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SOME PROBLEMS IN JAINA PSYCHOLOGY
some doubt about touch as a single sense. Current popular usage is in the Aristotelian tradition. However, at different times, specially of recent years, the list has been expanded. The 'extra' senses have come out of the sense of feeling by the process of sub-division. Boring, listing the sense qualities of feeling, includes pressure and other factors in the sense of feeling. 12 In the history of classification of the senses, there have been in general three logically distinct approaches. They may be grouped together (i) qualitatively, on the basis of observational similarity; (ii) stimulus-wise, with respect to the object or forms of physical energy that logically set them off; and (iii) anatomicaly, in accordance with the system of sense organs. Geldard says that the anatomical basis seems to provide the best organizational principle. For instance, we could talk of the sense of green and the sense of grey, but since we know that the production of these qualities is the work of a single anatomical unit, the eye, we are accustomed to group the two classes of sense experiences together as visual.13
Modern physiology matntains that all movement is due to the activity of the muscles. Muscles are made of bundles of contractile fibres by which movements are effected. There are three types of muscles: (i) skeletal muscles, (ii) smooth muscles, and (iii) cardiac muscles. Cardiac muscles are controlled by the nervous system, and are located in the heart. Skeletal muscles have a much wider distribution. They are attached to the bones of the skeleton, making bodily movement possible. Smooth muscles are found in many of the internal organs, as in the stomach walls and in the iris of the eye. Reflex and voluntary movements are possible because of muscles. In man, muscles are controlled by the nervous system. The nervous system consists of a mechanism for perceiving change in the environment, and another for reacting to the environment.14 Thus, all physiological functions are possible owing to the stimulation of the afferent nervous system which reacts through efferant nerves by using the muscles and tendons in its activity. In this sense, it could well be said that all physical functions may arise out of the sense of touch. In invertebrate animals like the protozoa, the chemical sense seems to be the only sense for all experience and activity. Scientists are not agreed on the question whether these animals show reactions owing to the chemical sense or to the mechanical stimulation. Schaeffer thinks that it is due to mechanical stimulation. Metalnikov believes that the discrimination is a chemical one.15 The same problem continues to vex scientists in the case of animals like the coelenterates, flat worms, annelids, molluscs 12 Geldard (F. A.): The Human Senses, p. 159. 13 Op. cit. p. 160. 14 Langley and Cheraskin: Physiology of Man, Ch. 3. 15 Washburn (Margaret F.): The Animal Mind, p. 60
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