Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jain Canons

Author(s): Jagdishchandra Jain
Publisher: New Book Company
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011077/1

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D.U.P. 956--2-98-40,000 ARTS LIBRARY (DELHI UNIVERSITY LIBRARY SYSTEM) CI. No. Q.31.21190Y Ac. No. 236685 This book should be returned on or before the date last stamped below. An overdue charge of Rupee one will be charged for each day the book is kept overume. (Authority. E.C. Res. 200 dated 27th August 1996) 117

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA AS DEPICTED IN THE JAIN CANONS (WITH COMMENTARIES) AN ADMINISTRATIVE, ECONOMIC SOCIAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT INDIA BASED ON THE JAIN CANONS BY JAGDISH CHANDRA JAIN, M.A.,PHD. Professor of Ardhainagadhi and Hindi, Ramnarain Rua College, Bombay Price Rs. 35 BOMBAY . NEW BOOK COMPANY, L. 188-190, HORNBY ROAD 1947

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To ALL ORIENTAL SCHOLARS, Who, From East and West Drawn, Have Fallen Under the Spell of OUR PAST, This Work Is In All Reverence Dedicated

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PREFACE When I began to study the Jain canons way back in 1939, I had no idea of the difficulties that lay on my path. But at the very outset, I found that a large number of canonical texts were either out of print or were not easily available for study. For, whatever canons are avail. able, are hardly adequately edited, and have no index. Very fcw canons have been translated into English, and some of the important ones are still in manuscript form. However, I plunged myself into the deep ocean of the Jain Agames and I struck at the waves of undiscovered knowledge. I completed the first reading of the canons, and found many difficult passages unintelligible due to corrupt texts. About this time I paid a visit to the Jain Bhandars of Patan, North Gujerat, where I read out my notes on the subject to Muni Punyavijayaji, a renowned scholar of the Jain Agamas. During my stay in Patan, Muniji helped me in all possible ways for which I shall ever remain grateful to him. When my study was over, I was contemplating writing a thesis when the Freedom Struggle of 1942 started. The Government of India arrested people without discretion and I too was arrested, and taken away from a world of scholars to a world of detenus. When I left the detenu camp, I found myself a totally changed man. There was left in me very little inclination for a serious work like the present one However, at the instance of those wliose wish is a command, I made up my mind to complete the work on the strength of which I got my degree from the University of Bombay in February, 1915. I have since been revising my thesis and checking up references. The title "Social Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons" has been changed into "Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons." The chapters on Geography, and Kings and Dynasties have been placed last, detailing only the important places and rulers. While revising the esis more parallel references, particularly from the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Jatakas and the Atthahathas, have been added. The Jain Agamas have been described as "dry as dust" by some scholars, and perhaps that is the reason why this literature has not received the attention of scholars that it deserves. It must be mentioned that in order to have a thorough understanding of Indian culture and civilisation, the study of the Jain Agamas is as important as that of the Brahmanic and the Buddhist literatures.

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6 I So far, with reference to social life, no scholar has utilised the material 1eflected in the Jain canons. In the present work I have made an attempt to include all such available material for the first time acknowledge that in preparing this work I was, undoubtedly, guided by other scholars, who have been working in the field in the past Particular mention may be made here of the Cheda Sutras, which, although forming a part of the Jain canonical literature, yet remained hitherto unstudied. This literature is really very important from the point of view of social history of the ancient Indian people. In these Sutras we come across various customs and usages prevalent in different parts of India, the study of which will be certainly helpful in writing the history of the development of the Jain ascetic order. I am indebted to all the authors whose works I have utilised in the present work, and I would like to make special mention of Mr. Ratilal Mehta's Pre-Buddhist India which I have freely referred to. While I was writing this thesis I had the good fortune to receive the able guidance of Dr G. S. Ghurye, M A., Ph D., Head of the Department of Sociology, the School of Economics and Sociology, University of Bombay. I am grateful to him for his assistance. I cannot adequately thank Dr. Motichand, M.A., Ph.D., the Curator of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, for helping me in preparing this thesis. But for his valuable aid I would not have been able to complete my work. Dr. Motichand even went through the major portion of my manuscript before it was sent to the press. I particularly appreciate his endeavours to assist me despite the numerous calls on his time and I cannot easily forget his kindness. Dr Vasudeva Sharan Agrawala, M.A., Ph D., the Curator of the Central Museum, New Delhi, read over the geographical section of my book, for which I am grateful to him My sincere thanks are also due to Prof. F. D'Souza, M A., Professor of English, Siddhartha College, Bombay, Prof B. Miranda, M A., Professor of English, Ramnarain Ruia College, Bombay, and Professor L Rodrigues, MA, Head of the Department of English, Siddhartha College, Bombay, for assisting me in reading the proofs and making useful suggestions. I must also thank Sahu Shriyans Prasadji Jain, Director of the Dalmia Cement Co., Ltd., Bombay, and Shri Harikrishnadasji Jain, Contractor, Bombay, for the help they gave me, and my daughter Chakresh for preparing the Index.

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Mr. P. F. Taraporevala, the Director of the New Book Co., Ltd., Bombay, deserves my thanks for undertaking to publish my book, when many publishers in India had declined on the plea that the book failed to be a business proposition. Miss S. A. Bliss, the Manager of the Examiner Press, Bombay, took personal interest in the printing of my Book. She really went out of her way to rush the print through the press and I am very grateful to her. I am also indebted to the authorities of the Ramnarain Ruia College for allowing me to purchase the books for reference The author received from the University of Bombay a substantial grant towards the cost of publication of this book which he is happy to acknowledge. 28, Shivaji Park, Bombay 28 October, 1947 JAGDISH CHANDRA JAIN

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BIBLIOGRAPHY(with abbreviations) Bha.=Bhagya. Com.=Commentary. Cu.=Curni. Nir.=Niryukti. Pi.=Pithika. Su.=Sutra. Vp.=Vstti. SOURCES Brahmanic Apastamba and Gautama, S. B. E., Vol. II, Oxford, 1897. Bharata Natrasastra, Bharata, G. O. S., 1924 ; 1936; Kashi Sanskrit Series, 1929. Bahatsa mhita. Varahamihira, Ed. Sudhakar Dvivedi, Benares, 1987. Carakasamhita, trans. Jayadev Vidyalankar, Lahore, s. v. 1991-93. Dasakumaracarita, Kale, Bombay, 1925. Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva, trans. Tawney, Ed. Penzer, Vols. I to X, London, 1924-1928. Kautilya Arthasastra, trans R. Shamshastri, Mysore, 1908. Mahabharata, Ed. T. R. Krishnacharya and T. R. Vyasacharya, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay 1906-9. Manusmrti, S. B. E., Vol. XXV, trans. by Buhler, 1886. Minor Law Books, trans. J. Jolly, S. B. E., XXXIII, 1889. Mychakatika, Ed. R. D. Karmarkar, Poona, 1937. Ramayana, Ed. by T. R. Krishnacharya and T.R. Vyasacharya, Bombay, 1911. Susrutasa mhita, trans. Dr. Bhaskar Govind Ghaneker, Lahore, 1936, 1941. Vedic Index, 2 Vols. by Macdonell and Keith, 1912. rajfavalkyasmrti with Mitaksara by Vijnanesvara, 4th Ed. Bombay, 1936. (1) Jain Canonical Acaranga=Aca. -Niryukti, Bhadrabahu. -Curn, Jinadasagani, Rutlam, 1941, -com., Milanka, Surat, 1935. -trans. H. Jacobi, S. B. E. XXII, 1884. Antagadadasao=Anta. --com. Abhayadeva, Ed. by M. G. Modi, Ahmedabad, 1932. -Ed. P. L. Vaidya, Poona, 1932. -trans. L. D. Barnett, London, 1907. Anuttarodavaiyadasao=Anutta. com. Abhayadeva, Ed. by M. C. Modi, Ahmedabad, 1932. -Ed. P. L. Vaidya, Poona, 1932, Anuyogadara=Anu. -Curri, Jinadasagani, Rutlam, 1928. -com. Haribhadra, Rutlam, 1928. --com. Maladhari Hemacandra, Bhavnagar, 1939.

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CO Avagyaka=Ava. Niryukti, Bhadrabahu. --Bhasya. -Curni, Jinadasagani, Rutlam, 1928. -com. Haribhadra, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1916. --com Mahyagiri, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1928. -Noyukti dipika, Manikyasekhara, Surat, 1939. Bhagavati =Bhag. -com. Abhavad-va, Igamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1921; Rutlari, 1937. Jinagarupakia Subha, Ed. Becharaas and Bhasvairins, Ah:rsdabad. v. s. 1979-1988. Byhaikalpa=Brh. -Bhasya, Shigh disagani -com Malayagu and Kaemaki ti, Atmananda Jain Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1933-1938. -Kalpa-Vraahon Nisilha Suta, Ahmedabad. Catuhsarana=Catu. --Avachrui, VI abhadra. Devacand Lalbhai. Dasasrutaskandha, Lahore, 1936-Drsa. Dasaveyaliya=Das. -Niryukti, Bhadrabahu -Curni, Jinadasagari, Rritlan, 1933 ---com Haribhadi a, Bombay, 1918. --introduction and notes, V Schubring, Ahmedabad, 1932 Gacchacara=Gacch. ---com. Vijayavimalagani, Ahmedabad, 1924. Isibhasiya, Surat, 1927=Is Jambuddivapannath Jambu. --com. Santicandra, Bombay 1920. Fitakalpa=Jita. -Bhasya, Jinabhadragani, Ed. Punyavijaya, Ahmeda bad, v.s 1914. -Girni, Siddhasena, Ahmedabad, v. s. 1983. Fivabhigama=siva. -com. Malayagiri, Bombay, 1919. Kalposutra=Kalpa. --com. Sainayasundara, Bombay, 1939. -trans. H. Jacobi, S. B. E., XXII, 1884. Mahani jitha =Maha. Ni. Ed. W Schubring. Berlin, 1918, Guj trans. Narsinha Bhai (Mss). Nandi, Devavacaka Ksamaramana =Nandi. --Curni, jinada aguhi, Rutlam, 1928. -com. Haribhadia, Rutlam, 1928.

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10 -com. Malayagiri, Bombay, 1924. Nayadhammakaha, Ed N V. Vaidya, Poona, 1940 = Naya. -com Abhayadeva, Agamodaya, Bombay, 1919. Bhagarin llaharija Vi Dharmakathoo, Guj traus. Bechardas, Ahmedabad, 1931 . Wiryavalicao=Nirva -com Candrasili, Ahmedabad, 1938. -EH Gopani and Chokshi, Ahmedabad, 1934. Misitha=Nisi, -Brisya -Cam, Jinadasagani, Ed Vijaya Prema Surisvara, v. s. 1995 (encyclostyled copy); Mss from Patan Jain Bhandar. Ogha Nigjurti=Ogha." -Bhasya. -com. Dionacaiya, Bombay, 1919 Ovalya =Ova -com Abhayadeva, second Ed, Surat, v. s. 1914. Painnas (ton) : Cousarana, Aurapascakkhana (Aura), Mahapaccakkhana, Bhattopainna (Bhatt ), Tandutavucliya, Samlhara (Sam), Gacchacara, Ganuria, Derindotthava, and Maranasamahr Marana ), Bombay, 1927 Panhauo,ai ana=Paul -com Abhayadeva, Bombay, 1919 A critical Introduction to the Panhavagai ancia, Amulyachandra sen, Wurzburg, 1936 Pannarana=Panna -com. Malayagiri, Boinbay, 1918-1919 -Guj. trans Bhagvaudas, Ahmedabad, v. s. 1991. Pindianjulti=Pinda. --Bhisya -com Malayagiri, Surat, 1918. Rayapaseniya =Raya -com Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, v. s. 1994. Samurayanga=Sama -com Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, 1938. Suriyapannatti=Sur -com Malayagiri, Bombay, 1919. Suyagadanga =Suya. --Nirykti, Bhadrabahu. -Cuni, Jinadasagan, Rutlam, 1941. --com Silanka, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1917. -trans II Jarobi, S B E YLV 1895. Tandulaveyaliya=Tandul. --rom. Vijayavimala, Devacandra Lalabhai,

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11 Thananga Uttaradhyayana Uvasagadasao =Tha. -com Abhivadeva Ahmedabad, 1937. =Uttara - Novukli, Bhadrabahu -Cuin, Jinadasagaan, Rullam, 1933. --com Santisuri, Bombay, 1916 --com Nom.candia, Sombav, 1937. -trans H Jacobi, 'S BE, XLV, 1895 -Ed J Chupnticr, Upsala, 1922 =Uva -com Abhyadera -trans. Hucrul. Calcutta, 1838 -Ed P. L Vaulya, Poona, 1930 =Vya -Bhasja -Com Mlygu, Blaianagal, 1926 =Viva -com. Ablayadeva, Baroda, v s, 1922 -Ed A. T Upadhye, Belgaum, 1935. Vavahoia Vivogasuya (2) Non-Cinonical Abhidhanacintamani, Bhavanagai, lcci Era, 2441 Abhdhanarajendrakosa, Rutlam, 1913-34 Bhagavati Aradhana, Sivakot!, Devendialiru Granthamala, Sholapur,1935 =Dhag Ari Brhatkathakosa, Harisca, Ed A N Upadhyc, Bombay, 1943 Caturu msalip abondha, Bombay 1932 Kathakosa, trans Tawncy, London, 1895 Jyotiskaranda, Malayagiii, Rutlam, 1928 Paryasaddamahannavo, Cal, v s 1985 Parisistaparva, H Jacobi, Calcutta, 1932. Parsvanathacantam, The life and stories of the Jain Saviour Parsvanatha, trans. Bloomfield, Baltimorc, 1919. Paumagariya, Bhavanagar, 1914 Prabandhacintamani, Dombay, 1932 Pracinatirthamalasangraha, pt. I, Bhavanagai, sam 1978 Pravacanasaroddhara, Ncmicandra, Bombay, 1922-1926 Tizsastisalaka purvsacanta, uans ,H VI Jolson, GOS, Baroda, 1930 =T SP Vasudevahindi, Sanghadisagaru Vacaka, Timazandi Sabha, Bhavanagar, 1930-31=Vasu Vivrdhatis thakalpa, Jinaprabhasuri, Bombay, 1931=Vmi Amulyachandra Sen (3) Liter uly Schools and sects in Jain luualue, Vishvabhitati studies No 3, April, 1931.

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* 12 Buhler : The Indian sect of the Fainas, London, 1903. Glasenapp : Jainism, Guj. Trans. Ahmedabad, faini, J. L. Outlinas of 1211'151, Cambridge, 1976. Kalyanavijaya Muni: Sramana Bhagrin dlaharira, Jalore, V. S. 1988 =S BM Kapadia H. R. : A History of the canonzol literature of the Jainas, Bombay, 1941 Punya ijaya Muni: Tuinocit aku pild's ina, Ahmedabad, v. S. 1992. Meyer, J.J.: Hindu Tules, (trans.) London, 1909. Schubring: Die Lehre De Jainas, Berlin Und Leipzig, 1935, Stevenson, Mrs. Sinclair. Tie Heart of Jainism, Oxford, 1915. 1 LIYale Ya 11U313 BUDDHIST Arguttaranikaya, 5 vols., PT, S., London, 1885-1900. -Atthahatha (Mlanorathapiironi), vols 4 Ed Wallcser, and Harmann Koop London, 1924--1940. Aradanasataka, Vol. I and II Ed by Di J Spulcr, St Petersburg, 1906. Culava msa, 2 vols., Ed W Geigei, London, 1925 Dhammapada Atthakatha, 5 vois l' T' S., 1906-1915 Dictionary of Pali Proper Namni's, vol. I and II, G. P. Alalalasekara, London, 1937-8 Dighanikaja, 3 vols., Ed. Rhys Davids and J Carpenter, P. T.S., London, 1889-1011 -Atthakatha (Sumangalavilisi), 10., P S , London, 1886-1932. Divyavadana, Ed E. B. Concll and R..1 Nol Cambridge, 1886 Fataka, 6 vols. Ed V Fousboll, Lonilon, 1877-97 Khuddakapatha Atthakatha (Paramolthugotihi;, Ed. Helmer Smith, London, 1915. Lalitavistar1, Ed Lefmann, S Halle A.S., 1902 and 1908. Mahavamsa, Ed by W. Geiger, London, 1908. Mahavamsa Tika. Majjhimanikaya, 3 vols., Ed. V Trc. kn.., and R. Chalmers, London, 1888-1899. -Atthakatha (Papancasudani), 5 vols , Ed. J. H Woods and D. Kosanihi, and I. B. Homei, London, 1922-1930. Milindapanha, E V. Tinci.cr, Ludens 1820 Samyutta Nikaya, 5 vols , Ed! [ Lon For Lonlon, I884-1898. -Atthakatha (Scizalthopahaswil. 3 sols, T S, London, 1929-1937. Suttan pata, Ed. Rahul Suahriyavul, Ringcon, 1937 -Atthakatha (Paramattlagol.hu), 4 vol., Ed. Filmer Smith, London, 1916-1918 Theragatha, Ed. Rahul Sankriyayar, .Rangoon, 1937 -Atthakata (Paramatthud.uni), Vol I Ed. Woodward, London, 1940. Therigatha, Ed Rahul Sankrityayan, Rangoon, 1937. -Atthakatha (Paramalikadipani), Ed. Muller, London, 1893.

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13 Udana, Ed Rahul Sankrityayana, Rangoon, 1937. -Atthakatha (Paramatthadipani), Woodward, London, 1926. Vibhanga Atthakatha (Sammohavi wodini), P T S , London, 1923. Vi rayopitaka, 5 vols., Ed. Oldenbeis, London, 1879-1883 -Atthakatha (Samantopasaarki), 4 vols , Ed M Nagai, London, 1924-1938 Vinararastu, Gilgit, Manuscript Vol. JIT, Pt 2, Srinagar-Kaslimir, 1942 LITERATURE Acharya, P. K. : Dutionary of Hinar Architecture, Oxfoid Univcr sity Picss, 1927. : Indian Architecture according lo llanasara Silpasas tra, 1927 Altekar, A. S. Education in Ancient India, Bengles, 1934. : The Position of Tl'omen in Hindu Civilisation, Benarcs, 1938 Apte, V. M. Social and religious life in the Grhya Sutras, Ahmedabad, 1939 Bagchi, P. C. : Pre-Arayan and Pre-Dravidian in India by S. Levi (translation of articles by various scholars, Calculta, 1929) Banerji, P. N. : Public Administrasion in Ancient India, 1916 = P A. A. I. Barua, B. M. . A History of Pre-Buddhist Indian Philosophy, 1 Calcutta, 1927 The Aninkas, Cal, 1920. Bhandarkar, D. R. : Ancient Indian Numismatics, Calcutta, 1921. Bhandarkar R. G. Varsnavisn, Saivism and minor Religious Systems, Strassburg, 1913 Chakladar, H. C. Social Life in i.icient India-Studies in Vatsya yana's Kim sure, Calcutta, 1929. Coomaraswamy, A.K. The l'aksas, Washington, 1928, 1931. The Dance of Srva, New York, 1924 Cunningham, A. Ancient Geography of India (Ed. Majumdar)= C. A. G. I., Calcutta, 1924 Das, S. K. The Economic History of Ancient Indra, Calcutta, 1937. Date, GT. The Art of our 11.nunt India, London, 1929. Dey, Nando Lal The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India, London, 1927=G D Dikshitar, V. R. Ramchandra Hindu Administralive Instrtutions, Madras, 1929=H A I . Fick, Richard : The Social Organisation in North-East India in Buddha's time, Calcutta, 1920. Ghurye, G. S. : Caste and race in India, London, 1932.

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14 9443 Hopkins, E. W. Epic Mylhology, Strassburg, 1915=E. M. Lau, B. C. Geography of Early Buddhism, London, 1932 =G. E. B. Geographical Essays, Calcutta, 1938=Geog. Maharira, His Life and teaching, London, 1937. Historical Gleanings, Calcutta, 1922, India as described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism, London, 1941 : Budahrstic Studies, Calcutta, 1931. : Tribes in Ancient Indra, Poona, i : Rajagrha in Ancient Literature, M. X. S., No.58, Delhi, 1938 : Sravasti in Ancient Literature, M. A. S., No. 50. Delhi, 1935. : Kausambi in Ancient Literature, M. A.S., No 60, Delhi, 1939. : The Pancalas and their Capital Ahicchalia, M. A.S. No. 67, Delhi, 1949 : Ujeni in Ancient India, Delhi, 1944. Majumdar, R. C. : Corporate Life in Ancient Indra (2nd Ed ) Poona, 1922. Mehta, Ratilal : Pre-Buddhist India, Examiner Press, Bombay, 1941. =P. B. I. Mitra, RL. : Indo-Arayan, vols I and II, Calcutta, 1881. Ojha Gaurishankar : Bharatiya Pracinalipimala, Ajmer, y. s 1975, Pargiter, F. E. : Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, London, 1922=A. I. H T. : Markandeya Purana, trans., Calcutta, 1904. Pradhan, S.N. : Chronology of Ancient India, Calcutta, 1927. Rapson, E. J. : The Cambridge History of India, vol. I, Cambridge, 1922, 1935. Rao, Gopinath : Elements of Hindu Econography, Madras, 1914. Ray Chaudhury, H. C. : Political History of Ancient India (3rd. Ed.), Calcutta, 1932 =P H. A. I. : Studies in Indian Antiquitres, Calcutta, 1932. Rhys Davids, T. W. : Buddhist India, London, 1917 Senart Emile : Caste in India, London, 1930 Shah C. J. w Fainism in North India, London, 1932. Valavalkar, P. H. : Hindu Social Institution, Bombay, 1939. Vogel, J. Ph. : Indian Serpent Lore, London, 1926. Winternitz, M. : History of Indian Literature, Vol II, Calcutta, 1933 : Some Problems of Indian Literature, Calcutta, 1925.

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15 JOURNALS Anekanta Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute =A. B. O. R. S. Archaeological Survey of India Reports Asutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee Volumes Orientalis, Parts I, II and III. Bharatiya Vidya Calcutta Review Cultural Heritage of India, Sri Ramakrishna Centenary Memorial, Vol. III, Calcutta District Gazetteers of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, United Provinces, Punjab, etc. Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion Epigraphra Indica=E. I Ingperial Gazetteer =Imp. Gaz. Indian Antiquary Indian Culture Indian Historical Quarterly=I. H. Q. Jain Indian Antiquary Fournal of the American Oriental Society=J. A. O.S. Journal of the Bihai and Orissa Research Society=.T. B. O. R. S. Fournal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art=J. I. S.O. Fournal of the University of Bombay=J. U. B. Fournal of the U. P. Historical Society=J. U.P.H.S. Nagari Pracarini Patrika=N. P. Puratativa

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Preface Bibliography CONTENTS SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO THE JAIN CANONS Chapter I The History of the Jain Church Chapter II The Canons of the Jains SECTION II ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION Introduction Chapter I Central Administration Chapter II Fiscal Administration Chapter III Administration of Justice Chapter IV Military Organisation Chapter V Local Government SECTION III ECONOMIC ASPECTS Introduction Chapter I Production Chapter II Distribution Chapter III Exchange Chapter IV Consumption SECTION IV SOCIAL CONDITIONS Introduction Chapter I Social Organisation Chapter II The Family Chapter III Position of Women Chapter IV Education and Learning Chapter V Arts and Sciences Chapter VI Religious Conditions Chapter VII Manners and Customs Introduction Chapter I Chapter II Retrospect Index I Index II Chapter I Jain Conception of the World Chapter II The Jain Aryan Countries Chapter III Mahavira's Itinerary Chapter IV Geographical Lexican SECTION VI SOME IMPORTANT KINGS AND DYNASTIES 5-7 8-15 Sixty three Great men Kings and Rulers 19-30 31-43 SECTION V GEOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL IN THE JAIN CANONS General Outlook 47 49-60 61-63 64-74 75-81 82-83 87 89-110 111-112 113-122 123-134 137 139-145 146-151 152-168 169-174 175-191 192-225 226-242 245-247 248-249 250-256 257-262 263-366 369 371-376 377-400 401-3 404-410 411-420

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SECTION I INTRODUCTION TO THE JAIN CANON CHAPTER I THE HISTORY OF THE JAIN CHURCH CHAPTER II THE CANONS OF THE JAINS

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CHAPTER 1 THE HISTORY OF THE JAIN CHURCH According to the Jain tradition, Usabha or Rsabha was the first 7ina and thc first Tithankara who was born in a very primitive age when people were illiterate and did not know any art In fact, it was Usabha who is said to havc taught the arts of cooking, writing, pottery, painting and sculpture for the first time At this time came into existence the institution of marriage, the ceremony of ciemating the dead, building of thc mounds (thubhas) and the festivals in honour of Indra and the Nagas It is said that Usabha was born in Ikkhagabhumi (Ayodhya), the first capital of India, and is said to have lived for an immeasurable length of time He attained Nurina on the mountain Atthavaya (Kailasa), where tcmplcs in his honour were built by his son, Bharata Then the traditional list is given of the twenty thice Tirihankaras? It is curious to note, however, that most of the Tirthrkaras have been assigned to the Iksaku family and are said to have attained salvation at the mountain Sammeja mo-lern Parasnath Hill in Hazaribagh District) So far no historical evidences have comc forth to warrant the historical cxistence of the first twenty two Tirtha karas, on the other hand, taking into consideration the long duration of their careers and the intermediate periods between cach Tirthankara, they appear to be lcgendary figures introduced perhaps to balance the number of Jinas with the number of the Buddhas PARSV.INATH 1-THE HISTORICAL PLRSONALITY Pas. Ou Pas h a, who was the imrncdiatc predecessor of Mahavira, is said to have founished some 250 years before the advent of the latter He was boin in Varanasi Benarcs) and was the son of the king Asasena by his qucen Vama He lucd thirty Tears as a lay man, and after leading << life of an asi clic for seventy years, attained salvation at thc inyunlaun Siimmcyah 3 Parsvanatha is said to have visited a number of citics, the prominent among which were Ahicchatta*, Amalakappa, Savalthi, Hatthinarura, Kainpillapura, Sagcya, Rayagiha and Kosambi. He was known as Purisad iniya (pur isupainiya in Pali) or the distinguished mun I halpa sa 7 206 228, Jambu ? 18.10 2 CH The llenty four Buddhas, who immediately prcccded the last Buddha, Buddhavamsa. cr also Dich ll P 2 where the seven Buddhas arc mentioned 3 kalpa Su 6 149 169 4 Ica 21 335 5 Nayit II P 229 Bibed , p 229 i ibid. p 330 8 Purusijanija is mentioned in the Angutiara I 290, II, 115. halpa si 6 19 also see Schubring, Die Lehurd Der Jainas P 24.

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20 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA of a fortune-teller holder's life (pacchakatning up the monastic Parsva and his disciples (pasadaccijja) are referred to in various Tain Canons. We learn from the Acarungazo that the parents of Mahavira followed the faith of Parsva and were the adherents of the Samanas. The Avasyaka Curni mentions several ascetics of the Parsva sect, who were present during the course of Mahavira's wanderings as an ascetic. Uppala was a pasavaccuja, who after giving up the monastic order had entered the house-holder's life (pacchakada and followed the profession of a fortune-teller (nemitta) in Atthiyagama.11 His two sisters named Soma and Jayanti had joined the order of Parsva but being unable to continue thc rigid ascetic life of his order they became Paridrajikas of the Brahmanic order. Later on, when Mahavira and Gosala got into trouble in Coraya Sannivesa, they came to their rescue." Then we meet thera Municanda, a follower of Parsva, who dwelt in a potter's shop in Kumaraya Sannivesa in the company of his disciples. When questioned by Gosala, Municanda replied that they were Samana Nigganthas Gosala asked as to how they could be called Nigganthas since they were possessed of so many personal assets, and he threatened to burn their place of residence (padissaya). Gosala approached Mahavira and narrated this incident to him whereupon the latter remarked that these ascetics were the followers of Parsya and he could do no harm to them. These ascetics indulged in certain activities which according to the principles of Mahavira constituted preliminary sin (sarambha) ; they put on clothes (sapanggaha) and also practised Jinakappa (adopting the standard of Jina) towards the end of their life. We are told that thera Municanda placed his disciple at the head of the gaccha and went to practise Finakappa outside the town. Good feeling towards all beings (sattabhavana) and five kinds of meditations (bhavana) are prescribed for the ascetic who wanted to practise Jinakappa. The five meditations are penance (tava), fearlessness (satta), study of scriptures (sutta), concentration (egatta) and spiritual strength (bala) which should be practised inside and outside the monastery (uvasaya), a square road (caukka), a solitary house (sunnaghara) or in a cemetery 13 Then we hear of Vijaya and Pagabbha, the two female disciples of Parsva pasantevasinio), who saved Mahavira and Gosala in Kuviya Sannivesa. 14 The Bhagavati16 records the discussion that took place between Mahavira and the samana Gangeya, a follower of Parsva, in Vaniyagama. Gangeya gave up the Caujjamadhamma (the doctrine of the four-fold restraint) and embraced the Pascanahavvaya (the five greater vows) of Mahavira. Kalasavesiyaputta was another follower of Parsva who became a follower of Mahavira.10 Then the Nayadhammakaha 10 II3 401, P 389 11 p 273 13 Ava cu PP 285, 291 , cf. also Brh. Bha. 1. 1928-57. I Aua cu TP. 29 15 9 32 15 ibid., 1 9 P 286

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HISTORY OF THE JAIN CHURCH 21 refers to Pundariya who plucked out his hair and accepted the four vows." The city of Tungiya is stated to have been the centre of the theras, the followers of Parsva, who moved in a congregation of five hun. dred monks. It is said that the lay adherents of the town went to attend to their religious sermons and were highly delighted The names of the theras Kaliyaputta, Mehila, Anandarakkhiya and Kasava are particularly mentioned here.18. Further, the Nayadhammakahale and the Niryavaliyao ao refer to a number of lay women who joined the order of Parsva. We hear of the renunciation ceremony of the old maiden (vaddakumari), Kali, who joined the ascetic order of Parsva and was cntrusted to Pupphacula, the head of the nuns al Further, the Suyagadangaa mentions Udaya Pedhalaputta, a Nigantha follower of Parsva of thc Meyajja (Skr Aledarya) golta Tlicrc werc religious discussions between him and Goyama Indabhui, aflcr which the latter took him to Mahavira, where hc gave up the doctrine of four restraints and took up the five great vows, as ordained by the Teacher The Rajapaseniyaarefers to a young monk (kumarasamava) 24 named Kesi, who was a follower of Parsya and know fourteen Purvas Once he visited the town of Savatthi in a congregation of five hundred monks The charioteer Citta attended his religious sci mons and invited him to Seyaviya In course of time, Kesi visited Scraviya where a discussion took place between him and king Paesi, and the latter being convinced of his opponent's doctrinc became an adherent of the Samanas. Kesi is also referred to in the Uttaradhyayana Suha where an important historical mceting is recorded to have taken place between him and Goyama, the representatives and Icaders of the two branclics of the Jain Church, in Savatthi. In this council many important questions were discussed and finally Kesi accepted the fivc-fold vows proached by Mahavira.25 It must be mentioned that the crcdit of proving the existence of the Nigganthas before Nataputti Mahavira on the sticngth of references in Pali literature belongs to Professor Jacobi.20 It is stated in the Samannaphala sutta of the Digha Nikaya that a Nigantha is 1 cs Liained with a four-fold restraint ( caluyama-samvaia) 'He is restrained as regards all water, restrained as regards all cvil, all cvil has he washed away, and he lives suffused with the sense of evil held at bay.17 Because of this 17 19, P 218. 28 Bhag 2. 5. 19 Il 10. 30 4 21 Naya II 1, P 222 f. 22 117. 13 St 147 f. 70) "humarah Srama nadibhit 26 Prof Bagchi refers to the Sutra of Panini (III The Historical pomting out that the author might have had the followers of Palsva in view, beginning of Jainism, p. 77, Sir Isutosh Mooherjee Silver Jubilee, Vol III 15 23 26 See Jain Sutras, Vol xlv, pp av XXI, c alsu Prof P Bagclu op cul, pp 763 37 Cf the corresponding four-fold restraint taught by Buddha which consisted of Ouser , P 101) ving the four piecepts against injury stcaling unchastity and lying Byha,

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22 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA four-fold restraint, he is called a Nigantha (free from bonds), gatatta (one whose heart has been in the attainment of his aim), yatatta (one whose heart is under command) and thtatta (one whose lieart is fixed). The Pali texts contain the names of several disciples of Nataputta, who are said to have entered into discussion with Buddha and at the end become his followers. Vappa, a sakyan king and an uncle of Buddha, was a disciple of the Niganthas, who, convinced of the superiority of Buddha's teachings, became his follower.28 Similarly, could be cited the names of Asibandhakaputta, 29 Abhayarajakumara,30 Siha,31 Upali,32 Dighatapassi, 33 Saccaka, 34 Siriguttaa and the women disciples such as Sacca, Lola, Avavadaka, Patacara and others. The Devadaha Sutta in the Mahima Nikaya contains a detailed analysis and criticism, attributed to Buddha, of the beliefs and teachings of the Naganthas 37 These literary evidences in Jain and Buddhist texts presuppose the existence of a Nigantha order founded by Parsvanatha before the advent of Mahavira and there is much to be said in favour of the Jain tradition that Mahavira was no more than a reformer of an older Vigantha order. THE CONTRIBUTION OF PARSVANATHA Parsvanatha flourished towards the end of the ninth century BC, 250 years before Mahavira He was a powerful religious teacher, who fought against the Brahmanic tyranny of caste systems and the merciless slaughter of animals in thc Vcdic sacrifices. The religion of Parsva was meant for one and all without any distinction of caste or crecd. He was a well-wisher of women and gave them freedom by admitting them into his order. 40 38 Anguttara, 11, P 196 f, 111, p 199 2D San yutta, vy 317 ff 30 Mayhima, I, Abhayarajakumara Sutta. 31 Mahavagga, VI, 31 , Anguttara, IV, 180 ff * Mauhma, I, Upali Sutta 93 zbid 84 bd., Calasaccaka and Mahasaccaka Sutta. 86 Dhammapada A, I, pp. 43+ ff 36 Jalaka, III, 31 Also cf dagulllara, I 205 f where the Arganthas are condemned i ten respects; Dhammapada A, III, pp 200 f See also Chapter on Buddha and Siganthas, B C Law, Historical Gleanings 38 Cf the Veda should not be recited in a village where a Candala lives (Lipastamba 1 3 9. 15); bis ears shall be filled with (molten) tin or lac, if he listens intentionally to (a recitation) of the Veda, his tongue shall be cut out if he recites Vedic texts, his body shall be split in twain if he remembers them (Gaulama XII 46), also cf Alutanga Jataha (No 497., IV, P 376 where the daughter of a merchant washes her eyes with persumed water after seeing a Malarga 89 Cf Virusmyft (The Institutes of Vishnu, SBE, Vol VII, LI 61-63) where it is stated that the slaughter of beasts for a sacrifice is no slaughter and the animals destroyed for the purpose of sacnfice, obtain exaltation in another existence, also see Gautama, XVII, 37, Vasiatha, XI 46); Manu V 39. 40 Cf Apastamba (1 5 14) where purification is prescribed on touching a woman, they were also not allowed to perform religious sacrifices (11 6. 17), also cf Bandha yana (1 5 11 7) where women are considered to have no business with the sacred texts Cf Buddha who after repeated refusals and with great reluctance allowed women to enter the Sangha and that too on the acknowledgement of their inferigrity (Curlavagga, X, I)

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HISTORY OF THE JAIN CHURCH 23 Parsva emphasised the doctrine of Ahinsa Since he had to raise a protest against the Biabmanic sacrifices which inculcated slaughter of animals, this stop was quite cssential 41 Later on, he added three more prcccpts to this, riz, abstinence from tclling lies (musitayao zenamana; musatada veramani, Pali), from stealing (adinnadanao veramana; adinnadana reramani, Pali) and from external possessions (bahiddhao ver amana) Thesc four precepts were called by the name of Caujjamadhamma, which constituted an important feature of the immediate background of Mahavila's Jainism. Parsvanatha also enjoined strict asccticism as the only way for the attainment of salvation As a matter of fact, the fundamental principles of the two Niggantha orders were not at all different and the rcligion proached by one was substantially the same as preached by the other. The description of the rules of conduct of Kesi Kumara, a disciple of Parsva,43 tallies verbatim with those of the disciples of Mahavira44 with thc difference that the former preached the four grcat vows, whilc the latter preached five It is said that the first saints were simple but slow of understanding, thc last were prevaricating and slow of understanding and thosc between the two were simple and wise, hence there were two forms of Law.45 Ancther important difference between the doctrine of Parsva and Mahavira was that the former allowed an under and upper garment (santaruttaro) whercas the latter forbadc clothing altogether 46 Questioned by Kesi as to what caused this difference betwecn the two law-givers pursuing the same end, Goyama replied that the various outward symbols were introduced because they were useful for religious life ; as a matter of fact, knowledge, faith and right conduct, were the only truc causcs cf libcration and not the outward symbols 47 The order of Parsva scems to have undergonc some changes in the period between the death of Parsvanatha and the advent of Mahavira and that might have been the cause of the latter's alicnation 48 Parsvanatha founded the four orders (ganas) with their Ganadharas49 which shows that possibly thic arrangement for the organization of thc Jain Church was the best which could be had in those carly days. Reference has already bcen marle to the ascetics belonging to the order of Parsva moving about in a congregation during the course of Mahavira's ascetic life. Thus it is evident that Jainism was not a new phenomenon 41 Cf however that even at the time of the Brahmanas a section of people regarded Ahimsa as a great virtue and sacrifice a source of sin See Satapatha Brahmara I u 3. 6-9, 1. 2. 5 19; Vasistha, 10. 2; also cf Kena Up. 1, 3, Chandog ya, 3, 17, 4, Mahabharata, Santi, P. 143-148, 174 , 268 271, 274 41 Tapas is also praised in the Brahmanic literature. See Salapatha Br ,9 5. I 8; Apas. tamba, 2 0 23 1-6, also cf. Chandog, a, 3 17 4; Jabala 6, Mahabharata, Santa P. 159, 251, 294. 43 Cf Rara Sa. 147 44 Cf Ora Su 16, p 61. 46 Uttara, 23, 26 46 ibid., 26, 29. 47 bid , 32 f. 49 Cf Jain Satras, Vol. XIV, p. 122 9; Prof. P. C. Bagchi, op al., p. 81 f. 49 Kalpa, S. 6, 16p,

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24 in the history of Indian religion of the sixth century B.C., as is popularly supposed, but it goes back to the period of Parsvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara of the Jains, as early as the ninth century B.C. MAHAVIRA LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA After Parsva Mahavira became the leader of the Jain community. He was born in Khattiyakundaggama, a suburb of Vaisali, in the house of king Siddhattha by his queen Tisala Mahavira retired from the world at the age of thirty and leading a life of severe asceticism, attained kevalinship on the bank of the river Ujjuvaliya near the town of Jambhiyagama. Mahavira roamed about as a Tirthankara for thirty years, and at the age of seventy-two, after two hundred and fifty years of Parsva's death, died in Pava about 467 B.C.50 During his Tirthankara career Mahavira travelled a number of places and ordained various kings, princes, tradesmen and high officials. Like Parsva, he too divided his community (sangha) into four orders, viz., monks, nuns, lay men and lay women, each sangha consisting of a super-monk. Goyama Indabhui and Candana were Mahavira's first male and female disciples respectively. Mahavira exercised his influence in various royal families, and the kings Cetaka," Seniya," Kuniya,53 Udayana, Dadhivahana,55 Pajjoyas and others are said to have become his great devotees. Mahavira is also said to have ordained the kings Uddayana" of Sindhusovira, Sivas of Hatthinapura, Sala and Mahasala of Pitthicampa, Cilaya" of Kodivarisa and others Among women from the royal families, Jayanti and Miyavai of Kosambi, eight queens of Pajjoya including Angaravati,62 and ten queens of Seniya including Kali are stated to be prominent. Among princes may be mentioned Mehakumara, Nandisena, Abhayakumara, Halla, Vihalla7 and others. 10, p 153 a 50 According to Muni Kalyan Vijaya, Mahavira attained liberation in 528 B C. after For his learned article "Vira Samvat aur Kil ganana," see N P Patrika, Vols, X-XI; also see Jacobi's article "Buddhas und Mahaviras Nirvana" etc a Gujarati translation of which is published in the Bhartiya Vidya, Singhi Smaraka, also Schubring, op. cit, pp 5, 30, also Keith's article in the Bull School of Or. Studies 6, 859-866 51 Ava Gu II, p 164 sa Ukara. 20, Dasa so, doa Cu p. 114. 59 Ova. Su. 12 54 Bhag 12. 2 55 Ava. Cu II, p 207 58 Ava. C. P 401 51 Bhag. 13 6 58 bid. 11, 9. 69 Uttara. Ti 60 Ava. Nir 1305 81 Bhag. 12, 2. 82 Ava. Cu. P 91 83 Antagada. 7, p. 44. Naya. 1. 65 Ava. Cu. P. 559 f 68 ibid., p. 115. ST sbid., II, p. 174. 66

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HISTORY OF THE JAIN CHURCH 25 During the life time of Mahavira, Jainism could make only a small headway and it does not seem to have spread beyond the boundaries of Anga and Mag adlid where the Teacher principally dwelt and prcached but later on, after the death of Mahavira, his followers and successors succeeded in popularising the faith to a much greater degrec, so that it did not fail to enjoin the support of kings as well as commoners. tta, and was the residy canadharas were all except Indabhu and ELEVEN GANADHARAS Mahavira had eleven Ganadharas or heads of Schools (cf. Ganticarlya in Pali). The eldest was Indabhul, then followed Aggibhi, Vaubhui, Viyatta, Suhamma, Mandiya, Moriyaputta, Akampiya, Ayalabhaya, Mcija and Pabhasa. The first three Ganadharas were brothcis and belonged to the Goyama gotta and were residents of Gobbaragama. The fourth belonged to the Bharaddaya gotta, and was the icsident of Kollaga sannivesa ; the fifth belonged to the Aggiv esayana gotta, and was thic resident of Kollaga sannivcsa; the sixth belonged to the Vasittha gotta, and was the resident of Moriya sannivesa; thc seventh belonged to the Kasava gotta, and was the resident of Moriya sannives, thc eighth belonged to the Goyama gotta, and was the resident of Mihila ; the ninth belonged to the Hariayana golta, and was the icsidcnt of Kosala , the tenth belonged to thc Kodinna gotta and was the resident of Tungiya sannivesa; the eleventh belonged to the same gotta, and was the resident of Rayagiha. These Ganadharas were all Brahmana teachers and all except Indabhui and Suhamma, died during the life time of Mahavira. They are said to have been versed in the twelve Angas, the fourteen Puuvas, and the whole ganipidaga (the basket of the Ganes). They died in Rayagiha after fasting for a month.68 Goyama Indabhul cut asunder the tie of friendship which he had for his Master and attained kevalinship the same night when Mahavira died 60 He survived Mahavira for twelve years and finally achieved salvation at Ravagiha at the age of ninety two.To The name of Suhamma, the fifth Ganadhara of Miha. vira, we come across in the Jain Canons frequently After Mahavira's death, he became the head of the Jain community and held that position for twenty years, till he attained kevalinship Hc is said to havc nariated the Jain Canons to his disciplc Jambu in the manncr hc had heard from his Master. The Niggantha samanas of thc present time are all spiritual descendants of the monk Ajja Suhamma, the rest of the Ganadharas left no descendants.71. THE SCHISMS The following Schisms are mentioned in the Jain Church - (1) Jamali, who was Mahavira's sister's son and also his son-in-law, was the first man to start the schism in Savatthi during the life time of 68 See Kalpa Su. 8. 1-4; Ava. Nit. 644 ff., 658 f. 00 Kalpa St. 5. 127. 70 Ava. Nur, 656. 11 Kalpa si, 8. 4.

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26 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Mahavira, after fourteen years of his attaining omniscience. Jamali was a prince of Khattiyakundaggama, who renounced the world and became a follower of Mahavira. Difference of opinion arose between him and his teacher over a slight matter whereupon Jamali declared that before the accomplishment of the act its results begin bcaring fruits; the followers of Jamali were known as bahui ayas. Piyada 1 sana, the daughter of Mahavira, first joined the schisinatic order of her husband, but later on, she was enlightened and joined the order of Mahavira. (2) The second schism was started by Tissagutta at Usabhapura (Rayagiha), during Mahavira's life time after sixteen years of his attaining keralahood Tissagutta was a disciplc of acarya Vasu, who was well-versed in the fourteen Purvas His followers were callcd jita paesiyas ; thcy controverted the vicw of Malavira that the soul is permeated in all the constituent atoms of the body (3) The third schism was led by Asadha at Seyaviya after 214 vcars of Mahavira's attaining salvation His followers were called arallias and thicy held that there is no difference between gods, saints, kings and other beings (4) The fourth schism was stai ted by Assamitta in Mihila, aster 220 years of Mahavira's attaining salvation His followers were called samuccheryas and they held that since thc cnt of all life will come some day the effects of good or bad dccds are immaterial. (5) Thc fifth schism was started by Ganga at Ullukatira after 228 years of Mahavirn's attaining salvation His followers were callcd dokuzyas and thcy held that the two opposite fcclings such as cold and warmth could be cxperienced at the same time (6) The sixth schism arose in Antaranjiya and was started by Sadulaya otherwise known as Roliagutia after 544 years of Mfahavira's attaining salvation Sadilaya is said to have bcen the author of the Varsesika sutras. His followers were callcd terasiras and thcy held that between thc life (iva) and non-lifc (ariva) llicrc is a third state 'no-jiva.' According to the Kalpasulia," thc terasiyas were founded by a disciplc of Ajja Mahagiri. (7) The scventh schism was lcd by Gotthamalula at Dasapura after 584 years of Mahavira's attaining salvation His followers were called abaddhiyas and according to them the jura is not bound by Karman.18 THC SYCTAMBARAS AND DIGAMBARAS Then we come to the epoch-making schism betwecn the Svetambara and Digambara sects of the Jains. The Digambaras maintained that absolute nudity is a necessary condition of sainthood which the Svetam 128, P228 a. 73 7ha 587, Aca. Nur 779 ff, also Bha 8, p. 68 a-75, Ova. Su. 41, P 197, also Bhag. 9 (Bechardas ed). 125 ff, Iva Cu. p.416 ff, Ullard. Ti 33 , Sama Sv. 22, Bhag. 1. I, p. 41f

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HISTORY OF THE JAIN CHURCH 27 baras denied and held that the use of clothes does not impede the highest sanctity It may be noted that the history of the division in the Jain order into Svetambaras and Digambaras is traccable to an carly period of Jain rcligion. Wc have seen as to how Parg vanatha allowed his monks to wear an under an upper garmcnt, whereas Mahavira preferred to go about naked, and this difference of opinion between the two Jinas probably developed into two great sects. It is stated in thc Acconigams that "a mendicant who moves about naked (acela) and is firm in control, it will not occur to him 'my clothes are torn, I shall beg new ones, I shall beg for thread, I shall beg for a necdle, I shall mend them, I shall repair them'," which shows that in the early days both kinds of monks, viz , Jinakalpa and Sthavirakalpata were allowed to remain in the Jain Sangha, and there were no strict rules about one's wearing clothes cr going undressed. The injunction that "'my clothes being torn, I shall soon go nakcd,' or 'I shall get new one's' such thoughts should not be entertained by a monk"77 also testifies the above assertion What we gather fiom the Ja'n texts Mahavira seems to be the first exponent cf nudity, as 1 cult fcature in the Jain Church, although as we have seen even the monks of the order of Parsava practised Jinakappa After Mahavira the name of Mahagiri, a disciplc of Thulabhadda is cited who towards the end of his life entrusted the gana to Suhatthi and practised Jinakappa at Dasannapura 78 The practice of Finakappa was also 74 Cf the 'tecivara' of a Buddhist Bhikkhu consisted of an upper cloak (ultara sanga), a waist cloth (sanghati) and an under garment (antaravasaha), all being oblong in shape (Nahapagga, VIII, 14 2) 16 6 3 782 trans by Jacobi, p 57 78 The Fmakalpika monks arc of two kinds (1) Those who use the hollow of then land for an alms-bowl (franzpritra) and (2) those who use alms-bowl (Maligrahadhari) Jach is further sub-divided into two (a) those who go vithout clous (abi urana) and (b) those who wear clothes (suprizarana) 'l le former the broom lajoharunaand a rt of cloth bolore their mouth (mul halosu), ulicicas the latte laic one, no ou tlu 5711unis (helin) De sicles the rajoharana and the muchhaastohi Thuy ubo use the alms-huul lic go without clothes poness tuele religious allicles as follows mihi ruhha, s/n (1, lihakes uhu, patalaha, rajastiana and goc haha and olarant and make ashika shid on t o the guitments mentioned above (Bth Bln 3, 3962 ) Vuut the Sthe chatu non l i cet the Fun Si (7 4 208 f) that a miniclicant who possastluci roles altul. Jul Auth! should not think of begging a louth robe htet thr tuinta egune th y has set in a monk should lcail off the old gamint, huing clad with an upper an uneko gurment (santaruliard), on with the undmusi qurmont (omurcle) 01 11th 11 will o without garments (acele) he should a pic for facoin from the bonus oi kaina nu nclicant who possesses tuo robes and a boulas bud 110 should not think of breguar for the thud robi, els (ibid 7 3 213) I mendilant who posSCSS on lobe and a bow'70 conclude should not think of begging uit rond oli, etc, (ibid 7 6 213) 11. make monk thanks that he can bear the puckmg of glass cold and luat, shingng of Ilse ind mereus or any other painful thing but cannot leave oll the prilic m oc then le can i valus priuilics with halibandhanu (ibid 7 220), also see Scubimy op at p1031 It shoul be noted, however, that later on, the numbu ol al ticks mi a munh squirt inclus old as a result of which we notice in the Brhathulna Bhasa (3 396) tint halbandia is placed Ly colapalinka and besides the above-mentioned clic articles mulaka Was allowed to the monks According to the Digambarus bolli Jumapiha and Stharahapka muuhs nust go about naked (see Devasena's Blutvusa gala (119 33), alsu Kantaprasad Jann's atlicle in the Marne Antiquary, Vol IX, No it) 17 Uttara su 2-12. 19 Ava. Cu. II, p. 155 f.

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28 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA prevalent at the time of Ajja Rakkhiya. We learn from the Avasyaka Curnit that when Ajja Rakkhiya initiated his family, his father was not willing to discard clothes due to modesty; he felt shy to move about naked in the presence of his daughters and daughters-in-law. Later on, with great persuasion he accepted a kadipatta which was replaced by a colapatta in course of time Then we come to Sivabhu, who is said to have led the bodyas after six hundred and nine years of Mahavira's death, in Rahavirapura. It is said that Sivabhui was in the service of the king of Rahavirapura and he used to return home very late at night. One day his wife did not open the door of the house and Sivabhui straight away went to the residence of the monks and asked for pavvajja The monks refused to ordain him thus, whereupon Sivabhui by himself plucked out his hair and automatically he became a monk, and practised Jinakappa. His sister followed him by joining his order Kodinna and Kottivira are stated to be the first two disciples of Sivabhui 80 This is the legend about schism told by the Svetambaras. The Digambaras relate another legend about the origin of the schism which differs from that of the Svetambaras According to this, during the reign of Candragupta in Ujjeni Bhadrabahu predicted that there would be a terrible famine in the country which would last for twelve years. At this Visakhacarya, a disciple of Bhadrabahu led the Sangha to the Punnata kingdom, while Ramilla, Sthulabhadra and Bhadracarya, emigrated to the country of Sindhu In course of time when all of them returned to Ujjeni, there was still famine in the country, so they allowed the monks to wear a piece of garment (ardhaphalakam purah krrtva) while going for alms. When the famine was over, however, the monks were asked to give up the use of the garment since it was not in pursuance of the strict requirement of Mahavira's order, but some monks would not follow their elders' advice Thus came into existence the schism of the Digambara and svetambaras in the Jain order.81 82 It may be stated that both these legends are of sufficiently late origin and hence cannot be relied upon fully. In fact, the division of Jains in svetambara and Digambara community was a gradual process, and in the early history of Jainism the Church was not divided into sects. The Jain inscriptions of the first and second century A D. found at the Kankali Tila Mathura also do not show any trace of schism in the Jain Church. We have already noticed that both practices wearing clothes or going undressed were allowed in the Jain Church although Mahavira himself went about naked In course of time the difference regarding the question of a monk wearing clothes became more and more acute TO P 406 f 30 la Bha 145f, A.a Cu P 427 f 81 Brhathathakosa 131, Emgrapha Carnatica, Vol II (Revised), pp 36 ff, also see Bhavasangraha of Devasena (Bombay, V S. 1978), pp 35-9, Bhadrabahucarita by Bhattaraka Ratna. nandi (Bombay 1912) 82 rf Schubring, op cit, p G..

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AISTORY OF THE JAIN CHURCH 29 resulting gradually in innumerable unnecessary controversies8 between the two communities. The history and development of these sects and the reason of their separation is really interesting and sliould form a subject of further research. THE GREAT LEADERS 84 During his life time Mahavira was the head of the four orders in his community. After his death Suhamma succeeded him and continued to be the spiritual head for twenty years. Suhamma was followed by Jambu who was the last Kevalin, and after him the doors of final liberation and omniscience (kevalinship) were forever closed to men Jambu was succeeded by Pabhava, Scijambhava, Jasobhadda and Sambhulivijaya. Then came the famous Bhaddabahu, during whose leadership Magadha was visited by a great famine. Bhaddabahu was followed by Thulabhadda, who is said to have been the son of Sagadala, the prime-minister to the ninth Nanda. Thulabhadda continued to be the leader of the Church for a long time. The six spiritual leaders from Jambu onwards are called Srutakevalins and they are said to have bech bound by common spiritual interest (ekka-sambhogo) 85 The next head of the community after Thulabhadda was Mahagiri, and as it has been pointed out, he revived the ideal practice of nudity, and himself practised Jinakappa. From the time of Mahagiri the practice of sambhoga was discontinued. Mahagiri was followed by Suhatthi, who converted king Sampai, the grandson and successor of Asoka. Sampai was a great patron of Jainism and he worked hard for the spread of the Jain religion in non-Aryan countries. During the time of Mahavira the Jain monks could move lin a limited area, but now twenty five and a half countries were opened Ito them 86 Suhatthi was followed by Sutthiya Suri, Suppadibuddha and Indadinna. Then came the well-known Kalakacarya, who is said to have caused the defeat of king Gaddabhilla with the assistance of Scythian kings.87 Kalakacarya, who was a contemporary of king Satavahana, is particularly remembered in connection with changing the date of Payjusana (an annual feast).88 The next spiritual leader of importance was Ajja Vaira, who is considered to be the last Dasapurvin and contemporary of king Nahavana It is said that he was received with great pomp and ceremony by the king of Pataliputra. During this period the country is said to have been visited by long famines twice, once in Uttarapatha and once in Daksinapatha. Towards the end of his life Ajja Vaira went to the mountain Rahavaya and died by giving up food and drink 80 Ajja Vaira was followed by Ajja Rakkhiya, who mastered 89 Cf Yuktiprabodha by Mcghavayagani, Ratlam, V S 1984 84 Sce Kalpa Su 8 and its commentary by Samayasundaragani 85 Yasy Cu 5, P 437 86 Brh Bha 1 3263 87 Nisi. C1, 10, PP 571 ff 88 bid , pp 630 ff. 80 Ava Cu., pp 390-396, 401f,

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30 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA the nine Purvas and who ordained his whole family, as mentioned already. Among the latei exponents of Jain religion mention may be made of Umasvati, Kundakunda, Siddhasena Divakara, Samantabhadra, Haribhadra, Akalnka, Vidyananda and Hemacandra. All of them were versatile writers and they supported the cause of Jainism by their most valuable writings. Hemacandra, otherwise known as kalikalasarvajna, was a versatilc genius and became the head of the community in III A.D. It was during this time that Kumarapala embraced Jainism and under his patronage Jainism became the state religion of Gujrat. Since then Jainism went on dcclining and its star never shone brightly again Jainism passcd through many storms and upheavals from time to time from its birth, and yet it could survive and did not disappear from 'the soil of India like its sister religion Buddhism. The chicf cause of this seems to have been the inflexible conservatism of the Jains in holding fast to their original institutions and doctrines. This is the reason, as Prof. Jacobi has pointed out, that although a number of less vital rules concerning life and pactices of the monks and lay men may have fallen into oblivion or disuse, yet the religious life of the Jain community even now is substantially the same as it was two thousand years ago.80 90 Charpentier, Cambridge History of India, p. 169.

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THE CANONS OF THE JAINS CHAPTER II THE CANONS OF THE JAINS CLASSIFICATION OF THE CANONS Suyanana or scriptural knowledge, otherwise known as Siddhanta or Agama consists of the twelve Angas, twelve Upangas, ten Painnas, six Chcda Sutras, Nandi and Anuyoga and four Mula Sutrast. These scriptures form thc canon of the Svetambaras alone and are disowned by the Digambaras Out of this subsidiary canonical literature with the exception of the Angas, the lists and the titles of the texts are not always uniform The number of the Painnas, for instance, is very indefinite and varies to a great extent. Sometimes Nandi, Anuyogadara and Pancakappa are placed at the head of the Painnas. The traditional number of books in the Siddhanta is forty five (Drstivada being lost), but the number of texts mentioned in various places varies between forty five and fifty.' 1 (1) The Twelve Angas (1) Ayaranga Sutta (Acaranga Sutra), (2) Suyagadanga (Satrakrtanga), (3) Thananga (Sthananga), (4) Samavayanga , (5) Bhagavati or Viahapannalti (VyEkhy@prayuapt), (6) Nayadhammakahao (Jiatadharmakathah), (7) Uvasagadasao (Upasakadasah), (8) Antagadadasao (Antakiddasah), (9) Anuttarovavaiyadasao (Anuttaraupapatu kadasah), (10) Panhavagaranaim (Prasnavyakaranani), (11) Vivagasuyam (Vipakasrutam), (12) Ditthuvaya (Drstivada) (11). The twelve Upangas (Urangas) or "secondary limbs' (1) Ovaiya or Uvavasya (Aupa. patika), (2) Rayapasebalja or Rayapasenaiya (Rajaprasniya), (3) Jivabhagama, (4) Pan. navada (Prajnapana), (5) Surapannatti or Sinyapannatu (Suryaprajnapti), (6) Jambuddivapannatt (Jambudvipaprajnapti), (7) Candapannath (Candraprajnapti), (8) Niryavali, (9) Kappavadamsiao (Kalpava tamsikah), (10) Pupphiao (Puspikah), (11) Pupphaculiao (Puspaculikah), (12) Vaphidasao (Vredidasah) (111) The len Painnas (Prakirnas) or "Scalled greces" (1) Causara Da (Catuhsarara) by Virabhadra , (2) Aurapaccakkhana (Aturapratyakhyana), (3) Bhattaparinna (Bhaktaparijfia), (4) Samthara (Samstara), (5) Tandulavey aliya (Tandulavartalika), (6) Canda vijjhaya, (7) Devindatthaya (Devendrastava), (8) Ganivilja (Gantidya), (9) Mahapaccalbhana (Mahapratyakhyana), (10) Viratthaa (Virastava) (1) The six Cheya sultas (Cheda Sutras) (1) Nisiha (Nisitha), (2) Mahanisiha (Mahinisitha), (3) Vavahara (Vyavahara), (4) Ayatadasao (Acaradasah) or Dasasuyakkhandha (Dasasrutaskandha), (5) Kappa (Kalpa or Brhathalpa), (6) Pancakappa (Paricakalpa) Instead of the last-named the Jiyakappa (Jitahalpa) by Jinabhadia is also mentioncd (v) Indizidual texts (1) Nandi or Nandi Sutta (Nandi Sutra), (2) Anuogadara (Anu. yogadvara). (0) The four Mula Sullas (Mula Sutras) (1) Uttarajjhaya (Uttaradliyayah) or Utta. raphayana (Uttaradhyayana), (2) Avassaya (Avasyaha), (3) Dasaveyaliya (Dasavaikalika); (4) Pinda Nijutti (Pinda Niryulu) The third and fourth Mila Sulras are also someumes given as Oha Nijuiti (Ogha Niryukti) and Pahklu (Paksika Sutra), and sometimes the Pinda Nuutu and Oha Nuutti appcar in the list of the Cheya Suttas (vide Winternitz History of Indian Literature, Vol II, P 42811). Cf also Nandi (Su 431 ) where the canonical works are divided into Angas and Angabahirijas (texts standing outside the Angas) or Angapanffha (belonging to the Angas) and Anangaparistha (not belonging to the Ingas). The formci is further divided into twelve Angas or Diadasanga also known as Gananduga The latter is divided into Avassaya and Avassayat'arritta The former is sub divided into six whereas the latter into two, viz. (1) Kaliya and (2) Urhaliya. The Kaliya and Ukulva have various divisions, out of which large number of works are not available at present cr the list of the eighty four Agamas consisting of 11 angas, 12 Urangas, 5 Cheya sultas, 3 Mula sultas, 30 Painnagas, 2 Culiya sultas, Pahkhiya sutla, Khamana sutta, Vanduttu sutta, Isibhasiya, Paljosanakappa, Ti yakappa, Fauji yakappa, Saddhaji yakappa, 10 Nujutlis, Penda. Ntijutt, Samsalla Nuutti and Visesavassaya Bhasa (H. R. Kapadia, The Canoncal Literature of the Jainas, p38).

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA REDUCTION AND THE AGE OF THE JAIN CANON V According to the Jain tradition, the disciples of Mahavira, known as Ganadharas or heads of Schools, compiled the Master's words in the Angas and Upangas. Regarding the antiquity and the authority of the Canon, the Svetambara Jains have the following tradition : The original doctrine was contained in the fourteen Puvvas (Purvas) "old texts," which Mahavira himself had taught to his Ganandharas. The knowledge of the "old texts" was, however, soon lost. Only one of Mahavira's original disciples handed them down, and they were only preserved for six generations. Now in the second century after Mahavira's death, there was a terrible famine in Magadha which lasted for a long period. This seriously affected the study of the Jain monks who could hardly get sufficient alms for their maintenance. In fact, a number of monks, for want of food and drink, had to lose their precious lives In course of time, when the famine was over, a council was convoked at Pataliputra after about 160 years of Mahavira's death (2.e, about 307 B.C) and the sacred lore which was in a state of decay, was put in order. We learn from the Avasyaka Curni that during the period of a long terrible famine in Magadha the monks had left the country and had migrated to the sea-shore. After the end of the famine they assembled in Pataliputra and by collecting a section (uddesa) from one and a portion (khanda) from another, compiled the eleven Aigas. But nobody remembered the Ditthuvaya. Thereupon a couple (sanghadaa) of monks were sent to Bhadrabahu, who knew the fourteen Puruas and who had already retired to Nepala in order to undertake the Mahapranaurata (fast unto death). But Bhadrabahu declined to teach Ditthuvaya since he was engaged in meditation. The monks returned and reported the matter to the Jain Sangha of Pataliputra; whereupon two other monks were deputed to Bhadrabahu to ask him what penalty could be prescribed for disobeying the order of the Sangha since he had committed the same offence. Later on, being threatened with ex-communication, Bhadrabahu agreed to teach Ditthvaya on certain conditions in seven instalments (padipucchagani). Then five hundred monks were deputed to Nepala to learn Ditthivaya, but gradually all except Sthulabhadra dropped out who succeeded in learning all the Purvas. But as penalty for some offence which he had committed towards his teacher, he was made to give his word of honour not to teach the last four Purvas to anybody. Thus the knowledge of the Purvas went into a state of oblivion from the time of Sthulabhadra. This is known as the Pataliputra version (vacant) of the Jain Canons. Then again in course of time, the sacred books of the Jains, again were reduced to a state of disorder and so between the year 827 B II. pp 187 f. also cf. Titthogalt patanaya quoted in the article 'Vira Nirvana aur Jain Kala ganang,' by Kalyan Vijaya in the Nagari Pracanini Palnika, Vols. X-XI, pp. 94-103. 4 For the loss of Drstrada see Weber's Sacred Luleature of the Jarns, pp. 54ff, reprinted from the Indian Antiquary, Bombay, 1892 and C. J. Shah's Jainism in North India, p. 230.

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THE CANONS OF THE JAINS 33 and 840 after the death of Mahavira (i... 360-373 A.D) another council was summoned at Mathura under the presidentship of Arya Skandila. We read in the Nandt Curni (p. 8) that during the time of terriblc famine which lasted for a very long time it became difficult for the monks to obtain their alms, and so they were unable to continue the study of the scriptures and consequently a great portion of the canon was lost. In course of time, after the famine came to an end, a council was convened at Mathura and whatever could be gathered from different monks, was collected and was fixed in the form of the Canon known as Kaluyasuya. According to another tradition, however, no Canon was lost during this period, but except Arya Skandila most of cminent monks, versed in the Agama Anuyogadharah) had lost their lives. This is known as the Mathuri version (vacana) of the Canons. Simultaneously, another council was summoned at Valabhi under the presidentship of Nagarjuna Suri in which the Canons were fixed and what was forgotten was compiled after careful edition This fact is corroborated by the statement in the Fyotiskarandaka Tika (p. 41) where it is stated that in the time of Skandila there was a terrible famine when the Jain monks had to discontinue their studies. Later on, at the end of the famine, one Sangha met at in Valabhi and another at Mathura. According to Malayagiri, the author of the Fyotrskarandaka Tiki, Anuyogadvara and other Canons are based on the Mathuri version, whercas the Jyotiskaranda on the Valabhi. This is known as Valabhi version (vacana) of the Canons. Unfortunately after redaction of the Canons in these councils, Acarya Skandila and Nagarjuna could not get an opportunity to see each other and hence the two different versions of the Canons remained unreconciled. After one hundred and fifty years, in the year 980 (or 993) of Mahavira's death 26, 513 or 526 A.D) another council was convoked at Valabhi under the able presidentship of Devardhugani Ksamasramana in which all the important works of the Jains thicn available were written down? In this council, as it has been pointed out, a serious attempt was made to reconcile the different readings of the two versions pertaining to the two councils. In cascs wlicic icconciliation will not possible, it was thought desirable to note the input lant Velllants cithici in the original Agamas or in their commentarics In this council, however, the entire Jain canonical literature was written down according to the version of the Mathura council, introducing the important variants generally by the words 'vayanantare puna' (according to another version) or "Nagarguniyastvevam vadanti' (the disciples of Nagarjuna say so). 6 Kathavalt, 298 after "Vir Nuvana" etc., pp rol 8 Cf. the Buddhist Councils held at Rijagaha, Vesali and l'alaliputre in order to establish a Canon of the religion and of the discipline of the order , see H Kein, Manual of Indian Buddhtsm, pp. 101ff. The last council was held in the reign of King Ayoka in the third century B.C. 1 According to Hemacandra, however, the canons were actually written down in the form of books (pustakssu nyastam) in the last two councils (yogasasita 3. p. 206 a). & Sce "Vura Nuryang' etc., pp. 112-118.

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34 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Thus we see that Devardhigaoi was only a redactor and not the author of the Jain Canons, and the date of compilation of the Agamas 1s much earlier than their redaction by Devardhigaai. To quote Prof. Jacobi, "Devardhi's position relative to the sacred literature of the Jainas appears therefore to us in a different light from what is generally believed to have been. He probably arranged the already existing manuscripts in a Canon, taking down from the mouth of learned theologians only such works of which manuscripts were not available. Of this Canon a great many copies were taken, in order to furnish every seminary with books which had become necessary by the newly introduced change in the method of religious instructions. Devardhi's edition of Siddhanta is therefore only a redaction of the sacred book which existed before his time in nearly the same form. Any single passage in sacred text may have been introduced by the editor, but the bulk of Siddhanta is certainly not of his making" . Thus the Canon which Devardhigani compiled and which has come down to us is the final result of a literary acuvity that must have started as soon as the Church was put on a sound footing. The earliest portion of the Canon may therefore quite possibly belong to the period of the first disciples of Mahavira himself, or at the latest to the second century after Mahavira's death, the period of Maurya Candragupta, when a council was summoned at Pataliputra, 10 THE ANTIQUITY OF THE CANONS The Canonical books of the Jains are important for many reasons. They represent the tcachings of Mahavira and the ancient historical traditions regarding the religion of the Jains. The Kalpa Sutra, for example, records Mahavira's life including his itinerary during his ascetic life, his predecessors, his Ganadharas or hcads of the Schools and the list of the Patriarchs (Theravalt) together with their ganas, kulas and sakhas. The Bhagavati Sutra in its different dialogues gives a vivid picture of the Life and work of Maharira, his relationship to his disciples and the contemporary kings and princes It contains a presentation of the Jain dogmas in the form of questions and answers between Mahavira and his disciple Indrabhuti. The Thananga records the names of the eight kings ordained by Mahavira and various other important points of interest. The Crasagadasao contains chapters on the lives of ten lay disciples of Mahavira, and the stories of the Najadhanmakaha explain the tcachings of the Lord. Further, the Acarunga, the Sutrakrtariga and the Uttaradhyayana contain the oldest part of the Canon fiom linguistic and literary points of view.11 The last-mentioned Canon consists of valuable poems in the form of beautiful parables and similes, dialogues and ballads after the true manner of the ascetic poetry of ancient India. These poems have their parallels in the Buddhist and the Brahmanic literature and . Jan Sulras, Vol. XXII, p. xxxix, also Winternitz, op. cit, pp 433f. 10 Winterzitz, op. cui, p. 437 11 See Jacobi, op. cit., pp. xl-xliii ; Winternitz; op. cit., p. 431.

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THE CANONS OF THE JAINS 35 'bear striking resemblance to the fatakas, Dhammapada, Suttanipata and the santiparua of the Mahabharata. In the Uttaradhyayana we come across the story of king Nimi, onc of the Prateyaka Buddhas in the Buddhist legends, in which the ideal of asceticism is preached Then there is the legend of Harikcsa, the holy man of low caste, which bears an exact resemblance to the Matanga Jataka Similarly the chapters on Citra and Sambhuta and Isukara belong to the great cycle of tales of king Brahmadatta,forming remarkablc parallels to the Jatakas, the Cittasambhuta Jataka and Hatthipala Jalaka.13 Then the meeting between Kcsi, a pupil of Parsva, and Goyama, a pupil of Mahavira and their discussion on various points of ancient and contemporary crecd throws a flood of light on the past history of Jainism and may be considered valuable document for the history of ancient Jain tcncts.14 The Rayapaseniya rccoids a dialogue between Kesi and the king Paesi which reminds us of the Payasi Sutta of the Digha Nikaya. It records another statement saying that a Brahmana who had committed certain crimes should be branded with the image of a dog (sunaga) or a kundiya pot on his forehead,15 which coincides with a similar statement in Kautilya's Arthasastra 10 This form of punishment, as has been remarked by Jarl Charpentir, does not occur in Manu and the later law-books, where corporal punishments on Brahmanas are not permissible, which shows that the Jain Canons must be nearer to the time of Kautilya than that of the later Dharmasastras. The Rayapaseniya also contains various architectural and musical terms which are considerably old and are rarely found clscwhere Then the Ovaiya gives a beautiful description of king Kuniya and his pilgrimage to lord Mahavira in Campa The Niryavaliyao refers to thc great battle between Kuniya and Cetaka when the cightcen confcdcratc kings are stated to have sided with the latter Lastly, the Chcda stitas belong to the carlicst portion of the Canon, prescribing the rulcs of life and conduct for the monks and nuns and thc prcscriptions for atoncment of sins. Here we come across the rules about the entirc discipline of the order, which bear resemblance to thc Vinaya of the Buddhists 17 Thc Bchatkalpa Sutra (1 50 states that thc monks and nuns may wander towards the east as far as Anga-Magadha, towards the south as far as Kosambi, towards the west as far as Thuna, towards the north as far as Kunala This scrmon is said to have been given by Mahavira to his disciples while he sojourncd at the Subliumibhaga garden at Saketa, which apparently gocs hack to an old time wlicn Jainism was 13 See Winternitz, Sonie Problems of Indian Literature, the chapter on Ascetic literature in Ancient India , also History of Indian Literature, II, pp. 466-70, Jail Charpentier, V'llari PP 44ff, also Prof A M Ghatagc's article 'A few parallels in Jain and Buddhist Works' in the A BRS, Vol XVII, 1936 18 A number of verses are also found in common in carly Pali litcrature and Ardhamagadhi literature Cf for instance the verse dhuratthu te zavolani' ctc in the Dasarvyyliya (27) with the verse in the t'i saranla Jalaka (I, No 69), p 311, also the ci hahamnu huga' etc in the Dasareyaliya (21) with the crsc in the Samyulla, Nandana Vagga, Dukkaram, P7 14 Jarl charpentier, op af, pp 46f. , scc also Cambridge Fristory of India. Vol. I. Ch. VI. 15 Su 184. 18 Cf. p. 264 17 Cf, Winternitz, op. cut, P 442.

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36 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA in its infancy and existed only in a very limited part of India round about the country of Magadha and a part of United Provinces. As a matter of fact, as it has been stated, it was Samprati, who encouraged the propagation of Jainism throughout the length and breadth of the country after he had come to power. Further, the first section of the Brhatkalpa Sutra which prescribes the eating of the broken or unbroken, raw and ripe palm-fruit (tala) or the fibres (palamba) for the Jain monks and nuns, leads us to the olden days of terrible famine which visited Magadha and is said to have lasted for a long time, when Bhadrabahu migrated to Nepala. These precepts indicate the hardest days through which the Jain monks and nuns had to pass and how they had to live on raw palm-fruits and fibres of the trees for their subsistence. Thus in the Jain Canon there are various traditions, historical or semi-historical presenting the political, administrative, social, economic and geographical conditions, throwing an immense light on ancient history and culture of India, which prove the antiquity of the Canons. Lastly, a reference must be made to a large number of Inscriptions that have come to light The Mathura Inscriptions belonging to the reign of Kaniska and his successors prove that the Jain community had attained a highly developed stage in the first century AD. In these inscriptions are given the names of the Patriarchs belonging to different ganas (schools), kulas (families) and sakhas (branches, already referred to, which mostly coincide with the list of the teachers and the schools founded by those teachers as given in the Kalpa Sutra of Bhadrabahu.18 Thus we sec that the tradition preserved in the Jain Canons is pretty old and contains much historicity and hence as Buddhist books have been used as materials for the history of Buddhism, there is no reason why we should distrust the Jain Canons as an authentic source of the Jain Church. MODIFICATIONS IN THE JAIN CANONS AND THEIR AUTHENTICITY It may be noted that there are references which go to show that the present Jain Canon is not the original Canon and has undergone considerable modifications We have noticed that different names are ascribed to one and the same Canon' and the number of the Canons varies considerably. The famous commentators Silanka, Malayagiri and Abhayadeva point out different versions (vacanabheda) in the Canons stating that a number of the Sutras had became corrupt (galitani) and a number of them were unintelligible (durlaksa).20 Then the contents 18 Archaeological Survey Refords, Vol III, plates x111-XV ; Buhler, The Indian Sect of the Jains, pp 42 60 , Vienna Oriental Journal, Vol III and IV, article by Buhler. 10 For example Rayapaleniya is rendered into Sanskrit by the names Rajaprasniya (Malayagiri), Rigaprasenakiya (Siddhasena Gan) and Rajaprasenayit (Municandra Suri), Bechardas, Raya Intro p 8f 30 qua "Ti 257, p 419a , Suya, 71 II, 2, p. 935a, Raya Ti., pp. 239, 259, 236, etc, Abhayadeva has recorded that it was most difficult for him to explain the texts faithfully since they were full of inaccuracies, traditions were lost and there were different versions (Naya Pravash at the end of the text, Tha. T. 10, p 499a).

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THE CANONS OF THE JAINS of the Canons do not correspond to the table of contents referred to in the Thananga, Samavayanga or Nandi.81 For instance, according to the Nandi,8a the Nayadhammakaha contained three crores and a half padas (apparently an exaggeration), whereas at present it contains only twenty chapters. The commentator finding himself at a loss to explain this simply refers to some old tradition on the matter. The same thing can be said regarding the number of padas of the Bhagavati.93 Then the Panhvagarana does not correspond either to the title of the work or to the table of contents as stated in the Thananga24 or the Nandr.25 Like the Panhavagarana, the Antagadadasao and a major part of the Anuttarovavaryadasao also seem to have lost their texts since their present contents do not tally with those recorded in the commentary on the Thananga.as The names of the characters in the stories arc quite different ; and its explanation given by Abhayadeva is the diffcrence of vacana. The same incongruity is recorded regarding the Niryavali Srutaskandha.97 Then, we are told about the Jambuddivapannatti, a portion of which is restored with the help of the fivabhigama and other Canons. 38 Besides these modifications and interpolations in the Agamas, certain Canons or parts of the Canons have become totally obsolete, and perhaps there is no possibility of their being restored now. We have already seen that the Ditthuvaya was missing from the time of Sthulabhadra. Then Mahaparinna, the seventh chapter of the Acarang, does not exist any more; Dogiddhidasa and a portion of the remaining nine Dasas referred to in the Thananga 29 are extinct now; the Pascakappa is not available and some works of Kaliya and Ukkaliya Suya referred to above are lost. Then some portion of Mahanisiha and of the Painnas is missing Besides, we do not see any traditional chronological order in the Canons pertaining to priority or posteriority of their compilation. On the other hand, the references to the Agamas which are considered of late origin are found in those which are said to belong to the early period. For instance, the Suyagadanga refers to Uvavarya 30 and the Bhagavali to Pannavana, 31 Fivabhigama, 31 Jambuddivapannatti, 33 Rayapasenijja, 34 Uvavarya,85 Nandi, 30 and Anuogadara.37 II Cf the remark of Abhayadeva, Bhag IP 10, Bechardas ed , also see Akalanka s Ragavarlika, P 51 11 Malaya Ti su. 51, P 2300 f. 23 See Bechardas, Bhag IV, Introduction, p. 20 24 10, p 4840 25 Malaya Ti Su 55, P 233a f. 36 10, p 482a 17 rbid, p 485a 18 Jambu 2, p 2178. 28 10, 4840 30 II, I p. 275a. sonce and in Ndio +

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88 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Thus we notice that the present Canons have undergone considerable changes and hence certainly cannot be claimed as the original texts of the Canons. But at the same time, it may be remarked that simply on this account the value of the canonical literature should not be minimised. As a matter of fact, the record of contradictory and inconsistent traditions and opinions in the Canons only prove that the Jains did not dare to make arbitrary changes in the texts, but handed them down as faithfully as they could.38 THE DATE OF THE CANONS It should be borne in mind that the Jain Canons collectively do not belong to one particular period. In fact, each part of the Canon should be judged on its own merit after going through its contents carefully We notice that certain Jain texts are ascribed to later authors by traditions themselves. For instance, the Pannavana, is ascribed to Ajja Sama (Ary Syama) who is said to have lived 376 or 386 years after Mahavira's death. The Dasasrutaskandha, the Panda Nuutti and the Ogha Njutti are ascribed to Bhadrabahu (second century after Mahavira's death), the Dasaveyaltya to Sejjambhava (gayyambhava), who is counted as the fourth head of the Church after Mahavira, and the Nandi to Devardhigani, the president of the Council of Valabhi in the tenth century after the death of Mahavira (1.e. the beginning of the 6th century AD.) To sum up, the canonical works of the Jains have not originated at one period; their traditions can be traced back to Mahavira and his disciples, or to say more correctly to the period of Candragupta when tradition places the council of Pataliputra. But afterwards the sacred books of the Jains had to undergo considerable changes and as a result of which several works or portions of the works were added to them from time to time. Finally, the Canons were written down by Devardhigani in the sixth century AD. which must be taken as the latest date of the Siddhanta. THE EXEGETICAL LITERATURE OF THE CANONS The exegetical literature on the Canons is very extensive. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to interpret the Canons without the support of the commentaries, and it is for this reason that the commentaries are included in the present thesis. On the whole the commentary literature seems to be quite trustworthy since the commentators have tried to preserve the old traditions and the stock of tales and legends current in Those days. The commentators while illustrating the tenets of the Canon have referred to old compositions (purvaprabandha), ancient traditions (Urddhasampradaya) and ancient explanations (urddharyakhya), which is 88 Cf. Winternitz, op at, p. 494

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THE CANONS OF THE JAINS 39 an evidence to prove their authenticity. The commentators have frequently quoted the differences of opinions (kecil) and wherever they have failed to give satisfactory explanation of the texts they have had recourse to the authority of the older tradition (sampradayagamya) or the words of an omniscient being (kevalin). The exegetical literature which includes some of the important commentaries such as the Brhatkalpa Bhasya, and its Vrtti, the Vyavahara Bhasya and its Vivarana, the Nisitha Curni, the Avasyaka Curni, and the commentaries on the Avasyaka and Uttaradhyayana, is undoubtedly a mine of rich treasure in itself. In these works we come across various customs and beliefs prevalent in those days in different parts of India, various feasts and festivals, religious sects, wandering ascetics, descriptions of famine, robbers and dacoits, the inaccessible roads, mountains and deserts, economic production, industry, trade-routes, dress, ornaments, food, and various other matters of importance, which have nothing to do with religion as such, but are of general interest to the man on the street. The commentary literature is also important from the point of view of the voluminous and comprehensive narrative literature that it contains. According to Dr. Winternitz, many a gem of the narrative art of ancient India has come down to us by way of the Jaina commentary and narrative literature, which would otherwise have been consigned to oblivion 89 The commentary literature like the canonical literature is also important from the point of view of the history of Indian languages. The canonical literature and its earliest commentaries are written in Prakrta language, which is very useful in tracing the history of the modern Indian vernaculars. The commentarial literature on the Canons consists of four parts, viz., (1) Nizjuttz, (2) Bhasa, (3) Gunni, and (4) Tika ; including the Canons this literature is known as Pancangi or consisting of the five parts. (1) NIJJUTTI The oldest explanatory literature on the sacred texts is represented by Nzjuttis which consists of a very concise explanation in verses. These Nujuttus contain a number of historical or legendary tales elucidating Jain doctrines and moral or disciplinary rules given in the Jain Canons. The Nijuttis were probably memorial verses which were learnt by heart by the teachers who used them in their oral interpretation of the Canons. 40 It is suggested that since the Nujuttrs are aboslutely unintelligible without the support of the commentary, there must have been an extensive commentary where all tales and legends referred to in Nujuttus must have been told at length. But unfortunately we have no means of ascertaining the existence and nature of these hypothetical commentaries 89 abrd, p. 487. 40 Winternitz, op. cit., P. 483 , cf. Nirultz in Pali, a work on exegesis, ascribed to Maha Kaccayana, ard divided into two parts: Cala nrutt and Maha arutle, Malalasekara, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Vol. II, p. 79. 41 Jarl Charpentier, op. cit., p. 50 f,

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40 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDLA and how far they were epitomised in the present Niryuktis.42 The Nujuttus served as the foundation for several other later commentaries. The following are tie ten Nijjuttis : (1) Ayaranga, (2) Suyagadanga, (3) Suriyapannatti, (4) Uttaraghayana, (5) Avassaya, (6) Dasaveyaliya, (7) Dasasuyakkhandha, (8) Kappa, (9) Vavahara and (10) Isibhasiya. The tradition is unanimous in attributing the authorship of the Nuuttis to Bhadrabahu, who seems to be different from Bhadrabahu, the last Srutakevalin, who died 170 years after Mahavira's death (2.., 297 B.C.), and who was the author of the Cheda Sutras. When we study the contents of the Nijuttus we notice that they refer to the later traditions. For instance, the Uttaradhyayana Niryukti 48 refers to the story of the Bhadrabahu's four disciples, and gakatala and Sthulabhadra, and the Avasyaka Niryukta 44 to Bhadragupta, Arya Simhagiri, Vajraswamin, Tosaliputracarya, Arya Raksita, Phalguraksita and others, who were the successors of Bhadrabahu. We also find a reference here to the origin of the Digambaras and the seven schisms in the Jain Church which undoubtedly represents the tradition much later than Bhadrabahu, the author of the Cheda Sutras.45 , (2) Bhasa After Nujjutti, comes Bhasa, the next chronological stage of development in the commentarial literature on the Jain Canons. Like Nujutti, the Bhasas were also written in Prakrta verses. However, it should be Loted, that a number of verses of Ninjutli and Bhasa have so much intermingled with each other that it is difficult to distinguish them from one another. This is corroborated by the statement in the Commentary on the Brhatkapla Bhasya48 by Malayagiri. Similarly, the verses of the Bhasya on the Dasaveyaliya have been incorporated in its Niryuktz47 and the same muddle is noticed regarding the verses of the Bhasya on the Joassaya sutta and its Nijutti.48 The following eleven Agamas seem to have contained their Bhasas : (1) Avassaya, (2) Dasaveyaliya, (3) Uttarajghayana (4) Kappa (5) Pancakappa (6) Vavahara (7) Nisiha (8) Pancamangalasuyakkhandha (9) Fiyakappa (10) Oha Nijutti and (11) Pinda Nijjutrz 40 The Bhasas on the Bhal 41 Prof A M Ghatage's arucle "The Dasas aikalika Niryukti," p 629, IHQ, Vol , XI 1935 48 91, 100, 44 764-776, also cf Utlara. Nur. 96f 46 See Muni Punya Vijaya's learned article in the Jlalaiva Jar Vidyalaya Rajutu Juhof. sada Smaraka Grantha, 1915-40 ; Jarl Charpentier's Introduction to the Ullaradhyayara Sutra, p 49 f. Bhadrabahu, the author of the Neujutis is placed in the fourth century AD (See Prof. Ghatage, op all) However, according to Leumann, the Ninjuttis were compiled in about 80 AD. Schubring, op. cit., p 60) 18 Puthika, P 2. 47 P 278. 48 See H. R. Kapadia, op. cit., p. 172; Prof. A. M. Ghatage's article on Sutraktanga Niryukti in I.H.Q., Vol. XII, 1936, p. 270 ff. 19 See H. R. Kapadia, op. ch., p. 187.

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THE CANONS OF THE JAINS 41 Kalpa Sutra, Vyavahara Sutra and Nisitha Sutra are very important as they contain most valuable information regarding various topics, particularly the life of monks and nuns and the society of those early days. The Bhasya on the Brhatkalpa Sutra is written by Sanghadasagani Ksamasramana -5deg most of the Bhasas, however, are annonymous. (3) Cunni After Bhasa comes Cunni, an intermediate stage between the two periods, Bhasa on one hand and the Tika on the other. Gunni is an intermixture of prakrt and Sanskrt languages pointing out an important era in the history of the Jain annals when by slow stages Sanskrt was taking the place of Prakrt in the history of the Jain literature. The following Agamas contain Cunnis - (1) Avara, (2) Suyagada, (3) Vrahapannatti, (4) Jivabhigama, (5) Jambuddivapannatti, (6) Nisiha, (7) Mahanisiha, (8) Vavahara, (9) Dasasuyakkhandha, (10) Kappa, (11) Pancakappa, (12) Oha Nezjutti, (13) Pancamangalasuyakkhandha, (14) Fiyakappa, (15), Uttarajihayana, (16) Avassaya, (17) Dasaveyaliya, (18) Nandi, (19) Anuogadara and (20) Pakkhiya Suttal Out of these a very few Cunnis have seen the light of day so far Some of them have been edited by Muni Anandasagaraji from RutlamA cyclostyled copy of the Nesiha Cunni available in some of the Bhandaras and Libraries, has been edited by Acarya Vijayaprema Surisvara, which is utilised in the present thesis. Most of the published Cunnis are ascribed to Jinadasagani Mahattara. Out of the available Cunnus the Avassaya and Nisiha are most important as they contain a most valuablc treasure of information from the point of view of Jain history and culture The Nisitha refers to Arya Kalaka, a contemporary of king Salivalana of paitthana, who proceeded to Persia (Parasakula) and returned with ninety kings (Saha) to take revenge on king Gaddabhilla of Ujjeni, who is said to have abducted Kalaka's sister and kept her in his haicm. The Avassaya Cunni records a tradition of flood in Savitthi after thirtcen years of which Mahavira attained kevalahood 53 It also refers to important kings and princes contemporary to Mahavira and various other traditions. The Cunnis are also important from the point of view of philological studies. (4) Pika Haribhadra Suri (705-775 A.D.) was a most distinguished and versatile writer, who is considered to have written for the first time 60 This is cdited with the Vrilt of Malayagini and Kycmakilti in the Atmananda Jain Granthamala by learned scholar Muni Punya ijayaji 61 See H R. Kapadia, op. cit., p 190. 63 The Alasyaka Curni, according to Leuman, belongs to 600 650 A.D. (Schubring. op. cit., p. 60), of a verse from the Manusmrit (IV 85. also Mahabha. XIII. 141, 19) is quoted in the Acaranga Cunnt (p. 97), also from the Pralynayauganadharayana (3 9) of Bhasa (Poona, 1937) in the Alasyaka Curni II, p 162). 63 cf. also the same tradition recorded in the Maccha Jataka (Vol. I, No. 75).

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42 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA the commentaries on the Canons in Sanskrt, rctaining the Prakrt narratives in their original form. He has written cornmentaries on Avassaya, Dasaveyaliya, Nandi vnd Inuyoga He is also said to have written a commentary on the Pannazani, which is now lust.54 After Haribhadra comes Silanka Suri, who lived about a century later and wrote commentaries on the firsi two Angas with the help of Vaharigani in about 862 or 872 A D. He is also said to have written comnicntaries on the remaining ten Augas which are lost now. Then we come to the commentators Vadivetula Santi Suri and Devendragani, otherwise known as Nemicandra Suri in the cleventh century. They wrote separate but exhaustive commentaries on the Crimujhajara retaining the narratives in Prakrt, in the manner of Haribhadra Suri The famous Abhayadeva Suri also belon, tu this period He wrote commentaries on nine Argus (III-XI) and th, uzuiza His commentaries on the latter and thic Navadamnakulu were verlid bv grcat Dronacarya, the uutlior of the commentary on the Ogha Nyuku Thunccmus Mal.Jhani Hemacandra senior centinipoiary of Jy Hinacandin anc o pupil of Abhayadeva, who curnmented un Inuyugada Sutra Malayagiri was another important authoi wlis wiotc commentariis on six cpuigas II-VII) His commentary on the fambuduicapannatti is said to have been lost, and that in the Punnaina is biased in Haribhacii's. He also wrote commeniul!) Un juala Bhasy., Pinda Nyukti, tasyaka, Bhathalpa Bhasa Inn pleh) in! Nardi He completed his commentary on Nandi in 1235 ADS Krnaliru completed the commentary on the Brhatkalpa Brusya in 1276 AD Then Vijayavimala wrote his commentaries on thic Tundr.larryaliya and Gacchutura in 1578 AD; Santicandra, suupil of Hirvijaya on the Jambuddizapannalt2 in 1594 AD, and Samaya Sundur galil on the Kalpa Sutra in the 17th century AD." Besides, a large number of Dipikais, l'intis, ikas, arit diacuris were written on the canonical literature of the Jains, several of wluch do not exist now In the lika literature, the commentaries on the cassaya, Uttarajzhayana, Bihatkalpu Bhisya, Vyarahasa Blasya, hrinanga, Bhagavati, Jambuduipaprajnapli and Kalpa Sutra are most valuable since they have recorded various important traditions Thus the period of the Jain Canuns and their commentaries extends from the second century BC to the serenteenth century AD. CONCLUSION Before we enter into a detailed study of the Jain Sutras, the following points must be borne in mind. Thic object of presenting this thesis is simply to cxaust the social, political, economic, religious and grographical material presented in the 84 The Commentary of ALalavagiri on Punruum. p 611. 55 Winternic, un cut , P 392 58 For other commentaries on the Kalpa Satra see the Introduction to the Kalpa Salir by Prof. H.D. Velankar, Surat, 1939.

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THE CANONS OF THE JAINS 43 Jain Sutras, and no chronological order of the Agamas is claimed in the present work, During the course of three rcccnsions thic present Jain Sutras have undergone considerable changes, and so thcicis much confusion icgarding the stock lists and other material presented in thc Sutras; moi cover, the Agamas have not been critically edited so far The commentary period should not be taken as onc with the Sutra period. The commentators belong to a much latci period when many of the ti aditions belonging to the Agamas had been lost Inspite of the thrcc iccensions which the Jain texts had undergone and the conscqucnt changes whuch were effected in the body of the texts from time to time it would not be an cxccgration to say that much of the material which thcy embody point to a much cirly civilization than the sixth century AD, when the final reaction of the texts Wels (Nected Our comparison of the social material in the Jain Silas with the material of the same in the Buddhist Topitaha ch as pointed out by tlic scholais is definitcly old for instanic, the icfcicnce in the architectural terms in the Jain Sutras with then comparison with the aichitectural terms in the Pali Sullas should convincc us of the truthfulness of our assertion. It is not the purpose of the present work to malc a comparative sturly of the parallel features of the Jain and Buddhist uras which should form a separate study by itself. But wherever possible sucli parallelisins have been pointed out Finally, one thing should be borne in mind, while studying the Jain Sutras that the age of every part of it should be judged on its own merits with the help of other literature and when the converging cvidence supports the genesis of the tradition, then alonc its age could be approximately fixed.

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SECTION II ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATION CHAPTER I CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION CHAPTER II FISCAL ADMINISTRATION CHAPTER III ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE CHAPTER IV MILITARY ORGANISATION CHAPTFR V LOCAL GOVERNMENT

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INTRODUCTION The Jain Canons, in the manner of the Jatakas, are not administrative manuals like the Arthasastra or the Dharmasutras which can supply us with a full, connected and systematic account of the various aspects of administration. Whatever meagre account of the details of the administrative machinery is found in these texts is furnished by the stories which are told in quite an off-hand manner reflecting the normal life of the day. As a matter of fact, the Jains like the followers of other Sramanic religions concentrated more on the problems of penace and renunciation and they never showed lively interest in worldly affairs. In the following pages an attempt is made to arrange the meagre and isolated information supplied by the Jain Canons in a systematic order, supplementing it with the information available from other sources.

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CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION 49 CHAPTER I CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION I KING AND KINGSHIP that a king ches to look after tace of a king musiects, and must be According to Jain tradition, Usabha was the first king who ruled over Ikkhagabhumi, the first capital of India. Before that there was no kingdom or king, punishment or punisher. It was a state when all people without exception pursued the path of dharma and conducted themselves towards one another in righteous manner. But in course of time, the people violated the laws laid by the Kulakaras, and yielded to all sorts of unhealthy feelings. At this time people approached Nabhi, the father of Usabha and the latter was anointed on the throne. It was Usabha who taught people for the first time various arts and crafts and promulgated the system of punishment by confinement of a criminal to a particular area (mandalabandha). In ancient India a king was absolutely necessary and was considered an essential factor for the well-being of the people. It is further stated, that a king engrossed in women, gambling, wine and hunting was considered unfit to look after the affairs of the State. It is said that the maternal and paternal lineage of a king must be stainless, he must be satisfied with accepting one-tenth from his subjects, and must be wellversed in general customs (lokacara), philosophical system (Veda) and politics. According to the Ovarya, king Kunika had all the qualifications of royalty, was honoured by people, belonged to a purc Ksatriya family, was duly consecrated on the throne and was compassionatc. He was a warden of the marchers (simankara), upholder of peace (khemandhara), and protector of thc janapada (anavayapala) He was thc master of palaces (bhavana), bed-rooms (sayana), scats (asana), carriages (jana) and vehicles (vahana) in large quantity. His trcasury was full of gold and silver, and his people had ample food. He was the master of slaves of both sexes, cows, buffalocs, oxen and shecp. His treasury (kosa), granaries (kotthagara) and armouries (auhaghara) were brimming to the full.4 Jambu , 2, 29; Ava ca, pp 153 157 Similar description is found in the Mahabharata when the Devas became subjected to fear due to lawlessness (arajakata) and approached Vishnu, who appointed Prthu as the first king of the earth, under whose rulc the whole earth was tilled and cultivated with scventeen kinds of grains At this time Brahma somposed a science for the social advancement and well-being of the world in hundred thousand chapters (Mahabha Santi p l. viu) Brh. Bha., 1. 940 Cf Woman, dice, hunting and drink, the four sins are reprehensible in a king; Mahabha. III. 13 7. * Vya. Bhi., 1. p. 128af. & ST. 6.

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50 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA VICEROYALTY AND SUCCESSION According to the Jatakas, kingship was generally hereditary in character. Normally if the prince was the only son of his father, he became the Viceroy, and after his father's death succeeded to the throne. But if he had one or more brothers or step-brothers, there was an outburst of jealousy after the death of the king which soon developed into bitter fratricidal wars, Ordinarily, if nothing untoward happened, after the death of his father, the eldest succeeded to the throne and the younger was anointed as Viceroy. The Jain texts mention two types of kings, viz., savekkha and niravekkha. The former established the crown-prince on the throne within his life time; this avoided civil war and other calamities. In the latter type the crown-prince succeeded after the death of the king. In the event of a king having more than two sons, usually, the king, if he was living, put them to test and selected one to be the Viceroy. The Vyavahara Bhasya refers to a king who put his three princes to test. He served them with a splendid dinner and while the princes were dining, he let loose furious dogs on them. The first prince left his dinner and ran away, the second stopped the dogs with sticks and finished his dinner, the third continued his dinner and also allowed the dogs to feed. The king was pleased with the last one and made him the heir-apparent.8 ABDICATION Sometimes, after the death of the king, the elder son was overcome by a feeling of disgust for the kingdom and renounced the world. In that case the kingdom was offered to his younger brother. In some cases the elder brother, who had taken to asceticism came back and was tempted to seize the kingdom. We are told that Kundarika and Pundarika were two princes of Sageya. The former joined the ascetic order, but after some time he returned and wanted his kingdom back. Pundarika, the younger prince retired in his favour and took to the ascetic life.10 Then there were instances of kings abdicating in favour of the heirs-apparent and of young princes prematurely following the path of renunciation and refusing consecration." 5 Cf a prince employed a shepherd and made his elder brother blind(Uttara 71,5, p. 103). 8 P.B.I, pp 94EUR, 99. 1 Vya Bhi., 2 327 8 3.210. also cf 4 267. The Padanjali Fatala (II, 247) refers to a young prince who was told by the ministers that he would be consccrated only on satisfying certain tests which pertain to the administration of justice But the prince was incapable of distinguishing between the two judgments, one correct and the other iticorrect and consequently lost his chance to the kingship See Uttara. Ti , 18, P. 248. 10 Naya., 10. u Cr, the renunciation of Sala and Mahasala, Ada, cl., p. 881,

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CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION 51 RELATION BETWEEN KINGS AND PRINCES The wholc problem of succession was complicated by ambitions, jealousies and the practice of renunciation.13 The Vivagasuya refers to prince Nandivaddhana of Mathura, who wanted to take the life of his father and rule over the kingdom. But he was detected and was executed.18 Similarly, the prince Kuniya of Rayagiha put his father into prison and was consecrated on thc throne. Sometimes the king, out of fear, banished the unruly prince and asked him to live in another place. The Avasyaka Cuinz refers to the prince Seniya, who, being afraid of his father, fled away to Bennayada and lived there with a merchant.16 Then the princes Muladeva and Agadadatta of Ujjeni and Sankhapura respectively are said to have been banished by their fathers.16 SUCCESSION BY PRIMOGENITURE It has been pointed out that as a general custom, the kingdom descended directly to the king's eldest son and all was right if the king had an heir, but if he died heirless, it was a great problem for the ministers. Under such circumstances, finding no other alternative, the heirless kings were often advised by their ministers to bcget sons through the medium of the monks. If the monks did not agree to the proposal they were brought to the palace under the pretext of hearing religious discourses or being asked to worship some holy imagc. Of the monks those who were full of youth and energics were forced to cohabit with the inmates of the palace under thc thrcat of cxccution ; thosc unwilling were even bcheaded 18 Thc Brhalkalpa Blusya iefcis to another interesting practice of succcssion It is said that a certain hing had thice princes who joincd the ascetic order. In course of time, the king dict and it so happened that the thrcc ascetic princcs arrived in thic city and sojouincu in a garden. When the ministers came to learn of thic arrival of the princes, they approached them along with the royal insignia and rcquestcd them to come back and accept the sceptic Thc sust puncc succumb 19 According to Kautilya's Arthas estra (pp 32 11) the king should yuaid himself against his own sons Kautilya, quoting the opinions of Visilaki and Palasara, says that the uniuly princes are constant danger to the king and they should be kept under guard in a definite place or fort 186, p 39 14 Ava cu , II, P 171 , in the Thusa Fatala (No 338, III, P 122) a sixteen years old prince tries various expedients to kill his father 16 646 18 Uttard 11, 4, p 83 a ff, 3, p 59 ff In the Succaja Jataka (III, No. 320, p. 87) a prince governor comes to the capital Benares, to pay his respects to his father. The latter thinks, "this fellow may do mc wiong if he gets an oppoi tunity." So he asks him to live some where else, and return at his death and rule the kingdom The prince obeys and leaves Benator with his chief wife, 17 Cf Nuyt., 14, p. 163 18 Brh. Bha., 4. 4948, also cf Kusa Jataka (No. 631, V, 278 ff); also cf, the evil results a monk visiting the king's harem (Anguttara, V, P 81ff).

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA ed to temptation as he could not stand the ascetic life, the second did not move from his resolve, whereas the third was concealed by his preceptor in some nunnery." SUCCESSION OF SISTER'S SON Sometimes, in the absence of a son, the nephew succeeded to the throne. The commentary on the Uttaradhyayana refers to Gaggali, the sister's son of Sala and Mahasala of Pitthicampa. They called upon Gaggali and after installing him on the throne joined the ascetic order.20 Then the Bhagavati refers to king Uddayana of Vibhaya, who, although he had a son, anointed his sister's son on the throne and joined the order of Mahavira. It is said, that fearing that his son would become infatuated with royal power, and being thus addicted to human plcasure, would roam about in the endless ocean of this world, Uddayana did not appoint him the heir-apparent. 21 WOMEN AND SUCCESSION When there was no heir to the king, who could succeed to the throne, sometimes, though very rarely his daughter succeeded him. The Mahanisiha alludes to a widowed daughter of a king, who, in order to save her family from blasphemy, wanted to commit Suttee. But since this custom was not prevalent in the family of the king, hc stopped her from doing so. After some time the king died hcirless and his widowed daughter was established on the throne.21 CHOICE BY DIVINE WILL There was another custom of choosing a successor to the vacant throne. It was the choice by the horseas which was made to roam about the town. The commentary on the Uttaradhyayana refers to prince Muladeva of Padaliputta who was consecrated on thc throne of Bennayada in this manner. It is said that when the king dicd heirless, the five divine articles (kakuha) were prepared and were taken out in a procession. At last the royal officers reached a place where Muladeva was sitting under the shade of a tree. Seeing him there, the elephant trumpeted, the horse neighed, the pitcher sprinkled water, thc chowries fanned and the parasol placed itself above him. Then the people pro 10 3.3760-71, also cf Vya Bli, 3 192, p 40 30 10. P. 153 f. 21 13. 6. 11 P 30. It 18 stated in the Jatakas "infamous is the land which owns a woman's sway and rule, and infamous are the men who yield themsclvus to women's dominion" (Kandina Jataka, I, No. 13, p 155), but sometimes we come across examples when women wielded the actual sovereignty On Udaya's death no king was set up and we are told the commands of his widow Udayabhadda were promulgated (Udaya falaka No. 458, IV, p. 105). 38 In the Kathakota (trans. Tawacy. P 4 and note) an elephant with a pitcher of water roamns about for seven days and nooses a person.

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CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION 53 nounced the cries of victory and Muladeva was mounted on the elephant and was taken to the town where he was declared sovercign by the ministers and tributary kings (mantisamanta).24 Then we are told about the prince Karakandu who succeeded to the throne of Kancanapura. In this case, the horse came as usual and after moving round the prince stopped in front of him. The citizens noticed specific marks on his body, the cries of victory were uttered and the musical instrument nandi was beaten. At this time the prince got up from his slumber and was taken to the town where he was consecrated on the thronc.25 Then the Avasyaka Garni refers to Nhaviyadasi Nanda, who sat on the thronc of Padaliputta. It is said that the horsc turned his back (patthim addet) towards him and he was declared sovereign. Further we hear of the robber Muladeva, who was being taken by the police officers for execution, but at this time, luckily the king died heirless and as customary the horse was taken around the town, which turned its back towards Muladeva who succeeded to the throne.at CONSECRATION CEREMONY The ceremony of consecration was an important function in ancient India. The Jambuddivapannatti describes the consecration of Bharata, the Universal Monarch. He entered the consecration hall when various kings, the senapatr, the purohita, the eighteen guilds (senappaseni), the (merchants and others sprinkled with fragrant water and hailed him witli cries of victory. It is said that people placed a royal crown on his head, rubbed his body with soft and hairy clothes dyed with fragrant saffron (pahmalasukumalagandhakasara), put on a garland around his neck and adorned his body with various ornaments. On this occasion the citizens were exempted from taxes and a festival was declared lasting for a long period. 98 Then we hcar of the coronation ceremony of Mehakumara in the Nayadhammakaha. It is said that befoic Mchakumara renounced the world, at the request of his parents, hc was installed on the throne for one single day. He was given a bath with cight hundred pitchers made of gold, silver and gems etc. ; he was sprinklcd over with water brought from various holy places and caith, flowers, perfumes, 24 3 p. 63 a The Ova. Sa, II, p 44 mentions sword (khagga), umbrella (chatta). crown (upphesa), shoes (vahana) and chowries (valaviana), as the five insignia of a king, cf Milindapanha, p 330 16 Uttara. Ti., 9 p 134 16 II p. 180 37 Vya Bhri, 4 169 In the Darimukha Falaha (III, No 378, p 239) this ceremony is called the phussaratha or the festal car ceremony Seven days after clic death of an heirless king, the Purohita let a sesial car, thc plussaratha, bc driven accompanied by four-fuld army amidst the beating of many hundred drums It was cxpected to go to man destined to be the king The man whom the car singled out by stopping ncar him was made king, also Mahaanaka Jataka (No. 534, VI, p 39), also see Kathisariugarn, Vol V, Cb. lxv, pp. 175-7, nole on Paticadiyyadhavasa , JAOS, Vol 33, pp. 168-06. 18 Su, 3. 68, pp. 2672-270,

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA 54 garlands, herbs, and mustard were cast over his head, and he was consecrated with all pomp and ceremony amidst the beating of the instrument dundubhi. RESIDENCE PALACE The palaces are described in the Jain Canons as seven-storyed, adorned with towers and pinnacles and supported by many columns They are described as lofty, touching the sky and decorated with flags, banners, umbrellas and garlands. They had domes (thubhra) and their floors were richly studded with various gems and jewels.30 The Jain texts mention several types of palaces. The Vyavahara Bhasya refers to the palaces of Cakravartins, Vasudevas, Mandalikas and ordinary persons These palaces are described as one hundred and eight, sixty-four, thirtytwo and sixteen hands high in succession.81 A distinction is made between a prasada and a bhavana; the former is said to have belonged to gods whereas the latter to kings. A prasada was usually high and its height was double its width, whereas the height of a bhavana was a little less than its width.82 35 31 The harem (anteura: oroha) which was a part of the royal pomp,3 played an important role in the inner and outer politics of the country. The king's harem consisted of three parts: jinna-anteura, nava-anteura and kanna-anteura. The first was inhabited by old women, whose youth had departed; in the second lived young ladies, who were in their bloom of youth; in the third lived the girls, who had not attained their primc of youth as yet. The kings were fond of enriching their harem with beautiful women and girls without any distinction of caste. At times they being unmindful of public opinion did not mind capturing even married girls and beautiful nuns. The Brhatkalpa Bhasya refcis to the five hundred girls, who during a festival of Indra went out to worship the deity. A prince also had gone out to enjoy the festival. The prince asked his servants to take away the girls to the harem and keep them there. Later on, when the parents of the girls lodged a complaint with the king, they were asked, "do you not want to make my son your 28 1, p. 28f The consecration ceremony is also described in the Mableruta Sine P. 1XL), Ramayana II. 3;6, 14; 15, IV, 20 20ff), and the Jutakas Palcagaru Jataka, I No 13. p. 170, Ayoghara Jataka, IV, No 510, p 492, when the subjects, headed by priests, came to see the prince with diverse kinds of auspicious articles; the whole city was decorated, courtuzans played and danced all round; priests, generals, merchants and citizens, provincials-all thronged at the palace and made a holiday; the town was decorated on a heavenly style, the prince was placed on a pile of jewels, he was sprinkled from the three conches and an umbrella with its festoons of gold was held over him. 80 Naya., 1. p 22; Uttara. Ti., 13, p 189. For similar description in the Jalakas, see P.BI, p. 107 f. 81 9 46f 81 Bhag. Ti., 5 7; Abhidhanarajendrakosa, under 'pasaya,' 83 Cf. A., 16, p 185 84 Nisi. Cu., 9. p 508, according to the Bandhuna mokkha Jaluku (1, 120, p. 437) a harem is said to have comprised of sixteen thousand dancing girls; also sec Arthasastra, pp. 39-11; also Ramayana, II, 10. 12f; iv., 33. 19ff.

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CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION 55 son-in-law?" and the girls were married to the prince. Similarly, a Brahmana girl named Soma was kept in the harem of Kanha Vasudeva to be married to his younger brother Gayasukumala. Later on, however, Gayasukumala did not marry and joined the monastic order of Aritthanemi.38 The king even did not hesitate to lay hands upon the married women. The commentary on the Kalpa sutra mentions king Sumukha of Kosambi, who kept Vanamala the wife of Viraka in his harem 37 Then we hear of king Vikkamajasa of Kancanapura, who made the wife of a merchant his queen. The merchant was much grieved, he turned mad and died.88 Further, the Nisitha Curni mentions king Gaddabhilla of Ujjeni who captured the nun-sister of Kalaka and kept her in his harcm Later on, however, in order to take revenge on him, Kalaka left for Persia from where he brought ninety six kings and waged war against Gaddabhilla.99 The harem was a great source of danger to the king and was, therefore, carefully guarded by eunuchs40 and old men The eunuchs arc mentioned in the Brhatkalpa sutra and its Bhasya. They were excluded from the membership of the Jain Sramana Sangha. About the eunuchs it is said that their nature was womanish, their voice and colour were those of a woman, their penis was long and drooping, their speech was soft, and they passed urine with noise and it was foamy. They walked with a womanish gait looking to the right and the left and behind; they were soft skinned and their bodies were cold to the touch. The Vivagasuya mentions a eunuch who was brought up by his parents to carry on the profession of a eunuch.42 The Jain texts mention the following guards to keep watch over the inmates of the harcm 43 I A kanchukin or chamberlain had a free access to the king as well as the inmates of the harcm.4 He gave reports of the happenings in the harem to the king 45 35 4 5153 33 Anta, 3, p 16f 37 2, p 40a, also Das Cu, 3, p 105 83 Uttara Ti, 18 p 239, the Mancora Jalaka (II, No 194) describes a similar story of a king, who, seeing the beauty of Bodhisattva's wife, got enamoured of her The king sent a man, who placed a jewelled crest in his cart The loyal officers declared lum to be a thief and took him to the cxccution ground, also Dhammapada A. II, 20 30 10 P 571 40 According to Vatsyayana, no man was allowed to enter into the royal harem except relatives and servants and in some provinces artisans, Brahmanas were allowed to get into the harem for supplying flowers to the ladies, with whom they conversed separated by a screen, Chakladir, Studies in the Kamasutra, p 179 41 4 4, 4 5144 f Fourteen classes of eunuchs are distinguished here They are Pandaya, Varya, hina, Kumbh Isiluya. Saunt, Takkammasi, Pakhay ipakkhuya, Sogandhiya ard Asuita (ibid, 5166 f, also Bhi, 3 23, also cf Narada, XII, 11 ff) On cunuchs see Kathasaritsagara, Vol III, Appendix "Indian Eunuchs," pp. 319 329 42 2, p 19 48 Kautilya also speaks of the employment of old women and cunuchs in the harcm, Arthavastra, p 40. 44 Nisi Cu, 9, p 508, according to Vacaspati, a kaucukin has a free access in the harem, he is old, Brahmana by caste, virtuous and clever in every thing (Abhidhanarajendrakosa, under 'kancuki'). 45 Raya. Su., T., 210 *

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LIFE IN ANCIENT ENDLA 2. A varisadhara was another guard of the harem. It is said that his testicles were removed by surgical operation (vaddhia) since childhood. 48 3 A mahattara was an executive officer of the harem. He took the ladies of the harem to the king, told them stories after their menstruation bath, pacified their anger and reported the cause of the anger to the king.47 4 A dandadhara carried a staff in his hand and kept a watch over the harem 48 5 A dandarakkhiya, with the permission of the king took a man er a woman into the harem.48 6 A dovariya sat at the entrance of the harem with a staff in his hand.50 It is to be noted, however, that inspite of the strictest precautions, the women of the harem were often corrupt and immoral to a degree, and such affairs had scrious repurcussions on the affairs of the state. We come across ministers who had illicit connections with the queens.52 By bribing the servants the merchants could get entry into the harem. We are told that king Gunacandra of Srinilayanagara punished a merchant for such an offence.52 We are told that when king Seniya of Rayagiha could not get Sujettha in marriage, he sent Abhayakumara to Vesali, who began to live near the royal harem, in the disguise of a merchant. There he established contact with the maid-servants of the harem and managed to kidnap Cellana.58 Then we are told that all inmates of king Pajjoya's harem except Siva were violated by Mahissara.54 The Byhatkalpa Bhasya refers to the girls of the king's harem who used to talk with outsiders from the windows; one day they escaped with their loyers unnoticed. The prohibition of the monkeys in the harem also shows that the king used to take every precaution to guard the chastity of the inmates of the harem.56 46 Bth Bhi , 4 5167, Nusi, cu, 9. PP 508, 729, Raya Su, Ti., 210. The other methods of making impotent were rubbing the lesticles with thumb, the fore-finger and the middle finger and making them ineffective by medicine (appiya), Brh Bha , 4 5167 41 Nuss cu, p 508, kancukiva and mahallanka are mentioned by Vatsyayana, who were employed in the harems of kings They were employed by the queens in sending messages accompanied by various presents to the king , Chakladar, Studies in the Kamasutra, p. 109 48 Abhidlvinarajendrakosa, under dandadhara' 49 Ibud under dandarakkhiya' 50 Ova , 7 p. 25 According to the Matanga fataka (IV, No. 497, p. 382), the duty of a dovaniya was to thrash candalas or similar vagabonds who wanted to peep at the palace, with sticks or bamboo posts, catch them by the throat and fling them on the ground. 61 See Viva, 6 P 35 In thc Jalakas a minister guilty of misconduct in the harem, 19 asked to leave the town He migrates to Kosala and becomes a confidential advisor of the Kosalan king when he instigales border raids and a regular invasion against his old master (Ghala fataka, No 355, III, P 168 , also Mahisilava Jataka, No. 51, I, P 262). 67 Pinda Nir Ti, 127, P 48 a 68 Ava cu, II, 165 f. 14 abd , II, p 176. 66 1. 991 f. 50 brd., 5. 5928.

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CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION CO-WIVES Therc were jealousies and rivalries among the co-wives in the harcm and so the harem had its own internal politics. The Viva gasuya refers to king Mahasena of Supaittha, who had one thousand queens. The prince Sihasena is said to have married five hundred girls, of whom Sama was the chief and the prince's favourite. The prince Sihasena who had become a king now, was so fond of Sama that he neither cared for nor took any notice of the other queens. When the mothers of the neglected queens came to learn of the unhappiness of their daughters they plotted among themselves to put qucen Sama to death. When the king came to know of this he caused to be built a great mansion and issued invitations to the mothers of the neglected queens. After sometime the king shut all its doors and set fire to it.57 Then we read about Revai, who was the chief among the thirteen wives of Mahasayaya of Rayagiha. She could not enjoy fully the company of her husband owing to her twelve co-wives. So she is said to have disposed of six of them by means of weapons and the rest by means of poison. The commentary on the Uttaradhyayana mentions king Jiyasattu of Khiipaitthiya, who married a painter's girl named Kanayamanjari. The king had many other queens and he visited them by turns. Once it was the turn of Kanayamanjari who told him nice stories, and dctained him for six months. The king was very much pleased with her and exclusively devoting himself to the pleasure of love with her alone, he passed the time. Upon this her co-wives became enraged against Kanayamanjari and sought for an opportunity to take revenge on her. One day the Co-wives made a complaint to the king against Kapayamanjari saying that she was working some evil spell against him. The king made inquiries and he was pleased with the prudence of his beloved. The king made her the mistress of the whole kingdom and invested her with a frontlet (patta). Very often thc queens were jealous of the sons of their co-wives. When king Gunacanda, after the death of his father, came to the throne of Sakcta, his step-mother felt suspicious of him and sent him a poisonsmearcd sweet-meat ball (moyaga) to cat. At that time Gunacandra's two step-brothers also were present there. He divided the moyaga in two and gave cach of them. Soon after eating this thc boys werc affected by poison and thc physicians were called for treatment. Then we hear of the jealous step-mother of Kunala who caused his step-son's eyes to be put out by her strategem. We also comc across instances when a king was poisoned by his own quccn. We are told that when 67 p. 51 f. 58 Ura., 8, p. 62. $0 p. 141 a f,cf. also Supata Jasaka (No. 300), III, p. 21. 60 Ava, cu, p. 402 o Brh. Bhi., 1. 3275.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA king Paesi of Seyaviya embraced the Jain faith, he did not attend to state affairs attentively. Thereupon his quecn Sui iyakanta is said to have poisoned him and established her son on the throne. 62 TL KINGS OFFICERS THE CROWN-PRINCE OR YUVARAJ.1 Next to the king stood the crown-prince who was the brother or son or kinsman of the king. He was also known as Isara (Isvara) and possessed eight virtues such as animd, mahimd, etc. After finishing his daily duties, he went to the assembly and attended the affairs of government. A crown-prince was supposed to be efficient in seventy two arts, eighteen provincial languages, music, dancing, and the art of fighting on horseback, elephant and chariot.8 - PUROHITA " Like the crown-prince, purohita or the king's adviser in matters religious and secular as well, finds an important place in tlic king's assembly. He is enumerated along with the most important officers of administration and is counted among the seven jewels. The Viagasuya mentions the priest Mahesaradatta of king jiyasattu, who performed sacrifice in order to avert the king's misfortunes. Sometimes the priest acted as a witch-doctor. It is said that when the king was engaged in some battle, the purohita, captured eight hundred boys from the four communities, viz., Bambhana, Khattiya, Vaissa and Sudda and performed sacrifice (santihoma) with the flesh of their hearts (hiyaundaya) 01 Raya Sa., 203 f ; Kautilya gives some traditional names of quccns who had con spired against their husbands and whuch had cost them their lives. Kautilya asks the king to guard himself from his queens. Armed women generally guarded palace and the king entered it if he was personally satisfied of the queen's purity Hence it was necessary to wcan her from the undue influence of ascetics, buffoons and public women , Arthasastra, p. 40. 1 Anu. Cu., p. ll. Vya. Bho., 1, p. 120. & Ova. Su., 40, pp. 186 ff, the crown-princc is mentioned as one of the eighteen tarthas in ancient Hindu literature. He was the right hand, right eye and right car to the king. Dikshitar, HA.I., pp. 106, 109 f.; also cf. the Kurudhanuna Jalaka (II, No 276, P 374) where the crown-prince is supposed to wait every evening on the king and receive the greetings of the people. * Tha., 7.558, cf. Milindapantha (p. 114), which mentions sena palt, purohita, ahlhadassa, Bhandagarika, chaltagahaka and khaggagahaka as six important officers of the king. 65. p. 33, the Dhonasakha Fataka (III, No. 858, p. 150), refers to an ambitious purohula who helps the king through a sacrificial ceremony to acquire a city which is difficult to conquer. He proposes to his lord to pluck out the eyes of the thousand captured kings, to rip up their bellies, take out the entrails and give a balz-offering to a god, see also Fick, op. cit., ch. V, The House Priest of the King."

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CENTRAL ADMINITRATION 59 THE ROYAL COUNCIL AND THE MINISTER The parishad or Council is an important limb of the central organisation and its origin can be traced to a very early period. The Jain texts describe five kinds of Council of a king : puranti, chattanti, buddhi, mantri and rahassiya. It is said that when the king went on tour, all the officials attended on him till he returned ; this council of officials was called purantr. The members of the chattanz council had the privilege of holding the umbrella over the king and were permitted to go up to the outer assembly hall The buddh parisat consisted of members who were well-verscd in gcncral customs (loka), the Vedas and the scriptures (samaya). Various rumours and off-hand remarks current among the people were brought to their notice The fourth council was the council of ministers. They were well-versed in politics (rayasattha), were born in the family with no royal connections (atakkuliya), were sincere, old in age and bold; the king counsellcd with them in a secrct place. The last council was known as rahasstyd. The members of this council pacified the angry qucen, carried the news of the dates of the purificatory bath after monthly course of various queens; they also informed the king the names of his daughters who were eligible for marriage. They also informed him of the love-affairs of the queen and also talked with the king in private on various topics pertaining to his sexual life. The mantri parisat was an organised council of ministers who were concerned with the political affairs of the realm. It is said that a minister should always think of his country, city and the master and he should be efficient in law and administration. A minister or amatya had power to punish even a king, and we comc across instances, although rare, when the ministers dismissed a king and appointed another king in his place. We are told that king Jiyasattu of Vasantapura loved his qucen Sukumaliya excessivcly and as a result of this he neglected the affairs of the state Onc day the ministers assembled togsther and after banishing the king and the queen put the prince on the throne & In order to protcct the realm from internal disturbances and the invasion of the enemy, a ministci is said to have employed a number of spies such as sucakas, anusucakas, pralisticakas and saivasucakas, who supplicct him all sorts of secret information The sucakas made friendship with thc harcm officers and found out intcinal secrets of the harcm; the anus ucakas were employed to detect the foreign spies in the city; the pralisucakas sat on the city gate apparently doing some menial work; the sarvasucakas gathered information through their assistants and reported it to the amdlya Thicse spics were both males and females and they worked in frontier territories, their own country, cities and the royal harem. The ministers were 8 Brh Bha Pi , 378 383 1 Vya Bhi , 1, pp 129f 8 Ava cu, p 534 , for similar references see Saccamkira Jataka (I, No 73), P 328" * Vya. Bha, 1, p 130a f According to the Malabhurata (Santi p LXviir, 8-12, the omployment and direction of spics 19 one of the prime duties of the king They are to be set in uities provinces, and the territoies of feudatories, also see Arthasastra, pp. 17-PR 18.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA helpful in attaining the objective of defeating the enemy by diplomatic machination. Their feigned dismissal was made and they were allowed to join the services of the opponent. We hear of the minister of Salivahana of Paitthana, who joined the king Nahavahana as a minister and after exhausting his whole treasury informed his master, who invaded the enemy and captured his kingdom. Besides, there were other officers such as chieftains (ganandyaga), head police officers (dandandyaga), knights (talavara),11 heads of families kodumbiya), the head of a mercantile guild (setth) generals (senavar) and frontier guards (sandhizala), who formed an assembly of king's officers, 10 Ava cu , II, pp 200 f; cf. the minister Vassakara in Buddhist literature by whose tactful machination the unity of the Vajian confederacy was broken (Com on the Digha , H, pp. 522 f) They were invested with a palfa given by the king , they possessed the same status as th king, the only difference was that they were without chowries, They are invested with a golden paffa inscribed with the image of god 1 Ray Si., Ti.p 313; 148, P 285 ; Nisi.ci., 9, P 506, Brh. Bha. V1 , 3 3767, Kalpa.

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CHAPTER N FISCAL ADMINISTRATION SOURCES OF REVENUE Revenue and taxation were the chief support of the State. Revenue in ancient India was derived partly from taxation and partly from sources other than taxation. The Vyavahdra Bhdsya mentions one-sixth of the produce as legal tax, but it seems that it varied according to the amount of the produce, the cost of cultivation, the condition of the market and the nature of the soil. The commentary on the Pinda Niryukh speaks 01 a house-tax and mentions that a king should collect two drammas every year from each house. (The Nisitha curai refers to a merchant who had twenty vessels, and he gave one as a royal tax. COMMERCE Commerce was the largest contribution only next to that of land revenue. Taxes on commerce and industry were imposed in consideration of the difficulty or otherwise of purchase and sale of goods by merchants, their standard of life, family expenses and incidental charges on intermediaries and labour. The taxes were imposed by the king and it depended on him whether to levy taxes from a merchant or not. The Nayadhammakaha refers to the sea-faring merchants of Campa who visited the king of Mihila with the precious gift of a pair of ear-rings. The king was much pleased to receive the gifts and exempted the merchants from the tax. Then we hear of the merchant Ayala who returned from Parasaula with a huge amount of wealth. He visited the ruler of Bennayada with a plate (thala) full of silver, gold and pearls and was exempted from tax. OTHER SOURCES OF INCOME There were various other sources of income to the State. Eighteen kinds of taxes are mentioned in the Jain texts : --taxes from cows (go), buffaloes (mahisa), camels (utti), cattle (pasu), goats (chagali), grass (tana), palala grass (puval in Hindi), chaff (busa), wood (kattha) coal (angara), plough (siya), threshold (umbara, com. dehali)," pasture-ground (jangha or janga), bullocks (balivadda), carthen pots (ghaya) hides and skins (camma), 11. p 128a. * Gautama (X 24) speaks of three different rates, one-tenth, one eighth and one-pixtb, to be taken from the land , sec also Manu, VII, 130 ff. 3 87. p. 32a $ 20. 1281. 8 8. p. 102. 8 Uttara. Ti., 3. p. 64 7 This tax is also mentioned in the Bph. Bha., $ 4770.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA food (cullaga) and any other tax imposed by will (uppatti, com. svecchaydkalbita). The tax collectors (sunkapala) are mentioned. Besides. there were other sources of income to the Statc. The Nayadhammakaha mentions a jeweller of Rayagiha who wanted to build a lake in the town. He visited the king with precious gifts and got his permission to do so.10 Then we hear of a goldsmith Kumaranandi of Campa, who wanted to go to the island of Pancasela. He visited the king with a precious gift of gold and got his sanction for making an announcement to that effect." Unclaimed property and treasure-trove were other sources of income to the king. We are told of the king Vijayasena of Candrakanta, who. hoaring the death of a certain merchant, deputed his officers and took possession of his property." The Nisitha curni refers to a certain king who punished a certain merchant and confiscated the treasure-trove which he had discovered. The same king is said to have honoured a Brahmana who discovered a similar treasure-trove. Fines and forfeitures formed another plentiful source of income. The commentary on the Brhatkalpa Bhasya refers to an imposition of a fine of eighty thousand rupakas on one who raised his sword or any other weapon to kill another person. However, if a person attacked did not die of the stroke, the amount of fime varied from country to country. In Anandapura, for Example; for such an offence a person had to pay a sum of rupees five only, for a serious quarrel, however, a sum of rupees twelve and a half was fined." ASSESSMENT AND COLLECTION * Unfortunately, we have very little information regarding the administration of land-revenue and taxation and the different grades of officials connected with this work. The Kalpa sutra refers to the najjuyasabha, which belonged to the king Hatthivala of Pava, where Lord Mahavira passed the last few days of his life and attained salvation A rajjuya was a survey-minister, who measured a janapada field by holding one end of the rope tied to a stick, the other end being held by the owner of the field, and is identical with the raijugahaka amacca of the Jalahas and the rajuka o Asokan Edicts. No other officials are mentioned. & Ava. Nir., 1071 f. (Hari.) ; also Com. by Malayagiri, p 596. The Brahmanic literatuu laentions the taxes from the office of State goldsmith, the institution of prostitutes, buldung sites, guilds of artisans, handicrafts, religious and charitable endowments, water tax, mcome tax, flowers, fruits and vegetable gardens, game forels, timber and elephant forests, ficats of.cattle, asses) camels, horses, hides and skins, etc., Dikshitar, op. cit., p. 176. * Utard. TI., 3. p. 71. 10 13, p. 142. 11 Uttard. Ti., 18. p. 25la. 11 Kalpa TI., 1. p. 7, cf ; Vinaya, 111, 11, 21; Avadana Sataka, 1, 3, p. 13; also Mayhaka Jataka (No. 390), III, p. 299 f. 15 20. p. 1281. Cf.Gautama, X. 44; rajnaralkya Smrit (II, 2.34 f), Manu, VII, 133 14 4. 5104. Kurudhamma Jataka (II, No, 276) ; Fick, op. at., pp. 148-162, P.B.I., pp. 142-44.

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63 FISCAL ADMINISTRATION About the collection of taxes it may be mentioned that the collectors were very oppresive to the poor-folk. We are told of a king who invaded another king for non-payment of taxes (kappaka).16 The Vivaga. suya refers to a district-officer (atthakuda) named Ikkai who harassed the people of five hundred villages under his jurisdiction by means of various taxes (kara), custom duties (bhara), interest, bribc, insult, compulsory contribution (dejja), punitive taxes (bhejja), extortion of money at the point of the sword, by giving shelter to thieves, by setting fire and waylaying the travellers." The Brhatkalpa Bhasya refers to the king of Soparaya who demanded tax from the merchants (negama). They refused to pay and the king ordered his tax-collectors to burn down their houses.18 18 Ava tu, II, p 190 17 1. p 6 f. 18 1. 2506f In the Jatakas the tax collectors are mentioned as hungry robber training the poor earnings of the cultivator. We come across references when the subject op pressed by taxation took their wives and families and wandered in the forest like wild bents where once stood villages, there now were none, and the people through the fear of the king's officers by day did not venture to dwell in the houses but fencing them about with thorn branches, as son aso the day broke, they disappeared into the forest (Fick, op. cit., p. 120deg7.).

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CHAPTER M ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE JUDICIARY AND JUSTICE In the ancient books of the Hindus it is repeatedly emphasised that a judge should deliver his judgment free from any prejudice, dispassionately and impartially. In the Jatakas it is said that punishment should bc awarded with carcful measure to the nature and degree of the offence committed. The Vyavahdia Bhasya refers to a judge called upajakkha (rubudakkha in Pali), who is described as well-versed in Bhambhiya, Asurukkha, Nitisastra of Mathara and Dandaniti of Kaundinya, who never accepted any bribe and did not show favour to any one while pronouncing his judgment. However, it should be noted that too much importance cannot be attached to ideals of justice preached in ancient India, and from what we gather from various stories we come to the conclusion that the judicial arrangements were not sound and efficient, but corrupt and oppressive to a degree. The kings were suspicious by nature and most severe punishments were inflicted on those who gave rise to the slightest mistrust in their mind. Very often an innocent person was arrested on a charge of robbery and brought before the court, whereas the offender was set at liberty. CASES The term used for a law-suit in our texts is 'vavahdra' Theft and robbery seem to have been most ordinary cases that came before the court for adjudication, but other cases were also not less in number. i C, Macchakafika, Act IX, pp 256 f. 1 Cf. Rathalafthi Jataka (No. 332), III, p 105 The commentary on the Digha, II, p 519 gives an account of the administration of justice in Vesali. When a criminal was brought before the rulers of the Vajjis, at first he was made over to the Vinicchayamahamallas, who set him free if he was innocent, otherwise made him over to the Vohankas Then the Vohirikas made him over to the Sulladharas, if guilty, then to the Atthakulas, then to the Senopati, then to the Ubardjan and finally to the Rajan. The Rijan then investigated the case and set the accused free if he held him innocent, otherwise pronounced the judgment in accordance with the 'Pavenspotthaka,' the 'Book of Customs.' Ambkirya and Asurya are mentioned in the Lalitavistara (p. 150). +1, p 132 ; cf rapadakkha in Milindapanha, p 344. s cf. Ullara. Si., 9. 30, also see Faiaka (IV, p 28 1 ), where an ascetic suspected of robbery at night 19, after being reviled and beaten by the owners of the house, carried into the presence of the king and was impaled Similarly, Carudalta of Mrcchakalika was charged with the murder of a woman and theft of her jewels though no confession of crime was elicited from him, ... The topics which give rise to law-suits are grouped by Manu (VIII, 4-7) under eighteen titles, namely: (1) recovery of debts, (2) deposit and pledge, (3) sale without ownership, (4) concoins among partners, (5) resumption of gifts, (6) non-payment of wages, (7) non-periormance of agreements, (8) rescission of sale and purchase, (9) disputes between owners of cattle and herdsmen, (10) disputes regarding boundaries, (11) assault, (12) delamation, (13) theft, (14) robbery and violence, (16) adultery, (16) duties of man and wife, (17) inherilance and particion, (18) gambling and betong.

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ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 65 We are told of a simple villager, who was going to trade with his bullockcart loaded with corn and a partridge-cage tied to it. On his way he met some perfumers who cnquired whether he wanted to sell his 'partridge-cage tied to the cart' (sagada-tiltiri) which could also mean the cart as well as the partridge. The simpleton replied in the affirmative The perfumers paid him a kahavana and taking his bullockcart as well as the partridge made off The poor villager went to the court, but lost his case. After sometime the villager visited the perfumers with his bullocks in exchange of two palis of satlu provided their mother came to him nicely dressed and decked with ornaments with the offer The perfumers agreed to the proposals and their mother approached the villager as desired by him The villager succeeded in his strategcm anl holding the woman by hand departed In the mcantimc the pcoplc gathered thcrc, and they heard the whole story. The villager got his bullock-cart back and allowed the woman to go." Then we hcar of a murder case Kappaka, who was a Brahmana by caste, once murdered a washerman and in wrath dyed his clothes with the latter's blood. The guild of the washerman (senz) went to the court (1ajakula), but sccing Kappaka thcrc conversing with the king, came home 8 Sometimes cvcn for ordinary offences complaints were lodged with the king. We arc told about a man of Lata, who took away the umbrclla of a Maharastrian. The latter sued the former in the court, but he lost the case. Then we hear of a quarrel between Karakandu and a Brahmana over a staff (danda). Karakandu pleaded before the judges (karanthas) that since that bamboo staff had grown in his cemetry, it belonged to him, the judges pronounced their judgments in favour of Karanqlu 10 Sometimes cvcn thc Jain monks had to appcar in the Law-Court We arc told that when Vana was six months old he was taken by the Jain monks for ordination In course of tinic, the mother of the child filed a suit in the court against the monks The king sat to the cast, the Jain Sangha to the south and thc i elatives and sends of Vaira on the left of the king The whole town was on the side of the plaintiff The mother tempted the child by showing various toys but the child would not comc to her. The father of Vaira, who had taken to ascetic life, and who belonged to the opposite party, callcd out his child and asked him to tako up the rajoharana and the child ohcyed The mother lost the case and the child was given to the monks 11 At tinics the Jain monks visited the king and complained against the prostitutcs, who tresspassed on their residence with the intention of distracting and scducing them 12 ? Das cu, p 58 , Pasu, p 57 , also cf Ira ci, p 119 8 Ava cu , II, p 181 f 9 Vya Bha 3 345 f, p 69. 10 Uttara T1,9, p 134, 11 Ava.cu ,p 391 f. 11 Brh Bha, 4. 4923-25, also sce Uttara., 3, p. 72 a.

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66 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA False testimony (kudasakkha) and falsification of documents (kudalehakarana) were common.18 II CRIME AND PUNISHMENT ROBBERY Various kinds of offences are mentioned in the Jain texts, amongst which robbery, adultery murder and non-execution of the king's order are the chief. Robbery was considered a regular art (vyja) in ancient India,14 Various types of thieves are mentioned thieves (amosa), robbers (lomahara), cut-purses (ganthibheya) and burglars (takkara) The Jain canons describe a number of robbers of fame, who resided well-guarded in the robber-settlements known as corapalli. The Vivagasuya gives a graphic description of a corapalle known as Saladavi situated in the north of Purimatala in a forest. The corapalli was located in an unapproachable mountain-ravine; it was further guarded by a wall and bamboo-hedges (vamsijali) and surrounded by a trench (phariha) formed by inaccessible water-falls (pavara) of the mountain It had one gate but there were many secret passages and it had its own water supply.10 Sihaguha is mentioned as another corapalli in Rayagiha.17 The claborate description of the robbers given in Jain canons1s shows that they were very powerful and it was difficult even for the king to suppress them There were regular fights between the king's army and the robbers which sometimes resulted in the defeat of the former The robbers carried off the cows, horses, maid-servants, children,20 even nuns,21 and set fire to the villages, towns, houses and forests They destroyed the ships, extracted money at the point of the sword, made 19 18 Uru, p 10, also nots, p 215, A.a Si, (Hari ), p 820 14 Science of larceny is ascribed to various authors headed by Skanda, Kanakasakti, Bhaskaranandi and Yogacaya Ilucves were also called Skandaputra Compaic Gicuian Mercury and St Nicholas of England 1 his God was the patron deity of thieves. Radhi Govind Basaka, IHQ, V, 1929 pp 312 ff, also see Kathasaritsigara (Vol II, pp 183 41, note on 'Stealing Muladeva is considered as the arch-thief of Hindu fiction, whom Bloomfield identifies with Karnisuta, Goniputraka, Gonikaputra or Gonikasuta He is supposed to have written a famous manual of thieving entitled Steyashstrap avartaka' or Steyavitraprava taka Muladeva is also mentioned in the com on the Digha (I, 89), also see Dr A N Upadhye's Dhurlukhyuna, A critical Study, p 23 and note. 15 Uttara Su, 9 28 foi seven types of robbers and eighteen ways of encouraging robbery, see Panha Ti 3, p 58, cf the types of coras in the Buddhist literature, Law, India Described, pp 172 f 16 3, p 20 17 Naya, 18, p 200 18 Panha, 3, pp 43a ff 18 Cf also Mahabhi, I, 233, 5 T 30 See Uttaru cu, p 174, cf also Mrcchakatika (IV, 6) which refers to children being robbel a vay from the lap of the nurses 1 Cf Vya. Blu., 7, p 71a, Brh Bha., 6 6275,

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ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 1991 forcible entry into the residence of monks and threatened them with death.28 Thc thieves were expert in making brcaches in the wall. Various types of the brcaches of the wall are mentioned, uiz , the bicach of thc shape of a cornice (kavisisa), jar (kalasa), fish (nandiratta)," lotus and a human being It is stated that once a burglar was caught in the breach he had cxcavated, by the owner of the house who took hold of his feet protruding from the breach. But the burglar's companions dragged him out from the other side of the wall Caught in this position he was smashed by the cornice coming down * The robbers came out at night and at times lived on half-burnt corpses, flesh of wild animals and roots.25 The Vivagasuya describes Vijaya of Saladavi who was the ling-leader of the robbers who aimed at the objcct on hearing its sound (saddavehi) and was the foremost warrior in wielding the sword He gaye shelter to adulterers, pick-pockets, thieves and many other undesirable persons. He raided towns and villages, lifted cattle, took captives, waylaid travellers, terroriscd pcople by breaking open their walls, tortured them, destroyed thcir property and cxtracted money from them by force * Then we hear of Cilaya, a slave-boy (dasaceda) of Dhanna of Rayagilia. Being dismissed by his master from service he approached Vijaya, the leader of five hundred robbers of Sihaguha and joined his gang. The leader of the robbers appointed him as his body-guard with a sword in his hand (asilatthiggaha). Vijaya taught him various spells (vija) and incantations (manta) ctc, in connection with the art of larceny In course of time, Vijaya dicd and Culaya was appointed in his place. Oncc Cilaya proposed to commit a dacoity in the house of Dhanna. The robbers got rcady cquipped thicmschies well with swords, bows, arrows and valious other weapons and marched towards Rayagiha, amidst thc bcating of drums, to invest the housc of Dhanna Thc robbers reached the city-gatc , their ring-lcader rccited the spell which could open thc locks (uilugghidanivic),27 took out water from his water bag (udagabatthi) and sprinkled it orci thc doo15 Thc doors wcic opened and Cilaya, along with his party i ushed into the city. He challenged the citizens to stop him and along with huge amount of wcalth, carried off Sumsumna, the daughter of Dhanna to thic forcst 28 The commentary on the Uttaridhyayana mentions another robber Mandiya by namc Mandiya tied a bandage round his kncc and pretended that he was suffering from a festciing boil (cut thagama). He worked as a tailor (lunnia) during the day timc and robbed the people 2 Brh Bla, 3 3903 , also cf Cond Sulta in thc Ingultara, IV, p 339 23 Nandiyavallu is the naine of a hugc fish (thc com. on the Anguliara (5.II.B ), I, p. 205 after Malalasekara, op cit, II, p 29 ) 24 Ullara. T7, , P 804 f. 25 Panha , 3, p. 45a 26 3, p. 20, also Naya , 18, p. 208 f. 21 Thieves also carried agnieyakila to extinguish the lamps ; Radha Govind Basaka I.M.2 Vol. V, 1929, p. 313, see Dasakumaracanta, p. 77, Kale, Bonabay, 1928. 28 Naya., 18, p. 209 ff.

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68 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA at night. The robber had an underground cell and whatever wealth he brought was kept in this cell. The robber also had a sister. It was the practice of the robber to get the stolen property carried by a man, who was seated near the well built in the middle of the underground cell and his sister under the pretext of washing his feet, hurled him into the well where he died. When Muladeva was appointed as sovereign of Bennayada, he tried to catch the robber but could not succeed. Once Muladeva (clad in the dress of a Karparka) hid himself at a certain place at night. Mandiya passed that way and promised Muladeva to make him rich. Muladeva was made to carry the stolen goods. But while washing the feet of Muladeva, Mandiya's sister made him a sign to flee away and Muladeva escaped Later on, Muladeva married Mandiya's sister and impaled the robber.20 Punishments for robbery were of various kinds, amongst which imprisonment, mutilation and death penalty were the chief. We are told that when the robber Vijaya carried off the daughter of the merchant Dhanna, the latter approached the city police (naganaguttiya) with large presents and lodged a complaint The police officers, clad in mail coats, duly armed with bow, arms and weapons, started in search of the robber. They reached an old garden and discovered the corpse of the girl in a well. Following the foot-marks of the robber the police reached the maluka thicket and put the robber under ariest They showered blows on him with fists, elbows, knees and sticks, tied his hands behind his neck, suspended the ornaments of the deceased girl on his neck and brought him to the town They marched him on the roads beating him with thong, canc and whip (kasa-laya-chuva), throwing over him ashes, dust and filth proclaiming to the citizens his crime of murdering the child. They then put him into prison where his fcct were tied in a wooden frame (hadibandhana), deprived him of food and drink and beat him with lashes thrice a day. The robber died in course of time Then we hear another robber-chief named Abhaggascna of Purimatala. The king of Purimatala raided the 10bber-settlement with a huge army but before the king's army reached the settlement, Abhaggasena was informed by his spies about the intended attack He marched against the enemy and routed his army. After some time the king decided to win over the robber by conciliation (sama) and by creating confidence in him. He declared a ten days' festival in the town in which Abhaggasena was invited along with his friends and relatives He was entertained by the king lavishly and one day when the robber was engrossed in merry-making he was put under arrest and was executed We are told about a certain priest, who robbed the purse of a mei chant containing lone thousand (sahasso naulo) The merchant demanded the purse but 30 20 4, p. 94a f, also cf Bhuyangama cora (Uttara Ti, 4, pp 87 ff), Rauhneya cora (Vya. Bha., 2. 304; also Yogasustra, com pp 116a ff by Hemacandra, J.A.O S, Vol 44, 1-10, article by H. M. Johnson, also cf. Yajnavalkyasmrti, II, 23. 273. 80 Naya., 2, pp. 53 f. 81 Viva., 3, pp. 24 f.

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ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 69 the priest would not return it. At last the merchant sued in the court and the priest lost the case. The king ordered the pricst cither to be given ond huulrud lashes or to swallow human cxcrcta (gu). The culprit prcfcrred the former But after rccciving a few lashcs he was tired and he prcfcired to talkc excrcta. After taking it a littlc he refused to take any more and he asked for the lashes again Thus the culprit had to undergo both punishments and his whole property was confiscatcd 82 Even women were punished for their offences although the severity of punishment to women-folk was not the same as thosc to mcn Pregnant women, for example, were exempted from torturous punishments We read of a certain girl who was banished by her parents. She got a job in the house of a wine-merchant The girl was pregnant and in order to fulfil her pregnancy-longing shc uscd to steal money from her master's shop One day she was caught and the merchant reported to the king, who handed over the girl to be cxecuted after delivery. After delivery however, the girl escaped and her son was brought up by thc king. 33 ADULTERY Like robbery, adultcry also was punished severely with death, imprisonment, mulitation and banishment. We are told that a person who committed adultery was censured and beaten, his head was shaved and his penis mutilated. Ujjhiya was a merchant's son of Vaniyagama who used to visit a courtesan named Kamajjhaya. It so happened that thic king also loved the same courtcsan. One day, finding Ujjluya in her house, the king turned him out and kept the courtcsan as his mistics After sumc time Ujjhiya succccdcd in visiting Kamaijhaya sccrctly Hc was caught and was belaboured by the loyal officers His hands were lightly bound behind his back, luis nose and cars wcie mutilated, luis body was besmcaied with oil, hc wore a pani of rough rags, round his neck was thrown a gailand of icd flowers, red dust was sprinkled over hus body, hic was made to cat the small picces of his flesh, his offencc being proclaimed at ci cry quuc with the beat of a broken drum and thus he was led away to the place of cxecution.p5 A similar story is told about Sagada, who secretly visited thc courtesan Sudainsana, a kccp of thc king's minister. Sagailu was charged with adultery and was brought beforc the king, who ordered him to be executed along with the courtesan Sagada was made to cmbracc a rcdhot iron image of a woman till lic died 36 Thon Baliassudatta, a minister of king Udayana, was impulcd for a similar offence along 39 Ala cu, 2, P 63 33 Gacchi Vr, 36 34 Nisi cu, 15, P 1002, Manu, VIII, 374 33 V 18 t l'or a similar description sec kanavira Talaha. III, No 318. Sulasd Jataka, III, (No 419), also cf. Tajriavalkyasmrti (III, 5, 2321), Manu, VIII, 372 f. 86 V123., 4, p. 31.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA with the queen.37 Similarly, a merchant of grinilayanagara is said to have been ordered to be exccuted for an offence of living in adultci y with the queens of the harcm. In this case it is said that not only the offender but even his friends and admirers were put to death 28 Then the commentary on the Uttaradhyayana refers to two brothers, named Kamatha and Marubhui of Poyanapura The former lived in adultery with the latter's wife and was brought to the notice of the latter by the former's wife. Marubhui left his housc and rcturned after somctime in the disguise of a Karpatrka. He found his wife and his brother together and reported the matter to the king, who ordered Kamatha to be arrested, and accompanied with the music of harsh sounding drums with a garland of earthenwarc vessels sarava) around his neck, mounted on an ass, so he was led throughout the city and in thc end was banished from the town. It seems that the Brahmanas were awarded a lighter punishment for the same offence. We are told that a certain Brahmana committed adultery with his daughter-in-law and as a punishment he was asked to touch the four Vedas and that was considered enough to expiato his sin.41 MURDER Murder was another crime which was punished with the death penalty, public execution and fincs. We hear of the princc, Mandivaddhana of Mahura who wanted to kill his father and iulc over the kingdom. He employed a barber and asked him to cut his father's throat with the razor. The barber was frightened at the conspiracy and reported the matter to the king. The king ordered the prince to be executed publicly. He was led away by the police-officers to a square road where he was made to sit on a red-hot iron thronc and was sprinkled over with hot water, etc. The officers put a red-hot necklace around his neck, fastened a badge (patta) to his forehcad, and placed a crown on his head and thus he was executed." Even women were not spared and were severely punished. Devadatta, thc qucen of Pusanandi, was jealous of her mother-in-law, whom she killed with a red-hot iron staff (lohadanda). When Pusanandi came to know of this, he ordered Devadatta to be put under arrest by the policc-officers, her hands were tied to her back, her nose and ears were mutilated and she was impaled publicly. 48 87 Ibid, 5, p 33. 39 Pinda Nur, 127. 89 Even women were awarded this kind of punishment (Manu. VIII, 370). 40 23, p. 285 f crGahapali Jutaha( II, No 199), p 1311 41 Vya Bha. Pi, 17, p 10, cf Gautama, XII, 1, a sudra who intentionally reviles twiceborn men by criminal abuse or criminally assaults them with blows, shall be deprived of the lumb with which he offends, also VIII. 12 f. 37 Viva., 6, pp. 36-39. 48 Ibid, pp. 49, 55,

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ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE NON-EXECUTION OF THE KING'S ORDER Non-execution of the king's order was another offence which was dealt with very severely. Generally the king was an absolute monarch in those days, and as a rule it was absolutely necessary to carry out his orders It is said that the persons who disobeyed the king's commands werc thi own into salt (khai antaka) where within a very short time-its duration being calculated by the timc that was taken in milking a cowtheir bodics were icduced to skeletons 4 Four kinds of assemblies (parisa) are referred to in the Jain texts, vid, Khalliya, Gahavar, Mahana and Isa 45 IL is said that an offcncler from thc Khattiya assembly was punished with cutting off his hands or feet, he was beheaded, impaled, killed by one stoke of the sword and was thrown away. The offender from the Gakavar assembly was buint to death on a pile of bark, husk oi chaff, the offender fioni the Miihana assembly was taunted in disagrecable terms and was branded with a mark of a pot (kundiya) or a dog (sinaga) or was banished;40 and thic offender from the Isz assembly was admonished mildly 47 People giving 115c to the slightest degree of suspicion in the minds of the kings, wcrc pur shud heavily and often werc deprived of their life. We hear of Kappaya, the minister of Nanda, who was once preparing for the wedding fcast of his son The ex-minister of Nanda, who was a rival of Kappava, informed the king that Kappaya was making preparations to establish his son on the royal scat The king, without making much inquiry, is said to have ordered Kappaya and his wholc family to be cast into a well 48 The same plot was devised by Vararuci against his rival Sagadala, thic minister of the ninth Nanda When Sagadula came to know that he was suspected by the king and being anxious to prevent the run of his whole fainily, hc persuaded his son to put hum (Sagadla) to death 49 Canakya loo is said to have met the samc fate at the hands of his master IL 15 said that oncc Subandhu, who was jcalous of Canalya, approaclicd the king and reported that the latter had killed his (king's) mother 60 The king inquired of the maidscrvant, who confirmed the report Next day when Canakya visited his master, he did not receive him properly. Cunaky a felt that now his life was drawing to its closc. So being indiffercnt to woi Idly interests, 4+ Ici cu , p 38 V 143 Cf the eight assemblies in the Angultora, IV, P 307 10 Cr 1rthasastra, p 250, una allyasmiti, II, 23, 270 47 Riya , 184 48 dua cu , II p 182 40 Ibid, p 18+ 10 It is said once Duidhari, the queen of Candragupta, who was pregnant was dining with the king On Canaky a s orde the food of the king was mixed with very minute dozes - of poison so that the king may gam immunity from poison Now observing that the poison almost instantly killed the queen, Cinahid ripped open hei womb and extracted the child : Sthaviravali carita (8 377 411), of also Buddhist tradition about Bindusara, Malalasekara. op cit, Vol II, under 'Bindusara'

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72 he retired to the jungle to starve himself to death, and was consumed in the flames.$1 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Then we are told about Salivahana of Paitthana who once ordered his commander-in-chief to go and conquer Mahura. The commanderin-chief could not understand as to which Mahura was to be conquered, southern or northern He marched with his army and succeeded in conquering both. When the king learned of his victory, he felt extremely happy. At the same time he also got news of the birth of a son and the find of a treasure-trove The king's pleasure knew no bounds and in an excitement he started striking at his beds, pillars, buildings, etc Now, in order to bring the king back to his senses his minister started destroying the pillars, the furniture and the buildings of the palace himself and declared that it was the act of the king When the king heard of this he was seized with wrath and he ordered the minister to be executed However, the minister was concealed by the officers and was saved 62 we read almost a similar story about king Sankha of Varanasi, who, at some slight fault of his minister ordered his execution secretly.59 About Candragupta it is said that when he occupied the throne of Padaliputta, the Ksatriyas taking him to be a son of peacocktamers, did not obey his commands Candragupta was enraged at this and he ordered the whole village to be burnt to ashes.54 It seems that even for ordinary offences the kings did not hesitate to inflict severe punishments The commentary on the Uthadhyayana tells us that once during the time of the Indra festival, the king made a proclamation that the citizens should leave the town and go out to celebrate the festival. A pricst's son, unmindful of the king's order, remained in the house of a hailot; the king ordered him to be executed. The priest offered his whole property to save his son, but he could not save him from the gallows.55 On another occasion, king Ratnasekhara announced the celebration of moon-lit night (kaumudipiacara) and asked the citizens to leave the town in the company of their wives. The six sons of a layman did not care for the royal command and stayed at home. Later on, at the request of the layman, only one son was saved and the rest were executed.50 57 There are instances when the autocrat kings acted wantonly. It is said that king Kumbhaga of Mihila banished the guild of the goldsmiths simply because they could not repair lius ear-rings." A physician was put to death by a king simply because he could not cure the prince We are told that the prince Malladinna ordered a painter to be executed for no fault of his.59 58 Uttara T, 13, p 185a 56 Saya Ti., II, 7, p. 413. bu 51 Das. cu., p 81 f. In the Mahabodhi Jataka (v. 229 ff) we come across a king who stripped his five ministers of all their property, and disgracing them in various ways, by fastening their hair into five locks, by putting them into fetters and chains, and by sprinkling cowdung over them, he drove them out of his kingdom. 5 Brh Bha, 6 6241 6249 55 4, p 82 a. 5 Brh Bha, 1. 2489. 57 Naya, 8, p. 105. 59 Naya., 7, p. 107. 18 Brh Bha, 3. 3259 f.

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ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 73 The offenders were also sentenced to great humiliation as their relatives were ordered to live in the Candala settlement." Besides, the following types of punishments are mentioned specifically :-putting in irons (aduyabandhana), in fetters, in stocks (hadibandhana), into prison, screwing up hands and feet in a pair of shackles and breaking them, cutting off hands and feet, or ears or nose or lips or head or throat-glands (murazi), piercing the organ (veyagachahiya?), body (angachahrya), the sides, tearing out eyes, teeth, testicles, or tongue, hanging, brushing, whirling round, impaling, lacerating, pouring acids (in wounds), belabouring with a leather strap, twisting the organ like a lion's tail (suhapucchiya), like a bull's tail, burning in a wood fire and exposing the offender to be devoured by crows and vultures,64 PRISONS There were regular prisons in those days, although we do not know what kinds of offenders were imprisoned and for what period. But it seems that the general conditions of the prison were not good. The prisoners were severely tortured in the prison and frequently they died. The Vivagasuya gives a vivid description of a well-equipped prison in Sihapura. Dujjohana was the jailor who provided jails with various kinds of instruments of torture. There were a number of iron-jars filled with copper, tin, lead, -lime-water (kalakala) and oil cooked with alkaline ingredients (kharatella) always kept on fire. There were jars containing urine of various animals; handcuffs (hatthanduya), fetters (payanduya), wooden frames to fasten the feet (hadi), and iron chains ; various kinds of whips, stones, sticks, clubs, ropes, traps, swords, saws, razors, iron-nails, leather-straps, needles, hatchets, nail-cutters, and darbha grass The criminals were made to lie on their backs, their mouths were opened by means of an iron-staff, a red-hot copper ctc. and the urine was poured into their mouth; thcy were tortured by various instruments. The plight of the prisoners was miserable. They suffered from hunger, thirst, heat, cold, cough and leprosy. Theil na:ls, hair, 00 Ullara Tl., p 190a bi This is also nicntioned in the com on the Udana, p. 149. 83 This meaning is given in the Parjasaddamahannaio, p 1020, Jbhayadeva, however, gives a variant, 'zurkacchachinnaga' and renders as 'ullarusanganyayena udarilah' (Oru. Su , 38, p. 164) 88 Also refer to the commentary for explanation, 64 Saya II, 2 35, Oma Sa , 38, p 1627, Panha, 3,52a ff, also cf, Mlindapanha, p. 197, Mazhima, I, 87 65 According to Jain tradition during the first era the punishment was of a muld character. The first two Kulakaras established the 'hakkara' (expression of iegiet), then came "makkara (prohibition), then was established the punishment of 'dhukkara' (reproach)---dhigdanda and vagdanda are also mentioned in the 1 ajnavalkya smrti, I, 13, 307 Then it is said that Reabha. deva, the first Tirthnkara introduced the punishment of confinement to a particular are (mandalabandha) After that Bharata is said to have introduced caraka or imprisonment and chaviccheya or mutilation of hand, foot and nose etc (Fumbu, S'u., 2, 29; Tha., 7. 557). UB 6, pp. 36 ff.

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74 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA beard and moustaches were allowed to grow unattended; they lay in their own excrement and urine and died in prisons only. They were dragged by the feet and were thrown away in ditches where they were devoured by wolves, dogs, jackals, big rats (kola), cats, and birds.07 Another reference to prison is made in the Nayadhammakaha. It is mentioned that once for some slight fault, the merchant Dhanna of Rayagiha, referred to above, was arrested and was put into prison where the robber Vijaya was undergoing imprisonment. Both were put together and their feet were bound in the same wooden frame The wife of the merchant used to send her husband a sealed tiffin box (bhoyanapidaga) every day through her servant. Vijaya requested Dhanna to share his food with him but the latter always refused saying that as he had murdered his daughter he preferred giving it to crows and dogs or he would throw away on dung-hills but he would never share it with a murderer of his own child. Once Dhanna wanted to go to attend the call of nature. He asked Vijaya to accompany him to a place where he could be at ease. But Vijaya refused saying that he had taken plenty of food and drink and hence it was natural for him to go for excretion whereas he had nothing to eat. The merchant again requested the robber and ultimately agreed to share his food with him. In course of time, through the influence of his relatives and friends, and after paying money to the king, Dhanna was released from prison. He immediately left for a hair cutting saloon (alaukariyasabha), he bathed in a lake and having offered oblations (balikamma) tc the deities, he came home. The robber Vijaya, however, died in the prison and never came out,88 We are told about the imprisonment of king Seniya who was given hundred lashes every morning and evening ; neither food and drink was allowed, nor anybody was permitted to interview the king. Later on, his queen Cellana was allowed to see him, she concealed food in her hair and offered it to her husband.69 On certain special occasions, such as the birth of a child, coronation ceremony or festivals general release of prisoners was declared by the king. 67 Panha, 3, p. 34. 68 Nayu., 2, p 54 ff. Compare the Jataka where the life of the prisoner is described very hard The sad and miserable plight of a released prisoner is taken as a standard of comparison for a person who had not bathed for days together, nor rinsed his mouth nor performed any bodily ablution (PBI,P 159) 89 Ava cu, II, p. 171. 70 Cf, Nava, 1, p 20, cf. also Arthasastra, p. 165

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CHAPTER IV MILITARY ORGANISATION THE FOUR-FOLD ARMY As wars and frontier troubles were very common in those days, the state had necessarily to keep and maintain a well-equipped and organised military force always at its command. The four-fold army constituting chariots (raha), elephants (gaya), cavalry (haya) and infantry (payatta) played an important part in warfare in ancient India. CHARIOTS A chariot was a very important means of conveyance in olden days. Unfortunately, no details as to its construction are given in Jain literature. We are told that a chariot was equipped with umbrella, standards, bells, flags, ornamental arches (torana), a musical instrument (nandighosa) and with a net of small bells; it was made of tinisa wood growing in the Himalaya, decorated with many patterns and inlaid with gold! Its spokes and axles (dhura) were firm and its felly (nemi) was of iron. Excellent horses were yoked to it and it was provided with an accomplished charioteer. It was furnished with quivers each containing hundred arrows, armours, helmets, bows, and other weapons. Two varieties of chariots are mentioned, namely, yanaratha and sangramaratha. The former was an ordinary chariot whereas the latter had a wooden seat looking like a sedan-chair (phalaka). The king's chariot's bore special names. For instance, the chariot of Pajjoya was called Aggibhiru (fire-proof) and was considered one of thc four jewels.* ELEPHANTS The elephant had an honourable place in the army and on other royal occasions. The elephant was considered so important in the Mauryan period that the killing of an elephant was visited even with unishment. The Uttaradhyayana refers to an elephant of sixty 1 Uttara , 18 2 Ora su , 31, p 132, Ava cu, p 188, also see Ramayana, III, 22 13 ff, Mahabharata, V, 94. 18 ff. Anu, T1, p 146 In the Kautilya's Arthasastra (p 156) there are mentioned no less than seven different sizes of chariots There are also mentioned six varieties of chariots for different purpose. The devaratha was the chariot for the idols, the pufaratha was the festal_chariot, the sangramika the war chariot, the parzanika that was used ordinarily for travelling. There was another class of war-chariots called the starapurabhiyanka. Then there was the penapika or. chariot used in the period of training, Ava cu , IL P. 160. Arthasastra, p. 49,

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76 LIPE IN ANCIENT INDIA years (satthihayana), which shows that it was a long-lived animal. The Thananga mentions four varieties of elephants, viz., bhadda, manda, miya and sankinna. They are classified according to their seasonal uses, physical strength, sharp or slow intelligence and their ability to lead attacks, etc. The kings were very fond of elephants; and the stateelephants bore special names. We hear of the elephant Secanaka over which a great battle was fought between Kunika and Halla and Vihalla. It is said that this elephant was born in a hermitage and used to water the groves with its trunk in the company of the ascetic princes and hence its appellation Secanaka (Sprinkler). When this elephant grew up, it killed the leader of the herd and destroyed the hermitage The ascetics were angry with the elephant and handed it over to king Seniya of Rayagiha. Later on, it is said that once Secanaka went to a river where he was caught by a crocodile. A merchant's son rescued it whereupon Seniya was so much pleased with him that he gave him his daughter in marriage. Another battle is recorded which took place between Nami and Candajasa over an elephant. The Bhagavati refers to two other elephants of Kunika, viz., Udayin and Bhutananda." Nalagiri was another elephant which belonged to Pajjoya and was considered one of his four precious possessions.13 Bhadravati belonged to Udayana, who successfully carried off Vasavadatta on its back from Ujjeni to Kosambi.13 Vijaya Gandhahatth124 was an elephant of Kanha Vasudeva.15 The elephants were equipped with armours, cruppers, bells, ncckornament (gevenja), head-picce (uttarakanourija), flags, standards, garlands, weapons and other ornaments.10 There were special trainers (hatthidamaga) of elephants." king Udayana was an adept in the art of winning over elephants by his music." The mahauts (hatthrvaua : mintha) were armed with hooks 18 (arkusa) ; housing (uccula mod. jhul) is -mentioned.20 The elephants were tied to a post (alana) and their feet were secured with a rope.21 The elephant stables (jaddasala) are referred to.32 The wooden seat on the back of the elephant was known as gillzas the equivalent of modern ambari. 6 11 18 , also cf Majhama, I, 229, Ramayana, II, 67 20, Mahabharata, II, 83. 24 1 For their characteristics, see 4 281, also see Naya, 1, p 39, also cl Hastilaksanam (66) a chapter in the Brhat Samhta , Arthasastra, pp 151 f. The Sammoha Vinodani (P 397) mentions ten species of elephants kalavaka, gangeyya, gandara, tamba, pingala, gandha, mangala, hema, posalha and chaddanta See also Ramayana, I, 6. 25. 8 Ava cu , II, p 170 EUR 9 Ibid , 468. 10 Uttara , T: 9 p 140 f. 11 7. 9 12 Ava, ci , II, p. 160 18 Ibid, pp 161 f. 14 A gandhahastin or 'the scent elephant' was the best type of elephant. It was the leader of its herd and it survived even if fallen in a cave. An acarya is compared with a gandhahaslin Brh. Bha , l. 2010) 15 Navi., 5, p. 70. 16 Viva., 2, p 13, Ota , 30, p. 117, 31, p. 132. Also see Ramayana, I, 53. 18. 17 Nisi.cu, 8, p. 522. 18 Ava.cz, II, p. 161. 19 Das su, 2, 10, UHara. Ti., 4, p. 86. 20 Ova., 30, p. 117, 31 Uttara. Ti., 4, p. 86, 33 Vya. Bha, 10. 484, 33 Raya. s., 3.

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MILITARY ORGANISATION CAVALRY The third constituent of the four-fold army was the cavalry. The great value of the horses at the time of Kautilya lay in their quick movement and they were regarded as specially useful for guarding advanced positions, for protecting the treasury and commissariat, for cutting off the enemy's supply, for delivering attacks against the enemy's forces and for pursuing a retreating foe. 24 Three varieties of horses are mentioned, viz., asva, asvatara, ghotaka. 45 An asda was a well-bred horse from Pakkhali (valhika according to Hari. bhadra); it was a clean animal26 ; an asvatara or a mule was born of a different species other than its own ; such mules came from Dilavaliya ; the ill-bred horses were known as akirna.37 Kanthaka was another variety of horses found in Kamboja whom no noise frightened and who exceeded all other horses in speed.28 The Thandiga mentions four varieties of kanthaka.29 The mares which foaled horses every year, so were known as thaint (thani in Marathi.) The horses were equipped with armour and horse-carpet; the crests imparted them a grim look and their waist was decorated with small mirrors (thasaga). The saddle of the horse was known as thillt. The horsemen were armed with weapons. 91 Horses were trained. Haribhadra refers to the training of Bahali horses. Vahyali was the place for training horses. The horsetrainers (assamaddaya) are mentioned; they trained the horses by using different kinds of muzzles for mouth, ears, nose, hair, hoofs and thighs, by bit of a bridle (khalina), tying with a rope to the post (ahilana), by saddling (padevana), brandishing (arkana), caning (uitiappahara), beating with sticks (layappahara), whips (kasa), lashes (chiva), goad and thongs (tottajutta).86 Riding (assavahaniya) was a luxury.s6 Jumping (langhana), circular movement (vaggana), gallop (dhorana) and other forms of riding are mentioned, Horses were kept in the stables (assasala).88 Meadowgrass (javasa) and husk (tusa) were given as fodder to horses.89 34 Arthasastra, p 398 f. 35 Das cu , 6, p 213 36 Jambu, 2, p. 110, f , also Ramayana, I, 6 22. 17 Uttara su, 1116, Tha, 4. 327, for eight defects of a horse see Khayaka Swat Angultara, IV, P 190 f. 18 Ultara si, 11. 16 and the com. 29 Com 4 327. Kanthaku is also mentioned in the Dhammapada 4, 186. 30 Brh Bha, 3 3959 f 31 Via , 2, p 13, Ora 31, 132 81 Ava Ti , P 261 , also Raya S , 161. 33 Uttara Ti, 9, p 141. 14 Noxi., 17, P 205 , also of Majjhima, I, p. 446. 16 Uitara, 1956 S& Ibid, Ti,5, p. 103. 87 Opasu, 31, p. 132; cf, Arthasastra (p 148) where these terms are explained 38 Vya Bhi., 10, 484. 30 Ultara. Ti., 4, p. 96,

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA INFANTRY The foot-soldier (payana) constituted the main portion of the army. Kautilya classifies them as regulars_(maula), hired soldiers (bhrta), those supplied by fighting corporations (treni), those recruited from the enemies' country, those recruited from the country of an ally, and lastly, those recruited from amongst wild tribes."0" The foot-soldiers carried various weapons noticeable among them being swords, javelins, spears and boys. They were clad in mailcoats in order to protect themselves from the attacks of the sharp arrows and other missiles (sannaddhabaddhavammiyakavaya). 43 The whole army administration was under the control of the commander-in-chief (balavauya) also known as senavar. It was his duty to attend to the training and efficient organisation of the army and the enforcement of proper discipline among the soldiers. II ETHICS OF WAR The ancients realised the terrible loss in men and money to both parties in war, and hence they tried to avoid war in general. They first tried the four diplomatic means, viz , sama, dama, danda and bheda, failing which they had to declare war. Before the two parties actually entered into the war, a duta or a courier, who conveyed the royal proclamation to the opposite party, was deputed with the message. We learn that before entering into war with Cedaga, Kuniya sent his data to his opponent thrice, finally giving him orders to place his left foot on the foot-stool of the enemy in a spirit of defiance) and deliver him the letter keeping it on the edge of the spear. 44 Then the king Padibuddhi and huis five fellow-kings deputed their envoys to king Kumbhaga asking him either to give his daughter in marriage or prepare for war. 45 WARFARE The art of warfare together with its various tactics, stratagems and practices, was well known in those days. The Uttaradhyayana curni mentions vehicles, chariots, horses, elephants, foot-soldiers, shields doarana), weapons, tact (kusalatta), diplomacy, competency, perseverance, good physique and health as necessary for carrying on a war 46 Camps. (khandhavaianivesa) were an important conjunct of warfare." Camps. on physique and healthatta), diplomacy, com 19 Arthasastra, p 156 41 Ova, 31, p 132. 43 Viva , 2, p. 13. 48 Ovi sl., 29 44 Nirya. 1. 45 Naya , 8, p 97 ff A dula ought not to be slain (Arthasastra, p. 30); for qualifications of a duta, see Manu (VII, 64 f). 48 3, p 93 The Arthasastra (p 309) refers to three kinds of warfare, viz., open, treacherous and silent (1C/., killing an enemy by employing spies when there is no talk of battle at all) i also see p. 156. 67 cf. Nayd., 8, p. 111 ; 16, p. 190. Also see Mahabharata, V, 16%.

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MILITARY ORGANISATION A distinction is made between juddha and saigama. In the former there was no order in fighting, while in the latter battle formations were used (Duha).48 The sagadaviha (waggon array) and garudavuha (eagle array) are mentioned in the Nuryavaliga). The army of Cedaga formed the former while that of Kuniya the latter 40 The cakka, danda and suc vuhas are also mentioned. Two types of battles are mentioned : (1) battles in which war-engines were employed (mahasilakantaka), 51 (2) battles in which chariots and pestles were used (rahamusala). It is said that in these battles a huge number of people were killed, 52 Siege-warfare was the usual practice. The aggressive king would besiege the neighbour's state and challenge him either to surrender or to prepare for the battle. Somctimes the seige continued for a considerable time Kunika is said to have besieged the city of Vesali for a long period.63 King Salivahana used to lay siege to Bharuyakaccha every year. It is stated that when Jiyasattu and other kings besieged Mihila, king Kumbhaga closed the city gates and the citizens could not move out. It is for this reason that the cities of those days were strongly fortified The fortifications consisted of walls (tagara), battlements (gopura), towers (aftalaga), moats and trenches (ussulaga, com. khadika) and sayagghi for defending a town 58 Strategy and diplomacy played an important part in this type of warfare. Men of shrewd commonscnse and profound wisdom brought into play their endless manoeuvres and novel tactics to cause the other party to surrender. We are told as to how Abhayakumara, by a clever subterfuge which consisted of burying the counterfeit coins in the enemy's camp, created suspicion in the mind of Pajjoya about the fidelity of his soldiers and thus foiled his attack on Rayagiha.67 A regular system of espionage was another fcature of siegc-warfare. Spies were regularly employed to watch the activities of the enemy. They joined the enemy's people and found out their sccrcts We have seen how Kunika employed hermit Kulavalaya to causc thc citizens of Vesali to destroy the mound and sccured victory over Cedaga." 48 Jambu , TI 2, 24. 49 I, p 28 Kautilya mentions details of various battle array, which also inchide garuda and sakafa vyithas It is called an eagle-like array when, having formed the wings, the front is made to bulge out, when it consists of two lines in front and has its wings arranged as in the staff-like array, it is called a cart like array (Arthasastra, pp 403 f; also see Matu, VII, 187f, Mahabha , VI, 56, 76, also Date, The Art of IVar in Ancient India, p. 72.ff). 60 Ova., 40. p 186, Panha., 3, P 44 6. According to Monier William's Sanskrut Dictionary, Maharla is, a kind of weapon (a sataghni with iron nails ) 67 According to Abhayadeva, however, Mahasilakaptaka is so called because la Ribattre even a thorn (kanlaha) acted like a big stone (mahasla), Rahamusala was so called because a single chariot equipped with a mace (musala) moved about whuch offected a krcate cition of men (Bhag, 7 9). Also see Ilaritamsa, II, 42 21, II. 39. 75. 58 Ala cit. II, p. 173. 64 Ibid, p 200 1. tu Naga., 8, p. 112. 56 Uttara., 9, 18, Ova. 1, p. j. 67 Ava cu, II, p. 159. 48 Ibid., p 174.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA CAUSES OF WAR The causes of war in ancient India could be classified under the following heads (1) It was the age of chivalry, and what worthier cause could there be than rescuing a damsel in distress or a maiden whom the knight-errant loved but who was to be married to others. Any insult to the women, however, had also to be avenged and this led to wars. The Panhavagarana mentions Sita, so Dovai, Ruppini,61 Paumavai, Tara,62 Kancana, Rattasubhadda, 64 Ahinnika, Suvannaguliya,85 Kinnari, Surupa, Vijjumai and Rohini, who were the causes of wars. Similar wars took place for Mall167 and Miyavati,68 (2) The second cause of war was the aggressive spirit of certain rulers. The cause if analysed was not so trivial as the wish to possess certain jewels, etc., which found expression in forcing the weaker side to accept the will of the stronger side. There was a fight between Pajjoya and Dummuha over a diadem , between Nami and Candajasa over an elephant, between Kuniya and Cedaga over an elephant and the necklace." (3) The boundary dispute or the rise of a neighbouring state sometimes brought about war. (4) The war of Cakravartins, however, was fought not for aggrandisement but for the strength of the central government. WEAPONS Various kinds of weapons were used in ancient times for offensive and defensive purposes. The Panhavagarana mentions the following weapons : muggara (Indian club), musandhi (octagonal club)," karakaya (saw), satti (spear), hala (plough), gada (mace or heavy club), musala (pestle), cakka (discus), kunta (lance), tomora (javelin), sula (trident spit), lauda (light club), bhindipala crooked club), sauvala (an iron spear), patfisa (battle-axe), cammettha stone covered with leather), duhana (hatchet), mutthiya (dagger), asikhedaga (sword with a shield), khagga (sword), 48.6). 60 The story of Sita 18 narrated in the Paumacartya. 80 Dovai's account is given in the Nayadhammakaha (16). Il The war caused by carrying away of Ruppini and Paumavai by Krona is described in the Trisastisalaki burusacarida (8. 6). The fight over Tara is narrated in the Trusasli (7. 6). Also cf Ramayana, IV, 16 '89 The stories of Kancana, Ahinnika, Kinnari, Surupa and Vuvumai, says Abhayadeva, are not known ; however, Weber identified Ahinnika with Ahalya, the Indra's mistress in the Mahabharata. 04 The war caused by the abduction by Arjuna of Subhadra is narrated in the Trisasli, $ The story of the war on the slave-girl Suvannaguliya is narrated in the Ullaradhyayana Commcntary (18, P 253 ff). 66 The story of the fight over Rohini, the mother of Balarama and the wife of Vasudeva, is narrated in Ingapfi. 78. 4), Amulyacandra Sen, A Critical Introduction to the Panhava. garapaim, p. 49 l, 61 Naya. 8. 8 loa cu., P. 89. 89 Uttari Ti., 9, 133 f TO Ibid., 9, 140 f, TI Ava. cit., II, 172 fE 19 Musandi is also mentioned in the Mahubharata (II, 70. 34).

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MILITARY ORGANISATION 81 caba (bow), naraca (iron-tipped arrow), kanaka (arrow), kappini (a kind of scissors), vasi (adze), parasu (axe, and sayagghi)." Defensive armours are mentioned. We are told that Kunika used an impregnable coat of mail while fighting with Cedaga." Besides, magical missilcs are mentioned. Nagabana, tamasabana, paumabana, vahnibana, etc., are described as great weapons. It is said that the serpent missiles when set on the bow went forth like an arrow, then they transmuted into snakes and acted like a lasso; the missiles of darkness filled the battle-field with darkness.70 Flags, drums and trumpets roused the spirit of the warriors in ancient India. The warriors from either side tried to cut off the banners with arrows and they captured the flag and the battle was lost to the party which lost the flag" The Brhatkalpa Bhasya refers to four types of drums of Kanha Vasudeva, viz., Komudika," Sangamiya, Dubbhutya, and Asivopasamini ; it is said that they all were made of sandal wood. The drums were also imbued with medicinal propcrties. It is said that asivopasamini when beaten banished the diseases for the period cf six months.? Krsna possessed another drum named Sannahiya 80 Hearing the beating of this drum the warriors gathered together and marched against the king Paumanabha.81 78 pp. 17a, 44 , Uttara , 19, 51 55, 58, 61 f, see also Abhidhinacintamant (3446-451) ; Arshasastra (p 110 f); Ramayana, III, 22 20 ff, Pusalkar, Bhasa-- Study, ch xvi, p. 414 ; Banerjea, op cit, p. 204 ff , Mehta, PBI, 171, Date, G T, The 1st of War in Ancient India ; Oppert Gustav, Weapons and drmoury Organisation 74 Uttara., 9 18, also Ramajana, I, 6 11 , according to the Arthasastra (p. 110), it was a big pillar with immense number of sharp points on its surface and situated on the top of a fort wall Sataghni is also mentioned in the Alahabharata III, 291. 24 ; it was ornamented with bells and was bright and hollow, it was flung by hand and like a sword or a spear, was split to pieces, by aniows, Hopkins, AOS, Vol 13, p 300 13 Bhag, 7. 9 76 Fira , 3, p 152a , Jambu Su Ti , 21, p 12a Also sce Ramayana, I, 37, Paz 17 cf Bhag., 79, for the description of a flag sce Kalpa, 3. 40. cf. also Amigana III, 97 15 ; Mahabharata, VI, 83. 46 ff. 18 In the Mahabharata, Kaunrudiki is mentioned as a mace of Krena ; it was capable of slaying every dartya, Mahabharata, I, 231. 28 70 Pi., 356 80 Sannahiki bher i 13 also mentioned in the Alalibharata (I, 244. 38) 81 Naya., 16, p. 190.

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CHAPTER V LOCAL GOVERNMENT In India the village or a gama formed the unit of administration. The bulk of the people as in present days lived in the villages," which are described as lying within easy reach of the village cocks (kukkutasandeya-gamabaura),' and where one had to pay the eighteen kinds of taxes referred to above. A gama was the generic term for an inhabited settlement, not possessing the fortifications of a nagara or a rajadhani. A large number of families were reckoned as constituting a village. We are told that ninety six villages were attached to the town of Mahura 4 An interesting discussion is given on what constitutes a village in the Bihatkalpa Bhasya. (1) It is said that the limit of a village is the distance to which the cows go to graze. But this assertion is contested on the ground that the cows proceeded to other villages as well; (11) then it is stated that the distance which a grass-cutter or a wood-cutter, getting up early morning covers and after doing his work returns at sunset to his own place is called a village ; (iii) a village has its own boundary ; (iv) its extent could also be determined by the situation of the village garden at the end ; (v) or the village-well; (vi) or the extent to which the children go to play ; (v1) the nucleus of the village is formed by the erection of devakula. The sabha or assembly hall was situated in the centre of the village. Different types of villages are mentioned such as uttanakamallakakara, avaimukhamillakakara, sanitamallakakara, khandimallakakara and others. The majority of villages probably contained a heterogeneous population, but there were others inhabited exclusively or mainly by members of a single caste or followers of a single occupation. For example, the city of Vaisali had three important suburbs, namely, Bambhanagama, Kbattiya-Kundaggama and Vaniyagama, inhabited by Brahmanas, Ksatriyas and the merchants in succession. Then there were villages inhabited by peacock-tamers (mayuraposaga), acrobats and robbers (corapalli). There were border villages (paccantagama) which were in a very insecure condition.10 1 Bhag. Ti., 1. 1. Rava. Su., 1. p. 4. 8 Dat.cu, p. 373. According to the Naya, T.(1, p. 43) a village constituted ten thousand families; cf. Arthasastra, p 45. Brh. Bhi., 1. 1776. 6 Ibid., 1. 1096 ff. 8 Zbrd. 1. 1103-8 1 Uttard. Ti., 3, p. 57 8 Ava.ct., p. 844. Viva., 3, p. 20 etc. 10 Sec Ava. c., II, p. 198; cf. Cullanarada Falaka (No. 477), IV, p. 220.

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83 13 Unfortunately, we do not get much information regarding the internal administration of a village. We are told that the villages were under their headmen known as bhoya, bhojka" or mayahara," and the meetings of the villages were held in a hall (sabha).' The leader of a madamba which consisted of eighteen thousand villages was known as madambiya. The guild or corporation (seni) was a powerful factor in the economic and social life of the people of the village, about which we shall see further. LOCAL GOVERNMENT 11 Vya. Bhd., 7, 459 cf. gamabhajaka in the Dhammapada A., I, p. 89; also see Rhys Davids, Cambridge History of India, p. 208. 13 Uttara. 7., 3, p. 57; 9, p. 142a; 18, p. 250. 18 Raya. Sa., 21. Vya. Bhd. Ti., 4. 52.

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SECTION III ECONOMIC ASPECTS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I PRODUCTION CHAPTER II DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER III EXCHANGE CHAPTER IV CONSUMPTION

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INTRODUCTION Economic factors have been the main guiding factors in the history of the world from time immemorial. Unfortunately, the material at our disposal representing the economic conditions in India is fragmentary and hence it is not possible to present a systematic account of every fact relating to the economic life of the ancient Indian people. Nevertheless, whatever meagre account we could gather is given here in the hope it will proye valuable.

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CHAPTER I PRODUCTION I LAND Every activity which results in creation of wealth is to be regarded as productive. The productive agents of material wealth are Land, Labour, Capital and Organisation, which are called Factors of Production in Economics. The rural economy of India was based chiefly on a system of village communities of landowners or what is known as peasant proprietorship. The common occupation of the villagers was agriculture or farming. AGRICULTURE. METHODS OF PLOUGHING Around the gama lay its khetta or pastures, and its woodland or uncleared jungle. Khetta or agricultural land is considered among ten kinds of external possessions, the rest being buildings, gold ctc , sccds of grains, collection of wood-fuel and grass, fricnds and relatives, conveyance, furniture such as bed, sofa etc., male and female slaves and utensils A khetta is dividad into setu and ketu; the former being irrigated by Persian wheels (arahatta) etc., and thc latter by rainfall. Various methods of irrigation were adopted in different countries. For example, in the country of Lata the fields received their moisture from rainfall, in Sindhu from rivers, in Dravida from ponds, in Uttarapatha from wells and in Dimbharelaka from floods Agriculture was carried on by ploughing. It is said that p'oughing (kisikamma) being done at the right time yields plenty of fruit. The Brhatkalpa Bhasya refers to the festival in honour of the ploughing deity (Sita-janna). Phodikamma is mentioned as a ploughman's profession dealing in ploughing the field. In a prosperous country the lands Were ploughed with hundreds and thousands of ploughsharcs, and sugar-cane, barley and ricc were cultivated by shrewd (pannalta) farmers (karisaya).8 Wercad of the gahavai Ananda who limited the cultivable ! Rhys Davids, Cambridge History of India. Vol. 1, p. 298. 1 Brh. Bha, 1. 825. ibid., 1. 826. ibid., 1. 1239. Uttard. Ti, Jp 10d. 3. 3647. Of the Grhva Sutias (e g Coblitu, IV 4 281,5 B 1 vol xxx) where the gaddess Sita is the rustie desty of the lurowa and sacrifice may be ofkid to her anywhere but preferably on a ficld of rice o bailey (1 M Ipte, Sorial and Religious Life in the Grhyd Sutras, X, p. 129) In the Mahibhrirata (VII, 103 19) Sita is a goddess of harvest. The legend of the birth of Sila is mentioned in the Ramayana (I. 66 14f), and it is by furrows ing the earth with a plough that Janaka gives birth to Sita (Sylvan Levi, Are Aplan und Pre-Draudian in India, pp. 8-15). 1 Uudi, 1, p. 11. 8 Ovd. 1 p. 2; Ava. Ti., (Hari.), 947, p. 426a.

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go LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA land to five hundred ploughshares, each onc ploughing one hundred acres (niyattana) of land. Three types of ploughshares are mentioned. viz., hala, kuliya and nangala; spade (kudala) was known." The fields were guarded by fences." Samadha is mentioned as a place situated in a mountain or any other place of safety where the farmers used to store their com.13 FIELD-CROPS The predominant grain harvest was that of rice of different varieties. Kalamasali, a variety of rice, which was cultivated in the eastern part of India, is referred to;" raktatali,mahadali and gandhafali are mentionedn as other varieties. The paddy was sown during the rains, and wheripe, the crops were harvested with newly sharpened sickles (narapajjana chim asxhim), thrashed, windowed and then taken to the granary where they were filled in new jars which were sealed and kept in a comer.19 The piles of the rings (valaya) were made of straws and leaves known as kadapalla and tzuapalla, which served as receptacles for grains. The inside floor space was coated with cow-dung 17 The round heap of grains was called punja; if it was slightly oblong, it was called rai; a heap of grains was pressed close to the wall; besmeared with ashes (lunchita); sealed with cow-dung and kept in the required places,screening it with a screen of straw and bamboos. In the rainy searon the grains were stored in a granary made of earth (kottha), of straw and bambous (palla), a granary standing on pillars (manca), the upper store of the house (mala), covered with a lid coated with cow-dung (olitta), coated with mud all over (Irita), closed (pihita), sealed with earthen seals imuddiya! by making lines etc. (laachiya).28 Kumbhi, karabhi,a' pallaga, muttoli, mukha, idura, alindaa and acara (apacari)" are mentioned as other forms of storage In ganjasala various kinds of corns were pounded.23 A wooden mortar (udukhala) for cleansing rice and a threshing floor (khalaya) were known.* Then mention is made of a cattic-feeding-basket (gokilaiija) and windowing sieve (suppahaltara) t'91, 1, p. 7. 11.urlara Is menuioned by Baudhayana ; it was an area of land suffiriant to uppert one man from its produce , (S. K Das, The E mic History of Indir Ind... P. 19), 10 la. Ups! 31 Ini! p. 23. 4 dargrazer.draluss, w ild Brh. Bha. 1. 1092 Cd., p. D. cf Turtagili (S211) lacre can lyrics of Vogaba ar druri teinnh 13 Brh Bha, 3301 33971. au sec arala.ch -7 734 16 .Va. 7 p. so. Brk. Bhi., 9 3298. 131d 2. 3311 f. Brh S. 2 3 and BTU + 3391-9 Brh. Sa, 1 l, llominuoned in the Rim ara, 11 91 71 a. Ti, (Hari.) p 75 a ulol is al cuvand in the Majhna I p 57 A. Su. 13). 13 Niss C. 9, P511 24 Vja. Bhi, 1023, Siju. 4.2. 12. 15 C'ra, 2, p. 33, Sujo., 4 7, 19.

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91 Seventeen kinds of grains are mentioned :-rice (orihi), barley (yava), masura (Ervum Hirsutum), wheat (godhuma), mudga (Phraseolus), sesame (tila), gram (canaka), anu (Panicum Miliaceum), yangu (panic seeds), kodrava, (Paspalum Scrobiculatum), akusthaka (mod. kuttu), rice (sali),20 a pulse (adhaki), kalaya (leguminous seeds), kulattha (Dolichos Uniflorus) and sana (Linum Usitatissimum). Amongst other field grain crops are mentioned masa, (Phraseolus Radialus), mpphava," alisandaga, sadina, palimanthaka, atasi (linseed), husumba (safflower), kangu (millet), 1 ralaga, (the resin of Shorca Rubusta), tuvari (tuvar in Hindi), kodusa (or kodrava) and mustard (sarisava).31 The storers of crores and crores of kumbhas of these grains in their granary were called naiyatikas. 83 35 Among the spices mention is made of fresh ginger (singavera), dry ginger (suntha), cloves (lavanga), turmeric (haridra), cumin (vesana, com. jiraka), pepper (mariya), pippala(long pepper) and mustard (sansavatthi ga) Sugar-canc (ucchu) seems to have been a common crop. A sugarcane store-house (ucchughara) is mentioned in Dasapura The sugarcane press (mahajanta. kolluka) is also mentioned. There were sheds for pressing sugar-canc (jantasala).38 Janlapilana was a profession that dealt in crushing sugar-cane, sesamum and other articles by maclunes 0 Pundravardhana was noted for sugar-canc's crop. 40 Three varictics of sugar are mentioned, viz., maccandika, pupphotlara and paumuttara 11 Gourds were grown and were used by the ascetics48. PRODUCTION 86 Sali was a high quality of rice, cf Pinda Nir, 162-5 27 Brh Bha, 1 828, Sutra, 2 1, also Panna 1 23-40 Instead of anu, priyangu, akusithaka, adhaki and kalaya the Vyavahara Bhi (1, p 132) gives ralaga, masa cavala, tuvan and mspava, (also Das cu p 212, cf Arthasustra p 128f, also Milindapanha, p 267, Markandeya p. 244) It is also called valla (a kind of wheat, Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary) and it produced intoxication (Bih Bha. 5 6049) Jacobi renders it as Dolichos Sinensis, Jain Sutras, xlv, p 374 23 10 According to Weber it was a grain coming from Alexandria, and hence points to commercial intercourse with that country, Sacred Literatue of the Jains, p 38. 30 Bhag 21. 2 51 ibid, 21 3, also Uttra horadu.aka is mentioned as a best corn in Ti 3 p 58a the Mahabhirata (III 193 19) 83 Vya. Bhi 1, p 131a 33 Bhag 8 3, Panna., 1 23 31, 43-4 34 Pinda Nir, 54 95 Acu. II, 1 8 268. 38 Uttara Ti 2, p 23 87 Uttara Su 19 33, Brh Bha pi 575 88 Vya Bha 10 484 90 Liva 1, r. 11, Jambu Ti 3, p 193a 40 Tandula Ti, p. 2 a In Pengal there were two kinds of sugar-cane, the pale-yellow or pundra and the dark purple or black called kajali o hayoli The former gave its name to the province of Pundradesa to the east of the Ganges, and latter to Kajolaka, or the province to the west of the Ganges, Arch Survey of India (Report 1879-80, Bihar and Bengal), Vol XV, 1882, p 29 41 Naya, 17, p 203 Panna Sz 17 227 Marsjandika and khandasarhara arc mentioned, in the Arthasastra (p 100) and the Caraka, ch 27, p 795, and are rendered as granulated sugar and sugar-candy irspectively Puspoltara is mentioned in the Vaidyakasabda Sindhu and is rendered by Puspasarkard, which is perhaps the same as 'phulsakar in Gujerati. Padmottara probably was prepared from lotus (Bechardas, Bhag.an Mahavira ni dharmakathao, p. 249f) It is translated as Carthamus Tinctorius by Monier Williams, 43 Uttara Ti, 5, p 103. 48 Bth. Bha., 1 2886.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Among fibre-yielding plants cotton (kappasa) was the mostimportant 44 Among other kinds of fabrics silk, wool (unniya), linen (khoma) and hemp (sana) may be mentioned.46 Sali or salmali trees which yielded a silky fibre were known.48 Probably indigo (guliya) *7 and such other chemical dyes were produccd; the mention of a variety of colours leads us to believe in their existence. Betel (tambola) 49 and arecca-nut (puyaphli) 50 were known. A large number of vegetables were grown Brinjal, cucumber, radish, palanka (mod palak), karella (mod. karela), tuber roots (aluga), waternuts (drngalaka, mod. szighoda), onion, garlic and gourd may be mentioned Vegetable-gardens (kaccha) were known where radish, cucumber etc., were grown". Despite these precautions, famines occured mainly on account of scarcity of rain We have referred to a long famine which broke out in Padaliputta during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Uttarapatha was visited by another famine during the time of Vairasami 64 Still anothci famine is mentioned in Dakkhinavaha which is said to have lasted for a long time.56 The Vyavahara Bhasya preserves a tradition of still another famine in Kosala when a certain sravaka, who had hoarded plenty of grain, did not allow the five hundred Jain monks to leave the country during the famine Later on, however, when the prices of grain went up he sold huis grain and the sadhus for want of food committed suicide and were devoured zby vultures 58 During famine people even sold their children 57 The failure of crops or scarcity of food was also due to floods which caused severe distress to the people. The Titthogali gives a graphic description of the flood in Padaliputta which created havoc.68 The flood in Kancanapura is recorded in the Vyavahara Bhasyase. The destruction of Sravasti due to frequent overflowing of Aciravati is mentioned 3, P 20) 4 Cf Uttarit Ti 4 p 78a 45 See infra, chapter on Dress 48 PM Panna i 23 31, Ultaa, 10 32, Suya , 6 18. 47 Nani , 1, p 10 48 Kinha, nila, lohryn haladda and sukilla are mentioned (Raya, 49 Uu, , P9 50 Panad, 1. 23 35 31 ibid, 1 23 18-9, 267, 37-8,43ff, Ulsara Sa, 36 90 ff 63" Naya, 16, p 163 39 Ica II 3 3 350 54 Ava cu ,p 396 65 ibid ,p 404 68 Vya Bhi, 10 557-60 67 Mahi N, P 28 59 Kalyan Vijaya Vira Nirvana, p 42. ff 50 10.450 60 See infra, Section V under Kunala.

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PRODUCTION 93 HORTICULTURE Horticulture was in a much developed state Wc get descriptions of gardens and parks (arama: ujana nijjdna) and a large variety of gardenproduce both fruits and flowers; almost every big city preserved one or more gardens Various kinds of creepers (laya : ralli) are mentioned ; the chief amongst them being pauma, naga, asoga, campaga, oriya, raranti, aimutlaya, kunda and samas Among flowers most important being navamalika, korantaka, bandhupiraka, kancia, jali, mogara, g'athika, mallika, vdsanti, mrgadantika, campaka, kunda and others.68 Among fruits mention may be made of mango, fig, plaintain, date, wood-apple, citron, bread-fruit, pomegranate, grapes, Cocoanut, and others + Mango-groves consisting of one thousand mango trees were also known.65 kottaka was a drying place for fruits, people used to gather fruits from jungles and store them at this place; they carried them in waggons, bundles etc. to cities for sale. Four methods of ripening fruits are mentioned. Some fruits such as mango etc. were ripened by covering them with husk or straw (indhana). Tinduka (a fruit of the ebony tree) and other fruits were ripened by subjecting them to a hcating process. The process was that first a hollow was made in which the cow-dung fire was lit; around this other hollows were made which were filled with raw fruits. Those hollows were connected with the central hollow by means of holes and thus the fruits ripened by the heat of the fire (dhuma). Then cucumber (arbhata) and citron (bijapura) etc. ripened by mixing them with ripe fruits (gandha) Lastly, thc fruits ripened in their natural way on trees (vaccha).07 . It is said that the people of Konkana were fond of fruits and flowers and they maintained themselves by selling them.68 Flower-houses were made during festu also Among the miscellancous products mention may be made of saffron (kumkuma), camphor (kappura), cloves (laranga), lac, sandal," honey (mahu)" and others. Then we have waste lands which may be classificd into cremation or burial grounds, forests and pastures, mining and river tracts, See Bhag, Ti, 67, Raya Ti St., 1, p 5, Bek Bha l'r , 4, 4522; 1. 3170f; Smuci., p. 53 Nisa cu , 8, p 494 Raya. Su, 3, p 18, Nart 1, p 10 Ponna, 1 23 23-5 for the flower and plants see Ramayana, II. 84. 8ff; also op. cul pp 1041, 206-7 Panna. i, 23 i 2-7, Aca II, 1 8 260 Uva 7, p. 47 for similar references in the Fatahas see S K Dag, op. cit.pl 20%.f. Bph Bhi | 872 1bid., 1. 8411 ibid. 1. 1230 Niyi, 8, pp. 93, 95, 103. ibid., 1, pp 8, 10 Thce varieties of honey are mentioned, viz macchiya, kutnya and bhimara (Andy cl, II, p. 319); also see Garaha. ch. 27, p. 796.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA The pasture grounds (daviya)" were very useful where herds of cattle and goats were grazed. Davaggi is mentioned as a profession that dealt in burning grass and protecting the fields." The cowherds (goddlaka) and shepherds ( ardpala: chagaliya ) were employed, who led the herds to these grounds for grazing. We hear of a shepherd who was Very good at shooting and used to make holes in the leaves of a banvan tree with lus tiny bow (chanuhiya).14 REARING OF LIVE STOCK AND DAIRY FARMING Cattle were a highly esteemed form of wealth in ancient India, and Cows, buffaloes, oxen and sheep were included among the precious possessions of a king. Vaya (uraja) also known as sangella', or a herd of cattle is mentioned; each vraja consisting of ten thousand cows 7 It is said that king Karakandu was very fond of the herds of cattlc (gokula) and possessed a number of herds of kinc." Breeding and rearing of cattle was an essential concern of the people. The Abhiras (mod. Ahir), who tended the cows, are mentioned. We are told of an Abhira woman of Mathura, who used to supply milk and curds to a perfumer. Once upon a time at the wedding of her son she invited the perfumer and his wife. The perfumer could not attend the ceremony in person but he sent various clothes and ornaments for the bride and the bridegroom as a gift. The Abhiras were much pleased at this and in return they presented two strong-bodied bull-calves to the perfumer 70 Cattle were supplied with necessary grass and water (tanapaniya) There were large cow-pens (gomandava) where the herds of cows, bulls and calves were kept. A cattle-lifter (kudaggaha) is mentioned, who used to go to the cow-pen and rob the cattle at night.8o Quarrels among cowherds are frequently referred to. The cows of various colours such as black, blue, red, white, and brindled were known; cows were often attacked and devoured by lions and tigers in the jungle.81 Dairy farming was in an advanced state and the supply of milk and its four products (gorasa), viz., curds, butter-milk, butter and ghee, was abundant and so people could get highly nutritious food. The milk of cow, buffalo, camel, goat and sheep is mentioned.82 Khiraghara was known as a place where products of milk were available in plenty.83 The cattle 78 74 76 76 TT For the list of cattle see Panna 1 34 Act. II, 3. 2. 350. U , 1, p 11. Uttara. Ti. 5, p. 103. Oui Si., 6, also Ava T (Hari), p 128 Vya Bha 2. 23. Uno., 1, p 6, also Brh Bha, 3 4268 Ullara. Ti, 9, p. 134a. Aua. Ng., 471; Apa cu, p 280 f. Vood. 2, p. 14 f. Ava. c., p. 44, ibid. II, P 319. Nisi. ci., 9, p. 511. . TO 80 81 82 88

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PRODUCTION 95 werc also utilised for the production of hide, bones, ivory nails and hair.84 Slaughter houses (sund) were known. A slaughter house is mentioned where five hundred buffaloes were slaughtered every day. 86 Then we had flocks of sheep and goats confined in an enclosure (vadaga).80 They were utilised for wool-production. The brooms (rayaharana) and blankets were made of sheep wool.87 People used to kill sheep and eat their flesh seasoned with salt, oil and pepper 88 Mention is made of a young ram which was fed on rice and grass till it was fattened and was killed on the arrival of the guest.89 Veterinary science was also in a developed stage. ARBORICULTURE Coming to the forest lands,91 India seems to liave been rich in forest tracts. A forest (adavi) of eighteen yojanas 18 mentioned near Rayagiha. Almost the whole country was covered with a large variety of trees. Many species of trees covered with fruits and flowers, are mentioned : nimba, amra, jambu, sala, ankola, bakula, palasa, putraniiva, bibhitaka, sinasapa, sriparni, asoka, tinduka, kapittha, matulinga, bilva, amalaga, phanasa, dadima, asvattha, udumbara, vata, nandi, tilaka, sirisa, saptaparna, lodhra, candana, arjuna, talatamala and others.93 The trees provided the country with materials for the construction of houses, vehicles etc. Various kinds of bamboos, 84 creepers, grass, 90 medicinal herbs and rootse were to be found in plenty. Vanakamma is mentioned as a profession dealing in wood, which included the felling of trees. Ingalakamma was another profcssion that dealt in charcoal by preparing it from fire wood; it also included brick-making according to the commentator.88 There were wood-gatherers (katthaharaga), leaf-gatherers (pattaharaga) and grass-cutters (tanaharaga) whom we meet frequently roaming about in the forest.09 84 86 Pinda. 50 Iva. c., II, p. 169. Vira., 4, p. 30. Brh. Su,2. 25, Bha, 3. 3914. Suya II, 6. 37. Uitara, 7. I ff. Nisi cu , 19, p. 1244. Various terms are mentioned to dcnote a forest; and, ialakhanda tanarijt and kanana, for explanation see Bhag. Ti, 67, Anu, cu, P 33. Uttard. 8, P 125 Panna 123 12f, 331 Raya 3, p 13 Tha. 10., 736 For useful trees in the Atharpada see S K Das, op cit, pp 98-103, also pp. 105-8, 204-9, Ramayana, III.18.16.ff; IV.1 76 ff, Mahabharata II, 57 44 A. Vamsa, verlu and kanala ale mentioned as varieties of bamboo (Panna. 1.. 28. *32). For various kinds of latas and vallis sce ibid , 1. 23. 26 f. For various kinds of grass see ibid., 1. 23 33f For various kind of herbs etc. see ibid., 1 23.40 Ur. 1, p. 11, also cf. Vya, Bha. 3. 89, Aca II. ? 303. Naya, 13. p. 143, Brh. Bha., l. 1097, Anu. Su, 130. 88 99

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA 96 HUNTING Then we come to hunting. As flesh-eating was common in those days, hunting had its grcat valuc. The kings used to go for hunting with a large retinue. We are told about king Sanjaya who chased the deer on horseback in the Kesara garden.100 Hunting (miyavaha) is referred to in the Bhagavati;101 there were regular hunters (migaluddhaya) whose occupation was to capture or kill the animals and earn their living by selling them. Hunting with hounds is also mentioned.102 Such hunters were called soniya (saunika); others who captured animals by snare were known as vagurika.103 Snares and traps (kudajala) are mentioned.104 Even elephants were hunted.105 POULTRY Another industry was that of bird-catching and fowling. We meet the fowlers (sauniya) with bow and arrow aiming at partridges, ducks, quails, pigeons, monkeys and francoline partridges (kapinjala) 106 Birds were caught with hawks (ordansiya), trapped in nets (jala) and captured with the help of bird-lime (leppa) 107 With spades and bamboos, baskets in their hands, the fowlers (andavaniya) went in search of eggs of female crow, owl, pigeon, tittabhi, crane, pea-hen and hen, which were cooked in baking-pans and were sold.108 Peacock-tamers (posaga) were also known.109 Cuckoos, 110 partridges, 111 parrots, madana salikas 112 (the female of thc cuckoo) and other birds were tamed. FISHERIES Fishing formed another occupation. Various ways of catching fish"3 were known. Fish were caught with hooks (jala) and in bow-net (maggarajalaa) and then cleaned and killed.114 A settlement of fishicimen (macchandhvadaga) is mentioned, where a large number of fishermen 100 101 103 101 204 196 106 101 108 109 Uttard. Su., 18. 2f. 1. 8, Suya. II, 2. 31. Brh. Bhd. l. 2766; Vya. Bhi. 3. p 20a. Ullari. 19. 63. Siya. II, 6; 9 3. tbid. II. 2, 811 For the list of birds ace Panna. 1. 36, Hava. 30. 3. Ullara. 19. 65. Vind. 3, p. 22. Vya, Bha. 3. p. 20a; Vaya 3. p. 62. Ogha., p. 126. Vast., p. 67. Ava. GU, P 558. For various species of fish see Panna. l. 33. For simuar reference in the Fasalas su SK. Das, op. cit. p. 212. Uttard. 19.04; cf. Vid (8, p 47), which mentions twenty two ways of catching fish, dahagalara, dahamalara, dahamahaaa, dahavahana, dahapavana, ayampula, panacapulc, macchpandhala, macchapucha, jambhi fisura, bhisira, duisara, vistra, hallini, hiltiri, jala, gala, klasa vakkabandha, sultabandha and calabandha. EE 114

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PRODUCTION 97 was employed. They went to the river Jauna, filled their boats with fish, dried them, cooked them and sold them in the market.115 Tortoises were also caught for purposes of food."10 MANUFACTURES TEXTILES-SPINNING AND WEAVING Now we come to the various manufacturing industries prevalent in those days. Next to agriculture, spinning and weaving was the most important industry. The cloth makers (nantikka : kolia) are described as one of the five important craftsmcn, others being, the potters, the carpenters, the black-smiths and the barbers.117 Mention is made of dealers in dussa (dosya), yarn (sottiya) and cotton (kappasiya). Then there were tailors (tunnaga), weavers (tantuvaya) and makcrs of silken cloth (pattakula).118 The sivaga (tailors) and chimpciya (calico printers, chimpi in Hindi) were included among inportant craftsmen.119 Carding is mentioned. Thc seduga cotton after the sceds were removed were carded (pinjiya) and from this slivers (pelu) were prepared.120 Spinning of cotton 191 and that of the bark of dugulla tice 22 and grass123 (vaccaka, munjam) was also known. Weaving sheds (tantuvayasali) are mentioned; onc such shed was situated outside the suburb of Nalanda, 124 Various kinds of cloths werc known and regular trade was carried on in cloths. Then there was the washing and dyeing industry. Washermen were included among eighteen corporations. Soda (sajjzyakhara) 18 mentioned as washing material The clothes wcrc moistened with it and heated on fire and then washed with clcan water 125 Thrashing against stone, 120 brushing (ghattha), rubbing (mattha), and perfuming (sampadhumiya) of clothes was known 137 Mention is also made of laundices rayagasala).198 Clothes such as towels etc. weic dyed in saflron.120 Clothes dved in red colour (kasal) were worn in hot weather.130 The parirajakas uscd 148 118 130 116 Viza. 8, P 46f; Vy4. Bha 3 p 20a 118 Naya. 4. 117 Ava, cl., p. 156, Aua. Ti, (Hari.), 947, p. 426a Panna. 1. 37. 110 Jambu. Ti, 3, p 193a. Brh. Bha., 1. 2996. 111 Suya Ti II., 6. p 112 Nisi cu, 7, p. 467 193 Brh Bha., 2 3675. Aua. cal., P 282. 125 Naya, 5, p. 74; also Ava,. cu II. P 61. 126 Pinda Nir 34. Aca II 5.1, 367; Brh. Su, 1. 45. 138 Vya. Bhi., 10.484. 119 Naya 1, p. 7. 180 Bph. Bhu. Pi., 013. 197 TL

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98 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA to wear clothes dyed in red ochre (geruya).131 The profession of a rajaka, washerman, combined with itself the profession of a dyer as well. MINING AND METALLURGY India was rich in mineral wealth and so in ancient India mining was an important industry. The principle kinds of ores obtained from mines were ron, copper, tin, lead, silver (hiranna or ruppa), gold (suvanna) and diamond.131 Kaliyadiva possessed rich mines of gold, jewels and diamond.103 Iron and other metals were obtained by fusion.134 Besides metals there were hundreds of mineral substances such as salt (lona), soda (usa), yellow orpiment (hariyala), vermilion (hingulaya), arsenic (manosila), mercury (sasaga), antimony (angana) and otheis.133 In those days Indians and specially women-folk were as fond of ornaments as they are now. So gold-smiths (suvannakara) had a flourishing trade.136 Kumaranandi is mentioned as a rich gold-smith of Campa,137 Musiyadaraya was another gold-smith (kalaya) of Teyalipura,138 Fourteen kinds of ornaments are mentioned : a chain of cightecn strings of pearls (hara), a chain of nine strings of pearls (addhahala), a single string of pearls (egavali), a necklace of gold and gems(kanagavali), a necklace of jewels (rayanadali), a necklace of pearls (muttavali), an armlet for upper arm (keura), a bracelet(kadaya), an armlet (tudiya), finger rig (mudda), ear-rings (kundala), a chain round thc chest (urasitta), ci est-jewel (culamanz) and ornament worn between the eye-brows on the forehcad (trlaya). 130 The ornaments hara, addahara, tisaraya (a chain of three strings of pearls), palamba (a pearl pendant), kadisutta (waist band), gevizja (neckchain), angulejjaya (rings), kayabharana (ornainents of the hau), karlaga, tudiya, muddra, kundala, mauda (diadem), valaga (bracelcts),140 angaya (bracelets worn on the upper arm), payapalamba (oinament reaching the I feet),141 vatthasuttaga (ornament string for the waist) and m avz 119 weic worn by males. The ornaments foi ladies were neura (anklcts), chala (girdle), hara, kadaga, khuddaya (a ring), valaya, kundala, rayana (cwels) 3 and dinaramala (a necklace of jewels with a string of dinara)." 191 Nisi.ci, 13. p. 865. 199 ibid. 5, p. 412 Panna. 1 15; Tru4 319 131 Nava. 17, p. 202, Ultara 36.73 134 Brh. Bha. i. 1090 186 Uttari. Su 36 74 , Suja II 3 61, Panna l 15 136 It is said that the ornaments of Visakha were made in four months with five hundied gold-smiths working day and night. (Dhammapada A I. pp 384 ff) 181 Ava, cu p. 397. 138 Nayi., 14. 189 Jambu. Ti S , 3, P 216f, tui cu, p 465 140 Dr. Su, 31, p. 19 2, Kalpa. Su, 4. 62. 141 Naya, 1. p. 30. 142 Raya. Si., 137. 143 Naya, 1, p. 11. 144 Kalpa. Su.; 3.36; also see Dhammapada A. I, p. 394,

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PRODUCTION 99 A golden fronlict mcasuring four fingers (patta) 146 and signet rings (namamudda) were common.140 Thc clcphauts and horses were decorated with ornaments. The elephants are desciibcd as fitted with armours and decorated with neckornaments made of various gems and jewels and upper garment. The horscs also were gaily caprisoned with armour and dccorated with small mirrors (thasaga) on their waists and chowries."7 Alayura. gaculikas are referred to as ornaments of cows. 148 Then the rich and the kings used goldcn vessels for cating and drinking. The chair, bed-stcads, thrones and royal cars used by kings inlaid with gold.140 Golden vases (bhingara) were not unknown.150 Silver (rajata) was used frequently. Silver vessels are mentioned freely.151 Among precious mctals and jcwc!lcry mcntion may be made of precious stones, jewels, pearls, cunches, corals, i ubics, sa gomedaya (zircon), rucaka, anka, sphatika (quartz) lohitaksa, marakata (emerald), masaragalla,163 bhujagamocaka (sci pentine), indranila (sapphie), hamsagarbha (a variety of rock-crysti), pulaka, sangandhika (a ruby candiaprabha, vaidurya (cat's eye), jalakanta or candrahanta (moon-stone) and suryakanta154 (sun-stone). Nanda is mentioned as a rich jeweller of Rayagiha.165 Bhandagara was known as a ti casury where sixteen kinds of jewels were prescrvcd.150 Wc also hcar osten of expert stringers (muttis).157 WORKERS IN METALS The smiths (kammira) had a flourishing trade. They supplicd agriculture with ploughsharcs, spadcs and other implements. Iron sticks, chains and various other instruments aic mcntioned.108 Domestic vessels such as pots, pans and bowls were prepared from iron (aya), tin (taua), copper (tamba), zinc (Jasada) and Icad (sasaga).160 145 161 150 161 152 153 164 W cu 7, P 105 146, Aia. Ti (Haus ), p. 700. Viea 2 P 13 119, Vya. Bha. 3 35. Cf the list of Pritidunu in Vija. T., 1, p. 42a bid, , P 26. toid cf 12a Kalpa, si 4 89 Also mentioned in the rumu ana III 43 28, Mahabhi VII 16 66 Masaragalla stones were obtained froin Masita hill (Rhys Davids, llilinda, Trans 1771 6) According to Sammolua Vinodini (p 6) it is keba,amaz According to Di Sunil Kumar Chatterji (New Indian Antiquar), Vol II (1939-10), lowryci, Musa agulla is of Chinesc origin Urtara. Su 36 751, Panna l'17, also of Brhatsamhla (79, 4 f), Dovyatadana (XVIII, P 229), Malindapaxla, 118 The Paramatthadiapani, the com. on the Udana, p 103 mentions the following gems t'ajura, mahanila, indanila, marakata, uslunya, padumayuga, phussaraga, hahhatar.a, bhulaha,Jumala, lontanha, phalika, parala, joturange, gomudaka, goineda, sogardhiha, mutla, sani ha, anjanamula, rujulatta, amatabbaka, plyaka and brahasiapis also sce Agastirat's list in the Les Lapidairas Indiens, p. 137 by Louis Finot, Paris, 1896. Naya 13 P 111 Nisi Cu, 9, p. 311, Aia. Ti (Han), 947. p. 426a. See Supra. Ova. Sr, 38. p. 173. The com. adds, kacamadurtiga "). ofliolohe, kartwaloha, haraputaka and rilika, 155 158 158 169

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100 LIFE EN ANCIENT INDLA Among other vessels we had plates (thala), small plates (pai), cistern (thasaga, tasa in Hindi), cups (mallaga), spoons (kaiviya), avaeja (tapikahasta, com.?), frying pans (avapakka), and bowls (karodza, ka tori in Hindi). 160 Among cooking utensils mention is made of various pans or kettle-pans such as tavaya, (round iron plate), karallz (khapada in Hindi), kanduya (saucepan), etc.92 Candalaga (cylindrical cistern, kandal in Hindi) is mentioned as a copper vessel 182 Iron was converted into steel and various tools and weapons, and coats of mail, already referred to, were prepared on a large scale Then knives (peppalaga), ncedles (sur arya), nail-cutters (nakkhaccani) and surgical boxes (satthakosa) were also 163 fashioned. Smith shops (kammalasala aggukamma) 164 are mentioned. There was one such shop in Vesali 165 Smith's shops were also known as samara166 or aesa.157 Iron furnaces (ayakottha) are referred to which were filled with ore and a man handled it with tonigs (sandasi), then it was taken and put on the anvil (ahrkarani).168 Iron was malleted, cut, torn, filed and was moulded by black-smiths.160 Bronziers (ka msakara) are included among the nine karus. 170 Copper plates were often used for inscribing messages. 171 IVORY WORK Ivory work (dantavanija) was still another industry Money was awarded to pulindas, who killed elephants and brought tusks.17a People killed elephants for the sale of ivory.178 Images of ivory were known.174 Ivory workers are mentioned among important artisans (silpa-arya). 176 Work in bone, horn, conch-shell is mentioned Necklaces were made from the bones of monkey and were put round thc ncck of children. Necklaces from ivory and cowries were also common 170 POTTERY The potters (kumbhakaja) made various kinds of pots, jars, bowls and vessels. Saddalaputta is mentioned as a well-known potter of Polasapura, 100 See marriage gifts mentioned in the Com on the Naya 101 Vila. 3, p. 22, Bhag. 11. 9. 1, p. 42a 22, Bhag. 11. 9. 181 Suwa 183 187 168 188 Bih Bha. 1 2893f 184 Vya. Bha 10 484 166 Ava cu, P 292. 186 Utlara u 1. 26 Ac. II, 2. 303 Bhag 16 1 Uttara, Su, 19 67. 170 Jambu 3, P 193a. 171 Ava Ti., (Han), P 173 Ava. cu II, P 296. 173 zbid. P 169. 174 Brh. Bha, 1. 2469. 175 Pannu. 1. 37. 178 Nisi. Ci., 7, p. 464. 683.

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PRODUCTION TOI who owned five hundred shops outside the city, where a number of seivants was employed The usual way of making the warcs was this lumps of clay (mattia) were kncaded with water and mixed with ashes (chara) and dung (karisa); the mixture was placed on a whiccl (cakka) and by rotating it various vessels such as karaya (karra in Hindi)*77, varaya, pihalaya, ghadaya, addhaghaday'a, halasaja, alinjara, jambula, and uttrya 178 were moulded.179 The wel vessels were then dried and baked. In connection with the potter's shops five apartments (sala) arc mentioned. In paniyasala thc poticis sold thou wares, in bhindasalii the vessels were kept in safety, in kannasali the vessels were moulded, in pucanasala they were baked, and in indianastili the fuel such as grass, dung, etc, was stored 180 It seems that like thic weavers and the black-smiths, the potters found favour with the Jain samanas, who frequently took sheltei in their shops.161 The potter Saddalaputta, to whom rcfcicnce has been made already, was an adherent of the Jain faith. Halahala was another rich potterwoman of Sravasti in whose shop Gosala stayed.189 BUILDING INDUSTRIES The ait of house-building seems to have been considerably developed in ancient India Masonry and carpentry were important occupations and masons and carpenters were employed to lay foundation of buildings, palaces, halls, stair-cascs, underground constructions, tanks and temples, Wooden images were prepared 188 Thc carpenters made furniture for houscs, such as seats, chairs, bed-steads, pegs, boxes, toys, etc Wooden sandals (pdalchanija) were prepaicd from the wood of various ticcs184 by clever artists and were sct with vaidunya and cxcellent nista and anana (granite) and ornamented with glittering and precious stones 185 They also built ships, boats, vchicles of all sorts, carts and chariots of diffcrcnt kinds and various machines A rathakala or a chariot-maher is mentioned as one of the four jcwels of a certain king 186 We are told that a lathakala built an aerial car known as garuda 187 Axe, hatchct and other implements were known as tools of a carpenter 188 178 277 Karaya or dhaimaharaya is mentioned as a water-pot uscd by the Jain monks (Brh Bha 1.2882, 2890) It is also referred to in the Cullavagga (V. 13 l) with a strainer so fixed into it that a quantity of water could be filtered quickly Perhaps it was a wooden pot Four types of earthen jar (ghata) are referred to chiddahudda, bodlahudda, khandahudda, and sagala; Ava cu, p 122 179 Ura. 7, p 51. Anu. Su, 132, p. 139 For a similar description sec Kusa Jataka (No. 531), V P 291 180 Nisi cu. 15 p 1058, Brh Bhit 2 3444 f. 181 Cf Ava cu, P 283, also Ad Ti, (IIari,), p 484 f 182 Bhag. 15 186 Ava, cil, p 115 184 Bth Bla 3, 4097 186 Kalpa si, 1. 14, cf. Maktuagga, V. 8 1.3; Dhammapada A, Vol. III, pp. 580, 481." 186 Ava Cu.II. p. 50. 187 ibid. p. 541; Vasu, p 62 f, also mentioned in the Dhammapada A., III, p. 135. 188 Uttara. Su., 19. 66.

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102 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Bricks (attika), 180 earth (pudhavi), gravel (sakkara), sand (raluya) and stone (uvala) were known as building materials. Stuccocd housc (sudhakammanta) is mentioned; stone-houses (selovat thana) were common.'91 LIGHT AND FUEL Lamps are mentioned which werc lighted after sunset. Threc kuads of lamps are referred to, viz , avalambana, nikampana and panjara 'The first was fastened by chains, the second had upright shafts and thc thud was spherical like globe. The lamps were lighted in the shrines of Skanda and Mukunda where sometimes the images caught firc by the upturning of the lamps by dogs or mice 193 Torch-bearers (diviya) were also a familiar feature of the times.104 Cow-dung and wood were used as fuel. CANC AND LEAF WORK Then there were mat-workers (chavviya), grass sandal-makers (munjapaduhakura),195 rope-makers (varuda),196 winnowing sievc-makers197 and basket-makers Other products of this industry were palm-lcaf fans (talavanta ; valavijana), 188 umbrellas (rusallana),199 made from palasa leaf and bamboo sticks, brooms (onusampacchani),200 and bamboo boxes (venuphala).201 Then there were loops or pingocs (sikkaka) which were used by monks for carrying fruits, etc, in the absencc of bowls Kapotika (a bamboo lath provided with slings ai each end) was used to carry an acarya, a child or a sidhu suflcring from serious pain 202 Brooms (rayaharana) and bags (goni) were made from da, bha and munja glass 203 Shops (kammanta) are mentioned where different articles were made from darbha grass, bark, trees, etc 201 The leaves of the birch tree (bhujapatta) were used for sending messages.205 DYES, GUMS, AND CHEMICALS Among the miscellaneous industries, may be mentioned the dyeproducing work. Probably dyes were made from substances such as 180 Brh. Bha. 3. 470. 190 Suyd II, 3. 61. 101 Aca. II, 2. 303. 192 See Naya Ti., 1, 42a, under marriage gifts 193 Brh Bha. 2. 3465. 184 Nist. c, 9, P 522 196 Panna. 1. 87. 100 No co., II, P. 747. 191 bod. 208 Ava. cu, p. 138., Naya. 1, p 11. 109 Brh. Bha. 3. 4097. 300 Raya. Si. 21, p. 63 201 Suya. 4. 2. 8. 303 Brh. Bhd. 1. 2886 f. 303 bid. 2. 3675. 304 Aca. II. 2. 303. 306 Ava, c., p. 630.

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PRODUCTION 103 cikura (a plant) hartala (yellow orpiment), sarisava (mustard), the flower's of kimsuka, japakusuma and bandhujivaka, hirgula (vermilion), kurkuma (saffron), blue lotus, szrasa flower's, and collyrium, etc, 208 The colour of kimiraya (crimson) is mentioned.207 Preparation of lac-juice (lakkharasa) was also an important industry, and it was used by ladies and children for adorning their hands and feet. 308 It is mentioned in the cremation rites that the mark of red lac (alattapudaga) was applied to the stomach and back of those who were given to vultures for feeding,208 A variety of stone, which was used for polishing the pots, is mentioned. 310 LEATHER WORK Leather industry was in a high state of development. The cammakara also known as padalara213 or the cobbler manufactured a large variety of things They prepared leather bags for holding wateral, straps, (cammeitha) 213 and made fittings for the musical insti uments (kinika) 924 The cobblers also prepared various qualities of shoes which formed an important part of their industry. Various kinds of hides were known. Katt (skin) was used by monks to strew the fruits etc in order to protect them from dust, it was also used as a covering for want of clothing, 115 Hairless skin was prescribed for the use of a Jain nun.210 Five kinds of skin were specifically known, the hide of cow, buffalo, goat, sheep and wild animals 317 The skin of a tiger (divi) and that of a hyena (taraccha) was prescribed for the use of nuns in case they were sick. 918 The hide of a dog is mentioned 210 FLOWERS, PERFUMES AND COSMETICS Flowers were grown in large quantities as we have seen. The garlandmakers made bcautiful garlands and bouqucts, 220 which are described als filling the ten quarters with their delightful fragrance and charmingly interwoven with fragrant flowers of all scasons and of various colours, attracting swarms of bccsa1 producing swcet sounds. We hear of Ajiupaya, a garland-maker who had a flower-garden (pupp'arama) in Rayagiha where flowers of fine colours were grown Ajjunaya used to 396a 11.; Ava. Ti (Hari), p. 398 308 907 308 900 210 All 919 313 214 115 216 211 218 210 210 111 Naya 1 P 10, also Bhag 18 6. Anu Su 37, Ava. Ti, Harl.), bid Nirya. 3, p. 51; Uv 1, P Music II. P 764 Pinda Nur. Ti. 15 Niss cu , II, p 747 Panna 37. Ava cu, p 292. Vya Bha 3, P. 20a. Brh Bha. 1. 2885 Bih su. 3 3, Bha. 3 3810. ibid 3 3824 bid 3 3817 f ibid. 1 1016 Naya. 8. p. 95. Kalba, Si. 3. 87.

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104 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDLA the time of the wedding were decorated with crests (mauda) werd were go to the garden every day with his flower-basket (patthiya : pidaga) to gather flowers and sell them on the high-road of the town.9a Pupphachajizya, pupphapadalaga, pupphacangeri are mentioned as flower baskete 598 Various kinds of garlands (malla : dama) are mentioned which were made from grass, munja, reeds (vetta), madana flowers, peacock feathers (pincha), cotton stalk, horns, conch-shells, bones, bhinda (Abelmoschus Esculentus), wood, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds and green grass. The five-coloured garlands of virana grass were made in Mathura and were worn at the time of cohabitation.224 Flower-crests (mauda) were also known.826 The doors were decorated with garlands and wreaths at the time of the wedding-ceremony and on other special occasions. Mention is made of bathing-towels (ullaniya), tooth-sticks (dantavana), oily substances (abbhangana), fragrant unguents (uvvattana), baths (majjana), clothes (vattha), ointments (ulevana) flowers, ornaments, incense and mouth-perfume (muhavasa).228 Perfuines and csscntial oils were prepared. The oils were prepared fiom atasi, kusumba and sarisava.227 Oil was also obtained from the mountain Maru. Sayapaga and sahassapaga were medicinal oils prepared by boiling them a hundred times or a thousand times with the concoction of some medicinal herbs. Other nourishing and exhilarating fragrant oils were known which gave relief to the body. The application of sandalwood paste was very common ; varicus kinds of scented water were known.228 Perfumes of sweet scents from Dardara and Malaya arc mentioned.220 Then there is mention of kottha, 230 tagara (Tabernaemontana Coronarea), ela (the bark of cinnamon), coya (cardamom), campa, damana, kurkuma, (saffron), candana (sardal-wood), usira (thc fragrant root of the plant Andropogon Muricatus), marua, jali, juhiya, malliya, nhanamallia, ketagi, padali, nemaliya, aguru (aloc), lavanga (clove), viisa (Gendarussa Vulgaris) and kappura (camphor) as fragrant substance.231 Incense was burnt in the shrines, slecping chambers and in the cities. Dhuvakaducchuya and dhuvaghadi aie mentioned as incense pots.232 amphor and is 31, 319 312 Anta , 3. p 31 f. 233 Raya su 23, also cf. Ara, cu. II, p. 62. 234 Nisi cu 7, p. 464, 26 Das cu. 2, P. 76. 226 Uva. 1 237 Ava cu. II, 319 198 Ova Su 31, p 121 f The Droyavadana (XXVII, p. 403) refers to milk, saffron, camphor and various aromatic herbs to perfume the water. 329 Naya Su 1, p 30 Also see Ramayana, II. 91 24. 280 Kota (kustha) or 'costus' has been mentioned in the Atharvaveda. It 19 said to have grown in the snowy mountains of the north and thence been taken to the people in the eastern art It still grows in the same region, i e, Kashmir as mentioned in the Atharvaveda (Dr. Motichand, 1 of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, VIII, 1940, p. 71) 101 Raya Su 39, p 91. 983 Naya 8,00 ; Raya. Su 100, also see Gurja Prasanna Majumdar's article on Toilet in the Indian Culture, 1, 1-4, p. 658 f.

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PRODUCTION 105 Perfumes and various other articles were sold in the markets; perfumers' shops (gandhiyasala) were also common in those times.. 233 The feet were rubbed, kneaded (samvaha), stroked (palimaddana), painted (raya), smeared (makkha) and anointed (abblunga) with oil, ghee, or marrow; they were rubbed (ullodha) and shampooed (uvvala) with lodhra, ground drugs (kakka), powder (cunna) or dye (vanna), washed with hot or cold water, anointed with ointment and perfumed with incense. 204 230 Then among the articles of toilets and cosmetics of women mention may be made of collyrium box (anjni), 235 lodhra-powder, lodhra-flowers, pills (guliya), kustha, tagara, agaru pounded with usira, oil for anointing the face and lip-salve (nandicunna) Myrobalans (amalaga), stick to paint the mark upon the forchead (tilagakarani), pin to apply collyrium 237 to the eyes (anjanasalaga), pincers (sandasaga), comb (phantha), ribbon to bind up the hair (sihalipasaga), looking glass (adamsaga), aleca nut (puyaphala) and betel (tambolaya) 238 OTHER OCCUPATIONS 1 Besides the above-mentioned people who lived by the plough, by herds, and by merchandise, there were other occupations where utilities 'consisted in a mere service rendered and not m actual labour Amongst them may be mentioned those who embraced learned professions, such as teachers (ayariya), physicians (tegicchaka vejja), men qualified in testing sites for house-building (vatthupadhaga), men well-versed in the science of prognostication (lakkhanapadhaka) and fortune-tellers (nemiltaka). Amongst those who amused the public were musicians (gandhavvia), acrobats (nada), dancers (nattaga), rope-walkers (jalla), wrestlers (malla), boxers (mutthiya), Jesters (velambaya), reciteis (kahaga), jumpers (pavaga), ballad-reciters (lasaga), story-tellers (arkkhaga), pole-dancers (lankha), picture-show-men (mankha), pipers (tunailla), lute-players (tumbavinya), snake charmers (bhujaga), minstrels (magaha), 239 jesters (hasakara), buffoons (damarakara), flatterers (catukara), love-makers (kandappakaia) and mimes (kokkunya). Then there were various attendants on the king such as foot-soldiers carrying an umbrella, throne, footstool, pair of sandals (sapauya), staff-carriers (latthiggaha), spear-carriers (kunta), bow-carriers (cava), chowiy-carriers (camara), fetter-carriers 133 Vya. Bha. 23, cf ten kinds of gandhas mula, sara, pheggu, taca, papatika, rasa, puppha phala, patta and gandha (Paramatthadipani, the com. on the Udana. p 300) 284 Aca, II, 13 395, also Brh. Bha 5 6035. 285 also see Ramayana II. 91. 76 336 It was well stocked in the Mauryan treasury for the purpose of making perfume, incense, etc. Aloe-wood is a large ever green tree of Sylhet and Tenassarim, Dr Motichand, op cit, p 85, also see Arthasastra, p 80 237 In the Mahiwagga (VI. n 1) five kinds of eye-ointment or collyrium are mentioned; black collyrium, 'rasa' ointments, 'sota' ointment obtained from the streams and rivers, 'geruka' and 'kahalla' or soot obtained from the flame of a lamp 18 Suya 4 2 7 ff, for tambul see Girija Prasanna Majumdar's article on Food in the Indian Culture 1, 1-4, p 419. 208 Ova p.2

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106 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA (pasaga), account-book-carriers (potthaya), board-carriers (phalaka), seatcarriers (pidha), lute-carriers (vina), oil pot-carriers (kutuva) and betel boxcarriers (hadappha). 940 II LABOUR Nature and man are the primary factors of production. We harc considered the part played by nature in production and shall now consider labour or what is called the human factor in Economics. Unfortunately, we do not know much about the details of labour A distinction is made between high and low (jungyya) labour. The hunters, fowlers, fishermen, washermen, peacock-tamers, barbers, cobblers? and in some countries even black-smiths and wine-sellers came under the category of low Then the following fifteen occupations were despised, since there was fear of injury to living beings (kammadana) in these occupations : dealing in charcoal by preparing it from firewood (rigalakamma), dealing in wood (vanakamma), carts (sadakamma), occupation with fares (bhadikamma), ploughing (phodikamma), ivory (danta), lac (lakkha), liquors (rasa), and poison (visa), crushing of sugarcane etc. by machinery (jantapilana), branding animals or castrating bulls etc. (nillanchana), setting fire to woods (davaggidavanaya), draining lakes and ponds (saradahatalavasosanaya), and bringing up women for immoral purposes (asarjanaposanaya)." SLAVES AND SERVANTS Among various servants employed in the houses there were kammakaras, ghodas (catia), pesas (messengers), dasas and govalas (cowherds). They were apparently not so enthusiastic about religion. It is said that often they made fun of the Jain monks. There were quarrels between the servants and the sadhus and instigated by the servants the householder sometimes turned the sadhus out of the house." Slavery was quite common in those days. Both male and female slaves (dasas and dasts) were household or domestic servants who resided in the family of the master and performed all sorts of household work. Slavery was so common that not only kings and wealthy people but even others kept slaves in their families. The slaves are mentioned along with land (khetta), dwelling place (vatthu), gold (hiranna) and cattlc (pasu) as the means of pleasure. Dasa and dasi are also included among 240 ibed , p. 130. 1 Nisi, cu 4. p. 345 ; 11. p. 747. bid 16, p. 1117 8 Uva. 1, p. 11, Bhag. 8 5, cf. the five low occupations in the com. of Digh., Vol. I, p. 230. 4 Brh Bha 1.2634. 5 Cr Ota 6, p 211. 8 ['ttard. Su 3. 17.

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PRODUCTION 107 ten kinds of external possessions." Six classes of slaves are specifically mentioned . thosc who were slaves from their birth (gabbha), those who were bought (kiya), those who could not pay their debts (anaya),' those who were made slaves during famine (dubbhikkha), 10 those who could not pay the fine (savaraha), and those who were taken prisoners (ruddha).11 Reference has bcen made to Crlaya, a slave boy who was born of cilatika. He was strong and sturdy and used to take care of Sumsuma, the daughter of his master, and made her play with other children. Once he stole the toys of other children and was tuined out by his master.19 Panthaya was another handsome slave boy of Dhana of Rayagiha, who used to carry his master's child in his arm to the royal road to play. He also used to take his master's tiffin to the prison at the timc of the latter's imprisonment.19 The Avasyaka curni refers to another slave-boy who, after the death of his master, became thc owner of his property.14 Like slave-boys, slave-girls also were employed in domestic servicc. The Uttaradhyayana commentary refers to a festival of the female slaves (dasimaha).16 The Jain texts mention a number of female slaves who were brought from foreign countries They put on the garb of their countries, and werc skilful, accomplished and well-trained. Thcy were hunch-backed women (khujja), kirata women (alaya), dwarf women (vamana), misshapen women (vadabhi), women of Babbara, Bausa, Joniya, Palhava, Isinaya, Dhorukina, Lasiya, Lakusika, Dravida, Simhala, Araba, Pulinda, Pakkana, Murunda, Sabara, and of Persian race (Parasa). Fcmale slaves also were given away by way of gifts." Nurses were engaged to tend children. Five kinds of nurses are mentioncd : wet-nursc (khira), toilet-nurse, (mandana), bathi-nu se (majjana), play-nurse (kilavana) and lap-nursc (anka).18* Slaves could regain frecdom through voluntary manumission by their master. The custom of making the female servants free froin slavery by washing their forehead (matthayadhoyao) is mentioned." I Brh Bha. 1. 825. 8 Cf seven kinds of slaves enumerated in the Manu. (VIII, 415), fourteen in the rajnaval. kya (14, p. 249), Kautilya devotes a whole chapter on alavery (Artha pp 205-208). 9 The Pinda Nir (319) refers to a widow who purchaged two palis of oil from a grocer on credit, on non-payment of which she had to serve him as a slave-girl Cf on paying the value (for which one is enslaved), a slave shall regain his Aryahood (Artha, p. 207), 10 Cf. Vya Bha 2.207, also Maha Ni. p 28. 11 Nisi cu II, p. 741 Candan, the first female disciple of Mahavira, was a slave of this type (Ava cu, p. 318). According to the Fatakas, slavery might be incurred through capture, commuted death sentence, debt, voluntary self-degradation or judicial punishment (Rhy Davids, Cambridge History of India, P 205 ) 13 Naya. 18, p. 207, also Ava cu p 497. 13 Naya. p 2, p. 51 f. 14 P. 540. 15 3, 124. 18 Naya. 1, p 21 ; Bhag. 9 0. 17 Naga 1, p. 23. 13 zbid. I, p. 21. 19 Ibid. ; Vya. Bha, 8.208; this custom is also mentioned by Ndrada (V. 42 f.),

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108 HIRED LABOURERS The hirelings or the wage-earners (bhavaga) laboured for others in return for some payment, whether in kind or in money. The position of the hired workers was not happy like those of slaves, but still they enjoyed a certain freedom which the slaves could not enjoy. Four kinds of wage-earners are incntioned :-(1) who were given their daily wages (divasabhayaga) either in kind or in money, (11) who were specifically engaged on a journey (jattabhayaga), who were employed on contract system of the whole lot (uccattabhayaga), who were employed on daily contract basis supulating that, if they did the contracted work, they would be paid the stipulated sum (kabbalabhayaga).20 Then the kodumbiyapurisas or the general family servants are mentioned; they were the servants of the family and carried out the instructions of their masters. Other scrvants did the work of removing ashes, cowdung and rubbish; they cleaned and sprinkled the place, offered water for washing feet and for bathing and did all external duties (bahurapesana). Others did the duty of thrashing, pounding, grinding, husking, cooking, serving and distributing food. A valet (ceta) worked as a footman to the king.23 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA CAPITAL Capital includes all wealth other than land intended for further production of wealth Wealth production would be negligible and primitive without the help of capital III In those days large scale production was unknown and there was no idea of what is called now the co-operative movement. 20 Tha 4 271 The state took away a pretty heavy share of the national wealth in the form of taxes, fires etc and the state capital was not invested for purpose of industrial development The only people who possessed capital were a few rich tradesmen, the dhanavantas, who owned one crore of silver, gems. pearls, corals and jewels inherited from their father and forefathers, and the tbbhas These people also cither spent their surplus on luxuries and unproductive purposes like alms-giving or hoarded the wealth a Cf Narada (V 24) 2) 22 Naya, 7, p 88 23 Ora Su 9 1 PB I., p 211. 3 Vya Bha 1, p. 131 a. 8 Cf. Uva. 1, p 6.

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PRODUCTION Jog IV ORGANISATION The function of an organiser is to plan the enterprise, bring together land. labour and capital in the most suitable proportion and to take the risk involved in the undertaking. It is remarkable that, in spite of a comparative lower stage of trading enterprise and lack of fluid capital for investment in industrial purposes, there was commercial or trading organisation. Important craftsmen such as goldsmiths, painters and washermen were organised into guilds (seni) Jain texts like those of the Buddhists mention eighteen guilds. We are told that in honour of the cakka jewel, Bharata called upon eighteen guilds (senippaseni) and ordered them to exempt people from customs, taxes and confiscations, to stop the transaction of buying and selling, to prevent policemen from entering the houses of the public and to cancel fines and debts. The guilds of the goldsmiths, the painters, 8 and washermen are mentioned and about the rest we do not know much." Neither we are told about their character, their constitution or organisation. But it seems that a seni was organised in the form of a union and its functions were legislative, judicial and executive. A seni worked for the welfare of its members and it had a right to approach the king and demand justice. We are told of a painter who was ordered to be executed by prince Malladinna ; thc guild of the painters visited the king, explained the matter and requested him to quash the sentence passed against the member of its union. The king was pleased to commute the sentence into banishment'. Then we hear of a washermen's guild approaching the king in order to demand justice. In the words of Dr. Majumdar, a Sreni was a corporation of people belonging to the same or different caste but belonging to the same trade and industry. The srenis were the representative assemblies of the state and the king was obliged to respect their feelings and views. 10 1 Jambu. 3. 43, p 193 f, also cf. Ava. Cu. p. 260. ! Naya 8, p. 105. 8 zbid., P 107 + Mua cu II, p 182. 5 The Tain texts mention five crafts (szppa) which are said to have been taught by Usabha. The five artisans were potters, painters, cloth-makers, black-smiths and barbers (ibid p 150 ) Only four guilds are mentioned in the Mfahaummagga jataha (No 546), VI, P 427 the woodworkers, the smiths, the leather workers, and the painters However, in thc conimentary on the Jambuddirapannat: the following enghteen corporative unions are mentioned kumbhara (potter), pattarlla (palel in Gujerat), sulannahara (goldsmith), suzakara (cook,), gandhalla (perfumer), kasavaga (barber), malakara (garland-maker), kacchahara (vegetable-seller, kachi in Hindi). lambolia (dealer in betel-lea), cammayaru (leather-Worker), jantapilaza (presser of oil, sugar cane etc ), ganchiya (towel-seller) chimpaya (calico printer), kamsahara (brazier), szaga (tailor), guara ), bhilla and dhivara Thefirst nine belonged to the category of narua and the last nine to that, of karua (3 43, p 1931); also see the list given by Majumdar, Corporatire life in ancient India, p. 18 ff. Also Ramayana, II 83 12 ff. 8 Vinaya, IV, p 226; S K, Das, op. cit., p. 244 7 Naya 8, P 107. 8 Ava. cu II, p 182. e Corporative Life in Ancient India, p. 17. 10 Sec Dikshitar, op. cit., pp. 899-47. ---

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IIO LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Like craft-guilds there were merchant leagues also which included river and sea-going merchants and the caravan traders. We come across frequently caravans of carts laden with goods travelling across the country. There was a caravan leader (satthavaha) who used to lead his caravan slowly by the road flanked with stalls and villages, encamping at the proper places. A satthavaha was considered as an important state officer who was expert in archery and administration, and who with the permission of the king used to lead a caravan with various merchandise. 28 We frequently meet caravan leaders proclaiming publicly that those who accompanied them on the trip would be provided with food, drinks, clothes, utensils and medicines free of charge. The insecure condition of the roads and the attack by organised band of robbers in those days necessitated a sort of co-operation among the travelling merchants and so they appointed one man as their leader, A setthi was the foreman of the eighteen craftsmen. Setthi is mentioned as an official whose forehead was invested with a golden plate inscribed with the image of a god. 11 G. Brh. Bha. 1.3078. 13 Niss cd. 9. p. 622. - Ann cu. p. li. 14 Ava. Ti. (Hari.), p. 114 a ff. 16 Brh. Bha. 3-3767. Cf. Rhys Davida, Cambridge History of India, 207; the famous setthe Anithapindika of Savatthi, the millionaire lay-supporter of the Sangha, had some authority over his fellow traders. Roya. sd. 148; also cf. Rhys Davids, op. att., p. 208.

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CHAPTER 11 DISTRIBUTION The division of accumulated wealth between the various members of the community and of the annual income between its different members is the chieffactor of distribution. In fact, very often the factors of production were conrolled by the same person or persons and so all the shares of the produce went to him. Thus on the whole, the question of distribution did not arise in those days as we find in the later stage of the evolution of society. Four principal shares of distribution are to be ditinguished: rent, wages, interest and profits. RENT Unfortunately, we know very little as to how the principles of distribution were governed. We have seen about the rent the amount of which was chiefly based on custom. One-ninth of the share of the produce from land went to the king, and almost all the rest was available for distribution among the people. About wages or the remuneration of labour we have seen four kinds of wage-earners, who worked either for daily wages or on contract system. The wages were paid to the workers in kind or in money, generally in the former. We are told about a cow-herd who was given one-fourth of the milk produced daily as his wages ;17 another was given the whole milk of a cow or a buffalo on the eighth day.18 Share-holders were given one-half, one-fourth or one-sixth of the profit.20 INTEREST Interest is the remuneration or the price for the services of capital. Loans and usury were common. Anaya or debt is mentioned. It is stated that, if the debtor (dharaniya) was staying in his own country, he was bound to pay the debts, but if he went abroad and had no money, he was not responsible, for it is said that if a debtor went abroad on a sea-voyage and on the way his ship foundered and he saved his life with great difficulty with one piece of cloth on his person, he was not liable to pay the debts. If the debtor, however, had money, although not sufficient to pay the creditor in full, the latter could sue him and get his partial payment, which would be reckoned in full settlement of his debt. If the debts could not be paid in time, the debtor, however, had to work as a slave to the creditor.20 We have already referred to a widow who 17 Brh Bha 2 3581. 18 Pinda Ntr 369; cf Narada (VI 10) 19 Jid 3, p 280; Suya 11, 2, p 330a; Tha 3 128. 20 Brh. Bha. 1, 2690 f; 6. 6309.

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112 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA purchased two palis of oil from a grocer on credit. The heavy interest meant doubling the debt every day and in course of time, when the woman could not clear it off, she had to serve him as a slave-girl.1 The term which appears in the Jain texts is vaddhi, meaning profit or interest. Gahavai Ananda of Vaniyagama is said to have kept four crores of gold for lending on interest." PROFITS The remuneration to the entrepreneur (organiser) who supplied the fourth factor in production, viz organisation, is called profits. These 'organisers stood between the producer and the trader, who purchased wholesale the surplus produce from the producers and sold it to the petty businessmen. Perhaps the only men who can correspond to these middle men were the rich setthis or the rich traders who travelled from place to place both on land and sea.98 31 Supra, p 107 f. 38 Ura 1. p. 6, 29 PB. I. p. 224.

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CHAPTER III EXCHANGE Exchange is a vital part in economic system. Each individual is ordinarily dependent on others for the satisfaction of his nccds. Whatone does not produce himself must be obtained from others in exchange for what one does produce. INLAND TRADE Trade was carried on briskly by land routes (thala) as well as by water routes (jala) in ancient India. Anandapura," Mahura" and Dasannapura are quoted as examples of thalapattana where trade was carried by land; Diva," Kananadiva and Purimao that of jalapattana where trade was carried by water; and Bharuyakaccha and Tamalitti' that of donamuha where trade was carried by land as well as by water. The town where it was not possible to carry goods by land or water was known as kabbada (a petty-town). Campa was an important industrial centre in those days; it was joined by Mithila. The Nayadhammakaha describes the sea-faring mcrchants (santiattanavavaniyaga) of Campa, who loaded their waggons (sagadzsagada) with various goods and proceeded to deep harbour (gambhira poyapattana) In course of time, they arrived at the port of Mihila and entered the city for trade. Jinapaliya and Jinarakkhiya were other merchants of the town who made the thirteenth voyage of the Lavana Ocean.10 Palita was another businessman of Campa who went by boat (poya) to the town of Pihunda on business." Then Dhana is described as leader of a caravan who proceeded to Ahicchatta on trade with a caravan consisting of bullock-carts laden with merchandise. 12 Ujjeni was another great centre of trade. Wchcar of Dhanavasu. a merchant of this place who left for Campa with a caravan and was attacked by robbers,19 Ujjeni was also conncctcd with Parasakula. Ayala loaded the boats (vahana) with goods and journeyed to Parasaula; he earned plenty of wealth there and anchored at Bennayada." 1 Brh. Bha. Vr. 1, 1090. Aca. ca. 7, p 281. 3 Nisi, cu 5 34 (MSS). * Brh. Bha op. cit. 6 Aca. cu. op. cit. 8 Nisi cu op. cit 1 Brh. Bha. op. cit. 8 Das, cd p 360. Nava 8, p. 97 ff. 10 bid, 9, p. 121 f. 11 Uttara. Su. 21. 2. 12 Naya, 15, p. 169. 18 Aud. Ntr., 1876 f. 16 Utara. Ti. 3, p. 04

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114 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA During the reign of king Pajjoya nine great stores or emporiums (kuttiyavana) are mentioned in Ujjcni, where all sorts of goods, including demons (vanamantara), were available.16 Mathura was another business centre. People lived here only on trade and there was no cultivation ofland in this town. The merchants from Mathura used to go to Dakkhina Mahura on business. The tankana mlecchas of Uttaravaha are mentioned as travelling to Daksinapatha for trade with valuable merchandise such as gold and ivory.18 Soparaya is described as another emporium of trade, which was inhabited by five hundred tradesmen (negama).18 Then we had Surattha,20 which was joined with Pandu Mahura by sea.a. We hear of the horse merchants arriving in Baravai for trade". Vasantapura was another emporium whence traders used to journey to Campa.23 We hear of a merchant going from Khiipaitthiya to Vasantapura.24 Then we had Hatthisisa as a commercial centre where a number of merchants resided. From here the merchants journeyed to Kaliyadiva where there were rich mincs of gold, jewels and diamonds and which was noted for horscs.a5 Then we read of Parasadiva which was visited by the merchants frequently, 28 and Sihaladiya which was a halting place for the sea-faring tradesmen.at From Sihala, Parasa, Babbara Joniya, Damila, Araba, Pulinda, Bahali and other non-Aryan countries India used to get female slaves as noted already. thiya to vaso Campa.3 awas anothere merchants EXPORTS-IMPORTS What commodities were exported or imported or what cxchanged inland we do not exactly know. With regard to inland trade wc hear a number of commodities that were exchanged. We are told that the seafaring merchants of Campa referred to above, loaded their carts with four kinds of goods, viz., that which could be counted (ganima) as betelnuts etc., balanced (dharima) as sugar etc., measured (meya) as ghee, rice, etc. and scrutinized (paricchezza) as cloth, jewel, etc. and making provision of various articles such as rice, flour (samiya), oil, ghee, molasses (gula), curds (gorasa), drinking water, water vessels, medicines, drugs, straw, wood, wearing apparel, and weapons etc. for their journey, they left for Mithila by river. 98 As already mentioned, gold and ivory were 18 Brh. Bha. 3.4220 f. 18 ibid. Vr 1.1239. Ada, cu 472 Ava Ti., 140 a. Brh. Bha 1.2506 Ao Dau, cu, P. 40. Ava, cu II, 107. ibid p 553. zbid. p. 531. Ava. Tt (Hari.), p. 114a, Naya 17, p 2017 Avd. cu. p. 448. Aca. Ti., 6.3, p. 223a. Niyd, 8, p. 08.

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EXCHANGE 115 carried from Uttarapatha to Daksinapatha for sale. Cloth seems to be an important exchangeable commodity. Mathura and Vidisa are mentioned as manufacturing centres of cloths. The country of Gauda was famous for silken garment. We are told that the cloth coming from east to the country of Lata was sold at a higher price. Then Tamalitti, 39 Malaya88 Kaka,34 Tosali,86 Sindhu, Daksinapatha, et and China 98 were famous for various kinds of textiles. Nepala was noted for fluffy blankets ; the woolen blankets were sold at a high price in Maharastra.40 The Nayddhammakahd refers to various kinds of cloth, which were loaded in waggons and were carried for sale.1 Horse was another important commodity that was exchanged in those days. Kaliyadiva was known for beautiful horses and it contained mines of silver, gold, jewels and diamonds. Then the name of Kamboja is mentioned for horses.43 Uttarapatha was famous for thorough-bred horses.44 Dilavaliya was noted for mules. 56 Then Pundra was known for black cows:46 Bheranda for sugarcane ;47 and Mahahimavanta for gosisa sandal.48 Parasaula or Persia was used to export various commodities such as sankha, phopphala, candana, agaru, manjittha, silver, gold, gems, pearls and corals.48 The merchants who returned to thcir country with valuable goods sometimes practised fraud in order to avoid payment of the royal taxes, The Rayapaseniya refers to the traders in aika jewel, conch-shells or ivory, who did not take the regular highway but always took to the more difficult routes in order to escape the taxes. We hear of the king of Bennayada who detected the trick of a deceitful merchant and put him under arrest.61 89 29 Ava Ti (Hari), P 307 30 Acu Ti II 5, p 361 a. 81 Brh Bha Vr 3 3884. 12 Vya. 7 32 33 Anu Su 37, p. 30 34 Nisi cu. 7, p 467 36 Ibid 88 Aca. cu p 364, Aca. Ti II, 1, p 361a 8 Aca, cu 303 88 Brh Bha 2 3662. ibid. Vr 3 3824, 40 bid 3 3914. Naya, 17, P 203. 42 bid, p 202 ff 43 Uttara Su 11.16. 44 Ultara Ti p 141. 46 Das cu 6 0 213. 46 Tandula Tip 26 a. 67 Tiva 3 p 365 49 Uttara Ti 18, 252 a. 40 bid, 3, p 64 a. 60 Su. 104 Uttara. Ti. op. cut

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA 116 The other saleable commodities were various musical instruments such as vina, vallaki, bhamari, kaccahabhi, bhambhd, sadbhrdmari; wooden toys (katthakamma), models of clay etc. (potthakamma), pictures (citta), dolls etc. made of plasters (leppa), wreaths etc. which were prepared by stringing (ganthima), dolls etc. which were prepared by plaiting (vedhima), stuffed dolls (purima), cloths etc. which were prepared by intertwining (sanghaima); fragrant substances such as kottha tamalapatta, coya, tagara, ela, hirevera (a kind of Andropogon) and others; various kinds of sugar such as khanda (khand in Hindi), molasses (gula), sugar (sakkara), matsyandika, busbotlara and padmottara. The Byhatkalpa Bhasya adds musk (katthuriya), asafoetida (hingu), conch-shell and salt.63 prepared by plaiti prepared by anghaima); fragran: cloths etc. which TRANSPORT For the growth of trade and commerce, it is essential that there should be fairly developed means of rapid and cheap communication or transport. Kautilya mentions construction of roads for traffic both by land or water.64 Mention is made of triangular roads (singhadaga), junction of three roads (trga), of four roads (caukka), of many roads (caccara), highways (mahapaha), royal roads (rajamagga)," which might suggest the existence of well constructed roads. Still the conditions of the roads, do not appear to have been satisfactory. They lay through forests and deserts and were beset with many dangers such as 'excessive rainfall, the fear of robbers, obstruction by rogues, elephants, the obstruction by state, forest conflagration, the bamboo forest, demons, ditches, wild beasts, draught, famine and poisonous trees. We read in the Avasyaka curn207 that in Sinavalli, around which there was a formidable desert and where there was no water and shade, a caravan suffered due to thirst. Similarly, we are told that some mendicants, who travelled from Kampillapura to Purimatala, lost their lives due to lack of water.68 We are told that the people while travelling in the deserts followed the nails (kilaka) that were stuck in the earth in order to indicate the direction. Then the Avasyaka curni gives an account of the merchant Dhanna who journeyed with five hundred waggons loaded with various commodities. The merchant crossed the river Vegavai with great difficulty when one of his bullocks died. The country of Tosali was well-known for ficrce she-buffalocs. The country of Konkana was full of wild beasts, particularly lions. 54 Naya 17, p 203 531 3074. 54 Attha, p 46 56 Raya Su 10, also Brh Bhi 1 2300. 66 See Naya 15,160, Byh Bha 1.3073; Ara. Ts (Han.), p. 384; also Phala Jataka (I, pp 2701); Apannaka Jataka (No. 1), I. P. 99 ; Avadana salaka, II, 13, p. 71. 57 P 553, II, 34. 58 Oda. 39, 178 f. 69 Suya Ti. I 11, p. 196. 81 Aca cu. p 247. 80 P 272. 82 Nisi, cu. Pi., P 90.

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EXCHANGE 117 In view of these difficulties in those days, traders used to travel in a caravan, as we have seen before. A graphic description of the caravans is given in the Jain texts. The caravans were classified in the following divisions : (i) who carried their goods by carts and waggons (bhandi), (ui) who carried by camels, mules and bullocks (bahilaga), (iii) who carried their own loads (bharavaha), (iv) thc wandering people who travelled to carn their livelihood and went from place to place (odariya), and (v) the Karbatika ascetics (kappadiya). The caravan engaged with it anuranga (ghamsika, com.), litters, horses, buffaloes, clcphants, bullocks for the purpose of mounting the sick, wounded, boys, and old men, who were unable to walk. 64 The caravan is praised which started with cart loads of dantikka (modaka,mandaka and asokavartin etc.com.), wheat (gora), sesamum, seeds, molasses and ghee etc. becausc in unforscen calamities such as rain and flood food was available to the members of the caravan. The proper mcans of transport was the cart or waggon (sagadisagada). The merchant Ananda had five hundred carts for distant traffic (disayatta) and the same number for local use (samvahaniya).68 Coach-houses (janasala) arc mentioned The coachmen uscd to look after the carts and vehicles, they cleaned them and decorated with ornaments before plying. The carts were drawn by oxen in charge of drivers (paoadhara) and were furnished with goads (paodalatthr). The oxen are described as having sharp horns furnished with bells, cords made of cotton (suttarajju) inlaid with gold, bridle (paggaha), and the crest of blue lotuses.68 Branding or castrating of bulls (nillanchanakamma) was in vogue.8e Goods were carried by waggons, horses, boats and ships. Among richer style of cars there was raha, which was drawn by horses. Chariots driven by four horses are mcntioned." Litters or sidikds or sandamanis were used by the royalty and the wealthy. The state litters borc special names." The litter known as jugga was used in the country of Lata ;18 it measured two hands and was equipped with railings. Daganats is mentioned as another vehiclc. The great rivers furnished another mcans of communication and some facilities of transport. There were fording places and thic streams and water courses were crossed by means of boats, which are denoted by the 63 Brh. Bha 1 3066 ff 64 bid 1 3071 05 bid 3072, also see 3075 ff 80 Uva 1, p 7 07 Ova Sv. 30, p 120 The Ramayana III , 35 4 also mentions yanasala. 08 Naya, 3, p. 60 89 Uva. I, P 11. 70 Brh. Bha 1 1090. 71 Ava cu, p 188. 72 Uttara Ti. 23, p 292; Kalla su 5 113. 73 Bhag Ti 3. 4, Yugya is also mentioned in the Ramayana, II, 89 16. 14 Brh. Bha. 1.3171.

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118 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA words ndod, agalthiya?' antarandakagoliya (canoes), koncaviragats and the boats having the shape of an elephant's trunk" and leather bag (dazya, com. ditz) and company of an elephant'canoes), koncavirapte .. The maritime transport also seems to have been quite developed, though the sea-voyages were full of dangers. We hear of a ship (pavahana of certain merchants bound for Vibhaya which rambled in the sea for six months. The ship-wrecks were most common. There were serious disturbances from the goblins and terrible cyclones (kaliyavaya) when the life of the traders was put in great danger. We read in the Nayadhammakaha how the two merchant's sons, after their vessel was wrecked, reached Rayanadiva with the help of a piece of plank (phalagakhanda so The Nayadhammakaha gives a beautiful description of a sea-voyage. Arhannaga and other merchants of Campa loaded their boats with fourfold merchandise, offered flowers and bali (offerings to gods, worshipped the sea-winds, raised the white flags on the mast, stretched the oars (valayataha), noticed good omens, secured the passport and amidst the beating of drums boarded the boat. The friends and relatives who had gathered on the port bade them goodbye and wished them a speedy return and success in their enterprise with eyes full of tears. The ropes were released and the merchants proceeded on their journey.81 Then we come across another description of a ship-wreck when the vessel tossed in the sea due to a terrible cyclone. The sailors and crew were puzzled, forgot the right direction and did not know what to do. Everybody felt very sad and all began to propitiate various deities, such as Indra, Skanda, etc. losing all hope of life.83 The sea-going vessel is denoted by the words, poya, poyavahana, vahana or pavahana. We learn that the two daughters of king Pandusena of Pandu Mahura arrived at Surattha by the ship varivasabha.83 The ships made their onward journey by the force of wind (pavanabalasamahaya); they were fitted with oars and rudders (oalayabdha), sails and anchors, 84 the pilot on board (nijjamaya) piloted the ship. The other workers on the ship were boatsmen (kucchidharaya), helmsmen (kannadhara) and crew (gabbhijja). To obtain a passport (rayavarasasana) was necessary.86 The 75 Cf Ekthas, they came from Nepal and carried 40 to 50 maunds of grain (F. Buchanan, An account of Bihar and Patna in 1811-27, p 705). 78 Brh Bha 1, 2397. 11 Maha, Ni, 41, 36; Gaccha, Vr. p. 50 a ff. 78 Pinda 42; Suya. 1.11, p. 196. Ultara Ti. L8, p. 252 a 309, p. 123. 81 8, P. 97 ff; also cf. Avadana sataka, III, 3, p. 199. The Drvyavadana (XVIII, P 229) mentions the following dangers of the sea. dangers from whale, waves, tortoise, danger of destruction on land, or loss in the water, danger of being struck by submarine rocks, danger from a kalikavata or cyclone and from pirates. 83 Naya 17, p. 201. 33 Ava cu II, 197. 84 Naya., 8, 98, the Aca. (II 3.1, 342) mentions the following nautical instruments. alitta, pidhaya, vamsa, balaya, avaluya and rajju. For the qualities of the anchor navalakanaka), mast (kupa), pilot (nayamaka) and sailor (kammakara) see also Milinda-pariha, p. 377 f, 86 Naya. 8, p. 98.

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EXCHANGE 119 merchants proceeded on their journey after having their breakfast (payarasehim) halting at various places.88 They visited the king with presents who made them free from taxes giving a suitable place for their residence.87 THE SYSTEM OF TRANSACTION Every village had its own resident traders and buying and selling was done directly, i.e. between the producer and the consumer, probably in individual shops or open market place and the surplus, if any, was dispatched to trade-centres in other parts of the country. We are told that Campa contained markets (vivani) thronged with craftsmen.88 A number of shops are mentioned where various articles were sold. In kammantasala razors and other instruments were sharpened. 89 Taverns and oil shops were common. In goliyasala jaggery was sold. Then there were gonzyasalas, doszyasalas and sotthayasalas, where cows, garments and cotton were sold;82 putabhedana was known as the emporium where the packages of saffron and other articles were opened." The BIhatkalpa sutra refers to a house (avanagiha) which was surrounded by shops; another house (antaravana) is mentioned which was situated with marketing lanes on one side or both sides.03 Betting (paniyaya) was also known.04 PRICE There were no fixed prices. Supply was hampered by slow transport, individual production, and primitive machinery. Adulteration (padiruva. gavavahara)" and knavery were known." CURRENCY Prices were fixed in terms of money which was the chief medium of exchange in India from very early times.07 Various coins are mentioned in our texts; the goldsmiths (heranniya) could detect false coins (ruvaya) in the darkness." 88 zbrd, 15, p. 160. $1 bid, 8, p. 102, 88 Ova. Su. 1. 89 Nisi cu. 8, p. 494. LO sbid, 01 abrd. 03 Brh. Bha 1.1093, also mentioned 10 Parmatthadipiha, the Com. on the Udana, p 422 ; also Mahabharata (1. 107.12). 03 1.12, see also Brh. Bha. 1.2301-2308. 84 Ava, cu. p. 523. 06 Uva. 1, p. 10. 08 Uttara Ti 4, p 81 a; also cf. Avd. cu ,p 117. 07 See R D. Bhandarkar's Ancient Indian Numismatics, pp 167 ff. 8 Ava. 77. (Hari.), 947, p. 126a , also see Sammoha Vinodini (p. 91 f).

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I 20 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA We meet with an expression in which the words heranna and suvanna are associated together. Suvanna is also mentioned separately.100 Still smaller denomination of gold coins was sudarnamasaya 01 Another class of coin was called kahavana.102 A false (kula) kahavana is mentioned.108 Masa, addhamasa and ruvaga are mentioned as other coins.104 Falseruvagas were known.106 Pannika106 and payanka 107 were the other coins in use. Then the Brhatkalpa Bhasya and its commentary mention various coins. The cowrie shells (kavaddaga) were most ordinary coins ; among copper coins kakiniz108 was perhaps the smallest coin of the day which was in currency in Dakkhinavaha; among silver coins drammatis mentioned which was current in Bhillamala ; among golden coins dinora. 110 or kevadika is mentioned which was current in Purvadesa. It is stated that two sabharakas" of Dvipa were equivalent to one rupee (rupaka) of Uttarapatha, and two of Uttarapatha coins were cquivalent to one of Pataliputra ; or two rupees of Daksinapatha were equivalent to one nelaa of Kancipuri and two of Kazcipuri to one of Kusumanagara (Pataliputra).113 PURCHASING POWER We do not much know about the purchasing power of money or the prices of ordinary commodities in those days. We are told that a 09 Uva. 1 p. 6 According to Bhandarkar, when Suvanna is associated with heranya, it must stand not for gold, but a type of gold coins, Ancient Indian Numsmatics, p. 51. 100 Ava cu. P 39, Ava Ti. (Han), p 04 a 101 Uttara 8, P 124 A suvannamasaka was a gold coin equal to one masa in weight according to the standard of gold coinage, Bhandarkar, op cit, p. 53. 102 Uttara T: 7, p 118, the kahapana in use in Rajagaha during Bumbasara's time was the standard of money adapted by the Buddha in the formation of those rules into which the matter of money entered (Samantapasadika, u, p 297). The kahapana appears to have been of three varieties, according as it was of gold, silver and copper , Bhandarkar, op cut p 81, also cf. p. 96 Kahapana was a square coin weighing about 146 grains, and guaranteed as to weight and fitness by punch-marks made by private individuals Rhys Davids, Buddhast India, p 100 103 Uttara Su 20. 42 Also see Charandas Chatterjee's article on some Numismatic Data in Pali literature, Buddhistic studies, pp 383 ff 104 Suva II, 2 p 327a , Uttara Su. 8 17, masaka and addhamasaka are also mentioned in the fataka (1, p 120, III, p. 448). The lohamasaka, darumasaka and Jatumaska are mentioned in the Paramatihajotika I p. 37, the com. on the Khuddakapatha. 106 Aug, so p 650 108 Vya. Bha. 3 267-8 According to Katyayana, masha also known as pana was onetwentieth part of kar.hapana (Bhandarkar op. cit., p. 188) 107 Ava T. (Hari.), P 432. 108 Ultara T. 7. 11, p. 118. It was a coper coin equal to 7 of a copper karsaparia. Also see Artha. p. 96. 100 In the Nisi cu, (p 616) the variant is 'cammalato'. The carina or leather coin is also referred to in the Bhavabhavana, pt II (p 378) of Maladhari Hemacandra, Bhavanagar, 1938, where it is stated to have been current in the time of the Nandas. Dramma is traced to the greek Drachma, The Greeks ruled over north-west India from 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. 110 Dinara was an Indian gold coin adapted from the Roman denarius during the Kushana rule in the first century A. D (Bhandarkar's, op. cit., p. 67). 111 According to Dr Motichand, they were pre-Islamic coins known as Sabean coins. 112 Brh. Bha. 1. 1969 ; 3. 3891 f.

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EXCHANCE 121 partridge could be bought for one kahavana123 and a cow for fifty coins;114 the price of a blanket varied from eighteen rupakas to a hundred thousand rupakas. 118 CREDIT There were no banks in those days and a great deal of wealth was hoarded in the form of gold etc. and hidden underground (nihanapautti). 110 People also deposited money with their friends, but it was not very safe. Appropriation of deposits (nasavahara) was known.117 Loans and debts could be taken. Money-lending was looked upon as an honest calling. We have referred to the money-lender Ananda of Vaniyagama. Of substitutes of money, letters of credit were known. False documents (kudaleha) are mentioned. 118 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Five kinds of weights and measurements are mentioned: mana, ummina, avamana, ganima and padimana. Mana is of two kinds for weighing grains and liquids Asati, prasyti, setika, kudava, 110 prastha, adhaka, drona and kumbha120 were used for weighing grains and manika for liquids. Aguru, tagara, coya, etc. were weighed by karsa, pala, tula and bhara which is called ummana. In avamana we have hasta, danda, dhanuska, yuga, nalika, aksa, and musala, which were used for measuring wells, brick house, wood, mat, cloth and moats, etc. In ganima or counting we have numbers from one to one crore. In padimana there were guija, kakani, nuspava, karmama saka, mandalaka and suvarna, which were used for weighing gold, silver, jewels, pearls, conch-shells and corals etc. 121 Among measures of distance we have angula, vitasti, ratni, kuksi, dhanus, and gavyuta. Among measures of length we have paramanu, trasarenu, ratharenu, balagra, liksa, yuka and yava" Among measures of time we have samaya, avalika, svasa, ucchvasa, stoka, lava, muhurta, ahoratra, paksa, masa, rtu, ayana, samvatsara, yuga, varsasata (century) etc. reaching upto sirsaprahelika 193 113 Das.cu p. 58. 114 Ava cup 117 118 BTh Bha 3 3890 116 Upa ,p 6 117 Ava (Hari) p 820 118 1bid , Uva p 10 119 For drona, adhaha, prastha and Kudumba see Arthasastra, p. 116. 120 Kumbha is mentioned in the Sammohavrnodini, p. 256. 121 Anu su 132 121 abid 133 ; cf also Arthasastra, p. 117 123 bid, 114.

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122 LIFE EN ANCIENT INDIA Time was measured by nalika or the shadow of a gnomon (sankucchayd).294 Tula (balance) is mentioned. Wrong weights and measures (kudalulla, kudamana) were in use. 135 184 Das cu. 1, p. 44 ; Brh. Bha Pi, 261. According to the Arthasastra (p 119) nalsha is the time during which one adhaka of water passes out of a pot though an aperture of the same diameter as that of a wire of four aigulas in length and made of four mashas of gold 125 Uva 1, p 10.

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CHAPTER IV CONSUMPTION Consumption of wealth means the use of wealth for the satisfaction of various wants and desires. Production is the means while consumption is the end of all economic activity. Consumption is determined by the standard of life fixed by a particular person or society for himself or itself. Articles of consumption may be divided into necessaries, comforts and luxuries. FOOD The primary wants of life are those of food, clothing and shelter. As the country was largely agricultural there was ample supply of food. Of course, the food that the average man could afford was not sufficiently rich. Four kinds of food are mentioned food (asana), drink (pana), eatable (khaima) and relishable (sama). The articles of food were milk, curds, butter, ghee, oil, honey, wine, molasses, meat, cooked or dressed food (oga umaga, com. pakvanna), sakkuli (luchis in Hindi), raw sugar (phaniya), a meal of parched wheat (puya) and a meal of curds and sugar with spices (stharini). The production of salt was very important. Several varieties of salt are mentioned, viz. sochal salt (sovaccala), rock salt (sindhava), ordinary salt (lona), mine salt (roma), sea salt (samudda), earth salt(pamsukhara) and black salt (kalalona).* Besides, odana (rice), kummasa (bean) and sattuga (fried barley) are mentioned. The following consisted of eighteen kinds of seasoned food (vyaniana) supa (soup), odana (rice), java (boiled barley), three kinds of meat, cow-milk, jusa (water of boiled pulse), bhakkha (khandakhadya or sweets in which candy was used in plenty, com.), gulalavanya (gol papadi in Gujerati), mulaphala (bread-fruit), hariyaga (cumin), saga (vegetable), frasalu (manjka, a royal preparation made of the mixture of two palas of ghee, one pala of honey, half an adhaka of curds, twenty pepper corns and ten palas of candied sugar, com.), pina (wine), paniya (water), panaga (a drink made of grapes) and saga (a preparation seasoned with buttermilk such as dahibada, etc., com.). These articles were picpared in a cooking pot (thalipagasuddha) and were offered to the parents, master and religious teacher" Among other preparations mention is made of pejja (made of gruel or decoction of some kind of pulse or rice), ghayapunna (ghevara in Hindi), palangamahuraya (a sweet liquid preparation of the mango or lemon 1 Naya. 7, p. 84. 2 Ava, cu II, p 319. 3 Aca. II, 1.4 247; also Brh Bhd 2 3175ff, cf. Mahabha. VII 64, 7f. 4 Das. su 3 8, also see Caraka, ch 27, p 815 ff. Ava, cd. II., p 317. 8 Tha. 3.135, also see Caraka, krtannavarga, ch. 27, p. 800 ff.

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124 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA juice),' sihakesara (a sweet), morandaka (a sweet made of oil seed)' mandaka, a cake stuffed with molasses and ghee. Then ahadiya was a special sweet coming from one house to another as present.11 Pulaka was a special dish.12 Then we had guliya or tablets made from the powder of the tubara tree which were used by the sadhus. The kholas were dried pieces of cloths moistened with milk; these were washed and this water was used for drinking purposes.13 Cooking is mentioned.14 Cooks (mahanasiya) were employed by the rich and the kings. They prepared various kinds of dishes.15 Cooks are included among nine narus." Vegetables were cooked in oil (neha). 17 To make arrangements for vegetable and ghee in the kitchen was known as avapa and the discussion whether food is cooked or uncooked as nirvapa.18 The place of dining was besmeared with grass and lotuses and flowers were strewn ; then pots were arranged and people had their meals.18 Mahanasasala is mentioned as a free food distributing kitchen in which food was distributed free to ascetics, monks and the poor.20 WINE Wine and meat were considered amongst luxurious foods. Drinking wine seems to have been very common in early society. According to Kautilya, on the occasions of festivals, fairs and pilgrimage, right of manufacturing of liquor for four days was allowed. There are references in the Ramayanga and Mahabharata (I.77.13 ff, I.174.13 ff; I.177.10 f; II.4.8 f) which go to prove that wine was extensively used and was held in considerable estimation as a favourite drink". As we have seen, wine and meat are included among eighteen kinds of food mentioned in Jain texts. Liquor was manufactured or consumed on a large scale. Taverns (panagara: kappasala) are known where various kinds of wine was sold. + The profession of a rasavanijja is mentioned which dealt in wine.a5 Flags on My Uva l. p 8. 8 Anta. p. 10 9 Brh. Bha 1. 3281. 10 Niss. cu II, p 695. 1 Brh. S'2 17; Bha. 2 3616. 13 sbid 5 6048 ff * 13 Brh. Bhi 1.2882. 2892. x 14 Naya 7, p. 88. 16 Viva 8, P. 46. 18 Jambu Ti 3, p. 193. 11 Naya 16, 162. 18 Tha 4 282. 19 Nisi ci. P1 p 46. 20 ibid. 9, p 511 , Naya 13. p 143. 131 Arthasasta, p 134, also cf Dhammapada A. III, p. 100. 19 II 91, 51, V. 36. 41 ; VII 42 21 f. 38 R. L. Mitra, Indo-Aryan, Vol I, pp 396 ff. 34 Nisi cu I 9, p. 511, Vya. Bha. 10.485. 35 Supra, p. 106.

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CONSUMPTION 125 the wine shops are referred to.28 We read in the Nayadhammakaha that when kings and princes attended the sayamvara ceremony of Dovai, king Duvaya entertained them with various wines and liquors such as sura, majja, sidhu, pasanna and meat. The princes of Baravai were addicted to wine and the wine known as kayambarias is said to have been the cause of destruction of the capital". Even women were sometimes addicted to drink.30 In the Brhatkalpa sutra the Jain monks and the nuns were not allowed to put up in a residence where jars (kumbha) of wine were stored. It should be noted that as a rule the monks were prohibited from drinking wige, 31 but under exceptional circumstances such as sickness (gelanna), etc, they were allowed to take it.32 Wine was also prescribed to achieve good health and brilliancy.33 The following varieties of wine are mentioned : candraprabha, manusilaka, varasidhu, varavaruni, asava,34 madhu, 35 meraka, 38 ristabha or jambuphalakalika, dugdhajati, prasanna, 97 tallaka (variant nellaka or mellaga), salas, khaigurasara, 38 mrduikasara, kapisayana, supakva and ksurasa.40 Most of these wines were named after their colour ; some were prepared from various fruits ; the wine known as salau had such a quality that even though it was diluted a hundred times it did not lose its true nature.41 26 Brh. Bha 2 3539. 37 16, p 179 38 Kadambari is also mentioned in the Harvamva (II 41.13). It was distilled from the ripe frut of the hadamba (Nauclea kadamba), which is highly saccharine, but not edible in its natural state (RL Mitra, op cit, 1, p. 426) 24 Ullura Ti 2, P36a f. 30 Ua 8. 31 Cf during the Pau uang, the Jain monks or nuns who were hale and hearty were not allowed to take the following drinks milk, thick sour milk, fresh butter, clarified butter, oil, sugar, honey, liquor and meat (Kalpa Su 9 17) 8: Brh. Bha 2 3413, also cf Naya 5, p 80 f. 83 Brh. Bha 5 6035. 34 One hundred palas of kapittha (Fcronia Elephantum), five hundred palas of phanta (sugar) and one prastha of honey (madhu) forms asava (Artha. p 132) 85 The juice of grapes is termed madhu (zbrd p 133, cf also R L Mitra, Indo-Aryan, 1, p. 411). 88 A sour gruel or decoction of the bark of meshas rngi (a kind of poison) mixed with jaggery (guda) and with the power of long pepper and black pepper or with the powder of Inphala forms maireya (ibid) It is also called gaudi or rum (R. L Mitra, op cit, p. 412) 37 Twelve adhakas of flour (pustha), five prasthas of kiva (ferment), with the addition of spices (atisambhara), together with the bark and fruits of putraka (a spccics of a lice) constitutes prasanna (ibid., p. 132) 88 It was a date liquor , it has ripe dates for its basis, and with it is mixed jack fruit, ginger and the juice of the soma vine (R L. Mitra, Indo-Aryan, I, p 412) 39 Kauzsayana is also mentioned in the Brhatkalpa Bhasya (2 3408); it was very rare. 40 It has sugarcane for at basis, and black pepper, plums, curds, and salt for adjuncte (R. L. Metra, op ). For arista, pakvarasa and other varieties of madya see Caraka, ch. 27, p. 776 ff. 41 Jambu. su 20, p. 99 f, Jiva. 3, pp 264a 1, 145a, Panna, 17, p. 364 1. Cf. the queen Cellana besmeared her hair with wine and went to visit Sepiya in the prison where it served food for the king, Ava. cu. II, p. 171.

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126 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Among other varieties are mentioned godi (rum, also known as meraka or sidhu), pitthi (made from the rice pastry, etc.), vamsi (prepared from bamboo shoots and phalasurd (prepared from fruits, such as grapes, dates, etc., also known as prasanna or sovita), 48 talaphala (prepared from the palm fruit)44 and jati (prepared from jatz flower). 46 MEAT-EATING Like wine-drinking, flesh-eating was also prevalent in those days. Under various occupations we have studied the busy life of the hunters, the fowlers, the butchers and the fishermen who used to supply various kinds of meat and fish from which many kinds of curry and soup were prepared. Meat was prepared by frying (taliya), roasting (bhajjiya) drying parisukka) and salting (lavana) in various ways.co Mention has been made of a royal cook who prepared varieties of meat dishes and brought them to the royal table. The Surzyapannatti mentions that by eating flesh of a casaya, deer, tiger, frog, animals with claws, and water animal in particular constellations, success is achieved.47 The sankhadis or special festivals are mentioned, where a large number of animals were killed and their flesh was served to the guests. It is stated that a monk or nun should not resolve to go to a festival when they knew that they would be served up chiefly with meat or fish or roasted slices of meat or fish.48 We learn from the Uttaradhyayana Sutra that, when Aritthanemi was going for his marriage, he saw a herd of cattle which was to be slaughtered in order to feed the marriage party. Aritthanemi, however, felt disgusted and renounced the world. We are told of Revai that her servants used to kill two calves every day from the herds that belonged to her ancestral property and bring to her. This shows that flesh-eating was common in early society. 43 Sura is also called varuni or parathi. It has half boiled rice, barley, black pepper, lemon juice, ginger, and hot water for its ingredients Rice and barley are to be digested in hot water for two days, then boiled, then spiced with the other ingredients, and allowed to ferment thoroughly, and lastly distilled (R.L Mitra, op.cit ,P 413) Sura is mentioned in Vedic literature (See Vedic Index, Vol. II, P 458). The Sammoha Vinodini (p.381) mentions five kinds of sura pilthisura, puvasura, odanasura, kinnapakkhitta and sambharasamyutla. 43 BTh Bha 2 3412 44 Tala or palm liquor is made from ripe palm fruit spiced with danti (Croton Ployan. drum), and the leaves of the kakubha plant (R. L Matra, Indo-Aryan, Vol I, p. 412) 45 Vivo 2, p 14 46 Vwa 2, p 14; 3. p 22 Other preparation of meat were sankhandiya, ratlakhandiya, dihakhandiya, rahassakhandiya, huimapakka, jammapakka, vegapakka, maruyapakka, kala, heranga, mahiffha, etc , ibid. p 46. 17 Su 61, p. 151. 48 Aca II, 1.4, 245. 49 22. 14 ff, 50 Uva. 8, p. 63; for references to flesh-eating in the Vedic literature, see Vedic Index, II, p. 145.

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CONSUMPTION 127 THE JAIN MONKS AND MEAT-EATING Ordinarily, a Jain whether a layman or a monk, must abstain from flesh eating. We are told of Jinadatta, a savaga's son who refrained from flesh-eating prescribed by a physician even at the stake of his life. He told his parents that he would enter into the flames of fire and die but would never violate his long-cherished vow by eating flesh.53 Further we are told of Addayakumara who condemned flesh-eating in the course of a discussion with the Buddhists and the Hatthitavasas. 69 But it seems that under extreme distress, as a special rule, the Jains were allowed to take meat.04 Among the articles of food referred to above, we have seen that wine (majja) and meat (mansa) are mentioned along with rice, milk, curds, etc. as articles of food received by monks in alms. Justifying the mention of majja and mamsa in the Sutra the commentator remarks that these should be explained with reference to the Cheda sutras, or perhaps a covetous monk might desire to eat flesh and hence they are included among the articles of food.65 Further, the question arose as to what a monk should do if he was offered bony flesh or bony fish. Under such circumstances, it is stated that he should try to avoid bones and should ask for flesh. But if inspite of his request, the giver threw bony flesh in his pot, he must retire to a solitary place and keeping aside the bones and the thorns, should swallow the rest. Here again, the commentator explains that majja and mamsa may be accepted as a cure for luta (a kind of cutaneous disease) etc. at the instance of a good physician.67 Besides there were certain countries where people were in the habit of taking meat. In the country of Sindhu, for example, people lived on flesh and so non-vegetarians were not despised in that country.68 Then there were robber-settlements and solitary villages (sunnagama) where nothing was available to eat except flesh. Under such circumstances a sadhu, setting aside the gencral principle, was allowed to eat flesh as a special case. In fact, these examples only show that the Jains took a practical view of the question of flesh-eating. In times when no other food was available 01 Cf that a Buddhist Bhikkhu is forbidden to eat flesh of a beast purposely killed for his sake, and the flesh of useful animals as horses, elephants, etc. (Mahavagga, VI, 23. 10, 11), also Sulla Nipala, Amagandhasutta (II2). See also Prof. Kosambi's arucle on Meat-eating in the Puratattva (3.4 p. 323 fr). 5% Ava cu. II P 202. 5. Suya II, 6 37-42. 64 Cf the story of the five Brahmanas narrated in the Brhat-kalpa Bhasya (1.1013-16). See also Bhag (16) where Mahavira is said to have taken the flesh of a pigeon. Also cf. the conduct of the sages Vamadeva, Bharadvaja and Visvamitra, who being tormented by hunger ate the flesh of a dog and a cow and saved their lives (Manu. X. 106 ff). 58 Aca Ti II 1 4 247 58 Das SN 6 1 73 , Sce also Cuni, p. 184, cf. also Nisi. ct. (16, p. 1084 fm) Where flesh-eating is allowed as a special case 87 Aca, op cit.,; also cf 1 9 274. 88 Brh Bha.1 1239. 19 1bd 1. 2906-11; also Nisi. cd. Pl., p. 134.

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128 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA except meat, Jain monks were advised to take it rather than starve themselves to death. The wandering monks who passed through all sorts of countries and met all sorts of people, most of them having a predilection to meat diet, could not be too punctilious about their diet, and a via media had to be found out if they were to preach their religion without the pangs of hunger. They could, however, atone for their sin after performing prayascitta. DRESS After food the most immediate necessity of life is clothing. Cotton clothes were commonly worn. People had a common taste for good clothing, perfumes, garlands and ornaments (vatthagandhamallalankara).60 Clothes are mentioned among the requisites of a gentleman.61 Four kinds of garments are mentioned : the garments worn daily, after bath, at the festivals and fairs, and while visiting king or nobles, etc. 62 People were fond ofluxuries and varieties of luxurious cloth are mentioned. The oldest list of textiles is given in the Acaranga.63 Cloth made from wool (jangiya or janghika), bhanga(r) (bhangiya), hemp (saniya), palm leaves85 (pottaga), linen (khomiya) and tula (tulakada). It is stated that a monk or a nun may beg for above mentioned cloths.67 The following kinds of cloth were considered as very expensive and a monk or a nun was forbidden to use them; cloth made from skin,68 (ainaga, com ajina), fine cloth (sahina, com.suksma), fine and beautiful cloth (sahinakallana), cloth made from goat's hair (aya) "9, blue cotton (kaya), 1deg linen (khomiya), from the fibres of the dugulla plant (dugulla), patta fibres 80 Cf Kalpa Si 4 82. 81 Brh. Bha. 1-2557. 63 abid Pi. 644. 83 II. 5 1, 364, 368, , also cf Milindapanha, p 267. 04 Bhangeya is also mentioned in the Vinayavastu of the Malasarvastivada, p 92. It is a kind of cloth made from the fibre of bhag tree still produced in the Kumon district of U P and is known as bhagela , See Dr Motichand's article in the Bharati Vidya, Vol I, Pt, ], P 41 88 According to the commentary on the Brhatkalpa Bhasya, (2 3661), pottaga is cotton 88 According to the commentator khomiya is cotton. It was very common and was used for making citara of the Buddhist Bhikkus, (Mahavagga, VIII 3 1), also see Girija Prasanna Majumdar's article on Dress in Indian culture Vol. I, 1-4, p 196 f. 67 The Brh Kalpa Su (2 24) and the Tha (5 446) mention liridapatla in place of tulakada which was made from the bark of the lirida tree Also see Vinayavastu of the Mulasarvastivada, p. 94 According to Monier Williams, however, tirida (Simplocos Racemosa) is a kind of head dress A8 Skin as material for clothing is mentioned in the Mahavagga (V. 10, 6, 8) In those days the skins of lion, tiger, leopard, cow and dcer were used for clothing as well as for bedsheet etc. 80 According to the Nisi cu (7, p 467), the dya cloths were made from the moss tha clung to the goats' hoofs in the country of Tosali, but this seems to be unintelligible 70 According to the Nisi cu (ibid), the kaya cloths were made from kahajangha (Abrus Procatorious) in the country of Kaka, which does not seem to be intelligible. Ti Nisi.cu (ibid); but according to silanka, dukula cloths were made from the cotton rpoduced in Gauda (Bengal).

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CONSUMPTION 129 (patta)," malaya fibres (malaya), bark-fibres73 (parunna or pattunna in the Nisi. cu.), amsuya cloth (amsuya), china silk (cinamsuya), coloured cloth (desaraga), spotless cloth" (amila), cloth making rustling noise (gajjaphala), cloth as clear as crystal (phaliya)," "fluffy blanket"78 (koyava), blanket (kambalaga) and mantles pavara) ; skin cloth such as made from udra80 (udda), from pesa fur81 (pesa), embroidered with pesa fur (pesala), made from the skin of black deer (kanhamigaina), blue deer (nila), yellow deer (gora); cloth made from other materials, such as golden cloth (kanaka), cloth interwoven with golclen tissucs (kanagapatta, sa cloth with borders woven with golden tissues 83 (kanagakanta), embroidered with golden thread 84 (kanagakhaciya), tinscl-printing85 (kanagaphusiya),88 cloth made from tiger's skin (vaggha), panther's skin (vivaggha), printed with one pattern such as leaf ctc.87 (abharana), printed with many patterns such as leaf, candralekha, svastika, ghantika and mauktika etc.88 (abharanavicitta).80 T3 According to thc Anu Su. 37, the kitaja cloth is of five variches, viz patta, malaya ansuga, cinam suya and Kimuraga (suranna in the Brh Kalon Bha 2 3662) The commentator explains the production of palla cloth from the insects that gathered round the flesh stored for the purpose in the jungle, the malaya cloth was produced in Malaya country, am suya wag produced in the country outside China, and cinamsirya in China itself According to the commentator of the Brhatkalpa Bhasya (2 3662) amsuka is silk manufactured of soft yarn, cinamSuka is either cocoon silk or chinese silk, and suzanna is golden coloured thread produced by a certain variety of silk worms Silk is referred to in the Mahabharata as lilaja which was the product of Cina and Tahlika According to the Mc' Crindle, raw silk was from the interior of Asia and manufactured at Kos If this is true, Kanseya garment refers to the town of Kos and not to the cocoons (Dr Molichand, Bharati Vidya, 1) p 46 f) 13 According to Monier Williams (Sanskrit Diclionery), it is Calosanthes Indica Patrorna is also mentioned in the Mahabharata (II 78 54) 1 Nasi cu Qbid) 76 ibid, but according to Silanka, anila is camel 76 Nisi cu zbid 11 abrd 78 It was a luxurious woolen article mentioned in the Mahar agga (VIII. 1 36) According to the commentator of the Anu Su (37), koyara was macic from the hair of a mouse (undura), or a goat (chagala, Bh Bha V2 3662), Lotara is included among the five kinds hairy cloth mentioned in the Jain texts, otheis being inna (made from the sheep wool), ulliya (from the camel wool), muyaloma (from decr), and kitta (mixed with the hair of sheep etc ), Anu op cul; Brh. Bha, op, cat 79 Kambala or prarara are mentioned in the Mahabharata (II 71.48) in the Tarttir 81 In the Vedic period the pesa was gold. - designs The making of such a garment was a regular occupation of women, as is indicated by the word pesakari (Vodic Index II, p 22) 83 Kanagena jassa patla kata, Nist cu (ibid) 83 anta passa kanagena kata (ibid) 84 Kanagasittena phulliya jasa padiya (ibid). 85 The material used in wax-cloth ornamentation is an olcaginous substance (roghan) that is thickened with limc and coloured with pigments bcfore being applied In tinselprinting an adhesivc substance is printed over the texture and subscqucntly dusted with colouring matter In tinsel-printing the designs are printed with blocks At first glue, gum, lac or other adhesive substance is first printed over the fabric and gold leaf, silver leaf, tin foil, mercury amalgam or other colour materials, Indian Art at Delhi 1903, pp 267 f, by Sir George Watt, 86 Kanagena jassa phullitau dinnar, jaha koddamena udded dijjati (Nisi.cu zbrd). ST Patrkadiekabharanena mandita (ibid) 88 Patrkacandalehikasvastikaghansikamoitikamaduhim mandita (ibid). 89 Aca. tbid.; Nisi. cu. ibid.

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130 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA The Bhagavatt along with kappasiya, patta and dugulla mentions the padaga cloth, which is explained as tasar by the commentator. The Anuyogadvara Sutra, which is undoubtedly a later work.mentions the following five varieties of cloth: cloth made from eggsol (andaga), cotton stalks (bondaya), insects (kidaya), hair (valaya) and bark (vagaya). Dusa or dusya was another variety of cloth. Devadusa (divine dusa) is mentioned. It is stated that Mahavira joined the ascetic order wearing it on his left shoulder. Later on, this piece of cloth was estimated costing hundred thousand pieces of money (sayasahassamollam). With the vijayadusa is mentioned another variety of cloth which was as white as the conch-shell, kunda flower, spray of water and foam of the ocean.93 The Brhatkalpa Bhasya mentions five kinds of dusya : koyava, pavaraga,94 clean white cloth like the row of teeth (dadhiali), sacks, elephant-housing, etc. which are woven with coarse yarn (pure) and cloth woven with double yarn (virali).96 The commentary on the Thananga gives palhavi or pallavi (a cloth thrown on elephant's back) and navayaa (woollen shect) in place of the last two mentioned articles. Another list of the five dusyas is : pillow (upadhana, also known as bibboyana), mattress stuffed with cotton (tuli), 87 mattress of the size of a human being (alingant or alingana), cushions for cheek (gandovahana) and round cushions (masuraka) 98. We came across various other terms such as couch, bedsheet and cushions. The couch (sayanija) of Tisala was furnished with the mattress of a man's length salinganavattio), with pillows (bibboana) on both sides, it was raised on both sides and hollow in the middle, was extremely soft, was covered with linen and dukula cloth, it contained a well-worked bedsheet (ayattana), and covercd with a beautiful red cloth (rattamsuya) soft to touch like fur, cotton fibres and butter.88 Soft towels dyed with fragrant saffron were used to rub the body after bath 100 Then the Kalpa sutra refers to a curtain (javanzya) adorned with different jewels and precious stones, manufactured in a famous town (varapattanuggaya),101 its soft cloth was covered with hundreds of patterns and decorated with pictures of wolves, bulls, horses, men, dolphins, birds, snakes, kinnaras, deer, sarabhas, yaks, elephants, shrubs and plants.202 (varapatte jewels anhalpa stragrant sa butter.08." 90 11.11 91 According to the commentary (Su 37), it was made from the egg of a swan (hamsa), which is unintelligible Perhaps it is same as 'andi' cloth in Hindi 92 Aca cu , P 208 Cf Sureyyala dusa in the Maharagga (VIII 1 29), it was a cloth piece from Sivi costing hundred thousands picces of money. Dussayugam is mention d in the Mashma 1 p 215. 83 Raya. 43, p 100 94 See Supra Also cf the explanation given by the commentator, 96 3 3823 f. 90 4 310, p. 222. 97 Tulika (quilts stuffed with cotton wool) is also mentioned in the Digha, 1, p. 7. 99 Brh Bha, op.cit 09 Kalba 3. 32; Nava. 1. p. 4. 100 Ora Su 31, p. 122. 101 Brought from a noble workshop (Anta. trans, by Barnett, p. 22). 803 4.63.

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CONSUMPTION 131 The celacilimili is described another curtain for the use of the Jain monks103 It is divided into four classes : made from yarn (suttamat), made from suings (najjumai), made froin bark-sti ips (vagamai), made from sticks (dawdamai) and made from bamboo-sticks (kadagamai). These curtains were five hands in length and thrcc in width.104 Then bhoyada or an underwear was worn in Maharastra by guls tiom their childhood. They conunucd wearing it till ulicy mainicd and conceived. Then the relations weie invited and bhoyada was removed following a ccremony. Bhoyada was known as haccha in the country of Lata 105 About the dress we hear of now (ahaya) and costly (sumahaggaha) clothes.106 We read that Mahavira was clad in a pan of robes (pattajuyala) so light that the smallest breath would carry them away, thcy wcrc manufactured in a famous city, praised by clever artists, soft as the fume of horses, embroidered with golden thrcad by skilful artists and oinumented with designs of ficmingoes (hamsalakkhana).107 People wore two pieces of cloth, the upper garment and the lower garment. The former (uttara) is described as bcautiful with swinging pearl pendants; it was one piece of cloth (egasailiya).103 Sewing was known. The needle and thread (sursuttaga) 109 are mentioned. The monks were allowed to sew the pieces of cloth.10 THE JAIN MONKS AND THEIR DRESS As we have seen Parsvanatha allowed an under and upper garment (santaruttara) for the ascctics.111 A monk was allowed to wcai three robes, 112 two lincn (ksaumika) under garments (onacela) and onc woolen (aur nika) upper garment.13 The monks who could not go about nakcd were permitted to wear hatibandha (also called aggoyara) in order to cover theii privities This piece of cloth was four fingers bioad and onc hand long.114 Later on it was icplaced by colapattaka. Like the Buddhists dyed garments were prohibited to the Jam monks as well as wc have seen before. The Jain monks also weic piohibited from wearing the garments with fringes (dasa). It is ordained that thcy should put on undivided garment in the country of Thuna, but its fringes must be removed. 116 103 Brh suI 18, cf cilimika in the Cullavagga, VI 2 . 104 Brh Bha l. 2374 f, also 3. 4804 4811, 4815, 4817. 105 Nisi cu Pi, 46. 100 Ova su 31, p 122 Aca II, 2 15, p 390. Also Ramayana I. 73 31. 108 Ori. p 45 100 Suya 4 2.12 110 Aca II 5 1 304 111 Uttara 23. 29, also mentioned in the Vinayavustu of the Mulasarvastivada, p. 94, 113 Buddha also allowed thice robes 3 clouhle wart cloth (samghata), single upper robe (uttarasanga) and a single upper gai munt (antar at csaha), Mahalagga, VIII, 13 , 6. 118 cca 7,4 208 ,114 bed 7 6. 220. 115 Brh. Bha. 3.3903 f, channadasa and dirghadasa are also mentioned in the Vinayavastu of the Mulasarvastivada, P 95.

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132 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA The Nigganthiniis were allowed to use the following clothes: uggahanantaga, which was used to cover their privities, it was like a boat in shape, broad in the middle and thin at the sides, and was made of soft cloth. Patta was tied by fasteners and was sufficient to cover the waist; it was four fingers in width. It covered both ends of the uggahanantaga and was like a wrestler's tight short (janghiya in Hindi) The third was addhoruga, which was worn over the uggahanantaga and patta covering the waist; its shape was aftci the style of the wrestlers and it was firmly tied on both sides over the breasts. The fourth was calanka which covered the knees and was unsewn; it was worn after the manner of the bamboo top dancers. The fifth was abbhintaraniyamsin; beginning from the waist it reached half length of the thighs Generally it was worn by the nuns to avoid being seen naked at the time of changing garments and becoming the laughing stock of the people. The sixth was bahiniyamisini, which, beginning from the waist and reaching down the ankles was tied with string to the waist. Then the following garments were worn in the upper part of the body by the nuns: kancuka, which measured two and half hands (the standard being one's own fore-arm) in length and one in width, and was firmly tied on both sides on the waist and covered the breasts. Another was ukkacchi (aupakaksiki); it was a garment like kancuka, square in shape on the right side; it measured one and a half hands, and covering the breasts and the back was knotted on the left shoulders The third was vegacchiya (varkaksiki); it was knotted on the right shoulders, otherwise it was like aupakaksiki. The fourth was sanghata; they were four in number; one measured two hands, two three hands, and one four hands. The first was to be worn in the cloister (pratisraya), the second and the third out of door, and the last for assemblies (samavasarana).118 The fifth was khandhakaran which was like a wrapper fourteen hands in length, square in shape and was worn to save oneself from the strong wind. It covered the shoulder and the body. This was used to dwarf the stature of the beautiful nuns by placing it at the back and trying it with aupakaksiki and varkaksiki.117 Then the shoes of different shapes formed important articles of costume. The Brhatkalpa Bhasya prescribes the use of shoes for the Jain monks, specially when they were on tours, in case of illness, whose feet were tender by nature, in fear of wild animals, those suffering from leprosy, piles or who were short sighted.118 Taliya shoes were fastened to the feet in order to protect onc's feet from thorns while travelling in night; with this kind of shoc a monk could travel fast. Usually the monks were allowed to wear single-soled (egapuda) shoes, but they could also use four-soled 110 The Aca (II. 5 1.364) mentions only four sanghalis, which shows that at the time of the author of the Brh. Bhasya, there was an increment in the number of wearing articles. 117 Brh, Bha 3 4082-91. and com.; also Aca. II, 5.1.364, 118 Brh. Bhd. 3. 3862.

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CONSUMPTION 133 ones. The pudaga or khallaka 119 shoes were used in winter to cover the foot-sore (vivacci). They were of two kinds: addhakhalla and khalla. The former covered half the feet, while the latter covered the whole. The vagura covered the toes and also the feet. The kosagas covered the toes to save the nails against stone, etc, Khapusa 20 covered the ankles and was used as a precaution against cold, snake, snow and thorns. There are mentioned the ardhajanghika and jaighika shoes which covered half and full thighs respectively. 127 HOUSE As food is necessary to sustain life, and clothing to protect body from the inclemency of weather, so shelter is necessary to protect oneself from the rain, the sun and the wind. The art of house-building (vatthuvija) was considered as one of the seventy two arts in Jain literature. Ordinarily, houses were built of bricks and wood. There were doors, pillars, threshholds and bolts,122 about which we shall see later on. There were lofty mansions for rich and well-to-do people. LUXURIES The people were fond of luxuries as we have seen. We find them wellattired, fond of ornaments, wreaths, flowers, perfumes, unguents, etc. Among the requisites of a gentleman mention is made of toilet, ornaments, clothes, garlands, food, perfumes, instrumental music, dancing, drama and singing. 123 Great care and attention was bestowed on hair dressing and hair cutting by ancient Indians.124 The colopana or the ceremony of tonsure was an important ceremony held at the birth of a child. Great care was taken in hair cutting on the occasion of renunciation ceremony.126 We hear of toilet saloons (alankariyasabha ) 126 where a number of attendants performed the toilct of a number of samanas, mahanas, orphans, sickly and poor people.127 The luxury of the people is evident from the use of the large number of gold, silver, ornaments and jewellery. The kings, princes and the wealthy people went out surrounded by servants and attendants with an 110 The khallakabandha and other shoes are mentioned in the Mahavagga v. 23. 120 Perhaps it is the same as the Iranian 'kafis' and kapis kiprs of central Asia (sce Dr. Motichand's article in the 3 of the Indian Society of the Or. Art Vol. XII, 1944). 121 l. 2883, 3.3847, 132 Raya. Su 98. 193 Brh. Bha 1 2557, cf. sunahata suvilitta kappilakesamassu umuttamalabharana (Paramatthadipani, the com on the Udana, p 7). 131 The Ramayana and the Mahabharata contain frequent notices of the braid, and the neglect of the coiffure as a mark of grief or violent excitement; R. L. Mitra, op. at, vol. I. p. 210 ff. 125 Maya 1. 29 f| 126 Paramatthadipan, the com. on the Udana, p. 333 refers to alankarasattha which dealt With the rules of hair cutting. 131 Naya. 13, p. 143

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA 134 129 umbrella decorated with garlands of koranta flowers held over them.128 They were taken out in a litter in a gorgeous procession accompanied by damsels standing with yak tail in hand or carrying a fan or a pitcher The rich people possessed palatial buildings, married several women, made magnificient donations, paid large fees to courtesans and enjoyed rich festivities. The middle class people too lived a life of ease, and indulged in charities, and made gifts to the order. The hardest lot was those of poor people who earned their daily wages and with great difficulty could make their both ends meet. The poor labourers often suffered from the hands of money-lenders for whom they had to work as slaves for the non-payment of the debts. 128 Anta. 8, p. 10; Ova. Su. 27-33 129 Naya. 1. p. 30 f.

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SECTION IV SOCIAL CONDITIONS INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I SOCIAL ORGANISATION CHAPTER II THE FAMILY CHAPTER III POSITION OF WOMEN CHAPTER IV EDUCATION AND LEARNING CHAPTER V ARTS AND SCIENCES CHAPTER VI RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS CHAPTER VII MANNERS AND CUSTOMS

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INTRODUCTORY Indian society gives expression to the gicat principle that life is a long pilgrimage cxtending beyond dcath into thc infinite and thc ctcrnal Let each individual in the socicty endcavour for huis own welfaic, but his 111teicsts should not run counter to the interests of the society The patlis followed by individuals may be scparatc but the ultimate goal must be the same. "The Greatest Good of the Greatest Number" should be the motto In the following section we have made an attempt to collect the scattered inaterial depicting the Social Lifc of ancient Indian people with a view to grasping the ordinary life and aclivities of the early people

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CHAPTER I SOCIAL ORGANISATION Caste-system (vanna) was the back-bone of the ancient Indian Society. THE ARYA AND THE ANARYA Jain texts draw a distinction between the Arya and the Andrra According to the Vedic literature the characteristic physical difference between the two races was that of colourThe Aryans who were the conquerors were fair-coloured and the aborigines on the non-Aryans, who formed the subjugated race, were dark-coloured Jain texts divide the Aryans into five classes --Aryan by country (khetta), birth (jati), family (kula), trade (kamma), language (bhasa) and art and handicraft (sippa) The twenty five and a half Aryan countries will be described later on Among the Aryans by birth we have six respectable castes (2bbhajati) such as Ambattha, Kalinda, Videha, Vedaga, Harta and Cuilcuna (or Tuntuna) Among Aryans by family there were Ugga, Bhoga, Rainna, Ikkhaga. Nata and Korava.' Among Arrans by trade we had dealers in cloth (dosiya), weavers (sottiya), dealers in cotton (kappasiya), dealers in yarn (sutlavedliya), grocers (bhandavealiya), potters (kolaliya) and carriers of litters (naravahanya). Among Aryans by art and handicraft we had tailors tunnaga), weavers (tantuvaya), silk weavers (pattagara), makers of leather bags for holding water (deyada), feather-brush-makers or rope-makers (rar uda) mat-makers (chavulya), wooden sandal-makers (hatthapau ara), grass sandal-makers (munjapauyaja), umbrella-makers (chatlakara), carriagemakers (vajihara = vahyakara), model-makers (potthaja), plaster-makers (leppakara), painters (cittara), workers in conch-shell (sankhara), workers in ivory (dantara), braziers (bhandara), Jujhagara (?), spcar-makers (sellagara), and workers in cowries (kordigara)"5 FOUR CLASSES Jainism and Buddhism opposed the caste system asserting the social superiority of the Ksatriyas over the Brahmanas. Yet it is a mistake to 1 See Senart, Caste in India, P 122 f For various theories of ouigin of caste, see Census India, 1931, Vol I, Pt. I, pp 33 ft Panna 1 37. # However, it should be noted that Ambattha and l'ideha are mentioned as low castes ; see infra. The Anu Su 130, p. 130a adds grass cutters, stick-gatherers and leaf-gatherers, etc, also cf Milindapanha, P 331 Cf The Ramayana (II, 83 12 ff) which mentions manikara kumbhakara, sutraharmahti sastropajivi, mayuraha krakacha, rucaka, vedhaha, dantahara, sudhahara, gandhopartivi, suvarnakara, kambaladhalaka, snapaka,ucchadaha, zaidya, dhufaha, raundaha, rajaka,tumnataya, gramamahatlara, gho samahaltara, sarliisa, and hancartaha.

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140 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA suppose that caste-distinctions were abolished during the period of Mahavira and Buddha The four classes such as Bambhana, Khattiya, Vaissa and Sudda are mentioned in the Jain Suttas & According to the Jain tradition during the time of Usabha those who were state-officers were styled as Khattiyas and those who were landlords and bankers as Gahavais Then came into being the Vaniyagas and the Vaissas. Later on during the reign of Bharata came into existence the Bambharas oi Mahanas? and then the Suddas Besides these primary vannas there were mixed castes formed from the union of different castes. THE BRAHMANAS In Tain texts the Brahmanas are held in contempt and are lepresented as the opponents of the Jain religion Frequently the term dhiyjai (dhuk Jati) condemned caste" is used for them contemptuously In Jain Suttas as stated above, generally the primary position in society is assigned to the Khattiyas instead of the Bambhanas We have seen that no Tirthankara was born in a family other than the Ksatriyas It is laid down that no great men are ever born in low, miserly, beggarly or in Brahmanicalfamilies A legend tells us that before his birth Mahavira was removed from the womb of Brahmani Devananda to that of Ksatriyani Trisala.' But it should be noted that though the Jain stories seem to make the position of the Bambhanas inferior to that ofthe Khattiyas, the Brahmanas enjoyed a high position in the society. It is stated in the Nisitha curni that the Brahmanas were god; in heaven, the Prajapati created them on earth as divine beings and so offering alms to them results in gain of spiritual merit 10 Then the terms Samena and Mihana frequently occur together in the Jain texts which shows that the homeless ascetics and the 6 Cf Uttara 25 31 , Viva 5, p 33, Aca Nir 19 27 7 The Jain texts guc a curious explanation of the term Mahana It is said that once Bharata invited the Jain monks to partake various kinds of eatables and their being refused, distributed them among the salagas Ihese saragas were of simple nature and religious-minded, and whenever they saw anybody killing, they stopped him by saying do not kill' (ma hano) and hence they came to be known as Mlahanas (Ira cu p5 also cf zbid, p 2137, Vasu p 181) 8 In the line of Manu the following mixed castes are mentioned in the Jain texts Am battha, Ugga Nisada, Augava, Magacha, Sula, Khatta, Vaideha and Candala Then through further combination between mixed castes we have Sovaga, Venava, Bokhasa and Kukkuraa (ca Nir 21-27, of Manu. X 6-50, also Gautama, IV 16 ff) 9 Kalpa 3 22 Cf a similar view expressed in the Nidaankatha (I, 49) that the Buddhas are born in one or other of the two highest classc. the Khattiya 01 the Brahmana castes and never in the low caste The Buddhist writers in cnumeration of lour castes invariably mention the Ksatriyas before the Brahmanas Cf also Vay saneya samhita (XXXVIII 19) and Kathaka (28 5) where Ksatriyas are stated superior to the Bralimanas (Majumdar, op cit, pp 367 369, Fick op aut.p 84 ff) For a controversy regarding the superiority of castes betucen Vasistha, a Biabmana and Vis umilia a Ksatriya, sce Dr. G. S, Ghurye, Caste and Race in India, p 63 f. 10 12, p. 865,

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SOCIAL ORGANISATION 141 Brahmanas were identical.11 The pre-eminent position of the Brahmanas is also evidenced by the fact that Mahavira was stylcd as Mahana or Mahanuihana.13 JAIN CONCEPTIOV OT BR IHIVLINA Jain writers likc those of the Buddhists lay sticss on one's deeds rather than one's birth It is said that one does not become a Siamana by the tonsure, nor a Biuhmina by enchanting the sacicd syllable 'Om', nor a lIuni by living in woods, nor a Trivasa by weaning clothes of husa grass and bark, but one becomes a seamana by cquanimity of mind, a Brahmana by chastily, a sum by knowledge and Tiivasa bv penance In fact, a person's worth in life is dctei mined by vn tuous life and not by birth 14 The idiculc of caste system reaches its highest pitch when Hariesa, a solaga by bith, visited a sacuificial cnclosure an acado) of a Brahmina teacher and preached him that the ical fire was penance, the real fire-place was life, the real ladle ( si) was right cxcition, thc ical Cow-dung was body, the ical fire-wood was kai man, the real oblation was self-control, right exertion and tranquility. thc sacied pond was law and the ieal bathing-place was celibacy w But it is interesting to note that in spite of those caste-denouncing prcachings and sermons the Jains could not do away with the timc honoured iestiictions ci castchcy dicw a line of distinction between high tubes (patz-aja) and low tubes (jalzJungrya), high trade (hamma-ciza) and low tiade (kamma-jungu a) and high crafts (szppa-hiya) and low crafts is ppa-jungwa) which wc shall see shortly THIR PRIVII CGIS Wliatever view the Jains nay have had about the Brahmanas, it is certain that gencially they wcie held in icspect and cstecm by the pcople as pointed out alicadw We dic told that hing Bharata sed them daily and distinguished ilicm fiom otheis by putting the mark of Lakini jewel on their person 17 1 he hings showed liberality towards them by offering gifts Wclearn that the Nanda of Parlaliputta gaieanay wealth 11 Cf lca cu p 93 , cl Samrultr, Simini Bu bm 103 Sutli (II p 1295, 236 S, IV, p 2311, V,pi 19 Suya 91 13 t'ia 7 Litara 23 29 ft CI i similar view of the Buchst w ets Buth and caste cause conceit, virtuc is the highest , bhitti, 1 Brun Tswa Suda (ulin and Pulhusa all beconi qurl in the wall of Gxl (the ha <Page #144
142 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA to the Brahmanas 18 Vararuci, a Brahmana, received one hundred and eight dinaras every day for reciting the same number of verses in praise of the king 19 Not only kings but other people also gave away charity and paid reverence to the Brahmanas, whose services they required on various occasions On special occasions such as birth, death-ceremony etc. they were invited to meals.20 Besides, the Brahmanas enjoyed certain other privileges, such as immunity from taxes and capital punishment We have seen as to howa Brahmana was received by a certain king on his discovery of a treasuretrove whereas a merchant was despised for the same and his property confiscated 21 STUDY The Brahmanas were versed in the fourtcen subjects of study (cauddasa vijjalthana), and were generally employed by the king We are told that Kasava was a state Brahmana of Kosambi and after his death his place was given to another Brahmana 22 There were teachers inoying in the company of their pupils SACRIFICE The practice of sacrifice was very common among the Brahmanas During his tour Mahavira is stated to have spent the rainy season in a sacrificial house (aggihottavasahi) of a Brahmana of Campa 24 Then we hear of Vijayaghosa who was cngaged in performing Brahmanical sacrifice The monk Jayaghosa approached him for alms and converted him to his faith, 33 after preaching the truc sacrifice We have already referred to Ajja Sejjambhava who was engaged in his sacrificial duties when visited by the pupils of Pabhava Besides, the Brahmanas were employed by the kings for the same purpose Reference has been made to the priest Mahesaradatta who was versed in the four Vedas and who used to perform sacrifice to avert evil against the king OTHER PROFESSIONS Another profession in which the Brahmanas were interested was that of dream-reading (suvinapadhaga) and fortune-telling On the birth of a king's child it seems to have been a standing custom to have the future predicted by the Brahmanas. Signs (lakkhana) in the body were interpreted by the Brahmanas versed in the signs of predicting the future Wc 18 Uttara Ti 3, p 57 10 ibid 2, 27 a 20 Uttara Ti 13, p 194 a 21 See Supra p. 62 22 Uttara Ti. 8, p 123 a 23 Uttara Su 12 19 24 Aa cu p 320 31 Uttara 25. 36 See Supra p 58,

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SOCIAL ORGANISATION 143 are told that, when Mahavira was born,king Siddhartha sent for the interpreter of dreams (suvinalakkhanzpadhaya), versed in the eight divisions of Mahanimitta and other sciences, who predicted the future of the child 27 Then we hearof a fortune-teller who prophesied the fallofIndra's thunderbolt on the head of the lord of Poyanapura,28 People ascertained from the Brahmanas whether a day was good for a journey, when the latter uttered benediction praying for safe journey.29 Magic and dcmon-worshup was another profession practised by the Brahmanas which we shall trcat in a separate chapter Medical profession is mentioned as still another profession of the Brahmanas TIIL KILLIY IS As we have seen in contrast to the Brahmanical works which state the Bralimana superiority, Jain writers like those of the Buddhists claim an undisputable supremacy for the Ksatriyas The Ksatriyas lcaint scventy two arts and achicved efficiency in the art of fighting. They acquired the right to rule the country by the strength of their arm A number of Khattiya kungs and princes are mentioned who achieved the ideal of Jinahood. TIL GATTI 115 The Gahil also on the householders Concspond to the traditional Vaisya ordei of thc Hudus of ancient India They were ich, owned land and cattlc and belongerl in thc , mc canule class Jain texts mention a nunber of Galaval, who were adherents of Jain faith (samanovasaga), and after taking to thic homeless life attained salvation Reference has been made to the householder Inanda, a rich land-owhcr of Vaniyagama, who possessed a large number of cattle, ploughs and carts Parasaia was another Gilaval who was prosperous in agriculture(kisi) and hence he was known as Kisiparasaia , lic had six hundred ploughs 31 Kuiyanna is described as another Guhavai who is said to have possessed a number of herds of kine 33 lcn Gosankhi, a kutumbi, is mentioned as the lord of the Abhuas , his son used to journey to Campa for trade with the carts loaded with ghee) Nanda is mentioned as another inslucntial setthi of Riyagiha." GUILD C.ISTES During the course of our study of the Economic lise we have seen the two main trade associations, viz , thc merchant union and the ciaft guilds. 17 halpa Su 1 ov ft 28 Uttara Ti 18 p 242 39 Naya 8, p 98 30 Ile Galavais w cic alsu kluwil by the tunnis lbblu, Scithi and hodambua, who were w included ih thu ictine u thuhu, 0. 5u. 97, cl. lich, op cit, 250 lt. Citau li.), p. 43. 93 La cu p 4. 96 zold, p 297. 84 1jyn lu, p. 1-41,

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144 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA On account of their traditional organisation they formed certain rules and customs of their own and tended to appear a distinct order in the social organisation. Besides these organised guilds, there were the manufacturers, the wandering dancers, musicians and tramps who roanied from village to village carning their bread by exhibiting skill Weiead of a young acrobat who exhibited his performance in the town of Dhannaura3 Visvakarman is mentioned as another acrobat of Rayagiha.36 Then snakecharmers and demonologists 38 are mentioned in the category of itinerant jugglers Among other corporative unions mention may be made of Nallagana, Hastipalagana39 and Sarasvatagana 10 We are told that there was grcat unity among the Mallas, they disposed of tlic dead body of a forlorn Malla and helped the poor people of their organisation 1 Among eligious corporation the organisation of the Bramanas may be mentioned Then moic settled than thesc Handcing people weic the herdsmcn thc huntsmen, the fishermen, the foresleis, grass-cutters and stick-gatheicis TIC MLLCCHAS The Wilakkhus or Milakkhas are characterised as wicked and cruclhearted people, who were different from one another in respect of their language, dress and food They did not know thc language of the li yans and committed various sins, such as killing of animals etc , and hence thcy were known as Aninas The Wilahlhas veic also styled as 'n tas as they worc different dresses and spokc different dialects They were distinguished as Paccantijas, since they resided on the border of the Iron countries They were also characterised as Dasu since thicy wcie supposed to bite with their tectli, apparently a fanciful derivation." THC DESPISED AND THE UNTOLCHABLLY Now we come to the lowest strata of society Sudra had a degradcd position in the society from very early days Mahavira and Buddha tried to improve their lot to a great extent, but it seems they could not do away fully with the caste restrictions as we have seen alrcady Thc Uttaradhyayana commentary mentions Citta and Sanibhuya, thc two sons of a Matanga leader of Varanasi, who lcd a singing and dancing party during the festival of god of love Thc high caste people could not tolerate it and they belaboured them with kicks and blows and turned them out of the town 3. 25 Lt Ti. 18 p 250 a. 88 Panda w 174 f. 37 Ullara Ti 12, p. 174 tuid 80 ta Bha Ti 7 +59 40 Brh. Bha 6 6302. Sia cu p. 23 , also see Malalasekara, op cit under 'Malla'. 43 Visi cu 15, p 1110 43 Ulara Ti 13, p 135 a, alu of Citta-Sambhun fataka. 38

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SOCIAL ORGANISATION 145 Then we meet a number of low races in our stories. The Panas, also known as Candalas, were employed to carry corpses.* 44 We read in the Antagada that Kanha Vasudeva asked the Panas to drag the dead body out and throw it away. They also attended the burial ground; they had no houses of their own and lived outside the villages under the open sky.46 Then there were the Dombas, who sang songs and sold winnowing basket and such other articles Then there were the Kinkas who prepared the leather-fittings around the musical instruments and blew them before the criminals carried for execution. To the same category of despised classes belonged the Sovagas, who cooked the flesh of dogs and sold bowstring (tanti). The Varudas earned their bread by making ropes.47 LOW PROFESSIONAL CASTES Besides these despised classes we meet with other groups of people who were despised and isolated from the "civilised" castes of people Amongst them may be mentioned peacock-tamers (posaga), barbers (samvara), aciobats (nada), pole-dancers (lankha), hunters (vaha), fishermen (macchandha), washermen (ajaya), fowlers (vagunya) and cobblers (padakara) 48 44 Vya Bho 2 37 47 4, p 22 48 C Manu X 501 47 Ta Bha 3 92, Nisi cu 11, p 747 48 Ija Bha 3 94, Mp 345, 11, p 747

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CHAPTER II DOMESTIC LIFE According to Kautilya, members of the family for whose maintenance the head of the family is responsible include children, wife, mother, father, minor brothers, sisters or widowed girls. The conditions of living in a family were that the members must live in the same abode, partake of the food cooked in the same kitchen, and enjoy the common property. The patriarch was the head and the master of the family and he was obeyed by all the other members His wife was the mistress who looked after the household duties and was obedient to the master. THE FAMILY The Nayadhammakaha tells us the story of a rich merchant who had four sons and four daughters-in-law. The merchant was the master and the sole representative of the family. Once a thought arose in his mind as to who would be able to look after his family after his death So he invited his friends, relations, kinsmen and other family members and put his daughters-in-law to the test in their presence 3 1 Artha. p. 47. I The father was held in great respect which was equal to that paid to the master and the religious teacher. It is stated that one should apply sayapaga and sahassapaga oils and other fragrant unguents to the body of the parents, should give them bath and decorate them. They should be served with eighteen kinds of seasoned food, and even if one carried them on one's shoulders one could not repay the debt which one owed to them 4 Cf. ibid p 190. 7, p. 84 f. The father was viewed like a God in ancient India. We notice sons and daughters coming to the father to touch his feet (paya andava) every day. We are told of a merchant who was ready to sacrifice his lite foi the sake of his sons Upon thus his eldest son lose and offered himself in his father's place saying that he was like a teacher and God to them and the protector and supporter of the family and hence his life was more precious than that of the rest. Our stories are full of pathos and happiness which depict the sublime love of a mother towards the child. We are told that when prince Meghakumara decided to embrace the ascetic life, his mother became unconscious and fell on the ground like a log. She was sprinkled over with water, fanned with a palm-leaf and was consoled by friends Her cycs 4 Tha 3. 135. 5 Cf Naya. 1, 13, 16, 170 6 bid 19, p. 213.

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THE FAMILY 147 filled with tears and in most pathetic words she persuaded her son not to give up the wordly pleasures.? Mothers were highly esteemed We hear of king Pusanandi who had a great devotion towards his mother and used to bathe and eat after she finished her bath and meals RELATIONS AND FRIENDS Various relations and friends are mentioned There were friends (mitta), kinsmen (nai), members of one's own family (niyaga), one's blood relations (sayana), connected by marriage (sambandhi) and one's dependents (parijana). As the father grew older, the care of the household fell on the shoulders of the eldest son We hear of people retiring from the world after giving the household management to their sons The relatives and friends etc. were invited at various occasions such as birth, marriage, death and various festivals We are told that when Mahavira was born, his parents invited their fiiends, relations, kinsmen and followers and enjoyed a grand feast in their company 10 Then we are told of thc Brahmana brothers of Campa who lived with their wives They decided to have their meals together in one another's house by turn, 11 II CHILDREN The children were happy adjuncts of the liousehold. The mothers who gave birth to children, fondled and dardled them on the knee, were considered happy The childless mothers (nindu) were taken as unlucky, so they yearned for children and propitiated various deities to obtain them We hear of Devai, the wife of Vasudeva, who considered heisclf unhappy and unrighteous because she could not have a child for a long time. Bhadda was another woman who prayed to deities, worshipped them and promised to offer wealth to repair their old shrines provided a son or a daughter was born to her, 13 Mention is made of another woman, Siribhadda, who used to give birth to still-born children She was told by an astrologer to cook rice-pudding (payasa) with the blood of a stillborn child and to offer it to a right type of monk (sutavassi) so that her children might survive.14 7 Naya 1, p 23f, Uttara Su, 19 8 Vila 9, 34 f Naya II, p 51 10 Kalpa Su 3.104 11 Naya 16, p 162. 12 Anta 3, p. 13 Naya 2, p 49, cf. Acadana Sataka I, 3, p. 14. Ava, cu p. 288.

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148 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA The child possessing the entire and complete five sense organs, with the lucky signs, marks and good qualities, well-formed and having full weight and length was considered good." DREAMS Dreams played an important part in the birth of a child in the life of ancient Indians. 16 There was a regular science of dreams (suminasaltha) and books were written on the subject It is considered as one of the eight divisions of Mahanimitta " The Bhagavati devotes a section on dreams where five kinds of dreams are mentioned. It is stated that if at the end of the dream one beholds a row of horses, elephants or oxen of rides on them, one achieves salvation. Similarly, the dream of ocean, a big rope, yarn of various colours, a heap of iron, copper, lead, silver, gold, a pile of wood, leaves, skin, straw, husk, ashes and dust, various kinds of grass such as sarastambha etc, the jar of milk, curds, ghee, honey, wine, oil and fat, a big lotus pond, jewelled palace and jewelled aerial car leads to salvation.' 18 Then by seeing decorated articles, horse, elephant and a white bull in dream one gets fame, and one who having passed urine or red stool in dream wakes up, loses wealth.10 Lord Mahavira is said to have beheld the following ten dreams before attaining omniscience defeating of a fierce demon, a white male cuckoo, a variegated male cuckoo, a pair of garland, a herd of cow, lotus pond, crossing of a big ocean by swimming, the shining sun, encircling the Manusottara mountain from all sides, and climbing up the Meru.20 The thera Bambhagutta is said to have seen in dream that his bowl filled with milk was emptied by a stranger which indicated the arrival of someone to study the sacred lore from him.21 In Jain texts usually a mother before conception beholds certain dreams. We learn that at the time of the conception of Mahavira his mother had fourteen great dreams in which she saw an elephant, a bull, a lion, the besprinkling of goddess Sri, a garland, the moon, the sun, a banner, a jar, a lotus-pool, the sea, the celestial palace, a heap of jewels 15 Kalpa su 18 18 In the Mahasupina Jataka (1, 77), p 344 king Pasenadi makes an offering in order to prevent the effect of evil dreams The king had sixteen dreams in one night In the morning when he enquired, the Brahmanas said that great dangers were threatened either to his kingdom, his treasures or his life 17 Uttara. su 15 7 18 16. 6. 19 on Uttara 8 13 com. by gantisuri The commentator Nemicandra quotes some Prakrt verses on the interpretation of dreams, which shows the existence of literature dreams in Prakrt Some of these verses find parallelism in Jagaddeva's Stapnacintamant edited by Dr. Negelein (Charpentier, Uttara, notes, p 310 f) 10 Bhag. 16.6 Ava cu p 274, 31 1bid. p. 394,

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THE FAMILY 149 and fire 22 The Nayadhammakaha gives a similar description of Dharini's dreams; she saw a big elephant passing into her mouth during the night of her conception. 23 PLRIOD OF PREGNANCY Then we come to the period of pregnancy which is very delicate for women During this period the women are asked to be very careful while standing, sitting, sleeping and taking meals which should be neither too cold nor too hot, nor too acrid, pungent, sour or sweet but good and nutritious for the safety of the unborn babe They should avoid sickness, sorrow and tenor and being moderate in the use of clothing, perfumes and garlands, should comfortably carry the unborn babe 2+ During the period of pregnancy, dohada or pregnancy longing played an important part in ancient India When two or three months of picgnancy had passed, the women had peculiar cravings. We are told that in the third month of her pregnancy, Dharini had a pregnancy longing to roam about in the outskirts of Vebhara in the monsoon riding on an clephant When the longing of the queen was not fulfilled she became sick, emaciated, unhappy and lost all her beauty This was brought to the notice of the king who saw Dharini immediately and asked her the reason of her sadness. Later on, Abhayakumara satisfied the pregnancy longing of his step-mother 25 Queen Satyavati was another woman who had a pregnancy desire to play in an ivory palace 26 The Ullaradhyayana commentary refers to another craving of "drinking the moon" (candapyana) 27 The desire to eat meat to fulfil the pregnancy longing seems to be very common. We are told of a woman who had a pregnancy longing to relish various kinds of wine and flesh of various cattle 28 We know of Cellana, who had a chronic longing to eat the flesh of her husband's belly together with wine When prince Abhaya came to know this, he sent a confidential man to get fresh mcat, blood and the entrails from a slaughter house (ghayatthana) 29 This flesh was placed on the belly of the king who pretended to be unconscious 30 The king simulated that the meat came from his body and thus satisfied the longing of the queen. Then we are told of queen Sudamsana, who went to visit the 11 Kalpa 4 66-87 23 Naya 1, p 8 f Queen Maya, the mother of Gotama Buddha, dicams a white elephant entering her body, which is sculpturally icpresented on the Baihut Stupa and elsewhere (Nidanakatha, 1, p 50 ff) 24 Naya 1, p 19, cf Avadana Sataka I, 3, p 15 25 Naya 1p 10 ff, also Uttara Ti 9 p 132 a 26 Vya Bha 1 335, p 16a. 27 3, p 57 28 Vira 2, p 14. 29 According to another tradition the piece of flesh was cut from a hare (Aza. cu. II, p 166). 80 Nirya. 1, pp. 9-11.

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150 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA painting-hall where having seen the painted deer she had a craving to eat their flesh 31 Khandasiri was another woman who had a desire to taste plenty of food, drink, spices, sweetmeats and wine. MISCARRIAGE Cases of miscarriage were not uncommon The Vivagasura tells us of the queen Miyadevi who, since the onset of her conception, felt intense pain in her body and became disagreeable to her husband Miyadevi imagined that her fall from her husband's favours was due to her prognancy, so she made up her mind for abortion. She took various kinds of alkalis (khara), bitters (kaduya) and astringents which cause abortion, but failed to carry out her purpose and carried the pregnancy in sorrow In course of time, Miyadevi gave birth to a totally blind boy. She called her nurse (ammadhar) and asked her to leave the child on the dunghill (ukku udiyi). When the king came to know of this he immediately visited thc queen and stopped her from doing so, since it was her first child.38 BIRTH The birth of a child was an occasion for great rejoicing in, ancient India. We are told that after a period of nine months and seven days and a half queen Dharinigave birth to Meghakumara. King Seniya was pleased to hear the news, he gave away all his ornaments except the diadem to the chamber-women (angapadiyariyao), anointed their head and, manumitting them, gave them manifold presents. In honour of the auspicious event, king Seniya ordered his chamberlain to declare a general amnesty to the prisoners (caragasohana) and to clear the city and to decorate it with flowers, garlands, etc. The prices of the goods were lowered and the king having sent for the eighteen corporations asked them to celebrate the birthday for ten days During this period of rejoicing tolls or taxes (ussunkamukkaram) were suspended, agricultural operation (ukkittha), selling, weighing unwelcome visit of the police officers(abhadappavesam) and the payment of debt were held in abeyance for the time being Excellent women of pleasure and actors, clappers and drummers participated in the festivals. On the first day the parents observed the payakamma ceremony when the navel vein (nala) of the child was cut and buried under the earth The second day jagarika or the whole night vigil was celebrated The thud day the ceremony of showing the moon and the sun (candasuradamsanira) to the baby was performed. Then for seven days there was a great rejoicing in the city. The cleventh day was the day of purification (surkamma) when the impurity caused by the birth of the child ended On the twelfth day the lustatory and birth rites were over and food, drinks, sweet 31 Pind N17 80 89 Viza 3, p. 23 For pregnancy longings see also Susruta Samhita, Sairasthana, ch, III, pp. 90-92, also cf Mahalagga X, 25, p. 343. Also Kathasaritsogara, Appendix 111, PP 221-8 31 1, p. 9; also Ava. cu. II, p. 186.

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THE FAMILY 151 meats and dainties were distributed among friends, kinsmen, relatives and other subordinates There were dance parties in which the king participated and then in the presence of the relations the child was given a name (namakarana) which had descended from generation after generation $4 Then various ceremonies were performed when at appropriate occasions the child started babbling (parangamana), and walking cankamanal, when he had the first taste of solid food (emamana), when the first intelligible words came out from his mouth (pajapparana), and when his ears were bored kannavedha Then there was buth ceremony (samraccharapadilakkhana), tonsure ceremony (colopana), sacred thrcad ceremony (uranayana) and ceremony oflcarning the alphabets (kalagahana) 35 In his babyhood a child was attended by fivc nurses as noted above 8 Besides there were a large number of attendants brought from foreign countries who were skilful, accomplished and well-trained, to be entrusted with the children.37 The Nisitha cu m describes in detail the various nurses, particularly the wet-nurse and the effect of her milk on the child. 38 84 Somctinics thc Janne gi had some Icletenee luan caliei event. A son of hung Sci ya was nad Mchakuma'a bccausc his mother had had the craving of sceing iainclouds out of scason (Naya 1, p 201); a boy was named Unbaladalla bcr ausc his mothci had had the ci aving of worshipping the Umbaia Jahkha (1 7, p 44) 35 Bhagavati (11 11), cf Nara (1, 21), Oru Su , 40, P 185, Kulpa Su 3 102-108 For thc daily life of a Jain with all details, sec Acaradinahara by Vardhamana suri, Bombay, 1922, also Indian Antiquary, 1903, P460 ff 38 Seep 107 The Divyavadana (XXXII, p. 475) menuons fous kinds of nurses anhadha tri, mala, stana and hidapantha, also dvadana I, V, p 28 31 laa ibid 89 13, 856 fr, of also Pinda. Ti. 418 ff. cf also Susruta Samhita Satirasthina ch 10, Su 25, p 234, also ingupiltha Falubu (333), VI, p 21, Lihta ulura, 100.

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CHAPTER III POSITION OF WOMEN J GENERAL ATTITUDE TOWARDS WOMEN It is said about the women that they are faithless, ungrateful, treacherous, untrustworthy and strict control must be kept over them It is said that a village or a town in which women are strong is sure to come to grief In the voice of Manu the Jain texts state that a woman when a child must be kept under the control of her father, when married under her husband and when widow under her son, thus a woman is never allowed to live independently? It is stated that the daughter-in-law of a house if she had acquired the taste of witnessing procession or ran to see the commotion caused by a stray horse, or a chariot from the house window, was forbidden to do so If she did not desist she was abused, and if she persisted she was bcaten, and even tlien if shc did not stop, she was turned out of thc house 3 Various fanciful etyinologics are given to the various synonyms of "woman" in Prakrit She is called nari because there is no worsc cncmy of man than her ; she is termed mahila because she charms by her wiles and graces ; she is called pamada because she accelerates a man's passion, she is called muhitiya because she creates great dissension (kali), she is called 1ama because she takes delight in men by means of her coqucttish gestures; she is called angan, because she loves the body of men, she is called lalana because she attracts a man even in domestic quarrels, and keeps company in pleasures and pains ; she is called hosiya because by her tricks and devices she keeps men under her subjugation ; she is called vanita because she caters to the taste of man with various blandishments. It is said of women "the intelligent may know the sands of the Ganges, the waters in the sea, and the size of the Himavat, women's heart they may not know" "They weep and make you weep, they tell lies and make you believe them, and deceitfully they eat poison; they die, but they do not conceive a true affection." "Woman indeed, as soon as she has fallen in love is all sugar like a piece of sugarcane, the very same woman surpasses the bitte nimba, as soon as her love is gonc" "In a moment women fall in love, but in another moment their love grows cold Delighting in various lovesports and unstable in their affection, they are like the colour of turmeric " "Cruel in their hearts and charming in body, speech, and glancc. girls resemble a knife inlaid with gold." 1 Vya Bha. 1, p. 130. 2 ibid 3 233. & Brh Bhd 1 12391 1 Tandul p 50 6 Igadadalta, Trans 10 Hindu Tules by Meyer, p. 286 f.

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POSITION OF WOMEN 153 We notice that both Jainism and Buddhism place nuns under a more rigorous discipline than monks. They are prohibited to study the chapters on Mahaparijna and Arunopapata and the Drstirada. It is stated that the Distivada deals with the magical formulae and as women are not strong enough and are fickle-minded, hence they are not allowed to study the above-mentioned scripture & The climax is reached in the rule which lays down that a monk of three years practice can become a teacher of a nun of thirty years practice; and a monk of five years practice can become an acarya of a nun of sixty years practice." Jain texts mention a number of women of wicked nature, thereby preaching the ascetic ideal of renunciation. We hear of Mayanamanjari, the wife of prince Agadadatta,who fell in love with another man and made an attempt on the life of her husband, which caused the prince to renounce the world and join the ascetic order. Then we are told of a banker's wife, who had illicit connections with some young man The father-in-law of the woman told his son about it but he would not believe that his wife had been of false faith. Later on she was put to an ordeal of entering into a Jakkha temple. The ordeal resulted in a guilty person remaining in the temple for ever, while the non-guilty came out frec The banker's wife visited the Jakkha, who was her own paramour in the disguise of a Pusaca, and said " fI love any other person except the man to whom I had been given in wedlock by my parents, 'you, the Ghost', should know." The Jakkha got perplexed and began to think that even he had been cheated by her In the meantime she came out of the temple and her fatherin-law was put to humiliation by the people. It should be noted, however, that the above remarks about women do not find general acceptance in society and they are made with a view to blacken the character of women in order to warn the lustful monks to keep aloof from feminine charms that might overcome their reason Judging from the contemporary writings of other faiths, it does not appear that women had suddenly clothed themselves in all sorts of vices specially in the Jain and Buddhist period Varahamihira has pointed out boldly that all the defects that have been attributed to women exist in man as well. Women, however, try to remove them, while men are supremely indifferent in the matter. Marriage vows are equally binding on the couple Men treat them lightly, while women act up to them Who suffer more from the sex urge? Men, who marry even in their old age, or women who lead a chaste life, even if widowed in the prime of their youth ? Men no doubt go on talking of their love to their wives, while B Brh. Bha Pi 146, also cf Vya Bha 5 139 Cf the position of the Bhikkinis in the Buddhist Sangha. The eight principle vous prior to admission, make a Bhikhunt in every way subordinate to a Bhikkhu. The first rule is that a Bhikkhuni,even if of a hundred years standing, should make salutation to, should rise up in presence of, should bow down before a Bhikkhu, if only just initiated (Cullatagga, X, 1.4). Uttara Ti, 4, pp 84-93 Das cu PP. 89-91. This story is also found in the Suka Saplati, 16, p. 66, Ed. by Richard Schmidt, Leipzig, 1893.

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154 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA they are alive, but contract second marriages soon after their death. Women, on the other hand, feel grateful to their husbands and decide to follow them on the funeral pyre, urged by the promptings of their conjugal love. Who then are more sincere in their love, men or women ? For men to say that women are fickle, frail and faithless is the height of impudence and ingratitude ; it reminds one of the audacity of clever thieves who first send away their loot and then challenge innocent persons demanding from them the stolen articles. 10 THE OTHER SIDE The other side of the picture cannot be ignored. We hear of devoted and chaste wives and of happy love and affection between husband and wife. A woman is counted among fourteen jewels of a cakkavatti.11 Malli, although a woman, we are told rose to the status of a Tirihankara 13 Women were highly regarded and it is prescribed that at the time of difficulty such as caused by water, fire, robbers or famine, a woman must be rescued first.18 We hear of the faithful and chaste woman Rujimati, who followed the footsteps of her husband and joined the ascetic order We are told that once Aritthanemi, his brother Rahanemi and Rujimati all were practising penance on the same mountain, when Rahanemi lost self-control and began to court his sister-in-law The latter resisted boldly and baffled his attempt by offering him a drink in which she vomitted in his presence.14 Subhadra was another chaste woman who was the daughter of a sravaka and was married to a Buddhist (uvasaga). She was accused of having illegal connections with white-clad monks (seyavadiyabhikkhu). Once upon a time, when a Jain monk was begging alms, it so happened that a rice-speck entered into his eye which Subhadra picked out with her tongue While doing so, the forehead of Subhadra and the monk touched each other and her forehead mark made with red lead (cinapittha) was imprinted on the monk's forehead. This was shown to Subhadra's husband, who suspecting the chastity of his wife proposed to put her to an ordeal 15 Jainism and Buddhism declared as we have seen that womanhood was no bar to salvation. We hear of a large number of women in Jain texts who distinguished themselves as teachers and preachers.16 Ajja Candana is the supreme example of superiority of women, who was 10 Brhatsamhita, ch.76 6 12, 14, 16, 17, trans by A S Altekar, The Position of Ivomen in Hindu Civilization, p 387 Fambu. 3 67, also cf Digha 11. pp 172-7 which mentions calka ratanam, hatthi ratanam, assa ratanam, mani ratanam, itthi ratanam, gahapati ratanam and parinayala ratanam 13 Naya 8. However, attaining Tirthanharahood by a woman is unusual according to the Svetambaras and hence it is described as one of the ten unexpected things According to the Digambaras, however, Malli was a male, and no woman can ever altain Moksa, 18 BTh. Bha 4.4948f. 14 Das. Su. 2.7-11, Uttara. XXII. 16 Das. cu. 1, p. 49 f. 18 Cf. Anta. 6, 7, 8; Naya. II, 1-10, pp. 220-30.

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POSITION OF WOMEN 155 the first disciple of Mahavira and under whom a large number of nuns practised the rules of right conduct and attained salvation." Then we hear of Jayanti, the sister of king Sayaniya of Kosambi, who abandoned her royal robe and became a devout nun.18 MARRIAGE Marriage, according to the Hindus, is not merely a contract between two parties but a spiritual union, a holy bond of unity brought about by divine dispensation. One of the purposes underlying such marriage is to keep the continuity of the line for which man must take the best bride available and the maiden should be married to the best gioom available. There should be complete harmony between husband and wife, MARRIAGE ALLE AGE Jain texts do not tell us definitely about the age of marriage. We are simply told that both a girl and a boy should be of an equal age (saminavaya). It seems that in ancient India late marriages were considered harmful. A popular saying is quoted that, if after the attainment of puberty of a maiden, her guardians fail to arrange for her marriage, they go to hell.19 FORAS OF MARRIAGE The forms of marriage mentioned in the sain texts may be classified into three types: marriages arranged by parents of both partics, Srayamvara, and Gandharva marriage. The current form of marriage was that arranged by parents of both parties. Generally, marriage within one's own castc (all) was the rule. As in the Jatakas, we meet here with the effort to keep thc family pure through the marriage connections among the people of same standing and profession and not to allow it to degeneiate through intermixture with lower elements. Ordinarily, we find that the parents brought a wife for their son from a family of the same rank (sarisayakula). We are told that prince Meghakumara was married to eight princesses of equal age, beauty and virtue, belonging to the same royal rank.22 However, exceptions regarding castc and rank are not unknown in the Jain texts. For instance, we hear of the minister Tcyaliputta who married a goldsmith's daughter, 23 Gayasukumala, a ksatriya, 20 17 Cf Anta. 8, Kalca su, 5. 135. 18 Bhag 12 2 Panda. Nir 500 ; cf for a similar view, Afanu (IX, 88). In the Hindu lucratuic cight forms of marriage are enumerated (Kanu. 3.21); Alahda bharala (1.6+ Sf), see also Altekar, op. cit., pp. 41-56. Cf. Fick , op. cit., p. 61 f. 39 Naya. I, p. 23. 28 Naya. 14, p. 148,

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156 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA was betrothed to a Brahmana girl,24 king Jiyasattu married a painter's daughter; *5 Bhambhadatta married the girls from the Brahmana and the merchant families.26 In matters regarding marriage very often the elders consulted each other and informed of their grown-up children. Sometimes the consent of the boy was understood by his silence. We hear of Jinadatta, a merchant of Campa, who happened to see the daughter of Sagaradatta playing with a golden ball (kanagatindusaya). The former approached the latter and proposed to marry his son to the latter's daughter. Later on Jinadatta went home and consulted his son who gave his consent by keeping quiet.27 MARRIAGE BY PURCHASE In this form of marriage a wife was obtained for money paid to her father's family by the husband or his father. The minister Teyaliputta, referred to above, wanted to marry the daughter of a goldsmith, and so he asked him as to what money (sunka) he should pay him. The latter replied that it was sufficient that a minister was marrying his daughter and hence he need not worry about payment. We hear of a merchant, who, after leaving his negligent wife, married another girl by paying a large sum." A robber who had plenty of money paid the desired amount (Tahacchiyam sunkam) and married a girl.39 Then we hear of king Candacchaya, who, while estimating the value of Malli, remarked that she was worth his whole kingdom. These instances sufficiently testify to the prevalence of the practice of giving daughter in marriage in exchange of money. 82' It is said that the following marriage gifts (poidana) were given to Meghakumara by his parents : eight crores of silver, the same of gold, eight crowns, eight pairs of earrings, eight strings of pearls (hara), half strings of pearls, (addhahara), the same of one stringed necklaces of gems, (ekkavalt), the same of pearls, gold, necklaces (kanakavalt), jewel necklaces (rayanavali), bracelets, armlets (tudaya), eight suits of fine linen (khoma), tussar silk (vada), silk (patta) dukula silk (dugulla), eight figures of the goddesses such as sri, hre, dhrti, karti, buddhi and laksmi, eight round iron seats (nandam), stools (bhadda) locks (tala ?) flags, eight herds of cows (vaya), eight dramas with thirtytwo actors in each, eight jewelled horses, elephants, carts, (yana), carriages (Jugga) coaches (sibika), litters (sandamani), 14 Anta. 3, p. 16. 25 Chiara Ti, 9. p. 141 a ff. 28 sbd., pp. 188 a, 192 a. In the days of Manu the system of intermarriages was much more flexible than it is today. The anuloma marriages were not uncommon in society down to the eighth century AD. Altekar, op. cit, p. 88. Naya. 16, p. 168 f. Also Anta. 3, p. 16. Ultara Ti. 4, p. 07. 39 Ultard. cu. p. 110. 80 Naya. 8, p. 103. 81 For condemnation of such marriage, ace Manu. III.61 ; also Altekar, op. cit., pp. 47-50 38

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POSITION OF WOMEN 157 elephant litters (gille), horse-palanquin (thellz), open carts (viyadajana), chariots, eight villages, eight male slaves (dasa), female slaves (dasi), attendants (kinkura), chamberlains (kancuki), courtiers (mahattara), eunuchs (varisadhara), eight lamps, platters (thala), chargers (pai), mirror plates (thasaga), cups (mallaga), spoons (kaiviya), avaeja pot (com tapika. hastaka ?), frying pans (avapakka), stools (pavdha), seats (bhisiya), bowls (karodzya), couches (pallankaya), sofas (padisija) each of gold, silver and gold-silver, the same number of swan chairs (asana), heron chairs, eagle chairs, tall chairs (onaya), sloping chairs (panaya), long chairs, fine chairs (bhadda) winged chairs (pakkha), crocodile chairs, lotus chairs and disasovatthiya chairs, eight casks of oil (tellasamugga), the samc of the substances such as kuttha, patta, coya, tagara, haritala, hingula, manosila and mustard (sarisava) ; eight hunch-backed women (kirata) etc. as mentioned before There were eight maid-servants holding umbrellas, chowries, fans, bowls, five nurses, eight women to rub (maddiya), to knead, (ummaddiya), to bathe and to attire, eight women to pound sandal, to pound powders (cunnaya), eight women to make sport (kilakari), to makc laughter (davagari), to wait by his couch (uvatthaniya or ucshaviya), eight to be of his theatre (nidailla), eight women as attendants (kodumbini), kitcheners (mahanasini), stewards (bhandari),carriers of babes (ajihadharini?), flowers and drink, eight to perform the domestic sacrifice (balikari), to makc beds, to carry messages within and without, eight to make chaplets (malakari), and eight to be dispatched out (pesanakari). Besides, the gifts included plenty of riches, gold, jewels, gems, pearls, shells, corals and rubies which were sufficient to last for generations 33 DOTIRY SYSTEM We have instances which show the existence of the dowry system in the form of money, goods or estate which a woman brought to her husband in marriage. We are told of the wives of Mahasayaga of Rayagiha, who possessed ancestral property 33 Then we hear of a king of Vanarasi who gave away one thousand villages, one hundred elephants, plenty of treasure (bhandara), one lac of foot-soldiers and ten thousand horses to his son-in-law in marriage.34 CEREMONIES The usual practice in the first type of marriage was that the bridegroom went to the bride's house for marriage, though there are instances when the bride went to the house of the bridegroom 36 Lucky days were fixed for the ceremony and the bridegroom and his party were received with 88 Naya Ti 1, p 42a f, cf Bhag III, p 244 f Bechardas, Abhaya Com. 11. 11, Antagada, pp. 33-35. trans by Barnett. 33 Uva 8, p 61 Also cf Altekar, op at pp. 82-4 Ultara Ti 4, p. 88; also cf Rumayana 1. 74.4 ff The Jalala mentions the custom of celebrating the marriage with bath money given by the father to his daughter, specially in royal weddings (Mehta, P BIP 281). 86 af. Naya. 14, p. 148 f.

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158 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA great honour and were entertained with food, drink, etc. We read that Sagara took his bath, held the domestic sacrifice (balikamma) performed the lustratory rites of charm and auspicious marks (kayakouyapayacclutta), decked his body with ornaments and in the company of his relatives proceeded to the house of Sagaradatta to marry Sukumaliya. Sagara and Sukumaliya both were made to sit on the same slab (patta), they were given a bath with white and yellow pitchers, oblation was offered to fire and amidst auspicious songs and kisses (uvayana) from the married women the marriage ceremony was performed. SVAYAMVARA Then we come to the Svayamvara marriage. We have several instances where girls attaining proper age chose publicly husbands for thcmselves from a number of suitors. The Napadhammakaha refers to the Svayamvara of Dovai which was attended by various prominent kings and princes. The guests were received with great pomp and show and were entertained with food, drink, wine, flowers, garments and music. Then by the beat of drum the Svayamvara of Dovai was proclaimed and the guests arrived in the Swayamvara hall especially built for the purpose on the bank of the Ganges. It was cleaned, sprinkled over, filled with bunches of fresh sweet-smelling blossoms of five colours, it smelt pleasantly with the shimmering fumes of kalaguru, fine kundurukka and turukka and was fragrant with sweet-smelling fine scents (sugandhavaragandhiam), a very incense stick (gandhavattibhuyam) and the galleries were arranged (mancaimnicakaliya). The visitors took their respective seats which were already marked with their names and waited for Dovai to come. In the meantime, Dovai took her bath, performed the lustatory rites etc., put on festive clean garments of state, visited the Jain temple (inaghara) and coming back decked her body with various ornaments and accompanied by her female servants (cediya), play-nurse (kudiviya) and the private secretary (bhiya) reached the Svayamvara hall in a chariot Shc bowed low to the kings and the princes, took a beautiful garland (surdiimaganda) made of fragrant flowers and emitting excellent smell in her hand and in the company of the play-nurse with a bright mirror in her hand, moved about the hall. The play-nurse, pointing out with her right hand, described the family, strength, gotra, power, beauty, learning, grandeur, youth and character of the various kings and princes, whose reflections were cast into the mirror. Then Dovai came to the place where the five Pandavas were seated, she put the garland around their necks and chose them as her husbands.37 The Uttaradhyayana commentary refers to another Svayamvara marriage of the princess Nivvui. With the permission of her father she went to Indapura and declared that one who was brave and valiant and one who 88 ibid., 16, p. 169. 87 ibid., 18, pp. 179-82.

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POSETION OF WOMEN 159 could shoot an effigy, would be her husband. Various princes and kings were invited to attend the Svayamvara. The flags were raised up in the city and a Svayamvara hall was erected outside the town There on an axle (aksa) to which were attached eight wheels (cakra) stood an effigy, which was to be shot in the eye. The twenty sons of king Indradatta tried their luck without success. In the end, another son of Indradatta stood up and succeeded in shooting at the eye of the effigy, and was chosen as husband by Nivvui.88 We are told of a Svayamvara hall (vagharanasila), built in Tosali where a fire-vessel was kept always burning. In this hall slave boys and a slave girl were made to enter and the girl selected a boy as her husband.39 GANDHARVA MARRIAGE The third type of marriage is the Gandharva marriage. In this marriage the bride and bridegroom made their own choice without the knowledge of their guardians and were married without rites or ceremonies. Thus Raktasubhadra married Arjuna without the consent of her parents.40 We hear of king Siharaha of Pundavaddhana, who married a girl by Gandharva marriage.41 There were also many instances of elopement and abduction, The story of the elopement of Vasavadatta with Udayana is well-known; then Suvarnangulika, a maid servant of Udayana was abducted by king Pajjoya, Ruppini by Kanha, Kamalamela by Sagaracanda, 42 and Cellana was abducted by king Seniya. Regarding abduction, besides the wellknown case of Sita, the Tain texts refer to the abduction of Dovai by king Paumanaha of Amirakanka 48 Mention may be made of bringing up women for immoral purposes Casatzposana) which was in vogue in the country of Golla 44 OTHER KINDS OF MARRIAGE Contrary to limitations on marriage imposed by Brahmanic injunctions, we come across the examples of unorthodox marriages in Jain canonical literature Such marriages, however, are not supported by other sources except the marriage with maternal uncle Marriage with step-mother was prevalent in countries like Golla where the Brahmanas (uippa) were allowed to marry their step-mother (maisavrtti).46 38 1, 3, p 65a 89 Brh Bha 2 3446. This reminds us of primitive practices current in the primitive tribes in India 40 Panha Ti 4, 16, P 85. 41 Uttara Ti 9, p 141 , also 13, p. 190. 41 Bth. Bha Pi, P 57. Naya, 16, p 186 44 Ava. Ti. (Hani), p. 829 a. 43 Ava. cu. II, p. 81; algo cf. Nisi cll. II, p. 745 ; Ava. Ti. (Hari.) p. 580a; also see Kathasartsagara, Vol. VII, p. 116 ff.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA According to Jain mythology, sister marriage was prevalent at the time of Usabha, who married his own sister. The Avasyaka curni refers to another case of sister marriage when king Pupphaketu allowed his son to marry his own sister.48 This kind of marriage was also prevalent in the country of Golla." 160 The marriage of cousins also was in vogue in the primitive society. The cousin marriage, with the daughter of maternal uncle (mauladuhiya) was allowed in the countries of Lata and Daksinapatha, and was prohibited in Uttarapatha. We are told that Bambhadatta married his maternal uncle's daughter.50 The cousin marriage, i.e the marriage with sister's daughter (mausaduhiya) was also prevalent, but it was not allowed in Lata."1 The other form of cousin marriage prevalent was marriage with the daughter of father's sister.52 SON-IN-LAW LIVING IN THE HOUSE There were other marriages in which the parents of the girl preferred keeping their son-in-law in their own house, instead of sending their daughter to her mother-in-law's house. Thus the father of Sukumaliya married his daughter to Sagara on the condition that he was to stay in his house.58 We are told that in Parasa a horse-breeder employed a servant to look after his horses for which he gave him two horses a year as his wages. The master gave him an option to select two horses from his team. The servant, in consultation of the master's daughter, with whom he was in love, selected two best horses whereupon the master was pleased to marry his daughter to him and keep him as a house son-in-law (gharajamiya). This custom is still prevalent in Bengal and United Provinces in India and is known as "gharjamar". The son-in-law lived with his wife's parents under the following circumstances: (i) when the girl's father was well-to-do and had no son, (ii) when the girl's family was very poor and wanted the help of a strong man, and (iii) when the son-in-law was a poor man and could not pay a dowry.55 48 II, p. 178. 47 bid p 81 The com on the Suttani pata (1, p. 357) refers to the Sakyans who were rebuked by the Koliyans for cohabiting like dogs, jackals and such like beasts with their own sisters, also Kunala Jataka (No. 536) V, p. 412, also Digha I, p. 92, also see IH Q., 1926, p 563 ff 18 Baudhayana refers to this kind of marriage. Kumarila Bhatta casts a fling at the Daksinatya, who is overjoyed to get the daughter of his maternal uncle (Chakladar, op cit., p 133), also see Census India, 1931, Vol I, Pt. I, p 458 Ava cu II, p 81. Uttara. Ti., p 189a 49 50 51 Ava. cu, op. c 63 1bid., II, p. 160 58 Naya., 16,P. 169 54 Brh. Bha. 3.3959 f; however cf. Kundakakucchi Sindhava Jataka (No. 254), II p. 287 f. See Census India, 1931, Vol. I, Pt. I, pp. 250 f. 68

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POSITION OF WOMEN 161 MARRIAGE IN EXCHANGE Marriages were arranged in exchartge for giving one's own sister in marriage. We read about the marriage of Devadatta, who married the sister of Dhanadatta and in exchange gave his sisterin marriage to him" The custom of marriage in exchange is still prevalent among the caturedis of Mathura and other parts of United Province The reason behind the custom seems to have bcen the dearth of girls in particular caste the members of which were not allowed to marry outside. It is known as santa or adalibadala,57 POLYGYNY AND POLYANDRY As has been said above, begetting children was the chief goal of Hindu marriage The continuity of the line depends on the male issue ; hence the birth of sons was considered necessary A son was genuincly bclieved to be necessary for spiritual salvation. The Hindu law-givers allowed a man to marry more than oncc This was the underlying idea of polygamous system among the Hindus, though in later times it degenci - ated to such an extent that polygamy became a fashion with the rich Indians." As a general rulc in ancient times pcople were monogamous, and polygyny was a fashion among the rich and ruling sections of the society The kings and princes considered it a privilege to have a crowded harem, which strengthened their political power by contracting numerous but judicious matrimonial alliances The rich people regarded plurality of wives as a proof of their wealth, reputation and social position Reserences to polygyny are numerous in the Jain texts In this counection the names of king Bharata, king Vikkamajasa," king Scniya and that of Gahayai Mahasaya may be mentioned 61 Unlike polygyny, polyandry was a raie incident in life of polyandrous marriage, we come across a solitary cxample of Dovai, which, of course, is a remnant of Epic Agc 02 Polyandry is still practised among all classes and castcs in Jaunsar-Bawar (district Dehra Dun) 63 REMARRIAGE OF A WIDOWIER It may, however, happen that a woman may be forsaken, or allowed to go away by her husband or may go away of her own accord Under 50 Pinda. Nir 324 f According to the Buddhist tradition, king Bimbina and Pasenadi of Kosala were connected by marriage, cach haung married a c1 of the other (Dhammapada A I, p. 385) 57 See Consus India, 1931, Vol 1 Pt I, 252 See Valvalkar, Hindu Social Institutrons, p 193. 69 Uttara Ti,18, p 239. Anta, 7, p 43 61 See Supra p 157 82 See also Alickar, op cit, pp 132-4. 08 Census, India, 1931, Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 262.

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760 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA such circumstances, the man was free to marry another woman. Thus we are told in the commentary on the Uttaradhyayana that a merchant's wife was fond of decorating her body so much that she did not look after the household servants and property and as a result all the servants left her. In course of time, when the merchant returned from his journey, not sceing any servant in the house, he got angry with his wife, turned her out of the house, and married another woman.se WIDOW REMARRIAGE According to the Hindu ideal of marriage, a true wife must preserve her chastity as much after as before her husband's death and hence the marriage of widows was generally not favoured in ancient India. Although according to the Smytis, there are "five cases of legal necessity" whereby the wife is allowed to marry a second husband, viz , if the first husband is lost, or dead, or becomes an ascetic or is impotent or is expelled from the caste ; 86 yet it seems that on the whole the widow remarriage was looked with contempt.66 The Ovaiya mentions the women whose husband is gone abroad, the women who have lost their husbands, the women who are widows from their childhood, the women who are forsaken, the women who are guarded by their mother, father, brother, family or father-in-law, the women whose nails have grown, the hairy women who have grown beard (marsu), the women who have given up the use of flowers, perfumes, garlands and ornaments, the women who suffer from perspiration, dirt and filth without a bath, the women who have given up the use of milk, curds, butter, ghee, oil, jaggery, salt, honey, wine and meat; it is said of such women that they observe celibacy and never marry another man 67 Reference is made to child-widows who joined the ascetic order. Dhanasiri88 and Lakkhanavati'are mentioned as such widows who entered the life of nuns. THE CUSTOM OF NITOGA Reference may be made here to the custom of niyoga which prevailed in ancient India. The practice prescribed for a childless widow to have intercourse with the brother or any near kinsman of her deceased husband to beget a male child. In the Avasyaka curni reference is made to this 08 84 4, P 97 85 Narada, XII, 97. 98 See Valvalkar, op cit, chapter on Marriage ; also Altekar, op. cit, pp. 181-3 87 38, p 107, cf Manu (IX 65) Ava cu P 626 89 Maha Ni p 24. According to Manu (IX 59f) the person who was appointed under niyoga to beget a son for the widow was to approach her anointed with clarified butter, silently to give her one son only, and by no means a second, and after the purpose of niyoga is served the man and the woman had to behave towards each other like a father and a daughter-inlaw, also Gautama XVIII 4ff, Also sce Altekar, op. cit., pp 168-76.

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POSITION OF WOMEN 163 custom, although it does not come exactly under the category of niyoga. It is said that once Kayapunna, a merchant of Rayagiha, was sleeping in a temple, whence he was taken away by a merchant woman to her house This woman had lost her son in a shipwreck, and since there was no heir to his property, she feared that the heirless property might go to the king. The merchant woman told her four daughters-in-law that Kayapunna was their brother-in-law (devara) who was found after a very long time Kayapunna remained there for twelve years and in the course of time begot four children by each one of them SELF IMMOLATION We do not find any instance of self immolation or the custom of Sati in Jain texts except one in the sahanisiha when a widowed daughter of a certain king, in order to save her family from disrepute, wanted to perform Sati, but since this custom was not in vogue in her father's family, she refrained from it." PUBLIC APPC.IR.INCE OF WOMEN In early days as a whole there was nothing like modern purdah systemi in existence, though there were certain restrictions on the movement of women. Javaniya or the curtain is mentioned in the Jain texts. It 18 stated that Tisala sat behind the curtain and listened to the interprctations of dreams.73 But on the whole we find that women appeared in the public without any restriction. They could go out to visit their friends and relations. Many women are seen going to the jakkha and other shrines for worship and gathering on the occasion of various festivals. We hear that king Kuniya visited Mahavira along with his queens," In the case of prince-converts we find them being taken to Mahavira by the king and the queen who made a joint gift of their son to the Teacher.74 We also come across women dressed in man's attire, putting on armour, equipped with weapons, arms, shields, bows and arrows." There are examples when women actually fought battles. We hear of a certain queen who fought a battle in the disguise of her lord.10 THE POSITION OF THE GANIKAS Secular prostitution in India is very old institution and dates back from the time of the Rgveda where the term nrtu occurs denoting a female "dancer"?? In the Vajasaneyi Samhita it seems to be recognised as a pro 71 pp 468-9. 73 p. 29 f. For the Sati custom, see Altekar, op. cit., Chapter IV. Ta Kalpa. 4. 63; also Naya. 1, p. 8. 78a Ova. Su 33, p. 144. * For Purdah system in ancient India, See Altekar, op. cit., pp. 186-211, Vilai 3, p. 23. Vya. Bhd. 1, p. 100 2: Vedic Index, I, p. 457 18

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164 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA fession while in the law-books the prostitute is regarded with disfavour. In the Jatakas we find that the courtesans were not only tolerated but held in certain amount of esteem. According to Kautilya, they enjoyed a privileged position and held the royal umbrella, fan and golden pitcher. Vatsyayana devotes six chapters to courtesans and divides them into nine classes, the most honourable being those always rewarded by kings and praised by gifted persons." It seems that ganika was a member of gana or corporation whose charms were the common property of the whole body of men associated together by a common band, economic or political.19 A ganika in ancient India was highly respected by the people in gencral. According to Vatsyayana her mind was cultivated and trained by a thorough education and she was versed in various artistic accomplish ments.80 The Nayadhammahala refers to a rich courtesan of Campa She was versed in the traditional sixtyfour arts, possessed sixtyfour accomplishments of a courtesan, and was well-versed in the science of erotics 81 She was also a linguist, well-versed in dialects, she dressed sumptuously and was an accomplished singer and dancer Her sees were a thousand coins, and such was her renown that she was granted the privilege of carrying umbrella, chowries and fansa and moved in a karniratha as a mark of royal favour. She was also appointed as the head of many thousand courtesans 83 One of the various fine arts and sciences in which the courtesans were versed was that of Varszka.8* It is said that in order to lcarn this art people from distant places approached the courtesans. The Suyagada commentary mentions Dattavaisika," who, being cheated by a certain courtesan, would not show his love towards her The courtesan played various tricks mentioned in Varsika upon him but without any result.86 The courtesans were also expert psychologists and skilled in painting The BIhatkalpa Bhasya refers to a courtesan, who had a nice picturegallery in which she had painted the charactcristics of different casts (jatzkamma) and different phases of ars amoris depicting the reconciliation 18 hathusarilsagara, trans Penzer, Vol I. App IV, p. 138 etc cf Puramatthadi ani the com on the L duna, p. 28') where a ganih, is called as nugara-souhan 79 Challadai, Studies in Vatsyajana Kamas uha, p. 199 f. Io the Jain lcgcnd regarding the origin of ganhas see tasu p 103 Also cf Manu. who associates the gana and the ganika in one verse saying that thc food offered by both were equally to be refused by a Brahmand (IV. 209), also Vinayarastu of the Mulasarvasuvada, p 174 where Anuapali s mentioned as a cominon property of the corporation of Varsali (gurabhogya). Challadar, op cit, 198, also Bharata's Matyasashia, 35, 59-62 81 As described by Vatsvayana, says the commentator I'oi 64 ways of accosting man, see Dhammalada A IV, p. 197 8 Cf Arthasastra, p 130 3, p 59, also ct the description of Kamajjhaya in tlic Vilagasuya (2, p 12) 85 A quotation is given in the Suyagada curni (p 140) from Vaistha Tarsha is also mentioned in the Lalitauistara (p. 150), ako Michahaliha, I, p. 2, also Bharata's Natyasas tra, Bombay 1943, Chapter 23. 86 Dattaka is mentioned as an author of Varsha in Daniodara's Kutlinimata, vs. 504 88 4. 1. 24.

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POSITION OF WOMEN 165 of the lovers. When a visitor approached her she took him to the picturegallery and asked what pictures he liked most From the answer of the man she understood his caste, his artistic taste and the weakness and the strength of his nature 87 The courtesans in ancient days were not morally degraded, but they were the women of high character whose company was sought by respectable citizens. 88 Jain texts mention various courtesans of fame and character who did not like to flirt with many, but yearned to have a man of their choice and to live happily with him. Kosa and Upakosa are mentioned two courtesans of Padaliputta The former loved Sthulabhadra and the latter Vararuci.89 Kosa lived with Sthulabhadra for twelve years and loved him so much that she did not like the company of any other person after Sthulabhadra retired from the world. In course of time, the monk Sthulabhadra returned to Padaliputta and visited Kosa. She listened to his religious sermons and became a sraurka. She took a vow of celibacy that she would not show favour to anyone excepting when forced by the king.90 Devadatta was another "public-woman" of Ujjeni, who was proud of her beauty, grace and accomplishments. She was devoted to prince Muladeva of Padaliputta and wanted to get rid of Ayala, a rich merchant of the town and her lover. Once her mother asked her not to love Muladeva because he was penniless, but Devadatta replied that she was fond of his virtues, and not of his wealth Later on, she visited the king and requested him not to force upon her any other man except Muladeva.91 87 88 80 90 01 P1. 262 Cf. the picture gallery of Amrapali of Vaisali (Vinayalastu of the Mulasarva stivada, p 19) See also Damodaragupta's Kultinimata, Bombay, 1924, which describes various cunning arts, wiles and devices which were resorted to by courtcsans to decoy and lead to ruin guileless but weak-minded young men Cf the character of Carudatta in Africhakatiha According to the Kothasaritsagara (Vol I, ch IV, pp 32-6) Upakosa was the chaste wife of Varar uci Once when Vararuci had gonc to the Himalayas, Upakosa went to takc bath in the Ganges. There she was seen by the royal minister, priest and the judge who became enamoured of her She made an appointment with them and asked each of them to come at different times Later on, she shut them in a box which was carried to the king's court. Ullara. Ti. 2 20 If bed, 3, pp. 59-65 Cf other ganikas of high character in Buddhist and Brahmanic Iterature. The courtesan Bundumati made the great Ganges Now backwards by her act of truth Asked by king Asoka as to what caused this wonder, she replied that whosoever gave her gold, whether a nobleman or a Bralunana or a tradesman or a servant she regarded them all alike (Milindapanha, p 1211) The Kurudhamma Jataha (II, No 276), D 380 tells another story about a rightcous courtesan who icclived one thousand pieces from a man who never ruturned for three years The coui lesan for honour's gake did not take cven a piece of betcl from another man When she became poor, she went to thc court and got the peiinission of the judges to earn wages as before. In the Kathasarilsagara (Vol III, ch XXXVIII, pp. 207-217) we noticc a courtcsan making a vow that, if in six months her lover would not return, she would give away all her property and enter into fire. She passed her time by, giving charities to the Brahmanas. For Ambapalika scc Digha. II, pp. 96-8 ;- Tharigatha, 252-70, Mahaxagga VI, 30 p. 231-3.

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166 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA A ganika was highly csteemcd by the king, who considered her as tuc glory (rayana) of his capital. Almost all big towns had a chicf courtesan. Nandini is mentioned as a chief courtesan of a certain city. When she was taken ill she was replaced by another and, when the latter was absent, a third was brought in." The courtesans lived in state and luxuries and found favour with rich people and kings They went on picnics with rich people. We are told that the two merchants of Campa ordered their servants to take all kinds of food, perfumes and flowers, to the garden and to prepare a temporary camp there. Then after mounting the chariot with Devadatta they went to the garden and enjoyed water-sports in the lake and then went to the camp and enjoyed sexual intercourse. In the afternoon they walked hand in hand with Devadatta outside the camp and enjoyed the beauty of the garden. They returned in the evening and the merchants gave Devadatta rich presents.94 Dancing girls (nattiyao) are mentioned.95 FEMALE ASCETICS The nuns played an important part in the fourfold Sangha of Mahavi. ra as has been mentioned already. Like monks nuns too lived upon the charity of the people though their life was much harder and they were placed under a more rigorous discipline than monks. It is stated that they should not stay alone without the protection of monks and should avoid the company of men of doubtful character. In fact, those were very hard days for nuns. When they went out to beg they were subjected to various annoyances by young men, who followed them to their residence (vasati). The nuns were mocked at during their menstrual period when the Kapalika ascetics by means of spells tried to fascinate them. It is for this reason that the Jain nuns were asked to cover themselves thoroughly like a plantain tree. But still the young men used to give them much trouble. Under such circumstances the runs were asked to keep the doors of their residence closed. If there were no doors, the monks used to guard them or they themselves sat together with sticks in their hands to stop the tyrants. If still a young nun was tormented by mischievous persons, it was the duty of some young monk who was wellversed in the art of fighting, to meet the tormentor in the disguise of a nun and punish him. We are told of Sukumaliya who joined the ascetic order together with her two brothers. Sukumaliya was a beautiful nun and so when she went out to beg she was followed by young men who even entered her residence by force. The chief nun informed the acarya who 09 Uttara. Ti 3, p. 64. 03 Aca su p 71. 04 Naya. 3, p. 60, also 16, p. 174 ; also cf. Chakladar, op. cit., p. 1881 88 Uliara. Ti. 9. p. 136. 98 Bth. Bha, 3.4706 ff; 1.2443 f., 2086.

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167 POSITION OF WOMEN asked her brothers to protect their sister. Now Sukumaliya began to live with her brothers who used to go out begging by turns. As both were adepts in the art of fighting, if anybody dared to enter their residence, they thrashed him and brought him to his senses."7 We have instances when the nuns were lured by the householders.98 Sometimes they were raped by force. It is laid down that under such circumstances a nun should immediately inform her teacher. It is stated that, even if a nun gets pregnant, she should not be turned out from the Sangha, but the offender must be punished. It is said that if nobody knew of her pregnancy, the nun should be kept in the house of a sravaka. If it is revealed, the nun should be kept in the upasraya and must not be sent out for alms. If some people made remarks, they must be told that she could not be abondoned in such conditions. Anyhow the nun should be defended by citing examples of Kesi and Satyaki who were born of nuns without being guilty, and should be looked after properly.90 There are examples when the nuns were abducted. We have seen how king Gaddabhilla abducted the sister-nun of Kalakacarya, which resulted in his destruction. We are told of a Buddhist merchant of Bharuyaccha who took the garb of a Jain layman and invited the nuns under the pretext of offering them alms. The merchant asked the nuns to enter his ship to pay a visit to the Jain temples and as soon as they stepped in he set the ship in motion.100 There was also trouble from the robbers. We are told that once some robbers joined with the Bodhiya Mlecchas and carried off the nuns.101 Sometimes the robbers carried away the clothes ofthe nuns. It is laid down that under such circumstances the nun should cover their private parts with skin, vegetable leaves, darbha grass, or with their own hands,108 LOVE AFFAIRS AND FEMALE ASCETICS Jain texts mention a number of Parivvaiyas108 who carried lovemessages and acted as go-between the lovers. The Uttaradhyayana BT 1bid 4 5251-5259, cf Kundla Jataka (No 530), V, pp 424-8. 08 Brh Bha 1 2670-2; cf. Therigatha (139-144) where the nun Khema is invited to enjoy sensual pleasures. 99 Brh Bha 3 4128-39 Here the five ways are mentioned which could cause pregnancy without sexual intercourse (a) if a woman sat without cover at the place where a man had discharged semen which could cause pregnancy, (b) if a person desirous of a son introduces semen in her vagina, (c) if the same thing is done by her father-inlaw, (d) if the semen was sticking to some cloth that was used to cover vagina to stop the flow of menstrual blood and (e) drinking of water mixed with semen could cause pregnancy (bid 4139) Cf the Matanga Jataka (IV No 497) p. 378 where the Matanga touched his thumb to the navel of his wife and she conceived, also Vinaya 1, p. 205 f, also Dhammapada A III, p 145 In Buddhist literature we hear of the nun Uppalavanna, who was raped by a young brahmacarin in the grove of Andhavana in Savitthi, and it is said that from that time nuns did not live in Andhavana (ibid, II, pp 49, 52) Brh Bha 1. 2054. 100 101 Vya Bha 7. 418 109 Brh Bha. 1. 2986, Nisi. cu 5, p 407 103 In the Dasakumaracarita (p. 168) the nun named Arhantika or Nirgranthika plays a part of go-between, See Bloomfield False ascetics and nuns in Hindu Fiction, J. A. O. S., Vol. 44, p. 238 f; also Kathasaritsagara, Vol. VII, ch. cl. p. 138 f.

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168 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA commentary refers to a female mendicant who successfully conveyed the love message of Rayanavai to Bambhadatta.104 We meet another female mendicant named Cokkha who was versed in the four Vedas and various other scriptures. She preached religion based on charity and purity. Once she visited the harem of the king Kumbhaga where she was insulted by the princess. Cokkha bore ill will against the princess and having gone to king Jiyasattu incited him to obtain her.105 The Parivvaiyas were learned in various arts, the application of various powders, spells, auspicious rites, use of various roots, pills, medicines and herbs. We are told that Pottila visited the nun Suvvaya and enquired her if she was aware of any spell or love potion which could create love between her and her husband.108 13, p 192. 106 Naya 8, p 108-110 108 abd 14, p. 152, Nirya. 3 p 347 f Cf. Kathasanitsagara, Vol. III, ch. XXXII, P. 99 ff.

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CHAPTER IV EDUCATION AND LEARNING The object of the ancient Indian system of education was the form mation of character, the building up of personality, the preservation of ancient culture and the training of the rising generation in the performance of the social and religious duties. THE TEACHCRS AND THE PUPILS Teachers were highly respected in those early days. The Royapaseniya mentions three kinds of teachers: the teacher of arts (kalayariza), the teacher of crafts (suppayariya and the teacher of religion(dhammalyariya). It is stated that the body of the first two teachers should be anointed with oil, flowers should be offered to them, they should be given a bath, dressed and decorated, they should be invited for feast and should be offered gifts and adequate wages that might reach their descendants. Similarly, religious teachers should be worshipped,fed and should be furnished with the necessary religious paraphernalia 2 It is stated that a teacher must befully qualified to teach his pupils. He must answer questions raised by his pupils without maintaining his relative superiority and he must not give irrelevant answers. The relations between the teacher and the student were cordial and the latter was to hold the former in deep reverence. It is said of a good pupil that he always pays attention to the teachings of the preceptor, asks questions, hears the answers, grasps its meaning, reflects upon it, ascertains its validity, retains its meaning and practises accordingly. Further, a good pupil never disobeys his teacher or behaves roughly towards him; he never tells a lie and carries out his command like a thoiough-bred hoise. If he perceives the teachei in an angry mood he pacifies him by mcekness, appeases him with folded hands and avows not to do wrong again It is stated that a pupil should not sit by the side of the teacher, nor beforc him, nor behind him, he should never ask questions when sitting on a stool or his bed, but rising from his seat and coming near, he should ask him with folded hands. There were bad pupils too They got kicks (khaddaya) and blows (caveda) from their tcachers They were also beaten with sticks (vaha) and addressed with liarsh words. Bad students are compared with bad bullocks who break down through want of zcal Such pupils, if 1 9 8 Altekar, Education in Ancient India, P 326. Tha. 3 135, cf Maru II, 223 ff Ava Nir. 136, also see H. R. Kapadia, The Jain system of education, J. U.B., Jan. 1940, p 206 f, Ava. Nur 22. Uttara. 1, 13, 12, 41, 18, 22. ibid. 38; also cf. ibid, 3, 05a ; also cf. Jataka (II, p. 279). 4 8

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170 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA sent on an errand, did not do what they were asked to do, but strolled about wherever they liked. Sometimes, the teachers were tired of such pupils, they left them to their fate and retired to the forest." Pupils are also compared to a mountain, an earthen pot, a sieve, a filter, a royal swan, a buffalo, a ram, a mosquito, a leech, a cat, a pole-cat, a cow, a drum and an Abhiri, each item showing the distinctive qualifications and disqualifications of the student world STUDENT LIFE The precise nature of lodging and boarding arrangements for students in ancient days is not well-known. But it seems that the students led a simple life. We know that some students stayed in the house of the teacher and others were fed by the rich people of the town." There are instances when the good relations between the teacher and the disciple led to matrimonial connections.10 There were holidays when the school was closed External causes were responsible for frequent stopping of the work. Abnormal conditions giving rise to untimely clouds, thunder, lightening, heavy showers, frost, dust-storms, eclipse of the sun or the moon were instrumental in bringing about suspension of work. The studies were discontinued when the peace of the settlement was disturbed by fight between two armies or villages, or if there was a wrestling competition or if the local leader died. Then such trivial causes as the killing of a mouse by a cat, or the chance appearance of an egg on the road or the birth of a child in the locality," where the school was situated, brought about a suspension of school work Students were generously received when they returned home after completing their studies. We are told that when Rakkhia returned from Padaliputta he was given a rousing reception by the state. The city was decorated with flags and banners etc. and Rakkhia was mounted on elephant and was greeted by the people. As a recognition of his attainments he was offered slaves, cattle and gold by the people.11 COURSE OF STUDY The Vedas, which are represented as the earliest literature on India, must have been the main topics of study. The three Vedas, viz, Riuvveya, 7 Uttara. 27. 8, 13, 16. Also see H. R. Kapadia, op. cit., pp. 212-5. 8 Ava. Nir 139, Ava. cu, pp. 121-4, Brh. Bhd. Pi 334. 9 Uttara. Ti. 8, p. 124. 10 Cf ibid, 18, p. 243, cf Mahaumagga Jataka (No. 546), VI, p 347. 11 Vya Bha. 7-281-319; cf. Yajnavalkya smrti, I 6. 144-53, Manu. IV, 102 fl, also Altekar op. cit., p. 105. 12 Uttara. Ti. 2, p. 22 a.

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EDUCATION AND LEARNING 171 Fauvveya and Samaveya are mentioned in the Tharanga.18 The following curriculum of study comprising the Vedic branches of learning are mentioned: Rruvveya, Jaudveya, Samaveya, Athavvanadeya, Itihasa (Purana), the fifth Veda, Nighantu, the sixth Veda; six Vearigas comprising sankhana (arithmetic), sikkha (phonetics), kappa (ritual), vagarana (grammar), chanda (metre), nirutta (exegesis), and joisa (astronomy-astrology); six Upangas, which comprised further elaborations of the subjects dealt within the Vedangas and Satthitanta, which was an authoritative treatise on the Samkhya School.14 The Uttaradhyayana commentary mentions the following fourteen subjects of study (ujjatthana) :-four Vedas, six Vedangas, Mimamsa, Naya, Purana and Dhammasattha.15 Further, the Anuyogadvarals and Nandi,47 which are of late origin. mention the following works on popular learning (laukika suya). Bharaha, Ramayana, Bhimasurukka (or o kkha), Kodillaya, 90 Ghodayamuha, ai Sagadibhadd:au, Kappasia, Nagasuhuma, Kanagasattari, 23 Vesiya, Varsesiya, Buddhasasana, Kavila, Logayata, as Satthyanta, Madhara, Purana, Vagarana, Nadaga, seventy two arts, and the four Vedas with Arigas and Upangas. The Nandr Sutra adds Terasiya, Bhagava, Payanjali, and Pussa deva.94 Then the Thananga refers to the following evil scriptures (pdpasruta) = I science of portents indicating shower of blood or any unusual pheno 18 3. 3. 285. According to Jain tradition the Arya Vedas are said to have been composed by Bharaha and others which contained the laudation of the Titthayaras, the duties prcscribed for laymen and monks, propitiatory deeds and the like , later on, Sulasa, Yanavalkya, Tantugriva and others composed the Anarya Vedas which are the present Vedas (Ava, cu 216, Suya. cu p. 10) According to another tradition, however, the twelve Angas are called the Vedas (Ava cu 5, p 185). 14 Bhag 2 1, Ova 38, P 172 16 3. P 56a, The Milindapanha (p 3) gives the following nineteen arts and sciences (sippa) (1) sutt (holy tradition), (2) sammutt secular law), (3) sankhya, (4) yoga, (5) niti (nyaya), (6) visesika, (7) ganika (anthmetic), (8) gandhabba (music), (9) Tikicca (medicine), (10) catubbeda, (ii) purana, (12) itthasa, (13) jotta, (14) maya (magic), (16) hetu (causation), (16) mantana (polity), (17) yuddha (art of war), (16) chandasa (poetry) and (19) mudda (conveyancing); also cf ra navalkya smrti, 1 3, Mahabha , XII 122 31 also Digha I, P 88 18 Su. 40 f 17 Su 42, p 193 a 18 The Ramayana and the Mahabharata were recited or listened to during the carlier (purvahna) or the latter part of the day (aparahna) respectively Both are cited as examples of Bhavazasyaha a compulsory rite which must be done without fail (Anu. Si 25). 10 Bhambi and Asurukkha are referred to in the Vya Bha (1, p 132) along with Madhara and Dandaniti of Kodinna, which were important works on politics The Gommalasara Jilakanda (303, p 117) refers to Abhiya and Asurukkha , also cf Mulacara (5 001), also Supra, p 64 10 Radu. Kodillaya is also referred to as Canahkakodilla (Suya cu p. 208) The Suyagada (9 17) mentions Atthavaya which according to the commentator is the Arthasastra by Canakya and its study is prohibited to a Jain monk A Prakrt verse from the Althasattha is quoted in the Vasudevahindi (p 45) and the Ogha Niryukti (p 152), which throws light on the existence of Artha sastra in Prakrt. Kolalla is also mentioned in the Culavamsa (LXIV 3) 31 Ghotakamukha is mentioned as a politician in the Arthasastra (p. 282); also Kamasutra ( 188), also see Mazhima II, pp. 167 ff 11 It is same as Samkhyakarika of Isvarakrsna (H R. Kapadia, The Canonical Literature of the Fainas, p. 163). 23 Lokayatam is also mentioned in the Digha. (1, p. 11). 16 u. 49.

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172 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA memon boding calamity in the country (uppaya), 2 science of omens (nimitta), 3 science of spells and magic (manta), 4 low type of charm which causes Candalis to utter oracles (dikkhiya), 5 science of medicine (tegicchiya), 6 seventy two arts (kala), 7 science of architecture (dvarana), 8 popular works such as Bharata, Kavya, Na taka, etc (annana), and 9 false scripture such as the teachings of Buddha etc. (micchapavayana),35 SEVENTY TWO KALAS 28 Seventy two kalas are frequently mentioned in the Jain texts." The list contains the sippas and also the list of traditional knowledge and sciences It does not mean that everybody acquired proficiency in all these branches. The acquirement of these sciences was an aim which could seldom be achieved. These kalas may be classified as underI Reading and writing which comprised writing (leha) and arithmetic (ganiya). 2 Poetry which included verse-making (porekavva), the knowledge of Arya verses (Ajja), riddles (paheliya), Magadhi composition (Magadhya), Gatha composition, ballad-making (giiya), and sloka-making (siloya) 3 Sculpture (ruva). 4 Music which comprised dancing (natta), singing (giya), instrumental music (vaiya), vocal music (saragaya), drum music (pukkharagaya), and timing in music 5 Clay-modelling which included the knowledge of clays (dagamattaya) 6 Gambling, sports and indoor games which comprised gambling (juya), janavaya (a kind of gambling), playing at dice (pasaya), chess playing (atthavaya), making dolls and figures etc. moved by pulling strings (suttakheda), a game of whirligigs (vattha) and nalikakheda (a kind of dice). 28 7 Personal hygiene, toilet and food. They constituted the rules of food (annavihi), drink (pana), dress (vattha), toilet (vilevana), and bed (sayana), knowledge of wearing ornaments of silver (hrannajutti), gold (suvanna), and other ornaments (abharanavihi), preparation of powders (cunnajutti) 25 9 678, also see Suya II 2 30; cf Sammohavinodani (p. 490) where Bharatayuddha and Sitaharanadi are spoken as papakam sutam For twelve sippas such as hatthi, assa, ratha, dhanu, tharu, mudda, ganana, sankhana, lekha, kaveyya, lokayata and khattavija, see Paramatthadipant, the com on the Udana, p 205 2T See Naya, i, p 21, Sama p 77a, Ova 40; Raya Su, 211, Jambu Ti 2, p 136 f, 20 Bhagwan Mahavira ni Dharmakathao, p 193 ff, Amulyachandra Sen, Social Life in Jain Literature, Calcutta Review, March 1933, p 364 f, D C Das Gupta, Jain System of Education, p 74 f Cal 1942; also see Kadambari (p 126) Kale ed; Dasakumara carita, p 66; Divyavadana, pp 58, 100, 391 28 Sutrakrida is mentioned in the Kultanimata (vs. 124). 10 Gandhayukti 18 mentioned in the Mechakatika (VIII, 13) and the Lalitavistara (see E. G Thomas's article in the Bull. School of Oriental Studies, Vol. VI, pp. 515-7).

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EDUCATION AND LEARNING 173 and means of improving the complexion of damsels (tarunipadikamma), preparing ornamental designs from leaves (pattacchejja),so decorating the temple (kadacchejja). 8 Knowledge of various marks and signs such as distinguishing marks (lakkhana) of men, women, horses, on elephants,99 kine, i cocks, umbrellas, 88 slaves, swords, 87 gems38 and Kakini jewel 9 The Science of omens, which comprised the knowledge of notes of birds.se 10 Astronomy, which included the movement (cara) and countermovement (padicara) of stars 1 Alchemy, which comprised the preparation of gold (suvannapaga), silver (hranna), reverting the killed metals to their natural state (sajiva), and killing of the metals such as gold etc (nijiva) 40 12 Architecture, which comprised the science of building (vatthuvind), measurement of camps (khandharamana), and cities (nagaramana). 13 Art of fighting, which comprised fighting (zuddha), wrestling (nyuddha), heavy fighting (uddhatjuddha), menacing glances (ditthijuddha), fist-fighting (mutthi), arm-fighting (bahu), clapsed -fighting (laya), knowledge of arrows (isatlha), sword playing (charuppavaya), archery (dhanuvveya), formation of array (vuha), counter array(padivuha), wheel-formation (cakkavuha), eagle-formation (garuda), and cart-formation (sagada) *1 CENTRES OF LEARNING Capitals, holy places, monasteries and temples were the centres of education in ancient India, Kings and feudal chiefs were, as a rule, patrons of learning Various capitals of prosperous kingdoms, which used to attract many a man of learning and thus become centres of education are mentioned in the sain texts Benares was the chief centre of learning. 80 Patracche lya is mentioned in the Kultimata (vs 236), also kadambari, op cul where It is translated as "the art of painting figures on walls or the ground" (Kalc) IIowever, according to Cowell, it is the breaking and cutting of leaves (see E G Thomas's above mentioned article ) 81 Cf Brhatsamta, ch 67 82 Cf 2bed , ch 65 93 Cf zbrd, ch 66 Cf ibid, ch 60 Cr bid , ch 62 86 Cf ubud , ch 72 87 Cf bed, ch 49, also Asilakh hana Jataka (No 126), I, p 455 39 Cf abd , ch 79 89 Cf bed, ch 87 "Sari abhutaruta" is mentioned in the Vinayavastu of the Mulasarvas tivAda (p 32) 40 The Carala and the Susruta give vanous for mulas for killing the metals Killed metal sometimes means a metal deprived of its well-characterised physical properties, ie, colour, lustre, etc, PC Ray, History of Hindu Chemistry, Vol I, Calcutta, 1904, p 62 However, cf Dasahumaracarita (2, P Go) for sajiva and nurjila, Kale's edition, Bombay, 1925 41 For a comparison between seventy two arts of the Jains and those of sixty four of the Kamasutra (1 111), see Bechardas, Mahavira ni Dharmakathao, p. 193f; also cf. sixty four arts of women described in the Fambuddiva commentary, 2, p. 139f; also Dr. Venkatagubbiah, The Kalas, J. R.AS, 1914

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174 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA It is stated that the prince Agadadatta of Sankhapura went there to study, He stayed in the house of his teacher and after completing the course of study returned home. Savatthi is mentioned as another centre of educatidn.48 Padaliputta is mentioned as still another seat of learning. It is mentioned that, when Rakkhia of Dasapura could not study further in his town, he proceeded to Padaliputta for higher studies.44 Paitthana is mentioned as a centre of learning in the south.46. It is however significant to remark that Takkhasila, which is the most important seat of learning in the Buddhist scriptures, is not mentioned here. OTHER CENTRES Education was also imparted in the upasrayas and the vasatis of the monks, which specialised in imparting instruction in the traditional learning by distinguished teachers (uvajjhaya). Besides teaching the twelve angas, grammar (sadda), logic (hetussattha), philosphy, erotics and the science of casting spells were also taught. Every religious order of the samanas was a travelling school The furtherance of the cause of truth and knowledge in all branches of learning by open discussions was a remarkable feature of their educational and cultural activities. We read in the Byhatkalpa Bhasya that there were assemblies of disputants (vadapurisa) where intricate discussions were held between the Jain monks and other ascetics, particularly the Buddhists If the disputant was weak in logic or philosophy, he was asked to go to another gana to study further. After completing the studies, he came back, defeated his opponent and propagated the cause of religion.47 We hear of an eccentric mendicant, who tied his belly with an iron-plate and holding a branch of the jambu tree, roamed about. He told people that to check the bursting of his belly with knowledge he had tied the iron-plate, and the branch of the jambu tree signified that there was nobody in Jambuddiva who could face him in argumentation.48 Among the popular teachers of piety and morality mention may be made of the ballad-reciters and the story-tellers (kahiya) through whom the profound truths of philosophies permeated even to the lowest stratum of society. Their preachings were enlivened by quotation of various stories, fables, legends and recitation of songs and riddles (chalitakavya). 49 43 Uttara. Ti 4, p. 83 af. 48 Ibid. 8, p. 124 44 Ibid. 2, p 22 a. 45 Kalba." 114, p. 90a , also see D. C. Das Gupta, op. cit, p. 20 f. For the Buddhist education in the Jatakas sce Dr. Radhakumud Mookerjee's article in the Buddhistic studies, pp. 236 ff. 48 Bth. Bha. 4 5179; 5431 ; Vya Bha 1, p 57 af 41 BTh. Bha._4.6425-31. 48 Uttara TI. 3, 72, cf. also the com on the Sutta Nipata (ui, p. 638 ff); also Cullakalinga Jalaka (No. 301), III, pp. 1ff, 40 Brh. Bhd. 1.2564.

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CHAPTER V ARTS AND SCIENCES (1) WRITING The art of writing was known in ancient India. We have seen that lekha occurs in the list of seventy two arts. The Rayapaseri refers to various kinds of writing materials and accessories such as pattaga (leaves), kambiya (wooden board), dora (thread), ganthi (knots), lippasana (ink-pot), chandana (lid), sankala (chain), masi (ink), lehani (pen), akkhara (letters) and potthaya (book).* Lehayariya (lekhacarya, teacher) is mentioned in the Avasyaka Bhasya, and in the Curni The commentary on the Samavayanga refers to writing, engraving, sewing and weaving of letters on materials such as leaves, bark, wood, ivory, iron, copper and silver and forming them by cutting the material, burning it, breaking it, and joining one with another (sankramana)." We hear of Cakravartins writing their names on the mountain with Kakini jewel. We also meet the caravans which during the course of their journey used to make signs and marks on stones etc. We have referred to sending of letters (leha) to the enemy before entering into actual warfare Love-letters, 1sealed letters, and forged letters (kutalekha) were also known. THE EIGHTEEN LIVIS The following livs or scripts are mentioned : (1) Bambhi, (2) Javanaliya or Javananiya, (3) Dosauria, (4) Kharotthia, (5) Pukkharasara, (6) Paharara, (7) Uccattaria, 1 (8) Akkharaputt 1 According to Dr. Gauri Shankar Ojha, wiiting in India goes back to the 5th cen tury B C. (Bharatiya Prachina Lipimala, p 2 ff). Su 131, Ave Ti (Har.), p. 384 a. Gandi, kacchaut, mufthi, samputaphalaka and chedapals are mentioned as five types of potthaya (Bth Bha 3.3822) "For a detailed description of these see Muni Punyavijayaji's scholarly monograph, Jain Citrakalpadruma, also Prof H. R. Kapadia's Outlines of Palacography in UB, Vol. VI, pt. VI, p 87 ff, also Ojha, op cit., pp 4-6, 142-158. 76 (Niryukti Diptka, I, p. 90a). p. 248. Writing on bhujapatta is referred to in the Ala cu. p 530. The material on which the signs have been traced in Babylon was clay. They were traced in India on Icaves or on pieces of bark These were mere scratchings, and ink was not used, Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p 117 The Vasudevahindi (P 189) mentions of writing a book on the copper leaf. 7 p. 78. 8 Jambu 3 54; for references in the Buddhist literature sce Rhys Davida, Buddhist India, P. 108 Ava. Ti (Hari.), p. 384a. 10 Ultara. Ti. 13, p. 191 a. Brh. Bha 'Pr. 105; Nisi cu., 6, p 87 (MSS) Uva. 1, p. 10. According to the Parna (1 55a), we have Antakkhariya, Uyantarikthyd or tyntavatarlyd in place of Uccattaria, and Ayasa in place of Adamse, Punyavijaya, Jain linealth, P. O.

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176 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA hiya, (9) Bhogavayata, (10) Venatiya, (11) Ninhaiya, (12) Anka live, (13) Gania livi, (14) Gandhavva liuk--Bhuya livi, (15) Adamsa livi, (16) Mahesari livi, (17) Damili liv and (18) Polindi livr. 14 BRIHMI AND KHAROSTRI SCRIPTS Brahmi and Kharos tri are the two most important scripts mentioned in the Tain and Buddhist texts. The former was written from left to right and the latter from right to left. The Kharostri alphabet was introduced overland into the extreme north west of India about 500 B.C. and was used locally in Gandhara. Later on, gradually Kharostri disappeared from India and was replaced by Brahmi from which all other alphabets used in India have evolved. Buhler has adopted the designation Brahmi for the characters in which the majority of the Asoka edicts are written According to him, the Brahmi alphabet has been formed by phonologist or grammarians for scientific use.18 In Jain texts Bambhi occupies the first and fundamental place in the enumeration of the eighteen livs to which homage is paid in the beginning of the Bhavagati."7 According to the Samarayanga, Bambliz livi comprises forty six matyakkharas (matrkaksaras) or the original letters cxcluding four liquid vowels, vrz. SS (5), A (PE), (a), L (C), and L ().18 It is stated that Bambhi was not only a specific name of a script but a generic name which stood for the eighteen scripts mentioned above 19 The rest of the livis seem to have disappeared and no trace of these has been found so far. LANGUAGE As we have seen among various classes of Aryans, Bhasar yas or the Aryans by language are mentioned. It is said that they spoke Ardhamagadhi and knew the Brahmi script 20 14 The Viser Ti (V 464) mentions the following eighteen livts (1) Hamsa lui, (2) Anha livi, (3) Jakkhi, (4) Rakkhasi, (5) Uddi, (6) Javani, (7) Tuukki, (8) Kiri, (9) Dandi, (10) Sindhaviya, (11) Malavini, 12) Nadi, (13) Nagari, (14) Lada liri, (15) Parasi, (16) Animatz, (17) Canakki and (18) Muladevi. For some of these licis such as Anha hiz, Nagari, Canakki and Muladevi see Punyavijaya, op cit, pof note lhe othei lists of the lizis are given by Lavanyasamayagani in his Vimalaprabandha (p 123) and Luksmivallabha Upadhyaya in his commentary on the Kalpasutra, (H R Kapadia, op til, p. 04). 15 The Lalilarslara (p 125f) mentions sixty four lizis, the first two being Bralmi and Kharosi 18 Ojha, op at pp. 17-36, 1, 4, Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, P 124. 11 According to Muni Punyavijayaji, it commemorates the fact that the Jain Agamas were first written in the Brahmi script, op cit, p.5 18 Dr Gaurishankar Ojha admits Ksa as an alternative for L (a), op. cit., p. 46 JA According to Muni Punyavijayaji, however, all the eighteen lips are not necessarily the varieties of Bambhi (ibid. p. 5). 20 Panna. 1. 37.

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ARTS AND SCIENCES It is stated that Mahavira preached his religion in Ardhamagadhi." The Jain saints are said to have preached in this language for the benefit of women, children, old men and illiterate people." The Jain authors, however, explain the term Ardhamagadhi differently. According to the Nisitha curn, Ardhamagadhi either was the language of half of Magadha or it comprised the eighteen kinds of Desibhasa. It may be noted, however, that Hemacandra in his Prakrta Vyakarana deals with Prakrta, Sauraseni, Magadhi, Parsaci and Apabhramsa languages, but not with Ardhamagadhi or Arsa Prakrta. Haribhadra suri also quotes a verse in his commentary on the Dasaveyaliya which indicates that the language of the Jain Canons was known as Prakrta and not Ardhamagadhi. However, it must be admitted that the language of the present Jain Canons has undergone considerable changes and should be considered different from that in which the canons were originally composed.25 177 (2) MATHEMATICS, ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY The Jains have memorable achievements in secular sciences, such as mathematics, astronomy and astrology The Suryapannatti and the Candapannatti, the fifth and the seventh Upangas of the Jain Canon respectively, deal with astronomy, the latter being completely identical with the former. The Suriyapannatti deals with various astronomical views of the Jains such as the orbits which the sun circumscribes during the year, the rising and the setting of the sun, the speed of the course of the sun through each of its 184 cubits, the light of the sun and moon, the measure of the shadow at various seasons of the year, the connection of the moon with the lunar mansions (naksatra), the waxing and waning of the moon, the velocity of the five kinds of heavenly bodies (the sun, the moon, planets, naksatras and taras), the qualities of the moon light, the number of suns in Jambudvipa, etc 6 Vivahapadala was another work on astroloThen we had Jonpahuda28 and Cudaman29 dealing with astrology. 27 gy. 21 Sama p 57, also a su 34, p 146 22 Aca cu 7, p 255 According to the Jain mythology, the picachings of Mahavita in Ardhamagadhi weie understood by all alike without any distinction whatsoever, (Sama p 57), cf Vrbhanga com (3875) where it is stated that if children grow up without being taught any language, they will spontaneously use the Magadha language, it is spread all over niya, among, lower animals petas, human beings and duas 23 11, p 733 According to Hemacandia, the main characteristic of Magadhi noticed in Ardhamagadht is the termination 'e' in nominative singular in masculine (Prahrta Vyakarana, su 287), also Bhag 1, O a su Ii, 34 24 p 203 25 See Pt Bechudas's article on Aidhamagadhi Bhasa in the Puratattza 3 4 p 346, also Gujarati Bhasa ni Uthrant pp 107-20, Bombay 1943, also B V Bapat, I HQ,1928, p 23 A B Keith, the IT me of Pali, Buddhistic Studies, pp 728ff 26 Winter nitz, History of Indian Literature, Vol II, p 457, also see Thibaut, Astronomic Astrologic and Mathematic in Buhler-Klhorn's Groundress der Indo-Arischen Philologie, JAS B, Vol 49, pt I 1880, Sukumar Ranjan Das, School of Astronomy, I HQ, Vol VIII, pp 30ff, and 505 ff For the knowledge of astronomy among the Buddhists see Dr FJ Thomas's article Sun, Moon, and Stais (Buddhists, in Hasting's Ency. of Religion and Ethics). Nisi cu 12, p 854. 28 Brh Bhd 1. 1303. 29 Ibid. 1. 1313. dy

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178 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA The knowledge of astronomy was considered necessary to find the time and place for the religious ceremonies.80 Sankhana (arithmetic) and jousa (astronomy) are mentioned in the Bhagavati81 and the Uttaradhyayanaga and are included among the fourteen branches of learning stated above.. The early Jain and Buddhist texts provide ample testimony to the progress made by jyotisa. The science was otherwise known as nakkhattavija.919 The experts in jossa were required to make forecasts of all coming events. It is said that Mahavira was versed in arithmetic and astronomy.83 Arithmetic (ganiya) is counted among the seventy two arts already referred to, which is said to have been taught by Usabha to Sundari.84 Ganita is also described as one of the four expositions of the principle (anuyoga) in the Jain texts.36 The Thananga mentions ten kinds of science of numbers, viz parikamma (fundamental operation), vavahara (subject of treatment), rajju ("rope" meaning geometry),rasi ("heap"meaning measurement of solid bodies), kalasavanna (fractions), javam tavam as may as" meaning simple equations), vagga ("'square" meaning quadratic equation), ghana ("cube" meaning cubic equation), vaggavagga (liquidratic equation) and vikappa (permutation and combination).30 (3) MEDICINES, DISEASES AND TREATMENT Ayurveda is defined as the science and art of life. It deals with life in all its phases-philosophical and biological and comprises both preventive and curative medicine and surgery It is the great healing art of ancient India which aims at giving us "a happy and benevolent life" by showing the ways and means to it.37 The science of Medicine (tegicchaya or ayuvveya), which is counted among the nine false sciences (pavasuya) in the Jain texts, 38 is said to have been discovered by Dhannantari.39 Dhannantari was well-versed in the medical science which comprises eight branches : Pediatrics (kumarabhicca), surgery and midwifery (salaga), the treatment of eye, ear, nose and throat (sallahallha), the treatment of bodily diseases (kayatigucha), 60 Jambu Ti p 2, cf Digha I p 10f where the study of astronomy and other arts is condemned by Buddha to the monks 312 1. 52 25 7, 36. 32a Das su 8 5. B3 Kalpa, 1. 10 84 Aua cu ,p 166. 86 Das cu p 2 38 10. 747, Bibhutibhusan Datta, The Jaina School of Mathematics, The Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society, Vol XXI, p 115ff, 1929, also Sukumar Ranjan Das, A short Chronology of Indian Astronomy, I HL 1931, HR Kapadia, Introduction to Ganitatilaka ( G OS NO LXXVIII), D M Roy Annuls of the Bhandarkar Institute, 1926-7, pp 145 fi 87 The Spirit and Culture of Ayurveda, P 411f, The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol III 88 Tha 9.678. 90 Nisi cu 15, p. 944, cf. Milindapantha, p. 272, also Ayoghara Jataha (No. 510). IV, PP 496, 498.

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ARTS AND SCIENCES 179 toxicology (jangola), demonology (bhuyavija), the science and art of restoring health in old age (rasayana) and sexual rejuvenation (vajikarana or kharatanta).40 The physicians carried their bags of surgical instruments* (salthakosa) and gave various treatment according to the nature of the disease by treating the patient by methods such as rubbing with oil (abbhanga), rubbing with powder (uvvattana), oil drinks (sinehapana), vomitting (vamana) purging, (vireyana), branding (atadduhana), medicated baths (avanhana), oil enema (anuvasana), head bath (balthukamma), purging by drugs (niruha), opening veins (szraveha), cutting (tacchana), scrapping (pacchana), bathing the head with oils (surobatthi), nourishing the body with oils (tappana), by means of ingredients roasted on fire by putapaka method, barks, roots, bulbs, leaves, flowers, fruits, secds, bitteis (silika), pills, drugs (osaha) and mixtures (bhesania).4% We are told how a Jain monk, when suffering from sickness, should procure the services of a physician It is said that the physician was to be approached in an auspicious moment and his advice was to be carefully followed. Sometimes, the sick persons were taken to the physician's residence. Afler examining the case, the vardya made a diagnosis and suggested appropriate treatment and diet. If a vaidya was brought to the home of the patient he was provided with a hot bath and other comforts. He was to be fed on old rice and was provided with costly utcnsils. After the examination the physician was to be given his proper fces.15 There were state physicians as well It is said that once a physician did not treat thc queen of a certain king properly and so he was put to death! Another physician was addicted to gambling and he did not attend to his work His book on inedicine was stolen by robbers and his surgical instruments i usted When this was brought to the notice of the king, he stopped his salary Hospitals (ligicchayasala) are fieely mentioned The Nay.idhammakaha mentions that a hospital was built on hundred pillars where a number of physicians and surgeons were employed who treated various kinds of patients with various kinds of medicines and her bs. 46 The Acajanga mentions the following sixtecn diseases boils (ganli), leprosy (kuttha of eighteen kinds),47 consumption (1iya msi), epilepsy (avamariya), blindness (kaniya), stiffness (himiya), lameness (kuniya), 40 Viva 7 p. 41, also ct Susruta Samhito, ch 1. 8, p 4 The following instruments are mentioned angultsatthaya, stravehasatthaya, pacchana, kafe pana, lohakantiya, sandusaa, anuvehasalaga, viimuha and sutmuha (Nisi cu. ll, p 701.) 41 Viva. 1, p. 8. * BTh Bha 1. 1910-70, cf. for a simular description Susruta Samhita, ch. 29. st. 13 p. 175 ff. 44 Bth. Bha pl. 376. 45 Vya. Bhu. 5 21. 40 13. p. 143. 47 For eighteen kinds of kugtha also sce Susruta Sanhua, Nidathasthand, 3. 4-5, p. 342, Caraka, ch. 7, pp. 2069-73.

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180 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA humpback (khujiya), dropsy (udari), dumbness (muya), swelling (suniva), over-appetite (gilasani), trembling (vevar), disablement (pidhasappz), elephantiasis (szlivaya) and diabetes (madhumeha). 48 The following are mentioned as the causes of diseases. Over-eating. eating unwholesome food, over-sleeping, over-walking, checking calls of nature, travelling, irregularity of food, and indulgence in sexual intercourse.40 Meat and wine were freely prescribed as diet by physicians 50 The practice of using skin with or without hair saloma-nilloma) for the sain monks and nuns is pretty old and is referred to in the Brhatkalpa sutra. It is laid down that if a nun suffered from flatulence (uddhavala) or from paralysis (dhanuggaha), or from piles or from acute pain, or her hand or foot was dislocated, or her whole or a part of the body was affected by 'wind', she was made to lie down on a skin " Similarly, if her waist or hand was affected by rheumatism (vala) the skin of a hyena (taraccha) was wrapped around the affected part, and if she were bitten by a dog she was made to lie down on a tiger skin (divicamma). In the same way the hairless skin was prescribed for the Jain monks, who suffered from bad leprosy (galantakodha), piles, kacchu or kuilibha (a kind of leprosy).64 Droppings of a ram and cow urine were used to cure leprosy known as pama 55 The leg of a vulture was tied to cure paralysis (vayu); the teeth and the nails of the bear and the hair of the ram were also used for similar purposes $6 Then gosisa sandal was used to cure leprosy full of maggots (kimikuttha)." The drinking of urine (moya) was another old practice described in the Brhatkalpa sutra.58 The Jain monks and the nuns drank each other's (annamannassa) urine to cure snake bite, cholera and fever The mud 48 6.1. 173 Gf the list in the Viva (1, p 7) asthama (sasa), cough (hasa), lever (jara), inflamation (daha), intestinal colic (kucshis ula), fistula (bhagandara), piles (arisa), indigestion (ayiraa), optic neuralgia (dafthis ula), cerebral neuralgia (muddhas ula), loss of appetite (aharaya), pain in th eye (acchuveyana), pain in the ear (kannaveyana), itches (handu), and dropsy (nyara) The Jambu (Su 24, p 120) adds family disease (kularoga), village disease (gama), country disease (mandala), pain in the lips (ofthaveyana), pain in the nose (nakkaveyana), toothache (dantareyana), jaundice (panduroga), intermitent fever coming at the interval of one, two, three or four days (egahra , beahia, teahia, cautthahia), obsession by Indra (Indaggaha), paralysis (dhanuggaha), obsession by Skanda (khandaggaha), Kumara (kumaraggaha), heartache (hiyayas ula), stomachache (poffasula) vaginal pain, (jonis ula), and pestilence (mari), also Nisi cu II, p 737 f Jiva 3, P 153 , Bhag (Abhaya ), 3 6, p 363, also cf Law B, C, History of Pali Literature, p. 281. Also see Mahabharala, III 230, 44 ff 49 Tha 9 667 Compare ten causes of disease in the Milindapanha, p 135 60 Cf. Viva 7, Naya 6, 80, cf also Mahavagga, VI, 10 2 where in the cace of a disease not human, Buddha allowed them the use of raw flesh and blood ol 3 3-6Bha 3839-41. 69 Brh Bha 3816-18 58 Kacchu is also mentioned in the Dhammapada A. I, p 299. Brh Bha. 3839-40 68 Ogha. p 134 a. 58 Ibid. p 134 a ; also Pinda. Nir. 48 ff. 17 Ava. cu p 133. 88 5. 37. 60 In Buddhist texts in case of snake biting four kinds of filth were given : dung, urines, ashes and clay ; Mahdvagga, VI. 14.6. 14 Rib

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ARTS AND SCIENCES 181 from the ant-hill, salt, gold and incantations were other means to cure snake-bite 80 Water was sprinkled over the blisters caused by the spider and snake bite. The fly dropping was used in case of vomitting, and the horse-fly (asamakkhiya) to remove dirt from the eye 69 There were pulls to cure eye-sore 63 Flesh was used to cure fistula and in its absence rice powder (kanikka) mixed with honey and ghee was used 64 Foi madness, it is stated that if a monk or a nun became mad, they werc tied gently and were kept in a room or a well without water 65 A novel method of curing the madness of a nun due to her attachment to the sexual part of a person is mentioned A slave was made drunk and made to sleep. His body besmeared with vomit, attracted flies, sceing which the nun was cured of her obsession 68 Besides, various oils such as hamsatella, satapagatella, sahassapugatella and marutella are mentioned in Jain canonical literature 87 Sores were healed by applying oil, ghee and powder, by bandaging the injured parts and by stitching them properly. In the battle field the physicians carried these articles with them 8 The fringe of the garments was used in case a monk was suffering from carbuncle (vrsakumbha). Pearl oysters (suktika) were used for storing medicine." Besides medicinal treatment, surgical operations also seem to have been carried out We read that once a fish bone (maccha-kantaka) stuck into the throat of a fisherman ; the surgeons were called. They tried to extract the bone with an instrument (salla) and tried other means but could not succeed." Lastly, the knowledge of physical science was not confined only to human beings, but it was also applied to animals. We read in the Nisitha curni how a thorn was extracted from the body of a horse." (4) ARCHERY The science of archery (dhanuvveya) was highly advanced in ancient India and heroism in this country is invariably associated with proficiency 80 Nisi cu Pi. pp 58, 121, Ogh pp. 129a, 134 a. 01 Ogh. P 129 a Ibid. P 134 a. 03 Bph Bha. 1. 1277. 84 Nisi. cu., p. 89 Vya. Bha 2, 122-5. Brh. Bha. 6 6267. Nisi. Cu. Pi. P 109, Brh. Bha 5. 6031. 68 Vya. Bha. 5.100-103, cf Arthasastra, p 397. 00 BTh. Bha. 3 3907. TO Ogh. Nir. p. 134 a. " Viva 8, p 48 ; also Bth. Bhd. 1051. That medical science including, surgery was fairly developed in ancient India, is revealed from the stories of the physician Jivaka told in the Vinayapastu of the Mulasarvastivada, pp. 27-43. TI p. 1244 ; cf. also Susruta Samhsta, 26. 13, p. 163.

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182 LIFE IN ANCIENT INRIA in this art.13 Dhanuvdeya and isattha, as the sciences of archery, are counted among the seventy two arts, as we have already seen. We have secn hunters running here and there with bow and arrow in their hand in search of a forest-animal. The archer took the bow, chose a suitable position, pulled it up to the ear and shot the arrow. Various terms such as the back of the bow (dhanupit tha), bow-string (jira), gut (nharu), arrow (usu),14 and awl-tipped arrow (aramuha)" are mentioned. Shooting at a sound without seeing (saddavehi) is mentioned. It was compulsory for princes to acquire proficiency in the science of archery Wc come across various kings and princes who were adepts in this science. Reference has been made to king Cedaga who was a skilful archer. He used to shoot one arrow a day which proved fatal for the enemy. Cedaga's charioteer also was an adept in archery and is said to have killed thirty two warriors with one arrow." Jarakumara was another expert marksman who is said to have shot dead Kanhavasudeya by his arrow.78 Then Agadadatta is described as another shooter versed in the science of archery.79 We also come across Jain monks who were experts in archery (kayakarara) and who, at the time of difficulty, fought with the enemy and saved the Sangha so Proficiency in archery was greatly prized and we hear of the prince Surindadatta who obtained a princess by shooting an effigy that stood on an axle to which were attached eight wheels 81 We are told that a shepherd who perforated the foliage of a bunyan tree with his small bow (dhanuhiya), at the command of a prince shot through the eyes of the king, and was offered a village in reward.82 (5) MUSIC AND DANCING The people of ancient India loved music as we have already seen Not only kings and nobles were surrounded with musicians and dancers but even ordinary people loved singing and dancing or hearing and witnessing others doing so. The seventy two arts, referred to above, included the arts of dancing (natta), singing(gita), vocal music (saragaya), instrumental music (vaditta), drum music (pukkharagaya), and timing in music (samatala), which shows that music and dancing were widely cultivated in ancient India.83 13 Dhanurmaha 15 menuoned as a festival by Bhasa, Dr. A. D. Pusalkar, Bhasa--A study, Lahore, 1940, p. 440 f. 74 Bhag. 66. 76 Uttara. Ti. 4, p. 89. 18 Naya. 18, p. 208, also cf. Sarabhanga Jataka (No. 622), V, p. 129. 11 Ava. cf. II, p. 173. 18 Uttara. T. 1, p. 40. T9 toid. 4, p. 89. 80 See supra, 166, cf Nisi. ci.pi. p. 148. 81 Sec supra, p. 168 f. 82 Uttara. Ti 5, p. 102 a : cf. Dhammapada A II, p. 69 13 For characteristics of Indian music, see Coomaraswamy's The Dance of Stva, pp. 92-81.

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ARTS AND SCIENCES 183 . On the occasions of feasts and festivals we come across men and women dancing and making merry We have seen, during the festival of the god of Love in Vanarasi how Citta and Sambhuya, who were versed in the art of singing and dancing, captivated the heart of the citizens, specially of the womenfolk, by playing on trsaraya, venu (flute) and vina (lute).84 Udayana is mentioned as a great musician who by his music could control the loose elephants He was asked by king Pajjoya to teach music to the princess Vasavadatta 85 Uddayana was another musician king, who used to play vina while his queen danced 88 Music was accompanied by pipes (va msa), zina (tanti), clapping (tala) and the rhythmic beating of the drum (talalaya), following the instrumental music (gaha).87 Even svaras (notes) are mentioned in the Thananga According to the Jain tradition, a full description of the svaras and the eleven alankaras (rhetoric) was contained in the Svaraprabhrta, one of the fourteen Purvas, which is extinct now. It is stated that this subject should be studied from the works of Bharata, Visakhila and others which are only a part of the Purvas Then are mentioned the seven places of origin of the svaras, the birds and beasts that utter these notes, the musical instruments which give rise to these notes, the advantages occuring from singing these notes, three gramas (gamut), twenty one marchanas (intonation), qualities and defects of singing, and the like 88 Various musical instruments (turiya) are referred to, which may be classified as under . tata (stringed instruments) such as vina etc., vitata or anaddha (percussion) such as drums etc , ghana (concussion) such as symbols etc , and susza (wind instruments) such as lute etc The Rayapaseniya mentions the following sixty instruments (1) sankha, (2) singa, (3) sankhya, (4) khai amuhi, (5) peya, (6) piripriya, (7) panava, (8) padaha, (9) bhambha (also known as dhakka), (10) hoiambha (also known as mahadhakka), (11) bheri, (12) jhallari, (13) dunduhi, (14) muraya, (15) muinga, (16) nandi muinga, (17) alinga, (18) kulumba, (19) gomuhi, (20) maddala, (21) vina, (22) vipanci, (23) vallaki, (24) mahati, (25) kacchabhi, (26) cittarina, (27) baddhisa, (28) sughosa, (29) nandighosa, (30) bhamaii, (31) chabbhamari, (32) paravayani, (33) tuna, (31) lumbavina, (35) amota, (36) jhangha, (37) nakula, (38) mugunda, (39) hudukki, (40) vlcikki, (11) karada, (42) dindima, (43) kiniya, (44) kadamba, (45) daddariya, 80 (46) daddaraga, (47) kalasiya, 84 Also cf Avadana sataka III, 30, p 163, II 17, 93, also 'the Parts of a Vina', by A K Coomaraswamy, I AOS, Vol 50-3, 1930 85 Aa cu JI, p 161. 88 Uttara Ti 18, p 253 87 Raya su 03 88 Tha 7 653, Jia. Ti, 3, p 103af, Anu si 127, Anu ca , p 45, also see Sargadeva's Sangita Ratnakar,ch I, Poona, 1896, Nalyasastra, ch 28 80 Also known as gohta

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184 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA (48) maddaya, (49) tala, (50) tala, (61) kamsatala, (52) ringirisiyd, (53) lattiya, (54) magariya, (55) suisumariya, (56) varsa, (57) velu, (58) vala, (59) parilli and" (66) baddhagd. DANCE Music is incomplete without dance and expression. Dance has found copious mention in Indian literature from the earliest period.1 We are told that Meghakumara after marrying eight girls passed the time happily in his palace, having before him plays of thirty two performers, accompanied with song and music of drums played by damsels. The Rayapaseniya describes thirty two kinds of dramas: (1) The first dance drama was shown with the accompaniment of orchestral music representing the eight symbols, viz. sotthiya (svastika*) sirivaccha, nandiyavatta, 3 vaddhamanaga,* bhaddasana, kalasa, maccha and dappana. (2) In this dance drama were shown avada, paccavada, sedhi, pasedhi, sotthiya, sovatthiya, pusa, manavaka, vaddhamanaga, macchanda, magaranna, jara, mara phullavali, paumapatta,* sagarataranga, vasantalata and paumalayabhatticitta.* (3) In this they showed thamiga, usabha, naraturaga, magara,* vrhaga, valaga, kinnara, turu, sarabha, camara, kunjara,* vanalaya, and puamalayabhatticitta. (4) In this they showed egao vanka, egao cakkavala, duhao cakkavala, cakkaddhacakkavala. (5) In this was the representation of avalis such as candavali, suravali, valiyavali, hansavali, * egavali, taravali, muttavali, kanagavali, and rayanavali. (6) In this was shown the rise of the sun and the moon such as canduggamana and suruggamana. 90 Su 64. The Brh. Bha Pi (p. 12) mentions the twelve musical instruments bham. bha, mukunda, maddala, kadamba or kadava, jhallari, hudukka, kamsalc, kahala, talima, vamsa, panava and senkha , see also Bth Bha Pi 24, also Bhag 54, Jiva 3, p 145 a , Jambu 2, P 100 f, Anu Si 127, Nrsi cu 17, p 1158. The last mentioned work adds damaruga, vina, dhankuna and the like The dca (II 391) adds littsya and kurtkiriya The Suya (4 2 7) mentions kukkayaya (lute) and venupalasiya lute, the latter was a thin piece of bamboo or bark held between the teeth and the left hand, and played by the right hand just like a vina (com) Also see Sangularatnakara, chapter 6 where the details of the musical instruments are given. The Ramayana, V 11, 38 ff. mentions madduka, pataha, vamsa, vipajici, mrdanga, panava, dindima, adambara and kalasi , also see Mahabha. VII 82 4. 01 Three types of Siva dances are mentioned in Hindu literature (1) evening dance in the Himalaya with a divine chorus which was the source of all movement within the cosmos, (2) Tandava dance was performed in cemeteris and burning grounds which released the countless souls of men from the snare of illusion, (3) Nadanta dance of Nataraja was performed before the assembly in the golden hall of Chidambaram or Tillai, the centre of the universe which shows that the place of dance, the centre of the universe is within the heart (Coomaraswamy, op cit, pp 56 f, 65, also CR Srinivasa Anyangar, Cultural aspects of Indian Music and Dancing, The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. III, p 586. 03 Naya 1, P 23. 9a Svastika, vardhamana and nandyavarta are also mentioned in the Mahabha. (VII, 82. 20) In the com, of the Anguttara, nandiyavatta 19 mentioned as the name of a fish (Malalsekara, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 29).

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ARTS AND SCIENCES 185 (0) In this was shown the movement of sun and moon such as candigamana and suagamana (8) It showed the lunar and solar eclipse such as candavarana and suruzai ana (9) It showed the setting of sun and moon such as candatthamang and suratthamana (10) It showed the candamandala, suramandala, nagamandala, jakkhamandala, bhutamandala, rakhhasamandala, mahoragamandala and gandhavvamandala.* (11) It showed the gait of usabhamandala, sihamandala, hayavilambiya, gajavilambiya, hayavilasiya, gayavilasiya, mattahayarilasiya, mattagajarilasira, mattahayavilambrya, matlagajavilambiya, and duyarilambiya (12) It showed sagaraparibhatti and nagaraparibhatti. (13) It showed the drama of Nanda and Campa (14) It showed macchandaparibhatt, mayarandakapavibhatti, jaraparibhatli and maraparibhatti (15) It showed the representation of letters from 'ka' to 'ra'. (16) It showed the representation of 'ca' to 'na'. (17) It showed the representation of 'ta' to 'na'. It showed the representation of ta' to 'na'. (19) It showed the representation of 'pa' to 'ma'. (20) It showed asoyopallar aparibhatti, ambapallavapavibhatti, jambupallavapavibhatti, and kosambapallavaparibhatti. (21) It represented paumalayapatibhatti, naga, asoga, campaka, amba, vana, tasanti, kunda, atimuttaya, and samalayapavibhatti. (22) Duya (druta) dance * (23) Vilambra dance. (21) Duyavilambiya dance. (25) Anciya dance * (26) Robhiya dance (27) Aillyaribhiya dance Arabharla dance * Bhasolo dance + (30) Arabharlabhasola dance ) Uppayanirayaparatta, sankuciya, pasarzya, rayaraiya,+ and bhantasambhanta dance (32) In this drama the actors and actresses forming a row represented the story of Mahavira's carly life, his conception, exchange of foetus, birth, lustration, boyhood, youth, sexual sport, renunciation, penance, attainmcnt of kevalahood, the propagation of his message and finally his ner'ana 94 --Recaharecita in the famli * These are mentioned in thic Bhajata's Nalyasastra It mentions gajadonta in place of kunjara (6) hamsa, aktra and hamsapal sa in place of hamsaralika (6), it gives twenty kinds of mandala (7), and mentions bhramara in place oi Thosola (11), and recila instead of recakarecita (12); Ace Bhag. Pt II (Bechardas ed ), p 43. 04 Su. 66-84,

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186 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Then other dramas known as mahuyarigiya and soyamani are mentioned (r) The Pinila niryukti refers to the rat thavila drama which was staged in Pataliputra by the monk Asadhabhui It depicted the life of Bharata, the universal monarch, and it is stated that after seeing this drama a large number of kings and princes retired from the worldly life and joined the ascetic order Later on, thinking that the drama might do great harm to the world and the earth may be devoid of the Ksatriyas, ir was destroyed." (6) PAINTING The art of painting was considerably developed in ancient India ! The painters are mentioned along with brushes (tuliyao) and colours (vannaya) , first they divided the wall surface (bhumibhaga) and then prcpared the surface (bhumim sagjer). There were painters who were adepts in their profession. One painter is mentioned who, could portray the complete figure of bipeds (duvaya), quadrupeds (cauppaya) and things without foot (apaya) even if he saw a part of their body.98 Trees, mountains, rivers, seas, houses, creepers, full vesscl and sovalihiro etc 99 were painted. Pictures were drawn on walls as well as on panels or boards (phalaka) A courtesan, who got painted the characteristics of different castcs, diffcrent phases of the art of love depicting the icconciliation of lovers, has been already referred to 100 Paintings on panels were a very liclpfu. medium in cncouraging love affaus We are told that a pailina painted the portrait of the princess Sujettha on a board and shoucd it to king Seniya, 101 who fell in love with her Similarly, princc Sagai acanda became enamoured of Kamalamela when her portrait was shown to him 102 Picture gallerics (citlasabha) are mentioned which were a matter of great pride for thc kings in ancient India These galleries were constructed on many hundred pillars. One such picture-gallery was bult by. banker of Rayagiha in the adjoining forest of the city which was decorated with wooden (katthakamma), earthen (polthakamma) 103 and plastci decuration (leppa), wreaths (ganthima),images (vedhima), and dolls (premu) 95 Citara Ti 13, 196, 18,240 98 474-480 97 Cuta or painting is mentioned in the Kutlinimata (is 124, 236) among various arts to LC studied by a courtesan The following six great i equisites of painting aic mentioned knowlcclge of appcaranccs, correct perception, mcasure and structure of forms, action of feelings on forlag infusion of grace or artistic representation, sunulitude and artistic manner of using brush ar' colouis (P BID 316), see also A R Coomaraswamy's Asediae, al Senholce :01 PP 10! 11 98 Maja 8, p 106 1, also cf Uttara 35 4. 99 Brh Bha ] 2429 100 Supra, P 275 101 Ata cu 11, p165 108 Brh Bha Pi, 172 109 See also Kutfinimata (vs. 124).

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ARTS AND SCIENCES 187 which were stuffed and made of cloth (sanghaim).104 Wc arc told that in the picture-gallci y of prince Valladinna the pictures were imbuud with coquettish sentiments and feelings (ha ablaval, thc play of the cves (vilasa) and amoious gestures (hibboja) 10 Jiyasattu is mentioned as another king who owned a picture gallery Ticare told that, when the consti uction of this galloy Walk in progics, a paintci's daughtc) foi mcd the design of a peacock feather in the noaic floor 'hollinelula) Iliching under tlie falsc impre,on of its being natural was tempted to pick it, but in his attempt thc nails of singers stiuchamst thc lloon and he liurt his hand 106 Dummuha is minticucca sull anotlici king to have a pictuic-gullois When this pinnaclid ellery vas icadi he entucd it with grcal cercmony 107 (0) (11PILRI Sculptuic rostlut olmaga wakiugi conlucily old in cucin loria Job The Fall 1. tously loi Cum clcclel by Indian artists scuins to haic been wood int thahnnen on the noih in wood has been referred to above The Ipaalara Bhasonicfers to thc agcljattaka whose wooden figure was built and worshipped by his son 10 We also hcar os images made of plaster puttha), 110LY (dinta) and stone seiu).110 The Marathonmaha'mcntions a golden image of Valli with a hole in its head which was covered with a lid " Then we come acioss a mechanical image porto prima) of a liuman being which could walk, openi and shut its cyrs It is said that in Yavana county sucli images were turned out in grcaliunibci 112 anotherspccinen of linc workmanship in mechanical toy is supplied by thic mechanical clcphant (amamayahuthi) manufactuied by ling Paduoti to captuic Udayana of Kosainbi 113 (9) RAMITECTUL The art of housc building irlthcm) was an important ait in ancient India There were calthupalhayas ou men qualificd foi testing sites for house building 14 Tanithai or an archulcct is counted as onc of the fourteen 'jewels' 115 In building a new house in thc city it is said that, firstly, the land is exammcd, then it is levelled, then rings (undirao) 104 Naya 13, p 112 J05 bed 8, p 50 il 101 Uttara Ti 9, p . 107 Ibid, p 135 Dhinapalilias incnlioncd ihr pas ole haiti z nolu liom Dha napala's Filakanan,ait by Sivalainmuiu, Tindul culture, Vol II, pp 199.210, also Ilic Indian Painter and his art in thc Cul'un al llentig' of India, I ol [II P 575 11 by the same author. 108 l'or characteristic features of the sculptures of the valu puisse Gopinath, 7 he lloments of Hindu Iconogi aphy pp 33-37,0 C Gangoly, Indian Sculptur The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol III, pp 336-334 109 2 11 110 Brh Bla 1 2469. 113 Brh Bha 4 4915. 111 8, p 93. 11) Aca cu II, P 161. 114 Ibid ITP 177. 11 Jambu Si 3.55, p. 229, also sce Ramazanu II, 0 Ilf.

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188 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA are cast on different places fit for different constituents of the building. Then the ground is dug and the foundation is laid and a well pressed and then a platform of brick masonry is added 116 Three kinds of buildings are mentioned : an underground cell (khaya), a palace (ustya), and a combination of the two (ubhaya) 117 The Rayapeseniya mentions a number of architectural terms, which show the development of the science to a great extent in those days Mention is made of Suryabhadeva's Vimana which was surrounded on all sides by a rampart (pagara) and which was embellished with beautiful cornices (kavisisaga). In every direction there were gates (dara) with cupola (thubhiya) decorated with the figures of ihamiga, bull (usabha), horse with a man's head (naraturaga), crocodile (magara), bird (vihaga), serpent (valaga), kinnara, 118 deer (ruru), sarabha, yak (camara), elephant (kunjara), creeper (vanalaya) and lotus creeper (paumalaya). They had capitals (veiya) decorated with the figure of the pair of the vidyadharas The doors had landings (nimma), 119 foundation or pedestal (parttlana), pillars (khambha), thresholds (eluya), bolts (indakila), door-posts (ceda), lintels (uttaranga), small door bolts (sur), joints (sandhi), sockets (samuggaya), wooden cross bolt pin (aggala), sockcts for wooden pin (aggalapastura), hinges (avattana pedhiya), and left wings (utlarapasaga). There werc hcaly doors fitting closely (nirantariyaghanakarala); in their panels (bhitti), there were globular bosses (bhittiguliya) and cushions (gomanastya) In the doois the figures of salabhan jikas 20 in various playful attitudes were carved Then the doors had pinnacles (kuda), elevation (usseho), the tops (ulloya), lattices (bhoma), pinions (pakkha), pinion supports (pakkabahii), cross beams (vamsa), ribbings (vamsakavelluya), panels (patliya), thatches (ohadani) and thatches under the ribbings (uvaripunchani).192 Then there were pegs (nagadanta) on both sides of the gates, from which were hung hangers (sikkaga) and on which were suspended incense pots (dhuvaghadi).122 We learn about a Thcatic hall123 (pricchugharainanilara) which was supported by many columns (anegakhambhasayasannivittha), and was furnished with huge altars (vedika), arches (torana) and salabhanjika figures, it was decorated with Thamiga etc., was fitted with a mechanism to show the moving figures of the pair of vidyadharas, had hundreds of 118 Bth Bla Pi 331-3, also cf Digha I, p 9, Milindopasha, pp 331, 343. 117 Brh Bha 1 827 118 The Kinnara motif in decorative art is mentioned by the Sinhalese painters. Thc Kina naras are beings, human above and bird-like below, like a siren or harpy, with human arms and shoulders and the wings not large cnough for fight , A K Coomaraswamy Medioeval singhalese Art, Gloucesterhire, 1908, p Bif 119 Dvaranam bhumibhagad urdhuam niskramantah pradesah, com 120 For a beautiful description of salabhanikas read su 101 The diadanasataka (VI, 53, 302) mentions salabhanpka, a festival celebrated in Sravasti 121 Raya. Ju. 97f. 193 Ibid. su. 100, p 164 193 Almost the same description is given of a royal house (bha una) in the Naya 1, P 22; alsu cl. the description of a litter (siya), ibid., p. 31. Also vide Minasara, ch. XLVII

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189 figures decorating it (ruvagasahassakaliyam), had many domes (thubhya), was decorated with flags and bells, was well-plastered (ulloa) and bore the palm impression inside and outside, its gates had sandal pitchers and arches; there were flowers, garlands. perfumes and incense, and the ceiling (ulloya) was decorated with lotus creepers In the centre of the Theatre hall there was a stage (akkladaga) which had a jewelled seat (manipedhiya) in the centre On that there was a throne having discs (cakkala), lions (siha), feet (paya), tops (payasisaga), the body (gaita) and the joint (sandhi)12+- ARTS AND SCIENCES 125 The stair-cases are mentioned which were well-equipped with landings (nemma), plinth (avalambana), balustrade (avalamionalaha), etc Then the Nayadhammakaha describes the sleeping chamber zaragharara) 126 of queen Dharini as having an outer court yaid (chokattha, com lanyatindaka), polished and well-set pillais endowed with statues (saibhanya), bud-perches danha),17 latticed windows (jela), cucular stans addhacanda), brackets (mjuha, apertures hanayali, com sua sult), and a room on the 100f called cendiuslike, it was coloured with the dye of clear mineral 10ck docela,, the outside was white-washed (dumya) with stone and therefore it had a smooth surface ghattamatta) and the inside was decorated with pictuics hamm ), its foci (kottimatala) was richly studded with various gems and jewels and the ceiling had a canopy of painted cloth fulloyauttura) with lotus flowers (permalaya) and flowering creepers laden with beautiful flowers, the door-ways were beautifully decorated with auspicious golden jars, with lotus flowcis inserted in the mouth and these were worshipped with sandal wood, the door was decorated with prata daka (an ornament) and hung with necklaces of pearls and jewels Fragiant incense buint in the 100m and the furniture consisted of rich upholstered beds, cushions and pillows, etc.1 128 There were lofty mansions pasiya aradimsaya) for rich and wellto-do pcoplc Seven storeyed mansions touching the sky and embellished with flags, banners, umbrellas and garlands are icfened to 120 Then we have relet cncc to a post (hhundha), pillai (thambha) 1aised platform manca), scaffold (mala) and flat roof (hammiyatala) The city of Rayagiha was known for buildings made of stone and bricks (kanilla) The mirror-house (ayamsagiha) of Bharata was well-known Siyahara or the cool-house was a marvellous house of a Cakravartin which remained Jal 132 133 12 Raya 41 For the description of Sudharma Hall and other buildings sce Raya, 120-131 116 Ibid su 30, ct thice kinds of stans, viz, brick stais, stone stairs, and wooden stairs, Cullavagga, V 11 6 Also compare the description of dwelling place (usaghara) in the Kalpa su'ra, 3 32. Vitanka is also mentioned in the Ramayana, II 80 20 138 1, p. 3 f, also cf Brh Bha Pi 582 fr 130 Uttara Ti 13, p 189 130 Naya 1, 22 131 Aca II 1 7 260 132 Brh Bha 3 4768 133 Uttara Ti 126 127 18, p 232 a

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190 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA unaffected by rains, cold and heat 134 Then we had underground construction (bhumihara),135 back door (avadara),186 big tunnels (suranga) 137 and lac-houses (Jauhara) 138 The Svayamvara halls have been already mentioned, they icsted on hundred columns and were embellished with sportivc salnbhai jika 9 statues We had attanasala (hall foi gymnastic exercises), majjanag'ma (bathing house),140 and whanamandapa (bath room) containing windows, ornamented with pearls, its floor studded with various jewels and precious stones and equipped with a bathing stool (nhanapitha) 141 We also come across uvatthanasala142 (attendance hall) posahasala143 (fasting hall), kudagarasalal44 (pinnacled hall) and square tanks146 (fokkharini) (9) FORTIFICATION The principles of fortification of towns were well understood We read that the city of Campa was solidly built and it was hard to cntcr Its moat (phaliha) was broad on top and cut dccp down, it had discs (cakka), clubs (guya), maces (misundhi), barriers (oola), war-machin (sayagghi) and double doors (jamalakarada); it was surrounded by a wall (pagara) bent in a curve like a bow, and decorated with cornices (kavisisa) arranged in circles, its bastions (at talaya), iampait paths (cariya), door-ways (dara), gates (gopura), and arches (wana) werc lofty, its high roads (rayamagga) duly divided , its gate bars (phaliha) and bolts (indakila) were strong and fashioned by skilful artificers 146 Of religious architecture we find mention of the detahuilas oi templcs We are not told in details about the nature and architectural fcature of these buildings, except that they were resorts of the travcllcrs We have references to thubhas and the ceryas, built upon the remains of the deceased persons. Such thubhas are said to have been built on Atthapada in memory of Usabha by his son Bharaha 147 W'caic told that in the village of Vaddhamanaya a Jakkha temple was built on the bones of the deceased persons of the town, and hence this village came to 18+ si cu 10, p 559, 133 Utlara. Ti, 13, p 185 2 136 Naya 8, p. 111. 137 Aca cu II, p 163 133 Ullara Ti 13, P 188 For the construction of lac-housc,scc Alahabharata, I 150 139 Sec supia, P 159 Hot-air baths are descuibed in the Cullaragga v 14. 141 kalpa 4 61 f 112 Ibid 1-38, also sec Paramatl hadippani, thic com on thu L duna, p 102 113 Nuja 1 p 19 114 Raya 94 p 150 141 Nayu 13, p 142 f 140 Oral also Ultara 9 18-24. 117 Ava cu p 223 1, cf Titlita Fataha (No 438, III, p. 637); for the construction ou a Vulara sce also duadana Sataka, II, 15, p. 87, Alaharamsa, chs, XXVIII, seq , Indian Archie tectural Terms by ^ K. Coomaraswamy, J. AO S 48-3, 1928

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ARTS AND SCIENCES 191 be known as Atthiyagama.148 The temple (derakula) built on the remains of the dead was also called madagalena or matagaguha.140 Layana is mentioned as a resort of the ascetics in caves.160 We hear of the mangala cely as in Mathura. It was a belief here that if a Jain image was not put in the lintel, then the house would fall.151 In furniture we also come across rich beds, cushions, pillows, chairs, etc. Among marriage gifts mention has been made of pavidha (foot stool), bhisiya (seat), pallanka (couches) and padisuja (sofas) Various kinds of asanas have already been noted.203 Dandasampucchani and venusampucchani are mentioned as brooms attached to the bamboo-sticks 153 Among other domestic furniture we have the fan (vijana), the umbrella (chatta), sticks (danda) 154 jak-tail (camara), the mirror (adamsa), the box (manjusa), the casket (samugga), a basket (pidaya) and cages (panjaia).158 148 Ava cu p 272 14P Nsi cu 330, Aca cu 370 110 Anu. Si 09, p 1.15 181 Brh Bla 1 1776 See supra, p 157, also sce Raya Su 113, Kalpa 4 49,63 For references to cushions. coverlets, counterpanes, chaus etc sre Mahavagga v 10 3, Cullavagga vi. 24, also Indian Culture Vol. II, July, 1935 pp 271 f , Gurija Prasanna Majumdar's article on Furniture, algo Manasara, chs. XLIV, XLV, R L Mitra Indo-Aryan, Vol I PP 250 ff 188 Raya 'Sa 21. 164 Bin Bha 3 4097, foi umbrella, foot-w car and slick, also sce Girija Prasanna Majumdai's article on Diess in the Indian culture (1, 1-4, pp. 203-208). 10b Uttara. 14.41.

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CHAPTER VI RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS I THE SAMANAS India has been a land of religions. From the earliest times religion forms a central motif in the pattern of ancient Indian life. According to Megasthanes, the Indian sages were divided into two sects, Brahmans and Sarmans; among the latter the Hylobioi (living in woods) were honoured most? The term Samana or the recluse philosopher and Mahana or the hermits are referred with equal respect in the old texts of the Jains as has been stated already. The Samanas played a very important role in moulding the material as well as the spiritual life of the people. They were highly respected by the common-folk as well as by kings and nobility These ascetics wandered about eight or nine months of every year from country to country (janavayavihara) engaging themselves in religious discussions and preaching the dharma We meet them usually in the groves adjoining the settlement set up by the people for the common use of the travellers The common people paid them respects, called on them in their temporary residence at the parks, put them their queries, offered them food, provided them with shelter (vasahi), seat (pidha), a piece of a wooden board (phalaga), a bedding (seja), a mat (santharaya), and other necessities of life. We are told that, when Mahavira arrived in Campa there arose a great uproar in the town and many people set out to pay a visit to the Lord; some went to pay him reverence, some simply to see him, some to satisfy their curiosity, some to ascertain the truth and some simply to put questions. The same enthusiasm is noticed among the citizens when the mendicant Suya visited the town of Sogandhiya In fact, peoplc considereded it a great privilege even to hear the name and title (namagoya) of such saintly lords, how much more to approach them, pay reverence to them and wait upon them.* The Nisitha curni mentions five classes of the Samanas: (1) Niggantha, Sadhu or Khamana, (2) Sakka, (3) Tavasa, (4) Gerua (Parivrajaka) and (5) Ajiuzka. We shall deal with them one by one. 1 Mc Candle, The inranon of Alexander ohe Great p 358, See also Parmarthadipari the com on the Udana, p 338, The Angutiara (IV, p 35, I, p 157) mentions two classes of Paribbajakas, the Annatitthiya Paribbajakas and the Brahmana Paribbajalas (Law Historical Gleanings, 9); Law, Gautama Buddha and the Paribbajakas, Buddlastic Studies, pp 89 ff , also see Winternitz's, article "Jainas in Indian literature" (Indian Culture Vol I, 1-4, p 145. * Ova 27, pp 107-11l. 8 Nayo , p. 73 4 Ova., 27, p. 108, & 13, p. 865.

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 193 (1) THE SAMANA NIGGANTHAS Monasticism Persons desiring to renounce the world and embrace the life of a monk or a nun were allowed to be admitted in the Jain congregation without any distinction of rank or caste Not only the world-sick ordinary people renounced the world but also warriors and bankers, who were members of the upper class and who were endowed with personal grace, learning, valour and splendour. They left their riches, corn, and the family, and considering sensual pleasures worthless and life transitory as the water bubbles and dew drops, exchanged the glitter and pomp of worldly life for the homeless condition of the ascetics. People dissatisfied with the condition of society around them such as the political conflicts, resulting in tyranny and lawlessness, domination of one class over another, the ruthlessness of criminal laws, the system of usury etc, and disappointed in their cherished expectations, fled away from deceptive pleasures and wickedness of the world and sought quietude and peace of mind in solitude in a woodThe question is asked: By what acts can I escape a sorrowful lot in this unstable internal samsara, which is full of misery? The answer is - Severing your former connections, place your affection on nothing; a monk who loves not even thosc who love him, will be freed from sin and hatred.' This is the keynote of the whole pessimistic philosophy. CAUSES OF RENUNCIATION Various causes are assigned to renunciation. The Thananga mentions the following ten kinds of renunciation (pavvajja) : ..(1) Voluntary renunciation of the world, (2) renunciation due to sudden anger, (3) renunciation due to poverty, (4) renunciation on seeing a dream, (5) renunciation in fulfilment of a vow (padisuga), (6) renunciation because of recollecting previous birth, (7) renunciation due to sickness, (8) renunciation due to insult, (9) renunciation by being enlightened by gods and (10) renunciation out of affection for a son who had already taken to order. We come across instances when sentimental people escaped from the worldly state at the slightest provocation. We are honda huo told that the queen of Devilasatta of Ujjeni saw a grey hair on her hus , banh band's head, which she took out coiling round her finger. The king said that an envoy of old age had come, and kecping it in a golden plate, covering it with a pair of sulken garment, took it around the city. The 6 Ova , 14, p 49 7 Uttara 8.1, 2. 8 10. 712. trans. by Jacobi, p. 31

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194 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA king anointed his son on the throne and pronouncing "our forefathers renounced before their hair turned grey", retired from the world along with his queen. Even at times very trifling causes and incidents stirred deep religious feelings. Bharata, for instance, saw his finger devoid of the ring and it looked ugly and this cause was sufficient enough to make him renounce the world 10 King Dummuha beheld the banner of Indra fall down and adopted the ascetic life." Aritthanemi saw the animals kept in enclosures for slaughtering purposes and it induced in him a sense of the transitoriness of things." Although as we have seen that the membership of the Jain ascetic order was open to all, there were exceptions to the general rule and the following persons were excluded from entering the monastic order - Children, old man,14 eunuchs, dull (jada), timid (kiva) and sick persons, robbers, king's enemies, lunatics (unmatta), blind, slaves. wicked and stupid persons (mudha), debtors, deformed persons (jatyangahina), attendants (obaddhaa), servants, forcibly converted (sehanipphedra), pregnant women, and young girls (balavaccha)." THE RENUNCIATION CEREMONICS The renunciation ceremony (nikkhamanasakkara) was held with great pomp and show in ancient India Great enthusiasm was displayed on such occasions and even kings took active part in the ceremony and encouraged people to embrace asceticism. We hear of an announcement made by Kanha Vasudeva that if any king, heir-apparent, queen, princt, chief (isara), knight (talavara), head of a family (kodumbiya), headman of a village (madambiya), rich men (zbbha), foremen of guilds (set thr), commander-in-chief and the leader of caravan would join the monastic order, he would look after his family and relations who might be left behind 16 Pavuajja or "leaving the world, adopting the ascetic life" was conferred 0 Ava cu II, 202 f, cf "Dharmaduta" in the Sthadiraalicarita, 1 94 f, also Cullasulasemin Jataka (No 525), V, p 177, Nim Jataka (541) VI, P 95 10 Litara Ti 18, P 232a Ibid 9, p 136 12 See Supra, p 126 f The exceptions are Aimuttakumara, managa and Vaira It 19 stated that a child may be ordained under the following circumstances (1) If the whole family wants to join the ascetic order, (2) if the whole family of the monk has expired and only a child has been left, (3) an orphan child of a sammaditthi (one who has right vision), (4) an orphan child of a sejatara (one who gives shelter to the monk), (5) a child of a nun, who might have been raped and (6) if there is possibility of any good being done to the kula, gana or the sangha through minister or other state servants (V251 cull, p. 117 fT) Six years is stated to be the minimum period for par vanja, otherwise in ordinary course no one can be ordained before eight years (Bhag Ti 6 3) 14 The exceptions are Somila Brahmana, the father of Mahavira in his previous birth, Usabhadatta, the father of Jambu, and Somadeva, the father of Ajja Rakkahia, (ilisi cu 11, p 718) 16 Tha 3 202 16 Naya 6, p. 71,

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 195 near a lotus-pond or a caitya shrine with a sikhara An auspicious day under a favourable planet was selected except caturthi and astami which were avoided 17 An essential condition for the admission into the monastic order was securing the permission of the parcnts or the guardians Frequently we hear of gifts of a malc or a female disciple (sessabhikkham, Sissinibhikkham) offered to the teacher by the guardian of a person who wished to join the order 18 The Nayadhammakaha gives a description of the renouncement of prince Meghakumara. After listening to the preachings of Mahavira, Meghakumara returned home and requested his parents to allow him to enter the order of the Teacher When the mother of Meghakumara heard this, she was overcome by grief and became unconscious Mcghakumara's parents tried to dissuade him by various ways but he showed his stern determination towards renunciation. Then a swccping duster (nayoharana) and a bowl (padiggaha) were bought from the shop (kuttiyavana) and a barber (kasavaya) was called for hair-cutting Then Meghakumara was given a bath, his body was anointed with gosisa sandal and was beautifully dressed and ornamented. He sat in the palanquin with his mother on the right and his foster-mother with a sweeping duster and a bowl on the left Meghakumara arrived at thc Gunasilaya shrine where he was picscnted to Mahavila to be initialed as his disciple Then the prince with his own hands plucked out his hai in fivc handfuls and approached Mahavira and walking round him thrice praised and worshipped him ahavild admitted the price into the order and preached him thc law showing him how he should walk, stand, sit, lic, feed, speak, show forbearance towards living beings and pursue the path without ncgligencc 19 A beautiful dialogue between Ncmi and the Sakka is iecorded in the Utlaradhyayana When the former giving up his kingdom and renouncing all his pomp and show, retucd from the world, the Sahka approached him and tried to dissuade him from his determination, but Nemi icmained steadfast in his purpose.* THE SAM.LVA SAVGIT.1 The religious corporation of the Jain monks was an important and unique organisation in ancient India In fact, the Jains have remained as an organised community all through tlic history of India cven before the rise of Buddhism down to the present day The Jain sangha as it has been pointed out included the monks (samana), the nuns (samani), the laymen (stivaya) and the laywomen (scivia) Jain tcxts furnish us evidence about thc existence of collcctive bodics of ascetics, who lived 17 Brh Bha Pi. 413. 18 See Naya 1, 33, Anta. 5, 28 10 pp 24-34 20 9. 20-22 trans Jacobi, p. 371.

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196 together under the leadership of one teacher in an uvassaya or a vasali, and who followed a code of rules and regulations laid down for them. We have seen that Parsva and Mahavira had a large number of followers Likewise Vairasami had a gana of five hundred monks under his supervision,21 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA The rule of a Samana Niggantha is stated to have been most difficult (paramaduccara) to practise. He had to keep a watchful eye over his observances The path is compared to treading on the edge of a sword.22 There were two classes of Jain monks. (1) those who wandered about naked and used the hollow of their palms for an almsbowl, (2) and those who put on clothes and kept an alms-bowl, sweeping-duster, a piece of cloth called mukhavastrika and other necessary articles. They came out daily begging their food, and plucked their hair unlike the Buddhist monks as They were called Nigginthas because they were unfettered It is said that a monk had to guaid himself against (1) destroying life, (2) telling a lie, (3) stealing, (4) sexual intercourse, (5) possessions, (6) taking meals at night, (7) injuring "carthbodied" living beings, (8) "water-bodied" living beings, (9) "fire-bodied" living beings (10) "air-bodied" living beings, (11) "vegetable-bodied" living beings, (12) inobile beings tasa), (13) prohibited things, (11) taking meals in a householder's utensil, (15) using sofa (paliyanka), (16) scat (nisajja), (17) taking bath, and (18) decoration + The Nigganthas were not allowed to eat or drink anything specially prepared for them, purchased for them, set aside for them or cooked for them; neither they were allowed to eat food meant for faminc-stricken persons; food for foresters, food stored for rainy season, food meant for the sick persons, or roots, bulbous roots, fruits, seeds and, green vegetables 25 Thus the conduct of a Jain monk, down to the minutest detail, was regulated by specific ordinances and even the slightest violation of which was sure to bring down upon him the appropriate punishment It is a difficult work to narrate these ordinances in detail, but it would suffice to say that these touched even the minutest details regarding their conduct in begging alms, their residence, medical treatment, their duty at the time of distress, lawlessness in the country, pestilence, behaviour towards the king, and the like THE HARDSHIPS UNDERGONE BY THE SAMANAS There were days of endless troubles and difficulties for the Jain Samanas, who had to pass through various calamities to get on with thei 21 Ava cu p 394 12 Naya 1, p 28 23 According to Prof Rhys Davids the Bhukku order of homeless persons evolved ongi nally from the Brahmacarins who did not enter upon the stage of the householder and who customarily begged their food (D'alogues of the Buddha, I, pp 215 ff). 24 Das. su 6 8 25 Naya 1, p. 28.

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 197 religious life. Travelling was extremely difficult, organised bands of robbers and dacoits moved freely, there were political disturbances when lawlessness prevailed throughout the country, getting a shelter was no less difficult a problem, rivalry between the Jain Samanas and other heretical monks and the Brahmanas was common, theic was famine, flood, pestilence, sickness when the Samanas suffered to a great extent Under such circumstances, however, the Jain Samanas tried hard to maintain the usual course of procedure laid down for them Frequently there came critical moments in their life when they hovered between life and death, and ultimately they contented themselves by laying down their lives quietly without uttering a word TRAVELLING33 Travelling was considered an important means of spreading religion It is stated that a sadhu or a religious mendicant should be accomplished in various icgional languages and in correct utterance and expounding of the Sutras in different provincial languages He should learn the regional languages and then convert the people of the laitd He should also meet the great aryas in his travel for the better understanding of the Sutras 27 The Samanas had to traverse long and dreary distances when travelling was most insecure and painful They had to cross big wild forests, vast deserts and big mountains and rivers taking their lives in their own hands Some lost their way in endless Jungles, some were overpowered by snow and thorny bushes, some were devoured by wild beasts, some were done to death by robbers and dacoits, and some lost their lives for want of food and drink It is stated that in the course of the journey the sadhus should not transgress the fence laid by the caravan. Sometimes the caravan in dccp forest came face to face with lions or robbers and the whole caravan was destroyed by wild beasts and robbers and if a sadhu was separated from the caravan, then he could ask the help of the sylvan deity, who would by means of a tremor show him the way or lead him to a Janapada.28 They were tied up and there was risk of being put to death and flogged and, therefore, it is said that the boundary of the enemy territory should not be crossed by the sadhus 80 The journey of boats was also a problem to the Samanas We hear that considering the Samana as an unrenumerative encumbrance for the boat, people took hold of him and threw him into water 31 16 See Brh su. 1 46 and its Bhasya, pp 856-880 (chapter on adhyaprakaiana) 27 Brh Bha 1.1230 f, 1234 28 Ibid 1.3104-9 29 Cf. ibid, 3.3901 30 Ibid, 1 2783, also cf 13112 31 Aca Su II, 3 2 344 Also Iva. Nir 470, cf Avariya Jataka (Ao 376), III, pp. 230 f.

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198 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDLA ROBBERS39 There were organised bands of robbers, already referred to, who attacked the travelling tradesmen and made good their escape. The robbers were not content with this, they also kidnapped men and women. They destroyed shrines and the articles thereof, they massacred the whole garcha including the acarya and carried off the nuns. These robbers entered the residence of the sadhus and exacted trouble The Bila:kalba Bhasya refers to a robber who snached an excellent blanket kambalarayana) from an acarya at the point of a dagger 34 POLITICAL DISTURBANCES36 There was another hardship caused by political disturbances in the country. The Brhalkilha Bhasya divides the kingless state Grijak into four groups (1) after the dcath of the king if there were two heirs-apparcnt and none of them so far anointed as the king annaya), 2 when one prince who had already appointed an heir-apparent in his turn took anot. T joint ruler juradnja, 3) when the army of the enemy occupied the country (terajjara), it when there was warfare between the two oppo.lents claiming the throne terajja.se Frequently thc Samanas moving about during disturbances, mistaken for spics and were arrested. It is for this reason that time Vigganhas or Nigganthini, are prohibited from wandering about during the time of political disturbances reruddha anal in the country? Then it was alright if the king was a devotee of the Jain faith in that case the Miggantha Samiras ucre given facilities by the king and the late ser ants But if the king belonged to a different faith, the lot of the Sunan:s was deplorable. Frequently they were banished, their food and drink were stopped and their ritualistic paraphernalia were confiscatid and there were occasions when they were put to death 59 It was d custom that at the time of the king's coronation everybody including the eighteen corporations and the Samonas should visit the king with respect:u' offerings ia gha, ; if the Vigganthas se sabhikkus, failed to do so they were dealt with severely 40 Under such circumstances the Viagnhas had to go in the disguise of Buddhist monks and live on prohibited food, such as roots, flesh, stale food dosin), oil-cakes, and the food offered to the crows. In the absence of the ritualistic paraphernalia they picked up * See Brh Su 1 45 and its Bhanya pp 848 to 836, chapter on hantahan aparta 33 Visi. cu Pi, p90 31 3 39113, +, alo c Vinhiids: VIII 22 35 See Byh. su. I 37 and its Bra ya pp 778-767 (chapter on valja ili watu prakrtam) 13 1 2763 17 Cf. Cttara TI 2. P 23a 38 Brh su. 1 37. 99 Brk. Bla. 1 3221 10 Nisi. cu 9, p. 519; abo ct Uttara Ti. 18, p. 248a

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199 rags from the dunghill, took a peacock feather broom (pehunda) used hide to cover their body, hid themselves behind the lotus-ponds or the palasa tree during day time and travelled at night.11 RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS RESIDENCE Shelter was another problem before the Sadhus In some countrics it was very difficult for the monks to get shelter and under such conditions they had to put up in the shrine or a deserted house (sunnaghara) where there was trouble from women, eunuchs, wild beasts, snakes, mosquitoes, ants, dogs, and robbers. It is ordered that the monks should supervise their residence thrice a day, because it may so happen that the women might leave their new born babe there, or the robbers might leave the stolen property, or a person might murder his enemy and leave him, or a woman might commit suicide near their residence 43 Nuns were more troubled due to want of residence and so often they lost their morals." SICKNESS During the period of sickness the Samanas had to depend solely on others for treatment If a monk was seriously ill and the physician was not willing to come to vasali, the sadhus had to carry him to the physician's house. The Samanos approached him at an auspicious time and talked when he was scated happily Sometimes the physicians prescribed such medicines and diets for the patients which were difficult to procure for the monks In case the physician attended the patient in the uzassaja the monks had to make arrangements for his bath, food and drink etc. Then the question of paying fees worried the sadhus. The greedy physician would not be contented without getting his dues and the poor sadhus had to provide for it getting it either from the treasure that one might have kept hidden under the caith before taking to the ascetic life or from the unclaimed treasure-trove found in a palace or a well or by caining by making mechanical swans and such other tovs. 48 FAMINE There were long famines in the country and it was extremely difficult for the sadhus to get their lawful alms during this period We have seen how Ajja Vaira used to get alms by magical practices during famine and thereby maintained other monks We hear from the Briathalpa Bhasya how the monks fell a prey to women at such times of distress and lived with them as husband and wife 47 Va Bha. 1, p. 122 f, Brh Bha 1 3120-3136. 42 Asi cu 5, p 397 43 Brh Bha 3 4747-4749 41 4 Brh. su 211, Bha 3484 ff 45 Vide ibid, (1 1900-1972) 48 4T Vya Bha 5 89f, p 20 cf the Buddhist monks who were allowed to the use of a loom and shuttles etc. as a handicraft by Buddha (Cullavagga V 28 2.). 4-4955-58,

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200 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA PROSTITUTES Then there were prostitutes who entered the residence of the Samanas during night and invited them to enjoy sexual intercourse Sometimes the monks were forced to tie them and keep them there overnight and set them free in the morning. If the prostitutes made a case with the king, the monks had to appear in the court for self-defence. 48 WOMEN Then we come to women. Throughout the Jain texts the Jain monks are warned not to have any association with women It is stated that as a pot filled with lac thrown into fire melts quickly and is destroyed, so the monks are lost through association (sa mvasa) with women 49 A woman is compared to a poisoned thorn and the monks are instructed to avoid a woman even if her hands and feet are cut off and her ears and nose mutilated." But it was no easy matter to have a thorough control over one's sex instinct. After all the monks had to come in contact with women-folk They had to go out begging alms to them and preaching them religion If a monk was living singly, there were chances of his breaking the law and falling into the snares of women Sometimes the monks lived together with householder's, when the householder's wives, daughters, daughtersin-law, nurses and slave girls approached them and requested them to indulge in sexual intercourse with them so that they might have a strong and illustrious son. The Suyagadanga beautifully describes a nionk, who, being absorbed by the passion towards a woman, became subject to her. Afterwards thc woman scolds him, lifts her foot, and tramples on his head, saying "O monk, if you will not live with me as a woman who has still her hair, I shall tear it out; but do not live separated from mc " Then she asks the monk to bring wood to cook vegetable, to paint her feet, to rub her back, to get clothes, food, drink, perfume, collyriumbox, ornaments, powders, oils, pills, lipsalve, umbrella, slippers, comb, ribbon, looking-glass, tooth-brush and various other articles for use If the woman got pregnant she ordered her husbands like slaves to fulfil her cravings. If a child was born to her, she asked the monk to hold the baby, and getting up in the night they both lulled the baby to sleep like nurses, and, though they are ashamed of themselves, they washed the clothes of the baby like washerfolk 58 A number of monks are mentioned who fell into the snares of women We have already seen how the monk Rahanemi fell in love with * 49 50 52 Ibrd, 4.4923-25, also Suya 4 1 2 , also cf Dhammapada 4 , II, p 201 Suya. 4 1 27 Ibid, 4 1.11 Das. Su 8 66. Aca II. 2 1 294, p 332 f; cf Vinaya (III 134) where sexual union with a Bhelku is recommended as a remedy for sterility or a means to procure a son or the husband's love. 4.2. 11

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 201 Rajimati and courted her Then the monk Sambhuya, who, bcing touched by the hair of the queen Sunanda lost his self-control and resolved to be born as a cakravartin in the next birth as a reward of his penance.54 A similar story is told about the monk Addaya who gave up asccticism and married a merchant's daughter After his wife gave birth to two sons, Addava asked her permission to resumc his wandering caicci But at this time his wilc was spinning When her child asked her mother what she was doing, she replied that as his father wanted to becomc an ascelic, she was spinning in order to support her family. Then the child tied his father with twelve rounds of a cord and listening his child's request Addaya remained in the house foi a further period of twelve years 56 Then we read of the monk Asadhabus, who, inspite of his teacher's warning, abandoned his clscetic life and married the two daughters of Visvai kma, an acrobat of Rayagiha 6 THE IDOL OF TJIE JUIN SAMITAS It is stated in Jam tcxts that a svidhu should not be ncgligent in bi, dulies, and it is commendablc for him to enter into fire rather than to colate huis long-cherished vow? But it should be borne in mind that thic ideal of sramanahood was not to be followed litcrallyIt is land down that in order to cherish the grcater vow one can sacrifice the lesscr one, just like a merchant who abandons the lesser quantity of wealth in preference to the greater quantity 58 The Jain Sramanas are strictly warned against violating their i eligious vows, but at the same time it is stated that the life is not without merit and it must be guarded thoroughly even at the risk of sanama (sanamiao appananze a rokkhanto), foi, it is said that if a person came out safe from the calamity, he could pursy himself by making confcssions (pacchetla) and could practise inorc religious tenets59 It is stated that one's body must be guarded with care as it werc a mountain, as a mountain is the source of water so is the body of icligion On many occasions thc Niggithas oi Nigganthunis were oppressed by wicked kings and ministers Under such cucumstances, failing to pacify the oppressor by peaceful means, it was the duty of the Samana Sangha to punish the cvil-docr properly. It is stated that as Canakya uprooted the Nanda family, or the weaver Naladama the species of ants, so a hostile king must not be spared It is laid down that the holy persons who help the causc of religion in this way, or those who render help to 54 Uttara Ti 13, p 186 af BD Suya Ti II, 6, p 388, also cf Bandhanagara Tataka (201) (1, p 139 ), Dhammapada 4. 1, pp 306 f, IV, pp 54 f 16 Pinda Nir. 474 ff 17 Brh Bha. 4 4949 03 Nisi cu pi p 138 - Ibrid cf Jivandharmam cari syam (ahabha XJI 141. 07). 80 Brh Bha Vr 1 2900

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202 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA such holy persons in their enterprise, are entitled to achieve liberation within a short period (aciranmok sagamanam) The saint Vinhukumala is cited as an example of a great saviour of Jain religion 1 There are other examples when under extreme circumstances the sudhus were forced to violate their vows. It is stated that in order to save an acarya from the hands of a robber-leader, a wcak-bodied Samana might declare himself as an acarya and offer his life for the sake of his teachers We have seen how a monk concealed his disciple in a nunnery when the latter was chased by the royal servants Then, if a Sramu,na failed to control his sexual urge he could indulge in sexual enjoyment by way of masturbation (hatthakamma), associating with a woman or by visiting a public woman by paying fees 64 Similarly at the time of emergency the Samanas were forced to take medicine at night and to use hide, bone teeth or ivory, nails, hair, goat-dung or cow-urine as medicine 6 But as it has been pointed out, this was not the usual course of conduct of the Samanas. It should be trcated as aparadamarga or cxccption to the rule when a monk under extreme distress had to set aside the utsai gamaiga or a general rule for which he had to undergo a pajarchitla 6 It is stated that as magical spells removed the cffcct of poison, similarly if violence is committed according to law fidhi) purisicd ly chanting mga lotmulae, sacrifice (janna) and ircitation (pofia), il docs not lead to lanciul result; in this way what is permissible kappa) becomes impermissible and vice versa.07 Thus a Samana could violate the general iules only under exceptional circumstances with the idea of practising greater sanjama, i.e, with the idea of doing greater good, which was the ideal of Sramnaahood. (2) THE SAKKA SAMANAS The Sakya Sramanas are very frequently referied to in Jain tears They were also known as rallaradas or taccanmyas A discussion between Addayaputta and the Sakyaputriyas has been already mentioned * The Buddhist doctrine of five skandhas is also referred to The Buddhist were known as akri, iradins as we shall see later on 70 The doctrine of 81 Vya Bha 7.545-547, 1. 90f, p 76 f 83 BTh Bhi 1 3005 f 0 Cf Vinaja (III, pp 112, 117) where emission of semen with a desire to remove nervous tension by using the hand or other methods is referred to as an offence for the Buddhist mnonks L'ya Bha 2 243-234, p 52 F 2 257 f, p 57 f. 571 f, p 17, Nisi ci 6, pp 451 ff, 464 , Brh Bha 4 4932-4936 Pinda Air 50 f The Oca (su 20, p 77) describes ten kinds of peyacchuta aloara, padikhanani ludi bhaja, vizega, cius,agga, tara, cheda, mula, anaz afthappa and parancia 67 Nisi cu 15, pp 935, 957, also p 1036 08 See Supra, P 127. BP Suya 1, 1. 17. 70 For other references sec Imulyacliandrasen, schnols and socis in faina literature pp. 33"

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 203 Buddha (Buddhasasanam) have been included among those false beliefs which are said to be the products of false knowledge." As a matter of fact, the Sakya Stamanas were the worst opponents of the Nigganthas, who suffered most at their hands, specially after Mahavira's death. (3) THE TAVASA SAMANAS The institution of hermits or Tavasas is very old We hear that on one of the journeys he made during his ascetic life, Mahavira put up in a hermitage (asamapada) in Moraga Sannivesa" Mahavira came across another hermitage named Kanakakhala in Uttaravacala where five hundred hermits were staying ;73 still another hermitage is referred to in Poyanapura where Vakkalaciri was born 74 The hermits lived in the forest 75 where they occupied themselves either in meditation or in sacuficial uites, or in practice of self-torture or studying the Sultas containing the texts of their school. Much of their time was spent in gathering fruits and roots for their sustenance, or in going into villages for alms The Vyarahara Blisya tells us that the Tavasas picked up rice-grains scattered around the mortar (udukhala), or the threshing floor (khalaya) and ate them after cooking Sometimes they collected as little quantity of grains as could bc held in a spoon darvi) or stick (danda) or between the thumb and the forcfinger (sanlasaya) or as much as adhered to a piece of cloth (pottiya) 70 The Ovarya?mentions the following classes of Vanapattha Tavasas residing on the bank of the Ganges Hottiya--Thcy offered sacrifice. Kottiya--Thcy slept on the bare ground Pottiya-They belonged to the class of ascetics who wore clothes Jannai-They performed sacrifice Saddhar--They belonged to the devotional class of ascetics Thalai-They caned all their belongings with them (grhitabhanda) Humbauttha-They carried a vessel with them (kundikas amana). Dantukkhaliya78_They used their teeth for a mortar, grinding the grain to be eaten between their teeth Ummajjaka-They bathed taking only a dip Sammaijaka-They bathcd by taking dips several times Nimajjaka--They remained in water only for a short while Sampakkhala -They rubbed and cleansed their body with mud 71 Supia, p 288 T2 Ava Nir 463 13 Ara rup79 Thid , p 157; cl Bahis Darucinya in the Dhamn atada 4. IT, PP 209 1 Nasim 967 78 10 23 7T Su 38, 170, 11 Ninja 3, P 39 78 Dantolik hulin and umnaijal u hirmits are also mentioned in the Ramayana, III, 6:3; 1. Tur - 17-1 T 17.1 f - Onn harmawh bundle of aerrtira are mentioner on hannicht

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204 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Dakkhinakulaga-They dwelt on the south bank of the Ganges Uttarakulaga--They dwelt on the north bank of the Ganges Sankhadhamaga-They had meals after hlowing a conch-shell to keep people away Kuladhamaga--They blew a conch-shell on the river bank to keep people away while they took their meal Miyaluddhaya--They killed animals Hatthitavasa--They killed an elephant with arrows and made their livelihood by eating its flesh for months together The Hatthitarasas claimed that they committed but one sin, the killing of the elephant in a year or so which was counterbalanced by the merit earned by not killing other lives during this time. They are also mentioned in the Shyagarlanga According to the commentary, they were Buddhist monks 10 Uddandaga--They moved about raising their staff They arc 1 cserred to along with Bodiya and Sasarakkha mendicants who went about naked and used the hollow of their hands as alms-bowl.80 Disapokkhi--They sanctified all sides by sprinkling water and then collected flowers and fruits The Bhagavati81 refers to the royal sage Siva of Hatthinapura, who joined the order of the Disapokkhiyas on the bank of the Ganges. He practised chatthama (a fast, broken at the sixth meal) and on the day on which he broke fast, he sprinkled the eastern quarter, propitiated Soma, the lord of east, and collected bulbous roots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds and green vegetables Then he returned to his hut, cleaned the sacrificial altar (cedika) and went to bathe in the Ganges He made another altar with grass and sand, kindled a fire br the friction of pieces of wood, and keeping ritualistic paraphernalia by his side, offered honey,ghee and rice to the fire Then he prepared caru (oblation), worshipped Varssadeva and the guests and then took his meal Then Siva observed the chatthama fast again and proceeded to the south to piopitiate Yama, then to the west to propitiatc Varuna and finally to the north to propitiate Vesamaha Somila was another hermit of Vanarasi who bclonged to the same order and was a worshipper of the four divas 83 King Pasannacanda also belonged to the same order; he joined tlic order along with his queen and the nurse 83 Vakara si--They put on dress of bark Amburasi-- They lived in water Bilavasi--They lived in caves Jalavasi--They remained submerged in water Velarasi--They lived on the sea-coast Rukkhamulia-They lived under the trees. Ambubhakkhi-- They lived by drinking water only. 70 II, 6, The Lalilavistara (p. 248) mentions 'Hasturata' ascetics. 30 Aca cu p 169. 81 11 9 81 Nitya 3, pp 39 ff 88 Aoa. cu p. 457.

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 205 Vaubhakkhi94_They lived by inhaling air only Seralabhakkhi85-They lived by eating moss Other hermits lived on roots, bulbous roots, peels, leaves, flowers and seeds, some on rotten roots, bulbous roots, skin, leaves, flowers and fruits , 80 their body became rough due to constant bathing and they practised the pancaggi penance These Tarosas followed the rules of the Vanaprastha a szama Likc other ascetics the Tarasas also moved in a body. We hear of three hermits named Kodinna, Dinna and Scvali, who were followed by a body of five hundred disciples each They lived on roots, bulbs, decayed lcaves and moss; they set out to pay a visit to Atthavaya 87 (4) THE GERUYA OR PARIVRAJAKA SIMANAS The Parivajakas or the wanderers were great teachers of the Biahmanic lore and were greatly respected throughout the country It is stated in the Vosistha Dharmasutra that a Parizrajaka should shave his hcad, clothe himself with one piccc of cloth or skin or cover his body with grass pulled off by cows or he should sleep on bare ground.88 Thcy maintained their regular monasteries (arasaha) and they wandered about in a body with the object of engaging themselves in conversational discussions on matters of ethics, philosophy and various other topics of public interest They allowed cven women to cnter tlicir older. The Orat, 289 gives the following description of the wandering mendicants They were versed in the four Vedas, Itihasa, Nigghantu, six Vedangas and six Upangas noted already They preached the doctrine of cliarity (danadhamma), purity (soadhainma) and that of bathing at holy places (titthabhiseya) According to them whatever was impurc became purc by applying mud and washing with water They believed that they were pure themselves and by taking bath they would attain heaven They never travelled in a cart or a litici, nccr cntaird a lakco a iver for bathing, never rode on a horse ou an elephant, nevci visited the performance of a dancer or a burd, never trampled upon or unbbed the green vegetables (haruana), never indulged in tall.s regarding womer, food, country, king and thicves, never kcpi any costly pots except a bottlegourd, wooden or an caithen pot, never put on garments of various colours except one pair dyed with rcd-clay dhimalla), never worc any ornaments except one copper ring (pavillaya), never worc any garland except a pair of flower carrings, never besmeared their body with any fragrant substance cxcept the clay of the Ganges, and thcy took only onc Magadha prastha (a mcasuic used in Magadha) filtered paripuya) water for drinking purposes 84 The Ramayana, III, 11 13 mentions Mandlakarni a hermit, who lived on air; also Mahabharata (I 96 42) 86 Cf Lalutatzstara, P 218 80 Cf the ascetic piactices in the Digha I pp 106 f 97 Hari T, 10, 151a $ 10 6-11, ako sce Malalaschara, op cil Vol II, p 159 f, Alalatha XII 190,3. 80 Su 38, p. 172.

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206 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Jain Texts describe some prominent wandering mendicants and nuns who seem to have exercised considerable influence on the public. We hear of Aijakhanda of Kaccayana gotta, who was putting up in Savatthi. Once he took his ritualistic paraphernalia viz., triple staves, water pot (kundi), rosary (kancaniya), earthen bowl (karodiya), seat (bhisiya), sweeping duster (Kesariyd), t'eapoy (channaliya), hook (ankusaya), ring (pavittaya) and the forearm ornament (kalacika) and putting on an umbrella and wearing shoes and dyed robes proceeded to pay a visit to Mahavira." Suya was another wandering mendicant who was wellversed in the four Vedas, Satthitanta and the Samkhya system. He preached ten kinds of a mendicant's religion parivayagadhamma) based on purity When Suya arrived in the company of one thousand mendicants in Sogandhiya, people set out to pay him reverence with great enthusiasm 51 Then the Ovoiya describes the mendicant Ammada and his seven disciples. It is said that Ammada and his disciples did not pay respect to any other deity except the Arhat and they attained heaven after death Ammada sojourned in Kampillapura and he received alms from hundred houses (gharasaya). He observed the chatthamachattha fast with his alms stretched and his face turned towards the sun. He never accepted food which was prepared for him or brought for him or set aside for him or cooked for him ; neither he was allowed to eat food, meant for faminestricken persons, for rich persons, or roots, bulbs, fruits, seeds and green vegetables Once the seven disciples of Ammada were travelling from Kampillapura to Purimatala in summer; they arrived in a dense forest and felt extremely thirsty They did not get water to drink and so sctting aside their ritualistic paraphernalia they went to the sand of the Ganges and by giving up food and drink submitted to paovagamana. Puggala is mentioned as another mendicant who sojourned in 13 Alabhiya We have already referred to the nun Cokkha who was wandering about in the company of other nuns in Mithila Besides, other parivrajakas are mentioned 4. Caraka96_ It is said that they begged alms while moving in company (dhativahaka) and they moved on while eating. They accepted cleansed (dhovita) alms and put on a lion-cloth (kaccho taka). It is said that these mendicants were the direct descendants (sunu) of Kapilamuni. These mendicants got up in the morning and swept the shrines of Skanda and 90 Bhag 2.1. 01 Naya 5, p 73 ff 92 Su. 39f Ambattha, a learned Brahmin is referred to in the Digha I, nr 87 ft 03 Bhag. 11 12 04 Ann Si 20, Niya Ti 15 06 Caraka u mentioned in the Bihadaranyala upant ad where it clenotce a wandlung student (Vedic Index J, P 256). 06 Panpa Ti II, 20 p 406; also cf. Aca cu p. 205.

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 207 other deities, anointed them and buint incense in the temple 7 The Vyavahara Bhasya records religious discussion bctucen a Carako and the Ksullahas98 Curika-They picked up lags from the road ude,' or accoruing to another interpretation their religious requisites were made of cloth Cammakhandia--They put on a dress of hide oi their cligious requisites were made of hide Bhikkahunda- They would cat nothing cicept what had been obtained by alms and would not take cow-milk etc, they are considered as identical with the Buddhist monks Panduranga or Panlara ya-Ihey bcsmedied their body with ashes, they were Saiva mendicants According to the Nisitha 1urm,100 however, the disciples of Gosila ucis called Panda,abhikkhu The 1n Oyadvara curni identifies them with the Sasa ahkha 321 masha) Bnih khus O Then they will uthci Parec, a, asi Sanhha-They followed the Sumkhyustom 702-The followed the Yogi siyun kaula kopilo u stru Jord the followed the theastic Simkha systen Bhina The Here the descple I Blogu Hamsallum This und u inount in cuves, roads, hcimitugrs, shuines and gardens and enteied a village only to beg Paramahamsa 103-- They lived on flicrbanks, the confluence of streams, and discarded clothrs before tlicy died Bahudaga 03_Thcs lived one night in a village and fivc nights in a town Kudirvas a103 -They lived in their own house and considered getting victory ovei giced illusion and cgotiin as their goal Kanhapanicy aga-They worshipped thc Niidana 104 () III IVIY 1 SIVAVIS The order of the livihas is of oldei standing than that of Gos la him. self, who is considered as the third leader of the sect 105 It is cvidcnt from the Bhagavalilot that the history of the hirikas commenced one hundied 87 Ava TIP 87 98 2, 23a 09 The Digha I, p 166 also nientions such ascetics (/ whulu ) p 865, also mentioned in the com of the Dhaminat di (IV, P 8) 101 P 12 10" 0 a 35, p 172 108 Also Haribhadra Saddarsanasarruccaya p 81 T 19" Bombay, mcnliound in the Hindu rcligion as well, see R ligi n of the Hindu , Vol I 231 f by II II Wilson, London 1962 104 Kan lu (ou Kunn) naakancu I nba 1 Pusat 1 (uso mui tioned in the Therigalha (116), A1 thal ha I 114 kuldin is 11 (also in the honhadt ay ana 7 ilaha IV PP, 83 87, Slal lh, I ll 45 Dunguild ud V iva are mentioned as Brinmanical i vendicants (0 36 p 172) Then Sulai Sal 17 (or Masihir 1) Nigga Phaggu, Vidhi Rayai y 7 Rama and Bila were the hhuttivi menca ints (ibid) 105 Majhamu I, pp 324, 238 roi a treatment of the subject sec Dr Barua The Anculas, also Pre-Buddhist Indian Philos 11, 297 318 by the the samc author, also Law, Historical Gleanings pp 37T Maulana 1, PP. Lidian Philos l' ,IP 100 13

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208 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA and seventeen years before Gosala. It is stated that Gosala lived twenty two years in the body of Enejjaga, twenty one in that of Mallarama, twenty in that of Mandiya, nineteen in that of Roha, eighteen in that of Bharaddaja, and seventeen in that of Ajjuna Goyamaputta. Gosala was well-versed in the eightfold Mahanimitias which he learn. ed from the six Disacara ascetics. It seems that other Ajiurka Samanus also were adepts in this science, and so we are told that Aija Kalaya, a gical Jain saint, learned this science from them.207 Another characteristic of the Azivika Sramanas was that they practised severe penance. The Thananga108 mentions four kinds of austenitics practised by them such as severe austerities, fierce austerities, abstention from ghee and other delicacies and indifference to pleasant and unpleasant food. The Ovalya109 describes the following classes of the Airyas those who begged food at every second house, third house, fourth house, sixth house, seventh house, those who accepted lotus-stalk only those who begged in every house, those who did not beg if there was a flash of lightning, and those who practised penance by entering big carthen vessels (uttryasamana). The Azivika Siamanas lived alonc, used cold water, lived on seeds, accepted things prepared for them, had intcicule with women, 110 and wandered about naked (nagnyadhani nam) 1 practichee and other deli describes the toond house, th 'THU LAY FOLLOWERS OF THE AJIVIYAS The names of the twelve adherents of the Apivika faith aie gniends follows: Tala, Talapalamba, Uvviha, Samviha, Udaya, Namudaya, Nammudaya, Anuvalaya, Sankhayalaya and Kayaraya They considcicd Arhat Gosala as their God, were devoted to their parents, abstained from five kinds of fruits viz, umbara, vada, boia, satara and pilarkhu, gaic up eating roots, bulbous roots, onions and maintained themselves by trade which did not involve killing and by means of uncastrated bulls Thcy did not indulge in the fifteen occupations mentioned above 112 Ihc potter Saddalaputta is and his wife Halahala are mentioned as other lay followers of the Ajivikas Savitthi and Polasapura seem to be the centres of activities. of the Ajivikas where an Aziviya-hall is mentioned." DOCTRINES From the story of Saddalaputta we learn that according to the loc. trine of Gosala Mankhaliputta, there is no such thing as cxcrtion or labour 111 RO 107 Pancakalpa curni, after S B. 11, p 260 108 4 309, of Nanguttha Falaka (I, No. 144), p 493. 109 Su 41, p. 196 110 Ibid 11 6 7f our Bhag Til 2 p 87. Makkhal. Cosala is enumcrated as one of the six teachers of others being Purana Kassapa, Ajuta Kesakambli, Pakudhakaccayana, Sanjaya Bclatibipulta and Natapulta, see Digha I, p 48ff See supra, P 106 118 Ura 7. 114 Ibid.

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209 or power of vigour or human strength, but that all things are caused by destiny which is unalterably fixed 115 The Suvagadanga iefers to the doctrine of myatuada, according to which pleasure and pain are not caused by the souls themselves, not by others, but the individual souls expenonce them, it is the lot assigned to them by destiny 116 RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS GOSALA AND HIS ASSOCIATION WITH MAHIVIRA - not The Bhagavati gives the following details of the life of Gosala Gosala Mankhaliputta was born in the settlement Saravana in the cow-shed of a Brahm ira Gosala's father was called mankhali because he was a mankha or mendicant who went about begging alms by showing a picture which he carried in his hand Once he came to Saravana arr look refuge during the uny cason in the cow shed where his wife bor him a son Since the child wy born in a cow shed sala) hewn called by the name of Gosala Gosala grew up and having learnt the profe- 10n of a mankha, went about begging Once he atved m Riyagiha and put up in a weaver's shed (tantusala) in Naland About that time Mahavir also was putting up there In the course of lns stay there, Gosila observed extraordinary respect being paid to Mahavia and requested him to make him his disciple Once they were travelling together from Siddhatthagama to Kummagama, on their way they passed a large sesame plant On seeing it Gosala asked Mahavira whether the plant would peush or The latter replied that the plant would perish, and the seeds would form in vessels Later on, however, this prophecy of Mahavia came to be true In the meantime, Mahavna and Gosala passed on to Kummagama where they met the ascetic Vesty ayana who was sitting with upraised arms and upturned face in the glaic of the sun while his body was swarming with lice Gosila teased lum, wh cupones is in attempted to strike Gosala with his magic powe, known as tegolessa, but Mahavila interposed his own magic and s uved Gosalu Then Mihovna explained Gosala the course to obtain the magic power Shortly afterwards Mahavira and Gosala ieturned to Siddh tthe g im and passed the same sesame plant. At this time there arose a dificience of opinion with 1cg ud to the plant and Gosala separated from Mahivia Gos la followed the course of asceticism, and after six months acquired the magic powers He then professed himself as a Jina, and bec ime the head of a sect called the Ajivyas. Their chief centie was Savatthi where lived the woman H Lahala, potter by caste, a lay disciple of the hiyas Once Gos la was staying in her shop in the twenty fourth year of his arcetic life when the Disacaras came to visit him At this time Mohivna also w is staying in Savitthi, 115 Ibid 6, p 44 cl the Dila, I p 3 where it was stated that ceading to Ces the is 10 cause for the dcpi way of cings, they lecome fure with outre cher cause Nothing depends on human foit for there is no such thing as owe o creigy or human exertion or human strength Ivery thing that thinks or every thing that lives destitute of power of energy Then varving conditions are due to fate then muonments and then own natue 2. 2-3 118

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210 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA and he related the above account of Gosala's life and denied his claim to Jinahood. When Gosala heard this he was greatly annoyed He called Ananda, a disciple of Mahavira and told him that, if his teacher cvcr came in his way, he would destroy him by his magic power Ananda went to Mahavira and told him what Gosala had said. Mahavira admitted Gosala's power, but added that it could have no effect on an Arhat, because the magic powers of the latter were still greater He further told Ananda to forbid his followers to hold any intercourse with the herctical Gosala. In the meantime Gosala with his followers went to Vahavila and said that his pupil, Gosala Mankhaliputta, is long since dead, while he was really Udayi Kundiyayaniya He then proceeded to explain m detail his theories and enumerated his own seven births. In rcply Mailvira told him that he acted like a thief imagining that he could not be recognised. Gosala now getting angry, hegan to abuse Mahavia and destroyed hus two disciples by means of his magic power Nou God shot forth his magic power of destruction against Mahavit., au declined that he would die of bilious fever within six months But Mahayila replied that he would yet live sixteen years longer, while on thc contrary, Gosala's magic power would recoil on him and that he would peush or bilious fever within seven days. The rumour of this disputc spread through the town and there was much discussion ainong the pcoplc as to whose threat would prove true Now Mahavira told his ascctics that they might go to Gosala and woriy him with questions and discussions Cosala returned to Halahala's shop, where in the delirium of fever, hcgali chimself up to drinking, singing, dancing, soliciting Halahali and spinkling himself with cool muddy water. On this Mahavi) a look occasion 10 explain his followers that the magic power discharged by Gosalat was powerful enough to cause the destruction of the people of the exteen traditional janapadas. At this time a layman of the Ajiuiya sect, happened to go to visit Mankhaliputta, but observing him in his delirious statc lic felt ashamed and wanted to retire quictly, but the theras about Markhallputta called him to stay Later on feeling certain of his death Mankhaliputta instructed his theras to bury him after his death with every mark of honour and to proclaim publicly that with him the last Ti, thanhana had passed away But, as the Jain canons would make us believe, at the last moment, overwhelmed by the sense of his evil deeds, he declared that Mahavira alonc was the true Jina and that Mankhali himself was a wicked man, and that his Theras should bury him with cvcry mark or dishonour and publicly proclaim his shame Gosala died and was born as a dera in the heaven. It is said that in course of time he would attain salvation 117 AJIVIKA AN IMPORTANT SECT It seems from the Jain and Buddhist records that the sect of the Arizrkas was an important sect and the Ajivikas exercised considerablc m 117 Rhag, 16, Dr. Hoernle's appendix to Uvasagadasao.

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 211 fluence in Indian society 118 The contents of the Ditthaya in thc Vand 119 mention the eighty cight Sulias out of which twenty twu stil said to have followed the ti adition of the Ajucikas and twenty two those of the Terasiyas, who were the disciples of Gosala according to Abhayadev a 120 There is no wondei if Vinhua ncc influenced by Gosala's doctrines Unfortunately, no authoritative statements recording the tencts of the Azivikas have come forth so far, for which we have to dcpend solely on the Jain and Buddhist records I he order of the Archas 1) thuice mentioned in the edicts of hing Isoha whose graudson Dasaratha gave them some cave dwellings at tlir Igaljuni and Bd. abar hills Ihen Varahamihaia (about 550 A D) mcutions this scct as one of the scien sects of his time In the Nisitha curni Sth rentury) as pointed out above, the Pandiarabhihkhus are identified with the disciples of Gos la Silanka (876 A D ) identifies the Ajivikas with the Digamhanas, both being the followers of 2 Gosala, and Bhattotpala thic commcntitoi of the Bihajutaka identified them with the Ekadandin 1 3 OTHER SCHOOLS AND SLCIS II 1011 TOUR GRI II SCHOOLS The Suyagada, ga descnbcs the fou heretical cccds of the time of Mahavira, which aic Kujan (Kua ida), lkuyam thrijaada), Annanam (Ajnanarada) and Vinizam (11 asaradn)13) 118 Buddha considcied Vikhhali 75 the most dangerous cf the livietical teachers (ingattara 133) 10 Su 57 190 Sama 12 22 P 317 T wil, cuciding the hill as Ira ( p 2252) the Tera Tyas were the descendance Nibigin 131 Cf Jacobi Br'YI D i ful cugid nulus ferm dn pruit of the ancients cice of Jainism and Mahav might have borowed them from the Icelahas on 11 granthas tlic followers of G u with whon hic is 11 to have lived for at Prof Jacobi has also pointed illic emblances between the duct inc or Jains and that of Gosali (1) both lica in tollcus sillning bangs possess life (2) both hue the di ision of minils oncm ) the sense uh having no cost two scUSC) etc (3) both b lice in the d ining of sile) (ibil p ) Suja 11133 halyan jild SBVP- 1) Indi l us als nulis p239f rhy sect is also incntioned in the Suth India inscup in 1 Rajt thu Culling of the 13th century of the Wikim (11 But this si mistih i his inscription is meant loi the Digambara Jains in I not for the 11 the lhe sect of the chu was no more in rxistence during this period and becaust the sathus of thu 11 das ind thc Dimbara both went about haled one was conveniently conficd with the other (ibid). 14 121

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212 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA KRIYAVADA Kriya denotes the existence of soul (jiva) and those who admit the existence of soul are called Kriya adias. 195 It is stated that one who knows the tortures of beings below in hell, one who knows the influx of sin and its stoppage, one who knows misery and its annihilation is entitled to expound the kriyavada.126 Kryarada comprised one hundicd and eighty schools 137 AKRIYATADA The Akriyavadins deny the existence of the soul etc , for according to them everty thing is of a momentary existence and a state conies to an end the moment it comes into existence, and therefore it can not have any kriya. They are identified with the Buddhists, who hold the doctrinc of ksanikadada.198 Akriyatadins were also called Viruddhas, since they held the doctrines opposite to other heretics.7% 9 4kriyatida, it is said, somprised eighty four schools 130 AJNWAVIDA The Incinaclins deny the neccssity of importance of Lugu ltdye tu attain salvation, since there is assertion of contradictory statements in it 181 It comprised sixty seven schools 133 135 Ibid 1 12, p 2208 298 Thud, 1.12.0223a Thus definition of kita ada is applied to Jains thenckes H ever, it may be noted that according to Silanha (Sia Ti p. 218a), Anaalis kell that action (hriya) alone leads to liberation even though it be unaccompanied by rich knowledge and right faith ; also cf. Ulara Ti 18 p 3311 cf also Ingutana 1 pp. 180-181 wheie Malavira is represented as an exponent of the dortune of five all activity (irralada) 121 loud II 2 40. There are nine categories id, ajia a rara, bandha. ai un i tu moka, punya and papa Each of them may be regarded as watch and r ule nzlya and antiju with regard to kula, Iszara alma. nijari and s.abhata Thus by niult phying 9 x 2 x 3 x 5 we have one hundred and eighty possible schonis of Anni idan (Suya Ti 1.12, p 2n8a) 119 Suya 13.2-8 The Tha (8 607) gives the eight divisions of the dona de La (phonists), Anegadat (pluralists), Miyaca (extensionists), Vimmiyati: (camogonst) Samuccheduz ada (anmhilationists), Vipazar (eternalists). and Ya Santa Parali (matenalists), cf the same method of classification in the Brahmajala sutta I the Digha. (Barua Pre-Buddhist Inutian Philosophy, p 197). In Buddhist works Palu dhakaccayana's doctrue is also called churrada (Lan, Historical Glem P 33) 129 Eny Su. 20, Vayi. Ti 15 p 194a, Oza 38 p. 169. 180 Leaving out punya and papa take the seven categones. Cach of them niz hu li gorde Satana (subjecue) and paratah (objetivc) with regard to kala iscra it slabhata and adricchalah (cf Sietastalara up 1 2). Thus by mulurling T i t! harc aghty four Livisions (Suya T71.13 p 209). 1:1 Suya. 1, 12. There are nine categones each one of which may be regarded as sut, asa' safzal ataktaya, sada, aktarja, daadatakta ya and sadasadar akrat ya, which come to chy to these may be added sal atat vad al and a. ahtaa which gives us siit stsenschools (Shaya. Ti 1. 12, P 9)

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS VINAY AVADA They are also called as Vainayikas or Avuddhas 133 They do not accept external rules of ceremony,but uphold the supremacy of reverence as the cardinal virtue leading to perfection 131 The upholders of this faith paid equal reverence to god, king, monk, elephant, horse, cow, buffalo, goat, jackal, crow, crane, crocodile and others 135 By paying reverence to god or master, ascetic, man, and aged persons, inferiors, mother or father by body, mind, speech and gifts, the school is divided into thirty two (8 x 4) divisions 136 We have already referred to Vesayana, a l'inayaradi who was practising panama pavajja with his arms uplifted when Mahavira and Gosala aurived in Kummagama 127 Mauryaputra Tamal of Tamalitti was another Vinayavadi, who had a wooden begging pot in which he received nice from every class of people He washed his rice twenty one times and by paying reverence to crows, dogs, candalas etc, practised the panama parajja Then purana is said to have practised the danama paraja He divided his alms into four parts one was given to travellers, another to crows and dogs, a thud to fish and tortoises and the remaining part he kept for himself 130 138 213 140 Then we had vauous other religious sects," which have been atranged here alphabetically Attukkosiya-They belonged to the class of ascetics who were proud of themselves.111 Bhuikammiya-They administered ashes to the people suffering from fever etc 142 Bhujo bhuyo houyakaraka-They administered auspicious baths for procuring good luck 143 They are also known as .Ibhiogias Candidovaga-They had hangers (sikkaka) as their ritualistic pai apher 311 nalia.145 193 Ova op cut, Vaya op cut 194 Suya 1 22 f 138 See infia 190 Suya Ti 1 12, p 209a 137 Ava Nu 494 1iruddhakas are mentioned in the Inguttara III, p 276 138 Bhag 31, cf the practice of Kalano a gvmuosophist of Taxila who left India with Alexander and buried himself alive on a funeral pile at Sousa He was so called because in saluting those he met he used the word hail (McCrindle The measion of 1lexander the Great p 386) 140 130 Bhag 3 2 For other schools in the Suyagadanga see Bechnidas's article in the Puralaltia (3 2 p 112 ) For other sages such as Vakkalaciri, Astadevala, Divavana, Parasara Narada, Bahuka, Matanga and others, see Isibhasta and buyagadanga (3 4 2 ) All these sages were highly honoured by the Jains and according to them they attained salvation 141 Ova Su 41, p 196 112 Ibid 143 Ibid 14 Bhag 1 2 115 Suva 7 90, p 154, Brh Bha 1 2850 Cahracaras are mentioned in the Bharats Nalynsastra 17 36, also cl Bandhasana (III 1, 5)

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214 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA After Dagasoyariya-An adherent of the Dagasogartyas, also known as Suvadi, who took bath after cleaning his body sixty four times if touched by anybody, is mentioned.148 Mention is made of a Dagasoyariya ascetic who was putting up in the Narayana kottha in Mathura breaking his three days fast he pretended to have taken cow-dung, he never uttered the word tthi (woman) and observed silence People werc so much attracted by his practices that they offered him robes, food and drink. According to Malayagiri, however, these ascetics were the followers of the Samkhya religion.148 Dhammacintaka-They studied religious books,140 and contemplated on the Dharmasa mhitas composed by Yajnavalkya and other sages and acted accordingly.160 Giyara-They devoted themselves to songs and the pleasures of love. Goam 215 They carned a living by making a young bull painted and decorated with cowrics in his neck, performing tricks of tour hing feet etc, 153 and created amusement for the pcople 154 These ascetics 155 lived on rice Govvara-They behaved like a cow and in order to support then bovine character they followed a cow wherever it went, grazed, drank water, returned home and slept They lived only on grass and leaves 1 Kammarabhikkhu-They led a procession with idols (devadronivahaha)? Kucciya-They grew beard and moustaches." Paraparivarya-They spoke ill of other ascetics 159 1 i 168 Pindolaga-They remained very dirty and their body which was an abode of lice emitted a foul smell 180 A pindolaga is said to have crushed himself under a rock on the mountain Vebhara 161 Sasarakkha-They were adepts in casting spells etc, and stored dust for the rainy season 162 They moved about naked, and used their hollow of hands as alms bowl 163 148 Aca cu p 21 147 Ibid p 163 Pinda Nir Ti. 314 148 149 Ova Su 38, p 168 150 Anu Su 20, p 21a 151 Ova 38, p 171, Panna II, 20, p 405. 152 Gotamakas are mentioned in the Anguttara, III, p 276. 153 Such bulls are even today common sight in Maharastra. 154 Ova Su 38, p 168 Anu op cit 155 Nava 13, p 194a 156 Ova op. cit, Naya op cit, Anu. op cit, The Maghima, I, p 357 1 and its commiciitary also refer to Govatika ascetics, also see Lalitat.tara (p. 218) 157 Brh Bha 3 4321 158 Brh Bha 1 2822, ogha Nir 83. According to Pt Nathuram Premi the Kurcaka monks belonged to the Digambara sect (Anekanta, Aug -Sept, 1914) 159 Ova. su 41, p 196, in the Bhag (1 2) they are also spoken as Kibbisyar 180 Suya cu p 144 161 Uttara cu. p 138 A pindolaga was highly respected and famous member of the Buddhist order (Matanga Jataha, IV, No 497), p 375, also the cum on the Sutta Nipata II, 514 ff. Brh Bha 1 2819, 3 4252. 109 168 See supra, p. 204

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215 Vanimaga-They were greedy of food and begged alms by cxhibiting themselves to the devotees of Sakya etc 164 They put themselves in a pitiable state and in order to divert the attention of the donors spoke pleasing words, 165 RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS Varibhadraka-They lived on water or moss and engaged themselves in bathing and washing their feet 16 Varikhala-They washed their pot with mud twelve times Then various other classes of ascetics are mentioned is Some believed in abstention from acids, salt, garlic, onions, young camel's milk, beef and liquors as the path of perfection 189 Some lived in woods, huts, near the villages, practised secret 11tes and never abstained from killing living beings. They declared "I am not to be punished, tormented or deprived of life because I am a Brahmana, Sudis only must be put to such tates because they are mean and low *170 Then there were you nuns such as canka, pannaphi, kapalika ticiannika bhazerai und the lit they moved in the county of Sindhu in luge numbers' POPULAR DEITIES III Religion in its essence is based more on intuition and emotion than a rational attitude of mind It is with the help of religion that man tried to explain natural forces and phenomena of the universe by imagining the existence of ever present agencies which, he thought, controlled the cosmic system Thus came into being the workshop of various gods and goddesses and ancestral spirits which were supposed to be the controllers of the universe The worship of various dentics in India is quite ancient 172 Jain texts mention the festivities (maha) in honour of (1) Inda, (2) Khanda, (3) Rudda, (4) Mukunda, (5) Swa, (6) Vesamana, (7) Naga, (8) Jakkha, (9) Bhuy, (10) Apa and (11) Kottakery 178 We shall deal with them one by one 104 Pinda Vir 444 f Tha T 5 154 al o cu 13 p 6 Da C1 I 19 108 Suya Nr 7 90 p 151 185 187 Brh Bha 1 1735 188 Bloomfield describes asc ucs who practised atrocities professo who were smitten by love, who wcze giredy gluonous, or otherwis VICIOs and who shained asceticis (7 405 Vol 44 pp 202-42) 169 Su 1 7 13 I and com Mahal odhi Jataka 171 Brh Bha 47441 17 There we mnges of gods and goddesses in tle days of Pin which were used for the pup s of making a living (Gopinath Itement of Hindi Iconography, Introduction) 178 Naya 8, p 100, Bhas 3 i The Lalitaristara (p 120) mentions the images of Siva, Shanda, Narayana, Kubera Candia Surva, Vaistavana, Sakra, Brahma and Lokapala. 170 Ibid, II 2 28 cf also ft alt Jata'a (II No 246) p 2021 (No 528) P 240

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216 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA (1) INDAMAIA The Indra is a vedic god of great antiquity and is the chief of all other gods He is famous for intemperence and adultery,174 In the Kalpasutra Indra enjoys divine pleasures in the heaven in company of various gods, eight chief queens, three assemblies, seven armics, seven commanders-in-chief, 176 and the body-guards (ayarakkha) 170 Indramaha was most prominent among all other mahas in ancient days 177 The Nifilha curn: 178 refers to the four great festivals (mahamaha), viz, Indamaha, Khandamaha, Jakkhamaha and Bhuyamaha, which were celcbrated on the full-moon days (punnima) of asadhao, asoya, katlia and cetta months successively when people passed their time in eating, drinking, dancing, singing, and visiting friends The festival of Indra was celebrated with great pomp) The Ullanidhyayana commentary refers to the celebration of this fiosuwied ly hum Dummuha in Kampillapura. The banner of India Indakeu) 80 117 raised amidst loud and auspicious cries, which was flagged with white banncts adorned with a number of little bells, covered wth beautiful wreaths and garlands, decorated with a string of jewels and lecked with pendent mass of various fruits Then the dancing girls performed their dance, poetic compositions were sung, people danced, wonderful feats were shown by jugglers, betals were served, water mixed with camplior and saffron was sprinkled, large gifts were given and drums wcre sounded, and thus the seven days were passed in great rejoicing and revelry Thien approached the full-moon day when the king worshipped the bannei of Indra with great pomp and cercmony with flowers, garments,"1 ctc 1.6 Se lopkins, Epic Mythology, p 135, d Brh Bha (1 1850-1859) where Indra secured the wife of sage Udanka, who cursed him and as a result of which Indra bu amc th guilty of murder of a Brahmana (bambhavaj jha) Indra went to Kuruksetra but the bambhavagha followed him there Later on, the gods caine down from heaven divided the bambhavangha into four parts, namely menstruation of women, passing urine in water, drinking wine of a Brahmana and seduction of the wife of a cage and took him to the heaven For the legend of Udanka see Mahab'a land 2041 175 Harincgam:si was one of the commander-in-chic rattaniyahiai) of the ideal infantry of Indra, who played an important part in the conception and birih legend of Mahavira (Kalpa su 2 20) This deity is also mentioned in the Antagada (p 12) and is connected with the procreation of children, 176 1 13 177 According to a Jain legend, Bharata was the first founder of this festival IL is said that Indra gave Bharala his finger decked with ornaments with which thc latter cclebrated the eight days festivals in honour of Indra (Ava cu p 213), cf aku Tophins op cit,p 125 Indramaha is also mentioned by Bhasa (Pusalkar, Bhasa, a study ch XIX 440 I), also thc Kathisaritsagara (Vol VIII, pp 144-63), Mahabharata (1,61 33) also see Dr Vasudeva S Agrawala's article in the K 1 Rangasuami Aurangai comment tron Vol p 480 f 178 19, p 1174. 179 In Lada, however, Indramaha was celebrated on the full-moon day of sinn. ( sitha cu ibid) According to the Ramayana (IV 16 36), it was celebrated on the full-nuoun day of asuin in the country of Gauda. This festival was celebrated when rais wa over and the roads were fit for war on the new-moon's day. (Hopkins, op at p 1231) 180 Indalatth is also mentioned in the Naya 1, p 25, Bhag 6. ako Alahabha VII 49 12, the image of Inda (Indapa/ima) is mentioncd with a thunderbolt in land (Dharmmapada A, I, p 280) 181 8, p. 136. - --- - -

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS the deities Naga Bhuya, Jakkha, Inda, Khanda, Rudda, Sua and Vesamana every caturdasi, astami, amavasa and purnima as a result of which she gave birth to a son, who was called Dev adinna (given by gods) 218 The Jakkhas are also said to have cured diseases The Pinda Nyhli icfers to the shrine of Manibhadra Jakkha which lay outside the town of Samilla in a garden and was furnished with an assembly-hall sahta) We are told that once small-pox broke out in the town and people played to the Jakkha In course of time the trouble subsided and the citizens besmeared the hall with cow-dung every astami and other days 19 The Jahkhas were also believed to detect the unchastity of women 220 The Jahhl as Punnabhadda and Manibhadda seem to be more popular to them offerings of food (miramipinda) were made 221 So far the beneficial aspect of the Jahhhas 22 has been traced but they could also be evilly disposed They caused trouble to the people and often were satisfied after killing them We hear of Sulipani Jakkha who used to kill persons who stayed in his shine It is said that his shine was built on the bones of the dead bodies 223 Surappiva was another Jakkha who was painted every year and after the painting was over, the person who painted him was killed by the deity 224 A Jahhha is mentioned who was satisfied after feeding the Jain sadhus at night and thus violating their vows." 225 Then obscs-on by spuits Jakkhaggaha) 220 played an important part in the life of the people We have alcady refciied to the garland-maker Ajjunava, who obsessed by the Jakhha, killed six gangsters and his own wife with the ton mace which he held in his hand 27 The Jain monks and the nuns to were obsessed by the Jakhhas and weic ticated by exorcism (Bh Then the north and cast quarters were believed to be the heat places of the Jakkhas andapua was supposed to be the all of th 70930 Then m Golla a sickly person was not exposed on Jahlini os Another strange belief icgaiding the Jakkhas was that cy cnjoyed sexual intercourse with the guls The Ulleradynjara cum cfers to a certain Brahmana who got enamou.cd of his own daughter He sent a woman to her as a go-between, who explained her that it was customary in then family 2 14 229 to the fear of a tl 218 310 230 231 223 713 224 325 533 Naja 2, p 49 1 243 f 221 Das cu p 00, cf Kathasar utsagara, I, p 162 Nisi cu 11, p 709 For evil character of the 7akhlas in the Fatakas see Mchta's op cit p 324 Ara cu pp 272-4 Ibid p 87 f Brh Bha 1.443 [ The Jambu (p 120) 1elers to Indaggaha Dha uggaha klar daggaha Kumaraogaha, Jakhhaggaha and Bhurghe, also cf Carahe, cikitsitasthana ch 9 227 Anta 6 128 Brh Su 6 12 and its Bhaya also 5 5518-26, 5540-7 3 2494-7, 219 Ihd pi 456 f, also 4 4962-4 330 Aca cu P 331 381 Brh. Bha. 1 2380, Vise sacurm.

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222 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA to have a sexual union with the fakkhas. 382 We have already referred to the Ganditindugaa88 Jakkha, who is said to have had sexual intercourse with the princess Bhadda Then there were low types of the Jakkhas. The Adambara Jakkha, also known as Hiradikka Jakkha, and Ghantika Jakkha384 were believed to be the Jakkhas of the Matangas and the Dombas respectively. The shrine of the former was built on thc bones of human beings who had died recently 335 The Ghantika Jakkha was believed to whisper in the ear when questioned. 286 Like Jakkhas the Vanamantares or the Jakkhinis also played an important role in ancient Indian life The Vinamantari Salejja is said to have paid reverence to Mahavira, 237 whereas Katapatana gave him trouble ?38 Then the Guhagas are mentioned. There was a belief among the people that the Gupzhagas were residents of Kailasa and lived in this world in the form of dogs and hence dogs were to be treated with respect 239 It is said that the Gurghagas like the Devas neither touched the earth nor winked their eyes 240 Various feasts and festivals were celebrated in honour of the Jakkhas The pilgrimage to Bhandiravana, the abode of Bhandira Jakkh was a popular deity in Mathura 241 Kundalamentha was another dcity whose feast was celebratcd ncar Bharuyakaccha.249 Then the feasts wcic cclcbr.11ed in honour of the Vanamantara gods after complction of a new stc 13 and the drums werc heaten in their honour 244 SHRINES AND TEMPLES OF THE JAKKHAS (7.JKKHAI 17.1.) 1) The abode of a fakkha is often referred to as a cerya (Pali celiya) or ayatana in the Jain canons. In the Epics cartya was intimately associated with the place where Vedic sacrifice had been performed. Here somctimes cartya is no more than a sacred tree or a tree with an altar which is termed as resort of the Devas, raksas, Raksasas etc., and hence not to be injured in the Ramayana we come across words such as caityagiha, cartyaprasada and cautyavrksa. In the Yajnavalkya smrti, caityas serve the boundary limits of a village or a janapada. Kautilya refers to cartyas as houses of 238 233 291 375 33; in 238 P 89 Gandatindu tree is mentioned in the Gandalindu fataka (No 520), V, P 99 A rahsa with a bell round the neck is referred to in the Vinayavastu of the Mulasanastivada, p 12Gilgit Manuscripts, Vol 3, Pt 2, also Mahabha IX 1024 Aua, cu II, P 227 Vya Bha 7313, ha cu II, p 220, Bth Bha 2 1312 Ava cu p 294 Ibrd , 490, ct the Ayoghura Jataka (IV, No 510), p 491, also Ranayane, V 24 Nui cu 13, P 85 Ogh Nir P 150a, cf Hopkins op cit,p 147f, "The world of Gulyaka, was for those who died hy sword, not ignobly, but not bravely." Also see Kathasarit sagara, I, App Ava cu p 281 , the famous nyagrodha tree of Vrndavana was called Bahandira (Mahabharata, IL 53 8) Brh Bha ,3150. Ibid , 3 4769 Das. cu p 48, 241 343 344

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 223 gods and prominence is given here to the carlya worship 345 Its later meaning was explained by the commentatoi Abhay adet asuri a' an image of a deity or the shrine which was the abode of a ijannia + In the period when Jainism and Buddhism were in ascendency the word tezya was applied to the wholc sacied cnclosulc containing a garden grovc or park and a shrine 27 Mahavila, Buddha dad nany other religious ascetics are represented as halting or resting in these -huines Some of these shunes had definitely dichitectural value of a tcmplc cquipped with doors and hallet chear of a shinc id ulien' about the size of a man's hand and built of onc block of stone +48 The images were made of wood and some of the Jahhha iriages ucic equipped with iron mace as wc hanc secn in the case of Moggai pani There was chill (sabha) attached to the shine which was besmcaicd with con-duns as we have seen We hear of the Punnabhadda shiinc of Camp, which was decorated with umbiclla standards sanghaia bells, flags peacoch feather whisk (Lomahattha) and railing Gaildil, the inside lour was (Outed with cow-dung, walls were white-1 ashed, it boir palni impressions in icd gosisa or dardara sandal-wood, it was beautiful with candana h an and on the doors were crected to anos with candanaghato decorations lhc floor was sprinkled with perfumed water and garlands weic hung, and it was odoious with flowers of finc colours, holiguru hunduuhha and ti nukha; it was haunted by actors, danccis, 10pc-walkers, wrestlers, boters, jesteis, ballard-singers, story-telleis, polc-dancers picture-show men, pipcis, luteplayers, and minstiels Many people came to worship this shrine 24 ITULI Bhuto, il glitruuci US Filhluli RT! ( 11 troups all descubed as Icalul and ill-cutmz in Iuriin mithologi Bait is offered to them and a wisc man pay> 10vcicnce to them beloic going to bed Thicc types of Blulas ale nicntioned in the Epic thc indifferent, the hostile and the kind All the night-wandering demor.uc Bhulas 16 343 VR Dikslain, I H() pp 41011 Sept 1935 Count 1 milch as p Hopkins, Epic Mytholou PP 70 72 Bhag 1 Utthiani II. macunu tend the Merchant Sahne ol ? Sun icmpic (inaiadema) 11 dhanacu, tan ll \ 61) In Ph Bha (1 1774 Sl) cu tupes of cena ale mention (0) 1 (co mu foton o us ( 110) (2) auspicirur UL lan la curva () permanent ut Sa111) rd (1) o n la Bhatti cei The l'arc thayolika lp ' the conan the Ink thick lincs olni tud hike I And his cha da ind alati (1) Ile (une (mu (xx , 153) mention m alinis (ja i ale motion on the MahaDlarata (II 2101) Ilusu kas Terbes duke i to jab el Prince, Iol I p 197 CT In the Vragasuna (11) the Dupil 15 ce za is callol luipal isa ujana Litau TI 9 PI42 34) Ola Su? The A a cu (II p 162) nuntions the oldug of 'bal' to the Bhutas by queen Siva of Ujjemu

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224 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA belong to the hostile group.861 In Jain canons the term vanamanlara is commonly uscd for raksas and Raksasas. 963 Like Jakkhamaha, Bhuyamaha was also considered as one of the four great festivals and was celebrated on the full-moon day of the month of caitra as we have scen Dhiyaggala or the obsession by the evil spirit is mentioned Thc persons sullcung from the obsession of the evil spirits were treated by Bhuyavic, which prescribed soothing rites (santikamma) and offering of bali to dera, asuin, gandhavva, jakkha, rakkhasa and other deities. The persons cised in domonology (bhuyavarya) are referred to. There were dealers in antidotes and charmers (garudiya * bhoiya bhatta . catta) who knew the science of spirits or exorcism and by means of various ceremonies, enchantments and preservatives (iakkhamandala) cured253 thosc possesser The belief in ghosts in ancient days was so prevalent that the crcdulous people even thought it to be a marketable commodity The Brholhalpa Bhasya rcfers to a shop called kutty rana, 354 where everything ling of non-living was availablc It is said that thic were in such 1.0 Ujjeni during the reign of Candapajjoya Riyagilat ulso lud seek shops 265 The Prsicas are smaller dcmons associated with Bhutas Ticy w supposed to eat flesh and drink blood Thc description of a Pusia 15 given in the Nayadhammakaha.68 Thc Pisayas were supposed to haunt the cemeteries and people offered them bali on dark nights The nietlers were asked to visit cemeteries on dark nights and offer food to a Blula If they returned victorious they were appointed as king's wicstici (10) JJI AYD (1) KOILIKIRITA Ajja and Kottaki iya are two diffcrent forms of the goddess Duga," who is also called Candiya The Acalanga cuzni refers to the worship (riga) 271 Hon 234 233 Hopkins, op cit, p. 361 hire tests of recognising a Bhuta are mentioned as no shadow, it casinot stand rurnieric and it always speaks with a nazal twang (honaarutsagara I, App I) Ako see Rose, Tribes and cutes of Punjab and NW PUT Tol I pp 203 ff The Ullara (38 207) gives eight class of l'anamantasa guds v Pt aja Rhuja Jahl ha Rakkhasa, hinnara, Kimpurisa, Alahoruga and Grindharia The following cight sacird trees are dedicated to these deities, halamba, tulasi vata, kandahu csuha turpi ragi and tendiu (Tha 8 654) Uttara 771, p 5 iltara Ti 12, p 174, u Alu Ti (Han) p 394al For the fanciful meaning of the terin see Brhatkalpo Bhasya 3 4214, Ilu 11 11 12 Brh. Bha 3 4214-23 8p 99 Vya Bha 1 p 92a f , Ullara Ti. 3, p 74a In Indian mythology Durga 13 fond of drink and flesh and she is called Durgu bulouse she saves from durga or difficulty Her sign is a peacock's tail and she wcais diadem and snakes She has four aus and faces and carries bow, discus, noose and othai weapons As slayer she is Kantabhanasini and Mahtrarkprija (rejoicing in the bland of the dentons she slays)-Hopkins, op cit, P 224 357 255

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 217 Hemapura was anothei place where the festival of India was in vogue The Bihatkalpu Bhanya refers to Indat thina around which gathered thic five hundred girls of high fimili of the town with oblacions iali) flowers and inccnsc pots hi akauhuail in their hands, playing India lui then good luck sobhagya lolapu 15 mentioned as anothe1 centre of India festival 18 (-) him\D\1111 In Hindu mythology Skunda or kirlike an! Was the son of Sivi, and the god of wat He was the commander-in-chic of the aimy of gods in their war with 1 uaka, a ponei sul dcmon, and is icpiesented as riding a peacock 185 The futsal in honou of Iranda, as n has been stated, was cclebiated on thic sull-.110un day of iscia This festival was in vogue during the lilctime of Maharani Wc are told that when the Teacher reached Silathu well did OS of T'ande stihon out in a chanol i pros(45101" The Shink of a ful y la cloth cautio (IKIR 1o thur images med midt ol voll on ollut mielummin the shunes duri, muht" >> hUDI)111111 There all cluan kid lnduan mythology Ilc aicicpresented as companions of India, schiants of Sy aand of lus son and also as thc escort of l'ame who appears surrounded by them Thc shunc of Rualla (Ruddaghara), who was onsdacdagical det mulid cala) is mentioned along with those of ta (amundal icheca and Duvga 18J Ihc I yazahara Bhasya refers to the limpies (anatara) ol Ruddu Tilambara Jankla (Pana), and Val, which wou built ( 11 thc boncs of dead bodies of human beings 190 WVc ac told that like the images of K landa und Wuhunda, the images of Rudda also is mide ol wood !! (1) VCU DIVAHA In the Epic Baladia is rcpiesented as a just "ploughman, his weapon being the ploughshaic god called Ianoulin, His hcad is wieathcd 182 4 5] 53 183 Inta opis as the pic juing dets of Rohitha 18. The Vihabh 11 ) + ni NUOI Sumuhul also ste 11 ha ha, ) 18) Hopkins, op al p 227 ! 18 Trap 31 ) 187 BTh Bha 2 316 ) fl 132 I Inphins op cul p 171 for the de clopment of the idea of Rudi -Sna sec Blandat - hos Sar um etc, p 102 149 12 Hp 236 (MSS) 1) 7 313 191 Tacup 115

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218 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA with snakes and his standard is a palm with three heads. His palm-sign indicates his love of winc 193 The worship of the lukunda and the Vasudeva were prevalent during the life-time of Mahavira near Savatthi and Alabhiya. The images of Baladeva were equipped with a ploughishare (nangala) 193 (5) SIVAALAH4 104 Siza or Vlahe scara was the lord of Bhutas, burner of Rama and the father of Skanda in Indian mythology His chief deeds were to dink the world-destroying poison, destroy Daksa's sacrifice and receive the falling Ganges in his mattered hair A festival in his honour as mountamgod is held in the spring-month vai sakha Sna is also called I'mipat." According to a Jain legend, Siva or Mahe svara was the son of Sujettha, the daughter of Cetaka by mendicant Pedhala 196 Like the worship of Khanda and sukurdn the worship of Sro alonas in vogue during the life-time of Mahavira.197 The worship of Dhondria sava also came into being from this time.198 An image of Sua is referird to which was worshipped with leaves, flowers and guggulu bdellium, and was given a bath with the ichor of an elephant Igallodaya). (6) VESAMANAMAHA Vaistarana or kubera is the guardian of the north and the lord of all treasure in Indian mythology His floating palace is carried by Guthrakas 193 101 195 198 Hopkins, op. cat, P 212 Ala Nur 481 Certain your lingus hac lcun lound in the Indus salley winch-LO, Ulu il ullt .2a very p lai in those dans l'arylukkim lus pauri on Jon-Arvi Luara. Indo-Aryan" has shown that both the words langula (plough) and '952 ( WIN) are of Austiu-Asiatic origin ou tien origin and in then etymology thic mcan one and the saruc ilung The linga worship was ui an Aryan origin is clearl shrinn the opprobrius terms applied to the plallic vor slappers in Rigieda (Ire-1.10 in Indian Culture Atul K Sur the Calcutta Restau, Noy -Dec 1932 p 141 f) ali Rose, Tribes und castes of Punjab and Y W' Pruzince Vol I pp 260 11 Hopkins, op cit, pp 219-226 It is said that once the nun Sujettha was practising penance when Pelbala approached her and creating mist (dhumika) before her er es cohabited with her In cours i tim Sujettha bore Satvaki, who became versed in magical spells (113) The magical coll Maharohini made a hole in his forehead and entered his body Latei on this hole as transformed into a third eye After some time Satyaki killed his father because he had raped the royal virgin Sujettha Then Satyaki became an overlord of mag al spells (viacahha atti) and was called Malesara by Indra Mahesara did not like Brahmenas and so he violated the chasuty of hundreds of Brahmana girls Hc commutted adulte with all other queens of Paljoa excepting Siza Now Mahesara began to l. with Uma, a beautiful courtesan of Uueni. Once when he was sporting with her for "d killed by Pajjoya's servants When Yandisara, a friend of Mahesard can of this, he got very angry, and seized with that 27jas, in order 10 kill the citizens he he ded the sky with a slab of stone. Pajoya asked his pardon and nice then thr phals of Sua was placed in each and every city for worship (A cu II, p. 175 f). Hopkins op cit, p 226 dia ir 309 ja (u p 312, Brh Bha J 3928 Bth. Bha. Pi, 804. 197 108 139

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 219 where he sits clothed in jewels and surrounded by many women He wears bright ear-rings, is very wealthy has a heavenly seat and foot-stool and is refreshed by breezcs from Nandana and Alaka Nalini His city Alaka is situated on mount Kalasd and he is Oi Ci-lord ol laksas, Raksasas and Guhyukas 200 Wcaic told that Visamine was uic loud of the Taksas and guarded the northein ducction 201 (7) VIG AVVII '03 The general ablc of the divine scupents, according to Indian my thology, is below callth, where is found 5 su, thc Niiga of a thousand heads, who supports thc caith from bencath 203 According to a Jain lcgcnd. prince Bhagiraha, the grandson of Bharaha, was the first sjunder of Nagabali. It is stated that after the sons of Sagara wcrcput burnt to death by the Naga king, Bhagilaha went to draw the watci of thc Ganges from the neighbouring villages of Atthavaya Bhagiiaha worshipped the Nagas with bali, flowers etc, and since then thc Magabali came into vogur, 90" The worship ol Nizon Viajanna) is spccully mention in the north-cast of Sagcy in three lay a Niiga shune (Nipazharal with an image of a scopont "7 Iu Irsiyal ol Miyu Als jullii) Was iclubiated with great pomp and ccicmony by the qucen Paumivai lhe city was swept clean and was spinklcd ovci with Watci Then a flower-house (pupphamandava) was made near the shinc where a beautiful huge garland was suspended The queen took bath and in the company of her friends and relations proceeded to the shune Shc bathed in the lake and with full moist robe pluched thc locuses and with various flowers, fruits and the incense pot in her hand, entered the temple, where she cleaned 300 301 307 203 304 Hopkins op cit pp 112-1 IS 11 3, p 281 1 hel" a lack of people called Niras csicling upon thickvalid 1gion between Assam and Manipur, who are sud to hc unii cisall threaded for the dci aslations they commit upon the inhabitants of the plains, and it is posuble that the mythological Nagas may have had their origin in the cars pioduced by thy raialer ol the ancient mountainter, Hardy, Alannial of Bird Ihas p 15 London 1850 st 0 Rhus Dauds Buddust India, Pp 220 fr Itula Sui (lilla Rr Ice No Der 19 p 219 Dr Vogel's Indian Serpent I one ( 1 11) lot WOLS tlu Ollsconein of linnoiship Hopkins op cil pp 2329 I he fire-lihc ac l10, scubec toilu Ta ponon isci plisied by auous Brahmanic and Buddhist legends lou (xampl. accorcins to tie var illa 'a thic Taza Tahsaha by his fieri bite 1cduced a lot an itc to ashould thing I' m its hall on fire Cven the pool ol the Yamun is closeul cd 2 OTU 1st with a dens smolc caused by the poison-boin fire of the \ign hiliya (Di Togel / (11 ) Uttara 11 18 p 2311 Mathura is mentioned as 7 big centre of Na, Moslup ulen a ni mlect la a images have been recor cied Then nu Vitasta in hashnur is sud to Lc the abode of Naga Tahsaha (Dr Togel, op all, pp 41f, 229) Also sce Rose, Inles and carics of Panjab and i W Province, lol I pp 117 ff The Arthasastra (p273) mentions an image of a serpent with a boie-hole in it 705 208 207

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220 LL-E IN ANCIENT INDI the image with a brush (lomahatthaga), burnt incense and worshipped the dcity 208 Mention may be made of the worship of Parsia by Dhaidla endra, who belongs to the Nagakumira gods.200 (8) JAKKHAMAHA The worship of the Fakkhas was most common in ancient India and so every important city had its own shrine dedicated to the Fakkha 20 le are told that by practising self-restraint one is born among the luksa 1 and the raksas including the Deras, the Danavas, the Gandhanas anal the Kinnaras pay veneration to those who practise celibacy 212 Retri. ence is made to the Jakkha Ganditinduga of Varanasi, who guarded the great sage Matanga in the Tinduga garden (13 Bihelaga was J100H Jakkha who paid reverence to Lord Mahavira when the latter was (1) - grossed in meditation.934 The Nayadhammakaha speaks of another Jakkha of beneficent character, viz., Selaga This Jakkha had the appearance of a horse (asarupadkari) and on every catur dasi, astami, amiauci and purnamas helped people He is said to have saved the 110 merchants from the clutches of a cruel goddess and carried them on his back to Campa 315 The Jakkhas were believed to be the presiding deities of the expectint mother The Vizagasuya refers to Gangadatta who had no 1-10 She took plenty of flowers, clothes, scents, garlands, and ornaments and in the company of her friends and relatives visited the shrine of l'mbarudar Jakkha There she cleaned the image with a brush of peacock feathers sprinkled it with water, wiped it with woollen cloth 'pumhals, anri ulessed it nicely. Then she worshipped the Jakkha with flowers ctc. and pijlt the deity to bless her with a child. '16 Then we hear of Schlaista...) promised the Surambara Jakkha one hundied buifalositi blessed with a son 217 Bidda tras unothei woman in late 11 6 aya di p971. for the Buddhist concept of a lui D..119'ar) II, pp 67,5 1f: ako Hilinductap. 2i1f :59 de Mar. 335 Tip 385 This legend may be compared with the Dudh - Muchilinda, the serpent kang, sheltering Buddha against wind and rain ( op cit. pp 102-4, 12) Even now such derties or Jakshas are regarded as protectors of the il and are worshipped by men of all castes and creeds believing that the IV protects cach vallage from cpidemics of diseases (Dis! Ga.. of U T P ) The following thirteen Jaklhas are mentioned: Punnabhadda Manibliada $1.3. bhadda, Haritabhadda, Sumanobhadda, V'yalipatikabbadda, Subhadda Suri bhadda, Manusvavaksa Vanadhipau, Vanahara, Rupajakkha and Jakt hurt ( bhidha Rajendra Kora under Jakha') The first two fallhas according that Mahamarari, were brothers and were the presiding deities of Bralumai ari (1 hr Ce contents of the Maha by Dr Sylvain Levi, tr VS Agrawal, Jori LP Vol. XV, Pr. II) Manibhadra xs also mentioned in the Vlahabharata (II. i! 311 Uitlara Su 3 148 114 Ibid. 16. in 913 Ibid 12 and the com p. 173a. 214 Aia. Mir. 487 215 9, p. 197: of Talahassa Jataka (II. No 196) p 129, the ship-wrecked men are rest by a winged horse 7, p. 42 f; also cf. Hatthipala Jataka (IV, No. 509), p. 474. Ara.ca. II, p. 199. 910 116

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RELIGIOUS CONDITIONS 225 of Candiya with the sacrific of goats, buffaloc. and human beings to please the low type (appasattha) of god 48 Iccording to the Commentator the peaceful goddess Duigi is called 11 who cands like Kismindin The same goddess Durgad when rides on a bufalo called Kotial we? 33 p 61 160 I l les De IN MOSlippe liniat cous forms according to lie tragined agr When She Is Onshipped ns nu old babi sh is nown by the Dune ol Saa tio Cais Saias uul, cfaren cars Candi'a olc ght years, San Lha of nrc vcars Duga ur C2 of ten ycars God of thiten 'haicla i of situen, Iria (Gopinzin E of n di I 0 2001, P034 f) 261 128 , p luda

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CHAPTER VII MANNERS AND CUSTOMS MAGIC AND SUPERSTITIONS Jain monks and magical practices From the earliest ages magic and superstition occupied an important place in the social life in ancient India. Here we come across a number of magical formulas and spells to heal sickness, cxorcise demons and overpower enemies, love-charms, formula to encompass luck for women, to achieve victory in battles and to find out hidden treasures, etc Innumerable references to magical practices are preserved in the canonical literature of the Jains. The Vyjanurada Puura was one of the fourteen Putras of the Jain canon wherein various spells and charms were described According to the Bhagavati, Gosala was well-versed in eight divisions of Mahinmitta' and could foretell the profit and loss, happiness and soow and life and death of the people. It is stated in the Pamakalpa cum that the disciples ordained by AjjaKalaka never stuck to asceticism and so the latter went to the Ajivkas for the study of Nimitta as already stated Later on Ajja Kalaka gave a show of lus Nimitta in the presence of king axihana, who was very much pleased with him and wanted to offer hun ome ornaments which Kalaka refused to accept Then Bhadiabalu was a great Naimiitika and was versed in the science of spells (mantrauba, he composed the Upasargaharastotra and sent it to the sangha to aver trouble from a vyantara Ajja Khauda was another Jain saint who is described to be a master of charms. Thus we notice that the Jain monks practised charms and were versed in exorcism In time of emergency ile got alms by conjuring (japinda), employing incantations (manla (joga), and distributing roots and bulbs to tuck cure various diseases they 1 Sama i 14, p. 24a 2 The eightfold division - (1) bhoma (earthquake), (2) uppata (any portentous pheno menon boding calamity), (3) suvina (dreams), (4) antalikkha (various colours and forms of the sky resulting from some unnatural phenomenon), (5) angu (movements of limbs) (6) saia (sounding of the birds), (7) lakkhana (fortune-telling from marks of the body) and (8) vanjana (signs of distinction)-Tha, 8 808, cl L'itara (15-7) which refers to china (rending of clothes) sara bhoma antalikkha, sumine lahkhana dunda, atthurma anga, yara and sarajaya, Suya 12 9,.Ja Ti (Hai) p 660 Also ci Digha Jp " which menuons anga, nimitta, uppado, supinam, lakkhana and muhachinna, Las History of l'ali literature, I p 82 f, also Manu VI 50 3 See Supra, p 208, also S B. M, p 260 f Gaccha ur pp 93-96 5 Ava cu p 512, Nisi cu. (MSS) 10, p 101, aho cf Brh Bhu 1511tif mule 6 The Pinda, 500 refers to two ksullakas who by applying collyrium to the themselves invisible and enjoyed the royal food with king Candragupta 7 Padalitta siri is stated to have cured the headache of king Murunda Ap out 1.0 Pinda Nu, 497 f.

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MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 227 also employed various medicines for causing impregnation and miscarriages Sometimes when the Jam stius were wavlaid in a forest, they placated the silvan deity by means of hiyozuvga The Ozarra mentions the disciples 1 Jahavila who possessed various supernatural poners Soncured the clochesmrl tur luns i paricnt with their hand $ltimes, the pllgir of anothic in multilthen used as medicines to Luuc discase B. the of charms coullas-um an form at will icchi con risc through ara . N ould repeat the whole stanza by reciting the first gratci Nitre 10 their purch became as swecl as nullh' Sencrinitriu pengle d fuum , the country was beau! bitheaman: curli ... Juiste ! enlargement of gin alagutat i udi 14 (I ... , e ue', , , , zu' d''u ,ydd | n";I 1 , z ' ?_ '} 'z 'z z z turtt tr y ceptor male middle, which used the chius o la ubsided 11 During the tunc of Ichigou- los en 0 Chaving victory the monks einployed ranous chun cinc spells 12 There were books on magic Releierce las been made to u n ' ruch was an important work on this subject luas taled that the person cred in this work could generatc ei en animate objecu Sulun jcial stated to have created magical hc) es following the 1.7ictions are con in this work.13 The devices such as making a bufalo unconclous were also mentioned in fomnihyda' The group of luni, page and many is considcied as one of the thiee super human qualitics Sca, 'I lie ditlerence betti con ciri and manta is that the former is accomplished by riliun magical pr. tices and is presided over by cutam fimale dei such as Prullen etc, while the latter is accomplished just burcuit parlheres d'ind is picked over by a male deity, such as Hammam ir jogus a chain or magical incantation which produces camily alluiement (indication of thc enemy and cures diseases, 17 or it is defined - a magical power of using through air by anointing onc's lect's It is stated that the hulapali ol Bambhadiva possessed this lore and on slami, calidasi and othe: festival days, used to walk on the surface of river 19 Then lyja laua was accomplished in this lore and by rising in the sky he went fiom Puriya to Alulesari to 8 See Pinda Vir 497-511 Bth. Bha 1 3108 10 Khirasaialaduhi, si 13 p 52, also la cu pp 395 f 11 Brh Bha 4 3106-3113 13 See Uttara Ti 3, n 72 19 Also cf ari tu 1, 373, Bik Bhi 2 2081 14 Iva Bhu i 38 ako se Saja Ti,8, p 165a Punda Bha 44 , Prabhicahacarita. V. 113-127 Panlasz ana Muni is slated to be the author of Jonipahuda see Irch anta, July Sept.Oct 1939 15 Brh Bha 1 1237 16 Visi cu p 748, Brh Bha 1 1233; Ma Ti 1, p 7 17 Visi, cu, 748, 18 Brh. Bha. 1.1235, also Dadhi ahana Jataha (No. 186), II, p. 103. 10 Nisi, cu. 13, p 874,

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228 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA get flowers for the festival of the Pajjosavana.90 Vinhukumara was another saint who is stated to have made a flight from Gangamandira mountain to Gayapura. 21 The Brhatkalpa Bhasya describes various magical practices such as Koua, Bhui, Pasina, Pasinapasina and Nimitta, Koua constitutes | vinhavana, i e., giving auspicious bath at cemetery or cross-roads to procure good luck for women for protecting childrena : (2) homa, .e, offering oblation to the sacrificial fire for averting evil; (3) siapariraja, ic, incantation accompanied with the movements of head (com hands?), (+) kharadahana, i.e., throwing salt in fire for the cure of the diseases; 15 dhuda, i e., throwing incense in the fire ; (6) asarisavesaggahana,i.e., changing apparel, the man taking to the costume of a woman , (7) d'ai'dann, i.e., embracing the trees; (8) utthubhana, i.e., spitting with the sound thu thr for pacification of bad luck and (9) bandha, i.e., fastening a talisman. Bhukamma means besmearing the body with the consecrated ashes as a protective charm. Sometimes damp earth was applied or a thread was tied in place of ashes. The monks practised this chaim for protecting their residence, body and ritual paraphernalia against thieves etc. Bhuikamma is also referred to in the Avasyaka curni" where it is said that after performing this practice a protective amulet (rakkhapol lulya) was tied to a new born babe. In Pasina a question is asked to the deity who descended in a thumb nail, in the leavings left after eating kansara (a kind of sweet) etc., cloth, mirror, sword, water, wall or an ini In Pasinopasina the question is answered by the deity possessed of chums who appears in dreams; or the Ghantika yaksa, the family deity of Dombi, when asked a question, whispers in her ear, and she refers it to others Nimitta was another practice, by which one could have a knowledge of profit and loss regarding present, past and future Calaman was an important work on Nimitta.27 Then there were love-charms which were magically effective and by which women could regain thar husband's lost affection 8 The Nayadhammakaha refers to the following contrivances : powder prepared from various ingredients causing stillness (cunnajoya), employment of incantations (mantajoya), charms causing leprosy and other diseases (kammanajoya), causing beauty (kammajoya), arth 30 Ava. cu, p. 396 21 Uttara Ti 18, P 248a. 23 According to the Vya Bha. (1 p 116af), however, Koua means wonderful featsperformed by a juggler by putting the iron balls in his mouth and taking them out through cai or nose, or taking out fire from his mouth The king Siddhattha is described to have performed hundred protective charms (hout yasaya) after taking his bath (Kalpa 4 62), cf Asrlakkhana Jalaka (No 126) I. P 456 Nisi cu 13, p. 850 P 140 Raksavight is described in the Caraka, Sarirasthana, VIII, 76, p 155 f Brh. Bha. 1 1308-13 The Suya Ti. (II, 2 p 336) refers to a mendicant versed in the magical spells He used to carry off the women of Rayagiha by his charms Once the king detected him and returned the women to their respective husbands One woman did not want to go back but when the bones of the mendicant rubbed in milk were given to her she returned to her husband,

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MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 229 captivating heart hu audarana), captists of body liquddi ane subjugation (abhiogna), lascination charara), 100, bulbs shin cicepei olli , kurala herb silmi pills 30 medicine andel and milline nhe ai ? ICQLISION OL SPILS Various practices are de cubed to acquire these spells Riles wiele performed on the days of dark catridasi and astonism and the charmere acquired with the help of the dead bodv of an uninjured pel on, endowed with auspicious mails 33 The name of Satyaki has been alicaci mentioned, who went to the cenietei y for securing the Val dolu" poll Inst he set fire to the prie with the dead bodi of in oupha 2 x then covering himsclf with a moist shin inored about loudy on his left luc 121) the pyre was hundled Thus withiu seven nights Satyaki acquucd the spells. 34 Then there was magical power of 1 ising in the sky kheari zich We hear of a thief who went to the burial ground, put up a hange there with burning charcoal and a pike belon The thici after chanting the spells eight hundicd timc>> cut ofl one stimg of the hanger and thus cuiring off the four strings achieved the vija 35 It is mentioned in the Ille cocina uara commentary that Nattumatta, a vijjahara, in order to attain efficiency in certain viija went to a bamboo-grove liamshudagal and having fastened his feet up, and inhaling smoke started piacusing penance" Thien we are told of a king who wanted to learn spells from a Matanga which he could learn only when he occupied a lower seat 37 It was a belief that the spells lost their efficacy when one utticd falsehood as Besides, gods with superhuman pon eis nice also piopitiated Wc are told that in order to propitiate a god, Lhayakumara went to his fasting-hall and sat there becping aside his ornaments, gailands and perfumes observing a thee days' fast In course of time the god was forced to give up his seat in heaven and created artificial rains on the mountain Vebhara as desired by Abhayakumara 30 Anothci god, piopitiated by king Paumanaha, kidnapped queen Dovai and brought hui fiom Tatthi 29 30 81 38 83 aL 36 88 The Vist cu (15 1007) rcfers to the consecrated flowers given to 1 oman lo fascinate hei by z Sarcasha ascetic The Uttcra T (13 p 190a) (fers to a pill given by 7 mendicant lo u dhanu mbuch, keeping in his mouth Vandhanu felt unconscious and the 10171 surints tabirg him to be dead luft bim and went away Ihc Page #232
230 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA napura to Avarakan ka. Still another god by means of his magical power is stated to have constructed a bridge over the Lavana ocean. 41 Other Magical spells are arranged here alphabetically -- Abhogini. By muttering this charm one was ablc to know the mind of others 12 Addaa vija. By means of this charm a patient was cured after casting his reflection into a mirror 43 Addhavetali. By uttering this charm a stick was put down, it was a counterspell to the "veyali" spell.44 Aharvani. It produced instantaneous disaster.45 Amayakarana. It made a person sick. 48 Anladdhani It made a person disappear. 47 Anteuri. In this charm, by uttering the name of a patient, if one's own body was wiped, the patient was cured.48 Ayamini. It forced a person to come to one. 49 Brali. It appeared like a cat, and was a counterspell to the "mouse" spell to Capeti. In this spell a patient being slapped was cured 51 Dabbha In this spell a patient being wiped with darbha grass was cured. "* Damili. It was a charm possessed by the Dravidas 68 Dubbhagakara. It made a person miserable." 40 Ibid 16, p 180 41 Ibid 16, p. 190. 49 Bh. Bha. 3.4833 Vya Bha . 136-138, p 27 44 Suya II 2.30 Iord , Athabhana is also mentioned in the Sutta Nepata, Tuvattaha Sutta 4 15 2 13 46 Suya., op cit 47 Ibid 48 Vya. Bha op at. Suva. II. 2 27 trans by Jacobi, S.B E., Vol XLV, p 367. Ada. Nir 137 (Han). Vya. Bha. op. cit Ibid Suya. op. cit. Ibid 30 33

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MANNERS AND CUSTOMS Duli It cured snake-bite of a person even if the same spot of a messenger (duta) carrying the news of snake-bitc was rubbed " Gabbhakara It caused pregnancy in a woman 58 Gaddabhi In this spell whosoever heard the braying of a female donkey, vonuted blood, was overpowered with fear and lost his senses It is said that this spell was possessed by king Gaddabhilla 57 Gandhari ** It was a spell of the Gandharvas 58 It was one of the tour important spells 59 Gori ** It was one of the four important spells co Jambhani It was a certain magical formulary used for excicising the evil spirits supposed to possess weapons 61 janar ai. By means of this spell one could find out the pa t history of a puson Kai It appe ued like a female crow and was a counterspell to the "she owl" spell.63 Kalingi It was a charm possessed by the Kalingas Kuhedarijja It was a magic tuck Lesani 55 Iya Bla of cit 5 Sua op cit d It made a person cling to some thing 58 Mu It appeared like a female deca and was a counterspell to the tigress" spell 7 Mohanahara GS It was a magical charm used to bewilder an enemy it was duected by Jain monks against thieves 69 Mist cu 10, p 571 !! Siya op cut, The (andhara charm is mentioned in th is a chum for making nestlt invisible also Dighi I p 21, tacip 161 hilta T 7 203 ls Bin Bhi 1 205 G3 a u op cit [tlari 71 3 2 C+ Suzz cit r5 I the a Sub 1deg Act It is in example of sympathetic mi I 6L 69 0 Il No Sus of cit CL Sua op cit cf the paththa wey ons menti nd in the Utinam la im weapons 7 105 12 112 63 Uttara Ti 13 p 189 512 231 of cit I there of it pec 69 62 bohara fital IV 15 14 bih Bl 1 (1

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232 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDI Mori It appeared like a peahen and was a counterspell to the "scorpion" spello Musaga. It appeared like a mouse and was a counterspell 10 the "cat" spell." Nauli. It appeared like a female mungoose and was a counterspell to the "snake" spell." Osavani. It was a charm for putting a person to sleep. 18 Ovai. It appeared like a female hawk and was d counterspell to the "poyat" spell." Ovayani. It made a thing fall down 75 Pagasasani. It was a magic art of conjuring or trickerywhich produced illusion. Pakkamani ** It made a person giddy." Pannatti. It was one of the four important magic arts. It was an art of foretelling is Poyai It appeared like a female bird sakuinka) and was a coach j.ch to the "female hawk" spell 10 Rohini or Maharohini. It was one of the four important chainis 30 Sankari This charm was acquired just by iccitug padhi asuddhist truy this charm was recited it was surrounded by friends, servants oli and carried out thc commands 81 Sappa It appeared like a snake and was a counteispell to the lomake mungoose" spell.82 70 la Nol op. cit, Ullaro li of oit. : Ibid T! Ihid 13 Stia, op.cil, Ila cu, p. 141 Kalpu. 2.27, also letra. 16, p 18h lil' p Talsu , p. 7 74 Aa Virop cit, and Tika, op. c. 15 Sulu op oil, Das cu 1 + 76 Sua op. cit 77 Irdhamagadh Dictionary, Vol. 111, p 384, Ralanchuudiaji Siya up all 13 Alu cu p 161; Ultara Ti ,9, 138, 18, 238a It is mentioned in the hill u ara a magical art personified as onc cfthe Vidvadelis (14 Williams Sut . L 1013) 73 Ada. Nir. op. cit, Uliara Ti op i 50 - cu op cit, ralca Ti. op cit. s1 Uttara Ti. 13, 183a, 194, 82 Ltrara. 77 3,72

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MANNERS AND CUSIOMS 233 cured 87 Sihi.** It appeared like a lioness and was a counterspell to the "female boar" spell 83 _Sovaga (or Mayangi) It was a charm of the candalas 't Sodari. It was a charm of sorcery i sambari) os Subhagakara It made a person happy (r) Talaunta By means of this charm by rubbing the charmed fan a patient was Talugghadini It was a spell used for opening a lock 38 Thambini. This spell produced the magical ai resting of any feeling or force, as of hunger, thirst, or of the forces of water, fire etc" The Jain monks employed this magical spell to supress watci, fire or au when their residence was in danger, this spell was also directed against thieves jo Ulugi It appeared like a female owl and was a counterspell to the "female crow" Spell"! Ucchattha - In this charm if u nionk was duen out by duavan oi his lood and drink were stopped or he sullued liom intense pum oi snaho-bitc another monk applied filthi tu hus laps un cd his mouth with une imcha, and by chanting the magic il foi mulae relieved the Icllow monk of his distiess 02 Uppayani (or Unnai ni) It made a tlung nosime the same position is previously 03 Vagghi It appcaied like a 1141, and was a un trispul to the female deer" spell P! Vanana In this charm, by rubbing charmed food a patient was cured." 83 1927 84 Suya / S) ID V BO B III in 1 p 12 B mbau 143) 36 Suyat it 8G 1631 87 la Bhi Suya ol 1 ( ) II III - 89 Sua ap 90 Brh Bhi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 pi do 111111111 Bih Bhai Suyli ) Is ) u imuni! Il by incans otsch ont is able to sips rd (Kul25 117111 Iul Tu Vir up ct, C12 ( 1 (c! VLUCY 611 ir ap ral cruha te n. no fa female Jumui su u the hair ol 1 womin's purlenda (M Williams Sanskrit Fyl sh D clay)

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23+ LIFE IN ANCILYT INDIA Parani. It appeared like a female boar and was a counterspell to the lioness* spell." Tattha. By uttering this spell or by rubbing a piece of cloth a patient was cured. The Jain monks employed this charm for curing nake-hite and carbuncle.es Veganai. By means of this spell one is able to rise up swiftly, a Tetali ( or Veralini). This was a magic art which brought dead bodies to life 10 Accord. ing to the Uttaradhyarana commentary, by this spell a Jijahasa kidnapped a woman. Parchaga. It appeared like a scorpion and was a counterspell to the peaben" spell.103 Iisallakaran. It made a person free from a pointed weapon or from pain intalla 13 THE VIDIHARAS The rrihara, or wisdom-holders" were spirits like fairies or 1lphs who occupied an important place in the Jain texts.104 The Timnara were essentially spirits of the air khtsara, and were described as traucllins in their excellent cars caraciming) which they could make at their will They are represented as devotees of Jain religion and frequenthil zeer them bound for the pilgrimage of the Nandisara diva or the Ariki ald mountain.los The Vijjaharas also joined the Jain ascetic order : ** they are * Lae.lu.of.at. ; Cheri, Ti.obi. na lis. Bici. 1p. nr. # Bha. 3-3907. According to M. Willams Sur Dintre je bifu Tifpis a wong reading for rastu ildja xhich is a science in building. qe tema. Ti 1, 245 Vergnati is a name of a ridadhari in the KN V Wilham's S writ-Erigans Dictiorary W. Sayar oy car. 101 15 p 24a F luddha s mentioned in Buddhast literature. ise Crtani. the room Simo 190 thomed in the Ramajand. II. 25-38 ** These spes are also mentioned in the Dropicadas (xxiii, 636 1). Yu The lichare also appear on the Bharhat Inscripuons (-209). she defa 217 to be a king of Scano-human beings possessing the knowledge cf magic aris 2. r ent in the Himalaya mountains (Hocenie s Readings from the Blachta suural in the 2writka Jalata (No. 391) 111, p. 303 f. they are described as a being g.. " Jalliance and seducton, and accustomed to perform by day poparcnt 1. 1 ment in a cremation ground, standing on one leg wbile saluung the sin ct " J.Baku (No. 436), IU, p. 328. The Tatran (LXLX) chumerales hitr a gumas of lwythwas, which gare nse to several as of tht ljumi 11 Frugtription:r, p. 891: Barua and Sinha, also see arkandey. pp. 11-1. 133 Chi Ti, ap. 137af. 15. 193a. 139 14, p. 13).

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MANNERS AND CUSTOVI' 233 represented as wicked beings carrying off the maidens during the time of their wedding.107 The home of the Vijaharas was chiefly the mountain Veyaddha. Several Vigahara rulers are mentioned 108 TIIL RLI ITIO BI INTHL VIIBITGS IND) IN VIVIR 15 There were congenial relations betwcen the human beings and the Vijaharas and there were intermarriages We are told that king Seniya had friendship with a certain l'ugahara and he gave his sister in manage to him.109 Then Bambhadatta, 110 Sanakkumaralli and Mahapaumalla are stated to have mairied the Vuja hara girls We are told that l'unjahara Nattumatta, unable to bear the prowess of a princess, went to acquire lore for achieving equality with her 113 Besides we are told that the Vinaharas attended upon human beings and helped them in ime of distress.114 There were also battles between human beings and the l'1117 haras, 116 SUPERSTITIONS Jain texts give us quitc a number of superstitions 18 some of which survive even to this day In the Jain texts we frequently come across the stock-phrase "nhayam hayabalihammam hayahou amangalapayacchittem"117 i.e., having bathed, having made the offering to the house-gods, 118 and having performed auspicious and expiatory rites (payacchetta) These rites were so common in those early days that they were performed before going to pay a visit to a temple, a saint, king or a great man 118 Various kinds of superstitions were in vogue in ancient days The superstition regarding four directions is mentioned 10 We hcar that 107 Ibid, 9, p 137a, 17 p 1899 18, p 238 108 Cr Ullara Tz 12 p 227, 19 p 211a 18 p 239, 13 p 1931 9 p 135, 16 p 247 It is stated that Nami and Vinami the sons of haccha and Mahahaccha ucre brought up hike his own sons by Usabha But when Isabha zenounced the world and di tributed the kingdom among his sons, Narni and Vinami were not picsent I atcr on when the approached Usabha and asked for their share Dhaiana gaic them forti cight thousand jas, among which Alaharohini Pannatti, Gori Vijumuhi Nahajala luhamani and Bahuruv a were the chief Afterwards in the northern region of Icvaddha Vinami established sixty towns such as Gaganavalliha, etc, and in the southern Ilgion Nami established fifty towns such as Rahaneuracakkavala etc (Kalpa T1 p 203 Vasu P 161), also Paumacariya, III, 144 ff, V 13 ff, Iva cu p 161 f) 109 Ara cu II, p 160 110 Uttara T1 13, p 194 111 Ibid, 18, P 237 112 Ibid18, P 247 118 Ibid, 13, P 189a See ibid, 18, p 238a , also cf lasu p 213 116 See Ulara 18 p 338a, bid 18, p 217a 118 CH the Mahamangala Jataka (IV \o 153) p 77 ff where 71 ariety of omens is preached and it is sad that goodness and kindness are the best ornens also Khuddakapatha, Mangala Sulla, Ramu, ana II 25, III, 69 21 If Cf Maja 16 11 ctc, Kalpa 4 67 118 Balikarina is mentioned in the Rgueda in the sense of turbule 10 aling or offering to a god (Vcdic Inder II p 62) Gaul ama 9-17, also see Vai a crn (ch VIII) Caraka, in XI 3p 1657 Kathusanitsugara I ch III, p 21n, Rama ana II 71.38 Cf Naya 16, 181, 2 51, Kaja Su 148, halpa, 4 67 190 See Brhtsamthita 85 20 Il and the whole chapter on other superstitions 114 111

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236 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA when a person renounced the world and approashed to the Teacher in a litter, he always occupied a seat facing the east."21 For disposing of the dead bodies, it is stated that first of all the monks should select the southwest direction, then south, then west, then south-east, then north-west, then east, then north and finally the north-east direction should be selected. 199 Then the ancient people were superstitious regarding planets It is stated that at the time of taking out a dead body of a monk, a suitable planet must be selected, otherwise the monks would undergo piracchitla 193 Then superstitions are mentioned regarding travelling ; whicn the monks travelled from one place to another, they took into consideration the tithi karana and the nakkhatta The fourth, sixth, eighth, ninth and twelfth days of dark and bright months were considered auspicious 195 The sight of the following objects was considered inauspicious : a person wealing dirty clothes, rags or anointed with oil, a dog going from left to right, a hunchback, a dwarf, a woman advanced in pregnancy, an old maiden, a person carrying a load of wood or wearing coloured clothes and a "kuccandhara' ascetic.136 It is stated that while going to a physician the monks should go in odd numbers either in three or five ,128 at the time of departure if somebody sneezed or asked question as to where they cc going or the monks had a fall or stumbled or their head struck against something, it boded evil.127 The auspicious tithi, karana and nakkhatta 18 were selected when tradesmen made a sea-voyage. We have already referred to Arhannaga and other merchants of Campa who, after feeding their friends and 1 clitions in auspicious time, lcft for the harbour, and when the pusa 'pusa) constellation was in ascendancy, released the ropes of the boat 19 Among auspicious objects mention is made of twelve kinds of musical instruments being beaten simultaneously (nanditura), full vessel,130 the sound of conch-shell and drum, a golden pitcher, umbrella, chou nics, conveyance (vahana), carriage (ana), the samanas, flowers, swect-balls (modaka), curds, 181 fish, bell, and flags.193 Although the sramanas in general were considered auspicious but it is said that the rattapadas, caragas and tapasas, including the sick, crippled, those who suffered from sickness, the physicians, those who wore dyed clothes or applied dust to 121 192 138 134 125 128 137 128 139 Cf Nava 1, p31. Brh. Bha 4 5505 f; also cf Bhag Aradhana V 1970 f, cf Manu V 92 Ibid,4 5527; also Bhag Ara 1988. Vya Bha 1, 125 ff, p. 40a Ogha Bha 82 ff p. 74; Brh Bha 1.1545 ff Bth. Bha 1.1028. Ibid, 1 1921-24. See algo BTh Samhuta, chs. 98, 99 and 100. Suprap 118 But the robbers and farmers took an empty jar as auspicious (Brh Bhi pi 10) Cf Caraka (sarirasthana), c), XII, 70-6, Bph. Bha, 1.1649 F, 180 191 133 Brn.

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MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 237 their body boded cvil.133 It is stated that the sight of a cakracara indicated roaming about at random, that of a fanduranga stariation, that of a talcannika bloodshed and that of a boilija death without faul 194 Fue in the country of Sindhu and burning of string in Lata uce regarded as good omens.135 Among animals and birds, the jackal,126 casa,137 peacock bharadraja, and mungoose ucic considered auspicious and if they were seen in the south thcy ucrc considered to bung all wealth 198 Then the trees without leaves such as haria ctc. the thoiny bushes and uces, the trees shattered due to lightening, those having bitter juice such as rohini, kutaja and nimba etc, and thc trecs burnt of conflagration, were considered as bad omens Then the bones and the corpse were considered inasupicious and after secing them a monk wes piuhubited fiom tudung the scriptures 139 Among other superstitions the following may be mentioned the newly born babes were put under the cart for procuring a long life 140 People put on moist robes while visiting sacred placcs'1 or great persons 143 We read of the mother of Meghakumaia who at the time of renunciation of her son, collected his hair in a fine cloth, washed them with scented water, put over them the marks of five fingers, moistened with gosisa sandal and tied them in a piccc of white cloth. Then she kept them in a jewelled casket which she kept under his pillow with the hope of having a look at them on the occasions of various fcasts and festivals 13 The priests were employed to perform sacrifice for warding off evil.144 Then, at the death of a monk various superstitions were observed such as spreading of grass and making images with ashes, brick powder or nagakesara near the dead body. 146 Chinna (rending of clothes) was considered another superstition. It is said that when a cloth is smcarcd with collyrium or lampblack or dirt,gnawed by rats, bu nt by fire, destroved or eaten at thc bord - ers, there arises a good or cvil result out of that 146 Then in a newly constructed house the living of the monks was considered auspicious and the entrance of the doves inauspicious.147 193 184 186 135 137 188 198 Ibid ] 1548, cf 1 2291 f Ogha Bhi s2 ff p 74, also of Brh Bha 1 2637, 1 1131 Ava Ti pja Compare hou ever, ta cu II, p 179, See also ch 89 (11aruta) ch 91 (avasauruta) and ch 90 (mirgacestita) in the Boh Samhita There was a hclics that by constructing a house at a place where casa was sitting a king got cwels (dva cu IT, 179) There was anothci bclief that cating of a snake imparts the power of understanding the languages of buils and heast (hathisarilsagara, Vol II, ch xx, p 108, f 11 ) Ogha Bha 108 ft Nisi cu 19, PP 117 ff Viva , p 30 Cf Raya si 170 Cf Naja 16, 1193, of [dana 2 17 Naya 1, p 30 See Supra, p 58. Sec Brh Bha 4 3333 11 , Bhag in 1982, 1996 ff Ullara by Charpentier, p 336, Varahamihira licats vastracchedalakeanam in ch 70, also ct Mangala Talala (No 87), I, p 371 ff Vya 7 48 Also sce Tribes and castes of Punjab and N W Protince Vol. 1, pp. 228 140 141 143 143 114 145 116 147

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238 SPORTS AND AMUSEMENTS Various sports and amusements were prevalent in ancient India when people enjoyed with their friends and companions. Various terms such as chana, utsava, pamoya pavva or sankhadi are used to denote festivals or festivities in ancient days. A chana was celebrated for a limited period and sweetmeats (pakvanna) were prepared on the occasion, whereas there was a time limit in utsava and even ordinary food was enough for the occasion.148 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Various toys and playthings are mentioned for small boys and girls Reference is made to cowries (khullaya), lac-marbles (vattaya), game of tip-cat (adoliya), ball (tindusa), doll (pottulla) and cloths (sadollaya) 1+0 Then we had bow (sarapayaya), the bullock (gorahaga), earthern pot (ghadiga), drum (dindima), and the ball of cloth (celagola)." For grown-up people there were public gardens where people clad in nice dress, went hand in hand with their lovers for merry-making They left their homes in the morning and spending the whole day in the open air returned in the evening. Reference has been made to two merchants of Campa who went for a picnic in the company of a courtesan 151 There were special parks for the kings. Then people went for picnics to a river (nadi), pond (sara or tadaga), tree (rukkha),153 shrine (ceya) and mountain (gir). 152 154 148 Jain texts mention various festivities and pastimes. The feast of punnamasini was celebrated on the full moon day of the month of kartika.155 On the day of kaumudimahotsava men and women left their residence after sunset and spent whole night in enjoyment.156 Madanatrayodasi was another festival which was celebrated in honour of Kama, the Indian cupid.17 Then ujjanija feast is mentioned which was celebrated in Sindhunandana when the women of the town enjoyed in various ways.158 The festival in honour of Nagaradevata was celebrated in which the cir 149 150 180 Vatsyayana classified the occasional festivities into five groups (1) The festivals in connection with the worship of different deities (samaja, yatra and ghata) sometimes attended with grand processions, (2) gosthis or social gatherings of both sexes, (3) apanakas or drinking parties, (4) udyanayatras or garden-parties and (5) various social diversions in which many persons took part (samasyakrida)-Kamasutra Si 26, p 44 Naya 18, p. 207. Suya 2 13 f, for other games and recreation see Digha I, p 6, also Majjhima I, P 266, Sumangala Vilasini, Pt. I, pp. 84 f. See Supra, p 166, cf Kamasutra, chakladar, Social life in ancient India p. 163 Pinda. Nir. 214-5. 151 152 153 The Jivd (3, p, 151a) refers to the festival of planting of trees (rukkharovana) 154 Naya. 1, p. 39, Jiva op cat; Nisitha curm (12, p 808) mentions atadamaha, sagaramaha, thubha, gamamahagatta, nagaramaha, madambamaha, donamuha, pattana, agara, sambaku. and sannivesa. Mountain worship is mentioned in the Arthsastra (p 237) For river worship and tree worship see Rose, Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and N W Province Vol I, p 134f, 155 Bth. Bha 2-1451, also mentioned in the Vattaka Jataka (No 118), I, p 432 [ 158 Saya. Ti 11-75, p 413; also Digha. I, p. 47, cf Kamasutra, chakladar, op eit p 170, 167 Naya. Ti 2, p. 80a. 148 Uttara. Ti. 18, p. 246a,

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* MANNFRS AND CUSTOMS 239 cumambulation of the temple was held iu In the festival known as bahumilakkhamaha miany non-Aryan people (mleccha) assembled ;160 dasimaha was celebrated by the maid-cervants ,101 then thanupparyamaha had ao fixed day and it was held at any time whenever the guests were received. 162 Then the feast of 103 noodles'it taga, com sevo kika) is mentioned Then the birthday feast was celebrated with great pomp and ceremony as we have seen already 184 Ciummasiyamajjanaya was another ceremony which was held after four months of rainy season We are told that during this ceremony a flower-house was made on the high road which was decorated with beautiful huge garlands and the designs in five coloured rice grains were prepared over the city Then the princess was seated on the throne facing the east and was given a bath with white and yellow pitchers and afterwards was decorated with all kinds of ornaments 186 Then we had samvaccharapadilehana or the annual birthday feast.166 The Vidagasuya refers to ten days feast celebrated after the completion of a kudagarasala We are told that during this period the king made his subjects free from taxes 107 Among religious festivals thc pajjosana was the most favoured festival of the Jains. This festival was held on pinnimi, pasicami, dasami and other pavva days Later on, we are told that from the time of Ajja halaga in place of pancama the day of caturthi was declared as the day of pagjosana It is stated that once Kalaga arrived in the city of Paitthara whcie he was received with great pomp by king Salivahana Kalaka had declared the fifth day of the bright half of bla hapada as the day of pajjosana but since this was the day fixed for the festival of Indra, at the request of the king, Kalaka changed thc dav of pancam to calunthi This festival was also known as samanapu a 168 Sankhadi (Sankhah in Pali) 149 oi bhojja was another great feast which played an important part in ancient India Sankhadi is so callcd because at this time animals were killed in large numbcis 10 This feast was celebrated either for one day (egadu asam) oi for many days (an gadivasam) in the first part of the day pwasanhhailr) ou aluci sunsct (picchusankhadi) Girijanna (giriyajngl is mentioned in Vraja when food was taken at night and the muh was drunk early in the morning arnodayaela)'! Girijanna was also celebrated in Lata during rainy season. In order to enjoy a sarkhadi, people made a pilguimage to different places In Selapuid 119 Ava TI (Hari ) P 397 af 161 Uttarc T %, P 124 180 Nist cu 12, p 810 1c* Bih Bha 1 1814 183 Pinda Mar 466 Vist cu 1) p 870 Perhaps it mn correspond to the Icast of raksa bandhana or al uno held in \orth India 104 See Supra p 10 Naja 8, p 103 168 Ibid, 8, 96 187 3 p 27 1252 cu 10, P 02 I 189 See Manhima I, p 148 170 See Supra p 126 also Bh Bh 1 31 10 17. Ibid, 4 4881 Alen cf 1 bhr 12, II 53 22, Human 34, II 17 11 ff 112 Brh Bil 2009, 11 p o 163

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240 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA sankhades were held every year at the lake Isitalaga for eight days. These feasts were also celebrated in Bharuyakaccha, Pabhasa, Abbuya, at the eastern bank of the river Sarassai near Anandapura, Ujjenta, Nayasanda and Siddhasila. In these sankhades the monks of other sects such as Sakya, Bhauta and Bhagavatas assembled; there were regular discussions between them. There in the gardens the drunken voluptuaries dressed in fantastic garments, gesticulated with their hands and sang erotic songs, and there the men and women, drunk and decked in finelles, played. The Jain monks were allowed to attend these feasts only 11 held at holy places, because only at holy places they could preserve their right faith (samyaktva), otherwise there was possibility of their being insulted, poisoned or even killed at the hands of heretics 173 Then various household ceremonies are mentioned Avaha was held before wedding when betel etc. were served: vuaha was the wedding ceremony; 174 ahena was held at the time of the bride entering the bidegroom's house; pahena was celebrated when she returned to her father's house. Then hingola was held in honour of the diseased person or anaha, in pindanigara, food was offered to fathers. Then sammela or gotthi was a social gathering in which the relatives and friends assembled 1 got this are described as having been granted licences by the king, as given to much dissipation and as possessing considerable funds.170 Then taverns (panagara) and gambling houses juyakhalaya) are mentioned 11 The Lastly we come to combat or wrestling which was a favourite pastime of rich people. The kings took keen interest in it, and they appointed then own wrestlers. We are told that king Sihagiri of Soparaya offered money to wrestlers who came out victorious The wrestler Attana of Ujjay ni took part in the wrestling tournament (juddhamaha every year and wor thi flag of honour. He went as far as Kosambi and defeated the royal westler and was honoured by the state 178 There were wrestlers ho could combat with one thousand persons at a time (sahassamalle) 1 cock and peacock fights were other popular pastimes Ilundreds and thousands were staked and a luge number of people assembled to watch such fights.183 Reference has been made to cock fight that was held in Campa The peacock brought hundreds and Combats of buffaloes, bulls, horses and eleph int, Then a thousands to its owner are referred to 181 13 Bih su 1 47 aud the Bhasya (1 3139-3206) also Aca II, 1 2.3 236 fl, Dne 36f 14 Ja 3, p 250a, ci husa Jataka (No 531 translation), p 145 In, 1 has calle J n' 17 marriage as opposite to taha, a daughter's marriage in the 9th edes of P V cub p 502 Ica II 245 According to the Jain radi in Ling Blin fist promulgated this feast, Aca cu II, p 172 Vaya ib, p 174 ct the laliva gotthi of Ray giha (Inta 6, p 32) Vaja 2 p k 1 177 I) . 178 Uttara 4, p 7511 Ia Bha 1, p 92af A wrestling match is described in the Ghata Jit (EX pp 81f in which the wrestlers Canura and Mutthika took pait, all 11 d Poona, 1936 XXVIII p 218 ff for a beautilul descr ption of restling, ko la JV, 15 10 Uttara Ti 13, p. 151 191 II, 11 p 332, cf Digh. I, p b, abo roja ya mph (17, r 255) >+)

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MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 241 Then we come across various people who earned then brcad by exhibiting various performances There were aciobats, dancers, ropewalkers, etc. already mentioned above We hear of polc-dancer's tricks. At the top of the pole there was a horizontal wooden attachment on which were nails which attached themselves to the shoes When the aciobat holding the sword and shield started walking, the nails attached themselves to the already prepared sockets in thc shoes. Very carefully at cvery came step he engaged and disengaged the nails, because a slight carelessness parcu s ul acercy meant death. Even the kings in the company of their qucens attended such performanccs. 189 FUNER IL OBSCQUIFS Dead bodies were cremated and shrines and stupas (thibha lena) were built over the ground in the Jain and the Buddhist agc The body was cremated with sandal wood, aguru, luukka, ghet, and honey and after the flesh and the blood was consumed by fuc, the boncs were taken and the stupas (ceiyathubha) 188 were erected Paying homage to the dead 'madagapuyana) and mourning (runnasadda) are mentioned 184 Jain texts refer to another custom when the dead bodies were not duly disposed of, but were left uncared for at the mercy of wild beasts and birds.185 Besides, sometimes according to the instructions of the king, the ascetics had to leave a dead body in a hollow (agada), lake or a flowing river or by the side of these places. 188 Mention has been made of giddhapitthaka, a kind of death in which a person thiew himself among the corpses of human beings, elephants, camels, donkeys, etc, and allowed his body to be devoured by vulturcs. The bodies of criminals and the indigent were also thrown away to rot when vultures and jackals fed on them.187 There are also references to the burial of corpses. This custom was in vogue among the mlechas, who did not cicmate the dead bodies but burried them at the burial ground (madagagiha ; mudagalena). Such burial houses existed in the country of Diva and Jona 138 The Chedasutras have laid down elaborate rules for disposing of the dead body of the sain sadhus. 189 It is stated that after the death of a monk, one monk should go in search of a bier to carry the corpse and should inspect the cremation ground (thandila) where the proper direction should be chosen for the disposal of the dead. The corpse should be covered with a clean white cloth, and as far as possible be taken out during day or night as the case may be after the monk dies. The corpse should 18. Ava. cu p 484 f, cf Dhammapada dithalatha Vol IV. pp 60ff The Titlira jatala (No 438), III, p. 537 mentions topes of sand (lalukathiiba), also Paramatthadipani, the com on the Udana, p. 97, cf. the funeral ceremonies in the Rama. yana (IV, 25, 16 fl) 184 Ava. Bha. 26, 27, Hari. Ti p 133, Ava, cu 167, 222 f. 186 Mahd. Ni. p. 25; cf. Lalitauistara, p. 265. 188 Bh Bha. 3. 4824. See Supra, p. 174 Nisi, cu. 3, p. 330, Aca cu 370 See Vieyagbhayagaprakrtani Brh u. 4, 29 and its Bhasya 5497-5563. 187 181

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242 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA be carried by monks, or by laymen in a cart, or with the help of the Mallay or by the Candalas.100 Then after being carried to the cremation ground, with the permission of the keeper of the cemetery, the corpse should be disposed of duly.101 The ceremony of taking out the body of the dead (niharana) including the child was performed with great pomp (iddhisakkara) and many funeral rites (mayakacca) were performed on the occasion. Annual or monthly feasts were given in honour of the departed.19 Mention has been made of offering the pinda to the fathers. We are told that on the anniversary day the Brahmanas were invited for feast.198 Among the various causes of death the following are mentioned : swallowing the talaputa poison, brandishing the sword on one's shoulders, hanging on a tree, fastening one's neck with a slab of stone and throwing oneself into the sea, and entering into fire.194 Among other kinds of suicides mention is made of falling down from a mountain15 (girzpadiyaga), falling down from a tree, committing suicide in a desert, swinging from a mountain (giripakkhandolaya), jumping into a desert, entering into water (jalapavesika), swallowing poison, 180 committing suicide with a weapon (satthovaditaka) or by hanging (vehanasia). Then sallekhana on voluntary submission to death was another custom in vogue among the Jain monks who ended their life for attaining higher world by withholding from food and drink. 197 P. 193. 180 Vya. Bha. 7. 449-462, p, 79 f. Manu (X. 55) also asks the Candalas to carry out the corpses of persons who have no relatives. 101 Vya. Bha 7 442-440 p. 70ff; also Rua Nir. Dipika, Vol. 11, 95 ff; dia cu. II, pp. 102-9, Bhaguatl Aradh. 1974-2000. For the disposal of the dead sce also Law, India Described 191 Nisi. ca. 11, p. 700; Ndya. 14, p. 161 ; cf. Malakabhatta Jataka, No. 18, (I. p. 166), Mahabharata, I, 134, 136; Ramayana, VI. 114. 101 ff. 108 Harz. 13, p. 194a. 194 Naya. 14, p. 166. Canakya is said to have put an end to his life by entering into file see supra), 196 Udayana of Kosambl is said to have departed from this world along with his queen by ascending the top of a hill and falling from the precipice, Pradhan, Chronology of Ancient India p. 246; also cf. Cullapaduma Jataka (193) II, p. 118. 10B For various kinds of poisons etc. see Tha. 4.341, 6. 633,sce also Brh. Bhd 3. 4208 ; Pinda 274 com.; Parna, 1, p. 45a; Fiva. 1, p. 36a ; cf. Arthasastra (p. 108). 187 See Anta. 8, etc,

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SECTION V GEOGRAPHICAL MATERIAL IN THE JAIN CANONS GENERAL OUTLOOK CHAPTER I JAIN CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD CHAPTER II THE JAIN ARYAN COUNTRIES CHAPTER III MAHAVIRA'S ITINERARY CHAPTER IV GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON

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GENERAL OUTLOOK -The Jain point of vicw of geography is governed by two conditions, ological and scientific The first category belongs to the fantastic cography of Jambudvipa which is divided into seven zones bounded by mountain-ranges from which flow the fourteen great rivers. But it annot be said even this section is cntirely devoid of geographical knowNdge as in between the fiction wc catch glimpses of certain gcographical Siowledge which could be checked up For instance, in the plethora of the rivers which the Jain mythological geography speaks of as flowing from the mountains Himavan, Mahihimavan, Nisadha, etc., there are some Which could be correctly identificd, one such river being Sita described as flowing from the mountain Nila, and according to the fanciful notion Thf the Jains is supposed to flow to the castern occan The fact, however, to that this Sita or Si-to as it is known by the Chinese is apparently the Hame, though apparently Sita nevei meets any sca but disappears in the sands of Kashgar While speaking of the primitive notion of the geographical factors, such as the constitution of earth, mountains, oceans, the great islands, rivers, etc , the Jains were not the only sinners, cven the Puranas and the Buddhist sources, moie than often indulge in ludicious Apeculations such as those of ihe Jains It seems that all these sources derived their information from some very remote origins which hasc not yet heen trared It scems that these fantastic geographical explanations were the ducct outcome of man's claim to explain all and sundry though unfortunately his knowledge had not as yet developed to such an extent as to make his statements and explanations accurate from the scientific point of view + The absurd measurcmcnts of the sea, niountains and uivers in the Jain canons readily support our vicw Apparently there was a wish of the early geographers to give the measurcmcnts at lcast of the rivers which they saw very often but as yet theic was no mcans to determine their extent nor had the people yet penetrated to the sources of the majority of them. The result was that sancisul stories were told foi explanation's take and their extent was stictched beyond all cxpectations to thousands and thousands of yojanas . These primitive gcographers actancd certain truc obscivations in their geographical descriptions so far as thcy confined themselves to the visible objects but as soon the question of thc unknown came, their imagination indulged in fanciful flights But this primitive scography did not last for a very long time and hough it becamc scistic and thus became a cort of conventional gcogi aphy if the Jains for all times, thcic aie cvidence from the Jain canon itself hat the geographical conception developed with umc This grou th of gcogi aplucal knowledge may be attuluteal to various actors, namely, the growth of trade, including both internal and exterral which afforded an opportunity to the traders and Jain merchants and

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246 LIVE IN ANCIENT INDIA seamen to bring the stories of the manners and customs and also certain geographical names of the countries which they visited. There is no doubt while studying this information one has to be very critical as an element of marvel permeates these travellers' tales. Secondly, we know from the Jain Sutras that the country in which the Jain monks could preach was confined to Anga, Magadha, Kosambi, Thina and Savatthi, or roughly speaking that tract of land which includes modern Bihar, eastern U.P., and a portion of western U.P., and therefore, it is natural that the geographical knowledge of the early Jain scriptures should be confined entirely to that area. Thus in the Bhagavati, the Avasyaka curni and other scriptures we are told the names of number of towns, townlets, villages etc., mostly belonging to Anga-Magadha of which unfortunately there are no traces. It is, however, related in the Jain scriptures, and the tradition is very ancient and genuine, that in the time of Samprati, the grandson of Asoka, who was a devout Jain, other parts of the country including Maharastra, Andhra, Saurastra and Coorg (Kudukka) etc. were opened to the Jain monks for preaching and proselytizing. This fact alone increased the geographical knowledge of the Jains substantially. The monks themselves realised the importance of seeing and studying the various factors in the countries which they visited. Thus in the Brhatkalba Bhasya, which may perhaps be dated to the early century of the Christian era, elaborate instructions are given to the monks who toured from year to year the various parts of the country. It is mentioned that by seeing the country the monks purify their souls and gain equanimity of mind. These regular tours taught them many languages and afforded them opportunities to examine the various republics which they visited at length. This knowledge they brought back home and utilised it instructing their pupils and followers (1.1226). Among the various requisites of a monk it was expected of him that he should be accomplished in various regional languages (ibid., 1230). In the course of their Janapada tours the attention of the monks was also engaged by such worldly factors as the various means of irrigation, the products of the various parts of the country, various trade centres and the local habits of the populace (zbid. 1239). Now it must be evident that there was a definite feeling in the Jain church in the early century of the Christian era to know thoroughly the parts of the countries which were under the sphere of the Jain influence This growth of geographical knowledge may be further seen in the Curnis and even the Tikas where an effort to record truly and scientifically the ethnological and geographical facts is observed. To sum up, we have tried to collect together this motley information of the Jain scriptures at one place so that students of ancient Indian geography may not have to grope into the thick and often badly edited Jain texts. In collecting, however, this information the difficulties have been to identify most of the obscure place-names visited by Mahavila un

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GENERAL OUTLOOK 247 isciples and other Jain saints, kings, traders, etc as they have disappeared without leaving any trace. However, it is possible if a detailed tour of the area covered by Mahavira's carika is made, that by the bits of information supplcd by the Jain texts, one may be able to thiow further light on their identifications For the present, however, whatever infor mation was available about these place-names from the Jain canons, Have been recorded. Berthi At several places in common with the Puranas there are lists of the Non-Aryan countries; Non-Aryan 11 this sense must be understood by Those who had not come under the sphere of Jain influence. These lists Vare very important, though unfortunately the text is become so coriupt that nothing can be made out of majority of the geographical place-names in the names of the tribes which they hide under their corrupt texts. It would be really a great boon to indologists if some Jain scholar were to Stake up the scientific cdition of these lists. For the present, however, one has to be content with whatever is at our disposal.

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CHAPTER 1 JAIN CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD According to the Jain conception, the world consists of inijumorable spheres, continents and oceans each one surrounding the preceding onc like a sheath. There are seven kselias or zones in Jambudvipa which is the first continent, and may correspond to Asia (India, according to Buddhist They are Bharaha, Hemavaya," Hari,' Videha, Rammaga, Herannavaya and Eravaya. Bounding these zones are six mountain-ranges, viz., Him.ivata, Mahahimavata, Nisadha, Nila, Rukmin and Sikharin: In the centre of Jambudvipa is located Meru. "Bharaha is 526,9 yojanas in extent. It is situated to the south of Culla Himayanta and between the eastern and western scas. By the two large rivers Ganga and Sundhu, and the Vaitadhya mountainrange it is divided into six portions. Videha, also known as Mahavidchia, is divided into four parts, viz., Puyvavideha (eastern Videha), Avaravidcha (western Videha), Devakuru and Uttarakuru. Puvvavideha, which is also called Bhadrasya in thc Brahmanda Purana, is said to be watered by the Sita, the mythical prototype of the Yarkand and Yellow rivers, already referred to Sita is the same as one of the fourteen great rivers in the Jain mythology referred to in the Ultanidhya yana Sutra". Puvvavideha and Avaravideha are divided into difici cut Vijayas or provinces which have their respective cities On the above mentioned mountain-ranges there are six lakes, 01?, Padma, Mahapadma, Tiginchi, Kesari, Mahapundarika and Pundarika 1 Haimavata and Hairanyavata are identified with regions in Tibct known for gold. Schubring, Die Lehre Der Fainas, p. 144 2 Harivarsa included the western portion of Tibet ( G D , p. 74). 8 Also cf. Mahabha VI. 6 7 ff. * It is identified with "Paropanisad" of the Greeks, now called the Hindukush (p 141) 6 Also cf. Mahabha. VI. 6 4 f. 8 The Buddhists call it Sincru, Meru, Sumeru, Hemameru and Mahameru Its thr highest conceivable mountain according to them. The Puranas also speak ol Sumeru mountain having the altitude of one hundred thousand yojanas, (Law, Indiu described, p. 2 ff). 1 Jambu. 1-10. 8 It is identified with the northern portion of Garwal and Huna desa (G.D., p. 213) * It is identified with Eastern Turkistan and North China (Raychaudhuri, Studies * Indian Antiquiries, pp 75-6). 10 11.28. Also mentioned in the Mahabha. Santi p 82.45. 11 Some of these Vijayas such as Cakkavattivijaya (Ava Cu., p. 133), Ramanija (Ullara Ti , 18, p 243 a), Gandhilavati (Ava. Gu, p165), Salilavai (Naya 8, P 90), Sugandhi (Uttara. TT, 23, p. 286 a), Sukaccha (ibid), Pokkhalavai (Naya 14, p. 157) Mangald. vati (Ava. Nir., 176) find mention in the Jain texts.

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AIN CONCEPTION OF THE WORLD 249 from which flow the great fourteen livers The first two rivers, 2 , Janga and Sindhu flow from the lake Padma situated on the Himayata nountain." In the centre of Bharaha is Mount Vaitadhya, dividing it into north Ind south On this mountain there arc kingdonis of the Vidridhara kings *. The first ocean surrounding Jambudvipa is Lavanoda or the Indian cean.18 Then comes the continent of Dhatakikhanda which surrounds the Lavanoda and is twicc in extent Then we have the Kuloda ocean ind then Puskaradvipa 14 In the middle of Puskaradvipa is situated the mountain-range Manusottara like a city wall which is the ultima thule of Ebe Human World Thus according to the Jain conception, the Human World consists of two and a half continents, viz , Jambudvipa, DhalakiChanda and half of Puskaradvipa Surrounding Puskara we have various other oceans and continents, which are each twice as largc as the preceding one The eighth continent Nandisaradiva which is described as a land of the gods with beautiful pardens. It is mcntioned that there werc fitty two statues of the Arhats here which weic frequently visited by gods. The last continent is Svayambhuramana. 16 here which we mentioned that there warland of the gods with no 18 mountain is the same as thc IIimalaya inountain and is known in Pali as Himava, (umacala and Humavanta It is one of the seven mountain-ranges that surround landhamadana Seven gient Hunalay an lakes are also mentioned in Pali litcraire, Anottata being the first Anoltata, like the Padma lake of the Jains, is a lotus ke with four outlets on its four sides and is identified with Bindusara in the Alahabhazla and Manasa sarovara of popular samc (Law, op cit, pp 5, 10, 12) the Jain texts mention the merchants of Campa and Hatih sisa crossing the Lavana cean and going out for tiades, it sccms that Lavana was no other occan than the ndian ocean (cf Naja 8 p 97 9 p121 , 17 p 201) Lavana foccan is mentioned 1 the Mahabha VI J 13, VI 16 ne identify it with a portion of Central Isia commencing liom the north of Oxus, icluding Western Tarta, ( GDP 163) 2 Cu P 397f, Ullara Ti 9 p 138 Tambu. 1. 4. Also rsp, Vo II, 3 J32 to 769, also 'some cosmological Ideas of he Jainas', Amulayachandra Sen, 1. HQ 1932, pp 43-48.

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CHAPTER II THE JAIN ARYAN COUNTRIES It is stated that when Mahavira sojourned in the garden of Subhumibhaga in Saketa, he declared the following Sutra restricting the movements of the Jain monks : "The monks or nuns may wander towards the east as far as AngaMagadha, towards thc south as far as Kosambi, towards the west as far as Thuna and towards the north as far as Kunala."17 Later on, king Sampai, who was a great patron of Jain religion, made other countries suitable for the movements of the Jain monks, and consequently the following twenty five and a half counties were declared as Aryan : Kingdom Capital 1. Magadha Rayagiha 2 Anga Camp 3. Vanga Tamaliti 4. Kalinga Kabsalariga 5 Kasi Vanarasi 6 Kosala Saketa Kuru Gayapura Kusatta Soriya 9. Pancala Kampillapura Jangala Ahicchatta Surattha Baravai 12. Videha Mihila 13. Vaccha Kosambi 14 Sandilla Nandipura 15. Malaya Bhaddilapura 16. Vaccha Verada 17. Varana Accha Dasanna Mattiyayai 19. Cedi Suttivai 20 Sindhu Sovira Vibhaya 21. Surasena Mahura 22. Bhangi Pava 23. Purivatta Masapuri 21. Kunala Savatthi 25. Lada (or Ladha) Kodivariga 23. Kegaiaddha Scyaviya? These countries were called Aryan because, it is said that the Titthayaras, the Gakkavattis, the Baladevas and the Vasudevas were born here. 11 18 Brh Stu 1 50, Also Nisz Bha 16. p 1111 Panna 1. 37, p. 33a, Brh Bha Vr 1. 3363, also Prawacanas aroddhara, P 446.

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THE JAIN ARYAN COUNTRIES 251 These great men are said to have attained omniscience in these countries and by attending to their preachings a number of people were enlightencd and had taken to ascetic life.10 1 MAGADHA (RAYAGIH4)50 Magadha, which occupicd the district now called Bihar, is a very old kingdom and was counted among the sixtecn Janapadas in the Bhagazati, 31 the rest being Anga, Vanga, Alalaya, Malavaya, Accha, Vaccha, Koccha, Padha, Ladha, Vajji, Moli, Kasi, Kosala, Avaha (?) and Sambhuttara (Suhmottara). It was a geat centre of activities of Mahavila and in fact it was after the namc of this country that the language in which Mahavila is said to have prcached his religion was called Ardhamagadlii Magadha was a holy place for Jains although the Brahmanas were not allowed to enter this country, cxccpt on a pilgrimage A Jain pilguim has aptly remarked that according to the Brahmanas, if a crow died in Kasi, it would attain salvation, but if a human being died in Magadha he would be born as a donkey,23 Rayagiha, or the modern Rajgil, was counted among the ten capital cities of India, others being Campa, Maliura, Varanasi, Savatthi, Sakeya Kampilla, Kosambi, Alihila and Hatthinaura 3 Rayagiha was noted for its springs known as Vahatavovatirappabha King Seniya was the ruler of Rayagiha Vaibhara and Vipule were well-known hills ncar Rayagiha where a number of Jain ascetics are said to have attained salvation The famous Nalanda was a suburb of Rayagiha Rayagiha was a centie of trade and the habitat of wealthy people Rayagiha was aleo known as Giribbaja The fortifications of both Giribbaja and Rayagiha aic still cxtant, soul and a half and three miles in circumference The stone walls of Gulbbaja are the oldest extant stone buildings in India 21 2 AVGA (CAMP) The Anga dominions which are identical with the country about the modern districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyi included at one time Magadha It is included among the sixteen Janapadas Campa, which was situated near modern Bhagalpu, was considered among the ten capitals Il was a beautiful and prosperous city in ancient India, a detailed description of which is given in the O. nya.25 19 Brh Bha Vr 1 3269 fi 10 For all rescrence of this Section see Chaplci IV. 91 15 Pracinatirthamala Sangrcha Pt I, r 4. Tha 10 718, N11 Su 9 19 Rhys Davids, Buddhust Indha, p 38. Su.1, 24 26

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952 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Like Rayagiha, Campa too was frequently visited by Mahavira and his disciples. It is said that when Seniya died, Kuniya shifted his capital from Rayagiha to Campa It was in Campa that the seventh and the eighth Angas of the Jain canon were cxplained to Jambu by his teacher Ajja Suhamma Dadhivahana was another powerful sovereign of Campa whose daughter Candan, became the first female disciple of Mahavia Like Sammeya, Campa also was considered a holy place by Jains Campa was a big centre of trade and merchants travelled from here as far as Mihila, Ahicchatta. Pihunda and other places with their merchandise. 3 VANGA (TAMALITTI) Vanga (eastern Bengal) is mentioned as one of the sixteen Janapadas Vanga was a centre of trade reached by the sea. Tamalitti (Tamluk) was a centre of trade and commerce and a great sea-port town. It could be reached both by land and water. Tamalitti was noted for its fine cloth Tamali Moriyaputta is mentioned as a wellknown layman of the city. Tamalittiya is stated to be a saha of the Jain sramanas. 4 KALINGA (KANCANAPURA) Karakandu is mentioned as the sovereign of Kalinga (Orissa) Kancanapura was a centre of commerce and a free trade is mentioned between Lanka and this town 5 KASI (VARANASI) Kasi was included among the sixteen Janapadas; Kasi and Kosala were known for their eighteen confederate kings (ganaraja), who fought against Kuniya on the side of Cedaga. Kasi was noted for its centic of trade. Varanasi (Benares) was counted among the ten capitals. It was the birthplace of Pasa and was visited by Mahavira. At the time of Hemacandra Kasi or Varanasi are statcd to be identical. 6 KOSALA (SAGEYA) Kosala (Oudh) was included among the sixteen 7anapadas It was the birthplace of Ayala, the eighth disciplc of Mahavira As Mahavila was called Vesaliya, so Usabha was known as Kosaliya, ic, one who is born in Kosala. Like Dasapura and Uljeni, Kosala was known for its image of thc Living Lord (Juvantasamipadima). Sageya is identified with modern Ayodhya ncar Fyzabad and was included among the ten capital cities of Jain India. Sageya was visited by Pasa and Mahavira,

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OF MAHAVIRA (500 B.C.) SCALEI 4000,000 NOTE . INDICATES CAPITAL OF THE KINGDOMS. CITIES IN GEMEENL. Ford GANDHARA Hot YAL thel TAT 19 wype MACCHAWAMAT MAR SO SALA BASTA ay nearen * S NAJML VIDEHA LANG w Yon NA nalan N MALAYA ALIK AVANT LALALA 2. 1 YANGA A Tasuta Videa ANTTI VVNNYA SA Lyme MIS ALINGA a . YA ! ADAMANA MANDA

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BTAIN ARYAN COUNTRIES 25: 7 KURU (GAYAPURA) Kuru is identified with Kuruksctra or Thaneshwar Gayapura or Hatthinapura (Hastinapu) was included among the ten capital cities of Jain India Hitthinapura was visited by Mahavia and Pasa. S KUS TTT (SORIY 1) Kusarta was situated in north of Surasena (Mathuri) Soriyapura which is identified with Batcsar nsai Sakurabad station in Agra district, was situated on the bank of the Jumna Souryapu a was the birthplace of Kanha Vasudeya and Iritihanemi Soilyapura was frequcnted by Msahavila PINCILA IMPI LAPUR 1 Pancala is identified with Rohilkhand Kampillapua, which is identificd with modern Kampil in Tanukhabad district, was situated on the bank of the Ganges It was included among the ten capital citics of Jain India It is mentioncd that Kumpillapura was visited by Pisi and Mahatua 10 JIIGALA (AHIC CII ITT V) Jangala comprised the tract between the Ganges and noi th Pancala Ahicchatta, which is identified with modern Ramnagai in Bueilly district, was situated to the north-Wut of Campa 1 hcic was icgular trade between the two cities Ahicchati i was considcicd a holy place and was enumerated with Alihavay, Ujjinta, Gayaggapura Dhammacakka and Rahavatta mountain It is sud tint Ahicchatta was visited by Parsva. 11 SUR AITII (BARAT AI) It is mentioned that Surattha (Kathiawai was 1 non-liyan country, but from thc time of hing Sampinti it wis clccleucd suitablc for the preachings of the Jain monks It is said that Kilih i icarya had biought here ninety six kings from Pucia, and conscquently this counti y was divided into six manilalas Suratth Wis a contic of tiadc and commerce and a numbei of mrich ints used to visit this country Baravai (Dwajarati) is described as a beautiful and prosperous city. To the north-west to the city was situated the mountain Revaya (Girnar), which is described as dea) to the Dasara hings where Aritthanemi is said to have attained salvation It is said th it Autthanemi ordained a number of persons here including Paumayati the qucen of Kanha and the sons of Kanha and Baladeva It is mentioned that, as predicted

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254 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA by Aritthanemi, Baravai was destroyed due to excessive drinking and by fire. Baravai was a sea-port and being a centre of trade, was visited by various merchants and tradesmen. 12 VIDEHA (MIHILA) Lord Mahavira was born in Videha which is identified with modern Tirhut. Mihila, which is identified with Janakpur within the border of Nepal, was included among the ten capital cities of Jain India. It is mentioned that this town was visited by Mahavira and Ajja Mahagiri. 13 VACCHA (KOSAMBI) Vaccha was known as Vamsa or Vatsa in the Buddhist literature ; it was the region near Prayag. Kosambi, which is identified with Kosam in Allahabad district, was included among the ten capitals of Jain India It was situated on the bank of the river Jumna It is said that Kosambi was visited by Pasa, Mahavira, Ajja Suhatthi and Ajja Mahagiri. King Sayaniya was a well-known ruler of Kosambi. After he died, Udayana ascended the throne and governed the kingdom. 14 SANDIBBHA OR SANDILYA (NANDIPURA) Sandilya may be identified with Sandilla, a town in Oudh. Nandipura may be identified with Nundgaon in Oudh 10 MALAYA (BHADDILAPURA) Malaya, which was located in south of Magadha, was counted among the sixteen Janapadas. Bhaddilapura, which is identified with the Kuluha hill in the Hazaribagh district, was the birthplace of the tenth Titthayara and was visited by Mahavira, who is said to have passed fifth rainy season here. 16 VACCHA OR MATSYA (VAIRADA). Matsya is identificd with modern Alwar and Jaipur territories Vairada is identified with the region forty one miles to the north of Jaipur. 17 VARANA OR VARUNA (ACCHA) Varana was known by the name of Uccanagara which is identified with Bulandshahar in the United Provinces Uccanagari is mentioned as a saha of the Jain sramanas. Accha is included among the sixteen Janapadas.

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THE JAIN ARYAN COUNTRIES 255 18 DASANNA (MATTIYAVAI) Dasanna is identified with eastern Malwa. King Dasannabhadda, who was ordained by Mahavira, is said to have reigned in this country. Mattiyayai is identified with the country of the Bhojas by the side "of Parnasa (Banas). 19 CELI (SUTTIMAI) King Sisupala was known as the lord of Cedi which is modern undelkhand. Suttimai was located near Banda in the Central Provinces. 20 SINDHU SOIR 1 (ILBH 1Y12.1UJVA) According to Abhayadeva, the country of Sovira or modein Sindh was situated near the river Sindhu and hence it was known SindhuSovira. * Virbhaya may be identified with Bhcia in the Punjab 21 SUR SCNA (MATIURT) Mahura was the capital of Surasena which is identified with the region round Mathura Mathura was one of the most ancient places and was included among the ton capitals of Jain India Mathura was a great centre of the Jains It is said that nincty six villages were attached to it, where people installed the images of A hat in then houses and the courtyards. There was a jewelled thipa in Matliura over which a quarrel is recorded to have arisen betwcen Jains and Buddhists In later literature of the Jains, however, five slupas arc rcfcrred to in Mathura. Mathura is said to have been visited by Mahavira, Aya Alangu and Ajja Rakkhiya Mathula was a centre of hci etical ascetics and was known for the pilgrimage to the templc of Bhandira Jakkha 28 Mathura was a centre of trade People lived here on trade and not on agriculture The goods were carried here by land There was a ficc trade between Mabura, also known as Uttara Mahura, and Dakkhina Mahura or Pandu Mahura. n nuANICI (DADA) Bharga or Bhangi included the districts of Hazaribagh and Manbhum. Mahavira is said to have attained salvation at Papa It is said that the real name of this place was Apava and after the death of Mahavira it came to be called Pava But this is different from above 30 The V1.dhatirtha Kalpa (P 18) menuons the following garden (vana) in Mathura Lohajangha, Mahu, Billa, Tala, Kumua, Vin la, Bhandira, Khaira, Kama, Kola ,

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256 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA 23 PURIVATIA (MASAPURI) Masapuri was the capital of Purivatta. Masapuri is mentioned as a saha of the Jain sramanas. This country is not identified. 24 KUNALA(SAVATTHI) It is recorded that the country of Kunala was destroyed by flood"! and after thirteen years of this incident Mahavira attained he alahood Savatthi was included among the ten capitals of Jain India, and was visited by Pasa and his chief disciple Kesikumara A historical meeting is said to have taken place here between Kesi and Goyama, the two representatives of Pasa and Mahavira respectively. Savatthi was visited by Mahavira frequently Savitthi was six leagues north of Saketa and was situated on the bank of Aciravati." 28 25 LADHA (KODIVARISA) Ladha or Radha, which comprised the modern District of Hoogly, Howrah, Bankura, Burdwan and the east portion of Midnapur, was included among the sixteen Janapadas This country was divided into Vajjabhumi and Subbhabhumi It is said that there were very few villages in this country and its inhabitants were generally hostile to the ascetics. Mahavira travelled in this country and had to undergo much suffering It is said that Cilaya, a Mleccha king, was reigning in Kodivarisa who joined the order under Mahavira in Saketa. Kodivarisa is identified with modern Dinajpur. 25} -KEYAIADDHA (SEYAVIYA) Most probably Jainism did not penetrate the whole of this country and perhaps a few people came under the sphere of Jain influence and so half of this country is included among Aryan countries Kekaya was situated at the base of Nepala in the north-east of Savatthi and should be considered different from Kekaya of the Ramayana in the north Seyaviya was visited by Mahavira, who having crossed the Ganges proceeded to Surabhipura from here. Seyaviya is identified with Setavya of the Buddhists. 27 Cf. the Pali legends record that Anithapindika, the famous donor of the Jetavana monastery in Sravasti lost eighteen crores by the action of river Aciravati, Diam napada A. III, p 10, also Vol. I, p. 360. 23 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p 40.

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MAHAVIRA 1500 5.0 SCALE! 1 : 4,000,000 SEYA NA SAVATTU SAGEYA ALABHIYA R. GANOK) MIHILA KOPIVARISA KOSAMBI VARANASI THUNAKA KOLLAGA VESALI KUNDAPURA VANIYAGAMA KAYAAGALA BHADDEYA CAMPA KAYAGE MAJJMAA PAVA ORAYA GIMA LADHA GOBHUMI YAJSABKULALI UNNAYA LORAGGALA SUMSUM ARPURA PURIMATALA SIDDHATTHAPURA SUMBHABHIMAS RArndeni! PERMALGAMA VALUYA SUCCHATTA Alor TOSALI

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CHAPTER III MAHIVIRA'S ITINERARY Mahavira was thuty years old when with the perm ssion of his clder brother Nandivardhana and other ielatives, he renounced the world and vith a diyine garment (deradossal left Kundaggama in the dark of migaitsa on the tenth day in w.nter Followed by thousands of people, Lahavira reached the garden of Niya andaiana, which lay in the outkirts of Kundaggama, lo the north-cast direction where the renunciation ceremony was performed with great pomp TIRSTI IR en The same day in the riching Mahiira left Nayasania and sct out for Kummaragams There Wurt (Honoutc, lcarling to Kummira, onc by water and another by lund Mahavil aprelcucd the latter and having reached thcrc, stood in mr litation Machama w is caused trouble hic by a cowherd who took lum tc be a thicf and wanted to hit luim Vert day Mahavira proceeded to hollaha Sanni (sa where he biolc his fast From there he proceeded to Woraga Sunni esa and sojouned in a helrmitage. Next day Mahauira Icit Moraga Sannivcsa and after a period of eight months returned to thr same place again He put up here in a shut, but he had to lcasc this place icrt soon Then Vahanita plocccdcd to Atthiyagama and sojourned in the shrine of Sulapani Here Sulapani Jakkha is said to have caused minifold liouble to Mahavild wuch he endured patiently and alsscd fist sainy scason in Itthuvag imi SECOND YLIR Fiom Atthivag im lihvita set out foi llojaga Saincse again where lived an asectic named Acchandala Chen Vlahivira proceeded to Vacala, wh ch was divided into Italia ila and Dalhin cild, and between them flowed the rivers Suvannahuland Ruppahulit lahavira was going 10m Dukhiravacala to Ittaialacala when the remaining hall of his gument was caught in thc thoins on thc bank of Suvannakula, and Iron this tim" il 15 ud that the Icache went about naked Now thcie wlic two loutcs to Uttarai acala, one passing right through the liermitago namcu Kanahahhala and another from outside it The former, which wa, morc difficult, was chosen by Mahara where he was caused much trouble by 1 POISOulous scipcnt From here Mahavira proceeded to Scyauli wluchay ncar the abovc hci mitage and where he was received by king Paesi Then thc reachel crosscd the Ganges and The first half was already given to a Brahmana in the garden Vayasan la bufore Mahavira luft for Kumin uagama

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258 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA reached Surabhipura and from there proceeded to Thunaka Sannivesa and stood in meditation there Then Mahavira reached Rayagiha and sojourned in a weaver's shed in Nalanda where he passed second rajny season. Here Gosala met him and the two of thcm lcft for Kollaga THIRD YEAR From Kollaga Mahavira and Gosala proceeded to Suvannakhalaya, then to Bambhanagama and then to Campa where the Teacher passcd third rainy season. FOURTH YEAR From Campa Mahavira and Gosala reached Kalaya Sannivesa and thence to Pattakalaya It is stated that Gosala was insulted at these places for his misbehaviour Then both reached Kumaraya Sanniyesa, where Mahavira stood in mcditation in the garden Camparamanija Then both travelled to Coraga Sannivesa where they were taken to be spies and were made prisoners From here Mahavira and Gosala proceeded to Pitthicampa where the Teacher passed fourth rainy season FIFTH YEAR From Pitthicampa Mahavira and Gosala proceeded to Kayangala Here some ascctics were staying with their families Gosala is said to have maltreated them and was punished for his misdemeanour Thon both reached Savatthi and then proceeded to Haledduga. Here there was a big turmeric tree where Mahavira stood in meditation and his feet are said to have burnt by fire Then both reached Nangala where Malavira stood in meditation in the Vasudeva temple. Here again Gosala was punished for his misdemeanour They then proceeded to Avattagama where Mahavira stood in meditation in the Baladeva temple Gosala was taken to task and punished again Then both reached Coraya Sannivesa From there both journeyed to Kalambuka Sannivesa where both were tied by Kalahasti and were beaten; later on, they were sct at liberty by his brother Megha who is said to have seen Mahavira in Khattiyakunda Then both proceeded to the country of Ladha where Mahavira had to endure various kinds of painful sufferings Then the two of them reached Punnakalasa where some robbers made an attempt on Mahavira's life with sword From there both journeyed to the city of Bhaddiya where the Teacher passed fifth rainy season. SIXTH YEAR From Bhaddiya Mahavira and Gosala proceeded to Kayalisama. gama, then to Jambusanda and then to Tambaya Sanniycsa Then they

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MAHAVIRA'S ITINERARY 259 reached Kuviya Sannivesa where they were taken as spies and were taken prisoners , later on, both were released by two sisters named Vijaya and Pragalbha Now Gosala refused to move in the company of Vahavira and said that since he had to bear insult every now and then, he would like to go his own way. So Mahavira left for Vesali and, having reached there, stood in meditation in a blacksmith's shed It is mentioned that the blacksmith, seeing Mahavira naked, ran to hit him Then Mahavira travelled towards Gamaya Sannivesa where he was honoured by Vibhelaka Jakkha From here Mahavira proceeded to Salisisayagama, and was caused trouble by the demoness Kataputana Here Gosala joined Mahavira again after six months Finally Mahavira visited Bhaddiya, and passed sixth rainy season there SEVENTH YEAR Then Mahavira and Gosala travelled in the country of Magadha and the Teacher passed seventh rainy season in Alabhiya TIGIITH YCAR From Alabhiya both piocceded to Kundaga Sannivesa where Mahavira stood in meditation in the temple of Vasudeva It is mentioned that Gosala was beaten here for his misbehaviour Then both set out for Maddanagama and sojourned in the Baladeva temple Then both journeyed to Bahusalagagama where Mahavira was caused trouble by Salejja vanam intari From here both proceeded to the capital Lohaggala where the royal servants took them to be spies of the enemy and tied them Later on, both were set fice by Uppala who is said to have arrived there from Atthiyagama Afterwards both proceeded to Purimitala where Mahavira stood in mcditation in the garden of Sagadamuha From there they proceeded to Unnaga and from thcrc journeyed to Goblumi At last both reached Rayagiha and the Tcacher passed eighth rainy season here NINTH YEAR From Rayagiha Mahavira and Gosala proceeded to Ladha, a nonAryan country and travelled in Vajjabhumi and Subbhabhumi, where Mahavira had to undergo all sorts of tortues Somclimcs pcoplc surrounded him and set dogs upon him uttering 'u cu' Mahavila could not get any shelter here ; he passed ninth jainy scason in this country? At Pakbira in the Manthum district, a colossal palcd Sgured Vita da te ne ne of Bhiram is still worshused by the people (Dust Caz of Marbled p 6]).

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260 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA TENTH YEAR From Ladha Mahavira and Gosala journeyed to Siddhatthapura and from there proceeded to Kummagama Then both returned to Siddhatthapura Here Gosala again severed his connection with Vahivira and reached Savatthi. Mahavira left for Vesali where the republican king Sankha is said to have saved him from the trouble caused by the town-children Then Mahavira crossed the river Gandai by boat and reached Vaniyagama and then proceeded to Savatthi where the Tcacher passed tenth rainy season. ELEVENTH YEAR From Savatthi Mahavira left for Sanulatthiyagama and then proceeded to Dadhabhumi, a land of the Mlecchas. From here the Lord proceeded to Pedhilagama and stood in meditation in the garden of Pedhala in the shrine of Polasa. Mahavira is said to have suffered extreme pains in this land. From here the Teacher journeyed to Valuyagama, Subhoma, Succhetta, Malaya and finally to Hatthisisa At all these places Mahavira had to suffer extreme torture. Then Mahavira set out for Tosali where he was taken to be a robber and was hit hard. Then the Teacher journeyed to Mosali, where he was taken to be a robber and will brought to the king's court, but was released From here Mahivila ieturned to Tosali where again he was caused trouble and was actually to be hanged but was luckily rescued by Tosali Ksatriya Then Mahavila set out for Siddhatthapura from where he proceeded to Vayagsima At all these places Mahavira is said to have endured pains and toiluics for a period of six months From Vayaggama the vencrable ascctic procceded to Alabhiya and then journeyed to Scyaviya and then proceeded towards Savatthi Then the Teacher set out for Kosambi, Vanarasi, Ravagiha, Mihila and finally passed eleventh sainy scasons in Vesali TWELFTH YEAR From Vasalithe Teacher reached Sumsgumarapura and then proceccled to Bhogapura Then he left for Nandiggama and from there journeyed to Mendhiyagama. Then Mahavira proceeded to Kosambi, where he received his alms after a period of four months. From Kosambi Mahavira set out for Sumangalgama, and then he procceded to Palayagama Tiom here the Teacher reached Campa and passed twelfth rainy season here THIRTEENTH YEAR From Camp, Mahavira reached Jambhiyagama, and then journeyed to Mendhiyagama Then he proceeded to Chammanigama where a cow-herd is said to have thrust iron nails into his ears. Mahavira arrived

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MAHAVIRA'S ITINERARY 261 at Majjhima Pava in this condition when the nails were rcmoved from his ears. From here the Teacher travelled towards Jambhiyagama where on the northern bank of the river Ujjuvaliya, in the faim of the householder Samaga, under a sala trec, in north-east of the Veyavatta shunc, aftei a period of 12 years, 6 months and 15 days, Mahavira attaincd omniscience (kevala) on the bright tenth day of varstakha 3 After Mahavira attained kevalhood, a samarasarana (i eligious conference) was held on the bank of the river Ujjuvaliya, but it is said that the first preaching of Mahavi a iemained unsuccessful Then after tiaversing twelve yojanas, Mahavira is said to have returned to Majjhima Pava where the second samavasarana was convened in the garden of Alaha. sena. Here, after a long discussion on various religious and philosophic points, Mahavira ordained the eleven learncd B. ahmins mentioned already. Thus we see that after twelve years of severe penance and meditation Mahavira attained omniscience at the age of forty two, and lived thereafter for thirty years to preach his religion According to the Kalpasutra, since Mahavira renounced the life of a householder, he spent for ty two rainy seasons at the following places He stayed the first sainy scason in Atthiyaggama, three rainy scasons in Camp and Pitthicampa, and cight in Vasali and Vaniyagama These twelve vainy seasons Mahavila passed during his ascetic life before he attained omniscience Then during the thirty years of his career as a Teacher, Mahavira spent four rainy seasons in Vesali and Vaniyagama, fourteen in Rayagiha and Nalandu, six in Mithila, two in Bhaddiya, one in Alabhiya, one in Panni abhumi one in Savatthi and one in the town of Pava in the office of the curvey-nlinistcis of king Hatthivala which was the last rainy scason of thc Teachei Thus the Kalpasulo's authority on the itincraiy of Alahiviia is ancient and fauly reliablc It is cvidcnt fiom thc Kalpasuhia that the ground which Mahavina covcicd during his ascetic life is roughly by Biliai, a part of northern-westein Bengal and a part of castein UP The tradition which mentions his visit to Vitibhaya, which according to the Jain tradition was the capital of Sindhu Sovila, to preach to king Uddayana, is of very doubtful ve acity The earliest icference to this visit is found in the Bhagavati and later on certain Curnis perpetuate the tradition It is quite possible that in later times, when Jainism spead to Western India, the Jains did come in contact with the people of Sindhu Sovira, and to prove that their connection with that part of the country was not new, the story of Mahavira's visit seems to havc originated In this connection it is interesting to note that Buddhism, when it spread to the Punjab 8 Ara. Nu, 458-527, Ala Bha III , Ara.cu pp 208-23, halta. J, Aca. II 3 Cuila Bhag 15. 4 Kalta, Ti, 5 121, Ava Mir 540 ff. 5 5 123,

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262 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA and beyond, produced a literature which expressly mentions Buddha visiting those far off lands, which as a matter of fact seems to be quite absurd and analogous process, though on much lesser scale is evident in the Tain scriptures Jainism, however, never spread outsides the confines of India, neither there is proof that it gained a foot-hold in the Punjab at any time Hence Jainism had very few opportunities to sanctify the places in the Punjab with the presence of its Tirtharikaras.

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CHAPTER IV GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON In order to arrange systematically the mass of geographical material in the Jain canons and their commentaries, we have felt it advisable to place it in alphabetical order, together with their descriptions as given in the Jain texts, their places of references and identification and location wherever possible. Abbuya_a mountain Abbuya is mentioned with Pabhasa where sankhadi (a feast) was celebrated. Abbuya is identical with Mount Abu in the Suohi State of Rajputana It is one of the five sacred hills of the Jains, others being Satrunjaya, Samet Sikhar, Girnar and Candragiri." Abhira--a country This country was visited by Ajja Samiya3 and Vairasami 4 Abhira was situated in Daksinapatha and Tera (Tagara) was a beautiful city of this country. Acalaggama-city Acalaggama was situated in Magadha. A royal road (raya paha) is mentioned in Ayalaggama.? Its exact situation is not known. Acalapurama town (ahitthana) Acalapura was situated in Abhira The rivers Kanha and Benna flowed near the town, and between them was the Island Bambhadiva, a habitat of five hundred tavasas. It is identified with modern Ellichpur in Berar. 1 Brh Bha , 1 3150 2 Dey, GDP 10 8 Ava, Ti,p 614a , unless other Wise stated such references should be taken to the com. mentary of Malayaguri 4 Ava, CG, p. 397. 6 Brhatkathakosa 138 39f, 56 52 For the race of the Abhiras see Bhandarkar Vaignauism, Saivism, etc., 37. 6 Uttara. Ti, 18, p. 243, also cf Marana 440, p. 126a 7 Vasu ,p 197. & Panda Nur ,503, Ava. TI., p. 514a; Nandi, p. 50a.

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264 LIPE IN ANCIENT INDLA Accha--a kingdom Accha is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries and the sixteen Janapadas ; Varana or Varuna was its capital Accha may be identified with the region round Bulandshahar in United Provinces (see Varana) Adamba ? (Ambada) - country Ambada is mentioned along with Bahali, Illa, Jonaga, Pallava and Suvannabhumi Usabha, the first Tirthankara, is said to have travelled these countries. (See infra Ambada). Addapura (Andrakapura--a city) Addapura was situated in a non-Aryan country (mcecchari saya) King Ardraka was ruling over here He is mentioned to be a contemporary of king Scniya and to have sent him presents.20 It cannot be located However, Adra, an important railway station is situated in the Manbhum district in Bengal. Adi or dvi--a nrver Idi or Ivi is one of the five great tributory rivers of the Ganges, otheis being Jauna, Sarau, Kosi and Mahi "l Idi or Avi seems to be the same as Eravai or Aciravati or Ajiravati which is mentioned as one of the five great rivers in Pali literature, and may bc identified with Rapti in Oudh. Ahicchatta - crly Ahicchatta was the capital of Jangala, which is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. This city was situated to the north-east? (north-west) of Campa and was a busincss centre la It is mentioned as a holy place along with Atthavaya, Ujjinta, Gayaggapura, Dhammacakka and Rahavatta. Parsvanatha was worshipped here by Dharanendra.18 According to the Vividhatirthakalpa, Sankhavai was another name of Ahicchatra. It was also called Pratyagrarathals or Sivapuri. o Aa. Nu , 336. 10 Suya II 6 11 Tha 5. 470. 13 Vava 13, p 138. 13 Aca Nir. 333. 14 P 14 16 Abhidhana. IV. 26. IG Kalpa 6, p. 167.

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265 According to the Mahabharata, northern Pancala had its capital at Ahicchatra o Chati avati, while southern Pancala at Kampilya. Ahicchatra is identical with modern Ramnagar in the Barcilly district." Akkasthali GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON Akkasthali and Anandapura are mentioned as two different places.18 Akkatthala was one of the five places mentioned in Mathura others being Virathala, Paumatthala, Kusatthala and Mahathala 19 Alabhiya-a city It is said that Alabhiya was a centic of the samanora agas20 and was visited by Mahavira 21 From here he proceeded to Kundaka Sannivesa. At another time he travelled heic from Vayaggama and proceeded to Seyaviya 23 Alabhiya was also visited by Gosala 24 Alabhiya is mentic ncd as Ilavi in Buddhist literature and was located thirty yojanas from Savatthi and twelve jojanas from Benaies It lay between Savatthi and Rajag ha and Buddha spent rainy season here 25 Alasanda-a country It is said that Bharata conquered this country (see Anga). In Milindapanha Alasanda is mentioned with China, Benai es, Gandhara and other counties 28 The Maharamsa refers to the town of Alasanda which was the chief city of the Yona teritory 27 It is identified with the town of Alexandria founded by Alexander near Kabul in the Palopanisade country' 28 Amalakappa-a city It is mentioned that Tinalakappa was visited by Pasa2a and Maha vira. Amalakkappa is identical with Allakappa of Buddhist literature. Perhaps Allakappa lav not very far from Vethadipa,30 which is stated to be situated on the way from Masar in Shahabad district to Vaisali 17 CAGI, pp 13, 705 18 Nisi Cu, 11 p 23 (MSS) 19 Vu p 18 10 Bhag, 11 12 See Supra, p 259 23 Ibid 21 Ava Nir, 516 34 Ibid, 15 also La 5 15 Malalasekain, Dictionary of Puli Profer Names, under lavi," also see P HAI p. 160, Hoernle, a Appendix, pp 51-53 notes Milindapanha p 327 20 37 XXIX 39 28 Maha amsa trans, p 194 see also Dr Sylvain Levi's article "Alexander and Alexandria in Indian Literature, 'I HQ, 1936, p 121 ff 20 Naya II, p 222 Ria Su 1, Ara Cu, II, 190. 80 GT B, 24 e

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266 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Anandapura-a city Anandanura was situated near the mountain-range of Vindhya 21 It was a centre of trade where goods were carried by land route, by carts and other vehicles. It is said that the walls of the city were made of bricks. The citizens of Anandapura visited the river Saraswati and celebrated feast there.88 Anandapura was a centre of Jain monks, 34 who are said to have travelled from here to Mathura 86 Anandapura is identified with Vadnagar in northern Gujerat, seventy miles south of Sidhpur 86 Andha--a country Andhra was considered as a non-Aryan country, but king Sampai is said to have opened it for movement of the Jain monks, along with the countries of Surattha, Dravida, Maharastra and Kudukka.37 It is said that the people of Andha were known for their cruel disposition (akuramata).38 Rice was called here idaku 89 Andhradesa is the country between the Godavari and the Krishna including the district of Krishna 40 Andhapura-a city It is said that king Anandha was ruling over this city.47 Andhapura is mentioned in the Buddhist Jatakas. It was the capital of Andhra and was situated on the Telavaha river.49 Arga--a kingdom Anga is mentioned as one of the sixteen Janapadas and was included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Campa as its capital. Angaloka is mentioned together with the countries of Simhala, Babbara, Cilayaloka, Javanadiva, Arabaka, Romaka, Alasanda and Kaccha which were conquered by Bharata.* In Buddhist literature, Anga is included among the sixteen MahaJanapadas.14 81 Pinda Nur . Ti , 83, p 31 33 Ibid , 1 3150 1 Bth Bha Vr i 1090, ibid , 1 1123 34 Suya Cup 253 36 Misi Cu,p 5, p 434 GDP 0 Brh Bha , 1 3289, Nisi Cu,5, p 438 Vya Bha 7 126 p 2ta , also cf Mahabha, IV 119 where Andhras are described as a rude race 89 BTh Bha Vr Pi, 57 40 GEB, 62, also PHA 1, pp 78, 258 41 Brh Bha, 45226 4) I, p 111,GEBP 24 Jambu Su , 32, p 217 a, Ara Ci,p 191 The countries mentioned arc Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vaji, Malla, Ceti, Vamsa Kuru Pancala Marcha, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kamboja, Angutiara I, p 213

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 267 It is identical with the country about the modern districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr.45 Anjana-a mountain This mountain is referred to in the Avasyaka Curni 16 Anjana Pavvaya is one of the six peaks of the Himalaya from which rose the five great rivers and round which were the seven lakes.47 It is identified with the Suleiman range in the Punjab. 48 Antaranja or Antaranji-a city 40 Antaranjiya is mentioned in the Thananga' Antai anjiya 15 mentioned as a sahi of the Jain samanas in the Kalpasutra.50 It may be identified with Atranji-khera situated on the right bank of the Kali nadi, four miles to the south of Karsana and cight miles to the north of Etah.51 Aojjha, Avajjha or Ujha2-a uty Aojjha was the capital of Kosala which is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries Aojjha is described as the birthplace of the second and fourteenth Tirthankaras 53 (See also Ikkhagabhumi; Kosala, Saketa, Vinita, Visaha). During the Buddhist period, Ayojjha on the Sarayu was the capital of Daksina Kosala, while that of Uttara Kosala was Savatthi on the Rapti. The capital cities of Kosala were Savatthi and Saketa Ayodhya is about four miles from Fyzabad and phonetically corresponds to modern Oudh.54 Apapa, Majjhima Pava or Para--a city It is said that Mahavira ti avelled here from Chamani and proceeded to Jambhiyagama where he attained kevalahood at the bank of the river Ujjuvaliya 48 G. D., p 7. 48 p. 516 41 Malalasekara, op cit, under "Anjana." 48 G. D., p. 8 49 7.587. Also A.a cu, p. 121 50 8, p 231. 61 C. A. G I, p 418f 1 According to the Vidhatirthakalpa (p 24), Aujjha, Avajjha, Kosala, Viniya, Sakeya, Ikkhagubhumi, Ramapuii and Kosala are other names of Ayodhya. SB Ava. Nir, 382, 323 G. E. B, pp 5, 231 54 See Supra, p 261.

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268 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA According to the Vividhatirthakalpa, Majjhimapava was called Apavapuri but since Mahavira died here, it was changed into Pavapuri. It is identified with Pawapuri scven miles to the cast of Bihar town in Bihar 57 Arakkhuri-a city It is stated that Arakkhuri was situated on the border (paccantanagara) of Campa.58 Its exact situation is not known. Aritthapura or Ritthapura--a city Aritthapura is mentioned in the commentary of the Panhavagarana 5 Aritthapura is mentioned in Pali literature. It was the capital city of the Sivi kingdom. It lay on the road from Mithila to Pancala Asztagirima mountain This mountain was situated near Ujjeni.o1 Its exact situation is not known. Asivovaddava--a cily It is mentioncd in the commcntary of the Uttaradhyayana Its exact location is unknown. Atthavaya-a mountain It is said that Usabha attained salvation at this mountain " Anths Vaya was also visited by Goyama." (Sce also Ahicchatta). It is mentioned that this mountain was conncctcd with Voyadda and was eight yojanas in height and at its foot flowed the river Niyadi." A description of this mountain is given in the Trsastusalakripurusalarita 68 It was called Astupada bccause around it cight stcps were made It was also known as Haradri, Kailasa and Sphatikadri o7 Atthavaya is identical with Kailasa which is Kangrinpoche of the Tibetans, situated about twenty five miles to the north of Manasayovara beyond Gangri.98 56 P. 44. Dust. Gaz Parna. ALa Nur., 1297, also seu Ayu II, p. 229, l'asu. P 79 4, p. 88, sce also Vasu., p 364 f 60 Malalasekara, op cit, under "Aritthapura 81 Aca Nur , 1304 Thu Varl (281) also mention Asiyagiri, but it was tvaird 1" Kosala. 81 1, p. 6. 63 Jambu Su, 70, p 278 66 Vol I, 8 78 1t, p 332 If 94 Ala, r., 307 alsu L'ition. Cu., p 180 87 Ibid ,p 370) 08 Vasu., pp. 309. 335. 68 G. D, p. 82.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 269 Althiyaggama-a village The older name of Atthiyaggama was Vaddhamina, where a temple was built upon an enormous heap of boncs (alth) of the people and hence it came to be known as Attliyagguma Mahavira is said to havc journcycd to this place from Moraga Sannivesa The river Veyavai flowed near this village. Mahavira is said to have passed first rainy season at this place.ee Dr. Law identifies it with Hatthigama which lay on the high road from Vaisali to Pava. To Avdhaa kingdom Avaha is mentioned as one of the sixteen Janapadas in the BhagaIt is not identified. vati 11 dvakkhanda or Avararkada (?) Avakkhanda is mentioned as an unholy place (kutitha) +9 The text seems to be conlupt and hence the place cannot be identified. Avanti-a kingdom Ujjeni was the capital of Avanti (see Ujjeni). Avanti roughly corresponds to modern Malw , Nimar and adjoiring parts of the Central Piov11CCS Avanti was divided into two parts: the northern part had its capital at Ujjeni, and the southern part, called Avanti Daksinapatha, had its capital at Mahissati or Mahismati.73 Avarakanha-acily It is stated that talaka uka wasituated in thic Dhayaiblandadiva,"4 a mythical region It is not identificd. Avattagama-a village Mahavira is stated to have journeyed to this place from Nangala and proceeded to Coraya Sannivcsa from hcrc. Its exact situation is not known. 09 See Supra., p. 257 10 Mahal nails Life and trackungs, p. 33. 11 Sce Supra 73 Nui Cu 11, p 685 Bhandarkai, Charmuhal Lectures, 1918, p. 64. 74 Vaja , 10, p 185f Scc Supta 258 TUDI

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270 LITE IN ANCIENT INDIA Bahala-a country This country was noted for its horses ; 78 barley-meal (sattu) is mentioned as a common food here." It is the same as Vahika situated in the plains of the Punjab alongside Madra desa, between the Chenab and Sutlej 18 Bahali-a country Takkhasila was the capital of Bahali.78 It is said that Usabha en trusted the kingdom of Vinita lo Bharata and that of Bahali to Bahubali, and renounced the throne.80 It was a non-Aryan country and the maid. servants were brought from here.81 It is the same as Vablika and is identified with Balkh in modern Afghanistan. (See also Adamba). Bahusalaga-a village It is said that Mahavira journeyed to this place from Maddana and proceeded to the capital Lohaggala sa Its exact situation is not known. Bambhadiva-an island It is said that Bambhadiva was situated between the rivers Kanha and Benna, where five hundred monks ac said to have joined the Jain order of ascetics These lavasas83 were the forcrunners of thc Bambhadiviga saha of the Jain siamanas mentioned in the Kalpasutra,84 Its exact location is not known. Bambhanagama-a village It is stated that Mahaviz a journeyed to this place from Suvannakhalaya and procceded to Campa 85 Its cxact situation is not known. Bambhatthalaya-a city It is stated that the sixth Tirthankara received his first alms here.86 T6 Ava Nir , p. 679. 17 Aca. Ti , i.1, p. 4a. T8 Dr Motichand's article; Gcographical and Economic Studies in the Mahabharata JU P.S. Vol. XVII, pt. I, pp. 46 f. TO Ava. Ca ,p 180. 30 Ibid., p. 160. Naya, 1, p. 21. 81 Sce Supra., p. 269. 88 Ava Ti., p. 514a. 86 8, p 233. 36 See Supra., p. 238. 86 Ava. Nir , 323.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 271 It seems that Bambhatthalaya was another name of Hatthinaura. It is said in the Vasudevahindi that wherever the venerable ascetic Usabha travelled in Halthinupura for alms, people made a jewel-seat (manipidhiya) in his honour and since then came into being Bambhatthala 87 Bannasa-a river It is said that the coin was cultivated by flood in this river. 88 Several rivers of this name are noticed It is difficult to identify this river. Buravai--a city Baravi (Dxaravati) was the capital of Surattha which is counted among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. Baravi is described in several texts of the Jains and mentioned as nine yojanas in extension and twelve in length, sunounded by the stone walls 59 To the north-east of the city was located the mountain Revaya" and nearby was the Nandanayana garden with the shrine of Surappia Jakhha 91 Baravai was the home of Andhagavanhi and Kanha Vasudeva." It is said that Bara ai was restroyed by the sagc Divayana due to the excessive drinking of the Yadava princes P4 Baravai was a contic of trade 9 and people travelled here from Nepala pattana) by boat inca) 86 In the l'asude i ahindi, Basag is mentioned as a chief town of the four Janapadas, viz , Inattha, Kusuttha, Surattha and Sukkarattha.87 ACcording to the Jahibhirulo, 02 account of the pressure of Jarasandha, Krsna left Mathura and founded the city of Dvaraka near the mountain Raivataka.98 Baravai is identified with modern Junagadh situated very near the Raivataka hills and is different from Dvaraka on the sea-shore. Benna-anzer The city of Bennayada was situated on the bank of the river Benna.100 It is identified with the Wain Ganga in the Central Provinces. It is a tributary of the Godavari 101 31 p 165, df C G I , pp 306-18. 88 Brh Bha Vr. i 1239 18 See eg , Naya , 3, p. 68, Anta., 1, p.4f; Nirya 5; Brh. Bha., 1. 1123. 90 Naya, 5, p 68. 92' Ibid, p. 5. 01 Anta, 1. p. 4f 33 Naya,5, p 68. Anta , 5, P 25, also Ale. Ver 325, Ava. Cu, 1, p. 19. Ava Cu, p 553 Nisi Cu,p 110 (Miss) p 77. Sabha 14,, for the description of Dvaraka, see op cit 57; Harizarsa (II. 58); sce also Ghata Jataka No 434), IV, p. 82 ff 10 VK Bhattasali, I I. O, 1936 pp 541-50 100 4ra ( p 547. 101 Dist, Gaz. Bhandara, 1908, pp. 240 ff.

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272 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Bennayada or Vennayada--a city The city was situated on the bank of the Benna and hence it was called Bennayada.102 It was a centre of trade and the merchants landed here with various merchandise while rcturning from Paasakula 103 It is said that Bennayada was visited by Soniya when he was a prince 104 According to the Brhathathakosa, Vinyatatapua was located in Virata.106 Bhaddilapura--a city Bhaddilapura was the capital of Malaya which is counted among the twenty five and a half Az yan countries It is said that Bhaddilapuia was visited by Aritthancmi,100 and was the buthplace of the tenth Tutthu vara 107 It is identified with Bhadie, a village ncai Kuluha hill about six miles from Hunterganj in the Hazaribagh district, wluch sometimes back was reputed as thic bithplace of the tenth Ti thunhara, but cliriously enough it is now cntirely unknown to the jains 108 Bhaddiya-a city It is said that Mahavia passoul two ramy seasons hcrc. He is said to have journeyed hcrc fiom Punnakalasa and proceccled to Kasaliggama; at another time he travellcc lcic siuni Salisisa and proceeded to Magadha 109 Bhaddiya was a city in the Anga kingdom and was visited by Buddha 110 It is identified with modern Monghyr. 111 Bhanga or Bhangi--a kingdom Bhanga is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Pava as the capital. Bhanga is mentioned in the Mahabharata (II 31. 11). It included the districts of Hazai ibagh and Manbhum 111 103 Anu Su, 130, p 137. 101 Uttara Ti p 64, 104 Ava Cu, 546. 108 80 70F 106 Anta , 3, p 7f 101 Ava Nir, 383. 108 Dust Gaz Hazarzbagh, P 202. 101 See Supra. p 259 110 Dhammapada A , Vol I, p 384. 211 Rahul Sankrityayana, Vinaya Pitaka., p. 248n. 713 S.B.1, p. 379.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 278 Bhansurulaya (?) It is mentioned in the Nisitha Curni. It is said that at the time of the feasts the bahuraja ascetics assembled here.118 The text seems to be corrupt and hence it cannot be identified. Bharukacchaharani-a village This village was situated in Surattha.114 Its exact location is not known. Bharurakaciha-a city Bharuyakaciha wasa centre of trade and is quoted as an example of donamukha, where goods were carried by land route as well as water route."16 Bharuyakaccha was visited by acarya Vairabhui. 116 Here people celebrated the feast in honour of Kundalamentha, a vanamantara god, who is said to have built the tank Bhuyatalaya to the north of the city.118 The distance between Ujjeni and Bharuyakkacha is said to have been twenty five yojanas, which was traversed by Lohajangha, an errandcarrier of Pajjoya in one day 119 According to the Virudhatirthakalpa, Bharuaccha was the beauty of Lada 120 Bharukaccha is mentioned in the Buddhist Jatakas. It was a sea-port town from which the ships used to sail for different countries. It is identified with modern Broach.11 Bheranda It is said that Bheranda was known for its sugarcane.198 Its location cannot be identified. Bhillamala- city It is said that dramma, a silver coin, was current in this town.145 It is identified with modern Bhinmala, a town in the Jaswantpur, district of Jodhpur.194 111 12, p 810. 116 Vya. Bha , 10 10, Uttara Ti , 4, p. 78a. 111 Bth. Bha 'Vr, 1 1090 116 Vya. Bha , 3. 58 117 Brh Bha p 3150. 118 Ibid , 3 4220 f Ava. Cu , II, 160 p. 20. 121 CAGI, P. 374. 112 Jita , 3, 365. Bth Bha, Vs. 1. 1969 ; Nisi. Ca., 10. p. 618. Prabandhacintamani, 2, p. 68. C.A.G.I., p. 697.

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3274 1. LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Bhimapalli--a village - (see Vasantapura). Bhogakada--a city It is said that king Hatthimitta, the ruler of Ujjeni, took to the ascetic life and proceeded to Bhogakada 125 According to thc Vasudevahindi, Bhoyakada was situated ncar the Vindhya region 128 Reference is made to Bhojakata in the Bharhut inscriptions The Sabhaparva (32) of the Mahabharata mentions Bhojakata and Bhojakatapura as two places in the South conquered by Sahadeva Bhojakata is the same as Bhoja or Bhojya of the Puranas and it is a country of the Vindhya region "27 Bhogapura--a city It is said that Mahavira journeyed to this place from Sumsumarapura and proceeded to Nandiggama or Nandipura. Here he was caused considerable annoyance by Mahenda Khattiya 128 It is mentioned that a variety of stone was availablc here which was used for polishing the pots of the monks.129 Bhogagamanagara is mentioned in Pali literature Buddha proceeded to Pava from herc 130 It lay between Pava and vesali 191 Bhulissara-a holy place It is said that a poor Brahmana of Anandapura stood here in fast, but was asked to go to Kaccha and offer food to the savagas there. 132 It is not identifiable place. 138 Bhuyatalaya--a tank Bhuyatalaya was a tank to the north of Bharuyakatcha (See Bharuya"Saccha). Cakkapura--a city It is said that the seventh Titthayara received his first alms at this It is not identified. 115 Uttara cu. 2, p. 53 129 D 100. J17 GEBP 62, also P H A. I, p 77. 128 See Supra., p 260. 129 Pinda Nir T1 , 16 110 Digha II, p 126. 181 Sullantpata, V. I 38 191 Ava cu , II, 291. 188 Aua. Nhu, 325 , also Vast., p. 219.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON Camari--a village. It is mentioned that Camari was an inaccessible village of the Bh which was situated on thc way to Sankhapura from Varanasi. 184 It is not identifiable. disciple was also freque. Father Sejjambud its bcautiful Campa-a city Campa was the capital of Anga which was considered among the twenty five and a half Aryan countrics. Campa was included first among the ten ancient capitals of India 135 Campa is enumcratcd as a holy place along with the mountain Sammeya, where salvation could be attained. 136 It is mentioned as the place, of birth and salvation of the twelfth titthayana 137 Mahavira and his chief disciple Aija Suhamma are said to have visited Campa frequently ;128 Campa was also frequented by Gosala280 and Jamali,140 Managa was ordained here by his father Sejjambhava.141 A detailed description of Campa and its bcautiful shrine Punnabhadda is given in the Oudiya, where Mahavira, moving in the company of a large number of monks and nuns, arrived, and the king Kuniya with his paraphernalia went on his pilgrimage 142 It is mentioned that in Campa the first and the tenth sections of the fifth chapter of the Bhagvati were preached by the Teacher, 143 and Uvasagadasao and Antagadadasao, the seventh and the cighth Angas of the Jain Canon, were explained by Aija Suhamma to his disciple Jambu "#4 Kuniya was a well-known king of Campa, who, after the death of his father, did not like to stay in Riyagiha and shilted his capital to Campa."** Campa was noted for commcice, and traders sailed from here to different places for trading purposes We comc across a beautiful description of sea-faring merchants in the Nayadhammakaha 146 Several merchants such as Makandi"47, Dhana 148 and Palitta140 are mentioned in Campa Campa was visited by Buddha scveral times and it was celebrated for its beautiful lake, Gaggara. Its actual sitc is probably two villages Campanagar and Campapur ncar Bhagalpur 154 Uttara, Ti., 4, p. 92a. 186 See Supra. 196 Bih. Bha, V. 1. 1227. 197 Ava Nir 307, 383. Seceg Bhag. 8.1; Ava.cu , p. 455; Ava. Nir. 476 ; 623 ff. , Kalpa. 5-123. - 189 Bhag. 15 140 Ada.cu., p. 418. 141 Das. cu,1, P. 7. 149 Su. 1, 2. 10. 141 Bhag, 5. 144 Uva, 1, Anta., 1. See eg Naya., 1, p. 1; Daja., 9, p. 319. 148 8, p 97 ff. 147 Ibid., 9, p. 121 ff. 140 Uttara. Sa., 21. 2. 143 Ibrd, 15, p. 158. 160 G. E. B., p. 6.

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276 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Canagapura--a city It is said that king.Tiyasattu was ruling over the city of Khiipaitthiya, when the buildings of the city came to ruin, the architects selected a gramfield abounding in fruits and flowers, where Canagapura was founded 151 According to the tradition, Canagapura is another name of Rayagiha Canayagama-a village Canayagama was situated in Golla and was the birthplace of Canakya. 162 Its exact situation is not identifiable. Candabhaga--a rider Candabhaga was one of the five great tributory rivers of Sindhu, others being Sataddu, Vibhasa. Vitattha an According to Buddhist literature, it was eighteen leagues in length and had a rapid current.154 It is identified with modern Chenab.165 Candana It is referred to in the Niryavaliyao.168 It is unidentifiable. Candanana--a city Candanana is mentioned as a birthplace of the eighth Titthayaia..57 It is identified with modern Candravati, a village near Benares. It was also known as Candramadhava.168 Cedi--a kingdom Cedi was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Suttivai as its capital. It roughly corresponds to modern Bundelkhand and the adjoining region.169 131 Ava. cu , II, p. 158. 151 Ava. cu p. 563; according to the Buddhist tradition, Canakya was a resident of Takka sila (Mahavamsa Tika, p. 181). 165 Tha. 6, 470.. 156 The com, on the Digha., III, p. 878. 165 Law, Geog., p. 88. 168 8.7. 151 Ava. Nir. 382. 168 Pracinatirthamdla, Pt. 1, p. 4. G. E. B., p. 16.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON Ceiya- settlement (sannizesa) It is referred to in the Ava syaka Niryukti.160 Its cxact location is unknown. Chagalapura--a city It is mentioned in the Vivagasuya-01 It is unidentifiable. Chammani.--a village Mahavira is said to have arrived here from Mendhiyagama and proceeded to Majjhima Pava.163 Its exact location is not known. Chattagapuri--a village Chattaga is referred to in the Avasyaka Niryuktr.163 It is unidentifiable. Cittakuda--a mountain It is said that Sukosala stood here in meditation and was devoured by a tigress 16+ Cittakada is mentioned along with the mountain Gopalagiri 105 It is identificd with Kamptanathgiri in Bundelkhand.180 Coraya--a settlement It is said that Mahavila arrived herc from Kumara Sannivesa and proceeded to Pitthicampa; at another time he is said to have travelled here from Avattagama and proceeded to Kalambuka Sannivesa." Perhaps it may be identified with Choreya in Lohardugga district in Bengal 188 Gullahimavanta-a mountain This mountain was visited by Vairasami, who arrived here from Mahesari. 189 180 108 104 165 186 442 4, p 29 See Supra, p. 260. 450. Marana 466. Bhag., Ti., 7. 6. G. E. B., p. 40. See Supra, p. 268. Index Geographicus Indicus., p. XXV, J. F. Baness, 1881. Aca. Ti. P. 390a. 161 10% 180

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278 It may correspond to the southern slopes of the Himalayan tract. Daddara-a country This country was noted for its sandalwood 170 Dardura was a mountain in the extreme south of India. In the Mahabharata Malaya and Dardura are mentioned as the two highest mountains in the extreme south." Dadhabhumi Dadhabhumi was said to be inhabited by many Mlecchas. Mahavira arrived here from Sanulatthiyagama and proceeded to Pcdhalagama.172 It may be identified with Dalabhum in Singhbhum district in Bengal. Dakkhina Mahura--a city Same as Pandu Mahura Dakkhinavacala Mahavira is stated to have arrived here from Moraga Sannivesa and proceeded to Uttaravacala.173 Its exact site is not known. Dakkhinavaha-southern division of India Dakkhinavaha was a great centre of the Jains and was praised much by the Jain monks.17+ It is mentioned that there were many houses of the savagas in this land and the Jain monks were offered plentiful alms.175 Dakkhinavaha was visited by Vairasami 176 The people of Dakkhinavaha are characterised as dull It is said that people from Magadha were very clever and they understood a thing merely by signs, people from Kosala by seeing, people from Pancala by half hearing, and people from Dakkhinavaha understood nothing unless they were told explicitly." The people from Daksinapatha put on dress quite unlike that of Uttaravaha.18 The blacksmiths and wine 170 Naya. 8, p. 98, etc. 171 II 10. 33f. LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA IT 173 Sec Supra., p. 260. See Supra, p. 257. Cf Brh Bha, Vr, 1 2697. Nisi Cu, 15, p. 996. 174 176 176 Ava Cu, p. 404. 177 Vya Bha., 10. 192, cf. 178 Buddharvasati purvena daksinyam daksinapahe. Paisunyam pascime dese parusyam cottarapahe. (Gilgit MS. of the Vinaya pitaka, I. H. Q., 1938, p. 416). Das. Cu, 1. p. 17.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 279 sellers were despised in this country, 178 and unlike Uttaravaha one was allowed to marry one's maternal uncle's daughter. 130 It is said that the barley-meal was difficult to get here in summer 131 King Sampai, first of all is said to have conquered Ujjeni, and then the whole of Dakkhinaraha and is said to have brought all neighbouring kings under his subjugation 189 It is the tract of land lying to the south of the Ganges and to the north of Godavari 192 Damila (Drarida)--a country's Damila was counted among the non-Aryan countries Magadha Malava, Vaharastra, Lata, Karnataka, Dravida, Gauda, Vidarbha and other countries are mentioned as places of origin of desibhasa (regional language).15+ It is said that the maid-servants known as Damili were brought from this country 12 Damili was also known as a script (lici) 185 It is mentioned that it was very difficult to get a shelter for the Jain monks in the country and under such circumstances they were allowed. to stay under a tree.187 The con was grown here by the water of tanks, 198 and rice was known as oua in this country 16 (see also Andha) The Damilas are identified with the Tamil Kaveripattana was a sea-port town in the Damila kingdom which is generally identified with the Malabar Coast oz Vorthern Ceylon 10 Dandakaranna or kumhhahii akaila- for-st It is mentioned that Khandlaga was ruling over Campa or according to some, Savatihii, 147 who gave his sister Purandarajasa to Dandagi, the ruler of Kumbhakarakada in marriage In course of time Khandaga took to the ascetic life and wandering about, reached Kumbhakarakada, where he was crushed to death by the king's envoy It is said, after death Khandaga was born among the Agnikumara gods and burnt the whole city to ashes This place came to be known as Dandakaranna." Dandakaranna is identified with the region round about the river Godav ari in the district of Nasik and adjoining parts of Maharastras 119 Misi Cu, 16, p 1117. 10 Das Co, 1, p 17. 181 Brh Bha Vr, 1. 2889. 182 Ibad, 1. 3276. 193 G. E B, p. 48 184 Brh Bha, Vr., 1 1231. 185 Supra, p. 107. See Supra, p 176 Brk Bha, Vr, 3 3749 188 Iord , 1 1239. Das Cu, 7, p 236 GEB, p 63. Cf Brh. Bha , 1. 3274, Ullara Cu,p 73; Ullara Ti,p 38. 103 Nisi Cu, 16, p 1113. Also cf the Fataka (III, No 463) and the Ramayana (VII. 81. 10), where Kumbhavati was destroyed by a shower of sand. 108 P. BI., P59.

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280 LIFE IN ANCIENT ENDIA Dantapurama city King Dantavakka is mentioned as the ruler of Dantapura,194 According to Pali literature, Dantapura was the capital of Kalinga Various identifications of Dantapura have been put forward. M. Sylvain Levi identifies it with the Paloura of Ptolemy and places it in the neighbourhood of Chicacole. 196 Dasanna--a kingdom Dasanna is counted antong the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Mattiyavai as its capital. Dasarna is identified with Vidisa or Bhilsa region in Gwalior. 198 Dasannakula or Gayaggapadagiri--a mountain The mountain Dasannakuda was also called Gayaggapadagiri (sec Gayaggapadagiri) A description of this mountain is given in the Avasyaka Curni. It was situated to the north-east of Dasannapura and is said to have been visited by Mahavira,197 Its exact location is not known. Dasannapura or Elakacchapura--a city Dasannapura was a centre of trade and is quoted as an example of thalapattana, where goods were carried by land.198 Dassanapura was also known as Elagacchapura (see Elagacchapura). Dasapura-a city It is said that when Uddayana, taking pajjoya as prisoner, returned to Viibhaya, his army, including the ten kings, was held up by rains, and halted in the middle of the journey where the ten kings, fearing an attack, built mud walls around them for safety. Later on, this place was occupied by some merchants and since then this place came to be known as Dasapura.190 Ajja Rakkhia was a native of Dasapura and from here he is said to fhave gone to Pataliputra for study. 900 Dasapura is identified with modern Mandsor. 201 104 Ava. Nir, 1275, also see Suya., 1.6. 22. 196 PB I., P. 401 f. 190 GE B., p. 26. 191 Ave. Cu , p. 476 ; Ava. Ti., p. 468. 198 Nisi Cu., 6, p. 34 (MSS). 199 Ava Cup 400 ff 100 Ibid, pp. 394, 402. 30) C.A.G.I., p. 726.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 281 Dhamma.. :diabhumika-- city Dhammacakkabhimika was another name of Takkhasila (see Takk hasila Dhannakadu It is said that the thirteenth Tetthayari received his first alms at this place." It may be identified with Kupari in the Balasar district in Bengal; it was also known as Kopaka or Kopakataka 503 Dhannaura- settlement Dhannaura was located in the country of Virata. *** Its exact location is not known. Dilacalzva Dilavaliya was known for its mules (assatara). 106 It cannot be identified. Dimbharelaka It is said that the corn was cultivated here by flood in the Mahiravana 90EUR Perhaps this place was situated in Konkana.407 Ditaman Island It is said that Diva was situated to the south of Surattha fora It is quoted as an example of jalspartana where goods were carried by boats, 908 Diva and Jona are mentioned as countries known for the cemetery (matagaler3 268 Diva was also known for its coin known as Sibharaka.910 It may be identified with the island of the Arab. The Arabians call their habitat Jacitat al Arab '_"The Island of the Arab", as it is surrounded by water on three sides and by sand on the fourth." 903 La Vir, 334 103 Praia jain smitalu Bezgal, Bihar and Onssa. However, Dhannakataka is identified with Dharanikot in the Krishna or Guntur district in the Madras Presidency; G. A. G IP 737, also src Belirtin of the Madras Guul Muscam; Amaraoti sculptures in the Madras Gut Musum, by C. Sivarama Murti, 1942, p 4. 304 hari Ti, -p 230 10" Day cu l 2 213. C. BA B l 1 1239 Ste Piriure am 1ha Sangrahi p. 39 where Wallikarjuna is called Mabirayanadhipati. 207a B'R , 39If. wiu,2, P225. 308 Brh Ba, V. 1.1090. 300 Aca ci, p. 370. 310 Brh Bha, 3 3891. History of the Arabs, p 8, by Fillip Hitti, London, 1937.

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282 Durullakuviya-a village This village was situated near Bharuyakaccha." Its exact location is not identifiable. LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Elakacchapura-a city It was also known as Dasannapura. It is said that a sravika was given in marriage to a heretic, who used to insult her. As a result of this, it is stated that the eyes of the heretic were plucked off by some divine power. But the sravika was faithful to her husband, so she stood in meditation and asked for the eyes of her lord to be given back. Thereupon the eyes of the heretic were replaced by the eyes of an immediately killed ram (edaga). Then the people began to call the heretic by the name of Edakaccha (having the eyes of a ram) and since then Dasannapura came to be known as Elakacchapura 18 215 This town was situated on the bank of the river Vatthaga.214 Elakaccha is said to have been visited by Mahagiri Erakaccha is mentioned in Pali literature." 210 212 It may be identified with Eracha in Tahsil Moth, district Jhansi, which is situated on the right bank of Betwa."17 (1) Eravar a river Eravai was one of the five great tributaries of the Sindhu.218 It is same as the river Ravi in the Punjab. (2) Eravaz-a river This Eravai lay near the town of Kunala where it flowed half a yojana in extent The water of this river was knee-deep and could be crossed easily by keeping one foot in water and another in air Some places of Eravai were dry and the Jain monks were allowed to go begging alms after crossing this river.2 219' The Vasudevahindi mentions a forest Bhuyarayana on the bank of Eravai.920 Eravai is identified with Aciravati, the river Rapti in Oudh, on which the town of Savatthi was situated.""1 212 Ava. Nu Dipka, 1274 218 Ava cu., II, p. 156 f. Pelavatthu 2 7. Gamaya-a settlement It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Vesali and proceeded to Salisisayagama.222 Its exact location is not known. 918 917 Dist Gaz. of Jhansi. Vol. XXIV, p. 254 ff. 218 See Supra, p 276. 218 230 321 Kalpa Su, 9.12, Brh. Su, 4.33; p. 323. G. E B., p. 35 f. 223 114 Ava cu, p 226, also see Gaccha p 81 f. Ava Nir 1278. 215 Brh. Bha 4.5639, 5653; cf. Angutiara IV, p. 101. See Supra, p. 259.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 288 Gandar-a ridet Gandai flowed between Vesali and Vaniyagama. Mahavira is stated to have crossed this river while going to Vaniyagama from Vesali. 188 The rivers Banaganga and Gandai are mentioned in the Vividhatirthakalpa entering int) Mithila 224 It is identificd with the river Gandak in the district of Muzaffar pur, 396 Gandharama kingdom The kingdom of Gandhara is mentioned at several places in Jain texts. It is said that a layman (savaga) journeyed from Gandhara to Virbhaya to pay reverence to the sandalwood idol of Mahavira which was in possession of king Udayana.226 Puskaravati and Taksasila were two capital cities of Gandhara. It comprised the districts of Peshawar and Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab 227 Garga--a river The Ganga is counted among the five great rivers.228 It is stated that Bharata built the shrines of the Athats on the mountain Atthavaya To protect these shrines Janhukumara, the eldest son of Sagara, made a moat around the mountain and filled it with water of the Ganges, and hence the Ganges came to be known as Janhuvi But it is said that this water filled the dwellings of the Nagas, and the Naga kings blazing with anger burnt the sons of Sagara to death. Later on, Bhagiratha, the son of Janhukumara removed this water and hence the Ganges came to be known as Bhagirathi."20 Gargamandira-a mountain It is said that Vinhukumara practised penance on this mountain. He is said to have reached Hatthinapura from here by air. 130 It is not identified. 133 See Supra, p 260. p 32 116 GDP 60 Ava Cu,p 399 ff GD,P 60F 928 Tha 5 470, Brh su 4 32 Also see Vinaya, II, P 237. Ultara Ti, 18, p 23taf For the Hindu tradition see Ramayana, II 50.12 ff; Dey, op cit p 79, Pargitar's A IHT, 273 n 310 Uttara Ti 18, D 248 af Also cf. Vasu ,p 129, Vudha,p 43.

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984 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Gangapura- city - This city is referred to in the Vivagasuya.981 It is not identified. However, one Gangapur town is mentioned in the Gonda district. 932 Gargasayarama holy place It is said that when the water of the Ganges was removed from the dwellings of the Nagas, the Ganges was taken back to the eastern ocean and since then this confluence was known as Gangasayaratittha,233 It is same as Sagara sangama, mentioned in the Mahabharata (III. 115) It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage near the mouth of the Ganges 234 Gauda-a country The country of Gauda was known for its silk-garments (dukula) 235 The whole of Bengal was denominated eastern Gauda from its capital of the same name, the ruins of which lie near Malda at a distance of about ten miles. 236 Gayaggapadagiri -a mountain Gayaggapadagiri was another name of Dasannakuda, situated in Dasannapura This mountain was visited by Mahavira when king Dasannabhadda set out on his elephant to pay him reverence At this time it is said that the elephant stood on his forefect and by a superhuman power, its feet touched the mountain and left imprints. The king having noticed this wonder renounced the world and since then this mountain came to be known as Gayaggapadagiri. Mahagiri is said to have practised penance on this mountain.237 This mountain is also known as Indapada and was surrounded by villages on all six sides.238 (sce also Ahicchatta; Elakacchapura) Gayaura--city Gayapura was the metropolis of Kuru which is counted among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It is another name of Hattinapura. (see Hatthinapura). Gayapura was the birthplace of the sixteenth, seventeenth and the eighteenth Titthayaras. 939 911 9, p 56. 299 See Imp Gaz under "Gangapur"; Dist. Gaz Gonda Vol. XLIV, 1905, p 261. 113 Uttara Ti 18, p 235a. 294 GDP 171. 396 Aca Ti II, p 3618 , Vya. Bha. 7.32. 288 G D , 63Also see History of Bengal, Vol I, pp. 12ff. 131 Ara Nir Dipka, 1278; Ava. Ti. p. 468. 198 Bth Bha 3 4841, 280 Ava. Nir. 383.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON Girimuha-a mountain Girimuha was situated on the bank of the river Vatthaga which flowed between Kosambi and Ujjeni.40 (see also Vatthaga). Its exact location is not known. Girinayara-a city This town was located near the mountain Ujjenta and hence was called Girinagara 241 Girinagara or Girinar is identified with modern Junagadh, which lay near the mountain Ujjayanta.249 It is also called Raivataka Gariphulliya-a city Giriphulliya is mentioned in the Pinda Niryukti." It is not identifiable 285 (1) Gobbaragama--a village Gobbaragama was located in Magadha between Rayagiha and Campa 24 It was frequented by Mahavira.245 Its exact situation is not known. (2) Gobbaragami--a rulage This village was situated near the city of Vaidisa.346 Its exact situation is not known Gobhumi It was so called because the cows used to graze here. This place was frequented by Mahavira who arrived here from Unnaya and proceeded to Rayagiha Pasubhumi is mentioned in the Mahabharata (Sabha. 27.8) and may be identified with Gomoh 217 Golla-a country The country of Golla is 1eferred to in Jain texts in several places. It is said that the month of cartra was very cold in this country and hence the Jain monks were allowed to wear two garments, one under and one 340 Aa Nir 1282 941 Anu su 130, p 137, also Aca. cu pp 339, 359 243 GEB, p 58. 148 461, p. 133 244 Ava. cu., p 297, Ava. Nir 644. 945 Hoa cu,p.469. 248 Bth Bha. 6 6096. 247 See Supra, p. 259; Ava. Ti. p. 284a.

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286 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA upper.348 The murder of any human being was as much condemned here as the slaying of a Brahmana.28 A concoction was prepared in this country from dried mango-chips and was used as a drink Viraliva. a vegetablc root, was known here as valli,260 and palaga as saga 11 Golla was also noted for ankakareluya and other vegetables 252 It may be identified with Goli situated on the Gallaru, a tributary of the river Kistna in Guntur district. This was an important place in ancient India and here the inscriptions of the Iksvakus were recently discovered.983 The mention of Golla and Golalcarya in the Sravanabelagola inscriptions also testifies that this country was situated in South.254 Gopalagiri-e mountain This mountain is mentioned along with Citrakuta (see Citrakuta) The Caturvimsatiprabandha mentions one Gopalgiri in Kanyakubja.965 It is not identifiable Goragiri--a mountain Under the spring of this mountain an idol of Siva is mentioned 180 Goratha Hill is a small isolated hill about five or six miles to the west of the valley of old Rajagrha.957 Goyavari--a rider Paitthana was situated on the bank of this river 268 Godavari is considered to be onc of the holiest rivers in Southern India and had its source in Brahmagiri, situated on the side of a village called Tryambak which is twenty miles from Nasik.250 Gudasatthanayara-a city This city is referred to in the Ava syaka Curni.360 This city was situated not far from Broach.201 148 Aca cu p. 274 240 Siya. ci p. 357. 360 Aca.cu , p. 340 351 Bth Bha Visesa curni, 1 2094. 363 Aca cu, p 341. 158 Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, Vol. I, pt I p. 1, by T. N. Ramchandran 354 Jain Silalekha Sangraha pp 26, 69, 73 etc., Bombay, 1928, by Prof. Hiralal 366 9, p. 57 206 Nist cu, p. 18 (MSS) 367 GDP 71. 388 Brh. Bha 6 6244 ff. 369 G.E.B. 07. 180 p 542. 301 Prabhavakacarita, p 34.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 287 Guttha Ing+ha (cow-pen) Canakya is said to have been burnt to death by Subandhu.253 According to the Brhalkathakosa, this cow-pen was situated in Mahakrauncapura which lay to the west of the forest, Daksinapatha. *** Its exact location is not known. Haladama () Haladama is mentioned as a land of heat (atapurabhumi.) 264 Hala is a town in the Hyderabad district, Sind.245 Are they identical? Halidduga or Haleddusa-a village Mahavira arrived here from Savatthi and proceeded to Nangala. *** Its exact situation is not known. Hatthidita or Hatthijima-a fcrest This forest was located to the north-west of Sesadaviya, a water-shed, wbich lay to the north-west of Nalanda Lord Goyama is stated to have composed here a chapter known as Nalandaijja. *** Its exact location is not known. Hatthikappa or Hatthakappa-a city This town was visited by five Pandavas.968 Another reference to Hatthikappa is made in the commentary on the T'Haradhyayang. When Baravai was burt Rama and Kanha passed through Surattha and reached the outskirts of Hatthikappa *88 Hatthakappa is identificd with Hathab near Bhavnagar in Gujerat. In the Vallabhi Grants 559.4 D.) of Dharmasena I, it is called Hastavapra Devav jaya in his Pandaracarita mentions that the mountain Raivataka was at a distance of twelve yojanas from Hastikalpa." Hatthinaura--a city Hatthinaura was situated in Kuru or Kurujangala and was included among the ten metropolises of ancient India. TY 305 361 Bhatta , 162, p 30 363 143.76f. 304 Aca cu ,p 317 Sind Gazetteer, p 506. See Supra, p. 258. 167 Siya si il., 7.70, Tha. Ti 93, p 433a. Naya , 16, p 199 f. 2, p 39 a Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, Mc Crindle, Cal., 1927, p. 180; algo Bechardas, Bhag, an Mahavira ni Dkarmakathao, p. 244. 168 169 370

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288 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA It is said that Usabha received his first alms in Hatthinaura.272 Hatthinapura was frequented by Mahavira, who is said to have ordained king Siva? here (see also Gayaura). It is identified with an old town in Mawana Tahsil in Meerut. 373 Hatthisisa---a city Hatthisisa was a centre of trade and a number of sea-going merchants of this town are mentioned to have started for Kaliyadiva for trade. 274 This town was visited by Mahavira, who arrived here from Malaya and proceeded to Tosali 375 Its exact situation is not known Hemapura-a city The city was known for the celebration of the festival of Indra.970 Its situation is unknown. Himavanta-a mountain It is mentioned as an abode of the sage, Phalahara 377 Himavanta is mentioned as pabbataraja in Pali literature The Milindapafiha (p. 111) states that five hundred rivers issued forth from the Himavanta. It is the famous range of mountains to the north of India so frequently mentioned in Indian literature. Himavantakuda It is said that king Pavvaya was ruling at this place. 378 Its exact location is unkoown. Hindugadesa-India It is stated that Kalaka acarya proceeded to Parasakula from Hindugadesa and returned with ninety six kings.279 This country is identified with India, Ikkhagabhumi-a city Ikkhagabhumi was another name of Ayodhya. It was the birthplace of the first Titthayara, 280 371 Ava. Nur. 323. 273 Bhag 11.9, Tha Ti. 8 621. Also Tha. 9.691. 373 GAGI p. 702 314 Naya 17, p. 201. 376 See Supra, p 260. 178 Brh Bha 4 5153. 277 Ibid, Pi. 786. 378 Uttara TI 3, p. 57 a. 119 1157, c. 10, p 571 i, Vya, Bhi. 10.5, p. 94. 280 Aie. Nat. 382.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON yh hm mn II. cddha was situated on the bank of the Benna. *** H ver, in the T echir, araddha is said to have been situated in Tint on the banks of the Ganges. T . Ma-cault It is said that this country was visited by Usabha (sec Adamba) It may be the same as Alaka of the Buddhists in the district of Auran gabad in the Hyderabad State. Indaure King Indadatta was the ruler of this city ** Indapura marbe identified with Indore, 8 miles from Anupshahar in the district of Bulandshahar.is Litalap- last This tank wu quared in Selapura in the country of Tosali, This is said to hire beer bul: 5v Isivala. a miniera god. It is said that people celebrated here :es: for eight days, 1st Isitzla Iarvillis rezerred to in the Hilhigumpha Lascriptions of Khiravela."; Jambi vagim:-: Ulag? It is said that Mahira travelled here from Campi and proceeded to Vendhragina a: cncther time the Teacher arrived here from Majjhima Pavi and actar-c hood under the sala tree on the northern bank of the river tjjuilika 599 Juni Kalvan Viac identifies it with Jambhigaon near the river Damodar in the Hazaribagh district, 180 but it must be located some where near modern Pavazuri to the east of Bihar town in Bihar. 181 de cap 283 PP dis 357 Buckhat ar va. p 373 296 TT a.10 57. 1.2 Jur 1981. According to the lan p 237, Kannakuija was another name of Indapura; cf. Brhatlit a 9.59 76ff, cf also Aca cu II, p. 193 where Indapura is given another name ur Jahura 388 BTA Bha 3 4223 187 Id 1 3.A 398 Pror B. ML Barua's articie "Hathagumpha Inscriptions of Kharavela," p. 474 ff.I.H.. 1935. The word Isitala ladaga is wrongly translated by scholars. Sie Supra, p 211. SB. pp. 370, 357.

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290 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDLA Jambusanda-a village It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Kadalisamagama and proceeded to Tambaya.301 Its location is unknown. Jangala or Kurujangala-, kingdom This country was counted among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Ahicchatta as its metropolis (see Ahicchatta). Kurujangala was the eastern part of the teritory of the Kurus and appears to have comprised the tract between the Ganges and the north Pancala.sea Jauna- river Jauna was one of the five great rivers, and a tributary of the Ganges 293 It is the modern Jumna, having its source in the Bhandarpuccha range in the Himalayas. 394 Jaunanaidiva-an island It is mentioned that the sage Parasara lived here in a hermitage located outside Soriyanagara.995 Yamunadvipa is also mentioned in the Mahabharata (I. 64.27). Its exact location is unknown. Jaunavarka--a city Jaunavanka is referred to in the samthara 308 However, in the Avasyaka Niryukti Jaunavanka is described as a garden of Mahura This garden was so called because it was curved (vanka) by the water of the Jauna.197 Javana, fona or ravana--a country Javana was counted among the non-Aryan countries. The maid. servants known as Javanis were brought from here Javana is described as a beautiful land and a treasure-house of excellent gems, gold and jewels.168 After crossing the river Sindhu, Bharata is said to have visited this country (see also Anga ; Adamba ; Diva) According to the Mahava msa (xxix. 39), its chief city was Alasanda, identified with Alexandria near Kabul.209 101 See Supra, p. 258. 93 Law, Tribes in Ancient Indra, p. 393. 993 See Supra, p. 264. 194 GDP 216. 306 Ultara. Ti , 2, p. 36a. 986 61, 56 a. 301 1277, cf also Bhagavati Aradhana 1554; Brhatkathakosa, 141.45 f. 398 Ava.cu , p. 191. 389 C.A.G.I., p. 693 f; GE.B. p. 54.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON Finnapuri--a city It was situated near Rayagiha. Its exact location is not known. Kaccha-- country Kaccha is described as a plain and beautiful land which was conquered by Bharata (see Angai In Kaccha the Jain monks were allowed to stay along with the householders, som It is identified with modern Cutch. Sua Kaitara Kiit:ara was known for its ancient shrines, Ils situation is unknown Kakani, ui vr his:-city Kakazdi was t'e birthplace of the ninth Titthayara. Mahavira is said to have visited this place 305 The Bhagiati mentions thirty three saman: 12.7 in Kuhandi Su Kakandiya is described as a sakhi of the Jain jram 535 in the 197ra.se Kakandi is identified with Kakan in the longhyr district. ** Kalami !:2 Sow:- 1--2 settlement It is said that Hihii ita arrived here from Coraya Sannivesa and proceeded to Lailha COP Its location cannot be identified Kalajjaru-a muunta n This mountain was located between the Ganges and the Vinjha mountains.310 Kalanjara 1 mentioned in the Jahabharata (III. 83-56). It is identified with Kalinjar, a celebrated hill fort in the Banda district, Bundelkhand.311 300 A a cap. 465. 801 Bth Bhi 1 1339, Visesa urn! 20% G.D., p. 82. 303 Aca cu p. 374 204 .. . Vir 362. 805 4wllarg, p 61 ; ita , p 39 308 104 8, p 231 Also $77, 78, 57a Rahul Sankrityayana, Bhartiya Vidyd, p. 8, July, 1944. 809 See Supra, p. 235. dua cu, p. 461, Uttara Ti. 13, p 186. BIT GD 84. 310

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292 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Kalaya--a settlement Kalaya Sannivesa was situated near Vaniyagama to its north-east.812 Mahavira arrived here from Campa and proceeded to Pattakalaya.319 Its exact location is not known. Kalingame kingdom Kalinga is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Kancanapura as its metropolis. Kalinga is mentioned with Dravida and Vanga,314 In the Hathigumpha Inscriptions we are told that king Kharavela brought back to his realm from Anga-Magadha the throne of Jina which had been carried from Kalinga by king Nanda According to the Mahabharata, the ancient Kalinga seems to have comprised modern Orissa to the south of Vaitarani and the sea-coast southward as far as Vizagapattam, and its capital was Rajapura.315 Kaliyadiva-an island Kaliyadiva was noted for its horses (see Hatthisisa). It is not identified. Kamboya-2 country Kamboya was a non-Aryan country and was noted for its finc horses which excelled all other horses in speed, and no noise could frighten them. 316 In the commentary on the Petavatthu (p 113), Dvaraka or Darwaz occurs with Kamboja. Kamboja is identified with the Badakshan and the Ghalcha speaking part of the Pamir, a territory to the north of Kash Kamiyasara--a lake It is stated that at the bank of this lake there stood a wonderful trea known as vazularukkha. :18 Kamyakavana is mentioned in the Mahabharata (III. 5.3); it was situated in Kurukshetra.10 81: Ava. Ti , p. 456. B18 See Supra, p. 258. BI4 Jambu Ti , 20, p 107. B16 GEBP 64 818 Uttara Su, 11 16 , Roya. Su 160. Also see Mahabha , VI., 90-3; VII, 23 24; com. on the Digh, I, p. 124. DIT Tayachand Vidyalankar, Bharat Bhimi aur ushe Niwasi, Agra, V S. 1087. D 300, also Dr Motichand's article on Geographical and Economic Studies in the Mahabharala, 1. UPS, Vol XVI, part II, pp. 38 ff 818 Anu. Ti., Haribhadra, p. 11, also see Markandeya , P 28. 810 G.D., p. 88.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 293 old. Kampillapura---a city Kampillapura is included among the ten metropolises of India. It was a capital city of Pancala. Kampillapura lay on the bank of the Ganges320 and was the birthplace of the thirteenth Titthayara.341 Kampillapura is said to have been visited by Mahavira321 as well as the mendicant Ammada, 898 The sayantara of Dovai was held in this city. 894 According to the Kumbhakara Jataka, the capital of Uttara Pancala was Kampillapura, where king Dummuha ruled. It is identified with modern Kampil in the Fari uhhabad district.826 Kanayagit2-a mountain This mountain was situated in Pukkharadiva,328 a mythical region. It is not identified. Kanagapura-a city It is said that this city was visited by Mahavira.at Its location is not identified. Kananadiva- an island Kananadiva is quoted as an example of jalapattana where goods were carried by water.328 Paddy was cultivated here on boats.340 It is not identified. Kaficanaura--a czty Kancanaura was the metropolis of Kalinga which was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. Kancanaura is referred to in the Ogha Niryukti Bhasya330 The Vasudevahindi refers to some merchants of Kancanapur who returned from Lankadvipa with jewels. Kancanaura is identified with modern Bhuvaneshwar.983 810 321 Ova, su , 39. Ava. Nir. 383. Uoa., 6, p. 43. an Ova. Su, 40. 834 Naya, 8, p. 178. G.EB, 18. 838 Uttara. Ti, p. 286 a. 817 Viva. II, 6, P. 64-1. 828 Aca cu, p. 281. 320 Brh Bha Vr. l-1239. 360 30, P. 20 a. 931 P111 ** S.B.M., p. 361. See also P. H. A. I., p. 75.

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294 Kancipuri-a city 333 Kancipuri was located in Dravida. It is same as Canjeevaram on the Palar river. 834 Kandacchariu-a village This village is mentioned in the Vyavahara Bhasya.336 It is not identified. Kanha-a river This river flowed in the country of Abhira (see Acalapura) The rivers Kanha and Benna are identified with Kanhan and Wain that unite in the district of Bhandara, and the united stream comes down to meet the Wardha in the district of Chandan.838 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Kannakujja-a city Kannakujja is mentioned as another name of Indapura. (see Indapura). Kanyakubja was also known as Gadhipura, Mahodaya, Kusasthala 887 It is same as Kanauj situated on the west bank of the Kalindi. * Karnataka-a country Karnataka is referred to along with the countries of Lata, Damila, etc. (See Damila). Karnata desa included Mysore, Coorg and part of the ceded districts. The kingdom of Vijayanagar was also called Karnata.339 Kaseru-a river It was a well-known river but its peculiar feature was that it never contained water.340 Its situation cannot be known. 333 Brh. Bhd., 3.3892. 334 C.AGI, p.628. 835 7-154. 338 Kasi-a kingdom Kasi is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Varanasi as its capital. Kasi is also included among the sixteen 930 PBI, p. 378. 857 Abhidhana, IV, 39, 40. 888 G.D, p. 89. 180 Ibid, p. 94. 840 Vya. Bha. Ti., 3. 58.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 295 Janapadas. The kingdom of Kasi and Kosala were known for their eighteen confederate kings 541 It is identified with the Benares commissionary. 443 Kaya or Kaka-a country Kaka is mentioned as among the non Aryan countries. - It was noted for its variety of cloth 349 The Kakas are mentioned in the Asahabharata, where they are associated with the Vidarbhas, who are a well-known people occupying tracts of territory what is now known as the Central Provinces The territory of the Kakas is sometimes identified with Kakapur near Bithur. while Smith suggests an identification with Kakanada near Sanci.346 Kayalisamagama or Karaligama--a village It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Bhaddiya and proceeded to Jambusanda. 340 Its exact location is not known Kayambari-a cave It is mentioned that this cave was located on the outskirts of the city of Baravai 346 Kayangala--a city Kayangala was visited by Mahavira, who is said to have arrived from Pitthicampa and proceeded to Savatthi 347 Kajangala or Kayangala is identified with Kankajol in Santhal Pargana in Bihar. 348 Kekayama kingdom One half of this country was considered among the non-Aryan countries Probably a portion of this country did not come under the influence of Jainism and hence it was counted among the non-Aryan countries This Kebaya was situated at the base of Nepal, to the north-east of Sravasti, and is different from Kekaya in the North.340 841 Nirya 1 812 Majhima, p 275, Rahul Sankrityayan 943 Nisi Cu,7, P 167 844 Law, Tribes, etc ,p 356 345 See Supra, p 258 848 Ullara Ti , 2, p 37 a. 347 See Supra, p 238, see also Bhag 2.1. 348 Vmayamilala, p 213 n, Rahul Sankrityayan, 349 S 11 B, P364.

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296 Ketaya-a city It is mentioned in the Suyagadanga curni 350 Its location cannot be known. Keyaiaddha-a kingdom Half of this kingdom was included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Seyaviya as its capital.95 (See supra, p 256 for identification). Keyara a holy place Keyara is mentioned as an unholy place in Jain literature.369 Kedara is mentioned as a holy place in the Mahabharata (III 81.72). Kedara is identified with Kedarnath situated on the southern side of the junction of the Mandakini and the Dudhaganga, in the district of Garhwal, United Provinces, 953 Khabbada Khabbadiya or Dasi Khabbadiya is mentioned as a sakha of the Jain sramanas in the Kalpasutra.854 Khabbadiya may be associated with Kharvata in western Bengal." LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Khahanagari (Khandagiri)--a mountain This mountain was known for its caves (lena).85 It may be identified with well-known Khandgiri Hill in the Puri district in Orissa. Khandappavaya a cave This cave is said to have been located in Veyaddha It is said that the universal king Sanakkumara conquered Magaha, Varadama, Pabhasa, Sindhu, Khandappavaya and other places, and thus gaining victory over the whole of Bharaha, returned to Gayapura.357 It is not identified Khattiyakundaggama or Kundapura-a town Kundaggama or Kundapura had two divisions viz. Khattiyakundaggama and Mahanakundaggama; one was ruled over by Khattiyas 850 p 414 856 857 951 852 859 964 8, p 227 a 335 See Raya, su 142, p 273 Nisi cu, 11 p 685 GD, p 97 f RC Majumdar, History of Bengal, Vol I, Dacca, 1943, p 410 n, also Prabodh Chandra Sen, I HQ, Vol VIII, pp 530 ff, also Pramode Lal Paul, Indian Culture, Vol. III, p 525 Aca cu, p 350 Uttara Ti, 18, p. 240, also see T. S. P. p. 174.

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GOEGRAPHICAL LEXICON 297 and the other by Mahanas. Kundapura was the birthplace of Maha. vira 358 He took to the ascetic life in the garden of Nayasanda and proceeded to Kumaragama It is identified with modern Basukund which was a suburb of ancient Vaisali 850 Khedatthana or Khedagatthamama city It is said that this town was located on the bank of the Ulluga, on the other bank was Ullugatira 380 Its situation is not identified. (1) Khupaitthiya--a city Khiipatthiya is said to have been situated in Avaravideha : a merchant of this town left for Vasantapura for trade.861 It is said that Khupaitthiya was visited by Karakandu, Dummuha, Nami and Naggai, the four Pratyekabuddhas, 362 It is a mythical region. (2) Khuparttniya--a city During the reign of king Jiyasattu, the town is said to have been raided by the mlecchas It is mentioned that when the buildings of Khiipaitthiya were in ruins, Canagapura was founded in its place.303 (see also Canagapura) According to another tradition, it was another name for Poyanapura 364 Kiraddaga---a country Kiraddaga is mentioned along with Marahatta, Damila, Kudukka, Golla and Sindhu 365 Kiri is mentioned as a script in the Visesavasyaka Bhasya (5.464). The Bihatsa mhula 366 also refers to Kira which is identified with the Kangra district in the Punjab by Pandit Jayachand Vidyalankar.307 Kikkindha pura-a city It is mentioned in the commentary of the Panhadagarana.808 368 Ava cu , p 243, Ava Nir 384 , also Bhag 9. 33. 859 GD, 107, Also see Pracina tirthamala, Pt. I, Intro., p. 24. 880 Uttara Ti 3, P 71 a 961 Ava cu, p 131 303 Ultara cu,9 p 179 803 Punda Mir Ti 80, 30; Ata Nir. 1318 ; Ava cu., II, p. 168; Gacch. ur, p. 115 a. 364 de cu, 455, TSP, P7, Vasu., p. 20. 365 Nisi cu , II, 681. 366 14 29 867 Bharat Bhumi, p. 347 388 4, p 88 a. Also see Ramayana, IV. 9 f.

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298 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Kiskindha is identified with Khukhundo, twenty five kos to the east of Gorakhpur.880 Rocchama kingdom It is mentioned as one of the sixteen Janapadas in the Bhagavati. It may be identified with Kausiki Kaccha to the east of the river Kausiki, in Purnea district.870 Kodinna or Kundini-- city It is said that king Ruppi ruled at thisp lace. 371 This town was located in Vidarbha 372 It is identified with modern Kaudinyapur on the banks of the Wardha in the Chandur Taluka of Amraotr.373 Kodivarisa-a city Kodivarisa was the metropolis of Ladha, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries King Cilaya of this place is said to have joined the ascetic order under Mahavira in Saketa.374 Kodivarisiya is mentioned as one of the sakhas of the Jain stamanas in the Kalpasutra 375 Kotivarsa is mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions. It is identified with Bangarh, a village about eighteen miles in Dinajpur district. 376 Gupta inse Kalpasutia anis menti Kollagpura or Kollaura--a city It is said that this town was visited by a famine.377 Kullaira is mentioned in the Maranasamahr 378 (Compare also Kullaura). This town is described in the Vasudevahindi.379 There was a water shelter (pava) at this place where food and drink was distributed free The city had a row of palaces and was surrounded by walls 380 It may be identified with Kullapakapura or Kulpak near Secunderabad in the Nizam State. (1) Kollaka or Kollayagama-a settlement Kollaka Sannivesa was located to the north-east of Vaniyagama.381 889 District Gaz of Gorakhpur, p. 266 f 970 GD, p. 97 371 Naya 16, p 178 ; Panha Ti , 4, p. 87 a. 872 Vasu , p. 80. 378 PHA I, p 74 874 Ava Nir. 1305. 376 8, 227 a 876 RC Majumdar, History of Bengal, Vol Ip 9 311 Pinda. Nir, 427, p. 125 ; Ava. Co., II, p. 36. 878 P 491. 879 P 355. 390 Ibid., p. 357. 881 Uva. 1, p. 4.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 299 It is said that Mahavira received his first alms in Kollakas; he arrived here from Kammargama and proceeded to Moraga Sannivesa 383 Kollaka was visited by Indabhui Goyama, the first Ganadhara of Mahavira 384 It is identified with Kolhua, 3 miles to the north-west of Basarh in Muzaffarpur. (2) Kollaka-a settlement Kollaka Sannivesa was located near Nalanda,885 Mahavira is said to have arrived here from Nalanda and proceeded to Suvannakhalaya.88 Its exact location is not known. Komala Khemilijjiya or Khomalijjiya is mentioned as a sakha of the Jain sramanas in the Kalpasutra.38 387 Khomalijjiya is a Prakrit form of Komaliya, which comes from the city of Komala, which is identified with modern Comillah in Chittagong in Bengal. Konkana-a country Konkana was a non-Aryan country, and is cited as an example of asandina diva which did not overflow with periodical sea-tides 383 392 There was excessive rainfall in this country and so a Jain monk was allowed to carry an umbrella 350 During famine or even otherwise people were in the habit of eating flesh in this country and were fond of fruits, flowers 90 and 11cc-gruel 301 (pejja) Konkana was noted for the festival known as gujanna which was celebrated here in the evenings Konkana is mentioned along with Sindhu and Tamalitti which were known for their troublesome mosquitoes 303 There was a big forest round about this country 394 It is said that the stones of the rivers of Konkana were very sharp and hurt the feet of the people 305 883 Ava. Nir., 325 883 See Supra, p 257. 884 Uva, p. 18. 885 Bhag. 15. 886 See Supra, p. 258. 8, p. 231. 987 888 Uttara cu p 115. 889 Aca, cu p 366. 890 Brh Bhd. Vr 1.1239. 891 Das.cu. p 316. 303 Brh Bha Vr. 1 2855. 888 Suya Ti. 3. 1. 12. 304 Nisi cu. Pl. p. 90. 905 Ibid., 12, p. 827.

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god LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Konkana is the country between the Western Ghats and the sea, from about Bombay southward to Goa.30 Kosala kicapital cities of atthi to the northout any exceptio ruce (kura).402 Kosala or Kosalapura--a-kingdom Kosala is included among the tewnty five and a half Aryan countries with Aojjha or Saketa as its capital. Kosala is also included among the sixteen Janapadas in the Bhagavati. In the Avasyaka curni, Kosala and Aouha are described as identical 397 It is said that Usabha, who is also called Kosaliya, passing through the capital of Vinita, reached the Madhyadesa i.e the middle of Kosala.308 Kosalapura was the birthplace of the fifth Titthayara''9. Like Dasapura and Ujjeni, Kosala was known for the image of the living lord.00 The people of Kosala were fond of wine (sovira) and rice (kura).401 They were characterised as wicked without any exception.403 Kosala lay near Savatthi to the north with Sageya as its capital.603 The capital cities of Kosala were Savatthi and Saketa. The ancient Kosala kingdom was divided into two great divisions, the river Sarayu serving as the wedge between the two ; that to the north was called Uttara Kosala, and the one to the south was called Dakgina Kosala.SOL Kosala roughly corresponds to the modern Oudh.405 Kosambama forest This forest lay to the south of Hatthikappa (see Hatthikappa). It is said that Kanha Vasudeva was shot dead here by the arrow of sarakumara. Baladeva is said to have proceeded to the mountain Tungiya from here. 106 Its exact site is not known. Kosambi~a city Kosambi was the capital city of Vaccha, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It was one of the ten capitals mentioned in the Thananga. 298 G. A. G., 1, p. 745. 897 p. 337. For the etymological meaning of the word gee Ava. Ti. p. 214; also see the com. on the Sulta Nipata, II, p. 400 f. 893 Jambu, su., 3. 70. 899 Ava. Nir. 382. 400 BTh. Bha. Vr. 5,5824. 401 Punda. Nir. 619, p. 167. 462 Vya. Bha. 7. 126. 103 Vasu. p. 283. 404 G. E. B. p. 4 ff. 406 P. H. A. I., p. 64. 408 Uttara. Ti. 2, p. 40 ff; Nisi.ci., 8.2 (MSS)

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 301 Kosambi lay on the bank of the river Jumna. Mahavira is said to have allowed his monks to move up to Kosambi to the south of Saketa.407 It is said that Kosambi was the birthplace of the sixth Titthayata, 408 and was visited by Pasa, 40 Ajja Suhatthi and Ajja Mahagiri 410 Kosambi was visited by Mahavira frequently.411 Kosambi is identical with modern Kosam, a old village on the Tumna, thirty miles south-west of Allahabad."13 Kosiya or Kosima river Kosiya was one of five great tributaries of the Ganges. 413 The river Kosiki is referred to in the Jatakas as a branch of the Ganges. It is identical with the river Kusi. 414 Kotthagama a village This village was situated not very far from Kampillapura.418 Its exact situation is not known. Koyagada or Kupakala It is mentioned that the twenty third Titthayara received his first alms at this place. 416 It is not identified. Kudukka-a country Kudukka was a non-Aryan country and was opened for the preachings of the Jain monks by Samprati (see Andha). It seems that later on Kudukka became a centre of the Jain monks; mention is made of Kudukka acarya 417 Milk was called pilu in this country'18 and like Konkana ricegruel was a common food here (see Konkana). It may be identified with Coorg (Kodagu) a territory in South India which is bounded along its entire western frontier by the mountain chain of the Western Ghats. 419 411 407 See Supra, p. 250 408 Ava. Nir. 382. 409 Naya II, 10, P 230. Nisi.cu ,5, p. 437. See Supia, pp. 200. G. A G. I, p. 709, also see Law, Kausambi in Ancient Literature. 413 See Supra P. 264. 414 G.E.B.p 37. 415 Ullara. Ti, 13, p. 188a. 418 Ava Vir., 325. 417 Iya. Bha. Vf. 4 283; 1, p. 1218. 418 Aja, cu., p 27. Imp. Gaz., Vol. III, p. 28.

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302 LifE IN ANCIENT INDIA Kullaura--a city It was situated not far from Padaliputta.410 Its exact situation is not known Kumara or Kummaragama-a village It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Kundapura and proceeded to Kollaka Sangivesa 421 Its exact location is not known. Kumara or Kumaraya--a settlement It is said that Mahavira reached here from Pattalaya and proceeded to Coraya Sannivesa.422 Its exact location is not known. Kumbharakada--a city Same as Dandakaranna. (See Dandakaranna). Kumbharapakkheva --a river-port (pattana) Kumbharapakkheva was another name for Viibhaya. (see Viibhaya). The king Udayana, who had joined the ascetic order, sojourned here in a potter's house It is said that he was poisoned by his sister's son and after he died, the gods threw a shower of dust which covered the whole city excepting the potter's house and hence this city came to be known as Kumbharpakkheva This town was situated in Sinavalli.423 Vibhaya may be identified with Bhera on the left bank of the river Jhelum in the district of Shahapur in the Punjab In Bhera Tahsil near the village of Vajjhi a most conspicuous mound is found which tells of a bygone age of great prosperity Bhera is the largest and most thriving commercial town in the district.424 Kummagama--a village It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Siddhatthapura,425 Its exact site is not known. 420 Sam. 71, p. 57 a. 411 See Supia, p 237. 43 See Supra, p. 258. 418 Ava. cu , II, p. 37. 424 Imp. Gaz. Vol. II, p. 385. 426 See Supra, p. 260.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 303 kunila- kingdom Kunzla is included among the twenty five and a half countries with Saiatthi is capital Mahatira allowed the Jain monks to move upto Kunala to the north of Sakera 428 The following story is mentioned about the destruction of Kunala Once two hermits, named Karada and Lkkarada, were sojourning in Kunala in the shrine of Niddhamana Jakkha Owing to their stay there, there were no rains in the country, although it was raining everywhere else Some people blamed the holymen and asked them to quit The hermis flew into a passion The first said Rain cloud on Kunala" The second said "For full fifteen davs" The first said Tith drops as large as clubs " The second said "As by day, so also by night" Owing to the curse of the hermits, the heavens poured down for fifteen days and the whole country was flooded, It is stated that three vcars after this incident both hermits died at Saketa and after thirteen rears Mahavira attained karalahood. 497 Kunala is the same as litara Kosala 'see Kosala). Kunalang anu-act Same as Ujjeni (See Ljjeni) Kunalanayari auty Same as Sayatthi. Kundagging city Same as Khattiyakundaggama or Kundapura. Kundaka-a settlement It is stated that Mahavira arrived here from Alabhiya and proceeded to Maddana.428 Its exact situation is not known. Kundapura-a city Same as Kundaggama or Khattiyakundaggama. Kundin--a city Same as Kodinna (See Kodinna). 420 See Supra, p 250 427 da ci., P 601; Ava. Ti., (Hari.), p. 465; Avg. Ti., p. 567, also Tawney's Kathakosa, p 6 f. 423 See Supra, p. 259.

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304 Kunjaravatta a mountain According to the tradition, when Vairasami died at this place, the Indra went round the mountain on his elephant and since then this place came to be known as Kunjaravatta.429 It is not identifiable. Kuru or Kurujangala-a kingdom Kuru was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Gayapura as its capital. The ancient Kuru country may be said to have comprised Kurukshetra or Thaneshwar 430 Kurukhetta Kurukhetta is referred to in the commentary of the Brhtkalpa Bhasya,431 The country is immediately around Thaneshwar between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers is known by the name of Kurukshetra.432 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Kusaggapura-a city Kusaggapura is another name for Rajagiha It is said that, after Canagapura was in ruin, pcople saw an unconquerable ox, and founded Usabhapura. In course of time, Usabhapura also was ruined and seeing a big kusa plant, Kussaggapura was founded.433 (See Rayagiha). Hiuen Tsang says that the old capital occupied by Bimbisara was called Kusagra. It was afflicted by frequent files and Bimbisara, on the advice of his ministers. abandoned it and built the new city on the site of the old country. The city was called Rayagiha, because Bimbisara was the first person to occupy it. Pargiter suggests that the old city was called Kusagrapura after Kusagra, an carly king of Magadha.434 Kusatta or Kusavatta-a kingdom This country is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Soriyapura as its capital. The country around Suryapura in the Agra district was known as Kusatta (See Soriyapura). Kusatthala-a city This town was located in Magadha.435 Its exact location is not known. 429 430 431 432 C A. G. I, p. 380. 488 Also see Vasu, p 74. 434 485 Marana 472 f, 128 a See also Vasu., p 122, Ramayana IV, 41, GEB p 17 f 1 1856 fr Malalasekara, op. cit, under "Kusaggapura." Maha. Ni. p. 16.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 305 Kusumapura-a city Kusumapura was another name for Padaliputta. 430 It is m'ntioned that once a famine broke out in Kusumapura, 37 The town was visited by Vairasami. 38 Kuviya-a settlement It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Tambaya and proceeded to Vesali 439 Its exact situation is not known. Ladha or Ratha--a kingdom Kodivarisa was the capital of Ladha, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Kalambuka Sannivesa and procecded to Punnakalasa. Ladha was divided into Vajiabhumi and Subhhabhumi 440 Ladha or Radha comprises the modern districts of Hooghly, Howrah, Bankura, Burdwan and the east portions of Midnapore.44) Lata-a country Various customs, etc of this country are recorded in the Jain texts. It is said that the people of this country were known for their deceitful nature (gunthamayizi) 412 Corn wis cultivated in this country by rains, 413 and there were wells here that contained salt water 444 The following words current in this country are recorded. kur a448 (rice), gadda1q440 (wool), jovana447 (threshing of corn), pallaga448 (granary), suphani140 (kettle-pen), avasavana450 ( sour gruel), akkada461 (a variety of grass), bhatta402" (husband's sister), hali (a common word used in addressing equals), kaccha453 (an underwear), khira464 (milk) and thill2465 (a saddle). 430 436 Brh Bha , 3 4123 f 454 Ava. ca, p. 27. $37 Pinda Bha, 44 ff, p. 142 a 466 Bhag. Ti, 3.4. 438 Ala Nit , 769 See Supra, p 258. 440 See Supra, p. 838 ; Aca. 9. 3, p. 281 f, Aca. cu., p. 318. 641 C, AGI, p. 732 449 Vya. Bha , 3. 345. 448 BTh Bha Vr., 1. 1230 Panna, 1, p 28 a Brh Bha Pi., 57 446 Nisi.cu , 3, p 329. Ogh Nir Bha Ti., 90, P 75 Ava Ti p. 67 a. 449 Suya cu p 146 460 Brh Bha. V 1. 3099. Nisi.cu , 2, p. 24 (MSS) 403 Das cu., 7, p. 250. 468 Nisi.cu., P., p. 46. 449

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306 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA According to the Vividhatirthakalpa, Bharuyakaccha was the chief city of Lata. 466 Lalarattha is identified with the old Lata, kingdom of Gujerat. 487 Laika-a city Lanka is referred to in the Nisitha curni. 488 According to the Vasudevahindi, Ramana defeated Jadau and having crossed Kikkindhigiri reached Lanka.489 According to the Tursastusalakapurusaca, ita, in the Lavana ocean there was an island named Raksasadvipa and in its centre lay the mountain called Trikuta. The city of Lanka was situated on the top of this mountain.460 Lanka is identified with Ceylon.401 Lohaggala--a city It is stated that Mahavira arrived here from Bahusalaga and proceeded to Purimatala 463 It may be identified with Lohardaga in the Bengal district which forms the central and north-western portion of the Chota Nagpur division. 483 Maccha-a kingdom (See Vaccha). Maddanagama--a village It is stated that Mahavira arrived here from Kundaka and proceeded to the village Bahusalaga.404 Its location is unknown. Magadha--a kingdom Magadha is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Rayagiha as its capital. It is also referred to as one of the sixteen Janapadas. Magadha is mentioned along with Soratthaya and Malava in the Uttaradhyayana curni.468 466 P 88. 487 G E B., p. 58. 458 Abhidhana Rajendra Kosa, under "Lanka" 450 P. 243. AGO II, p. 165 481 GD, p. 113. See Supra, p. 269. 458 Imp. Gaz., Vol. VIII, p. 475. 486 See Supra, p. 269. 406 p. 22. 483

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 307 Mahavira allowed the Jain monks to move upto Magadha to the east of Saketa 466 Magadha, Pabhasa and Varadama are enumerated as holy places (tittha) situated in east, west and south-west of Bharatavarga in succession. When Bharata gained complete victory over Bharatavarsa,467 the gods are stated to have brought holy water (titthodaga) from Magadha and installed him as a universal monarch 468 Magadha was the real birthplace of Jain religion and the centre of activities of Mahavira, who roamed about in the interior of Magadha and preached his religious doctrines to the people. 460 The people of Magadha are described as very clever. (see Dakkhmavaha) Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern Patna and Gaya districts in Bihar.470 Magahapura--a city It is mentioned in the Avasyaka curni and471 the commentary of the Uttaradhyayana, 472 It is same as Rayagiha. Mahaghosa-a city Mahaghosa is referred to in the Vivagasuya.478 Its situation is unknown. Mahahimavanta-a mountain This mountain was known for gosisa sandalwood. 474 It may correspond to the middle valleys of the Himalayan tract. (1) Mahakala--a cemetery This cemetery was situated in Baravai.476 (2) Mahakala-a shrine Mahakala is described as a shrine (ceiya) in Ujjeni.476 Mahanakundaggama or llahanakundapura--a suburb. Mahanakundaggama and Khattiyakundaggama were two suburbs of Vesali (see Khattiyakundaggama). 400 See Supra, p. 230. 467 Also cf T S. P, pp. 213-252. Tha su , 3. 142, Aa cu., p186; Ava. Nir. Bha. Dipika., 110, p. 93 a. 460 .va. Nu., 488 470 CA GI, 718 f. 171 T3 13, p. 192 a. Also sce Soiensun, (Index to the Mahabha., p. 453), Sutla Nipata (6. 1. 38). 473 II, 8, p. 64-1. 474 Aja Cup 397 f. Anta. 3, p. 18. 476 Ava. Nir. 1278, Ava. Cu., II, p. 157; also see Meghadita 31. P 459.

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308 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDLA Mahapura--a city It is said that the twelfth Titthayara received his first alms at this place. 477 This town is said to have been visited by Mahavira.478 It cannot be identified. Mahatavovatir appabha--a spring This spring is described as being five hundred dhanus in length and was situated in Rayagiha near the mountain Vebhara 479 In Pali literature it is known as Tapoda; it was a large lake below the Vebhara mountain outside Royagiha 480 This spring is identified with modern Tapoban at the Rajgir hills 481 Mahesari or Mahesara--a city Mahesari was situated in Dakkhinavaha. It was a prosperous city.482 Mahessara is mentioned along with Sirimala and Ujjeni, where people were fond of drinking wine 483 "It is identified with Mahismati or Mahesh on the right bank of the Nerbada, forty miles to the south of Indore.484 Mahi-a river Mahi is mentioned as one of the five great tributary rivers of the Ganges (see Adi) It is identified with Mhye in Saran district, Bihar 485 Mahiravana-a river (see Dimbharelaka). Mahura or Uttara Mahura--a city Surasena was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Mahura as its capital. Mahura is included among the ten capitals of ancient India. It was an important city in Uttaravaha to which ninety six villages were attached.480 477 Ava. Nir., 324. 478 Via II, 7, p. 64-1. 419 Bhag., 2.5 480 See Vinaya, III, p 108; the com. on the Digha. I, p 35. 481 C. A G.1, 529, also see Martin's Eastern India, Vol. I, p. 253 f. 499 Ava. Ti , p 249 a. 188 Aca Cu., 2 l, 333. 184 G.D, pp. 119, 120. C. A. G. I, p. 719. 486 Brh. Bha. 1. 1774 f.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 309 Mahura is described as a very ancient city in the Jain texts487 Mention is made of a jewelled thubha in Mahura, over which there arose a quarrel between Jains and Buddhists, resulting in the defeat of the latter. 488 Mahura had been a grcat centre of activities of the Jains in ancient days. It is said that the citizens of Mahura and the ninety six villages adjoining it, installed the Jain idols in their houses and the court-yards.189 It is mentioned that Mahui a was visited by Mahavira, 480 Ajja Mangu491 and Ajja Rakkhiya 492 Mahura is described as a centre of heretical ascctics (pakhandigabbha) 408 Mahura was an emporium of trade and people lived here on trade and not on agriculture 404 It is quoted as an example of thalapattana where goods were carried by land route.496 In Pali literature five disadvantages are described in Madhura The ground was uneven, thcre was much dust, there were fierce dogs, there were bestial yakkhas and alms were obtained with difficulty. Buddha viewed the city with disfavour 486 Mahura is identified with Maholi, five miles to the south-west of the present town of Mathura or Muttra.407 Majjhadesa-Middle Country Majjhimadesa is mentioned in the Nayadhammakaha.498 According to Jains, the country of Kosala was termed as Madhyadesa. 400 According to thc Puranas, Ayodha was the capital of Madhyadesa. 800 Majjhamiya--a city. Majjhamiya is mentioned in the Vivagasuya.601 Majjhimilla is also mentioned a sakha in the Kalpasutra.602 It is identified with Nagari near Chittor in southern Rajputana. 503 4 498 Sim 497 Uttar a Cup 82 488 Vya Bha 5 27f, also cf Jambuswamicarta of Rajamalla, ed. by Jagdishchandra Jain, Bombay, 1936, where more than five hundred stupas are mentioned in Mathura, also cf. Bihackathakosa (12.132) In the Ramayana (VII 70.5) also Mathura is described as "devamrmita." 489 Brh Bha., 1 1774 f Viva 6, p. 35 f. 491 Gaccha Wr., p 116 a ; Ava. Ci , If, p. 80. 492 Ava Cu, p. 411 f. Aca. Cu., p. 163. Bth Bha Vf., 1. 1239. Aca. Cu , 7, P 281. Anguttara, III, P 256 For the description of Mathura, see Harivansa (I. 54. 56 ff'). 497 CAG1, p. 427f. 488 8, p 120. Jambu 70, p 278. Pargitar, A.I.H T., p. 257, for the Buddhist conception of Majjhimadesa, see Fataka (I, p. 49) 601 II, 5, P 64-1. 60% 8, p 232. 503 John Allan, Coins of Ancient India, p. xiv.

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go LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Maishima PeuaPage #319
GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 312 Malayagana--a village It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Succhitta and proceeded to Hatthisisa,616 Its cxact site cannot be located. Manasa Sarovara-a lake It is mentioned in the commentary of the Uttaradhyayana.517 It is identified with Manasa Sarovara lake in the Tibetan territory beyond the great southern wall of the Himalayas. 518 Mandara- a settlement It is referred to in the Avasyaka Niryukti.519 It is unidentifiable. Mandira It is said that the sixteenth Titthayara received his first alms here.620 It may be identified with Mandaragiri, 30 miles south of Bhagalpur.621 Manipura--a city Manipura is referred to in the Vivagasuya.632 Manipura is also mentioned in the Mahabharata (Asvamedha P. ch. 79), according to which it was the capital of Kalinga.623 Lassen identifies it with Manipur Bunder and places it to the south of Chikakole.524 Manivar or Manivaiya or Manivaya--a city It is mentioned in the Niryavaliya.675 Manimati is also mentioned in the Mahabharata (III 94.4). It is not identifiable Marahattam country Marahatta or Maharastra was considered as a non-Aryan country, but king Sampai is said to have made it suitable for the movement of the Jain monks (see Andha). 518 Imp Gaz , Vol. IX, p. 276. 610 443. 621 316 See Supra, P 260 517 Uttara Ti, 18, p 237 2. 530 Ava Nir., 324 Dist. Gaz of Bhagalpur. 892 II, 7, p. 64-1 593 Sorenson, Index to Mahabha , p. 484. 624 G. D., p. 126. 636 3, 5, 6, also Viva., II, 6, p. 04-1,

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312 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Various customs and practices current in Maharastra are recorded in the Tain texts. The people of Maharastra were known for their talkative nature.696 In this country the wine sellers 527 and the barbers688 were not despised, and a flag was always seen here on the wineshops whether there was wine or not.548 A curious practice by the naked monks of Maharastra of wearing a ring (ventaka) on their penis is referred to in the Brhatkalpa Bhasya 680 The following words current in Maharastra are recorded palaka531 (a vegetable), aganthima53a (plantain chips), ku7 a583 (ricc), anna:34 (a common word for calling out people) and mauggama 535 /women) Marahatta is identified with the present Maratha country, the country watered by the upper Godavari and that lying between that river and the Krishna 538 Maru or Maruya- a country Maru was located on the way to Ujjeni from Viibhaya,587 There was excessive sand in this country and so nails were stuffcd in earth for guidance of the travellers.638 It is stated that for fetching water, people started at night and travelled a long distance in this country.680 It is also called Marusthali or Marudhanva. It denotes the whole of Rajputana."40 Masa or Alasapuri--a city Masa was the capital of Puriyatta, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries Masapuri is also stated to be a sakha of the Jain sramanar.541 It is not identifiable. 630 Vya Bha. 7. 126. 637 Brh. Bha Vf., 1. 1239 518 Aca Cu., p. 233. 510 Brh. Bha 2. 3539. 830 1 2637. 631 BTh Bha, 1. 2094. 531 Visi Cu , 16. p 183 (Mss) 538 See under Lata. Das Cu , p. 250. 636 Visi Cu, 6, p. 1 (Mss). 886 G EB, p. 57. $37 Aca. ci, p 400 ff. 538 Suva. Ti., 1 11, p 196. 383 Nisi. Cu , 16. p. 1097. 540 G.D., p. 127. 541 Kalpa. 8, p. 230.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 313 lattiyayai- acuty Alattiyavai was the capital of Dasanna, one of the twenty five and a lialf Aryan countries According to the Harvamsa Purana, Mrttikavati was situated on the Neimada river 542 Alayaganga--a river (dahu) Mayanga was the lower part of the Ganges where plenty of water was collected, and never flowed out 043 According to anothci tiadition, the iegion where the Ganges entered the sce, changed its cousc from ycar to year, and the oldest region was called Mayaganga 544 It is mcntioned that on the bank of Mayaganga thele lived Balakotta, a lc.der of the Candalas 545 The lakc, Vlayaganmutiraddaha. 15 1clcrrcd io in the Naradhammakah This lakc was located to the north-east of Benalcs,546 the sea, changanga * It is more of the Candalas. This lake was llajandi-- a city Thc Naradhammnhahi rcfcis to a mci chant, Makandi, of Campa.547 Vakandi is close ubed in the Samaraiccakahi 518 Makandi was anotlici capital of southern Pancala which cxtcndcd 110m tlic soutliern bank of the Ganges to thc river Carmanvati or Chambal 549 Mendhiyagiima--a city It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Nandiggama and proceeded 10 Kosambi On his second journcy he is said to have arrived here from Jambhiyagams and proceeded to Chamani.650 Its cxact situation is not known. Migakotthaga --a city It is inentioncd that Jamadagui arrived here from Vasantapura.801 It seems to be identical with Indapura which was another name for Kanyakubja (See Indapura). 641 I, 36.15 543 Uttara Co, 13. p 213 ; a. ca., p. 510. 341 Aze. Ti, p. 498 a. 618 Uttara Cu, 12, p 202. 548 4. p 65. 647 9. p. 121. 848 ch. B. 849 GD, p. 145. 380 Sre Supra, p. 260. 881 Ja, Cu., p. 510.

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314 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA fihila-a city. Videha was one of the twenty five and a half liyan countries with Mihila as its capital. Mihila is included among thc ten capitals of India Mihila was the place of birth, renunciation and salvation of the ninctcenth and the twenty first Tilthayaas 062 Mihil, was frcquently visited by Mahavira, who is said to have passed six rainy seasons hele (sce supra, p 261) Mihila was also visited by Ajja Mahagiri 553 At the time of Jinaprabhasuri, Alihila was known as Jagai + Mithila is called Janakapuri in the Ramayana and is identified with Janakapur, a small town within the Nepal boider, north of which the Muzaffarpur and Darbhanga districts meet.556 llryaggama-acily The city is said to have been visited by Mahavila To the northCast of the city thcie was a garden of Candanaplyule with the shrine of at sakkha.537 It is not identified. Motheragii-a city Modheraga is mentioned in the Styagadanga Curnz Jug The city of A Lochcraka is also mentioned in the Catur vi msalipabandha of Rajasekharasuri, it lies in Gurjaradhai a 669 It is cighteen miles south of Patan and is situated on the left bank of the Pushmavati.560 Moka--a city It is said that this town was visited by Mahavira, who left for Rayagiha from here. 561 It is not identifiable. Jloli-e kingdom Moli was one of the sixteen janapadas mentioned in the Bhagvati Perhaps Moli and Malla may be identical. 602 AM 111.383, Uttara Ti, 9 p 139 a. 633 Tu Yir Bha 132, p 143a, Citara Ti, 3, p. 71. 564 luz, p. 32 655 ). 48,11 , also scu lahabha (III. 210). 856 C.1. G. I, p 718. 357 Tica 1, p 21. 568 p. 348. 689 9, pp. 56, 77. Architectural Antiquity of Northern Gujerat, by Cousens and Burgess, London, 1903, p. 11 561 Bhag 3.1.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 315 Jlonga-a settlement It is said that Mahavia arrived here from Kollaga (see supra, p. 257). On his second journey Mahavira is stated to have arrived here from Atthiyaggama and proceeded to Uttaravacala 562 It has not been identified. Ilona-a setllement Moriya Sannivesa was situated in Magadha.503 Its (xact site is not known. Mosali- a settlement It is stated that M havira arrived here from Tosali and proceeded to Siddhatthapura 50+ Its exact situation is not known Iluggalagu ma mountain It is stated that Sukosala and luis father Siddhartha both stood here in mcditation -65 According to the Brhalhathakosa, this mountain was situated in Magadha '86 The hermitage of Mudgala Rsi existed near Monghyr in Bihar. In thc clcicnth century it was called Mun-giri.567 Jluggaselapurama city It is mentioned that the ascetic Kulavesi arrived from Mathura,548 Its location is not identificd. Nadapudaragami - 2 zillage It is said that this village was located on the way to Avanti from Bharuvahacchia 360 Its cxact location is not known. Nagapurama city It is another name for Hatthinapura.570 589 See Supra, p 237, 663 Ala Vu 643 56+ See Supia p 260 56 Bhaita, 161, 30, 786 127 267 667 (Dip 132. 568 Litara Ti , 2, p 46a. 589 In Vir 1311. 570 Thu 10. p 453a , also Vaya II, 5, p. 228..

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316 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Nalanda --a suburb Nalanda was a suburb of Rayagiha, situated to its north-east It was abounding in wealth and had a large number of buildings. It is said that a number of monks received their alms here. There was a forest named Hatthidiya in the vicinity of Nalanda (See Hatthidiva). In Buddhist works the distance from Rajagiha to Nalanda is stated to be one yojana 572 It is identificd with modern Bargaon, scvcn miles north-west of Rajgir in the district of Patna 573 Nandigama-a village It is said that Mahavira reached here from Bhogapura and proceeded to Mendhiyagama.574 Its location is not identified. Nandipura--a city Nandipura was the capital of Sandibbha, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. Nandipura is rcfcrred to in thc Vivagasuya also.576 Nandigrama is also mentioned in the Rimayana (VI 130 41) It may be identified with Nandigrama or Nundgaon in Oudh, eight or nine miles to the south of Fyzabad 570 Nangalaa village It is stated that Mahavira arrived here from Haledduyagrama and proceeded to Ivattagama 077 Its exact situation is not known Nasikka-a city This town is referred to in the Arasyaha Guni 578 It is identificd with modern Nasik, about seventy five miles to the north-west of Bombay 078 Nayakhandla--a garden It is stated that Mahavira reached here from Kundapura This garden belonged to the Naya clan and was located on the outskirts of 671 Sa Ti , IL 7 69 also see Digh I, p 211. 672 lhe com on the Digha I, p 33. 673 CA G.I,p 537 374 Sec Supra, p 260 676 8, p. 46. 576 GDP 138 578 p 566 871 See Supra, p. 258. 876 G.E.B, p. 57.

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GEOGRAPITICAL LEXICON 317 Kundapura. Mahavira took to the ascetic life in this garden.580 Naya. khanda is mentioned along with Ujjanta and Siddhasila as a place of celebration of feasts (sankhadi).581 Nepila or Nemail-a country Nepala was visited by Bhadrabahu 182 It is mentioned that as there was no fear from robbcis in Nepala, Tamalitti, Sindhu and Sauvira. the Jain monks were allowed to wear undivided (kalsna) 588 garments in thesc countries Nepala was noted for its blankets.584 It may be identified with modern Nepal, an independent state. 185 Nevalaga-a port (pattana) It is mentioned that people travelled from here to Baravai hy boat (nava).586 Its exact location is unidentificd. Pabbhasa--a holy place It is said that when Mati and Sumati, the two daughters of king Pandusena, were sailing to Suratthalom Pandu Mahura, their ship was foundered and they died. In course of time, their dead bodics wcie seen floating on thc water Then a great feast was celebrated in their honour and since then this place was declared as a holy Pabbhasa.587 It is identified with Somnath in the Junagadh State, Kathiawar.588 Piilalasanila or Pulalisanila - a city This town was visited by Mahayita 589 The scienth is said to have ieceii cd his first alms at this placc 690 Its location is unidentifiable. Tilihavara Palalipulla, a city The following tradition is recorded about the origin of Padaliputta. It is said that when Inhaputlil als crossing the Ganges from 580 See Supia p 237. 591 Bih Bha , 3192. 582 Ava ci, II, p 187. 583 Bih Bha , 3 3912. 584 Ibid 3 3824. 885 Imp Gas Vol X,p 274 80 Sisi cu 2 0 (MSS) 687 la ci, II p 197, loncier, in the Nisitha curni (II P 672), Pabbhasa, Prayaga, I akkhanda ("), Sriimala and Keyara are nientioned as unholy places (kulittha) Ci the origin of Prabhasa the foremost of all tirthas, according to the Mahalharata, Sorenson, Index to the Mahabharala, P 563. 588 GDP 157 589 Via 7, p 40. 690 Ja Nu. 323,

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318 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA was drowned or badali found its manuful tree, prince Pupphabhadda, his boat went down into the rivci and that Annihaputta was drowned His skull was caten by fish and dufted to the bank, where a seed of parlali found its way into it and in coursc of timc grow mito a large tiee Seeing this beautiful trce, prince Cdivi founded the City of Padaliputta here 91 Padaliputta was a centre of activities of the Jains It was visited by Ajja Mahagiri and Ajja Suhatthi. "93 Padaliputta is described as is centre of learning 63 It is modern Patna. Pridha-a kingdom It is one of the sixteen janapadas mentioned in the Bhagavati It may be identified with Padham in the Mainpuri district in U P 594 Pailisanturalijuga It is stated that this land was situated at a distancc of fifty yojanas 10 the south siom the confluence of Sindhu and the Lavana ocean It is said to be twelve and a half yojans in extension, thicc and a half yojans above sea water, and the shape of an elephant trunk There were forty seven pitch dark caves here, of the shape of a crocodile ghairulagasamthana) The inhabitants of this land were ugly, dieauful, greedy for hont y and flexli col clous of women and teruble fighters They could inove in water and their duration of life varied from iuclic and a half nights to a large number of vcar sankhyartin Ther possessecl round and hollow boats antar andalagolucio) and wandered in search of excellent jeucls in the ca At a distance of thice thousand and hundicd rounas hrom this land there lay the island of Rayadiva lhe inhabitants of this land filled their adamantinc vc scls l'ai acan asilasa mpularm, with honey and flesh, and retuined to their homes in boats which were made of long wood of trees of the shape of an clephant tiunk A fight is stated to have taken place between them and the cavc-men which resulted in the dcfcat of the latter.505 This region is not known. Paitthana-a city Paitthana, also known as Poyanapura, was the chief city of Maharastra situated on the bank of the Goyavari 588 501 Ila cu II D 179, Ta Air 1279 Cf also the tradition recorded in the Kathasar il Sagara, lol I, chu pp 18 ff, also see Mahangga, pp 226-30 the com on the l'dana, p 407 532 Tu vor 1278 Ia cu II p 153 593 Suya cu, pp 139 141 504 John Allan, The Ancient Indian Colius, p. I. . 795 Maha Ni , pp 17 1 35 , Gaccha V7, p 50a. C90 Brh. Bha 6 6244 [, ako Fasi, p 354,

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 319 In the south, Paitthana was a great centre of the Jains, who had considerable influence over the then ruling kings. We are told that Padalitta Suri cuicd the headache of kung Mulunda of Paitthana 507 Bhadrabahu and Vaiahamihua arc stated to be the residents of this town 8 Kalakacarya is said to have visited this place." Paitthana was a seat of learning 600 (See also Poyanapura) 599 Paitthana is identified with modern Paithan which lay on the southern bank of Goyavari in south of Aurangabad It was the birthplace and the capital of Raja Salivahana who is said to have founded the Saka era in 78 D It is Potali of the Buddhists and was a great emporium 601 of commerce Part thika-a village (See Ketaya) Its site is unknown. Palaga a village It is said that Mahavira 1cached heic from Sumangala and proceedcd to Campa 602 Its exact situation is not known. Palhava o Palhaga-a country 'This country is mentioned with Bahali and Jonaga where Usabha is said to have travelled (Sec Adamba) It was a non-Aryan country and was known for its maid-servants. It is said that when the city of Baravai was burnt, Kujjav araya, the son of Baladeva, was taken to this country 003 The Pahlavas have been identified with the Parthians.00 Panala-a kingdom Pancala was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Kampillapura as its capital. It roughly corresponds to modern Budaun, Farrukhabad and the adjoining districts of the United Provinces.05 697 Pinda u. 497 1, p 141a 801 598 Gaucha 1, p 93. GB8 S Supia p 239 800 halpa 1, p 90a GD, p 159. 602 Sce supia, p. 260. Uttara Ti., 2, p. 39. .G. D. p. 143. GB p. 19. 803 801 803

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320 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Patcaseladivaman Island It is stated that thic viinamantari goddesses, who were i esiding here, set out for a pilgi image to the Island of Nandisaladiva. They passed thiough Campa by ail and invited the goldsmith Kumaianandi to como to their countryIn couise os tinie, the goldsmith left foi Pancaseladita in a ship Ile Icached a banyan tree which stood on the sea-coast, and from thcre hc fastened himself to the middle legs of two threc-legged Bhurunda buds which carried him to the desired destination 606 It is stated that Pancaseladiva was a small island in the middle of the Layana ocean, surrounded by five mountains 607 It is not identificd Pandu Jahunt oi Dahlhina llahu a- cty Pandu Maliuic Wels located on the southuin bank of the cat sud tlieic was fice trade between Lilana Mahui i and Dakhma Mahui 608 The five Pandavas were the residents of this tour who dictated to have attained salvation at Settunjaya Sue Haltuhuppa) It is said that while coming back from Avarakunha, the Panilaras were cow asked by Kanha Vasudeva to go to Pandu Mahu i and 1ciclc thcic Kanha Vasudeva and Rama Baladeva alc said to have proceeded to Pandu Mahui a fiom Balavai und on the way halted in the forest of Kosamba Scc Kosambayana) It is said that the pcoplc of Pandu Valuld huck nothing about the bailey meal 610 It is identificd with Madula in llic south of thc Vadias Presidency Gli Pany abhumi Paniyabhumi was a place in Vanabhumi, a division of the country of Radha. Vlahaich is said to have passed heic rainy sca'on duing his ascetic life 612 Its location is not identificd. Parasa---a country Paiasa was considered dwong the non-Alyall wunli ies and was known for its maid-servants. This country was the centre of trade, where merchants wanted to uavel to far off countries.*18 Il is said that Ayala GUB 42 cup 397 f, Ave. Tip 391 f, cf. a similar journey to Suvarnadipa by a Bulunana, who hid himself in the lcathers of thic birds and was taken therc, Katha saritsagara, Vol. II, chs. xiy-xxvi, pp. 170-241. BOT .lbladhan Rijndra Kosa, under 'Paicaseladiva, 808 Ava. cu., p. 472 809 Nava 16, p. 197f. a10 Bth. Bha, Pi., 47. 811 G E B., 31, 63, ela Kalba, 5. 123. Aua. cu., p. 448.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 321 arrived here from Ujjeni and proceeded to Bennayada with various merchandisc 014 This country was visited by Kalakacarya who is said to have arrived hcrc from Ujjeni (See Hindugadesa) It is mentioned that the people of the country made garlands from the buffalo's horns616 and knew nothing about bread fruit (panasa).616 It is the same as modern Persia. Patalalankapura--a city This city is referred to in the commentary of the Panhavagarangit (See also Lanka). Pattakalaya--a settlement It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Kalaya and proceeded to Kumaraya.( 18 Its cract location is not known. Paumakhanda-a city' It is said that the cighth Titthayara received his first aims at this place.619 Its location is unknown. (1) Pava--a city Pava was the capital of Bhanga, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries (See Bhanga). It is identified with the region near the Parasanath Hills.080 (2) Pava - city Same as Apava. Payaga--a holy place It is stated that when the monk Annikaputta was drowned in the Ganges, a vanamantari erected a pike in the river to impale him. Annikaputta attained Kevalahood at this place, and since then this place was declared as a holy Payaga (See also Pabbhasa ; Padalipu 614 See Supra, p. 113 815 Nsi cu,7, p. 464 018 Ara cu p 27 617 4, p 83 d. 818 Sec Supia, p. 258. 819 Aca Nu., 323. 610 SBM. p. 375,

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322 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Payaga01 is referred to as Ditipayaga in the Vasudevahindi.eus It is identified with modern Allahabad at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuni. Pedhalagama-a village This village was located in Dadhabhumi (See Dadhabhumi). Prhunda-a city Pihundu was a centre of trade. The merchant Paliya of Campa is mentioned to have arrived here for trade.628 In Kharvela's inscriptions we have mention of a place founded by the former kings of Kalinga and known by the name of Pithudaga or Pithuda, which had become in one hundred and thirteen years a watery jungle of grass. It is located in the interior of Chicakole and Kalingapatam, towards the course of the river Nagavati 614 Pitthcampai-a suburb It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Coraga Sannivesa and proceeded to Kayangala.696 Pitthicampa was located very near Campa,098 where the Teacher is said to have spent a number of rainy seasons." Its exact location is not known. Piyasangama It is stated to be a land of the Vujaharas 628 Its site is unknown. Polasapura--a city It is said that the potter, Saddalaputta, was a resident of this town Polasapura was visited by Mahavira and Goyama Indabhui.698 There was an Ajivaka sabha (hall) in Polasapura where Gosala is said to have sojourned during his visits to the town.680 Its location is unidentifiable. $11 Ata cu II, p. 178 F, Gaccha, Vr. p 66 f. 611 p 193 See also Padmapurana of Ravisena (3 281), Karakanducaria (6. 6. 5), also Mahabha (III 83 79) 823 Uttara Su, 21 2 62+ GEB, 65. 635 See Supra, p. 258 616 Ava Ti. p. 383a 027 See Supra, p. 261. 898 Uttara. Ti , 18, p. 238. 019 Anta 6, p 40. 830 Uva. 7.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 1323 943 Poranapura--a city It was located in Puvvavideha,681 a mythical region. Its site has not been identified. Poyanapura-a city Poyanapura, also known as Pratisthanapura, was situated on the bank of the Ganges.688 It is also mentioned in the Harivamia (I. 26. 49). It may be identified with Jhusi, opposite to Allahabad, across the Ganges, which is still called Pratisthanpur 683 Pukkhaia--a holy place It is mentioned in thc Avasyaka curni that the three lakes were built here.634 Puskara is mentioned as a holy place in the Mahabharata (III. 80 207 It is identified with modern Pushkar lake six miles from Ajmer.985 Pundariya--a mountain It is stated that the ascetic Thavaccaputta reached here from Sogandhiya and attained salvation Suya and Selaya also are said to have attained salvation on this mountain 638 In the commentary on the Uttaradhyayana, we are told that the Pandavas attained liberation on this mountain.687 Pundariya and settunjaya are identical.638 (1) Pundavaddhana--a city Pundavaddhana is stated to be situated in Gandhara where the king Siharaha was ruling 638 It may be the same as Pandya, a country between Jhelam and Ravi, as referred to by Ptolemy.640 881 Ultara Ti. 23, p 286a. 831 Sam 56, p 66a , one Poyanapura is also mentioned in the Brhatkalpa Bhasya (6.6198). 138 GD, p. 159 884 p. 400 fr, also Nisi cu, 10, p. 645. 035 G D., p 163 014 Naya 5, p. 78 687 2, p. 43 698 Naya. 16, p 200 ; cf. also vividha. p. 1, where nineteen names of Satrunjaya are mon tioned, 610 Lillard Ti. O, p. 141. 640 Di. Molichand, Bharati Vudya, Vol. I, pl. I, p. 34.

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324 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA (2) Pundavaddhana--a city Pundra was known for harmless black cows which fed upon the sugarcane.64. It was also famous for green grass (saduala) 6:3 Pundavaddhaniya is stated to be a sakha of the Jain siamanas.843 Pundravardhana corresponds to Mahasthan in the Bogra district in Bengal.644 Pundia-a country This country was situated at the foot of the mountain Veyaddha Its location cannot be identified.646 Punnakalasa-a village It was a non-Aryan country. It is mentioned that Mahavira reached here from Ladha and proceeded to Bhaddiya.646 Its exact situation is not known. Pupphabhadda, Pupphabhaddiya or Pupphapura--a city This town was located on the bank of the Ganges.647 It is identical with Pataliputra 648 first Titlhazara, attain (1) Purimatalama dil) It is said that Usabha, the first Titihajaia, attained kevalahood in this town $40 According to the com. of the Ira. A1.342, it was a suburb (sakhanagara) of Ayodhya (2) Purima tala Mahavira is said to have arrived here from Lohaggala and proceeded to Unnaga.860 It may be indentified with Purulia in Bihar. (sakhangos According to the Purivatta--a kingdom It was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Masa as its capital. It is not identifiable. 041 Tandul Ti,p 26a. Paundraka is mentioned as a variety of sugarcane grown in the Paundra country, North Bengal, History of Bengal, Vol 1, p 650. 041 Jua 3, p 355 641 Kalpu R, p 227a , also sec T Watters on Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, Vol. II, p. 185. 041 Pramode Lal Paul, The Early History of Bengal, p. 11, Calcutta, 1939. $16 Tha. O 603, Anta. 5, p. 26. 640 Scc Supra, p 238. 047 Aun. cu, 359, Bil. Bha. 1. 1349. DIE Scc alsu Bengal Di Gur, Palu, Vol. VIII, 1007, p. 16 640 Jiu. Nur 931 880 Sec Supid, p. 203.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 325 Purisapura--a city This town was situated in Gandhara.661 It is said that once king Murunda of Padaliputta sent an envoy to Purisapura.662 It is identified with Peshawar.683 Puriya or Puri- city Puriya was 3 centre of the Jains. It was known for the image of the living lord064 and was inhabited by many stavakas. Puriya was visited by Vairasami, who is said to have arrived here from Uttarapaha and proceeded to Mahesari. At this time the city was governed by a Buddhist king and Jains and Buddhists were not on good terms 865 Purima (Puliya) was a centre of trade and is cited as an example of jalapattana, where goods were carried by water.668 It may be identified with Puri Jagannath in Orissa.667 Puvvadesa--Eastern division of India This country was visited by Vairasami, who proceeded to Uttarapaha from here.868 Thert were beggar-houses (ghanghasala) in the centre of the villages in this country 668 Rice was known as puggali here.680 According to Cunningham, Eastern India comprised Assam and Bengal proper, including the whole of the della of the Ganges, together with Sambalpur, Orissa and Ganjam.gol Radhama kingdom Same as Ladha (See Ladha). Rahamaddana--a fort (kottha) It is said that when Kanha Vasudeva banished the Pandavas, he founded this fort as a mark of memory.802 According to the Kathakosa, 80s the city of Rathamardana lay in Madhyadesa. It is not identifiable. 861 Ava,ci. II, p. 208. 852 Brh Bha. 1. 2291. 863 GD, p. 162 884 Ogh. Ti., 119, p. 59a. 056 Ava Nir., 772; 1188, Ava, cu, p. 396. 868 Nisl c9., 6, p. 34 (MSS). GBT GD, p 162. 858 Ava cu, p. 390. 880 Aca cu , p. 260. 860 Das cu., p. 236. CA G.I., P. 572 863 Vaga 16, p. 196. 869 Taunry, p. 96.

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326 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Rahaneura Cakkavala--a city Rahaneura Cakkavala was located to the north of the mountain Veyaddha 064 Its location is unknown Rahavalta-a mountain This mountain was situated near the mountain of Kunjaravatta Vairasami is said to have visited this mountain along with his five hundred monks. He left one novice (khuddaga) here and in order to practise penance, went to the Kunjaravatta. It is said that the novice died here and that his body melted like a lump of ghee. Then the gods are said to have gone round the mountain in a chariot and worshipped him and hence this place came to be known as Rahavatta 685 It is mentioned that a battle took place between Vasudeva and Jarasandha near this mountain.668 (See also Ahicchatta). According to the Nisitha cuni, this mountain was situated in Vidisa.607 Rathavarta is also mentioned in the Mahabharata as a holy place.881 Rahaviz apura--a town It is mentioned that Sivabhui founded thc cighth schism at this place.662 It is not identifiable Rayagihama city Rayagiha was the capital of Magadha, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It was included among the ten capitals mentioned in the Thananga. The east of Saketa, Mahavira allowed the Jain monks to move up to Rayagiha.670 Rayagiha is described as the birthplace of the twentieth Titthayara.073 Rayagiha was visited by Pasa, 07a and Mahavira is said to have passed fourteen rainy seasons here.78 Rayagiha was also frequented by Ajja Suhamma674 and Gosala,976 and various disciples of Mahavira 604 Uttara Ti., 18, p. 241a ff. 886 Marana 470f, p. 128; Ava Ti., p. 396a. 868 Ava, cu , 235 EUR67 Vir Nn vana, etc., NP, p. 90 868 III, 82. 22. 888 Loa Nu. 782; Aua. cu TP 427. BT0 Brl, Sa, 1. 50. 671 Ava. Nir , 383, 325. 013 Naya. II, 10, p. 230; Nirya. 4. 878 Kalpa. 5 123, also cf. Bhag. 7. 4; 3.9 ; 2, 6; Ava. Nir. 473,492, 018. 874 Anutta, 1, p. 68. 875 Bhag. 15.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 327 lived in this city. 876 Gunasila, 877 Mandikuccha978 and Moggarapanioto are mentioned as some of the important shrines of the city. Rayagiha was noted for its springs.080 It is said that, when Khiipaitthiya was in ruin, Canagapura was founded. Then the city of Usabhapura came into existence, then Kusaggapura, and finally Rayagiha (see Kusaggapura). The city of Rajagaha was called Giribbaja because it was surrounded by five hills, viz , Pandaya, Gijjhakuta, Vebhara, Isigili and Vepulla.881 In the Mahabharata, the five hills are named as Vaihara, Varaha, Vrsabha, Rsigiri and Chaityaka.683 It is identified with modern Rajgir in Bihar.689 Rayanadiva--an island It is said that Rayanadiva was situated at a distance of three thousand and one hundred yojanas from Padisantavadayaga (See Padisantavadayaga). There was an excellent palace here where the goddess of Rayanadiva lived.084 The Vasudevahindiust refers to the Rayanadiva, where Carudatta was carried to by thc Bherunda birds.080 Rayanadiva is also mentioned in the Samariiccakahui 687 Ratnadvipa is mentioned in the Harvamsa (II. 38. 29 ff). It was situated near Vanavasi Rayanapura- city Rayanapura was the birthplace of the fifteenth Tutthayara.688 It is mentioned that Kavila arrived here for purposes of study from Acalaggama (See Acalaggama) Rayanapura is identified with Runai about two miles from Sohawal. a railway station in Oudh. It was also known as Roinai.089 Rayanavaha-a city It is said that Rayanavaha was situated in Gandhara 680 Its site cannot be identified 878 Bhag 18 3,3 3,7 10,8 7 Anta 6, pp 31, 39, Anutta 1, p 58f, Uva 8, p. 61. 877 Naya 2, p 47, Dasa 10, p 304, Uva 8, p 61. It is identified with modern Gunaya, a village situated three miles from Rajagi ha in cast, Pracina tirthamala p 91,. 878 Bhag 15 679 Anta 6, p 31 880 Brh. Bha Vr 2. 3429 681 The com on the sutla Nipata, II, p. 382 693 II 21 2. 683 See Law, Rajagiha in ancient literature Naya 9, P 1 23 ff 885 p 149 886 Also cf Brhathathakosa, 93, 158, 52 6. 387 6 46, P 29, also Dwyavadana I, 5, XVIII, 230, XXXV, 503. 888 Ava Nit , 383. 829 Pracina tirthamala, Intro, P 37,'p 95 800 Ullura Ti., 9, p 138

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328 Rayapura-a city It is mentioned that the eighteenth Titthayara received his first alms here.691 ga,809 Rajapura is mentioned in the Mahabharata as the capital of Kalin Its exact location is not known. LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Revayaga-a mountain This mountain is described as abounding in various birds and creepers; it was dear to the Dasara kings. Near this mountain there lay the garden Nandanavana, with the shrine of Surappiya Jakkha. Aritthanemi is said to have attained Kevalahood at this place.693 Raivataka is also mentioned in the Mahabharata (I. 2. 39) Revaya is identical with Ujjinta or Girnar mountain. Ritthapura-a city It is mentioned that the tenth Titthayara received his first alms here. It is the same as Aritthapura (Sce Aritthapura). Rohidaya-a city It is said that this town was frequented by Mahavira. There was a garden here named Pudhavivadimsaya with the shrine of Dharana Jakkha 605 Rohitaka is described as a great city in the Divyavadana (VIII, 108). The Mahabharata (Sabha p 32. 4) and Mahamayan also mention Rohitaka as a place dear to Kartikeya. It is modern Rohatak.90 Ruppakula a river It is mentioned that this river flowed between Dakkhinavacala and Uttaravacala (See Dakkhinavacala). Its location is unknown. Sageya-a sity Sageya was the capital of Kosala, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries It was included among the ten capitals. It is 601 Ara Ni 325, also Ava. cu, II, p. 324 892 Santi p 4 3 693 Naja 5, p 68, Anta. 5, p 28, Ullara Ti 22, p 280. 194 4ta Nir 324 095 808 637 Viva 9, p 49, also Sum 68, p 57, Nirya 5. The Geo contents of the Mahamayuri, Dr. Sylvain Levi, trans. by V. S. Agrawala JUPHS, XV, pt II Thi. T1, 153a, Uttara cu, p 213, According to Abhayadeva, Saketa, Vinita and Ayo lhya are identical, Tha. 10. 718, p. 454.

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GEOGRAPAICAL LEXICON 329 stated that the fourth Titthayara received his fast alms here.608 Sageya was visited by Parsva898 as well as by Mahavira, the latter assigned a limit for the movements of the Jain monks here (see supra p 250). Saketa was one of the six great cities of Buddhist India, the others being Campa, Rajagiha, Savitthi, Kosambi and Baranasi.To The distance from Sakcta to Savatthi was seven leagues (yojanas).TO Sageya is identified with modern Ayodhya. Sahanjana-a city This city is said to have been visited by Mahavira.70a Sahanjani is also mentioned in the Hariva msa (I. 33 4). Its probable identification may be suggested with Sahanjan or Sanjan, a village in the Thana district, Bombay. T Sajjha-a mountain It is referred to in the Avasyaka Nuryukti. 108 Sahya is one of the seven principal chains of mountains in India. It is still known as Sahyadri and is the same as the northern parts of the Western Ghats north of the river Kaveri.T04 Salatavi--a village It is mentioned as a village of robbers near Purimatala. 705 Saliggama--a village This village was located in Magadhanear Gobbaragama.To Its site is not known. Salisisa--a village Mahavira is stated to have journeyed to this place from Gamaia and proceeded to Bhaddiya.To8 Its exact situation is not known. 898 Ava Nir 323 890 Naya, ll 9, p 229 TO0 Digha , II, P 146 Mahavagga , p 263. Viva 4, p. 29 T03 925, Malaya, Ti, p 611a. T04 G D., P 171. TOS Viva 3, p. 20. 100 da, cu, II, P. 04. TOT Pinda Nir., 199, p. 72. TOB Ser Supra, p. 269.

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330 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Sambhuttara--a country It was one of the sixteen countries mentioned in the Bhagavati. It is same as Suhmuttara, which means "people north of Suhma." Suhma corresponds with the modern districts of Midnapur and Bankura, and perhaps also Purulia and Manbhum in west Bengal. To8 Sambukka--a city This city was situated in Avanti.710 Its exact location is not known. Sammeya--a mountain Sammeya is mentioned with Campa as a holy place (See Campa). It is stated that, except Usabha, Vasupujja, Nemi and Vira, all other Titthayaras attained salvation on this mountain "11 It is mentioned that a Sangha set out to pay a visit to the shrines on this mountain +13 It is identified with Parasnath Hill in the district of Hazaribagh, in Bihar.713 Samvaddhana or Simbavaddhana--a city It is mentioned that the king Mundivaya or Mundimbhaya was reigning here.714 Its exact location is unidentifiable. Sandibbha or Sandilya--a kingdom This country was counted among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Nandipura as capital. It may be identified with Sandila, a sub-division of Hardoi district in Oudh. Sandilya asrama is mentioned in the district of Fyzabad in Oudh, which was the hermitage of Rsi Sandilya.116 Sarkhando-a city It is mentioned that king Jambudalima was reigning here." Its site is not known. 709 Markandeya, p 357. 710 Maha Ni Guj. trans (MSS), p. 27. 711 Ava Nit 307 ; cf. Naya. 8, p. 120; Aca. cu, p. 267. Uttara Ti , 18, p. 236. T18 GD, p. 176. 114 Ava. Nir. 1312; Ava. <<1, II, p. 210. IS G. D., P 176. . 116 Maha, Ni., p. 26.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 335 Sankhapura- city It is mentioned that the prince Agadadatta proceeded to Vanarasi from here.717 (See also Camari). Its situation is not known. Sanulatthiya-- a village It is mentioned that Mahavira arrived here from Savatthi, and proceeded to Dadhabhumi.718 It is unidentified. Sarassai-a river It is stated that the citizens of Anandapura set out for this river for celebrating feasts (see Anandapura). Sarassai was known for pilgrim age.710 It may be identified with the river Saraswati of western India, rising in mountain Abu in Rajaputana.790 Sarau-- river It is mentioned as one of the five great tributary rivers of the Ganges.781 It is Ghagra, or Gogra, a tributary of the Ganges on which stood the city of Ayojjharia Saravana-a settlement It is mentioned as the birthplace of Gosala.123 Its exact location is not known. Sataddu--a viver Sataddu is mentioned as one of the five great tributaries of the Sindhu.724 * Satadru is mentioned in the Mahabharata (I. 193. 10) and is identified with modern Sutlej.196 110 Aca 120 TIT Uttara. Ti., 4, p. 83a. 718 See Supra, p 200. Aca cu, p. 332; Byh. Bha. 1.1091, Visesa curpi. Imp. Gaz, under "Saraswati." 731 See Supra, p. 264. 731 GE.B , p. 39. 118 Bhag 15 Di I ha, 5, 10. 136 G L. B p. 38.

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332 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Savatthi--a city Savatthi or Kunalanayari was the capital of Kunala, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It was included among the ten capitals. It is stated that Savatthi was the birthplace of the third Titthayara, who received his first alms here.720 It was visited by Pasa727 and his follower Kesikumara 798 Savatthi was also visited by Mahavira frcquently 720 It was also visited by Gosala,780 Jar Gosala 780 Tamali,731 and Ajja Khanda 133 It is identified with Sahel-Mahet on the bank of the Rapti.783 Savvaobhadda-a city It is mentioned that kingsiyasattu ruled here.784 Its situation is not known. Sayaduvara a city It is said that this town was situated in the country of Punda which lay at the foot of the mountain Veyaddha 135 It is stated that to the south-east of the town there lay a city known as Vijayavaddhamana. 138 It is not identifiable. Selagapura-a city It is mentioned that king Selaga joined the ascetic order herc. 'The city was also visited by the monk Thavaccaputta, who is stated to have arrived here from Baravai and preached his religion 797 It is not identified. Selapura--a city It is mentioned that this town was situated in Tosali. Isitadaga was a lake in this city where people are said to have celebrated the eight days feast (See Isitalaga). Its exact location is not known. 188 4.. Nir, 323, 382 711 Naya II, 9, 10, p 229; Nurya. 3. 1. Tas Raya. Su. 146 ff. Ullara Ti p. 35a, 129 Bhag 12 1; Uva. 9, p. 69; Ava. Nir. 480, 496, 517. Tao Bhag 15. TBI Ibid 9 6; Ala. Nir. 782. Bhag 21. 138 C. G I p. 469, also see Law, Sravesti in Ancient Laterature. 13+ lila p. 33. Tas Tha 9. 693 ; Anta. 5, p. 26. 186 Vivd. 1, p. 6. 137 Vaya. 5, p. 73. 731 Rhe

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 333 Settunjaya-a mountain It is mentioned that the prince Goyama renounced the world under Aritthanemi and attained salvation on this mountain.198 It is stated that a number of other monks also attained salvation here.788 Another name of Settunjaya was Pundariya (See Pundariya). According to the Tizsastusalakapurusacarita (p 354ff), just as the blessed Ksabha was the first Tirthankara, so mount Satrunjaya became the first Tirtha. It is situated in Kathiawar, seventy miles north-West of Surat and thirty four miles from Bhavanagar 740 Seyapura-a city It is mentioned that the ninth Titthayara received his first alms here,741 Its location is not known. Seyavi or Seyaviya--a city Seyaviya was the capital of Keyaiaddha, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It is stated that Mahavira arrived here f Uttaravacala and having crossed the Ganges, proceeded to Surabhipura. Next time the Teacher is said to have reached here from Alabhiya and proceeded to Savatthi T3 Seyavi was also frequented by Kesikumara."48 In Buddhist litcrature Setavya was a city of the Kosala country.""* Prof. Rys Davids identifies it with Satiabia ; Mr. Vost with Basedita, 17 miles from Sahet-Mahct and six miles from Balarampur.146 Siddhasila--a holy place It was a holy place and is referied to in the Avasyaka curni. 748 (See also Nayakhanda). Its precise situation is not known. Siddhatthapura It is mentioned that the eleventh Titthayara received his first almas here.747 Siddhatthapura was frequented by Mahavira, who arrived 718 Tag 141 743 743 Anta. 1, p. 6. Cf. Anta. 2, p. 7; 4, p. 23. G.D., p. 182. Ava. Nir. 324. See Supra, p. 260. Raya. Su , 167 ff. Digha, II, p. 316. G.D., p. 184. p 567. 1.2. Nr., 394. 140 147

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334 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA here from Vajjabhumi and proceeded to Kummagama. Then he returned to Siddhatthapura again and proceeded to Vesali 748 Probably it may be identified with Siddhangram in the Birbhum district 749 Sihaguha (corapalli)--a village This village was located near Rayagiha.750 Sihala or Simhala diva-o country Sihala diva was counted among the non-Aryan countries and was known for its maid-servants. Sihala is cited as an example of asndina diva which did not overflow by periodical sca-tide like the country of Koukana. It is said that the seagoing merchants halted here in the middle of their journey.751 Bharata is said to have conquered this country (See Anga). Simhala is identified with Ceylon.762 Sihapura-a city Sihapura is mentioned as the birthplace of the eleventh Tittheyara.763 It is also mentioned in the commentary on the Uttaradhyayana.764 It may be identified with Simhapuri near Benares.755 Sinavalli--a country Sinavalli is referred to in the Avasyaka curni 756 It was a desert where caravans lost their way Sinavalli should be a tract round about the Punjab or Sind. A place called Sanawan or Sinawan is situated in the district of Muzaffargarh ; it is almost barren Probably, it may be identified with Sinavalli. Sindhavalona--a mountain This mountain was known for its sendhava salt, and the mines of sovaccala and kulalona salts were also found in between this mountain.167 Saindhavaranya, or the Salt-Range is referred to in the Rajataran gini.768 748 See Supra, P 260. 749 History of Bengal, Vol. I, p. 22 160 Naya 18, p 208 f. 161 Aca Ti , 63, p 223 a. 753 GD, 186. 769 Ava. Nit., 383. 764 18, 239 a. 55 Pracina tirthamala, p. 4. 158 p. 553, II, p. 34. Smavalh is mentioned in the Rgveda, Vedic Indox, 11, p. 449 ; Alsu Indes to Mahabharata, p. 639; Marhendlere Purana, p. 300. 767 Das. 3, p 113. 769 Vol. II, 14311, VIII. 1012, 1868, 2007.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 335 It is a hill system in Jhelum and Shahpur districts in the Punjab, deriving its name from its extensive deposits of rock-salt.T69 Sindhu-a country It is mentioned that the country of Sindhu Sovira was declared Aryan from the time of Samprati. For various reasons the Jain monks were not allowed to frequent Sindhu. It is mentioned that this country was full of water and a home of various heretical nuns such as Carika, Parivraka, Kapalika, Taccannika and Bhagavi If a monk, due to famine, invasion of the enemy or such other calamity was forced to visit this country, it was expected of him to come back as soon as possible.760 The land of this country is stated to be very rough and was flooded frequently; it had bieaches in the earth. There were cold breczes and dew-fall at night m this country,"1 and the corn was cultivated heic by rivers 762 The people of Sindhu were fond of cating gorasa (production of milk), 169 and were used to mcat-caling, and hence the non-vcgetarians were not censored in this country 716 Similarly, the washermen were not considered degraded hcie,705 and a wine pot could be used for drinking purposes.766 st 15 stated that the monks were allowed not to remove the fringes of then garments in this country like that of Thuna,? and they received their alms with clean clothes 708 Sindhu comprised the whole vallcy of the Indus from the Punjab to the sea, including the delta and the island of Cutch.148 Sindhu-a river Sindhu is stated to be one of the ten great rivers.770 It is the river Indus.711 The best horses were born in the country around its bank.779 760 Imp. Gaz, XII, pp 170-2 760 Brh Bha 1 i 2881'. 4 5141 f 161 Via Bha 8 15 From tunc immemorial Sind has depended for its fertility on floods. Prior to 1874 the upper Sind frontier distinct was yearly subject to inundation, In that year a heavy flood swept away over eighty towns and villages. Then there was another heavy flood in 1892 which caused heavy damage to the country, Gaz. of the Promice of Sud, Karachu. 1907. pp 5, 271, 762 Brh Bha. Vr. 1 1239 769 Ibid 3. 2749 764 Ibid, 1 1239, also foot-note 185 Nisi cu , 4, P 345 786 Brh Bha. Vr. 1 1239 Visesa curni 787 Ibid, 3 3906 Nisi cu, 15, p 121 (MSS) 789 C A G. I, p. 284, ITO Tha 10 717. 771 C. A G.I., p. 690. 171 Mahabharata VII. 104. 8. 708

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336 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Sindhunandana. Gity It is said that Mahapauma reached here from Hatthinapura.779 The Brhatkathakosa 174 mentions that this town was situated on the bank of the Sindhu. It is not identifiable. Sindhu Sovira- country This country was included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Viibhayapattana as its capital (see Sindhu ; Sovira). The two lands of Sindhu and Sovira are mentioned in the Pali texts, each of which is described as a great centre of trade and commerce. Sippa---a river This river flowed near Ujjeni.770 This is identified with modern Sipra in Central India Sirimala-a city Sirimala was included among unholy places (See Pabhasa). It was visited by Vairasami, who is said to have arrived here from Puriya, " (See also Bhillamala). It is same as Bhillamala or Bhinmal, the capital of Gurjjarag from about the sixth to the ninth century A. D., fifty miles west of Abu moun. tain.778 Sidamandira Sivamandira was located on the south range of Veyaddha.779 It is not identifiable Sogandhirama City Mahavira is said to have visited this town. There was a garden here named Vilasoya with the shrine of Sukala Jakkha.T80 This town was also frequented by Thavaccaputta, who is said to have arrived here from Selagapura (see Pundariya). It is not identified. 776 Ulara Ti., 18, 246 a. 771 33 32 175 Law, India as Described, p. 70. 778 AL2 cup 54 111 Ara Ti, p 390a. 171 G D., p. 192. TT Uttari. T., 13, p. 193a. T10 Vida. II, 6, p. 64.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON Somanasa It is mentioned that the fifteenth Titthayara received his first alms here.781 Its location is not known Soparaya-a city 782 Soparaya was situated in Konkana on the sea-coast It was a centre of commerce and a number of traders are said to have resided here 789 Soparaya was visited by Vairasena,78 Ajja Samudda and Ajja Mangu 785 There was a 1cgular trade between Bharuyakkaccha, Suvanpabhumi and Supparaka 786 Supparaka is identified with modern Sopara in the Thana district to the north of Bombay 337 787 Soryyapura-a city Soriyapura, which lay on the bank of the Jauna,788 was the capital of Kusatta, one of the twenty five and a half Ary an countries. It is mentioned that king Sauri entrusted the kingdom of Mahura to his younger brother Suvira, and proceeded to Kusavatta, where he founded Soripura Mahavira is stated to have visited this town 790 780 Sauryapura is identified with Suryapur or Surajpur near Bateswar, which is situated on the right bank of the Jumna in the Agra district.791 Sovira-a country Sovira is mentioned together with Sindhu with Virbhaya as its capital (See Sindhu Sovia) It is identified with modern Sind." 702 781 782 783 784 Subbhabhumi It is stated that the country of Ladha was divided into Vajjabhumi and Subbhabhimi (See Ladha) It may be identified with Singhbhum in Bengal.798 Ita Nir, 324 Uttara Ti, 4, p 78 Brh Bha 1. 2506 Aa Cu, p 106 V'ya Bha 239 it 785 186 vadana, II 476 (s 13 if) 787 Imp Gaz Vol 13, p 65 Thap 15f T88 798 halpa li, 6. p. 171 d. 790 Ara Nu 1289, Ava Cu II, p 193 701 Pravina tirthmala, Pt I. Intro, p 38, Gazetteer of Agra, pp. 137, 236. 18 Jayachand Vidyalankai, Bharat Bhumi aur uske nivasi, p 37n. 798 Imp. Gaz. Vol. XII, p 529.

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338 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Subhoma- village It is said that Mahavira arrived here from Valuyagama and procecded to Succhitta.784 Its exact location is not known. Succhitta--a village It is stated that Mahavira arrived here from Subhoma and proceeded to Malaya. Next time he journeyed to this place from Sumangala and proceeded to Palaya.785 It is not identifiable. Suda masanapura city This town was situated in Avanti.196 Its exact location is not known. Suggiva--a city . It is mentioned that king Balabhadda ruled here."? Its exact situation is not known. Sughosa --a city This town is said to have bccn visited by Mahavira. There was a garden here named Devaramana with the shrine of Virasena.708 It is not identified. Sumangalagama-l village It is said that Asahavira arrived here from Kosambi and proceeded to Palayagama.To Its location is not known. Sumanomu kha-- city It is mentioned that thc walls of this city were made of mud.800 It is not identified. 704 Sec Supra, p 260 196 Ibid la ur 5.33. 706 Litura Ti, 9, p 136 ff., also scc dia. Ver. 1293. 797 Citara Su 19.11. 708 Viva. II, 8, p. 84-1. 799 See Supra, p. 260. 300 Bik. Bha. V:., 1.11.23.

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GEOGRAPHICAL INSTCON 1339 Sumsum isapura or Susumi apura-a cily It is stated that Mahavira arrived here from Vesali and proceeded to Bhogapura 801 The sage Varattaka is said to have journeyed here from Varattapur a 809 Susumarapura is identified with a hilly place near Chunar in Mirzapur district According to Pali literature, it is the capital of Bhagga country 303 Supartthapuill- il) This town was situated on the bank of the Ganges.804 It may be identified with Pratisthanpur, also known as Poyanapura, near Jhunsi in Allahabad district. Surabhupura --a city It is mentioned that after (lossing the Ganges, Mahavira arrived here from Seyaviyu and proceeded to Thuni 505 Its situation is not known. Surasena--a country Sutasena was the capital of Mahura, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. Surasena was located immediately to the south of the Kuru and to the cast of the Matsya country 306 Suralthama hingilom It is said that fium the time of Samprali the courtry of Surattha along with Andhia Drauka Vahatastra and Kudukka, was opened for the preaching of the Jain monks (sec Andha) Surattha is included among the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Buravai as the capital It is mentioned that Kalaka acarya brought here ninety six kings from Parasakala (see Hindugadesa) and accordingly this country was divided into ninety six mandalas. 807 Surattha was a centre of trade and was visited by the merchants frequently. 808 801 See Supra p 200, also Sce Bhag 3 2 303 Ala ciII, 199 Alaykima p 61n, by Rahula Sankratyayana , Samantapasadika, IV 862; Mayhuma I, p 332 B04 True 9, 49 l, p 11 805 Sce Supra p 257. 806 CAIGP 706. 807 Brh Bha Vr., 1. 043. 809 Das cu., 1, p. 40. Sce 16.11.843.

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340 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA A grass-cutting wooden instrument known as kuliya, was in use in Surattha. It measured two hands and had iron nails fixed at the end with an iron plate attached to it 809 It is said that the corn kangu was available in this country in plenty and rice was caten in its absence 910 Surattha comprises modern Kathiawar and other portions of Gu jerat 811 Surodaya-a city The town was located in Veyaddha the lord of Vijjaharas of the town $12 Its site is not known. Indadhanu is mentioned as Suttivai or Suttimati-a city Suttivai was the capital of Cedi, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries It is the Suktimati or Suktisahvaya of the Alahabharata. The Vlahabharata also mentions a river by the name of Suktimati, which is said to break through the Kolahala hills and flow by the ancient kingdom of Cedi Pargitar identifies the inver with the modern Ken and places Suktimati neai the modern town of Banda 813 Suvannabhum -a county It is stated that Suvannabhumi vals 15lcd by Usabha See Adamba! and also by Ajja Kalaga , the latter is said to have arri cd here to scc his grand-disciplc from Cjeni '14 Suvannabhumi and Sihala diva are cited as examples of lisandina diva which did not overflow by periodical sea-tideli Caiudatta is said to have reached here in goat's skin ajena= zastrena) 816 According to the Vasudevahindi, it was situated near the mountain Veyaddha 817 Suvannabhumi is identical with lower Burma, Pegu and Moulmein districts 818 300 Visi cu, p 53 (MSS) $10 Ibid 2, p 129 (MSS) $11 CGIP 697 , GEBPJS 813 Ilara 18 P 247 819 (Dp 196 814 Ta ci, Il, p 25 815 Acaci, p 224. $16 Suya Ti, 1 11, p 196 817 P 149. $18 G. E, B, p. 70.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 341 Suvannakhalaya--a village It is mentioned that Mahavira travelled here from Kollaka and proceeded to Bambhanagama 818 Ils situation is not known Surannariluyum Hver It is stated that this river flowed between Dakkhinavacala and Uttaravarala (Scc Dakkhinavacala) 320 Ils cxact situation is unknown. Tagara --cily It is said that this town was visited by Rahacarya 821 ; his pupils airived from Ujjani Tagara is identified with Tera, a village in Osmanabad district of Hyderabad State situated to the north-east on the Tirna uiver,898 twelve miles north-cast of Osmanabad Takkhasili-a cil Tahlhasilu was the capital of Bahali and is said to have been frequented by Ubha When Bahubali was informed about Usabha's aru al he visited the place next moining but then Isabha had alieady lcft When Bahubali could not see the lastcr he felt much grieved. He saw thc punts of the Master's fcct, honoured them and put over them a cwclled Thammakha wo that no one may walk on thosc foot punts 828 See also Bahali , Dlicnim cahkubhumiki) Talkasila or Taxila Was the capital city of Gandhara kingdom Il is frequently mentioned as a contic of cducation in thc Jatakas lt lay two thousand lcagucs fiom Benarcs, and has been identified with the ruins near Shahdhcri tuclic miles from Rawalpindi in the Punjab 824 Tamalitz-a cily Tamalitti was the capital of Vanga which was included among the twenty five and a half Izyan countries. Tamali Moriyaputta is stated to be a resident of this town.885 810 See Supra, p. 258 820 Hemavaluka is mentioned in the Kathasarat , Vol VII, ch cull, p 65. 821 L'lari Tip 2d, also ahid , 2.p 20a, Marana 489 P 129 a, Vya. Bha 3 339. 832 GDP 200 of me su 130, p 137 See also harahanducaria, IV, VI 823 va cu, p 1808, Ava Nur., 322, also T.S P., p. 186 See also Ramayana, Uttara ch 101, 334 CAGI, 681, GE, B, p. 52, 886 Bhag 31.

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34? LIPT IN INCIENT INDI 4 Tamalitti is cited as an example of donamuha whcrc goods 11cie caud by land as well as by water.816 It was well-known for cloth and is mentioned along with Gauda and Sindhu897 (See also Konkana). Tamalitti was a gicat river-port town of the timc It is identificd with modern Tamluk, situated on thc bank of the Rupanaravan $28 Tambaya-a selllement It is mentioned that Mahavila travelled here from Janbulhanda and proceeded to Kuviya Sannivcsa.810 It has not been identified. Tankana-n country It was a non-ryan country It is referido in the Savagadangaisu as well as in the Bhagavali.831 It is said that the Tankalul mlechas lived m Ullarilaha and went to Dakkhinitaha lor trade taking with them gold, Toivand other saleable commodities Since they did not follow the language ol the southern country, they collected their goods in piles and laid theu hands on them They did not lift tlicir hands from the articles until they got a suitable price for then goods 882 Tankana is mentioned in thc Brhalkathakosa 833 There was a mountain heic of the same name Rudiadatta and Caiudatta are said to have killed two goats on this mountam They entered into their skin and were laken by the guced Bherunda birds to the Ratnadi ipa. The tangan s WCIC a mountain tube and are mentioned often in the llahubharata They inhabitated a large kingdom ruled ovei by Subahu which was in tlic middle portion of the Himalayas 8+ Teyalipura- a oily It is mentioned that hing Kanagaraha ruled here 835 It is not identifiable. 836 Brh Bha. 1. 1090. SPT Ta Bha. 7 32 $39 4G I., P732 For different names and discussion about Tamralipti see Sylvain List, Pre-Aryan and Pre-Draudian, p 118f 899 Sec Supra p 258. 230 3 3 18 831 32 89% a cup 120 838 93 146. 34 II. 29. 44 , III 142 24 ff; See also Dr. Motichand's article in the J. U. P. HS, Vol. XVII, Pt I, p 35. 281 Naya. 14, p. 147 ff.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 343 (1) Thuna--a settlement It is mentioned that Mahavira arrived here from Surabhipura and proceeded to Rayagiha 836 Sthuna is mentioned in the Mahamayuri The Udana (VII.9) places Sthuna in thc country of Mallas to the937 north-west of Patna on the right bank of the Gandaki.837 (2) Thuna--a counliy This country was situated in the west of Saketa. Mahavira allowed his monks to travcise up to Thuna to the west of Saketa (See Saketa). The Jain monks were allowed to wear costly garments in this country, but it is said that their fringes should be removed (Sce Sindhu). It is identified with Thancshwar 888 Tigirichi--a cily It is mentioned that king Jiyasattu ruled here.888 Its site is not known Timisaguha---a care This cave was located in the mountain Veyaddha and is mentioned along with Khandappavaya.810 - Its location is not known. Toranaura --a city This city was situated on the Veyaddha mountain.541 Tts cxact situation is not known. Tosali---| ! It seems that l'osuli wascentit of the Jains un ancient days where there was a mari cllous inage of God Jina guarded by king Tosalika.541 It is said that Mahavia arrived here from Hatthisisa and proceeded to Mosali. He returned to Tosali again and set out for Siddharthapura. Mahavira was ticd up here seven times and was thus caused many grievances. 843 886 See Supid, p 207 $97 The Geographical contents of Asahama uli, by Dr. Sylvain Levi, translated by V. S Agtaal, J.UP IIS, Vol. XX, pt. II. GAGI pxlu, i n 2. 399 Vila II, 9, P 61-2 840 Fantbu Su., 12. 841 laa. Ti., 9, p. 143. 843 14. Bha 6.118 ff. 918 Sic Supra, D. 260.

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344 LIFE N ANCIENT INDIA Tosali is mentioned along with Konkara where people were fond of eating fruits and vegetables, and where livelihood was earned by selling fruits and flowen. There was plenty of water in tlus counun 2nd so the corn was n un here by rivers even though there were no rains It is mentioned that sometimes due to heavy rains, the crops failed in this country and in that case thc Jain monks were allowed to live on palmfruits which grew here in abundance $45 "There was a large number of she-buffaloes in Tosalis huch attacked people with their hools and mouths and it is stated that acarya Tosali was killed here by a buffalo. This oountry was known for its lakes Baklaka" sai According to Dr. Sylvain L-vi, Tosali vas situated u the district OL Cuttack, in Orissa, and the present village Dhauli stands on a site near to or identical with that of Tosali. Tanda-t ant Tumlusul Samves as situated in Ananti. the birthplace of Varaswimin.sup Its carct situation is not know. Il stated ... be (1) Tangiyasetilement - Tungiya Sunmitesa was located in Kosambi.Si (2) Trrku -- NOSTRE Rama Baladesa, is said to fare practised pencance on this mountain Soc Kosambaraga). This moumtain is also referred to in the commenttary of the Gardania za It may be identified with modern Mangritumgi about Smiles from Nasik (5) Tungria--city Tomgiya is meenutaved as a thome off a number off same pasagus, and was vasuted by the disciples of Passe BX Shub Mad PMBSI 1 125, Uma utamu , LOGO P 247 er und Pre-Owulium mu tudo o 175-7 short ha 4 cvc porttitudin440 P Reg . Enb Fiug zu, 39 set that is & Hang

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 345 Thc Jain pilgrims identify Tungiya with the lown of Bihar. Probably it may be identified with modern Tungi situated two miles from Bihar.864 Turuchka-a county Turukka is mentioned in the Oralya855 and other Jain texts. It was a substance used for incense and is mentioned with kalaguru, kundarukka etc Turrukta is either Liquidambar Orientale (sihalaka, vernacularly sitarasa), or Schrcbera Swietenioides (Sanskrit ghan tapatala) or the resin of Pinus Longifolia (Sanskrit srivasa) 868 Turukki is included among the eighteen scripts,867 Turushka is identified with Eastern Turkestan 858 Turumini-a city It is incntioned that Sasaya and Bhasaya, the two monks arrived here with their sistei Sukumaliya from Vanavasi. 369 It is not identificd. Uccanagara--a city Uicangari is known as a sakha of thc Jain samanas. 860 (See also Varani) Uddandapura--a city This town is said to have been visited by Gosala 881 This is identified with the town of Bihai in Patna district Bihar was also called Dandapura oi Udandapua It was known as Dandpura as a number of dandins (religious mendicants) collected here and made this land their headquarters 80% Ujjayanta or Ujjmla -o mountain It is stated that Autthanemi attaincd salvation on this mountain.883 Thuis mountain is mentioned as a place of renunciation in general. 884 There were water-falls865 on this mountain and people used to celebrate 864 Pacuna tu thamala l: I, p. 16 introduction, 856 p. 8. 868 Barnett Anlagada, p3n 887 Visesa Bha 5 464 858 GD, 207 85B Brh Bhi 1 321711 880 halpa Su, b, p 233 381 Bhag , 15. $82 Acheological Suvey of India, Vol. VIII, p. 70. 863 Iva Y., 307, kalpa. Sa, 174, p. 182. B64 Ogh. 119, p 60. 96) Bil Bhd, 11.1.20.22

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346 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA here feasts every year. Ujjayanta and Vebhara are referred to as mountains as where sports were held. (See also Girinagara ; Hatthikappa ; Nayakhanda). The name Ujjayanta is mentioned in both of the Girnar inscriptions of Rudradama and Skandagupta. It is only another name for the Girnar hill that rises above the old city of Junagadh.967 Ujjayanta was also known as Revaya. (See Revaya). Uijeni-a city Ujient was situated in Dakkhinavaha in Avanti It was also known as Kunalanayara888 since it was given to the prince Kunala for viceroyality Ujjeni was known for the image of the living lord, and Ajja Suhatthi, a contemporary of king Sampai, is stated to have visited it.840 Ujjeni was also visited by acarya Candarudda, 870 Bhaddaya Gutta, Ajjarakkhiya37) and Aijasadha.873 Uileni was a centre of commerce and we hear of the merchants of this place moving about for trade with a caravan.873 Ujjeni is mentioned along with Mahessara and Sirinala where people of the same nature including the Brahmanas wcrc addicted to drink ninc. (Scc Mahessara; also Bhai uyakaccha; Malava). Vijayan is also called as Visala, Avanti and Puspakarandmi 814 It is identified with modern Ujjain on the bank of the Sipia 878 t'jucaliya--a river This river was situated at the outskirts of the city of Jambhiyagama See Jambhiyagama). It remains unidentified Ulluga--a rice? Ullugatira and Khedatthama were situated on eastern and western banks of this river respectively (See Khedatthama). 888 867 888 868 870 B11 372 818 314 378 Bhag. Ti., 7. 6. G D p 211. Sam 82, p 58. Bth Bha. 1. 3277. Ibid., 6, 6103f, Clara Ti 1, p. 4. Ja, tipp 394, 103 Das, ou , ), p. 96. Aia. Ca. II., p. 164; Ava. Nur. 1278 ; also Das. Ca. 1, p. 66. Abhtdhana. IV. 42. C. 4. G. I, p. 726.

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GEOGRAPHICAL I EXICON 347 On the eastern bank was stopping Gangadeva, the grand-disciple of Mahagiri. He used to cross the river and visited his teacher Dhana. gutta on the other bank.876 Its exact situation is not known, Ullugatira--a city This city was situated on the bank of the river Ulluga and was visited by Mahayia.377 (See Ulluga). It is not identified Unnagama sertlement It is said that aller cossing a forest, Mahavira arrived here from Purinatal and proceeded to Gobhumi 871 Unnata is mentioned in the Mahabharata (abh. 27. 3). Its location is not known Wiabhapura & Gily It is mentioned that this town was visited by Mahavira.870 Tisagutta proceeded to Amalakappa from here,880 According to the tradition, Ushabhapura is another name for Rayagiha (Sec Riyagiha). Usuara--a cili This town was located in Kuru.881 Its exact location is not known. I'llarupaha Northern diuision of India Various customs and practices of this country are recorded in the Jain texts It is said that there was severe cold in this country and people having insufficient clothes kept themselves warm by burning fuel.381 Even heat was unbearable here and there was a constant rainfall in this country,89% accompanied by snow.884 It is stated that people in this country had their meals at night and so, if a monk, due to famine etc., was obliged to travel here, he had to follow the same practice.885 Ittura T1,3 p71a 87" Bha. 16; 878 See Supra p 259 Tu 819 Tha 11 pot Ti p 284 a 881 (ltaru Su, 14, also Ita II, P_64 883 Yusic, Pip 59 388 Ibid, 2 p 26 (MSS). 384 Das cu., p 276 was 1251 M. Pi, p 139.

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348 ITBE IN ANCIENT INDIA Corn was cultivated here by wells,986 and bailey-mcals was a common food in this countiy It was customary here to burn the old giass fields so that the new grass may grow in its place 887 As in Dakkhinavaha, a maternal uncle's daughter was not allowed to mari y in this country (See Dakkhin vaha) Uttarapatha was known for dhammucahkass (1 cligious whccl) and was visited by Vairasami It is said that at that time a faminc had bioken out in this country and all roads were blockcd 888 Cltarupatha was also fiequented by the sage Divayana, who reached hcie fiom Barava1 800 Uttarapatha was known for its horscs.892 Originally, two great trade ioulcs both t'ttai apatha and Dakhhupatha lent their names to the regions through which they passed It is in ihis sensc that the districts of Kamsa and Uttaramadhuri, which lay on the northern hugh road, are included in Uttarapatha and that Aranti, which lay on the southern high road, is included in Dakkhinapatha 988 Ullararaciila It is stated that Mahavira arrived here from Dakkhinavacala and proceeded to Seyaviya. (See Dakhhinavacala) Its exact situation is not known. Vacala (Sce Dukhhinavacala) Vaccha (Matsya) -- a kingdom - Vactha or Matsya was included among the twenty five and a half Jiyan countries with Vairada as its capital The Matsya country comprises the modern territory of Alwar. The capital of Matsya country was Viratanagara or Vairata, so called because it was the capital of Virata, the king of Matsya 893 Vacchabhumi (Valsa-a kingdom Vaccha, was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Kosambi as its capital. It is said that Aijasadha and his pupils sojourned in this country 884 91 Boh Bha Il 1239, Misi Cu , Pi p 46 887 Ira Gu Il p 297 553 BTh Bha l : 3821 599 dia (ap 3936 900 Das (1,P + Uttara Ti, 9, p 141 , also eec Vinaya, III, p 6, 891 GEB, PP 48 ff, PBI, P 367. 199 CAGI. P 702 B9+ Uttara cu, 2, p. 87

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 349 It is described in Buddhist literature as Vamsa or Vatsa, 896 and is identified with the region near about Prayag 886 Vidahanaga-country It is mentioned that Karakandu converted the Candalas of Vadahanaga to Brahmanism 897 Vatadhanas are mentioned in the Alahabharata (II. 35 8). Their country, Vatadhana, was a part of the leiritory stretching from Pancanada to the Ganges They inhabitated the country on the east side of Sutlej, southward from Ferozepore 308 Vaddhamana-a village Valdhamina was anotur name for Atthiyagama (See Atthiyagama). l'addhamanapura--a city It is mentioned that the fourteenth Tillhayara rcccived his first alms here 889 This town was visited by Mahavira There was a garden here named Vijayavaddhamana with the shrine of Manibhadda Jakkla 800 Vaidhamanapura is mentioned in the Diparamsa. Dr Law identifics it with modern Burdwan 901 Vahalika (See Bahala). Vardisa--a city It is mentioned that there was a sandalwood idol of Mahavira in Vaidisa which was visited by Mahagiri This town was also visited hy Suhatth1 902 Vaidisa and Mahura are mentioned as manufacturing centres of cloths 3 Vaidisa is included with Sindhu, where the holy scripture Pannatli was not to be studied 04 895 Kanhadibayana 3ataka (IV, P 28) 896 CAGI, P709 807 Uttara Ti, 9, P 134 598 Pargitar, Markendeya Purana, p 312 Also see Dr Motichand's article Geographical and Economic studies in the Mahabharata, 3 U P HS., Vol XVI, Pt II, pp. 37 f. 899 Ara Tir 324 Ini 10 p 36 901 GEB, 69 Also see G D., p. 26. 901 Ara Nir,1278 BOR Aq Ti, p 307, Haribhadra 904 Suya. cu., P 20.

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350 TIPE IN INCIENT INDIA Vedisa is mentioned in Bharhut inscriptions. According to Cunningham, Vedisa is the old name of Besanagar, a ruined city situated in the fork of the Bes on Vcdisa river and the Betwa within two miles of Bhilsa 908 Vanada, Viraila or Verala--a cily Virada was the capital of Vatsya or Vaccha, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It is stated that the Koravas were stupefied (thambhiya) here by Ajjuna. 800 Vairata was the abode of the five Pandavas duming their twelve years' exile. The country was also famous for the valour of the people It is identified with Bairat in Jaipur state 867 Vaja- a country This country was included as one of the sixtcen Janapadus Dup The tribes of the Vajjis included according to Cunningham and Prof Rhys Davids, at thakulas ol cight confederate clans among whom the Videhas, the Vajjis themselves, Licchavis and the Jnatrikas were the most important. The Vajjis like the Licchayis arc often associated with the city of Vesali, which was not only the capital of Licchavi clan, but also the mctropolis of the entire confederacy.voo The country of Vaji is noughly equivalent to the north of Darbhanga and the adjacent Nepal Tera1.dio Vajjabhumi Vajjabhumi was a part of Ladha, a non-Aryan country, where Mae havira is stated to have undergone extreme pains The inhabitants of this place, on account of taking coarse meals, were of furious nature, who set dogs upon Vahavila to bite him. The Lord is stated to have arrived liere from Riyagiha and proceeded to Siddhatthapura 911 (See Laha). It may be identified with modern Birbhum, Valabhi-a ally It is mentioned that Jain monks assembled here and put the Jain canons in order 912 905 GEBP 35 900 Suya. cu ,p 35 007 TUPHS, Vol XV, Pt II, p 31 09 The Bhagarati (79) refers to the great battle that took place between human Cedlaga Wahaita piedictril thai Vajjivicehaputia would win and the eighteen confederate kings of Kasi and Kosala would be defeated Abhayades a explains the word vajji in the sense of Indra (cari=Indrah) which is incorrect 909 GEB. P 12 910 C.A G.I, p. 718 $11 See Supra, p 260. 013 Sce Supra, Section I.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 357 Valabhi or Balabhi included the whole of peninsula and tbe district of Broach and Surat Valabhi is represented by the ruins at Wala, eighteen miles north-east of Bhavnagar.918 Valuwagama--a village It is stated that Mahavita arrived here from Pedhalagama and proceeded to Subhoma.914 Its exact situation is not known. Vanavasi-a cily It is said that Juyasattu, the grandson of Jarakumara, ruled here.918 Banavasi is referred to as a place where Asoka sent his missionaries It was one of the capitals of the Kadambas Banavasi lay on the banks of the Varada river, in Sirsi Taluka, North Kanara district.916 tanga or Bangall counli)' Vanga was one of the twenty fivc and a half Aryan countrics with Iamalitti as its capital. It was included among the sixteen countries. Vanga is identical with modern Eastern Bengal. It did not stand as a name for the entire province as it docs row $17 ta'uuma - a city variyagama was visited by Mahavira very frequently, 018 and he is said to have passed twelve rainy seasons in Vesali and this place.810 There were many adherents of Mahavila in Vaniyagama, Ananda bcing chief amongst them "0 Vaniyagama is identified with Baniya, a village ncar Basarah in Muzaffarpur 021 I'm audci-a 11718 It is siled on the bank of this liver the word 'hale' was used in ad. dressing people.993 Varada is referred to in the Vasudevahindi.928 013 C.IGI p 697 914 Scc Supra, p 200 Brh Bhd 4. 5253 f} Misi cu, 8, p 302; also mentioned in the Mahabharata, VI 9. 58 110 CAGI, p 744, 911 GEB p 68 018 See Ila 127. 196. also basa. ), p. 141 ; t'na. 2, p. 12. 018 Sce Supidy 261. 030 tid. I, also Bhag. 11. 11 ; 18.10. ei GD., P 107 Das. Cu , p. 250. 098 P. 89.

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352 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Varada is the river of Southern India, a tributary to the 'Tungabha dra.924 Varadamama holy place Varadama was counted among the holy places (See Khandappavaya ; Magadha : Pabhasa) Varadama is mentioned as a holy place in the Mahabhajala (III 80.65) ; it was situated near Dvaraka Varana or Varuna--a country It was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Accha as its capital (See Accha). Varana (Calana ?) is mentioned as a gana of the Jain Sramanas in the hulpasutra (8, p 230). Varana was known by the name of Uccanagara which is identical with the modern town of Bulancashahai in U P 035 Thc dictionary Fan Fan yu has preserved in account that the monk Fa-chung, during the course of his travels in India 1124-153), passed by the town of Varuld in his journey from Nagai ahala to Vaidia 926 Even now Bulandashahar is known as Baran l'aranasi- ily Varanasi was the capital of hisi, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It was included among thic ton capitals Varanasi was thc buthplaccolthe seventh and thic lwenly tlud Tilthafaras.927 Varanasi was visited by Vlahavira, who is said to have arrived here from Kosainbi and proceeded to Riyagilia 028 It was also frequcnted by Gosala "20 The Vanapattha mendicants are stated to have put up here on the bank of the Ganges 030 In the Buddhist world Kapailavatihu, Baranasi and Kusinara weic Lluce places of pilgrimagc. 932 It is identified with modern Benares Varattapura--a city It is stated that monk Dhai maghosa travelled to this place from Rayagiha.939 It is not identified. 024 Imp. Cia: Vol XIII, P463. a 26 Epigrapha ludica, Vol 1, 1892, p. 379 036 Jhe Geog contents of the Mahamayuri, Dr. Sylvain Levi, Trants by V. S Agrawala, Journal, U P. II. S, Iol XV, Pt II Varana is also mentioned in the Mahabha (XIV. 71. 2) 011 dva Nr., 382, 381 and 1302. 018 Ibid., 618. 919 Bhag. 16. 030 Nirya. 3. 3. 011 Digha. Vol II, Mahapanni variasulta. 911 Ava, cu., II, p. 199, Puuda. Ti., 628, p. 169.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 353 (1) Vasantapura--a village This village was situated in Magadha.938 It may be identified with the village Basantapur in Purnea district. 94 (2) Vasantapura Gily It is said that king Jiyasattu ruled here with his queen Dharini;985 a congregation (gaccha) of tlie monks is stated to have been moving about in this town.936 It is not identifiablc. Valta--a country (See Masa) Vatthaga--a river This river flowed between Kosambi and Ujjeni. Girimukha was a mountain on the bank of this river (See Girimuha, 937 also Elakacchapura). Probably Vatthaga and Vettavati are identical and may be identified with Betwa, a river in Bundelkhand which rises in Bhopal State.938 Vayagama--a village It is stated that Alahavira ari ived here from Siddhatthapura and proceeded to Alambhiya.939 It is not identifiable. Vebharagiri- mountain This mountain lay at the outskirts of Royagiha near Nalanda.040 A detailed description of Vebhara is given in the Nayadhammikaha, where queen Dharini is said to have gone to accomplish her picgnancy longing Various monks and ascctics are described to have practised 'cnancc and achicved their goal hcrc 012 Ncar this mountain was situated the sping known as Mahatavovatirappabha (Sec Mahatavovatil appabha) According to the l' udhatirthakalpa, thc clcvcn ganadharas submitted lu pridopagamana and attained salvation hcrc. 33 It is one of the five hills of Rajagrha.944 933 Suja Nir. II 0.1007. 934 See District Gus. Pranell, p. 183. XXVI, 1911. 835 Ogh. No. 449, p. lu8. A. a. ci, p. 534, 036 Inu Su Ii., p. 14 (Hau... 011 Marana, 473, p. 128a , also Ita cu, II, p. 100. 933 Imp. Gaz. Vol. II, p. 334. 039 See Supra, p. 260. 040 Bhag. 2.5; 3. 4. 1, pp. 10, 18. 041 Sarana 444, p. 120a; Uttard. th., p. 37. 943 p. 22 016 C.A.GI, p. 580. 841

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354 Vesali-- a city Kundapura, a suburb of Vesali, was the birthplace of Mahavila, and hence he is called as Vesaliya. Vesali was the centre of activities of Mahavira, who visited it ficquently and passed twelve any seasons there,946 At the time of Buddha, Vesali was a very large city, 11ch and piosperous, crowded with people with abundant food. The courtesan Ambapali, who was famous for her beauty, helped in large measure in making the city prosperous.946 Vaisali is identical with modern Basarh in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar.947 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Vetarini-a river This river is leferied to in the Suyagadanga curn948 and the Uttaradhyayana. 019 There were several 11vers of this name. One in Orissa is mentioned in the Mahabharata (I 181 22). It is again identified with the iver Dantura which rises ncar Nasik and is in the north of Basscin It is further identified with a 11ver in Ghaiwal on the road between Kedara and Badrinatha,950 Vellavati-a river Carudatta is said to have crossed this river by the cane creeper.951 From the Jatakas we learn that the city of Vettavati was on the banks of the river of Vettavati. It is the river Betwa in the kingdom of Bhopal, an affluent of the Jumna, on which stands Bhilsa or the ancient Vidisa,952 Veyali-a village It is referred to in the Avasyaka curni. 953 Its location is not known. Veyaddhagin a mountain It is said that the mountain of Veyaddha lay near the mountain of Gandhamadanavakkhara in Avaravideha954 and is said to have been frequented by the Vyjjaharas 955 946 04Y 948 04.5 Sec Supra, p. 261 f Maharagga, p 268. Law, G. Essays, pp 171, CA.C.I., p 307. p 159 949 19 59, also see Majjhima, III, p. 185; Ramayano, III, 53. 20. 950 GEB, p 40. 951 Suya. cu., p. 239. 053 G.E.B.,p. 40. 053 II, p. 94. 004 dua Cu, p. 165. 95 Cf. Uttara. Ti., 22, p. 277.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 355 According to Hemacandra's Trisas tisalakapurusacarita,980 Vaitadhya mountain was four hundred miles long touching the rivers Ganga and Sindhu on cither side It was given as dominion to Nami and Vinami by Dharanendlia, thc protecting deity of the fast Tirthanhara, Idinatha. Nami oecupied the southern Vaitadhya and founded fifty cities including Jayanti and Rathanupuracakravala and Vinami occupied the northern Vaitadhya and similarly founded another fifty towns. It is not identifiable Peyarai-anzer This river flowed near the village Atthiyagama (See Atthiyagama). It is perhaps the sanic as Gandak 057 libhasa-a river This river was one of the grcat tributaries of the Sindhu.eus It is the same as l'apasa of the Jahabhii, ala (I 1936) and is identified with Bias, 9.9 Mbhela ou Tebhela-a selllement This Sannivesa was situated at the foot of the Vin It is not identified. Vidarbha-a country This country is referred to in the Suyagadanga curni. 061 Vidarbha corresponds to the modern Berar.962 Videha-a country It was one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries with Mihila as its capital Tisala, the mother of Mahavira, was known as Videhadinna, a native of Videha 03 Similarly, Kunika was known as Videhaputta, the son of Cellana, a native of Videha 984 Videha is identical with ancient Tribhukti, modern Tirhut.066 Vidisa--ander It is said that the city Vaidisa was located near this river.080 l'idis is mentioned in the Mahabhurala (II. 9. 22). It is identified with the river Bes near Bhilsa.7 981 080p 173 ff 957 Martin's Eastern India, Vol. II, p. 9. 958 See Supia, p 270 959 GEBp 38 900 Bhag , 3 2 , also N11 ya 34 p 210 963 GD, 38 903 Kalpa Su , 5. 109. 964 Bhag 7 9 965 GEB, 30, of Viladha., p. 32. 060 Anu su, 30, p 137. 367 GEB, p. 35.

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356 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Viibhaya--a city This city was the capital of Sindhu Sovira, one of the twenty five and a half Aryan countries. It is also known as Kumbhakarapakkheva See Kumbhakarapakkhova) It may be identified with Blicra in the Punjab. (Sce Kumbh.l-' kas apakkheva) Vijayapuram city It is mentioned that the fifth Tatthayasa received his first alms here 08 This city is said to have been visited by Mahivira 989 Probably it may be idertified with Vijayanagar which is situated on the bank of the Ganges in southern Bengal 070 Vijayavaddhaming-a culy This town was situated in south-cast of Sayaduvala. It extended over five hundred villages over which the district-officer Ikkai ruled. (See Sayaduvara) Its situation is not known Vinila-arity It is mentioned that at the time of the coronation ceremony of Usabha, the citizens sprinkled water over his fect The Indra remarked at that time that the citizens were well behaved (vinita) and hence this city came to be known as Vinita 971 Vinila was the birthplace of the first and the fourth Tutthaya, as 978 According to the commentary on the Avayyaka, 973 Vinita was another name for Avodhya. Vijha-a mountain This mountain lay on the southern bank of the Ganges 974 The Vindhya forest was noted for its elephants 975 It is the same as the Vindhya range. The celebrated temple of Vinduvasini is situated on a part of the hills near Mirzapur.976 Franhang This place was situated at a distance of twelve yojanas from Ujjcni on the way to Bennayada.977 Its exact situation is not known. 968 Ava Nir , 323 969 lui II, 4 P, 64 970 G D p 36 971 Jeu lu 200. 071 Ilud , 382 973 p 244a See also TSP. p 149 f. 974 Naya., 1, p 37. 975 Pinda Nur, Ti, 83, p 31, 976 GDP 37. PT7 Uttara Ti., 4, p. 62.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 357 Vivarigana city The twenty first Titthayara received his first alms here.978 town is said to have been visited by Mahavira.970 Its precise situation remains unknown. This l'isahama city Mahavira is said to have visited this town.980 Cunningham identifies it with Ayodhya $81 Titoltha-anie This river was one of the great tributaries of the Sindhu.983 The Pali name of Vitattha is Vitamsa. It is the river Jhelum.983 Tula-a mountain The mountain Viula lay in Rayagiha. It was considered a holy place where a number of monks practiscd penance and are stated to have attained liberation.984 According to Pali litcrature, Vepulla is one of the five peaks near Rajagiha; this was the highest of them.985 It is also known as Pacinavamsa, Vankaka and Supassa.866 08 978 Ala Nit , 325. 979 Viva , II, 3, p 64, 980 Bhag 18. 2 - 981 CAGI, p 480 See Supra, p 276. 098 GEB, 55 984 Naja , 1, p 45 f; Bhag.2.1, Anta. 6, pp. 39, 42 f. 985 Samatta 1, p 67 OBC Ibid, II, p. 190 1. .

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This section consists of the list of the non-Aryan countries mentioned in the sain texts, which includes mainly the list of non-Aryan tribes and the foreign female slaves As alicacy icioned to, thesc lists have become 0 corupt that it is very difficult to identify the place-names and the names of the tribes. For instance, Aidiga has changed into Akkhage, Cullala into Villala, Maccha into Vaccha and Cina has disappeared altogether or its name is cancealed under that of another people Howcyer, we have tried to identify the placc-names wheiever possible. Ibhisiya Abhisas were known to the Mahabhirata (VIII. 91. 10) Its location is not identificd. Anbarlaa Ambastha is mentioned in the Bhalsa mhita (147) According to Dr Pargitar, the Ambastas occupied the country between Ambala and the Sutlej with the Siyis on the cast and south and the Trigartas on their north-west. Anakkha (or Nakkha) ? Its exact situation remains unknown. Anilha (See Supra). Arabaka The maid-servants Arabakis were brought from here (see also Anga) It is mentioned in Alexander's invasion on the river Arabios in southern Baluchistan. Arosa or Harasa ? If it is Karusa, il may correspond to the country of Baghelkland." Ayyala or Ajjhala or jalla Its site is unknown Babbara The maid-servants Babbaris were brought from this country (also see Anga). 1 The following texts may be studied for references Bhag 3. 2, Panha, 1, p 13a, Panna 1 37, Suya Ti,5 l, P 122a , Uttara Ti , 10, 161a, Praracanasaroddharul, p 445a , also Naya 1, p 21, Raya Su, 210, Ova si, 33, Jambu. Su 43, p 183 Nisi cu, 8, p 523 In the Pannavana (1, P 37) Ambatthas arc, however, included among the Aryans Mark Purana, p 379, also see McCrindle's Invasion of India by Alexander, p 166 n Also Bhandarbai, Camillucl Laulues, 1918, p 138 4 McCrindle's The Invasion of India, P 167. 6 Bharat bhumi aur uske nizasi , p 205,

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 359 The Epics and the Puranas mention the Barbaras as a northern or north-western people. The country of the Barbaras was in north-west frontier of India, and it stretched up to the Arabian sea lt is the Barbaricum or Bai baricou cmporium mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythiean Sea' Bahalika (See Bahali). Bandhuya Its exact situation is not known. Bausa or Paosa The maid-servants, known as Bausis, were brought from here. It cannot be identified. Bhadaga The Bhadrakas appear to have been situated on the west bank of the Jumna, somewhere between Delhi and Mathura.8 Bhilla Bhil was a pre-A1yan race inhabiting the Vindhya, Satpura and the Satmala or the Ajanta Hills The Bhils were the chief of the large group of tribes that at one time held most of the country now distributed among the provinces of Mewar, Malwa, Khandesh and Gujerat." Bhuttua Probably it may be identified with Bhotiyas (from Bhot, the corrupt form of Bod or Tibet), who aic of Tibetan origin." 10 Cilaya or Cilayaloga The maid-servants known as Cilatikas were brought from here (See also Anga) The Cilayas were also known by the name of Avada. They icsided in the north and possessed of a large number of mansions, conches, scats, vehicles, slaves, cattle and much gold and silver They were rich, arrogant, powerful and fiery and proficient in the art of fighting. They are said to have fought with Bharata and defeated his forces.11 The place near Assam and Sylhet was called the country of Kirata. Its capital was Tripura which is identical with modern Tipara." 6 C.AG1, p 693 Law. Tibes in Ancient India, p 92 Pargitai Markandeya, p 309 Imp Garlleer, Under Bhil', see also The Tribes and Gustes of the G. P. of India, by Russel, and Ilualal Vol 2, pp. 278 ff; Census of India, 1931, Vol. I, Pt. III, pp. 51 ff. 10 Imp Gaz., II 11 Jambu, 50, p 231. 13 G. D, p. 100.

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360 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Cillala Perhaps it may be the same as Cilaya. Cina Cina was known for soft cloth known as cinamsuya 18 Cina comprised the country of Tibet along with the whole range of Himalayas In the Mahabharata thcy are always spoken of with respect and admiration 14 Cuculika or Suyali Culikas or Sulikas arc mentioned in the Markandeya Puning as a people through whosc countiy flowed the river Cakshu or perhaps Oxus; if so, the Sulikas would be a people on the Oxus in Turkestan.15 Cuncuka It is mentioned in the Mahabharala (XIII. 146. 17) as well as the Brhatsa mhita 16 According to Sylvain Levi, this country is situated near Gazipur, hic identifies it with Cenchu of Hiucn Tsang." Damila (Dravida) (See Supra) Dhorukina The maid-servants known as Dhoj ukini were brought from this country Its situation is not known Domba The Dombas are mentioned among despised class in the Jain texts.18 The Dombas are mentioned in the Rijatarangini 10 It was a caste ot degraded musicians and may be regarded as representing early inhabitants of northern India. 20 Dombalaga It may be the same as Domba Gandhavaha or Ganrlh ahaaga or Gandhara. Gandharakas are mentioned in the Afahabharata." (See also Gandhara). 18 Bth Bha., 3662, Inu Su , 37, p 30. 14 Pargitar, Markandeya, P 319. 18 Ibid, p 323 16 14 18. 11 Monorinl Silvan Ercs pp 942-3, Paris, 1937. 18 Vya Bha 3 92. Visi cu 11, p. 747. -19 Vol 1, V. 379, 399-396 10 Census India, 1931, Vol 1, Pt. I, p. 364. Sorenson, Index to Mahabharata, p. 201,

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON . 361 Gayakanna Its exact situation is not known. Goda JU Gondo, it may be identified with Gond, the principal tribe of the Duandiw family, and perhaps the most important of the nonliyan forest to be in India The Gonds are found in a large proportion in the Central Provinces, as Godhora or Godhodamha or Godhal The Godhas are mentioned in the Mahabharata.! Hayakanna Its location is not identifiable. Hayamuha o Twugamukha Asyamukhas are mentioned in the Matsya Purana as dwelling north of the Himalavas 2! Hin Hunas were known for their oppression.as Hupas are mentioned as an outside people to the north along with Cinas, etc In thc Raghuramsa, they are placed to the northmost part of the Indus 24 Isana The maid-scivants known as Isaniyas were brought from here. Its location is not known. Jalla or Ajjahala (See Ayvala) Farkut (Sic Supra) Kiihrt or trija The Kukas are mentioned in thc Mahabharata.97 (See Supra). Kamboya (See Supra). 22 See Russel and Hiralal, Tribes and Castes of the Central Prorinces, Vol III, p. 41 ff: Census of India, 1931, Vol I, Pt 111, pp 75 sf Sorensen bid , P 309 24 Pargitai, Mark p 368 25 Ava cu., II P 248. 28 Pargitar, Markandeya, p. 379. 27 VT 9. 64

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362 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA kanaka Kanaka is mentioned in the Brhalsa mhita. 18 I identifies the region of Kanaka with Travancore," kekara Sec Supra) Kharamuha It remains unidentified. Khasa The Khasas are identical with the present Khakha tribe to which most of the petty chiefs in the Vitasta valley, below Kashmir and in the neighbouring hills, belong. 80 Khasiya Khasis ate mentioned as an aboriginal tribe in Assam and the Kumaun Division kowa It location cannot be traced. Konkanaga Sec supra under Konkana). Kuhuna Kuhaka Kuhuka or Kuhu are mentioned in the Marha ndera Puruna as a people on the line of the Indus ** Kulakkha The Kulutthas are mentioned in the Mahabharata and in Markanilma Purana as a people of the north of India. Lastka or Lhuisiya The fernale slaves known as Lasikas were brought from here. Can this tribe be identified with the Nasikvas of the Puranas They were the people of ancient Nasika." Lausa or Laosa The maid-servants known as Lausikas were brought from hcre. It is not identifiable. 18 14.21 3 GD, 88 3n Rijatarangini Vol II, Stein , 430 31 Sec Imp Gn: under Khasi, Census of India, 1931, Vol I, Pt III, pp 24 ff, 13 P. 324. 33 VI. 9. 66. Pargitar, Mark., p. 375, 28 Law. Inba, p. 179.

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GEOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 363 Maggura or Mahuara The Margaras are mentioned in the Brhatsa mhrtao and the Mardrakas in the Mahabharata.87 Malaya Along with Sauviras and Saindhavas, the Kurma Purana (x. vii 10) mentions the Hunas (or Kunas) and Malayas (or Salvas) 28 Marahatta (Sec Supra) Maruya (Sce Supra). Masa or Pasa In cannot be identified. Meda Meda is described as a trihe of the mlecchas which used to hunt animals day and night with bow and arion 39 Veda is mentioned in the Mahabharata is the name of a low caste 40 Thei were thic sca-laung people of the Makian coast 41 Vinuthyamuha Its exact situation remains unknown. Vlondha Munday were a large Dravidian tribe in Chota Nagpur ** turunda. The maid-schants known as Murundis weic brought from here Flemacandigics Lamraka is another name for lurunda. Murunda is mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. Cunningham suggests that perhaps Murundas ac the same as Mundas, one of the abongtial tubes of East India's Di Stein Konon bulds that Wundel is the latei form of a Saka meaning lordl" ou "maste"; the taim Saha-Murunda possibly stands, therefore, for these Saka lords or chieftains who were ruling in the regions of Suraslid and Uplain at the time of Samudragupta." $14 18 Bi Sorenson, op.cil, P451. 33 far handela Pp 315 ay Bill Bla2765 40 Inde in fahabharatat p 477 +1 1Risley, The People of India, Calculla, 1908, p. 141. 42 Pargitar, Alark Purana, p 329 43 C.A.G.I., p. 582, 44 Latt, Tribe , p. 94 il.

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364 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Mutthiya Can they be identified with Mutibas of the Artareya Brahmana, who are mentioned along with the Andhras, Pulindas and Savaras. Perhaps they were located in the south.48 Nehura or Nedura Its exact situation is unidentifiable. Ninnaga Ninhaiya is included among the eighteen kuuds of livis described in the Samavayanga (See Supra). Its location is not known. Pakkaniya or Pakkanaya The Pakkaniyas were the maid-servants brought from this countiy. Pakkaniyas arc perhaps the same as the Pareikaniol of Herodotus. This is also implied as a counter example to Praskanva in Sutra (6. 1. 153) and is stated by the Kasika to have been the name of a country The Pareikanioi, who are said to have formed a part of the empire of Darius, may be identified as the ancient inhabitants of modern Ferghana Geographically Ferghana is situated immediately to the north of Pamir or ancient Kamboja 48 Pakkhali, Pukkhali or Pakkani The maid-servants, known as Pakkanis, were also brought from here. Tlus country was famous for fine horses. According to Haribhadra, Pakkhali is the same as Vahlika.47 Pallhara (Sce Supra; Parasa (See Supra Pulinda The maid-servants known as Pulindis were brought from here. Pulindi was also known as a script. (See Supra). According to the Kathasaritsagara (IV. 22), the kingdom of the Pulindas was situated amidst the Vindhyas on the route which goes from Kausambi to Ujjayini. 45 Ibid. p 173 46 Dr. V'S Agrawala 7 UPHS, Vol. 16, pt. I. p 28. 41 Das. Ti., 6. 4 Sce Sylvain Levi, Pre-Aryan and Drazndian in India, pp 88.01.

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UFOGRAPHICAL LEXICON 365 Rama, Roma, Romasa or Romaya or Romaka or Romapasa or Ruma visaya Roma was known foi clean (amila ) cloth, and rumii salt. Romaka is mentioned in the Mahabharata H. E. Wilson identifies Ruma with Sambhar, and as rauma means "salt," it is probable that the term may have been applied to the Sambhar lake in Rajputana, as well as to the Salt-Range of hills in the Punjab.co Ramadhi Ramathus alcalsu mentioned in the Mahabha. (II. 36. 12) According to Di Sylvain Levi, Ramatha should be located between Ghazni (Jaguda) and Wakhan (Vokkana) Like Jaguda, Ramatha was par excellence the countiv producing hingu (asafoetida).61 Ruru or Bharu or Bhamarnya Its location is not knowlL Sabara The maid-seriants known as Sabaris were brought from here. The Savalas agri Pulindas aie described in the Puranas and the Mahabharsta as the inhabitants of Deccan. They are usually identified with the Suau of Pliny and the Sabarae of Ptolemy, and are probably icpresented by the Savaralu or the Sauras of the Vizagapattam Hills and the Savaris of the Gwalior territory sa Saga larrers, inciuains Iurkestan in Central Asia, is the country of the Sakas According to the Greek geographers, the Sakas lived to the east of Sogdan now called the Pamir, the country between Bokhara and Samarqand. According to Strabo, the country lying to the east of the Caspian Set Has called Srithia,58 Sihala Ser Supra, lankana See Supra). Tittiga Taittukas are mentioned in the Matsya Purana" as well as the llahabharata 56 49 Vise cat 7 p 107, Das cu 3, p. 115 50 1.1G I, p. 151 5. Temal of the L P Historical Society, Vol XV, Pt. II, p to 5) PH.11, p. 79. 43 GD, p. 172 54 CXIII 49. Pargitar, Jark, Purana, p. 398. as VI. 50-51.

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366 Udda It is same as Odra or Orissa. According to the Brahmapurana, Odra extended northwards to Vraja mandala or Jajpur.5 Vokkasa An Vokkasa or Bokkasa is included among the mixed castes offspring of Nisada father and Ambattha mother was called a Bokkssa." Vokkana or Pokkana Pakkana is referred to in the Brhatkolpa Bhasya 58 Vokkana is mentioned in the Brhatsamhita as well as in the Divyavadana." According to Dr. Sylvain Levi, Vokkana is identified with Wakhan 61 58 G. D., p. 42. Aca Vir. 26; Manu. X. 18 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA $8 3.4523. 50 14. 20. 80 XXXVII, p. 580 61 JU.P.H.S., Vol. XV, Pt. II, p. 49.

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SECTION VI SOME IMPORTANT KINGS AND DYNASTIES INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I SIXTY THREE GREAT MEN CHAPTER II KINGS AND RULERS

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INTRODUCTION It may be noted that the chronological side of the Jain Canons is very weak and so a systematic chronological framework carinot be expected from such a class of work As a matter of fact, the Jain texts are full of legendary traditions interspersed with loose facts here and there, which were narrated by the religious teachers to enliven their sermons and to illustrate their doctrincs Like Buddhist kings and monarchs, here also we notice the kings and emperors renouncing the world and attaining salvation on some mountain after severe penancc Very often we mect king Jiyasattu in these legends which seems to be a common designation of kings like Bambhadatta of the Buddhists or the epithet Devanampiya of a later age Jain texts mention a number of kings and rulers who were contemporaries of Mahavira, but it should be noted that except for a few well-known kings such as Sronika, Kunika, Pradi ota and Udayana, none of them is identified Wc know nothing even about such a powerful king as Cetaka, who was followed of eightcen icpublican hings of Kasi and Kosala and staunch follower of Jain religion Similarly, nothing is heard about Dadhiva hana of Campa, Dasannabhadda of Dasanna and Udayana 'Rudrayana of the Buddhists) of libhaya so well-known in the Jain Canons The last mentioncd king is described as one of the eight chief kings' ordained by Lord Mahavira himself In the same way other contemporary kings of Vahaja aic unidentificd so far, and their historicity is in absolute darkness Regarding the kings and princes, another point which should be noted is that most of the notable rulers are equally claimed by Jains and Buddhists as followers of their respective faith This Ouly proves that the rulers in ancient India showcd uniform courtesy towards religious teachers of different sects, and people in general were not so scctarian as we not c: in later ages + Wherever possiblc with the help deui ed from Brahmanic and Buddhist traditions, we have tried to arrange the loose and vaned facts embodied in the Jain Canons As in the previous chapter in the absence of chronology, we have felt it advisable to arrange the hing in alphabetical order along with their descriptions as given in the Jain Canons 1 The other kings were Eneyaha, Virangaya, Virayasa, Sanjaya, Seya, Siva .na Sankh (Tha 8 621) Besides, Dasannabhadda (Ala cup 476) and Pasannacanda (ibid, p 455f) are mentioned among other rulers who joined the ascetic order of Mahavira, Some of these kings are Adinasattu (Vira, II 1, p 59), Hatthivala (Kalpa su5 123) Mittanandi (1a. II, 10 P 64-2). Sirdama (111a, 6, p 36), Soriyadatta (Tua, ,P 43f). Vasav adatta (iu II P 04) and Vijaya (Philip 2) Cr for instance that Seniya Bimbasara of Magadha up to the day of his death was given to the praises of Buddha, Digh II P 202) Similarly it is mentioned that Abhavarajakumara ashed Buddha to accept him as lus disciple and embraced the Master faith, Abhayarajakumaragutta Mannia In the same way Ananda is said to have preached his sermons to Udayana and his queens (Cullaragsa, XI 1 13). Cf the equal reception given to Thavaccaputta, a Jain monk, and the mendicant Suya by the citizens of Sogandhya (Naya 5 p 73)

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SIXTY THREE GREAT MEN CHAPTER Y THE SIXTY THREE GREAT MEN. According to Jains, there are two cycles (kalpa) each having two eras, the Avasarpini and Utsarpini. In the former, dharma goes on decreasing until in the end chaos and confusion reign over the earth, whereas in the latter there is an evergrowing evolution of dharma. Each of these eras are further divided into six ages (kalas), viz., (1) Susamasusama (the period of great happiness), (2) Susama (the period of happiness), (3) Susamadusamci (the period of happiness and sorrow), (4) Dusamususumu (the period of sorrow and happiness), (5) Dusama (the period of sorrow) and (6) Dusamadusama (the period of great sorrow). The first age Susamasusama is described as the happiest age when the children born were always twins, a boy and a girl, and their parents died immediately after their birth. In this millenial age all needs were supplied by the ten desire-yielding trees (kalpav rksas) The worst of all is said to have been the last age, named Dusamadusama. It is stated that during this period terrific storms would blow, there would be dust all over, the clouds would shower poisonous water and except the mountain, Veyaddha, and the rivers Gauga and Sindhu, everything else would perish and the whole earth would be blazing with fire. The people would live during this period in the caves would catch fish and tortoises and would satisfy their hunger with flesh and dead bodies. THE TWENTY TOUR TIRTHANKAR 15 The earliest reference to the twenty four Tirtharkaras is made in the Samavaya, kalpasutia and the Avagyaka Nirjukti.' It is mentioned that Usabha was born in the third age while the remaining twenty three Tirthankaras, elien Cakrar artins, nine Baladera, and nine Vasuderas and Pralirasuderas in the fourth. Usabha, who is known as the first king, the first monk, the first Tina and the first Tirthankara, is said to have been born in Ikkhagabhumi (Ayodhya) in the house of Nabhi by his queen Marudevi. It is stated that when Usabha was born, Indra approached king Nabhi with a sugarcane and Usabha stretched his hand to take it, and thus was formed the dynasty of Ikkhagu. 1 See Jambu. Si. 18-10. They are Usabha Ajaya, Sambhava Abhinandana, Sumai, Paumappabha, Supasa, Candappaha, Suvihi, Pupphadanta, Siyala, Seijamsa, Vasupujja, Vimala, Ananta, Dhamma, Santi, Kunthu, Ara, Malli, Munisuvvaya, Nami, Artthanemi, Pasa and Vaddhamana, Sama, Su 24, Kalp. chs. 6 and 7; Ava. Nor.-369ff, also of Scbubrips, op. cit., p. 21.

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LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA In course of time, Usabha married his own sisters, Sumangala and Sunanda. The former bore a twin, named Bharata and Bambhi and the latter another pau named Bahubali and Sundari When Usabha ascendcd the thronc or Vinita, he is said to have formed four corporations (ganas), viz, Uggas, Bhogas, Rainnas and Khattiyas It is mentioned that during that period people atc uncooked roots and Usabha taught them cooking in earthcn vessels At this time arose the potters, blacksmiths, weavers, carpenters, and harbers. Further, L'sabha is said to have taught alphabets to Biihini, arithineti lo Sundari, rupakamma (sculpture) to Bharata and cittakamma (pamting) to Bahubali, Thus came into existence the seventy two arts for men, sixty four fou women and one hundicd general arts (sippa) It was during this period that the Nagayajila, the Indi amaha, the institution of mariage, and the building of the thubhas (mounds) as mcmorials to the dead were promulgated Usabha is said to have reigned for countless number of vears, and then retired in favour of Bharata, who was declared as the first universal monarch of Vinita Aftci taking to the ascetic life, L'sabha is said to have travelled through a number of places He is said to lave passed through the countries of Bahali, Adamba and Illa and cached Hatthinapura where he was offered sugarcane by Sejja nisa, the grandson of Bahubali Usabha is said to have attained omniscience in Purimatala in the garden of Saga damuha and attained salvation on the mountain Atthavaya Nalli is said to have been the nincteenth Tirthankara of the Jains. It should be noticcd that according to the Svetambaras, she was a female and according to the Digambaias a male It is stated that the kings Padibuddhi of Kosala, Candacchjya of Auga, Sankha of Kasi, Ruppi of Kunala, Adinasattu of Kuru and Jivasattu of Paicala waged war against Kumbhaga, the father of Malli." Nami, who was known as the royal sage 'riyar ial), was the twentieth Tirthankara He was the son of Mayanarchu by Jugabahu, who was stabbed to death by his brother At that time Mayanareha was pregnant. She fled awav out of fear and delivered her child in the forest Here the child was picked up by king Paumaraha of Mihila, who handed it over to his queen In course of time, the king renounced the world and Nami was anointed on the throne After sometime Nami also joined the ascetic orders Nami is described as a contemporary of Karakandu, Dumuha and Naggai, who are referred to as four Pratyeakabuddhas. All of them are said to have renounced the world and reached Khiipaitthiya.' 3 7amhu Sa ? 30-33 Kolpa Su 7 205-228, Ala Nur 150ffAra, cu. pp 135.182 Vasu Pp 157-167, 123, alo TSP. pp 100 ff, Va 8 3 Uliara. Su 9 Ibid18. 46 Vami is identified with Janaka, the Brahmanic philosopher king of the Mahabhuirata, who is known as Mahajanaka 11 in the fatakas. According to the Ramayana and the Puranas, Nami was the founder of the royal family of Mithila (P.B.I., PP. 4811, P.HA,1, p. 45, also Caraha 26, P, 665

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SIXTY THREE GREAT MEN 373 Nemi or Aritthanemi was the twenty second Tis tharkara He was the son of king Samuddavijaya of Soriyapura by his queen Siva Kanha Vasudeva is mentioned as Artthanenu's cousin (sce Kanha). It is said that Aritthanemi was to be married to Rayamai, the daughter of Uggasena When he set out in his chariot for marriage, he heard the pathetic groans of the cattle which were kept together to be slaughtered for the dishes of the guests Aritthanemi felt very unhappy at this and immediately renounced the world He proceeded to the garden, Sahasambavana, on the Imountain Revaya and having practised asceticism, attained salvation Rayamai also is said to have followed the foot-steps of her lord and attained salvation' Then we come to Parsva, the twenty third Tirthankara He was born in Benares and attained salvation at Sammeya Mahavira, also known as Vaddhamana or Nayaputta,' was the last Tirthankara of the Jains. He was the son of Siddhattha by his queen Tisala and was born on the thirteenth day of the bright half of the moon in the month of cartia, in Khattiyakundaggama Siddhattha, the father of Mahavira, also known as Sejjamsa or Jasamsa, belonged to the Kasava gotta Mahavira's mother, Trisala, belonged to thc Vasittha gotta and was also known as Videhadinna or Pukarini Supasa is described as Mahavira's patternal brother, Nandivaddhana his elder brother, Sudamsana his sister, Jasoya of the Kodinna gotta his wife, and Piyadamsana, his daughter It is mentioned that Anojja was given to Jamali, who gave birth to Sesavai, also known as Jasavai 10 Mahavira renounced the world when he was thirty years old It is said that for a little more than a year Mahavira went about with a robe and afterwards wandered naked. Leading a life of severc asceticism for over twelve years, he is said to have attained omniscience on the bank of the Ujjuvaliya outside the city of Jambhiyagama. Mahavira spent his last rainy season in Pava in the office of the survey-ministers (najjugasabha of the king Hatthivala and died on the fiftccnth day of dark half of karlika at the age of seventy two. The night Mahavira died, the eighteen confederate kings of Kasi and Kosala are said to have observed posaha and made an illumination At the time of his death Mahavira is said to have preached fifty five discourses on the result of good deeds, the same number on the result of bad deeds and thirty six discourses on unasked questions" Urtara 22 ! See Section I, ch I. 0 For other names see Schubring, op cit., P 26 f 10 Kalpa. Su 5 According to the Digambaras, however Mahavira was never conceived hy Devananda , he remained a bachelor and when he renounced the world his parents were living. Scc Jinasena's Hari.amsa Prtara ch II) Honeier of that the same work (36 8) mentions the virahamangala of Vira with Yasoda See Kalpa. sz., chs, 1-5, su 1-148, also Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, pp. 24-44. For the life of Mahavira see Jagdish Chandra's Vardhamana Mahatira, Allahabad 1945.

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374 LIFE IN INCIENT INDIA The remaining Tirtharkaras were born in Ayodhya, Hastinapura, Mithila, Campa and other places, and a majority of them attained salvation at Sammeya," THE TWELVE CAKRAVARTINS Then we come to the Cakrc"artins or universal monarchs, the earliest reference to whom is made in the Samavayanga 13 Bharata was the first universal monarch and he was the son of Usabha by Summangala Bharata is said to have started on his conquests with his 'cakra' jewel and conquered the holy places such as llagadha in the cast of Jambudvipa, Varadama in the south, and Pabhasain the west, and the goddess Sindhu, the Veyaddha and Timisaguha Then he crossed the gicat river Sindhu by the camma' jewel and conquered the countries of Simhala, Babbara, Anga, Cilaya, Javanadiva Arabaka, Romaka Alasanda, the mlecchas known as Pikkhura, Kalamuha and Jonaka, thc mlecchas residing on the southern direction of the Veyaddha, and the region from south-west direction up to the Sindhusagara, and finally the most beautiful land of Kaccha Then Bharala is said to have marched tlu ough the Timisaguha and ordered his general to open its southern gate Then Bharata is stated to have crossed the rivers named Ummaggajala and Nimaggajala and defeated the Cilayas known as Juada, who were dwelling in the northern half of Bharaha and were rich, arrogant, powerful, fiery, like demons on earth Then he conqucrcd Culla Himavanta and procceded to Usabhakuda mountain whcrc with his hagani' jewel Bharata wrote down his name stating that he was the first univcisal monarch. Then he proceeded to the north of the Vayaddha mountain where Nami and Vinami, the Vidhyadhara kings, offered him the 'woman' jewel, viz , Subhadda Then Bharata conquered the river Ganga and proceeded to the cave of Khandappavaya situated on the western bank of the river Ganga, and ordered his general to open the northern gate of the cave Here Bharata found out the nine ueasures Thus attended by the fouilcon jewels Bharata i cturned to l inita where his coronation ceremony was peilor med with cat poinp and splendour. After Bharata had seated himself on the thionc, hc asked his ninets eight brothers either to scie bim or quit the country, whereupon they renounced the world and joined the ascctic order under Usabha Then Bharata sent an envoy to Takkhasila whcrc his brother Bahubali was ruling and asked him to obey his commands At this a battle look place between Bharata and Bahubali when the latter abdicated his kingdom and joined the ascetic order. In course of time, Bharata too 12 For references sec dla 72 382 fr, Uttara Si 9, Ullera Ti 18, FP 244 fl, No 8 Kalpa Si 63 70-18+, Vasu pp 300 301, 340 FT, 346 ff 18 They are Bharaha, Sagara Maghava, Sanakku maia, Sanu, Kunthu Ara, Subhcma Mahapauma, Hariscna Jaya and Bambhadatta, Sn 12, also Ara Ni 374f, Tha, 10.718

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SIXTY THREE GREAT MEN 875 renounced the world and attained salvation at Atthavaya. It is said that it was from Bharata that India is said to have derived its name Bharahavassa (Bharatavarsa). Like Bharata, Sagara also is said to have set out on his conquests and being attended by the fourteen jewels, became the lord of six divisions of Bharaha. He was marricd and his qucens are said to have given birth to a large number of sons Once with the permission of Sagara, Janhukumara, the eldest son with lus younger brothers, set out on the journey of the earth, and in course of time, reached the mountain Attthavaya. Here they saw the shrine ciccted by lord Bharata and decided to dig up a moat around the mountain for the protection of the shrinc. They took the 'staff' jewel and began to dig up the earth At this time the homes of the Nagas were split open and the Nagas being terrificd, approached their king Jalanappaha, who was cnraged and hurried away to Sagara's sons But Janhu pacificd him saying that they had no intention of giving them trouble and they wcie digging up a moat for the protection of the shrine. The inoat was 11dy, but it would not look proper without water. So Janhukumara took the 'stafi jow clacam and spit ing the Ganges, brought her water into the moat the water icched the homes of the Nagas and Jalanappaha was scized with wath again and hc dispatched poison-eved, big-hooded sci pents to the sons of Sagaia, who burnt them to ashes immediately It is stated further iliat some time aftei, the people residing near Atthavaya approached Sagara and rcpoited that the Gauga had begun to flood the sun oud.23 Vluyos. Sagara summoned his grandson, Bhagiraha, and asked him to proud 10 otthavaya and to draw the water of the Ganges to the eastcin ocean It was done and Bhagiraha returned and made a report to his grand-later, who icnounced the world and joined the ascetic order 16 Sanakkumara was the fourth Crhiavarli He was the son of king Asasena by his quccn Sahadevi Hc belonged to the Kuru family and ruled over Hatthinapura Sanakkumara attaincd salvation at the mountain Sammey a 16 Subhoma was the eighth Caklaraiti and the son of Kattaviriya, who is mentioned as the son of king Anantavirivs of Hatthinapura Renuka's Jamadaggi's consort) Sisler was the Guccn of Anantaviriva Once Jamadaggi gave Renuka bambhanacaru and her sister khattiyacaru to eat, but the former exchanged it with thc latter In course of time, Renuka gave birth to Rama and her sister to Kattaviriya. Later on, Rama is said to have killed Anantaviriya and Kattaviriya was annoin 16 7ambu su , 341-71. da cu pp 182-228, Utlara Ti 18, pp 232 af, Vasu. pp. 186 ff ; also Schubring, op cil, p 191 Also see Mahabharuta I 101. 15 Ullara Ti. 18, pp 233a ff Tasu, pp 300, 304 f, also cf Mahalha III. 10B ff; Ramagana I. 38 ff, Culavamsa lxxxvii 34. 12 Sanatkumara is also mentioned in the Makabharata (III. 188 24 ; I. 69.24); also sce Digha. II, pp 210 ff

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376 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA ted on the throne. He died at the hands of Rama and after his death his consort Tara delivered Subhoma. Then to take revenge on Rama, who was a Brahmana, Subhoma slew him and was satisfied after slaying Brahmanas off the earth twenty one times. 17 Bambhadutta, the last Cakrat arti, was the son of Bambha by Culani, who had alliances with the kings such as Diha of Kosala, Kadaya of Kasi, Kanerudatta of Gayapura and Pupphacula of Campa After Bambha's death, king Diha is said to have managed the affairs of the kingdom of Kampillapura Later on, a battle ensued between Bambhadatta and king Diha in which the former was killed by the latter 18 The remaining Cakravartins were born in Hatthinapura, Kampillapura, Rajagaha, and Savatthi, and as usual renounced their kingdom and with the exception of a few, attained salvation at Sammeya 10 Then there were nine Baladevas, 20 nine Vasudevasa and Prativa. suderas," the earliest reference to whom is made in Arayaka Bhasya. It is mentioned that the Baladevas and the Vasudez as were always born as brothers and the latter were the rivals of the Prutrvasudczas 24 For example, Rama and Laksamana the two brothers, were born as Baladeva and Vasudeva respectively; the latter slew Ravana, the Prativasudeva. Similarly, Rama Baladeva and Krsna were born as the last Baladeva and Vasudeva respectively; the latter slew Jarasandha, the last Prativasudeva" 11 Ava cu, p. 520 ; Vesu., pp. 235- :0. See also Mahalha III*117 f; XII. 48 ; Ramayana, I 74-77 18 Uttara Ti , 13, p. 187 a ff For Brahamadatta see also the Mahaumagga Jalaka, the Suapnajasuvadatta and the Ramayana (1.33.18 ff) 10 Sec Ullara Ti , 13, pp 187 ff, 236a-249, Vasu., pp 128-131, 233-240, 340-343, 346-348. 21 Ihey are Ayala, Vijaya, Bhadda, Suppabha, Sudamsana, Ananda, Nandana, Pauma and Rama 31 They are Tivittha, Dintthu, Sayambhu, Purisuttama, Purisasiha, Purisapundariya, Datta, Narayana and Kanba. They are Asaggiva, Taraga, Meraga, Mahukedhava, Nisumbha, Bali, Paharaya, Ravana and Jarasandha 28 41 ff. 24 See Vasu. pp. 240-245, 310-315, 319, Utlara Ti. 18, 265a. 36 For Krsna legends, see Vasudevahindi : Uttara. Su. 22.

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CHAPTER II KINGS AND RULERS The following is the alphabetical list of some important kings and rulers, together with their descriptions as given in the Jain Canons. Andhagavahni It is mentioned that king Andhagavahni was the lord of Soriyapura; he also reigned in Baravai (see under Baravai). The following is the geneological tree of the Yadava clan according to the Jain tradition Andhagavahni 1. Samuddavijaya 2. Akkhoha 3. Thimia 4. Sagara 5. Himava 6. Ayala 7. Dharana Sori (Founder of Soriyapura) 8. Purana 9. 10. Vasudeva 11. Kunti 12. Maddi Jadu & 1. Aritthanemi 2. Rahanemi 1. Vasudev a 2. Baladeva Uggasena Vira or Suvira (Founder of Sovia) Bhogavahni Jarakumara Akura Saranga Suhadaraga 3 Abhicanda 1 7 6 7 Anahitthi 8. Siddhattha 9. Gayasukumala, etc. 6. Bandhu Subandhu Kamsa Ravamati, etc. + Pajunna Samba Bhanu Subhanu, etc. Sumuhakumara 1 2 Dummuha 3. Kuvadaraya 1. Nisadha 5. Kujjavaraa. Dhandha, etc. For other traditions regarding Andhaka-Vrsni see Vedic Index. II, pp. 280f and P. HA.I, p. 118, also Ghata Jataka (No. 151). Kalpa Ti.6. p. 171 " Vasu pp 77, 78 ff. 1101, 357 f; Uttara 11,22 1 ff 2 pp 37. 39. 45a; Anta. 3, pp. 8, 22; Kalpa. Ti 6, pp. 172-178, Viraja b It should be noted that Haribhadia identifies Andhagavahni with Samuddavijaya, the father of Airtthanemi and Rahanemi (Das. 208. Ti.), although in Uttara. (22.4) Aritthanemi is described as the son of Samuddavaya,

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378 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Asoga Candagutta is mentioned as the first king of the Mauryan dynasty. His son was Bindusara and his grand-son was Asoga They all ruled over Padaliputta The Mauryan dynasty is compared with a barley grain which is thick in the middle and thin at both ends It is stated that Chandragupta was less powerful in army and equipment. Bindusara was more powerful than his predecessor and Asoga still more, whereas Samprati is described as the greatest of all. After Samprati the Mauryan dynasty began to decline 3 Balamutta It is said that Balamitta and Bhanumitta were two brothers, the former was ruling over Ujjeni It is said that Balabhanu, the sister's son of Balamitta, was ordained by Kalaka acarya as a result of which Kalaka had to quit the town According to another tradition, Balamitta and Bhanumitta were the sons of Kalaka's sister Bhambhasara, Bhimbhasara or Senya King Bhambhasara or better known as Seniya finds an important place in the Jain Canons It is said that during the reign of king Pasenai, the city of Kusaggapura was a frequent prey to fires Once through the carelessness of the cook, the king's palace caught fire when all the princes left the house in a confusion At this time piince Seniya took a drum (bhambha) and came out and since then he came to be known as Bhambhasara? Seniya was a contemporary of Mahavira and is said to have asked a number of questions to the Teacher which arc recorded in the sacred books of the Jains Seniya is referred to as "lion of kings" (rajasiha) in the Uttaradhyayane Stitra, and is said to have belonged to the Vahiya clan. HIS QUEENS The Antagadadasaolo gives the following names of twenty three queens of Seniya Nanda, Nandamai, Nanduttara, Nandaseniya, Maruya, Sumaruya, Mahamaruya, Marudeva, Bhadda, Subhadda. 5 Brh Bha 1 3278f For other traditions regarding Asoka see P HAI, pp 4, 249 also, - Law, some-ancient Indian kings, Buddhastic studies, pp 206 ff 8 Nisi cu, 10, P 630 ff For the identity of Balamitra and Vikramaditya, see Vira Nirvana aur Jain Kal Ganana, NPP 14] riva cu, II, p 158. cf Paramatthadipani, the com on the Udana, P 104 where it is said Seniya possessed a great army or he belonged to the Seniya gotta and so he was known as Seniya. He was called Bimbisara because he was of golden (bimbi) colour. 8 20 58 9 Ava. cu. II, p. 105. 107, p. 43 f. i According to Buddhist literature, Seniya had five thupdred queens (Mahacagga, VILI*1*18)

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KINGS AND RULERS 379 Sujata, Sumana, Bhuyadinna , Kali, Sukali, Mahakali, Kanha, Sukanha, Mahakanha, Virakanha, Ramakanha, Piusenakanha and Mahasenakanha It is said that Scniya had all the virtues of a prince, but his father would not give him the kingdom, so Seniya was frightened and fled away to the city of Bennayada, where he married Nanda, the daughter of a merchant In course of time, Nanda or Sunanda became paegnant, and Seniya left for Rayagiha Later on, Sunanda's father took cr to Seniya where she gave birth to Abhaya, who, later on, was appointed as a Prime Minister to Seniya " Dharini was another queen of Seniya, who gave birth to Mcghakumara Prince Abhayahumara was present at the time of Meghakumara's birth 13 Cellana was the third queen of Soniya It is mentioned that Cellani was the youngest of the seven daughters of king Cedaga of Vesali, who was kidnapped by Seniya secretly Abhayakumara was present at the time of this secret Apagatagandha 15 mcntioncc as still another queen of Seniya 15 escapade 14 HIS SOXS According to the Avasyaka curni, Seriya had a number of sons.18 The Anuttarovavauja sutta" records thc following ten names of his sons. Jali, Mayali, Uvayali, Purisascna, Variscna, Dibadania, Latthadanta, Vehalla, Vehayasa and Abhayakumara Out of these the first seven were born of Dharini, Vehalla and Vehayasa, also known as Halla and Vihalla, of Cellana, and Abhayakumara oi Nanda 18 The same work records the following thirtcen names of Seniya's sons Dihascna, Mahasena, Latthadanta, Gudhacanta, Suddhadanta, Halla, Duma, Dumasena, Mahadumasena, Sihascna, Mahasihasena and Punnascna All of them are said to have joined the acetic order and attained salvation 10 Kala, Sukala, Mahakala, Kanha, Sukanha, Malakanha, Virakanha, Ramakanha, Senakanha and Mahascnakanha? are mentioned as other sons of Seniya by the queens Kali, Sukali, Mahakali, etc mentioned 12 Ava su ,p 516, Aa TiHari p 417a Nanda or Sunanrafihe Jains may be identi fied with Ambapali of the Buddhists Abhayaki maia was lir illeg timate son by king Bimbisara (Vinayar astu of the Mulasarvasti ada Gilgit Nantecrist Vol III, pt 2, pp 208) According to another tradition, Abhaya was the son of Padumavati, a courtesan of Ujjeni, the com on the Therigalha, pp 39-41 Naya 1 Ava cu II P 165 f Cellana, also known as Vaidchi, and her elder sister Sujettha of the Juns are identical with Cela and Upacela of the Buddhist traalynn Both were the daughters of Simha, the commander-in-chief of the Lecchave and the nieces of Cona, the chief minister of Bimbasara Tor the full story, see Vinur(17 Sty of he N asrivastivacu, pp 12f In Pali literature Kosaladevi (Jataka, III p 12 f) and lerna ( M utlu purani, the com on the Ang tara I, p 349) are mentioned as other quets Sen ya lhe former is suid to have been the mother of Kunika, otherwise known as Ajutasatru Nisi cu, Pi, p 16 16 II, p 167 11 1. 18 Ibid. 19 Ch. II. 20 Nirya. 1.

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380 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA above. It is mentioned that these ten princes fought in a battle with Kunika against Cedaga."1 Nandisena and Kuniya are said to have been other sons of Seniya We are not told much about the former except that he controlled Secanaka, the pet elephant of his father. Later on, he joined the ascetic order.23 Kuniya, Halla and Vihalla were born of Cellana, Kuniya bcing thc eldest There was a great war between Kuniya and his younger brothers 24 Halla and Vihalla entered the ascetic order under Mahavira 26 About Abhaya, it is said that once he asked Mahavira, "who will be the last royal sage." The latter declared "The last royal saint is king Uddayana and after him the crowned kings will not take a low." Thereupon, prince Abhaya, fearing that his taking a vow would be impeded, refused to accept the throne. Once king Seniya went with queen Cellana to worship Mahavira When they were coming back, queen Cellana sau a great hermit standing in a meditation and enduring the torture of cold The qucen felt very sorry for the hermit. She went and slept at night in her bed In course of the night, her hand slipped out of her blankct and became cold She was immediately reminded of the hermit andwondered how would he get through the night. The king heard her speech and became doubtful about her chastity Next morning Seniya ordered Abhaya to burn down the harem, and himself went to Mahavira to ask whether queen Cellana was the wife of one or many. Mahavira repiicd that she was devoted to only one husband and he explained what had happened The king returned to the palace full of remorse In the meantime, prince Abhaya set on fire an empty elephant stable and went to worship the fina. Later on, Abhaya renounced the world and joined the order, and Seniya made up his mind to give the kingdom to Kuriya 26 It seems Seniya also had daughters We are told in the Avasaraka curnia7 that he married one of his daughters to the son of Kayapunna of Rayagiha, who is said to have saved his pet elephant Secanaka from the jaws of a crocodile The same work also mentions a sister of king Seniya, Sena by name She was given to a Vijahara in marriage, but she was killed by the Vigjuharis. Sena had given birth to a daughter who was sent to Seniya after the death of her mother and was given to Abhaya - kumara in marriage. 28 31 Pauma, Mahapauma, Bhadda, Subhadda, Mahabhadda, Paumasena, Paumagumma, Nalinigiimma, Ananda and Nandana are mentioned as the ten sons of Kala, Sukala, etc. (zhid 2) + Ca cu II, p 171. 13 Thid, p 559. 14 See under 'Kuniya'. 36 Ava cu, II, p. 174. 20 Ibid. p. 1141. 37 P468. 28 II, p. 160. According to the Buddhist tradition, Seniya Bimbisara ruled for fifty two years (Mahavainsa II. 28 f) For a full account, scc Law's some ancient Indian hinge, Buddhistic Studies, pp. 186 ff

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KINGS AND RULERS 381 Bhesaga (Bhismaka) It is said that Bhesaga ruled at Kundini His son Rukmin (or Ruppi) along with the king Candacchaya of Anga, Padibuddhi of Sageya, Sankha of Kasi, Adinasattu of Kuru and Jiyasattu of Pancala, was invited to Kampillapura to attend the marriage of Dovai Rukmini was the sister of Rukmin who was given to Sisupala in marriage, but Kanha Vasudeva kidnapped her (see Kodinna) Bhoga (Bhogaraja) Bhogas are enumerated with Ugra, Rajanya, Ksatriya, Joata, Kaurava and Iksvaku The Bhogas held the position of a guru.80 According to the Dasaveyaliya curni, Bhoga was a particular class of the Khattiyas, and L'grascna is said to have been born in this class 3 In the Dasareycilia sulta'?, Rujimati calls herself the daughter of Bhogaraja and Haribhadra Suri in his commentary identifies Bhogaraja with Ugrasena Candagutta According to the Jain tradition, Candagutta was the son of a daughter of the chief of a village of peacock-tamers (moraposaga), which belonged to the Nandas 38 lt is said that when Ca nakaya was insulted by the last Nanda in Padaliputta he went to this village and took charge of Candagutta Candagutta grew and in course of time, Canakya, together with the boy,laid sicge to the city of Padaliputta but was vanquished by the u my of Nanda Nanda's horscmen pursucd Canakya and Candagutta, who were forced to run away Later on Canakya went to Himavantakida and entered into an alliance with thcking Pavvaya, 24 promising hum half of Nanda's countiy if he would aid him to subdue Nanda They wagcd war against Manda in which he lost and consequently was allowed to lcavc his kingdom, canying with him all that he could place in one car Accordingly he put his two wives and a daughter in his carriage and loading it will some trcasure he drove off While Nanda was going, his daughter sau Candagutta and fell in love with him, whereupon Nanda allowed her to go and marry Candagutta. But when she was getting into Candagutta's chariot, nine spokes of the wheel broke. Candagutta would have turned her out, but Canakya 39 Naya 8 30 BTh Bha Vr, I 3265 31 P 88 81 2 8. The Buddhist tradition also testifies the connection between Moriya Maurya) and mora (peacock) It is said that the city which thc Mauryas founded had buildings of blue stone like the neck of tlic peacocks. Maharam a Tila, p 180 Aelian inforrns us that the tame peacocks weic kept in thc parks of the Maurya palacc at Patalaputra (P H 4 1,9 21 6) 314 Compare the Buddhist account in the Mahavamsa Tika, pp. 181 ff, according to which Pabbata was an heir of Dhanananda, the last Nanda

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382 prevented him saying that the new dynasty would flourish for nine generations. Later on, the kingdom of Nanda was divided between Candagutta and Pavvaya, when the latter, along with his she also took the 'poisonous girl (visakanna). Pavvay enjoyed with her and in course of time died, and thus Candagutta got possession of both kingdoms. But Canakya was not satisfied with this He wanted to exterminate the entire family of Nanda. One day he saw a weaver, named Naladama, who was burning out the holes of ants (makhoda). Being que. cd, the weaver answered that his son had a bite from an ant and so he would destroy their whole species Canakya was pleased to find out such a person of resolute mind and he employed him to destroy the family of Nanda. Thus Canakya was successful in overthu owing the Nanda dynasty and anointing Candragupta on the throne of Padaliputta.35 We are told in the commentary on the Bihathalpa Bhasya that when Candragupta ascended the tone some Ksayas did rot obey his commands, because he was the son of per cock-tumor en Canakya knew this, he started incognito as a Karpatika and by buining out the whole village to ashes, punished the offenders 30 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA A Jain tradition related in the Rajavalikathe observes that Candragupta was a Jain and that, when a great famine occurred, he abdicated in favour of his son, Simhasena, and icpaned to Mysore where he died Two inscriptions on the north bank of the Kaveri near Seringapatam of about 900 A D, describe the summit of the Kalbappu Hill, 1 e Candragiri as marked by the foot-prints of Chadrabalu and Candragupta Munpati (Rice, Mysore and Coorg from the inscriptions, pp 3-4) 37 However, it should be noted that the earliest litera.y form of this tradition is found in the Brhatkathako'a (131) by Hariscne dating from about A D 931, according to which Bhadrabahu had the king Candragupta as ..s disciple Cedaga Cedaga belonged to the Haihaya clan and was a ruler of Vesali. He was the most eminent among the Licchavi princes and an influential leader of eighteen confederate kings (ganaraja) of kasi and Kosala, who were his vassals. Cedaga's sister, Tisala, was the mother of Mahavira and his seven daughters are said to have been given in marriage to various kings and rulers His daughter Pabhavati was given to Uddayana of Virbhaya, Paumavati to Dadhivahana of Campa, Migavati to 35 Uttara Ti pp 57 ff; Aa. cu, 563 f Also of the tradition recorded in the Kathasarisagara, Vol I, Bk. II, ch V. 38 ] 2489, Pinda Bha 44 ff p 142 For other tradition regarding Chandragupta, see P.HA I., pp. 216, 295, 242n. 37 P.HA.I., p. 241 f. 39 According to the Brhatkashako sa (55-165), Keka was Cedaga's father and Yasomati his mother.

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KINGS AND RULERS 383 Savaniya of Kosambi, Siva to Pajjoya of Ujjeni, and Jettha to Nandivaddhana of Kundaggama; Sujettha renounced the world and the youngest Cellana married Seniya of Rayagiha 39 It is mentioned that after Abhaya renounced the world, king Seniya gave a pair of divine garments (devadusajugala) to Nanda, and his famous elephant, Seyanaga, and a huge necklace of eighteen strings to his twin sons, Halla and Vihalla It is said that the value of the elephant and the necklace was as much as the whole kingdom of the king. It is stated tliat Kuniya, the eldest son of Seniya, after usurping his father's throre, at the instigation of his wife, Paumavai, demanded from his younger brothers the return of both gifts On this Halla and Vihalla demanded half of the kingdom, which was refused to them Thereupon Halla and Vihalla fled away to their grand-father, Cetaka, in Vesali, Kunika sent an embassy to Cetaka asking him to hand over his younger brothers with the gifts, but the latter refused to do so, saying that ifKunika was prepared to give half of his kingdom, then only some settlement could be made Thus having failed peacefully to obtain the extradition of the fugitives, Kunika waged war against his grand-father, Cetaka. Kunika made preparations to attack Vesali with a huge army together with the ten princes viz , Kala, Sukila, ctc., and passing through Videha, .caclicd Vesali On the other side Cedaga called together the nine Licchavis and ninc Mallakis, Ic the eighteen confederate kings of Kasi and Kosala, and asked them whether they would satisfy Kunika's demand or go to war with him, when the latter course was adopted King Cedaga was a skilful archer and he never missed his aim. But since he was a shraga he had taken a row not to shoot more than an arrow a day When Cedaga killed ten princes, viz , Kala, Sukala, etc. within ten days, Kunika's mind was istracted with fear Later on, he is said to have made use of two wonderful engines of war, mentioned before The cightcen confederate lings actuincd to their cities and Cedaga to Vesali Kunika laid siegc to Vesili and waited foi the city to fall. Thus much time passed, but still Kunika could not succeed Halla and Vihalla joined the order under Mahavila Later on, Kunika is said to have hiought the courtesan, Magahiy i, and the ascetic Kulavalaya together, which brought about the fall of the city of Vesali No sooner this was done, than Kuniya entered into the city and destroyed it. King Cedaga is said to have suspended an iron image (lohapadima) in his neck and plunged into a well The citizens of Vesali are said to have been carried away to Nepala (Nemalavattinam) by Mahissara.40 30 According to the Brhathathakosa (97 36), Cetaka's queen was Subhadra, who gave birth to seien daughters Nurya I ; Ava Cu II, pp 164-174, Bhag. 79, tja Bha 10 535 f For the Buddhist tradition regarding the war between king Ajatasattu and the Licchans, see Digha., Mahaparinibbanasutta, and its Com.

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384 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA Dadhivihana . It is mentioned that king Dadhivahana ruled at Campa with his queen Paumavai. It is said that when the queen was pregnant, she went to sport in a forest on an elephant along with tlic king But the elephant ran away into the forest, when the king caught hold of the branch of a banyan tree and the queen was carried away to a far oft place, whence she reached Dantapura and entered the ascetic order. In course of time, the queen Paumavai delivered Karakandu, who ascended the throne of Kanca naura and later on waged war against his father, Dadhivahana. At this time the nun Paumavati is said to have appeared on the scene and prevented bloodshed Later on, Dadhivahana transferred his kingdom to his son and entered the ascetic order 41 Another reference to Dadhivahana is made in the Ti askaya Aryukti When king Sayaniya of Kosambi invaded Campa, a great confusion arose and Vasumati, the daughter of Dadhivahana, and her mother Dharini fell into the hands of a royal officer (uttiya), who wanted to make Dharini his wife Later on, both were biought to Kosambi where Dharini died and her daughter Vasumati was sold to a merchant, Dhanavaha After some time the merchant s wife, Mula, became jealous of her and having cut her hair, put her into custody Vasumati or better known as Candana, is said to have offered food to Mahavira and joined his rank as a nun." Damadanta It is said that Damadanta ruled at Hatthisisa Damadanta and the Pandavas of Hatthinauka were not on good terms with each other, Once when the former went to visit the king Jarasandha of Rayagiha, the Pandavas are said to have plundered and buint the city of Hatthisisa. Later on, Damadanta besieged Hatthinaura and the Pandavas shut themselves in their palaces in fear 43 Damaghosa It is mentioned that Sisupala was the son of Damaghosa, who was invited to attend the marriage of Dovaj in Kampillapura. He was ruling in Suttivai with his five hundred brothers. 14 Maddi, the daughter of Andhagavahni, was the mother of Sisupala.46 Dandagi It is stated that Dandagi ruled at Kumbhakarakada. He married the daughter of Khandaga of Campa (see under Dandakaranna, Section V) 41 Ava Cu, II, P 205 ff; Uttara. Ti. 9, p. 132a. 43 Ava Nir, 520 f; Ava. Ti, p. 294 f; 43 Ara cu p 492. 44 Naya. 8. p. 178. 48 Siya. p. 79.

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KINGS AND RULERS 385 Dandaki is indentical with Dandakya of Kautilya and Dandaka of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.48 Dasara The ten Dasara kings are mentioned as the sons of Andhagavahni; Samuddavijaya was the chief amongst all (see Andhagavahni). It is said that first they were reigning in Mathura but from fear of Tarasandha, migrated to Baravai and began to rule there. It is mentioned that the description of the Dasara kings was given in the fourth chapter of the Bandhadasa, which is now lost.48 Dhruvasena Dhruvasena ruled at Anandapura. It is said that when his son died, after 980 or 993 years of Mahavira's death the Kalpasutra was recited. 4D Dhundhumara It is said that Dhundhumara ruled at Sumsumarapura. His daughter Angaravati was an adherent of the Jain faith. It is stated that in order to get her, Pajjova laid seige to the city. 80 Diha Diha ruled at Kosala. In Pali literature he is represented as Dighati." (See Bambha). Dummuha or Jaya It is mentioned that Ling Dummuha, otherwise known as Jaya, who was born in the Hari family, iuled at Kampillapura Once a great diadem (mahanauda) was unearthed from the ground, which was put by the king on his head By its magic power the king is said to have become two-faced 'dumm tha), and hence he came to be known as Dummuha. It is said that Pajjoya had an eye on this diadem and so he demanded it, but Dummuha replied that if Pajjoya was prepared to part with his elephant, Nalagir, his chariot, Aggibhiru, his spouse, Siva and his lettercarrier, Lohajangha, then only he would part with his diadem. On this, Pajjoya declared war against Dummuha, in which the former lost and was taken prisoner. Pajjoya was brought to Kampillapura where he fell in love with the princess, Mayanamanjari, and married her. 16 PBI, p. 57 ff 41 Das.cu ,p 41, Dasarahas are mentioned as a group of Khattiyas (Samyutta, II, p. 2660. According to Buddhaghosa, they were so called because they took one-tenth of the corn (Com. II, p 167) , also see Mahabharata (II.40 5) 48 Tha. 10.755 49 Kolpa. Ti, p. 8a. 60 Ava. Ci., II, p. 199 f. 51 See Mahavagga, pp. 342 ff.

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386 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA It is said that once there was a great festival in honour of Indra in Kampillapura Dummuha beheld the banner of Indra falling down and thenceforth hc renounced the world.62 Duvaya It is mentioned that Duvaya ruled at Kampillapura. He sent invitations to various kings and rulers requesting them to attend the saya mvara of Dovai 63 According to the Mahabharata, Drupada was the king of Pancalas, son of Proatu and the father of Dhrstadyumna, Sikhandin, Draupadi, etc. 64 Gaddablulla It is said that Gaddabhilla, the father of Vikramaditya, ruled at Ujeni Hc abducted the sister of Kalakacarya, who proceeded to Parasakula (Persia) and returned with ninety six kings (stiha), and declared war against Gaddabhilla The kings of Lata, who were also insulted by Gaddabhilla, are said to have joined them. In this war, Gaddabhilla lost and the kings from Persia were placed on the throne of Uueni (See under Hindugadesa) It is said that after some years, Gaddabhilla's son, the glorious Vikramaditya, iepelled the invaders and re-established the throne of his ancestors According to a Jain tradition, the rule of Gardabhilla lasted for thirteen years and that of the Sakas for four years 5 Jarakumara Jarakumara is descubed as an elder brother of Kanha Vasudeva When the five Pandavas renounced the throne of Pandu Mahura they anointed Jarakumara as a king 68 Jarakumara is also said to be a ruler of Vanavasi whcre he ruled with thc princes Sasaa and Bhasaa (see under Vanavasi, Section V) Farasandha It is said that Jarasandha ruled at Rayagiha; his son Sahadeva was invited to attend the marriage of Dovai in Kampillapura (see supra) We are told in the Vasudevahindi7 that Jarasandha was a very powerful king of Rayagiha He was the son of Viyaddaha (Sanskrit Brhadratha) and many scim inta kings paid him respect. Kalindasena was his chief 12 L'itara Ti 9, p 1351, cf the cause of his renunciation according to the Buddhists, see Kumbhahara Jataka For other traditions, see also P BIP 48, PHAI pp 61, 70, 114 63 Naya 8 p 178 64 Index to the Mahabharata, p 269 f. 65 CJ Shah, Jainism in North India, pp 28, 188, 38 Ullara Ti , 2, p. 42a 67 Pp. 80, 247, 306, 365, 369.

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KINGS AND RULERS 387 queen and his daughter Indasena was given in marriage to Jiyasattu of Vasan'apura Anothr" of his daughters, Jivayasa, was given in inarriage to Kamsa 58 He attended the saya muara of Rohuni where a fight took place Later on, the prophecy of Aimutta came to be true and Jalandha was killed at the hands of Vasudeva Kanha 69 Fiyasattu Jiyasattu (the conqueror of enemies) seems to have been a common designation of kings like the epithet Dcvanampiya of the later age Like Bambhadatta of the Buddhists, Jayasattu is known as a generic name, and is represented as a ruler of a number of cities. It seems that Jiyasattu (also Jitar 6 or Hatasattuel) was also known by the name of Kakavanna or Kakajangha.89 He is described as a ruler of a large number of cities - (1) Acalapura63 (11) Aojjha64 Alabhiya66 (iv) Amalakappa 66 (v) Bhaddilapura67 Campa68 (VII) Chhattagao (vii) Lohggala? (ix) Mahura Kakandi (x1) Kampillapurais (x11) Khupaitthiya? (xiii) Sayatthiyo (xiv) Migakotthaya? (xv) Mihila? (xvi) Parlaliputta It is mentioned that king Jiyasattu besieged the city of Ujjeni and as a result of which the king of Ujjeni died and the city was captured by the enemy The king of Ujjeni had four savoga servants One of them applied oil to one foot of Jiyasattu and challenged any one 58 Kalpa Ti , 6, p 173 10 Alo cl Suja cup 340 for the Vedic tradition, sec PHHI,p 96 HIHT, p 282, 80 Miri cu p 745 OL ITtara cu 2, p 78, Vasu p 115 62 Ava Ci,p 510, Abhidhanahosa, according to the Vasu P (3), Kakajangha as regang in Tosali 63 Uttara Cu,p 62 64 Urtara Ti , 18, P 233a. 85 UD 5. 86 Naya II, p 226. 87 Anta. 3, p. 7f 08 Uva 2, p. 22, Naya. 12, p. 135 09 Ava. Nir. 450. 70 Ibid. 490. T1 Ava Tip 504a. 12 Anta. 3, p 61 Anutt. p. 61. 73 Uva 6 P, 43. 74 Aa, Nir. 1318, Ava. cu. II, p. 168; Panda Nur., 80 p 30, Gacch. Vr. p. 11ba. 16 Raya. su. 146. 78 Ava. cu., p. 519. 71 Sur. Su. 1.

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388 LIPE IN ANCIENT INDIA who was equal to him in doing so to the other. Jiyasattu felt a burning sensation and it is said that since then he turned black and came to be known as Kakavanna 18 (xvii) Polasapura (xviii) Pancala80 (xix) Poyadariga#1 Savvaobhadda 82 (xxi) Tiginchi88 (xxii) Ujjeni84 (xxiii) Vanavasi86 (xxiv) Vanarasi86 (XXV) Vaniyagama 7 (xxvi) Vasantapura88 Kansa Kamisa was the son of king Uggasena of Mahura. It is said that at the time of Kamsa's conception, his mother had a chronic longing to eat the flesh of her husband 'The child was taken to be unlucky and as soon as he was born, he was kept in a box and was floated in the Jumna ; later on, he was picked up by the merchant Soriya, who handed him over to king Jarasandha of Rayagiha. Jarasandha gave him his daughter Jivayasa in marriage In course of time, Kamsa grew up and came to Mathura He made Uggasena prisoner and began to rulc over the kingdom of Mathura. It is said that once Jivayasa, placing Devaki on her shoulders, was dancing with pride. At that time she saw the ascetic Atimuktakakuma. ra, the younger brother of Kamsa, and invited him to play with them. At this Atimuktakakumara predicted that the scventh son of Devaki would slay Kamsa It is said that Kamsa asked for seven issues from Vasudeva, the husband of Devai Kamsa had already killed six sons of Devai but when the seventh one was born, Vasudeva quickly exchanged him with the daughter of Jasoya, the wife of Nanda in course of time, Kanha Vasudeva grew up and he killed Kamsa 8 (see Andhagavahni; Kanha). When Jarasandha heard of the death of his son-in-law, he got very angry with thc Yadavas. Thereupon Samudravijaya, Krsna, Balabhadra, Nemikumara, Ugrasena, etc. and many other Yadavas are said to have 18 Ava Ci p. 540 ; also Abhidhinarajendrakosa, under "Kakajangha" According to the Puranas, Sisunaga was succeeded by his son Kakavarna, and according to the Ceylonese chronicles, by his son Kalasoka According to Professor Jacobi, Geiger and Bhandarkar, Kalasoka and Kakavarna are identical Bana in his Haryacarita gives a curious legend concerning the death of Kakavarna (Kalasoka). It is stated that Kakavarana Sasunaga was taken somewhere in an artificial aerial car and was murdered in the vicinity of his city with a dagger thrust into his throat (P H A. I, p. 180 f, Pradhan, op cit., p. 223f. Uva, 7. 80 Naya. 8, p 108. Bph. Bha. 6198 f. Viva. 5 p. 33 Ibid. II, 9. p. 64-2. Ava. Nir, 1274 ; Ultara Ti 4, p. 78a. Bh. Bha, 4. 5256 f. 80 Uva. P 32. Uva, 1. p. 4; Jiyasattu mentioned here is identified by both Drs. Hoernle and Barnett with Cedaga of Vesali, Uva p. 6. 88 Ogh. Nir., 450, p 158 a , Aua, cu. p. 534. 89 Vasu. p. 368f; Kalpa. Ti , 6, p. 173 ff.

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KINGS AND RULERS 389 migrated to the west of Mathura, where Satyabhama, the wife of Krona, gave birth to Bhanu and Bhramara, and founded the city of Dwaraka. Later on, Jarasandha marched to Dwaraka and was killed by Krona. Kanha Kanha or Kanha Vasudeva and Baladeva were the sons of Vasudeva by Devaki and Rohini respectively Jarakumara is mentioned as another son of Vasudeva, who was the cause of Kanha's death." It is mentioned that as predicted by Aimuttakumara, Devai, the mother of Kanha, gave birth to eight sons, out of whom six were exchanged for the still-born children of Sulasa of Bhaddilapura by Harinegamesi. The seventh was Kanha Vasudeva and the last and the youngest was Gayasukumala, who is said to have renounced the world before he married.93 Kanha Vasudeva ruled over Baravai together with many princes and chiefs es Itcr of Naggal. Susima the dasmavanta of J i[[ QCCCAS According to the Maridhammakali, Kanha had a large number of queens,95 but his eighu chicf queens are mentioned in particular. His first queen was Saccabhama, who was the daughter of L'ggasena and who bore Bhanu and Subhanu Then we have Paumayati, the daughter of Rudhira (Hirannanabha, according to the commentary of the Panhavagaiana, 4, p 88) Gori, the daughter of Meru of Vibhaya, Gandhari, the daughter of Naggai of Fokkhalavai, Lakhhana, the daughter of Hirannaloma of Simhaladiva, Susima the daughter of Ratthavaddhana of Arakkhuri, Jambavai, the daughter of Jamavanta of Jambavanta, who bore Samba, and Ruppini the daughter of Bhcsaga of Kundinipura of Viyabbha, who bore Pajjunna These quecns are said to have been ordained by Aritthancmi, who was the cousin of Kanha Visudeva, and who was very dear to the Yadavas. Before Aritthanemi joined the ascetic order there was an "arm-battles (bahuuddia) between hin and Kanha in which the latter is said to have lost Later on, Kanha became jealous of Aritthanemi lest he might overpower him and usurp his kingdom. In course of time, Aritthanemi renounced the world and prophesied the destruction of Baravai at the hands of sage Divayana Hearing this, princes Pajjunna, Nisadhasuya, Sarana, Samba and others and queen Ruppini (according to Antagada, Paumavai) together with many princesses 80 Kalpa. Ti.6, p 176. ff; for the Vedic tradition sce P. H. A. I. P., 119. 01 Uttara. Ti , 2, pp 36 a ff. However, according to another tradition, her six children were killed by Kamsa (sce under Kamsa): 95 Anta 3. 04 Naya.5 p 68. 986, p. 68. 88 Vasu. pp. 78f, 82, 94, 98, Tha., 8-626. 97 Ullara, TL, 22, pp. 278 ff.

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390 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA joined the order under Aritthanemi. It is said that in course of time, the prophecy came to be true Kanha and Bala together with Rohini, Devai and their father, Vasudeva, went to a place of safety After some time Kanha was shot dead by the arrow of Jarakumara.98 Karakandu (see Dadhivahana) Kunala Kunala is described as the son of Asoga The city of Ujjeni was given to him as viceroyalty (kumarabhutti). It is said that, when prince Kunala was a little more than eight years, king Asoga scnt a message asking the prince to commence his studies (adi iyatam kumiirah) But as the luck would have it, Kunala's stop-mother put a dot on "a" which changed "adhiyatam" into "andhiyalam," and now the message was changed into let the piince be made blind" (andhiyatan kumiral) Atter pcrusing the Ictter, Kunala thought that the royal commands (iom thc Mlaurya dynasty inust not be disobeyed and he stoutly put out his cyesight with a red hot iron rod and he lost his sight for cici il is mentioned thatin course of time, the blind Kurala cin tl.c coui. o Asoga, disguised as a minstrel and gave a musical perlormance fiom behind the curtain Asoga was very pleased and promised Kunala to give him anything that he might ask for Kurala begged for a kikani which in the Ksati ya language denoted ihc sovcicignty of the kingdom Later on, when Kunala s identity was disclosed i the king, he questioned him as to what he would do with it as lie was unfit to carry on the work of government. Thereupon Kunala replicd that a son was boin to him only recently (sampai) and it was for him that he wanted kingdom Asoga granted him his request (r) Kunika Kun:ka, also known as Asokacaril, Vajiv:dehapulla oi Videhaputta, was the son osking Scniya by Cellweb It is said that when Kudika was born, he was cast on a dung-hill outside the city, where his little finger (kananguli) was wounded by thc tail of a cock and since then he came to be known as Kunika According to another tradition, after his bith Kunika was cast in a garden namcd asogavaniya which became illuminated and hence Kunika came to be known as Asogavanacanda or Asogacanda 100 The third epithet of Kunika was Videhaputta. He was so called because his mother Cellana belonged to the country of Videha.101 A detailed 93 Ibid P 37 ft, for the Buddhist tradition, sce Ghata Jataka , also P B I. p. 23 03 Brh Bha Pi 292 ff, 1 3275 , Nisi cu ,p 437, 5, 87 (MSS) For Buddhist tradition, see Law, G Essays, p. 41f 100 dua. cu, II, p. 166 Bhag. It 79, The Buddist Nikayas also call Ajatasatru by the name of Vedehiputta. Buddhaghosa, however, resolves "vedehr" into veda-sha, vedana thats or intellectual effort (The com, on the Digha. I P. 139). 201

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KINGS AND RULERS 391 description of king Kunika's pilgrimage to Mahavira is given in the Ovarya.10 It is mentioned that at the time of Kunika's conception, there arose in Cellana a chronic longing to eat the flesh from her husband's belly. In course of time, when Kunika was boin, he was cast on a dung-hill as stated above, by the maid-servants of Cellana But when Seniya came to know of this, he got angry and brought the child back.103 In course of time, when Kuniya grew up, he wanted to kill his father and rule over the kingdom himself So he called the ten princes, viz. Kala, etc and discussed with them the plan to divide the kingdom into eleven parts It is mentioned that one day Kuniya airested his father, and putting him into a prison installed himself on the throne He ordered his servants to give Seniva one hundred lashe, eve.v morning and evening Cellana was not allowed to have any interview with her husband and even food and drink was stopped to him ed to see her husband, she concealed beans ed them with wine and visited Seniya have washed her hairs a hundred times with water which turned into wine, and it is said that owing to the strength given him by the wine, the king was able to endure the whipping Later, when Cellana was allow(kumm isa) in her hairs, besmearInside the prison she is said to 104 It is said that once when Kuniya went to touch the feet of his mother, she related to him an incident of his childhood, when his little finger was torn off by the tail of a cock, and to cure the intense pain caused by this, his father held this finger in his mouth and sucked its pus and blood 105 When Kuniya heard this he was full of icmoise at the treatment given to his father, and he immediately started with a hatchet in his hand to set his father fiee But, thinking that Kuny a might put him to death by some painful contrivance, Semiya swallowed the poison known as talapuda and died When Kuniya came to know about this sad coincidence, he felt very sad and being unable to endure his sorrow, shifted his capital to Campa 106 10 Su, 6, p 20 108 According to the Jataka, the longing was to drink blood from the right knee of king Binibisara (see the cum on the Digna ID 13f) 104 Nurya 1, Ara cu, II, p 171 According to the Buddhists, Ajatasatru kept his father in Tapanageha and only his mother was allowed to interview him First she carried food in her hairs, then in her golden sandles Later on, she applied scented water on her body which was licked by the king But this too was stopped Later on, Ajatasatru ordered his servants to tear off his father's feet and bake them in salt and oil on fire Conse. quently the king died At this time a messenger brought the news of a son's birth Ajatasatru was very much pleased to hear this and ordered to set his father at liberty But he was no more, the com on the Digha I, p 135 ff According to the Aza cu (II, p 171) once it so happened that when Kuniya was taking his food, his child's urine fell into his dishes, but without taking any notice of it, Kun.ya went on taking his food Afterwards he asked lus mother, who was sitting nearby, "Mother, did anybody ever love his son so much ?" Then his mother narrated him the story of his childhood. Also cf the com on the Digha, I, p. 138 For the Buddhist account of Ajatasatru, see Law's some Ancient Indian kings, Buddhist Studies. pp. 195 ff. 100 Nirya. I; Ava. cu. II, p. 171. 105

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392 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDLA Paumavai was the queen of Kuniya, who gave birth to Udayi: Udayi ruled over Padaliputta.107 Dharini was another of his queens.208 Then Subhadra and others are mentioned as other queens of Kunika.100 Lecchavi Licchavis are mentioned along with the Mallakis in the Jain Canons. The Suvagadanga 10 refers to the clan of Licchavis Licchavis and Mallakis of Kasi and Kosala are said to have fought with Cedaga against Kunika (see Cedaga). The nine Licchavis and nine Mallakis were among those who observed fast and instituted an illumination on the fifteenth day of the new moon. 111 Mallaki The Oviya Sutta mentions the Mallakis, along with the Ugras, the Bhogas, the Ksatriyas and the Licchavis, who are said to have gone to receive Mahavira in Campa." According to the Suyagadanga curni, 118 the Mallas had a strong unity among themselves and it is said that when some forlorn Malla died they disposed of him, and gave protection to the poor people of their caste. Mayurarka King Mayuranka is said to have issued the dinara coin inscribed with his name. 114 Muladeva Muladeva is described as a prince of Padaliputta, who arrived at Ujjeni and lived with the harlot Devadatta. Later on, he left the city and in course of time, became the ruler of Bennayada. He was known as Vikkamaraya.116 Murunda (1) It is said that Murunda ruled at Kusumapura ;110 he is said to have sent his envoy to Purusapura."17 107 Nirya 1, Ave. cu. II, p. 179. 108 Ova Su, 7, P 23 109 Ibid , 33 p. 144 110 1 13 10, also curm ,p 316. For the Buddhist origin, see the com on the Khuddakapatha, pp 58-60, also Dig'la, II, p. 73 f. For some interesting social customs among Licchavis, see Vinayavastu of the Mulasar vastivada, pp 6-18, also see P. H. A. I., pp. 103 ff. 111 Kalpa su 128 111 Su 27. 118 P 28, also Nasi cu 8 p. 521 For Buddhist tradition regarding Mallas, sec Digha. II. Pp 146 f, Mahasudassana Jataka, 1, p. 391 114 Nisi ci., 11, p. 843 I15 UKara, ., 4, p. 118. 116 Brh. Bha 3 4123 f. 111 Bth. Bha. 4.5628,

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KINGS AND RULERS 393 (2) Another Murunda was a contemporary of Padalittasuri, who is mentioned to have cured the king of the terrible headachc he was suffering from, and was ruling over Paitthana."18 Sten Konow tells us that Murunda is a Saka word, moaning lord. 129 Naggar (1) Naggai, otherwise known as Siharaha, ruled at Pundavad dhana in Gandhara It is mcntioned that once the king Siharai... 10.. led a mountain and married a beautiful maden, who was nesiding there in a palacc. The king used to go to the mountava cvciy fifth day to Visit his spouse and hence he came to be knowa 23 Naggai ( jamhii nage uri) IA course of time, the king is said to have built a charming city on the mountain where he crected the Jain temples and ruled with justice. Later on. Naggairanou iced the wild 211 atlanned final cincipation, 129 (2) Another Nagylis winted lu bu !ho ruler of Purugapura 121 Nahavahana It is stitcd that Nehnziana a 17 SE! !1012 12.contcmporaries The former was ich 1.1 1.51.10 and the latci Wels cquipped with a powerful a my It is said that Siliviliana bieged the city oi Bha uyakaccha every year whcrc Nahavahana iulcd Na'lvhun give away .cwards cf hundred thousands to his servants who boughi the hands c. heads of any nuinber of the chemy's sollicrs Tii, caused a gical liaroc in the enemy's camp and thus Salivahan? used to retu. to Parithana. Once Salivalana made a conspn acy with his mmitci Hc apparently insulted his minister and banished him The minister rcached Bharuvakaccha and was appointed as the min. ci of Makavaliana In course of time, he spent some of his mmisi's wealth in buildmg temples, mounds, ponds, lakes and tiencies and om in making on.ments for the queens Now the ministul scut a scc.ct message to Salivahana vho invaded the city and got po SK-10n of Dimakaccha 122 It is said that oncctcquic: Countivci w.. ito io lilun to the poetry of Vairabhu, who was a very god sw31 Thc tcacl:ci wa mvited to the harcm but the queen was disappoi.2cd on seeing his ugly face 128 Nandi It has already been said that when king Udizi died without any heir, a barber boy (naviyadrisa ascended the throne of Padaliputta and was known as the first Nauda.124 But it is mentioned that the Dan 118 Pindo Nir., 498 119 See Stipra, under Murunile, section 1:0 Utrara Ti, 9, pp 141 ff Naggaji is also metinned in the falcka (III ? 7,081); also 1 ha'ha VII 4 6 1' Arci , II, p 208, also cf iv,p 78 187 A a Vir, 299, A a cu II, p 200 123 Vya Bha 3 581, 147 Tui Vablosuhana o Sahapana, see P HAI p 405f. 124 It happened sixty years after the Ninja of Mahavira, (3.1 av VI 23.-243). Nanda and his descendants continued to rule Magadha till the last Nanda king was deposed by Canakya 165 years after the death of Mahavira (tbid 339).

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394 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA das, Bhadas and Bhoyagas, taking him to be a slave-boy, would not pay him honour. At this Nhaviyadasa got angry and executed some and took others prisoners. Kappaka, the son of Kavila, was his minister (kumaramaca). Once Nanda got angry with his minister and ordered him and his family to be cast into a well. When the vassal kings heard that Kappaka was no more, they besieged the city of Padaliputta and reduced it to great distress, Later on, Kappaka was set free and was taken out of the well and the enemy filed away in panic. Mahapaduma was the ninth Nanda, who made Sagadala his minister. Sagadala was a descendant of Kappaka He had two sons, named Thulabhadda and Siriya, and seven daughters, namely Jakkha, Jakkhadinna, Bhuya, Bhuyadinna, Sena, Vena and Rena. 130 Paesi King Paesi, who is mentioned as an impious king, ruled at Seyaviya in the country of Kegainddha. Once he sent gifts to his vassal king Jiyasattu, who was ruling over Savatthi 120 The Rayapaseniya sutta records a dialogue between Kesi and Paesi, when the latter, being influenced by the teachings of the former, became a samanova saga. Since tnen the king became indifferent towards his kingdom and was poisoned by his queen Suriyakanta.137 Pajjoya Pajjoya or Candapajjoya was a powerful ruler of Uijeni, who was known as the lord of Avanti (Avantipati). He married Siva, one of the seven daughters of Cedaga of Vesali, and who was considered one of the four jewels of Pajjoya. King Pajjoya had two sons, named Gopala and Palaka 118 Khandakamma is mentioned as a minister of Pajjoya. 111 Ada.cu pp. 181 ff; also hathasarutsagara Vol I, ch. IV. For Buddhist tradition of the Nandas, see Mahavamsa Tika V.15, also P H. A. I. pp. 187 f for the Vedic tradition. 136 Raya. su., 142 ff; also see Digha, Payasisutta. 191 Sa. 162-204. 128 The following is the genealog cal tree : Paijoya Gopala Palaka Palaka Avantivardhana Rastravardhana Avantisena (Aug. Nir. 1282 ; also see Pratijana. 1", Kathasarit Tol I; (II. p. 87 ff) Maniprabha

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KINGS AND RULERS PAJJOYA AND ABHAYA King Pajjoya is said to have fought a number of battles. Once he invaded Rayagiha, when Abhayakumara is said to have foiled him intelligently It is said that Abhaya buried iron jars full of dinaras at a place where the enemy would encamp round the city. When Pajjoya besieged the city, Abhaya sent him a messenger saying that Seniya had already bought over his allies, who would hand him (Pajjoya) over to Seniya, bound hand and foot If he did not believe it he should dig up the camping ground and see if his confederates had not received the gold. Pajjoya discovered the money and was confused. He was routed by Seniya's army and returned to Ujjeni.119 When Pajjoya reached Ujjeni, he was told how he had been deceived by Abhaya. Thereupon Pajjoya decided to fetch him from Rayagiha. A courtesan set out with seven other women to Rayagiha, where she pretended to be a chaste widow devoted to the Jain faith. One day they met Abhaya in a Jain temple and invited him to a feast when he was made drunk and was carried to Ujjeni in a horse-chariot. Abhaya lived in the court of Pajjoya for a long time and did his ministerial work. Now Abhaya wanted to return home. But before going he took a vow that, as he had been brought by religious deceit (dhammacchalena), he would throw himself into the flames, if he did not avenge himself by taking Pajjoya tied to a bed and crying, through the streets of Ujjeni to Rayagiha Abhaya left for Rayagiha with his wife. After some time Abhaya returned to Ujjeni with two courtesans and began to live as a merchant. King Pajjoya saw them and was enamoured of them. He sent a female-messenger to them twice or thrice, but they drove her out angrily. Later on, they asked Pajjoya to see them on the seventh day. Abhaya also hired a man to become his brother and feign madness He was given the name of Pajjoya. He would everyday be tied to a cot, taken to the house of a physician, although he cried aloud that he was Pajjoya Now at the appointed time, Pajjoya met the two courtesan girls, when he was caught and was bound down to the cot and carried through the city, although he cried that he was Pajjoya. Paj. joya was thus carried away to Rayagiha in the presence of Seniya, who came to kill him with his sword but was prevented by Abhaya. Later on, Pajjoya was honoured and was sent back to Ujjeni 395 PAJJOYA AND SAYANIYA Pajjoya also waged war against Sayaniya, the father of Udayana of Kosambi. When Pajjoya reached Kosambi, Sayaniya transferred his forces from the south bank of the Jamuna to the north bank, where the 130 230 According to the Maghima (III 7), Ajatasatru, tl escn cf Erbetara, fertifed Rajagi) a because he was afraid of an invasion of his territories hv Fradyota. Ava. c., II, pp. 159-163

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396 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA enemy could not reach easily. The servants of Sayaniya rode on their horses, and cut the nose and ear of the soldiers of Pajjoya Thus Pajjoya was defeated and fled away in panic.131 It is mentioned that once a painter, who was turned out of the court of king Sayaniya, 1cached Ujjeni and presented a painting of queen Miyavai to Pajjoya Pajjoya became enamoured of her beauty and sent a messenger to Sayaniya saying that either he should hand over his quecn to him or must be prepared for war As Sayaniya would not yield, Pajjoya marched against him, and the former died of dysentery (alisa a) 132 PAJJOYA AND UDDAYANA Another wai was declared between Pajjoya and king Uddayana of Vibhaya It is said that Uddayana had a sandalwood image of Mahavira in his possession which was looked after by Devadatta, a hunchbacked slave gul Once a savaga from Gandhara came to worship this image in Virbhaya He was pleased with Devadatta and gave hei some magic pills Devadatt swallowed one of them and her body was transformed to the semblance of molten gold Then beamg Pajjoya in mind she swallowed another pill and as a 1 csult Pajjoya came hunying with his clephant, Nalagiri, to take her away Devadatie, who was now called Suvannaguliva, insisted on taking along the image to which Pajjoya agreed. Next morning, Udday. na fourd his slave gul and the image both missing People saw the foot-puts of Nalagu, his une and excrement. The cupon Uddayana se a messenger to Pajjoya saying "I care nothing for the scivant gul, send me the image Lut Pajjoya would not give the image dw In cour of time, along with his ten vassals, Uddayana marched against Paijoya and reached Unjeni A fight ensued between Uddayana and Pajjova in which the latter suffered a defeat His forehead was branded with a fontlet icading husband of slave gul" (dasiper), and Uddayana hastened back to his town After some time, the day of pajojsana approached and Uddayana paidoned Pajjoya and set him at liberty Then in order to cover the letters desipati, Uddayana invested him with a golden plate (sevenne patta) and gave him the realm said that ficm that time the kings were invested with the plate, before this they were invested with the diadem (maudabaddha) 133 It is Pandu It is said that Pandu ruled at Hatthinapura He, with Kunti, the daughter of Andhagavahni, as his queen, was invited along with his five sons, named Juhitthila, Bhima, Ajjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva, and Duj 131 Ibid., p 167 js 137 An Cup 88 f Uttara Ti, 18, pp 253 ff, Ava. cu, p. 400 f; For other traditions, tee PHA.I pp. 97, 123, 165.

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397 jodhana, Gangeya, Vidura, Dona, Jayaddatha, Sakuni, Kiva, and Assatthama to attend the sayamvara marriage of Dovai in Kampillapura. The five Pandavas were cliosen by her.134 KINGS AND RULERS Salivahana (Satavahana) King Salivahana ruled at Paitthina with his minister Kharaya. It said that he used to invade the city of Charuyakaccha every year (see Nahavana) It was at the request of Salivahana that Kalaka changed the day of pancami to catu ihi for pajjosana." (Sce Paitthana) 135 Sampar It is mentioned that after Kunala, Sampai came to the thione of Ujjeni Staying in Ujjeni, hic conquci cd the whole of Dakkhinavaha and brought all the frontier states unde. his subjugation Sampai is said to be a very powerful ulei of Ujjeni and a great pation of Jain religion. He gave away chantics at the four gates of the city and offered garments etc. to Jam monks Whatevc food was left after being distributed to the poor and the orphans was given to the Jain monks (because the Jain monks are not allowed to accept food from a king) Sampi ati paid for this food to the cooks He was a great devotee of the shrnas and he glorified the Sam na Sangha "He called the kings of the neighbouring countries and asked them to show devotion towards sramanas At the festival of ahajatta, he used to walk in the company of Danda, Bhada and Bhojika etc with the ch..riot and offered flowers, scents, ornaments, garments, and cowlies Samprati celebrated the worship of Jain image with gicat pomp and show, when other kings also joined him He told his vassal kings that he did not want money, but if they considered him to be their lord, they weic to pay then iespect to the samanas Samprati proclaimed non-killing (amagita) and he built temples He trained his warriors and sent them in the disguise of Jain monks to border lands (paccantadesa) and thus made Andhia, Dravida, Maharastra, Kudukka, Surastia and other countries suitable for the movement of Jam monks 196 In the words of Smith, "Sampiati is icputed to have been zealous in promoting the cause of Jainism as Asoka had been in propagating the religion of Buddha 137 Udayana Udayana, 138 who was the grandson of Sahassaniya and the son of Sayaniya, ruled at Kosambi 130 Naja. 16 for the Buddhist tradition, see Kunala Jataka (No 536). When the child was born, the king adopted her as his own daughter That is why Devai is called 'Dvepitika' in Buddhist literature (Malalasekara, op cit, under 'Kanha') Also see Catur imsatt,15, p 136 ff Prabandhacun.tumans, 1, p 17, also see Early History of the Deccan, pp 29-31 Bih Bha 1 3278-3280, Nisi cu, 15, p 1115 f also of Sthanavalcarita, XI Oxford History of India, p 117, also cf PHI,p 291 According to the Buddlusts, Udena's mother when pregnant was bird and deposited on a tice near the residence of Allakappa the time of a storm (utu), hence he came to be known Udena; . also cf. Kathasaritsagara, Vol. I, Bk. II, ch IX, pp. 94-102, Bhag. 12 2. 190 134 133 138 147 139 carried off by a monster The child was born at Dhammapada A. I, p. 165,

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398 UDAYANA AND PAJJOYA It is said that when Sayaniya died of dysentery, Udayana was very young and so the responsibility of governing the kingdom fell on the shoulders of queen Migavati. At this time king Pajjoya repeated his old demand140 and asked Migavati to marry him But the latter tactfully requested him to permit her to defer her decision till her son grew old enough to govern the kingdom independently, and suggested to Pajjoya to make the city stronger in the meantime by means of fortification and storing grains, etc. Pajjova returned to Ujjeni In course of time, Lord Mahavira reached Kosambi and Migavati went to pay reverence to the Teacher She wanted to join his order and so she asked Pajjoya for permission which the latter could not refuse in the presence of an assembly where Mahavia also was present. Migavati entrusted Udayana to the care of Pajjoya and along with eight queens of Pajjoya, namely, Angaravati, etc joined the ascetic order under Mahavira. It is said that when Abhaya was residing in the court of Pajjoya as a minister, the king's elephant Nalagui got loose and no one could approach him Abhaya suggested the name of Udayana of Kosambi who was a very good musician, and said that he could bring the elephant under control by his music Knowing that Udayana was fond of elephants, Pajjoya sent a mechanical clephant, to a forest near Kosambi carrying men inside. As soon as Udayana saw this elephant, he began to sing, and was caught hold of by the king's soldiers Udayana was brought to Ujjeni where he was asked by Pajjoya to teach music to his daughter, Vasavadatta 14a But Udavana was warned not to look at her as she was one-eyed, and would be ashamed if he did so. Vasavadatta also was told that her teacher was a leper and therefore would teach her from behind the curtain. Vasavadatta was attracted by her teacher's voice and looked for an opportunity to have a look at him. One day, she sang badly, when the teacher exclaimed angrily "Be hanged, one-eyed person She retorted "You do not know yourself, oh leper" He knew that she was no more blind than he was a leper He drew away the curtain and both fell in love with each other. One day Nalagiri got loose and Udayana was asked to tame it Udayana proposed that he and the princess would sing 1iding on the sheelephant, Bhadravati.143 The elephant was caught, but Udayana and Vasavadatta eloped "" 140 141 149 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA 149 See Pajjoya Aza. cup 91 f Vasavadatta was born of Angar avati (Ava Cu II, p 161). It is also coroborated by Pratinayaugandharayana of Bhasa and the hathasarutsagara; Pradyota, Udayana and Srenika-A Jain legend by Gune, A B OI, 1920-21 In Buddhist literature besides the she-elephant Bharldavatika, and Kaka, a slave, Pajjoya is said to have had three other fleet-footed conveyances two mares, Celakanni and Munjakes and an elephant Nalagiri About the she-elephant Baddavati, it is said that she could travel fifteen leagues in a day. Udena made use of her in h's elopment with Vasuladatta At first the king paid her great honour, but when she grew old she was neglected, Dhammapada A. 1.p. 196 f.

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KINGS AND RULERS 399 According to another tradition, however when the elephant was brought under control, king Pajjoya went to his pleasure-garden. This opportunity was seized by Jogandharayana, Udayana's minister, who had come to Ujjeni with the vow of carrying away the princess for king Udayana. He filled four jars with the urine244 and together with Kancanamala, the maid-servant of Pajjoys, Vasanta, the ele driver, Ghosavanti, the tinu, Udayana and Vasavadatta ran away from Ujjeni riding on the she-elephant, Bhadravati King Pajjoya ordered his servants to chase them on Nalagiri But when Nalagiri got near them one jar of urine was smashed near the approaching elephant, who was held up In the meantime they travelled twenty five yojanas When Nalagiri approached, again the same trick was played. By smashing three jars, Udayana and his party travelled seventy five yojanas and reached the city of Kosambi,145 Uddayana (Udayana) Udayana was a icy powcisul monuich of Sindhu Sovira It is said that Udayana ruled at sixtcen janapadas, viz , Sindhu sovira, etc. and sixty three cities, viz, Vibhaya, etc, and he was thc lord of the crowned (maudabaddha) kings, viz , Mahascna, etc Udayana was a devotee of the Tatasas His qucen Pabhavai gave birth to Abhitikumara. It is mentioned that once Udayana thought of paying a visit to Mahavira, who was in Campa at that time It is said that the latter knew his thoughts and came down to Virbhaya in order to ordain him Udayana anointed Kesikumara, his sister's son, on thc throne and joined the order under Mahavira 136 Uddayana came to be known as a royal sage (rajarise) and was the last king to renounce the kingdom with a crown on his head. After him no king was allowed to renounce the world wearing the crown 147 It is mentioned that at the behaviour of his fatlici, Abhitikumara felt very much disappointed He went to king Kunika in Campa and began to live there. 148 146 According to Buddhists, Udayana took bags of gold and silver coin and when pursued, opened first a sack of zeld and then one of silver. See for the story Dhammapada A I, pp 191 ff For the full account, see Law's Some Ancient Indian Kings, Bundesstic Studies, pp 214 ff Ava Cu. II, p. 160. ff, for other traditions, see Suapnar asaiadatta, Matanga Jataka, Katha saritsagara, P H. A. I p 164 f, I H Q , 1930, pp 676-700 Bhag. 13.6. Ava. Ci., II, p. 171f. Bhag. 13.8. 146 147

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400 Udayana was sojourning in Viibhaya when he was poisoned by his sister's son and died.140 Udayi When Kunika died, his son Udayi ascended the throne of Campa But on account of his father's death he would not like to stay in Campa and so he founded a new capital on the bank of the Ganges which came to be known as Padaliputta 150 Here he is said to have built a Jain temple It is said that once a vassal king of Udayi committed some offence as a result of which he was dethroned. At this the son of this king made up his mind to take revenge on Udayi He went to Ujjeni and ielated the story of his distress to the king of Ujjeni, who promised to assist him in his crrand Later, the disguised prince went to Padaliputta and joined the ascetic order as a novice It is said that once, together with other monks, he went to the king's palace for religious discourses, and at night when all were asleep, he took a pair of iron scissors (kankalonakattika), and hit the king at his head It is said that in order to save icligion from disgrace, king Udayi cut off his head and died 1 Usuyara King Usuyara ruled in the city of Usuyara, situated in Kuru 1251 King Usuyara may be identified with Esukari of the Hatthipala Jataka 169 149 LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA 150 khkr 131 163 153 Ava. cu, II, p 36 Cf Divyavadana (ch xxxvii). According to the Buddhists, king Rudrayana was reigning in Roruka with his queen Candraprabha, Sikhand: was his prince. It is said that an image of Buddha was sent by king Bimbisara to king Udayana to acquaint him with Buddhist religion. In course of time, Candraprabha joined the order and died Later on, Rudrayana also followed her The Buddhist writers do not mention anything about the sister's son ul Rudrayan and so here the prince sikhandi succeeas his father It is neati ned that king vikhandt was misguided by nis wicked ministers When Rudrayana knew of this, he carne back to give advice to his son, when a plot was hatched up and th monk Uddayana was put to death See also Mum Jai avijayaji's arucl 1 Prata I p 24 ff Aco ine Vayu Pura u Uday1 but hey of Kusumapur. in the fourth year of his cig (PIAI, P 76) Ava. Cu, II, pp 79f Udayibhadda is also mentioned in the Vinayavastu of the Mulasarvastivada, pp 42 f, also see P. H. A. I pp. 175 ff for puranic tradition Uttara Su, 14, Viva. II, p. 64. IV, pp. 473 ff.

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RETROSPECT 1 It is admitted now that the history of Jainism begins from the advent of Parsvanatha and not from Mahavia as was popularly supposed by scholars Parsva was a powerful religious teacher who flourished towards the end of the ninth centur B (, 256 yrars before Mahavila It was he who for the first time founded the four orders in the Jam communiti Unlike Buddhism tha stiength of Jaunumlar in tbc miss of lay tullowers, which helped in the survival of thc Jam Teligion Another cause of its survival was its rigid conscnaim wluch hcpt it rice from Tantrika developments, unlike it's sister sligion Buddhism This conscivatism of holding last to the original institutions and doctrines did not allow ny change in essentials of religion and here the religious life of the Jain community cien now is substantially the same as it was two thousand years ago The new rituals and practice of Vaisnavism, saivism and other scats evuld not create any allurauen und so Jainism lost its importance in the south where it had once gamed dominance Jain religion has maintained its old spirit and even now it cleicises its hold on un influential community in India The Jain (anons, on which the present work is based do not belong to ont particular period Thet were compiled and icdacted thrice between 4th century BC to 5th centuty AD) The object of the thesis is to prevent the social materials embodied in the Jain Sutras and excgetical literature and therefore the basis of the presentation is not in Chronological order The period of the commoutanc wuch des Trom the first Century to the seventeenth century AD would not be mixed up with the Sutin period But since the communlaric preserved good dical of old tradicions and without them the Igamni could not be properly understood, the material embodied in thcm is utilised in the present work However, the material embodied in the Jain (monis pretty old and may be compared with the Buddhist Sultas and other works of the early period before the Christian era 2 We have seen that the country was divided into small principalities which were either governed by the king or had republican constitutions. Generally, the hings were autocrats and the judicial arrangements were not sound and cfficient Very often innocent persons were charged and Yent for execution Various offences such as robbery, adultcry, murder were prevalent and most icic punishments were inflicted on the culprits. Prison-life was very hard The rajadhini or the capital city was the Yeat of government There were big cities with busy markets and the villages which populated with the teeming millions of India

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102 LIFE EX VOIAVI INDI 3 The ci onomic condition of the people will not bad The country was rich and prosperous, flourished in trade and commerce. Yet the condition of the general masses cannot be said to have been ideal. There was sufficient to cat and sufficient to fulfil then simple needs People were luxury-loving and were fond of ornaments, clothes weaths, flowers, perfumes, music, dancing diamas and singing The rich people possessed palatial buildings, manicd sevcial women, paid large lecs to courtesans, went out surrounded by scilants and attendants in a goigcous procession accompanied by damscls The middle class people 100 lived a life of luxury and made magnificent donations to the order The condition of poor people was deplorable They had to earn their livelihood with gicat difficulty The suficica nost at the hands of money-lenders and from luminis (lung fiom (aught and pestilence 4 There was a sustem and society vided into Katriyas Biahmanas, Taistas and Sidias 1 Sudia had the most degraded position in the society The family was the primarnell of social organism There was the joint family stem, and the head of the family was respected most l'hc position of nomen cannot be desobed as Satisfactor, although the fan prophets allowed them equality with incn and pcimitted them to attain Vinerina Aits and sciences were manifold and people acquicd efficient in func allts such as music painting and sculpture the secular sciences such diathematics astronomy and astrology and the science of all and architectue flourished. There were religious mendicants belonging to various ouders who played an important part in moulding the materjal as well as the spiritual life o the people People believed in magk ind c variety of superstitions. There were sports and anuscinents and Vanous eremonies held by the common-folk, funcial rates were observed with pomp 5 During the life time of Mahavira, the spread of Jawm Was limited, and Jain monks did not seem yoncalli 10 have ossed the broundaries towards cast of Sahota beyond Ing. Magacha, towards soutli beyond Kosambi, towards was briand Thund and towards the north beyond Kunala, which corresponds to the tract of a portion of modern Bihar eastern United Provinces, and a part of westeru U.P But later on, at the time of Sampiali, who was e de out Jain this geograplucal limit was changed and the Jain monks could have se as far as Sudhu Sovira eind Suristra in west, Kalinga in the cast, Dravida, India and Coorg "Kudukkal in the south and some part of the castern Punjah It seems that Jam monks because of yestrictions of food at neier left the shores of India and went abroad like the Buddhist monks and even Mahavira did not go beyond Bihar, north-western Bengal and a part of the eastern United Provinces, his visit to Sindhu Sovira and other parts of India scems to be doubtful

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RETROSPECT 403 As far as possible the geographical names have been identified, yet unfortunately a bulk of them remain unidentified, particularly the small villages in Bihar, where Mahavira toured during his ascetic lifc. The Jain canons, besides givine information about the Aryan countrics, give a list of many non-Aryan countries probably thereby meaning that Jainism had not penetiler! ato ihuse countries in these lists some of the countries, peoples and the Jacapadas are recognisable, but unfortunately the traditional lists have become very corrupt through the centuries of their transmus.on The author has, however, made an attempt to collate the lists occurring in various texts in order to find out the correct names 6. It should be borne in mind that the historical naterial in the Jain (anons is so scantv that hardly any history in the rcal sense of the word could be written; hencerrat, ter should not be treated as purely historical Herein simply linii has been made lo put together the historical material presenter be juin Canons number of kings and rulers are mention'. Tae Jain Canons, most of whom seem to be fictitious Chargon, Lous teacher, attend his religious sermons, renounce the world laran salvation on some mountain Even the king, who are desc.bir.Sontempcraries ot Mahavira seem to be quite legendary. Except for alew notable kings such as Srenika, Ajatasatru, Pradyota and Udarana history has not given any clue to them so far. Regarding kings and rulers, another point which should be noted is that most of the well-known rulers are claimed by both Jains and Buddhists as their own. In fact, they showed equal regard towards religious teachers of different sects and hence it is verv difficult to say that they belonger t..articular faith

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405 INDEX I This index contains important Prabrit and from the book. Sanskrit words Asvatara 77 Avaha 240 Avarimukhamallakakara Avasar pini 371 Avasavana 305 82 Abaddhiyas 26 Abbhintaraniya msini 132 Abhiras 94 Acela 27 Addhakhalla 133 Addhoruga 132 Adolzya 238 Agamas 31, 33, 34, 43 Aganthima 312 Aggrbhiru 75 Aggoyara 131 Agnepakita 671 Ahadiya 124 Ihena 240 Ahilana 77 Ajnanavada 212 Akrina 77 Akriyavada 212 Akriyavadi 202 Akuramata 266 Alana 76 Alankarasabha 133 Alarkariyasabha 74 Alattapudaga 103 Amatya 59 Angas 31 Ankana 77 Antar andakagolira 118, 318 Anteura 54 Anuranga 117 Anuyogadharah 33 Arahatta 89 Ardhajanghika 133 Ardhamagadhi 177 Aidhaphalaka 28 Asatiposana 106, 159 Asivo pasamini 81 Assamaddaya 77 Assasala 77 Assavahaniya 77 B Bahiniya msini 132 Bahumilakkhumaha 239 Bahurayas 26 Balavauya 78 Balikamma 74, 235 Bambhavangha 216 Bhisa 40 Bhatta 305 Bhatanii 20 Bharana 54 Bhayaga 108 Bhorya 83 Bhayada 131 Bhoyanapidaga 74 Bhukamin 228 Bhutabali 223 Bhuyavija 179, 224 Bodivas 28, 204, 237 Brahmi 176 Calinika 132 Candas urada msaniya 150 Caraka 73n Caragasohana 150 Catuyamasa mtara 21, 22 Canddasavlijatthana 142, 171 Caugjamadhamma 20, 21, 23 Caummasiyamajjanaya 239 Cavalaga 310 Ceiya 222 Celacilimilz 131 Celagola 238

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406 Chalitakavya 174 Chedasutras 31 Chimpaya 97 Chiva 77 Cinapittha 154 Culrasala 187n Cittakamma 372 Colapatta 27n, 28, 131 Colopana 150 Cora 279 Corapalli 66 Gunni 41 D Dagana 117 Danama 213 Dandadhara 56 Dandanayaga 60 Dandarakkhya 56 Dantikka 117 Dantaranija 100 Dasa 131 Dasapurvi 29 Dasimaha 107, 239 Dasilar 396 Daviya 91 Desibhasa 177 Dhammaval ka 341,348 Dhanu ja 181 Dharanya III Dhijja 140 Dinara 142 Disacara 298 Disapokkhi 204 Divya 102, 120 Dohada 149 Dokiras 26 Donamuha 113 Dosya 97 Dostrasala 119 Dona 56 Diamma 61, 120, 273 Dubhuya 81 Dusa, five Dita 78,78n 130 Egasadiya 131 Egapuda 132 Ekadandins 211 Ekka-sambhogo 29 G Gaddara 305 Gama 82 Gambhirapoyapattana 113 Gana 23,27,34,36,164,372 Ganadaharas 23.25.32,34 Gandhahastin 76 n Gandhiyasala 105 Ganika 163ff Gampidaga 25 Ganjasala 90 Garudaviha 79 160 Ghanghasala 325 Gharajamauya Gilli 76 Giddhapitthaka 241 Gvjanna 239 Gokilanja 90 Golivasala 119 Gonivasala 119 Gorahaga 238 Gotthi 240 Gujjhagas 222 H Hadibandhana 68 Hale 305,351 Hamsalakkhana 131 Hatthidamaga 76 Hatthakamma 202 Hatthitavasa 127,204 Hatthuvauha 76 Heiannya 119 Hingola 240 I Ibbla 108,143n Iddhisakkara 242 Ikkada 305

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407 Indakeu 216 Ingalakanma 95, 106 Ittigamaha 239 Jaddasala 76 Jagariki 150 Jakkha 153, 220, 220 n Jakkhaggaha 221 Jalapattana 113 Janapadas 16,251 Janasala 117 Janavayar hala 192, 246 Janghika 133 Fantapadima 187 Fanlasala 91 Javaniya 130, 163 Javasa 17 Jayakamma 150 Jinakappa 20, 278, 27 n Jivapaesiyas 26 Togn 227 Fuddhamala 240 Fugga 117 Fugghagas 222 Junguya 106 Fuyakhalaya 240 Karanika 65 Karusa 100 Kasa 77 Katibandha 131 . Kaumudipracara 72,238 Kayakarana 182 Kayambari 125 Kevadika 120 Revalin 29 Khalina 77 Khallaka 133 Khandhakarani 132 Khandhavaranivesa 78 Khandamallakakara 82 Khapusa 133 Kharos tri 176 Khetta 89 Khira 305 Khola 124 Kodumbiya 60 Kodumbryapurisa 108 Kolia 97 Kolluka 91 Komudika 81,81n Koscaviraga 118 Kosaga 133 Kottaka 92 Kriyavada 212 Kudaggaha 94 Kudalehakarana 66,175 Kudasakkha 66 Kula 34,36 Kulakaras 49,73n Kuliya 340 h'umarasamana 21 kundika sramana 203 Kundiya 35,71 Kura 305,312 Kuttryavana 114,124,224 Kabbaila 113 Kaccha 303 Kadipatta 28 Kahavana 65,120,120 n Kakini 120,390 Kakuha 52 Kaliyasuya 33,37 Kaliyavaya 118 Kammantasala 119 Kammarasala 100 Kantcuka 132 Kancukin 55 Kanthaka 77 Kapotika 102 Kappaka 63 Kappasiya 97 Lakkharasa 103 Langula 218n Lankha 145 Layana 191 Livis 175f

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408 M Nirvapa 124 Niyattana 90 Niyoga 162 Omacela 131 Oroha 54 Madagalena 241,281 11adambiya 83 Wadanonayoda si 238 Jahamala, four 216 Mlakamchana 141 Jihana 110 Vahtimmalia 143,148,226 Varepanaziala 32 Jalasilakontaka 79,79n llahaltaia 56 Vlahumigira 186 llandaga 310 lanilalabandha 49,73n llangalucerna 191 llasdiagalla 99,99n Vatthon dhorao 107 Vlcgima 312 dayahara di Vlayaharu 212 layihingaulika 99 Mindla 70 Moradaha 124 lloj aposaga 381 Mulasitras 31 N Niigabali 219 Nigyai na 219 Wayar au vola 2.8 Nugaiagutta 68 Nahkhattaluja 178 Nimamudda 99 Nanditatta 67,184 Nantika 97 Viu 124 Negoma, 63,114 luu 120 1sgartras 20,21 22,23 Tingulli , 0 Vintamanasalkira 194 Nillaishanakamma 117 . ::tta 228 Nindu 147 Nurarekkha 50 Paccantagama 82 Paccantiya 144 Pacchakada 20 Padalehaniya 101 Paclanusari 227 Padipucchagani 32 Padissaya 20 Parliyana 77 Pahena 240 Panna 31 Pajj usana 29,228, 239, 396 Pakhandigabbha 309 Palamba 36 Pallaga 305 Panagara 124 Panama 212 Pancamahavvaya 20 Pandur anga 207,211,237 Panzyasala 101 Paovagamana 206,353 Papasrula 171f Parisa 71 Parisad 59 Pasavaccija 20 Patta 57 Patta 132 Pattana 113 Pava 298 Pavittaya 205 Payacchitta 10,202,202n Payatta 78 Phocikamma 89,106 Phussaialha 53n Pindanigara 240 Pindolaga 211

Page #417
Posaha 373 Prasada 54 Pratyekabuddhas 35,297,312 Pudaga 133 Puggal 325 Pulaka 124 Punnamasini 238 Purisadaniya 19 Purohita 53,58 Purvaprabandha 38 Putabhedana 119 Puvvas 32 R Rahajatta 397 Rahamusala 79 Rajjuya 62 Rajjuyasabhu 62,373 Rakkhamandala 221 Rakkhapottaliya 228 Rasavanija 124 Ratthakuda 63 Rattavadas 202,236 Ratthavala 186 Rayagasala 97 Rupajakkha 64 Rupakamma 372 Sabharaka 120,281 Saddavehi 182 Sagadavuha 79 Sahassapaga 104,146,181 Sakha 34,36 Sakkuli 123 Sakyaputriyas 202 Salabhanjika 188,188n Sallekhana 242 Samanas 5,192 ff Samana Niggantha 193 ff Samanasangha 195 ff Samavasarana 261 Sammela 240 Sampradayagamya 39 Samputamallakakara 82 Samuccheiya 26 Samvaha 90 Samvaccharapadilehana 239 Sandamani 117 Sandhivala 60 Sangamiya 81 Sanghadaa 32 Sanghata 132 Sankhadi 126,239,317 Sankucchaya 122 Sannahya 81,81n Santaruttaro 23 Santihoma 58 Sasarakkha 204,207,214 Satthavaha 110 Savekkha 50 Sayagghi 79,79, 81,81n Sayapaga 104,146,181 Secanaka 70 Seduga 97 Senapati 53,60 Senippasen 53,65,78,83,109,109n Setth 60,110,143 Seyabhikkhu 198 Seyavadyabhikkhu 154 Siddhanta 31,34 Sihakesara 124 Sippa 109n,171n,172,172,372 Sissabhikkham 195 Silajanna 89,89n Stavga 97 Sivika 117 Sotthyasala 119 Sottiya 97 Soyamani 186 Srutakevalin 29 Steyasastra 66n Sthavirakalpa 27 Sucakas 59 Suminasattha 148 Suna 95 4.09 Sunkapala 62 Suphani 305 Suvinapadhaga 142 Suyanana 31 Svavamvara 158f

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410 Taccannya 202,237 Talavara 60 Fala 36 1 Talapulaga 242,391 Talya 132 Talodaha 344 Falugghadanivja 67 Tanturaya 97 Tantu apasala 97 Feguchayasala 179 Tejolessa 209 Terasy as 26,211 Tharni 77 Thalapattana 113 Thandila 211 Ihanupparyamaha 239 Thoracal 31 Thill 77,305 Thubha 19,211,255,309,309n,372 Tika 11 Tulthodaga 307 Tilagakarani 105 Tottajutta 77 Tunnaga 67,97 U Ucchughara 91 Uccula 76 Udagabatthi 67 Uggahanantaga 132 Ujjanija 238 Ukkacchi 132 Ukkaliya 37 Ullanya 104 Upangas 31 Utsargamarga 202 Utsarpini 371 Uttaanamallakakara Uttanjja 131 Uttyasamana 208 Vacana 32,33,37 Vacanabheda 36 Vaddakumari 21 Vaddha 187 Vagharainasala 159 Vahiyali 77 Vaisika 164,171 Vanamantara 289 Ventaka 312 Visakanna 382 82

Page #419
401 INDEX II The Sections V and VI of this book have already been alphabetically arranged, so this index contains the words mainly from the first four Sections of the book. The letters k and y in bracket denote kings and yaksas respectively. Abdication 50 Abhaggasena 68 Abhayadeva 36, 37, 42, 211, 223, 255 111 D / Abhayarajakumara (Abhayaku mara) 22, 24, 50, 79, 119, 229, 379, 395, 398 Ibhitikumara 399 Idambara (y) 217, 222 Addayakumata 127, 201, 202 Adultery 69 Agadadatta 51, 153 Agriculture 89 Alumsa 22n, 23, 23n Ajivika Sramanas 207ff, 226 -their followers 208 --their doctrmes 208 Ajja 224 Ajasadha 316, 310 jjakalay. iscc Kalubacalya, Ajja Khanda 200, 332 Ajja Khandila (liyd Skandila) 33 Alja Klauda 226 Ajja Mahagili 26, 27, 29, 251, 282 281, 301, 314, 318, 317, 319 Ajja Mangu 250, 309, 337 Aija Rakkhiya (Arya Raksila) 28, 29, 40, 170, 174, 255, 280, 309, 346 Ajja Sama 38 Ajja Samiya 263 Aja Samudda 337 Ajja Simhagiri 10 Ajja Sulamma (scc Suliamma) Alla Suhattu (scc Sulaltli) Ajja Vana 29, 10, 05, 92, 196, 199, 227, 263, 277, 278, 304, 325, 326, 336, 344, 348 Ajjuna Goyamaputta 208 Aljunaya 103 Akalanka 30 Alaka 219 Amarakanka 159, 320 Ammada 206, 293 Amrapali 164n, 165n,354 Ananda 89, 117, 143, 351 . Ananduiakkhiya 21 Andhavana 167n Angaravati 24, 385, 398 Annikaputta 317, 318, 321 Alboriculture 95 Architecture 187f --Various teims 188f Ardhamagadhi 1761, 251 Aihannaga 236 Authuinetic 178 Arjuna 159 Anny, fouifold 76 litlasastra in Piakrit 171n Aits, seventy two 172f Xiya and Analya 139 Tri. by Buth -by family -by trade -by country -by art and landicraft -by language 139, 176 Aryan countries 250f Isadha 26 Asadhabhui 186, 201 Asibandhakaputta 22 Asitadevala 213n Assamitta 26 Assembly, four 71 Asscsment and collection 62f Astronomy and Astrology 177f Asurukkha 64, 171

Page #420
412 Allana 240 Avavadaka 22 Ayala 61, 113, 165, 320 Bahassaidatta 69 Bahubali 270, 341, 372, 374 Bahuka 2131 Balakotta 313 Baladeva 218, 258, 259 Bambhagutta 148 Barabar Hills 211 Battles 79 -arrays 79, 79n Bladda 147 Bhadda 222 Bladi abaliu 28, 29, 32, 36, 10, 226, 317, 319, 383 Bliadracarya 5 Bhadiaguptd. 10, 316 Bhagiralia 219, 283 Bhambliya 64, 1/1 Bhandira(y) 222, 255 Bharaddaya 25 Bharaddaja 208 Bharata 183 Bhattotpala 211 Bhuta 223f - a marketable comninodily 224 --Obsession by spirits 221, 221 Bihelaga(y) 220 Bindumati 165n Bindusara 7in Birth ceremonies 150f Boats and ships 118 Bodhiya Mlecchas 167, 310 Brahmanas 1401 Brahmana mendicants 2061 Bialimanas awarded lighter punis. hnient 70 Brahmi 372 Buddha 21, 22, 203, 265, 275 Building materials 102 Canakya 71, 201, 276n, 287, 381f, 393n Canakkakodilla 171n Candacchaya (k) 156, 372, 381 Candajasa (k) 76, 80 Candatudda 346 Candana (Vasumati) 24, 107n, 154, 252, 384 Candrakanta 62 Caravans, their classification 117 Castes 139fr --mixed castes 140 Cattle 94 Chariots 75, 75n -Aggibhiru 75, 385 Cloice by divinc will 52 Cilaya 107 Cities, ten Capitals 251, 329 Citia 37, 111, 183 Collis 120 - leather couns 120n Cokkhi 168, 206 Conseciation ceremony 53 Cooking 121 Courses of study 169f Courtesans 163 ff -Amrapali 164n, 165n, 354 ---Bindumati 165n -Devadatta 165 -Devadatta 166 -Magahiya 383 --Kamajjhaya 69, 164n -Kosa 165 -Nandini 166 -Sudamsana 69 - Upakosa 165 Co-wives 57 Crime and punishment 66ff Cudamani 177, 228 D Dairy farming 94 Dance 184 Dandaniti 64, 171n

Page #421
413 Dattavaisika 164 -Bhutananda 76 Death, causes 242 -Nalagiri 76, 385, 396, 398 -suicide 242 -Secanaga 380, 383 Debts 111, 121 -Udayi 76 Devadatta 161 --Vijaya Gandhahatthi 76, 159, Devadatta 165 183 Devadatta 166 Elephants, varieties 76, 76n. Devadatta 70 Enejjaga 208 Devananda 140 Export-import 1148 Deyardhigani Ksamasramana 33, Eunuchs 55, 55n 34, 38 Eye-ointment 105n Devendragani (Nemicandra suri)42 Devilasatta 193 Dhana 113, 275 Dhanadatta 161 Famines 92, 199 Dhanagutta 347 Feasts and festivals 238ff, 238n Dhanavasu 113 - household ceremonies 240 Dhanna 67, 68, 74, 107 Female asectics and love affairs Dhannantari 178 166ff Dhanasiri 162 Field-crops 90 Dharana(y) 328 Fisheries 96 Dharanendra (y) 220 Flood 92 Dharini 149, 150, 189 Flowers and garlands 103f Dhondhasiva 218 Flower baskcts 104 Digambaras 26ff, 211 Food and its preparations 123f Dighatapassi 22 Food, eighteen kinds 123 Dinna 205 Fortification 196 Diseases, sixteen 179f, 180n Friends and relations 147 their cure 180f Fruits 93 Divayana 213n Funer al customs 241 Domestic life 146 Furniture 191 Dovai 80, 158, 159, 161 Dowry 157 Dramas, thirty two 184ff Dreams 148 Gaggali (k) 52 Dress, varities of cloth 128ff Gahavais 143 Dronacarya 42 Ganditinduga (y) 220 Drstivada 31, 32, 37, 153, 211 Ganga 26 Drums, four 80 Gangeya 20 Dujjohana 73 Gayasukumala 55,155,389 Durga 217, 224 Gems 99n Dyes 102f Geruka or Parivrajaka Sramanas 205f Ghantika (y) 222,228 Elephants 75 Ghodayamuha 171 -Bhadravati 76, 398f Ghosavati 399

Page #422
414 Ikkai 63,356 Indadinna 29 Indra 19,54,118,143,194,216, 216n, 239,288,372,386 Indradatta 159 Interest 111 Irrigation, methods of 89 Ivory work 100 Golacarya 286 Goods and merchandise 114f Gosala Mankhaliputra 20, 101,2071,226,258ff,275,322,326, 331,332 -in various bodies 208 --with Mahavira 209f Gosankhi 143 Gotthamahila 26 Goyma Indabhui 21,23,21,25, 34,287,299,322 Grains, seveentcen kinds 91 Grannaries 90 Great Men, sixty three 371-6 -24 Tirthankaras -12 Cakravartins -9 Baladevas -9 Vasudevas -9 Prativasudevas Guilds 109,109n, 143f Gunacandra (k) 56 Gunacanda (k) 57 Halahala 101,208,209,210 Halla 24,76 Harem 54ff - prohibition of Monkeys 50 Haribhadra 30,41,42 Harikesa 35,141 Harinegamesi 216n,227 Hastipalagana 144 Hemacandra 30,42 Hiraddika (y) 222 Hiravijaya 42 Honey, varieties 93n Horse, defects of 77n Horse, varieties 77 -Kanthaka 77 Horticulture 93 Hospitals 179 House building 187f Hunting 96 Jacobi, Prof. 21,30,34 Jain Aryan countries 250ff --Non-Aryan countries 358ff Jain Canons 31-43 -their redaction 32ff -antiquity 34ff -modification 36ff -date 38 -Exegetical literature 38ff Jain Church, history 19-30ff -eleven Ganadharas 25 -schisms 25f -great leaders 29f Jain geography 245, 248f Jain monks and drinking of wine 125 --their dress 27f,131ff -meat-eating 127,127n -their ideal 201f -their hardships 196ff -magical practices 226f Jakkha 220ff, 220n Jamali 258,275,332,373 Jamadaggi 313 Jambu 25,29,262,275 Janapadas, sixteen 210,251,266n Janhukumara 283,375 Jarl Charpentier 35 Jasobhadda 29 Jaunsar-Bawar 161 Jayanti 24,155 Jayanti 20 Jayaghosa 142

Page #423
415: Jinadasagani Mahattara 41 Jinadatta 156 Jinakalpa and Sthaviraka'pa 27f Jinapaliya 113 Junarakkhiya 113 Jiyaka 18ln Jogandharayana 399 Jonipahuda 177,227 Judiciary and justice 64 Judicial cases 64f Justice in Vesali 64n k Kaccayana 206 Kailasa 219,222,268 Kajolaka 91n Kalahasti 258 Kalakacarya (Acarya Kalaka) 29,41,55,167,208,226,239,253, 288,319,321,339,340,386,397 Kalano 213n Kalasavesiyaputta 20 Kali 21 Kali 24 Kaliyapitta 21 Kamajjhay, 69,164n Kamalamela 159,186 Kamatha 70 Kancanamala 399 Kanakakhala 203 Kanayamanjari 57 Kankali Tila 28 Kaniska (k) 36 Kapilamuni 206 Kappaka 66,71,394 Karada 303 Kasava 142 Kataputana (y) 222,259 Kaundinya 64,171n Kayapunna 163,380 Kesi 332, 333 -meeting between Kesi and Goyama 21,23,35,256,394 Kesi 167 Khandasiri 150 Kharavela 289,292,322 Khandakamma 394, Kharaya 397 Khem. 167n King and kingship 49 Kings and princes 51 King's attendants 105f King's insignia 53n King's officers 58ff . King's orders 71 Kings ordained by Mahavira 369n Kodinna 205 Koliyans 160n Kosa 165 Kottakiriya 224 Kottavira 28 Ksatriyas 143 Ksatriya mendicants 206n Ksemakirti 42 Kudukka acarya 301 Kuiyanna 143 Kulavalaya 79,383 Kumarapala 30 Kumaranandi 62,98,320 Kumbhaga (k) 72,78,79,168, 372 Kundakunda 30 Kundalamentha (y) 222,273 Kundarika 50 Lakkhanavati 162 Lamps 102 Law-suits by Manu 64n Leaf work 102 Learning centres 173f Leather work 103 Lohajangha 273, 385 Lola 22 M Magahiya 383 Magical misseles 80

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416 Maliayagirt 242, 34 Magical practices 228 Megasthenese 192 Magical spells 230ff Megha 258 Mananimitta, eight divisions 226n Mehakumara 24, 53, 146, 150, Mahasayaya 57, 157, 161 151n, 155, 184, 195, 237, 379 Mahasena (k) 57 Mehila 21 Mahesaradatta 58, 142 Merchant leagues 110 Mahissara 56, 218, 218n, 383 Metals and jewellery 99 Mahavira 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, -metal-workers 99 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, Meyajja 21 38, 41, 127n, 130, 131, 140, Minerals 98 141, 142, 143, 144, 147, 148, Mining and metallurgy 98 163, 177, 178, 192, 195, 256, Ministers 59f 303, 357, 373 Miscarriage 150 -His carika 257-262 Miyadevi 150 Makandi 275, 313 Miyat ai 24, 80 Maladhail Hemacandia 42 Mlecchas and untouchables 144f Malayagiri 33, 36, 40, 42 214 Mloggarapani(y) 223 Malla 141, 242, 392 Monasticism 193ff -Mallagana 141 -persons exempted from joining Malladinna 72, 187 the order 194, 194n Mallarama 208 Mukunda 102, 217 Malli 80, 154, 156 Municanda 20 Managa 275 Murder 70 Mandivaddhana 70 Music 1821 Mandiya 208 Musical instruments 116, 183f Manibhadda(y) 221 Musiyadaraya 98 Manners and customs 266ff Mansions 189 Marriage 155 Nabhi (k) 49, 371 --forms of marriage 155f, 159ff Naga 19, 219f, 219n, 283, 372, 375 Marriage with sister 160, 160n, 372 Nagarjunasuri 33 ---with step-mother 159 Nagarjuni hills 211 with cousins 159 Naladama 201 -with maternal uncle 160 Nanda, 99, 143 in exchange 161 Nandini 166 -niyoga Marriage 162 Nandisena 24 Marriage gifts 156f Nandivardhana 257, 373, 383 -ceremony 157f Nandivaddhana 51 Marubhui 70 Nandisara 218n Markets and shops 119 Narada 213n Masonary 101 Nataputta (Mahavira) 21, 22, 373 Matanga 213n Nattumatta 229, 235 Mathara 64, 171n Nhaviyadasa (k) 53 Maya 149n Niddhamana(y) 303 Mayanamanjari 153 Nigganthas before Mahavira 21, Meat-eating 126, 180 22, 22n N

Page #425
Nitisastra 64 Nivvui 158, 159 Niyativada 209, 209n Nuns inferior to monks 153, 153n Nurses 107, 151n Occupations, various kinds 105 -low occupations 106 Oils 104 Ornaments 981 Pottila 168 Pragalbha 20, 259 Prajapati 140 Prajnapti 227 Pregnancy 149 Preganancy, without sexual inter course 16711 -miscarriage 150 Prisons 73 Prostitutes 164f, 200 Pethu (k) 49n Poultry 96 Puggala 206 Punnata 28 Pundariya 21, 50 Punishments, types of 73 Purnabhadda(y) 221, 223 Pupphacula 21 Pupphaketu 160 Purana 213 Purdah system 163 Pusanandi 70 Pabhava 29, 142 Padalittasuri 226n, 393 Padibuddhi (k) 78, 372, 381 Pagabbha 20 Painting 186f Pakbira 259n Palaces 54ff, 189f Palitta 113, 275, 322 Pandusena 118, 317 Pannatti 349 Panthaya 107 Parasara 213n Parasara (Kisiparasara) 143 Parsvanatha 19, 20, 22, 27, 264, 373 Pasannacanda (k) 204 Pasenadi (k) 148n, 161n Patacara 22 Paumanaha (k) 81, 159 Paumavai 219 Peacock fight 240 Pedhala 218 Perfumes 104, 105n Phalguraksita 40 Picture gallaries 186f, 187n Pisaca 224 Piyadamsana 26 Ploughshare 90 Political disturbances 2001 Polygyny and polyandry 161 Pottery 100f Pau maval sieht 2 Rajimati 154, 201 Rahacaiya 341 Rahanemi 154, 200 Rama Baladeva 320, 344, 376 Ramilla 28 Ratnasekhara (k) 72 Rattasubhadda 80, 159 Rayanavai 168 Renunciation, causes 193f Renunciation ceremony 194f Revai 57, 126 Revenue sources 61f Rice, varieties 90 Roads 116f Robbers 66, 198 -Abhaggasena 68 -Bhuyangama 68n -Cilaya 67, 107 Mandiya 67f --Rauhiveya 68n --Vijaya 67, 68, 74

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418 Robbery an art 66, 66, 67 Roha 208 Rohagutta 26 Royal council 59f Rudra 217 Ruppini 80, 159 Sacca 22 Saccaka 22 Saddalaputta 100, 101, 208, 322 Sadulya 26 Sagada 69 Saga dala 29, 40, 171, 394 Sagaracanda 139, 186 Sagaradatta 156, 158, 160 Saha 41 Sakya Siamanas 2021 Sakyans 160n Salejja (y) 222, 259 Sama 57 Samantabhadra 30 Samaya Sundaragani 42 Sambhuta 35, 144, 183, 201 Sambhutivijaya 29 Sanghadasagani Ksamasramana 41 Sagjaya (k) 96 Sankha (k) 72, 372 Sankha (k) 260 Santicandra 42 Sarasvatagana 144 Sati custom 163 Satyaki 167, 229 Satyavati 149 Science of Archery 181f Science of Medicine 178 Science of Numbers 178 Scripts, eighteen 175 ---Brahmi and Kharostri 176 Sculpture 187 Scythian kings 29 Sea-voyage 118 -dangers of sea-voyage 118, 118n Sects, four 211ff -Kriya 212 -Akriya 212 -Ajnana 212 ---Vinaya 213 Sejjambhava 29, 38, 142, 275 Selaga (y) 220 Sevali 205 Ship-wrecks 118 Shoes 132f Shrines and temples 190f, 222f Siddhartha (k) 24, 143, 373 Siddhasena 30, 227 Siha 22 Sihagiri (k) 240 Siharaha (k) 159, 323 Sihasena 57 Silanka 36, 42, 211 Siribhadda 147 Sirigutta 22 Sita 80, 159 Siva 218 Siva 56, 385, 394 Sivabhui 28, 326 Skanda 102, 206, 2.7 Skin, five 103 Slaves and servants 106f -classes of slaves 107, 107n. --female slaves 107 -family servants 108 Smiths 100 Soma 20 Somila 204 Son-in-law living in the house 160 Spells, their acquisitions 229f Spices 91 Spies 59, 238ff Spinning and weaving 97 Sports and amusements 238ff Sramanas 192ff --Nirgrantha 193-202 -Sakya 202f --Tapasa 203ff -Parivrajaka 205ff - Ajivika 207ff -thier hardships 1965 -travelling 197 -robbers 198 -Parlika 2078 196f

Page #427
FO 419 -political disturbances 1986 Svetambaras and Digambaras 26ff, -residence 199 31, 32 -sickness 199 ---famine 199 - prostitutes 200 Tamali Mauryaputra 213.252.3416 -women 2005 Tapasa Sramanas 203f Sramana-Brahmanas 140 Tax, legal 61 Sramana Sangha 195f Tax-collectors 63 Staircases 189 Taxes, eighteen kinds 61, 62n Students 169f Teachers and pupils 169 Subandhu 71 Teachers of renown, six 208n Subhadra 154 Teyaliputta 155, 156 Subhumibhaga 35 Thavccaputta 323, 332, 336, 369n Succession 51f Theatre hall 188f Sudamsana 69 Thieves 66 Suda msana 149 Thulabhadda (Sthulabhadra) 27, Sugar 116 28, 29, 32, 37, 40, 165, 394 Sugarcane 91 Tissagutta 26, 347 Suhamma 25, 29, 50, 159, 232, Toilets 105 252, 275, 326 Tosalika (k) 343 Suhatthi 27. 29. 254. 301, 318 Tosaliputracarya 40, 344 346, 349 Trade inland 113f Sujettha 56, 186, 218n. Trade centres 114f Sukumaliya 59 Transport 1165 Sukumaliya 158, 160 Travelling 197 Sukumaliya 166f, 345 Trees 95 Sulapani (y) 221, 257 Trisala 24, 140, 163, 355, 373, 382 Sumsuma 107 Sumukha (k) 55 Sunanda 201 Sundari 178, 372 Udayapedha laputta 21 Superstitions 235ff Udayi Kundiyayaniya 210 Suppadibuddha 29 Ujjhiya 69 Surambara (y) 220 Ukkarada 303 Surappiya (y) 221, 271, 328 Uma 218n Surgical instruments 179, 179n Umasyati 30 Surindadatta 182 Umbaradatta (y) 220 Suriyabhadeva 188 Upakosa 165 Upali 22 Suriyakanta 58, 394 Uppala 20 Sutthiyasuri 29 Uppalavanna 167n Suvannaguliya 80, 159, 396 Usabha, the first Jina, who taught Suvvaya 168 the art of cooking etc. 19, 49, Suya 206, 323, 369n 73n, 140, 160, 178, 190, 235n Svaraprabhita 183 252, 264, 300, 2716 U

Page #428
420 Vijjanuvada Puvva 226 Vikkamajasa(k) 55, 161 Villages 82 -types of a village 82 Vinhukumara 202, 228 Visakhacarya 28 Visakha 98 Visakhila 183 Visvakarman 144, 201 Vivahapadala 177 Vraja 239 Vrndavana 222n Vadivetala Saptisuri 42 Vahara zani 142 Vanabhui 273, 393 Vairasena 337 Vaisesila Sutras 26 Vakkalaciri 203, 213n Vanamantra 224, 224n Vanaprastha Tapasas 203 Vappa 22 Varadhanu 229n Vararui 71, 142, 165 Varatta a 187 Varahainihira 153, 211, 237n, 319 Vasanta 399 Vasavao atta 76, 159, 183 Vasudev 2 218, 258, 259 Vatsyayana 238n Vedas, Arya and Anarya 1711 Vedic branches of learning 171 Vegetables 92 Vehicles 117 Vesamana 218 Vesayana 213 Vessels and utensils 100 Vibhelaka (y) 259 Viceroyalty and succession 50 Vidyananda 30 Vihalla 24, 76 Vijaya 20, 259 Vijayaghosa 142 Vijayaprer a Surisvara 41 Vijayasena (k) 62 Vijayavimula 42 Vijjaharas 23 4f Wage-earners 108, 111 War 78 -its causes 80 Warefare 78 -diplomatic means 78 Washing and dyeing 97 Weapons 80 -weapons and tools 100 Weights and measures 120f Widow-marriage 102 Wine, varieties 124ff Winternitz, Dr. 39 Women 152ff, 200f -causes of war 80 -Varahamihira about women 153, 211 Wrestlings and combats 240 Writing 18, 175f on copper 175n Writing material 175 PUB ISHED BY P. F. DINSHAW FOR THE NEW BOOK CO, LTD. 188 HORNBY ROAD, BOMBAY, AND PRINTED BY S. ATHAIDE, AT 'E EXAMINER PRESS, DALAL STREET, FORT, BOMBAY I

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