Padumanar. Of the 18 didactic works in the Tamil language Kural and Naladiyar are considered to be the most important. The moral principles enunciated in this work are accepted by all classes without any difference of caste or religion. The traditional course of Tamil study necessarily involves the study of these two works. 1. According to tradition only Agananusu and not Naladiyar was caused to be compiled by Ugraperuvaludi. See P.T. Srinivasa Iyengar : op cit., p. 156; M. Rajamanikkanar: op cit., p. 129. On the other hand, M. S. Purnalingam Pillai (Tamil Litetature, 1929, p. 68) speaks of a tradition according to which Naladiyar was compiled under the auspices of the Sangam established by Vajranandi, a Jaina, at Madurai, in about 450 A.D. The origin of this tradition, obviously quite a late one, must be attributed to the confusion which characterises the legend of the Sangams. 2. G. U. Pope : The Naladiyar or The Four Hundred Quatrains in Tamil, Oxford, 1893, General Introduction, p. ix; V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar: op cit., pp. 38-39. 3. i.e. 'Padinen-kilkkanakku, which is generally rendered into English as 'The eighteen minor poems'. For a list of the 18 works and their authors, see M. S. Purnalingam Pillai: op cit., p. 68.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 43 None is entitled to be called a Tamil scholar unless he is thorough with these two great works. On account of the word Muttaraiyar which occurs in one or two quatrains, it is contended by some scholars that the work must be brought down to this side of the 8th century. They take their stand on the fact that this word Muttaraiyar refers to a minor chief within the Pallava empire." This conclusion is entirely resting upon a meagre philological evidence of this single word. There is no further evidence to connect this chieftain with the Jaina ascetics who were no doubt responsible for the composition of the quatrains. On the other hand, the word Muttaraiyar may very well be interpreted as "King of pearls" referring to the Pandya kings. It is a well-known fact of ancient history that pearl-fishery was an important industry of the Pandyan country, and that pearls were exported to foreign countries from the Pandyan ports. It is but fitting and natural that the Jaina munis should pay a glowing compliment to their patron belonging to the Pandya dynasty. There is another line of arguement 1. The references to Muttaraiyar occur in stanzas 200 and 296 of the Naladiyar. 2. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (History of Tamil Language and Literature, 1956, p. 19), for instance, says : 'The Muttaraiya family came into prominance only at the beginning of the seventh century and Peru-muttaraiyar referred to was most probably Perum-bidugumuttaraiya, the feudatory of Paramesvaravarman Pallava I who had the title perum-hieugu and who flourished in the middle of the seventh century'.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : which tries to bring the age of this work to the later period of the Christian era. Scholars are of opinion that several stanzas in this work are but the echo of the Sanskrit work by Bhartphari. Bhartshari's Nitisataka was composed about 650 A. D. and, therefore, Naladiyar is supposed to be later than the 7th century A.D. This arguement must also be rejected, because the Jaina scholars who are experts in both the languages, viz., Tamil and Sanskrit, were probably acquainted with certain old Sanskrit sayings that were perhaps incorporated by Bhartshari in his work. Even if you maintain that the Jaina ascetics responsible for the Naladiyar were probably members of the Dravida Sangha presided over by Sri Kundakundacarya, the work could not be assigned to a period later than the first century A.D. It is relevant to mention, in this connection, that quatrains from this Naladiyar are found quoted in the well-known commentaries in Tamil language from very early times. Besides these two great works, several others (such as Aranericcaram 'the essence of the way of virtue', Palamoli, "Proverbs', Eladi, etc.) included in the 18 didactic works, probably owe their origin to Jaina authors. Of these we may notice a few in short. 1. Aranericcaram -- The essence of the way of virtue' is composed by a Jaina author by name 1. Most of the lists of Padinen-kilkkanakku works do not include Aranericcaram. This is generally accepted to be the work of a Jaina poet, Tirumunaippadiyar, who is assigned by some (Contd.)

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL Tirumunaippadiyar. He is said to have flourished in the last Sangam period. He describes in this great work five moral principles, associated with Jainism, though common to the other religions in the south. These principles go by the name of panca-vratas, the five rules of conduct governing the householder as well as the ascetic. These are ahimsa (non-killing), satya (truth-speaking), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacarya and parimita-parigraha (avoiding unnecessary luxury and paraphernalia and limiting oneself to the bare necessities of life). These constitute the five-fold principles of ethical conduct, and they are enunciated in this work called Aranericcaram. 2. Palamolil or "Proverbs'---The author is a Jaina by name Munrurai-araiyanar?. It contains 400 scholars to the first half of the 13th century A. D. Aranericcaram, which treats its subject under three major heads, viz., katci, olukkam and jnunam, and consists of 222 venba stanzas, is taken to have been influenced by Arungalacceppu, another Jaina didactic work. It is interesting to note that Tirumunaippadiyar refers to the Arhat as Sivan in his work. See Tamil-kkalanjiyam, Vol. I (1954), p. 260. An edition of Arungalacceppu, under the title Tirukkalambagam, was brought out at Kanchipuram in 1883. 1. The following are the editions of this work: (i) Palamoli, text and commentary-Ed. by Narayana Ayyangar, Madurai, 1918. (ii) Palumo!i-Ed. by T. Chelvakesavaroya Mudaliar, Madras. 2. The name Munrurai-araiyan is taken to indicate that the author, whose proper name is otherwise unknown, was a chieftain (araiyan) of Munrurai, a place not yet identified. Pala (Contd.)

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46 A. CHAKRAVARTI: quatrains of venba metre like the Naladiyar. It consists of valuable old sayings containing not merely principles of conduct, but also a good deal of worldly wisdom. It is assigned a third place in the enumeration of the 18 didactic works which begins with the Kural and the Naladiyar. 3. Another work belonging to this group of 18 is Tinaimalai-nurraimbadu' by Kanimedaiyar. This Jaina author is also said to be one of the Sangam poets. This work treats of the principles of love and war and is quoted freely by the great commentators of the later age. Stanzas from this work are found quoted by Naccinarkkiniyar and others. 4. Another work of this group is Nanmanikkadigai, 'the solver of the four gems', by the Jaina author by name Vilambinathar. This is also in the venba metre well-known in the other works. Each stanza deals with four important moral principles like jewels; and hence the name Nanmanikkadigai. moli is largely indebted to the Naladiyar and other works and was probably composed in the 8th century. A.D. See S. Vaiyapuri Pillai History of Tamil Language and Literature (1956), p. 90; M. S. Ramaswamy Ayyangar: op. cit., pp. 92-93. metre. 1. Tinaimalai-nurraimbadu contains 155 stanzas in venba This work has set the pattern for many a later work on the love theme. In this work Kanimedaiyar devotes 31 songs each for the five tinais, viz., kurinji, neydal, palai, mullai and marudam. Like his other work Eladi, Tinaimalai-nurraimbadu also belongs to the kilkkanakku group. See T. V. Sadasiva Pandarathar: A History of Tamil Literature (250-600 A.D.), Annamalainagar, (1957), p. 67.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 47 5. Next Eladi, 'Cardamom and others'. The name Eladi refers to the mixture of the perfumes of ela, (cardamom), karpuram (camphor), erikarasu (the odorous wood), candanam (sandal) and ten (honey). The name is given to this work because each quatrain is supposed to contain five or six such fragrant topics. The work is of Jaina origin, and the author's name is Kanimedaiyarl whose knowledge is appreciated by all. It is also one of the 18 lesser classics of Sangam literature. Nothing is known of the author except that he is said to be a disciple of Makkayanar", son of Tamilasiriyar, a member of the Madurai Sangam. Though these works are usually included in the general group of the 18 minor classics", it should not be assumed that they 1. See above, p. 46 and note l. 2. Another Jaina disciple of Makkayanar, Makkariyasan by name, is the author of Sirupancamulam, yet another kijkkanakku work. The name of the work is derived from the five (panca) medicinal roots kandankattiri, siruvalutunai, sirumalli, perumalli and nerunji. Sirupancumulain contains in all 104 songs in venba metre, cach song dealing with five essentials for human living. That this Jaina author was a disciple of Makkayanar is known from the payirappadal at the end of the work (Makkayan musukka Makkariyasan Sirupuncamulamseydan). See T. V. Sadasiva Pandarathar: op. cit., pp. 49-52. 3. Aintinai-clubadu is another kilkkanakku work which set the trend for all later works which have agapporul for their main theme ; each of the five tinais of this work consists of 70 stanzas called pa and hence the suffix elubadu (70). Only 64 poems are now extant, the rest being probably lost. Though this work commences with an invocation to the Elephant-faced god, i.e., Vinayaka, some scholars are of the opinion that its author, Muvadiyar, was a Jaina by faith. He lived probably in the 5th century A.D. See T. V. Sadasiva Pandarathar, op. cit., pp. 65-66.

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48 A. CHAKRAVARTI : all belong to the same century. They must be spread over several centuries; and the only thing that we may assert with a certain amount of certainty is that they all belong to the pre-revivalistic period of the Hindu religion in the south. Hence they must be assigned to the period before the 7th century A. D. Next we turn to kavya literature. Kavya literature is generally divided into 2 groups: major kavyas and the minor kavyas. The major kavyas are five in number:1 Cintamani, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Valaiyapati and Kundalakesi. Of these five, Cintamani, Silappadikaram and Valaiyapati are by Jaina authors and the other two by Buddhistic scholars. Of these five, only three are available now, because Valaiyapati and Kunda lakesi are almost completely lost to the world. Except a few stanzas quoted here and there by commentators, nothing is known of these works. From the stray stanzas available, it is evident that Valaiyapati was composed by a Jaina author: what the frame-work of 1. They are generally referred to in Tamil as Aimperunkappiyangal. 2. The following additional information pertaining to Valaiyapati is provided by S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (A History of Tamil Language and Literature, 1956, pp. 160-61): 'The Valaiyapati has, except for a few citations, completely disappeared. Even the story of the poem is not known. A later Purana in Tamil, Vaisiyapuranam, gives a story purporting to be the theme of the Valaiyapati wherein Kali is made the supreme goddess. But this is impossible. From its stanzas cited by ancient commentators, we might infer that its author was a Jain. There cannot be any (Contd.)

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 49 the story was, who the author was, and when he lived are all matters of mere conjecture. Similarly, in the case of Kundalakesi, the Buddhistic work, nothing is known about the author or his time. From the stanzas quoted in the work of Nilakesi it is clear that Kundalakegi was a work of philosophical controversy, trying to establish the Bauddha darsana by refuting the other darsanas such as the Vedic and the Jaina darsanas. Unfortunately, there is no hope to recover these two great kavyas. Only the other three are now available, thanks to the labours of the eminent Tamil scholar Dr. V. Swaminatha Ayyar. Though in the enumeration of the kavyas, Cintamani occupies the place of honour, because of the unopposed literary eminence of the classic, it could not be supposed that the enumeration is based upon any historical succession. Probably, the two lost works Valaiyapati and Kundalakesi deserve to be considered as historically earlier than the others; but since nothing is known about these works, we can reasonable doubt that this was a Jaina ka vya. Some 66 stanzas from it are included in the Purattirallu. Two other stanzas are found in the commentary of Yapparungalam and we might surmise that some of the stanzas occurring in the commentary of Silappadikaram belong to this work. The commentary on Takkayagapparani says that the poet Oitakkuttar thought highly of Valaiyapati for its poetic beauty. It is interesting to note that this work also, like the S'ilappadikaram, the Maaimekalai and the Cintamani, has incorp its stanzas. Being one of the earliest works in the viruttam metre, we may be justified in ascribing it to the first half of the tenth century.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI: not speak with any certainty. Of the remaining three, tradition makes Silappadikaram and Manimekalai contemporary works whereas Cintamani is probably a later one. Maaimekalai, being a Buddhistic work, cannot be brought in our review, though the story is connected with that of Silappadikaram, which is distinctly a Jaina work. Silappadikaram", ' the epic of the anklet is a very important Tamil classic, in as much as it is considered to serve as a land-mark for the chronology of Tamil literature. Its author is the Cera prince, who became a Jaina ascetic, by name luangovadigal. This great work is taken as an authority for literary usage and is quoted as such by the later commentators. It is associated with a great mercantile family in the city of Puhar, Kaveripumpattinam, which was the capital of the Cala empire. The heroine Kannaki was from this mercantile family and was famous for her chastity and 1. The following are the editions of the Silappadikaram: (i) Silappadikaram, Puhar- kkandam-Ed. by T. E. Srinivasaraghavachari, 1872; (ii) S'ilappdikaram, text and Adiyarkku-Nallar's commentary-Ed. by V. Swaminatha Aiyar, Madras, 1892; (iii) Silappadikaram, text with Arumpadavurai and Adiyarkku-Nallar's commentary-Ed. by V. Swaminatha Aiyar, Madras, 1920; (iv) The Silappadikaram or The Lay of the Anklet, translated with Introduction and notes by V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, Madras, 1939; (v) S'ilappadikaram, text with Venkataswamy Nattar's commentary, Madras, 1942, 1947, 1950 and 1953.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL devotion to her husband. Since the story is associated with the attempt to sell the anklet or Silambu in Madurai, the capital of the Pandyan kingdom and the consequent tragedy, the work is called the epic of the anklet or Silambu. Since the three great kingdoms are involved in this story, the author who is a Cera prince elaborately describes all the three great capitals Puhar, Madurai and Vanji, the last being the capital of the Cera empire. The author of this work, l?argovadigal, was the younger son of the Cera king Ceraladan whose capital was Vanji. llargavaliga! was the younger brother of Senguttuvan, the ruling king after Ceraladan. Hence the name l?argo, the younger prince. After he became an ascetic he was called llangovadiga!, the term adigal being an honorific term referring to an ascetic. One day when this ascetic prince was in the temple of Jina situated at Vanji, the capital, some members of the hill tribe went to him and narrated to him the strange vision which they had witnessed relating to the heroine Kannaki. How they had witnessed on the hill a lady who had lost one of her breasts, how Indra appeared before her, how her husband Kovalan was introduced to her as a deva, and how finally Indra carried both of them in a divine chariot : all these were narrated to the Cera prince in the presence of his friend and poet Kulavanigan Sattan, the renowned author of Maaimekalai. This friend narrated the full story of the hero and the heroine which was listened to

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52 A. CHAKRAVARTI : with interest by the royal ascetic. The story narrated by Sattan contained three important and valuable truths in which the royal ascetic took great interest. First, if a king deviates from the path of righteousness even to a slight extent, he will bring down upon himself and his kingdom a catastrophe as a proof of his inequity ; secondly, a woman walking the path of chastity is deserving of adoration and worship not only by human beings but also by devas and munis; and thirdly, the working of karma is such that there is an inevitable fatality from which no one can escape, and the fruits of one's previous karma must necessarily be experienced in a later period. In order to illustrate these three eternal truths the royal prince undertook the task of composing this story for the benefit of mankind. In this classic called Silappadikaram or the epic of the anklet, the first scene is laid in Puhar, the Cola capital. This was evidently an important port at the mouth of the Cauvery, and it was the capital of the Cala king Karikala. Being an important commercial centre, several great commercial houses were situated in the capital. Of these there was one Masattuvan, a merchant prince belonging to this noble family of 1. Silappadikaram, Padigam. [This and the following references to this work are to be referred to V. Swaminatha Aiyar's edition (1892) and V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar's translation (1939)]. 2. Ibid., Puhar-kkandam. 3. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar : op. cit., pp. 224, 376.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL commercial magnates. His son was Kovalan, the hero of our story. He was married to Kannaki, the daughter of another commercial magnate of the same city whose name was Ma Nayakan. Kovalan and his wife Kannaki set up an independent home on a grand scale befitting their social status and were living happily for some time in conformity with the rules and conduct associated with the householders. Their happiness consisted in lavish hospitality to all the deserving ones among the householders as well as the ascetics. While they were thus spending their life happily, Kovalan once met a very beautiful and accomplished dancing girl by name Mahavi. He fell in love with the actress who reciprocated it; and therefore he spent most of his time in the company of Madhavi, to the great grief of his wedded wife Kannaki. In this erotic extravagance, he practically spent all his wealth ; but Kannaki never expressed her grief, and she was quite devoted to him as she was in the beginning of her wedded life. There was the Indra festival celebrated as usual.4 Kovalan with his mistress also went to the sea-shore to take part in the festival. While they were 1. Silappadikaram, Canto 1: Mangala-valttu-ppalal, 'The song of benediction'. 2. Ibid., Canto 2: Manaiyasampadutta-kadai, "Setting up home'. 3. Ibid., Canto 3; Arangerru-kadai, "The debut'. 4. Ibid., Canto 5 : Indira-vilav-uredutta-kadai, "I utta kadai. The celebration of Indra's festival'. 5. Ibid., Canto 6: Kalal-alu-kadai, 'Sea bathing'.

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54 A. CHAKRAVARTI : seated in one corner, Kovalan took out the vina from the hands of Madhavi and began to play some fine tunes of love. Madhavi gently suspected that his attachment to her was waning. But when she took the vina from his hand and began to play her own tunes, that aroused his suspicion that she was secretly attached to some other person. This mutual suspicion resulted in a break-off, and Kovalan returned home in a state of complete poverty with a noble resolution of starting life again as an honourable householder. His chaste wife, instead of rebuking him for his past waywardness, consoled him with that kindness characteristic of of a chaste wife and encouraged him in his resolve to start life again by reviving his business. He was practically penniless, since he had lost everything when he was associated with his mistress Madhavi. But his wife had two anklets still remaining. She was willing to part with these if he would care to sell these and have the sale proceeds as the capital for reviving his business. But he was not willing to stay in his own capital any longer. Hence he decided to go to the Pandyan capital, Madurai, for the purpose of disposing off these anklets. Without the knowledge of anybody, he left the Cola capital the same night accompanied by his wife and started for Madurai". On his way he reached an asrama of the Jaina ascetics on the northern banks of the Cauvery. In that asrama he met the female ascetic Kaundhi who was quite willing to 1, Ibid., Canto 7: Kasalvari, The sea shore song'. 2. Ibid., Canto 9: Kanattiram-uraitta-kadai, 'The tale of the dream'.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 55 accompany these two, in order that she might have the opportunity of meeting the great Jaina acaryas in the Pandyan capital of Madurai. These three continued their march towards Madurai when, after crossing the Cauvery, resting on the banks of a tank, Kovalan and his wife were insulted by a wicked fellow who was wandering there with his equally wicked mistress. This provoked their ascetic friend Kaundhi who cursed these two creatures to become jackals. But after the earnest requests of Kovalan and Kannaki the curse was revoked that they would resume their normal human form in a year. After undergoing the troubles of the tedious journey, they reached the outskirts of Madurai, the Pandyan capital". Leaving his wife Kannaki in the company and charge of Kaundhi, Kovalan entered the city for the purpose of ascertaining the proper place where he could begin his business'. While Kovalan was spending his time in the city with his friend MalalanKaundhi wanted to leave Kannaki in the house of Madhari, a good natured shepherdess of that locality. When Kovalan returned from the city, he and his wife were taken to Ayarpali and were lodged in the shepherdess' house. Her daughter was placed at the service 1. Ibid., Canto 10: Nalu-kan-kadai, 'The sight of the kingdom'. 2. Here starts the second part of the work, viz., Maduraikkandam. 3. Ibid., Canto 14: Or-kan-kadai, 'Seeing the City'. 4. Ibid., Canto 15: Apaikkala-kkadai, 'The Haven'.

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56 A. CHAKRAVARTI: of Kannaki who and her husband were the honoured guests in that Ayarpadi. After feeling sorry for the troubles and privations, Kovalan took leave of his wife and returned to the city for the purpose of selling one of the anklets. When he entered the principal market street he met a goldsmith. He spotted him out as a goldsmith patronised by the king and told him that he had an anklet worthy of being worn by the queen and wanted him to estimate the value of the same. The goldsmith wanted to see the value of the anklet which was accordingly delivered by the owner. The wicked goldsmith thought within himself of deceiving Kovalan, asked him to wait in a house next to his own and promised to strike a very good bargain with the king, for the anklet was so valuable that only the queen could offer the price of it. Thus leaving poor Kovalan alone he took the anklet to the king where he misrepresented facts reporting that Kovalan was a thief having in possession one of the queen's anklets which was stolen from the palace a few days before. The king without further enquiry issued orders that the thief must be killed and the anklet must be recovered at once. The wicked goldsmith returned with the king's officers who carried out the orders of the foolish king to the very letter; and thus Kovalan had to end his life, while attempting to start life again, in the foreign country'. In the meanwhile Kannaki who resided in the shepherdess' quarters had observed several evil omens prophetic of the great calamity awaiting her. 1. Ibid., Canto 16: Kolaikkala-kkadai, 'The place of execution'.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL When Madhari, the shepherdess, went to bathe in the Vaigai river, she learnt from a shepherdess returning from the city the fate of Kovalan who was killed by the command of the king on a charge of theft of the queen's anklet. When this was reported to Kannaki, she, in a rage entered the city with her other anklet in hand in order to vindicate the innocence of her husband before the king'. Reaching the palace Kannaki intimated through the sentinel that she wanted to have an interview with the king in order to vindicate the innocence of her husband who was cruelly put to death without proper enquiry. She demonstrated before the king that her anklet taken from her husband as the stolen one contained gems inside whereas the queen's anklet contained pearls inside. When this fact was demonstrated to the king by breaking open Kannaki's anklet, the king realised the immensity of his blunder in cruelly putting to death an innocent member of a noble family of merchants. He cried that he was foolishly led into this blunder by the wicked goldsmith, fell down unconscious from his royal throne and lost his life immediately. After vindicating the innocence of her husband, Kannaki, with unabated rage and anger, cursed the whole city of Madurai that it should be consumed by fire and tore off her left breast and cast it away over the city with her curse. The curse 1. Ibid., Cantos 18-19: Tunba-malai, "The garland of sorrow' and Ursulvari-kadai, 'The talk of the town'. 2. Thid., Canto 20: Valakkusai-kadai, 'The demand for justice'.

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58 A. CHAKRAVARTI : took effect and the city was burnt to ashes'. Having learnt from the Goddess of Madurai that all this was but the inevitable result of her past karma and being consoled by the fact that she would meet her husband as a deva in a fortnight, Kannaki left Madurai and went westwards towards Malainadu. Ascending the hill called Tiruccengunram she waited under the shade of a vengai tree for fourteen days when she met her husband Kovalan in the form of a deva who took her in a vimana to svarga, while being adored by the devas themselves. Thus ends the second chapter called Madurai-kkandam. Next is the third part of the work called Vanjikkandam relating to the Cera capital Vanji. The members of the hill tribe, who witnessed this great scene of Kannaki being carried by her husband in the divine chariot, celebrated this event in their hamlet, in the form of kuravaikuttu, evidently a form of inspired folkdance. Then these hunters wanted to narrate this wonder to their king Senguttuvan and they marched towards the capital, each carrying a present to the the king. There they met the Cera king Serguttuvan who was with his queen and his younger brother in the midst of his four-fold army. When the king heard this narration as to how Kovalan was killed in Madurai, how the city was consumed by fire by the curse of Kannaki and how the Pandyan king lost his 1. Ibid., Cantos 21-22: Vanjina-malai, 'The great wrath' and Alarpadu-kadai, "The conflagaration'. 2. Ibid., Canto 23 : Katsaurai-kadai, 'The Explanation'.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 59 life, he was very greatly impressed by the greatness and chastity of Kannaki. As desired by his queen, he wanted to build a temple for this Goddess of chastity." With this object in view he set out with his ministers and army towards the Himalayas for the purpose of bringing a rock to be sculptured into the idol of Kannaki to establish it within the temple built in her name. There he met with the opposition of the several Aryan princes who were defeated by this Cera king and were brought as captives back to the Cera capital. There he had the temple built in the name of Kannaki and celebrated the pratishtha-mahotsava according to which the idol of Kannaki, the Goddess of chastity, was placed in the temple for the purpose of worship. In the meanwhile, the parents of both Kovalan and Kannaki, learning the fate of their children, renounced their property and became ascetics. When the Cera king Senguttuvan built the temple in honour of the Goddess of chastity, several kings of Aryavarta, the Malava king, Gajabahu the king of Lanka, who were all there at the Cera capital, decided to build similar temples for Kannaki at their own capitals and wanted to conduct worship in a similar manner, so that they might also obtain the Goddess of chastity's blessing*. 1. Ibid., Cantos 24-25: Kunrakkurayai, 'The dance of the hill-maidens' and Katci-kkadai, 'The decision to march north'. 2. Ibid., Canto 26-28 : Kalkot-kadai, 'Bringing the stone'; Nirppad ai-kkadai, 'Bathing the stone' and Nadu-kar-kadai, 'The consecration'. 3. Ibid., Canto 29: Valttu-kkadai, 'The Blessing'. 4. Ibid., Canto 30 : Varantaru-kadai, 'The Boon'.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : Thus arose the Kannaki worship which brought all prosperity and plenty to the worshippers. Thus ends the story of Silappadikaram. It consists of three great divisions and 30 chapters on the whole. The great work has a very valuable commentary by one Adiyarkkunallar'. Nothing definite is known about this commentator. Since he is referred to by Naccinarkkiniyar, another commentator of a later period, all that we can say is that he is of a period earlier than Naccinarkkiniyar's. That he must have been a very great scholar is evident from his valuable commentary on this work. That he was well versed in the principles of music, dance and drama is very well borne out by the elaborate details given by him in his commentary elucidating the text relating to those topics. This work, the epic of the anklets, contains a lot of historical information interesting to the students of South Indian history. From the time of Kanakasabhai Pillai, the author of the The Tamils 1800 years ago up to the present day, this work has been the source of information and guidance to the research students in the Tamil land. The information that Gajabahu, the king of Ceylon, was one of the royal visitors to the Vanji capital is emphasised as an important point for determining the chronology 1. For additional information on this accomplished commentator, see The Silappadikaram (Madars, 1939), V.R. Ramachandra Dikshitar's Introduction to his translation, pp. 71-73. 2. Silappadikaram, Canto 30: Varantaru-kadai text line 153 ; The Silappadikaram (V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar's Translation), p. 343.

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61 of the work. This Gajabahu is assigned to the 2nd century A.D. according to the Buddhistic account contained in Mahavamsa1. Relying upon this, critics are of opinion that the Cera king Senguttuvan and his brother llangovadigal must have lived somewhere about 150 A. D. and hence the work must be assigned to that period. All are not agreed on this point, but those who are opposed to this view would bring down the period several centuries later to the period of another Gajabahu mentioned in the same Mahavamsa3. Mr. Logan in his Malabar District Manual states several important points indicating the Jaina influence over the people of the Malabar coast before the introduction of Hinduism. Since we are not directly concerned with the chronology, we may leave that topic to the students of history. In our opinion the view associating this work with the earlier Gajabahu of the 2nd century is not altogether improbable. But we want to emphasise one important fact. JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 1. The Mahavamsa (Translated by Wijesinha Mudaliar, 1889), part II, p. iv, List of kings; V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar. The Silappadik aram (Translation, 1939), Introduction, p. 14. 2. V. Swaminatha Iyer (ed.): Silappadikaram (1892), Introduction, pp. 10-11; V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar: The Silappadikaram (Translation, 1939), Introduction, pp. 8-10; K. V. Jagannathan: Tamil-kkappiyanga! (1955), p. 221; M. Rajamanikkanar: op. cit., p. 276. 3. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar: op. cit., pp. 602-03; K. N. Sivaraja Pillai: The Chronology of the Early Tamils (1932), p. 42; S. Vaiyapuri Pillai: A History of Tamil Language and Literature (1956), pp. 142-50.

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62 A. CHAKRAVARTI : Throughout the work we find doctrines relating to ahinsa expounded and emphasised; and in some places we have reference to the form of temple worship described according to this doctrine. About the time, worship wilh flowers was prevalent throughout the Tamil land. This is referred to as puppali, that is, bali with flowers'. The term bali refers to such sacrificial offering and puppali is interpreted by the commentator as worship of God with flowers. The Cera prince is complimented by his brahmana friend Malalan as one who introduced the purer form of puppali in temple worship. Incidentally we may mention another interesting fact. There are two terms in early Tamil literature, andana! and parppaa, each with a story behind. It is generally assumed that these two are synonyms. In several places they are probably used as synonyms. When in the same work these two terms are used in slightly different connotations, they must be taken as different. In this epic of the anklet the term andanan is interpreted by the commentator to mean fravaka, the householder among the Jainas. This is a very interesting piece of information. These two terms again occur in the famous kural where the term parppan is interpreted to mean one 1. Silappadikaram, Vanji-kkandam, Canto 24 : Uraippa! fumadai, line 18; Canto 28 : Nadukar-kadai, line 231. 2. Unfortunately, a discrepancy has crept in here. In S'ilappadikaram, Canto 16, Kolaikkala-kkadai, line 71 readsApavorkk-alittalum-ombalum and the commentator interprets the word Arayor, and not andanar, as Savaka-nonbiga!. 3. The parppan and his Vedic lore are mentioned in kura! 134.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL who makes vedadhyayana whereas the term andanan is defined in a different manner as "as one who is all love and mercy to all the living creatures." Evidently the term andanah was conventionally used by early Tamil authors to describe the followers of the ahimsa doctrine irrespective of birth, while the term upddard was reserved by them to designate the social caste of the brahmanas. This suggestion is worth investigating by scholars interested in the social reconstruction of the early Tamils. Jivaka-Cintamani :- This work, the greatest of the five mahakavyas, is undoubtedly 'the greatest existing Tamil literary monument.' In grandeur of conception, in elegence of literary diction and in beauty of description of nature it remains unrivalled in Tamil literature. For the later Tamil authors it has been not only a model to follow but an ideal to aspire to. The story is told of Kamban, the author of the great Tamil 1. Kura 30 which mentions the andanar, reads as follows: Andanar-enbor-asavor-marr-evv-uyirkkunCendanmai-pu nd-o lugal-an "Towards all that breathe, with seemly graciousness adorned they live ; And thus to virtue's sons the name of 'Anthanar' men give'. - (G. U. Pope). 2. The following are the editions of the Jivaka-Cintamani : (i) Jivaka-Cintamani, part I-Ed. by Rangaswami Pillai, Madras, 1883; (ii) Jivaka-Cintamani, text and commentary-Ed. by V. Swaminatha Iyer, Madras, 1887; (iii) Jivaka-Cintamani, 1888.

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64 A. CHAKRAVARTI : Ramayana that when he introduced his Ramayana before the academy of scholars, when some of the scholars remarked that they discerned traces of Cintamani there, Kamban, characteristic of intellectual courage and honesty, acknowledged his debt with the following words: "Yes, I have sipped a spoonful of the nectar from Cintamani. This indicates with what veneration the classic was held by the Tamil scholars. "This greatromantic epic which is at once the Iliad and the Odyssey of the Tamil language' is said to have been composed in the early youth of the poet named Tiruttakkadeva. Nothing is known about the author except his name and that he was born in Mylapore, a suburb of Madras, where the author of the KuraI also lived. The youthful poet together with his master migrated to Madurai, the great capital of the Pandyan kingdom and a centre of religious activities. With the permission of the teacher the young ascetic-poet got introduced to the members of the Tamil Academy or Sangam at Madurai. While in social conversation with some of the fellow members of the academy, he was reproached by them for the incapacity of producing erotic work in Tamil language. To this he replied that few Jainas 1. V. Swaminatha Iyer (ed.): Jivaka- Cintamani (1922), Preface to the 3rd edition. According to the learned editor, this incident involving Kamban was found noted down on an old manuscript copy of Jivaka-Cintamani. 2. For the traditional biographical account of Tiruttakkadevar, see also M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar, op. cit., pp. 95-96.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 65 cared to write poetry in srngara-rasa. They could very well do it as well as the others, but the fact that they did not indulge in such literary compositions was merely the result of their dislike of such sensual subjects and not due to literary incapacity. But when his friends taunted whether he could produce one, he accepted the challenge. Returning to his asrama he reported the matter to his master. While himself and his master were seated together there ran a jackal in front of them which was pointed out by the master to his disciple who was asked to compose a few verses relating to the jackal. Immediately Tiruttakkadeva, the disciple, composed verses relating to the jackal, hence called Nari-viruttam, illustrating the instability of the body, the ephemeral nature of wealth and such other topics. The master was pleased with the extraordinary poetic ability of his disciple and gave him permission to compose a classic describing the life history of Jivaka. It contained all the various aspects of love and beauty. To mark his consent the master composed an invocatory verse to be used by the disciple as the first verse of his would-be work. Then his disciple Tiruttakkadeva started composing another verse in adoration of Siddha which was accepted by his guru as much more beautiful than his own and instructed him to keep this as his first verse while his own was assigned a second place. Thus the verses containing Siddha-namaskara starting with the words muvamudala is the first verse in Jivaka-Cintamani while arhan-namaskara composed by the guru beginning with the words semponvaraimel

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : is assigned the second place in the work. Thus as the result of the challenge from his friendly poet of Madurai Sangam, the Cintamani was composed by Tiruttakkadeva to prove that a Jaina author also could produce a work containing sungara-rasa. It was admitted on all sides that he had succeeded wonderfully well. When the work was produced before the academy, the tradition says, the author was asked by his friends how he, from his childhood pledged to perfect purity and celibacy, could compose a poem exhibiting such unequalled familiarity with sensual pleasures. In order to clear up this doubt it is said he took up a red-hot ball of iron with these words "Let this burn me, if I am not pure"; and it is said he came out of the ordeal unscathed, and his friends apologised to him for casting doubt on the purity of his conduct'. Unilke the previous work silappadikaram which is supposed to deal with the historical events which took place during the life-time of the author, this classic deals with the puranic story of Jivaka. The story of Jivaka is found in Sanskrit literature in plenty. The continuation work of the Mahapuranam by Jinasena, composed by his disciple Gunabhadra", contains the 1. V. Swaminatha Iyer, who also narrates this tradition in detail in his edition of the Jivaka-Cintamani (1923), says (Introduction, pp. 12-14) that the tradition is current among the Jains of the Tamil country. 2. The Mahapurana, also known as Trisastilak sana-Mahapura na, consists of the Adipura na in fortyseven chapters and the (Contd)

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 67 story of Jivaka in a chapter of Mahapurana. The story is again found in Sripuranam which is a prose in manipravala style, probably a rendering of this Mahapuranam. In Ksatracudamani, in Gadyacintamani1 and Jivandhara-campu2 we have the same story worked out. Whether the author of the Tamil work had any of these Sanskrit works as the basis for his composition we cannot assert with any definiteness3. Of all these Sanskrit works, Mahapurana is certainly the oldest and we have definite information that it belongs to the 8th century A.D., since it was composed by Jinasena, the spiritual teacher of Amoghavarsa of the Uttarapura na. The first 42 chapters of the Adipurana are by Jinasena while the last 5 chapters as also the whole of the Uttarapurana are by his disciple Gunabhadra. Critically edited with Hindi translation and introduction by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Sanskrit Grantha Nos. 8, 9 and 14, II edn., 1963-68. 1. Both the Ksatracudamani and Gadyacintamani are by the Digambara Jaina author Odeyadeva-Vadibhasimha of the beginning of the 11th century (Winternitz: op. cit., p. 535). 2. The Digambara Jaina Haricandra is the author of Jivandhara-campu. This work has been edited with Sanskirt commentary, Hindi translation and introduction by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Sanskrit Grantha No. 18, 1958. 3. M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar (op. cit., p. 95) and S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (History of Tamil Language and Literature, 1956, p. 160) are of the opinion that the work is noticeably influenced by the two works of Odeyadeva-Vadibhasimha referred to above. Pillai, as a matter of fact, draws attention to the fact that there are in the Jivaka-Cintamani, literal translations from the two works of Vadibhasimha.

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68 A. CHAKRAVARTI: Rastrakuta dynasty.' But Jinasena himself speaks of several previous works on which he bases his own composition. Anyhow it is generally agreed by scholars that this Tamil classic Jivaka-Cintamani is probably later than the 8th century A.D. We may accept this verdict for the present. The work is divided into 13 ilambakas or chapters, the first beginning with the birth and education of the hero and the last ending with his Nirvana. 1. Namagal-ilambakam-The story begins with the description of the country Hemangada in Bharatakhanda. Rajamapuram is the capital of Hemangada. The ruler was Saccandan of the Kuru dynasty. This Saccandan married his maternal uncle Sridattan's daughter named Vijaya. This Sridattan was ruling over the country of Videha. Since the king Saccandan was so much in love with his wife who was extremely beautiful, he spent most of his time in her apartment without attending to his state affairs. He delegated to one of his ministers Kattiyangaran the royal privileges to be exercised. This Kattiyangaran, when once he 1. Amoghavarsha I who reigned from A.D. 814 to 886 was a mere boy of twelve at the time of his accession and hence his teacher Jinasena should properly be assigned to the 9th century. 2. T. A. Gopinatha Rao (Sentamil, Vol. V, p. 15), T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri (Tamilaham, Vol. I, p. 130) and S. Vaiyapuri Pillai (History of Tamil Language and Literature, 1956, p. 161), among others, assign this work to the early decades of the 10th century.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL tasted the power and privilege of royalty, desired to usurp the same. The king, ignorant of such a Machievallian policy of his minister, to whom he foolishly entrusted the state affairs, discovered the mistake a little too late. In the meanwhile, the queen had three dreams of rather an unpleasant nature. When she wanted their interpretation from the king, he somehow consoled her not to worry about the dreams. Anticipating troubles from his ungrateful minister, it is said that he had constructed for him a sort of aerial vehicle like the modern aeroplane in the form of a peacock. This peacock machine was secretly constructed within the palace in order to carry two persons in the air, and he instructed his queen on how to manipulate this machine. When the queen was in the state of advanced pregnancy, the ungrateful Kattiyangaran wanted to realise his wish to usurp the kingdom and thus besieged the palace. Since the peacock machine was constructed to carry the weight of two persons alone and since the the queen was in an advanced state of pregnancy, the king thought it advisable to place the machine at her disposal and himself stayed behind. When the machine started up with the queen on it, the king with the drawn sword in his hand came out to meet the usurper. In the melee of the fight the king lost his life and the wicked Kattiyangaran proclaimed himself the king of Rajamapuram. The queen, who had by that time reached the outskirts of the city, heard this royal proclamation resulting from the death of her royal husband and lost control of the machine which descended and landed on the cremation ground in the outskirts of this city. In the darkness of night she gave birth

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70 to a son in those pitiable surroundings. The queen had nobody to help her and the child was crying helpless in the pitch-dark night on the cremation ground. It is said that one of the devatas, taking pity on the queen, assumed the form of one of her attendants in the palace and did service to her. Just then one of the merchants of the city carrying his dead child to be buried came there. There he met the beautiful child Jivaka which was left alone by his mother at the advice of the devata. The merchant, by name Kandukkadan, was very much pleased at the sight of the royal baby which he recognised as such from the ring in the child's finger and took the live baby, the royal child, back to his house and gave it back to his wife, saying that her child was not dead. His wife gladly accepted this gift from her husband and brought him up thinking it her own. This child was Jivaka, the hero of our story. A. CHAKRAVARTI : The queen Vijaya, accompanied by the devata, went to Dandakaranya where she assumed the form of a female ascetic and stayed in a tapasa-asrama. Jivaka was brought up in the merchant's house with a number of his cousins. As a youth he was educated by one Accanandi-acarya and also learnt archery and other arts requisite for a prince. The guru who was attracted by the ability of his student one day narrated to him the tragic story of his royal family and took a promise from the youthful prince that he should not rush to revenge and recover his state till the expiry of one complete year. After getting this promise from the youthful disciple, the guru blessed the prince that he

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 71 would recover his kingdom after that period and discovered to him his own identity. Afterwards the guru left him and went his own way to perform tapas and attain Nirvana after worshipping at the feet of the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira. Thus ends the first chapter devoted to the education of the prince Jivaka, hence called Namagal-ilambakam, Namagal meaning Sarasvati, the Goddess of tongue or speech. 2. Govindaiyar-ilambakam--While the prince was spending his time with his chetty cousins in the family of Kandukkadan, the hill tribes from the borders carried away the cattle belonging to the king. The shepherds in charge of the cows, being unable to prevent this, ran to the king for help. The king immediately ordered his 100 sons to go and fight the hunters and recover the cattle. But they were all defeated by the hill tribes. The king did not know what to do next. But the chief of the shepherds had it published in the city that he would give away in marriage his daughter Govinda to any one who could successfully recover and and bring back the king's cows. Jivaka heard this proclamation, went in pursuit of these vedars, and recovered all the cows. Since it would not be proper for a ksatriya to marry a shephed maid, he, with the consent of Nandakon, the shepherd chief, had Govinda married to his friend and associate Padumuhan. Thus ends the second chapter dealing with the marriage of Govinda. 3. Gandharvadattai yar-ilambakam-Gandharvadatta was the daughter of a Vidyadhara king named

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72 A. CHAKRAVARTI : Kalusavega. Learning from an astrologer that his daughter would marry someone in Rajamahapura, he wanted to send his daughter to that city. When he was waiting for an opportunity for this a merchant from that city Rajamahapura, by name Sridatta, was returning home with ship-loads of gold as a result of his seaborne trade. Just like the magic ship-wreck effected by Prospero in Shakespeare's Tempest, this Vidyadhara king did create a magic ship-wreck and managed to bring the merchant Sridatta to his court. There he was intimated why he was brought to the Vidyadhara capital; and he was instructed to take with him the princess Gandharvadatta to be given in marriage to anybody who would defeat her in a vina contest. Returning to his capital with this Vidyadhara princess, Sridatta proclaimed to the citizens the conditions of vina-svayamvara and offered the Vidyadhara princess to one who would succeed in this contest. This contest was arranged with the permission of Kattiyangaran the then ruling king. Members belonging to the first three varnas were invited for the contest. Every one got defeated by this princess Gandharvadatta. Thus elapsed six days. On the seventh day the prince Jivaka, who was taken by the citizens for merely a merchant's son, wanted to try his chance in this music contest. When Jivaka exhibited his musical skill in this contest, the Vidyadhara princess acknowledged him to be victorious and accepted him as her husband. Several princes who were assembled there, out of jealousy, wanted to fight Jivaka but all these were defeated and finally Jivaka took Gandharvadatta home where he

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 73 celebrated the regular formal marriage. Thus ends the third chapter of the marriage of Gandharvadatta. 4. Gunamalaiyar - ilambakam--On another day during the vasanta festival, the youth of the city went to the adjoining park for play and enjoyment. Among these were two young ladies Suramanjari and Gunamala. Between them there arose a discussion as to the quality of the fragrant powder used for the purpose of bathing. Each claimed that her powder was superior. The matter was referred to the wise youth Jivaka, who gave a verdict in favour of Gunamala. Hearing the decision Suramanjari was sorrow-struck and decided to shut herself up in the kanyamala with a vow that she would never see a male's face, till this very Jivaka would come begging for her hand in marriage. While Suramanjari desisted from taking part in the vasanta festival, Gunamala, encouraged by the verdict in her favour, went out to enjoy the festival. Jivaka himself on his way observed a dog beaten to death by some brahmanas whose food was touched by this poor dog. When he saw the dying dog, he tried to help the poor creature and whispered to him the panca-namaskara with the hope that it would help the creature to have a better future. Accordingly the animal was born in devaloka as a deva called Sudanjana. This Sudanjanadeva immediately appeared before Jivaka to express his sense of gratitude and was willing to serve him. But Jivaka sent him back with the instruction that he would send for him whenever he was in need. While he thus dismissed the deva, he witnessed a terrible scene. The king's elephant escaped from its place and imme

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74 A. CHAKRAVARTI : diately ran towards the udayana in front of the people returning home after the festival. Just then he saw Gunamala returning home with her attendants. They were all frightened at the sight of the mad elephant. Jivaka rushed to their rescue, subdued the king's elephant and made it return home quietly; and thus made the way clear for Gunamala and her friends. While Gunamala saw the beautiful prince, she immediately fell in love with him. This was reported to her parents who arranged for the marriage of Gunamala with Jivaka, which was accordingly celebrated. But the king Kattiyangaran came to know of the chastisement of his royal elephant and sent his sons and brother-inlaw Madanan to bring this chetty boy Jivaka. They, with a number of soldiers, came and surrounded Kandukkadan's house. Though Jivaka wanted to fight against them, he remembered his promise to his guru to keep quiet for one full year and therefore was not in a position to defend himself. Thus in difficulty he remembered his friend Sudanjanadeva who immediately brought about a cyclone and rain and thus created confusion among his enemies. In this confusion Jivaka was lifted and carried away by his friend Sudanjanadeva to his own place. The king's officers, in their confusion, were not able to find out Jivaka. They killed some one else; and reported the matter to the king that they could not bring Jivaka alive and therefore they had to kill him in the confusion created by the cyclone. The king was very much pleased with this result and rewarded them all amply.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 75 5. Padumaiyar-ilambakam-Since Jivaka expressed his desire to return home, Sudanjanadeva, before parting with his friend Jivaka, instructed him in three imporant vidyas which might be useful to him in life. These were: (1) the capacity to assume a beautiful form to be envied even by the God of Love, (2) to cure the effects of deadly poison and (3) to take any form desired. After instructing him in these three useful mantras, the deva directed his friend the way he is to take to reach home. Leaving the land of his friend Sudanjanadeva, he roamed about in several places doing useful service to very many who were in suffering. Finally he reached the city of Candrabha in Pallava-desa. There he became a friend of Lokapala, the Pallava prince. This prince's sister Padma, one day, when she went to gather flowers, got bitten by a cobra. Jivaka saved her from the effect of poison through the mantra given to him by the deva Sudanjana. As a reward of this good service, he had Padma given to him in marriage by the Pallava king. There he stayed for a few months when he left the city in cognito all of a sudden. The princess was in great sorrow because of the disappearance of her hushand. The king sent messengers in search of his son-in-law Jivaka. They were told by Jivaka himself in disguise that there would be no use in searching for him now, and that he would of his own accord return after nine months. With this glad tidings the messengers went back and comforted the princess Padma. Thus ends the Padumaiyar-ilambakam.

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76 A. CHAKRAVARTI : 6. Kemasariyar-ilambakam-Then Jivaka reached Kemapuri in Takka-nadu. In that Kemapuri there was a merchant by name Subhaddiran. He had a daughter by name Kemasari. Astrologers told this merchant that the youth who at the sight produced the emotion of modesty and love in his daughter would become her husband. The merchant in search of a son-in-law tried several times to bring about such a situation to discover the predicted emotion in his daughter. But all cases proved failures till he came upon Jivaka. When Jivaka was invited to his house, he observed to his great joy that his daughter Kemasari at the first sight fell in love with Jivaka. He gladly gave his daughter Kemasari in marriage to Jivaka who stayed with his wife for some time. Again he left the place in disguise, without the knowledge of anybody, to the great grief of his new wife Kemasari. 7. Kanakamalaiyar-ilambakam--Then Jivaka reached Hemapura in Madhya-desa. Reaching the udyana in the outskirts of the city, he met Vijaya the son of Dadamittan, the king of Hemapura. This Vijaya was attempting to get a mango fruit from a tree in the garden with the help of his arrow. But he could not succeed. The stranger Jivaka brought down the fruit at his first aim; at this Vijaya was very much delighted; and he reported the stranger's arrival to the king, his father. The king was very much pleased to receive Jivaka and requested him to instruct his sons in archery. When his sons became experts in archery as a result of Jivaka's instruction, the king out of gratitude and pleasure offered his daughter Kanakamalai in

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 77 marriage to Jivaka. He was living with Kanakamalai for some time. In the meanwhile, his cousin Nandattan, not knowing the whereabouts of Jivaka, wanted to go about in search of him. Gandharvadatta, the Vidyadhara princess and Jivaka's first wife, gave the information about the exact whereabouts of Jivaka at the moment. Through the help of her vidya, she managed to lead Nandattan to Hemapura where he stayed with his friends. Jivaka's other friends went in search of him. On their way they met the old queen Vijaya in a tavappalli. She was informed of all that happened to Jivaka after she left the baby on the cremation ground. And she expressed a great desire to meet her son, and they promised to arrange for such a meeting within a month and left the tavappalli to go to Jivaka. While Jivaka was living with his new wife Kanakama lai, they pretended to besiege the town in order to meet Jivaka. Jivaka with his cousin Nandattan gathered large forces and went out to meet the besieging army in battle. Padumuhan who was in charge of the army outside and a friend of Jivaka despatched his first arrow with a message tied to it informing Jivaka of his own identity and the object of the visit. When the arrow fell at the feet of Jivaka, he picked it up and read the message to his great joy. Recognising that they were all his friends he invited them all into the city and introduced them to the king and father-in-law. When Jivaka learnt from his friends about his mother and her eagerness to meet him, he took leave of the king and his wife Kanakamalai who was asked to stay with her father. He started from the city with all his friends to meet his old mother. Jivaka

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78 together with his associates reached Dandakaranya and met his old mother Vijaya. Vijaya embraced her son with great joy because of the separation of several years. Thus he spent 6 days in the tavappalli with his mother Vijaya. She advised her son to meet his maternal uncle Govindaraja and to take his advice and help for the purpose of recovering his father's lost kingdom. He sent his mother in the company of a few female ascetics to his uncle's place, while he himself with his friends went towards Rajamahapuram. They all camped in a garden adjoining the city. A. CHAKRAVARTI: 8. Vimalaiyar - ilambakam- Next day Jivaka, leaving his friends there, went into the city assuming a beautiful form which could attract even the God of Love. While he was walking along the streets of the city, there appeared before him Vimala who ran into the street to pick her ball which went astray while she was playing. At the sight of that handsome Jivaka, she fell in love with him. She was the daughter of a merchant by name Sagaradatta. Jivaka went and sat in Sagaradatta's shop just to take rest. The large stock of sugar, which he had in store for a long time unsold, was disposed off immediately after the visit of the stranger to the shop. This was taken to be a very good omen by the merchant Sagaradatta, as he had learnt previously from the astrologers "that he whose presence would lead to the complete disposal of his unsold goods would be the proper son-in-law for him." He gladly offered his daughter Vimala in marriage to this beautiful youth. Jivaka accepted Vimala in marriage and spent with her just two days and the

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 79 third morning he went back to his friends' camp in the garden outside the city. 9. Suramanjari-ilambakam--His friends observed Jivaka with the marks of a fresh bridegroom and wanted to know the identity of his fresh matrimonial conquest. When Jivaka told them that he had married Vimala, the merchant's daughter, they all congratulated him that he was the veritable Kama. But one of his friends named Buddhisena was not willing to congratulate him for this paltry achievement; for, in the city there was one Suramanjari who would not brook to see a male's face and if Jivaka succeeded in marying her, then he would be congratulated as the veritable God of Love. Jivaka took up the challenge. Next day he assumed the form of a very old brahmana mendicant and appeared before the gate of Suramanjari. Suramanjari's maid servants informed their mistress of the appearance of the brahmana mendicant at her gate begging for some food. Suramanjari, thinking that an old and frail brahmana mendicant would not lead to the violation of her vow, instructed her servants to bring the old man into the house. There the old mendicant was received as an honoured guest and was offered the finest food that she could arrange for. After dinner the old man took rest on a beautiful bed prepared for him. After a few minutes' nap the old man sang a very beautiful song which was identified by Suramanjari as Jivaka's. This roused in her the old desire to win over Jivaka for herself. She decided to go to the temple of Love the next day to offer worship to the God of Love that she might at last

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80 A. CHAKRAVARTI : . get Jivaka as her husband. Even before Jivaka took the shape of a brahmana mendicant, he arranged with his friend Buddhisena that he should remain hiding behind the God of Love in the temple and that when Suramanjari begged the God to help her to win Jivaka he must answer her favourably from behind the idol. So next day when Suramanjari with her attendants wanted to go to the temple of Love, she took with her in the carriage this old brahmana mendicant. He was left in one of the front rooms of the temple, while Suramanjari went into the temple to offer puja. After the puja was over, she begged the God of Love to promise success in her adventure. Immediately there came a voice from inside the temple "Yes, you have won already Jivaka". In great delight she wanted to return home; and when she went to pick up the old mendicant on her way, Lo! she found there the youthful prince Jivaka instead of the old brahmana mendicant. There was no limit to her joy. She clasped him in great delight and announced that she would marry him. The matter was intimated to her father Kuberadatta who was very glad to have the marriage celebrated immediately. From this city of Rajamapura he took leave of his foster-father and went out with his friends in the disguise of a horse dealer. 10. Manmagal-ilambakam-Thus Jivaka with his friends entered Vidaiya-nadu, the land of his uncle Govindaraja. He was received by his uncle with great joy. There he discussed with his uncle as to the method of reconquering his country Hemangada from the usurper Kattiyangaran. Govindaraja tried to

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 81 get Kattiyangaran to his place by a stratagem. This Govindaraja had a beautiful daughter named Ilakkanai. He proclaimed the conditions of a svayamvara and set up a machine in the form of a boar which was always rotating; he who successfully hit the rotating boar would be accepted as the fitting husband to the princess. Kattiyangaran and several other princes were assembled at the court of Govindaraja in order to try their luck at the svayamvara. But none was really successful. At last Jivaka appeared on the scene on the back of an elephant. The very sight made Kattiyangaran frightened. Jivaka, whom he considered to be dead and gone, was before him fully alive. He got down from the elephant's back and hit at the boar-mark successfully with his arrow, and won the hand of the princess in the svayamvara. Then his uncle Govindaraja openly announced who this young man was and sent an ultimatum to Kattiyangaran to return back his kingdom. But Kattiyangaran accepted the challenge and preferred to sight. He was defeated and killed in a regular battle together with his hundred sons. Jivaka was victorious. At the news of the victory, his old mother was in great joy and felt that her life-purpose was fulfilled. 11. Pumagal-ilambakam--Then Jivaka, after the victory, marched to his own city Rajamapuram where he had the coronation ceremony conducted in a grand manner to the delight of his friends and relations. This is spoken of as the marriage with the Bhumidevi, the Spirit of the earth, because Jivaka's previous career was one of a glorious stream of marriages.

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : 12. Ilakkanaiyar - ilambakam -- After assuming the kingship over Hemangada-nalu he had the celebration of the marriage with his uncle's daughter Ilakkanai who was won in the last svayamvara, by his successful hitting at the boar-mark, and rewarded all his friends in a fitting manner. His foster-father was elevated to royal honour. His friends were given several presents. He gave away all the wealth of Kattiyangaras to his uncle Govindaraja. He built a temple in honour of his friend Sudanjanadeva. Thus during his reign all were satisfied and the country enjoyed plenty and prosperity. 13. Mutti-ilambakam-While they were all living in happiness, one day his old mother Vijaya expressed her desire to renounce all these worldly pleasures and wanted to live the life of an ascetic. Thus, with the permission of her son and king, she spent her remaining days in a tapasa-asrama in prayer and spiritual discipline. The king Jivaka, while wandering in the udyana, one day noticed a curious phenomenon. He observed a monkey with her lover enjoying their happy life. Immediately he saw the male monkey fetching a fine jack fruit to offer to his mate. Just then the gardener, noticing the jack fruit in the hands of the monkey, beat him with his stick and took away the jack fruit which he did eat. When this was noticed by Jivaka, he realised that this was symbolic of all worldly riches, always taken possession of by the mightier at the cost of the weaker. Even royal honour is no exception to this. Everywhere he found the principle 'might is right triumphant. He saw that

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 83 in the life of Kattiyangaran and he immediately knew in his own life the same principle illustrated. Royal honour resting on such unethical foundation was certainly not the thing to be coveted for. Therefore he resolved to abdicate his kingdom in favour of his son and retire from sovereignty to spend the rest of his life in penance. So he went away to the place where Mahavira was, got instruction in spiritual inatters from Ganadhara Sudharma who initiated him into spiritual life and penance. Thus Jivaka spent the rest of his period in meditation and finally attained Nirvana as the fruit of his meditation and penance. Thus ended the glorious life of the great ksatriya hero Jivaka in whose honour this monumental Tamil classic was composed by the author Tiruttakkadeva. This classic contains 3145 stanzas. An excellent edition containing a fine commentary by Naccinarkkiniyar is now available, and it is by the famous scholar Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. V. Swaminatha Ayyar who has devoted all his life to the publication of rare Tamil classics. Let us now turn to the five minor kavyas? which are (1) Yasodhara, (2) Cudamani? (3) Udayanan-kathai, (4) Nagakumara-kavyam and (5) Nilakesi. All these five minor epics were composed by Jaina authors. 1. These are popularly known as Ain-jirukkappiyangal. 2. Of the five minor kavyas, Cintamani has been edited by Damodaram Pillai (1889). Besides, Vacana-Cintamani (1898) by the same editor is a prose rendering of Cintamani in easy style and diction.

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84 A. CHAKRAVARTI : (1) Yasodhara-kavya:-Unlike Jaina literary works in Sanskrit, where the authors generally give a bit of autobiographic information, either at the beginning or at the end of the work, in Tamil literature, the author maintains absolute silence on that matter. It is very often difficuit to know even the name of the author, not to speak of other details relating to his life. We have to depend upon purely circumstantial evidence as to the life of the author. Sometimes such circumstantial evidence will be extremely meagre, and we have to confess our ignorance about the author and his life. Such is the case with this Yasodhara-kavya. Practically nothing is known about the author except that he was a Jaina ascetic. From the nature of the story all that we can infer is that it is later than the Hindu doctrine of yaga as reformed by Madhyacarya. Madhvacarya, the famous Vedantic scholar, introduced a healthy reform that Vedic ritual could very well be continued without involving animal sacrifice, if a substitute for the animal be introduced in the same form made of rice-flour. The story of Yasodharukavya is evidently intended to reject this ritualism even with this substitute. The moral value of conduct depends upon the harmony between thought, word and deed, manas, vak and kaya. In this particular form of ritualism, though the actual deed is avoided, there is still lacking the harmony and co-operation of the other two. The desire to sacrifice an animal and to pronounce the necessary mantras being there, the substitution of a mock-animal would not relieve an agent of any of his responsibility for animal sacrifice.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 85 This seems to be the main theme of the story in which incidentally many of the doctrines relating to the Jaina religion are introduced. Hence the work must be placed after the period of the reformation in ritualism associated with the founder of Madhva philosophy. The scene of the story is laid in Rajapura in Oudaya-desa, in Bharata-khanda. Maridatta is the name of the king. There is a Kali temple in the city dedicated to Canda-Maridevi. It was the time of a great festival for this Canda-Maridevi. For the purpose of sacrificing, there were gathered in the temple precincts, pairs of birds and animals, male and female, such as fowls, peacocks, birds, goats, buffaloes and so on. These were brought by the people of the town as their offerings to the devi. The king Maridatta, to be consistent with the status and position of raja, wanted to offer as sacrifice not merely the ordinary beasts or birds but a pair of human beings as well. So he instructed his officer to fetch a pair of human beings, a male and a female, to be offered as a sacrifice to the goddess Kali. The officer accordingly went about in search of human victims. Just about that time a Jaina Sangha consisting of 500 ascetics presided over by Sudattacarya came and settled at the park in the outskirts of the city. In this Sangha there were two youths Abhayaruci and Abhayamati, brother and sister. These two young apprentices, since they were not accustomed to the rigorous discipline characteristic of the grown up monks in the Sangha, were very much fatigued on account of the long travel and were permitted by the head of the Sangha to enter the town for

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86 A. CHAKRAVARTI : obtaining alms for themselves. The officer of the king, who went about in search of human victims, was very glad to capture these two beautiful youths and marched them to the Kali temple and informed the king of his capture. The king Maridatta gladly went to the Kali temple with the object of offering his sacrifice with these beautiful youths. The people assembled there asked these two beautiful youths to prey to Kali that, as a result of this great sacrifice, blessings must be showered on the king and the land. The two ascetics smiled at this request; and they themselves blessed the king that he might be weaned from this cruel form of worship, so that he might have the pleasure of accepting the noble ahimsa-dharma which would lead him to a safe spiritual haven. When they pronounced this with a smile on their beautiful faces, the king was nonplussed for he could not understand how two such young and beautiful persons, in the face of death, could have such peace of mind as to laugh at the whole game as if it were none of their own concern. Therefore the king wanted to know the reason why they laughed at such a grave moment and expressed a desire to know who they were, and why they had come to the city, and so on. The sword drawn for sacrifice was sheathed again, and the king was in a mood to know the reason for the queer behaviour of the two youths. As desired by the king the brother Abhayaruci began to answer: "The reason why we laughed, without being in fright, was the result of the knowledge that everything that happens to an individual is but the fruit of his previous karma. Fear to

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 87 escape the fruits of one's own karma is but the result of ignorance. Hence we were not afraid of our own fate which is the consequence of our own previous action. We have to laugh simply because the whole scene here is steeped in so much ignorance. As a result of our own conduct that we sacrificed a fowl made up of rice-flour, we had to suffer and endure for seven births, successively taking the form of lower animals and suffering all sorts of pain. Only in this period, we have the good fortune to regain our human form. We know very well that all this suffering was the result of our silly desire to offer sacrifice to Kali, though the actual victim of sacrifices was merely an imitation fowl made of flour. After realising this, when your people asked us to pray to Canna-Maridevi for the prosperity and welfare of yourself and your kingdom as a result of the sacrifice of several animals and birds together with human beings, we could not but laugh at the simplicity and ignorance of the people here." When the king heard this, he gave up the idea of sacrifice and wanted to know more about the life of the two victims who exhibited such magnificent peace of mind even in the very jaws of death. Thus ends the first section. In the second section is narrated the story of these two youths and how they brought upon themselves all the troubles on account of sacrificing a mock-fowl. The scene is laid in Ujjain, the capital of Avanti of Malava-desa. The ruler of the country was one Asoka.

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88 A. CHAKRAVARTI : His queen was Candramati. Yasodhara was their son. It is this prince Yasodhara that is the hero of this story. This Yasodhara married a beautiful princess by name of Amstamati. This beautiful queen gave birth to a son Yasamati. The old king Asoka abdicated the kingdom in favour of his son Yasodhara and instructed him to observe the principles of righteous rule according to rajaniti. He instructed his son on how he should safeguard dharma, artha and kama, the three purusarthas. He should maintain religion and religious worship at a high level of purity based upon the ahimsa doctrine. Having given all this advice and after establishing his son as the king of the land, the old king adopted the life of an ascetic and spent his time in an asrama. While the king Yasadhara and his queen Amstamati were living happily, one early morning the queen heard the sweet music of the elephant-keeper singing in malapancama-raga. The queen was attracted by the music and sent her attendant Gunavati to procure the person who was responsible for such sweet music. This information created a surprise in that attendant who advised the queen to remember her status and prestige; but as she insisted on having the person with whom she fell in love, the attendant had to bring the keeper of the elephant who was a detestable leper. Even in spite of this deformity, the foolish queen entered into an intimacy with that wretch. The king was at first ignorant of the whole affair. But soon the king came to know of this disgusting behaviour of the queen. Noticing the peculiar estrangement in her behaviour, he himself

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 89 grew weary of worldly riches and was trying to discard the kingly pleasures and renounce the world. Just then he had an ominous dream in which the moon from the high skies was observed to fall down towards the earth losing all her light and glory. The king feared that this was symbolic of some calamity and wanted to know how to avoid the evil foretold in this dream. The queen-mother was consulted by the king who was advised to offer some animal sacrifice to Kali for the purpose of warding off such a calamity. The king, because he was a faithful follower of ahimsadharma, could not reconcile himself to animal sacrifice. Hence the king and his queen-mother both arrived at a compromise according to which the king had to offer a fowl made of rice-flour as a sacrifice to Kali. So the mock-fowl was offered as a sacrifice to Kali. Thus troubles began. In the meanwhile, the queen, knowing that her conduct was discovered by the king and the queen-mother, hated them both and finally succeeded in killing them by poisoning them. Thus, after disposing off the king and his mother, this wicked queen Amrtamati made her own son Yasomati the king of Avanti-desa. After the death of Yasodhara and his queen-mother Candramati as a result of the sin of sacrificing to Kali, they were born as lower animals for seven births in succession. The third section is the description of the various janmas taken by the king Yasodhara and his mother as lower animals and birds, and the grief and suffering that they had to undergo.

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90 A. CHAKRAVARTI : In the fourth section the narrative of the new king Yosomati is given and also the story of Abhayaruci and Abhayamati who were in their previous births Yosodhara and his queen-mother Candramati. Finally, when Maridatta learnt the whole story, he desired to know more about this noble truth ahinsa; and he was taken to the guru who was camping in the udyana in the outskirts of the city where the king had the initiation into the noble faith of ahimsa. Thereafter, he not only gave up the offering of animal sacrifice to Kali himself, but also proclaimed to his people that such a sacrifice should not be offered any longer. Thus he elevated the religion and temple worship to a higher and nobler level all over his land. This is the story of the Yasodhara-kavya in Tamil about whose author we know nothing. The story is found even in Sanskrit literature. There is a Sanskrit Yasodhara-kavya dealing with the same story. But it is not clearly known which is earlier, the Tamil or the Sanskrit one. The Tamil Yasodhara-kavya was first published by the late T. Venkatarama Iyengar, an esteemed friend of the present writer. Unfortunately the edition is out of print and hence not available to readers at present. (2) Culamani:- It is composed by the Jaina author and poet Tolamolittevar. He was evidently under the patronage of the chief Vijaya of Karvetnagar. The editor of this work, Damodaram Pillai, is of opinion that it must be earlier than some of the major kavyas. His conclusion is based upon the fact that several stanzas from Culamani are quoted by Amotasa

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91 gara, the author of Yapparungalakarikai. Culamani is based upon a Puranic story contained in the Mahapurrana by Jinasena. The hero of the story is one Tivittan, one of the nine Vasudevas according to the Jaina tradition, of whom Krsna of Bharata fame is one. Culamani resembles Cintamani in poetic excellence. It contains 12 sargas and 2131 stanzas on the whole. The story runs as follows: Prajapati, King of Suramaidesa, whose capital was Potanapura, had two principal queens, Mrgavati and Jayavati. Tivittan. the hero, was the son of the mahadevi Mrgavati, Vijaya the son of Jayavati and this was the elder of the two. Vijaya and Tivittan were exactly corresponding to Balarama and Krsna, the former fair, and the latter dark in complexion. A soothsayer told the king Prajapati that his son Tivittan would marry a Vidyadhara princess very shortly. The Vidyadhara king of Radanupura had a daughter by name Svayamprabha who was very beautiful. This Vidyadhara king also had a prediction made by a soothsayer that his daughter Svayamprabha would marry a ksatriya prince of Potanapura. The Vidyadhara monarch sent one of his ministers with a letter to the king Prajapati offering his daughter in marriage to Tivittan. King Prajapati of Potanapura, though surprised at first at this offer from the Vidyadhara king, consented to the marriage. In the meanwhile, the matter was known to the Vidyadhara emperor Asvagriva to whom both Prajapati and the father of Svayamprabha were subordinates. Asvagriva, the Vidyadhara emperor, demanded from the father of Tivittan the usual tribute. King Prajapati, fearing the JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL

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92 A. CHAKRAVARTI : wrath of the Vidyadhara emperor, ordered the tribute to be paid immediately. But his son Tivittan would not permit this. He denied allegiance to the Vidyadhara emperor and sent the messenger back saying "No tribute will be paid hereafter." One of the Vidyadhara ministers attached to Asvagriva's court wanted to kill this foolhardy ksatriya youth Tivittan by a stratagem. He assumed the form of a lion and destroyed the cattle of the land of Suramai belonging to the king Prajapati. The sons of Prajapati, Tivittan and Vijaya, set out to slay the lion. The lion, which was the assumed form of the Vidyadhara minister, cleverly decoyed Tivityan into a cave. Tivittan pursued the lion into the cave. There was a real lion in that cave which devoured the maya lion and wanted to have Tivittan also. Tivittan was not to be frightened by this. The Vidyadhara lion having disappeared into the mouth of the real lion of the cave, he caught hold of the head of the real lion and killed it easily. This killing of the lion was a part of the prediction given by the soothsayer to the king of Radanupura, the father of Svayamprabha, who was to be given in marriage to Tivittan. Therefore the king of Radanupura set out with his daughter Svayamprabha for Potanapura where the Vidhyadhara princess was given in marriage to the gallant Tivittan. The Vidhyadhara emperor Asvagriva, boiling with wrath because of the treatment meted out to his messenger by his subject's son Tivittan, had now his anger aggravated because of the latter's marriage with a Vidyadhara princess. He could not brook the idea of an

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 93 ordinary ksatriya prince, and that too the son of his own subordinate, marrying a Vidyadhara princess of his own noble race. He marched with his mighty force against Tivittan. A war ensued. Tivittan, being a Vasudeva, was in possession of divine magic powers, and with his cakra made a clean sweep of the Vidyadhara army and finally slew the Vidyadhara emperor Asvagriva himself. The result of this victory made Tivittan's father-in-law suzerain lord for the whole of the Vidyadhara land. Tivittan himself inherited his father's domain and lived happily with his Vidyadhara bride Svayamprabha together with his several thousand other spouses. He had a son by his Vidyadhara bride Svayamprabha named Amrtasena. He gave his sister in marriage to his brother-in-law Arkakirti and by his sister a daughter was born called Sudarai and also a son. Tivittan had another daughter by name Jotimalai for whose marriage he proclaimed a Svayamvara. This daughter chose for her husband her maternal uncle, Arkakirti, whereas the Vidyadhara princess chose his own son Amrtasena. Thus by these two marriages the alliance between the Potanapura dynasty and the Vidyadhara dynasty was further strengthened. Thus, when the two countries were living in happiness and the people were enjoying prosperity, the old king Prajapati renounced the kingdom in favour of his son and passed the remainder of his life in yoga and meditation. As a result of this Jina-diksa and spiritual penance the king Prajapati escaped from samsara and attained mukti. Thus ends

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94 A. CHAKRAVARTI : the story of Culamani, a very important work included in the category of the five minor kavyas. (3) Nilakesi.-- This is also one of the five minor kavyas which is evidently by a Jaina philosopher-poet about whom we know nothing. It is a controversial work dealing with the systems of Indian philosophy and it has an excellent commentary called Samayadivakara by one Vamana-muni. This Vamana-muni is the same as the author of another classic called Merumandirapuranam. Nilakesi appears to be a refutation of the Buddhistic work Kundalakesi which is unfortunately lost now. This Kindalakesi was included under the category of the five mahakavyas. Though the Tamil classic of this name is lost to the world, the story of Kundalakesi as found in the Buddhistic work is given below for the simple reason that the related story of Nilakesi is modelled after Kundalakesi and is intended to be a refutation of Kundalakesi's philosophy. The story of Kundalakesi is as follows, taken from The Buddhist Legends (H. O. S.). A rich merchant of Rajagsha, it seems, had an only daughter who was about sixteen years of age, and she was exceedingly beautiful and fair to see. When women reach this age, they burn and long for men. Her mother and father lodged her on the topmost 1. The learned author has written and published a detailed introductory treatise on Neelakesi (Kumbakonam, 1936) making the contents of this work of great literary merit available to the world of scholars.

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95 floor of a seven-storied palace in an apartment of royal splendour, and gave her only a single slavewoman to wait upon her. JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL Now one day a young man of station was caught in the act of robbery. They bound his hands behind his back and led him to the place of execution, scourging him with lashes at every cross-road. The merchant's daughter heard the shouts of the crowd, said to herself, "What is that?", looked down from the top of of the palace, and saw him. Straightaway she fell in love with him. So great, in fact, was her longing for him that she took to her bed and refused to eat. Her mother asked her, 'What does this mean, my dear daughter ?'. 'If I can have that young man who was caught in the act of committing robbery and who was led through the streets, life will be worth living; otherwise I shall die here and now'. 'Do not act in this manner, my dear daughter; you shall have someone else for your husband, someone who is our equal in birth and family and wealth'. 'I will have no one else; if I cannot have this man, I shall die.' The mother, unable to pacify her daughter, told the father but the father likewise was unable to pacify his daughter. 'What is to be done?", thought he. He sent a thousand pieces of money to the king's officer who had captured the robber and who was accompanying him to the place of excecution, saying, "Take the money and send the robber to me.' 'Very well' said the king's officer. He took the money and released the

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96 A. CHAKRAVARTI : robber, had another man put to death, and sent word to the king 'The robber has an executed, Your Majesty.' The merchant gave his daughter in marriage to this robber. She resolved to win the favour of her hnsband; and from that time on, adorned with all her ornaments, she prepared her husband's meal with her own hand. After a few days the robber thought to himself, 'When can I kill this woman, take her jewels and sell them, and so be able to take my meals in a certain tavern? This is the way.' He took to his bed and refused to eat. She came to him and asked, 'Are you in pain?' 'Not at all, wife.' Then perhaps my morher and father are angry with you ?' * They are not angry with me, wife.' "What is the matter, then ? "Wife, that day when I was bound and led through the streets, I saved my life by vowing an offering to the deity that lives on Robber's cliff; likewise it was through His supernatural power that I gained you for my wife. I was wondering how I could fulfil my vow of an offering to the deity.' 'Husband, do not worry; I will see to the offering ; tell me what is needed'. 'Rich rice-porridge flavoured with honey; and the five kinds of flowers including the taja flower.' Very well, husband, I will make ready the offering. Having prepared the whole offering, she said to her husband 'Come, husband, let us go.' 'Very well, wife; let your kinsmen remain behind; put on your costly garments and adorn yourself with your precious jewels, and we will go gaily, laughing and disporting

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 97 ourselves.' She did as she was told. When they reached the foot of the mountain, the robber said to her, 'Wife, from this point on let us two go alone; we will send back the rest of the company in a conveyance; you take the vessel containing the offering and carry it yourself.' She did as she was told. The robber took her in his arms and climbed the mountain to the top of the Robber's cliff. (One side of this mountain men can climb; but the other side is a precipitous cliff, from the top of which robbers are flung, being dashed to pieces before they reached the bottom; therefore it is called 'Robber's cliff'). Standing on the top of the mountain, she said, 'Husband, present the offerings'. Her husband made no reply. Again she spoke, 'Husband, why do you remain silent'. Then he said to her, 'I have no use for the offering; I deceived you in bringing you here with an offering'. "Then why did you bring me here, husband?' 'To kill you, seize your jewels, and escape.' Terrified with the fear of death, she said to him, 'Husband, both my jewels and my person belong to you; why do you speak thus?'. Over and over again she pleaded with him, 'Do not do this,' but his reply only was 'I will kill you.' 'After all, what will you gain by killing me? Take these jewels and spare my life; henceforth regard me as your mother, or else let me be your slave-woman and work for you.' So saying, she recited the following stanza: Take these golden bracelets, all set with beryls Take all, and welcome; call me your slave-woman. 7

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A. CHAKRAVARTI : The robber, hearing this, said to her, "Despite what you say, were I to spare your life, you would go and tell your mother and father all. I will kill you. That is all. Lament not with vehement lamentation.' So saying he recited the following stanza : Lament not over much; tie up your possession quickly. You have not long to live; I shall take all your possessions. She thought to herself, 'Oh, what a wicked deed is this? However, wisdom was not made to be cooked and eaten, but rather to make men look before they leap. I shall find a way of dealing with him.' And she said to him, 'Husband, when they caught you in the act of committing robbery and led you through the streets, I told my mother and father, and they spent a thousand pieces of money in ransoming you and they gave you a place in their house, and from that time on I have been your benefactress; to-day do me the favour of letting me pay obeisance to you' 'Very well, wife,' said he, granted her the favour of paying obeisance to him, and then took his stand near the edge of the cliff. She walked around him three times, keeping him on her right hand, and paid obeisance to him in the four places. Then she said to him, 'Husband, this is the last time I shall see you. Henceforth you will see me no more, neither shall I see you anymore.' And she embraced him both before and behind. Then, remaining behind him, as he stood off his guard near the edge of the cliff, she put one hand to his shoulder

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 99 and the other to his back, and flung him over the cliff. Thus was the robber hurled into the abyss of the mountain, and dashed to pieces when he reached the bottom. The deity that dwelt on the top of the Robber's cliff observed the actions of the two and, applauding the woman, uttered the following stanza : Wisdom is not always confined to men; A woman too is wise and shows it now and then. Having thrown the robber over the cliff, the woman thought to herself, "If I go home, they will ask me, 'Where is your husband? and if, in answer to this question, I say "I have killed him' they will pierce me with the knives of their tongue, saying 'We ransomed the scoundrel with a thousand pieces of money and now you have killed him.' If, on the other hand, I say, 'He sought to kill me for my jewels,' they will not believe me. I am done with home." She caste off her jewels, went into the forest, and after wandering about for a time came to a certain hermitage of nuns. She reverently bowed and said, 'Sister, receive me into your Order as a nun'. So they received her as a nun. After she had become a nun, she asked 'Sister, what is the goal of your religious life ? "Sister, the development of spiritual ecstasy through the employment of the kasinas, or else the memorising of a thousand articles of faith, this is the highest aim of our religious life.' Spiritual ecstasy I shall not be able to develop, Reverend Sister; But I will master the thousand articles of faith. When she mastered the thousand articles of faith, they said to her, "You have

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100 A. CHAKRAVARTI : acquired proficiency; now go through the length and breadth of the land of the Rose-Apple and look for some one able to match question and answer with you.' : So, placing a branch of Rose-Apple in her hands they dismissed her with these words, 'Go forth, Sister; if any one who is a layman is able to match question and answer with you, become his slave; if any monk, enter his Order as a nun, adopting the name 'Nun of the Rose Apple'. She left the hermitage and went about from place to place asking questions to everyone she saw. No one was able to match question and answer with her; in fact, such a reputation did she acquire that whenever men heard the announcement, 'Here comes the Nun of the Rose-Apple,' they would run away. Before entering a town or village for alms, she would scrape a pile of sand together before the village gate and there plant her rose apple branch. Then she would issue her challenge, "Let him that is able to match question and answer with me trample this rose apple under his feet.' So saying, she would enter the village. No one dared to pass beyond that spot. When one branch withered, she would procure a fresh one. Travelling about in this way, she arrived at Savatthi, planted the branch before the city gate, issued her challenge in the usual way, and went in to seek alms. A number of young boys gathered about the branch and waited to see what would happen. Just then the elder Sariputta, who had made his round and eaten

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 101 his breakfast and was on his way out of the city, saw those boys standing about the branch and asked them What does this mean?'. The boys explained matters to the Elder. Said the Elder, 'Go ahead, boys, trample that branch under your feet.' 'We are afraid to, Reverend Sir.' 'I will answer the question; you go ahead and trample the branch under your feet.' The Elder's words supplied the boys with the necessary courage. Forthwith they trampled the branch under their feet shouting and kicking up dust. When the nun returned, she rebuked them and said, 'I don't intend to bandy question and answer with you; how did you come to trample the branch under your feet ?' 'Our noble Elder told us to'. Reverend Sir, did you tell them to trample my branch under their feet?' 'Yes, Sister.' 'Well then, match question and answer with me'. Very well, I will do so. As the shades of evening drew on, she went to the Elder's residence to put her questions. The entire city was stirred up. The people said to each other, 'Let us go and hear the talk of the two learned persons.' Accompanying the nun from the city to the Elder's residence, they bowed to the Elder and seated themselves respectfully on one side. The nun said to the Elder, Reverend Sir, I wish to ask you a question.' 'Ask it, Sister.' So she asked him the thousand articles of faith. Every question the nun asked, the Elder answered correctly. Then he said to her, 'You have asked only these few questions ; are there any others ? "These are all,

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102 A. CHAKRAVARTI : Reverend Sir.' 'You have asked many questions; I will ask you just one; will you answer me ?.' 'Ask your question'. 'What is one ? She said to herself, "This is the question I should be able to answer'; but not knowing the answer, she inquired of the Elder, 'What is it, Reverend Sir ?.' 'This is the Buddha's question, Sister.' 'Tell me also the answer, Reverend Sir.' 'If you will enter our Order, I will tell you the answer.' 'Very well, admit me to the Order.' The Elder sent word to the nuns and had her admitted. After being admitted to the Order, she made her full profession, took the name Kundalakesi, and after a few days became an Arhat endowed with supernatural faculties. In the Hall of Truth the monks began a discussion of the incident. "Kundalakesi heard little of the Law, and yet she succeeded in being admitted to the Order ; moreover, she came here after fighting a fierce battle with a robber and defeating him.' The teacher came in and asked them, 'Monks, what is it that you are sitting here discussing now?.' They told him. "Monks, we assure not the Law. I have taught as being 'little' or 'much. There is no superior merit in a hundred sentences that are meaningless; but one sentence of the Law is better. He that defeats all other robbers wins no victory at all, but he who defeats the robbers, his own depravities, his is victory indeed." There he joined the connection and preaching the Law, pronounced the following stanza : Though one should recite a hundred stanzas Composed of meaningless sentences

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 103 Yet one Sentence of the Law were better Which if a man hear he is at peace. Though one should conquer a thousand times a thousand men in battle, Yet would he be the mightiest conqueror Who should conquer one himself. Nilakesi, which is one of the five minor kavyas in Tamil, is evidently an answer to Kundalakesi, the Buddhistic work. As is suggested by the author himself, the story is not taken from among the Puranic stories. The story is probably an imaginative creation by the author merely to serve as a frame-work for introducing philosophical discussions. The work has not seen the light of day up to the present. The present writer is trying to bring out an edition of this rare classic which is in press. In the course of a few months it may be made available to the public'. The story begins with a scene laid in Pancala-desa which is otherwise known as Partti-nadu. The king of the land is referred to be Samudrasara and his capital is Pundravardhana. On the outskirts of this city there is a cremation ground which goes by the name of Palalaiyam. There is also a famous Kali temple there. Just about the Kali temple there is a Jaina yogin called Municandra. One day people from the town brought as offering to the Kali a number of beasts and birds. The Jaina acarya asked them the reason for this extraordinary sacrifice. In answer they gave that these animals and 1. Since edited by him.

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104 A. CHAKRAVARTI : birds they had to offer to Kali for the queen had given birth to a child as the result of Kali's blessing. The Jaina acarya informed those persons that the Goddess would be quite satisfied if baked clay models of animals and fowls were set up as their offerings before the Kali temple. Such a procedure would be quite enough to satisfy the Goddess and to fulfil their vows. Further, it would relieve a number of animals from death and also save themselves from the sin of hinsa. This teaching evidently appealed to the people at large who drove away all their animals back to their homes. This behaviour of the people very much upset the Goddess Kali who realised that she was not capable of frightening away the Jaina ascetic because of his superior spiritual culture. But now she wanted to drive him away from the precincts of the Kali temple so that he might not interfere with the regular sacrifice. Hence she went about in search of her chief, the great Nilakesi, of the southern country, before whom the complaint was placed as to the Jaina ascetic's interference with the regular sacrifice and worship at the Kali temple. The great Nilakesi marched towards the north in order to get rid of this Jaina yogin and to restore regular worship and sacrifice at the Kali temple at the city of Pundravardhana. Nilakesi created there several frightening situations hoping to drive away Municandracarya. All her attempts to frighten the yogin proved futile. He was not the person to be easily got rid of. He was firmly rooted in his practice of yoga and no amount of dreadful circumstances created in the environment would affect his calm and peaceful meditation. He went on as if nothing had taken place around him.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 105 Then Nilakesi thought that the only way by which she could defeat this yogin by some hook or crook, was to deviate him from his spiritual purpose and draw him towards sensual pleasures. She thought that this would be the surest way to spoil his penance. With this object in view, she put on the beautiful form of the princess of the land and began to play the coquette before the yogin. She behaved even as a public courtezan trying to attract the acarya. Even this attempt proved no more successful. In the meanwhile, Municandracarya himself told her the whole truth. He made her understand that she was not really the princess from the royal household, that she was merely the chief of the devatas attempting to frighten him away from the place in order to restore their usual animal sacrifice. This plain speaking made her realise the greatness and the wisdom of the yogin, and she confessed before him that all he stated was true and begged him to pardon her. When she was pardoned by the yogin, she, out of gratitude, expressed her willingness to adopt, in future, a more healthy and reasonable course of life and wanted him to help her in this by teaching her the fundamental principles of ahimsa. When she heard the noble religious principles of ahimsa she felt extremely grateful to the guru and begged him to say what would be the best thanks-offering from the disciple. When he told her the best form of thanksoffering that he would have was for her to go about the land preaching this doctrine of ahimsa, she accordingly accepted the task and, therefore, taking the human form she devoted her time in propaganda work in favour of

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106 the ahimsa doctrine. This is the subject matter of the opening chapter Dharmav-urai-carukkam. A. CHAKRAVARTI : The 2nd chapter, Kundalakesi-vada-carukkam, is devoted to the discussion that Nilakesi had with Kundalakesi who was the representative of Buddhism. Naturally in this discussion Kundalakesi is represented to be defeated by Nilakesi. Kundalakesi is made to acknowledge her defeat and to accept the doctrine of ahimsa. Nilakesi learns from Kundalakesi that her teacher is one Arhacandra, a Buddhistic scholar. The 3rd chapter is devoted to the discussion with Arhacandra, who is also made to acknowledge his defeat in the discussion. Arhacandra, after accepting Nilakesi's religion of ahimsa directed her to Mokkala, one of the chief disciples of Gautama Sakyamuni and one of the early founders of the Buddhistic Sangha. The 4th chapter, Mokkala-vada-carukkam, is devoted to Nilakesi's challenge to this Buddhistic teacher Mokkala who, in his turn, is defeated and made to acknowledge the rival faith. This is one of the biggest chapters in the book because of the important Buddhistic doctrines which are discussed in detail in this chapter. Hence Mokkala himself sends Nilakesi to the very founder of Buddhism. Hence the fifth chapter Buddha-vada-carukkam represents the meeting of Nilakesi and the Buddha for the purpose of discussion. The Buddha himself is made to realise that his doctrine of ahimsa is not observed in spirit by his followers. He is made to realise that mere lip-service to ahimsa

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107 is not a satisfactory doctrine of religion, where finally he himself is made to acknowledge the unsatisfactory nature of his religion which must be recast to keep the spirit of ahimsa. Thus, next to the introductory chapter, 4 chapters are devoted to this discussion of Buddhism. Then the other darsanas are introduced in succession. The The 6th chapter is devoted to the Ajivaka religion. The chapter is called Ajivaka-vada-carukkam. founder of the Ajivaka religion was a contemporary of Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. In outward appearance the Ajivakas resembled Jaina Nirgranthas. But, in the matter of religion, they differed very much from both the Jainas and the Buddhists. Though the contemporary Buddhistic writers made no mistake about the identity of the Ajivakas, later Indian writers very often made the mistake of confounding them with the Digambara sect of Jainas. In this chapter on the Ajivakas the author of Nilakesi distinctly warns the reader against any such confusion and emphasises the fundamental doctrinal differences between the two sects. JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL The 7th chapter is devoted to an examination of the Sankhya schools. Hence it is called Sankhyavada-carukkam. The 8th chapter is devoted to the examination of Vaisesika-darsana. The author carefully brings out the points of resemblance between the Jaina and nonJaina darsanas in philosophical matters, always keep

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108 A. CHAKRAVARTI : ing before his mind's eye his own fundamental concept of ahimsa. The 9th chapter is devoted to the examination of Vedic ritualism, hence called Veda-vada-carukkam. In this section there is not only a criticism of Vedic ritualism involving animal sacrifice but also a critical examination of the varnasrama-dharma based upon Vedic ritualism. The author tries to argue that the social differences, based upon birth, have no significance in the spiritual field, and hence are altogether without any importance to religion. From the point of view of religion the only difference to be noted among the human beings is the difference based upon character, culture and spiritual discipline. The last or the 10th chapter is devoted to the examination of the materialistic school usually called Bhuta-vada. Hence the chapter is called Bhuta-vadacarukkam. Here the discussion is mainly devoted to establishing the reality of a spiritual principle beyond the materialistic conglomeration of the world. The author tries to emphasise that consciousness or cetana is an independent spiritual principle and not a mere secondary by-product of the combination of material things, an independent spiritual principle which is recognised as an entity surviving the disintegration of the material element with which it is associated in the life of the individual. Thus the main theme of this chapter is the survival of the human personality after death. This Nilakesi demonstrates to the leader of materialism who readily accepts his mistake and acknowledges

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 109 that there are more things not dreamt of in his philosophy. Thus ends the work after vindicating first the reality of the spiritual principle, the human personality and secondly the supremacy of the religious doctrine based upon ahimsa. Thus Nilakesi completes her life-task which she intended to be a thanks-offering to her guru from whom she learnt the fundamental principles of religion and philosophy which she adopted as her own, though she, as a Goddess, had been revelling in animal sacrifice. Thus we see that Nilakesi is mainly a controversial work intended to vindicate the reality of the soul against materialism, the nobility of ahimsa against Vedic ritualism, and the dietetic purity of vegetarianism against the Buddhists who preached ahimsa and practised himsa. We know absolutely nothing about the author of the text though we know that the commentary is written by Vamana-muni. Since there are references to the Kural and the Naladiyar in this work it must be later than the age of the Kural. Since it is intended as an answer to Kundalakesi it must certainly be later than Kundalakesi1. Since we know nothing about Kundalakesi itself we cannot build much on this information. All that 1. The learned author elsewhere (Neelakesi, Kumbakonam, 1936, pp. 5-11) assigns the anonymous author to a period between the fourth and fifth century A.D., but says "We cannot afford to dogmatically assert anything about the age of the author of Neclakesi."

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110 A. CHAKRAVARTI : we can say is that it is one of the very early classics in Tamil literature. It contains 894 stanzas on the whole. This text is certainly very useful to students of Tamil literature in exhibiting several rare grammatical and idiomatic usages, and archaic terms in which the work abounds. Two other minor kavyas which are still lying in obscurity in palm-leaf manuscripts are (4) Udayanakavya and (5) Nagakumara-kavya. The former, as its name suggests, relates to the life of Udayana, the Vatsa prince of Kausambi. Since they are not published, we cannot say inuch about them. There is another Tamil classic dealing with the storyof Udayana. Probably this is not one of the minor kavyas. Judging by the volume of matter and the meter employed in this work, it is probably an independent work not included in any of the traditional lists. It is made available to the Tamil reader by that indefatigable worker in the cause of Tamil, Dr. Swaminatha Ayyar, whom we have already referred to. This work Perunkathai probably was named after the Brhat-katha of Gunadhya written in what is known as Pisacabhasa, a Prakrit dialect. The author is known as Konguvel, a prince of the Kongu-desa. He lived in Vijayamanagar, a place in Coimbatore District, where there were a number of Jainas in former days. This work is quoted by several famous commentators 1. Perunkathai, Ed. by V. Swaminatha Ayyar, Madras, 1924.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 111 in Tamil to illustrate the grammatical and idiomatical usage in Tamil literature. The book now published is unfortunately incomplete. The editor with all his attempt was not able to obtain the missing portion in the beginning as well as at the end of the work. Instead of waiting indefinitely, it is good that the work is published though incomplete. From Gunadhya's Brhatkatha, which contains a lot of other stories, the author of Tamil Perunkathai has taken only the portions relating to the life of Prince Udayana. The story consists of 6 main chapters. Unjaik-kandam, Lavanak-kandam, Magadak-kandam, Vattavak-kandam Naravanak-kandam and Turavuk-kandam, all relating to the rich life of Udayana. Udayana was the son of Satanika of the Kuru dynasty who ruled over Kausambi. Satanika's queen was one Mtgavati. When she was in an advanced state of pregnancy she, with her attendants, was playing in the upstairs of her palace. She had herself and her attendants and the whole background adorned with plenty of red flowers and red silk clothes. After play she fell asleep on her cot. The most powerful bird of Hindu mythology, Sarabha, mistaking the place to be strewn with raw flesh on account of the red flowers strewn across, carried away the cot with Msgavati sleeping on it to Vipulacala. When Mtgavati woke up she was surprised to find herself in strange surroundings. The bird which carried her there, realising that what she carried was not a mass of flesh but a live human being, went away leaving her there. Just at that moment she gave birth to a son, the future Udayana.

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112 A. CHAKRAVARTI : To her welcome surprise there was her father Cetaka, who, after renouncing his kingdom, was spending his time there as a Jaina yogin. When he heard the cries of the baby he went there and found his daughter Mtigavati. Since the child was born about sunrise he was named Udayana. On the same hill Vipulacala there was living one brahmana Ksi, Brahmasundara by name, with his wife Brahmasundari. Cetaka-muni, the father of Mrigavati, placed his daughter and her child in the care of the brahmana muni where they were looked after as members of his own family. This brahmana Rsi had a son by name Yugi ; and Yugi and Udayana became very intimate friends from their childhood which friendship lasted through their life. After some time Cetaka-muni's son, who was ruling over his kingdom after his father's abdication, himself wanted to renounce it and wanted to become a tapasa. He went to his father to appraise him of his intention, met there the beautiful youth Udayana whose identity was revealed by the grandfather. When Udayana was known to be his sister's son he was gladly taken back to the city to rule over his grandfather's kingdom. He took with him his playmate and friend Yugi who was always of great help to him throughout his career. While he was living with his foster-father Brahmasundara-muni he was taught by that brahmana Rsi a valuable mantra with the help of which even the most violently mad elephant could be made as quiet and harmless as a sheep. He also had as a gift, from the same brahmana Rsi, a divine musical instrument whose notes would subdue and tame even the wildest of

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 113 elephants. With the help of this mantra and the musical instrument, while living in the forest asrama, he once subdued a famous elephant which afterwards was known to him to be a divine one and capable of immense service to him for several years. When Udayana went to Vaisali, his grandfather's place, he took with him not only Yugi, his playmate and friend, but also this elephant who was willing to serve the prince Udayana. While Udayana was thus ruling at Vaisali his father Satanika, who was in great sorrow because of the loss of Mrgavati, after searching for her in various lands went to Vipulacala where he discovered his queen under the protection of her father. With the permission of her father she was taken back to Kausambi by Satanika. After some time Udayana inherited his father's kingdom also and thus he became the lord of both Kausambi and Vaisali. Then begin the real adventures of Udayana. By carelessness he loses the divine elephant. He roams about in the forest with his yina in hand in search of his elephant. Just then the emperor of Ujjain, Pracchodana by name, sends messengers to collect tribute from the kings of Vatsa and Kausambi. His minister Salankayana advises him to desist from such an adventure and asks him to wait for a better opportunity. When Udayana is roaming about in the forest, which is the best time to capture Udayana as a prisoner, Pracchodana sends a machine in the form of an elephant within which are hidden soldiers with weapons. This mechanical elephant, like the

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114 A. CHAKRAVARTI : Trojan horse, is taken to the forest in which Udayana is searching for his lost elephant. Imagining that it is some wild elephant Udayana approaches this machine-elephant and suddenly soldiers jump out of its body and capture Udayana as a prisoner. He is taken as a captive to Ujjain. While he is kept as a prisoner for some time, his friend and minister Yugi, learning that the prince Udayana is kept as a prisoner by the king of Ujjain, makes up his mind to somehow release him from imprisonment and to punish the king of Ujjain for his impertinence. So he goes there in disguise with other friends and lives in the outskirts of Ujjain, waiting for an opportune moment. While in disguise he informs Udayana secretly of his presence in Ujjain and promises him that very soon he would be released. To create an opportunity he, with the help of his friends, used the mantra to make the royal elephant mad and uncontrollable. The elephant breaks loose the chains and rushes into the streets of the city causing tremendous damage on its way. No one is able to control it. Then the king Pracchodana learns from his minister Salankayana that the only person who can control such a wild elephant is Udayana who is kept in prison. The king sends for him immediately, and promises him freedom if he will only control the wild mad elephant. Udayana, with his musical instrument, makes the mad elephant as tame as a cow and thus pleases the king very much. Udayana obtains his freedom and is kept by the king of Ujjain as a musical instructor to his daughter Vasavadatta. With the help of his minister Yugi,

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL Udayana, who wins the heart of Vasavadatta, manages to run away from the capital carrying Vasavadatta with him on the back of the clephant Nalagiri. Thus ends the first chapter called Unjaik-kandam narrating the adventures of Udayana in the city of Ujjain. 115 The next chapter is called Lavanak-kandam because it pertains to the incidents in Udayana's life in the city of Lavana, one of the cities in his own kingdom. Here he marries Vasavadatta and makes her his queen. In his attachment to his beautiful wife, he forgets and completely neglects his duties as a king. This is not liked by his friends who realise there is much to do yet; because, during the absence of Udayana as a prisoner in Ujjain, his kingdom had been captured by the ruler of Pancala who was not friendly disposed towards the kingdom of Kausambi. Hence Yugi arranges to separate Vasavadatta from her husband Udayana. By a clever trick he makes Udayana believe that his whole palace is burnt to ashes and the queen Vasavadatta is also burnt to death. Before setting fire to the palace Vasavadatta with her attendant is taken away through an underground passage to a safe place where they are kept in concealment. These are some of the important items of Udayana's life narrated in the second chapter. The third chapter Magadhak-kandam deals with Udayana's adventures in Magadha-desa. Udayana was very much dejected because of the loss of the queen Vasavadatta, and goes to Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha, for the purpose of winning back the

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116 A. CHAKRAVARTI : supposed dead wife Vasavadatta through the help of a great yogin who is reputed to be able to revive dead persons with the help of mantra. There he happens to meet the Magdha king's daughter, Princess Padmavati. At the first sight they fall in love with each other. Udayana, who is living in disguise as a brahmana youth, manages to win the princess Padmavati completely and thus has a gandharvavivaha with her without the knowledge of the king. While so living in disguise, Rajagtha was surrounded by enemies. Udayana manages to defend the city against the enemies with the help of his friends and thus manages to win the confidence and gratitude of the Magadha emperor. Finally Padmavati, the king's daughter, is given in marriage to Udayana; and he was living happily in Rajaglha with this queen Padmavati. Then begins the fourth chapter called Vattavakkandain. This refers to Udayana's reconquest of his own Vatsa kingdom with the help of his father-in-law, the king of Magadha. There he is welcomed by his old people who had the bitter taste of the tyranny of the Pancala king. Thus securing the confidence of his subjects he settles down in his own kingdom Vatsa-desa, living happily with his queen Padmavati. One day he dreams of meeting Vasavadatta and this dream revived his attraction to his former queen Vasavadatta. In the meanwhile, his friend Yugi, who always comes to his rescue in difficulties, appears before the gates of Rajagpha with Udayana's former queen Vasavadatta. Udayana was delighted to meet

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 117 his wife whom he supposed to be dead and takes her to his palace with the consent of Padmavati and is living happily in Rajagtha with his two wives. While he was spending his life happily with his two queens, Vasavadatta and Padmavati, he happens to meet Mananika, the beautiful young playmate of the queens. He falls in love with this stranger and arranges with her secretly to meet at an appointed place in the night. Vasavadatta comes to know of this, and imprisons Mananika and, herself dressed in disguise as Mananika, waits for the appearance of Udayana according to the appointment. Udayana is received coldly by Vasavadatta in disguise when Udyana, imagining her to be Mananika, his lady-love, begs her in various ways to accept him. Then Vasavadatta discovers herself to the chagrin of Udayana who escapes back to the palace just about the time of dawn. Early in the morning Vasavadatta sends for Mananika in order to punish her for her impudence in aspiring for the king's hand. In this excitement a messenger from the king of Kasala brings a letter to Vasavadatta. In this letter the king of Kasala narrates the story of his sister who was carried away as a captive by the Pancala king, of how she was released with a number of attendants by Udayana when he reconquered the country by defeating the king of Pancala and how she was got as an attendant to Vasavadatta herself with the assumed name of Mananika and finally requesting Vasa vadatta to treat this Kosala princess with the kindness and consideration becoming her status. When Vasavadatta reads this letter, she apologises

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118 A. CHAKRAVARTI : to Mananika for her conduct and restores her to the status and position befitting a princess. Finally Vasavadatta herself arranges for her marriage with Udayana who is found to be in love with this Kasala princess. The fifth chapter deals with the birth of a son and heir to Udayana. After some time the queen Vasavadatta gives brith to a son called Naravanadatta. Even before his birth astrologers predicted of his greatness and that he would become an emperor of the Vidyadhara kingdom though born in an ordinary ksatriya family. In course of time this Naravahana inherited from his father the Kausambi and Vatsa kingdoms and from his grandfather the Vidyadhara kingdom of Ujjain. In due course his father Udayana renounces the world and becomes an ascetic devoting his time in meditation and yoga. This Udayana's renunciation forms the subject-matter of the 6th and the last chapter of this Tamil classic Perunkathai. Merumandira-puranam :- This Merumandirapuranam is an important Tamil classic though it is not included in the category of kavyas. It resembles in excellence of literary diction the best of kavya literature in Tamil. It is based upon a Puranic story relating to Meru and Mandira. The story is narrated in Mahapurana as having taken place during the time of Vimala-Tirtharkara. The author of this Merumandirapuranam is one Vamana-muni who is the same as the Vamana-muni, the commentator of Nilakesi. This Vamana-muni lived about the time of Bukkaraya of

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119 the 14th century. In this also the story is used as a frame-work for expounding important philosophical doctrines relating to Jainism. JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL The story is connected with the city of Vitasoka, the capital of Gandhamalini in Videha-ksetra. The name of the king who ruled over this country was Vaijayanta, and that of his queen, Sarvasri. He had by this queen two sons Sanjayanta and Jayanta. The elder Sanjayanta, heir to the throne, was married to a princess by whom a son was born to him called Vaijayanta after the grand-father. The old king, who now had his namesake grandson, thought it better to abdicate the kingdom in favour of his son, himself desiring to enter tapasa-asrama as a yogin. But his two sons did not care much about the royal splendour and hence expressed their desire to renounce the kingdom and follow their father. Thus the grandson Vaijayanta was made the king and the three, father and two sons, adopted asceticism and went to spend their life in yoga. While the three were engaged in penance, the father Vaijayanta, because of his success in yoga, soon managed to get rid of his karmas and became a sarvajna. As is usual at such times all the devas assembled there to offer worship at the feet of this Jivan-mukta. Among those assembled there was a beautiful deva, Dharanendra by name, who appeared with all his divine paraphernalia. The younger brother Jayanta, who was also engaged in penance, noticed this beautiful deva and desired to become one like him in his next birth. As a result of this desire and also as the fruit of his incomplete yoga, he soon

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120 A. CHAKRAVARTI : became a Dharanendra himself. But the elder brother Sanjayanta continued his tapas without any wavering even after his father's attainment of mukti. While he was thus engaged in tapas, a Vidyadhara, who was going in his own vimana in the sky, noticed this yogin beneath. He also noticed that his vimana would not cross beyond the region where this yogin was standing. This roused his anger. He picked up this yogin, Sanjayanta-bhattaraka, and carried him to his own land. Dropping him in the outskrits of his country he told his people that Sanjayanta was their enemy and instigated all his countrymen, the Vidyadharas, to treat this yogin in all possible forms of cruelty. These Vidyadharas in ignorance ill-treated this mahamuni as bid by the wicked Vidyadhara, Vidyuddanta. In spite of these cruelties the yogin did not lose his meditation. Nor did he get angry at the enemies who did all this in ignorance. As a result of this supreme spiritual isolation and peace in the midst of sufferings caused by his enemies he attained samadhi. On account of this spiritual victory he was, in his turn, surrounded by devas for offering him adoration and worship. In the midst of these devas was found his own brother, the new Dharanendra. This young deva, Dharanendra, noticed that his elder brother was cruelly treated by the Vidyadharas who were still there staring in dismay at the wonderful sight of the devas gathered there to offer service and worship to their former victim Sanjayanta-bhattaraka, and he was in a rage. He wanted to bundle up all these Vidyadharas and cast them in a body into the ocean as a punishment for their mischief. But all the Vidyadharas openly confessed

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 121 their mistake and appealed to him for mercy, for it was all due to the mischievous instigation of their leader Vidyuddanta and not of their own free will. Hence Dharanendra forgave them all. He would not, however, let go this wicked Vidyuddanta without proper punishment. Hence he wanted to bind this one wicked fellow at least for the purpose of ducking him to the sea. Just then one of the devas , assembled there, Adityapadeva, advised this young Dharanendra not to do any such thing. Dharanendra in reply said "How could I brook the suffering inflicted on my brother by this wicked fellow, and how could I accept your advice even in the presence of inexcusable evil?' To which Adityapadeva replied: 'In this spiritual realm evil is not to be requited with evil. You attach so much importance to your relationship to your brother. But if you would only known the inter-relationship that you had in your previous births you would clearly realise the silliness in emphasising one particular relation in a long chain of multifarious relations that one has in series of births. Further, hatred and love are important factors in determining the future births ; the former gives a bad turn and the latter a good turn to one's future. Hence I would advise you not to worry yourself about this wicked Vidyadhara, Vidyuddanta. Even the yogin Sanjayanta who had to suffer so much pain at the hands of this wicked person had forgiven him because all this was done in ignorance. Hence why should you bind yourself with karma created of hatred by attempting to punish this wicked Vidyadhara ? Hearing this advice from his friend Adityapadeva, Dharanendra requested him to give

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122 A. CHAKRAVARTI : more details about his previous births. Adityapadeva narrated the following story for the edification of Dharanendra. There was a king named Simhasena ruling over Simhapura. He had a queen named Ramadattadevi. His minister was one Sribhuti who was also called Satyaghosa because of his honesty and truth-speaking. Just about that time there was a merchant, by the name Bhadramitra, belonging to another land. He went out to Ratnapura with his ship-load of goods, returned with an enormous quantity of wealth in the form of jewels and precious stones. This Bhadramitra visited Simhapura on his way. Seeing the prosperity and the beauty of the town, hearing the good nature of the king and his minister, he made up his mind to settle down in that city Simhapura. Hence he wanted to go to his native place to bring all his people to this city. In the meanwhile, he thought of leaving all his wealth obtained by the sea-borne trade in the safe custody of some one in the city. He could not think of anybody except the minister Satyaghosa. He went and told him of his resolution to settle down in this beautiful city of Simhapura and requested him to keep in his safe custody the several jewels and precious stones which he had with him. The minister Satyaghosa consented to this. A box containing the jewels was deposited with the minister and the merchantprince went to his native place for the purpose of returning with his relations and friends. In the meanwhile, even the honest minister Sribhuti, at the sight of valuable precious stones deposited with him

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 123 by the merchant, became covetous. He wanted to misappropriate the whole thing for himself. When the merchant returned to Simhapura, he bought for himself a palatial building for his residence. Leaving his people there, he went to the minister to get back his jewels. But Bhadramitra found the minister Satyaghosa completely changed. Instead of gladly returning the casket containing the jewels, Satyaghosa treated the merchant as an utter stranger as if he had not heard anything of him before and denied all knowledge of the casket of jewels. This completely upset the poor merchant, and he went about the streets crying of this injustice and begging for help. Nobody in the town would believe anything against the minister, Satyaghosa, because he was famous for his integrity and honesty. Naturally people thought that this foreign merchant was a mad fellow falsely accusing the minister of misappropriation. But this merchant Bhadramitra even in his ravings was quite consistent, which consistency could not be associated with any mad man. Hence the queen was attracted by this merchant's cries. She made inquiries and found to her surprise that the minister was really a culprit. But there was no evidence for the deposit of the casket with him; and nobody would come forward as a witness in favour of the merchant. But the queen Ramadattadevi, being sure about the casket, requested the king to intervene on behalf of the merchant. The king would not listen to this. As an alternative the queen wanted permission to deal with the case herself. This was readily granted. Then the queen

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124 A. CHAKRAVARTI : Ramadattadevi invited the minister Satyaghosa for a game of chess. In the first game she won the minister's yajnopavita and the signet ring as stakes. Having won these two important things, insignia of the minister, she secretly sent these two things through her attendant to the treasurer. She instructed the attendant to show these two things to the treasurer and to get from him the casket of jewels belonging to the merchant deposited in the royal treasury in secret by the minister. When the attendant brought the casket it was an eye-opener to the king. Then he realised the crime committed by the minister. The minister himself now knew that he was discovered by the queen. Still the king wanted to test the honesty of the merchant. Therefore, he had this casket placed in the midst of several others belonging to the royal treasury and asked the merchant Bhadramitra to take all these. He would not touch the others except his own. Even within the casket there were other precious stones put together with those belonging to the merchant. The merchant took up his own things and rejected the others as not belonging to him. This behaviour of the merchant impressed the king and others assembled there. They all praised the honesty of this merchant and condemned the minister for his avarice. The king dismissed the minister from service and banished him from the city after disgracing him. The minister went out nourishing hatred towards the king and the queen. As a result of this hatred, he was born as a serpent in the royal treasury room; and when the king entered the treasury, he was bitten by this snake and killed. As a result of

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 125 this animosity these two were born as enemies in several successive births. This wicked Vidyadhara whom you want to punish at present was that Satyaghosa, the minister, who was disgraced on account of his dishonesty. The king Simhasana, after a series of births and deaths, appeared as Sanjayanta who just attained mukti. We are all assembled here to offer puja to this Sanjayanta who was in his former birth Simhasana-maharaja. The queen Ramadattadevi is myself, I, born at present as Adityapadeva, and you are the younger brother of this Sanjayanta for you, because of your longing for deva-glory, became Dharanendra. Hence it would be advisable on your part to give up this hatred and pursue the path of righteousness. Dharanendra accepted this advice given by his brother deva, got rid of this hatred, and began to meditate upon dharma. The wicked Vidyadhara Vidyuddanta, who was listening to this story, was also ashamed of his past and resolved to lead a better life thereafter. Then the two devas, Adityapadeva and Dharanendra, who were formerly the queen Ramadattadevi and her son respectively, after a period of devahood, were born as sons to the king Anantavirya who ruled Uttara-Madura. This king had two queens, Merumalini and Amstamati. Adityapa was born as a son to Merumalini and was named Meru. Dharanendra was born to the second queen Amstamati and was named Mandara. Just about that time Vimala-Tirtharkara appeared in an udyana adjoining Uttara-Madura with the object of teaching the dharma. These two princes, Meru and Mandara,

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126 A. CHAKRAVARTI : went on their royal elephant to offer puja to this Tirthaikara and to listen to his preachings. Listening to this dharma-upadesa these two princes became his disciples and were accepted as ganadharas, chief disciples, of the Lord. They, in their turn, spent their life in propounding dharma and finally, by the performance of yoga, attained mukti. The classic is named after these two princes, Meru and Mandara, and hence called Merumandira-puranam. It consists of 30 chapters of 1405 stanzas on the whole. Some ten years ago the present writer published this work with introduction and notes, and it is available to the reading public. Sripurana :--This Sripurana is a very popular work among the Tamil Jainas. I do not think there is anybody who has not heard the name Sripurana. It is written in an enchanting prose style in manipravala, mixed Tamil and Sanskrit. It is based on Jinasena's Mahapurana and is also further called Trisastisalakapurusa-puranu dealing with 63 heroes. It is by an unknown author. Most probably it is a corresponding work to the Kannada Trisastisalakapurusapurana by Camundaraya. Hence it must be later than the Jinasena-Mahapurana and Camundaraya's Kannada Purana. The 63 heroes whose history is narrated in this work are the 24 Tirtharkaras, the 12 Cakravartins, 9 Vasudevas, 9 Baladevas and 9 Prativasudevas. In the case of the Culamani story we already noted Tivitta, the Vasudeva, Vijaya, the Baladeva and Asvagriva, the Prativasudeva. Similarly Rama, Laksmana and Ravana of Ramayana fame are included

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 127 in these nine groups as Kesava, Baladeva and Prativasudeva. Similarly Sri Krsna of Bharata fame is one of the nine Vasudevas, his brother Balarama is one of the Baladevas and Jarasandha of Magadha one of the nine Prativasudevas. While narrating the life of each Tirthankara, stories of the royal dynasties are also given. Thus this work Sripurana, since it contains the story of these 63 heroes, is considered to be the Puranic treasure-house from which isolated stories are taken by independent authors. Unfortunately it is not yet published. It still lies buried in palmleaves manuscript, and it is hoped that some day in the near future it will be made available to the students of Tamil literature. Next we have to notice some works on prosody and grammar contributed by Jaina authors. Yapparungalakkarikai1:-This work on Tamil prosody is by one Amrtasagara. Though it is not definitely known at what period he lived, it may be safely asserted that the work is old by 1000 years. Since the invocatory verse is addressed to Arhatparamesthi, it is obvious that the work is by a Jaina author. The author himself suggests that the work is based on a Sanskrit work on the same topic. Probably 1. The following are the editions of Yapparungalakkarigai : (1) Pancalaksana Mulam, Ed. by Ramaswamigal, Madras, 1886, includes the texts of Nannul, Agapporul-vilakkam, Purapporul-venba, Yapparungalakkarigai, Dandiyalankaram, Neminatham, Virasoliyam, etc. (2) Yapparungalakkarigai with Kumaraswami Pulavar's commentary. Ed. by Ambalavana Pillai, 1908, 1925 and 1938.

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128 A. CHAKRAVARTI : it is a translation of that Sanskrit work. There is a commentary on this work by one Gunasagara who was probably a contemporary of this Amotasagara. Probably they both belonged to the same Jaina Sangha. That it is an important work on prosody, that it is considered as an authority on metres and poetic composition, and that it is used as such by later writers are evident from the references to it found in Tamil literature. Yapparungala Viruttit :- This is also a work on Tamil prosody written by the same author, Amotasagara. There is an excellent edition of this Yapparungala-virutti by the late S. Bhavanandam Pillai. Neminathamo: A work on Tamil grammar by Gunavira-pandita. It is called Neminatham because it was composed at Mylapore, the seat of the Jaina temple of Neminatha. The author Gunavirapandita was a disciple of Vaccananda-muni of Kalandai. The object of this work is to give a short 1. "Yapparungalam...is a rare and comparatively old Tamil treatise on Tamil prosody. Besides treating completely of the ancient and pure Tamil metres, it analyses the whole extent of the new Kalithurai and Viruttain metres, classifies and groups them all scientifically. The text contains only ninetysix aphorisms ranging froin one to twentynine lines in length. ...... There is clear evidence to prove that the composition of the text of Yapparungalam must have taken place either at the beginning or in the middle of the tenth century A.D." (Yapparungalam, Text and commentary, Ed. by S. Bhavanandam Pillai, Madras, 1916, Editorial Preface, pp. vii-viii). 2. See p. 127, footnote 1, item (1) above.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 129 and concise account of Tamil grammar, because the earlier Tamil works were huge and elaborate. From the introductory verses it is clear that this was composed before the destruction of the Jaina 'temple at Mylapore by a tidal wave. Hence it must be placed in the early centuries of the Christian era. It consists of 2 main chapters Eluttadikaram and Solladikaram. It is composed in the well-known venba metre. It is printed together with a well-known old commentary in the Tamil journal Sentamil issued by the authorities of the Tamil Sangam at Madurai. The next work on Tamil grammar we have to notice is Nannul', 'the good book.' It is the most 1. The following are the editions of Nannul 1) Nannul, Text and commentary, Ed. by Arumuga swamigal, 1873; 2) Nannul, Text and commentary, Ed. by K. Rajagopala Pillai, 1880; 3) Nansul, Text and commentary, Ed. by Arumuga Navalar, Madras, 1880 and 1886; 4) Nannul, Eluttadikaram, Text and commentary, 1886; 5) Nansul, Text and commentary, Ed. by Ponnuswamy Mudaliar, 1886; 6) Nannul, Text and commentary, Ed. by Srinivasa Mudaliar, Madras, 1888; 7) Nanul, Text, Ed. by Namachchivaya Chettiyar, Madras, 1889; 8) Nannul, Text and commentary, 1889; 9) Nannul, Eluttadikaram, Text and commentary, Madras, 1889; 10) Nannul, Colladikuram,Text and commentary, Madras, 1890; 11) Nannul, Text and commentary, Ed. by Sathagopa Ramanujachariyar, Madras, 1892; III edn. Ed. by Sathagopa Ramanujachariyar and Krishnamachariyar, Madras, 1900;

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130 A. CHAKRAVARTI : popular grammar in Tamil language. It is held only next to the Tolkappiyam in esteem. It is by one Bavanandimuni who wrote this grammar at the request of a chief called Siya-Ganga. The author was well versed not only in the Tamil grammatical works, Tolkappiyam, Agattiyam and Avinayam, but also in the Sanskrit grammar, Jainendra, being a great scholar both in Tamil and Sanskrit. This grammar, Nannul, he wrote for the benefit of the later Tamil scholars. It is pre'scribed as a text book for schools and colleges ; hence we may say without exaggeration that no Tamil student passes out of school or college without some knowledge of this Tamil grammar. There are a number of commentaries on this work. The most important of these commentaries is the one by the Jaina grammarian Mailainathar. Mailainathar is another name for Neminathan who was the God at the Mylapore Jinalaya. We have an excellent edition of this Nannul with this Mailainatha's commentary made available to the public by Dr. V. Swaminatha Ayyar. The work consists of two parts, Eluttadhikaram and Solladhikaram which are sub-divided into five minor chapters. In this section on grammar we may also notice the work called Agapporulvilakkam, by one Narkaviraja Nambi. His proper name is Nambi or Nambi Nainar; because he was expert in 4 different kinds of poetic composition he was given the title of Nar-kaviraya. He was a native of Puliyanguli on the banks 1. See p. 127, (footnote 1, item 1) above.

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 131 of the river Porunai in Panai-mandalam. This work Agapporulvilakkam is based upon the chapter on Porul-ilakkanam in Tolkappiyam. It is an exposition of the psychological emotion of love and allied experiences. The contribution by Jainas to the Tamil lexicography is also worthy of note. There are three important works on Tamil lexicography; the three nighantus are the Divakara-nighantu. Pingala-nighantu and the Culamani-nighantu. All the three are dictionaries in verse which traditional scholars got by heart in order to understand the more intimate classics in the language. The first is by Divakara-muni, the second by Pingalamuni and the third by Mandalapurusa. Tamil scholars are of opinion that all the three were Jainas. The first, Divakara-nighantu, is probably lost to the world ; but the other two are available. Of these the last is the most popular. From the introductory verses written by the author of the third work, Culamani-nighantu, it may be learnt that he was a native of the Jain village Perumandur which is a few miles distant from Tindivanam, the headquarters of the Taluk of the same name, in South Arcot District. The author further refers to Gunabhadracarya, a disciple of Jinasenacarya. This Gunabhadra is the author of Uttara-purana which is the continuation volume to Jinasena's Mahapurana. Hence it is clear that this Mandalapurusa must be later than Gunabhadra. He also refers to the other two nighantus which ought to be, therefore, earlier to Culamani-nighantu. The work is written in viruttam

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132 A. CHAKRAVARTI : metre and contains 12 chapters'. The first section deals with the names of Devas, the second with the names of human beings, the third with lower animals, the fourth with the names of trees and plants, the fifth with place-names, the sixth dealing with the names of several objects; the seventh deals with the several artificial objects made by man out of natural objects such as metals and timber, the eighth chapter deals with names relating to attributes of things in general, the ninth deals with names relating to sounds articulate and inarticulate, the eleventh section deals with 1. Of the three nighantus referred to above, the following are the editions, in part or in full, of the Cudamani, which, since it contains 12 chapters, is also known as the Pannirandunighantu. 1) Culamani-Pannirandu-nighantu, Text and comm entary, Ed. by Kesava Mudaliar, 1870; 2) Cudamani-Pansirandu-nighantu, Text and comm entary, Ed. by Arumugaswamigal, Tiruvorriyur, 1873; 3) Pannirandu-nighantu, Text and commentary, Ed. by Tandavaraya Mudaliar, 1877; 4) Cudamani-Pangirandu-nighantu, Text and comm entary, Ed. by Shanmuga Mudaliar, 1877; 5) Culamani-Pansirandu-nighantu, Text and comm entary, Ed. by Saravana Panditar, 1880: 6) Pansirandu-nighantu, Text and commentary, Ed. by Maunagurusvami, Chittoor, 1883; 7) Pansirandu-nighantu, Text and commentary, Ed. by Ponnusvami Mudaliar and Dase Gavundar, 1886; 8) Culamani-nighantu, Text of the first ten chapters, Ed. by Vythilingam, Madras, 1875; 9) Culamani-nighantu, Text and commentary of the first ten chapters, Ed. by Arumuga Navalar, Madras, 1867, 1873 and 1880; (Contd.)

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 133 words which are rhyming with one another, and hence relating to a certian aspect of prosody; the twelfth section is a miscellaneous section dealing with the groups of related words. We have a useful edition of this Cudamani-nighantu with an old commentary by the late Arumukha Navalar of Jaffna. Similarly there 10) Cudamani-nighantu, First chapter, Ed. by Aruna chala Iyer, Konnur, 1873; 11) Culamani-nighangu, First chapter, Ed. by Arumuga svamigal, 1873 and 1887; 12) Cunamani-nighantu, First chapter, Ed. by Subramaniasvamigal, Madras, 1889; 13) Culamani-nighanlu, Second and third chapters, Ed. by Ratna Chettiyar, Madras, 1889; 14) Padinaravudu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Karunanandasvamigal, 1868; 15) Padinara vadu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Arumugasvamigal, 1869, 1873; 16) Padinaravadu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Kesava Mudaliar, 1870; 17) Padinaravadu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Arumuga Mudaliar, 1875; 18) Podinaravadu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Tiruvengadam Pillai and Kumara svami Iyer, 1880; 19) Padinarayadu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Subramaniasvamigal, 1881; 20) Padinaravadu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Virabhadra Iyer, 1882; 21) Padinaravadu-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Appavu Pillai, 1882; 22) Culamani-nighantil Padinara vadu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Manikka Upadhyayar, Madras, 1883, 1889; (Contd.)

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134 A. CHAKRAVARTI :. is an edition of Pingala-nighantu by a Tami] pandit by name Sivan Pillai. Having disposed of grammar and lexicography, let us turn our attention to one or two miscellaneous works : Tirunarrantadi by Avirodhi Alvar. The antadi is a peculiar form of composition where the last word in the previous stanza becomes the first and the leading word in the next stanza. Antadi literally means "the end and the beginning. This constitutes a string of verses connected with one another by a catch-word which is the last in the previous stanza and the first in the succeeding stanza. Tirunarrantadi is such a composition containing 100 verses. It is a devotional work addressed to God Neminatha of Mylapore. The author Avirodhi Alvar was a convert to the Jaina faith. It is said that one day, while he was passing by the side of the Jinalaya, he heard the Jaina acarya within the temple expounding to his disciples the nature of moksa and moksa-marga. Attracted by this exposition he entered the temple and listened to the teacher's discourse. Desiring to learn more about this he requested the acarya to permit him to attend the 23) Padinaravadu-nighanku (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Arunachala Mudaliar, 1883; 24) Cudamani-nighantil Padinaravadu, (11th chapter), Text and commentary, Ed. by Shanmuga Mudaliar, Madras, 1886; 25) Padinaravadu-nighanlu (11th chapter), Text and commentary, 1887; 26) Cudamani-nighantu (11th chapter), Text and commentary and 12th chapter, Text, Ed. by Ponnam bala Pillai, 1892;

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL lectures, which permission was readily granted. Finally he became a convert to the faith and in recognition of this change in his life, he composed this Tirunurrantadi dedicated to the god Neminatha of Mylapore. It is a very beautiful devotional work containing a few facts relating to the author himself. It is published with notes in the Sentami! Journal conducted by the Tamil Sangam, Madurai.1 Tirukkalambagam is another devotional work by a Jaina author by name Udicideva. He belonged to the country of Tonda-mandalam. He was a native of Arpagai, a place near Arani in Vellore Taluk. The term kalambagam implies a sort of poetic mixture where the verses are composed in diverse metres. This Tirukkalambagam by Udici, besides being devotional, is also philosophical in which the author tries to discuss the doctrines of the rival faiths such as Buddhism. It probably belongs to a period later than that of Akalanka, the great Jaina philosopher, who was responsible for undermining the supremacy of Buddhism in the south, and who was probably a contemporary of Kumarila-bhatta, the Hindu reformer. Jainas were also responsible for contribution to Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology. Probably several works relating to these topics have been lost. We have at present one representative in each. Encuvadi, a popular work on Arithmetic, and Jinendramalai, an equally popular work on Astrology. Traders 135 1. Tirunupantadi, Text, Kanchipuram, 1883. 2. Tirukkalambagam (Arungalacceppu), Kanchipuram, 1883.

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136 CHAKRAVARTI : who are accustomed to keep accounts in the traditional form get their early training by studying this mathematical work called Encuvadi and Tamil astrologers similarly get their grounding in Jinendramalai which forms the mainstay for their predictions popularly known as aruoha. This completes our cursory survey of Tamil literature with special reference to Jaina contributions thereto. The prevalence of Jainism in ancient Tamil land and its usefulness to the Tamil people are not merely vouchsafed for by Tamil literature but are also evidenced by the customs and manners prevalent among the upper classes of the Tamil society. Even after the Saivaite revival, when several Jainas were made, under penalty, to embrace Hinduism for political reasons, these converts to Hinduism, who went back to their own respective castes in the Hindu fold, zealously preserved their customs and manners acquired while they were Jainas. Though they changed their religion, still they did not change their acaras. It is curious that the Tamil term saivam, which primarily means the follower of the Saiva faith, means in popular parlance a strict vegetarian. A strict vegetarian among the Hindu velalas is said to observe saivam in the matter of food. Similarly the brahmanas in the Tamil land are saivam, i.e., strict vegetarians. In this respect the Tamil brahmana is distinguished as the Dravioa-brahmana from the Brahmins in other parts of India who are brought under the category of Gauda-brahmanas. The Dravida-brahmanas, wherever they be, are strict

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JAINA LITERATURE IN TAMIL 137 vegetarians, whereas the Gauda-brahmanas all eat fish and some eat meat also. Bengal brahmanas who belong to the Panca-gauda group eat fish and meat. It is normal with Bengal brahmanas to offer goat or buffalo as sacrifice to the goddess Kali and carry home meat as Kali's prasada. Such a thing is unthinkable in any of the Hindu temples in the south, whether dedicated to Visnu or Siva. Hence it may not be altogether an exaggeration to state that in the matter of purity of temple worship the Jaina doctrine of ahinsa has been accepted and preserved by the upper class of Hindus in the Tamil land even up to the present day. Of course there are scattered places where animal sacrifice is offered to the Village Gods. But it must be said to the credit of the upper classes among the Tamil Hindus that they have nothing to do with this grosser form of Kali worship. With the growth of education and culture, it may be hoped that even these lower orders in Tamil society will give up this gross and ignorant form of religious worship and elevate themselves to a higher religious status actuated by purer aud nobler ideals.

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APPENDIX JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL In this appendix are brought together, for the first time, the texts of eightyfive Jaina inscriptions in Tamil, published over the decades in the pages of many different volumes, most of them now out of print, and hence not readily available to the world of scholars and students. Though the present collection is by no means exhaustive, its utility lies in the fact that it enables readers to understand, though only on broad lines, the course of the history of Jainism in the Tamil country. Some of the published Jaina Tamil epigraphs have been left out of the present collection owing to their damaged or uncertain nature. Since quite a few epigraphs are merely cursorily noticed, without their texts being given, they too have been excluded. Nevertheless, any conclusion pertaining to the prevalence and chronological and regional history of Jainism in Tamilnadu," drawn on the basis of this appendix, is not likely to be seriously affected or modified by any such exhaustive collection which may be rendered possible by future publications. It will be clear from the sequel that nearly two-thirds of the eightyfive inscriptions included here hail from the Tirunelveli and Madurai districts. The provenance and dates of these inscriptions lead to the following conclusions, viz., that Jainism was at its zenith in the Tamil country during the 8th and 9th centuries A. D., particularly in the Madurai-Tirunelveli region; that the Madurai-Tiruchirappalli region had received this noble faith at least as early as in the 2nd century B. C.; that this region continued to patronise Jainism till at least the 9th century A. D.; that Jaina followers were very active in the Tirune-leveil and North Arcot regions during the 8th-11th centuries;

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140 APPENDIX and that the incidence of Jaina epigraphs in Tamil in the other districts of Tamilnalu is rather sporadic. The topographical distribution of the inscriptions included in the present appendix is given below. District Serial No. of the inscriptions Madurai 1-3, 20, 24-40 Tiruchirappalli 4, 13, 22, 82-83 Tanjavur 5 South Arcot 6, 14, 45 North Arcot 7-9, 21, 42-44, 76-81, 85 Ramanathapuram 10-11, 23 Tirunelveli 12, 15-19, 41, 46-75 Chingleput Explanatory notes have been added at the end wherever found necessary and the source of publication mentioned in all cases. 84 TAMIL BRAHMI INSCRIPTIONS MANGULAM, MADURAI TALUK, MADURAI DISTRICT No. 1. On a boulder on the Kalugumalai hill near Margulam (Arittapatti). Dynasty :............. King ............. Date : 2nd-1st cent. B.C. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Brahmi Purport : Records that the monastery (pali) was given in dedication to the monk (Asiriyika) Kani Nanta by Katalan Valutti, a servant of Netuncaliyan.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL TEXT Kaniy Nanta asiriyik uvanke dhammam itta-a Netuncaliyan pana-an katalan Valuttiy kottupitta-a pali-iy On another boulder on the same hill. Dynasty ........... Date: 2nd-1st cent. B. C. No. 2. Purport: Records that the monastery (pali) was given in dedication to the monk Kani Nanta by Catikan, the father of Ilancatikan and brother-in-law (salakan) of Netincaliyan TEXT Kaniy Nant asiriyak uan dhamam ita Netincaliyan salakan Ilancatikan tandaiy Catikan ce-iya paliy ********.... = On a third boulder on the same hill. Dynasty... Date: 2nd-1st cent. B. C. King: Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Brahmi No. 3 Purport: Records the gift of the lattice (pinau) to the monk Kani Na[n]ta by Kalitika, son of Antai and merchant prince of the mercantile guild (nigamu) of Velarai. TEXT 141 King:............ Language and Alphabet: Tamil, Brahmi Kani i Na[n]t asiriyak uva.

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142 Velarai-y nikamatu kaviti-iy Kalitika Antai-a sutan pina-u kotupiton APPENDIX No. 4. PUGALUR, KARUR TALUK, TIRUCHCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT. On the brow of the first cavern on the Arunattar hill near Velayudampalaiyam. Dynasty............ Date 3rd-4th cent. A. D. Purport Records that Ilankatunko, the son of Perunkatunkon, the son of the king Atan Cellirumporai, caused the stone abode (urai) of the Jaina monk (amannan) Cenkayapan ofyarrur to be cut on becoming heir-apparent. King: Atan Cellirumporai Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Brahmi TEXT ...ta amannan Yarrur Cenkayapan uraiy ko Atan Cellirumporai makan Perunkatunkon makan llan katunko [i*]lanko aka arutta kal Notes: The word pali which is used in the sense of a monastery in Nos. 1 and 2 above came to be written in later Tamil inscriptions as palli. The reference to the nigama in No. 3 above shows that, as in later times, Jainism enjoyed the support of the merchant community of Tamilnadu even in the early period. [Published in Seminar on Inscriptions (Madras), 1966, pp. 60-73].

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL No. 5 PALLANKOVIL, TIRUTTURAIPPUNDI TALUK, TANJAVUR DISTRICT Copper-plate set recovered at the time of ploughing a field in the village. Dynasty: Pallava Date: Regnal year 6 (6th Century A.D.) 143 Purport: Records the royal grant of the village Amanserkkai (Sraman-asrama in the Sanskrit portion), situated in Perunagaranadu, a sub-division within Venkunra-kkottam, as palliccandam to Vajranandi-kuravar (Vajranandi-gani in the Sanskrit portion) of Paruttikkunru (Vardhamana-dharmatirtha in the Sanskrit portion). Also records the grant of some land in Tamar as palliccandam to the same donee. The said grants were made for the worship of Jinendra and the Jainendras. TEXT King Simhavarma Language and Alphabet : Sanskrit in Grantha, Tamil in Tamil [Lines 1 to 26, 24 of them engraved on three sides of the first two plates, and the remaining two engraved on the first side of the third plate, are in Grantha characters and Sanskrit language.] Third Plate: First side 27. ko Visaiya- Simhavarmmarku yand-aravadu Ven 28. kunra-kkottattu-Pperunagara-nattu nattar 29. kanga [1] Tan-nattu Amanserkkai Parutti 30. kkuntil Vajranandi-kkuravarkku-ppalliccandam-a31. ga-kkudutton-tangalum padagai nadandu kal32. lun-kalliyun-natti araiy-olai seydu ko

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144 APPENDIX Third Plate : Second side 33. Quttu vidudagav-enru nattarkku-ttirumugam vid. natta34. run-tirumugam kandu toludu talaikku vaittu pada35. gai nacandu kallun-kalliyu-natti nattar vidunda 36. araiy-olai-ppadikk-ellai-kilpa37. l-ellai Endal-eriyin kilai-kkadargi38. a meskum-omai-kkollai elai innu39. m-tenpal-ellai Velvadugan keniyi40. A vadakkum kadartin-ellai ingun-Nilapadi * Fourth Plate : First side 41. ellai innum Vilaqan kurr-ettatt-ellai 42. innum melpal-ellai mav-ettattu 43. vadiyin kilakkum mum-mulai ettatt-ellai 44. innu-marr-ellai innum vadapal-cl45. lai perun-kollaiyin-repku innum 46. Pandiyan-kayatt-ellai innum murukkan47. keni ellai [\ *] Ivv-isaitta peru-nang-el48. Txiy-agattun-agappatta nilam nir-nilamum Fourth, pis Fourth Plate : Second side 49. punsaiyyum kalarum kantu-mey-palum kadu50. m pililigaiyum kioangun-keniyuin manai51. yum manaippaoappum udumboai amai tava52. Indad-ellam-unnilan-oliv-inri 53. kovum poriyum marri kudi-nikki ivv-ur 54. perra Vajranandi-kkuravarkke palliccandam-aga Ta55. marilum padinatarai-ppatti nilan-kodut56. tom [*] In-nilattigk-ellai kilpal-e

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 145 Fifth Plate : First side 57. llai Puli-kilarpattiyin meskum tenpa51. l-ellai Mulleri-pa[kka*]tt-ellaiyin vada59. kkum melpal-ellai pokkuvay-ccelu60. vin kilakkum vadapal ellai pallangu61. likkavin terkum in-nang-ellai62. y-agattum agappatta bhumiyum Paruttikkunci63. 1 Vajranandi-kkuravarkke pafficcandam-aga parada64. tti senradu [] *] Narabhayan-anattiyal Notes : The reference to Paruttikkunnu as Vardhamana-dharma tirtha in the Sanskrit portion is interesting. There are in Tamilnalu a number of places named differently as Paruttiyur, Paruttikkudi, Paruttippattu, etc. It has been suggested elsewhere (Pallavar Cheppedugal Muppadu, pp. 25-26) that the ancient place-name Paruttikkunnu should be taken as alluding to some hitherto unknown incident in the life of Vardhamana-Tirtharkara since his name is given to that village in the Sanskrit portion. Paruttikkunnu is the same as modern Tirupparuttikkunram, a village in the vicinity of Kanchipuram and known in the past as Jina-Kanchi. It was formerly one of the four acaryapithas of the Digambara-Jainas. There stands in that village even today a temple dedicated to VardhamanaTirtharkara. But scholars are of the opinion that this temple is later in date than the one dedicated to Chandraprabha-Tirthankara and located in the same village. Nevertheless, the present inscription attests to the fact that there existed in that place a temple of Vardhamana from early times. The village granted is named Amangerkkai and Sramanasrama in the Tamil and Sanskrit portions respectively. (cf. Inscription No. 82 below, note 2 for a similar instance). 10

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146 APPENDIX The donee Vajranandi-kuravar is stated, in the Sanskrit portion, to belong to the Nandi-sangha. This inscription contains one of the earliest references to the term palliccandam signifying a grant of land given in particular to a Jaina temple or institution or preceptor. [Published in Pallavar Cheppedugal Muppadu, pp. 1-32] No. 6. Singavaram, Gingce Taluk, South Arcot District. On a rock in the Tirunatharkunru near the village. Dynasty :............ King :............ Date : 6th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil Purport : Commemorates the death of Candiranandi-asirigar after observing fast for 57 days. TEXT 1. Aimbatte l-ana2. sanan-norra 3. Candiranandi-a4. sirigar nisidigai [] | *] Notes : The Sanskrit word acaryaka has taken the tadbhava form of as iriga in this inscription. Cf Nos. 1-3 above where the tadbhava occurs as asiriyika and asiriyaka. [Published in SII., Vol. XVII, No. 262] Nos. 7-8. Kilsattamangalam, Wandiwash Taluk, North Arcot District. Natural rock surface called Perumal-parai near the Jaina temple of Chandranathasvami.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 147 No. 7. Dynasty: Pallava King: Nandivarman II Date : 14th regnal year Language and Alphabet : (747 A.D.) Tamil Purport : Records the gift of seven gold coins (kalanju) by Andai Ilaiyar Pavanandi for feeding the Jaina ascetics who were not in the regular establishment of the temple (palli). The villagers undertook to protect the provisions of the grant. TEXT AN 1. Sri-Nandippottare2. sarkku-ppadinang-avadu i3. p-palli-udaiarai nikki irun4. da tavasigalukku-ppiccai elu5. kalanju pon ivv-ur-Andai I6. Jaiyar Pavanandi vaitta asam 7. kalanjinal ulakk-arisi munkutti 8. vaittadu ivv-asam-uramur-kap9. pom-aga ottinal Kamakko10. ttam-asitta pavam-aga ottir-na11. I vay-ulakkarisium muttir . . 12.' . . . . . . . . . . . No. 8. Dynasty: Pallava King: Nandivarman II Date : 56th regnal year Language and Alphabet : (789 A.D.) Tamil Purport : Records the gift of seventeen kalanju of coins for providing one ulakku of rice per kalanju to the same palli by Pundi-Muppavai, the daughter of Jinadiyar of Vilukkam. This

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148 APPENDIX grant along with that of Pavanandi (recorded in No. 7 above) was to be protected by the villagers. TEXT 1. Sri-Nandippottaraisarkku 2. yanlu aimbattalavadu 3. Vilukkattu Sinadiyar magalar 4. Punli Muppavai (vai*]tta kasu padinelu 5. kalanju mel ip-palsikku 6. kalanjinal-ulakk-arisi vai .. 7. .. attuvar-ivv-asam Pavana8. ndiyar vaitta panam uram ka9. ppom-anom [|*] Notes : The gifts made are referred to in the two inscriptions as aram which is the Tamil rendering of Sanskrit dharma and Prakrit dhamma. Cf. de ya dhamma occurring in Prakrit donative records. It is stated in lines 9-10 of No. 7 above that those who flout the grant recorded therein would incur the sin of having destroyed the Kama-kkoftam. While in Tamil inscriptions of 11th-13th centuries, the word kama-kkottam signifies Saivite amman shrines, in the above inscription it obviously refers to a Jaina temple since, in early Tamilnalu, the word kottam was exclusively applied to Jaina temples. In this connection, it is interesting to note that the recently discovered Gulnapur inscription (Srikanthika, Mysore, 1973, pp. 61-72) of Kadamba Ravivarman (6th cent. A. D.) mentions a Kama-Jinalaya built by that ruler. [Published in Seminar on Inscriptions (Madras, 1966), pp. 158-59] No. 9. Panchapandavamalai, Wandiwash Taluk, North Arcot District.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 149 On the front face of the rock which overhangs a natural cave containing a pool of water. Dynasty : Pallava King : Nandipottarasar (Nandivarman) Date: Regnal year 50 Language and Alphabet : (c. 767 A.D.) Tamil Purport: Records that Naranan, the son of Maruttuvar of Pugalalaimangalam, caused to be engraved an image of Ponniyakkiyar attended by the preceptor (guravar) Naganandi. TEXT 1. Nandippottarasarkku aymbadavadu Naganandi guravar 2. irukka Ponniyakkiyar padimam kottuvittan 3. Pugalalaimangalattu Maruttuvar magan Narana4. #[ *] Notes : "Ponniyakkiyar is the honorific plural of Ponniyakki (Sanskrit : Svarna-yaksi), which consists of the Tamil word pon, 'gold' and iyakki, the Tamil form of Sanskrit yaksi. There is hardly any doubt that, of the group of five figures which are engraved in the cave below the inscription, the sitting female figure represents Ponniyakki". P. B. Desai (Jainism in South India, p. 40) identifies Ponniyakki with Siddhayika, the characteristic attendant deity of Mahavira. [Published in Ep. Ind., Vol. IV, pp. 136-37] No. 10. Pallimadam, Aruppukkottai Taluk, Ramanathapuram District. On the wing-stone at the entrance to the Kalanathasyamin temple.

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150 APPENDIX Dynasty: Pandya King: Maranjasaiyan Date : Regnal year 26 Language and Alphabet : (782 A.D.) Tamil, Vatteluttu Purport: This fragmentary inscription appears to record a gift of 100 sheep by Sattar-Gunattan of Kunnur in Karunilakkudinadu for supplying ghee to a deity in the temple of Tirukkattamballi at Kurandi. TEXT 1. Srimat-ko-Malanjadaiya .... 2. irubattaju iv-vangu Ven ..... 3. k-Kufandi-Ttirukkattambal[li] .. 4. tingat-padinali neykku... 5. nilakkudi-nattu-Kkunnur-Ccastta) 6. *-Gunattan attina adu nulu [|1 *] Notes : "From other records it is known that at Kurandi there flourished in the olden days an important Jaina temple named Tirukkattamballi. This stone may have belonged originally to that temple and removed thence and placed in this temple. Kusandi may be identified with the village of the same name in the Aruppukkottai Taluk." "Kusandi has been alternately identified with a place in Agastisvaram Taluk of the old Travancore State (Trav. Arch. Series, Vol. III, p. 2)." [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 32] No. 11. Passimadam, Aruppukkottai Taluk, Ramanathapuram District. Wing-stone at the entrance to the Kalanathasvamin temple. Dynasty: Pandya King: Mazanjadaiyan Date : Regnal year 35 Language and Alphabet : (791 A.D.) Tamil, Vatteluttu

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 151 Purport: Records a gift of 50 sheep to Tirukkatsamballi at Kurandi in Venbu-nadu in order to supply to the temple 5 nali of ghee everyday. TEXT 1. Srimat-ko-Matanjadaiyagku yan2. du muppattain ju idan-edi[r*] 3. [aju] ivv-andu Venbu-na4. tru-Kkusandi Tirukkattamba5. llikku allattu iqu Oladu6. r-kil Pambarur tingal an7. nali ney atta aqutta adu ai 8. mbadu [|*] Notes: Like the stone bearing inscription No. 10 above, this wing-stone also must have been brought from the Tirukkattamballi Jaina temple at Kusandi and inserted in the Kalanathasvamin temple at some later date. [Published in ibid., No. 39] No. 12. Eruvadi, Nanguneri Taluk, Tirunelveli District. On a boulder in the Irattaipottai rock. Dynasty : Pandya King : Maranjadaiyan Date : Regnal year 43 Language and Alphabet : (799 A.D.) Tamil Purport : This weather-worn inscription seems to reeord a gift of land by Irambattu-vejan Sattan as palliccandam to the god (bhatara) of Tiruviruttalai-Aruvalam in Natlalruppokku and a gift of sheep for a lamp. A Tamil verse at the end, composed by the donor himself, contains an exhortation to all to offer worship to the Aruhan on the hill.

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152 APPENDIX TEXT 1. Sri-ko-Matanjadaiyagku yannu 43 ivv-angu Natyarru ppokku-Tti. 2. ruviruttalai-Aruvalattu Patarakarkku-ppalsiccandam aga Nattukku3. pumbin Ki]cceri Pappacangarey ivv-urongal bhumi sirreyir-ka4. lir-pirinda arumandaikkalal nir-attu nel vilaivana ilamakkal se5. ydad-in-nilam 22 v-ilamperunkalal nir-attu nel vilai vana kanam 6. tadi 2 Kayalur-kkilan tadi 2 nilan 4 ikkalal nir-attu nel visaivana muda7. ccey mel-adu tadi. nilan 5 vagaiyil vayalil adam perra . ma. ye8. n-enra kalal nir-attu nel visaivadu kilpulaccey tadi. nilan erri-ttati onpadu nilan a kalur-Karaikkana-nallu Irambattu10. velan $attan pakkal in-nilattal yitai-vilai-pporul kondu innilattal igai-kkaqanum vaji isai vetti evvagai ppattadum Nat12. tukkurumbir-Kilcceri- Ppappacanrame katt-utyvada gavum [] *) i13. ppumi ipparisey vilaikkuta virru-pporulata-kkonnu vi 14. laiyavana- pporut - celav-olaiy - aga-cceydu - kuduttom Pappacangara15. m Velan Sattanukku [\ *) ipparisu ippumi kattu dtuva..... innila-[kada]mai16. yil acc-anju palankasu vevverru-vagai iratti porulu marak . . 9.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 153 17. nattu-ttangamum pattu-ppingaiyum ippumi ivva .. mullamal attu18. -Kilcceri-Ppappacanraron-Tiruviruttalai-Aruvalattu ivv-andu itte19. varkkey ivane vaitta tiruvilakku onrinukku niyadi .... muttamal attu20. vidaga-Pperumbalanji irukkinra padai-ttalaivan Koraikkadanukku ....5u.... 21. .rkon Matar-kulitangiyum punaiy-aga adutta sava muva-pperalu aimbadu sri-Silacciga22. ri 11 Antam-il Pal-gunatt-adi Aruhantan-en-tam-idar tirkku . .... 23. Horata munney tiruttalai tolumin sengu-vand-an-malar ... naiye tolumin . 24. tevar sendinam-avi-polir-colai tigalvap-andada ... yuti-vandu maniy-enro 25. manattu-ninaippilan-enro malar-unca makarandam pa ... 26. Hey || | *) ivaiyum Velan Sattan sollina llivaiyum.. n duin-nad-a27. Ju-najtu nasakanmari Notes : Lines 12 and 17-18 above mention pappacantar of Kilcceri in Nattukkusumbu as the protectors and executors of the grant recorded in the epigraph. The word sanrar means "learned", "wise", etc. It thus appears that the learned brahmanas (parppar) of Kilcceri were entrusted with the task of managing this grant made to a Jaina deity. In the verse occurring in lines 22-26, the donor-poet eulogises the Arhat as 'one without end' (antai-il), as the 'source of many qualities '(pal-gunatt-adi) and as the 'healer of voes' (idar-tirkkum). [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 41]

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154 APPENDIX No. 13. Tenimalai, Tirumayyam Taluk, Tiruchirappalli District, On a rock in front of the Andar-matha. Dynasty :.................. King :............ Date : 8th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil Purport : States that while the Jaina ascetic Malayadhvaja was performing penance on Tenurmalai, a certain Irukkuvel (i.e., a local chieftain belonging to the Irukkuvel family) visited the place and gave an endowment of land as palliccandani for the maintenance of the sage. TEXT 1. Svasti sri [] | *] Malaiyadhvajan Te2. nur-malai-il tavan-je3. yya-kkandu Irukku4. vel vandittu avippu5. ranjeyda palsiccanda6. n-nalekal [1 *] ivv-asan-ka7. ttan adi nittanjen 8. ni ala [[ * [Published in Inscriptions (Texts) of the Pudukkottai State, No. 9] No. 14. Kilsattamangalam, Wandiwash Taluk, South Arcot District. Natural rock surface called Perumal-parai near the Jaina temple of Candranathasvami. Dynasty : Pallava King : Kampavarman Date: 6th regnal year Language and Alphabet : (876 A.D.) Tamil

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 155 Purport: Records that Madevi, the wife of Katakatiyaraiyar, renovated the Jaina temple (tirukkoyil) and monastery (pali), built a mukha-mandapa, constructed a temple for the Yaksabhatari and gifted a big bell to that temple. TEXT 1. Svasti sri[| | *]Kampapanmarku yan. 2. d-alavadu Katakatiyaraiyar ma3. navalli Madevi it-tirukko4. yil pudukki muka-mandagam-e5. Juppittu pali pudukki Yak6. ka-pattari-ttirukkoyill-edu7, ppittu ipp-palsikk-itta 8. perumani ontu uttuvittal || \ *] Notes : This inscription bears ample testimony to the fact that Kilsattamangalam flourished as an important Jaina stronghold during the latter part of Pallava rule. No. 15. Kalugumalai, Kovilpatti Taluk, Tirunelveli District. On the rock at Kalugumalai. Dynasty :.... King :......... Date : 8th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Vatteluttu Purport: Records that the sacred image (trumeni) was caused to be made by the preceptor Naganandi, the pupil of the preceptor Singanandi of Ananur. TEXT 1. Sri [|1 *1 Ananur Singanan

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156 APPENDIX 2. di-kkuravadigal ma3. nakkar Naganandi-kkurava4. digal seyvitta tirumeni [|1 *] Notes : Vide No. 9 above, an inscription of the 8th century, which also alludes to the preceptor named Naganandi. [Published in Ep. Ind., Vol.IV, p. 156, f.n. 6]. Nos. 16-17. Eruvadi, Nanguneri Taluk, Tirunelveli District. On a boulder in the Irattaipottai rock. Dynasty :......... Date : 8th-9th century Language and Alphabet : Tamil King ........ No. 16. Purport : States that the work (of having the image made) was that of Ajjanandi. 1. Sri-Accanan2. di seyal [|1 *] [Published in SII., Vol.XIV, No. 129). No. 17. Purport: States that the image (below which the inscription is engraved) was to be protected by the assembly of Nalasuppokku. 1. Sri-Nada2. uppok[ku] 3. sabhaiyar-raksai [|1 *] For more information on Ajjahandi, figuring in No. 16 above, see Notes under No. 40 below. [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 130]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL No. 18. Kalugumalai, Kovilpatti Taluk, Tirunelveli District. Between the second and third sections on the rock at Kalugumalai. King Maranjadaiyan Dynasty Pandya Date: Regnal year 3 (A.D. 865) Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Vatteluttu Purport: This inscription, worn out in parts, refers to the Jaina god Tirumalaidevar of Tiruneccuram in Neccura-nadu and records an arrangement made by Gunasagara-bhatara for feeding ten ascetics (vairagyar) including one bhatara who expounded the sacred doctrine (siddhantam uraikkum bhatarar). TEXT 1. Sri-ko-Maranjadaiyarku yandu [3 vadu] Neccu2. ra-nattu-Ttiruneccurattu Tirumalaitte 3. varkku Gunasagara-bhatarar seyvitta [Ku] 4. Juva[painallur Tumbur-kkurnattu Kadan 5. daikudi Dharmmacittan-ana. yamarar Tiruma6. l-adainjirundu siddhantam uraikkum pa7. tarar-ullittu-ppadinmar vayiragyarkku [a]8. hara-danam-aga-ttan-mudal kudutt-adippit9. ta kinanu melai Viranarana eri . . na . 10. naduvil Dharmmacittanum Kilaittirumalu[ra] 11. varanai niccilu sida-ppatarare niccilum Uttamasilanum Varasundharie 12. 13. niccilum Tirumal ta . e. nicci 14. lum.. ngaviranum nattu-ccerue [nicci]15. lum [niccilum] seyvi[k*]ka kadvar [| | *] 157 Notes: Among those entrusted with the task of implementing the provisions of the grant is mentioned the sida-ppatarar

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158 APPENDIX (= Sanskrit: sisya-bhatara an expression by which the disciple/disciples undergoing training as Jaina teacher/ teachers is/are obviously meant. No. 19. Kalugumalai, Kovilpatti Taluk, Tirunelveli District. Between the second and third sections of the rock at Kalugumalai. Dynasty: Pandya Date: Regnal year 3 (A.D. 865) King: Maranjadaiyan Language and Alphabet: Tamil, Vatteluttu Purport: This inscription, worn-out in parts, refers to the Jaina god Tirumalaideva of Tiruneccuram in Neccura-nadu and records an arrangement made by Gunasagara-bhatara for feeding five ascetics (vairagyar) including one bhatara who expounded the sacred doctrine (siddhantam uraikkum bhatarar). TEXT 1. Sri-ko-Maranjadaiyarku yandu [3 vadu] Neccura-na2. ttu Tiruneccurattu Tirumalaittevarkku Gu 3. pasagara-bhatatar seyvitta Kuluvanainallu 4. r Milalaikurnattu Peruna[va]lur.. .dasa 5. n-agiya Madevanakkan... njirundu siddhantam 6. uraikkum bhatarar ullitt-aivar vayirakki 7. yarkku ahara-danam-aga tan-mudal kuduttu adippitta-kinaru . . . . niccilum . . . . ni 8. 9. ccilum. . . . niccilum palavarai . 10. tinaikkalattal niccilun-Tirumalai Viranum 11. ka.... sunakan sevvaka . . .... 12. c-cevittan. konda

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 159 13. ivvur .... 14. ........... [Published in SII., Vol. V, No. 406] No. 20., Ayyampalaiyam, Palani Taluk, Madurai District. Above the natural cave on the hill called Aivarmalai. Dynasty : Pandya King : Varaguna II Date : Saka 792, Regnal year 8 Language and Alphabet : (A.D. 870) Tamil, Vatteluttu Purport : Registers a gift of 505 kanam of gold by Santivira-kkuravar of Kalam, the disciple of Gunavira-kkuravadigal for offerings to the images of Parsva-bhatara (i.e. Parsvanatha) and of the attendant yaksis at Tiruvayirai, which he had renovated, and for the feeding of one ascetic (adigaf). TEXT 1. Sakarai-yandu elunurru-ttonnarr-irandu 2. pondana Varaguna;ku yanlu ellu Kusavira-kku3. ravadigal manakkar Kajattu Santivira-k4. kuravar Tiruvayirai Parisva-patararaiyum-Iyak5. ki-avvaigalaiyum pudukki irandukku-mut9. tav-aviyum-or-adigalukku sor-aga amaittana 7. pon ainnarr-aindu kanam [1 \*] Notes: "The images sculptured on the brow of the cavern on this hill, as well as the reference in this record indicate that a Jaina colony flourished on this hill in the 9th century A.D." [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 22]

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160 APPENDIX No. 21. Vedal, Wandiwash Taluk, North Arcot District. On a boulder in front of a natural cave at Vedal. Dynasty : Cola King : Aditya I Date : 885-86 A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Tamil and Grantha Purport : Records that, a dispute having arisen between Kanakavira-kurattiyar, a female disciple of Gunakirti-Bhatara of Vidal alias Madevi-Arandimangalam and her five hundred lady pupils on the one and a group four hundred nuns on the other, the inhabitants of the locality, who were the lay disciples of the school to which Kanakavira-kurattiyar belonged, undertook to feed her and her lady pupils. TEXT 1. Svasti sri [|*] kov-Irasakesariparmarkku yandu padinalavadu Si2. ngapura-nattu-kkisvali Vidal-Madevi-Arandi mangala3. mudaiya Gunakirtti-Bhatarar-vali manakkiyar Kanakavira-kkuratti4. yaraiyum-avar-vali manakkiyaraiyum Tapasiga! nanarruvarkkum 5. kolladamaiyil ikkoyir-pillaigal-ainnarruvarkkuin vali-ilarun6. katt-ulluvam-anom[ || *] Engalulaiya sya-raksai idu iraksippar-adinilai engal 7. talai-mel-ana [1 *]'Madevi-Arandimangalam-udaiya Kanakavira-kkurattiyar8. ttangal-[u]r-maga!-adanamaiyil .....:. 9. mukkiyarum-idu kappar [[ ] *] Avargal sva-raksai idanai iraksippar-a

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 161 10. dinilai en talai-mel-ana [|1 *] 11. ... danum-Kalanum mu12. dal-agiya Madevi-A13. randimaigalam-udaiya 14. Kanakavira-kkurattiyar tan. 15. gal magalar-adanamayil 16. iduv-ellan-tan17. gal kaval [1 *] Idapai tin18. gu ninaittar Gangaiy-idai-Kkumari idai 19. elunutru kadamun-ceyda pava20. n-kolvar kavalanukku pilaitta 21. r-avar Notes : (1) In the name Kanakavira-kurattiyar, kurattiyar is the honorific plural feminine form of Sanskrit guru. (2) In the place-name Madevi-Arandi (or Arandi)mangalam, Arandi or Arandi is, in all probability, a derivative of Sanskrit Arhantika, 'a Buddhist or Jaina nun'. [Published in SII., Vol. III, No. 92] No. 22. Sittannavasal, Kulattur Taluk, Tiruchirapalli District. On the rock south of the rock-cut Jaina temple. Dynasty : Pandya King : Srivallabha Date : 9th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil (verse), Tamil Purport: This partly damaged inscription in Tamil verse states that on behalf of the king Srivalluvan, who had the title of avasipasekhara, a certain Ilan-Gautaman, who is described as an asiriyan (= acarya) of Madurai, repaired the aga-mand apa of the Arivar temple at Annalvayil and built the mukha-mandapa in 11

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162 APPENDIX front of it. Some gifts of land were also made to the priests of the temple. TEXT 1. Svasti sri [|1 *] Tirundiya perum-pugal-Ttaiva darisanatt-aruntava-munivanai-pporut-celav-araiyara 2, .. kkula-nilaimai-Ilan-Gautaman-enum valankelu tirunagar Madirai-asiriyan avaney pa3. r-mulud-anda Pancavar-kula-mudal-arkelu vaivel-avapipasekaran sirkelu sengor-Cirival4. luvanukk-enr-i-Ppalavun-kurikol-inid-avai on[diral) nadivasiyatt-asanbi-mudur-kkaduvalam perukki-ppann-amar-koil panguta-cceyvitt arana-pperum mikk-olukkavi6. kkum-purana-malai poliyav-ongi anda . I... vilakkirk amanan-kaniyun-ca7. tti-vayakkalun-guna-migu-sirappin kurittu...melukku ppusam-oru munru mavum palukkara mu8. raiyal valipaduvanukk-arai-kkani, mamai . nokki ANGNGalvail-Arivar koin 9. munnal mandagan-kallaley nirii-kkandor marulunkamaru viluccir-ul10. Jodu pusambal-olimiga-ppokki marrum-ellan kurra-nikki adi-vendar 11. aran-ce vasakki ..... masasa nitii-ttiru-varsanjey pavai ne. du-tun-orupa'. . . . nagar-amaittu nid-oli vilakki- . neyppuram-ag-ena 13. ... dai vayalod-et ... kuriya vagaiyan-adi nani. amaitta valiy-aravo14. rku nila-mummacce .... aliya vagaiyar-kandanan-e .... kikko1 -

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 163 15. gai-Ppalgunattonei | | |-Tinni nalan parappi. ... mannila sir Madirai asiriyan-Appal 16. rrenaga . agamandaga 17. m pudukki ang-Arivar-koil mugamandagam-cduttan mun Notes: The reference to the renovated temple twice (lines 8 and 17 as Arivar-koyil. i.e., the temple of Arivar is interesting. Arivan which means 'wise', 'knowing', etc., also stands for the Arhat (See Winslow's Tamil-English Dictionary, s. v.). In line 6 of the text above a plot of land is called amanankani where amanan is the tadbhava of sramana. The reference to Ilan-Gautaman as Madirai-asiriyan shows that the Pandyan capital continued to be an important Jaina centre even in the middle of the 9th century A.D. The findspot of the inscription is mentioned in line 8 as Annalvayil. In the place-name Sittannavasal (Sittan (Skt. Siddha) +Annal + vayil) both Sitta and Annal stand for the Arhat. [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 45] No. 23. Pallimadam, Aruppukkottai Taluk, Ramanathapuram District. On a stone in the northern wall of the mandapa in the Kalanathasvamin temple. Dynasty......... Date: 9th century A.D. King:.. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Vatteluttu Purport: Registers a gift of 5 sheep by Sattan Kari for one perpetual lamp to be burnt in the temple of Tirukkattamballidevar at Kurandi in Venbu-nadu.

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164 APPENDIX TEXT 1: Svasti sri || |*] Venbu-nattu-Kkurangi Tirukkatta mballi-ttevarkku tiruno2, nda-vilakk-onrinukku ivvur-Ccattan-Kari attina adu ai3. mbadu -Idu ivvur urarun-ga nattarum kaval [1 | *] Notes : The text ends with the stipulation that the gift is to be protected by the residents and ganattar of Kuranti indicating thereby that the village was predominantly, Jaina by persuasion. This slab also appears to have originally belonged to the Jaina temple named Tirukkattamballi at Kusanni nearby, and to have been removed thence along with the wingstones bearing inscriptions Nos 10 and 11 above. [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 34] Nos. 24-28. Anaimalai, Madurai Taluk, Madurai District. Below the images of the Jaina gods sculptured in half-relief on the rock overhanging a natural cave. Dynasty : ............... King :.... Date : 9th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Vatteluttu No. 24. Purport : States that the image beneath which the inscription is engraved) is to be protected by the officials of the administrative departments (tinaikkalattar). 1. Sri-Tinai2. kkalattar raksai [ *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 100]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 1. Sri-Porko 2. ttu-kkarana 3. ttar raksai | [*] No. 25. Purport: States that the image (beneath which the inscription is engraved) is to be protected by the official accountant(s) or arbitrators of Porkodu. TEXT [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 101] No. 26. Purport: States that the sacred image (beneath which the inscription is engraved), caused to be made by Ajjanandi, was to be protected by the 'assembly' (sabha) of Narasingamangalam. The revenue accountants (puravuvariyar) are also mentioned. TEXT 1. Sri-Narasingamangalattu 2. sabhaiyar raksai [ | *] Accanan3. di seyvitta tirumeniyum parivara 4. puravu-variyar pe[ramu]m [| | *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 102] 165 No. 27. Purport: States that the image of the Yaksa (iyakkar) was caused to be made by Ceduliya-Pandi of Peruvembarrur in Tenkalavalinadu.

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166 APPENDIX TEXT 1. Sri Tenkalavali-nattu2. Pperuvembarlur-Ccedu3. liya-Pandi seyvi. 4. cca iyakka[r pa*]dumam [|1 *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 103] No. 28. Purport : States that the sacred image (beneath which the inscription is engraved) was caused to be made by Eviyampudi of Vettanjeri in Venbaikkuli in Venbaikkudi-nadu and that it was to be protected by the department of revenue accountants. TEXT 1. Sri-Venbaikku2. di-nattu Ven. 3. baikkuli Vet 4. tanjeri pudumai 5. Eviyampudi 6. seyvitta ti7. rumenil| *]ivai 8. puravuvari9. kkanatta10. r raksai [ 1 | |*] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 106] Notes : The fact that government departments and officials were entrusted with the protection of these images is further evidence for the fact that Jainism enjoyed great popularity in the Pandya kingdom even as late as towards the close of the 9th century A.D.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 167 No. 29-32. Uttamapalaiyam, Periyakulam Taluk, Madurai District. Below the images of Jaina deities sculptured in low relief on the face of the rock called the Karuppannasvamin rock. Dynasty :......... King :......... Date : 9th century A.D. Language and alphabet : Tamil, Vatteluttu No. 29. Below the second image. Purport: This damaged inscription contains reference to Kurandi. tirtha, the ancient Jaina stronghold, and to Candraprabha. TEXT 1. Sri-Venbunattu 2. Villi Kurandi-tti3..........ruma . ka .. mava 4. .. candrapravan 5. ....kku [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 121] No. 30. Below the third image. Purport : Registers that the sacred image was made by Aristanemi-periyar, the disciple of Astapavasi-Kanakavira. TEXT 1. Sri-Attapavasi Ka[nakavi]2. ra-manakkar Aritsa

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168 APPENDIX 3. Hemi-pperiyar sey4. da stirumeni] [1 | *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 122] No. 31. Below the tenth image. Purport : Records that the work (of having the image made) was that of Ajjanandi. TEXT 1. Sri-Accapan2. di seyal [|1 *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 126] No. 32 On a boulder near the Karuppannasvamin rock. Purport: Registers a grant of 11 kasu by Anantavira-adigal for a lamp to the god Tirugunagirideva and states that the aaigal in charge of the temple (palli) should burn the lamp with the interest accruing out of the money granted. TEXT 1. Sri-Tirukkusagiri-ttevarkku-ttiruvilakku2. kku Anantavira-adigal attina [kasu) padino3. Agu ikkasin poli kondu devarkku mut4. tamai-cceluttuvar-anar ippalliy-udai a5. digal (1 *) asam venduvar-idu pilaiyamai-cceyga [I*] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 128]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 169 Notes : No. 29 above affords one more instance to illustrate the predominance of Kurandi as an important Jaina stronghold in the 9th century A.D. For more details on Ajjanandi (No. 31 above), see notes under No. 40 below In No. 32 above, the hill is called Tiru-guna-giri and the deity is described as the Lord(deva)of the hill. Nos. 33-40. Ayyampalaiyam, Palani Taluk, Madurai District. Inscriptions engraved below images near the natural cavern in the hill called Aivarmalai. Dynasty :....... King .......... Date : 9th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Vattejuttu No. 33. Below the second image. Purport : States that the image in question was caused to be made by Varadapani of the village Vadapalli-aramvicci. TEXT 1. Sri-Vadapalli-a2. ramvicci Vara3. dapani seyal [1]*] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 107] No. 34. Below the fourth image. Purport : States that the image in question was caused to be made by Ajjasandi.

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170 APPENDIX TEXT 1. Sri-Accanan2. di seyal [|1 *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 108] No. 35. Below the seventh image. Purport: States that the image in question was caused to be made by Indrasena. TEXT 1. Sri-Indirasenan 2. seyal || | *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 110] No. 36. Below the eighth image. Purport: states that the image in question was caused to de made by Muvendan, a resident of Nalkur in Venbu-nadu. TEXT 1. Sri-Venbunattu Na2. Ikur kudiyan 3. [Muve]ndan seyal [ ! | *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 111] No. 37. Below the ninth image. Purport : States that the image in question was caused to be made by Ari, a padamulattan of Tiruvarambam.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 171 TEXT 1. Triuvarambattil [Pada)2. mulattan Ari seyda 3. seyal [] | *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 112] No. 38. Below the tenth image. Purport : States that the image in question was caused to be made by Mallisena-pperiyan of Perumalai, belonging to the Vira-samhga. TEXT . 1. Sri- Vira-sangattu-Pperumapai 2. Mallisena- pperiyan 3. seyal [|1 *] [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 113] No. 39. Above the natural cave. Purport : States that the image of the god (de var) was caused to be made by Avvanandi-kkurattiyar, the lady disciple of Pattini. kkurattiyar of Perumbatti-ur. TEXT 1. Sri-Perumbatti2. ur Pattini-kkura3. ttiyar manakkiya4. r Avvanandi-k

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172 APPENDIX 5. kurattiyar sey6. vitta devar | [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 117] No. 40. Above the natural cave. Purport: Registers a gift of 2 gold kalanju coins by VatgamVaqugi, the savikitti (sravika) of Kuvanacceri for conducting the avippuram service to the god Ayirai-malai-devar. TEXT 1. Kuvanacceri-ttattar-cca2. vikitti Vattam-Vaqu3. gi Sri-Ayirai-malai-deva4. rkk-avippuram-atti5. na ponn-iru-kalanju 11 [Published in SII., Vol. XIV, No. 116] Notes: Ajjahandi, figuring in No. 34 above, finds mention in Tamil Jaina inscriptions of the 9th century from Valtimalai, North Arcot District, Agaimalai, Aivarmalai, Karurgalakkudi and Uttamapalaiyam, Madurai District, Equvadi, Tirunelveli District and Tiruccanattumalai, former state of Travancore. For a discussion on his place in the history of Jainism in Tamilnadu, see P. B. Desai: Op. cit., pp. 62-64. The name Pattini-kkurattiyar, patsini meaning 'fasting', occurring in No. 39 above, is interesting. A certain Pattinikkuratti-adigal figures in another Tamil inscription written in 945 A.D. in the reign of the Cola king Parantaka I (See, P.B. Desai : Op. cit., pp. 41-42).

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 173 No. 41. Kalugu malai, Kovilpatti Taluk, Tirunelveli District. On a stone lying near the Ayyanar temple. Dynasty :............ King :.......... Date : 9th-10th centuries A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Vatteluttu Purport: Records some gifts including two perpetual lamps and 25 sheep to the deity Tirumalaimer-bhatarar of Tiruneccuram by Sattan Kali of the ceri of Kalakkulimangalam. Another grant of one lamp and 25 sheep is also recorded. TEXT 1. Sri [ ||*] Tiruneccurattu-Ttirumalaimer2. patara[r]kku Kalakkudimangala3. ttu-cceri-Ccattan Kali itta nenda4. vilakk-irandu (ca]rum onru alu iru5. pattainju [ ] *] ivai urar raksai [l *1 6. Ivan-adiyarai siyvita yi 7. Vilakk-onlu alu irupattaindu [1 | *] Notes: The deity is named herein as Tirumalaimer-patarar, i.e., the Bhatara (installed) on the Tirumalai (the sacred hill), i.e., Kalugumalai. [Published in S.I.I., Vol. V, No. 308] No. 42. Kilsattamangalam, Wandiwash Taluk, North Arcot District. Natural rock-surface called Perumal-parai near the Jaina temple of Candranathasvami. Dynasty : Cala King: Rajaraja I Date : 10th regnal year Language and Alphabet : (995 A.D.) Tamil

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174 APPENDIX Purport: Records a gift of land for a perpetual lamp to be burnt in the passi of the god' Vimalasri-Aryatirtha-palli-alvar by Baladeva-bhatara, the disciple of Adideva. TEXT 1. Svasti sri[l *] Kov-Irajarajakesarivarmarku yandu 13 avadu Venkunra-kkattattu Venkunga-nattu- Ccatta mangalatt-uram engal-ur-ppasli Vimala sri2. y-Aryatirtta-pasli-a lvarkku sri-Nandidevar manakkar ip-palliy-udaiya Baladeva-pidaran vaitta triunandavilakkukku engal-ur-ppumi perum tumbu payum nilam Iladaiyar ceruv-iran3. dirkum tenpark-ellai Tanikkundigalukkum kidangal ceruvir-kolurkuttikku vadakkum melpask-ellai tiruva digal-pogattirku-kkilakkum vadapark-el4. lai karambaikkum vilaluparaikkut-terkun-kilpark ellai karambaikkum palippattiyin kolukkuttikku me;ku in-na-perellaiyul-agappattu un-nilam-ojivingi vilaiyir-kudutt-irai5. y-ilicci koyil-variy-iladu ponda kudimaiyum nir-nilai yum in-nilam-uluda kudiyaiyum palliyaiyum kaytapperadad-agavum in-nilattukku talai-nir-kadai-nir paya-pperuvad-agavum [1]*] Notes: While narrating the boundaries of the gift land, there is a reference, in line 3, to tiruvad igal-bhogum which stands for lands given for the enjoyment of Jaina ascetics (adiga!). This inscription makes it clear that Kilsattamangalam continued to be a live Jaina centre even in the end of the 10th century A.D. [Published in Seminar on Inscriptions (Madras, 1966), pp. 160-61.[

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL Dynasty Cola Date: Regnal year 8 (10th century A.D.) Panchapandavamalai, Wandiwash Taluk, North Arcot District. On the western face of the rock which overhangs a natural cave containing a pool of water. No. 43. Purport: Records that, at the request of his queen, Iladamahadeviyar, Vira-Cola re-assigned to the god of Tiruppanmalai certain incomes from the village of Kuraganpadi. 1. Svasti sri [[*] 2. Kov-Iraja-Rajakesarivarmarku ppagal-anda dharaman-ke TEXT yandu 8 avadu Paduvur-kkottattu-Pperun-Timirinat tu-Ttiruppan deviyar yum-o malaip-ppo 3. gam-agiya Kuraganpadi iraiyili -palliccandattai kilIladarajargal karpura-vilai kondu id 175 King: Rajakesarivarman Language and Alphabet : Tamil 4. ttu-ppoginrad-enru udaiyar-Iladarajar Pugalvippavar-Gandar maganar Vira-Solar Tiruppanmalai-deva rai-ttiruv-a Vira-Solar irai 5. di-ttolud-elund-aruli irukka ivar deviyar-Ilada-mahakarpura-vilaiyum-anniyaya-vavadandav-irai 6. lind-arula-vendum-enru vinnappan-jeyya udaiyarkarpura-vilaiyum-anniyaya-vavadandav 7. yum-olinjom-enru arucceyya Ariyur kilavan-agiya Vira-Solav-Ilada-pperaraiyan-udaiyar kanmiyey-a 8. nattiy-agav- idu karpura-vilaiyum-anniyaya-vavadandairaiyum-olinju sasanan-ceyda-padi [| *] Iduv-a

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176 APPENDIX 9. lladu karpura-vilaiyum-anniyaya-vavadandav-igaiyum ip- passiccandattai-kkolvan Gangaiy-i10. dai-Kkumariy-idai-cceydar-seyda pavan-kolvar-iduv allad-ip-passiccandattai keduppar vallavarai 11. ......... nruva [1 *] Id-dharmmattai raksippan pada dhuliy-en-falai melana [] *] Ara-maravarka aramalla tunaiy -illai || Notes : Though the shrine to which the inscription refers is only designated as that of 'the god of Tiruppanmalai (Tiruppanmalai-devar), the expression palliccandam in line 3 and again in the imprecatory passages in lines 9 and 10 proves that the shrine must have been a Jaina one. For, palliccandam usually means a gift to a 'palli', a Jaina religious institution. P. B. Desai (Jainism in South India, pp. 39 and 41) suggests that Tiruppanmalai-devar must be the name of the seated Jaina carved above the figure of a tiger on the same rock which bears the inscription. [Published in Ep. Ind., Vol. IV, pp- 137-40] No. 44. Tirakkol, wandiwash Taluk, North Arcot District. On the east face of the boulder containing Jaina images. Dynasty: Cala King: Parakesarivarman Date : 10th century Language and Alphabet : Tamil Purport: This partly damaged inscription records some provision, including a gift of 200 sheep, for the daily supply of 2 nali of ghee and 10 nali of oil to the Jaina temple.. mai-sitta-Perumballi at Sridandapuram in Ponnur-nalu, a subdivision of Venkunrakkatgam, by one Eta-Nandi alias Naratonga-Pallavaraiyan of

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177 Nelveli in Nelveli-nadu of Pagaiyur-nadu, a division of Colanadu. JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL TEXT 1. Svasti sri [[*] Ko-Pparakesaripa 2. marku yandu munravadu Coja-nattu 3. ttenkarai-Ppanaiyur-nattu Nelveli-nattu 4. Nelveliy-udaiyan Era-Nandiy-agiya Naratonga 5. Ppallavaraiyan Venkunra-kkottattu 6. Pponnur-nattu Sridandapurattu 7. . . mai-sitta-Perumballi candiradi 12. ttuvadayil i-ppal 13. Jikkum-i-ccavaiyark14. kum pilaittar-avar 15. i-ppalliyar [*] irukkun-Gura 8. ttar-ullayalavun-nisadippadi attu.. ney iru-naliyum 9. ennei padinaliyum nisadippadi... tuvadaga vai 10. ttan idu muttame attuvippa. . . runuru adu11. m kondu attuvippan nana . . . idu mu [Published in SII., Vol. XIX, No. 51] No. 45. Singavaram, Gingee Taluk, South Arcot District. On a rock in the Tirunatharkungu near the village. Dynasty.................. Date: 10 century A.D. narkku King... Language and Alphabet : Tamil Purport: Records the death of Ilaiya-Bhatarar after observing fast for 30 days. 12

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178 APPENDIX TEXT 1. Muppadu-na!-anasana nogra 2. I[]ai]ya-Bhatarar nigidigai || | *} [Published in SII., Vol. XVII, No. 261] Nos. 46-75. Kalugumalai, Kovilpatti Taluk, Tirunelveli District. On the first section of the overhanging rock in the Kasugumalai hill. Below the rock-cut Jaina images. Dynasty :.. King :......... Date: 10th-11th centuries A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Vatteluttu No. 46 Purport : Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Sattan Devan of Pereyiskuli, the disciple of Gunasagara-bhatara. TEXT 1. Sri-Gunasagara-patara2. reioan Pereyi3. rkuli Sattan De4. van seyvitta ti5. rumeni || \ *1 [Published in SII., Vol. V, No. 310) No. 47. Purport : Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Puspanandi born of Padamulattan of Tirukkottaru.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 179 TEXT 1. Sri-Tirukkotta2. tru Padamula3. ttan sanmam Pu4. tppanandi se5. yvitta tirumeni [|1 *] [Published in ibid., No. 313] No. 48. Purport : [Records that] Srinandi, the senior disciple of SriVardhamana of Malaikkulam (caused the sacred image to be made] TEXT 1. Sri-Malaikkusat2. tu Sri-Vattama3. na-pperumana4. kkar Srinandi 5. . . . . . . . (Published in ibid., No. 314]...... . No. 49. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Santisena-pperiyar, the disciple of Uttanandi-kkuravadigal of Tirukkottaru. TEXT 1. Sri.Tirukkottarru 2. Uttanandi-kku

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180 APPENDIX 3. ravaaigal manakkar 4. Santisena-pperi5. yar seyvitta tiru[me)6. [ni] ( [*] [Published in ibid., No. 316] No. 50. Purport : Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Kanakavira-adigal, the disciple of Baladeva-kkuravadigal of Tirunarungondai. TEXT 1. Sri-Tirunafurgo2. a dai (Bala]deva-k3. kuravadigal manak4. kar Kanakavira-atiga! 5. seyvitta ti[rumeni] [||*] [Published in ibid., No. 3171 No. 51. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by the (lady teacher) Piccai-kuratti of Sirupolal in luaikkalanadu. TEXT 1. Sri-Ilaikkala -na2. tru Sirupo3. Ja[1] Piccai-ku4. [ra]tti seyvit5. [ta] tirumeni [1! *] [Published in ibid., No. 319]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 181 No. 52. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Siri .. - kurattiyar, the (lady) disciple of (the lady teacher) Kanikkuratti of Palayirai. TEXT 1. Sri-Palayisai-Kka2. ni-kkuratiy 3. manakkiyar Siri 4. ... kurattiyar 5. [seyvitta) tiru[meni] [II*] [Published in ibid.. No. 320] No. 53. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Tiruchcharanattu-bhatarigal, the (lady) disciple of (the lady teacher) Misalur-kkurattiyar. TEXT 1. Sri-Milalur-kku2, rattiyar mana3. kkiyar Tiruchcha4. rapatstu-patari]gal se5. yvitta ti[ru]mejai] [11*] [Published in ibid., No. 321] No. 54. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by

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182 APPENDIX Sirivisaiya( = Srivijaya)-kkurattiyar, the (lady) disciple of (the lady teacher) Taccan-Sanga-kkurattigal of Venbaikkuti, for the merit of Sendancatti. TEXT 1. Sri-Venbaikkudi Ta2. ccap-Sanga-kkura3. ttigal manakkiyar 4. Sirivisaiya-kkurat5. tiyar gendancatti6. yai cartti seyvitta ti7. [rumeni] || | *] [Published in ibid., No. 3221 No. 55. Purport: Records that the image was caused to be made by Tiruccaranattu-kkurattigal for the merit of Sadaiyan Korri of Kottur-nalu. TEXT 1. Sri-Kotrur-nattu 2. Siru . Itali 3. Sadaiyari-Korriyai 4. cartti Tiruccarana5. ttu-kkurattigal sey6. vitta padimam [ 1 *] [Published in ibid., No. 324]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 183 No. 56. Purport : Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Siru-bhatara, the disciple of [..) tori-bhatara of Kurandi. TEXT 1. Sri-Kusandi .. to2. ri-patarar manakka3. r Siru-ppatarar se4. yvitta tirumeni [ | *] [Published in ibid., No. 325] No. 57. Purport : Records that the image was caused to be made by Tiruccaranattu-kkurattigal for the merit of Kuttan Kaman of Perumbarrur in Kottur-nadu. TEXT 1. Sri-Kottur-nattu Pe2. rumbarrur Ku3. ttan-Kamanai-cat4. ti Tiruccaranat5. tu-kkurattigal sey6. da padimam|11 [Published in ibid., No. 326] No. 58. Purport: Records that the image was caused to be made by Santisena-adig.al, the disciple of Vimafacandra-kkuravadigal of Tirukkottazu.

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184 APPENDIX TEXT 1. Sri-Tirukkots2. tarpu Vima3. lacandira-kku4. ravaaigal mana5. kkar Santise6. Aa-apiga 7. seyvitsta] 8. padimam ||| *] [Published in ibid., No. 333] No. 59. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Aditya-bhatara, the disciple of Kanakagandi-bhattaraka. TEXT 1. Sri-Kanakapandi2. pattarakar-ma3. nakkar-Adit4. ta-patarar seyvi5. tta-tirumeni [1]*] [Published in ibid., No. 341] No. 60. Purport : Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Kapakanandi-pperiyar, the disciple of Tirtha-bhatara of Kurandi.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 185 TEXT 1. Sri-Kurandi-Tirt2. ta-patarar mana. 3. kkar Ka[naka]nandi4. ppe[ri]yar sey5. vitta tirumeni [11*1 Published in ibid., No. 345) No. 61. Pnrport : Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Nattiga-bhatarar, the (lady) disciple of (the lady teacher) Nalkur-kkurattigal. TEXT 1. Sri-Nalkur-kk2. rattigas ma3. nakki Nat4, tiga-ppatarar. 5. sara . . seyvitta 6. tirumeni [11*] [Published in ibid., No. 355] No. 62. Purport: Registers the name of Nalkur-kkurattigal, the (lady) disciple of Amalanemi-bhatara of Nalkur. The Text may also be taken to refer to the lady disciples (manakkiga) of Amalanemibhatara, who were also the lady teachers (kurattigal) of Nalkur.

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186 APPENDIX 1. Sri-Nalkur-Amala 2. nemi-patara-ma 3. nakkigal Nal 4. kur-kkurattiga! [ | | *] TEXT [Published in ibid., No. 356] Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Purnnacandran, the disciple of Kanakanandi-bhatara of Kurandi. 4. seyvitta tiru 5. [meni] [*] No. 63. 1. Sri-Kurandi Kanaka 2. nandi-patarar mana 3. TEXT kkan Purnnacandran [Published in ibid., No. 359] No. 64. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by the lady teachers (kurattiga!) of Ilaneccuram, who were the disciples of Tirtha-bhatara. The text may also be interpreted to mean that the sacred image was caused to be made by Ilaneccurattu-kkurattigaI, the lady disciple of Tirtha-bhatara.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 187 187 TEXT 1. Sri-Tirtta-pata2. rar manakkigal 3. Ilaneccusat4. tu-kkurattigal (se)5. yvitta tirumeni[*] [Published in ibid., No. 369] No. 65. Purport : Records that the image was made for the merit of Enadi Kuttan, the disciple of (the lady teacher) Tirumalai-kkurattigal (or, the disciple of the lady teachers of Tirumalai). TEXT 1. Sri-Tiruma[lai]-k2. kurattigal 3. manakkan E4. nadi Kutta5. (nai-c]catti-c6. ceyvitta pa7. dimam || \ *] [Published in ibid., No. 370] No. 66. Purport : Records that the work (of having the image made) was that of Arattanemmi(Aristanemi)-kkurattigal, the lady disciple of Mammai-kurattigas.

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188 1. Sri-Mammai 2. kurattigal 3. manakkigal 4. Arattanem 5. mi-kkuratti 6. gal-(c)ceyal [[ | *] APPENDIX 1. Sri-Pattini-pa 2. tara-manak 3. kigal Tirup 4. parutti-kku TEXT [Published in ibid., No. 371] 5. rattigal se 6. [yal] [*] Purport: Records that the work (of having the image made) was that of Tirupparutti-kurattigal, the lady disciple of Pattinibhatara. The expression Tirupparutti-kkurattigal may also stand for the lady teachers (kurattiga!) of the place called Tirupparutti. No. 67 TEXT [Published in ibid., No. 372] No. 68. Purport: Records that the work (of having the image made)

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 189 was that of Pavanandi (Bhavanandi)-bhatara, the disciple of Padikkamana (Pratikramana)-bhatara. TEXT 1. Sri-Padikkama2. na-patarar mana3. kkar-Pavanandi-ppe4 .riyar seyal [11*] [Published in ibid., No. 380] No. 69. Purport : Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Dayapala-pperiyar, the disciple of Tirumalaiyar-Moni-bhatara of Kadaikkattur. TEXT 1. Sri-Kadaikattu2. r Tirumalaiya3. [-Moni-patarar ma4. nakkar Dayapala5. pperiyar seyvi6. tta tirumeni [ll*] [Published in ibid., No. 383] No. 70. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Kun nur-yogiyar, the disciple of Vimalacandra-kkuravadigal of Tirunatlur.

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190 APPENDIX TEXT 1, Sri-Tirunaltur 2. Vimalacandira3. kkuravaoigal mana4. kkar Kunnur-yogi5. yar seyvitta tiru6. [meni] [I[*] [Published in ibid., No. 384] No. 71. Purport: Records that the image was caused to be made by Santisena-adiga!, the disciple of Vimalacandra-kkuravadiga! of Tirukkottaru. TEXT 1. Sri-Tirukkot2. tarru Vima3. Jacandira-k4. kuravaaiga 5. manakkar Sa6. ntisena-a7. digal sey8. Vicca padima9. m [i*] [Published in ibid., No- 390] No. 72. Purport: Records that the sacred image was caused to be made by Peranandi-bhatara, the disciple of Puspanandi-bhatara.

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL TEXT 1. Sri-Putppanandi 2. patarar manakkar 3. Peranandi-patarar se 4. [yvicca] tirumeni [||*] [Published in ibid., No. 391] No. 73. Purport: Records that the image was caused to be made by MiJalur-kkurattigal, the lady disciple of Perur-kkurattiyar, the daughter of Mingaikuman of Pidangudi in Karaikka na-nadu. TEXT 1. Svasti sri [*] Karaikkana-nattu-Ppidangudi Mingai2. kumanar magalar-ana Perur-kkurattiyar mana 3. kkiyar Milalur-kkurattigal seyvitta padi 4. mam - [Published in ibid., No. 394] No. 74. Purport: Records that Kudarkkudi-kurattiyar caused the two sacred images to be made both on her own behalf and on behalf of Sendan of Ilavenbaikkudi. TEXT 1. Sri-Ilavenbai[kkudi] Sendan pera 2. lum tam-peralum Kudark 3. kudi-kurattiyar seyvi 4. tta tirumeni irandum [*] 191 [Published in ibid., No. 395]

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192 APPENDIX No. 75 Purport : Records that the work (i.e. of having the image made) was that of Milalur-kkurattiyar and she had it made for the merit of Gunanandi-periyar, the disciple of Mutta-Aratta [Arista] nemi-bhatara of Velarkkuli. TEXT 1. Sri-Velarkkudi-Mutta2. Arattanemi-patarar 3. manakkar Gunanandi-pe4. riyarai-ccartti Mi5. Jalur-kkurattiya6. r seyal [1 1 *] [Published in ibid., No. 398] Notes : On the same rock surface there are nearly a hundred such label inscriptions (SII., Vol. V, No. 309-56, 358-60 and 362-404) which are all Jaina as is evidenced by the fact that they are all engraved below rock-cut Jaina figures. Of these texts of only 29 inscriptions have been given above selecting them on the basis of the state of their preservation and also their contents. These inscriptions bear testimony to the fact that Kalugumalai was an important holy centre of Jainism in the 9th-10th centuries and that Jaina teachers, disciples and lay followers, both male and female, used to visit that place on pilgrimage. The Male teachers and disciples are referred to as pastaraka (= bhatlaraka), patara (=bhatara), kuravadigal (from Sanskrit gurupadah), adiga! (from Sanskrit padah), periyar (= Sanskrit mahan) and yogiyar while female teachers and

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 193 disciples are referred to as kurattiyar or kurattigal (feminine form of kuravar from Sanskrit guravah) and patarigal (from Sanskrit bhaijarika). The images which are carved out of the rocks by and for the merit of monastic or lay individuals are mentioned either as tiru-meni (sacred image) or as paaimam (=Sanskrit pratima). It is interesting to note that the female teachers are mostly mentioned, not by any proper name, unlike as in the case of the male teachers, but with the vocational term kurattiyar or kurattigal meaning 'lady teacher' suffixed to the name of a place. Examples are Milalur-kurattiyar (No. 75), Tiruccaranattu-bhatari (No. 53) Tiruccaranattu-kurattiga! (Nos. 55 and 57), Nalkur-kurattigal (Nos. 61 and 62), llaneccusattu-kurattigal (No. 64), Tirumalaikurattigal (No. 65), Tirupparutti-kurattigal (No. 67), Perurkurattiyar (No. 73) and Kucarkuli-kurattiyar (No. 74). It may be reasonably concluded that these places were important Jaina strongholds and that female lay followers were the mainstay of the Jaina faith in the Tamil country. For further information on Kalugumalai and its inscriptions and their importance, see P. B. Desai: Jainism in South India (Sholapur 1957), pp. 64-68. No. 76. Tirumalai, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District. On a buried rock in front of the gopura at the base of the hill. Dynasty : Cala King: Rajaraja I Date : Regnal year 21 Language and Alphabet : (1005 A.D.) Tamil Purport: The inscription records that the great monk (ma-munivan) Gunavira constructed a sluice near Vaigai-malai and named it after the Jaina teacher Ganisekhara-Maru-Porcuriyan. Gunavira is eulogised as one whose feet are worshipped by kings.

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194 APPENDIX TEXT (Lines 1-5 are in the nature of royal prasasti) 6. Arumolikku yandu irubattonravad-enrun-kalai-puriyumatinipunan ven-kitan 7. Ganiccekara-Maru-Porcuriyan-ran namattal vama nilai-ni kun 8. kaling-ittu nimir Vaigai-malaikku niduli iru-marungum nel vilaiya 9. kkandon kulai-puriyum-padai-araisar kondadum padam Gunavira-mamunivan 10. kulir-Vagai-kkovei [ | | *] [Published in SII., Vol. I, No. 66] No. 77 Tirumalai, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District. On a rock buried underneath the steps between the gopura and the painted cave. Dynasty Cola Date: Regnal year 12 (1024 A.D.) King Parakesarivarman (Rajendra I) Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Tamil and Grantha Purport Records the gift of a lamp to the god of the Tirumalai temple, called Arambhanandin, and allots money for the maintenance of this lamp and of another lamp, donated by Sinnavai, the queen of the Pallava king. TEXT : (Lines 1 to 21 and a part of line 22 contain the usual Tamil prasasti of the ruler) 22. ko-Pparakesaripanmar-ana udaiyar 23. sri-Rajendracoladevarku

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 195 yandu 12 avadu Jayangonda-sola-magdalattu Ppangala-nallu naduvil-vagai Mugai-natju-ppalli24. ccandam Vaigavur-Tirumalaidevasku Ilaiya-mani nangai vaitta tiru-nandavilakk-onru [1*) Idarku bhumi tirutta-kkudutta 25. kasu irubadu [1*] I-ppumiyal candradittavar i-vvilakku i-ppalli uqaiya Arambhanandikku nittam nandavilakk-onru22. m [1*] Pallavarasar deviyar Sinnavaiyar candradit tavar vaitta nandavilakk-onrukku kudutta kasu onbadu (II*] Notes: P. B. Desai (Jainism in South India, pp. 43-44) sug gests (p. 44, f. n. 2) that the name Arambhanandi may stand for Rsabhanatha, the first Tirthankara. [Published in ibid., No. 68] No. 78. * Tirumalai, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District. On a smooth piece of rock near a rock-cut Jaina figure on the top of the hill. Dynasty : Cola King: Parakesarivarman (Rajendra I) Date : Regnal year 13 Language and Alphabet : (1025 A.D.) Tamil, Tamil and Grantha Purport: Records a gift of money for a lamp and for offerings to to the Jaina temple, called Kundavai-Jinalaya, on the hill by Camuggabbai, the wife of the merchant Napnappayap of Malliyur in Perumbanappadi. TEXT (Lines 1 to 11 and part of line 12 contain the usual Tamil prasasti of the ruler)

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196 12. APPENDIX ... ko-Pparakesaripanmar-ana udaiyar sri-Rajendracoladevarku yandu 13 avadu Jayangonda-solamandalattu Pangala-nattu naduvil 13. vagai Mugai-nattu-ppalliccandam Vaigavur-Ttirumalai sri-Kundavai-Jinalayattu devarku-Pperumbanappadi-Kkaraivali Malliyur irukkum vya 14. pari Nannappayan manavatti Camundabbai vaitta tirunandavilakku irubadum vaitta kasu pattum [| | *] ontinukku-kkasu Notes: The name of the temple suggests that 'the shrine owed its foundation to Kundavai, the daughter of Parantaka II ), elder sister of Rajaraja I ( ( ) and paternal aunt of Rajendra I. Tirumalai is stated to have formed part of Vaigavur, a palliccandam, i.e., 'a village belonging to a Jaina temple'. The names Camundabbai (Camundabbe) and Nannappayan clearly show that the donor and her husband were of Kannada origin. [Published in SII., Vol. I, p. 98; Ep. Ind., Vol. IX, pp. 229-33] No. 79. Tirumalai, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District. On a rock to the left of the painted cave. Dynasty Cola Date: 11th century King Parakesarivarman Language and Alphabet: Tamil Purport: Records a gift of gold for the daily offerings to Palliyalvar (Jaina Tirthankara) and for feeding one ascetic (adigal) in the palli at Tirumalai near Vaigavur in Pangala-nadu, a subdivi sion of Palkunra-kkottam, by Vircevagan Pidaran Buttugan and Vircamanayakan Candayan Ayiravan belonging respectively to Irumadisola-Karunadaga-Kaduttalai and nadaga-Kaduttalai, two regiments of the king. Madhurantaka-Karu

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 197 TEXT 1. Svasti sri [|1 *] Ko-Pparakesaripanmarkki yanau nala2. vadu Palkunra-kkottattu-Ppangala-nattu Vai3. ygavur-Tirumalai-ppalliyil nisadam-oru adigalmarkku4. ccosu vaittar Irumadisola-K karunadaga-Kkaduttalai Vir5. cevagan Pidaran Buttuganum Madhurantaka-Kkaruna daga-k6. Kaduttalai Viscamanayakan Candayan-Ayiravanum ivv-i7. ruvon-candiradittar-ullalavum nirka vaittom-ida8. nukku narkkalanju pongal vanda palisaiyyal-ap-Pa9. lliy-asvarai uttuvittom [|1 *] i Notes : The two personal names Buttuga and Candaya as also the names of the two regiments to which they belonged suggest that the donors hailed from Karnataka. It thus becomes clear that the Jaina temple (palli) of Tirumalai was of widely acknowledged sanctity. [Published in ibid., Vol. III, No. 97] No. 80. Tirumalai, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District. On the outer wall of the doorway, which leads to the painted cave. Dynasty : Cera Kings : Adigaiman Elini and Vidukadalagiya-Peruma! Date: C. 11th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil and Sanskrit, Tamil and Grantha Purport: States that the images of a Yaksa and Yaksi, originally set up on the holy mountain of Arhat by Adigaiman Elini of the

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198 APPENDIX Cera family having become decayed in course of time, they were restored and placed under worship by Vidukadalagiya-Perumal, son of Rajaraja and a later descendant of Elini. The Sanskrit verse in lines 3-7 names Elini as Yavanika and describes him as the ruler of Kerala while the name Vidukadalagiya is rendered into Sanskrit as Vyamuktasravanajvala. 1. Svasti sri [ 1 | *] Cera-vamsattu Adigaiman Elini ceyda dharmmam [] *] 2. Yaksaraiyum Yaksiyaraiyum elund-arulu vittu erimani yum is 3. ttu-kkaoapperi-kkaluri-kandu kuduttan || Srimat Kerala-bhubhr4. ta Yavanika-namna sudharmmatmana Tungir-ahvaya mandal-Arha-sugirau 5. Yaksesvarau kalpitau [1 ] paschat-tat-kula-bhusan adhika6. nopa-sri-Rajaraj-atmaja-Vyamuktasravanajvalena Ta kata-nathena jirnna7. ddhitau [|1 *) Vanjiyar kulapatiy-Elini vaguttav Iyakkar-Iyakkiyaro8. d-enjiyav-alivu tiruttiy-iv-Eagunav-itai-Tirumalai vait tan a9. ncitan vali-varum-avan vali mudal-igali [adigana vagan] . nul vinjaiyar 10. [stha) la punaitaga maiyar kavalan Viaukadalagiya Perumalei[| *] Notes: The Sanskrit verse names the hill on which the images were carved as, Arha[t*]-sugiri while the Tamil portion names it as Engunav-inai-Tirumalai. "En-gunan is an attribute of the Arhat. The eight qualities are, according to Jaina books: infinite wisdom, omniscience, omnipotence, boundless happiness, being nameless, without descent, without age and unobstructed." [Published in SII., Vol. I, p. 107, footnote 1.]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 199 No. 81. Tirumalai, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District. In a small shrine below the painted cave, Dynasty ............ King : ........ Date : c. 11th century A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Tamil and Grantha Purport : Records that Aristanemi-acaryar, the disciple of Paravadimalla of Kadai-kkottur-Tirumalai, had the image of Yaksi made. TEXT 1. Svasti sri [1]*] Kadaikkot2. tur-Ttirumalai-Pparavadima3. llar manakkar Aristane4. mi-acaryyar sey5. vitta yaksi-ttiru6, meni 11 Notes : (1) It is interesting to note that a Jaina teacher named Paravadimalla figures in an inscription from Sravanabelagola and was a contemporary of Krsnaraja. [Published in SII., Vol. I, No. 73.] No. 82. Ammasattiram, Pudukkottai Taluk, Tiruchirappalli District. At the entrance of the natural cave, east of the rock known as AJurustimalai. Dynasty : Pandya King : Maravarman Sundarapandya I Date : 1216 A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil

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200 APPENDIX Purport: This damaged inscription seems to record a grant of land in Periyapallivayal as palsiccandam to Nayanar Tirumanaimalai-Alvar by Pambaiyur-udaiyan Senguli Anainaditenar Perumagan alias Gangadhara, a merchant. Kanakacandra-pandita and his disciple Dhanmadeva-acarya are mentioned. TEXT .... ruvanmarana Tribhuvanaccakravartigal Sundarapandiyadevarkku yandu ........ di-konda-sola- ... ....... tu Telingakulakalapuram-ana Kulottungasoja-pattanattu palliccandam-ana An............................. ............................ Udaiyar Kanakacandira-panditar manakkar Dhanmadeva-acariyanum Tiruppalli.........1 Alvar manakkar..................... Alvan pari ............... ........nagarattu viyapari Pambaiyur-udaiyan Senguli Anainaditenar-perumagan-ana Gengadharar kkukalvetti i-ppira ...... ....... dutta paris-avadu Periyapallivayalil Nayanar Tirumanaimalai-.lvar palsiccandamay-engalukku arccana-bhogamay varugira nilam irangu mavuk........................... lai avadu kilpakkellai ikkulattil karaikku merkum tenpakkellai kal-kulumiyi . na... terku nokki pamekk-odiya vakkalukku . Notes: 1) The hillocks near Ammasattiram served, in days of yore, as the abodes of the Jaina ascetics. Two other inscriptions from the village call the local deity as Tiruppalli malai-Alvar (See SII., Vol. XVII, Introduction, p. vii). 2) It is very probable that the village name Ammasattiram is a corrupt form of the earlier name Aman-battiram (Sanskrit : Sramanasattra). [Published in SII., Vol., XVII, No. 397]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 201 No. 83. Bommaimalai, Kulattur Taluk, Tiruchirappalli District. On the Bommaimalai rock. Dynasty : Pandya King : Konerinmaikondan Date : (Hijra ?) year 675 Language and alphabet : (1276 A.D.) Tamil Purport : Registers a royal gift of the village Korramangalam in Tepsiruvayil-nalu along with tax-exemptions and privileges to the trustees (ulaiyargal) of the two Jaina temples Tiruppassimalaippalli and Tentiruppallimalai-ppalli for offerings and daily services to the deities, including the tiruppadimargu service. Two thirds of the village was given to Tiruppassimalai-ppassi-nayakar and the remaining one third to Tentiruppallimalai-ppalli-nayakar. TEXT 1. Svasti Sri [| *] Tribhuvanaccakravartti Konerin2. maikondan Tiruppallimalai-ppalli u3. Qaiyargalukkum Tentiruppalsimalai-p4. palli-udaiyargalukkum Tiruppallimalai-na 5. (na)yakarkkum Tentiruppallimalai-nayakarkku6. m tiruppadimarr-ullitta nitta-nimandan7. galukku-Ttensiruvayil-nallu-K ko8. tramangalam nang-ellaikk-ut9. patta nir-nilamun-karunjey pungeyyum 10. nattamun-tottamun-kulamun-kulapparippum-ut11. patta nilamum kadamaiyu antaraya12. mum viniyogamum taruvad-ana a13. ccum kariyav-aratciyum vetti14. pattamum panjupili sandivigraha15. ppenu vasarpesu ilanji

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202 APPENDIX 16. naippelu tariyitai sekkirai. 17. ttattoli-pat;amum-idaiyar-variyum ina-variyum 18. pon-variyum marrum-eppeyarppattinavu19. m-utpada aravadu mudal palsiccanda-iraiyiliy-aga20. Ttiruppassimalai-nayakarkku iru-kurum Tentiruppalli21. malai-nayakarkku oru-kurun-kuduttom [ 1 *] . ippadikku iv22. V-olai pilipad-aga-kkonlu puravilum variyilun-ka23. lippittu-ccandiradittavar-selvad-aga irandu Tirumalai24. yilun-kallilum vetti nang-ellaiyilum sri-mukku25. daikkallum natti-kkolga [ ] *) ivai Palandiparayan eluttu 26. andu 675 || *) ivai Villavarayan-eluttu 27. ivai Tennavadaraiyan-eluttu [] | *] Notes : Interestingly enough, in line 26 of the above text, the date of the inscription is stated to be the year 675 which, in vicw of the fact that the record belongs to the 13th century on internal evidence, could be referred only to the Hijra era. Nothing could better illustrate the traditional religious tolerance of the Indians than this fact that in an era when Jainism had ceased to be a major religious force in the Tamil country, the ruling king made grants to two Jaina temples and got them recorded in an inscription dated in the era of the Muslims. While Tentiruppallimalai is the same as Bommaimalai on which the record is engraved, Tiruppassimalai is the nearby Aluruttimalai, also an ancient Jaina centre. According to lines 24-25 the trustees were authorised to demarcate their lands with mukkudui-kkals i.e., stones bcaring the figure of the triple umbrella, such stones being characteristically Jaina in their origin (See P.B. Desai, Op.cit., p. 54 and footnote 1). [Published in Inscriptions (Texts) of the Pudukkottai State, p. 658]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL 203 No. 84. Tirupparuttikkunram, Kanchipuram Taluk, Chingleput District. On the base of the north wall of the store-room in the Vardhamana temple. Dynasty : Sarigama King: Bukka II Date : 1362 A.D. Language and Alphabet : Tamil, Grantha Purport: Records that the village of Mahendramangalam in the division of Mavandur was granted to the temple by the minister Irugappa, the son of general Vaicaya. The gift was made for the merit of the king. TEXT 1. Savasti srih [1 1 *] Dundubhi-varsam Kattigai-mada ttil Purvva-paksattu-Ttingat-kilamaiyum paurnaiyum perra Ta(Ka)tti2. gai-nal mahamandalesvaran Arihararaja-kumaran Srimat(d)-Bukkarajan dharmmam-aga Vaicaya-danda natha- putran 3. Jainottaman Iruguppa-mahapradhani Tirupparutti kkuntu-nayanar Trailokyavallabharkku pujaikku. 4. salaikkum tiruppanikkum Mavandur-ppargil Mahend ramangalam nar-park-ellaiyum irai-ili palliccandamaga candraditya-varaiyum nadakka-ttaruvittar [1 1 *] Dharmmo-yan-jayatu || 1 *] Notes: The fact that the deity Vardhamana is herein called Trailokyavallabha and as the lord (nayanar) of Tirupparuttikkunnu is noteworthy. Irugappa, who is described in the present epigraph as Jainottaman, also figures in a Sanskrit inscription of Bukka II, dated in 1388 A.D. (Ep. Ind., Vol. VII, p. 116) from the same place. [Published in Ep. Ind., Vol. VII, p. 115]

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204 APPENDIX No. 85. Tirumalai, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District. On the wall of a mandapa at the base of the Tirumalai rock, to the rignt of the entrance. Dynasty : Sambuvaraya King: Rajanarayana Date: Regnal year 12 Language and Alphabet : (c. 14th century A.D.) Tamil, Tamil and Grantha Purport: Records the setting up of the utsava-murti (Vihara-nayapar) of Ponneyil-nathar on Vaigai-Tirumalai by Nallattal, the daughter of Mannai-Ponnandai of Ponnur. TEXT 1. Svasti sri [|1 *) Rajanarayana Sambuvarajarkku ya2. nqu 12 vadu Ponnur Mannai Ponnandai 3. maga! Nallatta] Vaigai-Ttirumalaikku esiy-arula4. ppannina sri-Vihara-nayanar Ponneyil5. nathar [*] Dharmmo-yan-jayatu [1 1 *] Notes: With Ponneyil-nathar, 'the lord of the golden fortress', compare Ponneyirkon which is the same as Aruhan (i.e., Arhat), Kon is only the Tamil rendering of the Sanskrit word natha. "Ponpeyil-natha means the 'Lord of the golden fortress', i.e., the Arhat"- P.B. Desai, ibid., p. 45. [Published in SII., Vol. I, No. 70]

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JAINA EPIGRAPHS IN TAMIL Topographical index of inscriptions included in the Appendix. Village District Ammasattiram Anaimalai Tiruchirappalli Madurai Ayyampalaiyam Bommaimalai Eruvadi Kalugumalai Kilsattamangalam Mangulam Pallankovil Pallimadam Pugalur Singavaram Sittannavasal Tenimalai Tirakkol Tirumalai Panchapandavamalai Wandiwash Vedal Taluk Pudukkottai Madurai Palani Kulattur Nanguneri Kovilpatti Wandiwash Madurai Cera Cola, Pallava, Pandya, Tirupparuttikkunram Kanchipuram Uttamapalaiyam Periyakulam Wandiwash Karur Gingee Kulattur Tirumayyam Wandiwash Polur Nort Arcot Madurai Tirutturaipundi Tanjavur Aruppukkottai Ramanathapuram 10-11,23 9, 43 North Arcot Tiruchirappalli South Arcot 4 6, 45 Tiruchirappalli 22 13 44 76-81, 85 84 29-32 21 Sambuvaraya, Sangama, Miscellaneous, " Tiruchirappalli Tirunelveli 22 "" North Arcot "" Chingleput Madurai N. Arcot Dynastic index of inscriptions included in the Appendix. 205 Nos. 82 24-28 20, 33-40 83 12, 16-17 15, 18-19, 41, 46-75 7-8, 14, 42 1-3 5 80 21, 42-44, 76-79 5, 7-9, 14 10-12, 18-20, 22, 82-83 85 84 1-4, 6, 13, 15-17, 23-41, 45-75, 81

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INDEX (The figures refer to pages, n. after a figure to footnotes. The following other abbreviations are also used ; au= author; ca.=capital ; ch.= chapter; ci. =city ; co. = country ; comm. = commentator; de. = deity; do.=ditto ; dy. = dynasty ; fe. = female; gen.= general ; gr.=grammar, grammatical ; ins.=inscription(s); k. = king; l. = locality ; lang.= language; m. = male ; n. = name; off. = office, official(s); peo.= people; pl. = place ; pr.= prince or princess; prec. = preceptor; 9.= queen; ri.= river ; s.a. =same as ; Skt. = Sanskrit ; te.= temple ; t.d. = territorial division ; vi. = village ; wk. = work.) Abhayamati, fe. Jaina Aditta-patarar, donor, . 184 apprentice, 85, 90 Adity I, Cala k., . .. 160 Abhayaruci, m. Jaina Aditya-bhatara, donor, . 184 apprentice, .. 85-86, 90 Adityapa (deva), a deva, 121-22 acaras, . . . . . . . 136 Adityapurana, wk., . . 3n. acarya(s), 'preceptor(s)', Adiyarkkunallar, comm., 60 . . xiv, 23, 103-05, 134, 161 aga-mandapa, .... 161 acarya-pithas, Digambara Agananuru, Tamil wk., . 42 Jaina- . . . . . . 145 agupporul, Love theme, .. 47 n. Accanandi, s.a. Ajjanandi, Agapporul-vilakkam, Tamil Jaina prec., 156, 165, 168, 170 gr. wk., . .21n., 127n., 130-31 Accanandi-acarya, Agastya, a Rsi and au., 18, 21 guru of Jivaka, ... 70 Agattiyam, Tamil gr. wk., 130 accu, 'coin', . . . . . 152 ahara-dana, . . . . 157-58 Acyutaraya, Vijayanagara k., ahimsa doctrine, . v, 1-2, 5-10, his gift to a Jaina te., xvii 29, 31, 33-35, 38, 62-63, 88, Adankottasan, 90, 105-06, 108-09, 137 teacher, . . 21 and n. ahinsa, Jaina principle, Adideva, Jaina prec., . . 174 45, 105, 107 Adigaiman Elini, ahimsa, religion of- 5, 35, 106 Cera k., . . 197-98 ahinsa-dharma, . 29, 86, 89 adiga!, Jaina ascetic, 51, ahimsa paramo dharmah, 159, 168, 174, 192, 196-97 Skt. paraphrase, ... 33 Adipurana, Skt. wk., . 66 n. Aimperun-kappiyangal,

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INDEX 207 'five major Tamil umman, Saivite goddess, . . 148 kavyas' .. 481. Ammasattiram, (Skt. SramanaAindra grammar, . . 20-21 sattra), vi., . . . . 200 Ainjipu-kkappiyanga!, Ammasattiram ins. of Maravar'five minor Tamil ka vyas', man Sundarapandya I, . 199 83 n. Amoghavarsa I, Rasgrakuta k., Ainnarruva-perumbasli, . . . . . . . 67, 68 n. Jaina te. built by the guild Amstamati, q. of Anantavirya, of 'Five Hundred', . . xiv . . . . . . . . . 125 Aintinai-elubadu, Amstamati, q. of Tamil wk., .... 47 n. Yasodhara, . . . . 88-89 Aivarmalai, I., . .. 169,172 Amatasagara, au., .. 90-91, Ajivaka religion, ... 107 127-28 Aji vaka-vada-carukkam, a ch. Amotasena, son of in Nilakesi, . . . . 107 Tivistan, . . . . 93 AjjaNGandi, Jaina prec.,. Anaimalai, vi., .... 172 ... 156, 165, 168-69, 172 Anaimalai Jaina ins., ... 164-66 Ajjasandi-Astopavasi, Jaina Anandamangalam, vi., . XV ascetic, ....,. xiv Anantavira-adigal, Jaina Akalanka, Jaina philosopher, 135 ascetic and donor, .. 168 Aluruttimalai, I., . . 199, 202 Anantavirya, k. of Uttaraalvar, Vais navite missionary, Madura, . . . . . 125 ......... xi Ananur, vi.,....155 Amalanemi-bhatara, Jain. anasana, 'fasting', . . 146, 178 prec., . . . . . . 185-86 anatti, (Skt. a jnapti), amanan, from Skt. sramana, "executor of grants', . 145 ......... 163 Andai Ilayar Pavanandi, amanan-keni, land gifted donor, ..... 147 to a sramana', . . 163 andanan, 'one who is all love amanappalli(s), and mercy to all living Jaina settlement(s), 142 creatures', ... : 62-63 amannaNG from Skt. sra'nana, andanar, . :.62 n., 63 n. Amangerkkai, (Skt. Sraman. Annar-matha, l., ... 154 asrama) gift vi., X, 143, 145 Andhra, co., . . . . . vi Amitasagara, Jaina prosadist, xi Annal, s.a. Arhat, ... 163 Ammachatram, vi, .. 142

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208 INDEX Annalvayil, s.a. Sittannavasal, Ari, donor, vi., 161-63 antadi, a form of composition, 134 Antai, father of Kalitika, 141-42 antam-il, 'one without end', 153 Apabhramsa, lang., 18 Appar, Savite missionary, xi-xii araiyan, 'chieftain', 45 n. 143-44 araiy-olai, aram (=skt. dharma), 33, 42, 147-48, 154, 168, 176 Arambhanandin, s.a. Rsabhanatha, Tirthankara, Arandi, Arandi, tadbhava of Skt. Arhantika, Aranericcaram, Tamil wk., Arattanemi, from Skt. Aristanemi, Arhat, 44 and n., 45 and n. Arhantika, 'Buddhist or Jaina nun', 194-95 Aravor, arccana-bhogam, Arhacandra, Buddhist scholars and Kundalake si's teacher, arhan-namaskara, 161 187-88, 192 62 n., 63 n. 200 .x, 45 n., 163, 106 65 161 197-98, 204 170-71 Arihararaja, s.a. Harihara II, 203 Vijayanagara k., Arikesari Maravarman, Pandya k., Arikesari Parankusa Nedumaran, do., Aristanemi, Tirthankara, Aristanemi, Jaina prec., x, xi 2 xiv Aristanemi-acaryar, donor, 199 Aristanemi-kkurattigal, xii donatrix, Aristanemi-periyar, Jaina prec. and donor, 167-68 Arivar, s.a. Arhat, 161-63 162-63 175 93 135 xii Arivar-koil, Jaina te., Ariyur, vi., Arkakirti, brother-in-law of Tivitatn, Arpagai, vi., Arppakkam, Jaina centre, artha, one of the purusarthas, 88 arudha, 'prediction', 136 Aruhan, tadbhava of Skt. Arhat, ix, 151, 204 Arumoli, s.a. Rajraja I, Cola k. 194 Arumukha Navalar, comm., Arunattar hill, 7., Arungalacceppu, Tami! wk., 187 133 142 Arhatparamesthi, Aryan culture, invocation addressed to- 127 Aryan princes, Senguttuvan Arhat-sugiri, 'holy opposed by mountain of the Arhat', 198 Aryans, peo., 45 n. I, 27 n. 59 . 13, 27

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INDEX 209 Aryans, Eastern, do., . . 2-3, 6, Avvanandi-kkurattiyar, fe. 7 and n., 8 Jaina prec. and donor, Aryans, Western, do., .. 2-3 171-72 Aryavarta, co., ... 3 n., 59 Ayarpali, l., .... 55, 56 asirigar, tadbhava of Skt. acar- Ayodhya, ci., ..... 5 yaka, ....... 146 Ayyampalaiyam ins. of Pandya asiriyah, tadbhava of Skt. acar- Varaguna II, . . . . 159 ya, 'preceptor', . . 161-63 Ayyampalaiyam Jaina ins., asiriyaka, asiriyika, tadbhava of 166-72 acaryaka, "preceptor', . . . Ayyanar, Hindu de., .. 173 140-41, 146 Asaka, k. of Avanti, . . . . 87 v , Asoka, Mauryan emperor, . . 26 Baladeva(s), . ... 126-27 asrama of Jaina ascetics, Baladeva-bhatara, donor, 174 54, 65, 88, 113 Baladeva-kkuravadigal, aste ya (non-stealing), Jaina pri- Jaina prec., .... 180 nciple, . . . . . . 45 Baladeva-pidaran, s.a. Astopavasi-Kanakavira, Jaina Baladeva-bhatara, do., 174 prec., . . . . . . 167 Balarama, brother of Krsna Asvagriva, Vidyadhara emperor and a Baladeva, . 91, 127 and a Prativasudeva, . .. bali, sacrificial offering, . 62 91-93, 129 Bauddha darsana, . . 33, 48 Atan Cellirumporai, k., .. 142 Baudhayana Dharmaatman,'self', . . . .. 5 s astra, wk., .. 3 11., 35 n. atmavidya, upanisadic doctrine, Bavanandi-muni, au., 130 6-7 Bhadrabahu, Jaina guru, avanipasekhara, title of Pandya v i, 10 and n., 11 and n., 13, 41 k. Srivallabha,. 161-62 Bhadrabahu-Candragupta Avanti (-desa), co., . . 87, 89 tradition, ... vi 10 n. avataras, 'incarnations', ..8 Bhadramitra, Avinayam, Tami! gr. wk., a merchant, ... 122-24 130 Bharata, epic wk., . 91, 127 Avinita, W. Ganga k., . . X Bharata-khanda, co., 58, 85 avippuram, . . . . 154, 172 Bhartphari, au., . . . . 44 Avirodhi-Alvar, au., . . 134 bhatara, 'Jaina teacher?, 157-58, 192

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210 INDEX Bhatara, Jaina de'., 151, 173 Brhat-katha, wk. in Paisacabhajjaraka, 'Jaina teacher', bhasa, .... . 110-11 184, 192 Byhatkathakasa, wk., . . 10n. bhastarika, lady teacher', 193 Buddha-vada-carukkam, Bhavabhuti, arr., 9 and n a ch. in Nilakesi, . 107 Bhavanandi-bhatara, Buddhisena, a friend of donor, . . . . . . 189 Jivaka, ... .. 79-80 Bhavanandin, Jaina prec., XV Buddhism, . ix, 106-07, 135 Bhumidevi, Goddess Earth, .81 Buddhism vis-a vis Kural, 30 n. Bhuta-vada, school of materia- Buddhistic doctrines, . 106 listic thought, ... . 108 Buddhistic Sangha, i. 106 Bhuta-vada-carukkam, a ch. in Buddhists, 13, 34, 107, 109 Nilakesi, .... 108 Bukka II, Vijayanagara k., 203 Bodhayana, au., * 35, 36 n. Bukkarajan, s.a. Bodhayana-Dharma-sastra, wk., Bukka II, do., ... 203 35-36 Bukkaraya, do., .. 118 Bommaimalai ins. of Pandya Buttuga, n., . . . 197 Konerinmaikondas, . . 201 brahmacaryam, Jaina Cakra, a weapon of principle, . . . 45 Tivistas. . . . . . 93 brahmade yan, 'gift to brahm- Cakravartin(s), ... 126 ana(s)', . . . . . xvii Camundabbai, donatrix, 195-96 brahmana(s), one of the four Camundaraya, au., .. 126 rarnas, . . 3 and n., 4, 35 n., Canda-Maridevi, s.a. 36n., 62-63, 73, 79-80, 116, Kali, goddess, . . 85, 87 136-37, 153 Candanam, 'Sandal, .. 47 Brahmana literature, . . . 2-3 Candaya, n., . . . . 197 bruhmana Rsi(s), . , 2, 112 Candiranandi-asirigar, Brahmanical (Vedic) religion, Jaina prec., . . . . 146 ix, xi, 14 Candrabha, ci., .... 75 Brahmasundara(-muni), brah- Candragiri, I., .. .. 11 mana ksi, . . . . 112 Candragupta, Maurya k., Brahmasundari, wife of Brahma 11 and n. sundara, . . . . . 112 Candramati, q. of Asoka and Brahmi characters, . . . xii mother of Yasadlara, 88-90

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INDEX 211 Candranathasvamin te., 146,173 Cudamani, Culamani, minor Candraprabha, Tirtharkara, Tamil kayya, ... 83 and Candraprabha te. at n., 90-91, 94, 126 Jinaka nci, . . XV Culamani-nighantu, Tamil Candraprabha-Tirtharkara, lexicon, 131, 132 n., te. dedicated to . 145 133 and n. Catikan, donor, . . 141 Cuddalore, Jaina Cauvery (Kaveri), ri., 52, 54-55 monastery at ... : xi Cavakar, tadbhava of Skt. sravaka, . . . ix D Celuliya Panti, donor, 165-66 Dadamittan, k. of Cenkayapan, Jaina monk, 142 Hemapura, . . . . . 76 Cera, co., dy. or peo., 26, 50- Dadapuram, vi., ... xvi 51, 58-59, 61-62, 197-98 Dakkhina-Mahura, s.a. Cetaka (-muni), father of Madurai, ci., ... 17 n. Migayati, . . 112 Dandakaranya, forest, * 70, 78 cetana, 'consciousness', 108 dandanatha, "general', . . 203 Ceylon, co., . 60 Dandayana, Valmiki's Ceylon, Jainism in vi disciple, . . . . . 9n. Chettipatti, vi., . xiv Dandiyalankaram, Tamil wk., Chetty, tadbhava of Skt. ... 127 n. sresthin, caste, 71, 74 darsanas, 'systems of Indian Chitral, Jaina centre, . . xiv thought', . . 24, 33, 49, 107 Cholavandipuram, vi., xiv Dasaratha epic k., . . . 7 Christianity vis a vis Dasyus, natives of the land, . 10 kupal, ... 30 and n. Davida-samgha, Prakrit for Cidananda- kavi, au., . : 11n. Dravida-sangha,, 17 n. Cintamani, s.a. Jivaka-cinta. Dayapala, disciple of Matisamani, major Tamil kavya, .. gara, * * xiv 48,49 and n., 50, 64, 66, 91 Dayapala-pperiyar, donor, 189 Cala, co., dy. or peo., ... Devacandra, au., . . vi, 11n. vi, x, xii, xy, xvi, 26, 50, Devadana, 'gift to the gods, 52, 54, 160, 172-73, 175-76, . . xvii 193-97 devaluka, 'world of the gods, Cola-nadu, co., . . . . 177 73

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212 INDEX Devanandi-pujyapada, Jaina Dravida-sargha, s.a. Mula grammarian and prec., . . 15 sargha, . . viii, 16 and n., 17 de ra(s), 'god(s)', . . 51-52, 58, n., 30, 44 73, 75, 119-21, 125, 132 Dravidian civilisation, early, derar, "gods', ... 171-72 26, 27 and n. Devasena, Jaina prec., . . XV Dravidians, peo., . . 13, 25, 27 Devasena, au., .. . 17 n. devata(s), 'goddess(es)', . . 70, 105 ela, 'cardamom', . . . 47 devi, 'goddess', . 85 Elacarya, Elacariyar, s.a. deja dhamma, . : 148 Kundakundacarya, Jaina dhamma, Prakrit for dharma, prec., vii, xv, 30 . . 148 Eladi, Tamil wk., 44, 46 n., 47 Dhaninadeva-acarya, Jaina Elini, s.a. Adigaiman Elini, prec., . . 200 Cera k., . .. 198 Dharanendra, a deva, * ; 119 Eliviruttam, Tamil wk., * 17n. Dharanendra, s.a. Sanjayanta, Eluttadikaram, a ch. in Nemina. . 120-22, 125 tham, . . 121 Darna, ... 4, 23, 33-35, Eluttadikaram, a ch. in 37, 88, 125-26, 203-04 Nannul, . , . 130 Dharmacittan, m., ... 157 eluttu, 'letter', . . 24 Dharmam, a gift or a pious act, Enadi, off., . . . 187 *198 Encuvali, Tamil arithmetic wk., Dhirma-sastra(s), wk(s)., . . 36 . . 135-36 and n., 37 Engunan, an attribute of the dharm i-upadesa, . . 126 Arthat, . . 198 Dhra nav-urai-carukkam, a ch. Engunav-isai-Tirumalai, s.a. in Nilakesi, ... 106 Arhat-sugiri, I., ... 198 Digambara Jaina(s), . . viii, 145 Eta-Nandi alias NaratorgaDigambara Jainas, Ajivakas Pallavaraiyan, donor, . . 176-77 mistaken for i . . 107 erikarasu, 'odorous wood', . 47 Divikara-muni, Tamil lexico- Equvadi, vi., . . . 172 grapher, . . 131 Eruvali ins. of Pand; a Divakara-nighantu, Tamil lexic Maranjadaiyan... 151-53 con, . . 131 Eruvadi Jaina ins, . . 156 Dravica-bruhmanis,.136 Eviyampudi, donor, . 166

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INDEX 213 Gudnapur ins. of Kadamba Gadyacintamani, Skt. wk., Ravivarman, ... 148 67 and n. Gujarati literature, . .. v Gajabahu, k. of Lanka, 59-61 Gunabhadra(-acarya), ganadhara(s), 'chief disciple of Jinase nacarya disciple(s)', . . 23, 83, 126 and au., .. 66, 67 n., 131 ganattar, a body, ... 164 Gunadhya, au., . . 110-11 Gandhamalini, co., .. 119 Gunamala, q. of Jivaka, 73-74 Gandharvadatta, Vidya- Gunamalaiyar-ilambakam, dhara pr. and q. of a ch. in Cintamani, .. 73 Jivaka, .... 71-73, 77 Gunanandi-pperiyar, Gandharvadattaiyar-ilambakam, Jaina ascetic, ... 192 a ch. in Cintamani, * * 71 Gunasagara, comm., : 128 gandharva-vivaha of Udayana Gunasagara-bhatara, and Padmavati, ... 116 Jaina prec., .,.. 178 Garga, Western, dy., ...x Gunasagara-bhatara, Jaina Gangadhara, s.a. Senguli prec. and donor, . . 157-58 Anainaditenar Perumagan, Gunasena, Jaina prec., . xiv donor, ...... 200 Gunavati, Amstamati's Gangetic valley, migration attendant, . . . . 88 of Aryans towards, . . 2 Gunavira, Jaina monk, Ganisekhara-Maru-Porcuriyan, xiv, 193-94 Jaina prec., . . . 193-94 Gunavira-kkuravadigal, Gauda-brahmanas, eating Jaina prec., . . . . 159 fish and meat . 136-37 Gunavira-panaita, au., : 128 Gautama Buddha, . . 8, 107 guravah, 'teacher(s)', . . 193 Gautama Sakyamuni, s.a. guravar, 'teacher, ... 149 the Buddha, ... 8, 106 guru(s), Jaina teacher(s), * vii gopura, ...... 193 gurupadah, 'teacher(s)', . 192 Govinda, wife of Padumuhan, 71 Gavindaiyar-ilambakam, H a ch. in Cintamani, .. 71 Harappa, civilization ofGovindaraja, ki of Vidciya 27 and n. nadu and an uncle of Haricandra, Digambara Jivaka, ... 78, 80-82 Jaina au., . . . 67 n.

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214 INDEX Harisena, au., . . . . 10 Ilakkanaiyar-ilambakam, Hathigumpha ins. of a ch. in Cintamani, . . 82 Kharavela, .. 12 and n. ilambaka(s), 'chapters', . . 68 Hema-grama, Skt. for Ilampuranar, IlampuranavPongur, vi., . . . . XV adigal, comm., 21 n., 25 Hemangada(-nalu), co., Ilancatikan, father of 68, 80, 82 Catikan, .... 141 Hemapura, ci., . . . 76-77 Ilaneccurattu-kkurattigal, Hijra era, Bommaimalai donatrix, . . 186-87, 193 Jaina ins. dated in- . 201-02 llargautaman, donor, 161-63 Himalayas, . . . . . 59 Ilanga, Cera pr., ..51 himsa, the sin of . . 104 Ilangovad igal, Cera pr., Jaina Hindi literature, . . . . V ascetic and au., . 50-51, 61 Hindu Aryans, peo., .. 14 llankatunko, pr., ... 142 Hindu deities, Tiruvalluvar ilanko, 'heir-apparent', 142 included among- . . 32 Ilavenbaikkuli, vi., s. 191 Hindu revival in the 7th Iliad, Cintamani compared century A.D., . , . 31 with- . 64 Hindu revivalists, ... 31 inbam = Skt. kama, .. 33 Hosakote plates of Indirasenan, donor, .. 170 W. Ganga, Avinita.. X Indra, god, ..... 51 Indra festival, .... 53 Indranandi, Jaina au., . . XV Idaikkala-nalu, t.d., . 180 Indrasena, donor, .. 170 idar-tirkkum, 'healer of Indra worship, . ... 5 woes', . . . . . . 153 Indus valley civilisation, 27 n. Iksvaku, dy., . . . 8 and n. Indus valley, earliest Ilada-mahadeviyar, Aryan settlements in-- . 1 q. of Vira-cala,... 175 iraiyili-palsiccandam, taxIlana-rajar Pugalvippavar- free grant to a Jaina te., Gandar, chief, . . 175 175, 203 Ilaiya-bhatarar, Jaina Irajarajakesarivarmar, s.a. .... 177-78 Rajaraja I, Cala k., . 174 Ilaiya-mani-nangai, Jrambad:1, vi., .... 152 donatrix . . . . . 195 Irambattu-velan Sattan, Ilakkanai, q. of Jivaka, 81-82 donor, ..... 151-52

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INDEX 215 Irasakesariparmar(Skt. Raja- Jaina yogin(s), . . 21, 103, 112 kesarivarma), s.a. Aditya I, Jainendra, Skt. gr. wk., . 15, 130 cola k., .. 160 Jainendra(s), ... X, 143 Irugappa, minister of Bukka II, Jainism, its introduction 203 in the south, .. 13 Iru kkuvel, donor, . . 154 Jainism vis a vis Kura!, .. Irumadisola-Karunadaga 30 and n. Kaduttalai, a Cola regiment, Jainottaman, Irugappa 196-97 described as- . . 203 iyakkar, tadbhava of Skt. yaksa, Jains, . . . . 13 165-66, 198 Janaka, epic k., . . 7,9 iyakki, tadbhava of Skt. yaksi, janmas, births, i . 89 149, 198 Jarasandha, k. of Magadha and Iyakki-avvaigas, Jaina goddess, a Prativasudeva, . . 127 159 Jayamati, q, of Piajapati and iyal, 'section', . . 24 mother of Vijaya, . . 91 Jayangonca-solamandalam, Jaina acarya(s), . . 55, 134 t.d., . . 195-96 Jaina culture, . . 1 Jayanta (-Dharanendra), son of Jaina darsana, . , 33, 49 Vaijayanta, . . 119 Jaina ins. in Tamil, .. 139 Jina, te, of- . : 51 Jaina kavya, . . 49 n. Jina-diksa, . . . 93 Jaina literature, . . 10, 33 Jinadiyar, m., . . 147-48 Jaina munis, . . 43 Jinagirippalli, jaina monastery, Jaina philosophy, . . 24 XV Jaina Ramayana, wk., . 7,10 Jinakanci, s.a. TirupparuttikJaina religion, . . 1 kugram, vi., . . x, xiii, xv-xiii Jainas persecuted by the Pandya jinalaya at Mylapore, . . 130-34 k., . . xii jinasena, au., .. 66, 67 and n., Jaina sangha, . . 11, 17 n., 85, Jinasen-acarya, guru of 128 Gunabhadr-acarya, . . 131 Jaina sanyasi, . . 38 Jinendra, : . X, 143 Jaina teachers, impaling of- .31 Jinendramalai, Tami! Jaina Tirtharkaras,. . 19 n. astrological wk., . . 135-36 Jaina tradition, . . 23, 30, 39 Jivaka, hero of Jivaka 91 Cintamani, .. 65-67, 70-83

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216 INDEX Jivaka-Cintamani, s.a. Kalugumalai ins. of Pandya Cintamani, major Tami! Maranjadaiyan, . 157-59 kayya, xiii, 63 and n., 64 n., Kalugumalai Jaina ins., 65, 66n., 67n., 68 155-56, 173, 178-93 jivandhara-campu, Kalusavega, Vidyadhara k., . 72 Skt. wk., ... 67 and n. kama, one of the purusarthas, 88 jivanmukta, . . . . . 119 Kama, god of love, . . 79 jivas, classification of . 22-24 Kama-Jinalaya, Jaina te. built jnana, Lord of ... 23 by Kadamba Ravivarman, iadi, tax, . . . xvi 148 Jvalamalini, s.a. Vahnidevata, Kamakkottam, Jaina te., Jaina goddess, ... XV 147-48 Jvalamalinikalpa, wk., . . xv Kamakkotgam, Saivite ammas shrine, s. 148 k Kamban, Tamil poet., 63, 64 Kadaikkattur, vi, . . 189 and n. Kadamba, dy., ... 148 Kampapanmar, s.a. KampavarKadandaikkuli, vi... 157 man, Pallava k., 155 Kalakkuli-mangalam, vi., 173 Kampavarman, do., .154 Kadavaraya, dy., ... xvi Kanakacandra-panaita, Jaina Kalam, vi., . . . . . 159 prec., . 200 Kalambagam, 'poetic Kamakamalai, Hemapura pr. mixture', . . . 135 and q. of Ji vaka, . , 76-77 Kalanathasvamin te., Kanakamalaiyar-ilambakam, 149-51, 163 a ch. in Cintamani, . 76 Kalandai, vi, . .. 128 Kanakanandi-bhatara, kalanju, gold coin, 147-48, 172, Jaina prec., . . . . 186 197 KapakasandiKali, goddess, 48 n., 85-87, bhattaraka, do., . . 184 89-90, 103-04, 137 Kanakanandi-pperiyar, Kalinga, co, outside. donor, . . . . . 184-85Aryavarta, . . . . 3 n. Kanakavira-adigal, Kalithurai, metre, . . 128n. do., . . . . . . . 180 Kalitika, donor, . . . 141-42 Kanakavira-kkurattiyar, Kalladar, comm., . . 25 fe. disciple of GunakirtiKalugumalai, vi., . 173, 192-93 bhatara, ... : 160-61

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INDEX 217 Kanarese co., . . . . 15 Kattiyangaran, minister of k. Kanci, Kancipuram, ci., Saccandan, . . 68-69,72, 74, viii, 145 80-83 Kanci, Jaina philosophical Kaundhi, fe. Jaina ascetic, system taught at ... ix 54-55 Kandakkottam, Jaina te. Kausambi, ci., . . 110-11, mistaken for Murugan te., ix 113, 115, 118 kandarkattiri, medicinal Kaveripumpattinam, s.a. root, . . . . . . 47 n. Puhar, Cola ca., . . 50 Kandukkadan, a merchant . 70-71, 74 ka vya literature, . . 27, 48, 90, Kani-kkuratti, fe. teacher, 181 181 Kanimedai, au, 46 and n., 47 ka vyas, minor, . . 94, 110 Kani Nanta, Jaina prec.,140-41 kayyas, five minor Tamil, . 10 Kannada, co., lang. or peo, kavyas in Tamil, by Jaina V, 11 n., 126, 196, authors, . . . v Kannaki, Silappadikaram Kayalur, vi., .i. 152 heroine, ... 50-51, 63 Kemapuri, ci., .... 76 55-60 Kemasari, wife of Jivaka, 76 Kapilesvara Gajapati, Kemasariyar-ilambakam, Oriya k., . . . xvi a ch. in Cintamani,. . 76 Karaikkana-1adu,t. d., 152, 191 Kerala, co., ... 198 karanattur, off, ..165 Kesava, s.a. Vasudeva, 127 Karandai, Jaina to, at, xvi Kharavela, Jaina k., 12 and n. Karikala, Cala k., . . . 52 Kilcceri, I., ... 152-53 Karnataka, State, . vi, 197 Kiliviruttam, Tani! wk., 17 n. Karungalakkuli, vi., . . 172 ki Ikkanakku, 'minor Kurunilakkudi-nadu, t.d., . 150 poems', . . 46 n., 47 n. Karuppannasvamin rock, l., Kijsattamangalam vi., 155, 174 167-68 Kissattamangalam ins. of Karvetnagar, I., . . 90 Cela Rajaraja I, . 173-74 Kasi, co., . . . 2-3 Kijsattamangalam ins. of 195-96 Pallava Kampavarman, 154-55 Katakatiyaraiyar, m., . 155 Kilsattamangalam ins. of Katalan Valutti, donor., 140-41 Pallava Nandivarma II, Kathakasa(s), Jaina wk(s)., vii 146-48

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218 INDEX Kirapakkam, centre of Kulottungasala-pattanam Yapaniya-sangha, '. , xiv alias Telingakulakalapuram, ka, 'king', . 142-43, 150-52, ci., . . . . . . . 200 157-58, 160, 174 Kuluvanainallur, vi., 157-58 koil, kayil, "(Jaina) te.,' Kumarila-bhatta, 160, 162-63 Hindu reformer, . . 135 Konerinmaikondan, Kumbakonam, pl., . xvii Pandya k., . . . . 201 Kumila-gana, .. XV Kongudesa, co., ... 110 Kundakundacarya, Konguvel, pr. of Kongudesa Jaina prec., . vii-viii, 17, and Tamil au., . . . 110 30, 44 Korramangalam, vi., . 201 Kundalakesi, a story from Kosala (Kasala), co., Buddhist legends : 94 2-3, 117-18 Kundalakesi, Major Tamil kottam, 'Jaina te.,' . ix, 148 k avja, 48-49, 94, 103, 103 Kottur-nalu, t.d., . 182-83 109 Kovalan, Silappadikaram Kundalakesi, n. assumed by hero, . 51, 53-59 the 'nun of the Rose apple' KTsna, Bharata hero and a 102, 106 Vasudeva, ..... 91. Kundalakesi-vada-carukkam, Klsnadevaraya, a ch. in Nilakesi, . . 136 Vijayanagara k., . xvi-xvii Kundavai, Cala pr., . . xvi, 196 Klsnaraja, Rastrakuta k., 199 Kundavai-Jinalaya, Jaina te., Ksatraculamani, Skt. wk., 195 67 and n. Kunnur, vi., 150 ksatriya, one of the four Kunnur-yogiyar, donor, 189-90 varnas, . , 2, 4-6, 8, 10, Kuraganpali, vi., . . 157 35 n., 36 n., 71, Kural, Tan.i! wk., . . 83, 91-93, 118 14, 27-28, 34 and n., 36 and Kuberadatta, father of . n., 37-38, 40, 42, 46, 49n., 62 Suramanjari, ...80 and n., 64, 109 Kudarkuli-kkurattiyar, Kural-venba, metre, : 29 donatrix,... 191, 193 Kurandi (-tirtha), Jaina centre, Kuhur, vi., .,... xvi 150-51, 163-64, 167, 169 183, Kulavanigan Sattan, poet, 51 186 Kulottunga I, Cola k., Kutanni-Venbunalu, t.d., xiv Jaina te. named after, xvi

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219 vi., 185-87, 193 160-61 kurattiyar, do., 161, 181, 193 Madhari, a shepherdess, 55, 57 kuravadigal,s.a. Skt. gurupadah, Madhavi, dancing girl, . 53-54 192 Madhurantaka-Karunadaga 58 kurattiga!, 'lady teacher(s)', * Jaina prec., kuravaikuttu, folk dance, kuravar, from Skt. guravah, 'Jaina prec., 193 kurinji, one of the five tinais, Kuru, dy., Kuru Pancala, co. or peo., Kuttan, m., Kuttan Kaman, do., Kuvanacceri, vi., Lanka, co., Lata, co. or dy., Layana, ci., L Laksmana, brother of Rama and a Balade va, 46 n. 68, 111 2-4, 6 and n. 187 183 172 Lavana-kkandam, a ch. in Perunkathai, . INDEX Kattiyangaran, MadevanakkaNG, m., Madevi, donatrix, Lokapala, Pallava pr., Lokavibhaga, Digambara Jaina viii, 16 n. Skt. wk., M Madalan, Kovalan's friend, Madanan, brother-in-law of iii, 115 75 126 59 xvi 115 . 55-62 Madevi-Arandimangalam, Kaduttalai, a Cola regiment, 196-97 85 Madhva philosophy, Madhvacarya, Vedantic scholar, 84 Mahdya-desa, co., ca., Madirai, s.a. Madurai, Pandya 162-63 Madura, Madurai, do., vii,x-xii, xvii, 15, 17 n., 31, 42 n., 47, 51, 54-55, 57-58, 64, 161 Maduraikkanci, Tamil wk., ix Madurai Sangam, Magada-kkandam, a ch. in 47, 66 111, 115 Perunkathai, Magadha(-desa), co., 2-3, 5, * . 74 158 155 Mailainathar, comm., * 76 115-16, 127 Magadhi Prakrit, lang., Magaral, Jaina centre, mahaka vyas in Tamil, v, 63, 94 Mahapuranam, Skt. wk., 66 and n., 67, 91, 118, 126, 131 Mahavamsa, Buddhistic wk., 61 and n. Mahavira, Tirthankara, 5, 8, 71, 83, 107 149 Mahendramangalam, vi., 203 Mahendravarman I, Pallava k., x-xii, xv 130 6 xii

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220 INDEX Mailainathar, s.a. Neminathan, Manpai-Ponnandai, n., * 204 Jaina de., . . 130 Manu, law-giver, . . 36 n. Makkariyasan, au., . 47 n. Masanjadaiyan, Pand ya k., Makkayanar, teacher, 47 and n. 150-52, 157-58 Malabar Coast, Jain influence Maravarman Avasisulamani, on the people of- . 61 do., . xi-xii Malaikkulam, vi., . , 179 Masavarman Sundarapandya I, Malai-nalu, t.d., . : 58 do., , . 199 Malaiyadhvajan, Jaina ascetic, Masavarman Sundarapandya 154 II, do., xvi malapancama-raga, .. 88 Maridatta, k. of Oudaya-desa, Malava(-desa), co., ... 59,87 85-86, 90 Mallisena, Jaina Rsi, . . xv marudam, one of the five tinais, Mallisena-pperiyar, donor, 46 n. 171 Maruttuvan, m., . . 149 Malliyur, vi., . . 195-96 Masattuvan, merchant pr., . 52 Mammai-kkurattigal, fe. Matisagara, Jaina prec., . xiv teacher, . . 187-88 Mavandur-pparru, t.d., 203 Manakkudavar, comm., 39 Meru, pr. of UttaraMananika, pr. of Kosala and Madura, ... 118, 125-26 q. of Udayana,.. 117-18 Merumalini, q. of Ma Nayakan, a merchant, . . 53 Anantavirya, . . . . 125 mandagam, mandapa, from Skt. Merumandirapuranam, mandapa, .. xii, 162-63 Tamil wk., 22, 94, 118, 126 Mandalapurusa, Tamil lexico- Middle or Second grapher, .. xv, 131 Sangam period, .. . 26 Mandara (Mandira), pr. of Milalai-kurram, t.d., . : 158 Uttara-Madura, . 118, 125-26 Milalur-kkurattigal, Mangulam Brahmi ins., 140-42 donatrix,,.. 191 Manimekalai, major Tami! Milalur-kkurattiyar, do., kavya,. . viii-ix, 48, 49 n., . 181, 192-93 50-51 Minaksi te., . . . . . xii manipravala style of composi- Mingaikumanar, m., .. 191 tion, 67, 126 Mitaksara, wk., . . . 3 n. Manmagal-ilambakam, a ch. Mohenjodaro, I., : 27 and n. in Cintamani, . . . 80

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Mokkala, disciple of the Buddha, Mokkala-vada-carukkam, a ch. in Nilakesi, Mrgavati, q. of Prajapati and mother of Tivittan, Mrgavati, q. of Satanika, mudal-nul, 'primary wk.,' INDEX . Muvavadiyar, au., 106 Muvendan donor, Mylapore, I., 106 91 111-13 Mugai-nadu, t.d., mugamandagam, from Skt. mukha-mandapa, 155, 161, 23 and n. 195-96 mukkudai-kkal, 'stone bearing the triple umbrella figure', 202 mukti, 'salvation', 93, 120, 125-26 Murugan, Hindu de., Mutta-Aristanemi-bhatara, Mula sangha, s.a. Dravida sangha, mullai, one of the five tinais, Munibhadra, Jaina prec., Municandra(-acarya), 103-05 Jaina yogin,. Muni Sarvanandi, au., 45 and n Munivam sabhyudaya, wk., 11 n. Munrurai-araiynar, au., 45 and n. ix Nadaruppokku, vi., Nagakumara-kavya, minor Tamil kavya, Naganandi, Jaina prec., Naganandi-guravar, do., 163 Naganandi-kkuravadigal, vii-viii, 16-17 46 n. XV 192 43 and n. Jaina prec., Muttaraiyar, dy., Muttaraiyar, 'k. of pearls', 43 Mutti-ilambakam, a ch. in Cintamani 82 N Naccinarkkiniyar, comm., 64, 128-30, 134-35 19 n., 25, 39, 46, 60, 83 156 * teacher, Nallattal, donaetrix,. Namagal, sa. Sarasvati, goddess of speech, Namagal-ilambakam, a ch. in Cintamani., . 221 do., Nakkiranar, comm., Naladi, Naladiyar, Tamil wk., 12-13, 27-28, 39, 40 and n., 41, 42 and n., 43 n., 44, 46 and n., 109 Nalagiri, n. of an elephant, 115 Nalkur, vi., 170, 185-86 Nalkur-kkurattigal, fe. . 83, 110 xiv 149 47 170 155-56 25n. Nandakon, shepherd chief, Nandattan, cousin of Jivaka, 185-86, 193 204 * Nandi-sangha, Nandivarman II, Pallava k., 71 68, 71 71 77 X, 146 147-49

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222 INDEX Nanmanikkaligai, Tami! Neminatham, Tamil gr. wk., wk., .. ., .. 46 127 n., 128 Nanpappayan, a merchant, nerunji, medicinal root, . . 47 n. 195-96 Neti(tu)ncaliyan, m., . 140-41 Nannul, Tamil wk., xiii, 127n., neydal, one of the five tinais, 129 and n., 130 46 n. Naranan, donor, ... 148 nigama (nikama), mercantile Narasimha, Saluva k., . . xvi guild, . . . . . 141-42 Narasingamangalam, vi., 165 nigantavadi, Jaina sanyasi, 38 Naravahana, Naravanadatta, nighantu, 'lexicon' . 131 and n. son of Udayana, . 118 nikkanda, from skt. nirgrantha, Naravana-kkandam, a ch. in a jaina, . .. ... ix Perunkathai, ... 111 Nikkandakkostam, te. of Nariviruttam, Tami! wk., . Arhat, . . . . . . . ix 17 n., 65 Nikkandappalli, do., .. ix Narkaviraja Nambi, au., 130 Nilakesi, chief of devatas, Narttamalai, Jaina monastery 104-06, 108-09 at, . . . . . . . xvi Nilakesi, minor Tamil kapya, natlar, a body, ... 144 22, 37, 49, 83, 94 and n. Natsairuppokku, 1.d., 151-52 103, 107, 109 and n., 118 Nattiga-bhatarar, donatrix, 185 nirgrantha(s), . . . . ix, 107 Naltukkusumbu, vi., . 152-53 Nirvana, .... 68, 71, 83 Natural caverns in Tamilnadu, nisidigai, Jaina tomb, 146, 78 Jaina vestiges in .vi-vii Nitisataka, Skt. wk.,. . 44 Nayanar, sai vite missionary, xi Nayanar Tirumanaimalai Alvar, Jaina de., .. 200 Odeyadeva-Vadibhasimha, Neccura-nalu, t.d., 157-58 Digambara Jaina au., .67 n. Nedumasan, s.a. Arikesari Ottakkuttar, Tamil poet, 49 n. Para rkusa Nedumasan, Oudaya-desa, co., ... 85 Pandya k., .. ... xi Nelveli, vi., . . . . 177 P Nelveli-nadu, t.d., . . . 177 Padamulattan, m., . . 178-79 Nemidatta. au., . . . . vii padamullttah, te. off., 170-71 Neminatha, Tirthankara, Padikkamana, tadbhava of 128, 134-35 Skt. Pratikramana, . 189

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21 and n. Padimaiyon, epithet of Tolkappiyar, padimam, padumam, tadbhava of Skt. pratima, 166, 182-84, 190-91, 193 Padinen-kiIkkanakku, 'eighteen minor poems in Tamil', viii, 42 n., 44 n. Padirippuliyur, pl., 16 n. Padma, Pallava pr. and q. of Jivaka, 75 Padmavati, pr. of Magadha and q. of Udayana,. 116-17 Padumaiyar-ilambakam, a. ch. in Cintamani, 75 Padumanar, Jaina scholar, 42 Padumuhan, a friend of Jivaka, 71, 77 Paduvurkkottam, t.d., 175 Pahatam, Pakatam, s.a. Prakrita, lang., INDEX 18 palai, one of the five tinais, 46n. Palaiyarai, ri., 181 * Palalaiyam, n. of a cremation ground, 103 Palamoli, Tamil wk., 44, 45 and n. palankasu, money, 152 pal-gunatt-adi, 'source of many qualities', 153 163 855 Palgunatton, s.a. Arhat, pali, 'Jaina monastery', pali, s.a. palli 'Jaina te.', 140-42 Palkunra-kkottam, t.d., * * 223 Pallankovil copper-plate ins. of Pallava simhavarman, X, 196-97 143-46 Pallava, dy. or co., x-xii, xv, 43 and n., 75, 143, 147, 149, 154-55, 194-95 palli(s), 'Jaina te(s.)', 202 vii, ix, xiv-xv, xvii, 142, 147-48, 155, 168, 174, 176-77, 195-97. palliccanda-iraiyil, tax-free grant to a Jaina te., pallicandam(s), grant(s) given to Jaina te. or institution or prec., xvi-xvii, 143-46, 151-52, 154 175-176, 200, 202 Pallimadam ins. of Pandya Maranjadaiyan, 149-51 Pallimadam Jaina ins.,. 163-64 Palli-udai-adiga!, ascetic in charge of a Jaina te., 16, Palli-udaiyar, staff of Jaina te., 147, 201 Palli-udaiyar, Jaina de., 196-97 Pambaiyur, vi., Pambarur, do., 200 151 177 21 * . * Panaiyur-nadu, t.d., Panamparanar, Tamil au., Panca-gauda brahmanas of 137 Bengal, Pancala, co., 115-17 Pancala-desa alias Partti-nadu, do., Pancapandavamalai ins. of Cola Rajakesarivarman, 103 175-76

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224 INDEX Pancapandavamalai ins. of Pattini-kkuratti-adigal, fe. Pallava Nandivarman II, .. ascetic, . . 172 148-49 Pattini-kkurattiyar, fe. Pancavinsa Brahmana, Skt. teacher, .. . 172 wk., . 5 Pavanandi, Jaina au., . . xiii panca-vratas, Jaina principles, Pavanandi, s.a. Andai lliyar 45 Pavanandi, donor, . . 148 Panai-mandalam, t.d. . 131 Pavanandi-pperiyar, do., . 189 Pandya, co., dy., or peo., Peranandi-bhatara, donor, 190 vi, x-xii, XV-xvi, 12 and n., Perasiriyar, comm., 25 21, 26, 31 and n., 41-43, 51, Pereyiskudi, vi., . . 178 54-55, 58, 64, 150-51, 157-59, Periyapassivayal, do., . . 200 161, 166, 199, 201 Periyapuranam, Tamil wk., Pangala-nalu, t.d., . . 195-96 viii, xii Panoirandu-nighanku, s.a. periyar 'Jaina teacher', * 192 Culamani-nighantu, Tami! Perumanai, vi., ... 171 lexicon, . . 132 n. perumalli, medicinal root, 47 n. Pannirupadalam, Tamil wk., Perumandur, Jaina vi., xvi, 13! 21 n. Perumbalanji, I., .. 193 Paruttippattu, vi., . . 145 Perumballi, "Jaina te.,' . XV Paruttiyur, do,, . . 145 Perumbanappadi, t.d., * 195-96 Patalika, Patalipura, Patalipu- Perumbas;ur, vi., ... 183 tra, s.a. Padirippuliyur or Perumbatti-ur, do., . : 171 Tiruppappuliyur, ci., . viii, perumbidugu, Pallava title, 43n. xi-xii, 16 n. 30 Perumbidgu-Muttaraiya, Pattarakar, from Skt. Bhat- Chief, ....43n. taraka, Jaina de., . 152 Peru-Mutturaiyar, do, . 43 n. patarar, from Skt. bhatara, Perunavalur vi, . .. 758 Jaina prec.', . . . Perunkathai Tamil wk., 157, 178, 183-89, -191-92 110 and n., 111, 118 patarigal, from Skt. bhattarita, Perunkatunko, pr., : . 142 'fe. teachers', . . 193 Perun-Timiri-nalu, t.d., . 175 pattarakar from Skt. bhatia- Perur-kkurattiyar raka, "Jaina prec', . 184, 192 fe. tcacher, . . . 191, 193 Pattinattu-kkuratti, 'fe. Peruvembarsur, vi., . 165-66 teacher', . . . xiv

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INDEX 235 Piccai-kuratti, fe. teacher, 180 Pugalalaimangalam, vi., 149 Pidangudi, vi., . . . . 191 Pugalur Brahmi ins., . 142 pidaran, from Skt. bhatara, Puhar, s.a. Kaveripumpattinam, 'Jaina prec', ..174 Cola ca., . . ix, 50-52 Pingala-muni, Tamil Pujjapada, s.a. Pujyapada, lexicographer, ... 131 Jaina prec., , . viii, 17 n. Pingala-nighantu, Tamil Pusiyanguli, vi., ... 130 lexicon, ...131, 134 Pumagal-ilambakam, a ch. in Pisaca-bhasa, lang., . 110 Cintamani, . . . . 81 Ponneyil-nathar,Pon neyir-kon, Pundravardhana, ca. of Jaina de., ... * 204 Partti-nalu, .., 103-04 Ponniyakki, s.a., Pundi Muppavai, donatrix, Siddhayika, . . . . 149 147-48 Ponfur, vi., ... xv, 204 puppali, 'worship with Popgur-nadu, t.d., . 176-77 flowers, .,.,. 62 Porkodu, vi., ... 165 puranas in Tamil, by Porul-ilakkanam, a ch. in Jaina authors, . . . . v Tolkappiyam, ... 131 Puranic Hinduism, ... 8 Potanapura, ca., .. 91-93 Pura nic story, Culamani Prabhacandra, au., . vii-viii based upon, ,. . 91 Prabodha candrodaya, Tami] Pura nic story, Merumandira wk., . . 37 and 11., 38 n. puranam based upon, 118 Prabodhacandrodaya, Pura nic story of Jivaka, . 66 Skt. drama, ... 38 Purapporul-venba, Pracchodana, k. of Ujjain, Tamil wk., ... 127 n. 113-14 Purapporul-venbamalai, do. pracya, Eastern Aryans, . 2 21 n. Pradhana-Yogadharis, Pusattiraftu, Tamil Jaina yogis, ... 21 anthology, .... 49 n. Prakrit, Praksta, lang., Puravuvari-kkanattar, V, 6, 17-18, 110 revenue off., . . . . 166 Pratikramana-bhatara, puravuvariyar, do., . 165 Jaina prec., .... 189 Purnnacandran, donor, . . 186 Pratima-yoga, Jaina technical purusartha(s), . . 88 term, .... 21 and n. Puspanandi, donor, .. 178 Prativasudeva(s),... 126

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226 INDEX Puspanandi-bhatara, Jaina Ramayana, Skt. epic,.. 10 prec., . . 190-91 Ramayana, Tamil epic, . 64 Puspasena, Jaina ssi, .. XV Rastrakuta, dy., . : 68 Putppanandi, s.a. Puspasandi, Ratnanandi, Jaina au., , . vi Jaina prec., . 179-191 Ratnapura, ci., . . 122 Ravana, a Prativasudeva, 126-27 Radanupura, Vidyadhara co., Ravivarman, Kadamba k., 148 91-92 Kg veda, . . 1, 2 and n. Rajagsha, ci., . . 94, 115-17 Roman empire, contact of the Rajakesarivarman, Cela k., Tamil co, with 26 175 Rsabha, referred to in the Rajamahapura, Rajamapuram, Rgveda, .. 2 and n. ca. of. Hemangada,. 68-69, Rsabha, Rsabhanatha, 72, 78, 80-81 Tirthankara, 5, 195 Rajanarayana, Sambuvaraya Rsi-samudaya of Jinakanci, xv k.,.. 204 Rajapura, ci., . 85 Rajaraja, Cera k., . . 198 sabha, sabhaiyar, a body, Rajaraja I, Cala k., xiv, xvi, 156, 165 173, 193, 196 Saccandan, k. of Hemangada, Rajarajapuram, s.a. Dada 68 puram, Jaina, te. built by Sadaiyan Korri, m., , . 182 Kundavai at- xvi Sadayapparai, Jaina monastery Rajasimha II, Pandya k., xvi at, xvi Rajasthani literature, .. v Saiva faith, Saivism, xi-xiv Rajasuya-yaga, sacrifice, * 4 saivam, 'a strict vegetarian", Ra javali-kathe, Kannada wk., 01","; 136 vi, 11 n. saivam, 'follower of the Saiva Rajendra I, Colu k., :: 194-96 faith', . . 136 Rama, Ramayana hero and a Saivism vis a vis Kura!, Kesava, 7, 126 30 and n. Ramadattadevi, q. of Saivite revival, . . 136 Simhasena, 122-25 Sagaradatta, a merchant, . 78 Ramappa-nayak, Vijayanagara Sakya clan, . . 8 and n. agent, xvi

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INDEX 227 Salarkayana, minister of Sanskrit, lang., v, 6, 10n., 11n., Pracchodana, . 113-14. 15, 18, 22, 24-25, 36, 38, sallekhana, Jaina religious 44, 66, 67 and n., 84, 90, practice, 18, 19 n. 126-28, 130, 143, 145, Saluva, dy., . , xvi 161, 198 Samanappalli, Jaina settle- Sanskritic languages, . 18, 20 ment', ix Santisena-atigal, donor, Samanar, Jainas, . . ix 183-84, 190 Samantabhadra, Jaina prec., Santisena-pperiyar, do., 179-80 vii, xv Santivira-kkuravar, Samayadivakara commentary Jaina prec., .. . 159 on Nilakesi, 94 Sarabha, a bird in Hindu Sambandhar, S'ai vite missionary, mythology, ... .111 xi Sariputta, Buddhist Elder, 100 Sambuvaraya, dy., . xvi, 204 Sarvajna (-Vitaraga), 23, 119 Samhita literature, . . 2 Sarvanandi, uu., ... viii Samudrasena, k. of Partti- Sarvasri, q. of Vaijayanta, 119 nadu, ... 103 Satanika, k. of Kausambi Sandhyataki, Valmiki's and father of Udayana, disciple, , * * 9 n. 111, 113 Sangam, 'College of Jaina Satapatha Brahmana, wk., ascetics and/or scholars', 3 and n., 7 n. viii-ix, 14-16, 18, 26-27, Sattamangalam, vi., , . 174 42 n., 46-47 Sattan, s.a. Kulavanigan Sargama, dy., .... 203 Sattan, Tamil poet, . . 51 Sangha, Buddhistic, . . 106 Sattan Devan, donor, . 178 Sangha, 'College of Jaina Sattar-Gunattan, do.. 150 ascetics and scholars', Sattan Kali, do., .. 173 viii, xv, 85, 128 Sattan Kari, do, .. 163-64 Sanjayanta (-bhatjaraka), satya, Jaina principle, .. 45 son of Vaijayanta, 119-21, 125 Satyaghosa alias Sribhuti, Sankhya-darsana, 33, 107 minister of Simahsena, 122-25 Sankhya-vada-carukkam, Savatthi, ci., . .. 100 a ch. in Nilakesi, 107 savikitti, from Skt. sravika, .i. i. 172

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228 Second (Middle) Sangam period, Senavaraiyar, commen., Sendamangalam, ca., Sendan, m., Sendancatti, do., Sengudi Anainaditenar Perumagan alias Gangadhara, donor, Senguttuvan, Cera k., " sidan, tadbhava of Skt. sisya, 'disciple', sida-ppatarar, s a. sisya bhatara, 'Jaina disciples, 200 58-59, 61 Sinnavai, Pallava q. and donatrix, 25 25 Sirramur, Jaina te. at xvi 191 182 Siddha, s.a. Arhat. Siddhantam-uraikkum patarar, 'expounder of the sacred doctrine', Siddahayika, attendant de. INDEX 157-58 163 157-58 149 of Mahavira, Silappadikaram, major Tamil kavya, viii, 48, 49n., 50 and n., 52 and n., 60 and n., 66 Simhavisnu, do., Singanandi-kkuravadigal, Jaina prec., Singapura-nadu, t.d., Singavaram Jaina ins., 122 Simhapura, ci., Simhasena (-maharaja), k. of 122, 125 Simhapura, Simhavarman, Pallava k., Sita, epic heroine, 178 Sittannavasal ins. of Pandya Srivallabha, 161-63 Sittannavasal Jaina cave te., XV Sitta-Perumballi, Jaina te., 155-56 160 xvi-xvii 183 Sigu-bhatara, donor, sipumalli, medicinal root, 47 n. Sirupancamulam, Tamil wk., 47 n. 180 * Sirupolal, vi., sizuvalutunai, medicinal root, Solladikaram, a ch. in Neminatham, Solladikaram, a ch. in Nannul, 194-95 Sraman-asrama, s.a. Amanserkkai, vi., . * 176-77 Siva, Hindu de., XV, xvii, 137 Sivan, s.a., Arhat, Siya-Ganga, patron of Bhavanandi-muni, 45 n. 47 n. 7 130 Sravaka-nonbigah, Jaina laymen, x, 143 Sravana belagola, Jaina X stronghold, 11 and n., 199 Sribhuti alias Satyaghosa, minister of Simhasena, Sridandapuram, vi., Sridatta, a merchant, 146, 177-78 Sridattan, k, of Videha, 129 . 130 X, 143, 145 62 n. 122 176-77 72 68

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Sri-Kandappalli, te. of Arhat, Sri-Krsna, epic hero and a Vasudeva, Sri-mukkudaikkal, stone bearing the triple umbrella Jaina prec., Srivijaya-kkurattiyar, Srinandi, donor, Sripurana, TamiI wk., Sripuranam, Skt. wk., Srivallabha, Pandya k., Srivardhamana, Srivattamana, figure, 202 179 126-27 . 2, 127 * ix INDEX . " T Taccan-Sanga-kkurattigaI, fe. teacher, .. Takata, ci., Takka-nadu, co., 182 donatrix, Subhaddiran, a merchant, 76 Sudanjaana (deva), a deva, 73-75, 82 Sudattacarya, Jaina ascetic, 85 Sudharma, a ganadhara, 83 sudra(s), one of the four varnas, 35 and n. 1 67 161 179 79 Svarna-yaksi, attendant de., 149 Svayamprabha, Vidyadhara pr., 91-93 229 Takkayagapparani, Tamil wk.. 49 n. 143-44 Sunahsepha, story of-- . Sundarapandya, Pandya k., 31n. Tamil Sangam(s), 14, 91 16-17, 25, 64 Suramai-desa, co., Suramanjari, q. of Jivaka, 73, 79 Tamil Veda, s.a. Kural, TamiI Suramanjari-ilambakam, a ch. wk., vii, 29 tantra wk., classification of ji vas intavappalli, hermitage, 77-78 Telingakulakalapuram, alias in Cintamani, 23 Kulottungasola-pattanam, Tamar, vi., Tamil, co, lang. or peo., v, vii-viii, xiii, xvii-xix, 10-11 13-14, 16-18, 19 n., 20-23, 25-30, 31 and n., 32-33, 37-44, 48 n., 50, 60, 62-64, 66 n., 67-68, 83, 90, 94, 103, 110-11, 118, 126-27, 128 and n., 12931, 134, 136-37, 139, 145, 148-49, 151, 161, 172, 193, 202 47 Tamilasiriyar, Tamil Brahmi ins., Tamil literature, 140-42 v, xviii, 1, 9, 12 and n., 14, 19, 21, 25, 27, 29, 33, 38-39, 50, 62-63, 84, 110-11, 127-28, 136 v, vii-xii, Tamil nadu, 17, 139-50, 142, 145, 148, 172 ci., 182 Tenimalai Jaina ins., 198 Tenkalavali-nadu, t.d., 165-66 76 Tensiruvayil-nadu, do., 201 " 200 154 *

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te., 201 2011 194-96 230 INDEX TestiruppalIimalai, s.a. Tirumalaideva, Jaina de., Bommaimalai, . 201-02 157-58, 195 Tentiruppallimalai-ppalli, Jaina Tirumalai ins. of Rajanarayana, - 204 Third (last) sargam period, Tirumalai ins. of Rajaraja 1, 27, 45 . 193-94 tinaikkalattar, off., .. 164 Tirumalai ins. of Rajendra: 1, Tinaimalai-nucraimbadu, Tamil wk., 46 and n. Tirumalai Jaina ins... 199 Tirakkol ins. of Cala Parakesa- Tirumalai-kkurattigal, fe.. rivarman, . . 176-77 teacher, .., 187, 193 Tirthankara(s), . , 23, 71, Tirumalaimer-bhatarar, Jaina 126-27, 195-96 de., . . . . . . . 173 Tiruccanusrumalai, s.a. Tirumalaippassi, Jaina te., Chitral, Jaina centre, . xiv 196-97 Tiruccaranattu-kkurattigal, fe. Tirumalaiyar-Moni-bhatara, teacher, ... 182-83, 193 Jaina prec., . . . . 189 Tiruccaranattu-patarigal, Tirumalisai, Vaisnavite donatrix, . ',. . 181, 193 missionary, ... xi-xii Tiru gunagirideva, Jaina de., Tirumangai, do., ... xi-xii 168-69 the triple umbrella figure xvii Tirujnanasambandhar, s.a, Tirumusaippadiyar, Jaina Sambandhar, Saivite poet, . . 44n., 45 and n. missionary, . . xi-xii, 17n. tirunamattukkani, te. land, xvii Tirukkalambagam, Jaina Tirunasungondai, Jaina te. at devotional wk. in Tamil, xvi, 180 45n., 135 and n. Tirunavukkarasu, sia. Appar, Tirukkallambassi, Jaina te. at Saivite missionary, . xi, 17n. Kusandi, .. xiv, Tiruneccuram, vi., 157-58, 173 150-51, 163-64 Tirunutfantadi, Tamil wk., Tirukkottaru, vi., 178-79, 183 134, 135 and n. 84, 190 Tiruppadirippuliyur, vi., viii tirukkayil, Jaina te., . 155 Tiruppallimalai-ppalli, Tirukkural, Tamil wk., . vii, Jaina te., , . . . . 201 28 n., 29 n. Tiruppasmalaideva, Jaina de., Tirumalai, vi.. xiv, xvi-xvii, 175-76 187, 196

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INDEX 231 Tiruppanmalai-ppalli, Jaina te., Trisastilaksana-Mahapura na, xvi s.a. Mahapura na, skt. wk.,' Tiruppappuliyur, s.a. Southern 66 n. Pataliputra, . xii, 16 and n. Trisas tisalakapurusa-pura na, Tirrupparuttikkunram, Jaina Kannada wk., 126 centre, . . . . . xiii, xv Trisaszisalakapurusa-purana, Tiaupparuttikkunram ins. of s.a, Sripura na, Tamil wk., Bukka II, ..... 203 126 Tirupparutti-kkurattigal, Tudiyurinamalai, Jaina image donatrix, ... 188, 193 at, . . . . . . . xvi Tiruttakkadeva, au., 64 and n. Tumbur-kkurram, t.d., 157 65-66, 83 Tundira-mandala, do., 198 Tiruvalluvar, au., : . 30 n., Turavu-kkandam, a ch. in 32, 38 n. Perunkathai, .... 111 Tiruvennayil, s.a. Chettipatti, vi., . . xiv U tiruvilappuram, an endowment, Udayana, pr. of Kausambi, xvii 110-18 Tiruvirruttalai-Aruvalani, vi., Udayana-kavya, s.a. Udaya nan 151-53 kathai, minor Tamil kavya Tivittan, hero of Cintamani 110 and a Vasudeva, 91-93, 126 Udicideva, au., .135 Tivittan, corresponding to Ugraperuvaludi, Pandya k., Krsna, . . . . . 91 42 and n. Tolamojittevar, au., ; . 90 Ujjain, ca., . 87, 113-15, 118 Tolkappiyam, Tamil gr. wk,, Ulaga-nonbigal, Jaina laymen, 14, 19 and n., 20 and n., ix 21-23, 26, 130-31 Unjai-kkandam, a ch. in Tolkappiyanar, Tolkappiyar, Perunkathai,.. 111, 115 au., ...21, 24 n. Upanisads, ... 6 and n. Tongamandalam, t.d., . 135 Usai, stone abode, . . 142 Tonparad ippodi, Vais navite Uraiyur Sri Koil Nayagar, missionary, .. . xi-xii Jaina de., . . . , ix Trailokyavallabha, s.a. urar, U rom, a body 164, 173 Vardhamana, Jaina de., 203 Uttamapalaiyam Jaina ins.. 167-69

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232 INDEX Uttasandi-kkuravadigal, Jaina Velal ins. of Ceja Aditya I, prec., . . . . . 179-80 160-61 Uttara-Madura, ci,, . . 125 Veda-vada-carukkam, a ch. Uttara-purana, skt. wk., 66 n., in Nilakesi, 108 131 Velayudampalaiym, vi. 142 Uttararamacarita, skt. drama, Venbaikkudi, vi., . . 166, 182 9 and n. Venbaikkudi-nalu, t.d., 166 Uttaraveda, s.a. Kusal, 29 Virasoliyam, Tamil wk., 127 n. Vircamanayakan Candayan Ayiravan., donor, 196-97 Vaccananda-muni, Jaina guru, Viruttam, metre, 38, 49 n., 128 128 n., 131 vadakkiruttal, Juina religious Visnu, Hindu de., xv, xvii, 8,137 practice, .., 18, 19 n. Vadibhasimha, s.a. Odeyadeva Y Vadibhasimha, Digambara Yajnavalkya, Eastern Arayan Jaina au, .... 67 n. Scholar, 7 and n. Vaicaya, Vijayanagar gen., 203 Yajnavalkya-smsti, wk., 3 n. Vaigai, rii, .... 41, 57 Yapaniya-sangha, XV Vaigai-malai, I., 193-94 Yapparungalakkarigai, Tamil Vaigavur, a palliccandam vi, wk., 91, 127 and n. 195-96 Yapparungalam, do., 49 n., 128 Vaisali, ci., 113 Yapparungala-virutti, do, 128 Vaisesika-darsana, 107 Yasadhara, son of Asoka and Vais ya-puranam, Tamt! wk., k. of Avanti, . 88-90 Vaisnavism vis a vis Kural, Yasodhara-kavya, minor Tamil 30 and n. kavya, 83-84, 90 Vajjahandi, s.a. Yasodhara-ka vya, skt. wk., 90 Vajranandi, vii, x, 15, 17 Yasamati, son of Yasodhara and and n.,- 47 n. k. of Avanti, . 88-90 Vajranandi-gani, s.a. Vajranandi- Yavanika, s.a. Elini, kuravar, Jaina prec., 143-46 Cera k., 198 Valaiyapati, major Tamil kavya, Yugi, son of Brahmasundara and 48 and n., 49 and n. friend of Udayana, . 112-16

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