Some Jaina Canonical Sutras

Author(s): Bimla Charn Law
Publisher: Royal Asiatic Society
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011033/1

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लाल बहादुर शास्त्री राष्ट्रीय प्रशासन अकादमी
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Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society Monograph No. 2.
SOME JAINA CANONICAL STTRAS
By BIMALA CHURN LAI,
M.A., B.L., Ph.D., D.LITT.
Hon. D.Litt. (Allahabad University): Hon. Member, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain; Fellow, Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society; Fellow, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal; President, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal for 1947; Emeritus President, Calcutta Geographical Society; Hony. Correspondent to the Archaeological Survey of India: Fellow of the Calcutta University ; Advocate, High Court, Calcutta; Author, Tribes in Ancient India, A History of Pali Literature, Indir 18 described in early texts of Buddhism wul Jainism, Asvughosa, Buddhaghosa, On the Chronicles of Ceylon, Concepts of Buddhism, Maharira : His Life and Tuchinys, Śrūrasti in Indian Literature, Rijngrihu in Ancient Literature, Geography of Eurly Buddhism, Geographical Eesttys, etc.; Editor, Indian Culture, Buddhistic
Studies, D. R. Bhandarkar Volume, ctc.
WITH AN INTRODUCTION
By
DR. E. J. THOMAS, M.A., D.LITT.
PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY BRANCH ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY,
TOWN HALL, BOMBAY
1949

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Το
THE REVERED MEMORY
OF MY
ESTEEMED FRIEND AND WELL-WISHER
DR. B. M. BARUA

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AUTHOR'S NOTE
When I began my study of Jain texts I felt the urgent need of consulting some of the important Buddhist texts and commentaries to clear up some intricate points. In this monograph I have tried to present a critical account of the principal Jain canonical texts in the light of my comparative study of both Buddhist and Jain texts. As regards the contents of the Jain canonical sūtras, they are traditionally known as the provocanus of the Jinas, particularly those of Mahāvīra, precisely as the main contents of the Pali Nikāyas are known as the sayings of the Buddhas, particularly those of Gautama. Their chief interest, therefore, lies in the clear presentation of various topics relating to the lives of the Jinas and their teachings. An attempt has been made here to acquaint the reader with the fundamentals of early Jainism as outlined in the Jain canon as well as some other interesting and relevant information.
In the first chapter I have given a general account of the Jain canon, and in the following chapters a detailed treatment of some of the important Jain sūtras has been made. Such a study is a long-felt want, and I believe that the present publication will remove it to a certain extent.
I am grateful to Dr. E. J. Thomas of Cambridge for his (rudite Introduction, and I am also thankful to Mr. B. S. Nahar, B.A., for helping me with some Jain books whenever asked for. I am very much obliged to the authorities of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for including this monograph into their series.
43 Kailas Bose Street,
Calcutta 6. 1st January, 1949.
B. C. LAW.

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INTRODUCTION
The present work by Dr. B. C. Law is to be welcomed from two points of view. It gives a clear analysis of the principal canonical texts of the Jains, but it is also a contribution to the much wider question of the growth and ramificatious of Iudian philosophical and religious conceptions. To give an impartial and balanced description of these is impossible without duly considering the separate directions in which the many thinkers of India have sought a solution of toir problems, and the share which Jainism has contributed has not yet been weighed or even fully examined.
At the present time the first thing required is to know what the records actually say. In this respect Western Scholarship has always been hampered. The difficulty in ascertaining the authoritative records has often led to rash and mistaken conclusions. Some good work on particular Sūtrus has been done by German, French, and Dutch scholars, but even the ablest of these investigators, Albrecht Weber, thought that the Jains were one of the schismatic sects which branched off from Buddhism.
Another reason for such misapprehension is the fact that Jainism is a purely Indian form of cultural growth, and Westerners failed to find in it any philosophical ideas which they could link on to their own problems. Dr. Law's work now allows us to approach the subject as a whole and from an Indian standpoint. He gives a picture of the material, but it is still material that needs much study and analysis, for it brings into prominence many of the problems that still have to be examined before their place in the history of Indian thought can be fairly judged. From this point of view the calmness and impartiality of Dr. Law's method will be a great aid to the clearness of treatment required in order to reach assured conclusions.
The first problem that meets us is that of chronology. Where in the history of India is to be placed the activity of the Jains as we know it from the texts? The mere settlement of the points involved will be an aid in solving other parallel questions of Indian chronology.
This leads us straight to the question of Buddhism. Both systems arose in the same part of India ; both show that each of them stood in some sort of opposition to the other; and they have in common a number of technical terms. The question of a common terminology, which Dr. Law points

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vili
INTRODUCTION
out, is extremely important, though it has been largely ignored by Buddhistic students. Yet if we have reason to believe that certain terms such as ūsara and tathāgata (tahā. gaya) were used in a technical sense before being adopted by the Buddhists, we must approach them in a quite different way than by merely analysing their literal sense. There is the further possibility that the borrowing was not always on. one side, and that some light may be thrown on Jainism by the parallel study of Buddhist texts.
One important feature brought out by Dr. Law is the fact that in the Jain texts we find many more references to related philosophical systems and to secular literary works than can be found anywhere in the Buddhist (anon. Jainism in fact on the literary side shows a much greater development than what is to be seen in the Buddhist texts. This aspect takes us further than the stage which Dr. Law has undertaken to examine in the present work, yet it is worth recalling here, for it shows that this stage was not a mere transient phenomenon, but that it underwent a fruitful development, as has been well described by Bühler:
The Jains did not stop at merely expounding their own doctrines in Sanskrit works. They also devoted themse'ves to the secular sciences of the Bralımans. Their achievements in grammar, astronomy, as well as in some branches of secular literature, have been so important that they have received notice even from their opponents, and some of their works are still of importance for European science. In southern India, where they were active among the Dravidians, they have also aided in the development of these languages. The literary language of the Kanarese, of Tamil, and of Telugu, rests on the basis laid by the Jaina monks. This activity led them indeed far from their proper ajms, but it has created for them a not unimportant position in the history of Indian literature and culture.'1
These words suggest what a rich harvest still awaits the historian and archaeologist, but for its proper comprehension we must begin. as Dr. Law here invites us, with the foundations.
E. J. THOMAS.
1 One of the results of this wider study will be found in the interesting work of Dr. Jagadish Chandra Jain, Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons (Bombay, 1947).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Amtaga Indasão (Ed. Agamodaya Samiti). Amtugadadasā) ('Tr. by I.. D. Barnett: tr. hy M. C. Modi). Ancient Goography of India (Cunningham). Anguttari Nikaya (PTS). Anuttarovavūiyaudio (Ed. Barnett; od. P. L. Vaidya, Poona, 1932). Anuyogandvåra (Ed. Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1924). Apulāna (PTS). Arthasastra of Kautilya (Ed. Shamas: stri). Asoka (I). R. Bhundarkar. 1932). Asoka (R. K. Mookerjee, 1928). Asoka au llis Inscriptions (B. M. Barua, 1946). Asvaghni (B. ('. Law). Avaralaittaka.
Acurang Suta (PTS). Ivasaya Sayu (Ed. Ayamouya Samiti, 1928).
Bhügavala Purana (Vangit väsi ed.). Bhagavati. Viyāhupatti (Ayamodaya Samiti Series). Bharatiya Vidya. Burtubashosa (B. ('. Law, B.B.R.A.S., 1946). Buddhist India (Rhys Davids). Buddhist Philosophy (Rith). Buddhistic Studies (Ed. B. ('. Law).
(anonical Literature of the Jainas (Kapadia). (handlogva l'panişad. (hāulagya Cpanişad (BE). (oncepts of Buddhism (B. ('. Law). Cosmographie der Inder (Kirfil, 1920).
Dasikumaracarita (Kale, Bombay, 1925). Dasaveyaliya Sutta with the Niryukti (K. V. Abhyankar, 1932). Dil Ve Valiya Süya (E. Leumann; tr. by Sehubring. 1932). Debates commentary, The (B. C. Law, PTS tr. Series). Der Jainismus (Clasenapp). Designation of Human Types (B. C. Law, PTS tr. Series No. 12). Dhammapada (LTN). Dhammapauin ('ommentary (PTS). Dhammastigini (PTS). Die Jñata-Erzählungen in Sechsten Anga des Kanons der Jinisten (W. Hütte.
mann, 1907). Die Lehre Der Jainas (W. Schubring, Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie
und Altertumskunde, Berlin and Leipzig, 1935). Digha Nikava (PTS). Dipavamsa (Ed. Oldenberg).
f Ancied. Lawan.
Goographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaoval India (N. L. De). Goographical Essays, Vol. I (B. C. Law). Geography of Early Buddhism (B. C. Law).
Heart of Jainism (S. Stevenson). Historical Cleanings (B. C. Law). History of Indian Litoraturo, A, Vol. II (Winternitz, Cal. Univ. Publication). History of Pali Litoraturo, A (B. C. Law).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
India Antiqua (Leiden, 1947). India as described in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism (B. C. Law). Indian Culture. Indian Historical Quarterly. Indische Studien (Weber).
Jaina Sūtras, Pts. I and II (SBE). Jambullivapannatti (Seth D. rchand Lalbhai Jaina Pustakaldhära Samiti
Series). Jätaka (Fausböll). Jivūjivābhigami (Neth Devchand Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhūra Samiti Series,
1919). Journal Asiatique. Journal of the Boinbay Branch Roval Asiatic Society. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal of the U.P. Historical Society.
Kalpasūtra (Ed. Jacobi). Kalpasūtra and Navatattva (Stevenson). Kathāvatthu (PTS). Kaulambi in Ancient Literature (B. ('. Law, M.A.S.I., No. 60). Khu Idakapatha (PTS).
Lalitavistara (Lefmann). Leben d- Hemnacandra (Bühler). Life in Aucient India as depicted in the Jain (anons (J. ('. Jain).
Magadhas in Ancient India, The (B. C. Law, R.A.S. Monographs, Vol. XXIV). Mahabharata (Vargavāsi ed.). Mahāniddesa (PTS). Mahāvamsa (PTS). Mahāvīra: His Life and Teachings (B. (. Lw). Majjhin Nikāya (PTS). Märkandeya Purana (Pargiter). McCrindle, Ancient India (Megasthenes and Arrian). Milindapañha (Ed. Trenckus).
Nandi Sūtra (Ed. Againodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1924). Nāyādhammakahão (Ed. V. V. Vaidya). New Indian Antiquary. Niddosa (PTS). Nirayavaliya Saya (Ed. Warren, Ainsterdam, 1879; Jaina Agumnodaya Sumiti
edition, Ahmedabad, 1922; Agamasamgraha, Benares, 1885).
Ovavāiya Sūya (Ed. E. Louninn-Das Aupapātika Sūtra with Abhandlungen
für die Kunde des Morgonlandes).
Pañchālas and thoir Capital Ahichchhatra (13. C. Law, M.A.S.I., No. 67). Panhāvāgaraņāim (Ed. Agamodaya Sarniti). Pannavanā (Benares edition, 1884; Agamodaya Samiti odition, 1918-19). Papañcasūdani (PTS). Path of Purity, The (Pe Maung Tin). Political History of Ancient India, 4th ed. (H. C. Raichaudhuri). Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy (B. M. Barua). Puggalapaññatti (PTS).
R. K. Mookerjee Volume (Bhürata-Kaumudi). Rājagriha in Ancient Litorature (B. C. Law, M.A.S.I., No. 58).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rāyapasenaiya Sūya (Ed. Vecaradasa Jivaraja Doshi, tr. by H. B. Candhi,
1938; edition with Malayagiri's Commentary by Agamodaya Samniti,
1925). Revue de l'histoire des Religions (Barth, 1889).
Samavāyāmga (Ed. Dhanpat Singh, 1890). Samuvāyāngu Comentary (Agamodava Samiti, 1918). Samyutta Vikava (PTS). Nauundarananda kivya (Ed. Johnston; Bengali tr. by B. ('. Law). Spwoim 'n Dir Nāvādhammakabū (Diss), Berlin, 1881 (Steinthal). Suttunipātn (PTS). Suyngadam (Ed. P. L. Vaidyn, Poona, 1928). Suungadamıgı (oumentary (Agamodaya Samniti, Bombay, 1917).
Tatt vārthadigma Sūtrat (Ed. by Ni-shavla Premchand Modi in Bibliother
Twica Srrics, 1903 5: El. by J. L. Jaini, 1920: El. lix Motilal Ladhaji,
1927; d. and tr. into Gratily Jacobi, Z.D.M.G., 1906, Band LS.). Tham (Agami Sangraha, Vol. II, Benaris, 1880). Tirthpasapuri (P. C. Nahar, 1925). Tribes in Ancient India (B. ('. Law).
iheroin Fragment der Bhagawati (Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademiester
Wissenschaften. 1865) (Haber). Übersicht über dir. Avasyaku-literatur (Lumann). Utterujhvana Siva (Ed.). (harpentier, l'jalit, 1922; ed. Muni Sri Jayanta
Viaval, Avrat, 1923-27). L'visagadasco (Ed. Hormule, Calcutta, 1888).
Vibharga (PTS). Vinaya Pitaka (ITS). Visuuthimayga (PTS). Vivagu Süya (Agamodya Samiti: ed. by A. T. I puthiye, 1935). Vividhutirthakalpa (Singhi cition).
Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlundex, ISN (E. Leumann).
Yogabhasyat.
Z.D.M.G.

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CONTENTS
Page
Author's Note
Introduction
Bibliography
CHAPTER I
Jaina Canon
CHAPTER II Acārārya Sūtra (Āyāramga Sutta)
CHAPTER III Sūtrakrtānga (Sūyagadamga) ..
CHAPTER IV Sthānānga (Thānamga) ..
CHAPTER V Samavāyānga (Samavāyamga)
CHAPTER VI Vyākhyā-Prajñapti (Bhagavati-Viyahapannatti)
(HAPTER VII Jñātādharmakathā (Nāyādhammakahão) ..
CHAPTER VIII Upāsakadabā (Uvāsagadasão).. ..
CHAPTER IX Antaksta-Daśānga (Amtagaờa-Dasão) ..
CHAPTER X Anuttaraupapātikadašā (Aņuttarovavāiyadasão)
..
..

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xiv
CHAPTER XI
Praśna-Vyakaraṇānī (Paṇhāvāgaraṇāim)
CONTENTS
Vipäka Sutra (Vivāga-Sūya)
CHAPTER XII
CHAPTER XIII
Aupapātika Sutra (Ovavaiya Suya)
Jivājīvābhigama
CHAPTER XIV
Rajapraśniya Sūtra (Rayapasenaiya Sūya)
CHAPTER XV
Prajñāpanā (Pannavanā)
CHAPTER XVI
Kalpa Sutra
CHAPTER XVII
Jambudvipaprajñapti (Jambuddīvapaṇṇatti)
CHAPTER XVIII
Nirayavali Sūtra (Nirayāvaliya Suya)
CHAPTER XIX
Nisitha and Mahānisītha Sutras (Nisiha and Maha
nisiha Sūyas)
CHAPTER XX
CHAPTER XXI
Nandi Sūtra and Anuyogadvāra
CHAPTER XXII
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra (Uttarajjhayana Suya)
..
Page
57
64
67
74
78
78283
84
86
88
96
104
108

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CONTENTS
XV
Page
..
147
CHAPTER XXIII Avaśyaka Sūtra (Āvassaya Sūya)
CHAPTER XXIV Daśavaikālika Sūtra (Dasaveyāliya Sūya) ..
.
15)
CHAPTER XXV Tattvārthādigama Sūtra
.
157
169
Appendix I-(Vividhatirtha-Kalpa) Appendix II—(Principles of Jainism)
186
Indox ..
211

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CHAPTER I
JAINA CANON
The Jain literary records developed through centuries and by stages. It is difficult to say that the Jain canon belongs to one particular period as the works belonging to it are of different ages and origins. The sacred books of the Jains underwent considerable changes with the result that some works or portions of works were added to the canon from time to time. The words of Mahāvīra, the celebrated founder of Jainism, were handed down by an oral tradition which took it complete literary form through ten centuries from his demise. Up to a certain clate this tradition was known in the form of the fourteen pūrvas, which themselves presuppose the existence of an earlier ten that had embodied the religious tradition of Pārýva and formed a common basis of the Jaina and Ajivika (anon. That the pūrvas were gradually lost may be accounted for by the rise of the sacred books of the Jain canon--the siddhantu or ūguur by way of compilation from time to time. The process of compilatioli passed through several stages when it was stopped on account of the preparation of a final redaction of the canon at the council of Valabhi under the presidency of Arya Devarudhigani in 454 or 467 A.D.
The occasional references to the texts representing the various divisions of the said (anon seem to suggest a stratification of the angus, upangas and the rest and a chronology of their gradual development.
There was a stage when the twelve angas were known and acknowledged as the only authoritative Jain Sacred books. According to the tradition of the Jain Church the twelfth anga. called the Drstivāda 2 has been lost. But even the loss of this anga may be accounted for by the compilation of other books on its basis. Pra
oks on its basis. Practically speaking nothing has been lost. The Sūtrakrtūrga (II, 1.27) expressly refers to the twelve angas as forming the canon of the Jainas, 'which has been taught, produced, and declared by the Śrumuinas, Nirgranthas, namely the Acārānga (all down to) the DỊstivāda'.
1 Jaina Sūtras, SBE, Pt. I, Intro., p. xxxvii.
* This text deals chiefly with the dristis or ditthis which are nothing but the philosophical viows of the Jainas and other schools us the title suggests.

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2
SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
There are the sacred texts which were venerated as maiṭṭhāna (matṛsthāna, matrices) precisely as the Buddhists held the five Nikayas as matukā or matrices of their canon.2 Jacobi wrongly equates maitthana with māyāsthāna. The twelve angas were no doubt the matrices or fundamental bases of the Jain Siddhanta. Jacobi holds that the first book of the Acaranga and that of the Sutrakṛtānga may be reckoned among the most ancient parts of the Siddhanta. He further holds that the Vaitaliya metre used in the Pali Dhammapada represents an older stage in the development of the Vaitaliya than that in the Sutrakṛtanga. Regarding the angas it may be shown that Ardha-Magadhi which is the literary idiom developed in them is younger than Pali of the Buddhist canon preserved in Ceylon. Instances of parallelism between Jainism and Buddhism may be cited as well as of the influence of the latter on the former. Such epithets of Mahāvīra as Buddha, Tathāgata, Sugata, and Sambuddha are borrowed. Jina, Arhat, Tirthankara, Vīra, Mahāvīra, Vaišālika, Nirgrantha, the great Brahmana, the great Sramana and the like are the Jain specials among the titles of Vardhamana.
Silanka and other Jain commentators have tried to clear up allusions in the ancient Jain texts to the prevailing views, beliefs, and practices by means of systems and doctrines of the Sankhya, the Vedanta or the Buddhist Sunyavāda philosophy. Similar allusions to these very views, beliefs and practices in the Pali canonical texts suggest no doubt a much earlier stage of Indian religious thought which was imperfectly understood by the Jain scholiasts. The safer means of distinguishing between earlier and later matter in the Jaina angas consists in the side-lights that may be gathered from the Pali Nikayas but not from the speculations made by the Jain scholiasts who flourished long after Mahavīra or his immediate disciples. The Jaina angas are the main set of texts upon which we can safely rely but the Pali Nikāyas are no doubt of great help in corroborating the Jain evidence. The books of the Jain canon clearly show that the terminology and exposition of Jaina thought had developed by stages.
The older parts of the canon contain many archaic forms. The older prose works generally abound in endless repetitions but some contain systematic expositions. Originally there were two kinds of Jain sacred books: the
1 Sutrakṛtānga, I, 9. 24. Mätṛsthāna is also explained as Karmopadūna. athāna.
2 Cf. Indian Culture, Vol. I, pp. 107ff., for the meaning of mātukā. 3 Jaina Sutras, II, p. 304, f.n. 3.
4 Ibid., I, Intro., p. xli.
IB

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JAINA CANON
fourteen pūrvas and the eleven angas. The fourteen pūrvas were reckoned to make up a twelfth anga called the Dșstivāda. The knowledge of the fourteen pūrvas remained up to Sthūlabhadra, the eighth patriarch after Mahāvīra. For some time only ten pūrvus were known and then the remaining pūrvas were gradually lost. This is the Svetāmbara tradition regarding the pūrvus. The fact is that the pūrvas existed prior to the composition of the argas,
The importance of the early Jain literary records furnishing materials for an all round history of India from the sixth century B.C. to the beginning of the Christian era has already been carefully discussed. The chronological position of Jainism has now been made sufficiently clear. The difficulty arose from the fact that the Jaina canon belonging to the Svetambara sect was finally closed as late as the sixth century A.D. The earlier literary traditions in the shape and form of the fourteen wūreas were gradually lost beyond recovery. How far and in what forms the Jain canonical texts which are now available preserve in them the contents of the pūrras is still a big problem. The Jain tradition would have us believe that the fourteen pūrvas were condensed in the twelfth arga knowll as the Drstivāda which is unfortunately lost. We have still a very imperfect knowledge of the canonical texts of the Digambaras. The important text called Sutkhandūgamu of Puspadanta and Bhūtabali has been recovered from the Kanarese country in south India. Dr. Hiralal Jain thinks that in it we have not only an important canonical book of the Digambaras but also a later representation of the subject matter of the Drstivāda. Another very ancient and exhaustive work on Jain cosmology called the Tiloya Pannutti has been published under the auspices of the Jivarūju Jirina Granthamālā. The later Jain tradition preserves the name of the Ajivika canon consisting of eight mahānimittus and two mārgas which are partially at least based upon the pūrvus coming down from the time of Pārsva, the illustrious predecessor of Mahāvira. The texts now included in the Svetāmbara Jain canon contain evidence of literary, religious and philosophic development of more than ten centuries. It would not have been possible to form any idea of this chronology of thought but for many interesting instances of parallelism between the Buddhist and Jain canon. As rightly pointed out by Jacobi, Jainism in its earlier phase was a presupposition of Buddhism in spite of many parallel passages occurring in the two traditions. A good comparative study of the contents of early Jain and Buddhist texts as has been done to some extent in

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
4
this treatise will surely be very useful although we have now broad outlines of literary history of Jainism and Buddhism. The sacred texts of the Jainas known as the āgamas, which are collectively called the siddhantas, are forty-five in number. They may be divided as follows:
(I) Twelve Angas.—(a) Āyāramga sutta (Acarānga sutra), (b) Suyagadamga (Sūtrakṛtānga), (c) Thanamga (Sthānanga). (d) Samayayamga, (c) Bhagavativiyahapannatti (Vyakhyāprajñapti). (f) Nayadhammakahão (Jnātādharmakatha), (g) Uvasagadasão (Upasakadaśā), (h) Amtagadadasão (Antakyddasā). (2) Anuttarovavaiyadasão (Anuttara-upapatikadaśā), (j) Panhavagaraṇāim (Praśnavyakaraṇāni), (k) Vivagasiyam (Vipāka-sūtram), and (1) Ditthivaya (Dṛṣṭivāda). (II) Twelve Upangas. (a) Ovavaiya (Aupapātika), (b) Rayapasenaijja or Rayapasenaiya (Rajapraśniya), (c) Jivājīvābhigama, (d) Pannavanā (Prajñāpanā), (e) Surapannatti or Suriyapannatti, (f) Jambuddivapannatti (Jambudvipaprajñapti), (g) Camdapannatti (Candraprajñapti), (h) Nirayavali, (i) Kappavadamsião (Kalpavatamsikā), (j) Pupphião (Puspikā), (k) Puppha culião (Puspaculikā), and (7) Vanhidasão (Vṛṣṇidaśā).
(III) Ten
Prakirnakas (Painnas). (a) Caüsarana (catuḥsarana), (b) Aurapaccakkhāna (Aturapratyakhyāna), (c) Bhattapariņņā (Bhaktapratijñā), (d) Samthara, (e) Tamdulaveyaliya, (f) Camdavijjhaya, (g) Devimdatthaa, (h) Ganivijja, (i) Mahāpaccakkhāṇa, and (j)
Viratthaa.
(IV) Six Ceya suttas (Ceda sūtras).-(a) Nisiha, (b) Mahänisiha, (c) Vavahara, (d) Ayāradasão, (e) Kappa (Bṛhatkalpa), and (f) Pamcakappa. (V) The two solitary texts.-Nandisutta and Anuogadara. These two sutras have no common name.
(VI) Four Mulasultas.-(a) Uttarajjhayaṇa, (b) Avassaya, (c) Dasaveyaliya, and (d) Pimdanijjutti.
Of the twelve angas, Jain philosophy has been dealt with in the Дyaramga sutta and Panhāvāgaraṇāim. Doctrinal and other matters have been discussed in the Suyagaḍamga. Mahānimittas, monism, pluralism (anikkavāda-Thanamga,

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JAINA CANON
IV, 4), eternalism, materialism, etc., form the subject-matter of the Thānamga. The Viyāhapannatti not only throws light on the life of Mahāvīra but also discusses other topics. Persons belonging to any school of Jain thought will find t Nāyādhunimakahā very useful. A picture of ancient social life has been given by the Urāsagadasūo. The Amtagadadasā gives an account of persons who became siddhas after death and the Anutturorurāiyadasū, of the lives of persons who became gods after their death in the Anuttaravimāna. Names of some tribes and planets are found in the Panhāvāgaranu. That the good and bad deeds done in previous births have their respective influences, has been dealt with in the livāgasuyu. Some narratives too are found in the same anga.
The twelve uparigas too deal with various subjects from philosophy to astronomy, geography to biography. The Urüya gives an account of various attainments and penances of the Jaina saints. A fine literary piece by itself, the Pūy prowaiyu deals with the intricate problem of the identity of soul and borly through the dialogue between Paësi and Kosi. The very essence of Jainism can be found in the Jirajīrībhiguma. The Jain philosophy has been dealt with in the Pannarunī. Astronomy from Jain standpoint has been well treated in the Sūriyu-pannatti and Camdupennutti. The Süryaprajñapli (Sūriyapannatti) is the most important astronomical book of the Jainas. It is written in Jain Prakrit and divided into twenty sections. The arrangement of the matter is not systematical. There is a commentary on the text by Malayagiri. The astrono chronological period on which the system of this text is based, is the well-known quinquennial (vole with which we have long been acquainted from the Jyotisa Vedārgu. The same (ycle is also described in the Gurga-Samhitā. As regards the revolutions of the sun and the moon according to the Sūryaprajñapti it differs from the statements made by Garga and in the l'edūrga only in oue important point. According to it the (yele begins with the summer solstice at the moment when the moon is full in the beginning of Abhijit and the sun consequently stands in Pusya. As regards the sun's motion in circles of different diameter the text treats of the increase and decrease of the length of the day. It also contains a long exposition of the dimensions of the circles. It adds an interesting account of the sideway-motion of the sun. It also records an account of the motion of the moon, etc. Dr. G. Thibaut has written an interesting article on it in the J.A.S.B. (Vol. xlix, pp. 107–127; 181-206). The Jambuddīvapaņņatti is an interesting treatise on geography. It

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
should be studied along with the Jaina Vividhatirthakalpa which is not included in the canon. The lives of Kala, ten sons of Seniya and others have been narrated in the Nirayāvalī. Of the Prakirṇakas the Caüsarana consists of 63 verses in Prakrit dealing with the six essential daily duties and four refuges. Its authorship is ascribed to Virabhadra. The Ganivijja is a work on astrology. Of the six Ceya suttas, the Nisiha serves as a guide to the Jain monks and nuns as it contains rules governing their life. The relationship between the preceptor and his disciples has been discussed among other things in the Mahānisīha. The lavahara discusses what the Jain saints should avoid and what they should undertake. The qualities of an ācārya and an upadhyāya are also noted in it. Of the Mulasuttas the Pimdanijjutti deals with the pious life and subjects of discipline. Bhadrabahu was its author. Besides these a detailed treatment of some important texts of the Jain canon has been made in the following pages.

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CHAPTER II
ĀCĀRANGA SUTRA (ĀYĀRAMGA SUTTA)
The Ācārūnga is the first Jaina unga. It contains important rules for the Jain monks and nuns. An attempt has been made here to compare these rules with those of the Hindus and Buddhists noticing their main points of agreement and difference. This text is a mixture of prose and verse which we so frequently meet with in Buddhist literature. The sermons contained in it consist mainly of exhortations and warnings. Both in this Sūtru and in the Sūtrukrtāngu we find some verses which in form and contents can be well included in the Pali Suttanipāta or Dhama pada. These belong to the ancient Indian Samana literature. This book has been edited for the PTS, London (1882), and translated into English by Jacobi in SBE, vol. xxii. It has also been cited by Schubring, Leipzig, 1910, and translated into German by him in Worte Jahāvīras. The Āgamodaya Samiti of Bombay has published an edition with commentary.
The rules of conduct as laid down in the Ācārūnga Sūtra. contain also the rules of decorum and etiquette. No penal laws are added to them. The Jain rules are classified in the Sūtru under such general heads as begging, walking, modes of speech, entry into other's possessions, postures, place of study, and attending to the calls of nature. Here begging includes the begging of food and drink, begging for a bowl, the begging of clothes, and begging for a residence or a couch. Under these sub-heads are to be found the rules governing the modes of eating and drinking, dressing and lying down. Walking includes travelling, crossing, swimming and other forins of movement. The postures are those which are involved in religious exercises.
The reasons or arguments behind these rules are based on such general principles as the avoidance of situations in which the monk or nun may be guilty of hurting or killing all forms of life, or of inconveniencing others, or of wounding social, moral or religious scruples of others, the avoidance of situations in which the monk or nun may run the risk of endangering his or her own position, or of receiving bodily injuries, or of feeling discomfort, or of being found guilty of theft or trespass, or of moral degradation, or of mental per. turbation, and the avoidance of all situations in which the monk or nun may be found acting under the slighest influence

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
of greed, ill-will, evil intention, discontent, delusion, in consideration, haughtiness, and the like.
According to Mahāvīra the two concepts of parissuu and disara meaning spring of sin and intlux of sin and their opposites go together;' while according to the Buddha parissur (Skt. parióruyu) stands for the internal spring of impiety and demerit. (Cf. Anguttura, III, p. 388; Suttanipūtu, verses 42 and 45; Pidulesa, I, p. 12, etc.)
A monk or a nun on a begging-tour should not accept flattened grains (tusodagam), grains containing much chaff (jarodagam). He or she should not accept fossil salt or sea salt which is impure and unacceptable. He or she should not accept food which is prepared over the fire, for such food is impure and unacceptable. He or she should not accept food which has been placed on a post, or on a roof or on a platform or some such elevated place. He or she should not accept food which is kept in an earthenware. He or she should not accept food placed on the earth body, wind body or fire body, for such food is impure and unacceptable. He or she should not accept food which is placed on vegetable or animal matter. He or she should not accept such water as has been taken from the bare ground. Its taste or nature has not been altered and it has not been strained. He or she should not accept juice of mangoes, pomegranates, cocoamuts, tamarinds, etc. He or she should not accept raw things such as mustard seeds. He or she should not accept raw powdered fruits, unripe wild rice, honey, liquor, etc. He or she should not accept some raw plants, vegetables, raw substances, etc. He or she should not accept any part of the sugarcane as it is impure and unacceptable, meat or fish containing many bones. He or she may accept food which is offered on a plate or in a copper cup if the moisture on the hands of the giver is dried up. A monk or a nun should not use for religious postures a lodging place used by the householder, in which there are workmen, children, cattle, food and drink.
A mendicant should not stay in halting places, gardenhouses, family houses, monasteries which are much frequented by fellow ascetics. It is difficult to obtain pure and acceptable alms. A monk or a nun should not use for religious postures a lodging where the householder and his wife go about naked or hide themselves, or talk about sexual pleasures. He or
1 Acārānga, p. 18: ye āsavā te parissavā, ye parissavā te āsavā, ye anāsavā te aparissuvā, ye aparissavā te anāsavā. Cf. Asoka's Rock Edict X-eshe tu pariórave yam apuñam.
2 Acāränga Sūtra, II, 1.7. 3 Ibid., II, 1.7. 4 Ibid., II, 1. 4. 1.

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ACARANGA SUTRA (AYARAMGA SUTTA)
she should not use for religious postures a lodging which is a much frequented playground. He or she should not accept a couch if it is free from eggs and living beings, but is heavy.
A monk shall not beg pointing with a finger at the householder or moving him with a finger, threatening or scratching him with a finger, praising or cursing him.
He or she should speak with precision, employing language in moderation and restraint which is grammatically correct and understanding its true import.2
When a monk or a mun knows that in a village or a town there is no large place for religious practices or for study, he or she should not remain there during the cold season. He or she may circumspectly wander from village to village. He or she on the pilgrimage where road lies through a forest should not choose this road. A monk or a mun on a pilgrimage, if there is some water-course on the way which must be crossed in a boat, should not ascend such a boat which plies up or down or across the river. A monk or a nun in entering a boat should not choose the storm or the prow or the middle of the boat. If a monk or a nu sees that water anters through a leak in the boat which becomes dirty all over, he or she should not approach the boatman and inform him of it. A monk or id nun swimming in the water should not touch another person's foot, hand or body with his or her own hand. He or she, swimming in the water, should mot dive up and down, lest water should enter into his or her eyes, cars, nose or mouth. If a monk or a mun swimming in the water is overcome by weakness, he or she should throw off his or her clothes, either all or a part of them. A monk or a mun should not wipe or rub or brush or dry, or warm or heat his or her body. If a monk or a mm on a pilgrimage comes across a sheet of shallow water, he or she should first wipe his or her body from head to feet. He or she should wade through the shallow water on a straight line. A monk or a nun wading through shallow water should not plunge in deeper water for the sake of pleasures. If a monk or a nun perceives in his or her way waggons, cars, a friendly or hostile
1 Acūrüngu Sūtru, II, 1.6.3:
No gūhiivutim amguliyae ulisiya jūciji, no gühavatim amguliyne cūliya jaciji, no yähävalim tujiyu jūcijā, no yähintim amguliyże uggulumpiya jūcijā, no qühüvatim rmdiyu jūcijā, no vayanam pharustım vadcija.
2 Ibid., II, 4.1:
Se bhikkhu vui riyayürāim socci nisumma imūin aniiyürūim anāyari. yapurvaim jincjji: je kohi ri eriyam riumjamti je mūņi vui, je minyue rā, jo lobhū vi viyam viumjami, jānatu vi pharusam radumti, jänato evi pharusum vudamti, stvarn ctuin sivujjam vujjenju; vivegam uyūc dhuram cc'dam jānciji adhuvam vā.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
army, he or she should not walk on straight. A monk or a nun, wandering from village to village together with the master or a teacher, should not touch the hand of the master or teacher with his or her own. While sleeping it monk shall take care that his bed is kept at such a distance from that of the next person that he does not touch his neighbour's hand or leg or body with his own. A monk or a nun should not use speech whether truth or untruth or truth mixed with untruth, if it be sinful, blamable, rough, coarse, and hard. A monk or a nun seeing any kind of disease should not talk thus: “He has got boils or leprosy. His hand is cut, or his foot, nose, ear or lip is cut."2 A monk or a mun seeing a man or a cow should not speak about them thus: His body is well grown, well compacted, his flesh and blood are abundant.' A monk or a nun wanting to get clothes may beg for cloth made of wool, silk, hemp, palm leaves, cotton, etc. He or she should not resolve to go farther than half a yojana to get clothes. He or she should not accept clothes which a lavman has bought. washed. dved, rubbed, cleaned or perfumed. A monk or a nun should not accept clothes made of fur, fine ones, beautiful ones, etc. He or she should not accept plaits of fur or other materials. He or she may ask for clothes which he or she has well inspected from a householder or his wife. He or she should not accept clothes which are full of eggs or living beings, for they are impure. He or she may accept clothes which are strong, lasting and are fit for a mendicant. He or she should not wash his or her clothes because they are not new.
If a single mendicant borrows for a short time a robe from another mendicant, the owner of it should not take such a robe for himself nor should he give it to somebody else. A monk or a nun should not make coloured clothes colourless or colour colourless clothes. If a monk sees thieves in his way, he should not leave the robe out of fear or to save his clothes. A monk or a nun should not accept a bowl bought by a layman. He or she should not accept expensive bowls or bowls containing precious materials. He or she
1 Acārānga Sūtra, Ed. Jacobi, II, 2. 3. 26:
Se bhikkhu và bahuphāsue sejjāsamthūrue satyamūnc no annamanna 88(1 holthe. nam hattham pāenam pāyam kāenam kāyam ūsūcjjū, anasāyamine tao samjayām eva bahuphasue sejjāsamthūrae saejjā.
2 Ibid., II, 4. 2. 1:
Se bhikkhu vā jahā v'egaiyāim rūvāim pūsejjā, tahā vi tăim no cvam vadejjā, tam jahā: gamdi gamdi ti vä, kutthi ti vă jāvu mahumchini tli va hatthacchinne hatthacchinne ti vā; cvam pada nakka kanna utthā; je yāv'anne tahappagārā eyappagārähim bhāsähim buiyā buiyū kuppamti māņavā, te yūvi tahappagārā eyappagārāhim bhāsāhim abhikamkha no bhūsejjā.

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ACARANGA SUTRA (AYÁRAMGA SUTTA)
11
may accept a bowl from a householder or his wife after having it thoroughly inspected. He or she may beg for a bowl used by a former owner or by many people. A monk or a nun entering into the abode of a householder for the sake of alms should circumspectly leave it after examining his or her alms-bowl and removing living beings from it, if there be any. He or she should not wipe or rub a wet or moist alms-bowl. He or she might go to a sugarcane plantation or to a garlicfiell. He or she may beg for a dwelling place, paved with clay or wood. He or she should not ease nature on an unfit ground, on a pillar or bench or scaffold or loft or tower or roof. He or she should not case nature on the bare ground or on wet ground or on dusty grond or on a rock or clay containing life or a timber inhabited by worms. He or she should not ease nature in a place where the householders or their sons have sown or will sow rice', beans, or sesamum (sālīnī vī rīhini rā muggāni rā māsīni rū tilāni vā....). He or she should not case nature in a place where there are heaps of refuse, mud, etc. He or she should not case nature in fire places or in a place where suicide is committed, or in gardens, parks, woods, temples or wells. He or she should not case nature in (ross roads or in town vates or pathways or in the place where (charcoal is produced or the dead are burnt. He or she should not case nature at sacred places near rivers, marshes, or ponds. He or she should not case nature in fresh clay-pits, fresh pasture grounds for cattle or in a field of vegetables. He or she should take his or her own chamber-pot and ease nature in a secluded place where no people pass or see them and leave the excrements on a heap of ashes.2
The Buddhist rules of decorum pertaining to dressing, bodily movements, poses, gestures, postures, laughing, speaking, etc., are appropriately combined with those relating to walking, sitting, standing and lying down. A Buddhist monk is required to be properly clad with a view to appearing in the eyes of others as a person endowed with moral and sense of decency. Twenty-four rules of decorum are provided for the regulation of the Buddhist manner of eating. They are intended to make the Buddhist monk or nun considerate and careful, gentle and graceful, moderate and ungluttonous in eating with due sense of propriety, proportion and decency. Fifteen rules of decorum applying
1 Sāli and vihi both mean rice; mugga and masa both mean beans and tiler means sosamum. Jacobi is wrong in translating māsiini evi tilāņi as pulse or barley.
2 Acirurga Sūtra, II, 10.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
to the Buddhist manner of preaching the doctrine are intended evidently not only to keep up the dignity of the preacher but also to avoid the awkwardness of the situation and ineffectiveness of the preaching itself. The Buddhist rules of decorum may be shown to have as their immediate literary background the rules laid down in the various Grhyu sutrus which too speak of the four main iryāpathas as consisting of standing, sitting, walking and lying down, the rest being subservient to them. (For a comparative study wide B. C. Law, Buddhist Rules of Decorum published in R. K. Nookerjee l'olume (Bhürata-Kaumudi), I, p. 381ff.) The Jain rules of conduct and decorum, agreeing in their essential features with the Buddhist rules, are broadbased upon careful considerations and keen observations. A comparative study of these rules as enforced by different religions of the world is sure to yield many fruitful results.
The sūtru speaks of Lādha (Rādha) as a pathless country with its two divisions: Subbhabhūmi (probably the same as Sk. Suhma) and Vajjabhūmi which may be taken to correspond to the modern district of Midnapur. (Jacobi, Jaina Sūtras, I, p. 81.) It speaks of the inhabitants of the Rādha country is rude and generally hostile to the asceties. The clogs wore set upon them by the Rādha people as soon as the ascetics appeared near their villages (I, 8. 3-4). The mischicf-makers whom the lonely ascetics had to reckon with were the cowherds (gopālakā) who made practical jokes on them (Ibid., 18. 3–10; cf. Mujhima, I, 79: Malasihanatsuttata).

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('HAPTER IIT
SUTRAKRTĀNGA (SÜYAGADANGA)
The Sūtrakrtūrga is the second anga, and is probably inuch older than the Ultarūdhyayana which resembles the Sūtrakrtārgu with regard to its objects and some of the topics treated. The object of the Sūtrakrtānga is to guard young monks against the heretical opinions and to guide them to obtain the highest good. It may be treated as the most valuable guide for young monks. According to Jacobi it lays some claim to poetical art in the variety of the metres cmployed and in the artificial character of some verses. It may therefore be considered as the composition of one author. Jacobi is right in pointing out that the views of the agnostics (ajñūnurūdins) are not clearly stated in the Jain texts and the explanation of the commentators is vague and misleading. But from Buddhist writings we may get a pretty correct idea of what agnosticism was like It must be admitted that the philosophic ideas current at the time of the Buddha and Mahāvīra are of the greatest importance to the historian of that period. In the opinion of Jacobi, Mahāvīra has established the syūdrādu in opposition to the agnosticism of Sañjaya,
The Sūtrukrtūriga has three commentaries: (i) Sīlārka's Tikū which is the oldest commentary extant, (ii) the composed in 1517 A.D., and (iii) a Gujrati gloss known as Būlärabodha. This text has been published with various commentaries in the Agumasangrahu, Vol. 2, Bombay, 1880. The Ayamodaya Samiti has also published this text with Silanka's commentary (1917). This text has been translated into English by Jacobi in S.B.E., Vol. 15, and some selected sections have been translated into German by SchubringWorte Mahārīras'. Dr. P. L. Vaidya's edition of this text (Shyagadam, Poona, 1928) deserves mention.
As regards Mahāvīra, the founder of Jainism, he is repro nted as the great teacher who possessed infinite knowledge and infinite faith and who put the law in a true light like a lamp)He saw everything. He had no impurity. He was virtuous, of a fixed mind, the highest and the wisest
1 Jaina Sūtru8, (SDE), pt. II, p. xxxviii.
2 Cf. the doctrine of Sanjaya Bolatihiputta in the Sūmunñuphalu suttu of the Digha Nikaya of the Suttupițaka, and its elaboration in the Bralımajāla sutta (Digha, I).

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SOME JAINA (ANONICAL SOTRAS
in the whole world. He had broken all ties and he was above danger. He shone forth, endowed with many virtues. After having taught the highest law, he practised the highest contemplation (sukladhyānu). After having annihilated all his karma, he reached the insurpassable highest perfection. He was omniscient and the best of those who have taught nirvāņa. As chastity is the highest of austerity, so Mahāvīra is the highest of men. As norānu is the chief object of the law, so there is no one wiser than Mahāvīra. He understood the doctrines of the kriyāvādins, the akriyāvādins, the vinayavādins and the ajñāna vādins. He mastered all philosophical systems and practised control as long as he lived. He abstained from the company of women and from eating at night. He practised austerity for the removal of pain. He ledd a religious life without using cold water for more than a couple of vears. He realized singleness, guarded his body, got intuition and was calm. He did not use what had expressly been prepared for him. He well saw bondage coming through action. He did not use another's robe, nor did he eat out of another's vessel. He could walk attentively looking on his path. He did not seek sleep for the sake of pleasure. He sustained fearful and manifold calamities. Always well controlled he bore the different sorts of feeling. Always well guarded he bore pains caused by grass, cold, fire, flies, etc. He travelled in the pathless country of the Rādhas in Vajjabhūmi and Subbhabhūmi; he used there miserable beds and seats. He patiently endured the abusive languages of the peasants, being perfectly enlightened. He was struck with a stick, his flesh was cut off and his hair was torn. But he sat there motionless. He was able to abstain from indulgence of the flesh, realizing that uncleanliness of the body, anointing of the body, shampooing, and bathing were considered useless. He did not drink for half a month or even for a month. He did not drink even for six months. Sometimes he ate stale food. He committed no sin, nor did he induce others to do so. He meditated, being free from sin and desire and not attached to sounds or colour.4
minäia, verse 2.377; IV, 111, 6. The be clever, meta, 1, 12, Ili, 23).
Sukladhyāna is not only the highest but also the purost meditation. It is one of the two good ways of meditation.
2 Of. Silubbatuparāmāsu in Buddhism-Khuddakupātha, p. 5. Cf. Suttanipāla, verse 231; Vinaya, I, 184; Mujjhima, I, 433; Dhammasargani, 1005; Anguttara, III, 377; IV, 144ff.; Mahimiddle8, 98.
3 Vide Sülrakrtūrgu, II, 5. The upholders of ajñānavāda aro representod as those thinkers who, pretending to be clever, reason incoherently and do not get beyond the confusion of their ideas (Sutrakr., I, 12. 2). Inofficioncy of knowledge is the roal upshot of ajñānavādu (Uttarādh., XVIII, 23).
4 Cf. Acūrānga Sūtra, I, 8.
potente berigte is Acūra

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SUTRAKṚTANGA (SUYAGADAMGA)
Now let us pass from the teacher to the teachings, according to which a wise man should not be angry if reprimanded. He should be of a forbearing mood. He should not associate with mean persons. He should not do anything mean (candaliya). He should meditate by himself after having learnt his lessons. He should never deny it if he has done anything mean. He should not commit any evil act. He should not speak unasked for. He should not tell a lie when asked. If the self is subdued a person will be happy. It is better to subdue one's own self by self-control and penance than be subdued by others with fetters and corporal punishment. He should never do anything disagreeable to the superiors (Buddhanam, enlightened ones) either in words or deeds, openly or secretly. He should never remain silent if spoken to by the superior. He should always politely approach his teacher.
A wise man believes in the existence of the soul. The Jains do not deny the existence of the soul but the unalterable character of the soul.
15
The road to final deliverance depends on four causes and is characterized by right knowledge and faith. The road as taught by the Jinas consists of (1) right knowledge, (2) faith, (3) conduct, and (4) austerities. Human beings will obtain beatitude by following this road. Knowledge is five-fold: knowledge derived from the sacred books (śruta), perception (abhinibodhika), supernatural knowledge (avadhi), knowledge of the thoughts of others (manaḥ paryāya), and the highest and unlimited knowledge (kevala).
The knowledge of substances, qualities and all developments has been taught by the Jinas. Substance is the substratum of qualities, the qualities are inherent in one substance but the characteristic of developments is that they inhere in substances or qualities. Dharma, adharma, space,
1 He should not behave like a Candala. It really means places where people of low caste live. There was a belief in Buddha's time that the Candālas used to bring bad luck to those who saw them (Jut., IV. 235). They were so much hated by the Brahmins that some among them on account of having tasted the food of a Candala were put out of caste (Jat., IV, 235); vide also B. C. Law, Concepts of Buddhism, pp. 11ff.
2 Cf. Uttaradhyayana, I, 16.
3 Cf. Sūtrakṛtānga, 1, 12. 21; Majjhima, 1, 483; Sūtrakṛtānga, 1, 6.27; I, 10. 17.
4 Knowledge which is derived from one's experience, thought or understanding.
5 Cf. Kalpasūtra, 15-Ohiņā ābhoemāņe.
Dravya, guna and paryaya. Cf. Sutrakṛtānga, 1, 12. Bom. Ed., 482; Cf. Uttaradhyayana, XXVIII, 7.

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SOTRAKĄTANGA (SOYAGADAMGA)
17
people who do not well consider the nature of acts. He who intends to kill a living being, but does not do it by his bodily act, and he who unknowingly kills one, both are affected by that act. There are three ways of committing sins: by one's own action, by commission, and by approval of the deed. One reaches Nirrūna by the purity of heart. Some hold that the son of a person who is pure will become free from bad kurma on reaching beatitude. The world is boundless and eternal. In this world living beings suffer individually for their deeds. A learned or a virtuous man will be punished for his deed when he is given to actions of deceit. Men who are drowned in lust and addicted to pleasures will be deluded for want of control. One should exert and control oneself and follow the commandments proclaimed by the Arhats. Heroes of faith who do not commit sins, and exert themselves aright, who subdue anger and fear, will never kill living beings. A worthy and wise man should be careful in this world. He who has entered the road leading to the destruction of kurma, who controls his mind, speech, and body, who has given up his possessions and relations, should walk about subduing his senses. A sage bears pleasant and unpleasant things. He also bears three kinds of calamities arising from beasts, men and gods. He should not fear for his life. A wise man should not quarrel, should possess right conduct,
d should be guarded in his words and thoughts. He should adopt for his welfare the best and the highest law proclaimed in this world by the Jina. A person should look at beatitude as the end in view. Virtuous men regard pleasures as equal to diseases. The unhappy suffer again and again from delusion. When calamity befalls it man or the end of his life draws near, he must go. The wise believe that there is nothing to protect him. All living beings owe their present form of existence to their own kurma. The wicked suffering latent misery err about in the circle of births, subject to birth, old age and death. Misery is caused by oneself and not by others (Sayamkadam nannakadam (a dukkhamSūtk., 1.12.) One should not kill living beings in the three
taught makes men conscious of their responsibility for all their acts, mental, vocal or bodily. This doctrine has also awakened the consciousness that Halvation is not a gift of favour but an attainment within hunun possibility. In tho toachings of Mahāvīra kriyūrūdu is sharply distinguished froin akriyūrūda (doctrine of non-action), ajrinavāda (scepticisin) and vinayavāda (formalism), procisely as in the word of the Buddha. Buddhism has been promulgated as a form of kriyāvīda or karmavāda. In order to arrive at a correct understanding of the doctrinal significance of kriyū vida in Jainisin it is necessary not only to see how it has been distinguished from akriyāvuda, ajñinavāda and vinayavāda but also other types of kriyāvāda.

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fold way (by thoughts, words, and acts) being intent on spiritual welfare and abstaining from sins. 1
A sinner does not confess his wrong but rather boasts of it when reprimanded. The adulterers are severely punished. A fool who is bound in the fetters of sensuality will be subject to delusion again and again.
The following classes of living beings have been declared by the Jinas: earth, water, fire, wind, grass, trees, corn and movable beings, viz. oviparous and viviparous, those generated from dirt and those generated in fluids. People are wicked, who kill beings for the sake of their own pleasure. Reckless men who cut the sprouts down out of regard for their own pleasure, destroy many living beings. Sprouts are beings possessed of natural development. People are wicked, who destroy seeds for their own pleasure. A wise man who knows the truth, should know and understand that all beings desire happiness. All creatures who have committed sins will suffer. A miserable man who becomes a monk in order to get food from others and a flatterer by the desire of filling his belly will come to grief. Wrong beliefs and bad conduct are worthless. A servile man should not desire pleasant sounds and colours but conquer his longing for all kinds of pleasures.
Sinners, subject to love and hatred and doing wrong, acquire karma arising from passions and commit many sins. The careless commit sins by thoughts, words, and acts. A cruel man does cruel acts and is thereby involved in other cruelties. Sinful undertakings will in the end bring about miseries. A pious monk, who is free from bonds and has done away with all fetters, annihilates his bad karma and removes the thorn of sin. Following the right conduct he exerts himself. A wise man can conquer his greed and enter upon the noble path. When a wise man comes to know that the apportioned space of his life draws towards its end, he should in the meantime quickly learn the method of dying a religious death.2 The virtuous exert themselves with regard to the distant end, i.e., liberation. One should live indifferent to one's own happiness, calm and without attachment. The iniquity (vaira) of all men, who cling to property, goes on increasing. A wise man should be content with such food and drink as will sustain his life. He knows
1 Sūtrakrtūnga, I, 2. 3. 21:
Tibidenavi pāņa mühaņe, āyadite aniyūna samvujhe
Evam siddhā asam luso sampai je anāgayāvare 2 Cf. Uttarādhyayana, Ch.V.
2B

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SOTRAKĄTANGA (SUYAGADAMGA)
19
all worldly vanities and renounces them and thus brings about his final liboration.
He should mortify his flesh thinking of his duty and giving up his sorrows, without regard to worldly interests. One should try to realize that he is single and alone, thereby he will obtain liberation which is not anything unreal but the best thing. A man possessed of carefulness will be a saviour to others in all circumstances. A pious monk, free from bonds, should wander about desiring neither honour nor fame.
The akriyāvādins who do not understand the truth bring forward various opinions. They, having a perverted intellect, do not recognize the action of the soul, though it does exist and act.
Those men whom women cannot seduce are directed towards liberation by their pious acts and they show the way to others. One should not yield to temptation; being free from faults, he has reached the incomparable cessation of kurma.
He is a Brāhmuina because he has abstained from all sinful actions, viz. love, hatred, quarrel, calumny, backbiting, deceit, untruth, etc. He possesses samitis, always exerts himself, and he is not angry nor proud.
He is a Nirarantha (Jaina) because he is single, awakened and well-disciplined. He knows the absolute ātman, possesses sumitis and equanimity; he knows the true nature of self; he has renounced the causes of sin; he does not desire fame, respect and hospitality; he knows the law and endeavours to gain liberation; he lives well-restrained.
The atheists contend that those who maintain that the soul is something different from the body cannot tell whether the soul is long or small, globular or circular, triangular or square, whether black or blue or red or yellow or white, whether bitter or pungent, whether hard or soft.2
A man cannot experience what another has done, that
his kurma. Individually a man is born, individually he dies, individually he falls from the state of existence, and individually he rises. His passions, consciousness, intellect,
1 Sūtrakr., I, 15. 9 and 12:
Itvinu je na scuamti, äimokhā du te juni! te jană vamilanummukku, nāvakamkhamti jiviyamı Nivārc va na liejju, vinnasoe anāvile
uņāile sayū damte, samghim patte anelisam 2 Sūtrakr., II, 1. 15.
3 Cf. the Buddhist idea of rises and falls of beings as individuals according to their deeds.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
perceptions and impressions belong to the individual exclusively.1
Sentient beings practise the following kinds of activity: sinning for one's own interest, sinning without a personal interest, sinning by slaying, through accident, by error or sight, by lying, by taking what is not freely given, by a mere conceit, through pride, through greed, through deceit, through bad treatment of one's friends, and actions referring to a religious life.2
A wise man should neither himself commit violence nor order others to do so nor consent to the violence clone by somebody else. A clever man should not be defiled by sin. All beings are fond of life, like pleasure, hate pain, shun destruction and desire to live.3 To all life is clear. The clever one who adopts the true faith stands in the right place. The world is greatly troubled by women. He is called a hero who is not vexed by the hardships caused by control. The hero does not tolerate discontent and lust; he is not careless; he is not attached to the objects of the senses. A sage who adopts the life of wisdom should treat his gross body roughly. He who has right intuition uses mean and rough food. A wise man who knows the world and has cast off the idea of the world should prudently conquer the destruction to righteousness. Giving up all gaiety, circumspect, and restraint, one should lead a religious life. The liberated one conquers wrath, pride, deceit, and greed. He who conquers one passion, conquers many and he who conquers many conquers one. A wise man should avoid love, hatred, delusion, conception, birth, death, hell, animal existence, anger, pride, deceit, and greed. For the liberatod and inactive there is no passage from birth to birth. The greatest temptation in this world is woman. When strongly affected by the influence of the senses he should mortify himself, stand upright, wander from village to village, take no food at all, and withdraw his mind from women. The self is the knower or experiencer and the knower is the self. Some who embrace the law will practise it, being careful about its outward signs, not giving way to worldliness, but being firm. Quitting all worldliness, one should bear all disagreeable
1 Sūtrakr., II, 1.41. 2 Sūtrakr., II, 2.4.
3 Cf. Subbe tasanti danda881 sabbe bhāyanti maccuno, attānam upamam katvā na haneyya na ghātaye ... Sabbesam jivitam piyam (Dhammapada, Dandavagga, vv, 129-130).
All are afraid of punishment, all foar death, making oneself the typo one should not strike or kill.... To all life is dear.

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SOTRAKŔTANGA (80YAGADAMGA)
feeling being possessed of the right view (samyakdarśana).1 Those who deserve to be called fools are born again and again. The learned, wise, and steadfast hero will always be victorious in right faith. A saint with right intuition, who cherishes compassion for the world, should preach, spread and praise the faith, knowing the sacred law (vedavid). He should proclaim it among those who exert themselves, not neglecting tranquillity, indifference, patience, liberation, purity, uprightness, gentleness and freedom from worldly cares. One should preach the law of the mendicants to all kinds of creatures. A man who exerts himself is of a steady mind without attachment, unmoved by passion, having no worldly desires, such a man should live the life of an ascetic. The noble ones having impartially preached the law, those who are awakened should not wish for pleasure. One who is free from passions is self-controlled, knowing birth in the upper and nether regions. One who is free from desire, cherishes piety.
The first great vow of the Jains is abstinence from killing living beings.2 A Jain is careful in his walk. He searches into his mind and speech. He is careful in laying down his utensils of begging. He eats and drinks after proper inspection. The second great vow is avoidance of falsehood.: A Jain speaks after deliberation. He comprehends and repounces anger, greed, fear, and mirth. The third great vow is avoidance of theft.4 A Jain begs after deliberation for a limited space. He consumes his food and drink with the permission of his superior. A Jaina who has taken possession of some space should always take possession of
i Samyakdarsana or right faith consists in an insight into the meaning of truths as proclaimed and taught, a mental perception of the excellence of the system as propounded, a personal conviction as to the greatness and goodness of the teacher and ready acceptance of certain articles of faith for one's guidance. It is intended to remove all doubt and scepticism from one's mind, and to establish or re-establish faith. It is such a form of faith as is likely to inspire action by opening a new vista of life and its perfection. Right faith on the one hand, and inaction, vacillation on the other, are mutually incompatible. Cf. the Buddhist idea of right view (sammuiditthi) which conveys the sense of faith or belief rather than that of any metaphysical view or theory. It is precisely in some such sense that the Jains use the term summādamsana. Sammadithi suggests an article of faith which consists in the acceptance of the belief that there is such a thing as gift, that there is such a thing as sacrifice, otc. (Cf. Säleyyaku Sutta, Majjhim, I. pp. 285ff.) There cannot be right faith unless there is a clear pre-perception of the moral, intellectual or spiritual situation which is going to arise. Right faith is that form of faith which is only & stopping stone to knowledge (pañña). It is the faith or conviction acquired by a Buddhist stroam-attainer who is sure to reach the goal.
2 Cf. the ten precepts of the Buddhists; pūnātipātā-veramani. 3 Cf. Musavādā-veranani of the Buddhists. 4 Adinnādang-veramani.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
a limited part of it and for a fixed time. He should constantly have his grant renewed. He may beg for a limited ground for his co-religionists after deliberation. The next Vow is avoidance of sensual pleasures." A Jaina should not continually discuss topics relating to women. He should not regard and contemplate the lovely forms of women. He should not recall to his mind the pleasures and amusements he formerly had with women. He should not eat and drink too much. He should not drink liquor or eat highly seasoned dishes. He should not occupy a bed or a couch belonging to women. The last great row is freedom from possessions.3 If a living being with his car's hear's agreeable or disagreeable sounds, he should not be attached to them. If he with his eyes sees agreeable or disagree forms, he should not be attached to them. If he with his nose smells agreeable or disagreeable smells, he should not be attached to them. If he with his tongue tastes agreeable or disagreeable things, he should not be attached to them. If he with his organ of feeling feels agreeable touches, he should not be attached to them.
The Jains join hands with the Buddhists in grouping Pūraņa Kassapa's doctrine under a kriyāvāda (Sūtrakrtāngai, I, 1, 1-13). Makkhali Gosāla is the propounder of the theory of evolution of individual things by natural transformation. What Ajita really contemplated was not to identify body with soul or matter with spirit but to point out that the particular object of experience must be somehow viewed as an indivisible whole (Sūtrakr., II, 1. 15–17). An important passage of the Sūtrakrtănga (I, 1. 13) clearly states that his was really a theory of the passivity of soul. The logical postulate of Kavandin Kātyāyana's philosophy is no other than the Permenedian doctrine of Being. Nothing comes out of nothing (noya uppajjae asam). What is does not perish; from nothing comes nothing (sato nacci vināso, asato nacci sambhavo).
In a passage of the Sūtrakrtānga (Jaina Sūtras, II, p. 411) a Jaina accuses Makkhali Gosāla of immoral habits but Buddha's account prominently brings out the fact that the Ajīvikas were far from being profligate and immoral. It is interesting to note that the idea of right living (sammā ājīvo) which the Ājivikas advocated, was taken by the Jainas and Buddhists mainly from them.
1 Abrahmacariyā-veramani. According to some these four vows are the same as the four restraints in Jainism. (Cf. Sūtrakr., II, 7. 17.)
2 Cf. Surāmerayamajja-pamādatthānā-veramani. 3 Buddhist Jätarūparajatapațiggahand veramaņi.

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SOTRAKŞTANGA (SUYAGADAMGA)
23
1.
The Sūtrakytānga refers to RājagȚha as a rich, happy and thriving city (Jaina Sūtras, SBE, II, 419). There lived a friar well-versed in magic art at Rājagsha. He carried off every woman he saw. The king being informed of it was determined to find out the friar and punish him. The friar was killed by the king who released all the captured women; one of them refused to return to her husband being smitten with love for her seducer. Being advised she was made to drink the milk mixed up with friar's bones. This took the spell off her and cured her of her strange passion (Jaina. Sūtras, II, p. 383, f.n. 1).
At Nalandā there was a rich and prosperous householder named Lepa who had a beautiful bathing hall. There was a park called Hastiyāma. Once Gautama Buddha lived at Nālandā. He had a discussion with Udaka, a Jaina and a follower of Pārsva. He failed to accept Gautama's views as to the effect of karma (Sūtrakr., II, 7; Jaina Sūtras, SBE, II, pp. 419-20).
The Hatthitāpasas mentioned in the Sūtrakrtāngu were those who used to kill every year one elephant for the purpose of food on the ground that thereby they minimized the slaughter of life (Juina Sūtras, II, p. 418). The Brahmin lawgivers prohibited the eating of some kinds of fish and flesh. But this selection does not prohibit the eating of all kinds of fish and flesh enjoined by the religious feeling of the recluses. The Upāli sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya (I, 377) contains an interesting discussion of this subject. The Jain householder Upāli points out that according to his Master every act of killing is a cause of demerit whether the act be intentional or not. Buddha demurred to this view of Mahāvīra. He thought that a man does not commit any sin if the act be unintentional. It is impossible, according to the Buddha, to abstain from killing, for even in moving about a man is bound to put to death many lives. The Jainas took exception to the Buddhist vicw and an interesting account of it is given in the Sūtrakrtānga (Jaina Sūtras, II, pp. 414-417).
It is interesting to note that the sinners come to the great impassable hell called Asūrya, i.e., where the sun does not shine. Here also they are roasted. The sinners are hewn with axes like pieces of timber. They are stewed in iron caldrons filled with their own blood. They are not
1 Sūtrakrtānga, 1, 5.11:
Asüriyam nama mahābhitāvam, amdhatamam duppataram muhamtarni Nuddham a heyam tiriyam disāsu, samahinum jacca gañikiyāim x

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
reduced to ashes. They undergo this kind of punishment for their misdeeds. In hells sinners suffer in consequence of the sinful deeds done by them while on earth. The noses, ears and lips of sinners are cut off with razors, and their tongues are pulled out with sharp pikes. Thy are thrown into large caldrons and boiled. They are compelled to drink molten lead and copper when they are thirsty.1 There is a terrible towering mountain called the Vaitalika where evildoers are long tortured. Thus the sinners are tortured day and night. They ery at the top of their voices in a dreadful hell which contains various implements of torture.
Hells are round inside, square outside, on their floor razor-like arrows are thick-set. They are filled with perpetual darkness. Their floor is slippery with a coat of marrow, fat, flesh, blood, and matter, and besmeared with grease. These hells are very rugged, difficult to pass and horrid. Those who are condemned to live in these hells do not sleep nor slumber, nor do they get any consolation, or comfort or recreation, but the denizens of hell suffer intolerable agonies.2
1 Sūtrakṛtānga, I, 5. 25:
Pakhippa tasu payapamtivāle, aṭṭassare te kaluņam rasamter Taeha iya te tanu tamratattam, pajjimāṇāṭṭataram rasamti ||
2 Ibid., II, 2. 67:
Noceva naracsu neraiyā ṇiddāyam tivā palāyamtivā suimeā ratiņrā dhîtimvā matimva nuvalabhamte tenum tattva nujjalam rinulam pagadam kaduyam kakkasam campham dukham duggam tibbam duruhiyasam neraiya veyaṇam paccaṇubbhavamāņā vidarumti.

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CHAPTER IV
STHĀNANGA (THĀŅAMGA)
The Thānamga is the third anga of the Jaina canon. This text has been edited in the Āgumasamgraha (Vol. III, Benares, 1880) with a Sanskrit and a Prakrit commentary.
deva Suri's commentary on it published in Bombay is very helpful. This text deals with the various themes of the Jain religion in numerical order from 1 to 10 (ekusthānaka, dristhanaku, tristhanaka, etc., up to daśasthūnaku) as in the Angutturu. Nikūya or Ekulturu Nikāya of the Sutta pitaka. It contains parables in a nutshell, its contents are varied, and some of them are not directly connected with Jainism, 6.9. themes of mathematics as in sutru 717. It enumerates four kinds of baskets, teachers, fishes, mendicants, balls and men, etc. Some important literary data about the siddhānta, specially a table of contents of the Drstitūda, are found in this angu. The entire work is mostly in prose. Each section deals with the objects according to their numbers, the maximum number being ten. This arga also deals with nayas, mahinimittus, cight types of philosophers, ten kinds of satyri, ten types of calculations, ten kinds of sins, ten kinds of wonders, seven notes of the musical scale (swyras), etc.
The Thūnanga onunerates eight mahūninittas or great onens or signs helping divination or prognostication of what is to happen. The Jaina commentators take them to be the names of the eight separate treatises of the lost Ajivika scripture to which they add two other names, namely the Gitamarga and Nrty margin. But no suggestion like this is made in our text. The commentator of this text explains the first name Bhauma as a treatise dealing with subjects like earthquake, the second as one dealing with prognostics of dreams and the like. The Pāli Jātakas speak of the four mahānimitlus or great omens planned by the gods as means of making Prince Siddhartha to face the stern realities of life and to renounce the world. The Mahāparinibbūna suttanta' speaks of eight causes of earthquake, while the Mahāsupina Jātaka 2 contains an interpretation of certain dreams. The prognostics of dreams are also suggested in the Jātaka account of the dream of Queen Māyā. Our sūtra mentions the cight branches of Ayurveda or the science
Digha, II, pp. 10711.
2 Jūtuka (Fausböll), I, pp. 334ff.

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of medicine. The list includes the four, namely, jangoli, bhitavejjā, khāratunta and rasātana (rasāyana) which are somewhat different from those included in the usual Ayurveda and Pāli lists (Cf. Brahmajäla Sutta, Digha, I; Cf. also the Chăndogya list-Chündogya Upanisad, VII Prapāthaka. Ist Khanda, 2nd Khanda and 7th Khanda). The list of eight types of philosophers is very interesting. This may be reduced to the list of eight types of philosophy. The first is ekarāda or monistie doctrine. The commentator refers to the old Upanisadie idea of soul as the sole abiding and ultimate reality which is the same in essence as the Brahman. Evidently the Ekarāda corresponds to the Pāli Ekucousussatuvāda mentioned in the Brahmajāla Sutta. The second is Anekavāda or the pluralistic doctrine. This may be taken to correspond to the Pāli Sassutarāda in the Brahmajūlu Sutta, having behind it the philosophy of Pakudha Kaccāyana, which might be construed both as dualism and pluralism. The Sānkhya and the Vaiseșika doctrines may be cited as examples of dualism and pluralism respectively. The third is Mitavāda which seems to correspond to the Pāli Antānantavāda in the Brahmajāla Sutta. The Jaina commentator, however, draws our attention to the l'panişadic conception of the length and size of the embodied soul-angusthapariamātram. The fourth is Nirmitavādu or theistic-deistic doctrine which corresponds to the Pāli Issaranimmānavāda or the theory of creation of the world of men and things by the will of God. This is elaborately dealt with in the Brahmajāla Sutta under the monistic type. The fifth is Sātavāda or the doctrine of happiness, which corresponds to the Pāli Ditthadhammanibbūnavāda of the Brahmajūla Sutta. The motto for this doctrine probably was Sukhenasukhamadhi. gantabbam, the way to happiness should lie through happiness. The sixth is Samucchedavāda or the doctrine of the annihilation of individuality after death which corresponds to Pāli Ucchedavāda of the Brahmajäla Sutta. The seventh is niyata or nityavāda. If it stands for niyatavāda, it means the doctrine of necessity, determinism or fatality, of which the typical example at the time of Mahāvīra and Buddha, was the philosophy of Gosāla. But it really stands for Nityavāda or the doctrine of eternality and as such it corresponds to the Pāli Sassatavāda of the Brahmajāla Sutta with the following as its axiom: 'something comes out of something'. It is in this light that the Jaina commentator explains this type. The eighth is a descriptive name, Nasanti-paralokavāda, for the doctrine of denial of future existence, reward and retribution. This is typically the

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STHANANGA (THANAMGA)
27
philosophy of Ajita Kesakambala and Pāyāsi (Jaina Paësi) as described and criticized in the Pāli and Jaina canon. The Ditthivādins or dogmatists hold 'Nothing save the doctrine we uphold, nothing save the dogma we preach is true'. (Thānamga, IV, 4.)
As for the table of contents of Drstivādu, the twelfth anga, as supplied by our text and the Samavāyānga, it has led Dr. Hiralal Jain to think that the Digambara Jaina work called the Satkhandāgama not only preserves the contents of the lost anga but furnishes also a commentary on them.
Our text mentions four kinds of mental concentration (jhāna), cach with its four varieties. The jhāna is defined in Jainism as the resting of consciousness on a single object even for a moment (anto muhuttanuttam cittāvatthānam egavatthummi). The first is called arthudhyānu of which the characteristic mark is self-mortification or that which is resorted to by a person who is oppressed by the fear of the world. The second is raudru or terrific, as it is attended by worst cruelties to life. The third is dharmya or pious, as it is not bereft of the practices of piety as enjoined in the scriptures. The fourth is sukla or purificatory as it serves to purge all impurities due to the karmic effect.

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CHAPTER V
SAMAVAYANGA (SAMAVAYAMGA)
This sutra is counted as the fourth Anga of the Jain Agama which may be regarded as a Jaina canonical compilation in continuation of the third anga called Thanamga. Both the angas follow the numerical method of presenting their subject-matters as in the Pali Anguttura or Ekuttara Nikaya. The Thanamga agrees more closely with the Anguttara Nikaya in so far as their numerical groupings stop at the number ten while the Samavāyamga supersedes them in going not only beyond ten but also beyond hundred and even as far as a kror and kror of krors.
The title of the sutra implies that it presents in a nutshell the contents of all the angas, the fourteen purvas and a few other texts of the canon besides the principal tenets of Jainism. In view of the fact that the sutra includes even its own contents, one cannot help doubting that the text in its extant form retains its earlier identity. The suspicion about its later transformation increases when we find that it speaks of the eighteen later developments of the Brahmi script, and enumerates the thirty-six sections of the Uttarajjhayana besides giving the contents of the Nandi sutra. It is equally important to note that the idea given of the extent of the angas is not quite the same as that of the texts in their present form. The main importance of the sutra is therefore mainly historical in so far as it throws light not only on the subjectmatters of the fourteen puvvas and the twelfth anga, which are lost beyond recovery, but also on the earlier extent of the angas forming the principal texts of the Svetambara Jain Canon. This sutra contains the enumeration of the two rasis and their sub-divisions, two types of hellish creatures, etc. It also deals with three Vedas (purisa, itthi and napumsaka), twenty-four Tirthankaras, nine Vasudevas and nine Baladevas, etc.
The Lalitavistara2 offers us a list of sixty-four alphabets which were learnt by the Bodhisatta. This list names the three main parent scripts, Brahmi, Kharoṣṭhi and Puskara
1 Ed. by Rai Dhanapat Singha, Published by the Jaina Prabhakara Press, 1890; Ed. with commentary in the Agamasamgraha, Vol. 4, Benares, 1880; with Abhayadeva's commentary by the Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1918.
2 Ed. Lefmann, pp. 125-126.

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SAMAVAYANGA (SAMAVAYAMGA)
sārī before introducing the later local varieties of the Brāhmi and a few numerical and notational symbols. The Jaina sutra altogether ignores the Kharosthi alphabet. The only parent script mentioned is the Bambhi (Brahmi). The Yavanalipi finds mention for the first time in Katyāyana's Vārttika to Panini's Grammar. The anka, ganita and gandharvalipis are all mathematical and musical notations. The Adursa, Maheśvara, Dami and Bolidi cannot be identified. The same remark holds true in the case of the remaining names. The chief interest of the study of the sutra centres round the information supplied regarding the contents of the fourteen purvus and the twelfth unga known as the Dṛṣṭivāda. It is suggested that the twelfth anga was the direct outcome of the fourteen purvas. The connection shown between the two is too ingenious to carry conviction. The purvas were the ancient traditions the number of which grew up gradually from eight to fourteen and the Jain tradition also speaks of the process of their gradual disappearance. So far as the twelfth anga is concerned, its subject-matters seem to be appropriately termed pravādas meaning discussions or disputations. They are enumerated as follows: (1) ut pada--setting forth the origination of all substances and their circumstantial changes, (2) agraniyam-describing the extent of the different types of souls among the substances and their transformations, (3) rīrya-enlightening us on the active energies of the ajīvas and the jīvas, (4) asti-nāsti-expounding what truly exists and what is not or judging the nature of reality from different standpoints in accordance with the Jain doctrine of syādrāda, (5) ñāna-defining the five kinds of knowledge, (6) satya-setting forth the nature of truth, self-control, truthfulness along with their opposites, (7) ātmā-discussing the nature of self (soul) in different ways according to Jaina modes or methods (nayas), (8) karmadealing with the classification of karma and defining the kinds of karma, (9) pratyākhyāna-dealing with the subject of pratyākhyāna, (10) Vidya-dealing with the subject of learning, (11) abandhya-dealing with the subject of fruitfulness, (12) prāṇāyuḥ dealing with the spans of life of living beings, (13) kriyavisala-dealing with the prescriptions regarding different religious practices, and (14) lokavindusāra-dealing with the art of language.
In this as well as in other Jaina canonical sutras Baladeva and Vasudeva and their families are accorded a very prominent place. The Pali Mahāniddesa distinctly bears evidence to the existence of the two groups of devotees, namely, those
29

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30
of Baladeva and Vasudeva.1 Samkarṣaṇa (Baladeva) and Vasudeva figure as special objects of worship also in the Ghosundi stone inscription. Among the five viras or family heroes of the Vṛṣṇis, Baladeva was given precedence over Vasudeva. But since the name of samba was eliminated from the list and the caturvyuha doctrine came into existence in about the first or second century A.D., Vasudeva came to occupy the first and the most important place. The two lists of twenty-four Tirthankaras, the one relegated to the Airavata kalpa and the other to the future cosmic system, are absolutely fantastic and they carry no meaning save and except that according to the Jain conception the present is just a repetition of the past as future is that of the present. The enumeration of the different doctrinal points of Jainism, the classification of the living beings according to the species, soul-types, existences, activities and destinies, the classification of the gods, asurakumāras and the infernal beings, are all too trivial to deserve full treatment here.
SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
1 Niddesa, PTS Ed., I, p. 89-Vasudevavattikā vā honti, Baladevavattikū vā honti.

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CHAPTER VI
VYĀKHYA-PRAJÑAPTI (BHAGAVATI-VIYAHA
PAŅŅATTI)
The fifth Jain Anga, popularly known as the Bhagavatī Sūtra, is rightly judged by Winternitz as a Jain canonical mosaic of various texts integrated into a single explanatory treatise on Jainism. It is accordingly entitled Viāhapannatti. It is also known as Bhagavatīviyāhapannatti, Bhagavatī, Vivāhapannutti, and Pannatti. The old name of Viyāhappannatti is often corrupted to Virāhapannatti. The title Bhagavai, which arose later, is originally only an adjective (Schubring, Die Lehre Der Jainus, 1935, p. 63). This text has not yet been translated into English. It has been edited with Abhayadeva's commentary and published in three volumes by the Agamodaya Samiti of Bombay (1918-1921). Weber and Schubring have made much use of this text (Über ein Fragment der Bhagavatī, in Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1865; Worte. Mahuvīras). Some portions of this text have been translated into German by Schubring. A Gujrati translation (1-6) has appeared (Ahmedabad, 1927). Dr. A. Weber's Fraugment der Bhagavati (Berlin, 1866) is worthy of notice. This text contains questions and answers, Mahāvīra replying to the questions of his chief disciple, Indrabhūti, and partly in the form of dialogue-legend (itihāsa-samvāda). This text gives a very good account of the life and work of Mahāvīra whose dissertations on samsāru and karma are worth noticing. There are two works of this name which is not the original title of either. The fourth u pānga, Pannavanā often has the epithet Bhagavai.
The Bhagavati is one of the most important and sacred texts of the Jaina Siddhānta. Bhagavatī, translated by holy' is just an honorific to signify its great importance as a work of exposition of the tenets and legends connected with the life of Mahāvira. This text contains 41 sections, each is called a sataka (century). Every section has 10 chapters, each of which is called an uddesaka or concise presentation of subject-matters. It appears to have followed the uddesa and niddesa methods, the first implying the presentation of theses and the second their elucidation. Its contents are 'a motley mixture of ancient doctrines and traditions with

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numerous later additions containing frequent allusions to other works more especially to the Pannavaņā, the Jivūjivābhigama, the travāiya, the Rāyu pusenaijja, the Nandi and the Āyāradasão'.'
The 15th section which contains the legendary or semihistorical matters relating to the life of Mahāvīra and his relationship with some of his predecessors and contemporaries is not unreasonably regarded as an independent text which was subsequently taken into the Bhagaruti Sūtra.
The expositions are introduced in the form of dialogues between Mahāvīra and his disciples including Gautama (Goyama Indabhūti). In some of the uddesukus they assume the form of (atechisms or questions and answers. Abhayadevasūri wrote a commentary on this sūtru, which was known to him under two titles, lāhapannutti (I'yakhyu-prajñupti) and Vivāha pannatti (livadhu-prajña pri) both of which he explains and justifies. Abhayadeva rightly points out that in some places the tenets are explained by Sudharman to Jambusvāmi. Each section begins with an introduction stating the time, the place, the occasiou of the dialogue or discourse and mentioning the persons taking part in it. It may be pointed out that each section stands as a typical sūtra of the Jaina or Buddhist (anon. Accordingly the component chapters generally appear without any such introduction. In the Bhagavutī Sūtra we have the following khandas or topical divisions: sādhana, cāritru, siddhāntu, anyatīrthika, vijñānu, gañita, kutūhalu, devu, nāruku and anyajīva.
The standpoint of Jainism as presented in the Bhagavati is in no way different from that in other texts of the Jain Agama. The fundamental principle of Jainism is ahimsū and the attainment of nirrāņa is the highest goal. The practice of tapas or austerities marks and characterizes all the prescriptions, practices, and disciplines in Jainism. The plurality of souls is a point in Jain philosophy which is the same as in the Sānkhya system. The main point of difference between the two is that in Jainism the souls with consciousness as their fundamental attribute are vitally concerned with our actions, moral and immoral, virtuous and wicked, in which sense they are active principles; while in the Sānkhya system the puruṣas with consciousness as their fundamental attribute are passive principles inasmuch as their natur not affected by any and all of the activities relegated to
i Winternitz, A History of Indian Literuture, Vol. II (Cal. Univ. Pub.), pp. 442-443.

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VYAKHYA-PRAJNAPTI (BHAGAVATI-VIYAHAPANNATTI)
Prakrti or evolvent. In Jainism too the souls and substances do not undergo any change. They are liable to changes due to changes in circumstances. Both the systems necessitate a careful consideration of the cosmical, biological, embryological, physical, mental and moral positions of the rivas or living individuals of the world as a whole. These constitute the scientific background of the two systems of thought. One can say that these constitute also the scientific background of Vedānta and Buddhism. The Jainas developed a cosmographical gradation of beings more or less in agreement with those adopted in other systems. But the Jainas followed a tradition of Indian thought which took a hylozoistic view of nature that there is nothing formed even in the world of matter, nothing which exists in space and time, which does not represent some kind or form or type of jīva. And it is assumed that all of thein are in the process of development or evolution in the physical structures, modes of generation, foods and drinks, deportments, behaviours, actions, thoughts, ideas, knowledge, intelligence and the like. So we need not be astonished that Jainism speaks of earth-lives, water-lives, fire-lives, and wind-lives, each with its numerous sub-divisions. The plants with their numerous sub-species stand above the material lives. From the plants we pass on to the animal world consisting of an infinite variety of species and from that to the world of men. Above and below man we are led to think of the celestial and infernal beings, the devas and nairayikas.
Along with the cosmical situation, the cyclical envelopment and development of the earth through the successive
riods of time, the geographical position of the living beings is considered, inasmuch as the conditions of their pleasure and pain, happiness and misery are partially determined by it. Accordingly the Bhagavati Sūtra discusses in agreement with the Jambudvīpaprajñapti and other texts, the geographical situation of Jambudipa and Bhāratavarşa, t denoting India. Their physical and natural environments too are relevantly taken into consideration. Jainism attributes just one sense to the material beings and the plants. The higher organic beings evolve out of the stage in which they are possessed of one sense, the sense of touch, into the stages in which they become gradually endowed with greater and greater number of senses, the maximum number being six. The nature and quality of their nutriments, the modes of eating, drinking, assimilation, etc., also differ according to the diversity of the species of flora and fauna. Similar differences are also made out with regard to the celestial and

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
infernal beings. The study of the lives of mythical beings such as the gods, the demons, and the like is on the whole anthropomorphic. The moral ideas of right and wrong, good and evil, virtue and vice, restraint and unrestraint, bondage and salvation, really apportain to the world of men.
The expositions and discussions of the salient doctrinal points of Jainism are full of logical niceties and disproportionate details. The sūtra points out that the organic world is characterized by six constant and opposed phenomena, namely, gain and loss, pleasure and pain, life and death (XV, I). The sūtra clearly presupposes the development of atomic theory (paramāņuvādu) in Indian philosophy. Some of the current theories are quoted and criticized (I, 10; II, 1; V, 7). According to the Jain theory as in our Sūtra, each atom is the smallest unitary whole of matter (pudgala). Each of them is characterized by its internal cohesion (sinchu). We cannot speak of a half atom (arddha) since an atom is an indivisible unit of matter. With the division it (eases to be an atom (parumāņoḥ ardhikurune parumāņutvābhāvaprasangāt). A molecule (uņu) is a combination of atoms more than one. An aggregate of matter (skandhu) results from an organic combination of five molecules. Disintegration of a corporeal aggregate results from the separation of the molecules and atoms. Here one may realize the force of the Jain argument for regarding even the material beings, the earth-lives, water-lives, etc., as distinct forms of life, each appearing as an individual with its internal cohesion so long as it exists as such. So through the process of organic development or evolution we pass through the different degrees and forms of internal cohesion.
The story of conversion of the Brāhmin wanderer named Khandaka (Skandhaka) by Mahāvīra in the Bhugavati Sūtru (II, 1) is very interesting. The name of the wanderer sounds like the wanderer Sandaka in the Pāli Majjhima Nikāya (Vol. I, p. 513). Like other Brāhmin wanderers Khandaka is said to have been well versed in the four Vedas, the six Vedāngas, and the Itihāsa-purāņu regarded as the fifth Veda. Here the list also includes mathematics (ganita) and the șaști-tantra of the Sankhya philosophy. The difficult austerities practised by the wanderer since his conversion to the Jain faith are in substance and detail like those described in the Antagadadasāo and Ovavāia suttas and in the Pāli Mahādukkhakhandhal and Mahāsīhanāda suttus. The dialogue contained in this uddesa throws some light on the
1 Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 83- 90.
2 Ibid., 1, pp. 68-83.
3B

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VYAKHYA.PRAJNAPTI (BHAGAVATI-VIYAHAPAŅŅATTI)
35
doctrine of infinity and finiteness, endlessness and limitedness discussed in the Pāli Brahmajāla Sutta (Dīgha, I).
In the Brahmajāla Sutta the Buddha refers to the four different propositions maintained by the contemporary and earlier recluses and Brāhmaṇas on four different grounds. (Dīgha, I, p. 22ff.). These are: (1) that this world is limited and circumscribed (antavā ayam loko parivatumo); (2) that it is limitless and without an end (ananto ayam loko upariyunto); (3) that it is both limited and unlimited (untavā ca ayam loko ananto ca), meaning that the world is limited above and below and unlimited crosswise; (4) that it is neither limited nor limited. The explanation given by Buddhaghosa in his cominentary, the Sumangalavilāsini, is not very illuminating. As he suggests, the limited or unlimited character of the world depends on the limited or unlimited view taken by the contemplative in his mental perception or vision (I, p. 115). Here we miss the philosophical aspect of the propositions. It appears that the third proposition referred to the view upheld by Mahāvīra and his disciples. According to Mahāvīra the world may be construed in some respects as limited and in some respects as unlimited (sa-ante loe añante loe). Here he considers the position of the world from the four points of view, from the point of view of substance (ilavuu0), from that of field of existence (khettao), from that of time (kūluo) and from that of phenomena (bhāvao). It is maintained that considered from first two points of view the world is limited and considered from the remaining points of view, it is unlimited (II, 1). It may be observed that with regard to all contradictory views the Bhagavatī Sūtra assigns to Mahävira a kind of synthetic position seeking to justify both of them, each from its own point of view. This was undoubtedly consistent with the 'It may be' doctrine (syātvāda of Jainism).
The Jaina ideas regarding the advent of different living beings in different states or forms of existence are on the whole the same as those in other Indian systems. T difference lies only in some unimportant details. The Jains too believe in the possibility of bodily advent without the help of any sex union. The Jaina belief, however, is a belief in the transmigration of soul, a point in which it differs from the Buddhist conception of rebirth without any transmigration of soul from embodiment to embodiment. The soul i Jainism as in most of the Indian systems is the factor which polarizes the field of matter and brings about the organic combination of the elements of existence. If the position be that death means an event which takes place when the

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soul leaves the body, the question arises whether it passes off in some form of corporeality (sasariri) or without any such corporeality (asariri). Here too the traditional Jain position is, it may be that it goes out in some form of corporeality and it may equally be that it does so without any form of corporeality (Siya sariri vakkamai, siya asarīrī vakkamai). With reference to the gross body characterized as audārika, vaikriya and āhāraka, the soul goes out without any corporeality, while with reference to the subtle body characterized as taijasa and kārmaņa (karmic), it departs in its subtle body (I, 7). Deaths and destinies are broadly distinguished as those undergone by fools and those by the wise. The deaths on the part of fools that take place due to different causes or under different circumstances serve to lengthen the course of gliding in the cycle of births and deaths and those on the part of the wise go to shorten it. This too is a commonplace in the popular Indian belief.
Attention may be drawn to another interesting point. The account given in our sutra of the doctrinal position of Mankhaliputta Gosala, the leader of the Ajivika thought, seeks to make out this point of difference and distinction between Jainism and Ajivikism. Gosala's position is an unqualified fatalism or determinism while Mahavira's position is not so, inasmuch as it distinctly leaves scope for freedom. According to Gosala death signifies a suspended animation while periodical reanimation as in plant-life is the order of nature. The Jainas seem to construe that if we accept Gosala's position, we cannot think of death as a phenomenon, but death in the case of all things formed or compounded is inevitable.
It is interesting to note that our sutra (I, 76) speaks of a dispute between Kalasavesiyaputta, a follower of Parsva and a disciple of Mahāvīra. It ends with the former's begging permission to stay with him after having changed the law of the four vows for the law of the five vows enjoining compulsory confession. This is surely a supplement to the Uttaradhyayana dialogue between Kesin and Gautama as representatives of the two Nirgrantha orders, old and new. The date of Gosala's death taking place sixteen years before Mahāvira's death was coincident with the great war fought between king Kūniya (Ajātaśatru) and king Ceḍaga of Vaisali for the possession of an extraordinary elephant (Bhagavati Sūtra, Agamodaya Samiti edition, p. 316). On the death of Mahavira the confederacy of nine Mallas and nine Licchavi clans and the kings of Kāśī and Kosala instituted a festival in honour of that event (Bhagavati Sūtra, p. 316). It may be remarked

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VYAKHYA-PRAJÑAPTI (BHAGAVATI-VIYAHAPAŅŅATTI)
37
that the Bhagavatī like other Jaina canonical sūtras is unaware of the position of Kūņiya as the king of Magadha. Kuņiya is represented as the king, better viceroy of Anga, in his father's time. Anga was governed as a separate province under Kūņiya with Campā as its capital (Ibid., p. 316).
Udāyana of Sauvīradeśa was succeeded by his nephew Kesi in whose reign Vitahavya was completely ruined (Bhagavatī Sūtra, p. 619). He went to the extent of renouncing the world but when the question of the succession of his son Abhi came before him, he said to himself: 'If I renounce the world after appointing Abhi to royal power, then Abhi will be addicted to it and to the enjoyment of human pleasures. He will go on wandering in this world.' This led him to renounce the world appointing his sister's son Kesi to royal power (Bhagavati Sūtra, pp. 619-20). Is it not a case of the matriarchal system in vogue ?
King Satānika's sister Jayanti was a staunch follower of Mahāvīra (Ibid., p. 558). The Bhagavati Sūtra informs us that in the war with Vaiśālī, Kūniya is said to have made use of mahāsilākantuku and rathamuşala. The first seems to have been some engine of war of the nature of a catapult which threw big stones, and the second was a chariot to which a mace was attached to kill men as the chariot moved about (pp. 316, 319). We have also the mention of Tāmali, apparently a citizen of Tāmalitti or Tāmralipti (Tamluk), who is described as a Moriyaputta. It is difficult to make out whether Tāmali of our sūtra was in any way connected with the Mauryas of Magadha. He is introduced rather as a rich merchant (III, 1). The Uvāsugadasāo and the Bhagavati Sūtra mention a few rich lay disciples of Mankhaliputta Gosāla belonging to the Vaiấya class, e.g., Kundakuliya, a citizen of Kampillapura, Saddālaputta, a rich potter of Polāsapura, Hālāhalā and Ayampula of Srāvasti, which was the main centre of the Ajīvika activity according to the Bhagavatī Sūtra.

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CHAPTER VII JNĀTĀDHARMAKATHA (NĀYADHAMMAKAHÃO)
11 U0.
The text of Nāyādhammakahão (Skt. Jñātūdharmakathā) which is also called Nāvasūva is the sixth anga of the bara Jain canon. It comes under narrative literature of the Jainas. It is very useful from etymological and grammatical standpoint. Ardha-Māgadhi Naya is the same as Sanskrit Jñāta. The title may be explained as 'Stories for the dhamma of Naya' (Jnātr), i.e. Mahāvira, who is also called Jñātrputra. Nāya or Nātaputta. The text is divided into two siyakkhandhas called Nāya and Dhammakahā. The former has nineteen ajjhayaņas and the latter, ten vaggas. It contains didactic and religious narratives. The stories found here explain the teachings of Mahāvīra. The text also contains an exposition of elements.
The story of a mariner reminds us of the Pāli l'alāhussa. Jātaku (Jāt., No. 196). The winged horse occurs in both. Besides legends and fables we find romantic stories and adventures, tales of robbers, mariners, etc. The stories of Dovāi (Draupadi) and a pious layman as found in this text have been introduced to show the destiny of persons through various rebirths. The story of the former is no doubt a corruption of the Mahābhārata legend of Draupadlī's marriage with five Pandava brothers as pointed out by Winternitz.
The text furnishes us with the names of some of the non-Aryan tribes and refers to eighteen languages, four Vedas, and saștitantra, sixteen diseases, etc. There are some graphic descriptions of the bed-chamber of Dhārani, of a demon, six seasons, etc. Some interesting details may be gathered from this text. Kālī, an old maiden (vuddukumārī) joined Pārsva’s order and was entrusted to Pupphacūla, the head of the nuns (Nāyā., II, i, pp. 222ff.). The succession by primogeniture was then in vogue. The kingdom descended directly to the king's eldest son and all was right if the king had an heir, but if he died heirless it was a great problem for the ministers (Ibid., 14, 153ff.). The palaces are described in this text as lofty. They had domes (thūbhiyā) and their floors were richly decorated with various kinds of gems and jewels (Ibid., I, p. 22). The harem (oroha) was a part of the royal pomp (Ibid., 16, p. 185). Sīhaguhá (mountain cave) is mentioned as a corapalli which was located in an unapproachable mountain ravine (Ibid., 18, p. 209). A robber

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JNATADHARMAKATHA (NAYADHAMMAKAHÃO)
was put into prison where his feet were tied in a wooden frame (Ibid., 2, pp. 53ff.). For some slight fault merchant Dhanna of Rayagiha met with the same fate (Ibid., 2, p. 54). Four varieties of elephants, viz. Bhadda, Manda, Miya and Sankinna, are classified according to their seasonal uses, physical strength, intelligence and ability, etc. (Ibid., I, p. 39; Cf. Sammohavinodani, p. 397, mentioning ten kinds of elephants: Kalāvakañca Gangeyyam, Pandaram Tamba-Pingalam, Gandha-Mangala-Hemañ ca uposatha-Chaddant' ime dusati.). When Mithila was besieged by Jiyasattu and other kings, king Kumbhaga closed the city gates and the citizens could not move out (Ibid., 8, p. 112). The paddy was sown during the rains and when ripe the crops were harvested with new sharp sickles, thrashed, winnowed and then taken to the granary where they were kept in new sealed jars (Ibid., 7, 86). Flower-houses were made during festivals (Ibid., 8, 103). Woodgatherers (katthahāragā), leafgatherers (pattahāragā) and grass-cutters (tanahāragā) were found roaming about in forests (Ibid., 13, 143). Tortoises were eaten by the people (Ibid., 4). Clothes were moistened with soda (sajjiyākhāra) and heated on fire and then washed with clean water (Ibid., 5, 74). Various kinds of cloth were loaded in waggons and carried for sale (Ibid., 17, 203). The king could commute the sentence of death for banishment (Ibid., 8, 107). Mithila is mentioned as a port and the seafaring merchants of Campa came here for trade (Ibid., 8, 97ff.). Kaliyadiva was the place where there were rich mines of gold, jewels and diamond and which was noted for horses (Ibid., 17, 201ff.). There was the necessity of passport (rāyavarasāsana) (Ibid., 8, 98).
There was the worship of various deities (Ibid., 8, 100). There were taverns and gambling houses (juyakhalaya) (Ibid., 2, 48). The country of Daddara was noted for its sandal wood (Ibid., 8, 98). The town of Hatthikappa or Hatthakappa was visited by the five Pandavas (Ibid., 16, 199ff.). It may be identified with Hathab near Bhavnagar in Gujarat. The sayamvara of Dovai (Draupadi) was held in the city of Kampillapura2 (Ibid., 8, 178). Pandu Mahura may be
1 The Himalayan forests are said to have abounded in elephants living in herds or as rogues, distinguished as l'amanikā (dwarfish), Uccākaļārikā, Uccăkaneruka and Chaddanta (six-tuskod). The last named class is associated with the Chaddanta lake and is noted for the high quality of the ivory (B. C. Law, India as described in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, p. 65).
2 Or Kampilyanagara (Mahabharata, 138, 73-74) which was the capital of southern Pañcala, identical with modern Kampil in the Farokhabad district, U.P. (B. C. Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, p. 18; B. C. Law, Panchalas and their capital Ahichchhatra, M.A.S.I., No. 67, pp. 3ff.)

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS identified with Madura in South India. It was the place where the Påndaras were asked by Kanha Väsudeva to go and reside there (Ibid., 16, 197ff.). Damaghosa, father of Siśupāla, was invited to attend the marriage ceremony of DovĀi (Draupadi) in Kampillapura (Ibid., 8, 178). Kanha Vasudeva ruled over Varabāi together with many princes and chiefs (Ibid., 6, 68). He had many queens. The five Påndavas were chosen by Draupadi (Ibid., 16) as her husbands. A rich courtezan of Campā was versed in the traditional sixty-four arts, possessed sixty-four accomplishments of a courtezan and knew the science of erotic very well. She was a linguist, well versed in dialects and an accomplished singer and dancer. There was the sleeping chamber of queen Dhāriņi as having an outer courtyard, polished pillars, latticed windows, circular stairs, brackets, appertures and a room on the roof. The outside was whitewashed with stone and the inside was decorated with pictures. A mention is made of five kinds of nurses who were engaged to tend children: wet-nurse (khira), toilet-nurse (mundanı), bathnurse (majjana), play-nurse (kiļavaņu) and lap-nurse (unka) (Ibid., I, p. 21).
The seven categories are not fully enumerated anywhere in the sutra. In a few instances, the sūtra refers to the principles of jīva and ajīra (ahigaya jīvājīve). The characteristic feature of the physical body which forms an aspect of ajīva is described in detail. It is full of impurities, it is perishable, it is subject to change and decay. Malli the Videha-princess is found to point out its defects before Jiyasattu and others. The text lays special stress on sense-control. This is beautifully illustrated by the simile of the two tortoises and the jackal (4th ajjhayana). The jackal was very eager to appease its hunger by the flesh and blood of the tortoise. But, of the two tortoises, one expanded its limbs, while the other withheld them into its bosom. The jackal could catch hold of the former only, and in the case of the latter, it could do no harm. Similarly, one who is accustomed to concentrate his senses towards worldly objects is liable to destruction, while the other who is keen to withdraw them from the worldly objects is not subject to sorrows and afflictions.
The ideas of āśrava and samvara are found in this text, though the terms are not explicitly mentioned therein. The commentator has used these terms āórava and samvara. Aśrava is that which causes the soul to be affected by sins, while samvara is the prevention of sins by watchfulness. It
1 Nāyādhammakahão (ed. N. V. Vaidya), pp. 73, 75.

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is the principle of self-control by which the influx of sins is checked. It is an aspect of tapas.
The doctrine of indiyajavanijja and no-indiyajavanijja 1 is expounded to Suka in the fifth ajjhuyaņa. The former speaks of the stage when the senses out of their own accord come under perfect control and thus they cannot function according to the sweet will of the agent. But the latter is far more superior to this. It is the stage when passion, illusion, attachment and the like are totally brought under control. This is possible only when the senses cease to function altogether. Some of the Samkhya-yoga teachers are also found to hold similar views (Yogu-bhūsyu, ii, 55).
From the fifth aghayana we learn that the mendicant Suka was initiated into the Jaina faith. He with his one thousand followers was an adherent of Sāmkhya and practised the five kinds of restraints and observances having purification (śaucu) as the basis of his cult (samkhasamae laddhatthe pamcayama pomicaniyamayuttam soyanūlam). Once he happened to roam with his followers in the vicinity of the town of Sogamdhiyā where lived a rich man named Sudamsana. The mendicant expounded his own doctrine to hin thus, Just listen Sudamsana, our religion is based upon purification (sauca) which again is of two kinds: (1) dravyasauca and (2) bhāraśauca. The former is to be practised by earth and water, while the latter is to be done by the aid of kusagrass and by citing some mantras (amham soyamülae dhamme panṇatte ... mamtehi ya).3 By observing these two purifications one may easily reach heaven (avigghenam saggam gacchati).4
Our text refers to a bare outline of Sāņkhya doctrine. The above-mentioned yamas, niyamas (sauca only forming an aspect of the latter) are enumerated and explained in the system of Patañjali (ii, 30, 32). They are only held to be the means of practising Yoga which again helps one to attain samādhi or meditation.
Sudamsana became a follower of Suka. Once he happened to meet Thāvaccāputta, a follower of Mahāvīra. A long dialogue took place between them, in which the socalled Sāmkhya view was criticized by Thāvaccāputta and the Jaina view was expounded. The question put before the Jaina teacher is interesting. It is as follows: 'Well, Sir, are you one, two or many; are you eternal and immutable, or subject to change and decay ? (ege bhavam duve bhavam ...
1 Ibid., p. 76. 3 Ibid., p. 73.
2 Ibid., p. 73. 4 Ibid., p. 74.

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aṇegabhūyabhāvabhavie vi bhavam)' The reply given by the Jaina teacher was based upon Syādvāda (Abhayadeva's commentary, p. 588, Calcutta Ed., samvat 1933).
This sutra has been edited with Abhayadeva Suri's commentary and published by the Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1916. Another readable and critical edition has been published by Prof. N. V. Vaidya of the Fergusson College, Poona, 1940. Steinthal (Specimen der Nāyādhammakahā, Diss. Leipzig, 1881), W. Hüttemann, (Die Jñata Erzählungen im sechsten Anga des kanons der Jinisten, Strassburg, 1907), and E. Leumann (Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 3, 1889) have also carefully studied this sutra.
1
1 Ibid., p. 77.

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CHAPTER VIII
UPĀSAKADAŠĀ (U'VĀSACADASÃO)
The Urāsagadasão (Urāsagaddasāu or U gruīsa kudaśās) is the seventh anga. It contains ten chapters (ajjhayanas) dealing with the legends about the ten upūsukus or pious householders who by means of asceticism obtained moksa
mancipation. The legends are all told after a stereotyped pattern in the most monotonous inamner as rightly pointed out by Winternitz. This text has been edited with the Sanskrit commentary by Abhayadeva Sūri and translated into English with notes by Hoernle in the Bibliotheca Indica Series. The Acamodava Samiti has also published an edition of this text with Abhayadeva Sūri's commentary. Leumann (Wiener Zeitschrift für die kunde des Jorganlandes, 3, 1889) and Barth (Revue de l'histoire des Religions, Paris, 19, 1889) have carefully studied this text which contains mostly narratives. An elaborate metrical version of the contents of this anga in Prākrit is available. The whole work seems to have been compiled for devotional purposes. It furnishes us with materials which give a vivid picture of the social life of those days. It contains the stories of pious householders who became lay adherents, the wealthy potter named Saddālaputta, who was at first a follower of Makkhali Gosāla, but afterwards went over to Mahāvīra, and Kundakoliya whose faith in Mahavira remained unabated.
In the Uvāsagudusão (Lecture I) we find that Vāņiyagāma or Vesāli was ruled by Jiyasattu. Vesāli and Videha were ruled by Codaga, the maternal uncle of Mahāvīra. The same text refers to the site of an ancient shrine called Gunasila in the neighbourhood of Rājagsha (VIII, 231). The Kālasilā was perhaps no other than what is called the site of Guņasīlacaitya in this text. The settlement of Kollāga and the village of Bālaka at some distance from Nālandā were places that became scenes of early actions of Gosāla, the leader of the Ajivikas, who met Mahāvīra first in Rājagěha.
There was a Jaina temple outside the town of Vāniyagāma which bore the name of Duipalāsa in the north-easterly direction.
1 Uvāsagadasão, Hoernle, App., pr. 1-2.
2 Hoernle, Uvāsagadasão, I, p. 2. Vaniyagā massa nayara88a vahiyā utturapuratthime disibhāe Dui palāsac nāmam ccic.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
The town of Vaniyagama mentioned in secs. 77-78 of the Urasagadasão curiously agrees with the description of Vesāli given in the Tibetan Dulva. Gautama, a senior disciple of Mahavira, addressed him thus 'I desire, Revered Sir, with your permission, as the turn for the indulgence for my sixth meal has arrived, to go round the city of Vaniyagama, to the upper, lower and middle classes, on a begging tour of houseto-house collection.' 2
Bārāṇasī, Kampillapura, Palāśapura and Alabhi were the important towns within the kingdom of Jiyasattu (Uvāsagadasão, pp. 84, 85, 90, 95, 105, 160 and 163). All these places could be reached from Śravasti by convenient roads. In the neighbourhood of Sravasti there was a settlement (sannivesa) called Saravana which was the birthplace of Gosala Mankhaliputta, the great master of the Ajivikas (Ibid., App. I). Palāśapura was another important centre of the Ajivikas (Ibid., p. 105).
There lived at Benares a prosperous householder named Sūrādeva. He possessed a very rich treasure of gold and herds. He took upon himself the law of the householder and lived in conformity with the teachings of the law which he had received from Mahavira. Another prosperous householder named Culanipiya lived at Benares. His wife was named Samā. He possessed a treasure of gold and herds. He was the cause of prosperity to whatever business he was concerned with. At a certain time Mahāvīra came and a congregation went out from Benares to hear him. He lived in conformity with the teachings of the law which he received from Mahāvīra. Afterwards through lofty ascetic practices he was reborn as a deva (Uvāsagadasão, II, pp. 90-98). The Uvāsagadasão refers to the early career of Mahavira as a teacher when there seems to have been an alliance of KāśīKośala, Anga, Alavi, Videha, Vaiśālī, Pāvā and Kuśinārā against the growing power of Magadha. But in spite of such an alliance, Anga was conquered by Bimbisara and permanently annexed to Magadha. Kunika-Ajātaśatru, son of Bimbisara, is represented throughout the Jaina literature as the king of Anga (Campā).
1 Hoernle, Ibid., II, p. 6.
2 Ibid., I, p. 36. Icchami nam, bhunte, tubbhchim abbhaṇunae chaṭṭhakkha. maṇassa pāraṇagamsi vāniyagāme nayare uccaniyamajjhimāim kuldim gharasa. muddānassa bhikkhayariyae aḍittae.
3 Ibid., p. 84: Bāṇārasim nama nayari. Kotthae ceie. Sūrādeve gāhāvai addhe. Cha hiranakodio java.... Cha vaya dasagosähassienam vaenam..... paḍivajjai gihidhammam... samanassa Bhagavao Mahavirassa dhamma. panattim uvasampajjittānam viharai.

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UPĀSAKADAŠĀ (UVĀSAGADASÃO)
The text, as its title implies, is solely concerned with the matters relating to the good life of the laity. In the Pali canon the Sangiti Suttanta is similarly devoted to the whole duty of a noble householder. In the Anguttara Nikāya there are several sections dealing with the life of householders. In the Pali discourses the instructions are of a more general than of sectarian interest. Here in the Jaina text the dominant motive is to guide the conduct of the Jaina laity. It is pointed out that the fatalistic creed of Gosala is unethical. So Jainism is insistent on a view of life which makes a person morally responsible for his deeds. The Jaina upāsakas are called upon to fulfil the twelve vows, the five of which are lesser (anuvratas) and the seven disciplinary (sikṣāvratikas). The ideal life of the Jain householder Ananda is a glaring instance of how these vows could be practised. The five essential vows are the five mahāvratas. Ananda took the solemn vows to abandon injury to living beings, indulgence in lying speech, theft, adultery, and hankering after wealth beyond what is legitimately one's own. He was desired to reduce the use of personal things such as toilet, clothings, food and drink.
The five gross transgressions of the vow of non-injury consist in coercion, violence, dismemberment of the body, overloading and starving others. The five gross transgressions
of the vow of truthfulness consist in false accusation under the influence of passion, false accusation in secrecy, betrayal of the confidence of one's wife, communication of false information, and falsification of documents. The five gross transgressions of the vow of honesty consist in the receipt of stolen property, employment of thieves, smuggling, use of false weights and measures and trade in contrabands. The five gross transgressions of the vow of conjugal fidelity on the part of the husband consist in visiting a concubine, visiting a respectable woman, amorous dalliance with other women, arranging marriages for strangers, and excessive sex indulgence. The five gross transgressions of the vow of nonexcess in worldly possessions consist in exceeding one's limit in the matter of landed property, gold, livestock, money, foodstuff, and utensils.
The five typical transgressions of the vow of the quarters (dikvrata) consist in going beyond the limit in the upward, the downward and horizontal directions, enlarging the space limit of one's movement and failure of memory. The five
1 Digha, III, pp. 207-271; B. C. Law, A History of Pāli Literature, vol. I,
114.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
typical transgressions of the law of abstention from unpro. fitable employment consist in talking about things of an amorous import, behaving like a buffoon, talking about impure things, assisting in a bad thing and exceeding the need of things of personal use.
The five typical transgressions of the law of equanimity consist in indulgence in evil thought, evil speech and evil deed, forgetfulness of the law of equanimity and want of proper attention to the law of equanimity.
The five typical transgressions of the law of keeping within a certain place consist in the employment of one's family members as messengers, the employment of one's servants as messengers, communication by word of mouth, communication by gestures, and intimation by sign.
The five typical transgressions of the law of keeping the sabbath (posudha) con examined or badly examined, which is unwiped or badly wiped, the use of a spot for easing nature which is inexamined or badly examined, which is unwiped or badly wiped, and the imperfect observance of the abstinences prescribed.
The five typical transgressions of the law of proper distribution of alms consist in putting something away among living things, covering up the alms with living things, neglecting the appointed hour, acting at the instance of others and miserliness.
The five typical transgressions of the law of self-mortification for meeting death consist in longing after this world, longing after the next world, longing after life, longing after death and longing after sensual enjoyment.
The five typical transgressions of the law of right belief consist in scepticism, fickleness, distrustfulness, praising of heterodox teachers and intimacy with them.
The four kinds of unprofitable employment consist in malevolent conduct, inconsiderate conduct, supply of dangerous objects and directing of sinful acts.

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CHAPTER IX
ANTAKRTA-DASANGA (AMTAGADA-TASÃO)
The Amtagadu-dusāo (Antakrta-duśānga) is known as the eighth unga of the Svetāmbara (anon. It consists of eight vaggas or divisions, cach forining a group of a certain number of lessons. The number of lessons is ten in the first, fourth, and eighth divisions; cight in the second; thirteen in the third and seventh, and sixteen in the sixth. Each lesson is conveyed through an appropriate personal story of a legendary character. The stories are those of the end-winners', meaning the persons who died either attaining liberation with death or being assured of it at the time of death. The stories placed in a group appear to be more or less of the same pattern as regards the nature of the end attained. The anga took its name from the stories of the end-winners' narrating their antagudadasū or happy ends. The stories of such achieve. ments oli the part of different persons, men and women, are related with reference to the dispensation of the two Tirthankaras, Aritthanemi (Aristanemi) the twenty-second Jina and Mahāvīra the last Jina. Accordingly the divisions with the stories and lessons mark on the whole two stages in the continuation of the main dialogue, namely, pre-Mahāvīra and Mahāvira. The earlier stave is covered by the career of Aritthanemi and the reign of Kanha Vāsudeva of Western India, and the later stage by the career of Mahāvīra and the reign of king Seniya of Rāyagiha (Rājagļha). The text as a whole is presented in the shape and form of a dialogue between the Arya Suddharman the only Ganadhara or leading disciple who survived Mahāvīra, and his pupil the Arya Jambu. The scene of action is laid in the city of Campā, at the shrine of (the Yakkha) Punnabhadda. It was translated for the first time into English by Dr. L. D. Barnett, and subsequently by Mr. M. C. Modi with the help of the commentary writt by Abhayadeva. The Āgamodaya Samiti of Bombay has edited it along with two other texts with Abhayadeva's commentary. P. L. Vaidya's introduction, notes and appendix are useful.
There is enough of ingenuity and looseness in the invention or narration of the legendary tales, though it is not without a method or purpose. The succession of the divisions follows apparently a mechanical plan, the logical sequence of thought being not easily understandable, and the beauty of

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the narratives is often marred by textual abridgements or cross references. As Mr. Modi points out, the first five divisions contain semi-legendary stories of the heroes related to Kanha Vasudeva with Ariṭṭhanemi as the living Tirthankara, the vaggas six and seven narrate the stories of Mahavira's disciples, the eighth vagga contains the theological details of ten penances, while the vaggas seven and eight are concerned with the narratives of the queens of king Seniya.
The first division contains the stories of ten princes, Gotama, Samudra, Sagara, Gambhira, Stimita, Acala, Kāmpilya, Akṣobhya, Prasenajit (Pasenai, Pali Pasenadi), and Visņu, all born in the royal house of the king Andhakavṛsni of Dvaravati (Dvārakā) and the queen Dharini. It is fittingly introduced with a description of the city of Dvaravati, 12 yojanas in length and 9 yojanas in breadth, built by the genius of Kuvera, the lord of wealth. With its gold ramparts, five-coloured cornices of various jewels, and beauty and glory, grandeur and happiness, it resembled Alaka, the capital city of Kuvera. The Mt. Revata or Raivata stood at its north-eastern gate, bearing on its summit a garden called Nandanavana, the grove of Nandana. There was an old abode (shrine) of the Yaksa Surapriya in a fine Aśoka tree in the midst of a woodland. In this very city dwelt king Kṛṣṇa Vasudeva (Kanha Vasudeva) holding lordship over ten princely nobles headed by Samudravijaya, over five great warriors headed by Baladeva, over three and a half crores of princes headed by Pradyumna (Pajjuņņa), over sixty thousand fighters headed by Samba, over fifty-six thousand mighty men headed by Mahasena, over twenty-one thousand warriors headed by Virasena, over sixty thousand monarchs headed by Ugrasena, over sixteen thousand queens headed by Rukmini (Ruppini), over many thousands of courtezans headed by Anangasenā, and the like. Thus Dvaravati was both the seat of the imperial power of Kṛṣṇa Vasudeva as well as the capital of the kingdom of Dvaravati with Andhakavṛṣṇi as its king and Dhariņi as its queen.
The model story is that of Prince Gotama who renounced the world and placed himself as a Jaina recluse under the guidance of Ariṭṭhanemi when the latter visited Dvaravati, attended by the four grades of gods. His life of effort lasted for a period of twelve years, during which he studied the sāmāyika and other yogic postures and practices1 along with
SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
1 Sāmāyika, cauvisattha, vamdanaka, natikramana, kāyotsarga and pratyākhyāna these six practices constituted a aina sadangayoga which is a substitute for the astangayoga connected with hathayoga. Barnett's interpretation of sāmāyika is quoted by Modi, op. cit., pp. 99ff.

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the eleven angas (to the exclusion of the twelfth called Drstivāda). He fulfilled the twelve avowed ways of a mendicant, bhikkhupadimão, miscalled 'monastic standards '1 along with the gunaratna austerity for sixteen months. He took at last farewell, and climbed up Mt. Satruñjaya (Settuñja), on the summit of which he bravely met his end by a month's starvation, obtaining siddhi.
There are inter-allusions to the story of Meghakumāra which is fully narrated in the Nāyādhammakahā, and to that of Mahadbala in the Bhagavatī Sūtra or Vyākhyā-prajñapti.
The remaining nine stories and lessons are of the same type.
The second division contains the stories of eight Yādava princes, Akşobhya, Sāgara, Samudra, Himavat, Acala, Dhāraņa, Pūraņa, and Abhicandra, to the exclusion of Stimita and Vişnu. These narratives agree substantially with those in the first division. As for the two points of difference, the text wants us to understand that here gunaratna is the single form of austerity, and that the period of effort is sixteen years instead of twelve. This second list of the princes born in the family of Andhakavrsni and Dhāriņi differs in respect of three names from the first. As known to the commentator Abhayadeva, Kunti and Mädri were the two younger sisters to Prince Vişnu.
The third division consists of the stories and examples of thirteen persons, Anita, Anantasena, Ajitasena, Anighacarita, Devasena, Satrusena, Sārana, Gaja, Sumukha, Dummukha, Kupana, Dāruka, and Anādrsti.
The story of Anita is introduced with a description of the city of Bhaddilapura which was the capital of king Jitasatru. There was a beautiful garden by the name of Srivana on its south-east side. In that city Anita was born to Nāga, a rich banker, by his wife Sulasā. He was brought up in the midst of enormous wealth. He was placed in his eighth year under a tutor for training in sciences and arts. When he had passed his boyhood, his parents made him take the hands of thirty-two daughters of wealthy banker a day. This is followed by an exaggerated account of the wedding presents received by him. It was at the garden of Srivana that he happened to meet Ariţthanemi. The sequel of the story is similar to the story of Prince Gotama.
two points of difference to be noted are: (1) that he studied the fourteen pūrvas instead of the eleven angas, and (2) that his period was twenty years.
1 Modi, op. cit., pp. 100ff.

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The five stories that follow are of the same pattern. The seventh story concerning Sāraṇa, a son of Vasudeva and Dhāriņi, reads almost like that of Prince Gotama. Here Sāraņa studies the fourteen pūrvas that are traditionally known to have been incorporated into the twelfth angu called Destivāda. In the same category we are to place all the remaining stories but that of Gaja Sukumāra. Strangely nough. Prince Sumukha is described as a son of king Baladeva of Dvāravatī by his queen Dhāriņi, whereas in the case of the remaining princes the parents are Vasudeva and Dhāriņi. Dāruka who is mentioned in the Great Epic as the charioteer of Kșşņa Vāsudeva is counted here among the sons of Vasudeva and Dhārini.
Turning at last to the story of Prince Gaja, we notice that he is introduced as the eighth or last son of Devaki, mother of Krşņa Vāsudeva, who was born in her womb. According to the Pāli Ghata Jātaka (No. 355), Devagabbhā gave birth to ten sons including Kanha Vasudeva and Baladeva. The Jaina legend gives an altogether different account of the circumstances under which Devaki's earlier-born seven sons were stealthily taken away from her by the god Harinaigameşi and brought up in the house of Nāga and Sulasă. She gave birth to six or seven sons, exactly resembling Nalakubera, in fulfilment of a prediction made to this effect by the Jaina recluse Atimukta. All but Krsna Vasudeva renounced the world and moved about in the country as disciples of Aritthanemi. Devaki, too, is represented as a queen of Vasudeva, king of Dvāravati. Krşņa Vāsudeva tried in vain to keep his brother Gaja in the world, and his mistake was that he had brought in Somā, a handsome daughter of the Brahmin Saumila, to be his brother's wife. The Brahmin was so awfully angry with Gaja that he had renounced the world to pass as à recluse abandoning his daughter. On seeing the latter passing one evening by the burning ground of Mahākāla, the Brahmin took a piece of a broken pot from a burning pyre and threw it on his head. The princely recluse bore calmly the pain without ar ful feeling towards the oppressor. În that blissful mood of soul he obtained the supreme knowledge and vision and passed away. The great teacher Aritthanemi exhorted Krsna Väsudeva not to bear wrath against Saumila who even by spiteful action lent indirectly an aid to his younger brother Gaja.
The fourth division sets forth ten glaring examples of the Jaina virtue based on the personal stories of Jāli, Mātali, Upatāli, Puruşasena, Vārisena, Pradyumna, Sāmba, Ani
4B

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ruddha, Satyanemi, and Dṛdhanemi. These stories are in many respects similar to that of Prince Gotama; the two main points of difference lie in the study of the twelve angas and the period of sixteen years. Here Jāli, Mātali, Upatāli, Purusasena, and Varisena are described as the sons of Vasudeva and Dhariņi, Pradyumna as the son of Kṛṣṇa Vasudeva and Rukmini, Samba as the son of Kṛṣṇa Vasudeva and Jambavati, Aniruddha as the son of Pradyumna and Vaidarbhi, and Satyanemi and Drḍhanemi as the sons of Samudravijaya and Siva.
In the fifth division we have ten lessons imparted through the personal stories and examples of the eight wives of Kṛṣṇa Vasudeva: Padmavati, Gaurī, Gāndhārī, Lakṣmaṇā, Suṣamā, Jambavati, Satyabhāmā, and Rukmini, and of the two wives of Prince Samba.
51
The queen Padmavati became interested, like her motherin-law the queen Devaki, in the worship of Ariṭṭhanemi when the great teacher came to Dvaravatī and preached his noble doctrine before her husband Kṛṣṇa Vasudeva. Kṛṣṇa was anxious to know the factors by which the delightful and prosperous city of Dvaravati would be destroyed. The saint mentioned wine, fire, and Dvaipayana as the three destroying factors. Kṛṣṇa at this moment thought that blessed were those princes of the blood, Jali, Matali, and the rest who betook themselves to religious life. The great teacher clearly perceived the trend of the sad thought which arose in the mind of Krsna. Thereafter Krsna became curious to know how his own death would come about and where he would be reborn. Ariṭṭhanemi's reply was that after the destruction of the city of Dvaravati by the wrath of Dvaipayana, the action of fire, and the drunkenness of the Vasudevas (i.e. Yadavas), Kṛṣṇa would be sent forth with Rama Baladeva (Balarama) to Pandu-Mathura on the south, where he would meet the sons of king Pāṇḍu, Yudhisthira and others, and there in the presence of the Pandava brothers, in the Kusamba forest, and under an excellent banyan tree, he would remain on a slab of stone with his body covered with a yellow robe, when he would be pierced in his left foot by a sharp arrow released from the bow by Jarākumāra. Thus he would come to death and would be reborn in hell. Thereafter he would be reborn in the continent of Jambudvipa, in the country of Bharatavarṣa, in the land of Pundra, in the city of Satadvāra, where he would be the twelfth Jina in the next era of progress, finding himself for many years in the status of a Kevalin. It is said that this prophecy made Kṛṣṇa glad.

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In view of the impending calamity of the city of Dvāravati Krsna asked all persons to renounce the world and lead the mendicant life in the religious order of Aritthanemi. Under this persuasion his queens headed by Padmāvati, and the two wives of Prince Samba became nuns, studied the eleven angas, observed religious practices, and then passed away obtaining the final liberation.
Here we have a very curious Jaina version of the Krsna legend, having a few points of similarity with the Brahmanical and Buddhist versions. The obvious purpose of the Jaina narratives was to gain popularity for the Jaina faith in Western India by making the local people believe that the whole of the Yādava race attained salvation under the benign influence and guidance of Ariţthanemi, the twenty-second Tirtharkara. The Jaina inventor of the legends would purposely ignore the fact that Krşņa Vāsudeva's teacher was Ghora Angirasa. According to the Upanişad tradition Krsna following the instruction of Ghora Angirasa became free from all worldly attachments. According to the Jaina legend he could aspire to become a Jina. These were the current legends accounting for the destruction of the Andhakavssņis.
It is no less important to note that the Jaina legends connect the sons of Pāņdu with the Pāņdya country of the south with Mathură (modern Madoura) as its capital. Dr. Barnett rightly observes: "The Pāņdiyans, however, were not Pāndavas, and the Jaina identification of the two dynasties is probably based on popular etymology. A like attempt to connect the two families occurs in the Tamil chronicle given in Taylor's Oriental Historical MSS. (Vol. I, pp. 195ff.), which states that Madurā at the time of the Bhārata war was ruled by Babhruvāhana, the son of Arjuna, by the daughter of the Pāņdiyan king of Madurā. The Mahābhārata, on the other hand, makes Babhruvāhana the son of Arjuna, by Citrāngadā, daughter of Citravāhana, the king of Manipura.'
The association of the Pāņdyas of the south with the Sūrasenas of Mathurā and the Pāndus of Northern India is probably alluded to in the confused statement of Megasthenes regarding Heracles and Pandaia.1 In the Pāli chronicles of Ceylon the Pāņdyas are invariably represented as Pāņdus.2 In the Jätakas the five sons of Pāņdu are nowhere connected with the Kuru country. Arjuna of the Yudhisthira line, who
1 B. C. Law, Tribes in Ancient India, p. 190; H. C. Raychaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 272; McCrindle, Ancient India (Megas. thenes and Arrian), pp. 163-164.
2 Cf. Mahavamsa, Chap. 7, v. 50; Dipavamsa, Chap. 4, verse 41.

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is represented in the Kurudhamma Jätaka (No. 276) as the ideal king of the Kurus is evidently different from Arjuna the third son of Pāndu. Thus there still lies a mystery about the relationship of the Pāndavas with Krşņa Vāsudeva.
From the sixth division begins the second stage of the main dialogue. This division is important for the short stories of Makāti, Kinkama, Mudgarapāņi, Kāśyapa, Kșemaka, Dhștihara, Kailāsa, Haricandana, Dvāratraya, Sudarsana, Pūrubhadra, Sumanabhadra, Supratiştha, Megha, Atimukta and others. Makāti was a rich householder of Rājagặha who renounced the world after he had met and waited upon Mahāvīra at the shrine of Guņašila. He studied the eleven angas, the sāmāyika, and other religious practices. He practised the gunaratna form of self-mortification. He died on Mt. Satruñjaya, obtaining liberation. Kinkama whose personal story is similar to that of Makāti attained siddhi on Mt. Vipula which guarded the city of Rājagļha on one side. Among the remaining persons, all of whom passed away on the same Mt. Vipula. Mudgarapāņi was a garland-maker in Rājagpha. The rich householders Dvāratraya and Megha, too, belonged to the same city, while Kşemaka and Dhștihara were citizens of Kākandi, Kailāsa and Haricandana of Sāketa, Sudarśana and Pūrņabhadra of Vanijagrāma (Panyagrāma?), and Sumanabhadra and Supratiştha of Srāvasti. Atimukta was a prince born in the royal house of king Vijaya who reigned in the city of Palāsapura, and Anaksya was a king of Benares who renounced the world like king Udayana (of Vatsa). The two model stories and examples are those of Mudgarapāņi and Prince Atimukta.
During the reign of king Śrenika, Arjunaka was a rich garland-maker in the city of Rājagpha and Bandhumati was his wife. He had a big flower garden outside the city, and far from it was his family shrine built and dedicated to the Yakşa Mudgarapāņi. In it the statue of the Yakşa stood. Arjunaka became a devotee of this demi-god from his very childhood. When a festival was announced in the city of Rājagpha, Arjunaka went out with his wife to his flower garden. After gathering the flowers the husband and wife walked towards their family shrine when they were entrapped by some wicked men. He afterwards killed them with an iron mace.
A pious Jaina householder named Sudarsana was going to pay his homage to Mahāvira; he was attacked on the road by Arjunaka Mudgara pāņi, but no harm was done to him on account of his virtue and spiritual strength. Arjunaka took the vow of a Jainą mendicant under the guidance of Mahāvīra

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and proved himself to be a completely reformed man. When he wandered about in the city of Rājagļha for alms the angry crowd of men and women harshly treated him, but he patiently endured suffering with equanimity. With the kind permission of Mahāvira he passed away by starving for a half-month.
There is nothing striking in the story of Prince Atimukta save and except that he became a Jaina mendicant in his early life, when he was a mere boy. 'You are a child, my son', said his father, and have no understanding. What do you know of the doctrine ?' The reply is given in the form of a riddle, 'What I know, I do not know, and what I do not know, I know'. By this he meant that he knew that one who is born must die, but he did not know how death would take place and exactly when. The riddle does not exhibit much of a literary art, nor does its explanation go to prove a great philosophic insight. We have better examples of such riddles in Pāli Angulimāla Sutta 1 and Mahā-ummagga Jataka (No. 546).
In the seventh division we have the personal stories of the thirteen wives of king Srenika of Rājagrha, all of whom renounced the world and fared well at death as the Jaina nuns. They were known as Nandā, Nandavati, Nanduttarā, Nandiśreņikā, Mārutā, Sumărutā, Mahāmārutā, Marudevā, Bhadrā, Subhadrā, Sujātā and Bhūtadattā.
The eighth or concluding division is devoted to the stories of ten Jaina nuns who studied the eleven angas, the sāmāyika and other religious practices, and led a rigorous religious life under the guidance of the Arya Candanā, the leading Jaina Theri of the age. Kāli, Sukāli, Mahākālī, Krsņā, Sukrsnā, Mahākļşņā, Virakrsņā, Rāmakrsņā, Pitr. senakņşņā, and Mahāsenakrsnā are suggested as their names.
Here we have a description of the ten kinds of penances (tavokammā) observed by the ten nuns who were previously the wives of king Śreņika. These are known as ratnávali, kanakāvali, muktāvalī, kşudraka (lesser) simhanikridita, mahallaka (greater) simhani!
hiva to data. dasamya, kşudraka sarvatobhadra, mahallaka sarvatobhadra, bhadrottara-pratima, and ācambit-vardhamāna (āyambilavaddhamāna). The technical explanation of each involves a mathematical arrangement of numbers expressive of the number of meals and fast days in different permutations and combinations, for all of which the reader may be referred to Abhayadeva's commentary on the text of the Amtagadadasāo.
• Majjhima Nikāga, II, pp. 97-105.

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CHAPTER X
ANUTTARAUPAPĀTIKADASA (ANUTTAROVAVĀI
YADASĀO)
The Anuttarovavõiyadasão 1 (Anuttara-aupapātikadašānga) is the ninth anga which deals with the lives of persons who after their death were reborn as gods. They would therefrom descend to this world, attain human birth and achieve final emancipation. It treats of the ekāvatārins, or the oncereturners (Pāli sukadāgāmins) most of whom are the sons of king Srenika. The stories are mostly abbreviated. The anga consists of three vaggas or divisions; the first containing ten lessons, the second, thirteen and the third, ten, making a total of thirty-three lessons. In Jacobi's opinion the descriptions are very tedious and they consist mostly of endless enumerations.
Though this text is placed in the list of angas, its contents go to show that it presupposes other works of the Jain canoil, particularly the Aupapūtika Sūtra. The list of persons whose examples are set forth in each division is given in verse precisely as in the Amtugadadasāo to which the ninth anga stands no more than a supplement or sequel.
In the Jaina cosmography the middle place is occupied by the world of men. Above this stand the three grades of gods, one above the other, the highest being the Vaimānikas or gods dwelling in their respective lofty mansions. Below them are the Gaiveyyakas and the lowest are known as the Kulpas. The Gaiveyyakas too are provided with mansions of their own.
This anga too is presented in the form of a dialogue put into the mouth of Sudharman and his pupil Jambu. The scene of action is laid in the city of Rājagpha.
In the first division all but Vehalla and Vehayasa are mentioned as the sons of king Sreņika by his queen Dhāriņi and the rest including Abhaya as princes whose mother was the queen Cellanā. It may be noted that the name of Prince Abhaya is met with in the Pāli Nikāyas particularly in the Abhayarājakumāra Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya (Vol. I, pp. 392–396). The thirteen fortunate men whose examples
1 This text has been edited by Dr. Barnett along with the Amtagadadasão. Dr. P. L. Vaidya has also edited it (Poona, 1932). Abhayadeva's commentary is very helpful,

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are set forth in the second division are also represented as princes born to king Śreņika by his queen Dhārini.
The model story in the third division is that of Dhanva. Sunaksatral who finds mention in the Pāli Nikāyas as a Licchavi prince and lay supporter of the Jaina order, is included here in the list of ten persons. Dhanva is described as a prince born in the royal house of king Jitasatru of Kākandi. He became a Jaina monk and he strictly observed the religious practices and rules of life. The real interest of the story lies in the graphic description of the personal condition of the aspirant, while he was going through the hardship of the penances. It may be pointed out that a similar description of the penances is found in the Pāli Mahādukkhakkhandha Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya (Vol. I, pp. 83–90). The forms of austerity described in the Pāli discourse are the penances observed by the Buddha previous to his enlightenment. These are found fruitless by him as means of salvation.
1 Pāli Sunakkhatta, Digha, III, pp. Iff; B. C. Law, Historicul Gleanings, p. 16.

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CHAPTER XI
PRAŚNA-VYĀKARAŅĀNI (PAŅHĀVĀGARAŅĀIM)
The Paṇhā Vāgarana Sūya 1 (Praśna-vyākarana sūtra) is counted as the tenth anga of the Svetāmbara ūguma. It is otherwise known as Praśna-vyākaranadašā for the simple reason that it consists of ten lectures or chapters (ajjhayaņās), the five of which are devoted to the topic of anhaa and the remaining five to that of samvara. Abhayadeva Sūri wrote an authoritative commentary on it. It has been edited along with the text. Winternitz points out that it is a purely dogmatic presentation, which does not correspond either to the title of the work or to the table of contents in the Thānamga 10 and in the Nandi. Schubring (Worte Mahāvīras, p. 13) says that a later work took the place of the old anga which is lost. The title of the sūtra, Praśnavyākarana, implies at the first sight that the text is the catechism or book of questions and answers. But the text, as we now have it, is not of this nature. The contents of a Paṇhā Vāgaraña as given in the Sthānānga and Nandīsūtra presuppose a canonical work consisting of 108 praśnas, 108 apraśnas, 108 praśnā praśnas, vidyātisayas and discourses of saints with Nāgakumāras and other Bhavanapatis. The present text does not meet these requirements. On the other hand, it appears as a methodical and elaborate exposition of the two topics mentioned above. As such it may be judged as a learned dissertation on the subjects and as an important literary production of the scholastic age. Abhayadeva is compelled to explain the title of the present sūtra in a manner to suit its contents. He says, praśnānām vidyāvišeşāņām yāni vyākaraṇāni teşām pratipādanaparā daśā daśādhyāyanapratibaddhāḥ granthapaddhataya iti Praśnavyākaranadaśāḥ. The Praśna-vyākaranadašā is a treatise comprising ten lectures that establish the expositions of certain select topics. The methodical expositions are all ascribed to Sudharman the fifth ganadhara, who addressed them to his pupil Jambuswămin. The two main topics dealt with in this treatise are anhaa and its anti-thesis samvara. The term anhaa is equated with Sanskrit äsnavaḥ (āśravah). Thus anhaa is
1 The Agamodaya Samiti has published an edition with Abhayadeva's commentary (1919).
& Asnava is from a+root anu. Atrava is from root Sru, to flow, whence 'a flowing of the soul from the senses towards their external objects'. In

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taken to be the same as aśrava which goes to form an antithetical pair with samvara. The anti-thetical pair which occurs in the Pillar Edicts of Aśoka verbally corresponds with the punya and papa of Jainism. In these edicts asinava stands in contrast to kayāna: apasinave bahukayane1 (Pillar Edict II.). It would seem that the word asinara is employed there as a synonym of papa as opposed to kalyāna or punya. There is still a difference of opinion as to whether the Asokan word asinava corresponds to the Ardhamāgadhi anhaa or to the Pāli and Sanskrit adīnava. There is evidently no such Sanskrit word as asnava used in the Brahmanical or Buddhist works. Here we have adīnava in its place but the Asokan term asinava clearly presupposes a Sanskrit word like asnava as suggested by the Jain scholiast. So far as the meaning of the two words asnuva and adīnava is concerned, it is practically the same. Just as in Jain literature it has asrava for its synonym, so in the Amarakosa the two synonyms suggested for adīnava are aśrava and klesa. It is important to note that anhaa is characterized in our text as anadika (adivirahitaḥ), 'beginningless', 'that of which the sinful action is the root cause', as explained by Abhayadeva. This suggests no doubt that our text is concerned not so much with the sins as 'with innate proneness to sin'.
The five sinful deeds that one commits due to the innate proneness to sin stand as opposed to five great vows (mahavratas) that follow from the principle of samvara or selfrestraint. The five sinful deeds are enumerated as himsā (harming life), mosa (lying), adatta (thieving), abambha (incontinence), and pariggaha (hankering after worldly possession). Each of them is taken up as a subject for separate treatment. The harming of life is deprecated by the Jinas as a sinful deed which is fierce, terrible, mean, rash, undignified, shameless, inhuman, fearful, dreadful in reaction, greatly fearful, horrible, frightful, unlawful, causing anxiety, reckless, unrighteous, uncompassionate, pitiless, leading to a hellish life and destructive in effect. This sinful deed serves to generate delusion and great fear and it brings about mental distress in fear of death. This is the first door to impiety. It is defined as violence done to life, driving soul out of the body, arousing suspicion in the mind of other beings, harming
Apastamba Dh. S. (II, 25, 19) the word asrava is taken to mean 'external objects by which a person is attracted outwards' (Yaiḥ purusaḥ aérāvyate, vahiḥ akrisyate) (R. K. Mookerjee, Asoka, 1928, p. 174).
1 B. M. Barua, Asoka and his Inscriptions, 1946, p. 274.
2 D. R. Bhandarkar, Asoka, 1932, pp. 107-109.
3 Amarakoça, 3. 2. 29-Adinavāśravau klese.

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59 PRAŚNA-VYAKARANANI (PANHAVAGARANAIM) those who can be harmed, and that which should not be done. It consists in hurting, killing, doing violence, oppressing, killing in three ways of thought, word, and deed, emulating, ending the lease of life, and the like. Harming life is an iniquity of which the consequences are bitter. It is of various kinds and it has various modes. It causes pain and brings misery to others. It is an outcome of unrestraint. In this connection our text furnishes a long but interesting list of the fauna and flora, classified according to the number of senses possessed by them. Many are the root causes that lead beings to commit this sin. The main causes are, however, anger, pride, conceit, and greed, all of which are ultimately rooted in delusion. It stands to destroy all good things in men. In the same connection our text discusses the position of the professional boar-killers, fish-catchers, fowlers, hunters and the like. It also discusses the position of several cruel tribes and peoples such as the Śakas, Yavanas, Šabaras, Barbaras, Kāyas, Murundas, Udas, Bhadakas, Tittikas, Pakkanikas, Kulākṣas, Gaudas, Simhalas, Parasas, Kroñcas, Andhras, Drāvidas, Bilvalas, Pulindras, Arosos, Dumbas, Pokkanas, Gandhahārakas, Vālhīkas, Jallas, Romas, Māsas Bakusas, Malayas, Cuñcukas, Cūlikas, Konkanakas, Medas, Pahlavas, Mālavas, Mahuras, Abhāsikas, Anakkas, Cīnas, Lāhsikas, Khasas, Hāsikas, Neharas, Mahārāştras (Maustikas), Arabas, Davilakas, Kuhaņas, Kekayas, Hūņas, Romakas, Roravas, Marukas and Cirātas (Kirātas).1 The list of tribes and peoples notorious for their cruel habit and nature is sufficient to indicate that our text is a compilation of a postChristian period.
The second door to impiety is lying which is defined and characterized as telling an untruth which makes a person light and fickle, which is fearful, which causes enmity and brings ill-fame and the like. It is an immoral act in which the lowborn persons indulge. It is cruel in its effect and it makes a liar untrustworthy. It is deprecated by the best of saints. It is linked up with the blackest of soul colourings and it only serves to increase a man's state of woe and degradation, and to bring about the cycle of re-births. It carries with it the idea of indulgence in falsehood, cheating, deceiving, crookedness, false deposition and uscless talks and the like. Anger, greed, fear and envy are the various mental factors that are behind lying. This door to impiety also includes the preaching and promulgation of false doctrines and misleading
1 For details of some of these tribes vide B. C. Law, 'Tribes in Ancient India' (Bhandarkar Oriental Series No. 4).

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philosophical views of life. Some typical instances of false doctrines and misleading views are given. The first of them is typicalıy the philosophical view attributed in the Pāli Nikāyas to Ajita Kesakambala represented as an avowed năstika. The Buddhist doctrine of the five aggregates 1 is also put in the category of nāstikya. The năstikavāda is taken to mean the denial of manly energy, the existence of heaven and hell, and the possibility of reward and retribution and the like. The instances of astikavāda cited are shown to be equally misleading. The Jain teacher repudiates the idea of God as the creator and ordainer of all things and of all beings. He discards the theory of soul as a passive principle. Both the Sankhya and the Vedānta doctrines stand self-condemned in his opinion. That there is a sectarian note in the statement and criticism of the views of other schools of thought is undeniable. The details of the modes of lying practised and committed with reference to persons and things are important as throwing light on the social condition and moral standard of the age.
The third door to impiety is taking away what is not given (adattādānam). It is defined as an act of stealing, oppressing, bringing death and fear, an iniquity which is terrifying, a sinful deed which is rooted in covetousness and greed. It is undignified in its nature and it produces a bad name. It is equally deprecated by good men. By it one incurs the displeasure of persons, near and dear. It is full of passion and delusion. It goes by the name of theft, stealing other people's property, seeking gain from the belongings of others, greed for the wealth of others, cupidity, thieving, spoiling the hand with the ugliness of the act and the like. Robbery, dacoity and such other daring acts all come within the definition of taking away what is not given. Plundering, looting, carrying spoils and booties in the name of war are also included in this act of impiety. In this connection our text furnishes some details about warfare, weapons, and armaments. It also supplies some interesting information regarding different punishments meted out to the thieves and robbers. Their miserable life here and hereafter is described in detail.
The fourth door to impiety is known as incontinence (abambham). It is defined as a sexual dalliance coveted in the worlds of gods, men and demons, which is a net and noose of amour, which is a hindrance to the practice of austerities,
1 Keith, Buddhist Philosophy, pp. 85ff; B. C. Law, Buddhaghosa (BBRAS, 1946), p. 136.

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PRAŚNA-VYAKARAŅĀNI (PAṆHĀVĀGARAŅĀIM)
61
act.
self-restraint, and chaste life, which brings about death, bondage, and coercion, and which is a cause of infatuation and delusion. It bears the name of sexual congress, sexindulgence, delight in vulgar life, sexual passions and overt Even the Vaimānika gods have sexual enjoyments with the goddesses and family maidens. They too are not free from this kind of infatuation. The demons, nagas, garuḍas and supannas too are no exceptions to the rule. Among men, the monarchs, kings, overlords, chaplains, high officers of the state, all run after this. The same passion is equally perceptible among the lower creatures. In this connection our text gives us the details about the physical forms, dresses, beautification, wiles and guiles, and various pleasing artifices, by which women entice men. Incidentally the modes of generation are discussed, according to which, living beings are to be classified as viviparous, oviparous and the like. This classification is the same as that met with in Pali and other Indian texts.
The fifth door to impiety is known as pariggaha or hankering after worldly possessions such as varieties of gems, gold, jewels, perfumes, scents, unguents, conveyances, utensils, household furniture, landed properties, wealth and opulence. It is rooted in greed and it is an expression of craving and thirst for worldly things. So it does by the name of craving (tanha), worldly attachment (asatti) and it is characterized by the great longing for earning, acquisition, accumulation, hoarding, insatiety and the like. Even the gods are not free from this hankering after worldly possessions. The emperors, Vasudevas, Baladevas, Mandalikas, chieftains, Tālavaras, commanders-in-chief, millionaires, bankers, rāṣṭrikas, purohitas, and the like are all guided by it. Worldly possessions comprise all secular sciences and arts, worldly enjoyments, agriculture, industry and commerce by which men are implicated in various conflicts and clashes of interests. In this connection our text speaks of sixty-four sciences and arts (catusatthi).
After dealing with the five doors to impiety the sutra takes up for consideration the five doors to samvara or selfrestraint, one by one. They are spoken of as virtues that stand for deliverance from all kinds of suffering. The first is called ahimsa (non-harming), the second, the truthful speech (saccavayanam), the third, taking only what is given (dattam-anunna), the fourth, continence (bambhaceram) and the fifth, non-hankering after worldly possessions (apariggahattam), which constitute the five great vows that are conducive to the good and welfare of the world.

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The first principle of non-harming is praised as the island, the refuge, the destination, the basis, and nirvana to the worlds of men, gods and demons. It is just another name for pity (daya), forbearance, purity, goodness, welfare, protection, morality, self-control, self-restraint, self-guarding and the virtue which is the abode of the perfected ones (siddhas).
The truthful speech is the second door to self-restraint. This is the accepted principle of all noblemen, teachers and saints. It implies one's moral purity and uprightness, and it is a virtue which inspires confidence. It requires a person to abstain from praising himself and condemning others. In this connection the sutra speaks of twelve kinds of language, namely, Prakrita, Samskrita, Magadhi, Paiśaci and Apabhramsa, cach distinguished according to prose and verse. Some grammatical details are also given which are too wellknown to need any comment here.
The third door to self-restraint is accepting what is given. It implies an abstinence from taking away what is not one's own, from stealing and committing theft. This too is a virtue well-praised and a noble principle of self-control and self-restraint.
The fourth door to self-restraint is continence or chaste life. It is the root principle of the best of austerities, regulated life, knowledge, faith, conduct and perfect discipline. It implies moral rectitude which is cultivated as a path to deliverance. In its magnitude it is mighty like the Himalaya and it is extolled as something in the heart of the deep ocean. This is indeed the very fundamental principle of religious life.
The fifth door to self-restraint is non-hankering after worldly possessions. The non-hankering may be both internal and external. The external hankering is an obstacle to religious practices and the internal hankering leads a person to the incorrectness of method, recklessness, thoughtlessness, and moral contaminations. This is the principle of non-attachment which is conducive to the practice of samitis and guptis. This stands on the very top of the path which leads to deliverance and emancipation.
Of the five great moral vows (pañcamahāvratas) enforced by Mahavira the first four represented the four principles of self-restraint (cātuyāmasamvara)1 as prescribed by Parśva
1 Cātuyāmasamvara was undoubtedly a phraseology of the religion of Pārsva. But as presented in Buddhist literature it acquired altogether a new connotation with Mahavira's followers. Some are of opinion that it means the four characteristics of a Jaina recluse as understood by the Buddhist author (B. C. Law, Mahavira: His Life and Teachings, pp. 13ff.; I.H.Q., II, 705; Majjhima, II, pp. 36-36).

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natha for his followers. It is the fifth principle of nonhankering after worldly possessions that was added to the earlier list of four by way of an improvement. The five moral precepts as enjoined by the Buddha for the guidance of the conduct of the laity are somewhat different from the Jaina five great vows. The three principles of ahimsā (nonharming), non-stealing, and truthful speech, are common to both. The fourth Jaina vow of chastity (brahmacarya) is deeper in its significance than the Buddhist principle of non-excess in sexual indulgence. The Jain vow corresponds more with the Buddhist principle of brahmacariya which is prescribed for the recluses. The fifth Jain vow is implied in the Buddhist principle of non-participation in any worldly transaction by the recluses. Although the enumerations of the principles are somewhat different, they are all important to both the systems. We have a systematic exposition of the moral precepts in the Pali commentaries, particularly in Buddhaghosa's encyclopædic work known as the Visuddhimagga or the Path of Purity. It will be seen that the Buddhist method of exposition is more lucid, direct, and clearly psycho-ethical. There is an important point of difference between the Jain and Buddhist presentations of the vows and precepts. In the Jain presentation a greater emphasis is laid on the side of abstinence from impious acts. while in Buddha's presentation much stress is laid on the positive aspect of virtues. It is not enough that a person abstains from doing a wrong thing inasmuch as a progressive man is expected to cultivate and develop friendliness, honest life, truthfulness, etc. But the difference one of degree and not of kind.
1 Visuddhimayga (PTS), Vol. I, pp. 6ff: P. Maung Tin, The Path of Purity, Pt. I, pp. 8ff.; B. C. Law, A History of Puli Literature, Vol. I, pp. 400ff.; B. C. Law, Asvaghosa, p. 85; Cf. Vinaya, II, 162; Samyutta, IV, 342, II. 68; Milinda, 333 and Anguttara, IV, 248ff. etc.

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CHAPTER XII
VIPĀKA SŪTRA (VIVĀGA-SŪYA)
1
The Vivuga-suya 1 (Vipāka Sutra) is counted as the eleventh anga of the Svetambara Jain agama. Winternitz calls it the text of the ripening of actions. As its name implies, it deals with the consequences or resultants, painful or happy, of past deeds. It contains stories on the retribution of good and bad deeds after the manner of the Buddhist karma stories in the Avadana-Sataka and Karma-Sataka. The sutra illustrates the painful consequences by ten anecdotes and happy resultants by ten stories, each illustrative anecdote or story forming a distinct section of two parts into which the text is divided. The stories after narrating the careers of persons concerned as human beings proceed to describe the courses of their transmigration until their attainment of liberation in the end. In the first part dealing with the painful consequences, eight out of ten persons concerned are males and two females, while in the second part all the ten persons concerned happen to be males. The sutra is judged as a kathānuyoga type, inasmuch as it develops its themes with the help of appropriate narratives that are presented mostly in their bare outlines. As Siddhasena in his commentary on the Tatthvartha (I, 20) explains, the title of the sutra means that the text indicates and sets forth the felt consequences of deeds: Vipakaḥ karmāņām anubhavastam sutrayati darśayati tad Vipakasūtram. Although the word karmaphala, meaning the fruits or results of deeds, may be taken broadly as a synonym of karmavipāka, in the Pali Nikayas a distinction is generally made between phala and vipaka, the first is taken to mean immediate results and the second after effects or results that follow as consequences. The word vipaka carries with it the notion of maturity. Accordingly the word vipaka implies the resultants that become ripe from the totality of deeds in a particular birth.
The ten narratives in part I are the stories of Mrgaputra, Ujjitaka, Abhagnasena,, Sakata, Bṛhaspatidatta, Nandivardhana, Umbaradatta, Saurikadatta, Devadatta and Añjusuta and those in part II are the stories of Suvahu, Bhadra
1 Edited along with the Amtagaḍadasão and Anuttarovavaiyadasão with Abhayadeva's commentary and published by the Agamodaya Samiti of Bombay (1920). A. T. Upadhye's edition (1935) is very useful.

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nandi, Sujāta, Vásava, Jinadāsa, Dhanapati, Mahadbala, Mahaccandra and Varadatta. In general outlines the stories in each part are similar. Whether the course of transmigration starts in each case from past misdeeds or from past good deeds, it ends in the attainment of liberation. The turning point in each career takes place at a happy juncture where the person concerned is brought somehow or other into the august prosence of Mahāvira. The adoption of the life of a Jain recluse and the fulfilment of the duties incumbent thereon bring about the final liberation. Considered from this point of view the purpose of the stories is the same as that of the Pāli Apadūnas of the early Buddhist brothers and sisters. But as compared with them the Jain stories are uninteresting. An important point of distinction between them is that the Apudānas are related by the theras and thcris themselves, whereas in the Jain stories the course of transmigration is recounted by the Jain author and partly predicted by Mahāvīra himself.
The scenes of action of different stories are laid in a few cities of northern India bounded evidently on the south by the Vaitādhya (Vindhya) mountain. Their presiding deities are said to have been certain Yakkhas. The sūtra speaks of some Dhammaghosa class of Jain theras (II, 1) who are said to have wandered about with a retinue of 500 recluses. Whether it was their duty to preach the doctrine or to convey the message of piety is to be ascertained. From the description given in the sūtru, it appears that the intention is to describe them as wandering teachers preaching the doctrine. The story of a Dhammaghosaka as met with in the Pāli commentary on the Dhammapadal leads us to think that it was the duty of a Dhammaghosaka to convey the message of piety to the people. The same may be inferred from the duty assigned by Aśoka to the agents employed for the purpose (M.R.E. Yerragudi version). Incidentally as noted by Mr. Kapadia 2 there are a few references having bearing upon social and religious life of the people but these are of very minor importance. From Jain doctrinal point of view the
i Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. III, p. 81.
2 The Canonical Literature of the Jainas, p. 116 f.n. The sutra mentions 16 kinds of diseases (section 22): asthma, cough, fever, burning sensation in the body, pain in the stomach or belly, fistula, piles, indigestion, an eye-disease, headacho, loss of appetito, pain in eyes and ears, itching, dropsy, leprosy and a disease which rapidly consumes anything when eaten. The remedies are prescribed in section 23. Besides, the sūtra refers to human sacrifices (section 107), cruel ways of inflicting punishments for theft and adultery (sections 37, 63), various instruments used by jailors for inflicting corporal punishments (sections 120-21), etc. Vide also The Canonical Literature of the Jainas, pp. 136-37.

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sūtra contains nothing new or important. Its purpose evidently is to discourage indulgence in five sinful deeds and to encourage the practice of five great vows, both of which have received a systematic treatment in the Pruśna-vyākaraşır Sutra.
5B

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CHAPTER XIII
AUPAPĀTIKA SÜTRA (OVAVĀIYA SŪYA)
The Ovavaiya suya1 (Aupapātika Sutra) which is also called the Uvavaiya is counted as the first upanga among the texts of the Svetambara canon. Some hold that the Sanskritized form Aupapātika is erroneous. Uvavaiya means the attainment of an existence as pointed out by S. Lévi. An upanga is by its name and definition an ancillary work. Abhayadeva Suri has written the earliest commentary on it. This text consists of 189 sutras, each of which is represented by a complete paragraphic statement on a particular topic or by a particular stanza, if it is in verse. The suttas forming the concluding part of the text are in verse, while the preceding portion is mostly in prose. The stanzas forming the concluding suttas 168-169 are really interesting and important as epitomizing the statements in prose on the spiritual position and destiny of the siddhas or perfected ones. There are similar mnemonics also under a few other suttas such as 49, 56, 76 and 144. The method of treatment followed is catechetical. The text seeks to combine a treatise and a book of discourses into an organic whole. It presents its subject-matter broadly in two contexts: (1) the meeting of Mahavira and king Kūnika of Campa, and (2) the meeting of Mahāvīra and his senior disciple Indrabhūti. Its object is to impress on the mind of the hearer or reader the unsurpassed greatness of Mahavira's personality, the superior worth of his teachings, and the superior position of his disciples, lay, ordained and advanced. The place assigned to the siddhas is the highest of all. The hierarchical order is carefully shown in the second context or book comprising the suttas 62-189. The Pali Puggalapaññati, a book of the Abhidhammapitaka, presents the classified human types in a hierarchical order of its own, but its treatment is thoroughly psycho-ethical but not historical. The true Pali counterpart of it is to be traced in those suttas in which the niṭṭhās or goals are distinguished.
E. Leumann has edited this sutra under the title Das Aupapātika Sūtra in the Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, herausg. von der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, viii, 2, Leipzig, 1883; a complote edition in the Agamodaya series has been published.
2 J.A., 1912, t. XX.
3 Edited by R. Morris for the PTS; translated into English by B. C. Law under the title of Designation of Human Types (PTS Tr. Series No. 12).

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The Aupapātika sutra follows a distinct literary art of its own with its direct appeal. Naturalness and the sense of case characterize its mode of presentation. It seems on the whole what may be described as an artless art. Its diction is clear, racy, sober, and dignified, in spite of the fact that the Jain theological motive of self-glorification and selfexaltation runs through its whole length. The descriptions of the city of Campa, the sanctuary of Punnabhadda, the Asoga tree in the garden surrounding it, king Kūniya, son of Bimbisara, his queen Dhariņi, and Mahāvīra given in it are vivid and graphic and they well serve the purpose. The text also contains the account of Mahavira's samosarana in Campa and the pilgrimage of Kuniya to this place. The founder of Jainism is given the epithet, Adikara or the first doer (aigare titthakare-Aupapātika Sutra, secs. 61, 20).
The Aupapatika Sutra places the Vemānika devas as the highest in the scale, then the Jyotiṣis, the Vaṇamantaras and Bhavanavasis. The Vemanika gods and angels are represented by Sohamma Iśāna, Sanankumāra, Mahinda Bambbhā (Brahma), Lantaga, Mahāsukka, Sahassārā, Acchutapadi and the rest. Mahinda's heaven is the heaven of thirty-three gods together with the lokapalas. In the Jyotiși class are placed the sun, the moon, the planets, comets, and stars including Rahu. The Vanamantara devas comprise the Bhutas, Pisacas, Yaksas, Rākṣasas, Kinnaras, Kimpurisas, Gandhabbas, etc. The Asuras, Nagas, Supannas, vijju (vidyut, lightning), fire, continent (diva), ocean (udahi), diśākumāras (quarter gods), pavana (wind gods), and thunder gods (thaniya) represent the Bhavanavāsīs. Below them are the earth-lives, water-lives, fire-lives, and wind-lives. Above all of them stands the incomparable Jina with his advanced disciples (sections 32-37).
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The eight mangalas were the eight auspicious symbols or emblems of the Jains: sovatthiya (svastika), sirivucca (śrīvatsa), nandiyāvatta (nandyāvarta), vaddhamanaga (vardhamāna), bhaddasana (bhadrasana), kalasa, maccha (matsya) and dappana (darpana). Other enumerations of mangalas are also met with in the Jain text.2 In order to oust the vested interests of the Brahmanas from the field, the Jains and the Buddhists had to introduce certain mangalas claimed as very efficacious. The Buddhists introduced chanting of the Mangala sutta laying much stress on the thirty-seven points of mangala or moral conditions of human welfare."
1 Aupapātika Sutra, sec. 49.
2 Ibid., secs. 53-55.
a Cf. Mangala Sutta of the Khuddakapatha, pp. 2-3; Mahamangala Jātaka (No. 453); and the Sutta Nipāta, pp. 46-47.

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The Brahmins as Lakkhana-pathakas suggested certain prominent bodily characteristics of a mahāpurisa or great man (mahāpurisa-lakkhanāni). As the early Jain and Buddhist texts go to prove that the Jains and the Buddhists simply utilized them in establishing that the Founder of their own Order was the greatest of men.2 In the Aupapātika Sūtra (sec. 16) Mahāvīra is praised as Dhammavaracaürantacakkavuttī as the Buddha is called the supreme founder of the kingdom of righteousness.
The Aupapātika Sūtra speaks of the tāpasas as those religieux who adopted the vānaprastha mode of life on the banks of the sacred rivers typified by the Ganges. They were either fire-worshippers, family men or those who slept on the bare ground. They were either sacrificers. or performors of funeral rites or owners of property. The water jugs and cooking pots were among their belongings. They followed different modes of bathing in the holy waters. Some of them used to blow conch shells or were winnow (kula-dhumakas). Some of them killed deer for venison and skin, and some killed elephants to make food provision minimizing the slaughter of life. Some went about holding a stick creot or with the gaze fixed on a particular direction. They used the bark of a tree as their garment, and lived either on the sea-shore or near water at the foot of a tree, feeding on water, air, water-plants, roots, bulbs, barks, flowers, fruits and seeds. They rendered their body cooked by the heat of the five kinds of fire and stiffened by the sprinkling of water (sec. 74). The same sūtru mentious a class of recluses (pavvaiyā-samaņā) 3 who were addicted to sensual pleasures, vulgar ways and vaunting and were fond of singing and dancing (sec. 75). It distinguishes between the Brāhmaṇa 4 and the Ksatriya parivrājakas and describes them as those religieux who either followed the Kāpila School of Sānkhya or the Bhārgava School of Yoga or represented the four grades of Indian ascetics: Bahudakā, Kuţibratā (Kuticakā). Hamsā, and Paramahamsā. Some of the Krşņa parivrājakas (secs. 76-81). The Ajivikas are placed in a different category, their description being the same as in the Theravāda Buddhist texts (Ibid., sec. 120). A gradation of nitthā or goals aimed at by the Tāpasas, Parivrājakas
i Digha, II, 17ff.; Sutta Nipāta, 1019, 1021; Digha, III, 142ff; Digha, I, 88,105; Jāt., I., 56; Mahāvamsa, 5.91, otc.
2 Aupapātika Sūtra, sec. 16; Cf. Digha Nikāya, iji, pp. 142ff. (Lakkhaņa Suttanta).
8 Of. Digha, III, p. 130—samanā Sakyaputtiyā.
4 Attha mühanaparivvāyā, Aupapātika, sec. 76; cf. B. C. Law, Historical Gleaning8, p. 9.

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and Afrikas is suggested in the Aupapatika Sutra as in Buddhaghosa's Papañcasudani1 and some of the later Upanisads. Gosala's doctrine of six abhijātas or grades of spiritual advancement may be compared with nitṭha or goals.
According to the Aupapātika Sutra the destiny of worldly men is Vāṇamantara, that of the Vanaprastha tāpasas is the world of the Jyotisi gods, that of the parivrajakas is Brahmaloka and that of the Ajivikas is Acyutapada (secs. 70, 71, 74, 81 and 120). According to the Buddhist commentator Buddhaghosa, Brahmaloka is the goal of the Brahmanas, Abhassaraloka is that of the tapasas, Subhakinnaloka is that of the Parivrajakas and Anantamanasa is that of the Ajivikas (Papañcasudani, PTS, ii, p. 9-Brāhmaṇānam hi Brahmaloko nitṭhā, tāpasānam Abhassarā, paribbājakānam Subhakinna (Subhakinha), Ajivakānam Anantamanaso...). The sutra speaks of some recluses who extol themselves, denounce others and do work for the welfare of the householders. After going through many births and rebirths they are reborn among the Abhiyogika gods (sec. 121). There are some religieux called ninhagas (nihnakas) who discard the words of wisdom and adhere to wrong views. They are recluses in their outward garb only. The Trairāsikas (Terāsiya) are counted among the seven such classes of men. They are destined to be reborn after going through a long cycle of rebirths among the upper Graiveya gods (ubharimesu gevejjesu-sec. 122).
There are men in the world who are virtuous, practise piety, and honestly earn their livelihood. They keep their vows and do not commit life-slaughter. They are free from anger, pride, deceit, greed, etc. They are typified by the lay worshippers who after their death are reborn in the heaven of Acyutakalpa (accue kappe devattae-secs. 123-124). The lay worshippers as householders cannot be expected to be completely free from attachment and capable of completely abstaining from killing. It is possible for those among the followers of Mahavira who have renounced the world to practise the samitis and guptis 2 and to carry out the instructions of the Master. Those who are not much advanced among the ordained disciples are destined to be reborn among the gods of the sarvarthasiddha mahāvimāna (secs. 125-129). Those who are far advanced find their place in the realm of
1 PTS Ed., II, pp. 9-10; 199, 217.
2 Five samitis and three guptis constituto eight means of self-control (Cf. Digha, I, p. 172, where the ideas of gutti and samiti are the same). For details, vide Appendix II-Principles of Jainism.

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souls above the mundane world (loy'-agga-paitthāņā havanti
-sec. 120). The sūtra is ultimately concerned to give us a clear description of the destiny of the siddhas or perfected ones. The eternal and immutable spiritual world in which they live after the completion of their mundane career is variously called kevalakappa, isipabbhāra, taņu, taņutaņu, siidhi, siddhālae, mutti, multālue loy'ugge, loyagga thūbhiyā (lokāgrasthūpikā) and loy'agga-padibujjhaņā. Isipabbhāra is the inost familiar name for this world. It is far above the worlds of gods and Brahmās. It is nevertheless called a world by itself (pudhavi) where the siddhas dwell for all time to come. It is absolutely free from birth, decay, death, and the cycle of births and rebirths. The siddhas while they live on earth cannot altogether get rid of physical troubles, the duration of life and their clesignation by name and family. They utterly destroy all that binds the soul to this earth and contaminates it. They too carry on their routine work of the day but when they attain to the final state of perfection and emancipation and pass away forever from mundane existence, they make an end of all pain. Thus with the Jainas the ultimate state of individual existence is an eternal and unchanging world which is the abode for the liberated souls. It is nowhere pointed out how the liberated souls pass their days in that world whether in a state of activity or in that of passivity (secs. 160-167).
The sūtra gives us an interesting list of Vedic branches of learning or subjects of study consisting of the Riuveda (Rgveda), Yajuveda (Yajurveda), Samaveda, Aharvaņaveda (Atharvana-veda), Itihāsa the fifth V'edu, Nighantu the sixth Veda, six Vedāngas, six Upāngas, works on rahassa (rahasya), Satthitainta (şastītantra) and many other Brahmanical treatises. The six Vedāngast are said to have been represented by the auxiliary works, sikkhā (phonetics), kappa (ritual), vāguraņa (vyākarana, grammar), chanda (metre), nirutta (exegesis), and joisu (jyotisa, astronomy-astrology) (Aupapātika Sūtra, sec. 77). It (sec. 76) speaks of the two allied systems of Sankhya and Yoga, while the Jain Anuyogadvāra Sūtrø (sec. 41) mentions Buddhusāsanam (Buddhism), Vaisesiyam (Vaiseșika system), Logāyatum (Lokāyatam), Purāņas, V'yākaruņa, Nātakas, Vaisikas, Kodiliāyam or kodillayam (Arthaśāstra of Kautilya), the Kāmusūtras of Ghodayamuham (Ghotakamukham), etc. The same sūtra (sec. 107) refers to the development of vatthuvijjā (vāstuvidyā) or science of
1 Really we find wovon Vedāngas instead of six, if Samkhana or arithmetic is included in them.

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architecture. The vatthuvijjā and vaddhakisippa as understood in a comprehensive sense included as subjects of study the planning and founding of cities, towns and villages, the erection of buildings of various styles, palaces, council-halls, forts, gateways, decorative designs, selection and sanctification of sites, examination of soil, selection and preparation of building materials, laying out of parks, gardens and the rest. The architects were known as thapatis or vuddhakis. Carpentry. wood-carving, stone-masonry, etc., were all connected with the art of building.
The early Jain and Buddhist texts bear evidence to the progress made in Jyotişa which was otherwise known as Nakkhattavijjā or study of the lunar constellations, their positions, movements, cataclysms and effects. In Buddha's time people were familiar with the phenomena of lunar and solar eclipses, the names of the seven planets, the appearance and disappearance of the comets, and the succession of three or six seasons. The experts in Jyotisa were required to make forecasts of all coming events, celestial or terrestrial (Aupapātika Sūtra, secs. 36 and 107; cf. Digha Nikūya, i, p. 10).
The consecration of king Kūniya (variant Koniya), son of king Bhimbhasāra (variant Bhambhasāra, Pāli Bimbisāra, Bimbasāra of the Lalitavistara) in the city of Campā is the grand occasion when Campā was visited by Mahāvira. The scene of action is laid in the Puņņabhadda cetiya (ceic) which was evidently a Yakkha shrine. This shrine was surrounded on all sides by large woodlands. The august presence of the Master is said to have attracted a large number of visitors including all sections of the citizens and all high officials of the State and different Ksatriya tribes such as those of the Licchavis and Mallas, the Iksvākus and Jñātrs. King Bhimbhasāra, father of Kūņiya, does not appear to have been present at the ceremony of his son's consecration. The queens of king Kūņiya are said to have been headed by Dhāriņī in some sections and by Subhaddhā in other contexts. Vajirā, who is mentioned as the wife of Ajātasatru and daughter of king Prasenajit of Kosala, is conspicuous by her absence in the Jain account. Even the political connection of Anga having Campā as its capital with the kingdom of Magadha is not indicated. Whether Kūņiya was consecrated to the rulership of Anga and Campā as an independent monarch or simply as a Viceroy of his father, the text is silent on this point. Even it may be doubted whether Kūņiya of the sūtra is the same person as Ajātasatru of the Buddhist texts and Purānas. The tendency of the compiler of the sutra is to describe all persons and things connected with Mahāvira

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in their ideal aspect. The queens of king Kūņiya were all well-accomplished ladies and perfect beauties. The king himself was endowed with all good qualities and bodily perfections to be installed, hailed and obeyed as the rightful sovereign of Campā. The city itself with its walls, gates, ramparts, palaces, parks and gardens, wealth and prosperity internal joy and happiness, was a veritable paradise on earth. These ideal descriptions are just a part of the general artifice for magnifying the glory of Mahāvīra and his religion. But it is not difficult to make out that the sūtra in its extant form is a much later compilation than the age which witnessed the advent of Mahāvira and the rise of Jainism. The sūtra refers to certain high officials such as gañaņāyaga, dandanāyaga and tālaruru, whose designations are met with in the Indian inscriptions of the post-Christian period (sec. 15). That the Jainas were out to excel the Brahmins, the Buddhists, and the rest in the art of poetical and laboured exaggerations, is particularly noticeable in the enumeration and des. cription of the physical characteristics of Mahāvīra as a great man, the characteristics that are said to be 8,000 in number in place of 32 of the Buddhist tradition (attha-sahassa-varapurişalakkhaṇadhare). There are nevertheless a few earlier references that help us to clarify some parallel Pāli passages. For instance the sūtra expressly mentions the Atharvaveda which is left to be understood in the Buddhist Nikāyas before the expression Itihāsa pañcamam, Itihāsa the fifth Veda. Although some of the later categories of Jain thought such as davva, khetta, kāla and bhava (sec. 28), loe, aloe, jīvā, ajīvā, bandhe, mokkhe and the like (sec. 56) are met with, the method of their treatment is still in an earlier stage of development.

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CHAPTER XIV
RAJAPRAŚNIYA SÜTRA (RĀYAPASENAIYA SÜYA)
The Rāyapasenuiya or Rāyapusenaijja or Rāja praśnīya. sūtra 1 is counted as the second u pāngu. Malayagiri Sūri, who was a contemporary of Kumārapāla, wrote a commontary on it. As its title implies it is al dialogue in which a king is the interlocutor. The kingly interlocutor is called
tas Pradesi) of Setavyā, a town which is placed in the half of the kingdom of Kekaya. Kosi, a follower of Pārsva, is represented as the gifted Jain recluse who answered the questions put to him by Pradesī, met the irguments put forward by the latter, while discussing the important problem of future life and rebirth according to the law of Karma. Pradeśī is in the role of a typical (kriyā. vādin of the Sūtrakrtānga and in that of a veritable năstika denying the existence of soul as an entity apart from the body. This philosophical dialogue is contained in the second part of the sūtra, while the first part is concerned with the description of a grand worship of Mahāvīra by Pradesi reborn as the god known as Sūryābhadeva. The turning point in the progressive career of Sūryābhadevil (which is to say that of Pradesi) begins as usual from his interview with Mahavira. The Pāli counterpart of this Jain sutra is undoubtedly the dialogue known as the Pāyāsi suttanta in the Dīghu Nikāya. In the Pāli suttanto the dialogue is put in the mouth of the Buddhist recluse, Kumārakassapa, the Flower-Talker (citrakathi) and the chieftain Pāyāsi of Setavyā, a town within the kingdom of Pasenadi of Kosala, and a halting place on the southern road. Thus the scene of action is laid in both the texts in the town of Setavyā situated not far from Sāvatthi the capital of Kosala.
The philosophical discussion contained in the Pāli dialogue took place after the Buddha's demise, and it must have taken place almost immediately after the Buddha's parinibbāna, for we have a Serīssakavimāna story, which, in the body of the text, is said to have been narrated a century after the Buddha's demise. In this story the nästika chieftain
i Rāyapasenaiya Suttam edited by Pandit Vecaradāsa Jivarāja Doshi. This text has also been edited with Malayagiri's commentary by the Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1925; vide also Weber, Ind. Stud., 16, 382ff; Leumann, Transactions of International Congresses of Orientalists, VI, Leiden, 1883, III, 2, 490ff. H. B. Gandhi translated and annotated it in 1938.

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is represented as a god who became a dweller in the Serīssaka mansion and functioned as the protector of the caravan merchants in their journey across the desert of Rajputana. In the Pāli dialogue Pāyāsi is represented as reborn immediately after his death as a god in a lower and lonely heavenly mansion, while his disciple Uttara is placed as a god in a higher and happier mansion. Both of them were visited from the earth by the thera Gavampati. In the Jain account the Serīssaka god of the later Vimāra story appears as the Suriālhadova. But in the Jaina treatment the philosophical discussion took place between Pradeśī and Keśī, the latter being a follower of Pārsva who is represented in the Uttarūdhyayana Sūlra as the contemporary of Mahāvīra Gautama Indrabhūti. It is through Kesi that the followers of Pārsva accepted also the liscipleship of Mahāvīra. If the goc Suriābha had waited on Malāvira, the first heavenly rebirth of Pradesī took place prior to the Buddha's demise. Evidently the Jaina accowit is a later literary manipulation bearing a peculiar stamp) of originality. In the Buddhist account there is no attempt to magnify the greatness of the Buddha. Here the bistorical motive is more dominant than cither literary or theological. The theological motive is not, however, altogether absent in the Buddhist narrative, but it does not go beyond proving that Pāyāsi's fust rebirth in a lower and lonely mansion, and his disciple's rebirth in a higher and happier mansion, were due to the fact that the former lacked reverence in offering a meal to the thera Kumārakassapa and his retinue, while his disciple was not wanting in it in offering the food on behalf of his teacher. The point of agreement in both the accounts is that although in the beginning of the philosophical discussion Pāyāsi or Pradesi was not inclined to be convinced of the existence of an after-life, in the end he confessed that he was a believer. The arguments advanced by Pāyāsi or Pradeśī were all logical, relevant, and philosophical, while both Kumārakassapa and Kesi used some popular ghost stories by way of philosophical argument. Nevertheless the victory is claimed for the Buddhist thera and the Jain recluse. The inference to be drawn from both the accounts is that nāstikya. as known at the time of Mahāvīra and the Buddha was neither the creed of Jainism nor that of Buddhism. Crass materialism was taken as something contrary to progressive life.
In the first part we have excellent literary descriptions of the city of Amalakalpā, the āmrasālavana shrine, the Asoka tree, the Prithvišilāpatta, king Sveta and queen

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Dhārini of Amalakalpā, physical characteristics, and mental and moral qualities of Mahāvīra, the celestial mansion of Sūryäbhadeva, its beautiful pillars and opera-hall and pavilion, its manipīthu, throne, Bhadrāsana and vehicles and conveyances. The grandeur of the worship is heightened by songs, dances, and instrumental music and enlivened by 32 varieties of dramatic representations (abhinayas). These are described as Candrāvati, Sūryāvatī, the rise of the moon, the rise of the sun, and the like. The technical significance of them is not quite clear. In the Nemichandra Sūri's commentary on Uttarajjhayana (XIII) there is mention of a nātyavidhi known as Mahuyarīgiya. Names of some of the musical instruments are given in this sūtra (sec. 23).1 A list of nine materials associated with writing is also given (sec. 43).2 How far this mode of worship was consistent with the Jaina conception of austere religious life is not discussed. But the whole affair is described as a matter which concerned the celestial world. The details given of architectural varieties and decorations along with the divyanātyavidhis are important as bearing upon the development of the silpa and nātyaśāstras. Corresponding to such a description we have pictures of various celestial mansions in the Pāli Vimānavatthu, but the Pāli descriptions pale into insignificance as compared with the Jaina narration. The Buddhist stories seem to belong to a much earlier stage of the Indian literary art and they are utilized only to encourage the practice of piety among the people and not as a means of heightening the glory of the Buddha in particular.
This text is of great importance as a literary piece of work. No doubt it begins with a long and tedious story in the style of the Purāņas but the nucleus of the work as pointed out by Winternitz is really the dialogue between the king and the monk ending in the conversion of the former (Rājapraśniya Sūtra, 65-79). According to Winternitz it is a splendid and lively dialogue in which the monk endeavours to prove to the king that there is a soul (jīva) independent of the body (deha), whilst the king thinks that he has proved the contrary by means of experiment. The king says that he has caught hold of a thief who has been cut up and hacked to pieces, but no trace of any soul has been found, whilst
i Sankha, singa, sankhiyā, kharamuhi, peyā, panava, bheri, vallaki, cittavinā, sughosā, tūņā, tumbavinā, kalasiyā, veļu, magariyā, lattiyā, vamsa, etc.
? Pattaga (leaves), kambiya (wooden board), dora (thread), lehani (pen), masi (ink), lippăsaņa (inkpot), akkhara (letters), potthaya (book), sankalā (chain). (vide J. C. Jain, Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons, p. 175).

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the monk retorts that he is even simpler than some people who wanted to make a fire and chopped up the fire-sticks (Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, pp. 455-6). Dr. Barua in his Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy (p. 295) has made this point clear by saying that it is not possible to separate the soul from the body, pointing out that this is the soul and that is the body. It is possible in the case of a sword and its scabbard.
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According to Winternitz the Sanskrit translation of the title Rajapraśniya is probably erroneous. Presumably the work originally treated of king Prasenajit of Kosala in whose place Paësi was inserted. Winternitz evidently bases his contention on the supposition that the title of the upanga, Rayapasenaijja, as given in some of the angus, is derived from Raja Pasenaji (Pāli, Pasenadi; Barhut, Pasenaji). But it is difficult to derive grammatically Pasenaijja from Pasenaji. Had it been derived from Pasenaji, the title would have been simply Pasenajja instead of Pasenaijja. The Pali dialogue definitely proves that the philosophical discussion took place between a thera and the ruler of Setavya, and king Pasenadi is kept altogether out of the picture, although Payasi happened to be a chieftain under him.

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CHAPTER XV
JĪVĀJĪVĀBHIGAMA
The Jīvājīvābhigama is the third upanga which consists of twenty sections. It deals with the fundamentals of Jainism and is wanting in philosophical speculation. Really it contains the doctrine of the living and non-living things. It mainly points out the various classifications of jīvu 1 and ajīva.1 The former comprises all entities ondowed with life, while the latter includes those which are devoid of life. It is in the form of questions and answers like the fourth upānga called the Pannuvaņā. It gives it description of the universe in all its details and supplies a comprehensive classification of the living beings. The section dealing with the continents and oceans is an interpolation according to Winternitz.2 It is connected with the Jambudīvu pannutti which
the things like. The being
1 Thoso come under Navatattva or the Doctrine of nine terms according to thio Jainas (Uttaradhyayanu, XXVIII, 14). These two terms comprehend the world of existence as known and experienced. The jīvu signifies all that has lifu and the ajīva signifies the things without life. The world of life is represented by the six classes of living things and beings, the first three of which are iinmovable and the last three movable. The carth-lives, water-lives and plants ure immovable beings; while the movable beings are the fire-lives, wind-lives and thoso with an organic body. The living things are either subtilo or gross, and the living beings bolong to samsūra or those whose souls are perfected. Through the gradation of living things and beings one can trace the evolution of the senses, the lowest forin of beings being provided with only one sense, the sense of touch. (Cf. Sūtrakrtūnya, 1, 7.1; Uttarādhyayana, XXXVI). The study of tho category of jiva is important because it is connected or interconnocted with the six classes of beings that the process of karna sets in and the nature of man's conduct is determined. The things without life are either formed or formloss. The formed are compound things and atoms constituting the world of matter. The world of the formless is reprosentod by the first four of the astikayas (dharma, adharina, space and time). Dharma and adharma explain motion and absence of motion respectively. Space explains how things and beings appour mutually distinct and timo explains their duration of existence. Thus the catogory of ujīva helps us in completing our study of tho world of life and of existence. It is interesting to compare the notions of jiva and ajiva as found in the text of the Jivājīvābhigumu with those given in other Jain texts (vide B. C. Law, Mahāvīra : His Life and Teachings, pp. 90ff.)
In Buddhism jiva and asiva convey the same meaning as in Jainism. In the Mahāli Sutta of the Digha Nikāya (1, p. 157-tum jivum tam sariram udūhu aññam jivam aññam sariram. Cf. Majjhima, I, 157; Anguttara, II, 41) the Buddha raises the question whether jiva and sarira are the same but he does not answer the question. He simply loads the discourse up to arhatship along the series of mental states set out in the Samaññaphala Sutta (Digha, I). Jivitindriya mentioned in the Pāli texts (cf. Vinaya, III, 73; Samyutta V, 204; Milinda, 56) is the faculty of life. In tho Milinda-Punho (Trenckner Ed., p. 31) tho word jiva occurs. It is used in the sense of living being or soul.
2 History of Indian Literature, II, 456.
and beings thus the category. It is intarivābhigumu wachings, pp. Join

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is a work on Jaina cosmology and geography. This text has been edited in the Seth Devchand Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhara Samiti Series with Malayagiri's commentary (1919).
The text first of all deals with ajiva which is primarily classified into two heads: rūvi (possessed of form) and arūvi (without any form). The latter is further classified into ten heads and those comprise dharmāstikāya (principle of motion), adharmästikāya (principle of rest) and the like along with their further subdivisions into desa and pradeśa. They are called aruvi because they cannot be perceived by the senses. Their validity is to be established on the strength of scriptural evidence. Ruvi ajiva has four varieties, which are as follows: (1) khandha, (2) khandhadesă, (3) khandhappaesā and (4) paramāņu poggalā. Of these khandha is said to be the aggregate of atoms which forms a complete molecular constitution. Any physical body which is capable of perception may be taken as a khandha; half of this is khandhadesa, and the half of this half again is called khandhappaesa. The second and the third do not possess full molecular constitution; they are in the formative stage. The fourth variety known as paramāņu poggala is the primary atom which cannot be further subdivided. The Vaiseṣikas, on the other hand, hold that two atoms make one dvyanuka and three dvyanukas or six atoms make one tryasarenu which comes under the range of perception. This is more subtle than the khandha of the Jainas. All the entities which fall under rūvidravya have got colour, odour, taste, touch, and structure as their five different constituents. This is all about inanimate substance.
JIVAJIVÄBHIGAMA
The various species and sub-species of jivas are elaborately enumerated in the text and side by side their characteristic features are also dealt with. They are primarily classified into two groups: (1) mobile (tasa), and (2) immobile (thavara). The former roughly comprises the four kinds of living beings and these are (1) hellish, (2) animal, (3) human, and (4) celestial. The immobile is of three kinds and it covers all earthly and fluid bodies and the whole of the vegetable kingdom.
The Samkhya system also classifies the entire world of living beings (Kārikā, 53) but its treatment is different from that of the Jain text. All these immobile beings possess only one sense-organ of touch. The animal world beginning with such insects as earthworms and ending in man is brought under four main organisms having two, three, four, and five sense-organs.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
All inanimate objects possessing forms have got the following five attributes: (1) colour, (2) odour, (3) taste, (4) touch and (5) figure. Like other systems of thought, sound is not regarded as a special attribute. Taste has got five varieties and these are bitter, pungent, astringent, acid and sweet. Salt is not separately mentioned. Touch is also minutely classified. It is of eight types and these are hard, soft, heavy, light, hot, cold, rough and smooth. Figures are classified into ellipse, circle, triangle, etc., but no mention of polygon.
The main interest of the text lies in the classification of the jīvas or animates. They are primarily classified according to the number of sense-organs they possess. Those possessing only one sense-organ, i.e., that of touch, are classified first. Under this head come the following five varieties:
(1) Earth-lives, such as rocks, salt, arids, various metals in the shape of iron, lead, gold, diamond, pigments, (orals, gems, are included in this list. In the Vaiseșika system too hair-splitting arguments are raised to establish the fact that gold falls under the category of fire.
(2) Water lives, such as rain water, hot springs, saline water of the sea, dews and the like.
(3) Fire-lives, such as lightnings, thunder-bolts, luminaries, meteor, etc.
(4) Air-lives, such as storms, intermittent winds, highwinds, low-winds, etc. Even the purely material bodies are also held as jīvas according to the Jainas.
(5) Vegetable and plant lives. An attempt has been made in the gāthās (pp. 36–43) to classify them scientifically and it is interesting to note that various kinds of grass, sugar-canes, and bamboos (p. 40A, gāthā 8) are described together. It should be observed that the twigs, roots, leaves, fruits and flowers of the same tree are said to possess independent lives.
Then comes the world of animals and insects. These are also classified according to principle of the number of sense-organs. The microscopic organisms are not overlooked. Last of all come those which possess all the five sense-organs, namely, that of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing. Under this head we find the four classes of jīvas, namely, (1) Hellish beings, (2) Gods, (3) Human beings, and (4) Infra-human beings, such as beasts and birds. All these are classified further in detail. In the list of gods, no mention of pitsloka is found.

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Different kinds of births also find a prominent place in Jainism. Young ones of some species are born in the wombs, while there are others produced from eggs. But there are some species of minute organisms which are of spontaneous growth (sammucchimā).
There are some stray references to philosophical discussions. We find some technical terms which are not generally mentioned in other systems of thought. As regards lesya' it is regarded as soul-soiling emotion or tint. It has got six varieties, namely, black, blue, grey, vellow, lotushuce (some call it red) and white. The first three are conected with bad (motions and consequently they give rise to evil. However, these colours are not to be regarded as the intrinsic ('olour of the soul,
Regarding cight-fold kurman, the karma-particles are found amongst the hellish creatures right up to the Vaimānik gods. Owing to inherent association with them, an individual is forced to migrate in the metempsychosis. The oright-fold kurman consists of the following:-(1) knowledge-olscuring action, (2) cognition-obscuring, (3) feeling. (4) (5) length of time, (6) destiny 2 (7) family determining, and (8) obstructive. These are further subdivided into 118 sub-classes.
T(. Sūtrukitangu, 1.4.21; Itturadhyayan, XXXIV.
? The sixth karma (nimci) decides which of the four states or conditions shall be our particular gati (destiny).

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CHAPTER XVI
PRAJÑĀPAŅĀ (PAŅṆAVAṆĀ).
The Pannavana is the fourth upanga which is ascribed to Ajjasama (Aryasyama) who is said to have lived 376 or 386 years after Mahavira's death (Winternitz, History of Indian Lit., II, p. 433). It consists of 36 sections dealing with (1) Prajñāpaņā (panṇavaņā), (2) Sthānā (thāņā), (3) Bahuvaktavya (bahuvattavvaya), (4) Sthiti, (5) Viseṣa, (6) Vyutkranti (Vakkanti), (7) Ucchvāsa (ūsāsa), (8) Sanjñā (sanna), (9) Yoni (joni), (10) Carama, (11) Bhāṣā, (12) Sarīra, (13) Parinama, (14) Kaṣaya, (15) Indriya (indiya), (16) Prayoga (paoga), (17) Lesya (lessä), (18) Kayasthiti (kayaṭṭhii), (19) Samyaktva (sammatta). (20) Antakriya, (21) Avagāhanasthāna (ogāhaṇāsamthāna), (22) Kriya (kiriya), (23) Karma, (24) Karmabandha, (25) Karmavedaka (kammaveya), (26) Vedabandhaka (veyabandha), (27) Vedavedaka (veyaveya), (28) Ahāra, (29) Upayoga (nvaoga), (30) Darśanatā, (31) Sanjñā (sanni), (32) Samyama (samjaya), (33) Avadhi, (34) Pravicaraṇā, (35) Vedana, and (36) Samudghata (samugghāya). It deals with Jain philosophy. It is also known as Pannavaṇā-Bhagavati. This text has been published in the Agama-Samgraha Series started by Dhanapati Simha with Malayagiri's commentary and Sanskrit translation in Benares (1884) and there is also another edition of this text in the Agamodaya Samiti Series (1918-1919). It contains matters relating to geography and ethnography. It is interesting to note that this text places Anga and Vanga in the first group of Aryan peoples. The text (pp. 60B-61A) also refers to many important places such as Rayagiha (Rajagṛha), Magaha (Magadha), Anga, Vanga, Kamcanapura (Kañcanapura), Banarasi (Benares), Kampilla (Kampilya) Pamcala (Pañcala), Ahicchatra, Dāravati (modern Dwarka), Mililavi (Mithila), Namdipura in Sandilya, Gajapura in Kururāṣṭra, Vairața in the Vatsa kingdom, Vitabhaya in the Sindhudeśa, etc. Some of these are not found in other literature. The text mentions various flowers the most important of them being Navamallikā, Bandhujivaka, Mallika, Yuthika, Campokā, Vūsanti, Mrgadantikā, Mogara, Jati, etc. (I. 23. 23-5) It also mentions various fruits,
1 Cf. Pāli Apadāna (P.T.S.), pp. 346-47; Bandhujiva (Pentapetes Phoenicea) -a kind of plant having red flowers. It is called Bandhuli or Bandhuka flower in Sanskrit. Campaka is called Campa in Bengal, a pretty large tree, flowering
6B

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c.g. mango, fig, plantaju, date, citron, breadfruit, pomagranate, woodapple, etc. (I. 23. 12-7). It also refers to various trees, c.g. Nimbu, Jambu, Sāla, Vaikule, Palūšu, Bilva, Asoka, Asvattha, Udumbara, Sirīsa, Saptu parnu, Lodhra, Candanu, Arjuna, Āmaluga, Bibhitku, Mālulinga, Nandi, Batu, Tiluku, etc. (I. 23.1241, 354.). The text refers to tailors (tunnugā), weavers (luntuvāyar) and makers of silk cloth (putukulu) (I. 37). Ivory workers are mentioner among important artisans (Ibid., 1. 37). L* bags were made for holding water (Ibid., T. 37). The Arras are divided into five clisses according in place (khe , birthi (jāti), family (kul), tracle (kumm), linguage (bhisi), indi arts and crafts (sippe). (Ibid., 1. 37.)
time rainy soon, delightfully fragrant (vide B. C. Law, Studirs in the Apudano, J.B.B.R.A.S. (New Series), Vol. 13, (1937).
('. Pauli Apadānu. (L.T.S.), 1'p. 346 ff. 1 6oka (uruca asoca-- medicinal plant, handsome tree; flowers at the beginning of the hot season; fluwe is pretty large in clusters; when first opens the fluwer is of a beautiful orange colour, grarlually changing to recl, forming a variety of shades, fragrant during the night. Bilra is Bel (Aegle marmel). Nimbe (Melia usudirucht)..its flowers are yWort conted. Plasa (Buteu. Frondasu)-flowering time. March-April, flowers derprod shaded with orange and silvrir coloured down. Sül (Shorea Robusla - Birhuut, Fig. 28). Tilaka (Tilentka. Symplocos racemo84) = Sanskrit Lothrit. Vumburu (Picus glomeruta) is fig (Barhut, Fig. 30). Takula = vikuiu (llimusops clonyi) --Bowers white, fragrant. Mutulingo = Mārluiga (citrus inolicu) is the citron. Jambu (Eugeniu jumboluna) = Külujām (blackberry). Bibhituka = Buholi (Terminalin bclerica). Its fruits are the commercial Beleric inyrabolans. Haritaku, Bibhitaka and Amalaka form the three commercial myrabolans. They are known as Tripiali in Bengal.

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CHAPTER XV11
JAMBU DI'ÍPAPRAJÑAPTI (JAMBUDDĪVAPAŅŅATTI)
The Jambuddīva pannutti is the sixth upinga. which contains a description of Jambudvina or India. It gives us the mythical geography of the Jainas. It is it work on Jaima cosmology divided into seven sections. In the third section there is a description of Bhārata varsit. This text with Sānticandra's commentary has been published by the Seth Devchand Lallbhai Jaina Pustakoodhāra Samiti. Kirfel (Cosmographie der Inder, Bonn an Leipzig, 1920) and Glasenapp (Der Jainismus) have studied this text.
The Jambuddīvu pannutti speaks of Seven ursus or countries constituting the seven main divisions of Jambudvipa. The same Jain work locates Harivarşa to the north of Bhāratavarşa and the Himalayan mountain, and divides the Himalayan range into two: the greater (mahāhimavanta) and the lesser (cullahimavanta). The former extends castwards up to the castern sea, that is, the Bay of Bengal, and the latter westwards and then southwards up to the sea below the Varşadhara mountain, i.c. the Arabian Sea.” Like Bhārata varsa in the Jambuddīva pannatti Jambudvipa in the Pāli texts is described as the kingilom of a king-overlord (cakkuvattī)-Jambuddiva pannutti iji, 41: Bharahe rase.... Bharuhe nāmam rāyā caurumta, cakkavalli sumuppajjitthü.' The Vaitādhya (Vindhya) mountain range divities India into northern half called Aryāvarta and the southern half (daksiņārdha) later called Dākşiņātya3 The Bhāratavarşa appears from the north like a bedstead and from the south like a bow (uttarão palimkasamthāna-samthie, dāliņão dhanupittha-samthie). By the two great rivers Gangā and Sindhu and the Vaitādhya mountain range it is divided into six
1 The Jain Mahāhinavanta seems to correspond with the Erodos or Her mnodes (Pali Hiinavata) of the classical writers, which represents that part of the Himalayan range which extended along Nepal and Bhutan and onward towards the ocean (McC'rindle, Ancient India, pp. 132 and 186).
? Jambuddiva-punnati, i.9: Bharahe namam vise .... cullahimavanlassa risa. harapavvayassa dähinenam dāhinalavanasamuddussa uttureņum, purutthimalavanasamuddas80 paccatthimenam..... The same extonsion of the range is implied in the Milinda, p. 114.
3 Ibid., i, 12: Bharahe väse Veyaddhe numam pavvaye pannutte: uttaraddha-Bharahavāsassa dāhincrum dāhinabharahavāsassu ullurcnum.

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portions. It is 526,4%; leagues in extent. The text speaks of six varsaparvatas in Jambudvipa, namely, Himavāl), Hemakūta, Nişadha, Nila, Śveta id Smugavān, enumerated from south to north, ach forming a long range from sea to sea. The Jambudīrupunnatti (omeets the origin of the Ganges with a flow Uirough the pastor'n outlet of it great lake in the Lesser Himalayan range and that of Sindhu with it flow through its western outlet. It speaks of a similar lake in the Greater Himalayan range. The lake Anotatta has, like the lotus lake, four outlets on its four sides, from each of which flows id river. The four rivers that flow from the four outlets of the lotus lake (Pudmahrada) ure Gangi, Rohitā, Sindhu, and Harikāntā.? Many rivers fall into ilie Ganges through which they enter the eastern sea, pot directly. In this text we have mention of cight peaks of the Girator Himalayan range, of cloven of the Lesser range and of nine of the Vaitādhya range which divides Tudja into two halves. The cight peaks of the Greator Himalayan range are Haimilvatapati, Rohitanadisuri, Harivarsapati, Hrisuri, MahāhimalVacadhisthātỊ, Harikāntānadisuri, Siddhāyatana, and Vaidūrva. The devon peaks of the Lesser range comprise Kumāradevil, Selvhāyatana, ot6,5 The list of nine peaks associated with the Vaitādhya range begins with Siddhāyatala and ends in Tamiśragukā. The text derives the name of Bhāratavar'sa from king Bharata whose sovereignty was established over it. Its shape is described as one like that of a half-moon. The Bhāratavarşa is described as a peninsula with seas on its three sides, cast, south and west. Kuśāvati, the capital of Daksinakośala, may have been precisely the city, which, under the name of Ayodhyā, is associated with the Vaitādhya range along which there were sixty Vidyādhara towns.8 Magadha is called Magahatitthakhetta in this text. The text seems right in suggesting that there were two lakes cach called Mahāpadmahrada, one connected with the Kşudrahimavanta or western Himalayan range and the other connected with the Malalimavanta or castern Himalayan range.
i Jambruldiivi-puminatti, i, 9.
2 Ibid., iv, 34, 36. 3 Ibid., iv, 31: Purutthabhimühi vultusmini cadelasuhiw sulilasahasschi na maygū ahe juguim dilaittä purutthimemu lacunasamuddam samappci. " Ibid., iv, 80.
6 lbid., iv, 35. • Ibid., i, 12.
i Ibid., i, 10, 12. 8 Tidl., i, 12: sulthim rijjhiharanaguririisi.

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CHAPTER XVIII
NIRAYAVALI SUTRA (NIRAYAVALIYA SUYA).
The Nirayavaliya group of five upangas consists of Nirayavaliya or Kappiya, Kappavaḍimsuya, Pupphiyā, Pupphaculiyā, and Vanhidasa. These texts are separately counted to make up the number twelve of the upangas of the Svetambara canon. The Nirayavaliya or Kappiyā gives the lives of the teu sous of Srenika; the Kappavadimsaya, the lives of their ten sons; the Pupphiya, the description of ten gods. the Moon, the Sun and the like; the Pupphaculiya, that of ten goddesses, Śri, Ri and the like, while the Vanhidusā contains the legends of the twelve princes of the Vrsni race. All the five books form parts of this sūtru as a whole. The first book or Nirayāvaliyā proper dealing with the unhappy destiny of the ten half brothers of Kunika, and the second book dealing with the destiny of their ten sons, stand as two Jain literary pieces inspired by the plot of the Sanskrit Dasakumaracarita. The number ten plays its important rôle in the first four books of the Niruyacaliya group while a slight departure is made in the l'anhidasa. As compared with the literary excellence of the Dasakumaracarita the Jaina pieces seem to be hackneyed and laboured, dull and uninteresting. In the first piece king Śreņika is said to have ten queens besides Cellanā, the daughter of Ceḍaga of Videha and Vesali. The ten sons were named, Kala, Sukala, Mahakāla, Kṛṣṇa, Sukṛṣṇa, Mahakṛṣṇa, Virakṛṣṇa, Rāmakṛṣṇa, Pitrsenakrsna and Mahasenakṛṣṇa after their mothers Kāli, Sukali and the rest. The list supplied is evidently fantastic and unhistorical. The connection of king Śrenika with Rajagṛha is very vaguely suggested. His son Kūņika is invariably connected with the city of Campa, which is known as the capital of Anga in Pali literature. After the death of king Śrenika, his son Kūnika, overwhelmed with grief, left Rajagṛha for Campā. Kūnika had an uterine brother Vehalla, by name. King Srenika out of his love for Prince Vehalla gave him a Gandhahasti known by the name of Sreyanaga and a precious necklace, which were wanted by Kunika at the instance of his Queen Padmavati. Prince Vehalla sought
1 This text has been edited by Warren in Amsterdam (1879). The Jaina Agamodaya Samiti has also brought out an edition of this sutra with Candrasuri's commentary (Ahmedabad 1922). This sutra has been published in Benares (1885) in the Agamasangraha of Dhanapati Singha, cf. Z.D.M.., 34, 178ff.

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for the protection of his maternal grandfather king Cedaga of Videha and Vesāli in this emergency. Kūņika sent an emissary to Cedaga for the surrender of Vehalla together with Sreyanāga and the necklace. King Cedaga brought the matter to the notice of the nine Licchavis and the nine Mallakis and the kings of Kāśi and Kosala then in alliance. A terrible battle ensued. Thie ten half-brothers of Kūnika fought on his side and they were all killed in action and were reborn in hells. The anecdotes of the twelve princes of the Vrsni race show the brighter side of the picture. They by their virtuous deeds were all reborn in different heavenly worlds. The Vrsni stories are better told in the Amtugududusão.
The Jaina verdict on the fate of Kūnika's ten half brothers is rather hard and partial. No remark is made on the action of king Cedaga vidently for the reason that he happened to be the maternal grandfather of Mahāvīra himself. King Kunikat of (ampā passes in Jain literature its an ideal king quite contrary to the picture given of him in the Pali (amon, It seems that all the historical legends as met with in many of the Jain books were invented with a theological motive from which the Buddhist legends too are not absolutely free.
B. ( Law, Buddhistic Studies, chapter VII.

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CHAPTER XIX
NISĪTHA AND MAHĀNISĪTHA SŪTRAS (NISĪHA AND MAHANISTHA SUYAS)
The Nisiha, which is a cheda sūtra, contains 20 chapters. Some have called it Niseha instead of Nisiha. The rules governing the life of monks and nuns and various penances by way of punishment for violating the rules regarding begging of alms, etc., are given in it.
According to Schubring, the name is to be explained only as a cross form between nischa, prohibition, and nisihiya, 'place of study'. In the Samavāyānga, possibilities of ūrovaṇā have been described as parts of the yārapakappa. But it is difficult to say in spite of its similarities with Nisīha (20) whether a particular text is to be understood by this term or not. That the Nisiha belongs to the ayara is mentioned in the Samarāyānga (44a) in a manner that is selfcontradictory (Weber, Indische Studien, 16, 254ff.). But it is suggested by the Samavāyānga (73b) where āyāra culiyā must have meant the Nisiha and not the vimutti āyāra (IT. 16).
The Mahanisiha, which is also a cheda sutra, contains six ajjhayanas. It treats of miscellaneous matters. e.g. relationship between a preceptor and his pupil, Sumati and Naila, daughter of Suyyasivi, etc. This text has many topics common to those in Nistha. W. Schubring's Das Mahānisīha Sutta (Berlin, 1918) is worthy of notice. The text refers to two cities named Kusatthala located in Magadha (p. 16) and Sambukka situated in Avanti (p. 27). It mentions a peculiar custom that when the dead bodies were not duly disposed of, they were left uncared for at the mercy of wild beasts and birds (p. 25).
The Mahānisīha deals with:-(i) Salluddhaana, about confession and penance; (ii) Kammavivāgavāgaraṇa, a big central piece in prose dealing with the result of bad behaviour, chastity, sexual temperament, and moralistic thoughts; (iii) ritual and significance of the pañca-mangala and other formulas; (iv) the story of Sumai and Naila; and (v) Navaṇīyasara. Here are found the account of Gaccha and teacher, with stories about Vaira and Kuvalayappabha; (vi) Giyatthavihara-Nandisena's personal exploits; Asada's personal exploits; about confessions and penances; Medhamālā's

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insufficient confessions; intercourse with efficient and inefficient monks; stories of İsara, Rajjā, Lakkhanadevi-khandotthā and devotion to monkhood which can only be wiconditional. Then followed two supplementary chapters: (vii) about penances, and (viii) story of Sujjlasiri and Susadha. These are the contents of the Machinisha. The Gucchüvāra stands in close relation with the Mahnisiha, for it has borrowed almost one-third of its contents from it.
In the Nuhiinisihu we find that he who in his strivings for the highest goal has his thoughts concentrated on his own self, will attain the best success. There are many who practise with a secret dart (sallu), that is, an unconfessed sin in his heart. All their strivings are rendered Dugatory. Only after complete confession is the pursuit of Dharma crowned with success. The reward of truthful confession is kerala knowledge. Mauy muns attain release through (onfession and penance. Physical pain which comes from outside, seems to many to be more easily bearable than asceticism and self-discipline. Even in evil-doer ofte keeps silent tenaciously, although the king would reward his confession.
In the kammu vivāga vägarana, we find is description of sufferings of all beings in this world. Gods suffer in so far as they know that their glory will not last forever. Some do not believe in the salutory result of keeping out the influence of karma. Some creatures suffer misery uninterruptedly and have not a moment of peace. One should not think of women, nor speak to thein, nor live in the same house with them, nor go about in their company. There are also women who are of the highest order. If an ordinary woman fails to get her wished for object, her passion burns. If a woman controls herself, she ultimately attains salvation).
He who avoids intercourse, should abstain himself from possession and injuring beings. The opportunity of being awakened does not come again, if it is inissed. A belated confession is painful but wholesome. Those who know about penances should inform others what they have to do.
In order to consolidate the true knowledge, one can begin only by invoking the deity, and this act of showing respect to the deity consists of the five-fold formula of benefice (Pañcumangala). On an astrologically auspicious day the pious one after preparing himself by means of fasting goes to the sacred site, bends on his knees before the statues (padimā-bimba) of the saints and concentrates his mind on the first of the adoratory forinulas, and on the following days on formulas 2-5. Release will be his rewarı who properly

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worships an arhut or tirthakara. The worship has two forms: the ascetic life of a monk, and the mildly active life of a laity. The former is morally higher.
Sumai and Naila, two rich brothers of the laic-state of the city of Kusatthala in Magadha, are compelled to wander about on account of the loss of their property. On the way they meet five monks and a lay brother, and they join them. But Naila, a follower of Aritthanemi, soon realizes that they are in evil company and he tries to persuade Sumai to leave them. In course of a dialogue, he refers to the blameworthy activities of their comrades. Sumai persists in accompanying them. The restrictions which Naila demands are, in his opinion, impossible to observe. So Naila has to leave Sumai. After five months there is a famine in which those seven perished.
Under Navaniyasara one should belong to a good Gaccha, which is conducted by a good Ganin. The order in Gaccha will remain valid up to the time of Duppasaha. The behest of the teacher should not be disregarded and elucidatory example serves the story of the five hundred disobedient monks of Vaira, who was followed by 1,500 nuns besides these monks. In course of a pilgrimage in honour of Candappaha, they commit many misdeeds. They are reminded of the evil consequences of their misdeeds but in vain.
The sutta refers to the four kinds of teachers. Of these four kinds the bhāvāyariya is to be regarded as equal to a tirthakara and his behest is to be obeyed like that of latter. The penance which a teacher is liable to perform is many times more difficult than that of an ordinary monk. He to whom the conduct of a Gaccha is to be entrusted should behave like a monk. The prestige of the teacher (āṇā) will endure till the time of Sirippabha. The text gives a description of persons not fit for the Order. If a teacher admits such men into the Order he would be guilty of a grave offence.
According to our sutta the canon is to be handed down by the teacher in the correct form. In course of time many transgressed the sacred doctrine. A teacher harbouring false views is not destined for release. It has been implicitly stated in the Sutta that an arhat (apparently a teacher and nothing more as in Chap. V of the Mahānisiha) should never allow a woman to touch him on any account. The daughter of a purohita, who is in the service of a grocer, feels a longing for flesh and groats during her pregnancy and procures these by selling valuables belonging to her master. For this, she

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is home-interned by the king till her delivery. After she has given birth to a boy, she escapes. The child is well brought up by the king's order, and is later made the superintendent of a slaughter-house (sūnūdhirai). This office carns for him sojourn in the deepest hell.
In our sutta Nandisena is ittracted by the thought of suicide. But it mouk dissuales him by saying that he camot bring about death lay any means before proper time. Soon after that, harassed by wibulations, Nanilisena intends to hurl himself down from the summit of a hill, but he has been dissuaded in the same way. First he must enjoy to the fullest extent his earlier karma and then live in self-discipline, According to the prescribed rule, he brings back to the teacher his monk's vessel and proceeels as a laity to another place. One day to dreng for alms lie anters the house of it hetaira uttering the usual formula dhrommalūbha. She does not care for dhamma but is only aftur money and property. Through magic power Nannisena procures 161 12. Kotis in golci and turns to go away but stoje oni Count of her importunities. He decides not to adhere to the dirt rules so long as he is able to (olvert 101: 1. sors daily to the right fajth. In course of time the taila's love letters lim. Finally, he grows world. wear and returns to his teacher. The latter blames him saying that he has got lived according to his teachings, and has moreover traded in dhummu. Nandiseņa recognizes his sin and embarks on a heavy penance. He will be released when all his karma will be destriyed.
Aşāda, a pupil of Bhūikkha, has also resolved to commit suicide, but he has been preveuted from doing so. But still he thinks of committing suicide. When at last he perceives this to be an act of sin, le imposes on himself a penance and dies without complete confession. His punishment is il series of existences. He attains Nirvana after his re-birth as the son of a brahmin in Mathurā. None should think that penances do not purify. Self-mortification should be undergone iu penances. The penance destroys evil. The confession is to be made to the Revalin or the perfected one. Every impulse of sin binds Karman-misery. A layman can therefore never come above the middle stage of existence (majjhimā gai) even when he confines himself to his own wife. Otherwise lies will behave like the pu Medhamālā who cherished sinful (kesire for it layman, and came to the uppermost bell for not baving confessed this breach of discipline. Distinction lietween good and evil can be learnt only by living in company with efficient monks in Giyatthavihāra. On the advice of a Giyuttha one may even take poison,

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for it will change into nectar; but nectar taken at the behest of an giyattha will change into poison. One should rather live with a snake than with an giyatthu. Que who breaks his oath is to be shunned. The first example of an agiyuttha is the monk Īsara. As the first Tirthakura goes into Nirvāna, the gods, in order to witness the event, appear on the earth. On that occasion the memory of his previous existences flashes through the mind of oue of the spectators; he becomes a monk and attains Prutyekubuddhahool. Isara asks this Pratyekubuddhu about his origin, etc., and the latter gives him detailed information, but Isara does not believe him. The Prutyekubuddha seeks out the Jina and becomes il gunadhara under him. When after the Jina's death he begins to expound the canon, it strikes him that the theory that he who injure's an earthly being is a bad monk, is unfeasible. But he at once recognizes this thought to be a great sin and undertakes il fast and again goes to that Pratyekubuddha. 'The latter holds that on no account should earthly and other beings be injured. But Isara is again of a different opinion, thinking how the Pratyckubuddha holds such a view when he himself eats food that is prepared in fire and does not at all live without water. He leaves him and decides to expound the Dharma himself. He then (xpires. The Guccho. of Bhadda (onsisting of 500 monks and 1,200 muns, has the practice of taking only water instead of the fourth meal. Nun Rajjā falls ill for taking water. Some nuns thereupon resolve not to confine themselves to water only. Only one of them (onsiders a previous karman to be the cause of her malady. At this perception she attains Kerulu knowledge. King Jambidādima and his queen Siriya get, after many sons, the longed for daughter named Lakkhaņādevī. Her husband dies shortly after marriage. The young widłow is in great anguish. About this time a Tirthakura comes to the country, and the king with all this relations gets converted to his doctrine. When alone the nun Lakkhaņādevi once watches with envy the amorous sports of the birds and comes to regret her vow of chastity. Being conscious of her sin, she wants to confess and do penance, although through her confession she exposes herself and her people. This thought at last gets the upper hand. Thereupon under pretence of acting in the interest of someone, she makes enquiries about the measure of the penance to be performed in purification of her sin and actually performs it. But her sin is not destroyed thereby. She only hastens the punishment for her penance. In the next existence she is Khandotthā, the maid of a famous hetaira whom, however, Khandotthā far excels

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in beauty. The hetaira therefore decides to cut off her cars, nose and lips, so that she may never again gain the favour of male admirers; but intends to spare her life. Khandotthā, however, is forewarned by a dream and flies. After long wanderings she comes to the city of Samkhanda, and is there married by a rich man. The latter's first wife, however, fired with jealousy, thrusts one night, while Khandotthā is asleep, a fire-brand twice into her abdomen; the corpse she throws away to animals to be devoured. The husband thereupon becomes a monk.
Goyama suggests the theory that one can become il monk only though stages of successive corporeal existences. After attaining correct insight in one existence, one takes the laic oath in the next and so forth, till at last in nine further stages he reaches the height of monastic life. This doctrine will surely win over all those who cannot decide to be a monk immediately. A tortoise flying from its ciemies finds refuge in a hiding place. From there it has a full view of the lotus pond with all its beauties. What it sees is taken by it to be the heaven, und it resolves to bring there its whole clan. But returning it anot find the place any more. So also to the human being salvation is offered only once. Never again will be attain salvation, if the chance is missed. One should always be on his guard and contemplate the vastuess of possible existences. The human being does not realize how injurious his desires are. In il moment his life may come to an end. Therefore he shoull fully ntilize his time, and with tenacity and energy work for his salvation.
He who transgresses the injunction of the Tirthakura goes to hell. The monk who fails to follow the doctrine in the slightest detail cammot attain release. A monk or a nun guilty of transgression will be purified by penance only. The text refers to major and minor infringements of the rules of contemplation in shrines, of confessions, of residence, etc., and the punishments for them are mentioned. The Pacchittusuttu is of very great importance. It deals with the observance of penance-rules, punishment for a teacher who is careless about them, and punishment for i Guccha who defies these rules.
A man of sound judgment will immediately take to penance for his own salvation. He who has become pure through confession, but again commits sin through negligence, goes to hell.
In the city of Sambukka in the land of Avanti lives a poor Brahmin named Sujjhasiva. His wife dies while giving birth to a daughter named Sujjhasiri. The cause of her

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mother's death is that in her previous existence as the subsidiary wife of a king she had desired the death of the mother of the heir to the throne in order that she might secure royal power for herself and her son. Sujjhasiri is very beautiful. During her adolescence a long famine sets ini, and her father is compelled to sell her 10 a rich Brahmin overseer (māhandgovinda). Being lookeri down upon in his native land, he leaves it, and becomes rich in a foreign country. After 8 years of famine the overseer becomes poor. His ellest son is seen by his mother enjoying a repast of rice-clish with it prostitute. He feels himself threatener, and frightens his mother so that she faints. Family, relatives and frieuds are empty worcis; in truth, everybody pursues his owu object and does not care for his relations inless they are of use to him. Her own son is the example. One should therefore break this bond that causes nothing but misery, and devote oneself to Dhuurma.
The daughter of a king, who is favourably disposed towards mendicants becomes it widow imicdiately after marriage. Her father puts her in charge of mendicants. She herself would have preferred to clic on thic pyro', as she would in no way ishonour her noble family. But the king, although overjoyed on decowit of her family-pride, order's her to follow his plan; morcover self-immolation is not the Custom of his family. After his death, as he has no son, royal power goes to her. One day, in the audience hall, she notices a young man of great leauty and contemplates him with longing. He, however, is re is already inclined towards Jaina religion, resolves to become a monk. With that purpose he goes to Hirannakkurudi. I! Onte 10 awuuta teacher there. The king of the country sees him and questions him about the name on the sealing 'ing (mudda-rayana) on his hand. The young man, however, would not give out the name of the man who gave it. If the king, however, promises to embrace his religion, then be would reveal it to him. The king thereupon orders a sumptuous meal and gives the desired promise. The youth now mentions the name. He is captured by the enemy who has come to conquer the city. As he knows himself to be sinless, he bravely offers himself for execution. He then resolves to become a monk. His whole retinue and the enemy also do the same.
Here also is explained why his awakening was so easy. The youth was already a monk in a previous existence, but at that time had committed a verbal offence, which brought on him a life-long punishment. The youth, now a renowned teacher, repairs to Mount Sammoyasela in order to prepare

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there for death through fasting. On the way he visits the residence of the queen (itthi-narinda). After his sermon she too with her retinue resolves to embrace monachism, and joins the party. On the hill is to take place the great confession, and the teacher reminds the ex-queen that she would have to confess also the fact that she had once looked on him with sinful desire. She does not so frankly admit it with the result that she has to undergo many existences. A cowherd woman commands Sujjhasiri to come with her, and in exchange for that supplies the family daily with milk. At last the famine is over and Sujjhasiva, Sujjhasiri's father, comes back as a rich man. He notices the beautiful girl, and not knowing that she is his own daughter, takes her to be his wife. After giving proof of his affluence to the cowherd woman, he takes the girl home and lives with her happily. Sujjhasiri then relates to Sujjhasiva the story of her birth. Sujjhasiva is ordained a monk and afterwards becomes a kevalin.
Everyone has to expiate his own crime. But annihilation is effected by the control of functions, not through time. In time karman is not only annihilated, but also bound down. He who controls the functions, has to doubt to taste the result of previous karman, but gathers to new one. should not allow oneself to be guilty of negligence, then the karman vanishes.
One
Sujjhasiri is pregnant with Sujjhasiva's child. She has therefore to begin her penance after child-birth. But she resolves to destroy her child and dies immediately after the birth. She is assigned to the sixth region of hell. The boy, whom she has exposed, is saved by a potter who, with the assistance of his wife, brings him up and names him Susadha after his own father. Later Susadha becomes a monk but on account of his infringement of the law of self-discipline, due to his imperfect knowledge, he is born repeatedly.

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CHAPTER XX
KALPA SŪTRA
The Kalpasūtra is supposed to have been composed in its original form by Bhadrabāhu. In its present forin it is a compilation made in 9801 years after the passing a way of Mahāvīra, i.c. A.D. 454, during the reign of Dhruvasena, king of Gujarat. Yusovijaya, Devicandra, Jñanavimala, and Samayasundara wrote commentaries on this text. All of them were most probably written between fifteenth and seventeenth centuries according to Dr. Stevenson. Jacobi in the introduction to his edition of the Kalpasūtra says, that the oldest commentary that he has used is the Pañjikū written by Jina Prabhamuni. There are various printed editions of this text. This text has been translated by H.
in S.B.E., Vol. XXIT and by Dr. J. Stevenson in 1818. There is an edition of this work by Hermann Jacobi with an introduction, notes and il Prākrit-Sanskrit Glossary published in 1879.
According to the Svetāmbaras, the Kulpestro is a great authority and is always read publicly during the l'arsūrisa or Puijusun. The major portion of this work is devoted to the biography of Mahāvīra. The archair style in which this portion is written has got much in common with the old sūtras written in prose. The Jinacaritra, the Sthavīrāvuli and the Sāmācāris collected together in one book wder the title of Kalpasūtra were, according to the tradition, included in Devarddhigaņin's recension of the Jaina scriptures, though it is not contained in the Siddhānta. The Kalpasūtra is said to contain 1,216 grunthus. A careful study of the text leads us to calculate more than 100 granthas above the fixed number.
The text is full of repetitions. The entire kalpa-sūtra was read on the first night of the Pajjūsun but since it was read in the sabhā of king Dhruvasena of Anandapura to console him after the death of his beloved son, it was explained in nine vācunās or vyākhyānus.
There are two Kalpa stītras: the Kalpasūtra of Bhadrabāhu and the old Kalpasūtru edited by Schubring, which is only a collection of monastic rules.
1 The date 980 corresponds with 454 of the Christian cru on the supposition that at that time Nirvāra was placed 470 before l'ikrama. But if at that time the older tradition, by means of which the date of Nirrūna was fixed, was still in use, the corresponding year of the Christian era would be 514 A.D.

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The Sāmācārī is a code of rules for asceticism. In it we have in prose rules and regulations pertaining to Pujjūşan or the Lent. The Pajjūşun corresponds to the Buddhist Vassa and is divided into two parts, the 50 days that precede and the 70 that succeed the 5th of Bhādra śuklapakşa. The Svetāmbaras observe the fast during the former period and the Digambaras during the latter.
The Kalpasūtra ascribed to Bhadrabāhu shows the early stage of the development of Jinalogy when the tradition of four Jinas was cherished by the Jaina (ommunity. The Buddhalogy, too, had presumably sich an early stage with the tradition of four Buddhas. The number grarlually increased from four to seven, from seven to twenty-four, from that to twenty-nine including the future Buddha, and from that to innumerable Buddhas. Going by this analogy, one can say that the tradition of twenty-four Tirthaikaras was of later growth. The four Jinas whose life-history is presented in ibe Kalpasūtru are Rşabhadatti, Ariştaniemi, Pārsva and Mahāvira.
The Jain canonical sūtras furnishi us with some interesting details about the life and activity of some kings and queens, princes and princesses, sages and other persons, some of whom played an important part in the history of Jainism. B-sides the contain some useful historical and geographical data as well as some miscellaneous matters which need careful consideration.
We read about Rşabha that he was a Kosalan Ksatriya of the Kāśyapa gotru. He bore the five epithets representing him as Rşabha, the first king, the first mendicalit, the first Jina, and the first Tirthankara, in short, as the great pioneer in the history of human greatness.
Rşabha was born of Marudevi, wife of the patriarch? Nābhi. When Marudevi conceived, she dreamt 14 dreams, 2 the first of which was a bull coming forward with his face, unlike mothers of Tirthankaras who see elephant in their first dream. The dreams were interpreted by the patriarch Nābhi in the absence of professional interpreters.
Riding in his palanquin and followed on his way by a train of gods, men and asuras, Rşabha came right through the town of Vinītā to the park called Siddhärthavana and stopped under the excellent Asoka tree and with his own
1 Kulakara: these Kulakarus wore the first kings and founders of families at the time when the rest of mankind were Yugalins. The first Kulakara was Vimalavāhana, the seventh and last of the line Nābhi (S.B.E., Jaina Sutras, Pt. I, 281 fn.). According to the Digambara bolief there were fourteen Kulukaras, beginning with Pratiśruti Nābhi.
2 The Digambaran uane 16 dreams.

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hands plucked out his hair in four handfuls. After fasting for two days and a half Rṣabha put on divine robe which he discarded after a time and became naked.1 He tore out his hair and entered the state of homelessness in the company of 4,000 high nobles, royal persons, and Ksatriyas. Neglecting his body, he meditated upon himself for one thousand years. Outside the town of Purimatala, in the park called Sakatamukha, under the excellent tree nyagrodha, he, after fasting for three days and a half, being engaged in deep meditation, attained the highest knowledge and intuition called Kevala. He had 84 ganas and 84 ganadharas. He had an excellent community of 84,000 śramanas with Rsablasena at their head; 300,000 nuns with Brahmisundari at their head; 2 305,000 lay votaries with Sreyamsa at their head 3; 554.000 female lay votaries with Subhadra at their head4; 4,750 sages who knew the fourteen Pūrvas; 9,000 sages who were possessed of the Avadhi knowledge; 20,000 Kevalins; 20,600 sages who could transform themselves; 12,650 sages of vast intellect; 12,650 professors; 20,000 male and 4,000 female disciples who had reached perfection.
He instituted two epochs in his capacity of a Maker of an end: the epoch relating to generations and that relating to psychical condition. The former ended after numberless generations and the latter from the next muhurta after his Kevalaship. He after fasting for six days and a half died on the summit of mount Aṣṭāpada in the Samparyanka position, while in the company of ten thousand monks.
Ariṣṭanemi or Neminatha was born of Queen Śiva, wife of King Samudravijaya in the town of Sauripura (Soriyapura). He was named Aristanemi as his mother saw in a dream a nemi, the outer rim of a wheel, which consisted of rista stones flying up to the sky. Riding in a palanquin Aristanemi went right through the town of Dvārāvati to the park called Revatika and stopped under the Aśoka tree. There after fasting two days and a half, he put on a divine robe and in the company of a thousand persons he tore out his hair and entered the state of homelessness.5 He did not take care of his body for 54 days. On the 55th day he acquired the highest knowledge and intuition called Kevala after fasting
98
The Digambaras make him a naked saint at the very outset. 2 The Digambaras give the number of nuns as 350,000.
3 Lay votaries, according to the Digambaras, wero 300,000 with Dradaratha at their head.
4 500,000 were the female lay votaries according to the Digambaras, among whom Suvrata was the chief one.
The Digambaras disagree here with the Svetambaras, as they believe that Aristanemi became a naked saint like all other Tirthankaras.
7B

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three days and a half without taking water, under a Vețasa (Banyan) tree on the summit of mount Girnar. He had 18 ganus and 18 gunadharas. He had an excellent community of 18,000 śramanus with Varadatta at their head, 40.000 nuus with Ārva Yaksini at their head: 1.69.000 lav votaries with Nanda at their head; 336,000 female lay votaries with Mahāsuvratā at their head; ? four hundred sages who kuew the fourteen Pūrvas; 1,500 sages who were possessed of the Avudhi knowledge; 1,500 K'evalins; 1,500 sages who could transform themselves; 1,000 sages of vast intellect; 800 professors; 1,600 sages in their last birth; 1,500 male and 3,000 female disciples who had reached perfection. Aristanemi instituted two epochs in his capacity of a Maker of an end; the opoch relating to generations and the epoch relating to psychical condition, the foriner ended in the eighth generation and the latter in the twelfth year of his Kevalaship. He lived three centuries as a prince, 54 days in a state inferior to perfection, something less than seven centuries as a kevulin, full seven centuries is a śramana, and some thousand years on the whole. He liberated himself in a squatting position on the summit of mount Girnar after fasting a month and in the company of 536 monks.
The Arhat Pārýva 8 was born of Queen Vāmā, wife of Asvasena, King of Benares. Before the venerable ascetic Pārsva had adopted the life of a houscholder, he possessed supreme knowledge and intuition. When he understood, by virtue of this knowledge, that the time for his renunciation had come, he left all, and riding in a palanquin followed on his way by a train of gods, men and asuras, he went right through the town of Benares to the park called Asrama pada and proceeded to the excellent tree Asoka. There he got down from his palanquin, took off his ornaments and with his own hands plucked out his hair in five handfuls. When the moon was in conjunction with the asterism Viśāklā, he tore out his hair and entered the state of homelessness after fasting for three days and a half. For 83 days practising strict morality and surmounting all obstacles on the 84th day, Pārsva under a Dhātaki tree, after fasting two days and a half, being engaged in deep meditation, reached the infinite, highest knowledge and intuition called Kevala.
1 The Digambara toxts mention eleven ganas and eloven ganadharas with Varadatta at thoir head.
2 Tho Digambaras namo ono lukh and three lakhs male and fomale lay votaries respectively.
3 Kalpasūtru, Jinricarilru, 150; Pise araha Bānārasie nuyaric 488a8cnassa runno Vaminüe devie.... kucchimsi gubbhattāe vakkamte. Pārsva was an ascetic who lived some 250 years before Mahāvīra.

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The venerable ascetic Pārýva had eight ganas and eight ganadharas (Subha and Aryaghoşa, Vasiştha and Brahinacārin, Saumya and Sridhara, Virabhadra and Yasas). He had an excellent community of 16,000 śramanas with Aryadatta at their head; 38,000 nuns with Puşpacūlā at their head; 164,000 lay votaries with Suvrata at their head; 327,000 female lay votaries with Sunandā at their head, 350 sages who knew the 14 Pūrvas; 1,400 sages who were possessed of the Avadhi knowledge; 1,000 Kevalins; 1,100 sages who could transform themselves; 600 sages of correct knowledge; 1,000 male and 2,000 female disciples who had reached perfection; 750 sa of vast intellect; 600 professors; and 1,200 sages in their last birth. He instituted two epochs in his capacity of a Maker of an end, the epoch relating to generations, and the epoch relating to psychical condition; the foriner onded in the fourth generation, the latter in the third year of his Kevalaship. He lived 30 vears as a householder, S3 days in a state inferio to perfection, something less than 70 years as a Kevalin, full seventy years as it sraumaņa and some hundred years on the whole. He attained to Nirvāṇa in tne first month of the rainy season, after fasting a month on the summit of mount Sammeta, in the company of 83 persons.
Pārsva was worshipped by the people as a prophet of the Law. He had it lisciple name Kesi who completely mastered the sciences and right conduct. He had Sruta (knowledge derived from the sacred books) and Avadhi knowledge (limited and conditioned knowledge). He came to the town of Srāvasts and lived in a park called Tinduka. At that time there lived a Jina named Vardhamāna wh a famous disciple nameri Gautama. Gautama knew twelve angas and was enlightened. He also came to Srävasti and lived in a park named Kosthaka. Kesi and Gautama lived protecting themselves by the gup'is. The disciples of both of them reflected thus: 'Is the Law of Pārýva the right one or the Law of Mahāvīra ? Does the Law as taught by the great sage Pāráva recognize four vows? Does the Law forbid clothes for a monk or does it allow the use of under and upper garments ? Knowing the thoughts of their pupils, Keśī and Gautama met each other. Asked by Kesi, Gautama replied, “Wisdom recognizes the truth of the Law and the ascertainment of true things. The Tirthankaras have fixed
1 The Digambara books namo ton ganas and an equal number of the ganadharas, arnong whom Svayambhu was the chief apostle. They also differ in giving the number of nuns, laymen and fernale lay votaries, which, according to them, is 26,000, one lakh and three lakhs respectively.
2 The Digambaras minimize this number to 36 only.

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what is necessary for carrying out the Law. Their opinion is that knowledge, faith and right conduct are the true causes of final liberation. Self is the one invincible foe together with four cardinal passions (namely, anger, pride, deceit and greed) and the five senses. Love, batred, etc., are heavy fetters; attachment is a dangerous ope; having regularly destroyed them, one should live according to the rules of conduct. Love of existence is the dreadful plant which brings forth dreadful fruit. Passions are the fire; knowledge, a virtuous life, andi penances are the water. Passiou should be subdued. Mind is an unruly, dreadful and bad horse. One should govern it by the discipline of the Law. The heterodox and the hereties have all chosen a wrong path, the right path is that which is taught by the Jinas. The right path is the most excellent one. The flood is old age and death which carry away living beings. Law is the refuge and the most excellent shelter. The body is the boat, life is the sailor and the circle of births is the ocean which is crossed by the great sages. The omniscient Jina has risen after putting an end to the circle of births. He is the luminary who brings light into the whole world of living beings. Nirvāṇa is the safe, happy, and quiet place which the great sages reach. It is freedom from pain. It is difficult of approach. Those sages who reach it are free from sorrows and they have put an end to the stream of existence. Thus Gautama removed the doubts of Kesi who bowed down his head before him. Kesi sincerely adopted the Law of the five vows proclaimed by the first Tīrthankara. Thus we find that in the meeting of Kesi and Gautama subjects of greatest importance were settled and knowledge and virtuous conduct were brought to eminence.
Mahāvīra, the last Tirthankara of the Jainas, is described as a great Brāhinana, a great guardian, a great guide, a great preacher, a great pilot and is great recluse. He belonged to the Kāśyapa gotin. He was a son of Ksatriya Siddhartha. also known as Sreyāmśa and Yasamsa and of Ksatriyāni Trišalā, also known as Videhadattā. His mother was a sister to Cetaka, one of the kings of Vaiśālī. He was born in the town of Kundapura, at suburb of Vaiśālī, and therefore he was called Vesālāi or a citizen of Vaiśālī. According to the Kalpasūtru (secs. 114-16), he was born in Kollāga and naturally when he assumed the monk's vocation he retired to the cheiya of his own clan called Duïpalāsa situated in the neighbourhood of his native place called Kollāga. He
Sūtrakrtinga, 1, 2, 3, 22: rahi nayaputte bhagavam l'esülic vi jāhicttivomi,

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married Yasodā, a Ksatriya lady. A daughter was born to them, named Anojjā or Priyadarśanā. It is interesting to note that Mahāvīra wore clothes for about the first thirteen months.2 The Kulpasūtra informs us that Mahāvīra was a mere teacher during the first 12 years of his monklood and that in the second year he became a naked monk. According to the Bhagavati süfra he received Gosāla Mankhaliputta as a disciple at Nālandā. They lived in concord for six years after which they separated on account of a doctrinal difference. Gosāla pre-deceased Mahāvīra by sixteen years. Mahāvīra spent six years in Paniyabhūmi. At the age of forty-two he became a Jina, a Kevalin (omniscient). He know and saw all conditions of the worlds of gods, men and demons: whence they come, whither they go, whether they are born as men or animals, or become gods or infernal beings according to their deeds.3 During the thirty years of his career as a teacher he spent twelve rainy seasons in Vaiśāli and Vānijagrāma, fourteen in Rājagrha and the suburb of Nālandā, six in Mithilā, two in Bhadrikā, one in Ālavikā, one in Pranitabhūmi, onc in Srāvasti and one in the town of Pāvā.4 He died in the town of Pāvā cutting asunder the ties of birth, decay and cleath. From the Kalpasūtra it is clear that since Mahāvīra. renounced the life of a householder, he spent forty-two rainy seasons in different places. The Kalpasūtru list is so worded as to suggest an idea of succession as regards the places where Mahāvīra spent forty-two rainy seasons since he had renounced the world. The idea of succession is suggested by such expressions as 'first rainy season in Asthigrāma' and last rainy season in Pāpā or Pāvā. Taken in order the places stand in the list as follows:
1. Asthigrāma—first rainy season. 2. Campā and Prișticampā-next three rainy seasons. 3. Vaiśāli and Vānijagrāma-next twelve rainy seasons. 4. Rājagsha and Nālandā-next fourteen rainy seasons. 5. Mithila--next six rainy seasons.
Bhadrikā-next two rainy seasons. 7. Alabhikā--next one rainy season. 8. Panitabhūmi-next one rainy season. 9. Srāvasti-next one rainy season. 10. Pāpā-last rainy season (Vide B. C. Law, Mahāvīra :
His Life and Teachings, p. 32). 1 B. C. Law, Mahavira : His Life and Teachings, p. 21. ? Kulpasūtru, $117.
3 Juinu Sūtras, I, pp. 263-64; k'alpusūtrai, $12): 80-devunianuyusurussa log(1880 pariyāyam jānai pusai, nuruu-lo. sarvmu-jiranum ūgaim gaim thiim cavanam urunyam.... 4 Kalpasitra, $122.
• Jaina Sūtras, 1, p. 264.

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When he died at Pāvā, the eighteen confederate kings
nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis instituted an illumination. These nine Licchavis paid tribute to Cetaka, king of Vaiśālī, who was the maternal uncle of Mahāvira. The Jaina Kalpasūtra refers to these nine branches of the Mallas. It is not yet possible to collect the names of all these branches. The Kalpasūtru ($147) definitely records that Mahāvīra lived 30 years as a householder, more than 12 years in a state inferior to perfection, less than 30 years as a Kevalin, 42 years as a recluse, and 72 years on the whole. In the Aupapātiku Sūtra (Sec. XVI) be is praised as the over-lord of the kingdom of righteousness. He with th permission of his elder brother, fulfilled his promise of going out to establish the religion of the Law which benefits all beings in the whole world.
Mahavira had an excellent community of 14,000 monks headed by Indrabhūti, 36,000 s headed by Candanā, 159,000 lay votaries headed by Sankhaśataka, and 318,000 female lay votaries headed by Sulasă and Revati.
The Kalpasūtru refers to Indrabhūti, a disciple of Mahā. vira, who also bears the name of Gotamasvāmi or Gotama.? The same sūtru points out that Rsabla is believed to have lived for 8,400,000 pūrvu years while Pārýva and Mahāvira lived for 100 and 72 year's respectively. The Kalpasūtra5 further points out that Nemi attained the age of 1,000 years. There was a dispute between Kālāsa vesiyaputta, a follower of Pārýva, and a disciple of Mahāvira.
Mahāvīra had nine ganas and eleven ganudharus. Some of the well-known Jain monks were Indrabhūti, Agnibhūti, and Vāyubhūti, each of whom instructed 500 śrumaņas. Some of the famous sthavirus were Aryavyakta of the Bharudvāja gotra, Arya Sudharman of Agnivesyāyana gotra, Mandikaputra of the Vāśisthu gotra and Mauryaputra of the Kāśyapa gotra, besides Akampita, Acalabhrāts, Metārya and Prabhāsa.
I Kulpasūtra. $128: jam rrymim ca nam smane Bhagavum Muhāvīre jūru savun-dukkhu-ppahine, tam rayunim ca nam nara Mallai nata Lecchai, KāsiKosulagā atthūrasa vi gana-rāyāno anuīvasie pārābhoyan posahormisani patthavaimsu; 'gae se bhūr' -ujjoe, davv'-ujjoyam kurissimo.
2 kalpasūtra, secs. 110 111: Samane bhagavam Mahatire dakkhe dukkhapainne Padiruve allinc bhadılue vinie nāc nàyu putte nüyakulacande lidche l'idehadinne Vinchajucce l'idehusamüle tisam vāsim l'idchumsikattu ammā ihim devattugrehim qurumahatturuchim ablihanunnūte saattapainne prinaraviloyanti chim jiyakappi-ehim .... Cum vayisi (Kalpasūtru, Dhanput Singh's Ed., Pp. 64-65). 3 Ed. Jacobi, p. 1.
+ Kalasutra, $227, 168 and 147. 5 lbid.. $182.
6 Cf. Bhagavati nutra, katuka I, sutra 76.

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CHAPTER XXI
NANDI SUTRA AND ANUYOGADVĀRA
The Nandi Sutra 1 and the Anuyogadvāra 2 are occasionally counted among the Prakirnakas, but they really stand as two companion texts forming a group by themselves. The first sutra as its title implies contains an 'auspicious introduction' to the study of the Svetambara canonical texts, and as such its main bearing is on the Jain method of education. Like the Anuyogadvara it is compiled partly in prose and partly in verse. One of the first forty-seven verses contains an eulogy of the tirthankara, two that of Mahāvīra, fourteen that of the Jain Sangha, two introduce the twenty-four tirthankaras, two mention the eleven ganadharas or leading disciples of Mahāvīra, one extols the order of Mahāvīra, and eleven supply us with a succession of 27 Jaina teachers from Sudharman to Duṣyagani, the teacher of Devavacaka who is identified with Devarddhigani under whose guidance the final redaction of the Svetambara agama was made in the Council of Valabhi. If Devavacakagani, who is regarded as the author of the Nandi Sutra, be the same person as Devarddhigani, the work cannot be dated earlier than the 6th century A.D.
The succession of twenty-seven teachers traced from Sudharman the ganadhara, who survived the Master, is by itself an evidence to prove the lateness of the date of compilation of the Nandi Sutra. Apart from giving the main themes of the different canonical texts, the Nandi Sutra resembles the Anuyogadvāra in mentioning such secular Indian literature as represented by the two Sanskrit epics, and such treatises as the Kautiliya Arthasastra, the Kamasutra of Ghoṭakamukha, the Vaisesika system of philosophy, the doctrine of Buddha, the Samkhya system of Kapila, the Lokayata doctrine, the Yoga system of Patanjali, the Bhāgavata Purana, the works on mathematics and dramaturgy, grammar, and poetics, besides the four Vedas and their later appendices, the Angus and Upangus. Malayagiri wrote a commentary on the Nandi Sutra which is helpful in understanding the meaning of the text.
1 Edited with Malayagiri's commentary in the Agamodaya Samiti Series, Bombay, 1924.
2 Edited with Hemacandra Suri's commentary in the Agamodaya Samiti
Serios, 1924.

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The distinctive contribution made in the sütra to the exposition of Jainism as a system of thought consists, however, in the various classifications of knowledge (ñāņam). In outlining its thesis on knowledge, it takes up for consideration the five kinds of knowledge recognized in the earlier texts of the Jain agama. These are enumerated as ābhinibodhika, śruta, avadhi, manahparyāya and kevala. The first of them is the knowledge directed to the perception of the objects as they stand over against us. This knowledge is of two kinds, namely, direct (paccakkham) and indirect (parokkham). The direct knowledge is also of two kinds, namely, that which is accessible to sense perception (indiyapaccakkham), and that which is not accessible to sense perception (no-indiyapaccakkham). The knowledge which is accessible to sense perception is of five kinds, namely, that which is accessible to the sense of hearing, to that of sight, to that of smell, to that of taste, and to that of touch. The knowledge which is not accessible to sense perception is of three kinds, namely, that which is accessible to uradhi knowledge, that to manahparyāya and that to kezalañāna. The knowledge which is accessible to arudhiñāna is of two kinds, namely, that which leads to future states of existence (Bhatapaccaiyam) and that which leads to the destruction and cessation of the cause and process of rebirth (khāovasumiyam). By the word Bhava is meant in. Jainism the three states of existence, namely, those of infernal beings, those of human beings, and those of celestial beings. The knowledge which brings about the states of existence is of two kinds: that which brings about the state of gods and that which brings about the state of infernal beings. The knowledge which brings about the destruction and cessation of the cause and process of rebirth is of two kinds: that which brings about the destruction and cessation of the cause of rebirth in the state of human beings, and that which brings about the destruction and cessation of the cause of rebirth as animals endowed with five senses. Here destruction means the destruction of the after-effects of the karmas darkening avadhi knowledge, which have arisen. Cessation means the stoppage of such karmus as have not yet arisen; when such karmas are either destroyed, if they have arisen, or are stopped, if they have not arisen, the avadhi knowledge arises, the uvudhi knowledge of persons endowed with special qualities or that of one who has renounced the world. As defined in the Anuyogadvāru the ābhinibodhika knowledge is one which is directed to the objects (atthābhimuho) and determined (niyao). It is perceptual in its character in so far as the objects are known through

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Im
the sense-perception. It is indirect when the objects are perceived without the aid of the five organs of sense. mediacy is its distinctive characteristic. The abhinibodhika knowledge may be a knowledge dependent on the scripture (suyanissiyam) or independent of the scripture (asuyanissiyam). These are really two kinds of matiñāņu, the first of which arises immediately from the scripture irrespective of any scholastic interpretation of it, and the second arises independently of the scripture and is conducive to the destruction and cessation of the cause of rebirth. The indirect abhinibodhika knowledge is also accessible to avadhiñana, manahparyŭya and kevalañana.
The śruta-ñana is also a kind of abhinibodhika knowledge which is indirect. It is a knowledge which is based upon study and derived from literature. There may be literature and literature, scripture and scripture. To the Jainas the scriptures other than the Jaina are false scriptures. So far as Jainism is concerned the śruta knowledge is either one embodied in the angas or that embodied in the works other than the angas. The works other than the angas are all auxiliaries to the angas.
The ohi or avadhiñāņa is a knowledge which is limited by the objects to which it is directed. It operates on the whole in connection with substance (davva), place (khetta), time (kālu), and states of existence (bhava). It implies the internal perception of the objects from different angles, each implying a particular modus operandi.
The manaḥparyāyañāṇa is the same term as Pāli cetopariyāyañāņam and both the terms suggest the knowledge of what is passing in the mind of others. So both really imply the idea of thought-reading. Our sutra discusses some important points in this connection. It opines that this kind of knowledge arises in human and not in superhuman beings, in the wise ascetics, and not in the stupid human beings, who are subject to rebirth.
The kevalañana is perfect knowledge. It is of two kinds, namely, bhavastha and siddha, meaning the knowledge which is within the reach of those, who are still in a certain human state of existence and the knowledge which is within the reach of perfect ones. The word bhavastha means an individual, who is in a certain state of existence in which he is liable to the effects of karma. Here the individual must be taken to be human being because kevalañana is not within the reach of beings in other states of existence. Kevalañāņa is a knowledge which arises without the aid of the senses, etc. It is pure and stainless in the sense that it is not

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covered, tarnished, confounded or confused by any cause or factor. Bhavasthas are the persons who are in different stages of spiritual progress. Their position appears to be similar to that of the Buddhist uriyapuggalus occupying seven spiritual ranks below that of an arhat or elect. Caramasamayasiddha is evidently the same word as the Pāli Caramabhaviku. The siddhas are all arhats. The perfect knowledge in the case of the siddhas is broadly distinguished as immediate (ananturu) or gradual (param para). From the classification of kevaluñāna it appears that the Jains and the Buddhists alike kept before them a distinction between tīrthakaras or sayambuddhasiddhas on the one hand, and pratyekabuddhas and buddhabodhitas or srāva kabuddhas on the other. Through kevalañāņa Jainism aimed at the attainment of a kind of unaided knowledge by which omniscience could be gained. Whether this knowledge is arrived at through any discursive process of thought or intuitional is still a problem to be solved. But from its description it appears that whether its mode is intuitional or not, it is so much articulated that it cali operate maided, umobstructed, and unlimited.

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CHAPTER XXII
UTTARADHYAYANA SŪTRA (UTTARAJJHAYANA
SÜYA)
The Uttarādlheriyunu is one of the Müla sūtras. Šilānka and Malayagir indude it under Isibhūsiya (utterances of the sages). Siddhascha holds this view. The Uttarādhyayana is one of the texts found among the Angabāhyas occurring in the canon of the Śvetāmbaras. It is one of the earliest sacred writings of the Jainas and one of the most valuable portions of the canon. The work consisting of 36 sections is a compilation of various texts belonging to different periods. It is metrical in its main part. It is really not the work of a single author. This text is held in the same estimation as the Buddhist texts of the Dhammapada and the Suttani pāta. It contains admonitions to pupils, explanations of four most precious things, of karma and sins, etc. Its intention as rightly pointed out by Jacobi (Jaina Sūtras, TI, p. xxxix) is to instruct a young monk in his principal duties, to commend to him the ascetic life by precepts and examples and to warn him against the dangers in his religious life. Winternitz rightly holds that in this text we meet with a number of beautiful old Itihasa dialogues and ballads of ascetic poetry. The latter part of the Uttarādhyayana consists of chapters containing purely dogmatical expositions. There is legendary matter as well as matter of a general religious and moral character. The text contains scanty historical and geographical information. The Uttarādhyayana-niryukti which contains less'han 600 verses gives us some help in understanding the meanings of some passages of the text. This text has been edited with an introduction, critical notes, and a commentary by Jarl Charpentier, Upsala, 1922. Sānti Ācārya's commentary published in Devchand Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhāra Series Nos. 33, 36, and 41 is worthy of notice. Jacobi has translated this text and the Sūtrakrtāngu into English in the Sacred Books of the East Series. ' Another edition by Muvi Śrī Jayanta Vijaya with a commentary by Kamals samyama (Agra, 1923–27) in three volumes may be mentioned.
In Chapter XIV of this text we find that a purohita. (chaplain) recommends the Brahmanic ideal according to
1 History of Indian Literature, II, p. 468.

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which a man should first study the Vedas as a Brahmacărin, then fulfil the duties of a householder, and only in old age retire to the forest to lead a hermit's life. This has its parallels with slight variations in the Mahabharata (XII, 175), Markandeya Purāņa (X) and the Pāli Jātaka (No. 509).
In Chapter IX of the same text in the beautiful ballad of King Nami, the ascetic ideal is contrasted with that of the warrior and ruler. This has its parallels in the Mahabharata (XII, 178, 2) and the Pali Jātaka (No. 539).
The Chapter XII of the text has its counter-part in the Matunga Jātaka (No. 497). The legend of Citta and Sambhuta of Chapter XIII of the text has long been traced by Leumann in the Pali Jātaka No. 498.
The Uttaradhyayana sūtra enjoins that a monk on receiving an order (ananiddesa-kare) from his superior goes to him watching his nods and motions. He is well behaved. He who desires his own welfare should adhere to good conduct. He who desires liberation (niyogarthin, mokṣārthin) will be received everywhere. He should acquire valuable knowledge and avoid what is worthless. He should always be meek and should not be talkative in the presence of the wise.1 A monk should avoid untruth. He should not tell anything sinful or meaningless or hurtful. On the highway or in a barber's shop (samare) a single monk should not stand with a single woman nor should he talk to her. A monk should sally forth at the right time and return at the right time. He should not approach dining people sitting in a row; but should collect alms that are freely given. He should eat a moderate portion at the right time. He should wait for his alms alone, not too far from other monks nor too near them.2 There are twenty-two troubles which a monk must learn and know, bear and conquer in order not to be vanquished by them. They are as follows: hunger, thirst, cold, heat, gad-flies, and gnats (all biting or stinging insects as lice), nakedness, women, to be discontented with the objects of control, erratic life, place for study (nisihiya), lodging, abuse, corporeal punishment, to ask for something (yayanā, yācanā), to be refused, illness, the pricking of grass, dirt, kind and respectful treatment, understanding, ignorance and righteousness. A monk, who is strong in self-control and does penance, should not cut or cause another to cut anything to be eaten nor cook it or cause another to cook it though his body is weakened by hunger. He should know the permitted
1 Uttaradh., I, 2, 6-8.
2 Ibid., I, 24-26, 31-33.
3 Ibid., II. (Parisaha-that which may cause trouble to an ascetic and which must be cheerfully borne).

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measure of food and drink and wander about with a cheerful mind. Though troubled by thirst he should not drink cold water. He should try to get distilled water. Wandering about on deserted ways, being thirsty, he should bear the trouble of thirst. If a restrained monk occasionally suffers from cold on his wanderings, he should not walk beyond the prescribed time, remembering the teachings of the Master. A monk should not entertain such a thought: 'I have no shelter, and nothing to cover my skin, thereforo I shall kindle fire to warm myself'. Tf a mouk suffers from the heat of hot things or from the heat of his body or from summer heat, he should not lament the loss of comfort. A monk should remain uudisturbed suffering from insects. He should not scare away insects nor keep them off. He should not kill living beings. A monk should not entertain such thoughts: ‘My clothes are torn, I shall go naked or I shall get a new suit. A houseless and poor monk who wanders from village to village should bear the trouble of an ascetic life. He should wander about free from sins and perfectly passionless, A monk knows that worldly men have a natural liking for women. Knowing this he renounces women and easily performs his duties as a perfect monk. A monk should live on allowed food; he should wander about bearing all troubles in a village or a town or a market place or a city. He should acquire no property. He should sit down alone in a burial place or in a deserted town or below a tree. Sitting there he should brave all danger's. A monk who does penances and is strong in self-control will not be affected beyond measure by good or bad lodgings. If a layman abuses a monk, he should not be angry with him. If a monk hears bad words, he should silently overlook them and should not take them to heart. He should not be angry if beaten. He should not entertain sinful thoughts. He should meditate on the law." He should beg food from a householder when his dinner is ready. A monk who thinks thus, 'I get nothing today, perhaps I shall get something tomorrow,' will not be grieved by his want of success. If a monk suffers pain or falls sick, he should cheerfully make his mind steady and bear the evils that attack him. He will be a true monk if he continues to search for the welfare of his soul. If a naked ascetic lies on the grass, his body will be hurt. Though hurt by the grass he will not use clothes.3 A wise monk should not
1 It means water which by boiling or some other process has become so changed that it may be regarded as lifeless.
Uttarādhyayana, II, 26. 3 What is manufactured from threads. Utturădh., 11, 35.

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lament his loss of comfort. He should bear all difficulties waiting for the destruction of karina. By practising a noble and excellent law he should carry the filth on his body till he expires. He should not evince predilection for a gentleman who salutes him or rises from his seat on his approach or invites him to accept alms in his house. He should not think thus: “There is no life to come nor an exalted state to be acquired by penances.'
A monk should know what alms may be accepted. He should beg food only for the sustenance of life. Those who explain the marks of the body and who know the foreboding changes in the body are not to be called novices.
As the fallow leaf of the tree falls to the ground, when its days are gone, so the life of men will come to its close. As
life is so fleet and existence so precarious, one shouki wipe off the sins committed. A rare chance is human birth for the living beings, hard are the consequences of actions. The soul which suffers for its carelessness is driven about in the samsūra by its good and bad karma.3 It is a rare chance to become an elect. If one believes in the law, he will surely practise it; when human body grow's old and hair turns white, the power of human cars decreases, the power of eyes de creases, the power of touch decreases, in short all human power decreases. One should cast aside all attachments and give up wealth. The enlightened and liberated monk should control himself and should preach to all the road of peace.4
An intelligent pupil will rise from his seat and answer the teacher's call modestly and attentively (Uttarūdhyayanu, 1. 21). A good pupil has the best opinion of his teacher, thinking that he treats him like his son or brother. He should not provoke his teacher's anger nor should he himself grow angry. If the teacher is angry, he should pacify him by kindliness and appease him with folded hands. An intelligent man who has learnt the sacred texts takes his duties upon himself (namati, lit, bows down). When a worthy teacher is satisfied with a pupil, he will make over to him his vast
1 Nirjarā.
2 Uttarūdh., X. This sermon was preached by Mahāvira to Gautuma to help him to reach Kovulu-jñina. It contains much of Mahavira's doctrine. The effect of the sermon was such as to enable Gautama to cut off love and reach perfection. According to the Utturădhyayana Sūtra, the keeping of the gupti is supposed to protect it religieux from all temptations.
3 For the Jain idou of karma, B. C. Lilw, Jain View of Karma in Bharatiyu Vidyā, Vol. VI, Nos. 7 and 8.
4 This sermon was delivered by Mahāvīra to his disciple Indrabhūti who belonged to the Gotama-gotra.

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knowledge of the sacred texts and the pupil will gladden the heart of his teacher by his good cieeds.1
A wise man suffering from heat should not long for a bath or pour water over his body or fan himself. He should not care whether he gois alins or not. He should not long for pleasant things. He should comfort himself knowing the consequences of actions, as the actions productive of ignorance afterwards take effect. It is difficult for a living being to obtain four things of great value: (1) Human birth, (ii) Instruction in the law, (ii) Belief in it, and (iv) Energy in self-control.3 The universe is peopled by manifold creatures who are born in the world in different families and castes for having done various actions. Sometimes they go to the world of gods and sometimes to hells and sometimes they become usurus (demons) in accordance with their actions; sometimes they become Ksatriyas or Candālas or worms or ants. Living beings of sinful actions, who are born again and again, are not disgusted with this sumsāru. By the destruction of karmu living beings will reach in due time a pure state and will be born as men.5 Though born as human beings it will be difficult for them to hear the law; having lieard it they will do penances, combat their passions, and abstain from killing living beings. It will be difficult for them to believe in the law though they may hear it. Many who are shown the right way are led astray.
The pious obtain purity and the pure stand firmly in the law. After having enjoyed in due time the unrivalled pleasures of human life, he will obtain true knowledge by his pure religious merit acquired in a former birth. Knowing that the fo
e four requisites are difficult to obtain, he will apply himself to self-control and he will be an eternal siddha (perfected one), when he will be able to shake off the remnant of karma by his penances. 6
One cannot prolong one's life, therefore one should not be careless. Men who acquire wealth by evil deeds adhering to wrong principles will lose it. People in this world and in the next cannot escape the effect of their own actions.
i Uttaradhyayana, 1, 47.
2 Ibid., II, 41. 3 Ibid., III, I:
cattāri paramamgani dullāhāniha jantuno
mānusattam sui saddhā samjamummi ya viriyamn. Il * Ibid., III, 2:
samāvannana samsāre nänāgottāsu jaisu
kammā nānāvihā katļu pudho vissambhiyä payā || • Ibid., III, 7. Ibid., III, 1, 2. ? Cf. Sūtrakstānga, 1, 2, 2, 21.

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Wealth will never protect a careless man in this world. Like a wise man trust nobody but be always on the alert.
One cannot quickly arrive at discernment; therefore one should exert one's self, abstain from pleasures, understand the world, guard one's self, and be impartial like a sage. External things weaken the intellect and allure many; thereforo keep them out of mind. Remove pride, delusion, greed and deceit. Heretics who are impure and proud are always subject to love and hatred and they are wholly under the influence of their passions. Despising them as unholy men, one should desire virtues till the end of one's life.1
There are two ways of life ending with death: 2 (i) death with one's will, and (ii) death against one's will. Death against one's will is the death of an ignorant man and it happens to him several times. Death with one's will is the death of a wise man and it happens once as in the case of a Keralin.3 A fool being attached to pleasures does cruel actions. One who is attached to pleasures and amusements will be caught in the trap of deceit. The pleasures of this lite are in your hand but the future pleasures are uncertai. It is doubted whether there is any next world. An ignorant man kills, lies, deceives, drinks wine and cats meat, thinking that this is the right thing to do. A man desirous of wealth and women accumulates sins by his act and thought. Fools who do cruel deeds will suffer violently. When death l'eally comes, the fool trembles in fear. He dies the death against one's will. Some householders are superior to some monks in self-control. But the saints are superior to all householders in self-control. A faithful man should practise the rules of conduct for householders. He should never neglect the fast. Those who are trained in self-control and penance, monks or houscholders, who have obtained liberation by absence of passions, go to the highest regions. The virtuous and the learned do not tremble in the hour of death. A wise man will become calm through patience with an indisturbed mind at the time of death. When the right time for death has come, a faithful monk should in the presence of his teacher suppress all emotions of fear or joy and wait for his end. When the time for quitting the body has come, a sage clies the death with one's will. 4
i Uttaradhyayana, IV, 10-13.
? Ibid., 1, 1-32. 3 Ho possesses kevalajñunu or omniscience. He is all seeing and allknowing. He has obtained the fifth degree of knowledge, C. Apuriseau in Buddhism. Vide Jaina Sūtras, 1, pp. 260-264. It is tho highest und unlimited knowledgo.
4 Cf. Acūrūnga Sūtra, I, 7, 8.

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All men who are ignorant of truth are subject to pain. A wise man, who considers well the ways that lead to bondage and birth, should search for the truth. A man of pure faith should realize the truth that he will have to suffer for his own deeds. 1
Clever talking will not work salvation. Fools though sinking lower and lower through their sins believe themselves to be wise men. One should wander about carefully in this endless samsāra. One should never desire worldly objects but sustain one's body only to be able to annihilate one's karma. Recognizing the cause of karma one should wander about waiting for one's death. One should conduct one's self so as to commit no sin.
An ignorant man kills, tells lies, robs on the highway, steals goods, and deceives others.3 He is to go to the world of the asuras (demons) against his will. Those men, who through the exercise of various virtues become pious householders, will surely reap the fruit of their actions. A virtuous man cheerfully attains the state of gods. He who has not given up pleasures will not be able to reach the true end of his soul. He will go astray again and again though he has been taught the right way. A sinner will be born in hell and a virtuous man will be born in heaven.
The best of sages, who is free from delusion and possesses perfect knowledge and faith, seeks for the benefit and eternal welfare and for the final liberation of all beings.
Stupid sinners go to hell through their superstitious beliefs. One should not permit the killing of living beings. A careful man does not injure living beings. In thoughts, words, and acts he should not do anything injurious to worldly beings.
It is difficult to satisfy anybody. The more one gets the more one wants. A man's desire increases with his means. One should not desire women who continually change their minds, who entice men and then make a sport of them as of slaves.4
One who is ignorant of truth, egoistical, greedy, without self-discipline, and who talks loosely, is devoid of learning. Egoism, delusion, carelessness, illness, and idleness are the five causes which render good discipline impossible. Discipline is called virtue for eight causes: (1) not to be fond of mirth, (2) to control oneself, (3) not to speak evil of others, (4) not to be without discipline, (5) not to be of wrong dis
1 Uttaradhyayana, VI, 1-3; Cf. Sutrakṛtānga, I, 9, 5. 2 Ibid., VI, 10-14.
3 Ibid., VII, 5.
8B
Ibid., VIII, 17-18.

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cipline, (6) not to be covetous, (7) not to be choleric, and (8) to love truth.1
He who is well protected by the five samvarus2 and is not attached to this life, who abandons his body, who is pure, and does not care for his body, wins the greatest victory.
Karma is produced by sinful thoughts and it is by the influence of this karma that Citra and Sambhūta were separated. All singing is but prattle, all dancing is but mockery', all ornaments are but a burden and all pleasures produce but pains. Pleasures which are liked by the ignorant and which produce pain, do not delight pious monks, who do not care for pleasures but are intent on the virtue of right conduct. He who has done no good deeds in this life and who has not practised the Law, repents for it in the next world, when lie bas become a prey to death which carries off a man in his last hour. He alone will have to share his suffering, neither his kinsmen mor his friends, nor his relations will bear it, for karma follows the doer.5 Life drags on towards death continuously, and old age carries off the vigour of man." Time clapses and the days quickly pass. Pleasures of men are not permanent. They come to a man and leave him just is a bird leaves ä tree devoid of fruits. If one is alle to give up pleasures then he must do noble actions, follow the Law and have compassion for all creatures. Bralımadatta, king of the Pañcālas, did not act on the advice of the saint. He enjoyed the uttermost pleasures and afterwards sank into the deepest hell. Citra, the great sige of excellent conduct and penance, was indifferent to pleasures; after he had practised the highest self-control, he reached the highest stage of self-perfection.?
1 Uttarādhyayana, XI, 4, 5.
2 Samvara is preventing by means of samitis and guptis the sins or influx of the karma upon the soul. Samvara is the practice of self-restraint with regard to the body, spooch and mind. It is the other aspect of dukkhakurikā or tapas. It is included in the Navatativa or the doctrine of nine terms. (B. C. Law, Mahüvira: His Life and Teachings, pp. 89-90.)
33 Cf. Anguttaru, 1, 261-singing is lamentation, dancing causes madness'. (Runnum idum bhikkhave ariyuss vinye yadidum gitun, ummutikum idam bhikkhave ariyassa vinuye yadidum naccam.) 4 Uttarādhyayana, XIII, 8, 16, 17:
Sabbam vilaviyam giyam sabbum nattam viðambiyam sabbe übharanā bhārā sabbe kümā duhübahū 11 16 välābhirämesu duhāvahceu na tam suhan kamaguncsu rüyam!
virattakāmā» tavohaņānam yam bhikṣunam silagunc rayānam il 17 5 lbid., XIII, 21-23. # Ibid., XIII, 26. 7 Ibid., XIII, 34-36.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS The lot of man is transitory and precarious. His life does not last long. He finds no delight in domestic life. 1 Pleasures bring only a moment's happiness. But suffering for a long time brings intense suffering and no happiness. Pleasures are an obstacle to the liberation from existence, and are a mine of evils. The soul cannot be apprehended by the senses because it possesses no corporeal form and since it has no corporeal form, it is eternal. The fetter of the soul has been traced to its bad qualities and this fetter is described as the cause of worldly existence. Being ignorant. of the Law human beings formerly did sinful actions and through their wrong-mindedness they could not enter the Order. Mankind is harassed by death. It is taken bold of by old age. The day that goes hy will never return. He who has acquired righteousness may look upon death as his friend.3 Faith will enable him to put aside attachment.4 The pleasures are causes for the continuance of worldly existence. One should be cautions in this matter. He should learn the Law thoroughly, practise severe penance, being of firm energy.
A inan of limited knowledge talks foolishly on these four heads: the existence of the soul, it's non-existence, idolatry, and the inefficiency of knowledge. The man who commits sin will go to hell but those who have walked the road of righteousness will obtain a place in heaven. One should live and walk about according to the rules of self-control.
Soul (jīva), the inanimate things (ajīvu), the binding of the soul by karma (bandha), morit (punya), demerit (pāpa), that which causes the soul to be affected by sins (āśruva), the prevention of sins by watchfulness (samvara), annihilation of karmu (karmaksuya) and final deliverance (mokşa) are the nine truths.?
Faith is produced by nature (nisarga), instruction (upadeśa), command (ājñā), study of the sūtras, suggestion (bāja), comprehension of the mea
comprehension of the meaning of the sacred lore (abhigama)," complete course of study (vistāra), religious
1 Uttarādhyayana, XIV, 7.
2 lbid., XIV, 13. 3 Ibid., xiv, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27.
1 lbid., XIV, 28. 5 Ibid., XIV, 47.
8 Ibid., XIV, 49-50. 7 Ibid., XXVIII, 14. This is known as the Navatattva or the doctrine of nine terms, which roprosents the main system of Jainism. Jiva and ujiva comprehend the world of existence as known and experionced. The world of lifo is represented by the six classes of living beings, while tho movable things are tho fire lives, wind livos, and those with an organic body. Samvara is the principle of self-control by which the influx of sins is checked. The category of samvara comprehends tho wholo sphero of right conduct.

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exercise (kriyā), brief exposition (samkhepa) and Law 1 (dhurma).
He who truly understands by a spontaneous effort of his mind the nature of soul, inanimate things, merit and demerit and who puts an end to sins (āśruvasamvara), believes by nature. He who believes these truths having learnt them from somebody else believes by instruction. He who has got rid of love, hatred, delusion and ignorance believes by command. He who obtains righteousness by the study of the sūtras believes by the study of the sūtras. He who knows the sacred lore believes by the comprehension of the sacred lore. He who understands the true nature of all substances believes by a complete course of study. He who sincerely performs all duties by right knowledge, faith, etc., believes by religious exercise. He who is not versed in the sacred doctrines believes by brief exposition. He who believes in the truth of the realities believes by the Law. There is no right conduct without right belief, it must be cultivated for obtaining the right faith; righteousness and conduct originate together or righteousness precedes conduct.2 Without right faith there is no right knowledge, without right knowledge there is no virtuous conduct, without virtues there is no deliverance, and without deliverance (mokşa) there is no perfection.3
Conduct which produces destruction of karma is the avoidance of everything sinful, the initiation of a novice, purity produced by peculiar austerities and destruction of desire and sins.4
Austerities are two-fold: external and internal. By knowledge one knows things, by faith one believes in them, by conduct one gets freedom from karma and by austerities one reaches purity. Great sages whose object is to get rid of all misery proceed to perfection having destroyed their karma by control and austeritios.
Mahāvira has given instructions regarding exertion in righteousness. Those who believe in it, accept it, practise it, comply with it, study it, and understand it, have obtained perfection, enlightenment, deliverance and final beatitude. 1 Utturadhyay , XXVIII, 16.
2 lbid. XXVIII, 29. 3 Ibid., XXVIII, 30. 11 okna is the essential point in the teachings of Mahā. vira, which is generally understood as emancipation. It really means the attainment of the highest state of sanctification by the avoidance of pains and miseries of worldly life. Even at this stage the soul appears to be the same without the least change in its condition. It is the summum bonuin or the state of perfect beatitude is attained. It may also mean final deliverance or liberation from the fetters of worldly life and total annihilation or extinction of huinan passion. Ibid., XXVII, 32-33.
6 Ibid., XXVII1, 34-35.

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He has dealt with the following subjects:-(1) Longing for liberation (samvegenam). By the longing for liberation, the soul obtains an intense desire for the Law. By an intense desire for the Law, he quickly arrives at an increased longing for liberation. He destroys anger, pride, deceit and greed. He becomes possessed of right faith and by the purity of faith, he will reach perfection after one birth. (2) Disregard of worldly objects (nibbedenam). By disregard of worldly objects, the soul quickly feels disgust for pleasures enjoyed by men, gods and animals. He becomes indifferent to all objects; thereby he ceases to engage in any undertaking with the result that he enters the road to perfection. (3) Desire for the Law (dhammasaddhāenam). By the desire for the Law, the soul becomes indifferent to pleasures. He abandons the life of householders and as a houseless monk, he puts an end to all pains, mental and bodily. (4) Obedience to the coreligionists and to the guru (gurusāhammiya-sussūsaṇāya). By obedience to them, the soul obtains discipline. By discipline and avoidance of misconduct he avoids being born as a denizen of hell; by devotion to the guru, he obtains birth as a good man and gains perfection and beatitude. (5) Confession of sins before the guru (āloyaṇayā). By this act the soul gets rid of the thorns of deceit, wrong belief, etc. He obtains simplicity and annihilates karma. (6) Repenting of one's sins to oneself (nindanaya). By this act, the soul obtains repentance and becoming indifferent by repentance, he prepares for himself an ascending scale of virtues by which he destroys karma. (7) Repenting of one's sins before the guru (garihanaya). By this act the soul obtains humiliation. He will leave off all blameable occupations and apply himself to praiseworthy occupations. (8) Moral and intellectual purity of the soul (samai). By such purity the soul ceases from sinful occupations. (9) Adoration of the 24 Jinas (caubbisattha). By this adoration, the soul arrives at purity of faith. (10) Paying reverence to the guru (vandanā). By this act the soul destroys such karma as leads to birth in low families. He wins the affection of the people and brings about general good will. (11) By expiation of sins (padikkamane), the soul obviates transgressions of the vows; thereby he stops the āśravas or sins. (12) By a particular position of the body (kayussugge), the soul gets rid of past and present transgressions which require prayaścitta (expiatory rites). (13) By self-denial (paccakkhane), the soul shuts the doors of the asravas1 and prevents desires from arising in him. (14)
Asrava is that which causes the soul to be affected by sins.

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By praises and hymns (thavathuimangalenam) he obtains wisdom consisting in knoweldge, faith and conduct. (15) By keeping the right time (kālapaḍilehanayā), he destroys karma which obstructs right knowledge. (16) By practising penance (payaccittakarane), he gets rid of sins and commits no transgressions. (17) By begging forgiveness (khamāvayanaya), he obtains happiness of mind. (18) By study (sajjhaena), he destroys karma which obstructs right knowledge. (19) By the recital of the sacred texts (vāyaṇae), he obtains destruction of karma and preserves the sacred lore. (20) By questioning the teachers (padipucchanayā), he arrives at a correct comprehension of the sutra and its meaning. (21) By repetition (padiyatlanayā), he reproduces the sounds or syllables and commits them to memory. (22) By pondering (anuppeha) on what he has learnt, he loosens the firm hold which the seven kinds of karma have upon the soul; he shortens their duration and mitigates their power. (23) By religious discourses (dhammakaha), he obtains destruction of karma, he exalts the creed and by exalting the creed he acquires karma for the future bliss. (24) By the acquisition of sacred knowledge (suyassaārāhanayāe) he destroys ignorance. (25) By concentration of his thoughts (egaggamanasamnivesanaya), he obtains stability of the mind. (26) By control (samjame), he obtains freedom from sins. (27) By austerities (tavena) he cuts off karma. (28) By cutting off kurma (bodānena) he obtains freedom from actions. (29) By renouncing pleasures (suhasuyena) he obtains freedom from false longing. (30) By mental independence (appadivuddhaya), he gets rid of attachment. (31) By using unfrequented lodgings and beds (vicittasayanāsana sevaṇayā), he obtains gupti or conduct. He will be steady in his conduct. (32) By turning from the world (viniyattanaya), he will strive to do no bad actions. (33) By renouncing collection of alms in one district only (ekumandalyām āhārakaranum), he overcomes obstacles. (34) By renouncing articles of use (ubahipaccakkhānena), he obtains successful study. (35) By renouncing food (aharapaccakkhānena) he ceases to act for the sustenance of his life. (36) By conquering his passions (kaṣāyapaccakkhāṇenam) he becomes free from passions. (37) By renouncing activity (Yogapaccakkhānena) he obtains inactivity. By ceasing to act, he acquires no new karma. (38) By renouncing his body (sarirapaccakkhanena) he acquires the pre-eminent virtues of the siddhas (perfected ones). (39) By renouncing company (sahāyapaccakkhanena) he obtains singleness and avoids disputes, quarrels, passions, etc. (40) By renouncing all food (bhattapaccakkhānena) he prevents his birth many times.
(41)

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By perfect renunciation (sahbhāvapaccakkhāṇena) he enters the final stage of pure meditation wherefrom there is no return. (42) By conforming to the standard of monks (padirūvaṇaya) he obtains ease and will be careful. He will inspire all beings with confidence and practise austerities. (43) By doing service (veyavaccena) he acquires karma which brings about for him the name and family name of a Tirthakara. (44) By fulfilling all virtues (sabbagunasampannayā) he will not be born again. (45) By freedom from passions (viyarāgaya), he destroys the ties of attachment and desire. (46) By patience (khanti), he overcomes troubles. (47) By freedom from greed (mutti) he obtains voluntary poverty. (48) By simplicity (ajjave), he will become upright. (49) By humility (mahave) he will acquire freedom from selfconceit. (50) By sincerity of mind (bharasacce), he will obtain purity of inind. (51) By sincerity of religious practice (karanasacce), he obtains proficiency in it. (52) By sincerity of acting (jogasacce), he will become pure in his actions. (53) By watchfulness of his mind (managuttaya), he concentrates his thoughts. (54) By watchfulness of speech (vayaguttaya), he is free from prevarication. (55) By watchfulness of the body (kayaguttaya), he obtains samvara (restraint). (56) By discipline of the mind (manasamāhāraṇayā), he obtains concentration of his thoughts. (57) By discipline of the speech (vayasamāhāraṇayā), he obtains development of faith. (58) By discipline of the body (kayasamāhāraṇayā), he obtains development of conduct. He may obtain perfection, enlightenment and deliverance. (59) By possession of knowledge (ñanasampannaya), he acquires an understanding of words and their meanings. (60) By possession of faith (damsanasampannaya) he destroys wrong belief. (61) By possession of conduct (carittasampannaya) he obtains stability. (62) By subduing the organ of hearing (soindiyaniggahenam) he overcomes his delight in all pleasant or unpleasant sounds, he acquires no new karma and destroys the old one (63-66). All these apply also to his subduing the organs of sight, smell, taste and touch with regard to pleasant colours, smells, tastes and touches (cakkhind yaniggahe, ghanindiyaniggahe, jihvindiyaniggahe, phasindiyaniggahe) (67-71). By conquering anger he obtains patience. By conquering pride he obtains simplicity. By conquering deceit he obtains humility. By conquering greed he obtains content. By conquering love, hatred and wrong belief, he exerts himself for right knowledge, faith and conduct. After destroying various kinds of karma
Uttaradhyayana, XXIX, 1-53.

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he obtains absolute and complete knowledge and faith (kohavijae, mānavijae, māyāvijae, lobhavijae, pijjadosamicchādamsanavijae). (72) By stability (selesi). He first stops the functions of his mind, then the functions of the speech, then those of the body, at last he ceases to breathe. During the time required for pronouncing five short syllables, he is engaged in the final pure meditation in which all functions of his organs have ceased and he at the same time destroys the four remnants of karma. (73) Freedom from karma (akammaya). The soul after having got rid of his audūrika karmana bodies takes the form of a straight line, goes in a moment without touching anything and taking up no space, and then the soul develops into the natural form and obtains perfection.2
A person becomes free from sins by abstaining from lifeslaughter, falsehood, theft and sexual indulgence. He becomes free from sins by possessing the five samitis and the three guptis, by freedom from passions, by subduing the senses, by conquering conceit and avoiding delusions.3
As pointed out before, austerities are of two kinds: external and internal. External austerities are fasting, abstinence, collecting alms, abstention from dainty food, mortification of the flesh, and taking care of one part of the body. Fasting is of two kinds: temporary fasting and fasting which precedes and ends with death. The temporary fasting is of six kinds: (1) in the form of a line-if four fasts of two, three, four and five days are performed in this order, they form a line, (2) in the form of a square, (3) in the form of a cube, (4) of a sixth power, (5) of a twelfth power, and (6) of any arrangement. Fasting which is to precede death is of two kinds with regard to the motions of the body: with change of position and without change. Abstinence is briefly of five kinds: with regard to substance, place, time, state of mind and development. He
1 Lit. the state of a mountain (sailesi), Uttaradhyayana, XXIX.
2 Uttaradhyayana, XXXIX, 73. Every jiva has two bodies, kārmana and taijasa, and also a third which may be audarika or vaikreya. Every jira save and except a Perfected One forms round it through its karma a body which is called its karmana body and another invisible body, taijasa, which at its death will enable it to assume a new form. These two unseen bodies are indestructible. S. Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 206. Cf. the Upanisadic conception of the sthula, sūkṣma and karana bodies assumed by the soul. 3 Uttaradhyayana, XXX:
Pāṇivahamusārāyā adattamehunapariggaha viraot Raibhoyanavirao jico bhavai anasaro || 2 Pañcasamio tigutto akṣão jiindio Agaravo ya nissallo jivo hoi aņāsavo || 3

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who takes less food than he usually does, performs abstinence with regard to substance.
Place means a village, capital, mine, settlement of a wild tribe, poor town, town with a harbour, a large town, an isolated town, a hermitage, a halting place, a resting place, garden house, etc. 1
Abstinence with regard to time is observed by him who goes about in the time of the four Paurushis2 of the day. If he collects alms in a part of the third Paurushi or in its last quarter, he observes abstinence with reference to time.
Abstinence with regard to the state of mind is observed by him who accepts alms from a man or a woman, from an adorned or unadorned person, if that person does not change his disposition or condition.
The ten persons entitled to service are: (1) ācārya, (2) upādhyāya, (3) sthavira, (4) tapasvin, (5) glāna, (6) sarksha, (7) sadharmika, (8) kula, (9) gana, and (10) sangha.3
Study is five-fold: Saying or learning one's lesson, questioning the teacher about it, repetition, pondering and religious discourse.
One should not meditate on painful and sinful things, one should meditate on the Law with a collected mind. This is meditation. If a monk remains motionless while lying down, sitting or standing upright, this is called abandoning of the body which is one of the internal austerities.1
One should practise self-control. Love and hatred are two evils which produce bad karma. If a monk always avoids them, he will not be subject to transmigration. A monk, who always avoids the thrice three-fold hurtful, conceited and delusive acts, will not be subject to transmigration. Hurtful acts (danda) are threefold as referring to thoughts, words and acts. Conceited acts (gūrava) include pride of riches, of taste, and of pleasure or fashion. Delusive acts are māyā, nidāna, and false-belief (mithyādarśana). A monk who well bears calamities will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always avoids the four different
1 Uttaradhyayana, XXX, 16-18.
Game nagare taha rayahaninigame ya ägare palli Khede Kabbadadonamuhapaṭṭanamaḍambasambāhe ||| āsamapac vihāre sannivese samāyaghose ya thalisenakhandhare satthe samvattakotte ya ||
vilesu và raccharu và ghresu và committiyan Rhettum | kappai u cvamai evam khettena ja bhave
2 A paurushi is the fourth part of a day or a night; about the time of the equinoxes when the day or the night contains 12 hours, the paurushi contains 3 hours.
3 Uttaradhyayana, XXX, 33.
4 Ibid., XXX, 35-36.

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kinds of praises, passions, expressions of the emotions, and of the four meditations, will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the five vows, the five objects of sense, the five somitis and the five actions, will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the six lesyas,' the six kinds of bodies and the six regular functions as eating, will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the seven rules of idiocepting alms and the seves causes of danger to others, will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the eight objects of pride, and the tenfold Law of the monks, will not be subject to transmigration. The eight objects of pride are: (aste, family, beauty, pie kuowledge, success, power and intelligence:2 A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the cleven duties of the upasukus (lay disciples and the twelve duties of the bhikkhus will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the thirteen actions productive
kurma, fourteen kinds of the living beings, and the fifteen places of punishment of the wicked, will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the sixteen gāthas, eighteen kinds of continence and nineteen jñātādhyayanus 3 will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the twenty-one forbidden actions, and the twenty-two troubles, will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the twenty-three lectures of the Sūtrakrtūnga, the twenty-five clauses, and the twenty-six chapters of the dasās, 4 will not be subject to transmigration. A monk who always exerts himself with regard to the twentyseven virtues of the laity and the twenty-eight lectures of the Prakalp1,5 the twenty-nine causes of wrong knowledge, the thirty causes of delusion, the thirty-one qualities of the perfected ones, the thirty-two pure operations of mind, speech and body, and the thirty-three articles regulating the intercourse between monks, specially pupils and teachers, will not be subject to transmigration.
By the teaching of true knowledge, by the avoidance of ignorance and delusion and by the destruction of love and
Leśyā is said to be that by means of which the soul is tinted with merit and demerit. It arises from yoga or kuşayın, namely, the vibrations due to the activity of body, inind or speech or passions. It means soul type (Leumann, Aupapatika sūtra, Glossary). 2 C. Sülrakytingai, II, 2, 17.
3 Nüyodhammakahão. - U viengudusio.
6 Acūrūnga Sūtru. 6 (larūdhyayanı, XXXT, 15-20.

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hatred one arrives at deliverance which is nothing but bliss. One should serve the guru and the old teachers, avoid foolish people, apply oneself earnestly to study, and to ponder jealously on the meaning of the sūtras. A monk engaged in austerities, who longs for righteousness, should cat the proper quantity of allowed food, should select a companion of right understanding, and should live in a solitary place. If he does not meet with a suitable companion, he should live by himself abstaining from sins and not devoted to pleasures. Love and hatred are caused by karma which has its origin in delusion. Karma is the root of birth and death. Misery consists in birth and death. Misery ceases on the absence of delusion, delusion ceases on the absence of desire, desire ceases on the absence of greed, and greed (eases on the absence of property. Pleasant food (rasā) should not be enjoyed with preference, for it generally makes men overstrong (driptikaru), and desires rush upon the strong. The mind of those who always live in unfrequented lodgings, who eat low food, who subdue their senses, and who are vanquished as disease is by medicine, will not be attached by love. A monk engaged in penance should not allow himself to watch the shape, beauty, coquetry, laughter, prattle, gestures, and glances of women nor retain a recollection of them in his mind. Not to look at, not to long for, not to think of, not to praise womankind-this is fit for the meditation of the noble ones and it is always wholesome to those who delight in chastity. Those who possess the three guptis cannot be disturbed by well-adorned goddesses. To a man who longs for liberation, who is afraid of samsāra and lives according to the Law, nothing in the world offers so many difficulties as women who delight the mind of the ignorant. To those who have overcome the attachment of women, all others will offer no difficulties. From the desire of pleasure arises the misery of the whole world. Whatever misery of mind and body there is, the dispassionate will put an end to it. A monk who is engaged in austerities, who longs for righteousness, should not fix his thoughts on the pleasant objects of the senses. He who is passionately fond of colours will come to untimely ruin. He who passionately hates a colour, will at the same moment suffer pain. He who is very fond of a lovely colour hates all others. hence a fool suffers misery. He who has a passion for colour will kill many movable and immovable beings. A passionate fool intent on his personal
Cf. B. (!. Law, Concepts of Buddhism, pp. 28 ff. ? Cf. Instructions to Nanda, Saundarunandu Küvya, Cantos 8 and 9.

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interest torments those beings in many ways. When he is not satisfied with these colours and his craving for them grows stronger and stronger, he will become discontented. Misled by greed he will take another's property. When he is overcome by a violent desire, he takes another's property and when he is not satisfied with those colours, then his decot and falsehood increase on account of bis greed; yet he will not get rid of his misery. A man who is indifferent to true coloursi is free from sorrows. All such passions as anger, pride, deceit, greed, disgust, aversion to self-control, delight in sensual things, mirth, fear, sorrow, carnal desire for women, arise in a man who is attached to pleasures. When he ceases to desire the objects of the senses, bis desire for pleasures will become extinct. A dispassionate man who has performed all duties, will quickly remove the obstacles to right knowledge and right faith. Then he knows and sees all things. He is free from delusions, hindrances and sins. He is proficient in meditation and being pure he will arrive at beatitude. He will get rid of all misery which always afflicts mankind. He becomes infinitely hapiw and obtains the final aim.?
There are cight kinds of kurma: (1) which acts as an obstruction to right knowledge: (jñāņārurunīya), (2) which acts as an obstruction to right faith (dursunararanīya), (3) which leads to experiencing pain or pleasure (reduniya), (4) which leads to delusion (mohaniya), (5) which determines the length of life (āyuh karma), (6) which determines the name or individuality of the embodied soul, (7) which determines gotra or family name, and (8) which prevents a person) from entering the path leading to etemal bliss (antarāya).4
Obstruction to knowledge is five-fold: (a) obstruction to knowledge derived from the sacred books (śrutu); (b) obstruction to perception (ābhinibodhika), (c) obstruction to supernatural knowledge (avadhijñāna), (d) knowledge of the
-.-.. ..- .
1 Leer is the terin signifying colour (Satrakrtingu, 1.0.13; Jaina Sūtrus, II, p. 196 f.11.) The classification of living beings in terms of six colou's may be traced in Pärsva's doctrine of six poikāyas (Acūrūnga, II, 15.16).
? Uttarādl., XXXII.
3 Karma is the deed of the soul. It is a material forming a subtle bond of oxtromoly refined karmic matter which keeps the soul conined to its place of origin or the natural abode of full knowledge and everlasting peace. 4 Uttarādh., XXXIII., 1-3.
Athu kammiim vocchumi unupubbim juhākamam jehim vaddho ayam jiro sunsüre parivuttaill nānassūvaruwijam damsanavaranam tahu! veyanijjam taha moham āukammam tahcvu ya Il nämakamımcm ca goyam ca antarūyam tahcua ya 1 cvameyāi kammā ir aļļheva u samūsao II

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thoughts of other people (manaḥ paryāya), (e) the highest, unlimited knowledge (kerala). The following are the different kinds of obstruction to right faith: sleep, activity, very deep sleep, a high degree of activity, a state of deep-rooted greed. Vedaniya is two-fold: pleasure and pain. Mohaniya is twofold as referring to faith and conduct. The three kinds of Mohaniya referring to faith are right faith, wrong faith, and faith, partly right and partly wrong. The two kinds of Mohaniya referring to conduct are (1) what is experienced in the form of the four cardinal passions, and (2) what is experienced in the form of feelings different from them.2 Ayuşka is four-fold: denizens of hell, brute creation, men and gods. Nāma is two-fold: good and bad. Gotra is twofold: high and low. Antaraya is five-fold as preventing gifts, profits, momentary enjoyment, continuous enjoyment, and power. The number of atoms of every karma is infinite. The kurma in the six directions of space binds all souls. The six directions of space are the four cardinal points. The number of perfected souls is infinite.3
The lesyas are different conditions produced in the soul by the influence of different karma. They are, therefore, not dependent on the nature of the soul, but on the karma which accompanies the soul. They are named in the following order: black, blue, grey, red, yellow, and white. The black lesya has the colour of a rain cloud, a buffalo's horn. The blue lesya has the colour of the blue asoka (Jonesia asoka) having red flowers. The grey lesya has the colour of the flower of atasi (Linum usitatissimum) having blue flowers. The red lesya has the colour of vermilion. The yellow leśya
1 The first kind of knowledge corresponds to what the Buddhists call sulamayāpañña; the second kind to what they call cintamayāpaññā; the third kind to what they call vilokana; the fourth kind to what they call cetopariyāñāņa and the fifth kind to what they call sabbaññulā or omniscience consisting in three faculties: of reviewing and recalling to mind all past existences with details, of perceiving the destiny of other beings according to their deeds, and of being conscious of the final destruction of sins. Cf. Tattvartha Sutra, i, 9. Kevala means that which is limited by the object, that which is sufficient to survey the field of observation. Cf. Kalpasūtra, 15. Manaḥparyayajñāna is defined in the Acārānga Sūtra (II, 15, 23) as a knowledge of the thoughts of all sentient beings. Kevalajñāņa is defined in the same text as omniscience enabling a person to comprehend all objects and to know all conditions of the worlds of gods, men and demons (11, 15, 25).
2 Uttaradh., XXXIII, 5-10.
3 Ibid., XXXIII, 12-18, 24.
4 The Buddhist idea of contamination of mind by the influx of impurities from outside, illustrated by the simile of a piece of cloth dyed blue, red, yellow or the like, would seem to have some bearing on the Jain doctrine of the six lesyas, which is merely hinted at in the Sutrakṛtānga (I, 4, 21) where a Jain saint is described as a person whose soul is in a pure condition (lesya) and fully explained in the Uttaradhyayana (XXXIV). The Jaina roligious efforts are directed towards the acquisition of pure lesyā (Sūtrakṛtānga, I, 10, 15).

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has the colour of orpiment. The white leśyā has the colour of conch-shell. The taste of the black leśyā is more bitter than that of tumbaku (Lugenaria vulgaris). The taste of the blue leśyā is more pungent than black pepper and dry ginger. The taste of grey leśyā is sourer than that of unripe mango. The taste of red leśyā is more pleasant than that of ripe mango. The taste of yellow leśyā is better than that of excellent wine and various liquors, honey and Maireyakı. The taste of white lesyū is better than that of dates, grapes, milk and pounded sugar. The degrees of the lesyūs are throe or nine or twenty-seven or eighty-one or two hundred and forty-three. Each of these degrees is three-fold: low, middle and high. A man who acts on the impulse of the five sius, who commits cruel acts, who is wicked and mischievous, develops the black lesyū. A man who has anger, ignorance', hatred, wickedness, deceit, greed, carelessness, love of enjoyment, etc., develops the blue leśyā. A man who is dishonest in words and acts, it heretic, deceiver, a thief, etc., develops the grey leśyā. A man who is humble, well-disciplined. restrained, free from deceit, who loves the Law, develops the red lesya. A man who controls himself, who is attentive to his study and duties, develops the yellow lesyo. A man who controls himself, who abstains from constan! thinking about his misery, who is free from passion, who is calm and who subdues his seuses, develops the white lcóyū. The black, blue, and groy leśyās are the lowest lcóyās, through them the soul is brought into miserable courses of life. The red, yellow and white lesyūs are the good lesyās, through them the soul is brought into happy courses of life. In the first and last moment of all these leśyās, when they are joined with the soul, the latter is not born into a new existence.1
Things without life are (1) possessing form, ind (2) formless. There are ten kinds of formless things, c.g. dharma, adharma, space, division, time (addhāsamaya), etc. Dharma, adharma and space are ever without beginning and end. The four kinds of things possessing form are compound things, their divisions, their indivisible parts and atoms. Subtile things occur all over the world. Living beings are
1 Ullurūdhyayanu, XXXIV. • Ibid., XXXVI, 4-6:
Rūnino courūvi yu ajiru duviha bhuwel arī vi dasaha mutlu rūvino y cubbiha || dhammatthikūe tahese tappaese yu ühir! ahamme tassa dese ya tappaese ya ühiell āgāsc tassa dese ya tauppaese ya āhic! addhāsamac ceva arūvi dusahū bhavell

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of two kinds: those still belonging to the samsvīru and the Werfected sous. The perfected souls have no visible form. They are developed into knowledge and faith and they possess paramount happiness. Living beings are of two kinds: movable and immovable. The earth-lives are of two kinds: subtile and gross. The subtile carth is but of one kind as there is no variety. Plants are of two kinds: subtile and gross. There are three kinds of immovable living beings and three kinds of movable beings. The fire-lives are of two kinds: subtile and gross ones. Denizens of hells are of seven kinds according to the seven hells. Animals are of three kinds: aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial. Those souls who cherish wrong views, who commit sins and kill living beings, will not reach enlightenment at the time of death. Those who cherish right views, do not commit sins and are enveloped in white leśyā, will reach enlightenment at the time of death. Those who love the creed of the Jinas and piously practise it, will be pure and free from passions and will in due time get out of the circle of births. Miserable men who do not know the creed of the Jinas will many times commit unholy suicide and die against their will. Those who lo well versed in the sacred lore and possess much knowledge, who awaken picty in others and appreciate the good qualities, are worthy to hear the doctrine of salvation. Those who practise spells and besmear their bodies with ashes for the sake of pleasure realize the ābhiyogiku-bhāvanā.' Those who use weapolis, cat poison, throw themselves into fire and water and use things not prescribed by the rules of conduct, are liable to be born and to die again and again.
If a monk is positive in his assertions, if he is malicious, egoistical, greedy and without self-discipline, if he is always unkind, if he does not share with others, then he is called ill-behaved.2 If he is always humble, steady, free from deceit, if he is not proud of his learning, if he listens to friendly advice, if he does not speak ill of his friend behind his back, if he is enlightened, polite, decent, and quiet, the called well-behaved.3 Monks will go to the highest place after their karma has been annihilated.4
He who adopts the law in the intention to live as a monk should live in company with other monks, upright and free from desires. Free from love he should live as a model of righteousness, abstaining from sins and versed in the sacred
1 Tho Abhiyogidcvas aro genii who serve the gods. This bhāvunā leads one to birth as an übhiyogi devu. Uttarādhyayana, XXXVI; Juina Sūtrus, II, p. 231.
2 Ullurūdhyayaru, XI, 9. 3 Ibid., XI, 7-13. 4 Ibid., XI, 31.

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Law. Ignorant of abuse and injury a steadfast inonk should be a model of righteousness, always protecting his souls from sins; neither rash nor passionate, he should endure everything. He controls himself, keeps the vows, practises austerities and meditates on his soul. A true monk does not care for his life, abandons every delusion, avoids men and women, always practises austerities and does not betray any curiosity. He does not profess and live on divinations. He also abstains himself from spells, roots, every kind of medical treatment, purgatives, emetics, fumigation, anointing of the eye, etc. A Jaina monk is forbidden to take from the householders bed, lodging, drink, food, dainties and spices. He who understands all religious disputations, who practises selfdiscipline, who meditates on his soul, who is wise, hardy, and observes everything, who is calm, and does not hurt anybody, is a true monk. He who is not living by any art, without house, without friends, subduing his senses, free from all bondages, sinless and eating little, lives single leaving the house, is a true monk.
There are ten conditions for the realization of celibacy. By hearing and knowing them the monks will reach a high degree of self-discipline', of contemplation, of stopping sins by means of the samitis and guptis, will be well protected, will guard their senses and chastity. The ten conditions are the following: - (1) A monk may occupy various places for sleep or
rest but he should not occupy such places as frequented by women, cattle or eunuchs. If he occupies such places for sleep or rest as frequented by women, cattle, or eunuchs, there may arise a doubt as regards his chastity or he will acquire a dangerous illness of long
duration or he will become a slave to passion. (2) He should not talk about women. (3) He should not sit together with women on the
same seat. (4) He should not look at or think of the charms and
beauties of women. (5) He should not listen behind a screen or wall to the
singing or laughing or crying of women. (6) He should not remember the pleasures and amuse
ments which he enjoyed in the past together
with women. (7) He should not eat well-dressed food.
Uttarādhyayana, XV, 15, 16.

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(8) He should not eat or drink to excess. (9) He should not wear ornaments. (10) He should avoid sounds, colours, tastes, smells, and feelings of touch1.
A bad monk is one who despises the learning and discipline which his preceptors and teachers have taught him. He is disrespectful to his teachers and preceptors. He does not control himself though he believes himself to be well controlled. He hurts living beings. He walks with great haste and without care. He is fierce and overbearing. He carelessly inspects things. It is the duty of a monk to examine everything which he uses very closely in order to avoid hurting living beings. He always slights his teachers. He is deceitful, talkative, arrogant, greedy and rough. He delights in quarrels and perverts truth. He is not careful in sitting down. He is careless about his bed. He does not practise austerities. He eats after sunset and when admonished he makes an angry reply. He leaves his own teacher and follows a heretical one. He is of a bad disposition and frequently changes his school or group (gana). He lives by fortunetelling. He eats the food of his relations and does not like living by alms.2
One should adopt the Law of monks (paryāya dharma), the vows, the virtues and the endurance of the calamities, abandoning the great distress, and the great delusion. He should keep the five great vows, e.g. not to kill, to speak the truth, not to steal, to be chaste, to have no property at all. A wise man should follow the Law taught by the Jinas. A monk should be of a forbearing nature, restrained and chaste. He should live with his senses under control. He should walk about in utter indifference and bear everything, pleasant or unpleasant. A monk who comes in contact with dangerous and dreadful calamities will not be afraid of them. An ascetic will by means of his simplicity enter the path of Nirvana. He is neither grieved nor pleased, he is intent on the benefit of his soul and he strives for the highest good.
There are five samitis and three guptis which constitute eight articles of the Jain creed. The Samitis are the following: (1) going by paths, trodden by men, beasts, carts, etc., and looking carefully so as not to cause the death of living beings; (2) gentle, sweet and righteous speech; (3) receiving
9B
1 Uttaradhyayana, XVI. 3 Ibid., XXIV, 1:
Aṭṭha pavayanamāyāo samii gutti laheva ya pañceva ya samiio tuo guttio āhiyā ||
2 Ibid., XVII.

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alms in a manner to avoid forty-two faults; (4) receiving and keeping things necessary for religious exercises, and (5) performing the operation of nature in an unfrequented place. The three guptis are the following: (1) preventing mind from sensual pleasure by engaging it in contemplation, study, etc.; (2) preventing the tongue from saying bad things by a vow of silence; and (3) putting the body in an immovable posture. The walking of a well-disciplined monk should be pure in respect to the cause, time, road and effort. Knowledge, faith and right conduct are included in the cause; the time is daytime; the road excludes bad ways; the effort is fourfold as regards substance, place, time, and condition of mind. A well-disciplined monk should work carefully. He should avoid anger, pride, deceit, greed, laughter, fear, loquacity and slander. He should use blameless and concise speech at the right time. He should avoid while begging the faults in the search, in the receiving, and in the use of three kinds of objects, namely, food, lodging, and the articles of use. There are sixteen Udgama dosas by which food becomes unfit for a Jain monk, e.g. the fault inherent in food which a layman has prepared for religious mendicants, the fault in a kind of food which a layman has prepared for a pariicular monk, the food which has been prepared for festivities, which has been reserved for a monk, when he has to open locks before he gets at the food, when a monk calls while the dinner is being cooked, and for his sake more food is put in the pot which is on the fire, etc. There are ten faults of receiving, e.g., when a monk accepts alms from a frightened layman (sankita), when the food is soiled by animate or inanimate matter (mrakṣita), when a layman mixes up pure with impure food (unmisrita), etc. A zealous monk should wipe the thing after having inspected it with his eyes, then he should take it up or put it down. Excrements, urine, saliva, mucus, and uncleanliness of the body should be disposed of in the way described. In a place neither frequented nor seen by others, which offers no obstacles to selfcontrol, which is not covered with grass or leaves, which is spacious, in such a place he should leave his excrements, etc. There are (1) truth, (2) untruth, (3) a mixture of truth and untruth, and (4) a mixture of what is not true and what is not untrue.1 A zealous monk should prevent his mind from desires for the misfortune of somebody else, from
1 Uttaradhyayana, XXIV, 20:
Sacca taheva mosā ya saccamosā taheva ya cautthi asaccamosa ya managuttiyo caubbiha ||

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thoughts on acts which cause inisery to living beings and from thoughts on acts which cause their destruction. In standing, sitting, lying down, jumping, going and in the use of his organs, a zealous monk should prevent his mind from intimating evil desires, etc. These are the samitis for the practice of the religious life and guptis for the prevention of everything sinful.
The correct behaviour of monks consists of teu parts: āvusyikā is required when a monk leaves a room; naisedhiki on entering a place; āpricchanā or asking the superior's permission for what he is to do himself; prutipricchana, for what somebody else is to do; chandanā or placing at the disposal of other monks the things one has got; icchākāra in the execution of one's intention by oneself or somebody else; mithuākāra in blaming oneself for sins committed; lathākāra, in assenting to make a promise; abhyutthāna, in serving those who deserve respect and upasumpad, in placing oneself under another teacher.1
After sunrise during the first quarter of the first pourūshi (the fourth part of a day or a night) a monk should inspect and clean his things and pay his respects to the superior. He should ask him with joined hands, 'What shall I do now? If he is ordered to do some work he should do it without tiring. A clever monk should divide a day into four equal parts, and fulfil his duties in all the four parts. In the first paurūshi he should study, in the second he should meditate, in the third he should go on his begging-tour, and in the fourth he should study again. The paurūshi increases or decreases a digit (equal to five minutes) every week, two digits every fortnight, and four digits every month. A clever monk should divide the night into four parts and fulfil his duties in all the four parts. In the first paurūshi he should study, in the second he should meditate, in the third he should sleep, and in the fourth he should study again. When a small part of the quarter is left in which the leading star stands, during that space of time, being considered intermediate days, a monk should watch. In the first quarter of the first paurūshi he should inspect his things, pay his respect to his superior, then begin to study, not allowing himself to be affected by any pain). In the last quarter of the first paurūshi after paying his respect to
he guru, a monk should inspect his alms-bowl without performing the expiation of sins concerning time. He should first inspect his mouth-cloth, then his broom, and taking the
Uttarādhyayana, XXVI, 2–7.

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broom in his hand he should inspect his cloth. Standing upright he holds his cloth firmly and inspects it leisurely, then he spreads it and at last he wipes it. He should spread the cloth without shaking or crushing it in such a way as to make the folds disappear; he should fold up six times in length and nine times in breadth and then he should remove beings with his hands. He must avoid want of attention in commencing his work, in taking up the corners of the cloth, and in sitting upon the baunches (vedikai). He must avoid to hold the cloth loosely or at one corner. If he who is engaged in inspecting a thing, talks with anybody, renounces something, receives his lessons from another, he neglects his inspection. He who is careful in the inspection, protects the six kinds of living beings, e.g., the earth bodies, water bodies, fire bodies, wind bodies, plants and animals. In the third paurūshi he should beg food and drink for any of the following six reasons: (1) to prevent illness, (2) to serve the guru, (3) to comply with the rules about walking, (4) to comply with the rules of self-control, (5) to save one's life, and (6) to meditate on the Law. A zealous Jaina should not beg food for the following reasons:(1) in case of illness, (2) in caso of disaster, (3) to preserve one's chastity and the guptis, (4) out of compassion for living beings, (5) in the interest of penance, and (6) to make an end of one's life. In the fourth paurūshi a monk should put away his alms-bowl and then he should begin to study. In the last quarter of the fourth paurūshi he should pay his respect to the guru and after having performed kālapratikramanal he should inspect his lodging. A zoalous monk should find tho place where to discharge his excrements and urine. He should reflect on all transgressions he has committed during the day with regard to knowledge, faith and conduct. Having finished kāyotsarga aud paid his respect to the guru, he should confess his sins committed during the day. Then having recited the Pratikramana Sūtra and having destroyed his sins he should pay his respect to the guru. Having finished kāyotsarga he should pronounce the customary praises. A monk should do the same thing in the first paurūshi during the night, in the fourth paurūshi and in the last quarter of the fourth paurūshi. Then he should reflect on all sins committed during the night with regard to knowledge, faith conduct. Then he should confess his sins committed during the night. Having finished kāyotsarga and paid his respect
1 It seems to consist in kayotsarya. It is nothing but expiation of concerning time,

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to the guru he should practise those austerities which he has undertaken, and praise the perfected saints.
Renouncing household life a sage should know and give up those attachments which take hold of men. A restrained nonk should abstain from killing, stealing, lying, carnal intercourse and greed. In his thoughts, a monk should not long for a pleasant dwelling house. He should happily live in a burial place, in a deserted house, below a tree, in solitude, etc. A well-controlled monk should live in a pure place which is not too much crowded and where no women live. A monk should abstain from building a house. Out of compassion for living beings a monk should not cook nor cause another to cook. A monk should cause nobody to cook because beings living in water, corn, wood, etc., are destroyed in food and drink. He should not light a fire. In his thoughts a monk should not long for gold and silver. He is not to engage in buying and selling. He who is to live on alms, should beg but not buy. He should collect alms in small parts. He should contentedly go on his beggingtour whether he gets alms or not. A great sage should not cat for the sake of the pleasant taste of the food but for sustenance of his life. He should meditate on true things only, committing no sins and having no property. He should walk about careless of his body till his end comes. He obtains absolute knowledge and reaches eternal beatitude, free from passions and sins, without property and without egoism.
A monk is holy through his innocence. He allows no troubles to influence his words, thoughts and acts. He should take no notice of the seductive pleasures and endeavour to shake off delusion. Knowing the highest law, he should perform his religious duties. He should be free from attachment and earnest in the performance of austerities.
Begging is a hard task. It is painful never to take anything but what is freely given. Some weak men who are unable to preserve their chastity will become disheartened. Some fools take a pious monk for spy, bind him and insult him. Some low people who lead a life of iniquity being subject to love and hatred, injure a monk.
There are some tender affections which monks cannot easily overcome. A monk should renounce attachment, for every attachment is a cause of sin. A holy monk may find many inducements and seductions in this world, but they should not break down like weak bullocks carrying a heavy burden uphill. A monk should slip off the ties that bind

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him to his house, he should wander about for the welfare of his soul. A wise and thoroughly restrained monk should bear all hardships and wander about till he reaches final liberation. The Buddhists hold that pleasant things are produced from pleasant things. Those who exert themselves at the proper time feel no remorse afterwards. The
roes who have got rid of their fetters do not long for their life. A monk should strive for the attainment of nirvāņa which consists in peace.
A worthy monk should have no intercourse with women considering the consequences. A virtuous monk should never keep company with the wicked. He should not stay in the house of a householder except by constraint. He should obey and serve a wise and a pious teacher.
A true monk should not say that this is meritorious and this is not meritorious. He should guard his soul, bring his senses under his control and put a stop to the current of the samsāru.
If a poor monk, subsisting on the meanest food, is attached to vanities and makes his monkhood a means of sustenance, he will suffer again and again. A monk should combat pride of genius, pride of sanctity, pride of birth, and pride of good living. He having conquered aversion to control and delight in sensual objects, should silently repeat to himself: at man must come and go according to his own karma alone. The pious are not given to blamable sinful practices. Avoiding all evils, monks should without embarrassment and passion preach the Law.
A monk who complies with the rules for the yatis as regards postures, lying down, sitting and exertion, who is thoroughly acquainted with the samitis and guptis, should explain each single point of conduct. He should not allow himself to be influenced by pleasant sounds. He should expound the syūdvāda, he should use permitted kind of speech and should be impartial and wise. He should utter pure speech which is in accordance with the creed of the Jinas. He should well learn the sacred text, endeavour to teach the creed and should not speak unduly long. He should not pervert or render obscure the truth.
A monk who does not act nor kill, who is free from anger, pride, deceit and greed, who is calm and happy will never entertain such wish that after his departure from the world he will become a god or a perfected saint. He does no actions arising from sinful causes, nor has them done by
Vide B. C. Law, Mahüvira : His Life and Teachings, pp. 72 11.

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another person nor does he consent to another doing them. A monk should not take food or drink when he knows that a householder to satisfy him or for the sake of a co-religionist has brought it. One should eat when it is time for eating, seek cover when it is time for seeking cover, and sleep when it is time for sleeping. When a monk preaches the Law, he should preach it not for the sake of food or drink, but he should preach it indefatigably for no other motive than the annihilation of karma. Such a monk searches the Law, knows the Law and endeavours to gain liberation. He knows and renounces action and worldly occupation, he is free from passions, possesses the samitis, being wise, virtuous and liberated, living on low food, desiring to get to the shore of the samsara, fulfilling the general and particular virtues.
A monk abstains from the five cardinal sins, slaughter of living beings, etc. He does not clean his teeth with a toothbrush, he does not accept perfumes, emetics and collyrium. Such a monk does not act nor kill; he is free from anger, pride, deceit and greed; he is calm and happy. He is well controlled and restrained, avoids and renounces sins, is not active but careful and thoroughly wise.
The wrongly instructed Sramanas do not comprehend the soul's bondage through karma (karmabandha). A wise monk should improve his chances for final liberation. He should conform himself to the opinions taught by the Jinas and wander about till he reaches final liberation.
The doctrinal is not the only aspect of Jainism as represented in the canonical sutras. It embraces also another aspect which may be called disciplinary or practical. In other words, Jainism as propounded and promulgated by Mahavira and his leading disciples sets forth not only the nature of the truth and the ideal but lays down the path to the realization of both. The disciplinary aspect comprehends the rules of life conducive to reaching the goal set before it. It was chiefly in and through the life of the monks or mendicants that the ideal of conduct was sought to be fulfilled. The sutras mostly contain the rules, prescriptions or restrictive orders laid down for the guidance of the disciples aspiring to lead an ideal life. The samyakcāritra is held out as the ideal of conduct reached in the life of the conquerors and their chief disciples. This is the highest standard of perfection to be kept always in view. It is nowhere assumed that all of them who pass as the Jain monks have followed the right path or that there are no black sheep in the fold. There are good and bad monks. The ways of both are sharply contrasted here and there. The sutras are concerned mainly

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with the monks eager to follow the prescribed course of action.
It is interesting to note that sufferings in hell as described in the Buddhist and Jain books are almost identical. Neither in the Buddhist nor in the Brahmanical system, and in fact in no Indian religious system, is there any conception of eternal, never-ending suffering in hell, like the Christian or rather the Hebrew eschatological conception of Gehenna, the abode of the wicked where they suffer endless torments by fire. Some of the Christian fathers no doubt hold that ultimately there would be an end to the punishment of the most wicked as well as of the devils; but this is not the idea of either the early or the mediaval Church, and even Protestant Divines stick to the idea of the never-ending punishment of the damned. This, however, is quite foreign to the Indian conception, according to which, every act either good or bad, produces happiness or suffering only for a limited period, though the period may be considerably long according to the nature of the deed.
According to the Jains, in hell there is suffering from heat and cold. The simers are cout, pierced and hacked to pieces with swords and daggers, with darts and javelins. They undergo sharp), horrible and acute pain. The imprudent sinners who injure many beings without relenting will go to hell. They are pierced with long spikes and tridents and are roasted.
Our sūtra furnishes us with some interesting information about some kings, monks and sages.
Harikeşabala was born in the family of Candālas. He became a monk and sage possessed of the bighest virtues. He subdued his senses. He observed the rules of walking, begging, speaking, etc. He controlled himself and was always attentive to his duty. He protected his thoughts, speech, and body from sins. He had a quarrel with the Brāhmaṇas and was beaten.
There was a famous Brahmin named Jayaghosa S who was pledged to perform the great vows of the Jainas. This great sage who subdued all his senses, came to the town of Benares. He took up his abode in a holy place outside Benares. At the same time another Brahmin named Vijayaghosa,
i Uttarādhyayana, XIX, 47, 48:
Naraesu veyanā unhū assāyā veiya mue
Naraesu veyaņā sīyā assāyā veiyā mae
2 Ibid., XII.
3 Ibid., XXV.

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who was well versed in the Vedas, offered a sacrifice in Benares. Jayaghosa went to the sacrifice of Vijayaghosa to beg alms. He was refused alms by the priest. On account of this he was neither angry nor pleased as he always strove for the highest good. He spoke the following words to the priest who refused to give him alms: 'You do not know what is most essential in the l'edus nor in sacrifices, nor in the heavenly bodies, nor in duties. You do not know those who are able to save themselves and others. The priest kept quiet. He together with those assembled requested the great sage to tell them the most essential subject in the Vedas and the most essential in the sacrifice, etc. The great sage replied, "The most essential subject in the Vedas is the Agnihotra and that of the sacrifice is the purpose of the sacrifice, the first of the heavenly bodies is the moon and the best of Dharmas is that of Kāśyapa. He who has no worldly attachment after entering the Order, who does not repent after having become a monk and who takes delight in the noble words, is called a Brāhmaṇa. He who is free from love, hatred, and fear is called a Brühmana. A lean, selfsubduing ascetic who reduces his flesh and blood, who is pious, and who has reached Nirvana is a Brāhmana. He who thoroughly knows living beings and does not injure them in any of the three ways (by thoughts, words, and cleeds) is a Brāhmaṇa. He who does not speak untruth from anger, or from greed or from fear is a Brāhmaṇa. He who
t take anything which is not given to him is a Brāhmano. He who does not carnally love divine, human, and animal beings in thoughts, words, and deeds is a Brāhmana. He who is not defiled by pleasures is a Brāhmaṇa. He who is not greedy, who lives unknown, who has no house, and who has 10 friendship with householders is a Brahmana. He who has given up his former connections with his rolations and parents and who is not given to pleasures is a Brāhmana. One does not become a Áramaņa by the tonsure, nor a Brāhmaṇa by the sacred syllable Om, nor a Muni by living in the forest, nor a Tāpasa by wearing clothes of Kusagrass. One becomes a Sramana by equanimity, a Brāhmaṇa by chastity, a Muni by knowledge, and a Tāpasa by penance. One becomes a Brāhmaṇa or a Ksatriya, or a Vaisya, or a Sūdra by one's actions. He is a Brāhmaṇa who is exempt from all karma. The most excellent Brahmins who possess
1 C. Sullanipaita, Vāsett hasutta: Kammani brūhmano hoti, kummunā hoti abrāhmano, (V 650)-One becomes a Brāhmaṇa by work and one becomes a non-Brāhmana hy work. Cf. Brühmunavagga of the Dhammapada, Chap. XXVI.

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good qualities are able to save themselves and others." Vijayaghosa spoke to Jayaghosa with folded hands: 'You have well declared to me what true Brahmanhood consists in. You are a sacrificer of sacrifices. You are the most learned of those who know the Vedas. You know Jyotiṣānga. You know the Law perfectly well.' Vijayaghosa requested him to accept alms. Jayaghosa replied thus: 'I don't want any alms but Oh Brahmana, enter the Order at once lest you should be drifted about on the dreadful ocean of the samsara whose eddies are dangerous. The fools who love pleasures will be fastened to karma but the passionless will not.' Vijayaghosa learnt the excellent Law from Jayaghosa and then he entered the Order. Jayaghosa and Vijayaghosa both destroyed their karma by self-control and penance and reached perfection.1
3
King Nami 2 remembering his former birth became an exalted Buddha and he retired from the world after placing his son on the throne. After having enjoyed pleasures he became enlightened and gave up his pleasures. After having given up the town and country of Mithila, his army, women and his retinue, he retired from the world and went to a lonely place. In the opinion of Nami, men frequently apply punishment wrongly, the innocent are put in prison and the perpetrators of the crime are set at liberty. One will be the greatest conqueror, if he can conquer himself. He who conquers himself obtains happiness. It will be better if he can control himself, no matter whether he gives alms or not. It is difficult to satisfy a greedy man for his avidity is boundless like space. One should practise austerities. Pleasures are the thorn that rankles, pleasures are poison, pleasures are like a venomous snake. He who is desirous of pleasures will not get them and will come to a bad end at last. He will sink with anger, he will go down through pride and delusion, he will block up his path, he will incur dangers through greed. A saint is praised for his simplicity, humility, perfect patience and perfect liberation.
1 Uttaradhyayana, XXV, 44-45:
Evam se Vijayaghose Jayaghosassa antic \ anagarassa nikkhanto dhammam socca anuttaram || Kharitta pubbakammaim samjamena tavena ja Jayaghosa Vijayaghosa siddhim patta anuttaram
2 Cf. Jacobi, Ausgewählte Evzählungen in Maharastri. Leipzig. 1886, Pp. 41 ff. Uttara., IX.
Capital of Videha which is identical with ancient Tirabhukti (modern
Tirhut).

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Sañjaya was the king of Kāmpilya. He chased a deer on horseback in the Keshara park in Kāmpilya and he killed the frightened deer there. In the park there was an ascetic intent on sacred study and meditating on the Law. The king killed the deer that fled to him. He quickly came there, saw the killed deer and the monk. Having dismissed his horse the king respectfully bowed down before the monk saying, "Forgive me, Rovered Sir.' The monk made no reply to the king. The king said, 'I am Sañjaya, Revered Sir. A monk might by the fire of his wrath reduce millions of men to ishes.' The monk replied, 'Oh king, be without fear but grant safety to others. In this transient world of living beings why are your addicted to cruelty? One day you must part with everything in this transient world. Why do you cling to the kingly power? Life and beauty which you love so much are transient like a stroke of lightning. Wives, children, friends, and relations, all are dependent on a man during his life, but they will not follow him in death. Sons in great sorrow will remove the dead body of the father to the cemetery. So the parents will do the same thing with their sons and relations. Oh king! do penances. Whatever actions a man has done, good or bad, with his kurma he will depart to the next life. The king was taught the Law by this monk. Sañjaya gave up his kingly power and
he faith of the Jinas in the presence of the venerable monk Gardabhāli.2
Bharata, who was the eldest son of Rşabha, the first Tīrthankara, became the first universal monarch and resided at Ayodhyā.3 He gave up his kingdom and pleasures and entered the Order. Sagara, the king of Ayodhyā, also gave up the kingdom and reached perfection through his compassion. Maghavan, son of king Samudravijaya of Srāvasti, entered the Order. Sanatkumāra, son of king Aśvasena of Hastināpura, placed his son on the throne and then practised austerities. Sānti, a universal monarch of great power, gave up his kingdom and reached perfection. King Kunthu and King Ara also reached perfection. Mahāpadma of Hastināpura gave up his kingdom and practised austerities. Harisena, son of king Mahāhari of Kāmpilya, reached perfection and Gaya, son of king Samudravijaya of Rājagpha, renounced the world and practised self-restraint. Dasamabhadra, who was a contemporary of Mahāvira,
1 Capital of southern Pancāla idontical with modern Kampil in the Farokhabad District, U.P. (ttarādhyayana, XVIII.
2 Ibid., XVIII. * The earliest capital of Kosala on the river Sarayū in U.P.

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after giving up his flourishing kingdom of Daśārna, became a monk. Karakandu of Kalinga, Dvimukha of Pañcāla, Nami of Videha and Naggati (Nagñajit) of Gandhāra were the four individual Buddhas (Pratyekabuddhas). Udayana, the famous king of Sauvira, who was also a contemporary of Mahavīra, renounced the world. Nandana, son of king Agniśikha of Benares, abandoned all pleasures and exerted himself for the best truth. King Vijaya left his excellent kingdom and became a monk. Mahābala, son of king Bala of Hastinapura, practised severe penances with an undistracted mind and took upon himself the glory of self-control.2
In the town of Sugriva there was a king named Balabhadra and his chief queen was Mrgā. They had a son named Balaśrī, also known as Mrgāputra. Mrgāputra saw a restrained sramaņu and his mind became pure. He being devoted to self-control went to his parents and spoke this:
I have learnt the five great vows. I know the sufferings that a wait the sinners in hell. I have ceased to take delight in the great ocean of samsāra. Allow me, therefore, to enter the Order. Oh parents, I have enjoyed pleasures which are like poison, their consequences are painful as they entail continuous suffering. This body is impermanent. It is impure. It is a miserable vessel of suffering. It is an impermanent residence of the soul. Human life, an abode of illness and disease, which is swallowed up by old age and death, does not please me even for a moment. Birth is misery, old age is misery, and so are discases and death, and nothing but misery is the samsāra in which men suffer distress. Leaving behind my house, gold, sons, wife, relatives, and my body I must depart one day. A person without having followed the Law, if he starts for the next world, will come to grief on his way, suffering from illness and disease.' The parents replied, 'It is difficult to perform the duties of a śramaņa. A monk must possess innumerable virtues. It is a difficult duty to be iinpartial towards all beings of the world and to abstain from injury to living beings, to be always careful to speak wholesome truth, to accept alms free from faults and to abstain from taking what is not given, to keep the severe vow of chastity, to give up all claims on wealth, corn and servants and to abstain from all undertakings. It is very difficult not to eat at night any food of the four kinds, i.e. food, drink, dainties, and spices. My son, you are accustomed to comfort. You will not be able
1 Uttarādhyuyana, XVIII.
2 Cf. Visuddhimagga (P.T.S.), II, p. 498 Jāti pi dukkhā, jarā pi dukkha, maranum pi dukkham...

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to live as a śramana. It is difficult to get over the occan of duties. Self-control is untasteful like a mouthful of sand. To practise penance is as difficult as to walk on the edge of a sword. Enjoy the human pleasures of five senses.' The son replied, 'Parents, in this world nothing is difficult to perform being free from desire. In the sumsūīra which is a mine of dangers and a wilderness of old age and death, I have undergone dreadful births and deaths. I have suffered agonies in this world. Many times I have been crushed like sugarcane in presses. In every kind of existence I have undergone suffering.' Parents said to him, “A man is free to enter the Order but it causes misery to a śrumaņa that he may not remedy any ailings.' The son replied, ‘Oh parents, I shall practise the Law by controlling myself and doing penance. A pious monk goes to many places but afterwards he goes to the upper regions. A monk on his begging tour should not hate or blame the food he gets.' With his parents' permission he gave up all his properties, his power and wealth, sons, wife and relations. He observed the five great vows, practised the five samitis and was protected by the three guptis. Ho exerted himself to do mental as well as bodily penance. He was without property, without egoism, without attachment, without conceit, and impartial to all beings. He was indifferent to success or failure in begging, happiness and misery, life and death, blame and praise, honour and insult. He was free from sins and fetters. He was indifferent to pleasant things. He had no interest in the world and in the next. He obtained praiseworthy self-purification and sacred knowledge by meditating upon himself. He thoroughly purified himself by knowledge, right conduct, faith, penance, and pure meditation. After having lived many years as a Bramaņa he reached perfection.1
King Srenika Bimbisāra of Magadha once made a pleasure excursion to the Mandikukşi Caitya. It was a park full of trees, creepers, flowers, and birds. There the king saw a restrained and concentrated ascetic sitting below a tree. When the king saw his figure, he was very much astonished and said to him with clasped hands, 'Though young you have entered the Order. In an age fit for pleasure you exert yourself as a monk.' The ascetic replied, 'I am without a protector, Oh king, there is nobody to protect me, I know no friend nor any one to have sympathy with me.' Then the king laughed and said, 'How should there be nobody to protect one so accomplished as you are? I am the protector
Ulturüdhyayana, Xix.

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of religious men, Oh monk! You enjoy pleasures with your friends and relations, for it is a rare chance to be born as a human being.' The ascetic said, “You yourself are without à protector, Oh king! As you are without a protector, how can you protect anybody else?' The king said, 'I have horses, elephants, and subjects, a town and a seraglio, power and command. In possession of so great means which permit the owner to enjoy all pleasures how could he be without protection ? Revered Sir, you speak untruth.' The ascetic said, 'Oh king, you do not know the meaning and origin of the word, “without protection". Hear with an undistracted mind in what way a man can be said to be without protection. In the town of Kausāmbi my rich father lived. In my childhood I caught a very bad eye-disease and a severe burning fever in all my limbs, 1 suffered dreadfully. The best physicians came to my help but in vain. They could not rid me of my pains. Hence I say that I am without protection. My father, my mother, my brothers, my sisters and my loving and faithful wife could not rid me of my pains. At last I succeeded in getting rid of my pains by becoming a homeless monk. My own self is the doer and undoer of misery and happiness. Oh king, many men after having adopted the Law of the Jinas go astray. If an ordained monk through carelessness does not strictly keep the vows but desires pleasures, his fetters will not be completely cut ofl. He who is careless with regard to the vows and neglects penance and self-control wili not be a winner in the battle of life. He, who has the character of i sinner and who does not control himself, will come to grief for a long time. He who practises divination from bodily marks, who is well versed in augury, superstitions and rites, who gains a sinful living by practising magic tricks, will have no refuge at the time of retribution. A sinner goes from darkness to darkness to utter misery. An unholy man who breaks the monastic rules rushes to hell. He who accepts forbidden alms will go to hell. In vain he adopts nakedness, who errs about matters of peramount interest, neither this world nor the next will be his. Thus a self-willed sinner who is desirous of pleasures will grieve. He who possesses virtuous conduct and life, who has practised the best self-control, who is free from sins and who has destroyed his kurmt, will obtain inukti or salvation.' Thus the ascetic preached at length this great sermon. The king fully realized that he was without protection and spoke thus: 'Oh great sage, you have made the best use of human birth. You have made a true gain, you are a protector of mankind, for you have enterod the path of the

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best of Jinas, you are the protector of all unprotected beings, Forgive me, Oh ascetic, I have disturbed your meditation, by asking you to enjoy pleasures.' Thus the king together with his wives, servants, and relations became a staunch believer in the Law with a pure mind. The ascetic who was rich in virtues, protected by the three guptis, walked about on the earth, free from delusion and abstaining himself from doing injury to living beings.
In the town of Sauryapura ? there was a powerful king named Vasudeva, who possessed the characteristic marks of a king. He had two wives named Rohini and Devaki. Each of them had a beloved son, Rāma and Keśava. In the same town there was another powerful king named Samudravijaya who was endowed with the characteristic marks of a king. He had a wife named Sivā whose famous son was Aristanemi who was the lord of ascetics. Ariştanemi had a strong body, who was gifted with an excellent voice and possessed many lucky marks of the body. Vasudeva's son Keśava wanted to marry Rājimati. Hearing that many animals would be killed during the marriage ceremony, Keśava renounced the world. Räjimati thought that it would be better for her to become a nun. Firm and decisive she cut off her tresses. When she entered the Order, she induced many people, her relations and servants, to follow her. She took off her clothes and was naked. She was thus seen by Rathanemi. On seeing her naked Rathanemi's peace of mind was disturbed. Rājimati was frightened when she discovered herself alone with the monk. Rathanemi spoke to her, 'Oh dear, beautiful lady, do accept me for your lover. You shall have no cause to complain. Come, let us enjoy pleasures.' When Rājimati perceived that Rathanemi's strength of will was broken, and temptation had overpowered him, she did not lose the presence of her mind and defended herself. She maintained the honour of her
ly and her virtue and said to him thus, 'Shame upon you, Oh famous knight, it would he better for you to die. I am the daughter of a Bhoja king and you are an Andhakavşşņi. Being born in a noble family let us practise self-control. If you fall in love with every woman you see, you will be without any hold.' Having heard these well-spoken words of the virtuous lady he returned to the Law. Protected in thoughts, words and acts, subduing his senses and keeping the vows, he practised true śramaņahood throughout his life. After
fami
1 Uttarādhyayana, XX. 2 This town was named after Krşņa (Sauri, an epithet of Krona).

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practising severe austerities, Ariştanemi and Rājimati reached the highest perfection on having completely destroyed their karma.1
There was a learned sage named Garga who was an elder and a leader of the group (gana). He thought thus: 'He who rides in the car of religious exercise, crosses the samsāra but he who puts bad bullocks before his car, will be tired by beating them, he will feel vexation and his goad will be broken at last. A baul bullock will bite its mate in the tail, it will break the pin of yoke or it will leave the road. It will fall down on its side or sit down or lie down or it will jump up. It will furiously advance with its head lowered for an attack. It will stand still as if dead or run at full speed. Just as bad bullocks are when put before it car, so are bad pupils when yoked to the car of the Law. They break down through wanit of zeal. Some attach great importance to their success, some to their comfort, some are averse to begging, and some are afraid of insults. A bad pupil makes objections and points out imagined difficulties, he frequently acts in opposition to the words of the superiors. If bad pupils are sent on an errand, they do not do what they are bidden but stroll about wherever they like. After they have been instructed, aclmitted into the Order, and nourished with food and drink, they disperse in all directions like geese whose wings have grown. Garga further thought, •What have I to do with bad pupils ? I am disheartened. As are bad pupils so are bad bullocks. I shall leave them and practise severe austerities.' The learned sage who was full of kindness, grave and always meditating, wandered about on earth leading a virtuous life.
There lived at Campā a merchant named Pālita who was a disciple of Mahāvīra. * As a lay disciple he was well versed in the doctrines of the Jinas. Once he went to the town of Pihunda on business. He was given a daughter in marriage by a merchant while he was there. When she became pregnant, Pālita took her with him on his returning home. She was delivered of a child at sea. As the boy was born at sea, he was named Samudrapāla. He studied seventytwo arts and acquired knowledge of the world. His father got a beautiful wife for him named Rūpiņī with whom he amused himself in his palace. Once he saw from the windov of his palace a man sentenced to death on his way to the place of execution. Seeing this he became agitated and said thus: This is the bad result of wicked actions.' He became
1 Uttarādhyayana, XXII. 10
2 lbid., XXVII.

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enlightened at once. He took leave of his parents and entered the state of homelessness. The great sage Samudrapāla understanding the sacred lore and completely practising the best Law, shone forth being possessed of the highest knowledge and glory. Having annihilated his kurma he obtained exemption from transmigration, being steadfast and free from all fetters. 1
There is a mention of Pithunda as a sea-coast town in the Uttarādhyuyana sūtra (sec. xxi), reminding us at once of Khāravela's Pithuda-Pithundaga and Ptolemy's Pitundrai. Lévi locates Pitundra in the interior of Maisolia between the mouths of the two rivers, Maisolos and Mānadas, i.e. between the delta of the Godāvari and the Mahānadi, nearly at an equal distance from both. It would, therefore, be convenient to search for its location in the interior of Chikakole and Kalingapatam towards the course of the river Nāgāvati which also bears the name of Lānguliya. Our sūtra refers to Srāvasti being ruled by Maghavan, à son of king Samudravijaya. This city was visited by Keśī, formerly i follower of Pārsva and subsequently a follower of Mahāvira.2
The Uttarādhyayana refers to the Bhojas as Kşatriyas and descendants from those whom Rşabha acknowledged as persons deserving of honour. It also refers to an ancient,
thy, famous and beautiful town named Isukāra (Isuyāra or Usuyāra) after its ruler Isukāra (the arrow-maker).
1 Uttaradhyayrına, XXI. : Jaina Sūtras, II, p. 71 and f.n.2.
2 lbid., VIII. 4 Utuurūdhyayana, XIV, 1.
IOB

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CHAPTER XXIII
ĀVĀŚYAKA SŪTRA (ĀVASSAYA SŪYA) The Āvassaya (Āvasyaka) Sūya consists of six sections (adhyāyas) corresponding to the six ūvassayas or the six essential daily duties of a Jaina for the purification of one's own self. The six āvassayas are known as sāmaiya or sāmāyika (way to balance of mind), cauvīsatthavu or caturvimsatistava (eulogy or glorification of the 24 Tirthankaras), vandanaya or vamdana (veneration of the teacher), padikkamaņu or pratikrumaņa (confession and expiation), kāussaggu or kāyotsurga (penance through certain postures of the body or asceticism) and paccakkhāņa or pratyākhānu (abstinence from food or avoidance of sensual pleasures). This sūya (sūtra) is the second mülasūtru, which has come down only in conjunction with the nijjutti.1 Haribhadra Sūri wrote a coinmentary on this work. There is also a commentary on it by Jinabhadra.2 Leumann has published the first three suttas in Roman characters with their German translation in Übersicht Uber die Āvasyaka-Literatur. Some hold that Āvassaya is a composition of Srutasthavira. The authorship of this sūtra is either attributed to Indrabhūti or a Srutasthavira. Some are of opinion that it was composed by Indrabhūti on the very day he composed Dādusāngi. It contains many interesting narratives.
As its title implies, the sūtra is very useful from the standpoint of Jain religion. It is counted among the mūlasūtras probably for the reason that it contains the lectures or dissertations on the six essential duties of a pious Jaina (mülaguņā). The definition of the five kinds of knowledge is just incidental to its main themes. The first of them is called sāmāyikam which is derived from sama (samabhāva) meaning balance or from samyaktva meaning rightness of direction. The sāmāyika carries with it the conception of dvāra or door, mode, method, means, or way. It is regarded as a means of gaining knowledge, faith and right conduct, all comprehended by the term sama. A sama or a man having the balance of mind is one who, being free from passion and hatred, looks upon all beings like himself and the term
1 Śri Āvasyaku Sūtra, part I, with Niryukti by Bhadravāhu Svanin, Bombay, 1928, Agamodaya Samiti.
? Bühler, Leben des Hemachandra, pp. 74ff.

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sāmāyika implies the Jain prescribed method of attaining to such a condition of the self. It implies on the one hand the abandonment of the blamable actions and on the other the cultivation of blameless actions. The sāmāyika vow means the maintenance of a balanced state of mind (madhyasthabhāva) with regard to all blamable actions and passion and hatred. The Jain texts prescribe rules to be observed by the laity in taking and fulfilling the sāmāyika vow. The sikkhā or practice (adhyāsah) is of two kinds namely, āsevanā (cultivation) and grahaņa (grasping through study). The study of the subject of sāmāyika has four doors:-(1) a door which is like one to a city enclosed by a wall to which public no access (akritadvāram), (2) the second is a difficult one due to the rush of men, elephants and horses (kritayikadvāram), (3) four main doors (caturmāladvāram), and (1) the special door which is easy of ingress and egress. The sāmāyiku vow as a preliminary to the Jain religious practices primarily means virati or abstinence.
The second essential duty is the culogy of the 24 Tīrthankaras and the third is the veneration of the leading disciples of Mahāvira. The importance of these two to a Jain is too apparent to need any comment.
The fourth theme is pratikramaņa which means the prescribed mode of confession and expiation. The word pratikramaņa implies the idea of gradual steps in walking out of the clutches of impurity and proceeding towards purity. The pratikramaņa mode is concerned in point of time with the past. So it is said, 'I step out of the past, I practise selfrestraint with regard to the present, I practise abstinence with regard to the future' (atitam padikkamāmi, paduppannam samvaremi, aņāgayam paccakkhāmi.') Thus the expiation of the past misdeeds is possible by the door or means of selfreproach (nindādvārena). The checking of the present misdeeds is possible by the door or means of self-restraint (sam. varudvārena) and the prevention of future misdeeds is possible by the door or means of abstinence (prutyākhyānadvārena). He who steps out of the clutches of impure and sinful deeds is a person who adheres to right views, and the practice of meditation is the accredited way of egress. Pratikramana is distinguished into two kinds in respect of substance, place, time, and state of existence. According to another classification, it is of five kinds, narnely, stepping out of the door to sin (āsavadārapadikkamaņa), stepping out of rashness (micchättapadikkamaņa), stepping out of four contaminations, (kaşāya padikkamaņa), stepping out of improper thoughts, words and actions (yogapadikkamaņe) and stepping out of

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the states of existence (bhāva padikkamane). According to the third classification pratikramana is of the following kinds: stepping out of the sins committed in respect of attending to calls of nature, coughing, removing mucus of the nose, rashness in respect of expanding and contracting the limbs.
The word pratyākhyānu is defined as giving up or abandoning what is a hindrance to spiritual progress. Like pratikramana the pratyākhyāna mode implies the idea of a gradual process of renunciation. The purpose of the pratikramana mode is to step out of the effect of past misdeeds while that of pratwākhyāna mode is to put a stop to possibility of committing sins. So its concern is with the future in point of time. It means regulation of human conduct so that the person under training can abstain from committing sins and can proceed towards the attainment of mok: (emancipation). The fulfilment of the five major vows along with the minor vows, the practice of purity in respect of food, the fulfilment of the vow of restricting one's movement to a limited arca, etc., all come within the scope of pratyākhyāna mode. The pratyākhyānu mode is to be practised in three ways, namely, by thought, word and deed.
The sixth theme is kāyotsarga which is an ascetic mode of atoning for the excess in sinful indulgences (atico implies the idea of particular bodily postures to be adopted in keeping oneself unmoved on a suitable spot. It is a Jaina mode of the Jhānu (dhyāna) practice. He who practises this mode is required to keep his mind, body and speech under perfect restraint. His mind is to be kept intent on the particular object of meditation. If the pratikramana mode is concerned with the past and the pratyākhyāna with the future, the kūyotsarga mode may be taken to be concerned with the present. Jainism lays stress on the practice of self-mortification as a means of checking one's passion as well as of inducing mental concentration. From sāmāyika to kūyotsarga all the six modes are meant to be carefully studied and methodically practised with a view to clearing the path of progress of the aspirant towards the attainment of emancipation. Our sūtra has cited some interesting and instructive stories by way of illustrating these six modes.
This sūtra contains some interesting historical details. During the war between Candanā's father and king Satānika, she was caught hold of by an army of the enemy and sold in Kausāmbi to a banker named Dhanāvaha who named her Candană in spite of her already bearing the family name of Vasumatī. The banker's wife Mūlā was jealous of her and having cut her hair put her into custody. She afterwards

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became a nun (Avassaya Sutra, pp. 223-25; cf. Kalpasútra, Subodhika-tikā, sutra 118, pp. 106-7). Mrgavati who was married to king Satānīka of Kausāmbi was also known as a princess of Videha (cf. Ibid., p. 223). Śiva was married to Candapradyota of Ujjayini (cf. Ibid., p. 677). King Udayana was married to Vasavadatta (Ibid., p. 674; cf. Triṣastisalākā, parva X, pp. 142-45). Vasuladatta, the daughter of Pradyota of Avanti, became the wife or one of the three wives of king Udena of Kosambi (Ibid., p. 674). Jyestha was married to Nandivardhana, brother of Lord Mahavira and ruler of Kundagrāma (Ibid., p. 677). Sujyestha joined the Order of Mahavira's disciples (Ibid., p. 685). Mahāvīra during his wanderings as a monk visited Kāśī (Ibid., p. 221; cf. Kalpasutra, Subodhika-țikā, p. 106). Ajataśatru of Magadha not only humbled Kosala and permanently annexed Kāśī but also absorbed the state of Vaiśālī (Ibid., p. 684). Magadha and Avanti were brought face to face with each other (Ibid., p. 690; cf. Parisistaparvan, canto 6, v. 191). Udayin was a devout Jain. Nanda, the son of a courtesan by a barber, was a king of Magadha. He ascended the throne 60 years after the nirvana of Mahavīra (Ibid., p. 690). The Nanda dynasty had a line of Jain ministers beginning with Kalpaka who was made to accept the ministership (Ibid., pp. 691-92). With the help of this minister, Nanda uprooted all the reigning Ksatriya dynastics (Ibid., p. 693). The minister of the ninth Nanda was Sakaṭāla who had two sons. After the death of Sakaṭāla, Nanda offered the ministership to his elder son Sthulabhadra, but he refused this office. According to the Jain tradition Candragupta was the son of a daughter of the chief of the village of rearers of the king's peacocks (mayūrapoṣaka) (cf. Ibid., pp. 433-34). After the defeat of king Nanda, his treasures were divided by Candragupta and Parvata between themselves (Ibid., p. 435). Canakya was a native of Canaka, a village of Golla district. (Ibid., p. 433). Bindusara, the son and successor of Candragupta, was also guided by his father's minister Caṇakya. (Ibid., p. 184).
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CHAPTER XXIV
DASAVAIKĀLIKA SUTRA (DASAVEYALIYA SUYA)
The Dasaveyaliya Suya1 (Daśavaikālika Sutra) is one of the four mulasūtras of the Svetambara agama. Sejjambhava is said to have been the author of this book which contains in a nutshell tenets of Jainism. This text was originally compiled in order to give his son Manaka the chance of grasping the essence of Jainism within a short period of six months at the end of which he was to die.2 Sejjambhava (Sreyambhava) was the pupil of Prabhava who was the pupil of Jambu. Jambu was the pupil of Sudharman who was Mahavira's immediate disciple. The year 98 after the death of Mahavira may be counted as the date when the Dasaveyāliyasuya was written. The gist of the agama teaching which it gives was thoroughly mastered by Sejjambhava together with the traditional expositions and interpretations. This sutra enunciates the noblest principles of the Jaina faith which emphasizes with equal force right knowledge and right conduct as its constituents. Some of the sayings regarding the monastic life contained in this sutta remind us of the sayings in the Buddhist Dhammapada and the Mokṣudharma section of the Santiparva of the Mahabhārata. This text is divided into ten ajjhayanas. The Chapters I-III, V-VIII and X are written entirely in verse. The topics discussed are the following: Flowers, monkhood, conduct, six groups of living beings, search for food, exposition of dharma, purity of speech, restriction to conduct, devotion to discipline and saintship.
In the first chapter we find that religion which is the highest bliss is made up of non-injury, self-restraint and penance. In the second chapter a person can be said to have renounced the world who casts away enjoyments and renounces pleasures which are entirely his own. A monk
1 Vide K. V. Abhyankar, Dasaveyāliya Sutta with the Niryukti, 1932; Prof. A. M. Ghatage, Parallel passages in the Dašavaikälika and the Acārānga (New Indian Antiquary, Vol. I, No. 2, May, 1938); Dasaveyāliya Sutta edited by E. Leumann and translated with introduction and notes by W. Schubring, Ahmedabad, 1932.
2 Sejjambhava was enlightened by the apparition of a picture of the Jina and left his house when his wife was pregnant. She gave birth to a son named Manaka. When the boy was 8 years old, he enquired about his father, and when he came to know that he became an ascetic, he went forth to seek him and became his pupil. As the father knew that his son had only six months more to live, he taught him the Dasaveyāliya within that period. (Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, II, pp. 470-471).
3 Weber, Indische Studien, 17, 77.

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should control his passion regarding a woman. He should mortify himself, abandon all idea of delicacy, overcome desires, remove the feeling of hatred and control passion, In the third chapter the following are the improper things to be avoided by the sages who are free from the ties of the world and who have made themselves firm in self-restraint:
(1) a thing done purposely for the monk; (2) a thing purchased for the monk; (3) a thing brought for the monk from a distant place; (4) dinner at night; (5) scents, flowers, fan, shampooing; (6) playing at counters; (7) playing at dice; (8) bearing the umbrella when not required; (9) wearing shoes; (10) kindling fire; (11) cleaning the limbs; (12) service of householders; (13) remembrance of past pleasures when ill; (14) ginger, sugarcane which is not ripe, sea salt,
purgative, collyrium, painting the teeth, de
coration of the body, etc. All these things should be shunned by the sages. The monks who are free from worldly ties, are acquainted with the five ways of the influx of karma, who are well-restrained in the six classes of living beings, who have controlled the five senses and who are courageous. The self-restrained monks, who are full of contentment, are uncovered in cold seasons, heat themselves in hot seasons, etc.
In the fourth chapter we find the question of nonviolence which requires a thorough examination of the presence of life in the various things of the world. Life exists wherever there is growth and movement. A monk ought to see that no violence of any kind is done to any living thing, however small or great. The six great vows are enunciated in this chapter. The following are the topics discussed here: (1) On the knowledge of life and non-life depends
the chain of successive higher steps of spiritual progress made up of the knowledge of the
various resulting future conditions; (2) The knowledge of freedom and bondage; (3) Disgust with worldly life; (4) Abandonment of enjoyment; (5) Homelessness; (6) Self-restraint;

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(7) Removal of the karma dirt; (8) Right knowledge and faith; (9) Knowledge of the world and emptiness; (10) Motionless condition of the body; (11) Annihilation of karma; and (12) The perfected condition.
In the fifth chapter we find that a monk, moving about for alms in a village or a town, should go about slowly without any mental agitation with his mind perfectly undisturbed. He should walk about avoiding living beings, water, earth, pits and uneven surfaces. He should not move in the vicinity of the houses of prostitutes. He should avoid a dog and a recently delivered cow on the road. Moving for alms in all families without any distinction, he should not walk fast nor engage himself in talking or laughing. He should not closely look at windows. He should avoid from a distance the private houses of kings, householders and policemen. While moving for alms he should not check attending to calls of nature. He should avoid a room where there are scattered flowers or seeds. He should stand within the permissible area, looking at the ground. He should avoid the sight of bathrooms or privies. He should not desire to accept food although offered with unsoiled hand or spoon or pot. He should avoid bulbs, roots or palm fruits. He should reject costly food or drink or water in brown sugar pots, or water of flour or rice. He should invite with permission from his preceptor other monks with a cheerful mind in the prescribed order, and if some of them so desire, he should eat his food with them. He should move about at a proper time and return at a proper time. Moving about for alms he should not anywhere sit or begin to relate any religious story. A self-restrained monk moving about for alms should not stand reclining upon the fastening bar or against the panels of the door. He should not desire even in mind to have the wood-apple or the citron fruit. Undejected he should seek alms.
A wise monk should never be depressed. A selfrestrained monk should not be angry, if a householder does not offer bed, seat, garment, etc. A monk should not beg of a woman or of a man, or of a young person or of an old person who had saluted him. A monk who hankers after name and fame incurs much sin. A wise monk avoids rich oils and ghee, and desists from taking intoxicating liquors.
In the sixth chapter falsehood is always condemned by the monks in this world. A monk should avoid lies

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completely. He should not indulge in sexual intercourse. A restrained monk does not accept anything, not even a toothbrush without begging it of householders. Restrained monks possess a garment, a pot or a blanket or a duster without any attachment. A self-restrained monk never injures in any of the three ways, viz., by self, by others or by consent given to others. A monk should observe self-restraint avoiding the four things declared unfit for use, viz., food, residence, garment and the pot. Monks leading a religious life and free from worldly ties with their mind fixed on selfrestraint, should avoid food and drink meant for them as also the things purchased for them from a distance. A monk should not take food and drink in bronze (ups or earthen jugs. Noble monks should not sleep on chairs, (ots, stools and arm-chairs. If a monk moving for alms prefers to sit in the householder's place, he is thereby susceptible to an improper behaviour. A monk if he is very old or ill or wishes to practise penances, should sit in a householder's house. He should not use sandal ointment for anointing the body. Monks purify their soul and remove sins with a vision free from delusion, devoted to penances, full of self-restraint and straight-forwardness.
In the seventh chapter, a monk should not speak what is not true, what is partly true and partly false, what is false, and what is not practised by the enlightened monks. He should not utter a speech which is neither true nor false. He should avoid harsh or harmful speech. He should not speak with definiteness about a thing he does not know. He should not address a woman as a fool. He should not talk about cows fit to be milched. A wise monk should not address a householder in any of the following ways: 'sit down, come, go, etc.' One who is endowed with right knowledge and conduct and who is devoted to self-restraint and penance is called a monk. A wise monk should always speak what is conducive to good.
In the eighth chapter a monk should not sit on a scat full of dust. He should not take cold water, ice or hailstone. A self-restrained monk should take hot water which is made lifeless by fully boiling it. He should neither kindle nor stir nor extinguish burning fire. He should not place his foot on seeds, fungus or moss. He should not cut grass. He should note down eight subtle things, water-life, flourlife, subtle germs, subtle insects, subtle moss-life, subtle seed-life, subtle plant-life and subtle egg-life. A self-restrained monk, vigilant and well-composed in all his senses, should exert himself with all his mental powers. He should always

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clean the begging bowl, the blanket, the place of residence, the spot for attending calls of nature, his bed sheets and his seat.
In the ninth chapter, he should not despise others, nor should he be puffed up. Anger puts an end to love, conceit destroys humility, deceit destroys friendship, while avarice destroys everything. One should destroy anger by calmness, conquer conceit by softness, deceit hy straightforwardness and avarice by contentment. A monk should behave modestly before other mouks of superior religious merit. He should not show fondness for sleep. He should not find delight in secret talks. He should always devote his activities to the practice of monkhood. He should ask his learned preceptor the true meaning in case of doubt. He should sit near him by keeping in a proper position his hands, feet and body with senses well controlled. He should not sit placing his leg upon his thigh. A self-controlled monk should speak in a language which is perfect, distinct and unambiguous. He should not laugh at a sage who is possessed of the practice and knowledge of monkhood. A monk should not talk to a householder about astrology, dream significance, etc. A monk should not narrate any story to women in a solitary place, nor should he gaze at a woman who is well adorned. To a monk seeking the benefit of his soul, decoration, contact with women, rich food are like a deadly poison. He should not feel attachment for lovely things. He should not ponder over bodily stature or the sweet talk and glance of women. Sin committed in previous births disappears in a monk who is devoted to religious study and good meditation, who is engaged in penance and who is not sinful. He should not show disrespect to his preceptor out of his family pride or anger or deception. The displeasure of the learned preceptor leads to the mental delusion of the pupil with no hope of release. Sense of shame, compassion, self-restraint and celibacy are the causes that lead to the purification of the soul. The preceptors are the great oceans of learuing purs
suing liberation, possessed of equanimity of mind, character, and intellect. Obedience is the root of the tree of religion and liberation is the highest result. It is by obedience that one gets quickly fame and learning. An ignorant man who is proud, deceitful and bad-tongued, is driven down the current of worldly life like a log of wood in a stream. A monk should have lower beds than those of his preceptor. He should adore his feet with humility. Touching the preceptor's body or garments, he should say 'forgive me for my fault, I will not commit it again'. A wise man should

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hear his preceptor getting up from his seat. A monk should not blame anybody in his absence. He should not use harsh language in the presence of another. A monk who neither blames nor disdains a young or old person, monk or householder, and abandons self-conceit and anger, is really a worthy one. A wise monk on hearing the excellent precepts of the worthy preceptors should move about devoted to the five vows, guarded in the three protections, and free from four passions, viz., anger, pride, deceit and avarice.
In the tenth or the concluding chapter the four items of spiritual ecstacy are the following: modesty as understood by the old monks-spiritual ecstacy from modesty, spiritual ecstacy from the study of scriptures, spiritual ecstacy from penances and spiritual ecstacy from conduct. Under spiritual ecstacy from modesty are found listening attentively to instructions, understanding the instructions thoroughly, conforming to spiritual learning and freedom from self-conceit. A monk should not practise penances for securing an interest in this world. He should do it for the destruction of his karmu. He should also observe the rules of conduct prescribed for the monks for stopping the influx of karma. He should remain in this world without property, gold and silver and must have right faith. A real monk is one who takes up a motionless position on the cremation ground, who is not afraid of any dreadful sight, who is absolutely regardless of the body, being devoted to the practice of penances. He is a real monk who knows birth and death to be real dangers and who exercises control over hands, feet, tongue and senses and knows the true meaning of the Holy Scriptures. He remains without greed, who does not care for his life, and remains steady and undeceitful. A characterless monk should not be respected. A real monk is not proud of caste, nor of form, nor of gain, nor of learning and who devotes himself to religious meditation.
A householder's life is attended with many troubles and sins. People certainly despise the fallen monk who is devoid of spiritual glory. A monk after having enjoyed much with a licentious mind and led a life which has no self-control, goes after death to a condition which cannot be described. A monk should try to avoid crowded places and places where he is likely to be insulted. He should try to have food or drink that is brought from a near place which is visible. He should not do service to householders. He should always think of himself in the first and last watches of the night. Self is always to be protected with all the senses kept well within bounds.

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CHAPTER XXV TATTVĀRTHĀDIGAMA SUTRA According to Umāsvāti's Tattvārthādigama sūtra, right belief (samyak darśana), right knowledge (samyak jñāna), and right conduct (samyak cāritra) constitute the path to liberation. These are called three gems in Jainism. Each of them can be considered in its threefold aspect, e.g., the subject, the object and the means. In right belief there is the believer, that which is believed and the means of believing. In right knowledge there is the knower, the known and the means of knowing. In right conduct there is the pursuer of conduct, conduct itself and the means of conducting. The right belief is the basis upon which the other two rest. It is an essential preliminary to right knowledge. It is the cause and right knowledge is the effect. Right conduct is caused by right knowledge and implies both right knowledge and right belief.
The five kinds of knowledge are:-Knowledge through the instrumentality of sense, knowledge derived from the study of scriptures, direct knowledge of matter within the limits of time and space, direct knowledge of others' thoughts, and perfect knowledge.
The five kinds of conducta are:-Equanimity, recovery of equanimity after a downfall, pure and absolute non-injury, all but entire freedom from passion, and ideal and passionless state.
cand right knowlery to right knowher two rest. It
of the true nature and is read ovenchology. coses and
1 Uınāsvāti's Tattvürthādigama sutra or 'the Manual for the understanding of the true nature of things' is held in high respect both by the Svetāmbaras and Digambaras und is read even now by the Jains in private houses and ternples. It douls with logic, psychology, cosmography, ontology and ethics of the Jains. It expounds a doctrine of categories and a theory of pramūnas (means of proof).
The author of this sūtra is known to the Digambaras as Umāsvāmin and tho Svetāmbaras namo him as Umāsvāti better known as Vācaka Sramana or Nagura Vācaka. According to some he lived from about 135 to 219 A.D. He must be earlier than Siddhasena Divākara who wrote a commentary on this text. It is a non-canonical sutra according to the Svetainbaras but the Digambaras rogard it as a later canonical work.
This text has been edited with the commentary by Keshavlal Premchand Mody in Bibliotheca Indica Series, 1903-1905. There is a Hindi commentary published in 1906. J. L. Jaini's edition of the text with introduction, translation, notos and commentary in English, published at Arrah in 1920, in the Sacred Books of the Jains, Vol. II, is worthy of notice. There is a German translation by H. Jacobi published in Z.D.M.G., Band LX, 1906. Motilal Ladhaji's edition of this toxt by Umāsvätivācaka (Poona, 1927) deserves mention.
2 Cf. Sūtrakstānga, I, 1.4.10-13.

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Right belief, right knowledge, right conduct, and right austerities are called the ārādhanās.
The right belief is the belief or conviction in things ascertained as they are.1 Samyakduršana is of two kinds: (1) belief with attachment, the four signs of which are the following: calmness (prusamu), fear of mundane existence in five cycles of wanderings (samvega), substance (dravyn), place (kşetra), time (kāla), thought activity (bhāva), and compassion towards all living beings (anukampā), and (2) belief without attachment (the purity of the soul itself).
The right belief is attained by intuition, acquisition of knowledge from external sources. It is the result of subsidence (upaśama), destruction-subsidence (kşayopuśama) and destruction of right belief deluding karmas (durśana-mohuniyakarma).
Right belief is not identical with faith. It is reasoned knowledge. Adhigama is kuowledge which is derived from intuition, external sources, (.g., precepts and scriptures. It is attained by means of pramāņa and naya. Pramāņu is nothing but direct or indirect evidence for testing the knowledge of self and the non-self. Nayu is nothing but a standpoint which gives partial knowledge of a thing in some of its aspects.
Right knowledge is of five kinds: (1) knowledge through senses-knowledge of the self and the non-self through the agency of the senses and mind; (2) knowledge derived from the study of the scriptures; (3) direct knowledge of matter in various degrees with reference to subject-matter, space, time and quality of the object known; (4) direct knowledgo of others' thoughts, simple or complex; and (5) perfoct knowledge.
Guņa-pratyaya is that which is acquired by merit as distinguished from clairvoyance. It is of six kinds: (1) accompanying clairvoyance, that which goes with one to another place; (2) non-accompanying clairvoyance; (3) increasing; (4) decreasing ; (5) firm; and (6) changeable. Clairvoyance is of three kinds: partial, high and full. Partial clairvoyance is fallible, the remaining two are infallible. Thought-reading is of two kinds: (1) simple direct knowledge, (2) complex direct knowledge. Between clairvoyance and thought-reading the differences relate to their purity, place, person of inherence and subject-matter. Thoughtreading is purer than clairvoyance. Clairvoyance can extend to the whole world, whereas thought-reading is limited to
Cf. Uttarādhyayana sūtra, XXVIII, 28, 29.

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the world of men. Clairvoyance can be acquired by all beings possessed of mind, and thought-reading can be acquired by saints through supernatural powers. The object of clairvoyance is gross, that of thought-reading, subtle.
Full clairvoyance knows one atom and simple thoughtreading knows an infinitesimal part of an atom. Doubt is possible in knowledge derived through the senses but it is not possible in clairvoyance. There may be an error in clairvoyance. Wrong knowledge is due to the confusion of cause and effect.
Six druvyas or substances are soul (jīvu), matter (pudgulu), motion (dharma), rest (udhurma), space (ūkāsı), and time (kāla).
The nine padārthus or nine principal terms of the doctrine are the following:-Life (java), non-living (ajīvu), merit (punya)" and demerit (pāpu), influx (ūsravu), bondage (bandha), stoppage of influx (sumvuru), relinquishment (nir. jarā) and liberation (moksa).
The six kinds of embodied souls are:--Earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, air-bodied, vegetable-bodied (vanaspati kāyikrı), and mobile (tra.sakāyika).
The six colour affections (leśyā) 2 are:-Black (krsnu), blue (nila), grey (kāpotu), yellow (padma), pink (leja), and white (śukla).
ing food hörsty); avestr Luyanu-Pu
1 Punya and Pūpa. The actions which lead to the good karma which brings peace of inind are called punya. It is of many kinds: mnnu punya (mcrit acquired by giving food to the deserving people); pūnapunya (merit acquired by giving wator to the thirsty); vastrapunyu (merit acquired by giving clothes to the poor, especially to the monks); layana-punya (nierit acquired by building or lending a house to a monk); snyanapunya (merit acquired by providing seats and beds); manapunya (merit acquired by thinking well of every one); kāyapunya (merit acquired by saving a life or rendering service); vicanupunya (merit acquired by speaking without hurting anybody's feelings); and namaskārapunya (inerit acquired by reverent salutations).
There are various kinds of pāpa or sin: jiva-himsā (to take any life) is the most heinous of all crimes according to the Jains. Sins are also acquired by speaking falsehood (asatya or mrşāvāda), dishonesty, unchastity, covetousness, anger, conceit, attachment and avarice.
2 Cf. Sūtrakstanga, I. 10.15; Uttarādhyayana, XXXIV.
Kroņa leśyā is the worst of the three bad omotions colouring soul. Nilut lesyā, this omotion is less ovil than the last. Kapota (grey) leéyū may lead men to do evil. A man under its command becomes crooked in thought and deed.
Teja lcáyā removes all evil thoughts froin the jīva under its sway.
Padma lesyā is a good emotion; through its power a man controls anger, pride, deceit and avarico.
Sukla lesyā—when a man is under its influence, love and hatred disappoar.
Thore are three bad omotions and threo good emotions--black, blue and grey are the three bad emotions; yellow, pink and white are the three good emotions.

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The five categories relating to the reality of substance are:-Jīva, Pudgula, Dharma, Adharma and Ākāśa. The vows are the following: non-injury, truth, non-stealing, chastity, and non-attachment to worldly objects.
The six kinds of carefulness are:-Carefulness relating to walking, speech, cating, lifting, laying down, and excretion.
The four states of existence are:-Existence as inmates of hell, sub-human beings, celestial beings, and liberated beings.
The characteristic of soul is cetanā (consciousness). It is of three kinds: (1) Jñānacetanā or consciousness of pure knowledge in its full extent, (2) Karmacetanā or consciousness of experience of action, and (3) K'armaphalacetunā or experience of fruition of karmas. Ajīva or non-soul is that which is devoid of all these three kinds of consciousness.
By name (nūma), representation (sthāpanā), privation (draryu) and present condition (bhava), their aspects are known. Soul and non-soul can be considered in two aspects (niksepa): (1) negative aspect (nāmu-niksepa), and (2) positive aspect (bhāvaniksepa).
Jiva can be known in the following ways:-(1) Jīva exists (sat), (2) multiplicity of souls (sankhyā), (3) soul is found in the whole universe (ksetra), (4) soul touches the whole universe (sparsuna), (5) eternity of soul (kāla), etc.
Indriya is so called because Indra means the soul and the sense-organs are appurtenances of soul.
The soul's thought-activity is of five kinds:-(1) subsidential, i.e., that which rises from the subsidence of a karma of the deluding kind; (2) purified, i.e. that which rises from the destruction of karma, c.g. ghātiya; (3) mixed; (4)
rative i.e.. that which rises from the operation, i.e., fruition of karma; and (5) natural. Ghātiya or destructive karmas attack and affect the very nature of soul. Aghātiya karma is that which does not affect the nature of soul. Ghātiya karmas are four in number, viz. (1) knowledge-obscuring (jñānāvaranīya), (2) belief obscuring (darśanāvaranīya), (3) deluding (mohaniya), which intoxicates soul, and (4) constructive karmas.
Knowledge (antarāya),1 belief, charity, gain, enjoyment, re-enjoyment, power, faith and conduct are the nine kinds of energies (vīrya).
Passions (kaşāyas)2 are four in number: anger, pride, deceit and greed.
i Vide Jacobi's note in Taltvārthūdigama sutra, Jacobi's Ed., p. 536. 2 Passions or kaşāyas are the things which tie one down to this world.

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Sexes are of three kinds : feminine, masculine and neuter. Pure jīvulva is limited to the siddhas (perfected ones).
There are various cycles; space cycle, matter cycle, time cycle, incarnation cycle, human cycle, sub-hunan cycle, thought cycle, etc.
Mundane souls are of two kinds: rational (those who have mind), and irrational (those who have no mind).
The senses are of two kinds: external senses and internal senses. The external senses have a two-fold formation: (1) the organ itself, and (2) its protecting environment. Internal organ means the soul itself which is co-extensive with and of the same form as the organ in which it incarnates. External organ means the material organ which is permeated by the internal organ or the soul.
Internal environment is the matter immediately surrounding the organ. External environment is the matter which is not so immediately situated with reference to the organ.
Sense faculties are of two kinds:-(1) Labdhi: It is the attainment of the manifestation of the sense faculty by the partial destruction; and (2) Upayogu: The conscious attention of the soul directed to that sense.
Touch is of eight kinds, e.g. cold, rough, smooth, etc. Taste is of five kinds, e.g. pungent, bitter, sweet, etc. Smell is of two kinds, e.g. sweet smell and bad smell. Colour is of five kinds.
In the passage of the soul from one embodiment to another there is only karmic body vibration (karmuryogi).
The bodies are of five kinds: (1) audārika (gross), (2) vaikriyaka (fluid), (3) ūhāraka (assimilative), (4) taijasa (caloric), and (5) kārmana (karmic).
The non-soul extensive substances are dharma, adharma, ākāśa, pudgalal and kāya. Kāya means extensive, having extent like the body.
!:P. 26; B.
problem
percipiont o
1 Puggala, Attu, Sattu and Jiva are the four terms which occur in Buddhism in connection with all discussions relating to individual, individuality, personality, self and soul (Kathiivallhu, I, p. 26; B.C. Law, Thc Debates Commentary, P.T.S., pp. 10ff.). The problem of individuality is bound up with the problem of the ego, percipient or internal knower (vedagū). As a biological term Puggala is nowhere used to deny the existence of an individual being or a living person. The particular individual or individuals are beings that exist in fact, grow in time, and ultimately die. According to the Milinda-pañha individuals are sig. nifiod by some namey arbitrarily fixed. The personal name is only a conven - tional device to denoto an individual and to distinguish him from other indivi. duals. It has no connotation beyond this symbolism. The name is insufficient as a means of forming a complete idea of the individual concerned.
Puggala means an individual or a person as opposed to a group or multitude or class. In later Abhidhamma literature it is equal to character or soul.
II

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS The special attributes of jiru-soul are the following: Knowledge (ināņı), belief (darśana), bliss (sukha), energy (virya), right belief (samyuk darśana), right conduct (sa:myak căritra), etc. The special attributes of pudgula are the following:-touch, taste, smell, colour, dharmai, adharma, rīkāśa (space), and küla (time). Sumyaktra-kriyā. (right directed) is that which strengthens right belief; mithyārtvakriya (wrong directed) is that which strengthens wrong belief; prayoga-kriyū is bodily movement: samüdāna-kriyā is the tendency to neglect vows; iryāpatha-kriyā (actions relating to behaviour) is walking carefully by looking at the ground; tendency to accuse others in angel; a wicked man's
diness to hurt others; weapons of hurtfulness, the thing which may cause mental pain to oneself or others; depriving another of vitalities of age, sense-organs, powers and respiration; infatuated desire to see a pleasing form; frivolous indulgence in touching; inventing jew sense-enjoyments; answering (alls of nature in a place frequented by men, women and animals; indifference in dropping things or throwing oneself down upon the carth; undertaking to do by one's own hand what should be cone by others; admiration of hurtful or unrighteous thing, proclaiming sins of others; inisinterpreting the scriptural injunctions which we do not want to follow; disrespect to scriptural injunctions out of vice or laziness; expressing delight in other's misdeeds; trying to persevere in one's attachment to worldly belongings; deceitful disturbance of someone's right knowledge and faith; praising actions due to wrong belief; not renouncing what ought to be renounced.
Karmie matter is due to the following pain-bringing feelings: (1) pain; (2) sorrow; (3) repentance; (4) weeping;
According to the Buddhists an individual has no real existence. The term Puggalı does not mean anything real. It is only apparent truth (scnumuti8(cc) As opposed to real truth (paramarthusacca). Pusgnlnvādin's view is that the person is known in the sense of real and ultimato fuct, but he is not known in the same way as other real and ultimate facts are known. Ho or she is known in the sense of a real and ultirnate fact and his or her material quality is also known in the souse of a real and ultimate fact. But it cannot truly be said that the material quality is one thing and the person another, nor can it be truly prodicted that the person is related or absoluto, conditioned or unconditioned, eternal or temporal, or whether the person has external features or whether he is without any. One who has material quality in the sphere of inattor is a person, but it cannot be said that one who experiences desires of sense in the sphere of sense-chesire is a person. The genesis of the person is apparent, his passing away and duration are also distinctively apparent, but it cannot be said that the person is conditioned (cf. Kathavatthu on Puggala). For a further discussion, seo Law, Concepts of Buddhism, Chap. VII; Law, A History of Pali Irtcrature, Vol. I, pp. 328-329; Law, Designation of Human Types (P.T.S.), Introduction.

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(5) depriving of vitality; and (6) piteous moaning to attract compassion.
For the vow against unchastity the following should be observed: (1) not reading or hearing stories exciting attachment to womed; (2) not seeing their beautiful bodies; (3) not remembering the past enjoyment of women; (4) not taking exciting drinks; (5) not beautifying one's own body; (6) meditation on maitrī (benevolence for all living beings); (7) delight at the sight of beings; (8) compassion; and (9) indifference.
Householder's life has eleven stages:---
(1) A true Jaina must have perfect and intelligent belief in Jainism. He must have it good kuowlerlge of its doctrines and their applications. Ile must give up meat, wine and honey. He must have a belief free from defects. He must observe five vows.
(2) He must not destroy life, must not tell a lie; must, not make upermitted use of another man's property; must be chaste; must make a perpetual and daily vow to go in certain directions; must avoid useless talk; must limit the articles of his diet and enjoyment for the day; must worship at fixed times, morning, noon and evening; must give charity for the sake of knowledge, etc., every day; must try not to transgress the last seven vows.
(3) He must meditate faultlessly, regularly and for fixed hours, not less than 48 minutes every time.
(4) He must fast faultlessly on the 8th and 14th day of every lunar fortnight.
(5) He must not take animate vegetable and water. (6) He must not take or give food or drink at night.
(7) He must give up sexual intercourse even with his wife.
(8) He must give up his means of livelihood, cooking, etc.
(9) He must give up his desire for the worldly objects, and be contented with abandoning all his properties except a few clothes and utensils.
(10) He must not advise on any worldly activity.
(11) He will beg his food and refuse what is especially prepared for him.
A householder must have seven supplementary vows: (1) taking a lifelong vow to limit directions; (2) taking a vow to limit a period of time; (3) taking a vow not to commit purposeless sin; (4) taking a vow to devote so much time every day for spiritual advancement; (5) taking a vow to fast on four days of the month; (6) taking a vow every day

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limiting one's enjoyment of consumable and non-consumable things; and (7) taking a vow to take one's food after feeding the ascetics with it portion of it.
There are five defects or partial transgressions (aticārā) in a man of right belief: (1) doubt, (2) desire of sensual pleasures, (3) disgust, (4) thinking highly of wrong believers, and (5) praising them.
The partial transgressions of the first row (ahimsāanuvrata) are the following:-(1) angrily or carelessly tying up an animal or human being; (2) angrily or carelessly beating an animal or human being; (3) angrily or carelessly mutilating an animal or human being; (4) angrily or (arrlessly overloading an animal or human being; (5) angrily or carelessly withholding food or drink from an animal or human being. Partial transgressions of the second vow are the following: (1) preaching false doctrines; (2) divulging the secret actions of a man or woman; (3) forgery and perjury (kutulekhakriyā); (4) unconscientious dealing by means of speech (nyāsāpahāra); (5) divulging what one guesses by seeing the behaviour of others.
Partial transgressions of the third vow are the following: abetment of theft, receiving stolen property, illegal traffic, false weight, and adulteration.
Partial transgressions of the fourth vow are the following: (1) bringing about the marriage of people who are not one's own family; (2) intercourse with a married immoral woman; (3) intercourse with an unmarried immoral woman; (4) umnatural sexual intercourse; (5) intense sexual desire. The partial transgressions of the first guņavratu are the following:
(1) negligence to go higher than one's own limit in the VOW;
(2) negligence to go lower than one's own limit in the vow;
(3) negligence to go in the eight directions beyond one's own limit;
(4) negligence to increase in one direction and decrease in another the boundaries;
(5) forgetting the limit in the vow.
The partial transgressions of the second gunavrata are the following:
(1) sending for something beyond the limit; (2) sending someone out beyond the limit; (3) sending one's voice out beyond the limit; (4) making signs for persons beyond the limit; (5) throwing some material beyond the limit.

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The partial transgressions of the third guņavrata are the following:
(1) indulging in fun at another; (2) mischievous practical joking; (3) garrulity; (4) overdoing a thing;
(5) keeping too many consumable and non-consumable objects.
The partial transgressions of the first siksārratai are the following:
(1) misdirection of mind; (2) inisdirection of body; (3) misdirection of speech; (4) lack of interest;
(5) forgetting due formalities.
The partial transgressions of the third śikṣāvrata are the following:
(1) taking living things. (2) taking anything connected with a living thing; (3) taking a mixture of living and non-living things; (4) taking exciting food.
(5) taking badly cooked food.
The partial transgressions of the fourth siksūvrata are the following:
(1) placing the food on a living thing; (2) covering it with a living thing; (3) delegation of host's duties to another person; (4) lack of respect in giving;
(5) not giving at the proper time.
The partial transgressions of peaceful death are the following:
(1) desire to prolong one's life; (2) desire to die soon; (3) attachment to friends; (4) repeated remembrance of past enjoyments;
(5) desire of enjoyments in the next world. The fruition of charity is different according to the difference in manner, thing given, person who gives and the person
1 Sikştīvrata.s-They are all intended to encourage the laity in the performance of their religious duties.
The partial transgressions of the second sikşivrutu, which are unimportant, are not mentioned in this book.

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to whom it is given. The manner of giving is of nine kinds: (1) respectful reception of an ascetic; (2) seating him on an cxalted seat; (3) washing his feet; (4) worshipping him; (5) saluting him; (6-8) purity in speech, body and mind; (9 faultless way of giving food. The giver must possess seven qualities: (1) he must not wish any gain in this worked in its exchange; (2) he must give calmly without anger; (3) he must be happy at giving; (4) without deceit; (5) without any; (6) without repentance; and (7) without pride.
The person to whom the thing is given must be one of the three kinds: (1) ascetics. (2) laymen with vows, (3) laymen with right belief but not with vows.
Karunādāna is the gift of compassion to any one who is in need of it. It is of four kinds: (1) food, (2) medicine, (3) knowledge, and (4) removal of the canse of fear.
The (auses of bondage (bandha) are the following:-(1) wrong belief; (2) perverse belief; (3) clouht, scepticism; (4) veneration; (5) wrong belief caused by ignorance; and (6) inborn error.
Vibrations in the soul through mind, body and speech, are the following: true mind, false mind, mixed true and false mind, neither true por false mind.
The soul which has passion assimilates matter which is fit to form karmia. This is called bondage. It is of four kinds according to the nature of karmic matter, duration of the attachment of karmic matter to the soul, fruition, number of karmic molecules which attach to the soul.
The relinquishment of karmic matter is caused by austerities (tapasa nirjarī cu). Prevention is proper control over mind, speech and body. This is called Guptii Samitis? are the following:-proper care in walking, speaking, cating, lifting, laying and excreting.
The ten virtues are the following:—forgiveness (uttamakşama), humility (uttama mārdava), honesty (ullama ārjava), contentment (uttama sauca),3 truthfulness (uttama ---- - - --- - - ------- -- ---------- --- -
-- - - 1 Cf. Uttariidhyayama, XXX. Samitis--The fivo samitis are the ways of arresting the inflow of karma with reference to outward behaviour. In order to arrest the inflow of kurma, one must guard the words of one's mouth. Cir. cumspection must be fyrreised about all matters connected with eating. An ascetic must be careful to possess only five cloths. Equally important with the tive rules of outward behaviour 16. the rules for controlling the mind, speech and body (guplis: mamogupti, viccmagnepli and kūyagupti).
? Uttama ürja -arjaw has been understood by some as that simplicity which is opposed to cunningness
3 Urtamı sauca-Stevensou points out that there is a manifold duty of purity and cleanliness binding on all monks, for an ascetic inust keep himself freo froin all suspicion of dishonesty or thieving; he must also keep his body pure and his soul free from all dark thoughts (Heart of Jainism, p. 154).

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satya), restraint (uttuma samyama), austerities (uttama tupa), renunciation (uttama, tyāga), selflessness (uttama ākiñcanya), and chaste life (uttama bruhmacaryā).
Twelve meditations are the following:-transitory, helplessness, mundaneness, loneliness, separateness, impurity, inflow, stoppage, relinquishment, universe, rarity of right path, and nature of right path.
Twenty-two sufferings are the following: hunger, thirst, cold, heat, nakedness, insect-bites, dissatisfaction, women, walking too much, sitting, sleeping, abuse', beating, begging, discase, failure to get alms, contact with thorny shrubs, discomfort from dust, respect or (lisrespect, lack of knowledge, conceit of knowledge, and failure to attain supernatural power.
External austerities are the following:-(1) fasting; (2) eating less; (3) taking a mental vow to accept food from a householder, if it certain condition is fulfilled; (4) daily renunciation of one or more of the six kinds of delicacies, e.g. butter, milk, (urd, sugar, salt, etc.; (5) sitting and sleeping in a lonely place; and (6) mortification of the body.
Internal austerities are the following:-expiation, reverence, service to the saints or worthy people, study, (oncentration, abandonment of attachment to the body.
The nine kinds of expiation are the following: (1) full and voluntary confession to the head of the Order; (2) repentance for faults; (3) doing good; (4) giving up a much beloved object; (5) giving up attachment to the body; (6) penance of a particular kind; (7) degradation; (8) rustication for some time; and (9) fresh readmission.
Reverence is of four kinds: for right knowledge, right belief, right conduct iud for the observance of the proper form of respect (upacūravinaya).
Concentration is of four kinds:-painful, righteous, unrighteous and pure.
The distinctions between the possessionless saints should be considered with reference to conduct, scriptural knowledge, signs, colour affections, contemporaries or successors of the Tirthunkaras, etc.
The liberated soul should be considered with reference to space, time, state of existence, sex, tirtha (Tirthari kara, teacher), conduct, knowledge, stature, interval, number, quantity, etc.
The liberated state has no signs to characterize it. Liberation takes place only in one time (kūla).
(f. Uttarithyayuna, XXVIII. 34.

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From the critical summary of the contents of this Sūtra it will be seen that the tenets of primitive Jainism as expounded in the āgama texts, were systematized for the first time by Umāsvāti. The outlines of Jainism as a religion and philosophy go to show that the doctrines are yet somewhat crude and the concepts are still vague and indefinite. The Jaina notion of karma is undoubtedly of a physical nature. How is it possible for the karmic matter to flow into an individual life to produce a colour effect on soul? How far is such a theory tenable scientifically and metaphysically? These questions are sure to exercise the brains of modern students. In conceiving the soul as a conscious principle co-extensive with the whole of the living organism, the Jaina thinkers made a departure no doubt from the Sāmkhya idea of Puruşa and the Upanişadic idea of Ātman. So far as they stood for the innumerability of souls, their position is identical with that of the Sāmkliva teachers. It is rather unexpected that the Jaina meditations partake more of the nature of superficial mental reflections adapted to the practice of certain austerities than of the meditations according to the time-honoured yoga practice. It may be truc, as claimed by some, that Mahāvīra could have trances in any posture and at ease. In other words, he was a great layayogin but even Umāsvāti's treatise does not throw any clear light on the early Jaina method of yoga.

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APPENDIX I VIVIDHATĪRTHA-KALIA
The l'iridhatīrtha-kala. of Jinaprabhasūri is a Jaina book, edited by Jina-vijaya Sūri and published at the expense of Bahadur Singh Singhi. It contains accounts of places sacred to the Jains. The work, as it stands, contains legends mixed up with facts. Great care should be exercised in separating fact from fiction in order to have a true picture of the sacred places of the Jams. In some places, new materials are available which, I believe, will be helpful to students of Iconography and Ancient Indian Geography. In order to make a critical study of the subject, some of the modern publications such as Cunningham's Ancient Geography revised by S. N. Majumdar, N. ... De's Geographical Dictionary, my Geographical Essays, India as described in early teats of Buddhism and Jainism, Geography of Early Buddhism and my paper on Sucred Places of the Jains published in the U. P. Historical Society's Journal should be consulted. This text should be studied along with the Jambuddivapannatti.
Ahicchatra.-Samkhyāvati was the earlier name of AbiCchatra.i Pārsvanātha wandered about in this town. Kamathăsura, inimical to Pārsvanātha, caused an incessant of rains, inundating the entire earth. Pārsvanātha was immersed in water up to his neck. To protect him, the Nāgarāja of the place, accompanied by his queens, appeared on the scene, held a canopy of his thousand hoods over his head, and coiled himself round his body. That is the reason why this town was named Ahicchatra.2 A brick-built rampart was constructed in the same zigzag course in which the Nāgarāja wended his way. The rampart still exists. On
1 Vividhartirthakalpa, p. 14. It was tho capital of Northern Pancālai. It was also known as Chatrāvati (identical with modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly district). The old name of Ahicchatra is Adbicchatra (vide Luders' List of Brühmi Inscriptions, Index) which is nearer to the Greek form of Adisadra of Ptolemy (McCrindle's Ancient India as described by Ptolemy. p. 133; B. ('. Law, Geography of Darly Buddhism, p. 18; for fuller details vide B. C. Law, Pancālus anul their Capital dhicchutmi, M.A.S.)., no. 67).
2 Ibid., p. 14. Pubbu-uinuddha-verona kremathūsurona avicchinnadhūrā paväehim parisamto ambu-haro viurvio. Tena sayule mahimandale egavannavibhür. Dharunimdena Niguricna agyamahisih in suha agamlūņa mani-rayanu cimcaian sahassu-samkhaphaņā-mamdulu-chuttumn sümino urrim kuraun am hithe kundalikayabhogena samginihia 80 Ureagge nirario. Tuo param tise nayarie Ahichattatti nămam samjayam.

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this spot, Samgha built a caitya to Lord Pārsva, with seven kundas (wells) to the cast. Inside and outside, the town has many wells and tanks. Not far from the Mūla caitya, stands another waitya of Pārsvanātha called Siddhakşetra. Near the rampart is the image of the goddess Ambā, mounted on a lion, together with an image of Nemi. Here is a tank, (alled Uttarā, full of pure water. The local belief is that leprosy is cured by bathing in it and rubbing the body with the soil of the holy site.
Here grow various medicinal plants and herbs: Jayanti, Nāgadamani, Sahadevī, Aparajita, Laksanā, Trivarni, Nakuli, Sakuli, Sarpākṣī, Suvarnašilā, Mohani, Syāmali, Ravibhaktā, Nirvişi, Mayūraśikhā, Salya, Višalyā, etc. Here are to be seen many popular shrines, viz. Harihara, Hiranyagarbha, Candikābhavan, Brahmakunda, and the like. This town is the birth-place of the great sage, Krsna.
Kāmpilya, the capital of south Pañcāla, was situated on the bank of the Ganges. It was hallowed by the five auspicious incidents in the life of Vimalanātha, the thirteenth Tirtharkura. It also claimed Arsaciuva, the disciple of Kaundinya and Gardhavāli, a Jain saint.
Mathurāpuri2: Two ascetics, Dharmaruci and Dharmaghoşa, used to dwell in Mathurā. Mathurā was then twelve yojanas long, nine yojanas broad, watered by the Yamunā, well-guarded by ramparts, and adorned with Hara-temples, Jina-houses, lakes, wells, tanks and fairs. They spent here four months in a grove called Bhūdharamani, abounding with many trees, creepers, fruits and flowers. Kuvera, the lord of that grove, felt inclined towards Jainism after hearing their solemn words in reply to a promise of boon on his part. One day they asked him to take them and their samgha to the reign of Meru for the purpose of worshipping the caitya. Kuvera agreed to take them as desired, but reminded them that if tho samgha would go with them, the gods might cause dangers and difficulties. So he desired to build the stūpa of Meru with an image of Lord Supārsva on this very spot. The sages having approved of his proposal, Kuvera erected that very night a stūpu, decked with gold, encircled by the
1 Vividhatirthakupal, 1. 50. Tattha (lamgii-niima-mahanul-larangapakknulijamūna-püyür bhilliam Kampilla puran nama nayaram. Cf. Mahu. bhārat, 1, 138.73.
2 Mathurā or Madhurā is generally identified with Maboli five miles to the south-west of the present town of Mathurā or Muttra. It was the capital of the Sūrasena country built by Rāmu's brother Satrughna after killing the Yūdava Lavana at the site of Madhuvuna. Hence it was known as Madhupuri according to the Mahabharata (Sabhāparva, XXX, 1105-6). For details vide B. C. Law, Mathurü in Ancient Indiu. J.R.A.S.B., Vol. XIII, No. 1.

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gods, adorned with festoons, and enclosed with three bands. Round every band were images, studded with five-coloured gems. When the day dawned, the people saw this and were unable to decide whether it was Lord Siva (Svayambhūdeva) or Nārāyana in his anantaśuyyā, or Brahmā, or Vasundharā or the Sun, or the Moon. The Buddhists claimed it to be a Buddha-kūta. The matter was decided by the following stratagem: Each person wrote down the name of his god on a piece of cloth. But the gods destroyed all but that bearing the name of Supārsva by a storm raised at the dead of night. The cloth was shown all over the town), and the ceremony of ablution began). A person, rich or poor, whose name would first reach the hand of a Kumāri in the sphere of Nāmagarbha was to be entitled to start the bathing ceremony. This arrangement was made on the tenth night. On the eleventh night, the samgha bathed it with thousands of pitchers filled with water, along with milk, (urd, saffron and sandal. The gods bathed it in concealment.
Mathură was a centre of heretical ascetics and was known for the pilgrimage to the temple of Bhandira Yakkha (1). 18). The Viridhatirthakalpu mentions the following garicus of Mathurā: tūlu, bhandira, kola, bahulu, billu, and lohujunghu.
The place came to be know its Siddhaksetra from the perfection duly attained by the two sages.
An avaricious king of Mathurā ventured to seize the gold and gems by breaking the stūpir; but he incurred the fury of the gods, and his head was broken to pieces.
Afraid of the king and the greedy people, Kuverā, the consort of Kuvera, covered the stūpa with brick at the behest of the samgha. She asked the people to worship thie stone image of Lord Pārsva outsicie.
At the time of attainment of perfection by Viranātha, Vappahatti Sūri was bor. He restored this place of pilgrimage, and adored Lord Pārsva.
This town is the birth-place of Vasudeva (Krsna). Here are the temples of Arya Mangu and Hundiya Yakşa.
Here are these five notable spots: Arkasthala, Vīrasthala, Padmasthala, Kuśasthala, and Mahāsthala. Here are also to be seen these twelve forests: Lauhajanghavana, Madhuvana, Vilvavana, Tālavana, Kumudavana, Vindāvana, Bhandīravana, Khadiravana, Kāmikavana, Kolayana, Vahulāvalia and Mahāvana.
The five popular shrines of the place are: Višrāntikatirtha, Asikunda-tirtha, Vaikuntha-tirtha, Kāliñjara-tirtha, and Cakra-tirtha.

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In 826 Vikrama era, Śrīvappahaṭṭa Suri installed the image of Śrīvira at Mathurā.
Saint Kalavesika, son of king Jitaśatru, being attacked with piles, stayed in the mountain of Muggila.
Somadeva, with a view to seeing the influence of saint Sankharaja, took his initiation at Gayapura, went to heaven and was born at Kāśī as sage Harikeśabala.
Kambala and Sambala, having attained knowledge by the grace of Jinadasa, were reborn as Nagakumāras.
When a terrible famine broke out, lasting for about twelve years, Khandi, a citizen, introduced the practice of compulsory reading of the sacred scriptures (āgamas).
Hastinapura1: Rṣabha, the first Tirthankara, had two sons, Bharatesvara and Bahubali. He installed Bharata on the throne and offered Takṣaśilā to Bahubali. He divided his kingdom also among his other relations. Anga was named after Angakumāra, Kuruksetra after Kuru, and the same as to Vanga, Kalinga, Surasena and Avanti. King Hasti, the son of King Kuru, founded Hastinapura on the bank of the Bhagirathi (it should be Yamunā).
Santi, Kunthu and Aranatha, the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth Tirthankaras, who were blessed with miraculous power, were born here. The fifth, sixth and seventh Tirthankaras were not only initiated here but they attained supreme knowledge (kevalajñāna). Lord Ṛsabha broke his first religious fast at the house of prince Sreyamsa, the grandson of Bahubali. The great sage, Visņukumāra by virtue of severe penances, controlled Namuci.
Here were born many great personages, such as Sanatkumāra, Mahāpadma, Subhuma, and Parasurama.
This is the place which was hallowed by the birth of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Here are the magnificent temples of Santinatha, Kunthunatha, Aranatha and AmbikaHere were built four caityas watered by the Yamuna. Kausambi: Kausambi is the principal city in the kingdom of Vatsa. The brick-built fort of king Pradyota still exists.
devi.
1 It was a capital of the Kuru kingdom traditionally identified with an old town in Mawana tahsil, Meerut (Cunningham, A.G.I., p. 702.)
2 It was the capital of the Vatsa kingdom. This city was built where existed the hermitage of king Kusamba (See Asvaghosa's Saundarananda Kāvya; Cf. Papañcasudani, II, 389-90). It was a well-known city in northern India. According to the Buddhist scholiast Buddhaghosa the city came to be called Kosambi or Kausumbi because in founding it the Kosamba trees were uprooted here and there. (For details see B. C. Law, Kausambi in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I., no. 60).

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Udayana, son of Satānika, versed in the Gandharva lore (science and music) was the king of Vatsa. Here are many Jina images in the temples. Here many forests are watered by the Kalindi (Yamuna). Candanavālā fasted here for about six months in honour of Mahāvīra.
VIVIDHATIRTHA-KALPA
Lord Padmaprabhu was initiated here. The city contained many Kosamba trees casting their cool shade (yattha siniddhacchaya kosambataruno mahāpumānā dīsamti). Here in the temple of Padmaprabhu the image of Candanavālā can be seen.
The city of Kausāmbi is a great place, hallowed by the birth of Jina.
Ayodhyanagari.-Ayodhya is known by such other names as Ayodhya, Kosala, Vinītā, Saketa, Ikṣvākubhūmi, Ramapuri and Kosala. It is the birth-place of Rsabha, Ajita, Abhinandana, Sunati, Ananta, and Acala Bhanu. It was the capital of Dasaratha, Rama and Bharata. Seven family preceptors like Vimalavahana were born here. Here the most devoted Sita faced and withstood the fire-ordeal. It is twelve yojanas long, and nine yojanas broad. Here Cakreśvari and Gomukha Yakṣa removed the obstacles of the Samgha. Here the river Gharghara-daha meets with the Sarayu and is known by the name of Svargadvara (Gate of Heaven). Twelve yojanas from this place is the Astavata mountain, where Lord Adiguru attained enlightenment. Here were established twenty-four Jina images. At the east gate are the images of Rsabha and Ajita; at the south, four images of Sambhava, etc.; at the west, eight images of Suparśva, etc.; and at the north, ten images of Dharma, etc. The citizens used to sport in the valley of the Aṣṭāpada.
Here still exists the temple of Nabhiraja. Pārsvanathavātikā (Grove of Parsvanatha), Sitakunda (a hot-spring), and Sahasradhārā (thousand streams) are to be seen here. On the rampart lies a Yaksa, the lord of furious elephants. Even now elephants do not pass by it. Here are many popular shrines. Ayodhya is watered by the river Sarayu. Govinda Sūri, while wandering about at Scrisaya, took his bath here. Many images were brought and set up at Ayodhya. Kumarapala, the king of the Calukyas, installed one of the images.
1 Some think that Saketa and Ayodhya were identical but Rhys Davids has been successful in pointing out that both cities were existing in the Buddha's time. This city sank to the level of an unimportant town in Buddha's time. (Buddhist India, p. 34). During the Buddhist period it was the capital of southern Kosala. It is on the river Sarayu, five miles distant from Fyzabad railway station. It roughly corresponds to modern Oudh (B. C. Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp. 5, 23-24).

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Astā padatirthal: Here the sons of Rşabha and many sages attained perfection. Indra erected three stūpas. Bharata built a caityu called Simha-nişaciya and twenty-four Jina images together with his own. The sons of Sagara dug a ditch, which was ultimately turned into it sea. Here Rāvana was attacked by Bāli. Mount Aştāpada (Kailāśa) is a great tirtha.
Vārūnusīnugurī.- l'ārānasi is it town in Kāśi, watcreri by the Ganges. Two rivers, Varunā (Varņā) and Asi, join the Ganges here; hence it is named Vārānasi.
Here were born two Brahmin brother's Jayaghoşa and Vijayaghoşa, who were versed in the four Verlas. They took to asceticism and attained salvation. Here lived an old merchant named Bhadrasena whose wife was Nandā and daughter, Nandasri. Nandasri retired from the world and received initiation. Two ascetics, Dharmaghoşa and Dharmayasa, spent the nights here during the rains.
Kilig Hariscandra of Ayodhyā lived here for long with his wife, Sutārā and his son, Rohitāśva. One day Indra, king of gods, spoke highly of his picty. Two gous disbelieving the statement, came down to the carth, o form of a wild boar. The boar began to cause ravages in the vihāra of Sakrāvatāra, when Hariscandra appeared on the scene and struck him with an arrow. But the boar vanished and a pregnanit doe was found killed. To make atonement, the king sought the advice of his family preceptor whose daughter, Vañcanā, was then lamenting the loss of the doe. The family preceptor grew wild with the king who, to appease bis wrath, proposed to present him with his entire kingdom and Vañcanā, with a laklı of coins. The fiery sage accepted the offer of the kingdom and pressed the king for the promised amount from outside the kingdom. The king came to Kāśī, sold his wife and son to a Brahmin and himself to a Candāla, and thus paid off the sum promised by him. Very soon a great pestilence broke out in the town, Sutārā who was thought to be a devil had to court punishment. Rohitāśva died by snake bite. While his corpse was brought to the cremation ground, Hariscandra demanded sulka (price of labour). Hariscandra was re-installed on the throne and a reign of law and order followed.
Vārāṇasī is divided into four parts:(i) Devavārāṇasī.—Here is the temple of Viśvanātha
wherein are to be seen twenty-four Jinapattas. (ii) Rājadhāni Vārānasi. -Here live the Yavanas now.
1 Vide N. L. Do, Geographical Dictionary, pp. 82-3.

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(iii) Madana Vārāṇasī, and
(iv) Vijaya Vārāṇasi.
Here are many popular shrines. Near the Dautakhāta tank is the caity of Pārsvanātha. Six miles away from this place is an elevated temple of Bodhisattva.
Srāvastīnagarīl: Srāvastī is an ancient important town, now known as Sāheth Māheth. Here is still to be seen a citya adorned with the image of Sri Sambhavanātha. At its gate stands an Asoka tree of crimson colour. Here is a Buddhist temple where kings, devoted to the Buddha, used to offer horses before the deities. Here the Buddha made a brilliant display of his arts, and Lord Sanblavasvāmi attained the bliss of K'evalujñana. Saint Kapila came to this town for the purpose of acquiring knowledge. In course of time, he attained perfection. Lord Mahāvīra spent a night here during the rains and practised various forms of religious austerities. Here Bhadra, son of king Jitasatru, becam: an ascetic in course of his wanderings, and he afterwards attained perfection.
Ratna cūhapura.--Ratnavāha was a town in Košala. watered by the river Gharghara. Here Dharmanātha, the lamp of the Ikşvāku race', was born of Suvrata, wife of king Bhām. A māgakumāra built here it cuityu in honour of Dharmanātha, whose image is still to be seen here in the midst of the figures of the nāgas.
Mithilā-tīrthur 2: The kingdom of Vidcha is now kuown as Tirhut. Here was a flourishing town called Mithilā which is now known by the name of Jagatī. Not far from it lies Kanakapura. Mallinātha and Neminātha were not only initiated here but attained supreme knowledge. This is the birth-place of Akampita. The confluence of the Gangā and the Gandaki has made this town sacred. Mahāvīra lived and wandered about here. Here is a famous 1 tree. It is the birth-place of Jānakī. The place where
nyan
1 Suheth-Maheth is the modern cuivalent of the site of Srāvasti of ancient fame. The entire site lies on the borders of Condat aund Bahraich districts of Oudh in the United Provinces and it can best be reached from Balarampur, a station on the Gonda-Gorakhpur branch of the O.T.R. It is situated toniniles froin Balarampur. It can also be reached froin Babraich which is at a distance of 26 miles. The name Saheth-Maheth denotes not only the site of the city proper but also the adjoining areas of archaeological importance. (For details vide B. C. Law, Srāvusti in Indian Literature, M.A.S.1., No. 50.)
2 Mithila was a capital of Videha, also called Tirabhūkti, inodern Tirhut. It has beon identified with modern Janakapura, a small town within the Nepal bordor. Tho districts of Muzaffarpur and Duurbhunga meet to the north of it. (For further details vide B. C. Law, Mithila in Ancient India in India Antiqua, Loiden, 1947, pp. 223 ff.)
."
Loidon, tilber, dotustiets of modern sem, also calice
7, pp. 22346 B.C. Laurplr and bra, a sm

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Rāma and Sītā were united in wedlock is known as Sākalyakunda. The place has many popular shrines in it.
Campāpurī:1 In Campāpuri was born Vāsupūjya, the twelfth Jina, who attained kevulajñāna and nirvāna. Karakandu who was the ruler of this place installed the image of Pārsvanātha in the tank of Kunda. He afterwards attained perfection. Here Virasvāmi spent three nights during the rains in Pristhicampā. Kūnika, son of king Śronika, left Rājagrha on the death of his father and made (ampā his capital. Here reigned Karna.
Pālaliputranagara 2: On the death of his father kūnika, Udayi became the king of Campā. He was so much overwhelmed with grief that the ministers thought it proper to transfer his (apital. Augurs were sent out for selecting a site suitable for the construction of a new city. They reached the bank of the Ganges where stood a Pătala tree. They saw a number of worms entering the mouth of a nilakantha bird that lived on the tree. This they thought to be an auspicious sign and in town was built at that very site. It was named Pataliputra after the name of the Patala tree. It was also called Kusunapura, as the tree was laden with many Kusumas (flowers). Udāyi built hiere a cuitya of Sri Nemi and became an advocate of Jainism. Here reigned nine Nandas. The Nanda dynasty was overthrow by Cāņakya, a shrewd Brahmin politician, who installed Candragupta Maurya on the throne. After the demise of Candragupta, Bindusāra, Asoka and Kunāla adorned the throne of Pāțaliputra. Mūladeva, an expert in all branches of arts, and Acalasārthavāha, a rich man, lived in this place. The Ganges flows by the city. To the north of it is a vast expanse of sand. The great sage Sthūlabhadra observed here a religious vow of austerity.
i Campā was the capital of the Angas. In tho 6th century B.C. it was a big town. Its ancient name was Mālinī. In the Mahābhūrulu it is described as the place of pilgrimage. According to the Jainu Cumpakaśreşthikathu, Campă was in a very flourishing condition. The celebrated Chinese pilgrim Yuan Chwang calls it Chan-p'o. The city of Campū is situated at a short distance from modorn Bhagalpur. (For further details vide B. C. Law, The Angas in Ancient Indin, J.B.B.R.A.S., N.S., Vol. XX, 1944, pp. 4711.)
2 It was originally a village of Magadha known as Pāķaligāma. Ajātasutru was the roal founder of Pāțaliputra to which the capital of Magadha was ro. inovod by his son and successor, Udāyibhadda. It was built near the confluence of the Ganges, Són and Gandak but now the Son has roceded some distance away from it. This city was visited by the Chinese pilgrims in the 5th and 7th centuries A.D. It was tho capital of the later Sisunāgas, the Nandas and the Mauryas. During the reign of Candragupta Vikramnāditya it was a magni. ficent and populous city. For further details see B. C. Law, Tribes in Ancient India, pp. 227ff; B. C. Law, The Magadhas in Ancient India, R.A.S., Mon. No. 24).

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Pārsvanāthu-tirtha 1: In ancient times there was the image of Sri Pārsva-nātha in Campā in the suburbs of Ratnā. kara. Sohamma Vāsava worshipped it. Later, in the forest of Dandaka, two asuras (demons), realizing the influence of Rāghava, offered it to Rāmabhadra. The daughter of Videha with Raghupungava worshipped it. It was also worshipped by Sakra. Krsna and Valarāma were born of the line of Yadu. Keśava got a kingdom in Yovana. Krsna installed an image of Pārýva on a sanctified spot in the town of Sankhapura. The festival of ablution at Dvārāvati dates from that. He worshipped the image after duly installing it in a temple which miraculously escaped destruction when the city of Dvārāvati was consumed by fire. The sea engulfed this beautiful temple and the image along with Dvārāvatī. Dhanesvara, a merchant of the town of Kānti, rescued the image of the Lord from the water while returning from Simhala and took it to his native town where he began to worship it after installing it in a temple erected for the purpose.
After the death of Dhanešvara, Nāgārjuna, the chief of saints, brought that image home by the celestial path for checking passions (rasastambhana), from which circumstance the place was called Stambhanakatirtha. People used to worship it as a demon. The merit derived from offering gifts and oblations at Pāvā, Campā, Aştāvata, Raivata, Sammeda, Vimala, Saila, Kāśi, Nāsik, Mithilā, Rājagļha, etc., is acquired simply by the sight of the image of Pārsvanātha.
Kādambarī is a forest near Campā. Here is also a mountain called Kāli. Below this is a large tank called Kunda. Here lived an elephant named Mahihara. Once Pārsvanātha wandered about for four months in front of Kālikunda. The elephant saw the Lord and remembering the condition of his previous birth, brought lotuses from the tank and worshipped the Lord with them. King Karakaņdu was sad not finding the Lord here. Now, it so happened that a high image sprang up from under the earth. The king duly worshipped it and built a temple for its installation. From this circumstance the place became known as Kālikundatīrtha.
i It is also known as Sametaśikhara situated in tho Hazaribagh district very frequently visited by the Jains. The height of this hill is about 5,000 ft. There is a Digambara Jain temple on the top of the hill and some Svetāmbara temples stand at its foot. Pārsvanātha before his passing away came to the foot of tho hill and obtained emancipation (B. C. Law, Geographical Essuy8, p. 213.)

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Kotisilā is a tīrtha in Magadha. Cakrāyudha, the first ganadhara, fasted at this place, with the result that he attained perfection. Many saints practised penances here and attained perfection.
Apāpapuri1: Near it is still to be seen a mountain cave reverberating with the voice of the antima-jina (Mahāvira). In course of his peregrinations Mahāvīra came from Jşmbhikā to the forest of Mahāsena. Eleven ganadharas, Gautama and the rest, were initiated here. Vardhamana fasted here for two days, then imparted his last instruction, and having arrived at the toll-house of king Hastipāla, attained Nirvāna.
Vaibhāragiri 2: This hill has a well of juice having the power to remove poverty and a kundu of hot and cold water. Here shine the peaks of Trikūta and Khandika. Here are to be seen various kinds of medicinal herbs, rivers like the Sarasvati, many popular shrines like Magadha, Locana, etc., and many images of Arhats in the temples. On a visit to Sālibhadra and Dhanyarşi, one gets freed from all sins. The lion, the tiger and other beasts of prey do not create disturbances at these shrines. On all sides, the vihāras are to be seen. In ancient times, it was the residence of the heroes like Rauhineya. Rājagrhapura stands in the valley of this mountain. In later times it was known by such names as Kșitipratiştha, Canakapura, Rşabhapura, Kuśāgrapura, and Rājagpha. Here was a lovely temple called Guņaśila. Metāryya built here the rampart of Sātakaumbha. Here were born wealthy bankers like Sālibhadra. Here existed thirty-six thousand houses of merchants. Jina Suvrata performed his religious vow at the shrine of Aśvāvabodha. Jarāsandha, Sreņika, Kūņika, Abhaya, Megha, Halla, Vihalla and Nandisena hallowed the place by their noble birth. Eminent ascetics like Jambusvāmin, Krtapunya and Sejjambhava, and devoted wives like Nandā were born here.
1 It was hero that Mahāvīra breathed his last. It was also at this placo that the Buddha ato his last moal at the house of Cunda the smith and was attacked with dysentery. The Mallas used to resido here. The nine Malla chiefs to mark the passing away of the great Jina were among those that instituted an illumination on the day of the new moon saying, 'Since the light of intelligence is gone, let us make an illumination of material matter.' According to some Pāvā, Pāpā or Pāvāpuri is the same as Kasia situated on the littlo Gandak river to the east of the district of Corakhpore. It seems that tho city was situated near Rājgir in Bihar. Mahāvīra left his mortal oxistenco when he was dwelling in the palace of king Şaştipāla of Pāvā. Four beautiful Jain ternples were built at tho spot where Mahāvīra left his mortal existenco (B. C. Law, Geographical Essays, p. 210; P. C. Nahar, Tirtha-Pāvāpuri. 1926).
2 Vaibhāragiri also called Vebhāra is a mountain in Magadha (Patna and Gaya districts). The city of Girivraja is encircled by five hills of which Vebhāra is one. Vide B. C. Law, Rājagrha in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I., no. 58).
I2B

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Mahāvīra spent here fourteen nights during the rains. There are many sacred places at Nālandā. In front of the stūpa, called Kalyāna, stands a temple of Gautama.
Satruñjaya1: Ascetic Pundarika attained perfection at the sacred place of Satruñjaya, which is also known as Siddhikşctra, Tirtha-rāja, Marudeva, Bhagiratha, Vimalādri, Vāhubali, Sahasrakamala, Tālabhaja, Kadamba, Sata-patra, Nagādhirāja, Astottarasata-kūta, Sahasra-patra, Dhanka, Lauhitya, Kaparddinivāsa, Siddhi-sekhara, Muktinilaya, Siddhiparvata and Pundarika. It is adorned with five summits (kūtas).
It was visited by a large number of accomplished sages, such as Rşabhasena and twenty-three arhats from Nābheya to Vīra excepting Nemiśvara.
King Sri Vāhubali built the temple of Marudeva at Satruñjaya. Great sages like Nami and Vinami here attained the bliss of perfection. Many saints and kings attained perfect beatitude. Here the five Pandavas with Kunti attained perfection. Ajita and Santi, two Jinas, spent the lent here. Nandişena Ganesa offered to Ajita and Santi hymns beneficial to persons suffering from diseases. King Megha-ghoşa, the great grandson of Kalki, built two temples of Marudeva and Sānti. Here stand the temples of Pārýva and Vira at Pādaliptapura. Below is the gigantic temple of Neminātha. This temple of Yugādisa was restored by Mantriśvara Vāgbhata at an enormous cost'. Setthi (banker) Jāvadi heard about the peculiar virtue of Satruñjaya. He ascended the summit of the Caitya with his wife and attained heavenly bliss by establishing the images of Pundarīka and Kaparddi thereupon. On the south is the image of primeval Pundarika and on the left is another image set up by Jāvaại. The cave lying to the north of Srimad Rsabha, set up by the Pāņdavas, still exists. Close to the Ajita Caitya lies the Anupama lake. Near Marudevi is the magnificent Caitya of Sānti. Here are mines of gold and silver within a space of thirty cubits in front of the temple of śānti. At a distance of one hundred cubits lies the Pūrvadvāra well.
Satruñjaya was under the rule of Dharma-datta and his son, Megha-ghoşa. Minister Vastupāla, the younger brother of Teja-pāla, thinking of the defeat in future at the hands of the Mlecchas, established the images of Adyārhat and
1 The most sacred of the five hills of the Jains in Kathiawar, at the castern base of which tho town of Palitānā is situated, 70 miles north-west of Surut.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
Pundarika. The image as set up by Javadi was broken into pieces by the Mlecchas.
Pälittän is a town in Valakya where lived Kaparddi, the mayor of the place, who was a man of dissolute character. One day two Sūris came to him on the occasion of the Satruñjaya festival.
The Girināra, the best of mountains, sanctified by Śrī Nemi, is known by such other names as Raivataka, Ujjayanta, etc. This mountain is situated at Surastra. Here exist the Jina temples on its summit. Vastupala built three temples here to do good to the world. The Kunda known as Gajendrapada was on the summit of the mountain. In the temple of Satruñjaya built by Vastupala are the images of Rṣabha, Pundarika, Aṣṭāpada, Nandiśvara and Amba. At the sight of the peak called Avalokana sanctified by the lotuslike feet of Sri Nemi, one's desires are satiated. On its summit, Samba (son of Jambavati), Pradyumna and Mahādyumna practised great religious austerities. Here the anointed figure of Sri Nemi was replaced by a stone one, studded with the gems of Kasmira. Here exist a large number of rivers, springs, pits, mines and trees.
The Ujjayanta is a beautiful mountain in Saurāṣṭra. The emancipation-stone of Neminatha is known all over the world. Here is a river named Vihala in Ujjayanta. On its northern side exists the temple of Sakra (Sakrāvatāra). Here is Payakuṭṭima on the peak of Visalaśṛnga. On its nearest pinnacle is Kabbata-lake. The famous Kohandihara shines on the top of the Ujjayanta. A river by the name of Vegavati flows near by. The stone of the place is of the colour of red arsenic. Below is the golden land. Close by is a mountain known as Tilavisāraṇa. Here is a river called Senā. Inside lies the pit (rasakunda) of Ganapati. Near the Karañja tree is an attractive place of pilgrimage known by the name of Sahasasava, where lies the stone-figure of a horse. In Ujjayanta is a stone known as Jñāņaśilā (stone of knowledge). Ascending the first peak of the Ujjayanta and then descending to the south, one will come across a cavern known as Pūtikara. To the cast of the house of Kohandi lies the abode of hermits, which contains the image of Vasudeva. Here is an image of Parvati at a distance of
1 Girināra or the ancient Girinagar or Girnar is identical with modern Junagaḍ. Ujjayanta is the mount Girnar close to Junagad in Kathiawar. It is sacrod to Neminatha the twenty-second Tirthankara of the Jainas. Ujjayanta is written as Urjayata in the Rudradāman Inscription. According to some Ujjayanta and Raivataka are identical (N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary, p. 211).

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ten cubits on its northern side. On its north is the cavern of Adhomukha.
Kotinārā is an important town in Saurăṣṭra where lived a Brahmin named Soma who was well versed in the Vedas and Agamas. He duly performed the six prescribed rites.
Raivatakagiri1: Nemi was initiated near Chatraśilā. After having attained Kevalajñāņa he obtained salvation on the top of the Avalokana. Having come to know of the salvation-spot from Nemi, Krsna set up Siddha Vināyaka' after his attainment of salvation. Here Kalamegha, Meghanāda, Girividārana, Kapāta, Simhanāda, Khodika and Revayā, seven masters of the field (Ksetrapalas), sprang forth. On the north of the Amba temple is a cave, which contains the image of Girividarana. Here is the Svayamvara lake. Below is a well. At a distance of twenty cubits from the Amba temple is a cave. Here is Jirṇakūta. On the easy path from here is Siddha Vinayaka. There is also the Rajamayi cavern. Here are twenty-four Jina images and 24 caves. In front of Kalamegha is a river. On the north lies a rocky cave. Here lies the store-house of Kṛṣṇa.
Another store-house is in front of Damodara. Here stands a high-pinnacled temple of Neminatha on the summit of the Raivata mountain in Suraṣṭra on the western side. On the east there was the anointed figure of Neminatha which melted away.
In ancient times, in the country of Gurjara, Jayasimhadeva having killed Khangararāja (king of Khangāra), made Sajjana king. He constructed the new temple of Nemi. Vastupala and Tejapala were the distinguished ministers of the king of Gurjara. Mahanadevi, the daughter of the king of Kanyakubja (Kanauj) inherited Gurjara from her father. On her death she became the presiding deity of the place and asked king Viradhavala (in a dream) to appoint Vastupala and Tejapala as his ministers. This was done. Once Vastupala and Tejapala went on a pilgrimage to Satruñjaya with the permission of Tejapala's wife, Anupamādevi. Vastupala disbursed the whole amount in the tirthas of Satruñjaya and Ujjayanta. Tejapala constructed a beautiful town called Tejalapura in Girināra (Girnar) and built the temple of Parsvanatha named Asarajavihāra after the name of his father. He also excavated a beautiful lake known as Kumārasara after the name of his mother. On the east of Tejalapura a fort called Ugrasenagad and a Jina temple were sanctified by Yugādi-natha. On the north
It is the mount Girnar near Junagarh in Gujarat.

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stands the temple of Daśadasa adorned with Visakha columns on the bank of the river Suvarṇarekhā.
SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
Vastupala built Marudevi's temple. Tejapāla constructed three caityas. Minister Depāla rescued the temple of Indra. Here is a water-pit of Govinda stamped with the feet of Indra's elephant called Airavata. On ascending the top of the Chatraśila mountain the temple of the goddess Ambika can be seen. Thence is visible the pinnacle of the Avalokana mountain.
Asvavabodha tirtha.-Having attained perfect beatitude, Jina Suvrata came from Pratisthanapura to the forest of Korinta in Bharukaccha for instructing king Jitaśatru, then engaged in a horse sacrifice. He was welcomed both by the king and people. The Lord gave the king religious instructions, relating a story of his previous birth.
On hearing the words of the Lord, the king recollected his previous existence. After death he was reborn as a god in Sudharmā. He erected a jewelled caitya at the place where the Lord could be seen. He installed an image of Suvrata. It is from this circumstance that this shrine is called Asvavabodh-tirtha. In course of time, it became noted as Sakunikā Vihāra.
Candragupta was a king of Śrīpura in Ceylon. Candralekha was his wife. He worshipped the goddess Naradattā for a son, and was favoured with a daughter named Sudarśana. Once a merchant, Dhanesvara by name, came from Bharukaccha. On hearing from his mouth the formula:
namo arhantam,' Sudarsana fell into a fit. On regaining consciousness, she recollected her own condition in her former life. When the king asked her the cause of her fit, she said:
'In my previous birth I was born as a vulture living on a banyan tree in the forest of Korinta on the bank of the Narmadā. Once during the rains there was a heavy shower for seven nights. On the eighth day I went to obtain flesh from the house of a fowler who pierced me with an arrow and went away, taking the arrow and the flesh fallen from my mouth. I began to cry piteously. One sūri saw me in this plight and poured forth water into my mouth. After my death, was reborn as his daughter.' Averse to worldly affairs she, with her parents' permission, went to Bharukaccha with that merchant. One day she asked the preceptor what he knew of her previous existence. He said:
'King Sankha reigned in the city of Suramya on the mountain of Veyaddha. You were his daughter Vijaya by One day you saw a snake (kukkuṭasarpa) on the bank
name.

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of a river in the village of Mahīşa and killed it out of rage. Seeing a Jina-temple on the bank of that river, you worshipped the image of the Lord with due reverence. As you came out of that temple, you came across a female ascetic tired of travelling. You waited upon her. In course of time, you were reborn as a vulture in this forest, Korintaka. That snake was, after death, reborn as a fowler. Out of enmity in the former life, you, in your vulture-life, were killed by that fowler with an arrow. In the long run, however, you attained bodhi by the merit of your attendance on the fatigued female ascetic and roverence for the Jina in your former birth.'
On hearing these words, she gave away everything belonging to her, restored the critya and constructed twentyfour temples, Posatha-houses, charitable institutions and reading rooms. This shrine was named Sakunikā Vihāra after her. After her death, she, too, attained the abode of Íśāna on the fifth holy day in the month of Vaišākha.
Bharukaccha has many popular shrines. Vāhadadeva, son of Udaya, restored Sittujja. Ambada, his younger brother, restored the Sakunikā vihāra. Sindhavādevi brought a certain disease on Andapa. Hemcandra Sūri cured it by virtue of his supreme knowledge.
Satyapura-tīrtha.-A brazen image of Vira was installed by Jajjiga Sūri in the town of Satyapura. In ancient times king Dai occupied the town of Mandovara after putting its king to death. The queen, then big with child, fled to Brahmānapura where she gave birth to a son who was radiant with all auspicious marks. Jajjiga Sūri came to their rescue. The boy was named Nāhada. He was taught five modes of paramesthi salutation by his preceptor. He built twentyfour elevated temples and in course of time, got back his kingdom.
Once the king of the Mlecchas attacked Gurjara and came to Satyapura. He wanted to destroy the temple of Vira. The image of Vira was placed on the back of an elephant. But it did not stir an inch in spite of the king's repeated attempts. The Turks cut off a finger of Vira and set fire to the tails of horses.
Once the king of Malwa (Mālava) having defeated the king of the Gurjaras reached Satyapura. But a Yakşa named Brahmaśānti defeated him. Thus Satyapura was saved.
Vallabhi was a prosperous town in the country of the Gurjaras, where reigned a king Silāditya by name. He insulted a merchant named Rankaja, who, out of rage,

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invited king Hammira to come to his aid. Vallabhi was conquered and the king was slain by Hammira.1
Avanti 2: The caitya of Abhinandanadeva, son of king Sambara, was in the village of Meda in Malava. Once a host of Mleccha troops invaded the place and broke the temple along with the image of Abhinandanadeva. After many days a merchant named Vaija came here from Dharada. He was a very pious man who would not eat anything until he finished worshipping the deity. The Medas showed him the broken figure of Abhinandanadeva. He began to worship it, and resolved not to take any meal until it became an unbroken entity. Then as per injunction received in a dream, he anointed the image with sandal paste, in consequence of which it became an unbroken whole. He installed it on an altar under the Pippala tree.
Arbudadri (Arbuda Mountain): A king named Ratnasekhara reigned in the town of Sriratnamala. Grieved at the state of childlessness, he sent out a number of augurs. Seeing Durga on the head of a distressed female carrying fuel, they intimated to the king that her son would be reigning in his place. At the behest of the king, they threw her down into a pit at the dead of night with a view to killing her with child. But as good luck would have it, she somehow managed to come out of the pit. Seized with fear, she gave birth to a son and left him in a forest. The augurs brought her back to the same pit and put her to death. The child left was taken care of by a doe who nourished it with milk, day and night. King Ratnasekhara at first tried to do away with the son, but later he adopted him as his own son. The latter was named Śrīpuñja. His daughter, Śrīmātā, was one who could recollect the condition of her previous existences. Śrīpuñja had built a temple on the top of the Arbuda mountain. A naga, named Arbuda, used to live at the bottom of this mountain. Formerly this mountain was called Nandivardhana. Later, it was named Arbuda, being the habitat of the serpent Arbuda. Here are twelve villages around. Here flows a river, Mandakini by name. Here are many
1 Amir of Afghanisthan.
2 Avanti roughly corresponds to modern Malwa, Nimar, and adjoining parts of Central provinces (B. C. Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp. 22-23).
3 It is the Mount Abu in the Aravalli Range in the Sirohi State of Rajputana. It contains the hormitage of Rsi Vasistha and the famous shrine of Amba Bhavani. According to Megasthenes and Arrian the sacred Arbuda or Mount Abu is identical with Capitalia which attaining an elevation of 6,500 ft. rises far above any other summit of the Aravalli range. (McCrindle, Ancient India, p. 147.)

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kundas, mines and springs. Here are also such sacred places as Srimātā, Acaleśvara, Vasiştāśrama and Mandākini."
The Paramāra kings were the bona fide rulers of this place. Candrāvati was their capital. Vimala, the commander-in-chief of an army, built, in front of the temple of Srimātā, a caitya adorned with the brazen image of Rsabha. In 1088 Vikrama era, he constructed a temple, called Vimalavasati. In front of the temple of Yugādideva is the stonefigure of a horse. In 1288 Vikrama era, the chicf minister built a temple of Nemi, known by the name of Lūniga-vasati. Tejpāla built here an image, carved purely of whetstone. In 1243 Vikrama era, Lalla (son of Mahana Simha) and Pithapada (son of (anda Simha) recovered it. On the top of it, Kumāra pāla Bhūpāla of the Cālukya dynasty built the temple of Śrīvīra.
Pratisthānapura, I was a town in Mahārāstra. In course of time it was converted into a small village. Two Brahmins with their widowed sister came here and took up their abode
potter's house. One day the sister went to the Godavari to fetch water, when nāgarāja captivated by her beauty forcibly outraged her modesty in the form of a human being. She became pregnant and gave birth to a child who was known as Sātavāhana who defeated Vikramāditya of Ujjayini and made himself the king of Pratisthānapura. Sātavāhana
uered many territories between the Deccan and the river Tāpti. He embraced Jainism, built a large number of caityas, and established the image of Mahālakṣmi on the bank of the Godāvari.
Amara kunda is a town in Andhra. Near by there is a mountain on which is to be seen a beautiful temple adorned with images of Rşabha and Santinātha.
Karnātabhatta Divākara of the Deccan was defeated by Sri Vriddhavādisūri in course of an intricate debate. He was made his disciple known by the name of Siddhasena Divākara who was taught the entire course of āgamas. Once Divākara said that he would translate all the āgamas into Sanskrit. This statement was taken to be a great offence, for which he was asked to make adequate expiation by observing in silence the vow of Pārāñcita for twelve years. Accordingly he wandered about for twelve years in towns and villages. He visited the temple of Kudungeśvara in Ujjain.
1 Paithūn is the modern name of ancient Pratisthúna which was a flourishing city during the rulo of the Sātavāhana kings. It is on the north bank of the Godavari in tho Aurangabad district of Hyderabad. (B. C. Law, Tribes in Ancient India, p. 381.)

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APPENDIX II
PRINCIPLES OF JAINISM1
Researches in Jainism have made sufficient progress to leave no room for doubt that Jainism is a distinct form of religion with a philosophy of its own. It is true that the final redaction of the Jain Canon was made at Vallabhi as late as the sixth century A.D. and that its language too is later than Pali, which is the language of the Theravada Buddhist Canon. There are many ideas and passages common to both the scriptures. Jainism has nevertheless many distinctive characteristics of its own, and historically it occupies a place midway between Brahmanism on the one hand and Buddhism on the other. It cherishes a theory of soul as an active principle in contradistinction to the Vedanta or Samkhya doctrine of soul as a passive principle. Buddhism repudiates it. The Jain notion of karma is rather physical while the Buddhist idea of the same is psycho-ethical. In Jainism rebirth takes place by way of transmigration of soul. Buddhism rejects the theory of transmigration. According to Jainism, soul is vitally interested in our actions, since it has to bear the brunt of all of them. As a substance it does not undergo any change. Its changes are all due to the circumstances in which it is placed. It is generally maintained that the yoga method of Jainism is obscure but in the following exposition of the principles we may find that in Jainism too the yoga practice is equally important. In Jainism as in Buddhism the bodily functions cease in the process of yoga after the vocal, and the mental after the physical. The different kinds of knowledge attained through yoga are substantially the same in both the religions. Like the Samkhya doctrine Jainism stands for a dualistic conception of soul and matter and in this respect it differs from the Vedantic pantheism. The Jain dualism may also be interpreted as a pluralistic doctrine like the realism of the Vaisesika system by which it was influenced. Jainism maintains a hylozoistic notion of nature in which all compound things are different forms of life in varying stages of evolution. The lowest form of life possesses the sense of touch and the highest form all the six senses. This is at the
Chiefly based on Jaina Canonical texts.

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back of tender regard for all forms of life which characterizes the religious life of a Jain who retreats in fear of causing harm. The Jain motto of life is ascetic or stoic. The path to happiness and progress lies through self-denial, selfabnegation and self-mortification. All the rules of conduct and religious practices are therefore designed to that very end. The chain of reasoning followed in Jainism to establish the universal religion of non-harming is generally missed. Here an attempt has been made to set it out as clearly as possible and to compare it with that in Buddhism as far as we have thought it necessary.
Ahimsā or non-harming is the first principle of higher life which Mahāvīra inculcated to his disciples and followers. Its visible effect was sought to be shown how even such brute creation as the beasts and birds, reptiles and fishes, happily responded to the non-harming and compassionate attitude of men,
The doctrine of karma which Mahāvīra taught, went to make men conscious of their responsibility for all their acts, mental, vocal or bodily. Kurma may be worked off by austerity, service rendered to ascetics or to the poor, the helpless and the suffering by giving them food, water, shelter or clothing. A man's action becomes an obstacle to the progress of soul, if greatly influenced by such Kaşayıs as anger, pride, deceit or greed. Karma may be divided according to its nature, duration, essence and content. It is intimately bound up with the soul. There are eight kinds of karma. The first kind hides knowledge from us (jñāņāvaraniya), the second kind prevents us from beholding the true faith (darsunāvaranīya), the third kind causes us to experience either the sweetness of happiness or the bitterness of misery (vedaniya), the fourth kind bemuses all the human faculties (mohanīya), the fifth kind determines the length of time which a jīva must spend in the form with which his karma has endowed him (āyu), the sixth karma (nāma) decides which of the four states or conditions shall be our particular gati (destiny), the seventh karma is gotra karma which determines a man's life, his occupation, the locality in which he may live, his marriage, his religious observances and even his food.1 The last and the eighth kind is the antarāya karma which always stands as an obstacle. It prevents a person from entering the path leading to eternal bliss. The karmic matter keeps the soul confined to the
1 S. Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, p. 182. 2 Uttarā, XXXIII, 1-3.

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world of attachment and bondage. According to Mahavira the painful condition of the self is brought about by one's own action and not by any other cause (fate, chance, creator or the like). Individually a man is born, individually he dies, individually he falls and individually he rises. His passions, consciousness, intellect, perceptions and impressions belong to the individual exclusively. All living beings owe their present form of existence to their own karma. The sinners cannot annihilate any work by new work, the pious annihilate their work by abstention from work.1 Karma consists of acts, intentional and unintentional, that produce effects on the nature of soul. Soul is susceptible to the influences of karma. The categories of merit and demerit comprehend all acts which keep the soul bound to the circle of births and deaths. Nirjara consists in the wearing out of accumulated effects of karma on the soul by the practice of austerities (tapasă nirjară ca). In short Mahavira's great message to mankind is that birth is nothing, that caste is nothing, and that karma is everything, and on the destruction of karma the future happiness depends. There are four kinds of destructive karma 2 (ghatiyakarma), which retain the soul in mundane existence. Jainism as a practical religion teaches us to purge ourselves of impurities arising from karma.
In Hinduism we find that God inflicts punishment for evil karma (action) whereas in Jainism karma accumulates energy and automatically works it off without any outside intervention. The Hindus think of karma as formless while Jains think of it as having form. According to the Pali Nikayas an ancient householder teacher of India was the first expounder of the doctrine of action. (Majjhima Nikaya, I, p. 483). The Jaina Sutrakritānga speaks of various types of Kriyavada or karmavāda then current in India (1. 6. 27; 1. 10. 17). Buddhism as a form of karmavāda is distinguished
1 Sūtrakṛtānga, I, 12, 15. In Buddhism karma is defined as volition expressed in action (cetanaham bhikkhave kammam vadāmi-Atthasālinī, pp. 88ff.). An action is no action until the will is manifested in conduct. Karma means consciousness of good and bad, merit and demerit (kammam nāma kusalākusalacetana-Visuddhimagga, II, p. 614). Karma produces consequence, retribution is born of action, action is the cause of rebirth, in this way the world continues. No action passes from the past life to the present nor from the present to the futuro (Visuddhimagga, II, p. 603). Regarding the relationship between karma (action) and vipaka (consequence), there is no action in consequence and there is no consequence in action. Each of thein by itself is void. An action is void of its consequence which comes through action and consequence comes into existence on account of action (Visuddhimagga, II, p. 603).
2 B. C. Law, Mahavira: His Life and Teachings, p. 104.

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from Sathāyadristi involving various types of non-action (akriyā), scepticism (vicikitsā) and formalism (silavrataparamarsa). One man admits action and another man does not admit it. Both men are alike. Their case is the same because they are actuated by the same force, i.e. by destiny. It is on account of their destiny that all beings come to have a body to undergo the vicissitudes of life and to experience pleasure and pain.
According to the Sutrakritanga the types of akriyāvāda are as follows:
(1) On the dissolution of the five elements, e.g. earth, water, fire, wind and air, living beings cease to exist. On the dissolution of the body the individual ceases to be. Everybody has an individual soul. The soul exists as long as the body exists.
(2) When a man acts or causes another to act, it is not his soul which acts or causes to act.1
(3) There are five elements and the soul is a sixth substance. These six substances are imperishable.
(4) Pleasure, pain, and final beatitude are not caused by the souls themselves, but the individual souls experience them.
(5) The world has been created or is governed by the gods. It is produced from chaos. (Sūtrakṛtānga, 1. 1. 3. 5-8). (6) The world is boundless and eternal.
All these views are reduced to four main types that correspond to those associated in the Pali Nikayas with four leading thinkers of the time, e.g. atheism like that of Ajita, eternalism like that of Katyayana, absolutism like that of Kasyapa and fatalism like that of Gośāla.
The types of kriyāvada that do not come up to the standard of Jainism are the following:
(1) The soul of a man who is pure will become free from bad karma on reaching beatitude but in that state it will again become defiled through pleasant excitement or hatred. (2) If a man with the intention of killing a body hurts a gourd mistaking it for a baby, he will be guilty of murder. If a man with the intention of roasting a gourd roasts a baby, mistaking him for a gourd, he will not be guilty of murder.
The Jains do not deny the existence of the soul as an eternal substance with consciousness as its fundamental attribute. It is an active principle since it has to bear the
1 Cf. Sutrakṛtānga, I, 1. 1. 13.
* Sūtrak tānga, I, 12, 21; Majjhima Nikaya, I, 483; Sūtrakr.,I, 6, 27; I,
10, 17.

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whole brunt of actions. The road to final deliverance lies in four-fold means of right knowledge, faith, conduct, and austerities. Final deliverance or mukti is the freedom from pain. It is perfection. It is the safe, happy and quiet place which is reached by the great sages. It is the eternal place, difficult of approach.1 Dharma, adharma, space, time, matter and soul are the six substances. They are imperishable and eternal by their very nature. Each of them is a substance but time, matter and souls form an infinite number of substances. The characteristic of dharma is motion. That of adharma is immobility 3 and that of space (ākāśa) is to make room. The characteristic of time is duration, that of soul is the realization of knowledge, faith, conduct, austerities, energy and realization of its developments. Soul (jīva), the inanimate things (ajīvu), the binding of the soul by karma, merit (punya), demerit (apa), that which causes the soul to be affected by sins (ūsrava), the prevention of sins by watchfulness (samvura), annihilation of karma (karma-kşaya) and final deliverance (moksa) are the nine truths. 4 The doctrine of pine terms (navutattva) represents the main system of Jainism.5 Jiva and ajīva comprehend the world of existence as known and experienced. The world of life is represented by six classes of living beings, while the movable things are the fire lives, wind lives, and those with an organic body. Samrara is the principle of
1 Uttarūdhyayana, XXIII, 81-81. 2 Sūtrakrtārigu, I, 1; 1, 15-16.
3 Ibid., 1, 1, 2, 3; I, 1, 4, 2. 4 Ibid., XXVIII. 14. The actions which lead to the good kurma which brings peace of mind are called punya. Punya is of various kinds: annapunya (merit acquired by giving food to the deserving people), pānapunya (merit acquired by giving water to the thirsty), vastrapunya (merit acquired by giving clothes to the poor ospecially to the monks), layunapunya (inerit acquired by building or lending a house to a monk), suyunu-prunya (merit acquired by providing seats and beds), manapunya (merit acquired by thinking good of every one), kāyapunya (incrit acquired by saving a life or rendering service), vacanapunya (inerit acquired by speaking without hurting anybody's feelings) and namaskārupunya (mcrit acquired by reverent salutations). There are various kinds of papa or sin. Jivahimsū (lifo-slaughter) is the most heinous of all the crimes according to Jains. Sins are also acquired by speaking falsehood, dishonesty, unchastity, covotousness, anger, conceit, attachment and avarice.
6 Cf. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, XXVIII, 14.
The nine main terins of Jainism which became current and widely known as early as the time of the Buddha include nijjarā and mokkha (Devadaha-sutta, Majjhima Nikāga, II, p. 214:
purāņānam kammānam tapasū vyantibhāvā, navānam kammānam ukarunā āyatim anavassavo, āyatin anavassavā kammakkhayo, kammakkhayā dukkhakkhayo, dukkhakkhayā vedanākkhayo,
vedanākkhayā sabbam dukkham nijjinņam bhavissati.' Here the term nijjinnam occurs, which implics the idea of nijjarū.

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self-control by which the influx of sins is checked. The category of Samvara comprehends the whole sphere of right conduct. Samvara is an aspect of tapas.1 Moksa is the essential point in the teachings of Mahāvīra, which is generally understood as emancipation. It really means the attainment of the highest state of sanctification by the avoidance of pains and miseries of worldly life. It is the summum bonum or the state of perfect beatitude as attained. It may also mean final deliverance or liberation from the fetters of worldly life and total annihilation or extinction of human passion.
Faith is produced by nature (nisarga), instruction (upadesa), command (ājñā), study of the sutras, suggestion (bija), comprehension of the meaning of the sacred lore (abhigama), complete course of study (vistāru), religious exercise (kriya), brief exposition (samkhepa) and reality (dharma). 2
He who truly understands by a spontaneous effort of his mind the nature of soul, inanimate things, merit and demerit and who puts an end to sins (āśravasamvara), believes by nature. He who believes the four truths taught by the Jinas believes by nature. He who believes these truths, having learnt them from somebody else, believes by instruction. He who has got rid of love, hatred, delusion and ignorance, believes by command. He who obtains righteousness by the study of the sutras believes by the study of the sutras. He who knows the sacred lore believes by the comprehension of the sacred lore. He who understands the true nature of all substances believes by a complete course of study. He who sincerely performs all duties by right knowledge, faith, etc., believes by religious exercise. He who is not versed in the sacred doctrines believes by brief exposition. He who believes in the truth of the realities,
1 Some hold that it is the gradual cessation of the influx into the soul along with the development of knowledge.
2 Ibid., XXVIII, 16. According to the Buddhists faith is the basic principle of all virtuous deeds. It is the germinating principle of human culture. It is characterized by two marks: (1) tranquillizing in the sense of making all obstacles to disappear and rendering consciousness clear, and (2) leaping high to achieve that what has not been achieved, to master that what has not been mastered and to realize that what has not been realized. Faith is nothing but trust in the Buddha, Doctrine and Order (Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha). According to the celebrated Pali scholiast, Buddhaghosa, faith is transforming itself into bhakti (devotion). It is associated with love (pema) (see Dr. B. M. Barua's excellent chapter on Faith in B. C. Law's Buddhistic Studies, pp. 329 ff). I have already pointed out that the Noble Eightfold Path is the development of the five controlling faculties and powers, one of which is éraddha (faith). For a clear conception of faith according to Asvaghosa, vide B. C. Law, Asvaghosa, chapters IV and V.

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believes by reality. There is no right conduct without right belief, it must be cultivated for obtaining the right faith; righteousness and conduct originate together or righteousness precedes conduct. Without right faith there is no right knowledge, without right knowledge there is no virtuous conduct, without virtues there is no deliverance and without deliverance (mokṣa) there is no perfection.2
Austerities are two-fold: external and internal. By knowledge one knows things, by faith one believes in them, by conduct one gets freedom from karma and by austerities one reaches purity. Great sages whose object is to get rid of all misery proceed to perfection having destroyed their karma by control and austerities.
Mahavira has given instructions regarding exertion in righteousness. Those who believe in it, accept it, practise it, comply with it, study it, and understand it, have obtained perfection, enlightenment, deliverance and final beatitude. He has dealt with the following subjects:
(1) Longing for liberation: By longing for liberation, the soul obtains an intense desire of the Law. By an intense desire of the Law, he quickly arrives at an increased longing for liberation. He destroys anger, pride, deceit and greed. He becomes possessed of right faith and by the purity of faith, he will reach perfection after one birth.
(2) Disregard of worldly objects: By disregard of worldly objects, the soul quickly feels disgust for pleasures enjoyed by men, gods and animals. He becomes indifferent to all objects; thereby he ceases to engage in any undertaking with the result that he enters the road to perfection.
(3) Desire of the Law: By the desire of the Law, the soul becomes indifferent to pleasures. He abandons the life of a householder and as a houseless monk, he puts an end to all pains, mental and bodily.
(4) Obedience to the co-religionists and to the guru: By obedience to them, the soul obtains discipline. By discipline and avoidance of misconduct he avoids being born as a denizen of hell; by devotion to the guru, he obtains truth as a good man and gains perfection and beatitude.
(5) Confession of sins before the guru: By this act the soul gets rid of the thorns of deceit, wrong belief, etc. He obtains simplicity and annihilates karma.
(6) Repenting for one's sins to oneself: By this act the soul obtains repentance and becoming indifferent by repentance,
1 Uttaradhyayana, XXVIII, 29. 3 Ibid., XXVIII, 34.
2 Ibid., XXVIII, 30.

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he prepares for himself an ascending scale of virtues by which he destroys karma.
(7) Repenting for one's sins before the guru: By this act the soul obtains humility. He will leave off all blamable occupations and apply himself to praiseworthy callings.
(8) Moral and intellectual purity of the soul: By such purity the soul ceases from sinful occupations.
(9) Adoration of the 24 Jinas: By this adoration the soul arrives at purity of faith.
(10) Paying reverence to the guru: By this act the soul destroys such karına as leads to birth in low families. He wins the affection of the people and brings about good-will.
(11) By expiation of sins the soul obviates transgressions of the vows; thereby he stops the āśrawus or influx of sins.
(12) By u particular posture of the body (kāyotsargu) the soul gets rid of past and present transgressions which require prāyaścitta (expiatory rites).
(13) By self-denial the soul shuts the doors against the āśravas 1 and prevents desires arising in him.
(14) By praises and hymns he obtains wisdom consisting in knowledge, faith and conduct.
(15) By keeping the right time he destroys karnut which obstructs right knowledge.
(16) By practising penunce he gets rid of sins and commits no transgressions.
(17) By begging forgiveness he obtains happiness of mind.
(18) By study he destroys karma which obstructs right kuowledge.
(19) By the recital of the sacred texts he obtains destruction of karma and preserves the sacred lore.
cestioning the teachers he arrives at a correct comprehension of the sūtra and its meaning.
(21) By repetition be reproduces the sounds or syllables and commits them to memory.
(22) By pondering on what he has learnt he loosens the firm hold which the seven kinds of karma have upon the soul; he shortens their duration and mitigates their power.
(23) By religious discourses he obtains destruction of karma, he exalts the creed and by exalting the creed he acquires karma for the future bliss.
(24) By the acquisition of sacred knowledge he destroys ignorance.
1 Asrava is that which causes the soul to be affected by sins.
13

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(25) By concentration of his thoughts he obtains stability of the mind.
(26) By control he obtains freedom from sins. (27) By austerities he cuts off karma. (28) By cutting off karma he obtains freedom from actions.
(29) By renouncing pleasures he obtains freedom from false longing.
(30) By mental independence he gets rid of attachment.
(31) By using unfrequented lodgings and beds he obtains gupti or conduct. He will be steady in his conduct.
(32) By turning away from the world he will strive to do no bad actions.
(33) By giving up collections of alms in one district only (ekamandalyām āhārakaraṇam) he overcomes obstacles.
(34) By abandoning articles of use he obtains successful study.
(35) By not taking forbidden food he ceases to act for the sustenance of his life.
(36) By conquering his passions he becomes free from passions.
(37) By renouncing activity he obtains inactivity. By ceasing to act, he acquires no new karma.
(38) By renouncing his body he acquires the pre-eminent virtues of the siddhas (perfected ones).
(39) By shunning company he obtains singleness and avoids disputes, quarrels, passions, etc.
(40) By giving up all food he prevents his birth many times.
(41) By perfect renunciation he enters the final stage of pure meditation wherefrom there is no return.
(42) By conforming to the standard of a monk's life he obtains ease and will be careful. He will inspire all beings with confidence and practise austerities.
(43) By doing service he acquires karma which brings about for him the name and family name of a Tirthakara.
(44) By fulfilling all virtues he will not be born again.
(45) By freedom from passions he destroys the ties of attachment and desire.
(46) By patience he overcomes troubles. (47) By freedom from greed he obtains voluntary poverty. (48) By simplicity he will become upright.
(49) By humility he will acquire freedom from selfconceit.
(50) By sincerity of mind he will obtain purity of mind.
(51) By sincerity in religious practice he obtains proficiency in it.
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(52) By sincerity of action he will become pure in his action.
(53) By watchfulness of his mind he concentrates his thoughts.1
(54) By the guarding of speech he is free from prevarica
tion.
PRINCIPLES OF JAINISM
(55) By watchfulness of the body he obtains samvara (restraint).
(56) By discipline of the mind he obtains concentration of his thoughts.
(57) By discipline of the speech he obtains development of faith.
(58) By discipline of the body he obtains development of conduct. He may obtain perfection, enlightenment, and deliverance.
(59) By possession of knowledge he acquires an understanding of words and their meanings.
(60) By possession of faith he destroys wrong belief. (61) By possession of conduct he obtains stability. (62) By subduing the organ of hearing he overcomes his delight in all pleasant or unpleasant sounds, he acquires no new karma and destroys the old one.
(63-66) All these apply also to his subduing the organs of sight, smell, taste and touch with regard to pleasant colours, smells, tastes and touches.
(67) By conquering anger he obtains patience. (68) By conquering pride he obtains simplicity. (69) By conquering deceit he obtains humility. (70) By conquering greed he obtains content.
(71) By conquering love, hatred and wrong belief he exerts himself for right knowledge, faith and conduct. After destroying various kinds of karma, he obtains absolute and complete knowledge and faith.
(72) By the motionless state of the self (sailesi)2 he first stops the functions of his mind, then the functions of the speech, then those of the body, at last he ceases to breathe. During the time required for pronouncing five short syllables, he is engaged in the final pure meditation in which all functions of his organs have ceased and he at the same time destroys the four remnants of karma.3
(73) Freedom from karma. The soul after having got rid of his audārika kārmaṇa bodies takes the form of a straight line, goes in a moment without touching anything and taking
1 Uttaradhyayana, XXIX, 1-53.
2 Lit. the state of a mountain. Uttaradhyayana, XXIX, 54-72.
3 B. C. Law, Jain View of Karma, Bharatiya Vidya, VI, 7 and 8.

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up no space, and then the soul develops into the real form and obtains perfection.
A person becomes free from sins by abstaining from lifeslaughter, falsehood, theft, and sexual indulgence. He becomes free from sins by possessing five samitis and three guptis, by freedom from passions, by subduing the senses, by conquering conceit, and avoiding delusion.
Hurtful acts (danda) are three-fold as referring to thoughts, words and acts. Conceited acts (gārava) are pride of riches, of taste and of pleasure or fashion. Delusive acts are māyā, nidāna and false-belief (mithyādarsuna). A monk who well bears calamities will not be subject to transmigration. He who always avoids the four different kinds of praises, passions, expressions of the emotions, and of the four meditations, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the five vows, the five objects of sense, the five sumitis and the five actions, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the six lesyūs, the six kinds of bodies and the six regular functions as eating, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the seven rules of accepting alms and the seven causes of danger to others, will not be subject to transmigration. He who always exerts himself with regard to the eight objects of pride, and the tenfold Law of the inonks, will not be subject to transmigration. The eight objects of pride are: caste, family, beauty, etc. 4
By the teaching of true knowledge, by the avoidance of ignorance and delusion, and by the destruction of love and hatred one arrives at deliverance which is nothing but bliss.
Obstruction to knowledge is five-fold: (a) obstruction to knowledge derived from the sacred books (sūtra), (b) obstruction to perception (ābhinibodhika), (c) obstruction to supernatural knowledge (avadhijñāņa), (d) knowledge of the thoughts of other people (munaħparyāya), (e) the highest, unlimited kuowledge (kevala). The following are the different
i Ullurūdhyayını, XXIX, 73: Every jivu has two bodies, kūrmana and taijasa, and also it third which may be audāriku or vaikreya. Every jiva, save and except a Perfectod One, forrny round it through its kurmu a body which is called its kārman body and another invisible body, taijasu, which at its death will enable it to assume a new form. These two unscen bodies are indestructible. S. Stovonson, Il cart of Jainism, p. 206. Cf. tho Brahmanical conception of tho sthüla (gross), sūkşma (subtlo, or also called linga) and kūrana bodies assumed by the soul.
? Uttarādhyayana, XXX.
3 Lesyā is said to be that by means of which the soul is tinted with merit and demorit. It arises from yoga or kaşāya.
4 Cf. Sūtrakrtanga, II, 2, 17.
5 The first kind of knowledge corrosponds to what the Buddhists call Sutamayāpaññā; the second kind to what they call cintāmayāpaññā; the third

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kinds of obstruction to right faith: sleep, activity, very deep sleep, a high degree of activity, a state of deep-rooted greed. Vedaniya is two-fold: pleasure and pain. Mohaniya is twofold as referring to faith and conduct. The three kinds of mohaniya referring to faith are right faith, wrong faith and faith, partly right and partly wrong. The two kinds of mohaniya referring to conduct are: (1) what is experienced in the form of the four cardinal passions, and (2) what is experienced in the form of feelings different from them.1 Ayuşka is four-fold: denizens of hell, brute creation, men and gods. Nama is two-fold: good and bad. Gotra is two-fold: high and low. Antaraya is five-fold as preventing gifts, profits, momentary enjoyment, continuous enjoyment, and power. The number of atoms of every karma is infinite. The karma in the six directions of space binds all souls.
PRINCIPLES OF JAINISM
The lesyas are different conditions produced in the soul by the influence of different karma. They are, therefore, not dependent on the nature of the soul, but on the karma which influences the soul. They are named in the following order: black, blue, grey, red, yellow, and white. The black lesya has the colour of a rain-cloud, a buffalo's horn. The
kind to what they call vilokana; the fourth kind to what they call cetopariyāñana; and the fifth kind to what they call sabbaññutā or omniscience consisting in three faculties: of reviewing and recalling to mind all past existences with details, of perceiving the destiny of other beings according to their deeds, and of being conscious of the final destruction of sins. Cf. Tattvärtha-Sutra, i, 9. Kevala means that which is limited by the object, that which is suflicient to survey the field of observation. Cf. Kalpasūtra, 15. Manaḥparyyañāņa is defined in the Acaranga Sutra (II, 15. 23) as a knowledge of the thoughts of all sentient beings. Kevalajñāņa is defined in the same text as omniscience enabling a person to comprehend all objects and to know all conditions of the world of gods, men and demons (II, 15, 25).
1 Uttaradhyayana S., XXXIII, 5-10.
2 The Buddhist idea of contamination of mind by the influx of impurities from outside, illustrated by the simile of a piece of cloth dyed blue, red, yellow or the like, would seem to have some bearing on the Jain doctrine of the six lesyas, which is merely hinted at in the Sutrakṛtānga (I, 4, 21), where a Jain saint is described as a person whose soul is in a pure condition (lesya) and fully explained in the Uttaradhyayana (XXXIV). The Jaina religious efforts are directed towards the acquisition of pure lesyā (Sūtrakṛtānga, 1, 10, 15); cf. Utta radhyayana, XXXIV. Krsna lesya is the worst of the three bad emotions colouring soul. Nila lesya--this emotion is less evil than the last. Kapota (grey) lesya may lead men to do evil. A man under its command becomes crooked in thought and deed. Teja lesya removes all evil thoughts from the jiva under its sway. Pudma lesya is a good emotion; through its power a man controls anger, pride, deceit and avarice. Sukla lesya-when a man is under its influence, love and hatred disappear. There are three bad emotions and three good emotions-black, blue and grey are the three bad emotions; yellow, pink and white are the three good emotions. Cf. Maşkarin's division of souls into six colour types (abhijātis) reduced in the Mahabharata (XII, 279, 33-68) into the Samkhya division of souls into three colour types, namely, the white, the red and the dark. Lośya means soul type according to Leumann (Aupapātika Sutra, Glossary).
.

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blue lesya has the colour of the blue asoka (Jonesia-aśoka) having red flowers. The grey lesya has the colour of the flower of atasi (Linum usitatissimum) having blue flowers. The red lesya has the colour of vermilion. The yellow leśyā has the colour of orpiment. The white lesya has the colour of conch-shell. The taste of the black lesya is more bitter than that of tumbaka (Lagenaria vulgaris). The taste of the blue lesya is more pungent than black pepper and dry ginger. The taste of grey lesya is more pleasant than that of ripe mango. The degrees of the lesyas are three or nine or twenty-seven or eighty-one or two hundred and forty-three. Each of these degrees is three-fold: low, middle and high. A man who acts on the impulse of the five sins, who commits cruel acts, who is wicked and mischievous, develops the black lesya. A monk who has anger, ignorance, hatred, wickedness, deceit, greed, carelessness, love of enjoyment, etc., develops the blue lesyā. A man who is dishonest in words and acts, a heretic, a deceiver, a thief, etc., develops the grey lesya. A man who is humble, well-disciplined, restrained, free from deceit, who loves the law, develops the red lesyā. A man who controls himself, who is attentive to his study and duties, develops the yellow leśya. A man who controls himself, who abstains from constant thinking about his misery, who is free from passion, who is calm, and who subdues his senses, develops the white lesya. The black, blue and grey lesyās are the lowest lesyās, through them the soul is brought into miserable courses of life. The red, yellow and white lesyās are the good lesyās, through them the soul is brought into happy courses of life. In the first and last moment of all these lesyās, when they are joined with the soul, the latter is not born into a new existence.1
Things without life are: (1) possessing form, and (2) formless. There are ten kinds of formless things, e.g. dharma, adharma, space, division, time, etc.2 Dharma, adharma and space are ever without beginning and end. The four kinds of things possessing form are compound things, their divisions, their indivisible parts and atoms. Subtile things occur all over the world. Living beings are of two kinds: those still belonging to the samsara, and the perfected souls. The perfected souls have no visible form. They are developed into knowledge and faith and they possess paramount happiness. Living beings are of two kinds; movable and immovable. The earth-lives are of two kinds; subtile and gross. The subtile earth is but of one kind as there is no
Uttaradhyayana, XXXV.
2 Ibid., XXXVI.

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variety. Plants are of two kinds: subtile and gross. There are three kinds of immovable living beings and three kinds of movable beings. The fire-lives are of two kinds: subtile and gross ones. Denizens of hells are of seven kinds according to the seven hells. Animals are of three kinds: aquatic, terrestrial, and aerial. Those souls who cherish wrong views, who commit sins and kill living beings, will not reach enlightenment at the time of death. Those who cherish right views, do not commit sins and are enveloped in white leśyā, will reach enlightenment at the time of death. Those who love the creed of the Jinas and piously practise it, will be pure and free from passions and will in due time get out of the circle of births. Miserable men who do not know the creed of the Jinas will many times commit unholy suicide and die against their will. Those who are well versed in the sacred lore and possess much knowledge, who awaken piety in others and appreciate the good qualities, are worthy to hear the doctrine of salvation. Those who practise spells and besmear their bodies with ashes for the sake of pleasure realize the ābhiyogika-bhāvanā. Those who use weapons, eat poison, throw themselves into fire and water and use things not prescribed by the rules of conduct, are liable to be born and to die again and again.
A person who owns a small property in living or lifeless things or consents to others holding it, will not be delivered from misery. If he kills living beings or causes other men to kill them or consents to their killing them, his iniquity will go on increasing. A sinner who makes the interest of his relations and companions his own, will suffer much. His wealth and his nearest relations cannot protect him from future misery. According to atheists the five gross elements, earth, water, fire, wind, and air, are the original causes of things, from them emerges ātman; on the disintegration of these five elements, living beings cease to exist. Every body has an individual soul. These souls exist as long as the body exists but after death they are no more. There is neither virtue nor vice, there is no world beyond, on the dissolution of the body the individual ceases to be.3 Some hold that when a man acts or causes another to act, it is not his soul which acts or causes to act. The fatalists hold that pleasure and pain, final beatitude, and temporal pleasure and pain are not determined by the souls themselves but by external causes. It is the lot assigned to them by destiny. According to
The abhiyogidcvas are genii who serve the gods. This bhāvanā loads one to birth as an ábhiyogi deva. 2 Sūtrakrlariga, 1, 2.
3 Ibid., 1, 11, 12, 13.

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1
Mahavira, those who hold this view do not understand that things depend partly on fate and partly on human exertion. The doctrine of the akriyāvādins i augments the misery of worldly existence. He who intends to kill a living being, but does not do it by his bodily act, and he who unknowingly kills one, both are affected by that act. There are three ways of committing sins: by one's own action, by commission, and by approval of the deed. One reaches Nirvana by the purity of heart. The world is boundless. In this world living beings suffer individually for their deeds. A learned or a virtuous man will be punished for his deed when he is given to actions of deceit. Men who are drowned in lust and addicted to pleasures will be deluded for want of control. One should exert and control oneself and follow the commandments proclaimed by the Arhats (the elect). Heroes of faith who do not commit sins, and exert themselves aright, who subdue anger and fear, will never kill living beings. A worthy and wise man should be careful in this world. He who has entered the road leading to the destruction of karma, who controls his mind, speech, and body, who has given up his possessions and relations, should walk about subduing his senses. A sage bears pleasant and unpleasant things. He also bears three kinds of calamities arising from beasts, men and gods. He does not fear for his life. A wise man should not quarrel, should possess right conduct, should be guarded in his words and thoughts. He should adopt for his welfare the best and the highest law proclaimed in this world by the Jina. A person should look at beatitude as the end in view. Virtuous men regard pleasures as equal to diseases. The unhappy suffer again and again from delusion. When calamity befalls a man or the end of his life draws near, he must go. The wise believes that there is nothing to protect him. All living beings owe their present form of existence to their own karma. The wicked suffering latent misery err about in the circle of births, subject to birth, old age and death. One should not kill living beings in the three-fold
1 Both Mahavira and Buddha declared themselves as kriyāvādins or upholders of the doctrine of action. The doctrine of action which Mahavira taught makes men conscious of their responsibility for all their acts, mental, vocal or bodily. This doctrine has also awakened the consciousness that salvation is not a gift of favour but an attainment within human possibility. In the teachings of Mahavira kriyāvāda is sharply distinguished from akriyāvāda (doctrine of non-action), ajñāṇavāda (scepticism) and vinayavāda (formalism), precisely as in the words of the Buddha. Buddhism has been promulgated as a form of kriyāvāda or karmavāda. In order to arrive at a correct understanding of the doctrinal significance of kriyāvāda in Jainism it is necessary not only to see how it has been distinguished from akriyāvāda, ajñāṇavada and vinayavada but also from other types of kriyāvāda.

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way (by thoughts, words, and acts), being intent on spiritual welfare and abstaining from sins.1
A wise man should neither himself commit violence nor order others to do so nor consent to the violence done by somebody else. A clever man should not be defiled by sin. All beings are fond of life, like pleasure, hate pain, shun destruction, and desire to live. To all life is dear,2 The clever one who adopts the true faith stands in the right place. The world is greatly troubled by women. He is called a hero who is not vexed by the hardships caused by control. The hero does not tolerate discontent and lust; he is not careless; he is not attached to the objects of the senses. A sage who adopts the life of wisdom should treat his gross body roughly. He who has right intuition uses mean and rough food. A wise man who knows the world and has cast off the idea of the world should prudently conquer the impediment to righteousness. Giving up all gaiety, circumspect, and restrained, one should lead a religious life. The liberated conquers wrath, pride, deceit, and greed. He who conquers one passion, conquers many and he who conquers many, conquers one. A wise man should avoid love, hatred, delusion, birth, death, hell, animal existence, anger, pride, deceit, and greed. For the liberated there is no passage from birth to birth. The greatest temptation in this world is woman. When strongly vexed by the influence of the senses he should mortify himself, stand upright, wander from village to village, take no food at all, and withdraw his mind from women. The self is the knower or experiencer and the knower is the self. Some who embrace the law will practise it, being careful about its outward signs, not giving way to worldliness, but being firm. Quitting all worldliness, one should bear all disagreeable feeling being possessed of the right view (samyak-darśana).3 Those who
1 Sutrakṛtānga, I, 21.
2 Cf. Sabbe tasanti dandassa, sabbe bhayanti maccuno, attānam upamam katva na haneyya, na ghataye . . . Sabbesam jivitam piyam. (Dhammapada, Dandavagga, vv. 129, 130).
3 Samyak-darśana or right faith consists in an insight into the meaning of truths as proclaimed and taught, a mental perception of the excellence of the system as propounded, a personal conviction as to the greatness and goodness of the teacher and a ready acceptance of certain articles of faith for one's guidance. It is intended to remove all doubt and scepticism from one's mind, and to establish or re-establish faith. It is such a form of faith as is likely to inspire action by opening a new vista of life and its perfection. Right faith on the one hand, and inaction, vacillation on the other, are mutually incompatible. Cf. the Buddhist idea of right view (sammadiṭṭhi) which conveys the sense of faith or belief. It is precisely in some such sense that the Jains use the term sanmādamsana. Summadiṭṭhi suggests an article of faith which consists in the acceptance of the belief that there is such a thing as gift, that there is such a

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deserve to be called fools, are born again and again. The learned, wise, and steadfast hero will always be victorious in right faith. A saint with right intuition, who cherishes compassion for the world, should preach, spread and praise the faith, knowing the sacred law (vedavid). He should proclaim it among those who exert themselves, not neglecting tranquillity, indifference, patience, liberation, purity, uprightness, gentleness, and freedom from worldly cares. One should preach the law of the mendicants to all kinds of creatures. A man who exerts himself is of a steady mind without attachment, unmoved by passion; having no worldly desires he should live the life of an ascetic. The noble ones having impartially preached the law, those who are awakened, should not wish for pleasure. One who is free from passions is self-controlled, knowing birth in the upper and nether regions. One who is free from desire, cherishes piety.
The first great vow of the Jains is abstinence from killing living beings. A Jain is careful in his walk. He searches into his mind and speech. He is careful in laying down his utensils of begging. He eats and drinks after proper inspection. The second great vow is avoidance of falsehood.2 A Jain speaks after deliberation. He comprehends and renounces anger, greed, fear, and mirth. The third great Vow is avoidance of theft.3 A Jain begs after deliberation for a limited space. He consumes his food and drink with the permission of his superior. He who has taken possession of some space should always take possession of a limited part of it and for a fixed time. He should constantly have his grant renewed. He may beg for a limited ground from his co-religionists after deliberation. The next vow is avoidance of sensual pleasures. He should not continually discuss topics relating to women. He should not eat and drink too much. He should not drink liquor or eat highly seasoned dishes. 6 He should not occupy a bed or a couch belonging to The last great vow is freedom from possessions."
women.
thing as sacrifice, etc. (Cf. Saleyyaka Sutta, Majjhima, I, pp. 285ff.) There cannot be right faith unless there is a clear pre-perception of the moral, intellectual or spiritual situation which is going to arise. Right faith is that form of faith which is only a stepping stone to knowledge (paññā). It is the faith, or conviction acquired by a Buddhist stream-attainer (sotapanna) who is sure to reach the goal.
1 Cf. the first precept of the Buddhists, pāṇātīpātā-veramani.
2 Cf. Musāvādā-veramani of the Buddhists.
3 Cf. Adinnadana-veramani.
4 This is known in Theravada Buddhism as niganthuposatho, Anguttara,
I, 205.
5 Cf. Buddhist Abrahmacariyā-veramaṇī.
6 Cf. Sürümerayamajjappamādaṭṭhānāveramani.
7 Cf. Buddhist Jataruparajatapatiggahana veramaṇī.

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If a living being with his ears hears agreeable or disagreeable sounds,' he should not be attached to them. If he with his eyes sees agreeable or disagreeable forms, he should not be attached to them. If he with his nose smells agrecable or disagreeable smells, he should not be attached to them.2 If he with a tongue tastes agreeable or disagreeable things, he should not be attached to them. If he with an organ of feeling feels agreeable or disagreeable touches, he should not be attached to them.3
There are five samitis and three guptis which constitute eight means of self-control.4 The samitis 6 are the following (1) going by paths, trodden by men, beasts, carts, etc., and looking carefully so as not to cause the death of living beings; (2) gentle, sweet and righteous speech; (3) receiving al a manner to avoid forty-two faults; (4) receiving and keeping things necessary for religious exercises, and (5) performing the operation of nature in an unfrequented place. The three guptis o are the following: (1) preventing mind from sensual pleasures by engaging it in contemplation, study, etc.; (2) preventing the tongue from saying bad things by a vow of silence; and (3) putting the body in an immovable posture. The walking of a well-ilisciplined monk should be pure in respect to the ends, time, road and effort. Knowledge, faith and right conduct are the onds; the time is daytime; the road excludes bad ways; the effort is four-fold as regards substance, space, time, and condition of mind. A well-disciplined monk should work carefully. He should avoid anger, pride, deceit, greed, laughter, fear, loquacity and slander. He should use blameless and concise speech at the right time. He should avoid while begging faults in the search, in the receiving, and in the use of three things, namely: food, lodging, and the
1 Cf. Naccagitanvāditavisükudassanü veramani. 2 Cf. Milyarndhuvilepanathiri namundunaribhusawa!!hānī vcramuni.
3 So cukkhund ripam distū na wimittagūhi hoti nanu cynjunuggāhi, yal. vādhikaranam enim cakkhundriyam asamrutom riharantum abhijjhů domanassā pāpakū akusali dhammi anvussureyyum tussa samvuruya palipajjati, rakkhati cakkhundriyam cakkhundriye sumuar m ūpajjati. Sotenii sauldam sutvu ghanena gandhain gha yitir ...jivhuyu rasum sivilcī kūyenı phofthabbam phusitvū... manasii dhammam vinnuyu na nimittugihi hoti nuntajanaggahi ... Anguttaru, 111, pp. 99-100.
1. Of. Digha, 1, p. 172-where the ideas of Cutti and Samiti are found to be the same.
6 Bhikkhu abhikkante patikkunto sam pajūna-kari hoti. Alokite vilokite sampajinakūri hoti. Samminjite pasirite samo pajana-kūri hoti. Sanghāti-puttacīvara-dhirunc sam pajana-kari hoti. Asile pite khayite sūyite san pajana-kūri hoti. Uccūrapassara-kamme sampūna-kūri hoti. Gate thite nisinne sulle jūgarite bhăsite tunhi-bhāve sampujana-kūri hoti. Digha, II, p. 292.
6 Cf. Vaciguti in Asoka's R.E. XII; Dhammapada, V, 375; Indriyagutto or Indriyagutti. Cutti = Vedic Clupti protection, defence, guard, watchfulness; cf. Ang., IV, 106ff.; Digha, 111, 148.

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articles of use. There are sixteen Udgama dosas (inherent faults) by which food becomes unfit for a Jain monk. eo. the fault inherent in food which a layman has prepared for religious mendicants, the fault in a kind of food which a layman has prepared for a particular monk, the food which has been prepared for festivities, which has been reserved for a monk, when he has to open locks before he gets at the food, when a monk calls while the dinner is being cooked, and for his sake more food is put in the pot which is on the fire, etc..1 There are ten faults in receiving, e.g. when a monk accepts alms from a frightened layman (Sankita), when the food is soiled by animate or inanimate matter (mrakṣita), when a layman inixes up pure with impure food (unmisrita), etc. A zealous monk should wipe the thing after having inspected it with his eyes, then he should take it up or put it down. Excrements, urine, saliva, mucus, and uncleanliness of the body should be disposed of in the way described. In a place neither frequented nor seen by others, which offers no obstacles to self-control, which is not covered with grass or leaves, which is spacious, in such a place he should leave his excrements, etc. There are: (1) truth, (2) untruth, (3) a mixture of truth and untruth, and (4) a mixture of what is not true and what is not untrue. A zealous monk should prevent his mind from desires for the misfortune of somebody else, from thoughts on acts which cause misery to living beings and from thoughts on acts which cause their destruction. In standing, sitting, lying down, jumping, going and in the use of his organs, a zealous monk should prevent his mind from intimating evil desires, etc. These are the samitis for the practice of the religious life and guptis for the prevention of everything sinful.
The correct behaviour of monks consists in ten posts: āvasyikā is required when a monk leaves a room for some urgent business; naisedhiki asking permission to enter a place; āpricchanā or asking the superior's permission for what he is to do himself; pratipricchanā, asking permission for what somebody else is to do; chandanā or placing at the disposal of other monks the things one has got; icchākāra
chiubhsediyevantgubblichito
i cf. Dighu, I, p. 166: ... na-chi-bhadantiko, na-tittha-bhadantiko, nābhihatam na uldissa-katam na nimuntanam sidiyati. So na kumbhi-mukha pațiganhiti, na kolopi-mukha patiganhāti, nu elakamantaram na dandamantaram na musalamantaram, na dvinnam bhuñjamānānam, na gabbhiniya na pāyamūnāya na purisantaragatāya, na samkiltisu, na yuttha sā upuţthito hoti, na yattha makkhikā saindla-sandacūrini, na maccham, na mamsam, na süram, na merayam, na thusoda kam pivati.
2 Uttarūdh., XXIV, 17, 18; cf. Acarūnga, II, 10; cf. Pāli Vinaya Pitaka, III, 36.

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carrying out one's intention by oneself or somebody else; mithyākāra, blaming oneself for sins committed; tathākāra, assenting to make a promise; abhyutthāna, rising up from one's seat as a mark of respect for those who deserve it, and upasumpad, placing oneself under another teacher.1
A worthy monk should have no intercourse with women considering the consequences. He should avoid them. Those who have intercourse with women, have ceased to practise meditation.2 One should not mind the entreaties of women, but abstain from their friendship and company. The pleasures which are derived therefrom are causes of blamable actions. A wise and learned monk whose soul is in a pure condition (leśyā) will abstain from doing work for others; 3 he will bear all troubles in thoughts, words and actions.
A virtuous monk should never keep) company with the wicked. He should not stay in the house of a householder except by constraint. He should obey and serve it wise and pious teacher. If beaten he should not be angry. With placid mind he should bear everything.
A true monk should not say that this is meritorious and this is not meritorious. He should guard his soul, bring his senses under his control and put a stop to the current of the sam.sāra. He should be free from sius. He is entitled to expound the pure, complete and wparalleled law. He should try to reach beatitude
If a monk is attached to vanities and makes his monkhood a means of sustenance, he will suffer again and again.4 A monk who is cloquent, who has bright ideas and possesses high intellect, has purified his soul. He should combat pride of genius, pride of sanctity, pride of birth, 5 and pride of good living. A monk having conquered aversion to control and delight in sensual objects, should silently repeat to himself: a man must come and go according to his own karma alone. The pious are not given to blamable sinful practices. Avoiding all evils, monks should without embarrassment and passion preach the law.
A monk who complies with the rules for the yatis as regards postures, lying down, sitting and exertion, who is
i Uttaradh., XXVI.
2 Of. Vinaya P., 1, p. 96: Yo bhikkhu mcthunur dhammam paliseruti, assuunnino hoti, asukyaputtiyo.
3 Cf. Digha., 1, p. 5-Dūtoyyu-pahina-gamanānuyoga pațivirato Sumano Gotamo.
4 Cf. Vinaya Pitaka, I, pp. 57ff., Buddha takes a monk to task because he inakes his monkhood a means of easy life and sustenance (udarussa kūruña).
6 cf. Vibhangu, p. 345--Jätimado, Gottamado, etc.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
thoroughly acquainted with the samitis and guptis, should explain each single point of conduct. He should not allow himself to be influenced by pleasant sounds. He should persevere in control. A novice who has not mastered the law does not know the law, but he will know it afterwards through the words of the Jinas. A well-conducted monk will explain the conduct of the virtuous. A monk by hearing the desired truth, gets bright ideas and becomes a clever teacher; desiring the highest good and practising austerity he will obtain final liberation. Those, who having investigated the law, are awakened and they put an end to mundane existence. They do not conceal the truth or falsify it. They do not cherish desire for fame. Amonk should be honest and fearless. He should expound the syūdvādu,' he should use permitted kind of speech and should be impartial and wise. He should utter pure speech which is in accordance with the creed of the Jivas. He should well learn the sacred text, endeavour to teach the creed and should not speak unduly long. He should deliver faithfully what he has learnt. He should not pervert or render obscure the truth.
A monk who does not act nor kill, who is free from anger, pride, deceit and greed, who is calm and happy, will never entertain such wish that after his departure from the world he will become a god or a perfected saint.2 He does no actions arising from sinful causes, nor has them done by another person nor does he consent to another doing them. A monk should not take food or drink when he knows that a householder to satisfy him or for the sake of a co-religionist has brought it. One should eat when it is time for cating, seek cover when it is time for seeking cover and sleep when it is time for sleeping. When a inonk preaches the law he should preach it indefatigably for no other motive than the annihilation of kurma. Such a monk searches the law, knows the law and endeavours to gain liberation. He knows and renounces action and worldly occupation, he is free from passion, possesses the samitis, being wise, virtuous, and liberated, living on low food, desiring to get to the shore of the samsāra fulfilling the general and particular virtues.
1 Vide B. C. Law, Mahāvīra: His Life and Teachings, pp. 72ff. Syādvāda consists of goven nayas or viewpoints from which assertions are made as to truth. According to tho doctrine of Syädvūda there are seven forms of metaphysical propositions and all contain the word syät, e.g. syād asti sarvam, syöd nāsti sarvam-syāt means 'may be' and it is explained as Kathamcit (somehow). Hastings, Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. 7, p. 468.
2 Cf. Samyutta, IV, p. 180; Arg., IV, p. 461....devo vā bhavissāmi devañ. nataro vāti....

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PRINCIPLES OF JAINISM
207
A monk abstains from the five cardinal sins, slaughter of living beings, etc. He does not clean his teeth with a tooth brush, he does not accept perfumes, emetics and collyrium. Such a monk does not act nor kill; he is free from anger, pride, deceit and greed; he is calm and happy. He is well controlled and restrained, avoids and renounces sins, is not active but careful and thoroughly wise.
A monk, who has achieved his religious perfection through the instruction of the Awakened One and stands firm in it, who guards himself in the three-fold way with regard to thoughts, words and acts, and who possesses the things requisite for crossing the immense ocean of existence, may preach the law.
A monk or a nun on a begging-tour should not accept as alms whatever herbs they recognize. He or she should accept things which are pure and acceptable. He or she should not accept food which has been prepared for Brahmins, guests, beggars, etc. He or she should not accept food which does not belong to the giver. He or she may accept food from noble families, distinguished families, and royal families. He or she should not attend any festive entertainment. He or she should not accept such food of which he or she has some doubts in his or her mind. A monk or a nun desirous of entering the abode of a householder should
so when they see that the milch cows are being milked, or the food is being cooked, and that it is not yet distributed.
A monk or a mun on a begging tour should not accept flattened grains, grains containing such chafi.
A mendicant should not stay in halting places, garden houses, family houses and monasteries, which are much frequented by fellow-ascetics.
A monk shall not beg pointing with a finger at the householder or moving him with a finger, threatening or scratching him with a finger, praising or cursing him.
He or she should speak with precision.
If a single mendicant borrows for a short time a robe from another mendicant, the owner of it should not take such a robe for himself nor should he give it to somebody else. A monk or a nun should not make coloured clothes colourless or colour colourless clothes.
The Jain rules of conduct and decorum, agreeing in their essential features with the Buddhist rules, were broadbased upon careful considerations and keen observations. 3
.
1 Acārānga Sutra, II, 1, 6, 3.
2 Ibid., II, 4, 1. 3 B. C. Law, Buddhist Rules of Decorum, published in Dr. R. K. Mookerjec Volume (Bhāratu-Kaumudi), I, pp. 381ff.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
The foregoing exposition of the principles of Jaiuism may be made more explicit in the light of Umāsvāti's T'attvārinādhigamasutra. According to Umāsvāti, right belief, right knowledge, and right conduct constitute the path tó liberation and they are called three gems in Jainism. Each of them can be considered in its three-fold aspect, c.g. the subject, the object and the means. In right belief there is the believer, that which is believed, and the means of believing. In right knowledge there is the knower, the known and the means of knowing. In right conduct there is the pursuer of conduct, conduct itself and the means of conducting. The right belief is the basis upon which the other two rest. It is the cause and right knowledge is the effect. Right conduct is caused by right knowledge and implies both right knowledge and right belief.
The five kinds of knowledge are: Knowledge through the instrumentality of sense, knowledge derived from the study of scriptures, direct knowledge of matter within the limits of time and space, direct knowledge of others' thoughts, and perfect knowledge.
The five kinds of conduct are: Equanimity, recovery of equanimity after a downfall, pure and absolute non-injury, all but entire freedom from passion, and ideal and passionless state.
Right belief, right knowledge, right conduct, and right austerities are called the ārādhanīs.
The right belief is the belief or conviction in things ascertained as they are. 2 Samyakdarsana is of two kinds: (1) belief with attachment, the signs of which are the following: calmness (prašama), fear of inundane existence in five cycles of wanderings (samvegu), substance (drarya), place (kşetru), time (kāla), thought activity (bhāvu), and compassion towards all living beings (anu kampā); and (2) belief without attachment (the purity of the soul itself).
The right belief is attained by intuition, acquisition of knowledge from external sources. It is the result of subsidence (upaśamu), destruction-subsidence (kşayopasumu) and destruction of right belief deluding karmas (darśana mohaniya kurma).
Right belief is not identical with faith. It is reasoned knowledge. Adhigama is knowledge which is derived from intuition, external sources, e.g. precepts and scriptures. It is attained by means of pramāņa and naya. Pramana is
1 Cf. Sūtrakrtūrga, I, 1, 4, 10--13. 2 Cf. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, XXVIII, 28, 29.

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PRINCIPLES OF JAINISSE
209
nothing but direct or indirect evidence for testing the knowledge of self and the non-self. Naya is nothing but a standpoint which gives partial knowledge of a thing in some of its aspects.
Right knowledge is of five kinds: (1) knowledge through senses-knowledge of the self and the non-self through the agency of the senses of mind; (2) knowledge derived from the study of the scriptures; (3) direct knowledge of matter in various degrees with reference to subject-matter, space, time and quality of the object known; (4) direct knowledge of others' thoughts, simple or complex; and (5) perfect knowledge. Knowledge (antarüya),2 belief, charity, gain, enjoy. ment, re-enjoyment, power, faith and conduct are the nine kinds of energies (tirya).
Passions (kaşayas) 3 are four in number: anger, pride, deceit and greed.
Sense faculties are of two kinds: (1) Lubdhi: It is the attainment of the manifestation of the sense faculty by the partial destruction. (2) Upayoga: The conscious attention of the soul directed to that sense.
The bodies are of five kinds: (1) audūriku (gross), (2) raikriyaka (fluid), (3) ūhāraka (assimilative), (4) tuijosu (valoric), and (5) kurmanu (karmie).
The special attributes of jīva-soul are the following: Knowledge (jñāna), belief (darśana), bliss (sukha), energy (rirya), right belief (sumiyak darśanu), right conduct (sumyah: căritro), etc. Samyukirakrijā (right-clirected action is that which strengthenis right belief; mithyürtcukriyā (wrong. directed action is that which strengthens wrong belief; prayoga-kriyū is bodily movement; samādūna-kriya is the tendency to neglect rows; iryāpathakriyū 4 (actions relating to behaviour) is walking carefully by looking at the ground; tendency to aceuse others in anger; a wicked man's readiness to hurt others; weapons of hurtfulness, the thing which cause mental pain to oneself or others; depriving another of vitalities of age, sense-organs, powers and respiration; infatuated desire to see a pleasing form; frivolous indulgence in touching; inventing new sense-enjoyments; answering calls of nature in a place frequented by men, women and animals; indifference in dropping things or throwing oneself down
1 The Buddhist Sangitisuttanta of the Dighunikaya (Vol. lll, p. 271) recognizes summañanu or right knowledge as one of the additional factors in the Noble Eight-fold Puth.
2 Tatthvürthādigama sūtra (Jacobi Ed.), p. 536- Jacobi's note. 3 Passions or kasdy18 are the things which tie one down to this world.
4 Cf. the Buddhist idea of the ways of deportment, Parisumhhidumuggu, JI, 225; Vinayapitaka, 1, 39; II, 146; Samyutta, V, 78, etc., etc.

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SOME JAINA CANONICAL SOTRAS
upon the earth; undertaking to do by one's own hand what should be done by others; admiration of hurtful or unrighteous thing; proclaiming sins of others; misinterpreting the scriptural injunctions which we do not want to follow; disrespect to scriptural injunctions out of vice or laziness; expressing delight in other's misdeeds; trying to persevere in one's attachment to worldly belongings; deceitful disturbance of someone's right knowledge and faith; praising actions due to wrong belief; not renouncing what ought to be renounced.
The causes of bondage (bandha) are the following: (1) wrong belief; (2) perverse belief; (3) doubt, scepticism; (4) veneration; (5) wrong belief caused by ignorance; and (6) inborn error.
The ten virtues are the following: forgiveness (uttama kşamā), humility (uttama mārdava), honesty (uttama ārjavı),1 purity (uttama sauca), truthfulness (uttama satya), restraint (uttama samyama), austerities (uttama tapa), renunciation (uttama tyāga), selflessness (uttamu ūkincanya), and chaste life (uttama brahmacarya).
Twelve meditations 2 are the meditations on transitoriness, helplessness, mundaneness, loneliness, separateness, impurity, inflow, stoppage, relinquishment, universe, rarity of right path and nature of right path.
i Uttama īrjaou-Arjara has been understood by some as that simplicity which is opposed to cunningness.
? (f. Buddhist (subha-bharumā, l'inaya, III, p. 68, on impurity; l'isuddhimagga (PTS.), 1, 84ff., 178ff.
14B

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Abhidhammapitaka, 67 Ahicchatra, 82, 169
Ajitakesakam bala, 27, 60 Anga, 44, 82
Anguttara Nikaya, 25 Antagadadasão, 34, 47 Antakṛtadasanga, 47 Antanantavada, 26
Anuttara upapātikaḍaśā, 55 Anuttarovavaiyadasão, 55 Anuyogadvara, 104 Aristanemi, 98, 144, 145 Ariṭṭhanemi, 47, 48, 51 Astapadatirtha, 174 Asurya, 23 Aupapātikasutra, 67 Avadānasataka, 64
Avadhi, 82 Avanti, 184 Ayodhya, 173
Acarangasūtra, 7, 10, 11 Ajivikas, 22, 37, 70 Alabhikā, 102 Alavi, 44
Arya Devarddhigani, 1 Avasyakasutra, 147 Ayāradasão, 32 Ayāramgasutta, 7
Baladeva, 30 Barbaras, 59
Bālavabodha, 13
Bārāṇasī, 82
Bimbisāra, 142 Bindusara, 150
Bhagavatisūtra, 33 Bhagavati-Viyahapannatti, 31
Bhavanapatis, 57
Campa, 37, 67, 68, 72, 73, 145, 177 Canakya, 150 Cellana, 86
Dhammaghosaka, 65 Dharmastikaya, 79
INDEX
Daśavaikālikasūtra, 151 Dharani, 38 Draupadi, 38
Dravya, 159
Drstivada, 1, 3, 25, 27, 49
Ekavāda, 26
Ekuttara Nikaya, 25
Gaiveyyakas, 55 Garga-samhita, 5
Gaudas, 59
Girināra, 180
Gitamarga, 25 Godavari, 146
Gosala, 26
Goyama Indabhūti, 32 Guptis, 121, 124, 130, 166, 203 Ghotakamukha, 71, 104
Hastinapura, 172 Hatthita pasas, 23
Ikṣvākus, 72 Indrabhuti, 75 Issaranimmanavāda, 26
Jambudivapannatti, 78 Jambudvipaprajñapti, 33 Jayaghosa, 137 Jayanti, 37
Jiväjiva bhigama, 5, 78 Jñātādharmakatha, 38 Jyotiṣa Vedanga, 5
Kalpasūtra, 15, 96 Kampillapura, 37, 39, 40
Kapadia, 65 Kapila, 104
Karma, 17, 82, 115, 124, 125, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193, 194 Karmabandha, 82 Karmayoga, 161 Karmasataka, 64 Kausambi, 150, 172 Kadambari, 177
Kalasavesiyaputta, 36 Kamasutra, 104
Kampilya, 140 Kasi-Kosala, 36, 44 Kayotsarga, 149

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212
SOME JAINA CANONICAL SUTRAS
Kesava, 144 Kevalañana, 106 Kururaṣṭra, 82 Khuddakapatha, 14 Kirātas, 59 Kosala, 74 Krsna-Vasudeva, 48 Kumārakassapa, Kūnika, 67 Kūniya, 36, 72 Kusavati, 85
74
Kusinārā, 44
Lakkhanapathakas, 69
Lalitavistara, 28
Lesyas, 123, 126, 197, 198 Licchavis, 72
Madura, 40, 52 Magadha, 37 Magahatitthakhetta, 85
Mahanadi, 146
Mahaniddesa, 14
Mahānisitha, 88
Mahavira, 13, 14, 17, 31, 36, 47, 101,
117, 192, 200
Makkhali Gosala, 22 Mallas, 72 Manaḥparyaya, 106
Mankhaliputta Gosāla, 37
Mathura, 52, 91, 170 Marudevi, 97
Mālavas, 59 Matanga-Jātaka, 109 Mitavāda, 26
Mithila, 39, 139, 175 Moriyaputta, 37 Mount Revata, 48 Mount Satruñjaya, 49, 53 Mount Vipula, 53 Murundas, 59
Nakkhattavijjā, 72 Nandi-sutra, 28, 104
Nāgakumāras, 57 Nagarjuna, 177 Nālandā, 43, 102 Nami, 139 Nastikya, 75 Natyasastras, 76 Nayadhammakahão, 38
Neminatha, 98, 179 Niddesa, 30 Nirayavalisutra, 86
Nirmitavada, 26 Nirvāṇa, 17 Nisitha, 88 Nṛtyamarga, 25
Ovavaiyasuya, 67
Paësi, 27 Pahlavas, 59 Panhavägaraṇāim, 57 Panitabhumi, 102 Pannavaṇā, 78, 82 Paramāņuvāda, 34 Paribrājakas, 69 Pasenadi, 74, 77 Palita, 145
Pandu, 51
Papa, 159, 190
Pāpā, 102 Pārsva, 75, 99
Pārsvanāthatīrtha, 177 Pātaliputra, 176 Pāvā, 44
Pāyāsi, 27, 74, 77 Pimdanijjutti, 6 Polasapura, 37, 53 Prajñāpanā, 82
Praśna-vyakaraṇānī, 57 Pratikramaṇasūtra, 133 Pratisthanapura, 185 Pudgala, 34
Puggalapaññatti, 67 Pulindras, 59 Punnabhadda, 47 Punya, 159, 190 Purana Kassapa, 22 Puspadanta, 3
Raivataka, 181 Ratnavāhapura, 175 Radhas, 14
Rajagṛha, 53, 54, 102 Rajapraśniya, 74 Rajimati, 144, 145 Rayagiha, 82
Rayapasenaijja, 32, 74 Rayapasenaiya, 5, 74 Rṣabha, 97
Śakas, 59
Samavayamga, 28 Samavāyānga, 28
Samitis, 121, 130, 166, 203, 206 Samucchedavāda, 26

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Samyakdarsana, 21 Sanjaya, 13 Sanjaya Belatthiputta, 13 Sassatavada, 26 Satanika, 37, 150 Satkhandagama, 3, 27 Satthitamta, 71 Satruñjaya, 179 Satyapuratirtha, 183 Sauryapura, 144 Sauviradesa, 37 Sabaras, 59
Samkhya system, 79, 104 Sankhya, 26 Setavya, 74
Siddhasena, 64
Silanka, 2
Śrāvasti, 37, 102, 175 Śrenika, 53, 54, 86 Śrutajñāna, 106
Sthanaiga, 25 Sthulabhadra, 3 Subbhabhumi, 14 Sumangalavilasini, 35 Sūnyavāda, 2 Suryaprajñapti, 5
Sutrakṛtanga, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19,
20, 22, 23, 24 Suyagadamga, 13 Syadvāda, 29
Tattvärthadigamasutra, 157
Tālavaras, 61
Tamali, 37
Tamalitti, 37
Tamralipti, 37
Tapasas, 69 Thanamga, 25 Tiloyapannatti, 3
INDEX
Uechedavada, 26 Udgamadosas, 131
Udayana, 37 Ujjayanta, 180 Upali, 23 Upāsakadasā, 43 Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 108 Uvāsagadasão, 43
Vaibhavagiri, 178 Vairāța, 82
Vaisali, 101, 102 Vaiseṣika, 26 Vaitadhya, 65, 84 Vaitālika, 24
Vaitaliya, 2 Vajjabhumi, 14 Valabhi, 1
Vallabhi, 183 Vanga, 82 Vardhamana, 2
Vatsa, 82
Valhikas, 59
Vanamantaradevas, 68
Vaniyagama, 43, 44 Vastuvidya, 71 Vasudeva, 30
Vedanā, 82
Vehalla, 86 Vesali, 43
Videhadatta, 101 Vijayaghosa, 137 Vipakasutra, 64 Vitabhaya, 82
Vitahavya, 37 Vivagasuya, 64
Vividhatirthakalpa, 6, 169 Vyakhyaprajñapti, 31
Yavanalipi, 29 Yavanas, 59 Yudhisthira, 51
213
Published by the Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society, Town Hall, Bombay, and Printed by Norman A. Ellis, Baptist Mission Pross, 41A Lower Circular Road,
Calcutta.

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