Indian Society for Buddhist Studies

Author(s): Prachya Vidyapeeth
Publisher: Prachya Vidyapeeth
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/032621/1

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Indian Society For Buddhist Studies Abstracts of Papers 19th Annual Conference (October 11-13, 2019) INDIAN SOCIETY FOR BUDDHIST STUDIES PANNAYA PARISUJJHATI Organized By: Prachya Vidyapeeth, Shajapur, Madhya Pradesh

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Indian Society for Buddhist Studies Abstracts of Papers 19th Annual Conference (October 11-13, 2019) V!! INDIAN SOCIETY FOR BUDDHIST STUDIES PAARAYA PARISUDHATI WWW Organized by : Prachya Vidya Peeth, Shajapur, M.P.

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Dr. Lalit Gupta Secretary Indian Society for Buddhist Studies 108 A (Private) Gandhi Nagar. Near Gole Market Jammu-180004 (J&K) **** From the Desk of Editor The present book of Abstracts is reflective of our program of deliberations that have been set for the 19th Annual Conference of the Indian Society of Buddhist Studies (ISBS) hosted by Prachya Vidyapeeth, Shajapur (M.P.) during October 11-13, 2109 at its campus. ISBS, was envisioned and established in 2000 by our beloved founer Secretary Prof. Baidyanath Labh, who is presently the worthy Vice Chancellor of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara (Deemed University), Nalanda, Bihar. Since its inception in the year 2000, ISBS has emerged as only of its kind academic association providing a common platform to academicians and researchers working in different fields of Buddhist Studies in Bharat and neighboring countries. During the last 19 years established and reputed scholars/luminaries and as well as budding researchers engaged in teaching and research in the field of Buddhist Studies have shared their researches in the ISBS's annual conferences. The Abstracts in this book reveal the participating member scholars' active interest in Buddhist Studies which in modern times has emerged as a multidisciplinary academic discipline with focus on Buddhist history, culture, archaeology, art, philology, anthropology, sociology, theology, philosophy, ritual studies, inter religious comparative studies and other

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(iv) subjects related to Buddhism. With the result the topics of research papers range from literature (Pali, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Chinese, Tibetan etc.) to philosophy; history (art, architecture, archaeology and so on) to culture; conventional Buddhism to modern Buddhism (like Applied or Engaged Buddhism, Environmental awareness, role of woman and youth etc. in making and propagating Buddhism), Buddhist doctrines and their practicality and so on so forth. I hope the participants will deliberate on various aspects of Buddhism and contribute meaningfully to promote open discussions on new scholarly findings in the field of Buddhist Studies. Jalis Gupt (Lalit Gupta)

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nava nAlandA mahAvihAra, nAlandA mAnita vizvavidyAlaya, saMskRti maMtrAlaya, bhArata sarakAra Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda Deemed to be University, Ministry of Culture, Government of India Tel: +91 6112-281820, +91 8114 599 899 Fax: 06112-281505 E-mail: yc@nnm.ac.in Website: www.nnm.ac.in pro0 vaidyanAtha lAbha getufa Prof. Baidyanath Labh Vice Chancellor Message It is a matter of privilege for me to write few lines about the aims and objectives as well as functioning of the Indian Society for Buddhist Studies (henceforth ISBS)--an all India forum dedicated to the cause of promoting Buddhist Studies in Bharat and abroad. Right since its inception in 2000, ISBS has been striving for enlightening the scholars elderly as well as budding ones to come to one common platform and share their research problems, functions as well as their outcome with one another, and by taking inspiration, work further for solidarity of scholars of Buddhism in our country. ISBS has travelled for the last 19 years and come up with new academic findings covering various aspects of Buddhism. It has created new waves of thought among the scholars and made Buddhist Studies a vibrant academic discipline. It is heartening to note that ISBS is going to publish the Book of Abstracts on the occasion of its 19th Annual conference scheduled for October 11-13, 2019. I hope articles will open a new vista before the participating scholars. I wish all the scholars to have successful deliberations in the conference. Bhavatu Sabba Mangalam. bor (Baidyanath Labh)

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bhAratIya itihAsa anusaMdhAna pariSad | INDIAN COUNCIL OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH Phone Fax E-mail Website : 011-23386033, 23384869 (0) 91-11-23383421 : chairman@ichr.ac.in : www.ichr.ac.in mAnava saMsAdhana vikAsa maMtrAlaya, bhArata sarakAra Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India 35. PRISITE TS, 75 facut-110 001 35, Ferozeshah Road, New Delhi-110 001 prophesara aravida pra.jAmakheDakara Professor Arvind P. Jamkhedkar adhyakSa/Chairman Message Indian religious tradition has been unique in various ways when one takes a review of the development of religious thoughts of man in general from the archaeological point of view. The conviction of the archaeologists is that the religious thought also underwent distinct and significant change when man became urban. With lot of discussion as to what exactly the nature of religious thought was during the Harappan civilization, some have concluded that it was primitive Saiva or Rudra cult, while some others hold with reasons to support that the mother Goddess cult was predominant factor in the religion of urban civilization, and prospered in present regions of Sindh, Punjab and Haryana. Archaeologists have emphatically pointed out that Rgvedic Aryans represent the late Harappan period which is estimated to be from 1800 to 1600 BCE. It is very difficult to decide the date of the Vedic literature especially, the Rg-veda which is supposed to be the earliest text of that tradition.

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(vii) Unfortunately, for the Indians a massive de-urbanization took place around 1600 BCE, and it is only around 1000 BCE that the second urbanization emerged in India. Archaeologists and Historians associate this period with the later Vedic literature that soon reaches its fulfillment in the form of Upanisads. Some centuries after the commencement of second urbanization there was a wave of non-conformist sophists and thinkers that challenged the early Vedic religious tradition, at the core of which were the concept of sta and sacrificial religious practices. The Buddhist tradition records 63 religious thinkers who have turned their back from traditional philosophical thoughts and practices. Two or three main streams of this new wave are represented by Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivika philosophy that left a deep impress on Indian mind and conduct for a long time to come. Buddhism and Jainism were revolutionary in the sense that . they neglected and set aside the monotheistic religious thought that dominated the urban society all over India, and the world. Buddha doubted whether one should seriously discuss if there is one single creator God who was responsible for sustenance and development of the world. Jainism outrightly neglected the existence of such an authority, whereas the Upnisadic thinkers believed in a principle that was the root cause of the world. All the three, however preached the path of renunciation for ultimate liberation from suffering in human life. I am very glad that this year the Indian Society for Buddhist Studies is deliberating seriously on the philosophical, ethical and cultural contributions of the two important religious traditions of India namely, Buddhism and Jainism. I wish all the success to the organizers, their endeavor in bringing together serious minds and researchers to evaluate the contribution made by the two thinkers, Buddha and Mahavira who have contributed a lot to the world at large and especially moulded the Asian way of life. (Arvind-P. Jhamkhedkar)

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viz yA vidyA zAjApura - ma prAcya vidyApITha zAjApura (madhya pradeza ) pAli aura prAkRta aisI bhASA rahI haiM, jo Aja upekSita haiN| pAli aura prAkRta kA sAhitya mAnavIya mUlyoM se bharA huA hai| ISBS dvArA unheM prakAza meM lAne kA prayAsa satata calatA rahatA hai| sAtha hI anya darzanoM ke sAtha eka samanvaya bhI sthApita hotA hai / pAli meM bauddhoM kA pUrA tripiTaka sAhitya hai, jabaki prAkRta meM jaina Agama ke grantha aura jaina AcAryoM dvArA 19 vIM sadI taka racita sAhitya samAhita hai / Aja ina granthoM kA adhyayana evaM inameM nihita mAnavIya mUlyoM kA adhyayana apekSita hai| bauddha grantha meM jo vibhajyavAda kI avadhAraNA hai, vaha anekAntavAda evaM dhArmika sahiSNutA kA AdhAra hai| pAli aura prAkRta bhASA meM likhita evaM jaina bauddha granthoM kA unameM likhita vyAhArika mUlyoM kA adhyayana Avazyaka aura apekSita hai| ataH aise viSayoM para saMgoSThI Ayojita honA ati Avazyaka hai / ISBS ke adhyakSa zrImAn satya prakAza zarmA evaM samasta samiti ke lie maMgala kAmanA karatA hU~ evaM dhanyavAda jJApita karatA hU~ ki jaina darzana va bauddha darzana kA tulanAtmaka adhyayana kI dRSTi se prAcya vidyApITha, zAjApura (ma0pra0) meM saMgoSThI rakhane kA merA nivedana svIkAra kiyaa| (pro0 sAgaramala jaina )

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From the Desk of Editor Message Message Message 1. viSaya-sUcI 3. bhArata meM nArI-svAtantrya evaM bauddha dharma meM strI - pravrajyA -- rAmanakSatra prasAda, nAlaMdA 2. kalacuri kAla meM bauddha dharma (tripurI ke kalacuriyoM ke vizeSa saMdarbha meM) 2 - raMjanA jaina jAtaka aTThakathA meM varNita striyoM kI sthiti kA samIkSAtmaka adhyayana 5 - aruNa kumAra yAdava 4. . vaidika-bauddhayuge ca nAryyaH sthAnamekaM tulanAtmakam samIkSaNam -asarapha alI 5. vartamAna samAja kI mAnasika samasyAoM ke samAdhAna meM dhammapada kI bhUmikA - jyoti tAvaDe 6. saMskRta bauddha kaviyoM kI dRSTi meM lokopakAra - zAnti lAla sAlavI 7. buddha kAla meM pazupAlana -- dIpaka kumAra 8. buddhakAlIna samAja meM - himAdri 9. paigoDAH itihAsa va bauddha dharma meM mahatva -- hauzalA prasAda 222 vastrAbhUSaNa vii ix 1 6 6 8 8 9 11

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10. rAyapaseNIya suttaM va pAyAsi suttaM eka tulanAtmaka adhyayana -sAgaramala jaina 11. pAli va prAkRta bhASA : samarUpatA va vibheda -tRpti jaina 12. vartamAna jIvana meM brahmavihAra kA mahattva - ajaya kumAra maurya 13. bauddha evaM hindU dharma meM tapa evaM saMnyAsa kA mahatva Adhunika pariprekSya 17 meM prAsaMgikatA - candrazekhara pAsavAna 14. vyaktitva nirmANa meM paMcazIla evaM paMca mahAvrata kI mahattA : 19 eka avalokana -sureza kumAra 15. bauddha dharma kI vizeSatA : manuSya jIvana kI yathArthatA -azoka pAMDuraMga sarode 16. zrIlaMkA meM bauddha dharma kA itihAsa evaM vikAsa rAjA devAnampiya 22 tissa, rAjA duTThagAmaNi evaM rAjA vaTThagAmaNi kI bhUmikA -sonU 17. samrATa azoka kI dhamma nIti evaM dharmanirapekSa bhArata kI kalpanA : 23 eka samIkSAtmaka avalokana - racanA 18. tamila pradeza meM bauddha dharma -dilIpa dhIMga 19. bhAratIya himAlayI buddha dharma -kArabhArI vAghamAre 20. bauddha dharma meM dharma - meghA jaina

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(xi) 21. sAranAtha meM sthita bauddha stUpoM kA bauddha dharma meM mahatva -sUraja prasAda yAdava 22. prAkRta evaM pAli gAthAoM meM adbhuta sAmya -dharmacaMda jaina 23. Sfesafatte at Hitgofats Gaelicht - rAghavendra pratApa siMha 24. Destroying Developing Foetus Interrupts the Journey towards Nibbana -Abhinav Anandxx 26. Murals in the Holy Land: Aesthetic Perspective -Ambalicka Sood Jacob 27. Devadatta: The First Crusader in Buddhist Sangha --Arvind Kumar Singh 28. Relevance of Buddha's Philosophy and Conflict Resolution in Asia . -Ashwani Kumar 29. Tson-Khapa: Revival of Buddhism in Tibet -Dipankar Salui 30. Doctrine of Kammavada as Depicted in the Vimanavatthu 39 --Gaur Debnath 31. Sanskrit Buddhist Philosophical Text : A Journey 41 through Retranslation - Jhumur Mallik 32. Human Beings like Clouds (Valahakupama Puggala): 42 As Depicted in the Puggalapannatti -K. K. Pandey 33. Accepting Old Age: A Lessons from Pali Text 43 -Mithu Lahiri 34. Sambojjhanga and Parami: A Study in Inter-Relation 43 - Niharika Labh

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(xii) 35. Contribution of the Belgian Indologist Louis De La Vallee Poussin to Buddhism -Oindrila Ghosal 36. Buddhist Devotion in Meditation -Pallabi Mukherjee 37. 'Silavagga' as Depicted in Jatakas -Prabash Barua 40. Caste System in Buddhism and Hinduism -Piyanka Paul 41. The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Society in the Past and its Relevance Today -Poonam Surie 38. Nagarjuna's Critique of Pramana: A Critical Estimate 48 -Prama Chakrabarty 39. Buddhist Ethical Attitude towards Plants and Animal Welfare -Paulavi Das 42. The Process of Tranquilizing the Consciousness -R. K. Rana 43. Buddhism Emphasizes More on Eco-Centric than Anthropocentric -Ranjana Mishra 44. Debate and Dialogue in Kathavatthu: An Analytical Study -Shailendra Kumar Singh 45. Rules Under Vinaya Pitaka: Are They Relevant in Today's Legal Context? 44 45 -Swarupa Charan 47. Nagarjuna's Catuskoti and Modern Logic -Md. Shahidul Islam 47 50 51 52 53 54 56 57 -Shrikishan N Morey 46. Influence of Buddhism on Evolution of Bengali Music 58 60

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(xiii) 48. Paticcasamuppada- As the Base of Buddhist Philosophy -Sushma Shree 49. Significance of Environment in Buddhism -Shravan Kumar 50. Spirits in Buddhism -Tuhina Dholey 51. Re-incarnation of Dalai Lamas in Tibetan Buddhism 65 -Vivek Sharma 52. Crisis of Human Values in the Contemporary World -Sonam Lamo 53. Mindfulness and its Utility -Parveen Kumar 61 62 58. Access, Attitude and Attainment: Reviewing Gender in the Buddhist Jatakas -Amrita Singh 59. Revival of Buddhism in Mongolia Post World-War-II -Buddhadev Bhattacharya 60. Why Did the Non-Buddhist Ruling Powers Patronize Buddhism in Early South-Eastern Bengal? - A Critical Appraisal -Suhas Chand Kapur 63 66 67 54. Buddhism as a Solution to Violence in Today's World 67 -Neha Sukhija 55. Contributions of Bhikshu Jagdish Kashyap to Buddhism 69 -Meenu Verma 56. The Influence of Buddhism and Jainism on SocioReligious Life of Common People at Mathura: With Special Reference to Inscriptions -Renuka J. Porwal 57 Buddha and Early Conception of Human Rights -Anirban Sengupta 70 71 72 73 75

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(xiv) 61. Concept of Mahasukha as Narrated by Maitripa -Sulagna Bhattacharya 62. Dzogchen: The Heart of Nyingma Tradition -Sagnika Bhattacharya 63. Origin and Development of Pali Commentary: An Appraisal 75 76 Subcontinent -Subhasis Barua 69. The Impact of Tourism on Heritage Sites - A Case Study of Ajanta Caves -Sanjay Paikrao 70. Significance of Buddhist Mindfulness in Daily Life -Ven. Sajjana 71. Obligation of Monkhood in Theravada Buddhism -Ven. Khemacara 77 -Rana Purushottam Kumar Singh 64. Contribution of Anagarika Dharmapala in the Revival 78 of Buddhism in India -Sharmistha Chakraborty 65. The Term 'Caste' As Used In Nikayas -Saswati Mutsuddy 66. Friendship: Glimpses from Pali Tipitaka -Arindam Bhattacharyya 67. Historical and Religious Significance of Milindapanha` 83 -Renu Shukla 68. Barua (MOGH/ Buddhist) Tribe Indo-Bangla 80 81 84 85 86 87

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bhArata meM nArI - svAtantrya evaM bauddha dharma meM strIpravrajyA rAmanakSatra prasAda, nAlaMdA mAnavasabhyatA ke itihAsa para yadi dRSTipAta kareM to hameM jJAta hotA hai ki prAgbuddhakAlIna bhAratIya samAja meM strI ke tIna rUpa milate haiM-- kanyA, patnI aura maaN| parivAra meM patnI evaM mA~ ke rUpa meM strI ko bahuta pratiSThA thii| saindhava sabhyatA kA samAja samunnata evaM samRddha nAgarika samAja thA / vahA~ nAriyoM kI pUjA hotI thI / mAtRpradhAna sAmAjika vyavasthA thI, tabhI to manu ke dvArA tatkAlIna samAja kA citraNa ina zabdoM meM kiyA gayA hai-- yatra nAryastu pUjyante ramante tatra devatAH / yatraitAstu na pUjyante sarvAstatrAphalAH kriyAH // kAlakrama se isa bhAvanA kA hrAsa huA aura smRtikAla ke Ate-Ate nArI ke mahatva kA avamUlyana hotA calA gyaa| kAla meM strI ko puruSa ke adhIna banAne kA upakrama Arambha huA tathA yahA~ taka kahA gayA ki nArI ko jIvanaparyanta eka abhirakSaNa apekSita hai| isIliye dharmazAstroM meM vyavasthA dI gayI ki pitA, bhartA aura putra striyoM ko pratyeka avasthA meM saMrakSaNa pradAna kreNge| pitA rakSati kaumAre bhartA rakSati yauvane / rakSanti sthavire putrAH na strI svAtantryamarhati // inhIM rakSya-rakSaka sambandhoM ke calate strI puruSa ke Azrita hotI calI gayI aura apane adhikAroM evaM svAtantrya kI cintA karanA bhUla gayI, kintu samaya ke sAtha parivartana AyA aura jaba nArI cetanA jAgRta huI taba use apane ko sAmAjika, dhArmika, vidhika, zekSaNika, Arthika evaM sAMskRtika hara kSetra meM upekSita hone kA bhAna huA aura usako yaha pIr3A saMvedita karane lagI ki use puruSa ke adhIna hI paratantra, parAdhIna evaM parAzrayI jIvana kyoM jInA par3atA hai ? yahIM se nArI ke adhikAra evaM usake svAtantrya ko lekara carcA kA Arambha huA

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aura kAlakrama se yaha eka Andolana kA rUpa letA gyaa| taba se striyoM ko puruSoM ke samatulya sthApita karane ke prayAsa nirantara ho rahe haiN| __isI krama meM jaba hama tathAgata buddha kI vicArasaraNI kA adhyayana karate haiM to jJAta hotA hai ki mAnavasabhyatA ke itihAsa meM kucha saMkoca ke sAtha hI sahI, para buddha dvArA nAriyoM ko pradatta adhikAra evaM Adara unake lie kisI varadAna se kama nahIM the| tatkAlIna strIsamAja kI bahuta sArI mahilAoM ne isa avasara kA pUrA lAbha uThAyA tathA saMgha meM praveza lekara apane jIvana ko dhanya banAyA evaM sAdhanA-mArga para ArUr3ha ho jIvanamukta taka kI sthiti ko prApta kiyA, jinameM prajApati gautamI, kRzAgautamI, AmrapAlI, paTAcArA, kSemA, vimalA Adi ke nAma pramukha haiN| ina binduoM para pUrNa lekha meM viskRta carcA kI jaaegii| ***** kalacuri kAla meM bauddha dhama (tripurI ke kalacuriyoM ke vizeSa saMdarbha meM raMjanA jaina, jabalapura bhArata ke itihAsa ke pUrva madhyakAlIna prAMtIya rAjavaMzoM meM kalacuri vaMza kI apanI alaga mahattA hai| kalacuriyoM kA abhyudaya guptoM ke patana ke uparAMta huaa| unhoMne chaTavIM zatAbdI ke madhya se satrahavIM zatAbdI ke madhya taka lagabhaga bAraha sau varSoM taka bhArata ke uttara evaM dakSiNa meM sthita kisI na kisI pradeza para zAsana kiyA hai| prastuta zodhapatra tripurI ke kalacuri zAsakoM se saMbaMdhita hai| madhya yugIna bhArata ke sAMskRtika jIvana meM tripurI kA eka viziSTa sthAna hai| prAcIna tripurI nagarI jabalapura ke nikaTa vartamAna tevara gAMva evaM isake Asa-pAsa ke kSetra meM sthita thii| isameM puNya-salilA narmadA ke taTa para sthita Aja kA bher3AghATa bhI sammilita thaa| tevara gAMva, jabalapura-bhopAla rASTrIya rAjamArga kramAMka 12 para jabalapura nagara ke pazcima meM 12.8 kilomITara kI dUrI para sthita hai| tripurI ke utkhananakartA zrI ema0jI0 dIkSita ke anusAra IsA pUrva prathama

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(3) sadI se lekara dvitIya sadI IsvI taka bauddha dharma yahA~ lokapriya rhaa| 1952 ke tripurI utkhanana meM sAtavAhana kAlIna staroM meM do IMTa nirmita bhavana saMracanAyeM prApta huI thIM jinako zrI dIkSita ne bauddha vihAra mAnA thaa| ThappAMkita mRdabhAMDa isI stara se prApta huye the jina para svastika, pUrNaghaTa aura triratna ciMha aMkita hai / isa kAla meM narmadA ghATI evaM mAlavA va nimAr3a kSetra meM bhI bauddha dharma ke pracAra-prasAra ke paryApta pramANa mile hai| sAtavAhana kAla ke bAda tripurI meM bauddha dharma kA pracAra bodhivaMza ke zAsakoM dvArA kiyA gyaa| ye saMbhavata: bauddha the| isa vaMza kA nAma bodhi, gautama ke buddhatva kI prApti ko sUcita karatA hai / unake sikkoM para aMkita vRkSa bhI saMbhavataH bodhivRkSa hI hai| uttara guptakAla meM tripurI kSetra meM bauddha dharma ke pracalita ho jAne ke nizcita sAkSya prApta huye hai| tevara (prAcIna tripurI) se eka mRNamudrA prApta huI hai jisa para uttaragupta kAlIna brAhmI lipi meM 'zrInAlaMdA mahAvihArAcAryabhikSusaMghasya' lekha utkIrNa hai| golAkAra pakkI miTTI kI isa mudrA para eka cair3I paridhi ke bIca ulTe krama meM yaha lekha aMkita hai, jisakA artha hai 'zrI nAlaMdA mahAvihAra ke Arya (sammAnanIya) bhikSu saMgha kI mudrA' / nAlaMdA se tripurI Aye kisI bhikSu yA adhikArI dvArA yaha mudrA (muhara) apane sAtha smRti ciMha ke rUpa meM lAyI gaI hogI / isakA prathama prakAzana 1968 meM huA / yaha tripurI meM bauddha dharma kI upasthiti kA Thosa pramANa hai / kalacuri kAla meM tripurI tathA AsapAsa ke kSetra se bauddha pratimAoM kI prApti se isa rAjya meM bauddhadharma kI lokapriyatA kA jJAna hotA hai / buddha, bodhisatva, tArA, hAriti, kubera evaM mArici devI kI pratimAoM kI prApti isake paricAyaka hai| tripurI ke kalacuri nareza karNa ke samaya kA sAranAtha zilAlekha jo kalucari samvat 810 ( san 1061 IsvI) kA hai, meM eka bauddha dharmAvalambIdhamezvara kI patnI mAmakA kA ullekha hai jo mahAyAna sampradAya meM dIkSita thii| mAmakA ne 'aSTasAhastrikA prajJApAramitA' nAmaka graMtha kI eka prati taiyAra karavAkara zrI SaDdharmacakrapravartanamahAbodhi mahAvihAra ke bhikSuoM ko isa nivedana ke sAtha dI thI ki bihAra meM pratidina usakA pATha kiyA jAye / tripurI

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ke eka anya kalacuri zAsaka vijayasiMha ke kalacuri samvat 944 (san 1193 IsvI) ke rIvA prastara abhilekha meM bauddha dharma ke jJAna ke devatA maMjU ghoSa kI prazaMsA kI gaI haiN| __kalacuri sAmrAjya ke vibhinna sthAnoM para atyaMta suMdara bauddha pratimAyeM prApta huI haiM, jo usa yuga kI zilpakalA kA pratinidhitva karatI haiN| bauddhoM kA triratna ciMha IMToM aura sikkoM para bhI milatA hai| tripurI, gopAlapura, bilaharI, kArItalAI tathA rAjArAma DuMgariyA se bauddha pratimAyeM prApta huyI haiN| nizcaya hI yaha yahA~ bauddha dharma ke vikasita hone kI kahAnI kahatI haiN| kalacurikAla meM dhyAnI buddhoM se bodhisatva kI pratimAoM kA vikAsa dikhAyI detA hai|paaNc dhyAnI buddhoM se vikasita (vairocana, akSomya, ratnasaMbhava, abhitAbha, amoghasiddhi, baGkAsatva) pA~ca bodhisatva pA~ca tatvoM (rUpa,vedanA, saMjJA, saMskAra, vijJAna) ke sUcaka haiM jo niraMtara gatizIla aura racanA kAryoM meM lage rahate haiN| inameM pramukha rUpa se avalokitezvara (padmapANi) kI pratimA mahatvapUrNa hai|bauddh graMtha mahAvastu avadAna meM inheM bhagavAna kahA gyaa| kalacuri kAlIna tripurI sAmrAjya ke zAsaka kalA ke mahAna unnAyaka the|klaakaaroN ne bauddha pratimAoM ke nirmANa meM zAstra sammata paramparAoM ke anusaraNa ke sAtha hI sthAnIya mAnyatAoM kA bhI rUpAyana kiyaa|tripurii sAmrAjya se prApta bauddha pratimAoM kA mukhamaMDala prazAMta, kohanI nukIlI, mastaka para alaMkRta mukuTa, rAjasI paridhAna, suMdara alaMkaraNoM kI bahulatA, pralambakarNa, AjAnubAhu, vistRta vakSasthala, sukumAra evaM kamanIya kAyA, Adi vizeSatAoM sahita aMkana kiyA gayA hai| pratimAoM ke parikara meM vidyAdhara, ca~varadhAriNI, upAsaka-upAsikAoM, siMha Adi kA aMkana kiyA gayA hai| pratimAyeM vibhinna prakAra kI mudrAoM evaM Asana meM darzAyI gayI hai| yathA- bhUmi sparza mudrA, vyAkhyAna mudrA, dharmacakra pravartana mudrA, abhaya mudrA, varad mudrA, lalitAsana, padmAsana ityaadi| katipaya pratimAoM kI pAda-pITha para lekhoM kA aMkana bhI kiyA gayA hai| ___ yadyapi kalacuri zAsaka mukhyataH zaiva the tathApi vaiSNava, jaina va bauddha dharma ko samAna rUpa se saraMkSaNa prApta thaa| kalacuri zAsaka vijayasiMha kA kalacuri samvat 944 kA rIvA prastara abhilekha bauddha jJAna devatA maMjUghoSa kI vaMdanA se

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(5) prArambha hotA hai jabaki vijayasiMha bauddha nahIM the / vaivAhika saMbaMdhoM meM bhI hameM kalacuriyoM kI dhArmika sahiSNutA ke pramANa prApta hote haiM / kalacuri nareza karNa ne apanI putrI yauvanazrI kA vivAha baMgAla ke zAsaka vigrahapAla se kara diyA thA jo bauddha dharma kA anuyAyI thA / uparokta purAtAtvika evaM abhilekhIya sAkSya, isa tathya ko abhipramANita karate haiM ki kalacurikAla meM bauddha dharma ko paryApta rAjakIya saMrakSaNa prApta thaa| ***** jAtaka aTThakathA meM varNita striyoM kI sthiti kA samIkSAtmaka adhyayana aruNa kumAra yAdava, nAlaMdA prAcIna kAla se lekara vartamAna kAla taka striyoM kI sthiti kA varNana, usa `sthiti kI prazaMsA evaM AlocanA tathA unake sazaktikaraNa kI bAta vartamAna akAdamika paricarcA ke keMdra meM rahatA hai / jaba hama bhArata meM striyoM ke sthiti Upara dhyAna dete haiM to hameM do prakAra kI dhAraNAyeM prApta hotI haiM, eka dhAraNA striyoM ke sthiti ko mahimAmaMDita karatI hai vahIM dUsarI bhartsanA karatI hai| vastutaH jaba hama isa viSaya para adhyayana karate haiM to eka laMbe kAla khaNDa ko keMdra meM rakha kara usa pUre kAlakhaNDa ko usa viSaya ke lie sAmAnyIkRta kara dete haiM, jisase kabhI-kabhI sthitiyA~ pUrNa rUpa se spaSTa nahIM ho pAtI haiM / prastuta zodha-patra ke mAdhyama se isa viSaya kA vivecana kiyA jAegA ki jAtaka aTThakathAoM meM striyoM ki sthiti kyA thA ? vastutaH jAtaka aTThakathA ko AcArya buddhaghoSa dvArA racita mAnA jAtA hai jinakA kAla IsA kI pA~cavI zatAbdI ke Asa-pAsa kA mAnA jAtA hai, yadyapi siMghalI paramparA ise mahinda thera se bhI jor3atI hai jinakA kAla tRtIya zatAbdI IsA pUrva hai|is zodhapatra ke mAdhyama se isa tathya para prakAza DAlane kI koziza hogI ki usa kAlakhaNDa ke isa graMtha meM kisa prakAra striyoM ko nakArAtmaka yA sakArAtmaka rUpa se citrita kiyA gayA hai jisase ki unake sthiti para pUrNa prakAza par3a sakatA hai| *****

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(6) vaidika - bauddhayuge ca nAryyaH sthAnamekaM tulanAtmakam samIkSaNam asarapha alI, kolakatA pRthivyAM sarveH sRSTeH mUlaM nArI-puruSayoH samaparizramayoH plshrutiH| tayoH sammilitapraceSTayoH vahavaH vivartanebhyaH adhunAtana Adhunika samAjasya utpattiH bhvti| varttamAna samAje nArI-puruSoH kammoH adhikAraH gurutvaM vA adhitaraH, yad viSaye pratiniyatam AlocanAM paryAlocanAM pratiyogIJca pracalati vayaM AtmabhyaH AdhunikAH iti vdaamH| parantu adhunApi nAryyaH puruSasamAnaH adhikAraH sarvAdA ca na dttvaan| adyApi nArIM bhogya - panya rUpeNa pazyAmi / ghAtakarUpeNa ca pratidinaM kanyAbhrUnaM kanyAzizuM ca hatyA vIrapuruSasya saMkhyA vRddhiM karomi / nArIM kanyAsantAnotpAdAnanimittaM dAyaH prayacchAmi / nArIjAtIM gRhasya vandidazAt pardAprathAt ca kiM muktiH pradAnaM zaknomi ? athac vayaM uttaritAni vedika-boddha yugau / ubhayoH yugayoH nAryyAH kathamAsan tayoH samAje, tasaiva tulanAtmakaM samIkSaNam Alocya sandarbhe varNItam / ***** vartamAna samAja kI mAnasika samasyAoM ke samAdhAna meM dhammapada kI bhUmikA jyoti tAvaDe, ujjaina dhammapada deza kAlAdi nirapekSa hokara jIvana kI kalA sikhAne vAlA graMtha hai| isameM pratipAdita satya sajanika, sArvadezika va sArvakAlika hai| manuSya ke jIvana meM kina kAraNoM se sukha aura dukha Ate hai athavA A sakate haiM unakA vizleSaNa yaha graMtha karatA hai| dukha se kisa prakAra mukti pAkara sukha prApta kiyA jA sakatA hai isakA mArga yaha graMtha batAtA hai yahI isakA dharma hai| kuzala karmoM

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(7) ke abhyAsa se mAnasika klezoM jaise ghRNA, pramAda, Asakti, mithyAdRSTi Adi se bacA jA sakatA hai| manuSya ke janma ke sAtha hI mana kA bhI janma hai, mana ke sAtha samasyAoM kA bhI janma hotA hai| pratyeka dezakAla, samAja meM aura vyakti bheda ke anusAra mana kI samasyAoM meM bheda hai, samasyAe~ badalatI rahatI hai phira bhI dhammapada sabhI manuSyoM kI samasyAoM kA aisA samAdhAna prastuta karatA hai jo sabhI ke lie upayogI hai| vartamAna samAja kI mAnasika samasyAe~ vyakti va pariveza ke anusAra bhinna bhinna haiM jahA~ hama atibhautikatA kI aura bar3hate jA rahe haiM samasyAe~ bhI bar3hatI jA rahI hai| vyakti kI samasyAe~, parivAra kI samasyAe~ aura samAja kI samasyAoM ke tIna AdhAra haiN| samasyAe~ eka mana kI hai dhammapada ke yamaka vagga meM kahA gayA hai ki sabhI dhamma manaH pradhAna manoyoga haiN| hama sabhI mana se baMdhe hai kyoMki mana hI manuSya ke baMdhana aura mukti kA kAraNa hai aura jisa dina mana - ke baMdhana se manuSya mukta hogA vahI usakI asalI mukti hogii| isalie yaha Avazyaka hai ki hama apane mana para niyaMtraNa rakheM aura dhammapada yaha kahatA hai ki jIvana ko nirmala, prasanna rakhanA, mana ko zAMta rakhanA cAhie, tRSNAoM para niyaMtraNa rakhanA caahie| dukha kA aMta asambhava nahI hai cAhe kaThina ho / manuSya apane ko vizeSa prakAra se zikSita kareM isake lie vipazyanA sAdhanA ati uttama hai| isa vidhi se manuSya apane bhItara saMvedanAoM ko dekhakara apane bAre meM saccAI jAnane kI antardRSTi kA kramika vikAsa kara sakatA hai isa prakAra bauddhamata AzAvAdI pratIta hotA hai isa AcaraNa ko pratidina ke vyavahAra DhAlane para vaha eka dinacaryA phira Adata aura antataH ApakA svabhAva bana jAegA isake liye svayaM kA prayatna ati Avazyaka hai| prajJAvAna vyakti tuccha cijoM ko nahIM dekhatA vaha samagratA se dekhatA hai| isa lie kitanI bhI kaThina paristhiti kyoM na ho kucha pala binA tanAva ke vicAra kareM kyA yaha sahIM hai ? *****

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(8) saMskRta bauddha kaviyoM kI dRSTi meM lokopakAra zAnti lAla sAlavI, vArANasI yaha sarvavidita hai ki samastadha zAstroMma, sampradAyoM evaM siddhAntoM ke mUla meM lokopakAra nihita hotA hai / 'lokopakAra' do zabdoM se milakara banA hai loka tathA upakAra loka se tAtpavarya hotA hai - manuSya samAja ke sAtha-sAtha anyapa prANivarga tathA bhautika jagat / upakAra se Azaya hita hai / yaha upakAra sAmAnyAtayA tIna bhAgoM meM vibhakta kiyA gayA jA sakatA hai - svogapakAra, paropakAra evaM lokopakAra / paropakAra evaM lokopakAra meM pravRtta hone se pUrva manuSya ko sarvaprathama svogapakAra karanA cAhie kyoM ki svalayaM ko svRsthata evaM sudRDha banAnA cAhie tabhI hama paropakAra evaM lokopakAra kara sakate haiN| kahA bhI gayA hai ki "zarIramAdyaM khalu dharmasAdhanam" arthAt vyamakti kA prathama dharma hai - sabase pahale apane Apa ko svAstha rakhe / svastha maya' vyakti hI paropakAra karake puNya arjana kara sakatA hai- " paropakAraH pUNyAya" / bauddha kaviyoM ke kAvyoM meM upakAra ke bIja sarvatra vyAnaptabha hai yathA- adhva ghoSa ne apane buddhacaritam meM yaha spaSTa nirdeza diyA hai ki bhagavAn buddha ke janma kA kAraNa loka kalyANa thaa| bauddha mata ke prAdurbhAva, vikAsa aura usake carama svayarUpa kA eka mAtra ghaTaka lokopakAra rahA hai usakI lokopakAraka dRSTi niHsandeha hama sabhI ke lie abhinandanIya hai| ***** buddha kAla meM pazupAlana dIpaka kumAra, dillI buddha kAla meM kRSi kA paryApta vikAsa evaM vistAra hone ke bAvajUda pazu pAlana mahatvapUrNa vyavasAya banA rhaa| kucha logoM kA yaha pramukha pezA thA aura kucha kA shaayk| buddha kAla meM pazu pAlana evaM kRSi ke bAre meM jAnakArI bauddha

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(9) evaM jaina graMthoM se prApta hotI hai| aneka jAtaka kathAoM meM buddha ko pazu pAlaka evaM kRSaka ke rUpa meM batalAyA gayA hai, kucha meM buddha ko hastipAlaka, sArathi Adi rUpoM meM varNita kiyA gayA hai|in jAtaka kathAoM meM prAcIna bhAratIya pazupAlakoM dvArA pazuoM ko pAlane kI vidhiH bhAra Dhone vAle pazuH yuddha meM prayukta hone vAle pazuH bher3a-bakarI Adi pazuoM ke Una evaM unakA mAMsa bhakSaNaH kuttoM kI svAmibhakti tathA prAcIna bhAratIya kRSakoM ke jIvana kI aneka anubhUtiyoM yathA harSa, viSAda, rItirivAja tathA unakI mAyatAoM Adi ke viSaya meM prasaMga vaza ullekha milatA hai| ___ bhagavAna buddha ne to yahA~ taka kahA hai ki mAtA-pitA tathA riztedAroM kI bhA~ti pazu bhI hamAre mitra hai| suttanipAta meM kahA gayA hai ki pazuo kA saMrakSaNa Avazyaka hai, kyoMki ve logoM ko anna, bala, saundarya aura sukha dete hai| dIdya nikAya meM pazupAlakoM, kRSa ko, evaM vyApariyoM ki sahAyatA karane para bala diyA gayA hai| . dugdha udyoga kRSi kA eka mahattvapUrNa aMga thA, jisase eka khAsa varga ke loga apanA jIvana yApana karate the| aMguttara nikAya tathA majjhima nikAya meM gopAlaka ke gyAraha guNoM kA varNana diyA gayA hai| vinaya piTaka, mahAvagga, cullavagga, majjhima nikAya, saMyukta nikAya, aMguttara nikAya evaM khuddaka nikAya Adi graMthoM meM bhI pazu pAlana se sambaMdhita prasaMga va zavivaraNa milatA hai| prastuta zodha patra meM upayukta viSaya kA vistArapUrvaka ullekha karane kA prayAsa kiyA jaaegaa| ***** buddhakAlIna samAja meM vastrAbhUSaNa himAdri, vArANasI nagara ke utkarSa ke isa yuga meM nAgarikoM ke pahanane or3hane ke zauka meM paryApta vRddhi huI jisameM vyavasAya jaise katAI, bunAI, raMgAI, silAI, ityAdi ko panapane ke kAphI avasara mile| pAli-piTaka tathA pANinIya aSTAdhyAyI meM

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(10) isake ullekha milate hai ki kapAsa, rezama, kSauma, Una, tathA sana ke dhAgoM se aneka prakAra ke vastra banAe jAte the ina vastroM ko cIvara kahA jAtA thA / bauddha bhikSu apane civaroM kI silAI khuda karate the / isake lie unhe suI aura kaicI rakhanI par3atI thii| jAtakoM meM suI banAne ke varNana milate hai| cullvagga meM darjI dvArA kapar3o kI silAI kA kAma karane tathA usakI dukAna kA varNana kiyA gayA hai| mahAvagga meM kapar3A kATane sIne aura raphphU karane ke zabdoM ke ullekha kie gae hai| kauTilya ne isa bAta kA ullekha kiyA ki tatkAlIna samAja meM kuzala kArIgara sUtra varma vastra aura rajjU kA nirmANa karate the / ataH ina pramANoM se spaSTa ho jAtA hai ki bhArata meM sile kapar3e pahanane kA pracAlana atyaMta prAcInakAla se calA A rahA hai| buddhakAlIna samAja meM bhinna-bhinna prakAra ke dhAgoM se vastra banate the aura kapar3o ki silAI bhI hotI thI / pAli piTaka meM strI-puruSa, rAjA - rAnI, dhanImAnI nAgarika, sAdhAraNa gRhastha brAhmaNa-bhramaNa bhikSu bhikSuNIyA Adi ke vastrAbhUSaNoM ke varNana milate hai sutta-graMtho, pANinI tathA kauTilya ke arthazAstra meM bhI isa viSaya ki pracura pramukha sAmAgrI upalabdha hotI hai, paraMtu tatkAlIna samAja meM pracalita pahanAve ke vAstavika namUno ke lie parakhaMbha tathA bador3A se prAptayakSamUrtiyoM, dIdAragaMja aura besanagara ki yakSiNI mUrtiyoM, sA~cI tathA bharahuta ki vedikAoM evaM toraNa meM utkIrNa citroM tathA miTTI ki mUrtiyA~ ko dekhanA atyaMta mahatvapUrNa hai| inake yaha tathya spaSTa hogA ki isa vizAla deza ke jana-jIvana meM vividhatA hai vaha nyUnAdhika rUpa meM yahA~ kI vezabhUSA meM bhI dRSTigata hotI hai| vastra ke viSaya meM upalabdha pramANoM se yaha bAta spaSTa ho jAtI hai ki isa yuga ke samAja meM kapAsa rezama kSauma tathA Una ke vibhinna AkAra prakAra ke raMgabiraMge paridhAna dhAraNa karane kA kAphI pracalana huA / aba kapar3oM parakAzIdArI bhI hone lagI aura loga sone-cA~dI ke ratna jar3ita AbhUSaNa bhI pahanane lge| mahAparinirvANa sUtra meM varNana milatA hai ki jaba bhagavAna buddha vaizAlI gae to raMga biraMgI pozAka pahanakara vahA~ ke nAgarikoM ne unakA svAgata kiyA / bauddha piTaka tathA jaina evaM brAhmaNa sUtra-granthoM se jJAta hotA hai ki tatkAlIna samAja ke strI-puruSa AbhUSaNa priya the ve apane zarIrAvayavoM ko kalAtmaka AbhUSaNoM se alaMkRta karate the dakSa svarNakAra aura maNikAra svarNa aura rajata ke

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(11) muktAmaNi jar3ita alaMkAroM kA nirmANa kara kalApriya nAgarikoM ki zauka ki pUrti karate the| ve aMgUThI, kuMDala, gale kA hAra, suvarNamAlA yA kaMcanamAlA, karNaphUla, kaMgana, cUr3I, mekhalA ityAdi aneka prakAra ke AbhUSaNa banAte the jinakA tatkAlIna samAja meM pracalana thaa| sone tathA cA~dI ke atirikta muktA, maNi, vaidUrya, bhadraka, zaMkha, zilA, pravAla, lohintaka tathA masAragalla kA bhI upayoga AbhUSaNa nirmANa ke lie kiyA jAtA thA / maNiyoM ko prAyaH sone cA~dI ke AbhUSaNoM se jar3A jAtA thaa| ***** paigoDAH itihAsa va bauddha dharma meM mahatva hauzalA prasAda, dillI bauddhadharma meM paigoDA kA vizeSa mahatva hai| paigoDA ko saMskRta meM caitya bhI - kahA jAtA hai| vibhinna dezoM ke rAjAoM ne apane zAsanakAla meM paigoDA kA prayoga bauddhadharma kI vikAsa ke lie kiyaa| isakA uttama udahAraNa samrATa azoka the jinhoMne 84,000 stUpa kA nirmANa karavAyA thaa| merA yaha laghu zodha patra paigoDA va usake dvArA bauddha dharma meM huye vikAsa aura vistAra para AdhArita hai| sAmAnya zabdoM meM kahA jAe to paigoDA eka maMjilAkara mInAra, jisame kaI orI hotI hai| paigoDA Amataura para cInI, jApAna, nepAla, viyatanAma, myAMmAra, zrIlaMkA, koriyA aura eziyA ke anya hissoM meM dekhane ko milate hai| kucha paigoDA tAo samAja ke pUjA pATha ke prayoga meM lie jAte hai para adhikatara paigoDA bauddha dharma ke anuyAyiyoM dvArA sthApita kiye gae hai| paigoDA kA dhArmika rUpa se bahuta mahatva hai jisakA kAraNa isake itihAsa meM chupA hai| Adhunika paigoDA kA itihAsa prAcIna bhArata ke stUpa se utpanna huA thaa| stUpa eka gumbadanumA Akara kI smAraka hai jisame pavitra avazeSoM ko surakSita rUpa se saMgrahIta kiyA jAtA hai tathA usakI pUjA kI jAtI hai| isakI zuruAta 5 vIM zatAbdI IsA pUrva meM buddha kI mRtyu ke sAtha zurU huI thI /

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(12) mahAparinirvANa sutta ke anusAra bhagavAna buddha kI mRtyu kI pazcAta unake avazeSa (dhAtu) ko droNa nAmaka brAhmaNa dvArA ATha hissoM meM vibhAjita karavAyA gayA, jise stUpoM kA nirmANa karavAke usame saMgrahIta kiyA gayA thA, parantu 200 varSa pazcAta tIsarI zatAbdI meM jaba azoka bauddha dharma kA anuyAyI banA taba usane una avazeSoM ko nikalavA kara unheM 84,000 bhAgoM meM vibhAjita kara vibhinna dezoM meM nae stUpoM kA nirmANa karavAyA, sA~cI stUpa isakA uttama udAharaNa hai / bhArata me do prakAra ke paigoDA varNana prApta hotA hai, prathama vaha jisame avazeSoM ko saMgrahita kiyA jAtA hai, dUsarA vaha jise maMdira ke rUpa meM sthApita kiyA gayA hai| zAyada stUpa se prabhAvita ho kara Araniko jo ki nepAla kA eka mazUhara zilpakAra thA jinhoMne kAThamAMDU kI ghATI meM paigoDA kA nirmANa kiyaa| unakI zilpakalA se prabhAvita hokara cIna meM paigoDA banAne ke lie bulvaayaa| cInI paigoDA kI zilpakalA cIna ke mInAra tathA cIna ke gumbadadAra imArata kA. mizraNa hai| cIna tathA usake Asa-pAsa ke dezoM meM bauddhadharma ke vistAra kA kAraNa ke vala usake siddhAnta hI nahIM balki usakI zilpa kalA aura paigoDA bhI hai| ***** rAyapaseNIya suttaM va pAyAsi suttaM eka tulanAtmaka adhyayana sAgaramala jaina, zAjApura prAkRta va pAli meM na kevala zabdoM kI eka rUpatA hai, apitu donoM meM vyAkaraNagata aura viSayagata bhI samarUpatA milatI hai| prAkRta kA eka graMtha rAyapaseNI pAli meM pAyAsi suttaM ke nAma se yathAvat AMzika samarUpatA ke sAtha milatA hai| praseniya sUtra kI jo viSaya vastu hai, vaha rAjaprasaniya se yathAvat milatI

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(13) hai| jJAtavya hai ki 'rAyapaseNiya'- isa prAkRta zabda kA saMskRta rUpa rAjapraseNakIya yA rAjaprasenajita cAhe sambhava bhI ho, phira bhI yaha adhika samIcIna nahIM hai, kyoMki isameM jisa rAjA ke sAtha saMvAda huA hai, use arddhamAgadhI Agama sAhitya meM 'paesI' aura pAli tripiTaka meM 'payAsI' kahA gayA hai| paesI yA pAyAsI ko prasenajita kA saMkSipta rUpa nahIM mAnA jA sakatA hai| ___maiM rAjA prasenajita nAma kA pakSadhara ho sakatA thA, yadi dIghanikAya ke pAyAsisutta meM prasenajita aura kumAra zramaNa ke madhya saMvAda hone kA ullekha hotA, kiMtu sarvatra kumAra zramaNa aura 'paesI' yA 'payAsI' ke madhya hue saMvAda kA hI ullekha hai, na ki kumAra zramaNa aura prasenajita ke madhya hue kisI saMvAda kaa| dUsare, prAkRta 'pIesI' aura pAli 'pAyAsi' nAma vastutaH prasenajita kA vAcaka nahIM hai, kyoMki na to prAkRta ke kisI bhI niyama se prasenajita kA 'paesI' rUpa banatA hai aura na pAli meM hI prasenajita kA 'pAyAsi' rUpa banatA hai| dUsare, donoM paramparAoM meM prasenajita ko kozala kA rAjA kahA gayA hai aura usakI rAjadhAnI zrAvastI batAI gaI hai, jabaki 'paesI' yA 'pAyAsi' ko artha kekaya deza kA rAjA kahA gayA hai aura usakI rAjadhAnI seyaMviyA (zvetAmbara) kahI gaI hai, yadyapi zvetAmbara zrAvastI ke samIpa hI thI, adhika dUra nahIM thii| dIghanikAya ke anusAra 'paesI' yA 'pAyAsi' prasenajita ke adhInastha eka rAjA thA, tabhI use prasenajita kA bhaya batAkara yaha kahA gayA thA ki jaba prasena yaha sunegA ki 'paesI' nAstikavAdI hai, to kyA kahegA? rAjA prasenajita eka aitihAsika vyaktitva avazya haiM aura unakA ullekha jaina evaM bauddha sAhitya meM bhI pAyA jAtA hai| bauddha tripiTaka sAhitya kA eka mahattvapUrNa graMtha dIghanikAya hai| usake dvitIya vibhAga meM pAyAsisutta upalabdha hotA hai, kiMtu usakA sambaMdha bhI prasenajita ke praznottara se nahIM hai, apitu 'pAyAsi' se hue praznottara se hai| usameM bhI punarjanma, paraloka kI siddhi ke lie prAyaH ve hI tarka die gae haiM, jo hameM rAjapraznIyasUtra meM milate haiM, ataH isakA saMskRta 'rAjapraznIyasUtra' nAma hI samucita mAnA jA sakatA hai, kyoMki isameM rAjA ke praznoM kA samAdhAna kiyA gayA hai| rAjaprasaniya kI viSaya vastu pasenIya sUtra meM nimna rUpa meM yathAvat upasthita hai| rAyasena ke sUtra meM yaha

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(14) kahAnI thor3I bhinnatA se varNIta hai| pAyAsiya sUtra meM bhI AtmA ke astitva ko vibhinna udAharaNoM se khaNDita karane va siddha karane kA prayatna kiyA gayA hai| pAyAsi sUtra meM bhASA ke kicitta antara ke sAtha cora, kubhi Adi kI upamAeM samAna hI milatI hai| zabdoM kA kucha hera-phera bhale hI hai, kintu donoM meM jIva va zarIra kI bhinnatA ko udAharaNa dvArA samajhAyA gayA hai| rAjapraznIyasUtra kA racanAkAla rAjapraznIyasUtra ke nAmakaraNa ke pazcAt yadi hama isake kAla ke sambaMdha meM vicAra kareM, to rAjapraznIyasUtra kA sabase prathama ullekha hameM 'naMdI sUtra' meM kAlika sUtroM kI jo sUcI dI gaI hai, usameM upalabdha hotA hai| nandIsUtra kA racanAkAla IsA kI pAMcavIM zatAbdI prAyaH sunizcita hai, kiMtu ise rAjapraznIyasUtra ke vartamAna saMskaraNa kI uttara-tithi hI mAnA jA sakatA hai| rAjapraznIyasUtra kA aMtima bhAga, jo kezI kumAra zramaNa aura paesI ke saMvAdarUpa hai, kA astitva usake pUrva bhI honA cAhie, kyoMki rAjapraznIyasUtra ke isa aMtima bhAga kI samarUpatA bauddha tripiTaka sAhitya ke dIghanikAya ke pAyAsisutta se hai aura pAyAsisutta IsvI pUrva kI racanA hai| 'paesI' yA 'pAyAsi' kA yaha kathAnaka I0 pU0 chaThavIM zatI kA hogA, jise donoM paramparAoM ne apane anusAra thor3A-bahuta parivartita karake apane graMthoM kA aMga banA diyA hai, kyoMki pAyAsimuta aura rAjapraznIyasUtra kA vaha aMtima bhAga, jo jIva ke punarjanma, paraloka Adi ko siddha karatA hai, paryApta rUpa meM samAnatA rakhatA hai, jo isa bAta kA pramANa hai ki rAjapraznIyasUtra kA yaha aMtima vibhAga nizcita hI IsvI pUrva kI racanA hai| ***** pAli va prAkRta bhASA : samarUpatA va vibheda tRpti jaina, zAjApura bauddha aura jaina, zramaNa saMskRti kI do pramukha dhArAeM hai| ina donoM dhArAoM ke vAhaka bhagavAna buddha tathA bhagavAna mahAvIra rhe| bhagavAna buddha ne jo kucha

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(15) bhAratIya saMskRti ko pradAna kiyA vaha saba pAli meM hai, tathA bhagavAna mahAvIra ne prAkRta ke mAdhyama se bhAratIya janamAnasa ko AplAvita kiyaa| pAli aura prAkRta bhASAe~ eka hI kSetra aura kAla kI racanA hai| bhagavAna buddha ke upadeza pAli bhASA meM upalabdha hai, to bhagavAna mahAvIra ke prAkRta bhASA meN| donoM hI mahApurUSo ke upadeza maukhika hI rhe| kAlAntara meM lipibaddha hue| buddha paali| sAhitya ko tripiTaka ke nAma se jAnA jAtA hai, to jaina Agama sAhitya prAkRta meM race gae hai| donoM bhASAoM meM kauna sI aisI vizeSatAe~ thI jisake kAraNa donoM mahApuruSoM ne inako apane upadeza evaM vicAra kA mAdhyama bnaayaa| vastu donoM bhASAe~ janasAdhAraNa kI bola-cAla kI bhASA thI jo usa samaya pracalita thii| kSetra va kAla eka hone ke kAraNa donoM bhASAoM meM vibheda kI apekSA samarUpatA adhika hai| kabhI-kabhI to prAkRta kI bhASA ko par3hate samaya hameM pAli kA bodha hone lagatA hai aura pAli ke adhyayana meM prAkRta bhASA se samarUpatA dikhAI detI hai| samarUpatA hone ke sAtha-sAtha kahIM-kahIM sthAnoM para vyAkaraNa kI dRSTi se aneka vibheda bhI milate hai| svara aura vyajaMna bhI donoM meM samAna nahIM hai, phira bhI pAli meM prakRti kI apekSA kucha svara va vyaMjana adhika hone se donoM kI samarUpatA ko bhulAyA nahIM jA sakatA hai| donoM meM viSama varga ke vyajaMna saMdhi prAyaH svavargIya vyajaMna ho jAtA hai, jaise - dharma kA dhamma, karma kA karma aura Atma kA att| kintu isakA apavAda bhI pAyA jAtA hai, jaise pAli meM anitya kA anitya hI rahatA hai. kintu prAkRta meM anicca banatA hai| donoM bhASAoM meM za,Sa ke sthAna para danta 'sa' hI hotA hai, jaise kaSAya kA kasAya, Azrava kA aasv| citta Adi zabda donoM bhASAoM meM samAna rUpa hI prayukta hote hai, kintu kucha sthAnoM para pAli kI prAkRta se bhinnatA bhI hai, jaise prAkRta meM pApa zabda kA rUpa pAva banatA hai, jabaki pAli meM pApa hI rahatA hai| mArga zabda pAli meM yathAvata rahatA hai jabaki prakRti meM usakA magga ho jAtA hai, kintu sagraha zabda kA pAli aura prAkRta donoM meM saMgraha rUpa milatA hai| isI taraha prakRti meM brAhmaNa zabda kA baNamana jabaki pAli meM brAhmaNa rUpa yathAvata milatA hai| jahAM prAkRta mukhyataH mukha zudA ke AdhAra para calatI hai, vahA pAli meM mukha suvidhA pradhAna to hai, kintu sarvatra mukhaLasudA kA prayoga nahI kiyA jAtA hai|

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(16) akArAnta Adi zabdoM meM bhI pAli va prAkRta bhASA meM vibheda milate hai, kintu kucha vibhaktiyoM ke pratyaya sAmAna bhI hai| ThIka isI prakAra kriyA kAla ke pratyayoM meM kahI kahI samarUpatA ke sAtha viSamatA dekhane ko bhI milatI hai eka vizeSa vibheda yaha hai ki pAli meM 'La' varNa milatA hai, jo marAThI bhASA meM prayoga kiyA jAtA hai yaha zabda na saMskRta aura na hI prAkRta meM hai| uparyukta viSaya kI vistAra se carcA pUrNa lekha kI jaavegii| ***** vartamAna jIvana meM brahmavihAra kA mahattva ajaya kumAra maurya, vArANasI mAnava ko apane jIvana meM jyAdAtara vyaktigata samasyAoM ke kAraNa jUjhanA par3atA hai| isI vyaktigata samasyAoM ke kAraNa mAnava jIvana meM sAmAjika, Arthika, dhArmika, rAjanItika, sAMskRtika, zaikSaNika, sAhitya aura paryAvaraNIya . samasyAe~ utpanna hotI hai| ye samasyAe~ itanI vikarAla hotI hai ki jisake kAraNa pratyakSa evaM apratyakSa rUpa se sabhI loga prabhAvita ho jAte haiN| inhI sabhI samasyAoM ke kAraNa mAnava sukha kA anubhava nahIM kara pAtA hai| samasyAoM kI bahulatA ke kAraNa vyakti kA jIvana nirarthaka ho jAtA hai| mAnava jIvana ko ina samasyAoM se mukti hetu vibhinna prakAra ke prayAsa kiye jAte hai, parantu ye samasyAe~ sthAyI rUpa se samApta nahIM hotI hai| yadi mAnava jIvana ko ina samasyAoM se mukti pAnA hai to isake lie zAstA dvArA pratipAdita brahmavihAra ke anuzIlana se zreSTha koI sthAyI upAya anyatra kahIM nahIM hai| ___ brahmavihAra ke anuzIlana se manuSya kI tRSNA (icchA) kA nAza jAtA hai aura jaba tRSNA kA nAza ho jAtA hai to manuSya ke andara kuzala karma kA AvirbhAva ho jAtA hai| taba vyakti kuzala karmo ko karate hue sukhapUrvaka apanA jIvana vyatIta karatA hai aura dUsaroM ko bhI kuzala karma karane ke lie prerita karatA hai tAki ve loga bhI sukhapUrvaka jIvana yApana kara skeN| isake anuzIlana se vyakti ke citta meM

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(17) nirmalatA bar3hane lagatI hai| jisake anubhava se vaha sAre pApakarmoM ko na karake puNya karmoM kA saMcaya karatA huA apane citta ko parizuddha karatA hai| yathA sabba pApassa akaraNaM kuzalassa upsmpdaa| sacittapariyodapanaM etaM buddhAna saasnN|| arthAt kisI bhI prakAra ke pApa karmoM kA na karanA, acche karmoM kA saMcayana karanA, apane citta ko hamezA nirmala banAye rakhanA yahI buddha kA niyama hai| isa prakAra vyakti apane acche karmoM ke anubhava se hamezA sukhapUrvaka jIvana vyatIta kara sakatA hai| jisake pariNAmasvarUpa vaha apanI mAnasika bimAriyoM se dUra rahatA hai| yathA idha modIti pecca modati katapulA ubhayatra modiiti| so modati so pamodati disvA kmmvisuddhimttno|| arthAt isa loka meM moda karatA hai aura paraloka meM jAkara bhI puNyAtmA donoM jagaha moda karatA hai| vaha apane karmoM kI vizuddhi ko dekhakara moda karatA hai, pramoda karatA hai| ___ isa zodha lekha meM Aja ke sAmAjika pariveza ko dekhate hue brahmavihAra ke mahatva para prakAza DAlA jaayegaa| ***** bauddha evaM hindU dharma meM tapa evaM saMnyAsa kA mahatva Adhunika pariprekSya meM prAsaMgikatA candrazekhara pAsavAna, greTara noeDA bhAratIya samAja meM sadiyoM se aneka sAMskRtika paramparA vidyamAna rahe haiM unake anurUpa dhArmika niSThA evaM vizvAsa bhI vividhi rahI hai| prAcInakAla se hI eka ora bauddhadharma evaM jaina dharma yA dUsarI ora sanAtana dharma yA bhAgavata dharma kA vikAsa huA hai| chaThI zatAbdI I0pU0 meM sAmAjika

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(18) laukika jIvana kA netRtva rAjAoM, RSiyoM, upAdhyAyoM, AcAryo ke anurUpa calatI thI jo zakti aura dhana se athavA devatAoM kI kRpA se apane aura dUsaroM ke liye yoga aura suvidhAeM juTAne meM satya citta ye tathA unake prayatna se sAmAjya vistRta evaM samRddha ho rahe the| dUsarI ora samAja ke isa pravRtti pakSa kI sarvathA avahelanA karate hue aneka zravaNa, brahma, muNDaka (athavA bhikSu) jaTila Adi jIvana ke dukha se tapta samAja ke samakSa nivRtti evaM zAMti kA Adarza upasthita kara rahe the jo usa yuga ke dhArmika jIvana kA saMbhavata sabase mahatvapUrNa tathya thaa| bhikSu jIvana meM vizuddhi ko jIvana kA lakSya nirdhArita kiyA gayA hai isI prApti kA upAya bhI batAyA gayA hai alpAhAra, saMsAratyAga, yajJa, agni paricaryA, niSkarma, tapazcaryA dhyAna aadi| tapa kA artha hotA hai apanA yA pradIpti honA arthAta zarIra ko tapA kara tejasvI bana jaanaa| Arambha meM tapakA rUpa hotA thA AtmasaMyama, tApamAna Atmokarya ke liye zarIra ko Atma saMyama evaM AtmapIr3ana ke dvArA zarIra aura mana para dRr3hatA sthApita karane lge| isa caryA ke liye loga araNyavAsI banane lage to vaha sthAna araNyabhUmi se tapobhUmi meM badala gayI / tapa vaha sAdhana hai jisase vyakti Atma saMyama ke dvArA apane lakSya ke mArga ko sugama banAtA hai| muNDaka upaniSada meM tapa ko brahma jJAna prApti kA sAdhana batAyA gayA hai aura kahA gayA hai ki brahmajJAnI kA zikSA prApta kara zikSA para nirbhara rahanA cAhiye / tapazcaryA meM yogAbhyAsa kA pramukha sthAna rahA hai yA yoga kI anaMta zakti para logoM kA dRr3ha vizvAsa bhI rahA hai| jAvAlI upaniSada meM kahA gayA hai ki jisa samaya mana meM vairAgya kI bhAvanA utpanna ho jAe usI kSaNa pravajyA grahaNa kara lenI caahie| isa samaya sAMsArika sukha-bhogoM kI kSaNabhaMguratA ke kAraNa hI manuSya ke hRdaya meM vairAgya upanna kI bhAvanA jAgRti huI tavA ve araNyavAsI banane lage / bauddha jAtaka kathAoM meM isa bAta para bala diyA gayA hai ki sAMsArika viSaya-vAsanAe~ manuSya ko aghogati ke mArga meM le calatI hai, ataH vairAgya hI AtmotkarSa kA zreSTha mArga hai| vairAgya ke mUla meM prema zakti Atma jijJAsA hI thii| dIrghanikAya, majjhimanikAya, saMyukta nikAya, yeragAthA, therIgAthA, sutta nipAta

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(19) Adi pAli gAyoM meM sAMsArika jIvana kI niHsAratA batalAtI huI vairAgya jIvana kI mahattA ke gIta evaM varNana kiye gaye hai| upaniSada kI dArzanika vicAradhArA meM varNana kiyA gayA hai ki mokSa kI prApti hI jIvana kA parama lakSya hai jisake phalasvarUpa vRddha-yuvA, strI-puruSa rAjA aura raMka sabhI baDI saMkhyA meM prabhAvita hokara pravajita hone lage aura araNya meM tApasa apane AdhAryoM ke sAtha baDe baDe samUha meM rahane lge| brAhmaNa, bauddha, jaina, AjIvaka, acela, jaTila Adi mataM samAnarUpa se sAMsArika jIvana se vairAgya ke mahatva ko svIkAra kiyA hai| pAli piTaka meM tApasoM ke liye parivrAjaka, bhikSu, zravaNa, yati, sanyAsI Adi zabda milate hai nikAryoM meM prAyaH parivrAjaka zabda prayukta huA hai| __ brAhamaNadharmAmbalI meM tApasa ko do varga meM bATA gayA hai| prathama varga vAnaprasthiyoM tathA sanyAsiyoM kA tathA dUsarA parivrAjaka kA thaa| ve jIvana ke prati apane dArzanika dRSTikoNa ke anurUpa tapa ko apanAte the| isa prakAra bauddha brAhmaNa -dharma kI sAmAnya vyavastha meM lagabhaga Adhe se adhika samAja ke liya saMsAra se virata hokara satya kI jijJAsA meM jJAniyoM ke patha-pradarzana meM, bhI yA tapasvI kA jIvana vyatIta karanA vidhivat the| ***** vyaktitva nirmANa meM paMcazIla evaM paMca mahAvrata kI mahattAH eka avalokana sureza kumAra, dillI bhAratIya jIvana zailI evaM ziSTAcArika paramparA meM vyaktitva nirmANa para adhika bala diyA gayA, sirpha adhyAtmika yA dhArmika stara para hI nahIM apitu samAja athavA deza kI pragAti meM bhI vyaktitva nirmANa para bala diyA gayA hai kyoMki yaha sarva vidita hai ki jisa bhI vaMza, sampradAya, samUha, samAja, athavA deza ke nAgarika jitane adhika sadAcArI, eka-dUsare ke prati maitri bhAva rakhane

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(20) vAle, satya-niSThA kA pAlana karane vAle, guru-jana kA sammAna karane vAle, prANimAtra ke prati prema evaM karUNA kA bhAva rakhane vAle hoMge ve kula, samAja, deza ityAdi utanI hI unnati karegA, bhAratIya darzana kI do dhArmika paramparAoMbauddha evaM jaina ne vyaktitva nirmANa ke lie mArga sujhAyA hai jisakA agara kisI bhI vyakti dvArA sacce va sApha mana se anusaraNa kiyA jAe to samvataH eka sadAcArI vyaktitva ke uddezya ko prApta kiyA jA sakatA hai| bauddha dharma meM jahAM paMcazIla kA mArga sujhAyA gayA hai vahIM jaina dharma meM paMca mahAvrata ke anupAlana kI bAta kahI gaI hai| paMcazIla ke pAMca sArvabhauma niyama isa prakAra hai--pANAtipAtA veramaNI, adinnAdAnA veramaNI, abrahmacariyA veramaNI (gRhasthoM ke lie kAmesumicchAcArA veramaNI), musAvAdA veramaNI tathA surAmereyyamajjappamAdATThAnA veramaNI / inhIM paMcazIla ke samakakSa jaina dharma ke paMca mahAvrata ahiMsA, satya, asteya, tyAga va brahmacarya haiN| jo vyakti inakA pAlana karatA hai, usakA AcaraNa pavitra mAnA jAtA hai prastuta zodha patra meM buddha evaM mahAvIra dvArA sujhAe gae ina donoM mArgoM kI tulanAtmaka vivecanA kI jaaegii| ***** bauddha dharma kI vizeSatA : manuSya jIvana kI yathArthatA azoka pAMDuraMga sarode, auraMgAbAda bauddha dharma eka vaijJAnika dharma hai| manuSya jIvana ke yathArtha ke sAkSAtkAra meM bauddha dharma evaM darzana kA amUlya yogadAna rahA hai| bhagavAna buddha svayaM saMsAra kI duHkhamayatA kA anubhava kara zAnti kI khoja meM ghara se parivrajita hue the| siddhArtha gautama ko sAta sAla ke dIrgha tapasyA ke pazcAt unhe saMbodhi upalabdha huI / tathAgata buddha ne zokAkula loka ke avalokana se dravita hokara saMbodhi se prApta dharma kI dezanA se lokaprasAra kA dAyitva batAyA thA / unake dharma kI dezanA mAtra bauddhika saMkramaNa kA

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(21) pariNAma nahIM thI apitu unakA dharma duHkhamaya saMsAra ke taTa se nirvANa rUpI taTa taka le jAne vAlA eka setu thA, jisakA AdhAra jIvana ke aparihArya duHkha kI anantatA hai / isa rUpa meM tathAgata buddha kI dhamacaryA duHkha kI pravRtti kA anubhava kara usakI nivRtti ke liye kiyA gayA anavarata prayAsa hai, jo saMbodhita kI caramatA ko prApta karAkara mAnava ko nirvANa ke paramapada taka pahu~cAtA hai / buddha kI dharmadezanA sarva sAdhAraNa jana ke lie thI, isaliye unhoMne dharma upadeza ke lie lokabhASA kA Azraya liyA, jo bauddha dharma prasAra meM atyadhika sahAyaka evaM saphala rahA / tathAgata buddha kI lokapriyatA dina va dina bar3hatI hI rahI kyoMki buddha ke samaya meM aura dharma pravartaka maujuda the, lekina koI bhI dharma yA unake vicAra sAmAnya logoM ke jIvana ke bAre meM socatA najara nahIM AtA hai / lekina tathAgata buddha ne Ama taura para samAja ke pichar3e varga se lekara rAjA mahArAjAoM taka sabhI ko eka samAna mAnakara mAnavIya krAMti kI zuruAta kI thI / buddha ke dharma kA AdhAra hI mAnavIya duHkha rahA hai| manuSya ke jIvana meM duHkha to hai - lekina usa duHkha kI nivRtti bhI ho sakatI hai| usakA bhI mArga tathAgata buddha ne batAyA hai / tathAgata buddha ne sabhI ko nirvANa prApta karane meM jo mArga hai vaha sabhI ke lie khulA kara diyA hai| buddha ke dharma kA pAlana karane se manuSya jIvana meM duHkha kA sarvanAza ho sakatA hai| sabhI saMsAra sukha aura caina se apanA jIvana vyatita kara sakate haiN| buddha ke dharma upadeza meM tatvajJAna evaM use prApta karane ke sAdhana donoM kA hI ullekha prApta hotA hai unhoMne manuSya jIvana ko vizleSita karate hue cAra Arya satya kI sthApanA kI / vyAvahArika dRSTikoNa bauddha dharma kI uccatama vizeSatA rahI hai buddha ne apane dharma upadeza meM sRSTi ke udbhava aura vikAsa ke bAre gambhIra vivecana kabhI nahIM kiyA balki eka kuzala vaidya kI bhA~ti bhavaroga se pIr3ita prANiyoM ko unake yoga kA svarUpa, usakA kAraNa evaM usake nivAraNa ke upAya kA vistAra se vivecana kiyA / tathAgata buddha kI lokapriyatA dina - ba- dina bar3hatI hI rahI kyoMki buddha ke samaya meM aura dharma pravartaka maujUda

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(22) the, lekina koI bhI dharma yA unake vicAra sAmAnya logoM ke jIvana ke bAre meM socatA najara nahIM AtA hai| ___ jIvana kI jo yathArthatA hai use bauddha dharma ne vizleSita kiyA hai| manuSya jIvana kI yathArthatA hI bauddha dharma kI vizeSatA hai| isa zodhAlekha meM isakA vistRta varNana kiyA jaaegaa| ***** zrIlaMkA meM bauddha dharma kA itihAsa evaM vikAsa rAjA devAtamyi tissa, rAjA duTugAmani evaM rAjA vaTThagAmaNI kI bhUmikA sonU, dillI zrIlaMkA vartamAna samaya meM AdhikArika rUpa se zrIlaMkA samAjavAdI janatAMtrika gaNarAjya ke nAma se jAnA jAtA hai| bhaugolika dRSTi se yaha dakSiNa meM hiMda mahAsAgara ke uttarI bhAga meM sthita eka dvIpIya deza hai| zrIlaMkA kA pichale 3000 varSa kA likhita itihAsa upalabdha hai| itihAsa ke vibhinna sroto ke mAdhyama se 125000 varSa pUrva yahAM mAnava bastiyoM hone ke sAkSya mile hai prAcIna kAla se hI zrIlaMkA para zAhI siMhala vaMza kA zAsana rahA hai| samaya-samaya para zrIlaMkA meM dakSiNa bhAratIya rAjavaMzoM kA bhI AkramaNa hotA rahA hai| zrIlaMkA kI saMskRti atyaMta sampanna hai| evaM yahAM se 29 IsA pUrva meM caturtha bauddha saMgIti ke samaya racita bauddha graMtha prApta hue hai| tIsarI sadI IsA pUrva meM maurya samrATa azoka ke putra mahiMda ke yahAM Ane para zrIlaMkA meM bauddha dharma kA Agamana huaa| bhikSu mahiMda anurAdhApura ke rAjA devAmyi tissa ke zAsana kAla meM zrIlaMkA meM Agamana hue the| prastuta zodha patra kA uddezya zrIlaMkA meM bauddha dharma kA itihAsa evaM tIna pramukha rAjAoM devAmyi tissa, dUgAmaNI, evaM vaTThagAmaNi ke yogadAna eMva bauddha dharma ke vikAsa meM unakI bhUmikA ko darzAtA hai| rAjA devAmyi tissa ke zAsana kAla meM hI zrIlaMkA meM bauddha dharma kA udbhava huaa|

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(23) inhIM ke zAsana kAla meM zrIlaMkA meM prathama caitya kA nirmANa karavAyA gyaa| rAjA devanAmaMpiya tissa ne apane zAsanakAla me zrIlaMkA meM sthApatya eMva mUrti kalA kA vikAsa kiyaa| udAharaNasvarUpa caitya giri vihAra, jambUla vihAra, thUparAma, paThAmaka, vessAgirI aadi| isake atirikta zrIlaMkA me rAjA duTThagAmaNi evaM rAjA vaTThagamaNi kA bhI atulyanIya yogadAna rahA hai| rAjA duTThagAmaNi ne apane zAsanakAla ke prAraMbhika caraNa meM ailArA' nAmaka zAsaka ko harAkara zrIlaMkA para apanA Adhipatya sthApita kiyA eva anurAdhApura ko apanI rAjadhAnI ghoSita kiyaa| apane 24 varSoM ke zAsanakAla ke daurAna inhoMne bauddha dharma ko rASTrIya dharma ghoSita kara diyaa| tathA bhavya 'lauhApAsAda' eMva 'rUvanavellI' sayA nAmaka stUpa kA nirmANa krvaayaa| rAjA vaTThagAmaNi ne apane zAsanakAla meM sampUrNa tripiTaka ko likhita rUpa meM pradAna kiyaa| tathA abhayagiri nAmaka vihAra kA nirmANa krvaayaa| ***** samrATa azoka kI dhamma nIti evaM dharmanirapekSa bhArata kI kalpanAH eka samIkSAtmaka avalokana racanA, dillI azoka kA dhamma sabhI dharmoM kA sAra thA usa para sabhI dharmoM kA prabhAva thA saMsAra ko vaha amara mAnatA thA usakI udAratA itanI sArvabhauma thI ki usane kabhI apanA vyaktigata ghArmika vicAra janatA para lAdane kA prayatna nahIM kiyaa| jisa dhamma kA rUpa isa saMsAra ke sAmane rakhA, vaha pramANataH sAre dharmoM kA sAra haiM kartavya kI nitAMta asaMkucita vyAkhyA tathA sArvabhauma dharma ke sarvaprathama nirUpaNa kA zreya azoka ko hI denA hogaa| azoka apane vicAroM meM apane samaya se bahuta Age thA usakA dhamma' aneka sudhAravAdI AMdolanoM kI pRSThabhUmi prastuta karatA hai| azoka kA dhamma mAnavocita yA samAjocita thA usake do pahalU the vyAvahArika aura saiddhAMtika vyaavhaarik| azoka kI nIti ke mUla pRSThAhAra the-kSamAnIti, ahiMsA, anuzAsana, dharmayAtrA, daurA, samadRSTi, dhamma

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(24) prasAra aura dhamma vijy| vibhinna paMthoM ke logoM meM paraspara sahiSNutA kI bhAvanA azoka dvArA pratipAdita dharma mahAbhArata ke ( rAjadharma) se bahuta-kucha milatAjulatA hai usakA dhamma sAMpradAyika rUr3hivAditA se bahuta dUra thaa| azoka ne apanI prajA ke vizAla samUha ko dhyAna meM rakhakara hI eka aise vyAvahArika dhamma kA pratipAdana kiyA, jisakA pAlana AsAnI se saba kara ske| usakA kA dhamma sadAcAra kA dharma thA yaha eka aisA naitika niyama thA, jisakA saMpradAya vizeSa se koI saMbaMdha nahIM thA aura jo mAnavatA ke kalyANa ke lie ghoSita kiyA gayA thaa| samrATa azoka kA vicAra evaM usakI vyAkhyA vAstavika jIvana ke anubhavoM se kI jA sakatI haiN| dharmanirapekSatAvAda jIvana ke kalyANa aura manuSya ke AcaraNa tathA vyavahAra ke lie nirapekSatA ko siddhAMta apanAtA hai yaha eka vijJAna kI taraha hai jo pratiphala meM naI cIja detA hai dharmanirapekSatA bhI mAnava kalyANa ke saMdarbha meM na dharma ke pakSa aura na vipakSa meM kArya karatA hai samrATa azoka dvArA rAjya, rASTra aura mAnava hita ke lie dharmanirapekSatA meM pAye jAne vAle guNa jaise sahiSNutA, manuSya kI laukika sukha-suvidhA kI prApti para bala diyA rUr3hivAdI dharmoM kI yaha eka taraha se dharmoM ke prati upekSA - jo sahiSNutA kA rUpa le letI hai aisA kahA jA sakatA haiM jaba hama ise Adhunika bhArata se joDate haiM to hamAre rAjanetAoM vicArako, dharmagurUoM kI bAta kA Akalana karate hue hama yaha jAnate hai bhAratIya dharmoM ke prati sahiSNutA aura sadabhAva yahI dharmanirapekSatA hai gAMdhIjI kA 'sarvadharma samabhAva' jise bhAratIya dharma nirapekSatAvAda kA rUpa kaha sakate haiM AdhyAtma evaM pAralaukika jagata meM bhArata hamezA se 'vasudaiva kuTumbakama' kI bhAvanA se ota-prota naisargika kalyANa aura mAtRbhAva para kArya karatI rahI haiM hama kaha sakate hai bhArata meM dharmanirapekSa kI vyAkhyA dharma ke prati 'taTasthatA' ke bhAva ke rUpa meM nahI dI jAtI balki 'dharma samanvaya' ke rUpa meM dI jAtI hai bhArata meM dharmanirapekSatA ke zAsana kA siddhAMta hI nahI balki yaha rASTrIya ekatA kA mUlamaMtra bhI haiM yahI vicAra samrATa azoka ko vizva meM bhAratIya saMskRti ke rUpa meM sarvamAnya grahaNa kiyaa| *****

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(25) tamila pradeza meM bauddha dharma dilIpa dhIMga, cennaI bhAratavarSa kI gauravazAlI zramaNa paramparA ke jaina dharma aura bauddha dharma kA tamilapradeza ke lie aitihAsika yogadAna hai| isa nibaMdha ke jariye tamilapradeza meM bauddha dharma ke astitva aura yogadAna ke bAre meM batAyA jA rahA hai| IsA pUrva tIsarI zatAbdI meM bauddha dharma kA tamilanADu meM Agamana mAnA jAtA hai lekina kucha vidvAnoM ke matAnusAra tIsare saMgama kAla ke bAda arthAt IsvI san tIsarI zatAbdI ke bAda hI bauddha dharma kA tamila pradeza meM Agamana huA hogaa| unake isa mata kA kAraNa yaha hai ki tIsare saMgamakAla ke kAvyoM meM bauddha dharma kA ullekha nahIM huA hai| kucha vidvAna isa mata se bhinnatA rakhate hue kahate haiM ki tIsare saMgama kAlIna kAvya kRtiyoM meM bhale hI bauddha dharma ke sandarbha anupasthita haiM, lekina usa yuga meM racita maNimekhale, zilappadikArama aura maduraikAMcI jaise kAvyoM meM isa dharma ke bAre meM paryApta ullekha milate haiN| isake alAvA bauddha dharmAvalambiyoM dvArA racita kavitAe~ isa tIsare saMgamakAlIna saMkalanoM meM milatI hai| isase yaha anumAna lagatA hai ki tIsare saMgama kAla arthAta I0 sana prathama yA dvitIya zatAbdI se pUrva bauddha dharma kA tamilapradeza meM Agamana ho cukA thaa| maurya zAsaka azoka ke zilAlekhoM se bhI yaha spaSTa hotA hai ki I0 pUrva tIsarI sadI meM bauddha dharma kA tamila pradeza meM Agamana ho gayA thaa| yaha tathya azoka ke do zilAlekhoM se spaSTa hotA hai| giranAra ke dvitIya abhilekha ke anusAra samrATa azoka mAnava aura pazuoM ke lie do prakAra ke cikitsAlaya banavAte haiN| unake isa ahiMsaka sevAkArya kA vistAra cola, pANDya, sUryaputra, kerala putra aura tAmraparNI (zrIlaMkA) taka bhI thaa| ahiMsA aura sevA ke dvArA janatA kA dila jIta lene ko hI azoka ne saccI vijaya mAnA hai isa bAta ko pezAvara ke nikaTa prApta I0 pUrva 258 ke zilAlekha meM iMgita kiyA gayA hai sevA se logoM kA dila jItakara dharmapracAra ko isa zilAlekha meM saccI vijaya kahA gayA hai| yaha 'vijaya' tamilapradeza taka bhI vistArita the| bauddha graMtha

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(26) mahAvaMza aura dIpavaMza se yaha anumAna hotA hai ki azoka ke samaya meM bauddha dharma zrIlaMkA meM paha~ca cukA thaa| isase yaha spaSTa hotA hai ki jaba bauddha dharma zrIlaMkA taka pahu~cA to vaha tamila pradeza hokara pahu~cA hogaa| barmA meM upalabdha TailiMga rikaoNrDa ke anusAra kAMcIpurama ke nikaTa azoka dvArA banavAe vihAra meM pA~cavIM sadI meM bauddha bhikSu dhammapAla (dharmapAla) nivAsa karate the cInI bauddha yAtrI hayUvAnasAMga (1 vIM sadI) ne bhArata yAtrA kI aura unakI yAtrA vRtAMta likhaa| usa vRttAMta meM unhoMne kAMcIpuram meM azoka dvArA banAe gae sau phITa U~ce jIrNa bauddha stUpa dekhane kA jikra kiyaa| unhoMne cola pradeza meM bhI azoka dvArA banavAe eka bauddha vihAra kA ullekha kiyA hai isake alAvA pAMDya pradeza meM azoka ke choTe bhAI mahendra dvArA nirmita saMgrAma ( bauddha vihAra) aura stUpa bhI the kucha guphA lekha bhI bauddha dharma ke I0 pU tIsarI sadI meM tamilapradeza meM Agamana kI sUcanA dete haiM ina guphAoM meM bauddha bhikSuoM ke lie banI prastara zayyAoM ke nIce abhilekha utkIrNa hai| ___ ina saba sAkSyoM se yaha patA calatA hai ki tIsarI sadI meM tamilapradeza meM bauddha dharma kA praveza ho cukA thaa| praveza ke bAda yahA~ bauddha bhikSuoM aura pracArakoM ne rAjAoM, vaNikoM aura dhanADhya logoM se prApta Arthika sahayoga se bihAra, pAThazAlAe~ Adi bnvaae| unhoMne zikSA, cikitsA aura sevA ke kAryoM se logoM kA mana jiitaa| vibhinna sevAkAryoM ke alAvA bauddhoM ne tamila sAhitya ke vikAsa meM bhI apanA yogadAna kiyaa| tamila meM pA~ca mahAkAvya mAne jAte haiM- zilpAdikArama, maNimekhale, jIvaka citAmaNi, vaLayApati aura kunnddlkeshii| inameM maNimekhalai aura kuNDalakezI bauddha dharmAvalambiyoM dvArA racita haiM aura zeSa tIna jaina dharmAvalaMbiyoM dvArA racita haiN| madurai kUlavANikana cIttale cAttanAra dvArA racita maNimekhalai bauddha dharma bodhaka tamila kA zreSTha kathAtmaka prabaMdha kAvya hai kaNDalakezI vartamAna meM upalabdha nahIM hai| bauddha dharmAvalaMbiyoM dvArA racita aura bhI sAhitya milatA hai kAphI sAhitya kAla ke pravAha aura ApasI saMgharSa meM kho bhI ho gyaa| 'maNimekhalai' kAvya ke anusAra dUsarI zatAbdI meM kovalana kI putrI maNimekhale ne bauddha dharma meM dIkSA lI thii| vaha cakravALakoTTama se sambandhita

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(27) 'loka aravI nAmaka mandira meM pIr3itoM, bujurgoM aura asahAya logoM kI sevA karatI thI unakI sevAoM se prasanna hokara, unakI bhAvanAoM kA sammAna karake hue cola rAjA ne kArAgaroM ko dharmazAlAoM meM parivartita kara diyA thaa| isake alAvA jaina dharma kI taraha bauddha paramparA meM bhI jAtigata bhedoM kI upekSA kI gaI hai| jaina aura bauddha dharmAvalambI sabake prati sadabhAva rakhate the / ve janapadoM meM bhramaNa karake lokabhASA ke mAdhyama se lokajIvana meM sAMskRtika aura AdhyAtmika cetanA jagAte the isase jaina dharma ke sAtha hI bauddha dharma bhI tamila pradeza meM lokapriya huA jisakI jAnakArI aneka sAhityika aura purAtAtvika sAkSyoM se milatI hai| I0 pUrva tIsarI zatAbdI meM tamila pradeza meM Ae bauddha dharma kA prabhAva isa pradeza meM pA~cavIM - chaThI zatAbdI meM kama hone lagA thaa| isakA kAraNa ApasI dhArmika jhagar3e aura bauddha dharma meM AMtarika kalaha mAnA jAtA hai kucha vidvAnoM ke matAnusAra bauddha dharma ke prabhAva ke kama hone meM eka kAraNa bauddha bhikSuoM kA suvidhAbhogI ho jAnA bhI mAnA jAtA hai| bhale hI Aja tamilanADu meM bauddha dharma nahIM ke barAbara hai, lekina isa dakSiNI pradeza ke lie bauddha dharma kA sAhityika, sAMskRtika aura sAmAjika yogadAna itihAsa kA eka ullekhanIya adhyAya hai 1 ***** bhAratIya himAlayI buddha dharma kArabhArI vAghamAre, auraMgAbAda bhAratIya himAlayI buddha dharma himAlaya parvata zrRMkhalA ke Ara-pAra vistRta parvatatIya kSetra meM samrATa azoka ke zAsanakAla meM hI pracAra-prasAra prArambha ho cukA thaa| bhU-saMracanA ke AdhAra para samasta himAlayI kSetra ko moTe taura para tIna hissoM meM bAMTA gayA hai, - (1) ATha hajAra phUTa se upara sthita sabase adhika UMcAI vAlA mahAhimAlaya kSetra, (2) eka hajAra phUTa se lekara ATha hajAra phUTa taka kI UMcAI vAlA kSetra evaM ( 3 ) laghu himAlaya kSetra kI jar3a se karIba eka sau kilomITara taka maidAnI bhU-bhAga kI ora bar3hA huA tarAI kSetra / ina

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(28) himAlayI kSetroM kA dhArmika pariveza tIna pramukha paramparAoM meM nirmita huA hai| - (1) Adima yA janajAtiya, (2) hindU, aura (3) bauddh| jammU-kAzmIra ke kSetra meM hindU-dharma tathA kAzmIra ghATI evaM usake laddAkha kSetra kAragila aMcala meM islAma dharma tathA pazcima meM laddAkha se lekara pUrva meM ( lagabhaga 3 hajAra kilomITara) aruNAMcala taka buddha dharma lagabhaga 22 sau varSoM se pravAhamAna hai| Adima dhArA kI jar3e bahata bahata gaharI hai| hindU aura bauddha saMskRtiyAM bauddhika tathA vyAkhyAtmaka dRSTi se vyApaka hai, lipibaddha hai aura unakA sAhitya rAzi vipula hai| kAzmIra se kAragila taka islAma dharma lagabhaga IsA ke sAtavIM zatAbdI se pravAhamAna huA hai| hindU aura bauddha dharma kA inhIM kSetra meM astitva hai to kahIM unameM ekakSetra rAjya hai|aam-taur para himAlayI pradezoM meM buddha dharma aura hindU dharma kI saMskRtiyoM ke prasAra kSetra alaga-alaga hai| himAlayI pradezoM meM sAtavIM zadI ke pUrva theravAdI buddha dharma sAtavIM zadI ke bAda mahAyAnI saMpradAya kA pracalana huA thaa| __dakSiNa pArzva ke mahAhimAlaya ke pradezoM meM buddha dharma tathA laghu himAlaya ke pradezoM meM hindu dharma kA pracalana hai| nepAla ke mahAhimAlaya kSetra meM buddha dharma pravAhamAna hai| unake laghu himAlaya kSetra kAThamAMDU ghATI meM hindu aura buddha dharma donoM pravAhamAna hai| laghu himAlayI pradeza tathA tarAI kSetra meM lumbinI ko chor3akara hindu dharma pravAhamAna hai| bhUTAna meM mahAyAnI buddha dharma pracalita hai| sikkima, pazcima baMgAla kA dArjiliMga, aruNAcala pradeza tathA laddAkha, tathA himAlayI pradeza ke lAhula spIti, kinnora, manAlI Adi meM buddha dharma pracalita hai| bauddhoM ke ina kSetroM ko pradhAna kendra laddAkha hai| prastuta zodha patra meM isa viSaya para vistArapUrvaka carcA kI jaayegii| ***** bauddha dharma meM dharma meghA jaina, madhya pradeza Aja ke samaya meM jaba dharma jaise pavitra zabda ko kaI kaTTara bAne pahanAye jA rahe haiM taba to isa lekha kA prakAzita honA aura bhI prAsaMgika hai| dharma jIvana

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(29) jIne kI kalA hai| svayaM sukha se jIne kI tathA auroM ko sukha se jIne dene kii| sabhI sukhapUrvaka jInA cAhate haiM, dukhoM se mukta rahanA cAhate haiN| paraMtu jaba hama yaha nahIM jAnate ki vAstavika sukha kyA hai aura yaha bhI nahIM jAnate ki use kaise prApta kiyA jAe to jhUThe sukha ke pIche bAvale hokara daur3a lagAte haiN| vAstavika sukha se dUra raha kara adhikAdhika dukhI hote haiN| svayaM ko hI nahIM auroM ko bhI dukhI banAte haiN| vAstavika sukha AMtarika zAMti meM hai aura AMtarika zAMti citta kI vikAra-vihInatA meM hai, citta kI nirmalatA meM hai| citta kI vikAra-vihIna avasthA hI vAstavika sukha-zAMti kI avasthA hai| bauddha dharma isa Atmacintana kA dharma hai isa dharma kA sArAMza eka prakAra kI Atmonnati aura Atma-nirodha hai| isa mata meM siddhAnta aura vizvAsa goNa hai| mokSa aura kAmanAoM se rahita pavitra-jIvana nirvAha karane se manuSyoM ke dukhoM ke dUra hone kI saMbhAvanA hai| yaha dukhavAda hI bauddha siddhAnta hai| bauddha darzana meM zramaNa dharma va gRhastha dharma ke alaga-alaga siddhAnta milate hai| itanA hI nahIM sAmAjika, rAjanaitika dharma kI vyAkhyA bhI hameM bauddha tripaTakoM meM dekhane ko milatI hai| jisakI vistAra se carcA lekha meM kI jaavegii| ***** sAranAtha meM sthita bauddha stUpoM kA bauddha dharma meM mahatva sUraja prasAda yAdava, dillI sAranAtha ko bauddha dharma meM atyaMta vizeSa sthAna prApta hai, yahI vaha pavitra sthAna hai jahA~ tathAgata buddha ne buddhatva prApti ke pazcAta pahalI bAra paMcavargIya bhikSuoM ko prathama upadeza diyA jisameM cAra Arya satya aura Arya aSTAMgika mArga sammilita hai isI ko dhamma cakka pavattana ke nAma se jAnA jAtA hai isI ghaTanA ke pariNAmasvarUpa sAranAtha ko bauddha dharma ke pavitra tIrtha sthala ke rUpa meM jAnA jAtA hai| ___ bauddha dharma ke kramika vikAsa meM sAranAtha RSi patana mRgadAva kA eka pramukha sthAna rahA hai tathAgata buddha ne bodhagayA meM niraMjanA nadI ke kinAre bodhi prApti

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(30) ke pazcAta dhammacakka pavattana ke lie vArANasI (kAzI ke nikaTa vanAcchAdita tapobhUmi isa pattana mRgadAya (sAranAtha) ko cunaa| prastuta laghu zodha patra meM sAranAtha meM sthita pramukha bauddha stUpoM ko aitihAsika srotoM evaM sAkSyoM ke AdhAra para sAranAtha meM bauddha dharma ke vikAsa kA ullekha kiyA hai| prAcIna kAla meM sAranAtha bauddha dharma kA pramakha keMdra thA jisakA bauddha dharma ke itihAsa meM vizeSa mahatva hai tathAgata buddha ke asthi avazeSoM para nirmita 8 prAraMbhika bauddha stUpoM kA varNana harma bauddha sAhitya se prApta hotA hai bauddha graMtha mahAvaMza meM azoka ke dvArA nirmita 84000 stUpoM kA ullekha milatA hai| jisameM se tIna pramukha stUpa sAranAtha meM sthita hai. dharmarAjikA stUpa dhamekha stUpa caukhaMDI stUpa sAranAtha meM sthita pramukha tInoM stUpoM bauddha dharma meM vizeSa mahatva hai ___ azoka dvArA dharmarAjikA stUpa kA nirmANa usa sthala para kiyA gayA jahAM tathAgata nivAsa kiyA karate the dharmarajika ke samIpa dhamekha stUpa sthita hai| tathAgata ke dvArA paMcavargIya bhikSuoM ko die gae upadeza ke lie dhammekha stUpa vikhyAta hai| ***** prAkRta evaM pAli gAthAoM meM adbhuta sAmya dharmacaMda jaina, jodhapura bauddha tripiTakoM evaM jaina AgamoM kI aneka gAthAe~ samAna hai athavA kahIM unameM tAtparya kA sAmya hai| dhammapada evaM saMyuttanikAya kI gAthAoM kI uttarAdhyayana evaM dazavaikAlika sUtra kI gAthAoM se samAnatA isakA eka nidarzana hai| yahA~ para do gAthA udAharaNArya aMkita hai jo sahassaM sahassANaM, saMgAme dujjae jinne| egaM jiNejja appANaM, esa se paramo jo|| jo lAkhoM durjeya yuddhoM ko jIta le, usase bhI eka apane ko jIta lenA zreSTha jaya hai| isI prakAra kA bhAva dhammapada kI nimnAMkita gAthA meM parilakSita hotA hai

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(31) jo sahassaM sahassena saMgAme mAnuse jine| ekaM ca jeyyamattAnaM sa ce sNgaamjuttmo|| jo yuddha meM hajAroM-hajAra manuSyoM ko jIta le, usakI apekSA to apane ko jIta lenA vAlA hI uttama yuddha vijetA hai| isa prakAra uparyukta donoM gAthAoM meM bhASAgata evaM tAtparya kI dRSTi se paryApta sAmya hai| isI prakAra dazavaikAlika sUtra kI eka gAthA hai kahaM nu kujjA sAmaNNaM, jo kAme na nivaare| pae pae visIyaMto, saMkappassa vasaM go|| jo kAma kA nivAraNa nahIM karatA tathA saMkalpa ke vazIbhUta hokara pada-pada para viSAda ko prApta hotA hai, vaha kaise zramaNa dharma kA pAlana karegA? isakI tulanA saMyukta nikAya kI nimnalikhita gAthA se kI jA sakatI hai katihaM careyya sAmanaM cittaM ce na nivaarye| pade pade visIdeyya saMkappAnaM vasAnugo ti|| kitane dinoM taka zrAmaNya kA pAlana karegA, yadi apane citta ko vaza meM nahIM kara sakatA hai| saMkalpoM ke vaza meM rahatA sAdhana pada-pada para viSAda ko prApta hotA rhegaa| dazavaikAlika evaM saMyuttanikAya kI ina gAthAoM meM zabdAvalI evaM kathya bhAva kI dRSTi se paryApta sAmya hai| ye gAthA zramaNa paramparA ke upadeza meM sAmya kA saMketa karatI haiN| prastuta zodhapatra meM aisI samAna evaM AMzika sAmya rakhane vAlI gAthAoM kI carcA kI jaaegii| kahIM gAyAMza yA gadyAMzoM ke sAmya kI bhI carcA prastuta Alekha meM kI jaaegii| ina gAthAoM meM pAli evaM prAkRta bhASAoM kI nikaTatA eva buddha tathA mahAvIra ke upadezoM meM ekasUtratA kA bhI anveSaNa sambhava ho skegaa| zodha patra meM prAkRta evaM pAli gAthAoM meM nimnAhikata sAmya kI vizeSa carcA kI jaaegii| (1) abhiprAya gata samasyA (2) bhASAgata samasyA *****

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(32) lalitavistara kA sAMskRtika mUlyAMkana rAghavendra pratApa siMha, madhya pradeza bauddha saMskRta ke prAraMbhika granthoM meM lalitavistara kA mahatvapUrNa sthAna hai| isakA nAma hI isakI vizeSatA ko prakaTa karatA hai| mahAtmA gautama buddha ke mahAparinirvANa ke pahale ke sampUrNa jIvana ko lalita ke nAma se abhihita kiyA gayA hai aura usI ko vistAra pradAna kiyA gayA hai pAli granthoM meM yaNita mAnavIya buddha ke jIvana ko yahA~ alaukika banAkara atimAnavIya svarUpa pradAna karane kI ceSTA kI gaI hai| prAyaH sabhI vidvAnoM ne isa prakAra kI lekhana zailI ko bauddha AcAryoM kA pahalA prayAsa mAnA hai| mahAmAnya kA to prAdurbhAva ho hI cukA thA aura bhakta bauddha AcAryoM ko buddha kA kaThora saMgharSamaya jIvana rAsa nahIM A rahA thaa| yaha bauddha AcAryoM kI aitihAsika vivazatA bhI thI bhAratIya vAtAvaraNa meM apane ArAdhya ke prati bhakti kA bhAva kAphI jar3a jamA cukA thaa| lalitavistara kA mahatva apanI bhASA zailI tathA bhAva ke lie to hai hI sAtha hI isameM sampUrNa samAja kI jhalaka bhI dikhAI detI hai| kahA jAtA hai ki sAhitya samAja kA darpaNa hotA hai| lalitavistara ise caritArtha karatA hai| lalitavistara kA aitihAsika evaM sAMskRtika saMdarbha apanI pUrNa viziSTatA ke sAtha upasthita hai jo tatkAlIna bhArata ke parijJAna ke lie atyanta mahatvapUrNa hai| ***** Destroying Developing Foetus Interrupts the Journey towards Nibbana Abhinav Anand, Delhi kiccho manussapaTilAbho, kicchaM maccAchana jiivitN| kicchaM saddhammassavanaM, kiccho buddhaanmuppaado|| Buddhists rely on getting rebirth in human beings is difficult

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(33) and rare because the realms below the human are too miserable and above are too happy: moreover, the attainment of nibbana is only possible during a human birth; more specifically, it is impossible to attain nibbana being in any other spheres than human. In addition, early Buddhist Pali texts state that a human rebirth is considered superlatively valuable because the human circle in the domain motivates one to look for approaches to be reed from all suffering. Each human birth affords a great opportunity both for the expression of the effects of previously performed actions, and for the attainment of the nibbana. Moreover, one can accumulate merits towards attainment of the nibbana through ethical behaviors and practices such as to abstain from taking life, to abstain from taking what is not given, to abstain from sensuous misconduct, to abstain from false speech, and to abstain from intoxicants as tending to cloud the mind. Refrain from killing, stealing, sensuous misconduct, false speech, and intoxicants are the most basic Buddhist paths that are undertaken by all who enter into the sangha for honest living by rooting out vices and cultivating virtues by practicing dhamma. More specifically, those who only observe these five ethical precepts will live the life of householder with selfpossession (visarado), and reborn in the heavenly world, or can generate merit towards the attainment of spiritual perfection, nibbana. Thus, abortion or intentionally depriving of life of developing foetus thwarts the unfolding of kamma and consequently interrupts the journey towards nibbana. ***** Nuns within Modern Indian Society: A Study on Buddhist and Hindu Tradition Debapriya Ghosh, Santiniketan Indian society has a great impact towards the concept of modernity which originated in the West. The society of India

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(34) deals with various phenomena among which religion has always dominated its culture. The term 'Religion' itself deals with multidimensional aspects, in which the issue of Asceticism and Women are important and continues to add flavour in the Indian religions and society. The major ancient religions of India had a strong existence of women ascetics, generally can be termed as Nuns (Sramaneri, Bhikkhuni, Brahmacharini, Sannyasini). This paper will be an attempt to study two religions of India, Buddhism and the one in modern term Hinduism. Though Buddhism has the patent for introducing the ascetic community for women, Hinduism in modern times also followed the same with Thakur Sri Ramakrishna and Swami Vivekananda. The study here developed with these two Indian religions and some of their major schools which has a strong existence of the cominunity of Nuns in the modern era. From the ancient time, the lifestyle not only changed for the common people but also a huge change has taken place within the ascetic fraternity. On the other side the idea of liberation seems to have in the same place as it was before. Although the liberated souls are few in number, the female ascetics within these two religions are not less. Living as a nun is not a ordinary decision women makes, there can be various issues behind this path. The renunciation with religious practice has the theoretical and practical significance for contemporary India. However, this study is an attempt to understand the lives of Nuns within Buddhist and Hindu tradition in modern Indian context, considering some major institutions of female ascetics through a comparative approach. ***** Murals in the Holy Land: Aesthetic Perspective Ambalicka Sood Jacob, Patiala The aim of the paper is to understand the first hand impression of how history had a deep impact upon the present

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(35) situation in the region which had seen the maximum number of wars, battles, turmoil.The land of Syria, Israel, Palestine and the Gulf Region can in no way be called the land of Peace but emphatically how peace amidst all adversity still can be seen. The Near East without borders becomes the symbol of new reality of Peace. The artworks adoring the Holy Land have three streams (Christian, Moslems and Jews) flowing in the region thereby making them a congruous place for the Divine. The event that marks the start of Christian Era: The Annunciation of Mary of Nazareth. In the 6th Century, an artist created a mosaic map marking sites mentioned in The Holy Bible. This map is Madaba in Jordan that shows the Holy Land: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria and the Sinai Desert leading to the Nile Delta in Egypt. In the descriptive terms the Figurative Peak is supposedly Jerusalem: Considered as the Centre of the World. It has the confluence of all the major cultures and religions of the time. The second part of the paper would include Buddhism in comparative light. The Kalkacharya Tantra literature reveals both external and internal levels of battles that could easily be called 'Holy.Wars.' In the Laitavistara, Sakhyamuni is described as a self-born reposed with power of appearing anywhere and in any form with Adhisthaniki Riddhi. The mention of great observance Mahavilokotani of Sakhyamuni before his advent into the human world makes the biographical perspective confused with the super-mundane attitude (lokottara). In Buddhist Art, the plurality of Boddhisattava has been remarkably established. Manjusri, Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani, Vimalakirti, etc. are ethereal. The alms bowl and the yellow robe becomes synonymous as associations. Manusi Buddha has been in acceptance to a person when a devotee feels his or her own semblance. A close similarity is found in the mythology associated to Christianity and Buddhism. Conception Myths of both The Buddha and Jesus were closely similar. The values and precepts advocated by the two faiths are also seen to resemble in their essence. The emphasis is on the similarities and correspondence between human beings and the Cosmos. The Path shown in both the streams seen in a comparative light brings forth how

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(36) one mindfully conducts self. And by deduction, the Art associated with the faiths is seen to resemble in visualization and iconography. The artistic/aesthetic perspectives help one focus upon and further the understanding of Humanity. A few slides will be projected at the time of Presentation. ***** Devadatta: The First Crusader in Buddhist Sangha Arvind Kumar Singh, Greater Noida Devadatta is usually presented as the archetypical earthly enemy of the Buddha, in much the same fashion that Mara is portrayed as the Buddha's heavenly opponent. Devadatta became a disciple shortly after the Buddha's enlightenment and eventually became one of the Buddha's foremost disciples, possessing great spiritual powers. Devadatta, the Buddha's cousin appears prominently in Pali literature. In most of the references, he is shown in bad light. In fact, some references go as far as declaring him as the worst enemy of the Buddha. He is an evildoer who tries, at various times, to overthrow the Buddha, to ruin the Sangha, and even to kill the Master. All of these are driven by his hateful and ambitious intention to replace the Buddha at the head of the Sangha. Some adversaries of the Buddha not only showed their concern about the friction between the Buddha and Devadatta but some also appear to have taken advantage of the differences between the two. But, there are some references in which he does not stand condemned but he is also acknowledging as an impeccable saint. For instant, Sariputra is known to have gone about cities like Rajagrha praising Devadatta. He is also included amongst the elected-eleven, who were found by the Buddha as particularly praiseworthy. There appears to be an undercurrent of appreciation for some

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(37) aspects of his character. Some found in him a ready friend who was at their service both in prosperity and adversity. Here, in this paper, I am going to deal with all these issue in the light of the Buddhist teachings and scriptures and also try to put emphasis on the other face of Devadatta. ***** Relevance of Buddha's Philosophy and Conflict Resolution in Asia Ashwani Kumar, Jammu Buddhism is named after the teachings (dharma) taught by the Buddha to the disciples. The basic principles of Buddha's teachings consist of mainly two connecting methods. These are Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path aiming to establish peace and harmony in the society and even in the whole world. Buddhist Sangha is an ideal example of peace harmony and unity. It is one of the most fundamental institution of Buddhism founded by the Buddha. Monks and Nuns are considered to responsible for preservation and propagation of Buddha's teachings. They are still preaching and guiding actively to the lay people. Adhikaranasamatha is a tool of nflict resolution in Buddhist Monastic Sangha in which settling the quarrel, conflicts, misunderstanding as well as duties of the monks and nuns. It is an ideal example for the management of Buddhist Sangha which help for development of peace and unity. Asia is a vast continent with different religions and ethnic groups of people such as Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism etc. Conflicts are a regular and common phenomenon in West and South Asia including Srilanka where Buddha is a living faith. Conflicts can be resolve though negotiation, meditation, diplomacy and creative peace building etc.

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(38) In the proposed research paper an attempt will be been made how can Buddhism provide a way to handle the war like situation and present a viable resolution? How the Buddha's teaching can be fruitful for the entire world particularly asian countries which are suffering from great loss in various forms. ***** Tson-Khapa: Revival of Buddhism in Tibet Dipankar Salui, Kolkata During the reigns of twenty six generations of kings, counted from Uathi-tsanpo the first of the Tibetan kings to Namri-srontsan, Buddhism was unknownig Tibet. During the reign of Srontsan-gampo, the minister Thon-mi sambhota visited India to study the various sciences and Buddhism. He engaged Thon-mi sambhota and his colleagues to translate Sanskrit Buddhist work into Tibetan, writing them in the newly formed alphabet. . During the reign of Thi-sron-de-tsan, the great sage Santa Raksita and Pandit Padma Sambhava and other Indian Buddhists and Philosophers were invited to Tibet, who translated the Sktras Tantra-s and meditative sciences from Sanskrit into the Tibetan language. After that Buddhism started to decline in Tibet in theory and practice in both form. Various corruptions took place in Buddhism. The greatest Buddhist reformer of Tibet Tson-khapa, the young novice is said to have been miraculously visited by Vajrapani and the Indian saint Dipankara Srijnana. He visited Tibet proper and studied the sacred literature of the Buddhists under such eminent scholar. After finishing his studies he devoted himself to writing various commentaries and works. His works are faultless in the qualities called anga, pratyanga and mkla, in consequence of which they are easy and intelligible to the general reader. In Grammar and Dialectics his reputation stands unrivalled in High Asia. These were the causes which led

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(39) to the wide diffusion of his reforms. Prior to his advent, Buddhism, though widely spread in Tibet, had greatly degenerated through having assimilated much of the Bon heresy, and especially on account of the clergy shown some disregard for moral discipline and the teaching of Buddha. Tson-khapa introduced reforms in every direction. In his reformed school was to be found the essence of the Sktra-s, Tantra-s and Dharani-s of the Mahayanaand Hinayana schools.After Sakya Sinha, no teacher of Buddhism was as eminent as Tson-khapa. Even in the Aryadesa, no such refined school as that of Gelugpa was known to exist. In Tibet, Tson-khapa is called the second Buddha, a title which Nagarjuna the founder of the Madhyamika philosophy, enjoyed in ancient India. I will try to focus in my paper how Tson-khapa revived Buddhism and gave a new shapeafter decline of Buddhism in Tibet. ***** Doctrine of Kammavada as Depicted in the Vimanavatthu Gaur Debnath, Kolkata It will become clear to explain kamma in Buddhism with an example taught by the Buddha. Once a young man went to the lord Buddha and asked on inequality of being. Then, the Buddha explained to the young man it is nothing but due to kamma, a person is poor, rich, healthy, and beautiful and long life recorded in the teaching of the Buddha. It is one of the Buddha's discoveries into full-fledged doctrine, which He himself has seen through his own wisdom. Indeed, the Buddha got this universal governing law of kamma under the Bodhi tree, thus, He saw with divine power of sight (Dibba-cakkhu), which is extremely clear and surpassing the sight of human beings in the process of taking birth and passing away. Moreover, having the inferior or superior appearance of beings, beautiful or ugly beings, beings with good

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(40) or bad destinations are all due to the result of kamma. He knows beings arising according to their own kamma action through his own wisdom. Kamma literally means an action or performance but from Buddhist doctrine, it has more than the action. Perhaps, it should not be understood whatever kind of actions when the action done without voluntarily. Thus, the Buddha's kamma doctrine is unique due to intentional performance of action it constitutes as kamma. It is only when the action is performed deliberately, constitutes either wholesome or unwholesome action. The text Vimanavatthu, comprises of the stories of the Divine Places' is a catechetical treaty which explains the splendor of the various celestial abodes belonging to the Devas who became their fortunate owners in accordance with the degree of merit they had each performed. The textdistinctly conveys the Saddha (belief) and good deeds of one's who even sacrifices their life to do the deeds, he or she firmly belief to be meritorious act. There are many Vatthus which clearly shows that good intention and deeds can have limitless beneficial effects of kamma and they are fertile ground in which the seeds of good merit grow into trees of happiness. I find, the whole story ultimately leads us to the doctrine of Kammavada which also say, only the good actions lead us to the shore of good resulting. But the stories are doubtless intended for laymen, to induce them to live a good life by promising rebirth as a Deva or Devi as a reward. The text is probably a late addition to the Canon and represent a period when the Doctrine of Kamma had come to be represented as a simple deed and reward mechanism. In this paper, I will aim to blazon the doctrine of Kammavada on the frame of reference reflected in the pali text viz. Vimanavatthu and its commentarial interpretation of kamma and its function with the citation of competent Theravada Buddhist authors. This paper hope to bring a new aspect studying the Kamma Theory, for the better understanding of individual's action and others reaction due to one Kamma. *****

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(41) Sanskrit Buddhists Philosophical Text: A Journey Through Retranslation Jhumur Mallik, Kolkata Buddhist Religion was spread from India not only to Southeast Asian Countries like Sinhala, Burma, Japan etc. but also northern countries like China, Tibet etc. But with the spread of the religion across many parts of the world, practice of the Buddhists religion in India seemed no value due to Brahmanical influences. Asoka's decenter Mahendra and Sanghamitra preached Dhamma (Tripitaka) to the Srilanka on 3rd /4" BCE in Pali language. Later Tripitaka did not found in India. It reconstructed in Pali from the Singhalese language. Thus, the Tibetan people preserved many text mainly through translation of Indian origin written in Sanskrit language. Most of these texts were copied and translated in Tibetan language, hundred of years ago, roughly from the Seventh to the Twelfth Centuries CE. Unfortunately, these original Sanskrit texts as well as the commentary in Sanskrit are lost and could not yet be found in their entirely. These works are preserved now only in the Tibetan translations. Tibetan Mss and Xylographs were found on those matters, that help scholars to recover the original texts or reconstruct these Sanskrit texts by retranslating from Tibetan texts. Sarat Chandra Das collected the manuscript which were mostly Sanskrit writing or the Tibetan translation of Sanskrit Scriptures. He brought more than 200 manuscripts from Tibet in India. He edited and published the whole "Bodhisatvavadana Kalpalata" which was translated into Tibetan language. The large number of works of Dipankara preserved in Tibetan authorities consider the 'Bodhi-patha-pradipa' to be most important. S.C. Das edited the Text. The Sanskrit Original of the work, cannot be easily traced today. Professor Mrinal Kanti Gangopadhyaya attempts a restoration of it. Acharya Shempa Dorji has restored the Nagarjuna's writing "Isvarakartakatva

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(42) Nirakrtih Visnorekakartrkatva Nirakaranam" from Tibetan in Sanskrit Language. It was published from Sarnath. So, I try to highlight this to and fro journey of these texts from Sanskrit to Tibetan and back to Sanskrit through retranslation. ***** Human Beings like Clouds (Valahakupama Puggala): As Depicted in the Puggalapammatti K. K. Pandey, Nalanda The Puggalapannatti is the fourth treatise of the Abhidhamma pitaka. It discusses the designation of individuals. The text is small in size and differs from the remaining texts of the Abhidhammapitaka, both in language and in style. It does not discuss the dhammas, but deals with different types of human being. Three hundred ninety types of individuals are classified in ten different chaptersin this scripture. It gives an exhaustive treatment of persons who are lustful, self-seeking and also there are persons doing something for others. It makes a mention of persons who are still evil-minded and having attachments. It is entirely devoted to give the description of the human types from several stand points and proceeds in the form of a question and answer, called Matika. Puggalapannatti also mentions four kinds of persons who are like clouds. There are four types of clouds, namely, that which thunders but does not rain; that which rains but does not thunder; that which thunders as well as rains and that which neither thunders nor rains. Similarly, there are persons who speak loudly but does not act accordingly; some persons act but do not speak; some others speak and act accordingly and there are persons who neither speak nor act accordingly. Thus cloud is the appropriate simile of an individual or a person or a human being who is called Puggala in the Theravada Pali tradition. *****

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(43) Accepting Old Age: A Lessons from Pali Text Mithu Lahiri, Kolkata The growing old and the feeling of getting older is a great fear and matter of trouble for all of us. Now a days so many groups of anti-ageing products are available in the market, for skin, hair, wrinkle and anti-ageing oral products are available. All of these products demand using these people will not get older and various signs of old age well not visible in their body. Not only beauty products but also medical science offers many surgeries on anti-ageing. They tend to give a falls believe that humans can remain young forever by using these products. As well as by the law of nature this is impossible. We must know how to age gracefully for that purpose Pali Literature supplies us with ample examples. Still, many Pali-Buddhist texts address the reality of nature, talked about on impermanence and reality. In the Therigatha Ambapalitheri talked on her physical changes and accept the reality. In addition, many other sources talked about reality. If we all accept the changes of the body then realize the beauty of truth. Moreover, try to concern on changes and problems of getting older. ***** Sambojjhanga and Parami: A Study in Inter-Relation Niharika Labh, Delhi In Theravada tradition seven Sambojjhhngas (Constituents of Enlightenment) and ten Parami (Perfections) have been accorded a highly significant place in the context of spiritual practice leading to nibbana and Bodhi. Although Paramis do not come under the purview of 37 bodhipakkhiyadhammas like sambojjhangas, they have very intimate inter-relations as both

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(44) are practiced at very high altitude of spiritual advancement. The seven sambojjhangas are Sati (mindfulness), Dhammavicaya (investigation into the real nature of things), Viriya (endeavour), Piti (rapture in anticipation of success), Passaddhi (tranquility), Samadhi (concentration) and Upekkha (equanimity). Similarly the ten Paramis are, namely, Dana (charity, gift), Sila (morality), Nekkhamma (renunciation) Panna (wisdom), Viriya (perseverance), Khanti (forbearance), Sacca (truth) and Adhitthana (resolution). Ten Paramis got reduced to six Paramitas with the development of Mahayana, viz., Dana, Sila, Ksanti, Virya, Dhyana and Prajna. Paramis or Paramitas are the practice of extremne nature through which Budhisattra endeavours to perfect himself and advances towards enlightenment (Bodhi or Sambodhi). Bodhisathva does not hesitate even in sacrificing his life while observing the Paramis. Sambojjhangas two lead a practitioner to attainment of enlightenment (Bodhi or Sambodhi). The proposed paper will go into deeper analysis of the interrelatedness of the two concepts. ***** Contribution of the Belgian Indologist Louis De La Vallee Poussin to Buddhism Oindrila Ghosal, Kolkata Louis De La Valee Poussin's was a great scholar of Buddhist Studies. He had a wide range of knowledge and a great flair for languages. He studied Sanskrit, Pali, Avestan, Chinese, Tibetan, Greek and Latin. This wide knowledge of languages helped him a lot to get the true essence of Buddhism as he can see the religion not from the lenses of a strange western scholar who has to depend to the secondary sources. But he evaluated it and contributed a lot using the primary resources to get the true essence of Buddhism.

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(45) The objective of this study is to discuss the eminent Belgian Indologist Louis de la Valee Poussin's contribution to Buddhism. The paper discusses about Poussin's life, his works to understand his undenying contribution to Buddhism. His contribution varies from writing his observations to editing and translating of important Buddhist works in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese.His wide range of knowledge and philosophy reflected in his major works like Nirvana, Documents on Abhidharma, Abhidharmakosa of Vasubandhu and many others. Poussin's contribution in understanding the Buddhist councils and his influence on the Western scholars as well as the scholars from East will also be taken care of. His understanding of Buddhism primarily as religion and philosophic methods to experience salvation will also be discussed here. This paper concentrates on Poussin's constant effort to familiarize Buddhism with its true essence ***** * Buddhist Devotion in Meditation Pallabi Mukherjee, Kolkata Devotion is the central practice in Buddhism that refers to commitment towards religious observances or to an object or person, and may be translated with Sanskrit or Pali terms like saddha, garava or pkja. Buddhist devotion is centrally practice of bruddhanussati, the recollection of the inspiring qualities of the Buddha. Although buddhanussati had an important aspect of practice since early period of Buddhism, its importance was amplified with the arising of Mahayana Buddhism. Specifically in Pure Land Buddhism developed many forms of devotion to recollect and connect with the celestial Buddhas, especially Amitabha. Buddhists mostly use rituals in pursuit of their spiritual aspirations. Common devotional practices are receiving blessings, making merit, making a resolution, prostrating,

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(46) offering food, flower etc., chanting traditional texts and pilgrimage. Moreover, many types of visualizations, recollections and mantras are used in Buddhist meditation in different traditions to devote oneself to a Buddha or a teacher. In Buddhist context the word 'Devotion' is defined by Srilankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna where she mentioned Devotion is a factor quality of being devoted to religious observances or a solemn dedication towards an object or person. In Pali language it covered the terms such as pema (affection), saddha (faith), pasada (serene confidence), bhatti (trust) and garava (respect). In the period of Mahayana Buddhism, there was a growing sense of loss in Buddhist communities with regard to the passing away of the Buddha, and a growing desire to be able to meet him again. These developments led to the arising of faithbased forms of Buddhism such as Pure Land Buddhism. Devotional practices became very common, as new techniques were developed to recollect the qualities and magnificence of the celestial Buddhas, such as visualization and chants. In Buddhist devotion the triple gem, i.e. the Buddha, his teaching (Sanskrit: Dharma, Pali: Dhamma) and his community (Sanskrit: Sangha, Pali: Sangha) are mostly honored. Different Buddhist traditions, thought-process is attributed as an important role in the preparation for meditation practice. This thought-process mentioned in hand-in-hand with moral discipline, where practitioners require improving their mindfulness and energy. This mindfulness and energy will help practitioners move forward in meditation through culminating in wisdom and understanding. In Theravada traditions several anussati are recommended, which means 'recollection of the Triple Gem, recollection of the benefits of moral discipline or giving, or reflection on the good qualities of devas. In Mahayana traditions, especially in Pure Land Buddhism five recollections are used to remind oneself of the goodness of Amitabha Buddha. The first three represent body, speech and mind, fourth recollection is a series of visualizations, fifth recollection is the practice to help others to achieve rebirth in Pure Land. There

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(47) are also devotional visualization meditations in Tantric Buddhism that can be found in Tibetan, Korean and Japanese Buddhism. In Shingon Buddhism a visualization meditation practice done by both monastics and lay people, devotees invite Mahavairocana Buddha to attend the meditation and visualize letter A as a mystical symbol of voidness and the origin of all existence. Another Pure Land devotional meditation is Walking meditation. ***** 'Silavagga' as Depicted in Jatakas Prabash Barua, Kolkata Buddhism blesses all the living beings on the earth. Actually Buddhist religion is an environmental religion. Buddhism teaches that human beings should live in harmony with nature and all other creatures. So, in Buddhism, 'Sila' (Sila, Samadhi, and Panna) is fisting step which growing for goodness of the humans and non-humans, viz. Jataka stories. Buddhist scriptures explain the five precepts (Pali: pancasila) as the minimal standard of Buddhist morality. The concrete backbone of the Buddhism stands on Pancasila or five moral precepts. As it is known that the Jataka stories are a collection of birthstories of the Buddha or 'folklore' that communicates appropriate models of attitude in situations associated with human and nonhuman. The actors of these stories follow the escapades of humans and non-humans (including animals, trees and spirits). Buddhist believes to the Paticca-samuppada or dependent arising that all living beings are interdependent on each other. All creatures are co-existent. The Jatakas or Birth-stories are arranged in 22 nipatas or books. This division is roughly founded on the number of verses (gathas) which are quoted in each story; thus the first book contains 150 stories, each of which only quotes one verse, the second 100, each of which quotes two, the third and fourth 50 each, which respectively quote 3 and 4, and so on to twenty-first with 5 stories,

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(48) each of which quotes 80 verses, and the twenty-second with 10 stories, each quoting a still larger number. Thus there are arranged 43 Vagga in the Jataka stories (P.T.S.) i.e. 1. Apannakavagga (J.no.l10), 2. Silavagga (J.no.11-20), 3. Kurungavagga (J.no.21-30). Mainly of the ten Jataka stories have as a rule follow up on the "Sila', so called Silavagga. i.e. 1. Lakkhana Jataka (J.no.11). 2. Nignodhamiga Jataka(J.no.12). 3. kandina Jataka(J.no.13). 4. Vatagima Jataka (J.no.14). 5. Kharadiya Jataka(J.no.15). 6. Tipallatthamiga Jataka(J.no.16). 7. Malta Jataka (J.no.17). 8. Matakabhattayataka(J.no.18). 9. ayacitabhatta Jataka(J.10.19). 10. Nalapanajataka (J.no.20). In this paper an attempt would be made to focus on how to follow and practice 'Sila' or morality of the "Silavagga' as depicted in Jataka stories. ***** Nagarjuna's Critique of Pramana: A Critical Estimate Prama Chakrabarty, Kolkata According to Gautama, the author of Nyaya-sutra liberation (nihsreyasa) can be achieved through the right knowledge (prama) of the nature of the sixteen independent categories (padartha-s) of cognition. But Nagarjuna vehemently criticises the Naiyayika's assumption regarding the independent nature of things. To him, everything in this world is essenceless (nihsvabhava) because of their interdependence, and thereby, nothing is considered as independent. That is why, he takes interest to show the hollowness of the Nyaya Epistemology by criticising all the sixteen independent categories (padarthas) including pramana one after another in his Vaidalyasutru. And, with the refutation of pramana, the Naiyayikas claim of knowledge being an episode with truth and certainty becomes questionable. In other words, the whole structure of the Nyaya Epistemology is based on the theory of pramana, and once the very structure of the Nyaya

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(49) Epistemology--the concept of pramana is refuted, all other knowledge claims made on the basis of pramana stand refuted. While standing against the Naiyayika's position regarding pramana, Nagarjuna gives some possible objections which are, again, criticised by Gautama and his successors as well as their answers to the raised Nagarjunian objections are also criticised by the Nagarjunians. The main point of the Nagarjunian objection regarding pramana is--how pramana as an independent category (padartha) is justified at all? Nagarjuna argues that if the Naiyayikasstandpoint regarding pramanais justifiable by another pramana, then they involve to the blemish of infinite regress (anavasthadosa), for to justify the given pramana, a special pramana is always needed. If, on the other hand, pramana is called selfevident, then by the same logic prameya does not require pramana for its establishment. If this is accepted, then pramana becomes proof of nothing. If to avoid this difficulty, pramana is considered as privileged and sacrosanct, then it would admit dogmatism, if prameya is not allowed this special treatment. This shows that the role of prumana becomes redundant. In reply to Nagarjuna's objections, the Naiyayikas give the analogy of the weighing instrument (tula) which is, again, criticised by Nagarjuna and well answered by the Naiyayikas with reference to the light analogy (pradipa). And, it is the follow-up of Nagarjuna's strong criticism, we find that the later Naiyayikas interpret Gautama's light analogy (pradipa) in different ways, according to the context and also criticised by Nagarjuna with reference to darkness analogy (lama). And, if pramana is not established, all claims to the possibility of true and certain cognition (prama) of the Naiyayikas will fall flat. In this way, their argumentation is going in the form of thesis and anti-thesis basis. This present paper will concentrate on understanding the moot points of the traditional debate between Gautama and Nagarjuna regarding pramana episode with inherent their methodological approaches, which gives food for thought in the history of development in Indian Philosophy through vada tradition. ** ***

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(50) Buddhist Ethical Attitude towards Plants and Animal Welfare Paulavi Das, Delhi Our living planet consists of Man, Animal and Plants. These three are the important component of our environment and they are non-detachable from one another. All three are deeply related to each other. Creation or destruction of one necessarily affects the other. Every living being born in this world and have a right to exist and survived. But today's world view is guided by the utilitarianism, materialism, non-sacred and non-spiritual principles. As a result, a view has developed in to the mind of modern world as, the planet earth is meant for us and we can use earth for our own gain and prosperity. Buddhism strongly advocates a humble attitude towards nature. The ethical teachings of Buddhism are based on individuals intention. It is the intention of the agent makes an act ethical or unethical. An action with true devotion and truthfulness for the greatest happiness and well-being will always considered as ethical. A virtuous action will always intend to minimize the sufferings. Contemporary modern world is suffering from serious environmental degradation which will hamper not only the present but also the future generation. Human being should be guided by such ethical principles and regulations which will help rather than harming others. The ethical teaching of five precepts, brahmavihara and karma theory explains the regulations to be adapted or to follow for the welfare of ecology. A harmonious relationship between nature and men should be established for healthy ecology. Plants and Animals should be the object for kindness andbenevolence, because they never demand for theirgoodness. This paper is an attempt to redefine the basic ethical concept

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(51) of Buddhism. A deep understanding of Buddhist ethical concepts can solve the problem of today's emerging crisis. ***** Caste System in Buddhism and Hinduism Piyanka Paul, Kolkata The Indian Caste System has unique features among the systems of social stratification. It is the significance of Caste that more than anything else that characterises India. The word 'caste' is of Spanish and Portuguese origin. The term, 'caste' originated from the Spanish word 'casta', meaning 'lineage' or 'race' or 'a group having hereditary quality'. It is derived from the Latin word 'Castus', which means pure. The Spaniards were the first to use it, but its Indian application is from the Portuguese, who had so applied it in the middle of the fifteenth century. The paper would also focus on Buddhism is primarily a religious movement, not a social one. However, it had an important social dimension to it. In order to comprehend the social dimensions of the Buddhist movement it is necessary to identify the elements of society which became closely involved with it. People belonging to Bramana, Khattiya, Vaisya, Sudda caste are all equally capable of accomplishing the right path of they follow the discipline. Thus neither conceptual categories nor an empirical category was relevant within the sangha. In this paper propose to analyse all the names mentioned in the early Pali cannon where social back grounds are indicated. For the history of the Indian caste system and the attitude of Buddha towards the problem of caste, there are many suttas have of the utmost significance. The paper would like to discuss about the caste system divides Hindus into four main categories -Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and the Shudras. Buddhism as distinct from Hinduism is the rejection of the caste system and untouchability. From the earliest

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(52) Vedic times religious authorities have inculcated a hierarchy of caste. Hindu society is not yet free from such high and low distinctions. Even now, in some places, a man of a lower caste is not allowed to ride a horse or elephant or to enter the precincts of high caste people or a temple. The high caste Hindus consider a well or tank to be polluted if even the shadow of a low caste person falls on it. This belief has religious sanction from the Vedas to the Purans. The caste system has been the greatest curse of India, against which reformers and teachers have strongly raised their voices. It is gratifying to note that the postIndependence Government of India passed a Bill to eliminate all shades of caste and untouchability. But how a system backed by scriptural authority can be nullified by legislative measures is a matter which we can only conjecture now and the posterity determines. Over twenty five centuries ago the Buddha had raised the first and most effective voice of protest against this demoralising practice. He said: "Not by birth is one an outcaste, not by birth is one a Brahmin." ***** The Influence of Buddhism on Chinese Society in the Past and its Relevance Today Poonam Surie, Delhi To understand the present one has to understand the past. History is not a set of watertight compartments, separated by periods and eras. It is a continuous movement of ideas, thoughts and events, which flow into the present and subsequently the future. What was the role of Buddhism in Chinese society in the past? Some of the most valuable records pertaining to Buddhism have been recovered from the Library cave in Dunhuang in Gansu province in China. In 'Buddhism in Chinese Society', Jacques Garnet writes, "The documents on paper recovered in

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(53) Chinese Turkestan and principally in Dunhuang constitute by virtue of their precision and authenticity a source of exceptional value that has hardly begun to be exploited as a whole. They comprise accountancy records, management reports, lists of offerings, loan and rental contracts as well as various official documents: contracts, as passports for monks, certificates, census fragments etc." How deeply entrenched was the Buddhist ethos within Chinese society? This question can throw light on the present situation in China and perhaps throw up some questions and answers. Of the two groups of people who followed Buddhism, the first was sophisticated and dwelled on the philosophical aspects of the religion. The other group consisted of the rural population who followed their own simple form of Buddhism, thus lending to it a unique character. Many scholars who came in from the East helped spread Buddhism even further and establish it firmly among the people. These were people like Dharmaraksha (3rd Century CE) and Kumarajihva (4th Century CE) who translated a number of Buddhist texts into Chinese. There were also indigenous Chinese Buddhist scholars like Seng-Chao, Tao Sheng, and Fa-hsien who played an important role in furthering the spread of Buddhism by translating work into Chinese. My paper will attempt to bring out the importance of Buddhism and how it joined all classes of Chinese society in ancient times and its relevance in contemporary China today. ***** The Process of Tranquilizing the Consciousness R. K. Rana, Delhi Consciousness, termed as 'citta' in Pali and 'cit' in Sanskrit is a constituent of human personality. It is by its nature pure, but, incoming pollutants, like greed (lobha), hatred (dosa/

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(54) dvesa) and delusion (moha), which are inherently found in the stream of human personality pollute it. The consciousness, thus, polluted entangles man in the repeated cycle of existence, which is, as the Buddha explained in the form of First Noble Truth, full of suffering. To get rid of the state of suffering what is needed is to tranquilize ones consciousness. -- The Buddha has prescribed a process rather a path for the tranquilization of consciousness, which consists of three stages - Sila (moral precepts), Samadhi (concentration) and Panna/ Prajna (wisdom). Sila enables one to attain the physical and vocal purification while Samadhi leads to the suppression of those factors, which draw a man to indulge in the activities, resulting in rebirth and so on. The complete extirpation of all such factors, ultimately, ensures the tranquilization of consciousness, which could be attained by developing Panna/Prajna. The tranquilization consciousness brings forth happiness, the eternal bliss (Nibbana/Nirvana), which may also be termed as ananda. Hence in this background the paper aims to discuss about the consciousness, its pollutants, and the process of its tranquilization. ***** Buddhism Emphasizes More on Eco-Centric than Anthropocentric Ranjana Mishra, Mumbai Lord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, had a great predilection and attachment with flora. In his discourse there were recurrentindication of wooded area. The purpose being his entire life orbited around the tarai of Nepal and spent his life time around gangetic provinces. Flora and foliage are very common in Buddhist temple sculptures and also appear as allegories in the discourses and writings of Buddhism. In this

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(55) religion trees and flowers are used as offerings. Lord Buddha averred that worshipping Pepal is equivalent to worshipping him. In Buddhism, pepal tree being so popular that it is known by various names such as Bo tree, Bodhi tree, Sacred tree, Beepul tree, Pipers, Pimpal, Jari, Arani, Ashvattha, Ragi, Bodhidruma, Shuchidruma, Pipalla, and the Buddha tree. In Anguttaranikaya Buddha encouraged monks and nuns to seek lonely accommodations in the forest. The Buddha believed that the solitude and simple living which forest wildernesses offered, were indispensable for rumination. Unlike ascetics of other sects, Buddha did not allow monks to pluck fruits from the forest and requested them to be adjacent to residence in order to get their food. The ascetics of other sects survive on wild fruit and dig up edible roots but Lord Buddha prohibited the monks to pluck fruits.He said that trees never speak harsh words and injure anyone so they should not be harmed. He asked them to be near the human habitation for alins and to get their food. Many Buddhist teachings remind monks and laymen of the importance of showing respect to trees which provide food, shade and protection not only for people but for preserving healthy environment.In Tripitaka itself there are reference of 200 types of trees. Queen Maya, mother of Prince Siddhartha is depicted with sale tree in Sanchi and Bharhut stupa represent the abundance and riches of nature. The present study is, therefore intended to propose that the loss of Buddhist values pose the biggest threat to the environment. The management and conservation of flora can be analternative strategy towards the sustainability. Plants play important ritual, symbolic and practical roles in developing and maintaining values towards ecology.It is argued in this paper that these beliefs represent a set of deeply-embedded cultural values and shouldbe disseminated everywhere. Now countries should imitate Sri Lanka, Thailand, USA, and Brazil environmental activists who are applying the principles of Buddhistethics to preserve ecology.The innumerable primary sources like Anguttaranikaya Dighanikaya, Vinay Pitaka, Jataka,

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(56) Milindapanha of Nagasena,Buddhacharitra of Asvagosa, Bodhicaryavatara of Santideva and various secondary sources like books,articles journals on Buddhism and environment ecology helped in substantiating the hypothesis that ecology was always given prime importance in Buddhism. ***** Debate and Dialogue in Kathavatthu: An Analytical Study Shailendra Kumar Singh, Varanasi Kathavatihu is considered as one of the most controversial text in the Pali Tipitaka. Kathavatthu is the only text in the Theravada Tipitaka of which a definite date and a separate author other than Buddha is acknowledged. Traditionally it is considered as the fifth book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. The author of the Kathavatthu established the Abhidhamma Pitaka as an independent identity in the Tipitaka. The subject matter of the text (Kathavalthu) is to make an analysis and to make a critique of the doctrines and wrong views of the heretics, other than the followers of the Vibhajjavada doctrine of the Buddha, which emerged and originated several years after the demise (mahaparinibbana) of the Buddha. Style and method of the compilation is in the form of a dialogue between the followers of orthodox and heterodox views. The Kathavatthu deals with 219 or more (227) doctrinal interpretations (controversial issues) held by various Buddhist schools and sub-schools. The manner of presentation of controversial issues in the text is in the form of dialogue. The discussions run in the form of dialogues between the Thervadins (saka-vadi) and the opponent (paravadi) who may belong to one among many rival schools. The dialogue seems to follow a welldeveloped mode of debate, which is based on mutually agreed upon canon of logical reasoning and categories of explanation. However, Thera Moggaliputta Tissa has not made any

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(57) reference to specific work on logic. But we see that Kathavatthu has mentioned some of its technical terms anuyogya (inquiry) aharana (illustration), patinna (proposition), upanaya (application of reason), niggama (conclusion) and niggaha (capture or defeat) as various techniques of katha warrants us to presuppose the science of logic in India during third century BC. A talk (dialogue) conducted in accordance with the prescribed method of the Kathavatthu is called a vadayutti. The goal of a vadayutti is the reasoned examination (yutti) of a controversial point in and through a novelistic dialogue (vada). The dialogue is highly structured and is to be conducted under a prescribed format of argumentation. The method of argumentation in Kathavatthu consists of three factors, firstly thapana of the proponent, second papana that is the sequel to thapana and third aropana, the censuring of the opponent pointing out his fallacy. Through this monograph author intends to throw light on the nature and style of the text, on the other hand structure and methodology of the debate, dialogue and argumentation used in the text. ***** Rules Under Vinaya Pitaka: Are They Relevant in Today's Legal Context? Shrikishan N Morey, Aurangabad The Vinaya is very foundation of the Dhamma and are codified in Vinaya Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka is a basket of rules for the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis. They are 227 and 311 for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis respectively. They are incorporated mainly in two parts viz., Bhikkhu Patimokkha for Bhikkhus and Bhikkhuni Patimokkha for Bhikkhuni's. The Bhikkhu Patimokkha and Bhikkhuni Patimokkha further are divided in Parajika, Sanghadises, Aniyat, Nissaggiya Pacchittiya, Pacchittiya, Patidesaniya,

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(58) Sekhiy and Adhikaran Samatha. Accordingly these rules are also categorised in these parts subject wise. These rules prohibit Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis from indulging in many acts like sex, theft, homicide, immoral behaviour, etc. The rules contained in Bhikkhuni Patimokkha additionally restrict the Bhikkhunis from indulging in any acts like sexual lust, accompanying the male and other similar acts. They also provide punishment for their violation. As these rules are providing provisions of punishment, they are Penal Codes of the Sangha. The Rules contained in Adhikaran Samatha of Vinaya Pitaka promotes for the settlement of disputes. Though they are applicable to Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis, the principles contained therein are equally significant for upasakas, the other members of society also. Many prohibited acts under Vinaya Pitaka are also prohibited and punished under Indian Penal Code and other Criminal Laws. The mechanism of settlement of disputes in Vinaya Pitaka is a greatest achievement of Buddhist Criminal Jurisprudence of those days. Their place in modern criminal laws proves their relevance and significance in today's context. Thus Vinaya Pitaka may be called as a paradigm of modern Penal Code! ***** Influence of Buddhism on Evolution of Bengali Music Swarupa Charan, Kolkata Gautama Buddha was born in the year 566 BCE and the Buddhist era began with the advent of Buddha. In the Buddhist Avadanas, Jatakas, Pitakas and other literature, we come across many references to music, musical instruments, and dances with different hand-poses (mudras). Buddhist hymns and songs like thera, theri, etc., were sung by the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis. The theras consist of 107 poems and 1279 gathas (stanzas) and theris, of 73 poems and 552 gathas. The historians are of opinion

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(59) that those gathas or hymnal songs were composed in the fifth century CE. But, in truth, the composition of the gathas was in practice long before the advent of Lord Buddha, and they were known as the gatha-narasami. In the Atharvaveda, we find mention of the gatha-narasamA; "itihasasca... gathasca-narasamsca." In the Jatakas like Nritya, Bherivada, Matsya,Bhadraghata, Guptila, Vindura-pandita, Kusha and Visvantara, we get references to music and veena. In the Matasya-jataka, we find mention of the 'meghagiti'. Some scholars are of opinion that this 'meghagiti' was the 'megharaga',as the ragas were known as the ragagitis in ancient times. The Saptatantri-veena of the Jataka and the chitra-veena of the Natyasastra are the forerunners of the modern setara. Bengal is undoubtedly the seat of Buddhism. The entire land is dotted with monuments and relics, legends and history that epitomize the birth, the decline and finally the resurrection of Buddhism. From the Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela, dated about the 1st century B.C. or 2nd century CE., we come to know that King of Orissa (of Greater Bengal) was proficient in the Gandharvaveda. In the Gupta period (4th century CE.), classical dance and music were used to be patronised by the Gupta rulers. From the excavations of the mounds at MainamatiLamai Riclge at Commilla district and Paharpur at Rajshahi district, many figurines of musicians and musical instruments like veena, venu, trumpet, karatala or cymbal have been unearthed, and they undoubtedly prove the healthy culture of music in the periods, extending from Gupta to the Pala and Sena one's. During the time of Mahipala (978-1030 CE.) the practice of Tantric magic and mysticism were in full swing. During this time, the mystic poets composed the Bauddha Gan-o-Doha, which are known as the charya and vajra gitis. Some special type of music like baul, nachadi or lachadi, gambhira,etc. were also current at that time. It is true that, there is no direct influence of Buddhism on Bengalee culture but it is indebted to Buddhism indirectly. The music of Bengal includes multiple indigenous musical genres

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(60) such as Baul, Bishnupuri Classical, Kirtan, Shyama Sangeet, Rabindra Sangeet, Nazrul Geeti,Atulprasadi, Dwijendrageeti, Ganasangeet, Adhunik Gaan, Bengali rock etc. The city of Darjeeling, which has a large number of Nepali people, is a centre for Nepali rock too. The purpose of the present paper is to examine the influence of Buddhism in evolution of these Bengali music. ***** Nagarjuna's Catuskoti and Modern Logic Md. Shahidul Islam, Bangladesh Catuskoti is a tool of analysis used by Nagarjuna for investigating the applicability of various concepts/properties (e.g. causation, emptiness, etc.) to objects. The presence of catuskoti can be traced back to early Buddhist texts with regard to issues such as whether a tathagata exists after death and whether the world is finite/eternal. Normally to use catuskoti means to enumerate all the four possibilities (positions) regarding an issue then rejecting all of them (in some cases, Nagarjuna accepts one or more of the positions). Catuskoti is a very puzzling aspect of Nagarjuna's works. Many western philosophers have tried to understand catuskoti by using the tools and techniques of modern logic. There have been attempts to relate catuskoti to various logical systems such as propositional logic, predicate logic, intuitionistic logic and paraconsistent logic. The goal of my paper is to examine various attempts to apply modern logic to make sense of catuskoti and then to show the great possibility of Wittgenstein's new logic of language-games in this regard. Matilal (1998) and Westerhoff's (2009) attempted to interpret catuskoti within the framework of classical logic. Mohanta (2010) and Priest (2010) are examples of application of non-classical logic to catuskoti. A logical system (classical or non-classical) is basically an artificial language. It has its basic symbols and has rules to combine them to make larger strings

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(61) of symbols (like words and sentences). However, the rules of a logical language are fixed and stagnant. Any attempt to fix the meaning of an ancient philosophical texts by using calculus-based logic may result in distortion/oversimplification of the original meaning. It is because this logic assumes that language operates within fixed and stagnant rules. As shown by Kuusela (2019), later Wittgenstein's logic of language-games is a revolutionary development in logic that has the power to resolve philosophical problems in a way that is not possible by the calculus-based logics. Language-games are clear, simple and primitive forms of language use that can work as objects of comparison to shed light on the complicated uses of linguistic expressions. Wittgenstein's new logic sees language as dynamic and also as something deeply embedded in our activities and forms of life. No attempt has been made to apply this logic to understand Nagarjuna's philosophy, more specifically his catuskoti. . I will argue that to really understand Nagarjuna we need to pay attention to the language-games that have been played by him. For this we need to put his linguistic expressions in the context of his soteriological goal, his life, his culture and time. We need to construct new langauge-games that can throw light on the language use of Nagarjuna. Unlike most other philosophers, both Wittgenstein and Nagarjuna practiced a nontheoretical therapeutic philosophy. Mainly because of this, Wittgenstein's logic of language-games is more applicable to Nagarjuna's ideas than any other tools of logic. ***** Paticcasamuppada-- As the Base of Buddhist Philosophy Sushma Shree, Nalanda Paticcasamuppada, the theory of Dependent Origination is one of the vital aspects of the Buddhist Philosophy. It states that

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(62) neither are the events of our life pre-determined nor do they take place at random. It asserts that every event in our life has in fact no independent existence. All that exists, is eternally out these, does not vanish in any way and does not disintegrate into particles; is dependent on co-interaction with other factors. Dependent arising means "if something appear, such and such result will follow" (asmin sati idam bhavati). It means that all the elements in the wheel of existence are causally conditioned. This was represented by the theory of twelve conservative stages beginnings from avidya to jara-maran. In another sense, dependent arising also means that things are established in dependence and include both physical and mental forms because it includes all the way in which things are dependent upon each other. Thus, the existence of everything's is conditional. Nothing happens by chance its works automatically without the help of other power or conscious guide. any ***** Significance of Environment in Buddhism Shravan Kumar, Delhi All existing things on the earth, no matter who designed whether it is the God or any other super conscious power, consider as environment, including with the earth. Soil, rivers, rocks, trees, lower order, middle order and higher order living beings all are parts in the web of environment. Man is an integral part of the environment. Changes that occur in the environ-ment affect us and our activities change the environment around us. Today, man in his thirst for pleasure and wealth has exploited environment. Nature's gifts such as air and water have been polluted with several disastrous consequences. Man is now finding different ways and means of overcoming the problems related to environment as his health too is alarmingly threatened. He also

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(63) feels that it is not morally right to leave the planet polluted for the future generations. If man is to work with a sense of responsibility to the environment and to future generations, he has to search an appropriate environmental ethic today to stop further aggravation of the present environment related problems. Hence his search for wisdom is namely, religion. All religions have different concept of cosmos, their respect for nature. Religious and Spiritual traditions are rich sources of moral values and principles for reflecting on environmental issues. The aim of this paper is to meet to the present environmental issues depending on living and non living beings to the fullest happiness based on Buddhist literature. ***** Spirits in Buddhism Tuhina Dholey, Kolkata The word 'Preta' in Sanskrit known as ghost. It's mean usually the after death life, which English or Western term is 'Spirit. According to the information or all myth of western society usually called it ghost. A spirit is a supernatural being, often but not exclusively a, non-physically entity such as ghost. But Bible describes about this spirits with its division. There is two kinds of spirits in Bible one is holy sprits and other one is called bad spirit. Western scholars, narrators, are mainly written with this bad spirits. In Bible 'The spirits' specifically denotes the Holy spirits. In Hinduism The Gaura Purana' mentions that after death the soul leave the human body and after leaving the body according to the deeds (Karma) soul deserve their position. Well deeds turned into a holy spirit and negative deeds won the bad spirit. Here those bad sprits usually doer of the negative things. Like this Buddhism also said about those kind of spirit where

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(64) they told about their good deed and bad deeds. Whose are followed by the good ways, well path, and Karma they got a nice place which is called vimana and got the winner of positive spirit and who done the bad karma and distracted by good ways they turned into bad spirit after death and usually called Preta or Peta. The canonical text Petavatthu and Vimanavatthu describes about the spirits in Buddhism. The Petavatthu contains with four chapter or vaggas and there are fiftyone stories about the spirits in this book and all are shown their negative doing in their before life. There is also a sutta, Tirakadda sutta which describe about those spirits and there world. There is also a world that calls petaloka usually this place where the bad spirit live there after death life. According to Tirakadda Sutta there is no work or food for petas from where they spen their peta life; if any relative offer some food or cloth for them they can got it by this noble donation. For this reason in every religion has a funeral ceremony. Many country celebrate the festival mainly the China; Thyland; Laos; Vietnam; Singapore; Japan; Srilanka and Burma for the spirits which is called ghost festival. In Buddhism all spirits did not show their negative powers or energy to anyone; they can visible for those people who can make them free from the Peta world. They told to them for choose a honest path and their bad deeds by which they got birth the petaloka. Buddhism is the religion of positiveness; its creates the positivity in mind evem its shown the negative things like peta with a positive views. By this positivity its also creates mind as beautiful as the lord Buddhas speech. *****

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(65) Re-incarnation of Dalai Lamas in the History of Tibetan Buddhism Vivek Sharma, Jammu Buddhism first came to Tibet in the seventh century through two wives of the Tibetans monarch Sangtsen Gampo (605or 61749), princess one from Nepal and other from China who brought Buddhist statues to Tibet. Both the Nepalese and Chinese queens were Buddhists and deeply impressed him with their spiritual sensibility. He decided to introduce formally into his country in order to bring the benefits of the civilization to his people. While King Songtsen had five wives and three of them were from Tibet. Buddhist flourished in Tibet during the reign of King Trisong Detsen who invited the monk, Madhyamaka philosopher, and logician Santarakita from Nalanda and the Indian Tantric Yogi Padmasambhava to come to Tibet. Santarakita ordained Tibetan monks, establishing the Sangha in Tibet, while padmasambhava gave tantric initiation and teachings. Santarakita also encouraged the Tibetans king to have Buddhist texts translated into Tibetan. Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that the non physical essence of a living being starts a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. It is also called rebirth or transmigration, and is a part of Samara doctrine of cyclic existence. The word reincarnation comes from the Latin roots re, meaning again, and incarnate, meaning to make flesh. It is a central tenet of Indian religions namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, although there are Hindu groups that do not believe in reincarnation but believe in an afterlife. The early Buddhist texts discuss rebirth as part of the doctrine of Samsara. This asserts that the nature of existence is a suffering laden cycle of life, death, and rebirth, without beginning or end. This research paper will be discussing about the lineage of Dalai Lamas in the history of Tibetans Buddhism, but main focus will be on the role of reincarnation of Dalai Lamas in Tibetan Buddhism. *****

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(66) A Crisis of Human Values in the Contemporary World Sonam Lamo, Jammu In the modern era of globalisation and technological driven world, human values have been at major stake. People these days are truly face a huge crisis or challenge in terms of practicing and maintaining the true human values. We have been creating or shaping the face of technology and now the technology is shaping or creating our world and it has somehow limited the space for the growth of true human values such as deep respect, genuine consideration, trust, faith and spontaneous and reliable love for each other and for all sentient beings. People these days value the things that less matter while neglecting the things that truly matter. It may be due the fact that reality created by the virtual world has been so pronounced so far that we have been facing de value or de-generation in the real human values. Many researches' have been conducted in this context so far, but somehow we are failed in balancing our own world. Now, what truly lacking here is the Moderation which is the keyword employed long ago by the Buddha. The Challenge these days our youth and world is facing is lack of wisdom in seeking moderation of our both physical and inner realms. The technologies or any kind of endeavours will appear or emerge as per the needs of human with changing modes of Space and Time, but excessive usage of any of it will somehow deeply impact the natural growth of human mind and more importantly the Human heart or Human values, which maybe the key cause for all the upheavals or imbalances in our world. Therefore, this paper will try to highlight the very sacred verses or wisdom of the text Dhammapada of the Buddha so that our generation would know how to discern the necessary from the unnecessary or in other words, how to articulate the

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(67) mechanism of our mind from both the Buddha's and the modern spectrum of our life, so to seek or achieve moderations or proper of our world. ***** Mindfulness and its Utility Parveen Kumar, Odisha Mindfulness is one of the most important teachings of Buddha. Its stand among the noble eight fold path.sati and sampanjjana two elements come under mindfulness. Sati means to live in present and sampanjanna means through investigation of anitya dukkha and anatma.although Buddha prescribes for the attaininent of libration. But it has a great potentiality to resolve our complex socio economic and political problem of modern world. The present paper aims to explore mindfulness and its application in different aspect of life ***** Buddhism as a Solution to Violence in Today's World Neha Sukhija, Delhi In today's society it is mostly observed that human being only aims for enhancing their materialistic status and he no more hesitates in taking any kind of bold decision and also in harming others for their own greed. All this violence which we see today either violence on large scale or small scale are consequences of such extreme steps or decision taken by human being. This not only create problem for oneself but it also creates suffering and miseries for others. Ultimately whole society gets affected. The school of Buddhism which was started by Lord Buddha is known for peace and harmony which they spread in society. The

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(68) teachings of Buddha mostly consist of non-violence (Ahimsa), compassion, and love for all. It is because in Buddhism it is believed that all living creatures are our mother, therefore we must always help, love, respect every form of life. The main attempt of Buddha was to approach a life which aims towards the end of suffering. According to him, one should always have love, compassion in his heart and further he must be rational also in order to control their unwanted desire and passion. It is because this passion increases greed and selfishness in human beings, due to which he takes extreme steps and becomes violent in order to accomplish them. According to the teachings of Buddha, it is impossible to win people by means of wars and battles. One can only win a piece of land or territory through battles but not heart of people. According to Buddha one should avoid extremes of any action. One should always choose the middle path because this path is the right path. If one follows middle path then he will be able to control his unnecessary desires and can easily distinguish between right and wrong. By following this path the individual will act in intelligent way and will get enlighten. As a result, he will be to detach himself from feeling of hatred, greed, delusion and thus will be able to accomplish what should be done (social works), by doing this he not only improve himself but he can also help others who are still suffering in the darkness of ignorance. Buddhism is known for changing the personality of individuals since very beginning. One of the famous examples was famous dacoit Angulimala, who killed many people for his self-interest but after encounter with Lord Buddha he realised the real course of life and joined the Buddhist order. Another famous example was set by great emperor Ashoka who completely transformed himself by following the path of Buddhism and helped Buddhism to expand not only in India but also outside India. Finally won hearts of many and is still remembered today. The paper will be focusing on Buddha's teachings as a solution to today's problem. *****

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(69) Contributions of Bhikshu Jagdish Kashyap to Buddhism Meenu Verma, Jammu Bhikshu Jagdish Kashyap was one of the greatest scholars of Buddhism whose contribution to its development and revival in India is very vast. He was one of the three great Buddhist monks produced by modern India, the other two being Mahapandita Rahul Sankrityayan and Bhadant Ananda Kausalyayan. He was born as Jagdish Narain in 1908 at Ranchi in Bihar. He passed the Matriculation examination from Ranchi Zila School in 1925. He completed his B.A examination from the Patna College in 1929. Then he went to Varanasi and passed the M.A examination in Philosophy from the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) and also did second M.A in Sanskrit from there. After completing his M.A he wanted to do Doctoral work in Buddhist philosophy. His Arya Samaji Guru, Ayodhya Das and a renowned as well as famous philosopher of Kashi, Bhagwan Das encouraged and suggested him to study Pali Tripitaka in original. As a result, he became interested in learning this language and wrote a letter in Sanskrit to the Vidyalamkara Parivena in Sri Lanka and expressed his desire to go there to study Pali in order to revive a lost tradition in India. He got the permission from his parents and went to the Vidyalamkara Parivena in Sri Lanka in November 1933. In 1934, he was ordained into the Sangha by the Venerable L. Dhammananda Nayaka Maha Thero of the Vidyalankara Parivena and thus Jagdish Narain became a fullfledged monk named Bhikshu Jagdish Kashyap. The greatest and significant contribution of Bhikshu Jagdish Kashyap towards the revival and propagation of Buddhism in India was the establishment of Nava Nalanda Mahavihara and his great as well as authentic work of the Devanagari edition of the Pali Tripitaka in 41 Volumes. He was a great scholar of Pali who dedicated his entire life for the cause of Buddhism and its development in the mainland of India.

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(70) In the proposed research paper, an attempt will be made to discuss the life and contributions of Bhikshu Jagdish Kashyap to Buddhism and Buddhist Studies in a detailed way. ***** The Influence of Buddhism and Jainism on SocioReligious Life of Common People at Mathura : With Special Reference to Inscriptions Renuka J. Porwal , Mumbai Mathura situated on the cross roads of Great Carvan' route was a big commercial centre and also the capital of Kus#an#a kings in the early Christian era. The city was considered as Moksadayi Tirtha in Indian origin religions. The king and his subject were hiring the artists for utilising their wealth in constructing magnificent shrines, images, halls, wells, etc. for the need of communities. The Art School of Mathura was famous in remote states too as per the available many images from Sarnatha, ahicchatra and other cities. The people of Mathura were neither sectarian nor narrow minded but were respecting women and low profile men in the society. The available records corroborate that the women wrote down her in law's names along with their parental pedigrees (LL. no. 29). Kusana kings were secular and though they patronized Buddhism but at the same time they respected Jainism too. Later on the artistic shrines of Mathura attracted the invaders resulted in heavy loss to people and entire city. At Mathura we get number of Brahmi inscriptions of Vedic and Sramanic traditions but here we will stress more on Sramanic tradition. The dedicatory inscriptions on images and sculptures of Jainism at Mathura disclose that they were established by the persons following various professions in the society. One famous Jaina Ayagapata at Mathura was established by courtesan/Ganika

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(71) Lonashobhika. We know that Amrapali of Vaishali embraced Buddhism after the war between two mighty states. Many inscribed images and sculptures of Buddhist, Vedic and Jaina traditions too available in plenty showing the city's secular fabric. Besides courtesan's Ayagapata other Jina images and sculptures were also established by people in low professions like - ironsmith (Lohikaraka), cotton dealer (Karappasika), dyer (Rayaka), perfumer (Gandhaka), Carava leader (Sarthavaha), etc. The carving pattern of Jina image inscription is the same as Buddha image below the feet on the pedestal. The languages used in the inscriptions of Jina images are in mixed Sanskrit and Prakrit dialect and in Bramhi script. The use of local words like Bhaya - Dharmapatni - bharya for wife also seen. Thus the influence of Sramanic culture is well reflected in epigraphs as here many people in society adopted Jaina and Buddhist traditions. ***** Buddha and Early Conception of Human Rights Anirban Sengupta, Kolkata In our current world, frequently we come across the term "HUMAN RIGHTS". It denotes some rights to which a human being, irrespective of caste, creed, colour and nationality is entitled. We are taught that the idea of Human Rights is a produce of recent times, as a consequence of radical, liberal & humanist philosophies evolved in 19th century Europe. But if we scan the viewpoints of Lord Buddha from the Pali Nikayas, we are bound to find out some traces of the Human Rights concept. For example-an important component of the human rights is to ensure the safety of the prisoners as well as to refrain from inflicting any type of torcher upon them. The Kandaraka & Apannaka Sutta of the Majjhimanikaya illustrate the deep concern of Bhagaban Buddha regarding this matter. In addition, there is a faint hint that He was against capital punishment.

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(72) If we look into the social scenario of the other contemporary civilisations, we have to shiver thinking of the wretched subhuman condition of the slaves there. On the other hand, Bhagavan Buddha in the famous Singlovada Sutta of the DighaNikaya, specifically mentioned the benefits which should be allowed to the employees and slaves. The privileges He suggested are reckoned worldwide today. Religious and sectarian violence mandatorily strike social stability and at its extreme level, present a terrible threat to human lives and thus curb the most basic human right- the right to live. In the Brahmajala Sutta of Dighanikay and Upali Sutta of Majjhimanikaya He offered workable solutions to eradicate such evils. Rehabilitation of ex-criminals is also a sensitive issue today and Buddha in this line, set a practical example -perhaps the oldest example of its kind. This paper humbly intends to explore a few relevant topics from the viewpoint of Human Rights-on the basis of the Pali canons. ***** Access, Attitude and Attainment: Reviewing Gender in the Buddhist Jatakas Amrita Singh, In the contemporary environment of change and diversity it becomes essential to reflect on aspects of religion and gender. Especially in a global context where multidimensional dialogues and debates around issues of gender and sexuality in the religious sphere has taken center stage. Buddhism is a complex religion which exists in numerous varieties and denominations in Asia and also in the west, where it is increasingly being institutionalised. This paper attempts to highlight that there is common intertwining of religion and cultural values and practices. In a society roles and religious attitude are interrelated and religions significantly reflect on gender roles and sexual practices.

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(73) Access, Attitude and Attainment- three simple sounding words in the title carry underneath them complex issues and experiences. Each of them is surrounded by debates and positions which shall be explored through the lens of early Buddhist literature i.e. by investigating some Pali canonical texts. It is noteworthy that Buddhism as a religion did give women an alternative path of renunciation, which makes it equally interesting to interrogate along the gender praxis. Who joins the sangha? Who supports it? are not just questions but dynamics of the society that early Buddhism was a part of. Gleaning into the literature particularly the Jatakas will also throw open, attitudes towards the "feminine"- its physical anatomy and social construction. Are women able to, in terms of degree the same sort of renunciatory commitment and spiritual progress as their male counterparts. Also, is the category of men and women commonly used and rather understood "homogeneous" is equally pertinent to this paper. ***** Revival of Buddhism in Mongolia Post World-War-II Buddhadev Bhattacharya, Nalanda According to the historical evidences since the second century BC peoples occupying the territory of Mongolia were familiar with Buddhism. Mongolia literally Mongol country is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It borders Russia to the north and the People's Republic of China to the south, east and west. Various nomadic empires, had ruled the area. Chinggis Khan founded the Mongol Empire in 1206 as a union state. After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols returned to their earlier pattern of constant internal conflict and occasional raids on the Chinese borderlands. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Mongolia came under the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. At the end of the 17th century, most of Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the Qing

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(74) Dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish de-facto independence from the Republic of China, and until 1945 to gain international recognition. Buddhism, as in the day of Chinggis Khan, remains an instrument of politicians as well as of the religious today. One region particularly affected by Mongolian Buddhism, for example, is Altai Khan, where the influence of Mongolian Buddhism has been so strong. It is through Buddhism, then, that political alliances are forged and maintained and regional identities are solidified. As it was in the past, so, too, is this idea of religion as an instrument of political connection still persuasive today in modern-day Mongolia. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Outer Mongolia had 583 monasteries and temple complexes, which controlled an estimated 20 percent of the country's wealth. For centuries the Mongols have professed Buddhism adopted from Tibet. The Mongolian Khans closely contacted with the Tibetan lamas who in their turn actively participated in the spread of Buddhism in Mongolia. With the Buddhism they brought a system of the monastic training and the Tibetan language. In the Post-Cold War era, China has taken major steps to normalize its relationship with Mongolia, emphasizing its respect for Mongolia's sovereignty and independence. The Buddhism in Mongolia is essentially Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelug paschool in traditional. The Buddhism penetrated Mongolia from India via Central Asia. Thus many of the Buddhist terms of Sanskrit origin, which are still used in Mongolia, were adopted via the Soghdian language. The process of a revival of the Buddhist Sangha in Mongolia has begun since 1990 when the religious freedoms were proclaimed. This paper will focus the present status and tendencies of the Mongolian Buddhism, which has got a new safe and its own unique characteristics after II world war with considering the main stages of the history of Buddhism in Mongolia. *****

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(75) Why Did the Non-Buddhist Ruling Powers Patronize Buddhism in Early South-Eastern Bengal? - A Critical Appraisal Suhas Chand Kapur, WB After the downfall of the Gupta dynasty the sense of regionalisin emerged in the political map of India. It was not an exception in the regional study of Bengal (undivided West Bengal and Bangladesh). In the spare of time, it is also evident that Bengal became a stronghold of Buddhism in post-Gupta era. Many regional uling powers (either the follower of Buddhism or not) like the Palas in north and west Bengal and the Ratas, Khagas, Chandras etc. in early South-Eastern Bengal i.e. Samatata and Harikela regions patronized and practiced the religion, Buddhism. Now, the point is that it was such a common religious propaganda of the Buddhist rulers to patronize Buddhism, but in the case of non-Buddhist rulers. Thus, the questions are to be addressed-why were several non-Buddhist rulers showing their faiths towards Buddhism in early South-Eastern Bengal? Was it only a quest for merits or other ones? Who were the rulers in patronage of Buddhism? How did they advance Buddhism in their times? All are the questions significantly addressed in the present research paper to understand the growth and development of Buddhism by non-Buddhist ruling powers in ancient South-Eastern Bengal from c. seventh to thirteen century CE. ***** Concept of Mahasukha as Narrated by Maitripa Sulagna Bhattacharya, Kolkata Emergence of tantra or esoterism was such an upheaval, which stretched rituals as pragmatics. After the Asokan era, Buddhism molded to various shapes and the later patriarchy of

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(76) Buddhism; i.e. Vajrayana, introduced many psycho-physical activities as pragmatics. When Gautama Buddha said dukkha-nirodhagamini patipada; he reluctantly endorsed the path of sukha, but, it never drafted as terminology. When the Vajrayana School emerged, it said the theory of Sukha-Sknyavada. But, they endorsed the concept of mahasukha which is great bliss and more than sukha. Previously, achieving nirvana was the ultimate point for Sravaka; after the initiation of Sahajayana, mahasukha is the ultimate goal to reach for a yogi. The changing facets of Buddhism from Sravakayana to Buddhayana and after that yogin tradition endorsed historical Buddha as conceptual Buddha. Gautama Buddha the mundane one conversed into supramundane Tathagata. Gautama Buddha, who achieved nirvana became subordinate the philosophical scenario of supreme bliss. The concept mahasukha became famous through the compositions of Siddhacaryas. Maitripa the most celebrated siddha' scholar of Nepalese lineage presented the concept of mahasukha through the intellectual work. 14" colophon Mahasukhaprakasa of the text Advayavajra Sa Agraha stated the concept of mahasukha through the state of yuganaddha. Concept mahasukha is originated with the development of the Sahajayana, later it was diffused into many cults like Sufi, VaiSnava etc. Aim of this paper is to show how this concept emerged its nature and scope and how it is sustaining as projected by Maitripa. ***** Dzogchen: The Heart of Nyingma Tradition Sagnika Bhattacharya, Kolkata During the mid of 7th century CE Buddhism arrived in Tibet through the matrimonial alliance with the Buddhist princesses

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(77) from Nepal and China. The then King Srong-btsansgam-po brought a huge change in religious practice in Tibet along with a new protocol of culture. It was the time when Tibet got introduced to the world with an elite attire of Buddhism keeping its prevalent practice of Shamanic religion BAn, underneath. But, again in 8th century CE when the later royal master of Tibet Khri-srong Ide-btsan came into power, he brought another phase of Buddhism with the help of Guru Padmasambhava of Swat valley (in Afghanistan); eventually the first sect of Tibetan Buddhism was established by this eminent teacher. The Nyingma tradition was founded on the basement of Tantricism, in fact it is known as the old school tantra tradition. Guru Padmasambhava fused the Astanga or 8 limb yoga system of India with the prevalent yoga system of BAn and established the Dzogchen tradition. Some sources say that its origination is from Central Asia. Etymologically Dzog means perfection and chen means great. In Sanskrit it is termed as Atiyoga. It is the higher stage of Nyingma tradition to attain perfect realization. Dzogchen is one of the nine vehicles for liberation. The establishment of the NyingmaSchool was the first blaze of the Vajrayana. Vajrayana or the foremost Tibetan Buddhist sect Nyingma is the tradition whose prime functions are voice and activities/rituals. Mind and mental functionality is the prominent feature in this tradition. The aim of the paper is to discuss the feature and fruit of Dzogchen practice. How it originated, modified and became a quintessential part of Nyingma or the Vajrayana practice. ***** Origin and Development of Pali Commentary: An Appraisal Rana Purushottam Kumar Singh, Nalanda Pali Atthakathas are originally the commentaries upon the Tipitakas. It generally gives, in a passage commented words and

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(78) phrases from the Tipitatka at first and then various equivalents, comments and explanations upon them, and also they occasionally have certain related stories and examples, etc. It can be said that Atthakathas would be a combination of the Tipitaka as the commented text and the Atthakatha itself as its commentary. Since the Atthakatha texts are a Buddhist literature, the most essential study regarding these texts would be the elucidation on Buddhist doctrine and thought or religious realities of Buddhism described in them. The proposed paper would discuss the following aspects of literature: (a) Indian tradition of Atthakatha literature (b) The Origin of Pali Atthakatha literature (c) The Sources of Atthakatha literature in Pali (d) Early Commentators and their Commentaries. ***** Contribution of Anagarika Dharmapala in the Revival of Buddhism in India Sharmistha Chakraborty, Kolkata The religion incepted by Lord Buddha in India in the 6th century B.C.E. was unabated till the 4th Buddhist Council held under the patronage of the Kushana King Kaniska in the first century C.E. There the Hinayana and Mahayana sects were created ceremonially and gradually spread in different countries outside India through various retreats. The ascendency of Buddhism continued till the eighth century C.E.. From the later part of the eighth century, as history reveals, Buddhism became weak in India on account of both internal and external reasons. Buddhism existed in the Eastern India between 750 C.E. and 1175 C.E. during the reign of Pala dynasty. Then it was on the wane since the departure of the Pala kings in 1175 C.E. The subsequent rulers, the Senas were known to be haters of

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(79) Buddhism.By losing royal patronage Buddhism gradually lost importance amongst the masses. The last blow of nails in its coffin was struck by Ikhtyar-uddin Mohammad Bin BakhtierKhilji in 1206 C.E.. His army butchered the Buddhist monks mercilessly, looted, burnt and destroyed the Buddhist shrines all over India. They totally destroyed the institutes of learning - Nalanda, Odantapuri, Taxila, VikramsilaMahaviharas.Somehow a few Buddhist monks could manage to flee to Nepal and Tibet with scriptures, manuscripts, etc. which afterwards helped to recreate the history of Buddhism. Buddhism practically disappeared from India since thirteenth century C.E. Thereafter almost seven hundred years was the period of darkness so far as the Buddhism in India is concerned. Prof. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee rightly said, "Till the beginning of the eighteenth century Buddhism was a forgotten creedin the land of its origin. Now discussing the role of Anagarika Dharmapala in reviving Buddhism in India, it is worthy to be mentioned that the period between 1891 and 1955 is of great importance for Buddhist renaissance. Dharmapala stood above all for the revival of Buddhism. He stood not merely for the revival of Buddhism in Ceylon, where it had been weakened for centuries, but for its renaissance in India. The most important thing AnagarikaDharmapala did for the revival of Buddhism in India was to regain the control of Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya from the clutch of the Mahanta and restore its past glory. Anagarika came to India on 18th January, 1891 along with KozenGunaratna, a Japanese monk. On 20th January, he went to Sarnath with Upendranath Bose where Lord Buddha preached his first sermon and set the 'Wheel of Law'. Anagarika was afflicted to see the sad plight of this holy place. On 22 January, 1891 Dharmapala arrived at Bodh Gaya and was shocked to see the Mohabodhi Temple getting neglected and unsanctified in the hands of the Mahantas. He took a vow to re-establish Buddhist control over the Temple. The impracticable dream of a young idealist to revive, in the land of its birth, a religion that had been dead there a thousand years, was scoffed at by his contemporaries. But

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(80) undeterred Dharmapala set to work, fought vigorously to rescue the Mohabodhi Temple, reclaimed the sacred places, established centres like Mohabodhi Society, etc. and kept up a continuous stream of propaganda for the spread of the religion. Dharmapala sought to focus on the renaissance of Buddhism in India and particularly on the legally complicated issue of the Moha Bodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya, the attention of the entire Buddhist world. He established the Mohabodhi Society in Colombo on 31st May, 1891. In the beginning of 1892, the office of the Moha Bodhi Society was shifted to Calcutta as its Headquarter. Calcutta, being the gateway of eastern India, location wise it was ideal to have headquarter at Calcutta. In that very year in the month of May, Dharmapala started the Moha Bodhi Journal in order to facilitate the interchange of news between Buddhist countries. In 1901 land was purchased at Sarnath and the office of the Society was established. Through these offices the Society was active untiringly in serving people and in propagating and extension of Buddhism. Establishing not only various learning institutions, the Moha Bodhi Society was also active in making the young generation of the society self-reliant by establishing Technical School at Sarnath, Art and Architecture School at Benaras. Thus as a result of the earnest endeavor and intense struggle of Anagarika Dharmapala in re-occupying the Moha Bodhi Temple, by salvation of various other sacred temples and monasteries, establishing various Buddhist centers, continual stream of Buddhist propagation for long forty years Buddhism acquired its long lost glory. ***** The Term 'Caste' As Used In Nikayas Saswati Mutsuddy, Kolkata The term 'caste' is usually used in Pali as 'kula', 'vanna', 'jati. In Pali English Dictionary it is found that caste has been

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(81) described in two forms like hina jati (low birth), consisting of candala, vena, nesada, rathakara & pukkusa and ukkattha (superior birth), comprising khattiyas & brahmanas. The Ambatthasutta of Dighanikaya, Madhurasutta, Kannakatthalasutla and the Assallayanasutta of Majjhimanikaya and other suttas recognize the existence of four castes: cattara vanna - ksatriya,brahmana,vaisa,sudra. The Madhurasutta mainly focused that caste: cannot guarantee material success in life; cannot exclude the good from bliss hereafter; cannot protect evildoers from the criminal law; cannot affect the uniform reverence extended to the religious ,whether he bring jump from the highest or the lowest of the four castes. In all these important respects these four castes are exactly equal. The paper would focus on the exact meaning of the word 'Caste' in Pali and its use in various suttas of Nikya. ***** Friendship: Glimpses from Pali Tipitaka Arindam Bhattacharyya, Kolkata If wanderers who are members of other sects should ask you, 'What, friend, are the prerequisites for the development of the wings to self-awakening?' You should answer, 'There is the case where a monk has admirable people as friends, companions, & colleagues. This is the first prerequisite for the development of the wings to self-awakening.' Friendship is very important in Early Buddhist ethical teachings. Various texts of Suttapitaka have ample references about friendship. The definition of friendship is a state of being friends; friendly relation, or attachment, to a person, or between persons; affection arising from mutual esteem and good will; friendliness; amity; good will. Friendship for most people is a combination of affection, loyalty, love, respect, and trust. The

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(82) general traits of a friendship include similar interests, mutual respect and an attachment to each other, and in order to experience friendship, you need to have true friends. Friendship is often considered as a mutual and agreeable relationship between two individuals. It is believed that a person who finds a true friend has found a priceless treasure. This ideal of the relevance and value of friendship in everyone's mundane life as well as spiritual progression is reiterated by the Buddha and mentioned as such in several Pali texts. The Mahamangala sutta, the Great Discourse on Blessings, is one of the most popular Pali-Buddhist devotional chants and as such, is included in the Paritta. The sutta begins when a beautiful deity having descended to earth in the stillness of the night, approaches the Buddha in the letavana and asks about the way to the highest blessings. The Buddha in his reply first of all states that the highest blessing comes from avoiding fools and associating with the wise (asevana ca balanam, panditanan ca sevana). The Buddha repeatedly stressed the value of good friendship (kalyanamitta) in the spiritual life. One's spiritual progress depends on the selection of friends and companions, who can have the most decisive impact upon one's personal destiny. The Anguttaranikaya contains many statements of the Buddha where he exhorted that he sees no other thing that is so much responsible for the arising of unwholesome qualities in a person as bad friendship, nothing so helpful for the arising of wholesome qualities as good friendship. Again, he says that he sees no other external factor that leads to so much harm as bad friendship, and no other external factor that leads to so much benefit as good friendship. The Suttanipata it is also mentioned that the Buddha states that it is through the influence of a good friend that a disciple is led along the Noble Eight fold Path to release from all suffering. The Singalovadasutta of the Dighanikaya elaborates on various aspects of friendship. This paper will discuss on the various facets of friendship as explained in Tipitaka and its probable

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(83) application in our contemporary living. ***** Historical and Religious Significance of Milindapnha Renu Shukla, Uttarakhand The celebrated work Milindapnha, which is preserved in the Pali language, is considered as 'the most important non canonical work of the Theravada' Buddhist ideology. Though controversial but on account of internal and external evidences it is believed to be written between the first century BCE and first century CE. The illuminating discussion on Buddhist tenets in the form of a dialogue between the monk Nagasena and king Milianda is very fruitful in order to respond to the queries of common people, to resolve the dilemmas in the religious beliefs and to expand the following of Buddha. Milindapanha is the earliest evidence of the existence of Three Pitakas and five Nikayas and contains the name of all the seven books of Abhidhamma. It presents Buddhist doctrine in a very attractive and memorable form. Besides discussing various Buddhist principles like four noble truths, eightfold path, theory of dependent co origination (paticca samuppada), law of impermanence (anicca), kamma and rebirth, nibbana etc. it also attempts to clarify matters which remain hazy in the suttas and gives a clear understanding of Buddha's statements. Like the doctrinal value of the book it is also known for its historical significance. It represents the time when there was a political unrest in Indian subcontinent and north-west India was under the subjugation of foreign rule. Due to this factor the north-west region had witnessed a unique trend of cultural synthesis and acceptance of popular beliefs. Milindapnha itself is an excellent example of an interaction between two people belonging to two different cultural groups- India and Greece,

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(84) which stands unparalleled in History till today. The book is a testimony of Menander's close link with Buddhism and also gives the information of his conversion to it. Another significant aspect about Milindapnha is its presentation of some unique ideas with a different approach towards various Buddhist doctrines. The present paper focuses on the doctrinal, philosophical and historical significance of Milindapnha in order to understand the change in the Buddhist ideology to build up a tradition of hospitality towards the people of varied beliefs and traditions. ***** Barua (MOGH/ Buddhist) Tribe Indo-Bangla Subcontinent Subhasis Barua, Kolkata Buddhism was the religion of Eastern India. The empire of Asoka was spread upto Pundrabardhana or North Bengal of north east India. Buddhism entered Bengal in the 3rd Century B.C. during the reign of Asoka. Today in West Bengal almost fifty thousand Bengali Buddhist reside in greater Kolkata and the other districts. The people who are known as Buddhists in west Bengal are not the son of the soil of West Bengal. They were displaced from Chittagong, hilly Chittagong, Noakhali and Comilla of East Bengal and have settled in West Bengal after coming here. Buddhists are a minority community recognized by the Constitution. Bengali Buddhists are included in the "Magh" Community. We have discussion with some old and illiterate Barua people and they candidly disclosed some authentic information. According to them the Barua were known as Magh in the place of their origin. Now they do not use that word in their name but without knowing the reason behind it. Following their statement I understood from some very old and rare document of preIndependent India that the Buddhist Baruas of Chittagong

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(85) belonged to the Magh tribe. In the State of Tripura they have been mentioned as Magh. Various writers have mentioned the Magh by different names e.g., mag>magh> or maghi. Now in West Bengal the Maghas are included in the list of schedule castes. The Barua Community has been described as Magh in the appendix of the third chapter of Eastern Bengal District Gazetteer of Chittagong published by LSSO Mally ICS. The religion of the Barua Maghs residing in the southern and eastern part of Chittagong in Buddhism - though they follow some Hindu religious practices. They claim to be a section of the Rajbanshi and the Raj Community. As the cause of this they claim themselves to be the successors of the king of Arakan. Those kings migrated to Arakan from Magadh or modern Bihar. The word 'Magh' is derived from the original dwelling place of the Baruas, even the illiterate Maghs also claim themselves to be Magadh Kashatriyas - because their ancestors originated from the royal Kashatriya class of Magadh. ***** The Impact of Tourism on Heritage Sites - A Case Study of Ajanta Caves Sanjay Paikrao, Aurangabad UNESCO world class heritage is declared on the basis of price less cultural and valuable heritage having immense value to humanity and its unequal and unparallel place in the world of art and culture. India is a cradle of cultural tourism. According to Dr. Allchin, face lifting of heritage sites is highly required to make them suitable for international tourism. However, during last 60 years, in the post independence period the tourism industry has made considerable impact on heritage sites both in positive and negative manner. A case study of UNESCO heritage

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(86) site Ajanta caves in Aurangabad district has been conducted here. The major theory behind this that more the site is exploited for tourism purpose the product can diminish its cultural value. The paintings in Ajanta caves are vanishing and rapidly declining due to large number of tourists visiting them every day. The biological respiration of visitors is making effect on sustainability of paintings. The micro worms developing on murals are deteriorating the quality of paintings. The three basic objectives of the study are to examine the impact of tourism on heritage sites to protect decay and decline of tourist products and to suggest remedies for the faster remedies. The area of study lies in sociology of cultural tourism. A sample of 100 tourists of Ajanta will be selected and interviews will be conducted by adopting random sample survey method. The study will be highly significant to protect world class heritage sites which are unique and cannot be replaced as a product of high significance. Its unique national situation classical reflections, both in paintings and sculptures and the capacity of these caves in the transmitting of cultural message is a supreme merit. The perspicuous cultural communication of Buddhist religion and culture is the highest value for universal brotherhood and socio cultural cohesion of the world. ***** Significance of Buddhist Mindfulness in Daily Life Ven. Sajjana, Greater Noida We had face many difficulties in our daily life, either in the classroom, family, group association as the facing stress, facing problems and facing inconvenience. Everybody tries to acquire the convenience that of precious human happiness. As approach from a Buddhist perspective, mindfulness meditation efforts can be overcome those problems. Mindfulness meditation stands a

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(87) scientific technique of the self-exploration by self-observation in the universal law of nature. The problem solving and the significance of mindfulness in daily life with special reference to Buddha's teachings becomes the basis of this research. This study have used the descriptive method to find the important relevant data from textual sources, comparative method to compare between published works on mindfulness and the original texts, classification method to classify the challenges of mental and physical to precautionary measure for practicing mindfulness and quantify mindfulness between mindfulness meditation, wellbeing and personal goals. Finally, this proposal work concluded reiteration of significance of mindfulness in daily life with special reference to Tharavada Buddhist tradition to dispel confusion which will help in establishing Buddhist mindfulness and to assess the all challenges along with applicability of mindfulness. ***** Obligation of Monkhood in Theravada Buddhism Ven. Khemacara, Greater Noida Buddhism is one of the world's religious convictions accepting in the universe today. It is founded by Gautama Buddha over 2,500 years ago. Buddhism spread out of India after the 3rdcentury B.C with the help of Emperor Asoka and it's originated in Indian. Theravada is the dominant most of Southeast Asia. It's also one of the two primary schools of Buddhisin; the other is called Mahayana. Someone will tell you there are three primary schools, and the third is Vajrayana. But all schools of Vajrayana are built upon Mahayana philosophy and call themselves Mahayana, also. Theravada makes two historical claims for itself. One is that it is the oldest form of Buddhism being practiced today and the other is that it is directly descended from the original Sangha- the Buddha's own disciples

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(88) - and Mahayana is not. For the disciple of Buddha, especially monkhood, is had two kind of duties called learning and practicing to attain final goal (Nibbana). This paper will approach three stapes of study: the first is introduction with the situation of three kind of Buddhist school population, the second is definition of Theravada and the third is will examining to the duties and obligation of monkhood with the special reference pali texts.

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