Scientific Secrets of Jainism

Author(s): Nandighoshvijay
Publisher: Research Institute of Scientific Secrets from Indian Oriental Scriptures Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001603/1

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism (An exploration of the parallels between Modern Physics and Jain Philosophy)
Maxwell
Newton
Faraday
Jy=E.
F=G
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Lord Mahavira
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Einstein
De. Broglie
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The Unique Scientist of the Universe
Planck
P.C. Vaidya
J.C. Bose
h=6.625X10-34 Joule-Sec
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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
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Research Institute of Scientific Secrets From Indian Oriental Scriptures Ahmedabad 380 004 (India)
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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
(A collection of Articles) (Anexploration of the parallels between Modern Physics and Jain Philosophy)
By
Munishri Nandighoshvijayji Gani
Disciple of Acharyashrivijaya Suryodayasuriji Maharaj
Belongs to the Group of Acharyashrivijaya Nemisurishwaraji Maharaj
सर्वद्रव्यपर्यायेषु केवलस्य
RISSIOS
Publisher : Research Institute of Scientific Secrets From
Indian Oriental Scriptures Ahmedabad 380 004 (India)

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
(A collection of Articles) (An exploration of the parallels between Modern Physics and Jain Philosophy)
©2000 by Muni Nandighoshvijayji All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publisher.
1. Shri Hemantbhai H. Parikh cl7 Radhe Apartment, Behind Bombay garage,
Nr. Underbridge, Shahibaug, Ahmedabad 380 004 (India)
2. Prof. H. F. Shah 18, Rupayatan, Maneknagar, Opp. Ankur School,
Paldi, Ahmedabad 380 007 (India)
First Edition: 2000 copies, June.; 2001
Price: Rs. 300-00, $. 10-00 £. 7-00
Publisher Research Institute of Scientific Secrets From
Indian Oriental Scriptures Ahmedabad 380 004 (India)
Cover picture: Lord Mahavira : The Unique scientist of the Universe & the
modern science
Printed by : Amrut Graphics 128, Sahajanand Park, Shahibaug, Ahmedabad - 4. INDIA. Ph: 5623282

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Our Financial Contributors
1. Dr Pradip K. Shah Godhrawala, Mrs. Darshana P. Shah,
Archit and Alap
487, Jeremy, Bourbonnias, ILL 60914 USA 2. Dr Parag M. Doshi Godhrawala. Mrs. Dulari Doshi,
Anjali, Anish,
13406, Misty Medow Drive, Palous Heights, ILL 60463 USA 3. Dr Jashwant N. Mody Godhrawala
212, North Alwarado Suite, 112, Losangeles 90820 USA 4. Mrs. Damayantiben Bipinbhai K. Shah
3/5, Damani Estate, Nawapado, Thana 400602 5. Mr. Chimanlal Manilal Shah Vejalpurwala, Ahmedabad 6. Mr. Pravinbhai K. Shah
509, Carriage Woods Circle, Raleigh, North Carolina USA 7. Smt. Sumitraben Shantilal Mahasukhlal Gandhi
Vejalpurwala by Mr. Bharatkumar, Mrs. Naynaben, Pinky, Switty(Arpita) (USA), Mr. Raju & Mr. Pankaj (Baroda)

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Dedication
I dedicate this book
to His Holiness Acharyashrivijay Nandanasuriji Maharaj
who initiated me, My reverend Gurudev His Holiness Acharyashrivijay Suryodayasuriji Maharaj, Late Sadhviji Shri Vinitaprajnashriji who inspired me for initiation
and worldy mother Vimalaben who gave me permission for initiation.
-Muni Nandighoshvijay Gani

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His Holiness
Acharyashrivijay Nandanasuriji Maharaj
Reve. Sadhviji Shri
Vinitaprajnashriji

His Holiness Reve. Gurudev
Acharyashrivijay Suryodayasuriji Maharaj
Worldy Mother
Shri Vimalabahen

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Muni Shri Nandighoshvijayji, delivering a lecture on
ગૂજરાત વિદ્યાપો. ભગત રાષ્ટ્રીય ચૈતવિદ્યા અધ્યયન કંદ જૈનવિધ વ્યાયાલય,
મ
(१८६८-CE)
अंतर्राष्ट्रीय जैनविद्या अध्ययन केन्द्र जैनविद्या व्याख्यानश्रेणी
"Quantum Mechanics & Janism" at Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad on 7th October, 1998
&
Dr. P.C. Vaidya,
addressing the scientists and the scholars, as a chief guest

BRA

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Publishers Note
Reverend Muni Shri Nandighoshvijayji Gani, a disciple of Acharya Shrivijaya Suryodayasuriji Maharaj belonging to the group Acharya Shrivijaya Nemisuriji Maharaj, has written some comparative and critical articles in Gujarati, Hindi and English languages regarding the various branches of science and Jainism over several years. They have been published in various well known magazines (digests) like Navneetsamarpana (Gujarati digest), Tirthankara (a Hindi magazine), Jain Journal (a English quarterly on Jainism), Tulasi-prajna, Arhat-vacana, Parva-prajna etc.
Some of them have been collectively published in the two volumes entitled "Jainism : Through Science" by Shri Mahavira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay. They were very well received in India and abroad especially by the large class of the people that has an interest in science as well as in Jain philosophy. As both the books and the Gujarati, Hindi and English sections contain different topics, after the publication of these books Prof. K. V. Mardia (Head, Department of Statistics, University of Leeds, U.K.) suggested to publish totally English version for the wider class of the people who is now in foreign.
After the publication of the book "Jainism: Through Science" Muni Shri Nandighoshvijayji has written some new articles. They have been also compiled here.
Totally Gujarati version of the same book has been published last year and the openbook-exam also successfully arranged by our institute throughout Gujarat state.
We are very grateful to Muni Shri Nandighoshvijayji Maharaj for giving the chance to publish his valuable contribution through our institute.
It is a pride for our institute that well known and prominent scientists like Dr P. C. Vaidya, Dr Narendra Bhandari (A senior scientist & Professor, Chairman, Solar System & Earth Science, PRL, Ahmedabad), Prof. (Dr) K. V. Mardia (Head, Department of Statistics, University of Leeds, U.K.) and Dr J. V. Narlikar (Director & Homi Bhabha Professor, Inter- University Center for Astronomy & Astrophysics, PUNE) have written introductions or comments to this book. We are especially very thankful to them.
We are very grateful to reverend Muni Shri Bhuvanacandraji Maharaj for his valuable suggestions and foreword to this book.
This is a second publication from our institute and we have great confidence that this publication will wholeheartedly get its importance throughout the scientific world, Jains and non-Jains alike.
We are very thankful to our generous donors for their financial contribution. Perhaps without their contribution, this publication would not have seen the day of light. Simultaneously, we express our thanks to Mr. Hemant Parikh and Mr. Hasmukhbhai Parikh (Amrut Printers, Ahmedabad) for the finest printing of the book.
At last, we are thankful to the trustees of Shri Mahavira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay for giving the permission to reproduce the articles in Gujarati version as well as in English version.
President: Dr Divyesh V. Shah
Research Institute of Scientific Secrets from Indian Oriental Scriptures Ahmedabad 380 004.

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A Search for Meeting Points of Science and
Religion
Every religion worth the name is basically a way of life; morality and mental purity are its main concerns. In other words, religion is a science of life. Nevertheless every religion has developed also a philosophy on which its spiritual and moral traditions are based. Its code of conduct or the way of life is a logical deduction of its views and theories pertaining to the physical and metaphysical world. These very philosophies worked as a springboard for the modern science
Jainism is an ancient religion, well known for its rigid code of conduct. It is famous for its philosophy also. A closer look at it will convince every student of philosophy that its approach towards outer as well as inner world is 'scientific'. Jainism does not believe in God Almighty as a creator of the universe; instead. like science, it says that the universe is governed by some fundamental laws. There are very few old religions, which can comply with science. Jainism is one of those science-friendly religions. It has a vast heritage of knowledge buried in c as well as non-canonical books, in which we find a number of facts scattered, which have striking compatibility with modern science. Description of atom and subatomic particles, water as a compound of gas (physics), the value of pi (mathematics), life in vegetables (biology), innumerable suns and moons (astronomy)—these are some references which are considered discoveries of science, but actually are well known to Jainas from thousands of years. There is a good deal of such data in scriptures, which resembles the scientific findings of today, with slight difference. For instance, Jain scriptures say that Earth rests on three layers: 'Ghanādadhi' (solid ocean), Ghanavāta' (solid gas) and 'Tanüvāta' (fine gas). According to geology, earth's upper crust rests on the 'magma', which resembles 'Ghanõdadhi'. Is then magma 'Ghanõdadhi' ? Likewise, Jainism believes in six kinds of living beings. Among them there are 'Prthavikāya' (earth-bodied) and 'Agnikāya' (firebodied) organisms. Scientists have recently found out new organisms-stromatolites which form the crust of rocks and thermophile, which live in heat. Are stromatolites 'Pfthavikāya' of Jain scriptures and thermophiles 'Agnikāya'? There are so many 'secrets' in Jain literature which may turn out scientific truths, as the research goes on. We cannot rule out all this to be mere coincidence or accidents. There are many other things-pyramids, astrology, ESP, OBE, mantra etc. etc.which already suggest that our ancestors knew more than we thought they knew
Here some questions may be raised: If they knew so many things, which have been discovered by scientists only after life long aitempts of research and experiments, then why there are gaps in the picture of the universe presented by the scriptures? Why we face differences and difficulties in comparison of scientific data with scriptural data?

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Possible solutions for such puzzles may be lying in these points : True that we cannot match all the scriptural or traditional data with that given by science, but, as we noted before, we certainly come across many facts that science discovered later, but were actually recorded in Jain scriptures. It may be same in the case of other statements. Science might discover them later on. Another possibility : Surely we face difficulty, discordance and discrepancies in many scriptural references. This may be due to the lost portions of scriptures and lost contexts. Language is a great hindrance in reaching to right meaning of words. In those days people preferred poetic language; afterwards the poetic narrations were taken to be bare facts. Thus understanding the scriptural data became difficult. In the first place, the seers and prophets were devoted to spiritual developement, they didn't bother to explain each and every thing in the physical world. So we can't find a complete picture of the universe and the objects in it. Of course they told much about this physical world, but with passing of time, decline of civilizations and due to other calamities much was lost. Then people used their imagination to complete the picture, and thus deviations and even alterations took place; therefore we now have a distorted and inconsistent image of the world in our sacred books and other old literature. Now time is ripe to unearth the facts from the ancient wisdom deposited in old scriptures and examine them in the light of science.
This task is up to not only followers of religions, lovers of ancient wisdom or students of philosophies, but up to scientists also. Because science is for mankind and religion also is for mankind. They are not apart like poles, but as close as two eyes which work with perfect co-ordination. To tell the truth, we can do without science, but not without religion. A scientist without religious attitude may create new Hiroshima and Nagasaki disasters. We need not only technology, but, over and above it, good character also. And character cannot be synthesized in laboratories. Only spiritual understanding can make a man, man. Religion is like eyes which see, whereas science is like feet which walk.
The process of combining both these seemingly opposite trends has now already started. Gone are the days when science took religion for mere superstitions and dogmas, and religious circles considered science an evil, rather a devil, out to distract people from the right path. The era of evaluation and assimilation of both the streams has now begun. This is why we happen to see books like present one. In Jain circles, the systematic study of science began relatively late. There are several books on the subject by Jain scholars, very few by Jain monks. Muni Nagarajji, Muni Abhayasagaiji, Muni Amarendravijayji and Muni Mahendrakumar Dvitiya'-these are the prominent names of Jain monks who have worked in this direction. In this series, the name of Muni Nandighoshvijayji is now added. He has studied science with open mind. His approach towards science is balanced and healthy, befiting to a follower of the Jainism, which has the principle of Syādvāda' (relative truth) at its base. He does not discard the findings of science which differ from Jain scriptural beliefs but tries to find out a ground, with regard to scriptural citations, to accommodate the findings of science. He does not fall prey to hasty

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conclusions and superficial similarities. He goes deep and searches for finer and subtler points where both the ideologies meet or even disagree. The name of the book is suggestive. It implies that there are things in Jain tradition which can be explained by science, therefore these are 'scientific'.
While discussing every topic, the author has given a brief account of the development of the relevant theory or the discovery. This helps the reader to be familiarized with the subject. This indicates also author's concern to give justice to the subject and diffuse the knowledge of science in religious circles. I appreciate this very much and wish that learned Jain monks and nuns follow this track. Science is going to stay here and it is nothing but a search for truth. Technol indiscriminative use of technology,may be harmful, not science. Jain monks and nuns study the literature of six old schools of Indian philosophy and other subjects like astrology, Indian sculpture and architecture. Science has to say something regarding all these fields. Now it is high time to include science in the curriculum of a Jain monk. We cannot turn away from something which helps to see more and that too, with more closely,
This book does not announce final conclusions, but really speaking, starts serious examination of two powerful trends-science and religion, opposite like matter and antimatter. I hope that we will get much more from the author on this subject. And I am sure that this book will go a long way to instill scientific temperament in intelligent groups of Jain tradition and likewise impel the scientifically trained brains to see spiritual data with necessary regard, and inspire them to give an ear to religion which is just another branch of science-the science of life. Bidada, (Kachchha)
- Muni Bhuvanchandra 27th Feb., 2001
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Philosophy and Science
Generally, philosophy and science belong to different fields of study. Philosophy is born out of thinking and science is born out of experience. Different types of literature describing and discussing these two seemingly different activities have, therefore, emerged. But in spite of this distinction, these are two related activities and the literature discussing their relation has also emerged. This collection of articles of Muni Nandighoshvijayji belongs to this type of literature.
Proficient in Jain philosophical tradition, the Rev. Muni is no doubt a learned exponent of the reflective spiritual tradition. It is indeed a fact of gratification that he has made tremendous efforts to understand the empirical scientific tradition and it was my privilege to see him absorbed in studying it. The author of this collection of articles is thus proficient in former tradition and well acquainted with the progress in the later tradition. It will, therefore, be very interesting to know his thoughts on the relation between these two traditions.
Science is no doubt empirical knowledge but its basic principles are based on reflection. But these principles are accepted as scientific only after they have passed through the test of experiments. It is, therefore, clear that concentration on the basic principles of modern science is a prerequisite for a discussion of relation between philosophy and science.
This collection of articles discusses the following principles of science : (1) Concept of time and its units (2) Origin and development of the universe (3) Darwin's theory of evolution (4) Units of time and their relativity (5) Atomic theory of construction of material objects, and (6) Energy, the corpuscular theory and the wave theory of light.
The basic scientific introduction of each topic is followed by a detailed discussion of its description according to the Jain philosophical tradition. After awakening the reader's interest in the both traditions, the author attempts to compare them.
The results of the comparison of these two different traditions will hardly acceptable to all. The author, who makes the comparison is proficient in the reflective philosophical tradition. If the reader like me, is a lover of the empirical tradition may not fully accept the conclusions of the comparison made by the author. But that does not at all diminish the importance of these articles.
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The reflective tradition is in our cultural heritage. The empirical tradition of science has come to us through the contact with the West. The Indian reader of today is interested in the comparative study of these two traditions. There is no doubt that these articles of Munishri Nandighoshvijayji will go a long way in helping the reader to understand and assimilate these traditions.
P. C. Vaidya
34, Shardanagar Society Ahmedabad 380 007 15-3-1994
With curtsy from the preface of the Gujarati first edition. l
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An exploration of the parallels between Modern Physics and Jain Philosophy
There is an intimate interdependence between religion, philosophy and scientific thought. Sometimes they may operate in different domains, not accessible to the other, but surely there also exists a lot of overlap, where they deal with common subject matter. In such a domain, they provide useful feedback to each other, and probably a common basis on which concepts can be developed further. Whereas religion should take into account, or be rather based on, the scientific experience and the theories, science is obliged to investigate matters of religious aspiration of mankind, remove superstition and provide logical basis for development of philosophic thought. None of them can exist in isolation, nor they can be complete without the other. Ideally, therefore, there should not be any conflict between them. Their development however proceeds as a different pace since they adopt different approaches. The religious thought had its golden age of development during 2500-2000 years ago during the times of Mahavira, Buddha and Christ, whereas the science developed lately during the 19th and 20th century. This has resulted in a big gap between the two. The present book written by Muni Nandighoshvijayj is an attempt to bridge this gap between Jain school of thought and modern science.
There are many a hurdles in finding parallelism between science and religion. The most difficult one is that of language. Science and religion use different terminologies and there are very few persons who can talk about either with equal authority. This sometimes may lead to apparent conflicts between the two, which may not exist in reality. The other equally serious problem is that of approach. Science requires rigorous proofs or observations whereas in religion, it is often adequate to cite the scriptures or quote some authority. Unless both of them can be assessed in the same fashion, a credibility does not develop. Equally important is the fact that if, after due discussion, one of them is found to be wrong, this should be accepted. That is rarely the case. In spite of these limitations, a frank discussion of the two may be useful, and lead us to a further insight into the reality of nature.
The book covers a wide variety of topics. In the beginning it takes up topics such as Special Theory of Relativity, Nature of Light, Doppler Effect, Black-holes etc., many of which form the foundation of modern physics and are deeply entrenched into current scientific thought. They have been verified by repeated observations and it is unlikely that they will need a significant refinement as a result of further experimentation or observations, although one must keep an open mind.
Quantum mechanics has been one of the greatest achievements of the modern physics. It has been able to explain a lot of diverse physical phenomena, but whether it describes the real world in completeness remains to be seen. The problem whether light is a wave or a particle has been a fundamental problem of the 19th century physics. This dichotomy originated from the fact that the western
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science is based on rigid definitions. Whether it is this or that, a choice has to be made. There is no such conflict with the Jain philosophy since Anēkāntavāda is one of the basic premise on which Jain thought has developed. There is no difficulty in saying that light can be both, wave or a particle, or neither, depending on the perspective of the observer and its true nature may never be understood completely. In discussion of these scientific topics, some ideas have been put forth, quoting Jain scriptures, some of which may deserve further study. It is impressive to see that a variety of topics, as diverse as the origin of life to cosmic time cycles were discussed in the ancient scriptures, in quantitative terms and the theory of Karma, which can in rigour, beauty and complexity is as thorough as the quantum theory was formulated by Jain thought.
The topics dealing with mantra, yantra, japa, colour and music point out their importance in the Jain philosophy and spiritual practices and have not formed the subject of scientific investigations. It may be easy to feel their effects on human mind but it is difficult to quantify this effect and therefore they have eluded a proper scientific basis. If techniques develop which can measure their effects, scientific theories can then be developed. Celibacy is one of the corner stones of Jain religion and whereas its importance is accepted by the medical world, there are some new aspects which have been brought to light in this book. The bio-electromagnetic energy or extrasensory perception are the topics which are only lately being investigated scientifically.
The origin of life on Earth, and in the universe at large, is still not fully understood by scientific investigations made so far. Jainism seems to have a different approach to the problem and is worth further study. In contrast Jain description of geography and human physiology appear rather primitive compared to modern understanding although there may be some elements of human physiology, particularly related to spiritual practices which can form a topic of further research.
A series of chapters deal with topics where again, not much thought has been given in the modern science. These mainly concern the food practices. Whereas the modern science has confined at determining the calorific values and its classification into vitamins, proteins and carbohydrate content, the Jain school of thought has gone deep into subtler properties of various types of foods and deals with its psychic as well as physical effects. This forms the basis of several chapters in this book in which an attempt is made to give some rationales behind the Jain food practices, which is an important part of the Jain religious techniques. Long before existence of microscopic life was shown and plants were considered to be living by modern science, these facts were well establishes in Jain philosophy and formed the foundations of complex practices as corollary of nonviolence, which is the basic tenet of Jainism.
There can be two complementary approaches for finding parallelism between science and religion. Assume science to be correct and find similarities in religious

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thought or do the other way around. The Muniji follows the latter approach and some of the discussion should be followed with this perspective. This has resulted in some difficulties. For example, in a chapter related to some conflicting problems between Jainism and modern science, some points have been raised for which there is no scientific rationale. An attempt is also made to propose some scientific solutions. It is clear that there is much confusion in the units of length (Gaus, Dhanusya etc.) and time (samaya) used in Jain scriptures. At least some of the problems can be resolved if the choice of units is correctly made, but it is ultimately to be supported by scientific evidence. Geological records, particularly those dealing with fossils form scientific basis of evolution of life and consciousness on the Earth. There are no fossils in the geological record which will support human beings being hundreds of feet tall. The Carbon-14 method, which can be used only for the period of about 50,000 years, can hardly throw light over events occurring on million year scale.
Furthermore the carbon dating is on a firmfooting and the dates cannot be in error because of contamination which is known to affect some of the ages determined by this method. The discrepancy between some of the problems of this nature can be sorted out by a simple discussion among experts and taking the complementary approach.
Thave gone through the book with great anticipation, to be able to find some ideas, inherent in Jain thought, which may not be well known to modern science. But to find such gems would need a further investigation and understanding of both, science and philosophy. May be this book can serve as a starting point for such a pursuit.
30th Sept., 1999 PRL, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380 009
Dr Narendra Bhandari (Ph.D.,F.A.Sc., F.N.A.Sc.) Senior Professor & Chairman, Earth Science & Solar System, PRL Ahmedabad 380 009
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Science Highlights Jainism
Tam honoured to be asked by Muni Nandighoshvijayjito write a foreword to his book "Scientific Secrets of Jainism". The book is a collection of essays by Muniji written over several years. There has not been enough time for me to study all the articles but what I have read has given me a deep impression that Muniji sets out various themes which indicate that Jain science accords well with modern science. Jain science is, of course, qualitative as expounded by Tirthankaras whereas modern science is very much quantitative. However in both cases the underlying concepts are based on rational arguments. Albert Einstein, in his article entitled "Science ana Religion" ( 1940, Nature, Vol. 146, pp. 605-607) expressed the situation as :
"Science, without religion, is lame, Religion, without science, is blind."
Jainism is science with religion. He adds:
"Science is the attempt at the posterior reconstruction of existence by the process of conceptualisation."
Jain science encompasses every aspect of the cosmos, including the living and nonliving entities. Einstein also adds:
"A person who is religiously enlightened appears to me to be one who has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires"
Thus, Einstein is describing the Jain way of life. Muniji not only describes the historical background to various aspects of the modern science but also compares and contrasts it with Jain science. He admirably shows the limitation of modern science. Rightly, he also appeals to scientists to take up challenges, e. g. on pp. 13 "So our scientists have to do a special research in this field (relativity) and they have to put forth scientific secrets, shown by our Indian philosophical tradition, before the world with a modern scientific method."
In my book, “The Scientific Foundation of Jainism", (1990, Motilal Banarasidass publishers, Delhi), I attempt to render the basic principles of philosophy and ethics of Jainism in terms of modern scientific terminology. Such endeavours are required to bring forth Jain science for modern audience - Jains and non-Jains alike. I think the writing on "Jainism as it is is one important endeavour, but to put its relevance in the 20th and 21st ceniury's concept is a somewhat harder task which requires urgent attention. Even the fundamental Jain concept of Karmic particles as Karmon, Pudgala as mass-energy etc. are not well understood. A long time before even photons and electrons were discovered, Jain science preached elementary particles such as Karmic particles. Karmic particles or Karmons are unique concept of Jain science as only these particles can interact with the soul. Jain science seems to be the only science which explains both natural as well as 'super natural
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phenomena, interaction between living and nonliving entities, conscious and physical science.
I am not a physicist and have not been able to assess various arguments in the book. However, in my opinion, it is a noble task to 'relate the concepts of modern science to Jain thoughts and vise-versa. This examination in itself is, of course, to be done through the principles of Anekantwada and Syadwada i.e. through non absolutistic and holistic principles. As I had previously suggested that his articles in Hindi and Gujarati would also be translated into English for a wider spectacle, all articles old and new, written by Muniji have been translated into English and are going to be published in a single book entitled 'Scientific Secrets of Jainism'. I am also glad to know that the total Gujarati version has also been published in Jan, 2000.
I congratulate him for this important and timely contribution, and in particular, 1 wholeheartedly recommend it to the scientific community, Jains and non-Jains alike.
26th August, 2000 Department of Statistics University of Leeds LEEDS LS2 9JT, England
Professor Kanti Mardia Holder of the Chair of Applied Statistics and Director of Centre of Medical Imaging Research
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अंतर-विश्वविद्यालय केंद्र : खगोलविज्ञान और खगोलभौतिकी IUCAA
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics
An Autonomous Institution of the University Grant Commission
Jayant Narlikar Director & Homi Bhabha Professor
June 14, 2000 Ref: JVN/2000/PC/12441
Fax No. : 0278-562775 Mr. Hemant H. Parikh Secretary, Research Institute of Scientific Secrets from Indian Oriental Scriptures, C-7, Radhe Apartments, Near Under Bridge, Shahibaug, dhmedabad-380 004
Dear Mr. Parikh,
On the * next sheet, I give my comments on the book entitled, "SCIENTIFIC SECRETS OF JAINISM " by Muni Nandighoshvijay.
As a rule, I do not write forewords to books by others and hence I am not in a position to write one for this book. My comments, however, are given on the * attached sheet and if the author wishes, he can include them along with the comments by other persons which are present in the manuscript sent to me. I am sorry for this delay in sending my comments.
With kind regards,
Yours sincerely,
J. V. Narlikar
Encl: * Comments.
Mailing Address : IUCAA, Post Bag 4. Ganeshkhind, Pune 411 007 India Location : Meghnad Saha Road, Pune University Campus, Pune 411 007 Phone: 91-020-5651513 [Direct], 5851414,5659415 (General) Fax 91-020-5656417 [Direct].
5650760 (General) e-mail: jayant @iucaa.ernet in URL: http://www.iucaa.ernet in
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COMMENTS ON THE BOOK ENTITLED “SCIENTIFIC SECRETS OF JAINISM”
by Muni Nandighoshvijay This book gives some fundamental ideas in modern science and mathematics, side by side with the ideas in Jain philosophy. I am not familiar with Jain philosophy, except that I am aware that this philosophy has a rich tradition of high level thinking about nature and life.
The scientific topics covered in the book include such subjects as Special Theory of Relativity, Wave-Particle Durability in Quantum Mechanics, Doppler Effect, Black Holes, etc. There is also a mathematical discussion of the fundamental number "T". The way this book is organised, one finds alongside the scientific concepts, some information about notions from Jain philosophy
There is one school of thought in India which argues that whatever western science is discovering today was already known to the eastern thinkers long ago. The attitude in this book is not of this kind. Instead the author has argued that Jain thinking has been more mature, more comprehensive and more satisfying than what science has to offer.
By training, I am a scientist and I have been impressed by the pragmatic attitude of science where no claim is made to the ultimate truth and all accepted research and theories are based on factual confirmation. It is, therefore, difficult for me to accept the alternatives provided here through the medium of philosophy, although I am willing to grant that somebody who is more advanced in philosophy than I am will be better able to appreciate the philosophical arguments advanced in this book.
Nevertheless, I think it is an interesting combination of modern science and ancient Jain philosophy and the reader will find it of interest to think over the matters presented here.
J. V. Narlikar
Director
IUCAA Post Bag 4 Ganeshkhind Pune 411 007
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सत्यमेव जयते
P. Tewari, Engineer-SG
Dear Shri Parikh,
With regards,
भारत सरकार
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
परमाणु ऊर्जा विभाग

DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENERGY
न्यूक्लियर विद्युत् बोर्ड
NUCLEAR POWER BOARD 500 MWe PHWR
Please refer to your letter dated 30th May, 1987 to Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission alongwith the article entitled, "Some Shortcomings of the Theory of Special Relativity According to Jainology" prepared by Muni Nandighoshvijay.
Chairman, AEC has asked me to go through the article and write my comments to you. -I am enclosing herewith my comments and also some relevant literature which could be of interest to you.
20
एस-७१, साउथ साईट, S-71, South Site, ट्राम्बे, बम्बई - ४०० ०८५. Trombay, BOMBAY-400 085.

July 8, 1987.
Yours sincerely,
(P. Tewari)

Page #24

Comments on article entitled “ Some Shortcomings of the Theory of Special
Relativity According to Jainology” prepared
by Muni Nandighoshvijay
-
The paper attempts to point out shortcomings in Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity (STR) by putting forth arguments derived from the interpretation of the Jainistic religious philosophy. Support has also been taken from the hypothesis on the existence of 'tachyon' which are currently now postulated to have velocity higher than that of light. Einstein's postulate that velocity of light is the highest possible velocity in the universe is not supported and a proposition made that velocities greater than light velocity are possible. The conclusion drawn is that alternate theories need to be developed taking help from Indian philosophical ideas.
While STR has been challenged by many other scientists, and experimental results proving that velocity of light measured by different observers is not the same as postulated by Einstein, have been reported, the reasons for such refutation of STR are more profound and subtier than what is put forth in the present paper. The contribution of Einstein through STR on the insight that each particle of matter has in its structure energy proportional to its mass is an unparalleled achievement in the scientific history.
Many a times, an interpretation of religious/spiritual texts, especially, relating to the very basic stage of creation of the universe, if incorrectly done, can lead to results that complicate the further investigations. An instance of this seems to exist at page 3, last paragraph, and page 4, first paragraph. The interpretation from the Jain philosophy that the "ONE, by knowing which all is known", is a particle of matter, certainly seems to be a mis-interpretation. The Upanishads and the works of Adi Shankaracharya (annexer-1) declare this "ONE" to be a "substratum" rather than a "particle", it is the omnipresent and eternal "chidakash".
At page 21, para 3rd, it is stated that "Jain philosophy mentions that the earth is steady and the stars, planets, the sun, the moon etc. are moving in the space". Certainly such a view is opposed to the accepted fact, at the present stage of scientific investigations, on the movement of planets and stars. It is likely that when the earth is stated to be steady in Jain philosophy, the reference must have been with respect to the observer on the earth itself.
Again at page 36, para 1, it is stated that "as per Jain scriptures, energy of atom is infinite because the velocity of atom is also relatively infinite". For an atom to have infinite amount of energy is indeed impossible.
At page 38, last para, the fundamental element of the universe in the Jain philosophy appears to have been mistaken to be in the form of particles, rather than a substratum of energy as stated earlier.
21

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Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity is only a crucial step in the development of fundamental physics, with regard to the nature of space, time and matter. Further development of physics may lead to the acceptance of more of reality of space than what has been taken in STR. It is very unlikely, if not impossible in my view, that velocities higher than light forms the basic postulate of a comprehensive theory of space, energy and matter in future physics.
The scientific and spiritual propositions of Muni Nandighoshvijay in this paper are of interest.

22

(P. TEWARI) Engineer-SG

Page #26

Tunes of Inspiration Knowledge can be acquired through three ways: 1. Through experiences and observations i.e. through experiments, 2. Through logic means contemplation, 3. Through intuition i.e. instinct or sixth sense.
The knowledge obtained through experiments and observation made by our eyes and other sense organs may be sometimes deceptive. That means, it is not a absolute truth but it must be relative truth. On the other hand, the knowledge acquired through contemplation / logic is also a subject of intellect, but it has also some limitations. Some empirical knowledge and all intuitional knowledge can never be a subject of intelligence. It will be always beyond logic and intellect.
The recognised principles in the science are established after they have passed through the test of experiments. Whereas the knowledge obtained through intuition or sixth sense does not require such examination. Though the knowledge acquired through intuition is very important for that person and whole society, and is consented by the majority class of society, it has not been accepted as scientific principle. But that does not at all diminish the importance of this knowledge. In fact, at the end of the life and in the extremely critical circumstances and where science is unable to do anything else, the spiritual or intuitional knowledge becomes the nectar.
The great persons, having spiritual knowledge through intuition or sixth sense or yoga and meditation and demolition of their inauspicious karma, of ancient time in the Indian culture, have described their experiences in words about the knowledge they acquired. This means that the knowledge obtained through intuition by them, has been shown in the scriptures. Of course, they are not completely or absolutely true and also it is a partial truth because the omniscient God i.e. Tirthankara also never able to describe the complete or absolute truth because their life-span is too small to describe the all infinite objects of the Universe and only one object can be described in the speech at a time.
The Jain canonical scriptures have been originally composed by the main disciples of omniscient Tirthankara that have seen all the phases of past, present and future of all the elements of the whole Universe like a clean water remaining in a palm.
Many scientific principleslie hidden in the most ancient Jain philosophical treatises. In modern times, it is very necessaryto represent these principles

Page #27

with the help of modern mathematics and scientific instruments before the world.
Of course, this work is extremely difficult and it could not be done by a single person. Yet in this book I venture to represent some scientific principles that had been concluded from oriental Jain canonical scriptures during my study and research.
Since I am a Jain Muni, there are many limitations regarding practical work. I have not tested these principles practically. I arrived at such conclusions on the basis of analysis of natural phenomena and social experiences. So it is necessary for the readers to notice that the research papers presented in this book are only theoretical.
The articles given in the book namely: (1) Limitations of the Theory of Special Relativity According to Jainology, (2) Light: Waves or Particles?, (3) Intensity of Light, (4) New Concepts about Doppler's Effect and (5) New Concepts about Interference of Light, are special research papers for the presentation in the annual meeting of Indian Science Congress Association (Calcutta) at Baroda. But unfortunately, according to the rules of ISCA and since the research papers are only theoretical, they could not be presented. Articles regarding the extra-sensory perception of Shri Ashok Kumar Dutt and their analysis may probably open the doors to new research works.
In certain places repetition of some matter may be found. But every article being an independent article and being published or to be published in different magazines at different times, repetition of that matter was unavoidable.
Direct blessings of my reverehd Gurudeva His Holiness Acharya Shrivijay Suryodayasuriji Maharaj and astral blessings of my 7th ancestral Gurudeva His Holiness Shasan Samrat Acharya Shrivijaya Nemisuriji Maharaj and inspiration and guidance from His Holiness Acharya Shrivijaya Sheelachandrasuriji Maharaj are important factors in my research articles.
A learned scholar and Atmasadhaka (Soul-seeker) Muni Shri Bhuvanachandraji, though being physically far far away from me, he has removed all my frustrations and gave me important suggestions to make this book flawless, free from mistakes and credible in scientific world. I have possibly incorporated them here.
Moreover, I will never forget Prof. H. F. Shah (Head, Dept. of Physics. St.
24

Page #28

Xavier's College, Ahmedabad-9) who inspired me and gave enough cooperation in writing these articles. Whenever the necessity of exposition and clarification of concept of modern physics and mathematical derivation arose, he explained them to me.
Dr P. C. Vaidya, a great mathematician and scientist not only of Gujarat but also of India who is even at the age of 80 years, today engaged in the research of maths and physics, accepted without any hesitation to write the preface. Really, he has devoted his life to researches of maths and physics. Many many students have done research in his guidance. Even though he is not able to read the manuscript of the Gujarati edition, with the help of reader he read it and wrote an introduction to this book. His thanks cannot be expressed in words. Moreover, it is my privilege that all the important articles contained in this book have been read by him in its original form and all the suggestions and corrections made by him are incorporated in the text. Since 1986, he is giving me guidance and help in the form of valuable books.
Dr Narendra Bhandari (Chairman, Earth Science & Solar System, PRL, Ahmedabad-9) also gave me important suggestions & help for my research articles. He has also wrote a wonderful comment of this book.
I am also thankful to DrA. P. J. Abdul Kalam (Scientific Adviser to Defence Minister and Secretary, Deptt. of Defence Research and Development, Ministry of Defence, India) for suggesting the name of Dr Jayant Narlikar, a well known Astrophysicist for writing the comment to this book.
Dr Jayant Narlikar, a well-known Astro-physicist and a Director & Homi Bhabha Professor of Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics, PUNE (India) also sent a brief but excellent comment on this book. I am very thankful to him.
I highly appreciate Prof. (Dr) K. V. Mardia, the author of the book 'Scientific Foundation of Jainism' and Head of the Department of Statistics, University of Leeds, LEEDS, (U.K.) who gave me enough and generous co-operation through the Yourkshire Jain Foundation, Leeds, in my research work. He had written a valuable preface of the first Gujarati edition and has also written a preface of this English edition. Without his generous co-operation this publication would not have seen the day of light.
Also, I especially remember Prof. Vasantbhai M. Doshi, Who examined the English translation of the articles and rearranged them. I am also

25

Page #29

thankful to Smt. Pramila Jain and Prof.P.C. Patel (M. G. Science College) Who read the complete English text and corrected it. I am also thankful to Dr. Jitendrabhai B. Shah, a director of L. D. Institute of Indology and Smt. Shardaben C. Lalbhai Educational Research Centre, Ahmedabad who inspired me for this English edition.
I offer my blessings to Dr Prdipkumar K. Shah and Smt. Darshanaben P. Shah, now in U. S. A. who read my articles published in NavaneetSamarpana, A Gujarati magazine and inspired me each and every time through letters and gave enough co-peration for this English version.
I am also very thankful to Mr. Bipinbhai K. Shah (Thana) who has totally made me free from worries for this publication.
Moreover, Dr Shriniwasan (Ex. Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission, Bombay), Dr R. Chidambaram (Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission, Bombay), Dr Paramahansa Tewari (Chairman, Nuclear Power Project, Kaiga, Mysore, Karnatak), Dr Shantilal M. Shah (Ex. Senior Scientist, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Bombay), Dr Utpal Sarkar (PRL, Ahmedabad), Dr Satya Prakash (PRL, Ahmedabad), Dr Umesh Joshi (PRL, Ahmedabad), Dr Surendra Sinha Pokharna (ISRO, Ahmedabad), DrR.P. Doshi (ISRO, Ahmedabad), Dr P.S. Thakkar (ISRO, Ahmedabad), Dr Anil Kumar Jain (Manager, IRS, O.N.G.C.. Ahmedabad), Dr Abhijit Sen (Institute of Plasma Research, PRL, Ahmedabad), Dr Dilip Ahalpara (Institute of Plasma Research, PRL, Ahmedabad), Dr Kirtibhai R. Shah (Canada), Dr Narayan Kansara, (Ahmedabad), Dr Virendra J. Shah (Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Ins., Bhavnagar), Dr Rajesh S. Somani (Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Ins.. Bhavnagan). Dr J. Krishna Rao (Ex. Head, Department of Mathematics, Bhavnagar Uni., Bhavnagar), Dr Nandlal Jain (Rewa, M.P.), Dr Nemichandji Jain (Editor: Tirthankar, Hindi Magazine, Indore, M.P.), Dr Urmiben G. Desai(Bombay), Mr. Ghanshyambhai Desai (Editor: 'Navneet-Samarpan', A Gujarati Magazine, Bombay), Smt. Gitaben Jain (Editor : Parva Prajna, Annual Magazine), Late Mr. Siddharthabhai Lalbhai, Dr Vimalaben S. Lalbhai (Atul), Mr. Ashok Kumar Dutt (Noida, Gaziabad), Lieut. Col. C. C. Bakshi Mr. Tusharbhai Bhatt (Ex. Editor, Times of India, Ahmedabad Edition) etc. have occasionally inspired me for this publication.
Also, I am proud that Research Institute of Scientific Secrets from Indian Oriental Scriptures,(RISSIOS, Ahmedabad) publishes this book. I conclude in expectation that this publication will also bring enough pride to this
26

Page #30

institute. God bless them. I am also very greatful to Mr. Harshadbhai K. Dave for final proof reading.
It is a matter of divine pleasure that with the divine favour of 20th Tirth ankara Shri Munisuvratasvami and Ananta-labdhi-nidhana Ganadhara Shri Gautamasvamiji this wonderful publication has been finished without any difficulty.
At last, if anything described against the scriptures and the sermon of the Tirthankara Paramatma, I seek forgiveness for it.
Muni Nandighoshvijay Gani
26 April 2001 Jain Upashray, Shantinagar Godhra 389 001 India
27

Page #31

अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ऋ लृ लृ ए ऐ ओ औ अं अः
ai ō au am aḥ
के कै को कौ कं कः
a
a ii uūṛ? Ir lf
क का कि की कु कू
ka kā ki ki ku kū kē kai
ka
Transliteration Chart
क ख ग घ ङ च छ
ट ठ ड
ta tha da
प फ ब
kha ga gha na ca cha ja jha ña
ण त थ द
64

dha na
भ
म
pa pha ba bha ma
श ष स ह ज्ञ क्ष
ta tha
य
ya
त्र
kō kau kam kah
28
ज झ ञ
श्र
ध न
da dha na
र ल व
śa șa sa ha jña ksa tra śra
ra la va

Page #32

CONTENTS
Publisher's Note A Search for Meeting Points of Science and Religion Philosophy and Science An exploration of the parallels between
Modern Physics and Jain Philosophy Science Highlights Jainism Comments from Dr J. V. Narlikar Comments on article entitled " Some Shortcomings of the
Theory Of Special Relativity According to Jainology" by P. Tewari Tunes of Inspiration Transliteration Chart 1. Limitations Of The Theory Of Special Relativity According To
Jainology 2. Misunderstanding About The Equation E=mc2 3. Light : Waves Or Particles ? 4. Intensity Of Light 5. New Concepts About Doppler's Effect 6. New Concepts About Interference of Light 7. Black Holes : Imaginary Ideas Of Their Structure 8. Jainistic And Scientific Analysis Of Extrasensory perception
Of Sri Ashok Kumar Dutt 9. Colour : The Wonderful Charecterisitc Of Sound 10.Limitations Of Mathematics In Jain Philosophy
And Modern Physics 11. The Value of a 12. Mathematical Form Of Paramāņu-Units (Vargaņā)
According to Ācārāngasūtra 13. The Jambūdvipa Laghusan grahaņi And The Modern Science 123 14. The Jain Time-Cycle And The Cosmic Calendar
143 15. Is There An Origin Of Life?
155

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165
186 205
216
222
16. Indian Classical Music And Its Scientific Significance 17. Mantra, Yantra And Sound: A Scientific Analysis 18. Two Great Scientists : One From Eastern India And One
From Western India 19. Why Does Omniscient Tirtha nkara Moves About On
A Golden Lotus? 20. Kinds Of Jāpa And Their Scientific Importance 21. Scientific Importance of Guru In Spirituality 22. Light : Animate Or Inanimate? 23. Directions In Jain Āgamas 24. Celibacy: A Scientific Analysis 25. Advantages And Secrets Of Penance :
The Scientific View-point 26. Prohibition Of Fresh Vegetables On Parva-Tithis:
A Scientific View-point 27. 'Vigais' And 'Mahāvigais' 28. Water : With Life And Without Life : A Scientific View-point 29. Jainism And Science : Solutions of Some Problems 30. Some References To Human Physiology In Jain Scriptures Appendix I Index of Proper Names Appendix II Glossary - Index of Scientific Terms Appendix III Glossary - Index Of Jain Technical Terms Bibliography
228 234 243 251 261
267
276
287 292 303 314 318 321
337

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1. Limitations Of The Theory Of Special Relativity According To Jainology
It is now ripe time for the reconsideration of the principles of the theory of
special relativity and the theory of general relativity that have been established by Einstein because some years ago, an Indian scientist, (now in U.S.A.) Dr E.C.G. Sudarshan has mathematically proved the existence of the particles, named TACHYON that have greater velocity than lightvelocity.
Till now it is not possible to describe the definite construction and the nature of the atom. We do not have a clear idea of the nature of the atom nor can we explain it. This shortcoming of ours is explicitly presented in the great scientist Michael Faraday's words pronounced in 1833 A.D.:
"But I must confess, I am jealous of the term 'atom' for though it is very easy to talk of atoms, it is very difficult to form a clear idea of their nature, especially when compound bodies are under consideration."
Till this date these words are almost completely true of the nature and construction of atoms, because as day by day the scientists undertake new research works in the field of fundamental particles, the concepts of construction and characteristics of fundamental particles, become more and more complex.
According to the principles of Einstein's theory any physical substance (object) can maintain maximum velocity equal to the velocity of photon particles or light, but can't get more velocity than that of light. And also when the object is in motion, it becomes shorter in length and its mass increases i.e. as the velocity of an object increases, its length decreases and mass increases. If the velocity of an object becomes equal to the lightvelocity, its length becomes zero and mass becomes infinite. Another remarkable principle of this theory is that as the velocity of the physical body increases, the time interval (the intervening time) between two phenomena decreases and if it becomes equal to the light-velocity, time

Page #35

4
becomes steady for that object. i.e. time interval for that object becomes
zero.
Einstein accepted the velocity of light as constant and it is denoted by 'c'. Einstein's principle touches two aspects of this physical world. On the one hand it describes the construction and shape of the vast universe and the forces that act upon it and on the other hand it explains the behaviour of the fundamental particles and their characters.
Einstein gave an excellent equation for knowing the energy of a substance, E = mc', where E denotes the total energy of the substance with a mass 'm'. 'm' denotes the mass of a substance, and 'c' is nothing but the velocity of light, which is accepted as constant.
Einstein gave an equation for calculating the mass of the mobile objects.
If the mobile object has the velocity 'y' then m
Y
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
i.e. v=c Then, my = mc =
denotes the mass of the object in mobile condition, which has the velocity 'v'. m. denotes the original mass of the object when the object is at rest, 'v' and 'c' denote the velocities of the object and light respectively.
So when the object maintains the velocity equal to the velocity of a photon particle.
m
O

mo
√1-c2 102
m
m1 = mc √1.
(by putting 'c' in place of 'v')
And according to the principle of mathematics, if any number is divided by zero it gives value infinite and it is denoted by co. As a result we can say that, if the velocity of an object becomes equal to the velocity of light, its mass, becomes infinite.
The equation for calculating the length of a mobile object is as follows:
0
mo
√1-12/c2
,where m
L = L'(√√1-v2 / c2 )
Here I denotes the length of a mobile object, which has the velocity

Page #36

Limitations Of The Theory Of Special Relativity....
'x'. L'. denotes the original length of the object, i. e. when it is at rest, v and e are the velocities of object and light respectively.
In this equation as the value of 'x' increases v? Icalso increases, hence the value of VI - 12/02 decreases. So we get always LPage #37

Scientific Secrets of Jainism
photon particles is not equal to zero, but even it is a little more than zero, inc becomes infinite (oc). That is, the mass of photon particles becomes infinite and hence according to Newtonian equation F = ma, any type of the greatest force doesn't positively or negatively accelerate the photon particles. i.e. They must be very powerful like micro bullets, and because of their infinite mass they must be black-holes. But as we experience in our daily life, the photon particles of sun-light do not have infinite mass, so scientists have to believe that the mass of photon particles is zero, when they are at rest.
And also this equation can't apply to the particles that have velocity greater than light-velocity, because here 'v' is always greater than c. And if (v>c) v is greater than c, the value of 12 must be greater than 1. So we will get negative value of L-12102 and a square root of a negative number is imaginary. So Einstein had to believe that there is no existence of the particles that have greater velocity than light-velocity.
But Jain philosophy doesn't accept this posulate. As shown in the Jain philosophical scriptures, the particle or an object that has greater velocity than light-velocity can decrease its velocity up to zero and a particle which
now, can maintain the velocity many times more than lightvelocity. We find a reference to this fact in the sacred Jain philosophical treatise named the BHAGAVATI SUTRA or the VYĀKHYĀPRAJNAPTI, which is as follows. This reference is in the form of question and answer between Lord Mahāvira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism and his first disciple śri Indrabhūti Gautama. It is as follows : परमाणुपोग्गले णं भंते ! लोगस्स पुरथिमिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ पच्चस्थिमिल्लं चरिमंतं एगसमएणं
पच्चत्थिमिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ परथिमिल्लं चरिमंतं एगसमएणं गच्छति. दाहिणिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ उत्तरिल्लं० जाव गच्छति, उत्तरिल्लाओ दाहिणिल्लं० जाव गच्छति, उवरिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ हेट्ठिल्लं चरिमंतं एग० जाव गच्छति, हेड्रिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ उवरिल्लं चरिमंतं एगसमएणं गच्छति ? हंता गोतमा ! परमाणुपोग्गले णं लोगस्स पुरथिमिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ पच्चस्थिमिल्लं० तं चेव जाव उवरिरल्लं चरिमंतं गच्छति ।
(HTET, PA6-98. BET-C) paramāņupõggalē ņam bhantē ! logassa puratthimillāõ carimantão paccatthimillam carimantam ēgasamaēnam gacchati, paccatthimillao carimantāo puratthimillam carimantam ēgasamaēnam gacchati, dāhinillað carimantāð uttarillamo jāva gacchati, uttarillaõ dāhinillamo jāva gacchati,

Page #38

राग
परमाणुयाग्गागंताताला गास्स पुरवि
मिलानाच् रिमेनानापद्याचि मिलाता दरिमं तातापद्वत्रिगिरिमनं एवम एगचति ॥ ज्ञमित्रतावरिमताता पुरनिनिदरिमंत समादादिणिज्ञाता च श्मिता लाउन रिलंकागति |रिलाजाव्दा हिलजात। उवरितावरिमं तावदितिलवरित ए ।। manaता हिडियाला वरिताना वरित्रे व रिगनंपगसमनि हिना गातमा परमाणुयागालियां नागसा पुरविनाaa रिलेररिगतं गद्धति॥'
in the universe
Reference of Bhagawati Sutra, which has been originally composed minimum 1500 years ago, mentioning the maximum velocity of atom (paramanu) This manuscript, belonging to the collection of. b. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad- 380009, having serial No. 14407, has been apptorimately written in the first half of the 16th century of Vikram Era or datter half of the 15th
A.D.
century of
·
२०१
Limitations Of The Theory Of Special Relativity....

Page #39

Scientific Secrets of Jainism
uvarillāõ carimantāð hētthillam carimantam ēgal jāva gacchati, hētthillao carimantāð uvarillam carimantam ēgasamaēnam gacchati ? hantā götamā ! paramāņupõggalē ņam logassa puratthimillaocarimantāð paccatthimillamo tam cēva jäva uvarirallam carimantam gacchati.
(Question) (Indrabhūti Gautam) : 0, Bhagavān! Does a pudgala i.e. atom go in one samaya from the extreme end of east of the universe to the extreme end of the west of the universe? and from the extreme end of the west to the extreme end of the east?, from the extreme end of the south to the extreme end of the north?, from the extreme end of the north to extreme end of the south?, from the upper extreme end to the lower extreme end and from the lower extreme end to the upper extreme end of the universe?
Ans: (Sri Mahāvirasvāmi): 0, Gautam! Yes, In one Samaya a pudgala atom goes from the extreme end of the east of the Löka (universe) to the extreme end of the west of the universe and so on.
(Bhagavati sūtra, śataka-16. Uddēšaka-8) Einstein has accepted the velocity of light as constant but according to Jainology it is improper to accept it as constant because the acceptance of constancy of light-velocity, delimits the velocity of paramāņu which is 3 x 10$ Km/sec. But as we referred above, the paramāņu can go from one end to another end of the universe within a SAMAYA. SAMAYA is the most micro unit of time according to Jain philosophy. Its explanation will be given later on.
According to Jainology there is in the whole universe an existence of only six fundamental elements. They are independent of each other, though their combinations are present in the universe. They are as follows:
1. Jiva i.e. the living element ( soul) 2. Dharma i.e. the medium for motion 3. Adharma i.e. the medium for rest 4. Ākāśa i.e. space 5. Pudgala i.e. matter 6. Kāla i.e. Time
From these six elements only the first element is a living element, while the rest are nonliving elements.
According to Jainology, time and space both are the elements with their separate existence. They are not co-related. The theory of special relativity mentions that space and time are co-related. A phenomenon, which occurred at one point of space can appear after some time at

Page #40

Limitations Of The Theory of Special Relativity....
another point of space. The point of time, when the phenomenon appears at the second point of space, is the present time for the second point and the past time for the first point. Thus time is nothing but the measurement of space. i.e. there isn't a separate existence of time.
Jain scriptures show that space is divided in two parts, Lökākāśa, and Alōkākāśa. Lõkākāśa, means space belonging to the universe. Lõka means the whole universe inhabited by living beings. It consists not only of the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom as accepted by the modern science but it also consists of all types of soil-lives, water-lives, fire-lives, windlives, and gas-lives as found in Jain Biology. Space beyond the Lāka (universe) is called Alūkākāśa, where there is no possibility for the existence of a living being and also Aloka does not include the rest of the four nonliving elements Dharma, Adharma, Matter and Time.
Moreover the universe is completely filled with two non-material elements named Dharma and Adharma. Outside the universe Dharma and Adharma do not exist. Though both elements are completely separate from each other, they combine with each other like milk and water. Therefore we find both elements in the same space. The element Dharma helps the motion of moving objects, while the element Adharma helps the stagnation of objects. And we have to remember that these elements are not constituted of material particles. So the belief fostered by our scientists that every
ent must consist of material particles and therefore Dharma and Adharma also consist of material particles is improper. Since these are non-material elements, they have no material-properties like colour, odour, taste, touch, mass, weight, electromagnetic field, to produce friction and to give response to friction.
The most microscopic particles of matter (paramāņus) possess these properties. As these elements (Dharma and Adharma) are not outside the universe, the elements - matter and soul - can't go outside the universe.
Einstein's acceptance of velocity of light to be constant means that the velocity of the source of light doesn't affect the velocity of light. e.g. Though the velocity of the source of light is 2 x 105 km/sec. the velocity of its own light remains 3 x 105 km/sec., but not + V-V, as the Galilean theory holds. It means the velocity of light will not become (3 + 2) x 105 km/sec. in the possitive direction or (3 - 2) x 105 km/sec. in negative

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
direction in respect of the direction of motion. Though this belief of Einstein's theory is partly true, it is not absolutely true. When the velocity of the source of light is more than 'c', the velocity of light becomes more than 'c'. And it can be denoted in sign as follows :
c= 3 x 105 km/sec. i.e. velocity of light or photon particle. v + c = c (lf vsc) but v + c = v (lf v > c) In this condition as the value of '
vor velocity of the source of light increases, the velocity of light also increases. It means the velocity of light is not constant but variable. If the velocity of light source is greater than the light-velocity, the velocity of light for its own light becomes greater than 'c' and equal to the velocity of light source. Not even a little difference takes place in the velocity of light, if the velocity of light source is less than 'c' because in this condition, the ray of light, created at the second moment always remains behind the ray of light, created at the first moment. The ray of light created at third moment always remains behind the ray of light created at second moment. And at last the source of light remains behind all the rays of light. So it is natural that the velocity of light-source doesn't affect the light-velocity.
But when the light-source maintains a velocity equal to "c", the ray of light doesn't go outside the source of light because both go with each other and an invisible, unbreakable, screen or wall of light waves gets formed before it.
But if that source of light gives off its light in two opposite directions the velocity of light in the opposite direction, relatively to the direction of motion of light source, becomes zero and light could be seen as motionless.
But experimental proof is a unique feature of modern science. And it accepts all theories after a practical test. It is impossible to give a practical proof for the 'superlighnic' objects because such objects can never be seen with our eyes. (Here the word 'superlighnic' is used for the objects having greater velocity than that of light.) For this reason Einstein must have said that no object can have velocity greater than the velocity of light.
Of course, Einstein's assumption is relatively true, because the object,

Page #42

Limitations Of The Theory Of Special Relativity....
maintaining a greater velocity than light-velocity must be formed through (from) such a micro and special kind of fundamental particles which should be smaller than photon particles and they should be frictionless or might produce a negligible friction. According to Jainism the atoms of every physical substance, are very large in size, so they can never maintain velocity greater than 'c'. But we can't rule out the existence of other types of atoms.
The description of types of Varganās i.e. groups of material particles, in Jain scriptures, also tells us this fact. VARGAŅĀ is a technical word for these various divisions of matter. Though the types of these varganās are infinite in the universe, there are only eight classified types of these vargaņās, which are useful for living beings. Their names are as follows :
1. Audārika varganā 2. Vaikriya vargaņā 3. Ahāraka vargaņā 4. Taijas vargaņā 5.Bhāşā vargaņā 6. Švāsõcchvāsa vargaņā 7. Mano varganā 8. Kārmana vargaņā
All the fundamental particles like electron, proton, neutron, positron, neutrino, quark etc. that have been discovered by our scientists, belong to the first Audārika varganā. SAMAYA -- The Smallest and Basic Unit of Time
SAMAYA is a technical word of Jain philosophical tradition and is used in scriptures to denote the smallest unit of time. There isn't a smaller unit than SAMAYA. Avalikā is also a unit of time and a technical word of Jain traditional scriptures. According to Jainology 1 Muhūtta (i.e. 48 minute) contains 1,67,77, 216 Avalikās, it means in 1 second, the number of Avalikās is approximately 5825.4221... Even though there isn't a definite reference in Jain traditional scriptures to the number of SAMAYAs, of 1 Avalikā, we could find that 1 Avalikā contains uncountable SAMAYAş. Here 'uncountable number' means, it cannot be denoted in mathematical terms or equation.
Now-a-days, scientists have taken the second as the smallest unit of time and they can measure a pico (one trillionth) second, which is equal to 102 second. But this Jain technical word SAMAYA is the smallest unit and though it is difficult to denote it, in terms of seconds, according to the calculation of Śri Nandalal Jain, we can possibly say that 1 SAMAYA is

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equal to approximately, 10-380 sec. to 10-500 sec.
During this smallest time-unit, SAMAYA, a maximum velocity of the paramāņu is 14 Rājaloka (Rajju). It means a paramāņu can go throughout the universe or from the lower end to the upper end or from the upper end to the lower end within a SAMAYA. A Rajju is the greatest unit of length.
Though, C.T. Colebrook and S'ri G.R. Jain have tried to calculate the measurement of Rajju, (Rājalõka), it cannot satisfy the belief of Jain scriptures.
Muni śri Mahendrakumar "Dvitiya" has done hard work to calculate the measurement of Rajju and according to his calculation the minimum measurement of Rajju is as follows.
Rajju = 4 x 10x1.8x10248 +3} miles
Even though, this value of Rajju is not real, it is more trustworthy than the value of Rajju calculated by Mr. G. R. Jain and C.T. Colebrook.
In this condition it is not proper to say that a particle cannot get more velocity than the light-velocity and also it is improper to say that the particles, which have greater velocity than light-velocity cannot decrease their velocity comparatively with that of light. i.e. it is improper that their velocity never becomes less than light-velocity.
E = mc
In this world - famous equation, Einstein mentions the energy, contained by a substance. Here E denotes energy. "m" denotes mass and 'c' is the light-velocity, which has been believed by the scientists as constant and value of "c" is 3,00,000 km/sec. If we want to know the energy of a substance, we have to multiply the mass with the square of light-velocity i.e. 9.0 x 1020 cms/sec. But as we have shown above the velocity of light is not constant, because the velocity of the source of light affects the velocity of light, if the velocity of light-source is greater than light-velocity, and the velocity of light source does not affect the light-velocity, if it is less than light-velocity. That is why when the source of light has greater velocity than 3 x 105 km/sec., the velocity of light-source is considered as the lightvelocity. Greater the velocity of light-source than 3 x 105 km/sec. greater the value of c. So we have to put y instead of c in the above equation, and

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Limitations Of The Theory Of Special Relativity....
13
--> uncountable number i.e. v --> infinite number but v # infinite number. If y tends to infinity, E (energy) also tends to an infinite number.
Even though scientists believe that the mass of photon particles is zero, really no particle has zero mass. So m (mass) of photon particles, according to Einstein's equation must become infinite and if their mass becomes infinite, the gravitational force becomes infinite. So they must be converted into black-holes. But really it does not happen. It shows that the equation m = mi, /VI-1216? is not true.
In the same method At never becomes zero for the photon particles and even when we remark that the At becomes zero for the objects that have velocity equal to the light-velocity, it is not a reality but only an imagination,
The third fact is as follows : It is not true that the length of the object, which has the velocity equal to light-velocity, becomes zero. If we believe that the length of the object becomes zero which has the velocity equal to the velocity of photon particles, the object must be destroyed and converted into energy. But as we know that the photon particles cannot be destroyed by the velocity. The object, which has velocity equal to light-velocity. cannot be seen by any one and in this sense the length of that object becomes zero, but it is illusion.
1710
(1)","TI-VTE
(2) ST = xV7-v2/c? (3) L = L'(VT - 12/03 )
And also these three equations cannot apply to the objects, that have greater velocity than that of light, that is why these three equations are not proper.
V = V,+ V
V.XV. for the addition of the vectors is not
Einstein's equation
satisfactory because according to this equation the sum of the vectors which have greater velocity than light is always less than c and if the velocities of two vectors are c and 2c, the sum of these two vectors becomes equal to c, which is not true.

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
In short all four equations of Einstein are useless for the object, having greater velocity than that of the photon particles. While the most learned scientists believe that the equations of classical physics must give a satisfactory interpretation of all physical phenomena from micro to macro i.e. atomic and sub-atomic particle world and the great heavenly bodies. But as we have shown above, the equations of the theory of special relativity can't give satisfactory interpretation of the modern sub-atomic particles and heavenly bodies having a greater velocity than light-velocity. So our scientists have to make a special research in this field and they have to put forth scientific secrets, shown by our Indian philosophical tradition, before the world with a modern scientific method.
I know very well that this being extremely difficult task, it cannot be done by a single scientist. And it can be done by a team of scientists, who have dedicated their life to science and philosophy.
I wish that all the scientists will give me enough co-operation in this extremely difficult task.
N.B. This article had been, originally, written fifteen years ago and I had made a statement that according to Jain philosophy, the velocity of light is not constant and any material particle or object may have greater velocity than that of light.
Till now all physicists have accepted that the velocity of light is constant and no particle has velocity greater than light velocity according to the postulates of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity.
Recently, in research carried out in US, particle physicists like Dr Lijun Wang etc. of the NEC Research Institute in Princeton have shown that light particle can be accelerated up to 300 times their normal velocity of 1,86,000 miles per second (3,00,000 km per second).
Of course, according to the report given in 'The Times of India' dated June 5, 2000, details of the findings remain confidential because they have been submitted to Nature for review prior to possible publication.
Regarding this the famous scientist Dr J. V. Narlikar says in his article This is not against any result of relativity. Because, the point of intersection has a geometrical existence only; it has no physical status. No material particle is sitting at that point. While relativity tells you that no material

Page #46

Limitations Of The Theory Of Special Relativity....
particle can be made to move faster than light. More generally it tells us that no physical effect, information can be transmitted across space faster than light. So an abstract point of intersection of two straight lines traveling faster than light will not raise any eyebrows in the relativity community.
This would only breach one of the basic principles of physics causality, which says that a cause must come before an effect."
Regarding the Tachyon particles the famous scientist Dr Jayant Narlikar writes in his article published in Times of India dated 17 June 2000:
"In the early 1960s, George Sudarshan, V. K. Deshpande and OMP bilaniuk had proposed that nature does allow faster than light particles to exist; only they can never slow down speeds less than the speed of light. Called tachyons, these particles can travel into the past. However, they cannot be used to send information or energy into the past and so they would not create paradoxical situations. They are, therefore, not inconsistent with special relativity. Do they exist? This is an open question to which the future holds the key."
15
After reading the article in 'Nature' dated 20, July, 2000, regarding the experiment carried out by Dr Lijun Wang, crossing the ultimate light speed barrier, Dr Narendra Bhandari (Chairman, Earth Science & Solar System, PRL, Ahmedabad) in his letter dated 2 Nov., 2000 explains as under:
"The experiment does not violet the theory of relativity. Speeds greater than that of light are known in certain media but only if "information" can be transmitted with velocity greater than C, then only cause and effect can be reversed. In the present experiment it does not happen. As I understand the waveform changes in the medium as I can better show and express by the following diagram :
medium
a
.
ib'
C'
Because of finite width of the wave part 'b' travels first. The peak amplitude is at 'c', but the wave at point 'b' can derive energy from the medium and appears as the peak b' as it goes out of the medium. Time taken from c to c' or b to b' is the same as permitted by the velocity of light

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
but b' (which actually corresponds to b) appears to have travelled faster than velocity of light if it is wrongly considered to correspond to point c, the point of maximum amplitude.
in brief, therefore information (which is at point c) has not travelled with velocity faster than light. I hope I have explained the experiment clearly though somewhat crudely. If I will find some good article on this topic I will send it to you."
There is a news in the Times of India dated 20 Jan 2001 that the scientists Lene Vestergeard Hau of the Harvard University and a team led by Mikhail D. Lukin and Ronald L. Walsworth of the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge have independently reduced the speed of light (photons) to zero for a millisecond.
The news are as under: "New experiments reduce speed of light to zero in a millisecond.
Researchers have been able to reduce the speed of light from 186,000 miles per second to zero, trapping the light beams for short periods of time before allowing them to burst forth again at full speed.
Now Hau's group and a team led by Mikhail D. Lukin and Ronald L. Walsworth of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge have independently gone that achievement better. They have brought the light pulse to a complete stop before allowing it to burst forth once again.
They could halt the beam for as long as a millisecond before turning the coupling beam back on and allowing the light pulse to re-emerge at full speed."
Of course there was a question for the existence of the tachyon particles but at present after the experiment carried out by Dr Lijun Wang, it may be shortly proved.
Both the experiments show that the statement regarding the velocity of atoms and sub-atomic particles or the tachyon particles that had been made by me 16 years ago has already been proved today.

Page #48

2. Misunderstanding About The Equation....
E = mc
E = mc is a famous equation that has been established by the great scientist Einstein, and it is related to the special theory of relativity
The special theory of relativity is established on two main postulates, as follows :
1. Velocity of any physical particle or object always remains less than the light-velocity.
2. The velocity of light, i.e. photons is constant. It means that the velocity of source of light never affects its light-velocity.
And according to the second postulate in the equation E = mco, E denotes total energy, m denotes mass of object, and c is the light-velocity that is accepted as constant.
Generally, all, who have not properly studied physics or special theory of relativity know that (1) mass and energy are interchangeable, (2) energy of object or particle is equivalent to its mass multiplied by the speed of light squared.' In reality 'in' in the equation E=mc, does not denote rest-mass, but it denotes the mass of particle or object with the velocity 'v' and therefore m is a variable for the same object according to its velocity. As velocity increases, m increases and therefore E increases. If the velocity of a particle becomes approximately equal to light-velocity, m tends to be infinite. It means that the energy of a substance or particle is not constant.
In the equation E = mc, mc denotes the sum of rest energy me, and its Kinetic energy, and it is denoted as E=mco=mc + K.E* Here me is constant for the same object or particle, while K. E. (kinetic energy) is variable according to its velocity. So it is a
-

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
misunderstanding that mass and energy are interchangeable and energy of the substance with the same mass is constant.
Though in practice, any sub-atomic particle never obtains velocity equal to light-velocity**, E = mc + K.E. says us that even the smallest particle of a matter may possess infinite energy and Jain philosophy also denotes that even the atom (paramānu) which is completely indivisible at a given time by any instrument, has also infinite energy.
Jain philosophy tells us that light is not an energy-packet but is made up of tiny material particles and its velocity is not constant, it is variable, if the velocity of source of light is greater than lightvelocity. According to Jain philosophy a particle may obtain velocity greater than light-velocity. Thus though the postulates of Einstein and the concepts of philosophical tradition of Jainism, which are absolutely true, are contradictory to each other, they come to same results.
References: 1. Holistic Science and Human Values (Quarterly, Feb, 1989, Vol-1, No. 1, page 6, column 1)
* Special theory of Relativity, Mass-Energy Equivalance **Beta (B) particles are able to obtain maximum velocity equal to. .99c.
THERE THE EYE GOES NOT, SPEECH GOES NOT, NOR THE MIND. WE KNOW NOT, WE UNDERSTAND NOT How ONE WOULD TEACH IT.
KENOPNISHAD -3

Page #50

3. Light : Waves Or Particles ?
Ever since very ancient times, the sun has been regarded and worshipped as a divine being in India as well as in some western countries such as Italy, Greece etc. and it is just and proper for the simple reason the only source of energy in the microcosm and macrocosm and since times immemorial, is giving energy to all living beings in the whole universe and it will no doubt continue to do so throughout eternity.
On the strength of the belief that an atom is the cheap, clean and harmless source of energy, all the twentieth century scientists give importance to it as an alternative soruce of energy. Experimental experience of a period as long as thirty five years, has proved that atomic energy is neither cheap nor clean nor harmless and therefore, the sun as a source of energy enjoys and will no dout continue to enjoy sovereign position forever. In the book 'The Turning Point' the scientist named Fritjof Capra, writes in this connection as under:
"Twenty five years ago, world leaders decided to use 'atom for peace' and presented nuclear power as the reliable, clean and cheap energy source of the future. Today we are becoming painfully aware that nuclear power is neither safe nor clean nor cheap."
The sun gives immeasurable quantity of energy to the whole world only in the form of light. Since long, scientists have been doing their best to know the complete structure of light but they have not been able to know fully its structure in its real form.
According to some scientists light is in the form of waves, while in the opinion of others it is in the form of particles. But scientists have of late unanimously come to the conclusion that since some physical phenomena of light cannot be understood and explained without accepting the particle theory of light and some such phenomena cannot be comprehended or fully explained without accepting the wave theory of light, light is in the form of particles and also in the form of waves.

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
Practically speaking, the particle theory is in reality quite right and it can explain every physical phenomenon pertaining to light. All that is needed is introduction of some changes in the fundamental concept of the particle theory. The Jainistic theory of light constituents also states that light consists of particles and it is on the basis of the particle theory that transformation of light in various phenomena such as reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, polarisation etc. can be explained.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), the English mathematician and physicist made important discoveries about light. He thought about the velocity of light and its ingredients. He advanced his reasoning to prove that light consists of microscopic particles.
If we accept that light is formed of particles, it follows that the particles of light emanating from illuminated objects, travel in all directions. Since light travels in a straight line and since it does not bend its course of travel at the edges of windows, doors etc., Newton preferred the particle theory. Though the particle theory, accepted by Newton, could not explain refraction of light or other experimental phenomena on the ground of acquired information, Newton did not meet with any difficulties because he held that the particles of light are different from the generally observed particles.
Christian Huygens, the Dutch mathematician, astronomer and physicist, advanced the wave theory of light. He argued that if light is formed of microscopic particles, the particles of two crossing light beams must get scattered but this does not happen in practice and therefore, the particle theory of light cannot be accepted.
The wave theory of light strongly contrasted the particle theory of Newton. The wave theory at that time was in its infancy and could not explain the straight path of light as consistent with unbendability of the light ray at the edges of doors, windows etc. But after Newton's death the wave theory acquired development and could explain the straight path of light on the ground of the comtemporarily prevailing condition that the wavelength of light is so small that its acquired bendability at edges of doors, windows etc. is so scanty as to be negligible in practical life.
A clear shadow of the sharp border of the object is not seen on account of light. But in place of a clear shadow one can see illuminated

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
21
and unilluminated lines of a definite pattern inside of the shadow. Such lines were known at the time of Newton also. But the particle theory of light advanced by Newton, could not explain it, while the wave theory could explain it. · A. J. Fresnel (1788–1827) the French physicist developed the wave theory and fully explained alt physical phenomena of light that were known at that time.
After a lapse of some years Jean Bornard, Lean Foucault (1819-1868), performed a decisive experiment, gave nearly a death blow to the particle theory and the wave theory came into the lime-light. The experiment proved that the two theories are definitely different.
The velocity of light in vacuum is 3 x 105 kms/sec. According to the particle theory of Newton there must be greater velocity of light in water than 3 lakh kms/sec. Foucault measured the velocity of light and showed that it travels more slowly in water i.e., with a velocity less than 3,00,000 kms/sec.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) gave his opinion that there are some magnetic force-line around the magnet and though they are expanded practically in a limited field, theoretically they can be expanded up to infinite distance, that is why magnet can attract the piece of iron or steel.
Faraday could not arrive at the mathematical accuracy of magnetic field but James Cleark Maxwell (1831-1879), the British physicist took great interest in the magnetic field and expressed Faraday's thoughts in a form of mathematical equations. His contribution in this field is esteemed to be a great work in the 19th century. Elongations occurring in the electromagnetic field according to the technical calculations of Maxwell and the emergence of electromagnetic waves in the electromagnetic field were accepted by all scientists as facts of physics, but experimental evidences were not available. During that period Maxwell studied the properties and measured the velocity of electromagnetic waves and observed that the velocity of electromagnetic waves is equal in amount to the velocity of light. Maxwell's mathematical equations of scientific and technical excellence ramained only on paper for a very long time.
In an experiment in a laboratory Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894),

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
the German physicist, succeded in producing an electromagnetic wave, and studied its velocity and properties, which were exactly in accordance with the calculations of Maxwell. The radiatior found out by Hertz was in the form of wave and it exhibited its reflection and refraction also.
Light waves and radio waves are electromagnetic waves. They differ only in wavelength and frequency. The whole universe is managed exactly in accordance with the few mathematical equations of Newtonian mechanics, Maxwell's electromagnetism and thermodynamics. Every physical phenomenon known at that time could be explained by combination of these three sciences. And practically speaking, the struggle between the wave theory and particle theory came to an end here. But in the fundamental experiment performed by Hertz and in the electromagnetic wave that he generated according to Maxwell's mathematical equation, the particle form of light peeped out to him, but it is no wonder the new radiation having been detected, which Hertz or any other scientist might have overlooked. During the experiment performed by Hertz, when ultraviolet rays were thrown upon the instrument that generated sparks, sparks were speedily and easily generated.
Thus the question : "Is light formed of waves or particles?" surfaced again in a new form. Even after Maxwell and Hertz had expounded electromagnetic waves, there was some doubt in the minds of Hertz and Thomson and the doubt was proper. Hertz's doubt was based on the results observed by him in his experiment; while the chief doubt of Thomson was about the 'ultraviolet enigma' which one comes across in the study of radiation of a completely black substance. 'Ultra-violet enigma' means radiation of wave with a small wavelength. The wave theory of light could not explain either of these phenomena. Thus the wave theory of light came to be called in question.
In 1880 A. D. two German scientists named Kirchhoff and Wien carried out their experiments regarding the study of radiation of black substances. With the help of thermodynamics, they explained the wavelength of radiation and the changes operative in its intensity. They could explain the changes operative in the intensity of waves having small wavelength and also the changes in the greatest wavelength but they could not explain the changes operative in the intensity of waves having greater wavelength.

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
During this period two scientists in Britain, Rayleigh and Jeans by name, carried out their experiments in this field. They obtained sufficiently satisfactory results only with reference to radiation having greater wavelengths. They used Newtonian mechanics, Maxwell's electromagnetism and statistics of Boltzmann. Their study showed that the intensity of radiation of waves of small wavelength was infinite, while experiments showed that the intensity of this radiation was never infinite. Thus there arose a crisis in physics.
In short there must be an error in at least one of the three sciences used by Rayleigh and Jeans (viz. Newtonian mechanics, Maxwell's electromagnetism and Statistics of Boltzmann) or at least one of these three sciences which is not applicable here. Moreover these three sciences were the bases of classical physics. So they concluded that the experimental results were defective and therefore, they frequently carried on experiments. But the results were the same. It was thus established that there was no defect in the experiments.
Thus when the ultraviolet enigma was explained the wave theory completely failed and about that time, Hertz during his experiment saw the particle form of light presenting itself to the view. On the other hand the existence of electromagnetic waves had already been proved in the laboratory. Therefore, again the question cropped up : What constitutes light – waves or particles ? In the beginning of the twentieth century this question gained prominence. In order to be able to answer this question Max Planck (1858–1947) the German physicist, took great exertions. In the beginning after some permutations and commutations in his mathematical calculations, Max planck found out a new equation but could not give derivative proof of it. With the help of this equation the ultraviolet enigma' could be sloved, but in order to give a scientifically derivative proof of this equation Max planck had to undergo immense intellactual labour. In the process of solving this equaiton he felt that the principles of classical physics needed to be radically changed. After changing these principles he presented his new principle named the quantum theory to the Berlin Academy of Science in the year 1900 A. D. and the particle theory of light emerged in a new form.
According to the quantum theory originated by Max Planck, the emission
.

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
of energy, inconstantly takes place in the form of 'quanta' and for that he offered his equation as under :
E = nhf, where E denotes energy getting emission.
o denotes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and so on i. e. integer numbers. h is the universal constant of Max planck and f denotes frequency of radiation.
The value of Planck's constant h is 6.624 x 10^-34 ergs.sec. (Joule.Sec.). Max Planck has named the particles of light as photons. Thus in the process of arriving at the solution of the 'Ultraviolet enigma' with the help of the quantum theory, there arose a contigency for accepting the particle form of light and the question regarding the acceptance of the wave theory and the particle theory stood unsolved as before.
In England Mr. J. J. Thomson found out electrons and in Germany the scientist named Lenard experimentally proved that electrons are emitted if ultraviolet light of definite frequency is incident upon light sensitive surface of metals. i.e. the emmission of electrons takes place. This phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect.
In 1905 A.D. Albert Einstein (1879-1955) the physicist born in Germany, presented the special theory of relativity and on the basis of the quantum theory of Max Planck, he carried out his research works. His research work strengthened the quantum theory.
Using the phenomenon of photoelectric effect, Einstein presented the views of Max Planck more revolutionarily and thus he showed more widely the use of the quantum theory. On the other hand since the existence of electromgnetic waves had already been proved in the laboratory, the thought of the wave theory was still on Max Planck's mind. He, therefore, stated that when emission of radiation takes place, it takes place in the form of particles and when it propagates from one point to another, it behaves as a wave. But Einstein stated that the emission of radiation takes place in the from of quanta (particles) and also it propagates from one point to another in the form of quanta (particles). It means that in the phenomenon called photoelectric effect when light in the form of small particles strikes a metal plate, they throw out the electrons separated from the metal. And for the energy of photons connected with the light wave of frequency 'V', he gave the following equation.

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
-
is the energy of photon, h is Planck's constant and
E = hv, where 'y' is a frequency.
WAVES : What are waves and how are they created ? If we ponder on this question with a penetrating intellect, it seems more proper to accept the particle form than the wave form of light and sound. Generally waves are created through some definite medium but they are not created without medium. In science, generally speaking, there are four kinds of waves :
1. Mechanical Waves : Mechanical waves are waves travelling in an elastic medium with participation of particles of the medium. The propagation of such waves is due to the elastic property of the medium e.g. waves on string, sound waves moving in air.
2. Non-Mechanical waves : Non-mechanical waves of light require no medium for their propagation. The disturbances corresponding to the electric and magnetic fields travel in space. Instead of particles, the electric and magnetic field vectors at all points make oscillations. Hence these waves are called electromagnetic waves.
3. Transverse Waves : The waves in which the direction of displacement of particles of the medium, is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the waves, are called transverse waves. In these waves the highest points on shapes bulging out on the upper side are called crests and those on bulging out on the lower side are called troughs. The light waves are transverse waves.
4. Longitudinal waves : The waves in which the direction of displacement of particles of the medium is along the direction of propagation of waves are called longitudinal waves. e.g. Sound waves travelling in air or any other media.
The particles of the fundamental medium of waves can move upwards and downwards in their own definite place but they cannot go from one point to another point of the same medium. In this way they impart kinetic energy to the nearest particles. So it is believed that conduction of energy takes place. But according to Jain philosophical contention no conduction takes place here but, really speaking minute particles move in light waves, sound waves and electromagnetic waves.
.

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26
De Broglie, the French physicist was awarded the Noble Prize in physics (1929) for his contribution to modern quantum theory. In 1927 he demonstrated by experiments that particles exhibit wave like properties and thus established the field of wave mechanics. With the help of Einstein's theory of relativity he showed that light is in the form of material corpuscle waves. He took it for granted that particles of light (photons) have some mass. Though modern scientists believe that a photon has zero mass, De Broglie showed with a mathematical equation that there is a great similarity between light particles and material particles. With a number of practical proofs he showed that there are photons in light and it is not possible to say that light is not in the form of wave. Both these forms enjoy simultaneous existence.
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
As in the theory of relativity, energy is connected with matter, so here also we can connect material particles and its mass with energy and frequency of waves. This is as under :
- A material particle has mass.
Mass is energy. Energy denotes frequency and frequency denotes
waves.
Thus De Broglie originated a new theory, the material particle-wave theory. Even an extremely minute particle can behave as a wave. He proved this on the basis of the relativity theory. Physics discussed in Jain Philosophical treatises corroborated the same theory. And regarding material particles and material waves De-Broglie gave a formula as under :
λ = h/mv, where is wave length, m is mass of the particle, 'v' is the velocity of the particle and his Planck's constant.
The velocity of particles used in light i.e. photons and of particles used in other electromagnetic waves is definitely 3,00,000 kms/sec. It means that with reference to light and electromagnetic waves there is no change in the value of h/c. It means that as the mass of a particle increases, the wavelength decreases and as the mass of a particle decreases, the wavelength increases. Here the velocity of the particle is the same therefore the frequency varies as the variation of wavelength. If the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases and if the wavelength increases, the

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
frequency decreases. And as mentioned the wavelength depends upon the mass of the particle. As the mass of the particle increases the frequency also increases.
According to the Jain principle, here we need to pay special attention to the fact that the mass of particles does not depend upon their own size, but upon the number of the most microscopic particles i.e. paramāņus. Therefore along with the mass of particles, their volume also should be
consideration. If along with the increment in mass, there is corresponding increment in volume, it makes no difference at all. Jain philosophical treatises show that in the space of one unit atom, there might be infinite atoms (paramāņus). And as the number of paramānus (atoms) increases in the space of one unit atom, paramānus become smaller and smaller in size and thus they become denser i.e. their volume does not change or increase but their mass increases. If the volume of photon, electron, proton, neutron, quark and other microscopic particles is the same, the mass of photon etc. and other electromagnetic particles must vary according to the variation of their frequency. It means that the transmitters transmit the waves possessing different types of frequency, really they emit microscopic particles having different masses with the velocity of 3,00,000 kms/sec. in all directions. This should be accepted.
This is a strange fact which the common man finds difficult to understand. One finds it difficult to believe that microscopic particles behave like waves. This difficulty arises out of the fact that our minds are preoccupied with the knowledge of pure particles and pure waves. We are familiar with the waves on the surface of water and we know the dynamics of a bullet coming out of a gun.
The experimental proof of the aforesaid equation of De Broglie was arrived at in the year 1925 A.D. While C. J. Dewison-Germer performed experiment in the Bell Telephone Company, a liquid air bottle suddenly burst open and the liquid air splashed upon a red hot piece of nickel and it soiled the surface of the nickel piece. Later on when they performed an experiment on that nickel piece. they found that great changes had taken place in the nickel piece, On account of the accident it was converted into a single crystal and wonderful results came out of these changes. It was observed that electrons were found to be acting in the form of waves and
.

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
the wavelength was equal to the wavelength in accordance with De-Broglie's formula 1 = h/mv
The question therefore arose : 'Is an electron a wave or a particle ?" In a number of electric phenomena the electron acts in the form of a particle. In a number of experiments we see its emission from the filament of the valve. We can change its path with the help of electric field and magnetic field. Also its path of motion in the cloud chamber can be seen clearly. In the phenomenon of photoelectric effect, the electron itself acts as a particle and it also compels light to act as a particle
Thus it is definitely clear that electrons are particles.
Modern physicists perform three experiments for examining the behaviour of electrons :
1. The experiment with bullets of gun. 2. The experiment with waves of water. 3. The experiment with electrons.
In the first experiment bullets shooting from the gun at various angles pass through slits No. 1. and 2 of the curtain infront of them, as shown in figure No. 1. Slits No. 1 and 2 are so sized that a bullet can easily pass through them and after passing they dash against the wall behind. On this wall there is a detector and the coming bullets are recorded with its help. In this experiment a number of bullets are rapidly shot in quick succession and at enormous speed. It is, therefore, not possible to observe each bullet minutely nor is it possible to notice the hole from which certain bullet passed. On the basis of the principle of probability, we can determine the probability of a certain point on the wall behind at the distance X from the point O. According to the principle of probability
The probability of the bullets No. of bullets coming to point X in striking at a distance X from =
a definite period. the point o
Total No. of bullets coming to the
whole wall in the same period. This experiment is performed in three stages : The experiment begins, when slit No. 1 and 2 are opened. The results are recorded by the graph in

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
29
fig. 10. The results are wonderful. Since both the slits were opened, the point of maximum probability where the bullets would strike, was not exactly in front of either slit but it was at the central point of the closed portion between the two slits.
NU
Fig. No. 1
Piz = P + P2
M
Fig. No. 2
Fig. No. 3

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
In the second stage of the experiment, slit No. 1 is kept opened while slit No. 2 is kept closed. The results of the experiment are shown graphically by the line P, in flg. 1B.
In the third stage of the experiment slit No. 1 is kept closed while slit No. 2 is kept opened. The results of the experiment are shown graphically by the line P, in fig. 1B.
All the three graphs in figures 13 and 10, make it very clear that P,= Py+ P2
A smiliar experiment can be performed on waves, created on the surface of water. As shown in fig. No. 2, an object is placed on the surface of water for producing waves. It is then oscillated upwards and downwards with the help of an electric motor. The position of the object produces circular waves on the surface of the water.
On the right hand side at a small distance from the object, there are two slits whose central line is attached to the surface of water. Behind it there is a detector for detection of waves. It can be moved in the X direction. The detector fully absorbs all the waves falling upon it, and it also measures the intensity of the waves and their amplitude also. This experiment is also performed in three stages :
1. Measuring with a detector, the intensity of waves at different points, while keeping the two slits opened, we get the graph of the results as shown in fig. No. 2C.
2. Measuring with a detector, the intensity of waves at different points, while keeping slit No. 1 closed and slit No. 2 opened, we get the graph of results as shown by the line !, in the fig. 2B.
3. Measuring with a detector, the intensity of waves at different points, while keeping slit No. 2 closed and slit No. 1 opened, we get the graph of results as shown by the line 1,, in the fig. 2B.
Graphs of single slits show similar behaviour of particles and waves, while graphs in which the two slits are opened, show that the behaviour of particles is different from that of waves.
The intensity of waves 1,, is not obtained by addition of the waves and l. It means that the effects obtained from the two slits are not

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
independent of each other. It follows that interference takes place.
The experiment with electrons is as under :
When electrons are emitted from the filament of the heated metal named tungston they behave like real particles. After emission if they are connected with an electric or magnetic field, their direction of movement can be changed. When they are detected by a detector they create pulses in the detector. fig. No. 3 shows when the same electrons pass through slits, like bullets from the gun, they are detected in No. 1, 2, 3, ... etc.
In spite of all this, it is surprising to observe that experimental results obtained from both slits with reference to eletrons and waves are similar to each other.
The experiment shows that the electron behaves in the form of a particle, when one slit is opened. While it behaves in the form of a wave when two slits are opened.
The question : "Is an electron a particle or a wave ?" therefore, remains unsolved from the view point of modern physics. We observe that in spite of being in the form of a particle, the members of the microscopic world, can also behave as waves. This fact can provide a basis for the prospective material - particle - wave theory.
Similary, the question whether light is in the form of particles or waves also remains unsolved from the view point of modern physics. Such phenomena as interference, polarisation and diffraction with reference to light can be explained only by means of the wave theory, which hopelessly fails to explain the phenomena of photo-electric effect and intensity of radiation.
Therefore the particle theory and the wave theory of light are both acceptable today.
Regarding this Fritjof Capra makes the following statement in his book named 'The Turning Point':
"A few years later, the quantum theory made it clear that even the subatomic particles-the electrons and the protons and the neutrons in nucleus – were nothing like the solid subjects of classical physics.... They appear sometimes as particles, sometimes as waves and this dual

.

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32
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
nature is also exhibited by light, which can take the form of electromagnetic waves or particles. The particles of light were first called 'quanta' by Einstein hence the origin of the term 'quantum theory' and they are now known as photons.
"This dual nature of matter and of light is very strange. It seems impossible to accept that something can be at the same time, a particle - an entity confined to a very small volume - and wave which is spread out over a large region of space."
"An electron is neither a particle nor a wave. It may show particle-like aspects in some situation and wave-like aspects in others. While it behaves like a particle, it is capable of developing its wave nature at the expense of its particle nature and vice versa, thus undergoing continual transformation from particle to wave and from wave to particle."
Here comes to an end the history of the particle theory and the wave theory with reference to light from the view point of modern physics.
Jain scriptures clearly explain this phenomenon. According to them, there are six fandumental eternal elements (dravyas) namely, 1. Jiva i.e. the living element (Ātmā or soul) 2. Dharma i.e. the medium for motion 3. Adharma i.e. the medium for rest 4. Ākāśa i.e. space 5. Pudgala i.e. matter 6. Kāla i.e. Time. Out of these six dravyas Dharma, Adharma and Ākāśa are formless. They do not have properties of shape, odour, taste, touch and colour. Living together with pudgala, the soul attains a concrete form. But the pure soul is formless i.e. colourless and shapeless. Jain philosophers regard Kāla (time) as a dravya and this is a distinct feature of Jain philosophy. Kāla is also formless but its existence can be inferred from its functions.
In short, every object in the whole universe, whether it is microscopic or macroscopic, visible or invisible, perceptible or imperceptible, is either a pudgala or a soul living in contact with pudgala (matter). And the minutest particles of pudgala which can never be divided into more particles in any of the three phases of time, (i.e. the past, the present and the future.) is called a paramāņu (ultimate atom). A combination of these minutest particles (paramāņus) can constitute any object in the universe. A pudgala has infinite energy. A pure soul also has infinite energy. But the great

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
33
contradiction between the two is that the energy of a soul is self-controlled, while the energy of a pudgala is controlled by a living being. Every paramāņu of a pudgala has colour, smell, taste and touch (tangibility) and they are the characteristics of a pudgala. Whererver one experiences colour, smell etc. by means of sense organs, aggregates of paramāņus have to be present there. Every object is essetially paudgalic (material). These objects are sometimes so insignificant that their colour, taste, smell and touch are not perceptible to sense organs, but their existence cannot be denied on that ground; e.g. though ultraviolet rays and infra-red rays cannot be pereceived by our eyes, their effect is received on photographic plates.
In the wake of progress in physics it becomes all the more significant to know whether light consists of rays or particles. Are the objects known to classical physics as waves, really waves or are they particles ? If they are really in the form of particles, why is it that they behave like waves ? This needs to be explained. Different types of waves - rays of visible or invisible light, sound waves of different wavelengths, ultrasonic waves of very high frequency and infrasonic of very low frequency, which are not audible and electromagnetic waves of different frequency and different wavelengths, which are useful in broadcasting radio signals and television signals and signals of other transmitters are known to classical physics. Are all these rays in the form of waves or particles ? This is a very important question of modern physics and we shall try to find its solution.
Jain scriptures state that Sabda (sound), Andhakāra (darkness), Udyota (coolling, soothing light i.e. moonlight). Ātapa (hot light i.e. sunlight), Prabhā (irregular spread reflection, interference etc. of light) are modifications of prime matter. All the aforesaid phenomena are constituted of microscopic particles (paramāņus) of matter. In the fifth chapter of Tattvārtha Sūtra, Umāsvāti, while defining pudgala (the prime matter) says - pūrayanti galayanti iti pudgalāḥ (gryfa Tupa sa E TIE). In pudgala (the prime matter the process of splitting i.e. fission and combination i.e. fusion of particles is ever going on. No object remains in the same condition forever. e.g. There are billions of cells in our body. Lakhs of them are destroyed every moment and they are replaced by nearly as many newly created cells.
In atomic physics the process of fission and fusion is the best examples
.

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
of splitting and combination of particles. Both these processes need energy. In certain circumstances fusion produces atomic power and in others fission produces atomic power.
Uranium, radium etc. used in atomic process emit three types of rays namely alpha (a), Beta (B), and Gamma (). These rays are nothing but shower of particles of a particular kind. An oscilloscope produces their trace on the screen. Particles of alpha rays are like nuclei of Helium atoms, Beta rays contain electrons and Gamma rays are like particles of light and as we have seen the rays of light are also forms of particles which are called photons.
The description of types of paramānu-units in Jain scriptures also support this theory. There are infinite types of Varganās in the universe but there are only eight classified types of Varganās which are useful to living beings. Their names are as under:
1. Audārika Vargaņā 2. Vaikriya Vargaņā 3. Ahāraka Vargaņā 4.Taijas Vargaņā 5.Bhāṣā Vargaņā 6. śvāsõcchvāsa Vargaņā 7. Manā Vargaņā 8. Kārmaņa Vargaņā.
Vargaņā' are groups of paramāņus and each unit of it has a certain paramānus number. Paramāņu-units of Audārika Varganā possesses infinite number of paramānus. All fundamental particles such as eletron, proton, neutron, positron, neutrino, quark and so many others that scientists have discovered belong to the Audārika Vargaņā.
Of the eight types of Vargaņās we here confine our discussion to Taijas Vargaņā and Bhāṣā Varganā. Different types of electromagnetic waves and light waves are paramānu-units of Taijas Vargaņā and sound waves are paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā.
More description and explanation is given in Jain tretises like कर्मप्रकृति, Yangue, 3ERİCIT etc.
It is very pertinent here to study how sound is created and how it propagates in the universe. The fourth chapter named Bhāṣā-Jāta of the second part of the Ācārānga, the sacred Jain Āgama (canonical book) states that sound (Bhāṣā ) has four varieties :
1. Utpatti-Jāta, 2. Paryava-Jāta 3. Antara-Jāta and 4. Grahaņa-Jāta.

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
1. A living being takes paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā and releases those after converting them into words Bhāṣā. This is called Utpatti-Jāta.
2. If paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā released according to the abovementioned process collide with other paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā that are in a order or disorder of series around the source of sound and convert them into sound, this newly converted sound is called ParyavaJāta.
3. If paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā released according to UtpattiJāta process, collide with other paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Varganā that are in a series around the source of sound and convert them into sound, these newly converted paramāņu-units of sound are called Antara-Jāta.
4. Whether they are in an order of series or in a disorder of series, some of the paramāņu-units of Bhāşā Vargaņā get converted into sound and then they enter the hole of the ear and affect the hearing centre in the mind. They are called Grahaņa Jāta.
These paramāņu-units, called Grahaņa Jāta have infinite space-points (pradēšas). (One pradēśa means the volume of space occupied by a single separate paramānu). They occupy space consisting of innumerable pradēšas. The life-span of these paramānu-units consists of countless SAMAYAS. In Jain philosophy SAMAYA is the extremely minute unit of time. Even though it seems impossible to calculate how many SAMAYAS make a second, Śri Nandlal Jain has calculated that one second contains approximately a minimum number of 10380 to 10500 SAMAYAS. These paramāņu-units have different types of colour, smell, touch and taste.
Paramāņu-units of sound that do not enter the ear, dissolve either in the original paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā or into other types of paramāņu-units.
The modern well established classical physics fully accepts the theory that sound is in the form of waves. But according to the logical viewpoint of Jain philosophy, sound is composed of particles.
The propagation, reflection, defraction, interference and other phenomena of sound being the subject matter of a separate research article, we do not discuss them here.

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36
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
We return to our original question whether light and electromagnetic waves which have a velocity 3,00,000 kms/sec. are absolutely in the form of waves or particles.
Max Planck says that energy (light) is emitted in the form of quanta but it propagates in the form of waves. Einstein states that emission and propagation of light are both in the form of quanta. He calls them photons.
As a matter of fact, light is composed of minute particles and it propagates in the form of particles. According to Jain philosophy, even photons are composed of infinite and extremely microscopic particles i.e. paramāņus. When they propagate, they rotate like a cricket ball or a ballbearing. Those who play or watch the game of cricket, know that the bowler continuously polishes one side of the ball to make it smooth. And there is a scientific reason for it. Being polished the surface on one side of the ball becomes smooth, while the surface on another side of the ball is comparatively rough. When the bowler throws this ball, air passes fast by the smooth surface and less friction is produced and so the resistance of air decreases. But air passes slowly by the rough surface and more friction is produced and so the resistance of air increases. On account of unequal resistance, the ball diverts to the direction of greater resistance. The bowler throws inswinger and outswingers. There are inswing and outswing types of bowling in cricket.
Similarly since photons are composed of innumerable paramānus, when they propagate with a velocity of 3,00,000 kms/sec. they resist other particles which are more microscopic than photons and therefore, they again and again divert from their original path into two opposite directions and they seem to behave like a wave. Their diversion is caused by unequal (smooth and rough) surfaces and resistance. Unequal mass can also cause their diversion. If there is greater mass on one side and less mass on another side of photon particles, they can behave like a wave.
Thus though light and other electromagnetic waves are in the form of particles, they seem to propagate in the form of waves. The distance between the two points in a straight line where light particles divert from its path in same side is called wavelength. The distance of displacement of photons on two sides of its original straight path is called amplitude.

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Light : Waves Or Particles ?
The number of diversions of a photon from its straight path in one second is called its frequency. Smooth Surface Less friction
a, amplitude More
velocity
Turning
side
Less velocity , Wavelength Rough Surface, More friction Fig No. 4
Fig No. 5 Frequency, wavelength and amplitude of light waves depend on types of photon differing, according to the number of paramāņus, they have.
Photons of all types of visible and invisible light rays may be considered as the Taijas Vargaņā. Taijas means light or electricity. Since all electromagnetic waves are created with electricity. they also belong to Taijas Vargaņā. And where there is electricity, there are positive and negative electric charges. An electric current gives rise to magnetic field when it passes through steel. In short electricity and magnetism are so closely interconnected that they cannot be separated.
Paramāņu-units of all electromagnetic waves may be considered as Taijas Vargaņā, while paramāņu-units of all sound waves, may be considered as Bhāṣā Vargaņā.
Sound waves bend because paramāņu-units of Bhāşā Vargaņā have a very low velocity of 330 metres/sec. Light waves and electromagnetic waves having velocity as high as 3,00.000 kms/sec. do not bend because particles of light (photons) and those of electromagnetic waves can propagate through atmosphere and outer space consisting of paramāņuunits which consist of particles of smaller size and less mass.
Though the paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā are useful for propagation of sound, they consist of many more paramāņus then the units of Taijas Vargaņā or units of electromagnetic waves. Since the velocity of particles of units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā is 1.1 x 10-times less than that of photons,

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
when propagating particles of Bhāṣā collide with other paramāņu-units of Bhāsā Varganā, and convert them into sound and get reflected. When the velocity of paramāņu-units of sound rises, with the help of electromagnetic force to the velocity of electricity, paramāņu-units of sound, too, propagate in a straight direction.
On the basis of all these scientific facts and on the basis of physics discussed and described in Jain scriptures, we can conclude that paramānus dominate the whole universe and these microscopic particles while retaining their particle form, can behave like a wave. Contrarily to what Fritjof Capra says, their waveform is not created on destruction of their particle form nor does their particle form come into existence on destruction of their wave form. In short, when they are stationary, particles are in the form of particles. When they propagate they are perceived like a wave. But the wave form of particles can be never seen.
I end this paper with an appeal to research scholars to explore the vast ocean of precious gems of knowledge lying hidden in oriental scriptures and assimilate them with modern science in the larger interest of human welfare.
THE CONNECTION BETWEEN PHYSICS AND MYSTICISM IS NOT ONLY VERY INTERESTING BUT ALSO EXTREMELY IMPORTANT......... MYSTICISM IS, ABOVE ALL, AN EXPERIENCE THAT CANNOT BE LEARNED FROM BOOKS.
FRITJOF CAPRA

Page #70

4. Intensity Of Light
W ith regards to light as generally believed by all scientists, we also accept that the intensity of light depends upon the number of photons.
Intensity of any kind of radiation depends upon the number of incident particles i.e. photons per unit area per unit time. As the distance between the source of light and light receiving surface increases, intensity decreases with a proportion to be reciprocal of the distance square because the number of photons received by that surface decreases. It is denoted as follows.
Ta 1/d2 (Where I is intensity and 'd' is distance between source of light and light receiving surface}
::1 = k/d? (Where K is constant for the same source of light and it denotes total number of photons per unit time emitted by a source and it depends upon emissive power of the metal}.
- 1= x 2 (K=n/t, n depends upon emissive power and light-velocity
n=egc)
I=S
.
(Where e depends upon an area of emitting surface, o =
t.do
Nandighosh constant and its unit may be joule.sec/meter. c = velocity of light. d = distance between the source of light and light receiving surface)
But photons are scattered in all directions, the number of photons per unit area decreases with proportion to 1/4 nr?: Here r = d.
:.1= OCOR e or
4 atd
4
trz
If either a source of light or a light receiving surface is in motion and they come nearer to each other, their velocity becomes negative then = d-v.t, where d is an initial distance between the source of light and light

.

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40
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
receiving surface. And if they go far apart from each other then r = d+v.t
:: 1 = e oc/4nt (d vt)
This formula can be used only for direct light but not for reflected and concentrated light. Doppler's effect can easily be known by this formula.
In this formula 'e' does not depend only upon the area of light emitting body but it also depends upon the specific resistance of metal., length of filament and area of a cross section of the filament and it can be determined from the following formula of electricity.
In electricity, intensity of light depends upon the watt of a bulb. e. g. Light intensity of 40 Watt bulb is more than 25 Watt bulb, in the same way light intensity of 60 watt bulb is more than that of 40 watt bulb. In short as watt increases intensity increases.
But W=12 R (Where W = watts. I = current in amp. and R=Resistance in ohms ) and R = 8 Va (Where R= Resistance, S = Specific Resistance of metal, l = length of filament in cms., a=area of a cross section of filament in square cms.)
Suppose in case of electric bulbs of same company, a specific resistance of tungston metal and area of a cross section of the filament might be same forever then R, resistance is directly variable with length of filament. Therefore, as length of filament increases resistance increases and with the increment in length of filament watt also increases, if there will not be any change in current I. But, in practice, it is not possible.
Absolute temperature has not been considered here because, it affects only on the frequency of each photon.

Page #72

5. New Concepts About Doppler's
Effect
Indian philosophical treatises are composed by ancient saints with minute and extra-sensory knowledge, which are completely scientific and true. More than 2500 years later they are able to give a solution of modern scientific problems.
According to Jain philosophy sound, darkness, light, shadow, and aura are absolutely the modifications of matter. And according to Jainism the most micro and completely indivisible particle of matter is called atom. Though the definition of atom in modern physics and in oriental philosophical scriptures is the same yet their concepts are quite different from each other.
Oriental concepts about light and sound are able to solve all difficulties or problems of modern physics.
Today, I am mentioning new concepts about Doppler's Effect in case of light. According to Special Theory of Releativity, Einstein gave a formula for
1-Cosovic the frequency of moving luminous objects as follows : 1=IT
V1-/02 Where r' denotes resultant frequency for moving bodies, f denotes frequency when the body is at rest, y and c are the velocities of moving bodies and light respectively. This is Doppler's principle for all velocities. When 0 = ( the equation
11-vlc assumes the perspicuous form f'- film
Vi+v/c
If here velocity of source of light is - c i.e. v = -c, it means ray of light and source of light have equal velocities in the forward direction. Then

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
f' = c and hence according to E Enhf, energy becomes infinite and wavelength becomes zero.
And if v = c, i.e. the source of light and the light-approached the surface go far apart from each other with a velocity c. If the approaching surface is steady then the source of light goes far and far from it. Therefore
_ . 1- v/c , 0 according to the equation
0, the resultant frequency
V1+vic becomes zero, wavelength becomes infinite and energy beomes zero i.e. photon will remian steady or motionless.
Suppose for the Doppler's Effect, the situation is as follows:
A is a source of light which is steady and B, C and D are the objects from which B has velocity + v i.e. it goes far from source of light A, with a velocity v, C is steady and D has velocity -v, i.e. it comes nearer to the source of light.
Now according to Einstein's equation, frequency of the same photons of the same source of light is different for B, C and D objects. For the object B frequency of photon decreases, while for the D object frequency of the same photon increases, at the same time for object C, it remains constant, What a strange situation it is !
Though this is mathematically true yet in practical life and logically it is not appropriate or proper.
Actually, in Doppler's Effect frequency or the energy of each photon remains the same forever. It is not variable according to the velocity of either source of light or light approaching surface because the source of light emits photons which have always equal or the same energy and the frequency is either steady or it moves in the forward or the reverse direction.
Intensity of light or any radiation depends only on the number of photons approaching the unit area of surface per unit time. And therefore the velocity of either the source of light to the approaching surface or the approaching surface to the source of light, increases the intensity of that light. And if they are going far apart from each other, intensity of that light

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New Concepts About Doppler's Effect
decreases because the number of photons per unit area per unit time decreases.
A total energy per unit area does not only depend upon frequecny of each photon but also it depends upon number of photons per unit area per unit time. Hence, if intensity increases total energy also increases.
Actually in modern physics, according to Jainism (Jain philosophy) and according to my opinion, frequency is absolutely imaginary. Only the particles of sound or light or electromagnetic waves travel in space and their path is serpentine or zig-zag. When they are at rest, there is no frequency, no energy. Only when they are in motion, they have imaginary frequency depending on their serpentine paths and energy depending on their velocity, -mv2 or mc2. Where
2
43
that might be equal to Newtonian Mechanics K.E=
2
m is the rest mass of photon. Though scientists of modern age believe that photon has zero rest mass yet in calculation of momentum p = mv, (p = mc), they consider that a photon has rest mass.
Photoelectric effect also proves that the photons are in the form of the most micro particles. And the following words of the scientists G. Heber and G. Weber say that a photon can be divided into 1 electron and 1 positron.
"We only mention the transformation of a photon into 1 electron and 1 positron, the reciprocal process, the manifold transformations among the mesons and transformations from mesons to electrons, photons and neutrons."
Solar deflection of star light is also able to prove that photons have
some mass.

Page #75

6. New Concepts
About Interference of Light
In
modern physics, the phenomenon of interference has unique importance and according to the opinion of scientists of modern age it could be explained only by the acceptance of the wave theory of light. On the other hand, the phenomenon of photoelectric effect could be explained only with the help of the corpuscle theory or the particle theory. Hence all the scientists of modern age accept the dual nature of light and they also believe that the subatomic particles like electrons, protons, neutrons etc. also have a dual nature, similar to that of light.
On the other hand Jain physics or Jain philosophy absolutely accepts light in the form of corpuscles and according to my opinion it is absolutely true. Therefore, in this article, I give an explanation of the phenomenon of interference of light with the help of the corpuscle theory only. Of course, when light, all the electromagnetic waves and also all subatomic particles, propagate in space, their path is serpentine or zigzag simmilar to that of waves. Thus there is no difficulty about acceptance of the corpuscle theory of light.
P3

Fig No. 1
Fig No. 2
ON
ε
A2
N
1 2
P. D. 0, 2, 2 λ....
P.D.=4, 34,
31 2
According to the wave theory of modern physics, when two waves from coherent sources superpose each other, the phenomenon of interference takes place. In this phenomenon if the path difference between the two

IN

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New Concepts About Interference of Light
45
waves, that are superposed on each other is 0, A, 2A, 3A,.... then the crest of one wave falls on the crest of the other wave and also trough of one wave falls on the trough of the other wave and as a result constructive interference takes place. If the path difference between two waves is
λ 32 52
λ
(2n-1) then crest of one
wave falls on the trough of the 2 2 2 other wave and in same way the trough of one wave also falls on the crest of the other wave and as a result destructive interference takes place.
According to modern physics the intensity of light or waves depends upon the amplitude of waves. It is directly proportional to the amplitude. i.e. If amplitude (a) increases, intensity increases and if amplitude decreases, intensity also decreases. In the phenomenon of constructive interference, amplitude of resultant wave on account of superposition of one wave on another wave becomes double, and intensity of a wave is directly proportional to the square of its amplitude.
I a a2 (I denotes intensity, a denotes amplitude)
I'a (2a)2 (I' denotes resultant intensity)
l' a 4a2
l' = 4 I (u a2 = I)
According to this equation the intensity of the resultant wave in constructive interference becomes four times greater than the original single wave intensity and it is the maximum intensity of resultant wave.
..
..
..
While in destructive interference the resultant amplitude of the resultant wave becomes zero, hence the resultant intensity also becomes zero.
In Young's experiment, there is an illuminated slit in screen A as shown in fig, No, 3 which emits spherical waves. In the second screen there are two slits having equal distance from the slit of first screen A. They act as the coherent sources. The waves, having the same frequency, the same amplitude and the same wavelength, passing through both slits S, and S2 superpose each other and produce interference. In fig. No. 3, dark lines Slit No. 2. show the crests of both waves coming from slit No. 1 and While dotted lines show the troughs of both waves, coming from both slits. We can see from the figure that when a crest of one wave falls on the crest of the other wave or a trough of one wave falls on the trough of the

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
other wave, a constructive interference takes place and both are denoted by small circles. In the same way when the crest of one wave falls on the trough of another wave or a trough of one wave falls on the crest of the other wave, destructive interference takes place and both are denoted by dark points. By putting a screen in the path of these superposed waves, we get bright fringes on the screen in the straight lines of small circles showing constructive interference of light and dark fringes on the screen, in the straight lines of dark points showing destructive interference.
Fig. No. 3
BRIGHT
DARK
BRIGHT
DARK
TAL
BRIGHT
Fig. No.4

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New Concepts About Interference of Light
Now I am giving an explanation of interference, with the help of corpuscle theory according to Jainism.
In the phenomenon of interference when both the slits are opened, the photons pass through both the slits in very large numbers simulteneously i.e. at a same time. According to the wave theory when along straight lines of interactions of crest with crest and trough with trough of both waves created by both slits, bright fringes are formed on the screen and along straight lines of interactions of crest with trough and trough with crest of each other, dark fringes are formed as shown above.
When the crest of one photon interacts the crest of another photon or a trough of one photon interacts a trough of another photon, there is a collision between the photon particles that are coming from two separate slits at the same time with the same frequency, amplitude and wavelength. Hence after collision, both photons propagate in the direction of resultant vector according to the law of parallelogram. It is denoted by the following equation,
O F Sin (wt - Kr), where K = 2012 is a wave vector. Of course both the photons have the same energy and the same mass after and before the collision and they do not interact with each other and therefore only the intensity of light increases. Law of conservation of mass, energy and momentum can also be applicable to this phenomenon, though scientists believe that photons have no mass.
While in the interactions of the crest of one photon with the trough of the second photon or a trough of one photon with the crest of the second photon, both photons do not collide with each other and they pass through without changing the direction of the other photon. But these same photons change their directions, when their crests fall on the crests of other photons or their troughs fall on the troughs of other photons. As a result along the straight lines, showing the interactions of the crest of one photon with the trough of the other photon, photons will be absent and, therefore such type of interactions form the fringes of darkness.
As aforementioned, according to modern physics, intensity of light in constructive and destructive interference depends upon the amplitude of the resultant wave. In case of constructive interference it becomes four

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
times greater than the original single wave and in destructive interference it becomes zero. According to Jain physics as I have shown in the articles 'Intensity of Light' and 'New Concepts About Doppler's Effect', intensity of light depends only upon the number of photons per unit area, per unit time. Here, in the constructive and destructive inferference, it is applicable.
According to modern physics a distance between two consecutive bright
fringes is
=
and a distance between two consecutive dark fringes is
also x=. It means that the area in which the photons are incident becomes half the original area and all the photons coming from both slits, fall on this half area. Hence the number of photons become double and area becomes half. As a result the number of photons per unit area per unit time becomes four times greater than that of a single wave coming from any single slit.
Here the intensity of bright fringes formed due to constructive interference becomes four times greater than the intensity of single wave coming from the single slit and the intensity of dark fringes becomes zero due to destructive interference.
Thus the most important phenomenon called interference can be interpreted with the help of corpuscle theory only.
THE GENERAL NOTIONS ABOUT HUMAN UNDERSTANDING.... WHICH ARE ILLUSTRATED BY DISCOVERIES IN ATOMIC PHYSICS ARE NOT IN THE NATURE OF THINGS WHOLLY UNFAMILIAR, WHOLLY UNHEARD OF, OR NEW...... WHAT WE SHALL FIND IS AN EXEMPLIFICATION, AN ENCOURAGEMENT, AND A REFINEMENT OF OLD WISDOM. JULIUS ROBERT OPPENHEIMER SCIENCE AND THE COMMON UNDERSTANDING P.8-9

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7.Black-holes: Imaginary Ideas
Of Their Structure
In the boundless universe our earth is nothing more than a mere point. For those who live on the earth, the earth is, however, their all in all. Man's curiosity is so strong that since centuries he has been making efforts to know the earth, its location and importance with reference to the whole universe. As new researches are made in science, various kinds of new problems arise. Sometimes they make the structure of the universe more complex rather than simple and more confusions are created.'
Through the progress of the modern physics, through its modern instruments and through the radio telescope (whose function is to find out unfamiliar space objects moving in the boundless space and give information about their structure), the horizons of astrophysics go on expanding. With their expansion, it is now high time, we dismissed the old concepts of Einstein.
According to the modern physics, there are three main elements in this universe 1. Space, 2. Time and 3. Matter. They alone are thought of everywhere in the physics. Of course, he who thinks of these elements is himself an important constituent element of the universe. In Jain terminology, it is called the living element, soul. But no thought is given to it in the physics because it is non-materialistic. The physics has not been able to give any definite description of it or to make any research on it. Therefore, it has been kept aside, in the whole universe, search is being made for matter.
Nearly in the decade 1971 to 1980 A.D. an influence was drawn with the help of a radio-telescope that there wereblack-holes in the distant deep regions of the universe because from a particular direction, some special kinds of signals were received on the radio-telescope. But with the help of the usual powerful telescope, nothing except a black point was seen in the region. The scientists, therefore, named the black point which was the source of the signals received on the radio-telescope, as the black-hole and they started making inferences about its structure. Of course, they made the inferences according to the principles of the physics.

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For the common man, the structure of the black-holes was very impressive. Even so, the black holes were for them nothing more than a mere imaginary science fiction, a cosmic picture-story or a newish subject-matter of making feature-films.
Modern scientists believe that the black-holes have a very strong gravitational force and even light cannot escape from their gravitational force and that is the reason why they cannot be seen.
This inference of scientists is based on scientific principles and their mathematics. According to their inference, stars which have as much mass as nearly ten times the mass of the sun of our solar system and which are in very distant and deep regions of the boundless universe become supernovae at the end of their life-span. In other words when they cannot bear their own internal pressure - attraction and repulsion - they burst out with a tremendous explosion and then on account of tremendous pressure of their own gravitational force, they go on contracting and became so small that compared to the whole universe which is as expansive as thousands of millions of light-years, their volume is reduced to the point of negligibility. The volume of the stars having as much mass as ten times the mass of the sun of our solar system is reduced to the diameter of only 60 kilometres. For that reason, its gravitational force rises tremendously and it soon begins to attract all the objects to itself and gulps down all that comes to it. It again absorbs even the light emitted by the same supernovae i.e. itself. As an object, a stone, a ball etc. tossed from the earth, returns to the earth, to the centre of the earth by its gravitational force, so the light emitted by the contracted supernovae star, is again absorbed in the centre. Moreover, it does not allow the reflection of the light that falls on it from other external illuminated objects. As a result, those stars cannot be seen. Only something like black points are seen in the direction. That is the reason why they are called black-holes.
We are all familiar with the concept of escape velocity, i.e. velocity to escape from gravitational force. If a small stone is tossed from the surface of the Mars to the phobos, the satellite or moon of the Mars with the force and velocity with which it is tossed from earth-surface to space, it reaches its orbit or goes up 9000 kilometres high in the orbit of the phobos, the satellite of the Mars and become a satellite of the Mars because the gravitational force of the moon phobos of the Mars, is so slight that there, the velocity to escape from

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Black Holes : Imaginary Ideas Of Their Structure
its gravitational force, is only 5 metres/sec.*
If an artificial satellite of the earth which is set moving in space, moves only at the velocity of 8 km/sec., the centripetal gravitational force and centrifugal force caused by the velocity of the artificial satellite can counter-balance and the satellite can keep moving in the orbit. Otherwise, it is attracted downwards by gravitational force of the earth. This applies to artificial satellites set in the lower orbit.
But if, for example, a motor-cyclist increases his speed beyond a certain limit, he can make his motor-cycle jump from one bank of a river to the other. Similarly, if the speed of rocket carrying a satellite in space, rises to a certain limit or beyond it, it can get free from gravitational force of the earth. The minimum velocity required for getting free from gravitational force of the earth is called escape velocity. For the objects on the earth, it is at least 11.2 km/ second. This escape velocity of any planet, star or space object can be easily calculated.
The escape velocity of our moon, is 2.4 km/sec.. The escape velocity of the sun is 620 km/second. The stars which have a greater density and are known among scientists as white dwarfs have escape velocity of thousands of kilometres per second.'
As the mass of space object increases, its escape velocity increases. It is also necessary to note that if the mass is constant, the escape velocity of a space object with a smaller radius or diameter is greater than the escape velocity of space object with a greater radius or diameter. In short, the mass being constant, the escape velocity of a space object increases as its radius becomes smaller.
It is on the basis of this plain and simple, intelligible principle of escape velocity that modern scientists make inference about black-holes and explain them. It is since the time of observation of the satellite of Jupiter made by Olaiis Roemer in 1676 A.D. that the velocity of light believed to be 3,00,000 km/sec. It is therefore, very easy to guess that some stars/objects in space have such a great mass that on their surface, their escape velocity is greater even than the velocity of light.”
In his article which John Michell presented to the Royal Society in 1783 A.D. and which was later published in the Philosophical Transection, he wrote

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
that if the density or mass of the sun is kept constant and if its diameter is halved, it is reduced to 500th part of its size. In these circumstances, if an object is sent to the sun from infinite distance, it gains a greater velocity even than light before it reaches the surface of the sun. As a result, light is also attracted to the sun with the same force and all the light emitted by the object is again absorbed by it by force of gravitation. Later on, only after a few years, in 1796 A.D. Pierre Simon, the mathematician and astronomist and Marquis de Laplace made a similar note in their essay entitled 'Exposition due System du monde." It means that the inference regarding black holes was made 200 years ago. But these concepts of Michell and Laplace were altogether forgotten till Einstein searched and developed his General Theory of Relativity because nobody knew about this kind of contraction of physical objects in space and on the other hand, the inference of black-holes was based only on the Newton's principle that light is constituted of material particles. Contrarily, Newton's theory of particles with reference to light came to be rejected and scientists accepted wave-form of light. Moreover, they accepted that gravitational force of an object had no effect on light-waves, whereas the effect of gravitational force was the main thing in the concepts of John Michell and Laplace.
In 1911 A.D. when Einstein was a Professor in the Prague University, he for the fist time, calculated the effects of gravitational force of space objects on light-waves. In 1914 A.D. at the time of the total solar eclipse, Einstein tested the results, he had obtained. But since the first World War declared in those days, the subsequent research work had to be cancelled. It was good for Einstein because Einstein's theory at that time was not sound and his calculations were also faulty."
But in the weekly 'Berliner Berichte' published on the 4th, the 11th, the 18th and the 25th of November, 1915 A.D., Einstein fully explained the 'General Theory of Relativity.' 12 According to the General Theory Of Relativity, on account of gravitational force of space object like the Sun which have a tremendous mass, their surrounding space contracts and curves and that is why the ray of light that passes near by it, attracts towards that massive object i.e. it slightly deflects from its straight path. This is called Solar Deflection of Star-light.
In short, the tremendous gravitational force of the sun has an indirect effect

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Black Holes: Imaginary Ideas Of Their Structure
on the rays of light of distant stars. This is what Einstein said. On 29th May, 1919 A.D. at the time of the total solar eclipse, the deflection of rays of light passing by the sun near Sobral in Brazil was measured and it accorded with calculations shown by Einstein.
13
53
Einstein announced his research in November, 1915 A.D. Only a month later Karl Schwarzchild, the German Physicist calculated the area of the gravitational force of a globe in vacuum." And on the basis of it, the idea of invisible stars presented by Michell and Laplace in 1796 A.D. again enthused scientists.
Space objects which have a greater mass than that of our sun, can be divided into three categories. Some objects contract and become white dwarfs. Some objects become neutron stars and some become black-holes.
0.
Dr Subramanyam Chandrashekhar, the Indian astrophysicist, presented a research paper in 1931 A.D. and stated that since the objects which have a greater mass than 1.4 M (1.4 solar mass), cannot bear their own internal gravitational force, they begin to contract and are reduced to a small bright star which is called a white dwarf. The white dwarf has no greater mass than 1.4M and in size it is almost as big as the earth." But neutron stars are very small and sometimes they are of a diameter of only 20 kilometres. 16 Regarding the mass of neutron stars, there are different beliefs. According to some, it has a mass of 0.7M at the most. According to others, a neutron star has a mass of 2.2M at the most. According to Shipman, it has a mass of 3.0 M at the most.
O
O.
O
17
According to some, objects which have a mass up to 10 M, become supernovae, contract and are changed into black-holes. According to some, stars with a mass of 10 M are changed into neutron stars. Before it becomes a black-hole, the mass of the star is greater than 3 M and its extreme size is as big as that of a Neutron Star.18
O
O
The ancient history has also recorded some supernovae events. In the present times also, while lan Shelton, the astronomer was observing space from his observatory at Las Companas, he saw a star becoming supernovae in the direction in which he was making observation. This supernovae was seen in the galaxy known as Magellanic Cloud. By a telegram he immediately communicated this to the International Astronomical Union. 19 This is the first

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recorded case of a supernovae seen with a naked eyes. The supernovae star itself contracts in course of time and becomes a black-hole.
Mass Charge Colour Shape
Leptons aryons Electromagnetic
waves
Black hole
Our universe
Horizon
Mass, Electric charge.
Angular momentum
Schwarzsche
throat
Figure 1 The black hole remembers only the mass, angular Another' momentum and electric charge of the matter which falls into it. universe (After Ruffini and Wheeler.)
White hole
Our universe
Black hole
Figure 2 Embedding of Schwarzschild space-time. The Schwarzschild throat connects 'our' universe (upper sheet with 'another universe (lower sheet).
White hole
Black hole
White hole
Horizon
Horizon Figure 13. Identifying the sheets. The two sheets of the Schwarzschild throat can be interpreted as two different regions of the same universe. For this the rwo sheets are connected at a great distance from the throat. The diagrarn 'cheats' by flattening the sheets, whose usual shape would be paraboloidal.
Wormhole
Figure 4. A wormhole in space-time. This is the unfolded version of the preceding diagram. The borizons of the black hole and the white hole have been separated, and are linked by a wormhole.
Thus scientists hold different view regarding the structure of black-holes created in imagination. The structure of black holes is believed to be according to the four different figures shown below.

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Black Holes: Imaginary Ideas Of Their Structure
Why do astronomers make such a deep research work on black-holes? Hundred of such blackholes are there in our solar system and outside the galaxy at a distance of hundreds of light years. We are not to obtain anything from them. In their heart of hearts, scientists have a hope that these blackholes are an inexhaustible treasury of energy and in future that energy may be useful to the earth. Of course, this is only an imagination but scientists hope that some time even this imagination will turn into reality. Here a principle of physics is at work. It is that in the whole of the universe, there is a definite quantity of matter and energy. It is never reduced. It is always constant. Therefore, the objects that go into black-holes and get destroyed must undergo some transformation and according to the equation shown by Einstein, energy must be obtained through the destruction of the objects. (Fig.No.1)
55
But according to the researches that have been made, this does not happen. Some scientists, therefore, think that at the other end of the blackholes, there must be a counter universe (Anti-universe) which is similar to our universe and we invisibly conceive to. The objects gulped from our universe through the black-hole, are obtained across the white hole in a new form. (Fig.No.2)
There are some who believe that the black-hole and the white hole are two divisions of one and only the one universe that we belong to. And, therefore, the universe towards us, to this side of the black-hole and the universe towards that side of white hole are very distantly connected as shown in Fig.No.3. Some scientists believe that the black-hole and the white hole are on the same horizontal level and they are connected by the wormhole. They also believe that our solar system, galaxy etc. lie between them or in some other region outside them. (Fig No.4)
The neutron star shown above has a density generally varying from 1 tonne/cm3 to 4,00,000 tonnes/cm3 and the area of the circular black-hole is 5650 sq. kilometres and near its surface its gravitational force is 1500 crore times greater than the gravitational force on the earth.21 But the weight of the smallest black-hole is 10'5 grams and its size is only as big as that of a proton at the centre of its atom.22
Some modern Jain scholars believe that the black-hole is the kṛṣṇarāji and

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Tamaskāya (embodiment of darkness) described in the Jain scriptures such as the Sthānānga Sūtra, the Brhatsēgrahani, the Brhatkņētrasamāsa etc. Of course, Jain scriptures give description of the structure which is the same as or largly similar to the description of the structure of the black-hole which the modern scientists give. In the Sthānānga Sūtra, we get the foliowing reference to the Krsnarāji.
उप्पिं सणंकुमारमाहिंदाणं कप्पाणं हेढिं बंभलोगे कप्पे रिट्ठविमाणे पत्थडे एत्थ णमक्खाडग समचउरंससंठाणसंठितातो अट्ठ कण्हरातीतो पन्नता तं जहा - पुरच्छिमेणं दो कण्हरातीतो, दाहिणेणं दो कण्हराइओ, पच्चच्छिमेणं दो कण्हराइओ, उत्तरेणं दो कण्हराइओ, पुरच्छिमा अब्भंतरा कण्हराती दाहिणं बाहिरं कण्हराइं पुट्ठा, दाहिणा अभंतरा कण्हराती पच्चच्छिमगं बाहिरं कण्हराई पुट्ठा, पच्चच्छिमगा अभंतरा कण्हराती उत्तरं बाहिरं कण्हराई पुट्ठा, उत्तरा अब्भंतरा कण्हराती पुरच्छिमं बाहिरं कण्हराती पुट्ठा, पुरछिम-पच्चच्छिमिल्लाओ बाहिराओ दो कण्हरातीतो छलंसातो, उत्तरदाहिणाओ बाहिराओ दो कण्हरातीतो तंसाओ, सव्वाओऽवि णं अब्भंतरकण्हरातीतो चउरंसाओ १। एतासि णं अट्ठण्हं कण्हरातीणं अट्ठ नामधेज्जा पन्नत्ता, तं जहा - कण्हरातीति वा, मेहरातीति वा, मघाति वा, माघवतीति वा, वातफलिहेति वा, वातपलिक्खोभेति वा, देवपलिहे वा, देवपलिक्खोभेति वा २ । एतासि णं अट्ठण्हं कण्हरातीणं अट्ठसु उवासंतरेसु अट्ठ लोगंतितविमाणा पन्नत्ता, तं जहा - अच्ची, अच्चिमाली, वतिरोअणे, पभंकरे, चंदाभे, सूराभे, सुपइट्ठाभे, अग्गिच्चाभे ३ । एतेसु णं अट्ठसु लोगंतितविमाणेसु अट्ठविधा लोगंतिता देवा पन्नत्ता, तं जहा - सारसतमाइच्चा वण्ही वरुणा य गहतोया य । तुसिता अव्वाबाहा अग्गिच्चा चेव बोद्धब्बा ||१|| uppim sananikumāramāhindāņam kappāņam hēsthim bambhalogē kappē ritthavimāņé patthadē ēttha şamakknādaga samacauramsasanthāṇasanthitāto attha kanharātito pannatā tam jahā - puracchimēnamdo kanharātito, dāhiņēņamdo kanharājo, paccacchimēņam do kanharā io, uttarēnam do kanharāio, puracchimā abbhantarā kanharāti dāniņam bāhiram kanharāim putthā, dāniņā abbhantarā kaņharāti paccacchimagam bāhiram kaņharāim putthā, paccacchimagā abbhantarā kanharāti uttaram bāhiram kaņharāim putthā, uttarā abbhantarā kanharāti Duracchimam bāhiram kaņharātim putthā, puracchima-paccacchimillāo bāhirāö do kanharātito chalamsātā, uttaradāniņað bāhirão do kanharātito tamsão, savvāõ'vi ņam abbhantarakanharātito cauramsão 1. ētāsi nam atthanham kanharātiņam attha nāmadhējjā pannattā, tam jahā - kanharātiti vā, mēharātiti vā, maghāti vā, māghavatiti vā, vātaphalihēti vā, vātapalikkhõbhēti vā, dēvapalinē vā, dēvapalikkhõbhēti vā 2. ētāsi nam atthanham kanharātiņam atthasu uvāsantarēsu attha lögantitavimānā

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Black Holes: Imaginary Ideas Of Their Structure
pannattā, tam jahā - acci, accimāli, vatirōaņē, pabhankarē, candābhē, sūrābhē, supaiṭṭhābhe, aggiccābhē 3.ētēsu namaṭṭhasu lõgantitavimāņēsu aṭṭhavidhā lōgantitā dēvā pannattā, tam jahā - särasatamaiccä vanhi varuṇā ya gaddatōyā ya. tusitā avvābāhā aggicca ceva bōddhavvā.. 1.. 23
-
'Above the third and the fourth worlds of the gods namely Sanatkumāra and Mahendra and below the fifth world of gods namely Brahmalōka, there are eight Kṛṣṇarājis in the shape of square dies i.e. Akṣa (38). They are as follows:
57
There are two Kṛṣṇarāji in each of four directions, east, south, west and north. The inward Kṛṣṇarāji in the east and the outward Kṛṣṇarāji in the south, touch each other. The inward Kṛṣṇarāji in the south touches the outward Kṛṣṇarāji in the west. The inward Kṛṣṇarāji of the west touches the outer Kṛṣṇarāji of the north. The outward Kṛṣṇarājis of the east and the west are hexagonal - six sided. The outer Kṛṣṇarājis of the north and south are triangleshaped. The inward Kṛṣṇarājis of all sides are square-shaped. Their names are Kṛṣṇarāji, Mēgharāji, Maghā, Māghavati, Vātapaligha, Vātapalighōkṣōbha, dēvaparigha, Dēvaparighōkṣōbha. Between them there are heavenly abodes of the eight Lōkāntika gods namely Arci, Arcimāli, Vairōcana, Prabhankara, Candraprabha, Sūryābha, Supratiṣṭhabha, Agnitōya (Sukrābha). The havenly abodes of Lōkāntika gods of the ninth kind namely, Riṣṭa, are the highest of all. The names of Lōkāntika gods living in them are Sārasvata, Aditya, Vahni, Aruna (Varuna), Gardatōya, Tusita, Avyābādha and Āgnēya (Marut)."
Kṛṣṇarāji contains and embodiment of darkness. According to Jain scriptures, when a special kind of gods hide themselves, in the Kṛṣṇarāji, nobody can find them. They almost disappear.
Mr. Nirajanbhai N. Vakharia in his book "Cosmological Truths of Ancient Indian Religions, Jainism and Hinduism", shows positively that Kṛṣṇarāji itself is the blackhole. Comparing them he writes:
(1) As the black-hole curves the space according to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity (GTR), so Tamaskāya and kṛṣṇarāji attract and curve a large portion of space and ultimately, it gets transformed into a black-hole.
(2) Nobody can enter Kṛṣṇarāji or the black-hole except through a special

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kind of way, nor can anyone go across them. Only a special kind of gods can enter Krsnarāji.
(3) If a strange intruder enters Krsnarāji or the black-hole, he can never return and is destroyed there.
(4) Scientists believe that at the other end of the black-hole, there is a counter universe named white hole. Similarly at the other end of Krsnarāji, there is a counter-world of gods.
(5) According to Mr. Vakharia one of the two ends of Tamaskāya (embodiment of darkness) in the Arunavara ocean, is black-hole, the other is the white hole and krsnarāji is called worm hole. 24
The similarities shown above by Mr.Vakharia are perhaps not proper. The reasons are as under :
(1) Scientists show that space has a curved shape but according to the Jain theory, space is a one whole element/substance and it is inert or nontransformable in any condition. Therefore, its shape cannot be changed.
(2) Only a special kind of gods enter krsnarāji, when they wish. They hide in it and can come out when they wish. But attracted by its gravitational force, an object enters the black-hole without any effort and then it never comes out. According to what scientists guess, it perhaps enters the counter universe of white hole. This is only a conjecture and no reality. This similarity is, therefore, not proper.
(3) Scientists believe that if a strange intruder or intruding object enters the black-hole, it is destroyed. None but gods can enter Kțsnarāji. There is, therefore, no question of a strange intruder or intruding object entering it.
The fourth and the fifth similarities shown by Mr.Vakharia are mutually contradictory. In the fourth similarity, he says that kşşnarāji is the black-hole and its other end opens into the world of gods (counter-universe) named the fifth Brahmaloka. But in the fifth similarity, the eight divisions of Krsnarāji are named worm holes. There is, therefore, no propirety in both these similarities.
According to science, there are many black-holes, not only eight.
He has also shown two more similarities which are not at all proper. What is the reasons for believing that Krsnarāji or Tamaskāya is believed

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.
.
Eight Black Strips known as astha Rajees belived to be in the Black Region of deep Darkness as shown the space by Jain Astronomy Four might be four kingdoms of Gods in space and other four oblong rectangular shape strips can be perhaps the bridges to reach these kingdoms can possibly be working as Einstein-Rosen Bridges as per thinking of Mr. Niranjan Vakharia.

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black-hole? Pondering over it, we reach the following conclusion.
'Krsnarāji' includes the word Krsna'. 'Krsna' means black and Tamaskāya means a black dark object. On account of this verbal similarity modern Jain scholars are naturally prompted to believe that Krşnarāji and Tamaskāya are black-holes.
On account of such verbal similarity, there prevails among Jain scholars, a misunderstanding about Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Whenever Einstein's Theory of Relativity is under discussion, Jain scholars proudly say that the Theory of Relativity given by Einstein was shown by Bhagavān Mahāvira 2500 years ago. Thus they compare Einstein's Theory of Relativity with Anekāntvāda or Syādvāda of Jainism. Really speaking, they are quite different from each other and there is no relation between them. Anekāntvāda of Bhagavān Mahāvira teaches us to think of elements, objects etc. from various view points. It, therefore, pertains to thoughts. But Einstein's theory of relativity explains only visible physical phenomena and it is based on postulates. Those postulates are not true according to the philosophical concepts of Jainism.
Likewise, there is nothing more than verbal similarity between krsnarāji or Tamaskāya and black-holes, we cannot therefore, rule out the possibility that the real fact may be of quite a different nature
The first thing is that Krsnarāji described by Jain scripturists is certainly not in the world of human beings. Krsnarāji is shown to be located below the fifth world of gods namely Brahmaloka. From the world of human beings it is at a distance of more than at least three Rājalokas. According to Jain scripturists one Rājaloka is equal to innumerable Yojanas. According to the last gross calculation shown by Munisri Mahendrakumar 'Dvitiya'.
Rajju = 4 x 10*18x10248 +3} miles. 25
It cannot be believed that the signals coming from krsnarāji which at a greater distance than three Rājalõkas, can be received by radio telescopes of our scientists because in the two intermediate Rājalõkas there are four worlds of gods. Moreover, there are in the madhya Lõka suns, moons, planets, constellations, stars and such other space objects which are crores multiplied by crores in number. It does not seem possible that maintaining their

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identity as separate from all these space objects and signals coming from them, these signals can reach to the world of human beings.
Moreover, the structures of Krsnarāji and black-holes are altogether different.
(1) Gods hide in Krsnarāji and they can also come out. The object that goes into the black-hole, never returns. It is absorbed inside the black-hole.
(2) It never happens that gods are unwillingly pulled into krsnarāji on account of its gravitational force but the gravitational force of the black-hole is so stupendous that it pulls any physical object that comes into its field and there is no exception. Even light with a velocity of 3,00,000 km/sec. cannot escape from its gravitational force. The result is that we do not know what the black-hole is really
(3) Light that falls on the black-hole, is not reflected and, therefore it looks like a really black object.
(4) In Jain scriptures, there is no mention of density or gravitational force of the black object in Krsnarāji. With a special type of mathematics scientists have, through researches, determined the stupendous gravitational force of the black-hole and its density. Since these imaginary objects are at a distance of thousands of light years, we cannot know their density or gravitational force by perceptible or direct experiments but we can know that only through mathematics.
In short, Krsnarāji or Tamaskāya described in Jain scriptures and the black-hole guessed by scientists, seem to be altogether different objects.
As shown above, in modern astronomy there is no relation whatsoever between the blackhole searched out by scientist and Krsnarāji or Tamaskāya described in Jain scriptures. The question, therefore, arises how to explain the black-hole on the basis of the physics described in Jain scriptures. Using Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, Einstein's Theory of gravitational force i.e. General Theory of Relativity and physics described in Jain scriptures we can explain the black-hole as under.
According to Jain scriptures, there are six basic/fundamental elements in the whole universe - 1. Dharma(the medium for motion) 2. Adharma (the medium for rest) 3. Akāśa (space) 4. Pudgala (matter) 5. Jiva (Soul) 6. Kāla

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(time).26
The dharma element helps the motion of an object. It is one and whole and pervades the whole universe. Similarly, the adharma element is also one and whole and pervades the whole universe. But it helps to keep an object at rest.? Since both these elements are non-material, they are incomprehensible. Akāśa (space) is also one and whole element. But space in the universe (Lõka) is called Lõkākāśa while space outside the universe is called Alōkākāśa.
Dharma, adharma and Akāśa (space) - these three are devoid of Kriyā (activity i.e. motion). This means that they do not undergo a transformation of the form of modification. 29 Kāla (time) is also regarded as an element.29 The Jain physics accepts all the characteristics of the pudgal (matter) which the modern physics accepts. Regarding the matter, the concepts of the modern physics and concepts of the Jain physics are altogether similar. Sometimes even the definitions are also similar. Only the interpretations and illustrations of the definitions are found to be different. e.g. the definition of paramāņu (atom). 30
According to Jain scriptures, even light is nothing but a transformation or modification of the matter. Therefore, as the laws of gravitational force apply
hysical objects, so they apply to light also. i.e. Light is also influenced by gravitational force. But the modern physics believes that light is in the waveform and, therefore, it is a non-material. That is the reason why in order to explain the deviation of star-light, it has to believe that the space (Akāśa) is curved/contracted by an object of stupendous mass that the sun is. But omniscient Tirthankaras (Sri Mahāvirasvāmi and others) who lived 2500 years ago, have shown that space is a non-material and devoid of activity and that light is a matter.
All visible objects in the universe and all subtle objects which are their basic units, are material or combinations of matter and Jiva i.e. soul. The fifth chapter of the 'Tattvārthasūtra' authored by Umāsvātiji, gives a detailed discussion of five out of the six elements apart from the soul. In the terminology of modern science, it can be said this chapter contains the basic principles of physics and chemistry.
According to Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, as the velocity of an

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object rises, three types of changes are occurred in it.
1. We can know from the following equation that as the velocity of an object
mo
increases, its mass-increases. m =
=, where m is the mass of an
VI-12162 object in motion, m, denotes the mass of the object, when it was at rest, and vand c respectively denote the velocity of the object and the velocity of light. 32
2. As the velocity of an object rises, its length decreases and this can be known from the following equation. L.-L., VI-12762, where L, is the length of the object in the motion, L denotes the length of the object, when it was at rest and v and c denote the velocity of the object and the velocity of light respectively. 33
3. As the velocity of an object rises, time for it becomes slower and slower and this can be known from the following equation. T = T.VI-12762, where T denotes the time-duration, while the object was in motion T denotes the time-duration, when it was at rest, v and c respectively denote the velocity of the object and the velocity of light.24
According to the equations given above, if the velocity of an object equals the velocity of light, the mass of the object would rise to infinity, the volume or length of the object would be reduced to zero and for that object time stops.
Space objects are always in motion. Of course, the velocity of all objects is not equal nor is the mass of all objects equal. But according to Einstein's equations shown above, as the velocity of space objects rises, the mass of space objects in motion, increases and the length or volume decreases. But on the other hand, according to his General Theory of Relativity i.e. the law of gravitational force, as the mass of an object rises, its gravitational force increases. Besides, as the volume of an object is reduced, its gravitational force increases. According to the equations shown above, here the mass of space objects in motion increases and volume-length decreases. Thus in both the ways, the gravitational force of the objects increases tremendously.
Of course, the rise in mass and the reduction in volume-length caused by the velocity of the objects, are only virtual and not real and consequent rise in gravitational force is also only virtual.
If the velocity of the space objects rises to be equal to or greater than the

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velocity of light, according to Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, the
I mass of the objects would rise to infinity and their length/volume would be reduced to be zero or mathematically less than zero. In these circumstances even the virtual gravitational force rises to be infinite. They are transformed into black-holes and become invisible.
As a matter of fact, if the velocity of an object, rises to be equal to or greater than the velocity of light, the object becomes invisible. Light that fails on it, is reflected but till it reaches us it becomes excessively dim, its intensity excessively reduced or in technical terms of modern science, since the wavelength rises tremendously i.e. the amplitude is reduced tremendously and becomes less than infrared rays, the object becomes imperceptible to our eyes and that is the reason why, if we observe in the direction through telescope etc., we see only black spots or darkness in the round shape.
There are several reasons why the rise in mass and reduction in length/ volume are considered to be virtual. 1. There is an eternal rule of science and of Jain philosophical treatises that the quantity of matter (pudgal) and its mass in the whole universe is fixed and always constant. 2. The second reason is as under :
In the fifth Angasūtra, the Jain canonical scripture entitled Sri Bhagavatīsūtra or śri Vyākhyāprajñaptior śri Vivāhapannatti, the twenty fourth Jain Tirthankara śri Mahāvirasvāmi said to his first disciple Ganadhara Indrabhūti Gautam, nearly 2550 years ago :
परमाणुपोग्गले णं भंते ! लोगस्स पुरथिमिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ पच्चथिमिल्लं चरिमंतं एगसमएणं गच्छति, पच्चस्थिमिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ पुरथिमिल्लं चरिमंतं एगसमएणं गच्छति, दाहिणिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ उत्तरिल्लं० जाव गच्छति, उत्तरिल्लाओ दाहिणिल्लं० जाव गच्छति, उवरिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ हेछिल्लं चरिमंतं एग० जाव गच्छति, हेट्ठिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ उवरिल्लं चरिमंत एगसमएणं गच्छति ? हंता गोतमा ! परमाणुपोग्गले णं लोगस्स पुरथिमिल्लाओ चरिमंताओ पच्चस्थिमिल्लं० तं चेव जाव उवरिरल्लं चरिमंतं गच्छति ।
(parc, 1995-96. BE216-C) paramāņupõggalë nam bhantē ! logassa puratthimilla o carimantāö paccatthimillam carimantam ēgasamaēņam gacchati, paccatthimilla o carimantāð puratthimillam carimantam ēgasamaēņam gacchati, dāhiņillao carimantāð uttarillamo jāva gacchati, uttarilla o dāniņillamo jāva gacchati, uvarillao carimantāð hētthillam carimantam ēgao jāva gacchati, nētthillā

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carimantāō uvarillam carimantam ēgasamaēņam gacchati? hantā gōtamā !paramāņupōggalē nam logassa puratthimilläō carimantaō paccatthimillamo tam cēva jāva uvarirallam carimantam gacchati.
(Bhagavatisūtra, Śataka-16. Uddēśaka-8)
(Question) (Indrabhūti Gautam): 0, Bhagavan! Does a pudgala i.e. atom go in one samaya from the extreme end of east of the universe to the extreme end of the west of the universe? and from the extreme end of the west to the extreme end of the east?, from the extreme end of the south to the extreme end of the north?, from the extreme end of the north to extreme end of the south?, from the upper extreme end to the lower extreme end and from the lower extreme end to the upper extreme end of the universe?
65
Ans : (Śri Mahāvīrasvāmi) : 0, Gautam! Yes, In one Samaya a pudgala atom goes from the extreme end of the east of the Loka (universe) to the extreme end of the west of the universe and so on.
(Bhagavati sūtra, śataka-16, Uddēśaka-8) 35
This means that a physical object can travel in one Samaya, i.e. 10-500 second36 from the upper extreme end of the universe to its lower extreme end or from the lower extreme end of the universe to its upper extreme end i.e. a distance of 14 Rajju (Rājalōka) i.e. 14(4 × 10(1.8x10245+3) miles. According to the postulate of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity, the velocity of a physical object is never greater than that of light. Of course, the mathematics based on this postulate seems to be comparatively true in respect of visible objects or events. But as shown above, when the velocity of an object surpasses the velocity of light, not a single equation of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity is useful. On the contrary, these equations say that the objects with a greater velocity than that of light are only imaginary. But the greatest omniscient, who has perfect knowledge of all the three phases of time of all objects in the whole universe, goes to the length of saying that a physical object at rest, goes on increasing its velocity through an external force and acquired the highest velocity shown above and an object with the highest velocity goes on decreasing its velocity and can become motionless.
In these circumstances, the mass and length of an object in motion which we get through Einstein's equations are only apparent. When the object again

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becomes motionless or come to rest, it regains its original mass and length. How can then a reduction in mass and rise in length be possible?
3. When the velocity of an object rises to be equal to velocity of light, the volume/length of the object becomes zero. This means that it loses its existence. How can then its mass become infinite? Only those objects which have existence, can have mass. Mass is a property and it belongs only to an object. When an object has no existence, what can have infinite mass?
4. If we say that an object is destroyed and transformed into energy, that is also not proper. Energy is also a property and in various objects, it expresses itself in various ways. The energy of different objects is not of the same form. In this connection Harry L. Shipman says in the introduction to his book "Black Holes, Quasars and The Universe'.
"Light is a form of energy. It is difficult to define precisely the term "energy" much in the news recently. It is easier to develop a mental picture of the energy concept by asking what energy does. The usual definition of `energy" is "the ability to do work" which is an accurate description. The type of work that energy does varies with its form. Light energy can illuminate the printed page, heat energy can keep us warm, kinetic energy (or energy of motion) can be used to move something from one place to another.
#38
Regarding energy, scientist themselves say universe, can neither create nor destroy energy. the world, energy is not destroyed nor can new energy be created.
-
"Whatever happens in the 39 i.e. Whatever happens in

Since energy is a property, it must belong to the substance. Only a Jiva (soul) or a pudgal (matter) is its abode. In the Tattvartha Sutra, the Jain scripture, Śri Umāsvātiji says about properties' on you: Idravyāśrayā nirguņā guṇāḥ.40 Properties belong to substance and they have no properties. This means that energy, therefore, belongs to matter and a few other reals. In short science shows that energy is constant and indirectly shows that the quantity of a pudgala i.e. matter is also constant.
5. The physics theoretically shows that an object can be transformed into energy and energy can be transformed into an object. "But by experiments, energy can be obtained from an object (of course not wholly) but the object cannot be regained from energy. This means that the proposition that an object can be regained from energy, is only imaginary. Though it is true

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mathematically or theoretically, it never seems possible in practice. That is why an object in motion, regains its original length/volume when it becomes motionless, proves that the length of an object in motion, is only apparent.
6. Of what kind the energy is that causes rise in the mass of an object in motion? This is also certainly a puzzle. As a matter of fact, while an object is in motion, energy is obtained from it. Its mass should, therefore, be reduced but theoretically mass increases.
7. According to what scientists say, the gravitational force of black-holes is so tremendous that even light cannot escape from its gravitational force. This means that the escape velocity of black holes is above 3,00,000 km/sec. If this is true, no radiation of any kind, not even infrared radiation nor even ultraviolet radiation can escape from its gravitational force because like light, all these kinds of radiations are only a special kind of electromagnetic waves and their velocity is only 3,00,000 km/second. Einstein himself says, "No signais are faster than light." 42 Experimental facts show that black-holes do not gulp everything. On the contrary, a special kind of radio waves come out of them and they are detected by radio telescopes. It is by means of them that black-holes are discovered. By analysing them, the origination, inner structure or construction, distance and the velocity of black-holes are determined.
In short the knowledge of tremendous gravitational force of black holes is only virtual, not real. It is an imaginary presumption based on imaginary mathematics.
I conclude that according to the principles described in Jain philosophy, the black-holes are nothing but only space objects with a greater velocity than that of light. Since they move in the direction opposite to that of the earth, they appear to be only black spots in that direction. If they moved towards the earth, they could possibly be seen as white dwarfs or Neutron stars. It is precisely this that can be explained through its spectrum.
Black-holes are among the objects which have a greater velocity than that of light. As the velocity of the object is greater, the visible form of black-holes
all and as the velocity is less and nearer to the velocity of light, the visible form of black holes is bigger. This is my personal belief and assumption. The velocity of visible and invisible space objects can be known by receiving radiations or light coming from them, by getting photographs of their spectrum and by analysing them.

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Wavelengths Langthen
Wavelengths Shorton
Spectrum Rodshifts
Spectrum Blueshifts
Astronomers 300 Doppler philin in stollnr apncirn, as the colors or wavelengths) of the dark lines change depending on the motion of the star.
If the space object goes away from the earth, from us, the vertical dark lines on the spectrum seem to have shifted to the right side. This is called red shift. If the object comes nearer to the earth, the vertical dark lines on the spectrum seem to have shifted to the left side. This is called blue shift. Both these shifts are known in physics as the Doppler effect or the Doppler shift. 43
Such various spectra are available for black-holes, white holes or white dwarfs and neutron stars also. Through their study, scientists determine the velocity of these objects. Among the signals coming from distant space objects, especially from black-holes and received through radio-telescopes, two signals coming from the same object, have some duration of time between them. The greater the velocity of objects which have a greater velocity than that of light, the longer the time duration between two signals and the lesser the velocity, the lesser the duration of time between two signals. The time duration between two signals received from some objects which have been transformed into black-holes varies from 0.3 second to 1.5 seconds.44 According to my calculations, these black-holes go away from the earth at a velocity which is greater than that of light. The velocity of a black-hole which has a time duration of 0.3 second, can be 3,90,000 km/sec. whereas the velocity of a black-hole which has a time duration of 1.5 seconds can be

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7,50,000 kms/second. With the change of velocity, there can be more or fewer red shifts in the spectrum received from the object.
Here I have theoretically represented only my views in a descriptive form only in accordance with the doctrines of Jain philosophy. I conclude this article with the hope that Jain scholars of physics will help me in future to do more research work mathematically, precisely in this subject.
Date : 16.11.96, Bhavnagar.
References:
1. Each new advance poses still more questions, sometimes making the universe more puzzling, not less.
[Black Holes, Quasars And The Universe' by Harry L. Shipman, Houghton Mifflin Company, Bostan, U.S.A., p.14).
2. If we cannot see a black-hole, how do we tell what it looks like? The pencil and paper calculations of the theoretical physicists help us here. [Ibidem, p.14).
3. The radius is numerically equal to 2.95 kilometres times of the mass of the hole in solar masses. Our ten-solar-mass hole is thus 30 kilometres in radius or 60 kilometres across. [Ibidem, p.71).
4. On Phobos the force of gravity is so small that men's arm would be strong enough to put a small stone into orbit around it, or even send it into orbit about Mars itself, some 9000 kilometres away.
The escape velosity is only 5 m/s for Phobos....... [Black Holes, by Jean-Pierre Luminet, Cambridge University Press, U.K., p. 6, 7).
5. To put a satellite into orbit, the rocket launcher has to reach a certain altitude, incline itself to be parallel to the Earth's surface and then increase its velocity to at least 8 km/s. At this velocity the centrifugal force (directed into space) balances the gravitational force (directed towards the centre of the Earth). [Ibidem,p. 6].
6. This critical velocity - identical for a pebble or a rocket - is called the escape velocity. On the Earth's surface it is 11.2 km/s, and it can easily be calculated for any planet, star or other celestial body. [Ibidem, p.7).
7. The escape velocity is only 5 m/s for Phobos and 2.4 km/s for the moon, but 620 km/s for the Sun. From a more dense star, such as a white dwarf, it reaches several thousands kilometres per second. [Ibidem, p.7].
8. The greater the mass, the greater the escape velocity, and for a given mass

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the escape velocity will increase as the radius of the star decreases.
[Ibidem, p.7].
9. The notion of a black-hole ultimately derives from the simple concept of escape velocity. The velocity of light has been known to be about 3,00,000 km/ s since Olaiis Roemer's observations of Jupiter's moon in 1676. It is easy to imagine the existence of stars so massive that the escape velocity from their surface is greater than the velocity of light. . lbidem, p. 7). 10. In an article read to Royal Society in 1783 and published later in
cal Transections. John Michell wrote: "If the semidiameter of a sphere of the same density with the Sun were to exceed that of the sun in proportion of 500 to 1, a body falling from an infinite height towards it, would have acquired at its surface a greater velocity than light, and consequently, supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae, with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it, by its own proper gravity." A little later, in 1796, the mathematician and astronomer Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace, the prince of celestial mechanics, made similar remarks in his Exposition du systeme du monde
[Ibidem, p.7). 11. In 1911, while he was working at the University of Prague, Einstein calculated for the first time the deviation of light in a gravitational field. His results were to have been verified during the 1914 eclipse, but war was declared and the project abandoned. This was fortunate for Einstein, as his theory was not quite mature and his prediction would have been in error. [Ibidem, p.56).
12. Einstein perfected his General Relativity equations in November 1915 and published the results in the Berliner Berichte in the numbers dated 4, 11, 18 and 25 November. [Ibidem, p.56).
13. The deviation of light ray passing close to the Sun was measured during the solar eclipse on 29 May, 1919 at Sobral (Brazil). [Ibidem, p.56).
14. In December, 1915, a month after Einstein published his equations of General Relativity, the German physicist Karl Schwarzschild discovered the solution which described the gravitational field surrounding a sphere in a vacuum.
[Ibidem p. 119] 15. In a famous article in 1931, he (Indian astro-physicist Subramanyam Chandrashekhar) proved that white dwarfs had a maximum allowed mass, and calculated this to be 1.4 Mo. [Ibidem p. 75]

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11
16. White dwarf compact much of the mass of the star into a volume of the size of the Earth, while neutron stars are smaller still only 20 kilometres across.
[Black Holes, Quasars and The Univrse by Harry L. Shipman, p.25). 17. Some investigators believe that the maximum mass of neutron stars is quite small about 0.7 M . Others with different ideas of how neutrons interact, believe that the limiting mass is higher about 2.2 M.
The crucial question now becomes. Are there any stars that leave remnant with more mass than the magic figure of three solar masses? (The maximum mass of a neutron star is probably less than this, but I stick with the figure three because it is certain that no evolved star can have more mass than that and remain stable).
[Ibidem, p.60]. 18. A black-hole is not shown because the star would have to be over 3M initially before it could become a black-hole. Its final size would be similar to that of neutron star.
[Black Holes', by J.P.Luminet, p. 103] 19. During the night of 23-24 February, 1987, the Canadian astronomer, lan Shelton, working at the Las Companas Observatory in Chile, had the extraordinary good fortune to be the first professional' to discover a supernova (a night assistant had just noticed it with the naked eye as a 4th magnitude star). The Large Magellanic Cloud, in which the supernova occurred, is an irregular galaxy. A telegram was sent urgently to the Bureau of the International Astronomical Union, and caused an immediate sensation in the astronomical community
[Ibidem, p.94). 20. The density varies from 1 tonne/cm3 to 4,00,000 tonnes/cm).
[Ibidem, p. 110]. 21. A 10 M. spherical black-hole has an area of 5650 square kilometres comparable to the size of a country. Similarly the surface gravity is inversely proportional to the mass. A 10M, spherical black-hole has a surface gravity 150 billion times that of the Earth. [Ibidem, p. 196)
22. A typical mini black-hole of 1015 grams, the size of a proton, has a temperature of trillion K. [Ibidem, p.210).
23. Sthāngasūtravrtti P.432-433 (Sūtra-623)
24. Cosmological Tuths Of Ancient Indian Religions, Jainism And Hinduism by Niranjan Vakharia, Chapter XXVI, p. 234, 235.

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25. 'Jainism : Through Science' (English version) by Muni Nandighoshvijay, p.13.
26.379ahren anfeuforigIGIT: 11911 genfor whaka 120 lat 113911 ajivakāyā dharmādharmākāśapudgalāḥ.. 1.. dravyāņi jivāśca ..2.. kālaścētyēkē ..39.. (Tattvārtha Sūtra, Chapter V)
27.3755018|CAGGIO 114 11 paperYUVET ETTER A31942772: 119011ā"'kāśādēkadravyāņi ..5.. gatisthityupagraho dharmādharmayõrupakāraḥ .. 17.. (Ibidem, Chapter 1).
28.
P ilot z 11&1l nişkriyāṇi ca ..6.. (Ibidem, Chapter 1). 29. tetrard 113911 kālaścētyēkē ..39.. (Ibidem, Chapter 4).
30. ATURACT: Il paramāņurapradēśaḥ. (Lectures on Nandi Sūtra in Gujarati by H. H. Ācārya Śrivijaya Nandanasūriji Mahārāja).
31. 4186-barat-Papeterirena-76-SRFORATS SAUTENTATIE 117811 śabda-bandhasauksmya-sthaulya-samsthāna-bhēda-tamaśchāyā''tapõdyõtavantaśca ..24.. (Tattvārtha Sūtra, Chapter 1).
32, 33, 34. Jainism: Through Science (English version) by Muni Nandighoshvijay (p.4,5).
35. [Ibidem, p.8]. 36. [Ibidem, p.12). 37. [Ibidem, p. 13). 38,39. 'Black Holes, Quasars And The Universe' by Harry L. Shipman, p.4) 40. Tattvārtha Sūtra (Chapter V, sūtra No.40). 41. E=mc2, Special Theory of Relativity, Mass-Energy Equivalance.
42. Introduction To Special Relativity by Robert Resnik, Willey Eastern Limited, 1988.
43. 'Black Holes, Quasars And The Universe', Harry L. Shipman (See Fig.53; 5-4).
44. Brahmāndanun Cālaka : Gurutvākarşaņabala by Paresh Vaidya, NavneetSamarpana (Nove., 1996, p.213).

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8. Jainistic And Scientific Analysis Of Extrasensory Perceptions Of Śri Ashok Kumar Dutt
Śri Ashok Kumar Dutt, who is a mechanical engineer in Bharat Heavy
Electricals Limited, Noida, (Ghaziabad), can see the human aura. Not only that but he also can know the kinds of thoughts of men on the basis of its colours. With extrasensory perception he is able to see the colours of sound.
When someone spoke, Śri Ashok Kumar saw a mass of variously glittering colourful particles. Besides, he saw various kinds of coloured particles emerging from living and nonliving objects. Also, he sometimes saw living objects absorbing coloured energy particles from the surrounding atmosphere. In his article "The Secrets of the Alphabet and the Incantation-sound" in the October-December, 1992 issue of 'The Farbus Quarterly, he has narrated some of his experiences about sound. I was very much delighted to read that article. His experiences are much in keeping with the Jain view of reality. We shall analyse them later on. Let us first get acquainted with the belief of modern scientists regarding sound.
Generally, scientists believe that both sound and light are in the form of waves. Of course, some phenomena of light and especially the phenomenon of photo-electric-effect, can be explained only. by accepting light in the form of particles. Scientists call these particles photons. They were first called "quanta" by Einstein and the science that deals with them, is called quantum mechanics.
Light is of two types: 1. Visible light and 2. Invisible light. Invisible light, i.e. the electromagnetic waves are also of two types (1) that which has less/ low frequency and greater wave-length than visible light which is known as infrared waves and (2) that which has greater/high frequency and small wavelength than visible light and which is known as ultraviolet rays.2
The classification of sound is similar to that of light. Generally, the human ear can hear sounds with a frequency varying from 20 to 20,000. Sound is of

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two types: 1. audible sound with a frequency varying from 20 to 20,000 and 2. inaudible sound which is also of two types (1) Sound with a less/low frequency than 20, is known as infrasonic waves. The elephant can hear infrasonic sound. (2) Sound with a greater/higher frequency than 20,000 is called ultrasonic sound. With the help of sound waves of this type, the urine stone can be reduced to powder and removed without a surgical operation. In short, the scientists of today believe that sound is entirely in the form of waves. They believe that electromagnetic waves behave like waves in certain circumstances and in other circumstances they behave like particles. Thus modern science and scientists accept the dual nature of light.
On the other hand, the extrasensory perceptions of Śri Ashok Kumar Dutt prove that light, the electromagnetic field which is called aura of objects, mind, thoughts and sound - all these are in the form of matter i.e. pudgal - the most micro atoms/particles and this fully supports the Jain philosophical view.
According to Jain philosophy, there are only six kinds of fundamental substances in the whole universe. They are 1. soul, 2. matter, 3. space, 4. time, 5. the medium for motion (dharma) and 6. the medium for rest (adharma). Some Jain philosophers regard time as a substance and some do not. Of all these substances, five substances except matter are formless. Only the matter (pudgal) has form. In combination with element matter, the element soul seems to have a form. Jain philosophers mention that the matter has the characteristics namely colour, smell, taste and touch. The subtlest part or atom of an element matter, which by any instrument, could never be divided in the past, can never be divided in the present and is never going to be possible to be divided in the future, is called an atom. Though in modern physics, the subtlest indivisible part of a substance is called an atom, it is now divided into sub-atomic particles namely electrons, protons, neutrons, quarks etc. It is, therefore, not proper to call it a paramāņu (atom).
An atom (paramāņu) has a colour, a smell, a taste and two touches." It means that it has a form. But it is so subtle that it cannot be seen with the naked eyes, nor can it be seen with any instrument such as an ultramodern electorn-microscope. It can be seen with the eyes or an instrument only after infinite atoms have gathered up in a mass.
Grouping of infinite atoms have been classified by Jain philosophers into

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75
eight types. Their names and uses are as under :
1. The Audārika types of grouping i.e. Vargaņā.
Every unit of this type of Vargaņā (grouping)'has infinite atoms. Bodies of all living beings in the whole visible universe are made of it, except the bodies of hell beings and divine beings. According to Jainism earth, water, fire and wind are also living being and, their bodies are also made up of this type of Vargaņā.
2. The Vaikriya Vargaņā
Every unit of this type of Vargaņā has also infinite atoms (paramāņus). But unit of this type of Vargaņā has many more numbers of atoms than the number of atoms in the former type of Vargaņā. Similarly every unit of later type of Vargaņā has an increasingly larger number of paramāņus (atoms), which are more and more subtle in form. Bodies of gods and goddesses i. e. divine beings and hellish beings are made of this type of paramāņu-units (Vargaņā). Even human beings sometimes make another body of this type of paramāņu-units (Vargaņā).
3. The Āhāraka Vargaņā.
Jain monks who have attained a specific level of deep learning, use the paramāņu-units of this type of grouping (Vargaņā) to make a crystaline body of the size of a close-fisted hand.
4. The Taijas Vargaņā.
With the paramāņu-units of this Vargaņā (grouping), a subtle called taijas (vital) body is formed by every living being. Food is digested with its help.
5. The Bhāṣā Vargaņā.
All living beings varying from those with two senses to those with five senses, celestial, human and hellish beings absorb the paramāņu-units of this Vargaņā, and transform them into distinct or indistinct sound and release them in the atmosphere.
6. The śvāsācchvāsa Vargaņā.
Every living being inhales and exhales with the paramāņu-units of this Vargaņā.

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7. The Mano Vargaņā.
The minds of all gross five-sensed living beings (celestial, human, hellish and animals) are made of this type of paramānu-units (Vargaņā). Moreover they are used in various processes of thinking.
8. The Kārmana Varganā.
The paramāņu-units of this type of Vargaņā get transformed as auspicious or inauspicious karma and stick to the soul. They make a special type of subtle body named the Kārmaņa body.
In both of his articles, Sri Ashok Kumar Dutt shows that the groups of coloured energy particles are chiefly of the three colours - red, yellow and blue. But in the description of the element pudgala i.e. matter, Jain philosophers show that they have five colours - white, red, yellow, blue and black. As far as drawing is concerned, there are only three colours, red, yellow and blue. The rest of the colours are made by mixing these colours. In the printing of coloured pictures, red, yellow, blue and black colours are used.
There are two types of smell : 1. good smell and 2. bad smell.
There are five types of taste : 1. bitter, 2. pungent, 3. astringent, 4. sour, 5. sweet. The saltish taste is not taken into account here but it is accepted as sixth taste in other Jain works.
There are eight types of touch : 1. heavy, 2. light, 3. soft, 4. hard, 5. cold, 6. hot, 7. smooth, Snigdha Ate 8. rough Rukșa Fe 10
A single solitary atom has two types of touch : 1.cold or hot and 2. smooth or rough (Snigdha para or Ruksa 5a). Some paramāņu-units made of infinite atoms have sometimes four touches. Some have all the eight touches. The first four of the eight types of Varganās shown above have all the eight types of touch. The last four Vargaņās of the eight types of Vargaņās shown above, have four types of touch.
Having got this background information of the pudgala (matter) we, shall now analyse the experiences or extrasensory perceptions of Sri Dutt.
Chiefly blue particles seem to emerge from the sound of a conch-shell. It is customary to make sound of a conch- shell at the time of evening prayer in Hindu temples. It is said that the sound of a conch-shell removes turbidity/

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impurity and inauspiciousness of atmosphere and this is proved by Śri Dutt's experience mentioned above. Similarly, blue particles emerge from the sound of temple bell which is of the shape of a pyramid. At the one-third of the height of pyramids, domed temples and buildings of the shape of a pyramid, under the apex, objects store blue energy-particles. They have probably the highest energy and that is why fruits, flower kept in the pyramid at one-third of its height just under its apex remain fresh for a long time and then they dehydrate but do not decay. A lot of research work has been done on this in the west and a number of books have been written on this subject." Śri Dutt's extrasensory perception of pyramid substantiates this statement.
Defining the word pudgala (TEC) (i.e. matter), Jain philosophers say that a pudgala is something in which the processes of fusion and fission are constantly going on." grup Tau sfa ya Tar: (Oūrayanti galayanti iti pudgalāḥ) Śri Dutt's extrasensory perceptions show that red, yellow and blue particles constantly emerge from all living and non-living objects in the whole universe. It means that with a special aptitude or power of his eyes he has seen the process of fission taking place in non-living paudgalic (material) objects, the process of disintegration of atoms of an object. He saw the process of fission with his eyes because it is greater than the process of fusion in the non-living objects. But when the same objects are placed in a pyramid, a refrigerator or a special type of atmosphere, the process of fission becomes slower and the process of fusion which absorbs blue energy particles, becomes faster. The processes of fusion and fission are constantly going on in the human body too 13 and it is clearly experienced by Śri Ashok Kumar Dutt. This perfectly substantiates the doctrines laid down by Jain philosophers.
According to śri Dutt, the red particles are the least energetic. Modern science also accepts this. When a sun ray passes through a prism, it is divided into seven colours and in the colour spectrum, that is formed, the red rays - particles have least frequency and the violet rays/particles have the highest frequency. And according to the law of physics, the higher the frequency of rays/particles, the higher the energy of rays/particles. Rays with a low frequency than the frequency of red light i.e. electromagnetic waves having low frequency cannot be grasped by our eyes. They are called infrared rays. Similarly, rays with a higher frequency than the frequency of violet rays or electromagnetic waves are called ultraviolet rays and they can also be not

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grasped by our eyes.
sri Dutt says that between non-living things and living, there is a intermediate state of things. The non-living body after the death, flowers and leaves fallen from trees and plants belong to this state. They first emit blue, then yellow and then red particles and then they decay.
Regarding food of monks and nuns of the svetambar idolatrous sect, there is a rule that they can accept ripe fruits etc. after 48 minutes after they have been cut and juice has been extracted from them. Śri Dutt's experiences described above reveal the secret of this rule. Generally, we believe that ripe fruits become lifeless soon after they have been cut. But as long as all the blue particles have not been emitted, they are probably alive and during emission of yellow particles, they are lifeless but they do not contain bacteria. But bacteria have already entered them when red particles are emitted. That is why fruits are fit to be accepted by monks and nuns only when they are in the intermediate state between the two states.
Moreover, in cold places also, blue particles are more quantitative. The refrigerator is the best illustration of this. That is why fruits etc. in a refrigerator or in such places, remain fresh for a long time. They can remain alive there. In heat all fruit etc. decay and are so In heat all fruit etc. decay and are soiled soon because in heat they quickly emit energy-particles. There are records of instances which show that dead bodies of human beings and animals buried under snow have remained fresh for thousands of years. That also substantiates this fact.
Śri Dutt says from his experience that in nature, i.e. in places of natural beauty such as green vegetation, ponds, wells, river-banks etc., there are abundant blue particles near the bottom of the earth. Trees, plants etc. emit blue particles in the morning hours. They emit yellow and blue particles during the day time, and at night they emit red particles and absorb blue particles. They grasp red particles in the morning. Students of science, generally, know that during the day time; plants, trees etc. absorb carbon-dioxide and emit oxygen. At night plants, trees etc. absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide. This shows that oxygen has blue molecules and carbon-dioxide has red molecules. And it is a scientifically proved fact that oxygen has energy for vital functions and that is why whoever controls breath or takes deep breaths i.e. Prāņāyāma enjoys good health.

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Of course, this is an inference based on the extrasensory perceptions of Sri Dutt and it is in keeping with the contention of Jain phil it is probably nearest to truth. All cannot have such experiences because this is a gift of nature. We should not, therefore, underestimate it.
Śri Dutt proposes to study the body from two view- points : 1. the subtle body and 2. the Kāraṇa body. This will make it easy to understand the facts of colours.
According to the Jain scriptures, the body is of five types: 1. The Audārika body, 2. The Vaikriya body, 3. The Āhāraka body, 4. The Taijas body and 5. The Kārmana body. All these five types of body have been mentioned earlier in the description of the forms of Vargaņās i.e. groupings of paramāņu-units. Since they have a special relevance here, they are mentioned here again. Every living being has at least three bodies. In certain circumstances, some highly developed men have four bodies but never has a living being five bodies at the same time. Generally, the living beings of physical world, namely, earth, water, fire, wind, plants etc. who have only one sense of touch and very small insects i.e. micro organisms and other creatures which are classified by the Jain biology into the two-sensed, three-sensed and foursensed living beings, aquatic living beings such as fishes etc. beasts such as the cow, the horse, the elephant etc., the snake, the squirrel etc. and birds such as the sparrow, the crow, the parrot, etc. which are called five-sensed have only three bodies each : The Audārika body, the taijas body and the Kārmaņa body. To their vaikriya body, they can give any form or shape, small or big. In the sense of modern science and scientists, it is called the desire body. Of all the living beings in the whole universe, only man can make a vaikriya body i.e. desire body, if he performs certain special type of penance or if he attains a certain special type of knowledge, he can make an Ahāraka body besides the Audārika body of bones, flesh and skin, that is visible to naked eyes. But never can he simultaneously makes both the types of body - the vaikriya body and the Ahāraka body."
of the five types of body, the types of body intended to be described here are the taijas body and the Kārmana body. All living beings in the whole universe certainly have these two types of body. Of course, the living being who have emancipated from the bondage of all karmic particles has attained salvation and has got liberation from the eight types of karma, has none of the

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five bodies and that is he is called unembodied. This taijas-Kärmaņa body is called the vital body. The taijas body, which śri Dutt calls the subtle body. digests food and makes constituents of the gross body such as blood, flesh, fat, bones, marrow etc. The Kārmana body which Śri Dutt calls Kāraṇa body, determines various forms and structure of gross and subtle body. Both these types of body are very important.
In paintings of gods, an aura is painted behind their heads. It is a symbol of their divine quality. Really speaking, it is an effect of purity of their subtle / taijas body. Other living beings and human beings also have such a bright round shape around their bodies, which is called an aura. Really speaking this aura is a bio-electro-magnetic field. As every magnet has its magnetic field, so every living being has his field of effect. The aura of a human being depends on the purity of his taijas / subtle body and that again depends on the auspiciousness of material particles of Kārmaņa Vargaņā absorbed by the Kārmana body and their colour, smell, taste and touch. The absorption of auspicious and inauspicious material particles depends upon auspicious and inauspicious thoughts conceived by the mind. As a result, the intensity and purity / impurity of the aura depends upon the thoughts created in the mind. Śri Dutt calls the aura, the armour of energy. The mind which is now-a-days called the sixth sense, is made of constituent units of subtle particles.
Though śri Dutt is not a Jain, he seems to follow the contentions of Jain philosophy. On one hand, this fact justifies the Jain contentions and on the other hand, his extrasensory perceptions being true, convince the Jain community. Of course, an extensive analysis as well as classification and research of his experiences, seems to be necessary and his experiences and similar experiences of others may open up a new filed of research.
One of his extra-sensory perceptions wonderfully reflects the Jain philosophy of karma. He says that particles are encompassed in the armour of energy i.e. bio - electromagnetic filed. The subtle body absorbed them as food. It is necessary to analyse this statement from gross as well as subtle view points.
On a gross level, Jain philosophers classify food into four types : 1. Kavalāhāra, 2. Praksēpāhāra, 3.Lomāhāra and 4.ājāhāra. 1. Eating with

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81
mouth the cooked food in the form of morsels is called Kavalāhāra. 2. Giving energising substances or medicines directly into blood through injections or holes made in skin when it is not possible to take food through the mouth, is called Praksēpāhāra. 3. Absorbing subtle particles from the atmosphere through short and small hairs on the body, is called Lõmāhāra. 4. Sperm of father and blood of mother taken by a child in the womb as food, is called Ojāhāra.
Speaking from a subtle point of view, according to the Jain theory, the soul grasps karma particles, i.e. paramāņu-units of Kārmaņa Vargaņā from the space-points which are non- distant from the space-points in which he lives. 15 Then the soul incorporates them in his Kārmana body. Thus, the soul somehow becomes inseparable from them.
Does the extrasensory perceptions of Sri Dutt suggest Lõmāhāra ? Or does it suggest absorption of paramāņu-units of Kārmaņa Vargaņā described from a subtle viewpoint? This cannot be understood. Perhaps he did not think of making such a line of demarcation because it seems that it is impossible for him to make such analysis or classification of his experience without a full knowledge of the Jain theory of karma.
Regarding the armour of energy i.e. an aura, he says that the greater circumference of the aura, the greater its capacity for grasping the particles of energy and preventing them from being wasted or going away. It can perhaps be said that as the living beings develop spiritually, their energyarmour i.e. aura becomes larger and clearer. That is why the aura of divine beings, gods and goddesses and of Tirthankara is pure, clear and visible to the eyes. Non-living objects can also have such an aura. But it is not like the aura of living beings, which is stable and develops according to spiritual progress. Day by day, it becomes weaker and weaker and loses its lustre. When gods have six months of their life-span left, their aura begins to lose its lustre, their flower-garlands begin to wither and their body becomes dirty. But those gods who are Ēkāvatāri, i.e. who are to take the next birth as a human being and are then to attain the final liberation, are exempted from this rule. Their aura becomes more and more lustrous and their flower-garlands do not wither. The intensity of the energy-armour (aura) or bio-electromagnetic field, depends upon the capacity of mind and will-power. As the will-power of a living being becomes intense, his circle of aura becomes large and intense. Man

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should, therefore, make his will-power intense by means of constant auspicious thoughts, prayers and worship of God.
in order to avoid unnecessary repetition, I will take up the analysis of sri Ashok Kumar Dutt's extrasensory perceptions of sound and alphabet, along-with the analysis of his article entitled 'The Secrets Of Sanskrit Alphabet and Sound of Incantation.'
References:
1. Light is always in the form of electro-magnetic waves. Therefore 'light' here means electro-magnetic waves.
2. This is a general division or classification. More sub-divisions are described in the books on physics.
3. 3tuftachtet Enterschranyçi: 11911 Gao vitarea 112 11 hlatretto 113911 ajivakāyā dharmādharmākāśapudgalāḥ .. 1.. dravyāņi jivāśca ..2.. kālaścētyēkē ..39.. (Tattvārtha Sūtra, Chapter V) 4. A UF FATICHE 114 11 rūpiņaḥ pudgalā) ..5.. (Tattvārtha Sūtra, Chapter V)
5-6. 1988-774-17*X-COATEISTE IRC II sparsa-rasa-gandha-varņavantaḥpudgalāḥ ..28.. ( Tattvārtha Sūtra, Chapter
6. Commentary on the aphorism 1934-784-177€-qutar FIGHTE 1126 11
sparsa-rasa-gandha-varņavantaḥ pudgalāḥ ..28.. by Siddhasena Gani (Tattvārtha Sūtra, Chapter-V
7. Varganā is a word of Jain terminology. It is used for groups of atoms/ paramāņus.
8. Red, yellow and blue are the three original colours. All other colours are made by mixtures.
9. भावओ णं राइभोअणे तित्ते वा कडुए वा कसाये वा अंबिले वा महुरे वा लवणे वा |
bhāvað nam rāibhõaņē tittē vā kaduē vā kasāyē vā ambilē vā mahurē vā lavanē vā.
(Pakkhisūtra- ālāpaka-6) 10. .......gout, Fug-rict-IP:37-PATE-RAYT 118011 Tiogeot PRAT qui, fat-the-thru-ifact HERT!
RAI- 15-218-A3-CF--Jur-Rifds-Bereçot 118911 ......vanna, kinha-nila-lonia-halidda-siyā ..40..

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surahidurahi rasā paņa, titta-kaḍu-kasāya-ambilā mahurā . phāsā-- guru-laghu-miu-khara-si-unha-siniddha-rukkhaṭṭhā ..41.. (First Karmagrantha, gāthā 40-41)
11. Pyramid Power by Max Toth & Gerge Nielsen
12. Commentary on the aphorism अजीवकाया धर्माधर्माकाशपुद्गलाः ||१|| ajivakāyā dharmādharmākāśapudgalaḥ..1.. by Siddhasena Gani
(Tattvärtha Sūtra, Chapter-V)
13. See. "Science Discovers Eternal Wisdom' by Muni Śri Amarendravijayji Mahārāja.
14. A detailed description of both these types of body, is found in Siddhasena Gani's commentary on the Tattvärtha Sūtra, Chapter-2, Sūtra - 37 to 49.
15. एग पएसोगाढं निअ सव्वपएसो गहेइ जीओ | १७९|| āga pasāgādham nia savvapaeso gahei jiō ..79.. (Fifth Karmagranth, gāthā-79)
THE NOTION THAT ALL SCIENTIFIC MODELS AND THE THEORIES ARE APPROXIMATE AND THAT THEIR VERBAL INTERPRETATIONS ALWAYS SUFFER FROM THE INACCURACY OF OUR LANGUAGE WAS ALREADY COMMONLY ACCEPTED BY SCIENTISTS AT THE BEGINNING OF THIS CENTURY, WHEN A NEW AND COMPLETELY UNEXPECTED DEVELOPMENT TOOK PLACE. THE STUDY OF THE WORLD OF ATOMS FORCED PHYSICISTS TO REALIZE THAT OUR COMMON LANGUAGE IS NOT ONLY INACCURATE, BUT TOTALLY INADEQUATE TO DESCRIBE THE ATOMIC AND SUBATOMIC REAL
ITY.
83
FRITJOF CAPRA

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9. Colour : The Wonderful
Characteristic Of Sound In the October- December, 1992, issue of 'The Quarterly' of Farbus Gujarati Sabha, I read the articles - "Colour : The Wonderful Characteristic Of Sound' written by Urmiben Desai and 'The Secrets of the Sanskrit Alphabet And Incantation-Sound' written by Sri Ashok Kumar Dutt. I was greatly delighted and astonished to read them. Theoretically, the Jain philosophy regards sound as a form of pudgala (matter). Therefore, under no circumstances can the possibility that the sound has colour, can be ruled out. But the common man cannot grasp the colour of sound with his eyes. As I went on reading sri Dutt's article on his extrasensory perceptions, my faith in Jain Philosophy became stronger and stronger.
I think that the particle form of light must be accepted for explaining the phenomenon of photo-electric-effect of light and ultraviolet rays and the waveform of light must be accepted for explaining the fact i.e. phenomenon of interference of light. Similarly, the sound which is fully accepted in the wave form by scientists, is really in the form of particles according to the Jain philosophy. And the extrasensory perceptions of śri Ashok Kumar Dutt also prove that sound is in the form of particles. Therefore, in course of time, the dual nature of sound like that of light will have to be accepted. As the branch of quantum mechanics has developed in respect of light, a new type of quantum mechanics will emerge in respect of sound. An an electronic
invented by scientists for protection against sound-pollution. With the help of it an anti-sound is produced against sound. The anti-sound
s towards the sound, dashes against it and destroys it. It works on the principle of destructive interference.' For this reason sound must be accepted to be in the form of waves. But scientists explain the propagation of sound with the help of particles existing in the medium of air. And it is shown as under :
When the sound wave passes, the particles in air seem to be pushed very near to one another in certain parts. These parts are called c waves and they are shown by 'c' in the figure. These crests move from the left to the right. Fig. (a) shows the condition of the first moment and Fig. (b)

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shows the condition of the next moment. The portion which has a larger number of air particles i.e. greater density of medium, is called a crest of the wave or condensation. The portion which has a less/low density of of medium, is called a trough of the wave or rarefaction. This description propagation of sound shows that sound is in the form of particles. Jain scriptures also show this method of propagation of sound. The only difference is that the particles of medium are replaced there by constituent paramāņu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaṇā.
CORRE
Figure [a]
Figure
[/b]
85
The ancient Jain philosophical literature2 and the science of mysticism3 accept sound only in the form of particles. They also show its colours. In the modern western literature there is a mention/reference that two or three western scientists have seen colours of sound. People like Śri Ashok Kumar Dutt who have a natural gift of this sort of extrasensory perception, even today, are able to see the colours of sound."

The Jain philosophy believes that sound is produced by paramāņu-units of a matter i.e. Bhāṣā Vargaṇā. Every characteristic of an atom i.e. paramāņu is, therefore, present in sound in a subtle form. The Tattvärtha Sutra which is acceptable to all sects of Jains, clearly states that as a pudgala (matter) has colour, smell, taste and touch, so its smallest indivisible part called atom i.e. paramāņu also has colour, smell, taste and touch. Therefore as a man with extrasensory perception can see that colour of sound, so other people, having different type of extrasensory power, can perhaps experience taste and smell. Everyone experiences the touch of sound. The tap-recorder, the gramophone record etc. are useful only because sound can be picked by these instruments very clearly, we do experience the touch of a very big sound. It is, therefore, not necessary to elaborate on this.
The ancient Jain tradition shows that some distinguished ascetics

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attained such type of extraordinary or extrasensory powers by virtue of their penance. In Jain literature, such extrasensory power is known as a 'labdhi'. The book of rituals entitled 'Siddhacakra Mahāpūjana' and 'Sūrimantra' etc. mention the names of various 48 types of labdhis. Amongst them, there is a special type of labdhi called 'Sambhinnasrotas.'? Whoever attains this labdhi. can get through any one of his senses, the knowledge which can be obtained by other senses. e.g. through the sense of touch, he can see, smell, hear and taste. Of course, the attainment of such extrasensory power i.e. labdhi seems to be improbable/impossible in the present day
le in the present day world. Some people, therefore, may not believe it, but for this reason it is not proper to make the statement that such extrasensory powers cannot be there.
Therefore, the power of direct experience of the colour of sound attained by śri Ashok Kumar Dutt, must be some special type of labdhi. According to the Jain theory of karma, this extrasensory power of Sri Dutt, must have been obtained by eradication-cum-mitigation of Matijñānāvaraniya karma because this type of karma covers the knowledge received through the five senses and mind. This kind of karma obstructs the direct knowledge received through sense - organs. When the cover of this type of karma is removed, one naturally receives direct knowledge through sense-organs.
Sri Dutt's extrasensory perception of the colours of Sanskrit letters and the colours of Sanskrit letters shown in the books of ancient tantric/mystic science are not in agreement at many places. Moreover, even in the books on tantric/mystic science the descriptions of the colours of Sanskrit letters are not in mutual agreement. But these references certainly prove that ancient sages and distinguished tantrikas experienced colours of sound.
Śri Dutt is an engineer in 'Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited.' He has, therefore, attempted to analyse his extrasensory perceptions according to scientific methods. He has taken pains to determine the colour of every letter. He has also tested his experiences of colour of sound by comparing them to the rules of sandhi (euphonic coalition of letters) and dissolution of sandhi in grammar of the Sanskrit language. He has also shown the graphic method of showing wonderful power of various mantras and names by well-arranged tables through knowing the different colours of each letter (a vowel or a consonant) of the Sanskrit alphabet and its glitter and intensity.

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Colour: The Wonderful Charecterisite Of Sound
According to him, assemblages of coloured particles produced by sound united with one another and underwent a transformation into an assemblage of particles of a different colour. They perhaps followed the rules of sandhi (combination of letters) of the Sanskrit language. In his article, he has given illustrations of this transformation. On the basis of his experiences he says that the Sanskrit language is very scientific.
87
Really speaking in languages of the world other than Sanskrit, pronunciations do not agree with the letters of a word. While in the Sanskrit language pronunciation is in complete agreement with the letters of a word. e.g. The English language has the words - know, now and no. The pronunciation of the word "know" is in complete variance with the letters of the word. The letter 'k' is unpronounced (silent). The letter 'w' is also silent. In the word 'now', 'o' is pronounced as "a", that does not agree with the letters. The pronunciation of the word 'no' is in accordance with its letters. But when the letters of the word 'no' are pronounced separately, they are pronounced as 'en', 'o'. Thus the sound form of its letters is different from its combined sound form. In the English language, pronunciations differ from speaker to speaker. Some pronounce 'the' as 'DHEE' () and some pronounce it as 'DHA' (), while Hindi speaking people pronounce it also as "DA" (a). None of these pronunciations agree with the letters - T.H.E.
It is not so in the Sanskrit language. In Sanskrit language, words are pronounced as they are written. No consonant or vowel is silent in the pronunciation. Of course the vowels and the consonants join according to the rules of sandhi and they change their form. But the words are pronounced as they are written. Not a single letter, vowel or consonant remains unpronounced e.g. 14: 315 3ufafa Rāmaḥ Atra Upavisati. This sentence is pronounced according to the letters. But when the words are joined by the rules of sandhi, the sentence is pronounced as: saufagfa. Rāmōtrō'pavisati. In this sentence. 31 of is followed by the visrga (:) and both are changed into 3 because both are followed by a vowel 31. Same way 31 of and B of fifa, both are changed into 3. Both the 3 are to be surely pronounced, while the vowel 3 of disappears by the rules of sandhi, so it is not pronounced. Such strict observance of rules is not known in any other language. Of course, the languages derived from the Sanskrit language retain to keep these rules and therefore for a systematic and scientific study of colours of sound, the Sanskrit language is the best medium.

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Illustrations form the Gujarati language, given by Smt. Umiben Desai are as under : sta + Treft = stereret, Fri + past = arrasi, ga + 27 = guitar, jy + oil = TM, 7*+019T=HRETENI, 94 + = grant, ga + ai = ET, FMI + g = Fiety śēkha + calli = śēkcalli, hātha + kadi = hātkaļi, sõdha + tā = śõttā, sūrigha + tā = sūrktā, maga+khādhā= makkhādhā, kūda + ko = kütkö, dūba + to = dūpto, nāga + pura = nākpura show that the transformation in the coloured particles of energy, follows the pronunciations and not the letters of words of language.
It is a special feature of the pure Sanskrit language that its pronunciations sounds fully follow the letters (alphabet). That is why the rules of sandhi and dissolution of sandhi of the Sanskrit grammar apply or can be applied to coloured energy particles of sounds of Sanskrit language. If there is a hyphen farness between Sanskrit letters or words, sandhi is not permissible. Similarly, if sounds of Sanskrit letters of words, are separated, the colour, glitter etc. of coloured energy particles do not undergo transformations. e.g. If Ta 'Tat' and stay "Śrutam' are spoken separately, they will not be united by alphabetical sandhi and consequently the coloured energy particles of the 'Tat' and say 'śrutam' will not undergo any transformation. In short it should be accepted that colours of sound of any sort, follow the pronunciation and not the letters of alphabet.
The English language is quite unfit for the study of colours of sounds because the pronunciations of its alphabets/letters except A, E and O, have two or more letters. Moreover, the pronunciations of words are not at all in accordance with its letters. e.g. The letter 'a' is sometimes pronounced as 'ē' as in 'above'. Sometimes as 'ā' in 'car' and sometimes as 'ai' as in 'parent'. This is probably in the case of every letters of English alphabet. The importance of the Sanskrit language that Sri Ashok Kumar Dutt explains on the ground of his experience is, therefore, real. It is on account of its strict observance rules that it is accepted as the best computer language.
Regarding the word 'Rāma', śri Dutt writes in his article : "In graphic method the words "Rāma' and 'Marā' are of equal magnitude and, therefore, there is no difference between their energies." But according to me, this statement is not proper. The energy of sound or word does not depend only on the magnitude of its graphic form or written form. There are several ways of writing. The sequential order of writing letters in the word 'Marā' is reverse to the sequential of writing letters in the word 'Rāma'. Though the energy of

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the word 'Marā' is equal to the energy of the word 'Rāma', it is of the negative type. This is my guess. In the science of incantation ( fata), there are different ways of reciting mantras/incantations. e. g. If recited according to the right sequence (पूर्वानुपूर्वी) the Namaskāra Mahamantra नमस्कार महामन्त्र gives spiritual reward but if it is recited according to the reverse order (9801141) it gives material rewards.
Thus on the one hand, Śri Dutt's experiences of sound strongly support the sound form described in Jain philosophy and on the other hand they raise a question mark about the wave theory of modern science.
In conclusion I hope that the scientists of our country will help me in carrying on research in this branch of study.
References: 1. See: 'Abhiyāna' of April 6, 1992, Page No.7, 8. by Nagendra Vijay 2. सबंधयार उज्जोअ पभा छायाऽऽतवे हि य । वण्ण गंध रसा फासा पुग्गलाणं लक्षणम् । saddandhayāra ujjõa pabhā chāyā''tavē hi ya . vanna gandha rasā phāsā puggalāņam lakkhanam (Navatattava Gāthā-11)
3-4-5. See. 'The Quarterly' of Farbus Gujarati Sabha, Octo.-Dece. 1992 Bombay page 276 to 288.
6. 7931-229-1Tre-quaTT: TESTS: IRC || sparsa-rasa-gandha-varņavantah pudgalāḥ ..28..( Tattvārtha Sūtra, Chapter-V)
7. See : Śri Siddhacakra Mahāpījana, Labdhipadapūjana
8. See. 'The Quarterly' of Farbus Gujarati Sabha, Octo.-Dece. 1992 Bombay page 276 to 288.
9. See:'Yantra' by Madhu Khanna, p.48 and 'Sūrimantra kalpa samuccaya' part-II, p.360-361.

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10. Limitations Of Mathematics In
Jain Philosophy And Modern Physics
"One of the famous aphorisms of Einstein conveys the same idea - 'As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality.'
Because of this critical limitation of science leading to gross error in perception of reality, one of the main aims of eastern mysticism is to rid us of this confusion and to aim at the direct experience of reality which transcends the intellectual thinking."
-D.K. Satsangi ( Bulletin of Theosophy Science Study Group, India, December, 1988,
Vol. 26, No. 6, p. 63 ) Cver since the beginning of human civilization, mathematics in some form or other has been in use in the society. But in modern times, its use has assumed great importance. But for the use of mathematics, researches leading to human welfare and multiplication of production of things useful to the human race, would never have been possible even with the help of advanced mechanics. The advancement in mechanics, basically depends on the use of mathematics.' It is, therefore, essential to study mathematics for understanding of modern science.
While we think of mathematics, a number of questions arise. Is mathematics an art or a science? Is mathematics a game of various symbols? Is it still a language? Is it still the 'Queen' of sciences or it has now been enslaved as their ‘servant'? Wherein resides the soul of mathematics? Is it really a spinal cord of science? What is the motive behind mathematical creations? Like poetry and music how far does it give artistic amusement to people?
All these questions can be answered from various viewpoints. All the same, mathematics is only a sort of game of imaginary symbols. But this

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game can play and does play a very important role in our day-to-day life.
hematics is related to the quantitative aspects of every object. We use objects in all our activities. Since life consists all activities, various objects are no doubt useful in everyman's life and there is nothing in the world which has no quantitative aspect. It follows, therefore, that there can be no life without mathematics.? Of course, the type and use of mathematics differ in everyman's life according to his own understanding.
Mathematics in its modern form differs little from science. The only noteworthy difference is that mathematics uses 'proof'in place of observation'. 3 Mathematics is a basic requirement of modern physics and modern physics explains and tries to explain almost all natural laws and phenomena through mathematics, but as far as physics is concerned, it has failed to explain all physical phenomena through mathematics or to put in mathematical formulae all the laws that cause the phenomena. The laws are true only within a certain limit. Beyond the limit all mathematical formulae prove to be false. They cannot be applied there.
Before discussing these limitations of mathematics, let us examine the origin, development and history of uses of mathematics.
Types and Uses of Numbers
Pythagoras accepted the so called natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, ..........etc. as gifts from gods and he showed no curiosity to know when and how they came into hands of men.“ These natural numbers have certain properties :
1. These natural numbers are mainly of two types : Odd numbers and even numbers. The distinction between odd and even numbers is untraceably ancient. The ancient general belief that odd numbers are lucky and even numbers are unlucky, is widely prevalent in the society even today. Similarly, there is a very ancient belief that odd numbers are masculine and divine or heavenly and even numbers are feminine and human or earthy."
2. The sum of two even numbers is always an even number. Similarly, the sum of two odd numbers is also an even number.
3. The sum of odd numbers in sequential order beginning with 1 is always a square. e.g. 1+3=4=22:1+3+5=9=32; 1+3+5+7=16=42: 1+3+5+7+9=25=52

.

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-
4. The sum of two natural numbers is always in the form of a different natural number. ( Zero is not regarded as a natural number because counting always begins with 1 and never with zero.) The modern mathematics expresses this thus -- "The set of natural numbers is closed with respect to a d d Ition
The concepts of addition of natural numbers was later symbolised as + And that was the first arithmetical operation on them. It has the noteworthy property that the sum of two natural numbers is also a natural number greater than each of the two natural number.
At initial stages the concept of subtraction implied the removal of smaller natural number from the bigger ones. The reverse could not be conceived of for a long time. But some one appears to have hit upon the idea of proceeding the other way round. He showed this with a practical example. Suppose a man has five coins of his own and he has to pay seven coins to some one else. He can pay seven coins to other person only after taking a loan of two coins from a third person. Thus 5 - 7 = -2, Here 5 stands for the number of coins that the man possesses as his own. - 7 stands for the number of coins that he has to pay to someone as a loan. - 2 stands for the number of coins
e man takes as a loan from the third person. Thus the negative (- ve) numbers denote debt. In short, the new process of subtracting a big number from a small number produced a category of negative (-ve) numbers. Compared to the natural numbers, they were unreal and imaginary. They were denoted by putting the negative (-ve) sign before natural numbers. These imaginary integers in the form of negative natural numbers came to be recognized as a set of negative integers and the real natural numbers in the form of positive numbers along with zero came to be recognised as a set of positive integers. These numbers can be arranged in an ascending order as under:
(......-1000.......-900........-100,....-90.......-50........-10......-9....-7........ 4,.....-1 ...0,...... 1.............9,..... 10,......60,...... 100,.....1000,..........)
Natural numbers are also called positive (+ve) integers.
A very important point emerges from the similarity of positive and negative integers. Every number on the right in the sequence is 1 more than the immediately preceding left one."

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93
According to the research scholars of modern age, the development of civilization induced the use of continually increasing big numbers in social transactions. The operation of addition was found to be too cumbersome to tackle the complicated problems involving large numbers arising out of expanding business and commerce. The concept of multiplication emerged out of the process of giving a short form to the operation of addition. It was symbolized as x
In the single set of aforementioned two groups of numbers (positive and negative integers) the product of two numbers of the either group belong to the same group.".
The product of a positive (+ve) number and a negative (-ve) number is always a negative number. In practice, this operation is used to show a quantity of debt. e.g. 5 X (- 4) = - 20. This equation implies that a loan of 4 coins was taken five times. If - 4 is added to - 4 five times, the summation will be - 20. The total loan will amount to 20.
The method of multiplication was invented as a shortcut to the process of addition for a large scale counting of articles, so the method of division was invented and popularized as a shortcut to the process of subtraction as the joint family system gave way to the system of divided family and it became necessary to separate thing of the parental house into divisions. Application of division method to the set of integers proved creative. It induced the following concepts regarding to other types of numbers :
1. The numbers that could be divided by two, came to the called even numbers. e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 etc.
2. The numbers that could not be divided by two, came to be called odd numbers. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 etc.
Same way numbers that were divisible by 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 etc. and those that were not divisible by them created various classes of numbers.
A new class of natural numbers was discovered. None of its members could be divided by any natural number other than 1 and itself. These numbers are called prime numbers. e.g. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23
etc. 13
The division method created a new set of numbers called fractional numbers e.g. On dividing 1 by 2, 3, 4, 5 etc. one gets 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5,

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etc. Fractional numbers also show the ratio of the divisor to the dividend e.g. 2/4 = 1/2; 20/4 5/1........ etc. They are, therefore, called rational numbers.
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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
Rational numbers are innumerable. Even between two consequent integers, there are innumerable rational numbers. Besides, there can be innumerable rational numbers even between two rational numbers. No two fractional or rational numbers can therefore be said to be quite adjacent. This class of rational numbers is, therefore, extremely dense. Since all integers are divisible by 1, they are also called rational numbers. Regarding fractional rational numbers,. it should, however, be noted that the divisor is not zero.
15
16
The idea of square-root emerges from the so called Pythagoras theorem. 'So called' because Indian mathematicians had detailed practical knowledge of this theorem centuries before the birth of Pythagoras." It is believed that among the forty-five Jain canonical scriptures Suryaprajñapti, Camdraprajñapti, Jambudvipaprajñapti etc. relating to mathematics, were orally communicated by Lord Mahavira during the period between 557 B.C. to 527 B.C. There square-root is named as Karaṇaprakriyā and it has been widely used. Moreover √10 was widely used as gross value of π pi. 17 A Jain Acārya named Acārya Virasēna used 355/113 instead of л рi. Śrinivāsa Rāmānujan, the modern mathematician found out this as late as in the nineteenth century.
18

If two sides of a right-angled triangle have the length of one unit of measurement, the length of its diagonal is √2. A number of attempts have been made to find the exact value of √2 but in vain. Similarly, the exact values of √√√√√6,√7 etc. can also not be found. Nor can these
3/2,3/3,42,43,
numbers be shown by the ratio of two natural numbers. These numbers are, therefore, called irrational numbers. Like the numbers shown above 19 etc. are also called irrational numbers. A number of attempts have been made to find out an estimated approximate value of these irrational numbers. These irrational numbers fall somewhere between two rational numbers. Only this can be determined." All these rational and irrational numbers are collectively commonly called Real numbers.
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21

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Proceeding further, we come across yet another class of numbers, called complex Numbers. Square roots, forth-roots etc. of negative numbers are very useful in these complex numbers. Really speaking the square-roots, the fourth roots or sixth-roots of negative numbers have imaginary existence. Mahāvīracarya, the Jain mathematician of the ninth century of A.D., was the first to call them imaginary." Later on in the year 1545 A.D. the mathematician named Cardon also called them imaginary. Of course, these numbers are used in mathematics in the following way e.g. 40=25+15=52 − (√−15)2 = (5+ √−15)(5−√−15)
22
95
Here (5+√15) and (5-√-15) are called complex numbers. Since there is no real number in mathematics whose square can be a negative number, it is not possible to find out the real value of √15. and therefore, it is called, imaginary.
Zero - The Eternal Enigma
Zero is a unique gift of Indian mathematicians to the world. Of course, who invented zero? How? All this cannot be definitely decided. But we can make inferences.
24
25
We make a dual use of zero- as a symbol and as a number. In the initial stage, zero was used as a symbol. Zero is used to show total absence of a thing. Formerly, Indian writers used words and letters to indicate numbers and figures. Then figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc. were used as symbols for those words. Along with the words, these figures i.e. numbers were also written between brackets e.g.(3, 5, 6, 1, .....etc.) But when total absence of a thing was to be shown, a point was put between brackets along with the word standing for sky. (.) This is what some believe." This symbol (.) showed a null set or null vector." As time passed by, the point, it is inferred dropped out of the brackets and only brackets were used. Which people wrote the symbol of brackets hurriedly, they perhaps joined the brackets together. And this is how today's form of zero came into being. It is my inference that zero was thus created. It showed total absence of a thing. Then after a very long period of time, it was accepted in the form of number. After acceptance of zero as a number, it was again a question to place zero in the order of numbers. Generally, in computers and typewriters zero is placed after 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

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6, 7, 8, 9. Here we can see that if we count the numbers from 1 to 9, from left each consecutive number to the right is greater by 1. Though zero was placed after nine, It is not greater than nine. Therefore, in an arithmetical series, zero is placed before 1 and after -1.
There is a book of Pingala on prosody. It was written perhaps in the second century B.C. It was found in that book that zero was for the first time used as a symbol. Also in the book of Jain Acārya named Jinabhadrasūriji, zero is used as a symbol of emptiness.28 Mathematics In Ancient India
Like the top crown of the peacock, like the valuable pearl or the mountain peak, mathematics occupied the most, superior status in the Vēdāngas.
- Vēdānga Jyotisa
The most significant source of information regarding the ancient Indian culture is the four Vēdas. Of course, European researchers and Indian researchers are not all of the same opinion regarding the time of composition of Vēdas. But all agree that Vēdas are more ancient than any of the Western civilizations and there is no doubt about it.
Archaeological relics of Mohan-Jo-Doro and Harappan etc. belong to what we call the Indus (Sindhu) valley civilization and that is the Hindu Civilization which is believed to be the most ancient. According to the researchers. Vedas appear to have been composed a little later than 3000 B.C. Vedas and other literary works were preserved for centuries in oral tradition, i.e. the tradition of listening and memorizing,. They are, therefore, also called 'Śrutis'. Brahmin literature appears to have been composed in the vicinity of 200 B.C.
First glimpses of mathematics are visible in the Brahmin literature. Evolution of arithmetic, geometry and astronomy is discernible from them. Vēdāngas and mathematics relating to astronomy dealt with in Vēdāngas were composed during 2000 B.C. to 1500 B.C. In those days, there were mainly two divisions of knowledge :
1. Parā-Vidyā which fully dealt with spirituality and 2. Aparā-Vidyā which dealt with secular prescriptions, prohibitions and rituals. Mathematics and other sciences formed parts of Apara-Vidyā and they were

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considered to be helpful to spiritual knowledge.
In discussions in Chandogya Upanisad mathematics was spoken of as Rāśividyā (the knowledge of quantity) and astronomy was spoken of as Nakṣatravidyā (the knowledge of planets). Mathematics is their English name. The popular name of mathematics in India has continued to be "Ganita' since ancient times.
30
29
31
Researchers today believe that the familiar numerals including zero and the decimal system were invented, applied and put on solid foundation during 400 B.C. to 400 A.D. In those days geometry was called field arithmetic and arithmetic was called 'Dhuli-Ganita", "Dhuli-Karma" or 'Pāți-Ganita'.
32
97
It is strange but true that from the beginning of their numerical thinking, ancient Indian mathematicians used ten as the base for counting. Even before the process of writing was invented, Indians used very large numbers with ten as base. These numbers are one (1), ten (10), hundred (100), thousand (1000), ten thousands (10,000) etc. upto a hundred thousand billions (100,000,000,000,000,000).
In an ancient book entitled 'Lalita-Vistarā", we find 100 fold series. The book was composed in about 100 B.C.
34

In ancient times, almost all treatises written on mathematics as well as the literature on other subjects was written in verse. That is why letters of alphabets, symbolic words used in Sanskrit or words directly used for numbers namely one, two, three etc. are mentioned in verses.
35
36
The words sun, moon, Brahma, earth etc. were used for 1, Eyes, ears, nose, hands, feet were used for 2. Tenses, worlds, Guna etc. were used for 3. Similarly, different words were used for four, five, six, seven, eight, nine etc. Zero was represented by the sky and its different synonyms.. According to the rule अङ्कानां वामतो गति: (ankānām vāmatā gatih) the number, 1230 can be shown in words by using the words kha(), guṇa(), nētra(a), surya (f).(0,3,2,1)
Even today eulogical articles and documents and in the colophons of manuscripts written in Sanskrit prose or verse literature, the year of writing, the year of composition, the day of writing etc. are mentioned in this way.

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According to references of the ancient available treatises the following books of 'Pāți-Ganita' are extant:* 1. Baksali Manuscript
- Second Century 2. Bhāskara-1' Laghu-Bhaskariya, Mahā-Bhāskariya sixth Century 3. Śridhara Trişastika
750 A.D. 4. Mahāvira Ganitasārasangraha
850 A.D. 5. Śripati Ganita Tilaka
1039 6. Bhāskara-2 Lilāvati
1150 A.D. 7. Nārāyana Ganita Kaumudi
1356 A.D. 8. Munisvara Pāțisāra
1658 A.D. Moreover, the following books on Astronomy or Astrology containing one or more chapters on Pāți-Ganita are extant : 38 1. Sūryasiddhānta
300 A.D. 2. Āryabhatta-1 Āryabhatiya
499 A.D. 3. Varāha Mihira Pancasiddhāntaţikā -
505 A.D. 4. Brahmagupta Brahma-Sphuţa-Siddhanta 628 A.D. 5. Āryabhatta-2 Mahā-Siddhānta
950 A.D. 6. Śripati Siddhānta-Śēkhara
1039 A.D. 7. Kamalākara
Siddhānta Tattva Vivēka 1658 A.D.
Jain Canonical Scriptures and Mathematics Every religion irrespective of its name, is divisible into two distinct and distinguishable aspects of its manifestations (1) the spiritual aspect and (2) the aspect of worship of karma. Almost all spiritual doctrines can be abstractly traced in the properties of mathematical concepts of zero and infinity, signifying respectively the beginning and the end of all creations." The following verse of the Iśāvāsyöpanişad reflects the concept of spiritual perfection as well as the concept of infinity.
ॐ पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं, पूर्णात् पूर्णमुदच्यते । पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते ।। OM pūrņamadaḥ pūrņamnidam, pārņāt pūrņamudacyatē. būrņasya pūrņamādāya pūrņamēvāvaśisyatē ..

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(This is a whole. That is whole. Whole can be obtained from whole and if whole is completely taken out of a whole, only a whole remains.)
The concepts of innumerable and the infinite in Jain mathematics also represent this same concept. Innumerable numbers have innumerable types or divisions. If an innumerable number is subtracted from an innumerable number, what remains is an innumerable number. Similarly, if an infinite number is subtracted from an infinite number, what remains is an infinite number because an infinite number has infinite types or divisions.
Bhagavān Mahāvira and Gautama Buddha respectively founded the Jain religion and the Bauddha religion before 527 B.C., gave their sermons and propagated their religious doctrines.
Jain canonical literature is divided into four sections : 1. Dravyānuyoga 2. Ganitānuyoga 3. Caraṇakaraṇānuyoga 4. Dharmakathānuyoga
Jambūdvipaprajñapti, Suryaprajñapti, Candraprajñapti, Dvipasāgaraprajñapti etc.Jain Agamas and other treatises like Laghuksētrasamāsa Brhatkņētrasamāsa Laghusangrahani Brhatsangrahani and Jyotisakarandaka etc. belong to the Ganitanuyoga section. Jain Ganita i.e..Jain Mathematics of those days can be divided into two sections.“
1. Ganitānuyoga :- Mathematical Doctrines 2. Sankhayāna :- Science of Numbers
Similarly, mathematics found in the Buddhist literature can be divided into three sections :
1. Mudrā - i.e. Arithmetic of Finger 2. Gañana - i.e. Mental Arithmetic and 3. Sankhayāna - i.e.Higher Arithmetic.*
The Jain canonical scriptures entitled 'Jambūdvi paprajñapti' shows a numeral of Jain arithmetic. Of course, it has base of ten. After the

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numbers 84 lakhs, Jain literature shows the base of 84 lakhs along with base of 10 and there are 36 numerals with the base of 84,00,000. Transforming the number into one with a base of ten, we get a number of 250 digits. In Jain scriptures this number is called a 'Sirṣaprahelikā”.42
2500 years ago, Jain scripturisits showed this large number. We cannot even imagine it. Even the modern simple computers take nearly as long as two hours to arrive at the 70 digits of 8436. In ancient times, omniscient beings of the status of Bhagavan Mahāvira mentioned such a large number very naturally and without any mistake. It is noteworthy here that such a large number was preserved unmistakenly in the oral tradition for 980 years from the times of Lord Mahāvīra to the times of Sri Devarddhigani Kṣamāśramaṇa. Later on, when Jain canonical scriptures came to be written in scripts, this number also found its place in them.
43
44
In short, modern researchers and historians believe that zero and the decimal system were invented during 200-100 B.C. but according to the statement of Upadhyāya Śri Vinayavijayaji, the commentator of the Kalpasütra, when Bhagavan Ṛṣabhadēva taught the practical custom of a householder, he also taught mathematics. Therefore, mathematics of Indian tradition is billions-billions of years old. Similarly it is believed that the set theory was invented by George Cantor. But on seeing the references in the Prakrit scriptures of Jainism one clearly finds that the set theory was originally used in the Jain tradition by Jain writers for their understanding and explanation of Karma theory."
45
The Jambudvipaprajñapti, the Suryaprajñapti, the Candraprajñapti, the Dvipasāgaraprajñapti and other Jain canonical scriptures show the methods of finding out the volume of mountains etc. along with the simple methods of finding out the circumference and area of the Jambudvipa with its diameter. Thus we also find field arithmetic i.e. geometry in Jain canonical sctiptures. Of course, this geometry is of the kind of plane geometry of Euclid.
Jain numerical system divides numbers into three divisions :- 1. Numerable 2. Innumerable and 3. Infinite. Of numerable numbers there are three subdivisions:
(1) the lowest numerable (2) the intermediate numerable and (3) the highest numerable. In Jain tradition, one is not regarded as a numerable

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number. Counting begins with number two. *Therefore, two is called the lowest numeral. Then the numbers from three onwards to the number which is less than the lowest innumerable number by two are called intermediate numeral numbers. The number which is less than the lowest innumerable number by one is called the highest numerable number. We can know the highest numerable number, if we know the lowest innumerable number. It is very difficult to know which and how many digits the lowest innumerable number has. Jain canonical scriptures show one method for this. But with the help of it nobody has yet arrived at the number of digits. But the number must be much larger than one Śirşaprahēlikā which consists of 250 digits. One sirsaprahēlikā = (84,00,000) *** =187,955,179,550,112,595,419,009,699,813,430,770,797,465,494, 261,977,747,657,257,345, 718, 6816 x 10'. We cannot even imagine the digits of the lowest innumerable number.
Innumerable numbers are of nine kinds : (1) the lowest Paritta Asankhyāta, (2) the intermediate Paritta Asankhyāta (3) the highest Paritta Asankhyāta (4) lowest Yukta Asankhyāta, (5) the intermediate Yukta Asankhyāta (6) the highest Yukta Asankhyāta (7) the lowest Asankhyāta Asankhyāta (8) the intermediate Asankhyāta Asankhyāta (9) the highest Asankhyāta Asankhyāta.“
Similarly, infinite numbers are of nine kinds. They are as follows: (1) the lowest Paritta Ananta (2) the intermediate Paritta Ananta (3) the highest Paritta Ananta (4) the lowest Yukta Ananta (5) the intermediate Yukta Ananta (6) the highest Yukta Ananta (7) the lowest Ananta Ananta (8) the intermediate Ananta Ananta (9) the highest Ananta Ananta."
Regarding Jain mathematics Sarju Tiwari writes :- "The Jain philosophy of ahimsā (nonviolence) was totally opposed to the sacrificial cult of the Hindus. They developed geometrical concepts in their own way. The Jain cosmography conceived the shape of the universe, the mountains and the continents as trapezia. They used simple and short mathematical methods. Their assumption of the circular orbits of the heavenly bodies such as the Sun, the Moon, the Mars etc. and the circular shape of the earth, led them to study the property of circles and parallelograms. Their studies enabled them to evaluate the value of n as V10.
The book written in English by Śri sankarācāryaji entitled 'The Vaidic

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Mathematics' gives 16 formulae in Sanskrit based on ancient Vēdas. These formulae are very significant. If the sūtras are very well understood and properly used, they can be very easily used for solving problems of any branch of mathematics.
References to these formulae or sūtras shown in "The Vaidic mathematics are also found in ancient Jain scriptures. In the commentary on the Jain Agama entitled 'Sri Nandisutra", the functions of these sūtras are described as 'parikarma'. The context of the scripture is as under: सूत्रादि- पूर्वगतानुयोगसूत्रार्थग्रहणयोग्तासम्पादन समर्थानि परिकर्माणि यथा गणितशास्त्रेसङ्कलनादीन्याद्यानि षोडश परिकर्माणि, शेषगणित सूत्रार्थग्रहणे योग्यतासम्पादनसमर्थानि यथा गणितशास्त्रे गणितशास्त्रगताद्यषोडशपरिकर्मगृहीतसूत्रार्थः सन् शेषगणितशास्त्रग्रहणयोग्यो भवति नान्यथा, तथागृहीतविवक्षितपरिकर्मसूत्रार्थः सन् शेषसूत्रादिरूपदृष्टिवादश्रुतग्रहणयोग्यो भवति, नेतरथा, तथा चोक्तं चूण्ण
"
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
परिकर्मेति योग्यताकरण जहा गणियरस सोलस परिकम्मा, तग्गहियसुत्तत्थो सेसगणियस्स जोगो भवइ एवं गहियपरिकम्मसुत्तत्थो सेससुत्ताइ दिट्ठिवायस्स जोगो भवइति । "
"sūtrādi-pūrvagatānuyōgasūtrārthagrahaṇayōgtāsampādanasamarthāni parikarmāņi yathā gaṇitaśāstrē – sarikalanādinyādyāni ṣāḍaśa parikarmāņi, śēṣaganitasūtrārthagrahaṇē yōgyatāsampādanasamarthāni yathā gaṇitaśāstrē ganitaśāstragatãdya ṣoḍaśaparikarmagṛhitasūtrarthaḥ śēṣaganitaśāstragrahaṇayōgyō bhavati, nanyatha, tathāgṛhitavivakṣitaparikarmasūtrārthaḥ san sēṣasūtrādinupa dṛṣṭivadaśrutagrahaṇayōgyō bhavati, nētaratha, tatha cōktam cürnnau
-
parikarmēti yōgyatākaraṇa - jahā gaṇiyassa sōlasa parikammā, taggahiyasuttatt hö sesaganiyassa jōgō bhavai ēvam gahiyaparikammasuttatthō sēsasuttai ditthivayassa jōgō bhavai tti.
19

san
(Commentary on Nandisūtra by Malayagiri published by Agamōdaya Samiti, Surat, p.238)
Also in the Nandisūtra Cūrṇi (in the Prakrit language) which was written earlier than the aforementioned commentary on the Nandisūtra, these references are found. This means that ancient Jain Acaryas were well-versed in various branches of mathematics. It will be pertinent here to note that these sutras are said to belong to the Vaidic mathematics not simply because they are found in Vēdas but it should be accepted that

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these doctrimes of pure mathematics, which were more ancient even than the Vēdas, were profusely used in the Vēdas. This means that this kind of mathematics had fully developed in India before it took birth in the culture of western countries or civilizations.
According to the belief of śri Sankarācārya of Kanchi, the author of Vedic Mathematics, the functional use of the sūtras was not limited only to arithmetic i.e. multiplication, division, addition or subtraction but they were equally useful in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus etc. According to the opinion of Dr P. C. Vaidya this is only a statement. There is not any reference about the use of these sutras regarding to various branches of mathematics. Limitations of Mathematics In Jain Philosophy Though mathematics is essentially an imaginary subject, it was invented and developed to satisfy human needs. The chief aim of Jain philosophy is to explain the nature of the universe and Samsāra i.e. birth-death cycle and mathematics is used as a practical means of doing it.
The universe has a limit. But what is the limit? How many things and what kinds of things does it contain? Mathematics is the shortest way of expressing all this. In the universe, there are infinite atoms (paramāņus) and objects. In order to show the number and real nature of them mathematically, 'Sirsaprahēlikā' a number of as many as 250 digits, is used. As shown in Jain Agama entitled 'Jambūdvipaprajñapti' 'Sirsaprahēlikā' has two different sets of digits according two different traditions. According to the tradition of the convocation of learned Jainācāryas and monks held in Mathurā i.e. Māthurivācanā, there are 194 digits, consisting of 54 different figures and 140 zeroes. But according to the Vallabhivācanā, there are 250 digits consisting of 70 different digits and 180 zeroes. According to the Māthurivācanā "Sirsaprahēlikā' has (84,00,000)2 = 758,263,253,073, 010,241,157,973,569,975,696,406,218, 966, 848,080,183,296, x 10140 digits. But according to the Vallabhivācanā 'sirşaprahēlikā' has (84,00,000)36 = 187,955,179, 550,112,595,419, 009, 699,813,430, 770,797, 465, 494, 261,977, 747,657, 257, 345,790,6816x10180 digits. Since it is not possible to mention the number of all the substances of the universe even with this number, Jain scripturists have shown various kinds of innumerable and infinite numbers. An 'Āvalikā' has as many 'Samayas'

.

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राइर्षमानवितन हम्सउपरिमाणे सरिव ऊतिकाडिवरका व्यवसहस्सा बाधवावासाका स्थापना २५६POppo पर मितिएवगिर्वन्यायनसंरखास्लानमुतारानवहितांगंटितमित्यादिनदंगाणातदात्पादिसदिसरयाक सात अयमाशयक घननिदिश्यमानानिय संख्यास्ठानानिलाध्वप्रधानमणमादनाचदसूत्रवाहियाणकारतमजनताचशानियकारस्पानरामावा नवाआधबाराष्ट्रसंस्कारमात्रंटिनांगरंटित २ अडांगर सूचवांगेर अवं २कांगंजक २ उपलोग उत्पनं २ मांग पत्र नलिनांगमालिने अनिष्पराग अनपरंतगरतनानागानयुते २५युनागेशनलि एवंविरगविणवउडिए २ अडाइ २ अवाव २१ ५२३माल २५३मलिाग २ अलिपिउR२ ३९२ न३५२५३१२लिए २ जावच्चरामा सामयादलिग सयसम्माईसाएगमासयादलिया। कांगलिक शार्षपलिकाय यादवरातिका पदालिकागजातसहस्राणि यानिसाएकाशापालिका २७ स्पास्लाफ्नायघा ५८२६३२५३३२४५५५५५२५६ एलएRIGHUD८३२९६ प्रतिद:ऐचार दका प्यचचवारिवाशपात ताददंगाशहलिकायोसएिपमूनिवदित्यधिकवातसंख्याएकाठानानितर्वतिदेचमापुरवा चनानुगतानायागारादिसंवादिसंख्यासमनपतिपादनाड्या तिकडपका कनसतिसंवदंवि परेनविविक्षिसितवालयवाचना गतवानस्पत्तवति हिवाचनातादसूत्रपागसदलित संवादिनविशदलिकोकस्ठापनावरुपयायचा. २८.७ एयपाएप०५ २५५५४रएVECOR२४२० 990ए सए४२६२९999४७६३७२५५३७५०६७१६.तिसप्ततिरंकायचांगाता धिकपात तदवाळपातिकसक्तमार्षपालिकायापंचाशदधिकशतएरव्यापकस्मननित्तवति वाकवालानाखिंदा तश्रीमंताजनुक्षरदेवादिदातिवितायतधिनिधार शिविजमनापाति
A page from a manuशशिस्वाक्षिय तक्षामंतिषदामबिलशिष्यसमुदायमरसतादयता यसकार्यकर्याणां
script of Jambūdvipaपडितवररनचंडा भातगणवीगिरिमोहदिनयासनसरिवार निजदासनवितालात परमायियमादयारः बहुतिसमतिये रुतावदाविदिनसमयतचा शाजियादवमरि
prajñaptisūtra written in ओवाचक मुरबगीनोई:४६जानावधामयानि नानाशापूरवनानिारयासिलिशावास्यवि ज्ञानणिराः श्राजलक्षात रुपांगस्यसविनय शमयरनमाषाहतिरषावाद सपना।
1663 of Vikram Era, menघरभागनिवाचकशिष्यवाराविभत्र दलिः अस्याबदादानिलालिबइक्किा तमनासस्वायमानायूर्यमाणा गाना याक्षकानमःमानालरव्यमाना जा
tioning both the variations यामुासचिराकवि
तहिाध्याय
of Sirsaprahelika, the anयथालिवकलाइधुतःकारान्य मादशमवाधीववसनश्वरः५१ मिश्रा वनिचंद्रगतिवाचकवरविरचिताया-श्रीले दायश्वमिहान शनिवार
cient highest numerical सवन्नावर्षमुलाशयारपरप्रवर्तमान दक्षाय नगाजश्रीमदमझाना महामा गल्पपदमार्य गर्घमासकपक्षमसिमायातियो गुरुवामारमगशरनवंतदिनपरिमल
value. नबितमसिलन्यान मुंदाराआत्म.लक्ष्मी.हषगरुमीप्रेमविजयजीमना माध्यमुनिश्रीमानजियजीपनार्थ श्रीसंघस्य शान्तिन्मयतुःसी
[Curtsy : L. D. Institute स्स्तु-श्री श्री श्री श्री श्री श्री श्री भी श्री श्री श्री
of Indology, AhmedabadMananmintamaniawaamana
380009]

Scientific Secrets of Jainism

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as the quantitative value of the lowest yukta Asankhyāta number. 50
According to Jain philosophy a 'Samaya' is the most micro unit of time. 'Āvalikā' is also a unit of time. In a Muhurtta i.e. in 48 minutes, 1,67,77,216 Āvalikās pass by. 51 In one Āvalikā i.e. 0.000171661 seconds as many as the lowest yukta Asankhyāta i.e.
(the lowest paritta Asankhyāta) the lowest parieta Asankhyäte number of Samayas pass by. Samaya is the so subtle that even great souls possessing a high degree of Avadhijñāna (extra sensory knowledge) cannot know it. Along with the subtlest measure i.e. unit of time, Jain scripturists also have given the highest measure i.e. unit of time. Since the highest unit of time is also outside the limit of mathematics of Jain scripturists, it can be explained only through comparisons.
of these, important greater units of time the smallest is 'Palyāpama'. It consists of an innumerable number of years. 10 Kādākodi means 10 crore-crore i.e. 101 Palyõpama years equal to a Sāgarāpama years and 10 kādākādi i.e. 1015 Sāgarāpama years are equal to an Utsarpinikāla or an Avasarpiņikāla. Utsarpiņikāla and Avasarpiņikāla together make a Kālacakra i.e. time-cycle.52 Infinite time-cycles passed by in the past and infinite time-cycles will pass by in the future. The Palyāpama, the Sāgarðpama and the time-cycle have a fixed number of years. But since it is not possible to show it mathematically, the word 'Asankhyāta' i.e. innumerable is used.
As a Samaya is the samallest unit of time, so a space-point is the smallest unit of length. A space-point is a division of space, occupied by an independent paramāņu i.e. atom which is the indivisible most microparticle of matter. In short, the size of an independent paramānu, is a unit of length, breadth or thickness. Innumerable such paramānus joining together grossly make a unit of the most micro sub-atomic particle, accepted by the modern science. But the longest/largest unit of length is a Rajju or Rājalõka. A Rājaloka is equal to innumerable Yojanas and one Yojana is equal to 3200 miles or 5120 kilometres. Though the measurement of a Rājaloka is limited and definite, it is so big that it cannot be represented through numbers or mathematical equations and therefore, the word Asankhyāta i.e. innmerable is used to represent it.
It is a special characteristic of Jain mathematics that negative numbers

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are not at all used. Since Jain scriptures describe real objects, which are all existent, positive numbers are used for them. Dr P.C. vaidya says that since modern mathematics is logically constituted and developed, the negative numbers in it, are real and there are also some references to show that they were first used in India during the years 400 A.D to 600 A.D. They are used to mention imaginary matters and objects. Limitations of Mathematics In Modern Physics
(1) Limitations of imagаinary doctrines of mathematics Mathematics is the basic and fundamental necessity of modern physics because modern physics explains or tries to explain all natural laws and phenomena through the medium of mathematics. But to the recent period, physics fails to explain fully through mathematical equations all physical phenomena and the laws that cause the phenomena. The mathematical equations that it gives, are true only to a certain limit. Beyond the limit, all the mathematical equations seem to be untrue and useless.
Regarding this Dr P.C. Vaidya gives his criticism that since mathematics is a branch of knowledge based on logic, there is no question whether the mathematical equations are true or not. There is only a question regarding to mathematical equations whether they can usefully or effectively indicate the laws of all natural phenomena..
The reason for this is that though mathematics is no doubt true, the man who uses it, has only a limited imaginations and though some of the assumptions that he makes, are mathematically true, prove to be untrue and unreal in practical life. They are creations of the world of imagination.
In modern mathematics, negative numbers, their multiplications, divisions and all that is imaginary. e.g. -4/-4 = 1 and (-5)x(-5) = 25. Though mathematically, they are true, they have no practical utility. A product of a positive (+ve) number and a negative (-ve) number is always a negative number. This appears to have come from practical experience. It shows the total amount of loan. e.g. 5x(-4) means that a loan of four coins was taken five times. This amounts to a total loan of 20 coins. If -4 is added to it self five times, the result will be -20. It means that the total loan is 20 coins.

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Similarly, the product of two negative (-ve) numbers is always positive (+ve). Cardon H. (1501-1576) stated this rule in 1545 A. D. 53 The origin or source of this rule can be traced back perhaps to the rules of Sanskrit grammar. The rules of Sanskrit grammar are called Nyāyas. In the book written in the Vikram samvat 1515 i.e. 1459 A. D. and entitled 'NyāyaSangraha', a collection of some rules from Siddhahēma sanskrit grammar, Upādhyāya Śri Hēmahansa Gani, the author gives the rule, et 731 THUG 11 dvau nanau prakrtamartham gamayatah .. (Two negatives make one positive). 'if in a sentence, two negatives are used together, they give a positive meaning." **
The mathematical rule regarding the product or division of two negative numbers, makes it very clear that it is not necessary that mathematics should be tied down to social transactions. Really speaking, mathematical imagination creates concepts beyond practical requirements of time. But it is certainly true that such pure creations of mathematical minds have no practical use in the beginning. It often happens that for centuries such creations of imaginative mind remain on paper like dry rules. In the early seventh century. Brahmagupta stated some rules of signs. They became common in India in the ninth century A.D. after their restatement by the mathematician named Mahāviracarya,. However, no free use of negative numbers was made until the seventeenth century. Even Cardon had called them "fictitious." (2) Limitations of Zero As a symbol, zero denotes total absence of objects but when it came to be used as a number, ancient mathematicians made some rules. Especially, the position and value of zero were determined in additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions and denotation of numbers. Generally, zero as the first figure on the right has no value. But if a number other than zero is placed before zero. It is not without a value. If a number other than zero is placed before it, in the place of tens, the value of zero is tenfold. Similarly, if a number other than zero is placed before it, zero in the place of hundreds, thousands etc., its value rises ten-ten times. Similarly, the value of zero after a decimal point, if it is followed by a number other than zero, reduces tenth-tenth times. It means that zero has no definite value. Its value depends on its place in a number.

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In additions and subtractions, too, zero has no value. If zero is added to or subtracted from any number, the original number remains quite unchanged. But in multiplications and divisions, the rules of zero are very strange. If zero is multiplied by any number or any number is multiplied by zero, the product is always zero. Similarly, If zero is multiplied by zero, the product is only zero.
The strangest fact about the operation of division is that if any number is divided by zero, the result is infinity but if zero is divided by any number, the result is zero. If any number is divided by itself, the result is one (1). What would be the result if zero is divided by zero? Zero, one or infinity? Mathematicians have not been able to answer this question. They show that the operation of dividing zero by zero is indeterminate.
Similarly, a number raised to degrees namely, square, cube, fourth degree, fifth degree etc. and similarity, reduced to roots namely square root, cube-root, fourth root, fifth root of zero, it is always zero. i.e. 0%, 0%, 04, O ............0 = 0 and 10.10.10,Vo....... Vo = 0. Any number raised to zero degree is always 1. e.g. 1o, 2o, 3o, 4o ...............a = 1
What would be the result if zero is raised to zero degree? Zero or one? This question has also remained unanswered by mathematicians and they say that zero raised to zero is indeterminate. Really speaking a' i.e. Zero degree of any number means any number is divided by itself and that is why the result is always 1 and oo is indeterminate and all mathematicians accept this result.
There is a strange fact about zero, with the help of which any two unequal numbers can be proved to be equal. e.g. 3x0 = 0 and 5x0 = 0 3x0 = 5x0 .......... (1)
or 3/5 = 0/0 ............(11) But it is a strange fact that we can also deduce that 0/0 = 5/3 .......... (III) From II and ill we obtain 3/5= 5/3 i.e. 9=25 If 0/0=1, from II and III, we can deduce that 3/5 =1 and 5/3 =1,

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: 5 = 3 Of course, all these are mathematical funs. In practical life the mean nothing.
As shown above the uses of zero also has a limit. Beyond the limit, it is useless or misleading. (3) Limitations of Mathematics In The Equations Of Modern Physics Mathematics is the chief base of modern physics. All the rules of physics have been mathematically transformed and the scientists today are also accustomed to talk in the language of mathematics. No new research is accepted at the international level unless it is mathematically transformed, explained or proved. Sometimes it also happens that mathematical research is made and its proof is given and later on after many years, its practical proof is obtained. Still however, on account of limits of mathematics itself, it has become necessary to make changes in mathematical equations of rules explaining various phenomena of physics, happening in the world every year. First among them are Newton's laws of dynamics and laws of gravitation.
Newton's laws of dynamics and gravitational force are quite true, when applied to objects on the earth. But when they are applied to astrophysics, the results are found to be wrong. Einstein corrected the mistakes by applying his Special Theory of Relativity and General Theory of Relativity. But as later researches show, perfectly true results were not achieved even then.
Though gifted with sharp intelligence and extraordinary imagination, Einstein was after all a man. In the days when aeroplanes were only invented and they could fly at the speed of only 80 or 100 miles/hr., Einstein imagined that these physical objects were capable of flying at the speed of light and this was really astonishing. Today, there are supersonic planes in the world. They and spaceships travel at the speed of 25 to 30 kms per second at the most. This speed is ten thousandth part of the speed of light. Some of the sub-atomic particles travel at the speed of 150 kms/sec. Their speed is 2000th part of the speed of light. Of course, the subtle Beta particles can travel at the speed of 0.99 c i.e. 297000 kms/
sec. 58

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
-
It must be admitted that Einstien had a wonderful imagiation but as far as the physics is concerned, the equations of mass, length and time for the moving objects and addition of vectors depending on his Special Theory of Relativity are true only to a certain limit. Beyond the limit, the equations prove to be untrue or they are not applicable or useless. The equations are as underse :
m.
(1) My = TT-v? Ic?
(2) AT = V1-v? 10?
V,+ V
+II
(3) L = ''(V1-v?10?)
(4)
The postulates of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity are as under:
1. The velocity of the object which produces light has no effect on the velocity of its own light. In that sense, the velocity of light is constant.
2. No object in the world can attain more velocity than the velocity of
light. 60
Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity. General Relativity and other inventions are based on these two postulates. The aforementioned formulae cannot be applied to objects which have greater velocity than light because here v is grater than c and therefore, the value of vlc is greater than 1 and 1 -vc' has a negative(-ve) value. Therefore, the value of Ji-/c2 given in the formula mentioned above cannot be obtained or it is only imaginary. In the fourth formula even if V, and V, are greater than c, their addition is always less than c.
Regarding Newton's laws of gravitation, there is a formula F = 6
where F stands for the force of gravitation, m, is the mass of object No.1, m, is the mass of object No.2 and d is distance between the two objects. The gravitational force between any two objects in the universe is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Supposing that the distance between the two objects is reduced to zero, the gravitational force

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Limitations Of Mathematics In Jain Philosophy And....
111
between them would be infinity. But in practical experience, even if the distance between two objects is reduced to zero, the gravitational force between them does not rises to infinity.
Thus every mathematical equation in physics can give satisfactory solution only to a certain limit. Thereafter, equations cannot be used.
What was called field arithmetic in ancient times, is now called geometry. Since childhood, we know Euclid's geometry which is known as plane geometry. Still however, its propositions do not accord with our perceptions of touch or sight. The parallel straight lines of Euclid's geometry, never meet. Their existence can be proved by prolonging them on both sides as far as possible. They do not accord with what we see with our eyes. We can never see such parallel straight lines. Though rails of a railway are parallel, they seem to meet after a very long distance in both directions. Similarly, parallel straight lines seem to meet at the point of intersection of the lines of our eye-sight. Euclid's straight lines simultaneously meet at only one point but not at more than one point. Euclid's definitions and meanings of straight lines and parallel lines cannot be applied to visual geometry. All these difficulties were remedied by initiation of a new geometry, the projective geometry through new mathematical concepts.
It was finally established after the publication of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity (1915) that many results of Euclidean geometry considered by past generations as eternal truths, were not fully correct. These could be at best described as approximately correct.
Curved space on all sides of celestial bodies which have a strong gravitational force according to Einstein's General Theory of Relatively, initiated quite a new kind of geometry, Riemannian geometry which was quite different from Euclidean geometry.”
Thus the rules of arithmetic, algebra, geometry and mathematics are not only imaginative or symbolic but also they are very useful in day-today life. Still however, they have not been able to explain the true reality of the universe. That is why Einstein, the talented physicist said, “As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality." It means that if we think of mathematical laws in the context of reality, the rules are not definite

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or perfectly true and if we accept the mathematical rules as perfectly true, they do not accord with reality. It means that they cannot be applied everywhere in the world of reality.
In short there are many phenomena of the physical world which openly violate the rules of physics represented in the mathematical formulations. Besides, some physical, material and all spiritual phenomena are also beyond the laws of physics interpreted through mathematics. Let us wish and hope to be capable of representing all the physical, material and spiritual phenomena through a single mathematical law which is beyond the limits of time, space and matter.
2nd December, 1997 Parulnagar, Sola Road Ahmedabad -380061
References :
1. Mathematics in History, culture, Philosophy and Science by Sarju Tiwari, Forward by J. B. Ganguly, Vice-chancellor, Tripura Uni. p.VIII
( Mittal publication, New Delhi, 1992) 02. Ibid P.13 03. Ibid P.49 04. Ibid P.98 05. Ibid P.97 06. Ibid P.99 07. Ibid P. 108 08. Ibid P. 108 09. Ibid P.104 10. Ibid P.103 11. Ibid P.104 12. lbid P.104 13. Ibid P.105 14, Ibid P.106 15. Ibid P. 106 16. Ibid P.107 17. Basic Mathematics by L.C. Jain P. 47 18. Basic Mathematics by L. C. Jain P. 33
Jainism : Through Science by Muni Nandighoshvijay
od

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Limitations of Mathematics In Jain Philosophy And....
113
( Gujarati section) P.98 ( Mahāvira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1995) 19. Mathematics In History, Culture, Philosophy and Science by Sarju
Tiwari P. 107 20. Ibid P. 108 21. Ibid P.108 22. Ibid P.104 23. lbid P.104 24. Ibid P.121 25. ibid P.18 26. lbid P.89 27. Ibid P.79 28. ibid P.80 29. Ibid P.81 30. lbid P.81 31. Ibid 2.81 32. Ibid P.82 33. Ibid P.82 34. Ibid P.83 35. Ibid P.87 36. Ibid P.87 37. Ibid P.90 38. Ibid P.90 39. lbid P.5-6 40. ibid P.81 41. Ibid P.81 42. Jambūdvipaprajñapti (Paper manuscript) Folio 69A
43. Mathematics In History, Culture, Philosophy and Science by Sarju Tiwari P.121
44. Kalpasūtra, Commentary by Śri Vinayavijayaji 7th part. 45. The Tao of Jain Sciences by L.C. Jain P. 4 46. 4th Karmagranth. verse No.72 47. Ibid verse No. 78 to 82
48. Ibid verse No. 79 to 85
49. Mathematics In History, Culture, Philosophy and Science by Sarju Tiwari P. 92

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50. 4th Karmagranth verse No. 78 51. Navatattva, verse No. 12 52. Brhat-Sangrahani, verse No. 2-3 and its commerty
53. Mathematics in History, Culture, Philosophy and Science by Sarju Tiwari P.104
54. Nyāya-Sangraha by Śri Hēmahansa Gani, Nyâya No. 117
55-56-57 Mathematics in History, Culture, Philosophy And Science by Sarju Tiwari P. 104 58. Jainism : Through Science by Muni Nandighoshvijay (English Section)
P. 17 59, ibid P. 4-5 60. Ibid P 16
61. Mathematics in history, culture, Philosophy and Science by Sarju Tiwari P. 3-4
62. Ibid P. 174-51.
IF PHYSICS LEADS US TODAY 'TO A WORLD VIEW WHICH ESSENTIALLY MYSTICAL, IT RETURNS, IN A WAY, TO ITS BEGINNING, 2500 YEARS AGO. ....... WESTERN SCIENCE IS FINALLY OVERCOMING THIS VIEW AND COMING BACK TO THOSE OF THE EARLY GREEK AND EASTERN PHILOSOPHIES. THIS TIME, HOWEVER, IT IS NOT ONLY BASED ON INTUITION, BUT ALSO ON EXPERIMENTS OF GREAT PRECISION AND SOPHISTICATION, AND ON A RIGOROUS AND CONSISTENT MATHEMATICAL FORMALISM.
FRITJOF CAPRA

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11. The Value of n
No student of mathematics (geometry) is unfamiliar with the number at (pi). If asked, any student will say that its value is 22/7 or 3.14. A brief history of a is presented here.
The ratio of the circumference and the diameter of a circle is always constant whether, the circle is small or big. This fact was known even in ancient times. Greek mathematicians developed mathematical proofs of this. This ratio which is generally denoted by the Greek letter a (pi) has an approximate value of three. For a very long time this value of t was in use.
t is an irrational number. An irrational number is a number whose definite value can be denoted by indefinite /innumerable digits following the decimal point. V2 is also an irrational number. Though it and V2 are both irrational numbers, there is a basic difference between them. He who knows the method of finding the square root of a number, can find the value of 12 to as many digits as he wishes or desires. The definite value of n cannot be found so easily. Great mathematicians have made many attempts to do it.
In ancient times Greek mathematicians presented the problem of transforming a circle, which is related to r, into a square. Its solution was found as late as the nineteenth century. This is how they presented the problem: “ Only with the help of a foot-rule and a compass, a square of the area of a given circle should be drawn. It should be noted that the foot-rule should be used for drawing lines only. It should not be used for taking measurement and the compass should be used for only cutting the circle, its arc and lines."
In 1882 A.D., Lindemann, the German mathematician showed that it was really impossible to find a solution to this problem.' If this problem could be solved, V2 and would be considered the irrational numbers of the same sort. It should be noted here that a line of the definite length of 2 can be drawn with only a foot-rule and a compass. But a line of the definite length of i cannot be drawn.
With the help of the outer exterior polygon touching the circumference of

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a circle at several points and the inner exterior polygon mutually joining several points on the circumference of the circle, Archimedes, the Greek mathematician went on increasing the sides of both the polygons to the largest possible number and tried to find the ratio between the diameter and circumference of a circle. And he was very successful.?
Since Archimedes tried to find the exact value of n, a large number of mathematicians in Europe have been trying to find the value of n. They have given various formulae. The German mathematician and philosopher, G. Leibnitz, the Swiss mathematician L. Euler, the British mathematicians, J. Wallis and Lord Brounker are among them. The formulae given by these four mathematicians are respectively as under> :
f ---1-- 2
1 3
+
1 - 5
-
1 - 7
+
1 9
---
-
1 11
etc.
1 2 2 4 4 --=-XX -XX 4 1 3 3 5
6 6 -X-etc. 5 7
1+-
2-
12
32
In all the above four methods, there are infinite components. But we can make calculations only with a definite number of components. In this calculation, therefore, the larger the number of components that we use, the truer is the value.

Page #148

The Value Of π
During the last two or three centuries, there was a craze in Europe and other countries of the world to find a more and more exact value of π. A mathematician named D.Shanks found the value of down to 700 digits subsequent to the decimal point. But again the calculation was made on a modern electronic computer and many errors were found in it.*
The needle problem which depended on the probability theory, was presented by the French scientist, Buffon. On the basis of it, some scientists in Europe, tried, in the 19th century, to find the value of π and the results are as follows.5
The scientist
performing
the experiment
Wolf
Smith
Demorgan
Fox
Lazzarini
Year
1850
1855

1860
1864
1901
Number of needle
interpolations
117
5000
3204
0600
1030
3408
value of π
The values of π found now are as follows:6
(1) 3.1415 92 65 35 89 79
(2) 3.1415 92 65 35 89 79 32 38 46 26 43 38 32 79
Mathematicians of ancient India also very well knew the value of π. Aryabhaṭṭa very often used the equation' = 3.1416.

3.1596
3.1553
3.137
3.1595
3.141592
Scholars of the Jain tradition also have shown various values of . Though the word π (pi) is not found in Jain scriptures, following the calculations of area and circumference of circular objects, they used definite figures/numbers in place of π. In some Jain scriptures, the value of x is generally shown, in a very gross manner, to be 3. But where the circumference and area of a very large/ vast circular area like Jambudvipa, are to be found, the formula =√10 is used. Everywhere in ancient India, this value of л was accepted and it was a

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118
little greater than the correct value of π (down to two numbers /figures, following the decimal point). In Jain scriptures we also find π =162/92 i.e. 256/81. There is not much difference between this value of and √10. Moreover, showing the method of finding the circumference from the diameter of the circle, the Acārya named Virasēna said that the circumference of the circle can be got by multiplying the diameter by 16 and dividing the product by 113 and adding to the result thrice the diameter. The value of π thus" obtained is 355/113. It is a real surprise that it is entirely correct down to six digits subsequent to the decimal point. It is very surprising that in the solution to the problem of squaring the circle, found by Śrīnivāsa Rāmānujan, an Indian mathematician this value of π is found. If the area of a circle is 140,000 square miles,the length of a side of its related square is only one inch larger than its definite mathematical length. 12 This value of π was familiar in China also. Possibly, it went to China with the chinese travellers/visitors Hu-en-sang, Fahyan etc. after the times of king Ashoka.
13
The Indian mathematician, Śrīnivāsa Rāmānujan has also given new formulae regarding the value of 1:
(1)
(2)
π =
π=
63
25
X

92 +
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
17+15√√5 07 +15√5
192
22
3.14 15 92 65 26 2.
The first of these two values is true down to nine digits after the decimal point, whereas the second value is true down to eight digits after the decimal point.
Recently, two years ago, a scientist has found on computer the definite value of π down to 170 hundred thousand digits after the decimal point. 15 It is a matter of pride for India that formula of Śrinivasa Ramanujan, the famous mathematician of India, was used in this calculation.

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The Value of n
119
References:
1. See : Science Reporter, 1987 p. 471.
2. lbid p. 471. 3. Ibid p. 472.
4. Ibid p. 472.
5. Ibid p. 472. 6. Ibid p. 473. 7. Ibid p. 471.
8. See: Basic Mathematics by Prof. L.C.Jain p. 47.
9. Ibid p. 47. 10. Ibid p. 47. 11. Ibid p. 33. 12. See: Science Reporter, December 1987 p. 640. 13. See: Basic Mathematics by Prof. L.C.Jain p. 33. 14. See: Science Reporter, September, 1987 p. 472. 15. See: Science Reporter, December, 1987 p. 628.
जे एगं जाणइ से सव्वं जाणइ, जे सव्वं जाणइ से एगं जाणइ
आचारांगसूत्र JĒ ĒGAM JĀŅAI SĒ SAVVAM JĀŅAI, JĒ SAVVAM JĀŅAI SĒ ĒGAM JĀŅAI
"ONE, BY KNOWING WHICH ALL IS KNOWN, ALL, BY KNOWING WHICH ONE IS KNOWN"
Ācārāngasutra

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12. Mathematical Form of Paramāņu-units
(Vargaṇā) According to Acārānga sūtra
Vargana is nothing but a type of paramāņu-units, possessing the same num
ber of paramāņus.
The first Vargaṇā means individual paramāņus which have separate existence in the universe from each other. A second Vargaṇā means all paramāņuunits throughout the universe which have only two paramāņus. In the same way, there are other Vargaṇās possessing paramāņu-units having 3, 4, 5, ... innumerable paramāņus.
But these Vargaṇās are not useful for Audārika bodies. Even the paramāņuunits having infinite paramāņus are not useful for Audārika bodies. Suppose this infinite number is denoted as 'a,". After these infinite numbers of Vargaṇās, there are some useful Vargaņās possessing the paramāņu-units having the number of paramāņus a,+1, a,+2, a,+3,.... a,+a",, where a, > a,, but a", is also infinite. These Vargaṇās are useful for Audārika bodies and they are also called Audārika Vargaṇā.
1
1
After a,+a',, there are many unuseful Vargaṇās, e.g. a,+a”,+1, a,+a”, +2, a,+a",+3, a,+a+a”,. Here a", > a,+a", All these are not useful for Audārika bodies due to greater number of paramāņus, and also not useful for Vaikriya bodies due to greater size of paramāņus.
2
2
Now we assume that a,+a′,+a”, = a,, then a2+1, a2+2, a2+3, a2+a2 Varganās are useful for Vaikriya bodies, where a, > a", Vargaṇās a2+a'2+1, à ̧±à ́¿+2, à ̧±à ́ ̧+з, ... a2+a+a”, are unuseful for Vaikriya bodies due to their greater number of paramāņus and also unuseful for Āhāraka bodies due to their greater size of the paramāņus. Here also a", > a, + a',
2
2
2
Now we will take a2+a+a"2 = a, is unuseful Vargaṇā for Vaikriya and Ahāraka bodies. Then a,+1, a,+2, a2+3, a+a, are useful Vargaṇās for Āhāraka bodies (here a, > a"). And a,+a+1‚a ̧±à ́ ̧+2, à ̧±à ́ ̧+3, ... a2+a ́ ̧+a′ are unuseful for Aharaka bodies due to their smaller size of paramāņus and
"
3

...

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Mathematical Form Of Paramāņu-Units (Vargaņā) .........
121
also unuseful for Taijas bodies due to their greater size of paramāņus. Here also a', > a,+a',
Now we take a, = a +a+a". Therefore a +1, 2,+2, 2, +3, ... , +a', are useful paramāņu-units for Taijas Varganā. Here, ac > arra,+a'+1, 2, +a',+2, a,+a'+3, ... ,+a, '+a" are unuseful paramāņu-units for Taijas bodies due to their smaller size and unuseful for Bhāṣā Vargaņā for voice of living being due to their greater size of the paramāņus. Here a", > a, +a',
We will take a,+a'+a", -a. So a +1, 2+2, a +3, ... +a', Varganās are useful for Bhāṣā Vargaņā, i.e. voice of living animals, Here also a, > a's.
Now a ta'+1, a +a', +2, a +a',+3..... 2+a',+a", are unuseful for Bhāṣā Vargaņā due to their smaller size of paramāņus and also unuseful for respiration of living bodies due to their greater size of the paramāņus. Here a", > a, + a',. Now if we take , +a',+a”us = 29, then, 2+1, 2+2, ,+3, ... 2+a' are useful paramāņu-units for respiration of living organisms. They are called śvāsõcchvāsa Vargaņā. Here also a >a'.
Now a +a'+1, 2+a+2, a +a'+3, .... a +a+a" are unuseful paramānuunits for respiration of living bodies and also unuseful for thinking or thoughts of animals having mind and five senses, men and divine beings and also hell beings. Here a"6> a,+a',
Suppose a+a'+a" = a, then a,+1, a,+2, a,+3, ... 2,+a", are useful paramāņu-units for thinking of human beings, divine beings, beings of hell and animals having mind and five senses. They are called Mano-Vargaņā.
Now 2, +a', +1, a +a',+2, a,+a',+3, .... ,+a',+a", are unuseful paramāņuunits for Mano -Vargaņā (thoughts) due to their smaller size of paramāņus and also unuseful for Kārmaņa Vargaņā due to their greater size of paramāņus.
If we take a,+a',+a", = 2, then a +1, a.+2, .+3, .... 2 +a', are useful paramānu-units for Kārmaņa Varganā which are completely used by every living being in a form of bondage of Karma and also using at a present moment.
The Kārmana body (vital body) of every living being has been formed by these units of Kārmaņa Vargaņā and they are connected with soul upto liberation (mākşa) of living being. This is a final type useful paramāņu-units, i.e. Vargaņās. Beyond these units, none is useful for living being though they

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
exists and they can be denoted as a +1, 2+2, a +3, .... a,+a' +a", and so on.
One thing is to note here that all'a' mentioned above are type of paramāņuunits having infinite numbers of paramāņus, but they are not equal; and generally in all the series a > a' and a" > a+a'.
(Arhat Vacana, Vol. 8, No. 2, April, 1996 39-40)
IT IS PROBABLY TRUE, QUITE GENERALLY, THAT IN THE HISTORY OF HUMAN THINKING THE MOST FRUITFUL DEVELOPMENTS FREQUENTLY TAKE PLACE AT THOSE POINTS WHERE TWO DIFFERENT LINES OF THOUGHT MEET. THESE LINES MAY HAVE THEIR ROOTS IN QUITE DIFFERENT PARTS OF HUMAN CULTURE, IN DIFFERENT TIMES OR DIFFERENT CULTURAL ENVIRONMENTS OR DIFFERENT RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS: HENCE IF THEY ACTUALLY MEET, THAT IS, IF THEY ARE AT LEAST SO MUCH RELATED TO EACH OTHER THAT A REAL INTERACTION CAN TAKE PLACE, THEN ONE MAY HOPE THAT NEW AND INTERESTING DEVELOPMENTS MAY FOLLOW
WERNER HEISENBERG

Page #154

13. The Jambūdvipa Laghusangrahani And
The Modern Science
"Science is a series of approximations to truth; at no stage do we claim to have reached finality; any theory is liable to revision in the light of new facts........ This is both the joy and inspiration of science that there appears to be no end to new knowldge with its interest. Each advance yields a more farreaching and intresting picture of the physical world, while at the same time opening up fresh views in the shape of new problems awaiting solutions."
- A. W. Barton
an's curiosity is irrepressible. It inspried man to make various new in-ventions and thus science came into existence. This curiosity has been inhabiting the human mind since beginningless time. Sometimes it becomes ardent and sometimes it becomes very mild. But when it becomes ardent, it makes efforts to find the secret of the order of the self-governed of the universe. In ord secret, generally two paths are adopted – the path of spirituality and the path of physics or science.
Spirituality being at the basis of Indian civilisation, the ancient sages of all traditions adopted the subjective path of spirituality in order to know and understand the secrets of the universe. In ancient time, the people of India were also very eager to know the secrets of the universe and they were in no way inferior to the people of any other civilisation. Regarding this, the French researcher Mrs. Collet Caillat says in the book, 'The Jain Cosmology':
"The civilisation of India, no less than other civilisations, has not failed to ask questions about the place which man occupies in the world and the location of both the human and the animal kingdoms in space and time. To these questions, for more than 3000 years, the different religious circles and the principal schools of thought in India have striven unceasingly to supply answers." (P.No.9)
Those who want to adopt the path of science, should have necessary qualifications for it. Similarly, those who want to take the path of spirituality, should have certain physical, mental and intellectual merits. If a man without these

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
merits, adopts the path of spirituality, he either totally fails or does not get expected success. On the other hand, the path of science is also not so easy. For knowing the secrets of nature, even the ultramodern instruments of science, prove to be very dwarfish.
Though in the modern age of science, scientific instruments are available in plenty, they cannot stand in comparison with spiritual instruments. But in the present time, it is very difficult to get spiritual merits and instruments. So neither of the two paths, can be fully useful to us. Therefore, there is only one way open to us for satisfying our curiosity. We should study and present to other curious people of the world the secrets of nature that the ancient sages attained on the spiritual path and passed over to us.
The Jambūdvipa Laghusangrahani gives the description of the earth i. e. Jambūdvipa and the objects contained in it as presented by our ancient sages. One sees a great difference between descriptions of objects found in these ancient books and the descriptions of objects found in books of modern science and astronomy. It is very necessary to find out the real reason for this difference.
Generally speaking, Jain Āgamas are the speeches of śramaņa Bhagavān Śri Mahavirasvāmi, the sermons that he gave after attaining omniscience. The eleven prime disciples, Ganadharas, put the sermons in the book-form. There are 12 such sacred books which are referred as Dvādaśāngi. In ancient time, the Dvādaśāngi was kept on the tip of tonge and every monk learnt it by heart. The tradition of learning it by heart, continued nearly till the times of Śrutakēvali Śri Bhadrabāhusvāmi. During twelve year famine in his times, some scriptural knowldge was forgotten by monks as a result of inadequate nutrition and weak memory. After 980 years of nirvāņa of Lord Mahāvira i.e. about the year 510 of the Vikram era in the Vallabhi Conference (vācanā) Śri Dēvarddhigani kşamāśramana Mahārāja got all Āgama scriptures, put into written form, much of the scriptural knowledge was forgotten and whatever was available contained some doubtful text. Almost all the palm-leaf manuscripts of Agama scriptures, which are available today, belong to the eleventh century of the Vikram era or a later time. It means that not a single palm-leaf manuscript dictated by Sri Dēvarddhigani kşamāśramana Mahārāja is available today. During these 500 - 600 years, perhaps there have been many other changes in the texts of Āgamas and

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The Jambūdvipa Laghusangrahani And The Modern Science
125
the knowledge of Āgamas with variations in the text has come down to us. On the basis of this knowledge of Āgamas, the later great Ācāryas wrote many treatises.
This book entitled 'The Laghusangrahani' or 'The Jambūdvipa Sangrahani' is probably a work of Yākinimahattarāsūnu Bhagavān śri Haribhadrasūriji Mahārāja.? This book gives a brief description of Jambūdvipa and the objects in it. The location of Jambūdvipa According to the tradition, the cosmos ( Lõka) has three divisions : the upper part called Urdhvaloka, the middle part called Tircchālāka and the lower part called Adhõlõka. The Urdhvalūka is also called Dēvaloka and Vaimānika gods- goddesses live there. In the Adhõlõka there are seven hellish regions and hellish beings live there. In a certain part of the first Ratnaprabhā hell, gods and goddesses of the type of Bhavanapati live. In the middle 800 Yojanas of the upper most 1000 Yojanas, gods and goddesses of the Vyantara type live. In the 80 Yojanas of the upper most 100 Yojanas, gods and goddesses of Vāņavyantara type live. 3
in Tircchālāka, there are innumerable islands and oceans. In the centre of it there is Jambūdvipa of circular shape. Its east-west and north-south length is 1,00,000 Yojanas. In the centre of it, there is Mt. Mēru of the height of 1,00,000 Yojanas and the expanse of 10,000 Yojanas at bottom.
To the south of Mt. Mēru in Jambūdvipa, there is Bharataksētra which is of the north-south expanse of 190th part of 1,00,000 Yojanas i.e. 526 Yojanas and 6 Kalā s and the east-west expanse of more than 14,471 Yojanas. To the north of it there is Mt. Laghu-himavant with north-south expanse which is double that of Bharataksētra. To the north of it, there is Himavantkņētra with its double expanse. To the north of it, there is Mt. Mahāhimvanta with an expanse which double that of Himavantkşētra. To the north of it, there is Harivarşakşētra of its double expanse. To the north of it, there is Mt. Nişadha whose expanse is double that of Harivarşakşētra. To the north of it and in the centre of Jambūdvipa, there is Mahāvidēhaksētra which has 64 times as much expanse as that of Bharataksētra. Respectively to the north of Mahāvidēhakshtra, there are Mt. Nilavanta, Ramyakaksētra, Mt. Rukmi,

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Hairanyavatkşētra, Mt. Sikhari and Airavataksētra of half the north-south expanse of each former mountain or kşētra.
Mt.Nişadha and Mt. Nilavanta are of equal expanse and form. Similarly, Mt. Mahāhimavant and Mt. Rukmi; Himavantkşētra and Hairanyavatkņētra; Mt. Laghuhimavanta and Mt. śikhari; and Bharataksētra and Airavataksētra are mutually of equal expanse and form.
Mahāvidēhaksētra which is at the middle of Jambūdvipa is the most noteworthy. Having an expanse of 33,680 Yojanas and 4 Kalā s, it is 64 times as big as Bharatakşētra. There is Mt. Mēru at the centre of it. Uttarakuruksētra to the north of it and Dēvakuruksētra to the south of it are each of the shape of half-moon. Their east-west length towards Mt.Nilavanta and Mt. Nişadha, is 53,000 Yojanas. To the east and west of Uttarakuruksētra and Dēvakuruksētra, there are 16-16 Vijayas of Mahāvidēhaksētra. The form of most of the objects there is similar to that of objects of Bharataksētra.
Dēvakuru and Uttarakuru;' Himavanta and Harivarsa; and Ramyaka and Hairanyavat are called Yugalika kşētra, where men and women are born as twins. Their detailed information is in the commentary on Jambūdvipasangrahani. Similarly, the information of Mahāvidēha can also be seen in the commentary on Jambūdvipasangrahani, the commentator states according to the Jain doctrine that the objects described in this book are mostly eternal. The reason for this is that in Jambūdvipa, non-eternal objects are infinite and it is not possible to describe them all. Also, they undergo great changes under effect of time and place. It is difficult to put all this in words. Therefore, those objects are described in this book which are eternal and of a beginningless and endless state and which do not undergo any change under effect of time and place.
There is Mt. Vaitādhya of east-west length in the middle of Bharataksētra of the half-moon shape near Lavaṇasamudra to the south of Mt. Mēru. This mountain divides Bharatakşētra in two parts, towards the Mt. Mēru, is called the north-half of Bharata and the part towards Lavanasamudra is called the south-half of Bharata. The rivers Gangā and Sindhu coming down from Padmasarõvara i.e.lake named Padma which is on the Mt. Himavant, divides both these parts in three parts each. Thus Bharataksētra is divided into six Khandas (sections). Every Cakravarti conquers all these six Khandas

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(sections).The city of Ayodhya is at a distance of 113 Yojanas and 3 Kalās to the south of Mt. Vaitādhya in the middle Khanda of the south-half of Bharata. Near the delta of the river Gangā, there is a place called Tirtha Māgadha. Similarly, near the delta of the river Sindhu, there is a place called Prabhāṣā Tirtha. Between these two Tirthas, there is a Tirtha named Varadāma.
To the farthest north of Mt. Mēru, there is Airavataksētra which is similar in form to Bharataksētra. In the place of Ganga and Sindhu rivers, there are two chief rivers named Raktā and Raktavati. This is a very brief discription of Jambūdvipa.
It is natural that on reading this discription, not a single man of today will be able to accept it. Today man has plenty of scientific instruments and he believes that with these instruments he can do what he wishes to do. Modern science has very big telescopes and observatories. It has many kilometres vast radio-telescopes, too. With these radio-telescopes, he can see and know what happens in any corner of the universe, can directly or indirectly visit the planets - the moon, the mars, the jupiter, the saturn etc., and can show its wonderful sights on the television.
The difficulty is that with the help of these instruments, we see the sky but we do not see other parts of Jambūdvipa or some strong obstacle stop the working of the instruments. But all these are matters of astronomy. As far as the earth is concerned, scientists accept only the present world, the
e can see, know and visit with aeroplanes etc. and shows that the earth is round like a ball but the possibility that there is living world in other places (planets) inhabited by more intelligent human beings, cannot be ruled out. According to them there are many other suns like the sun in our solar system. There are other solar systems including planets and the earth among them, are inhabited by human beings.
The Jain philosophy also accepts the existence of many suns with their own groups of planets. According to the Jain philosophical belief with every sun and moon have 88-88 planets and 66975 x 10 14 stars.
But researches made till now do not support this and researches that are made, are only theoretical and rely on some inferences of the past. On the basis of the descriptions given in Jain scriptures, some practical research work needs to be done.

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Now almost all accept that the Jain philosophy is very ancient. Many people believe that the doctrines given in the ancient treatises of Jain philosophy are systematic, well-arranged and logical. Regarding this Śrī Nemichandji Jain, the editor of 'Tirthankara
writes:
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
·
"The philosophical aspect of Jain philosophy is logical and no one can refute it and there is no question about it but when it comes to geography, astronomy and food restrictions, many questions arose because these are the subjects that suffered discents from time to time."5
It is, therefore, necessary to discuss these subjects properly in the context of today. Is the present visible earth really round like a ball? Does it really move? These two questions against the Jain geography are really important. According to the Jain doctrine, the earth is motionless and the Sun, the moon, planets, constellations, stars etc. move in space around Mt. Mēru in a round strip at the height of 790 to 900 Yojanas from the level surface of the earth. Jain scriptures show very minute calculations of motion and change of place of the Sun and the moon. The tradition of making paintings, showing the real nature of the objects of geography and astronomy in Jain manuscripts is at least a thousand years old and it prevails even today.$
When science had not at all developed in the west and when Western civilisation had no knowledge of astronomy. Jainācāryas had given minute and detailed information about astronomy and geography in Indian civilization and especially in Jain philosophical tradition. The later Jainācāryas have collected the information in some treatises and their commentaries.

But along with the description of eternal objects of Jambudvipa, they have not given even the slighest description of the earth of their times, its shape etc. Nothing is, therefore, known about opinions and beliefs of the common man of those days, regarding the shape of the earth. On the other hand, geography and astronomy have so much developed today that with various instruments they have shown its shape and located the place of the earth in the solar system. On the one hand, ancient Jainācāryas are completely silent on this point and on the other hand, the present day Jain scholars or Jainācāryas cannot give correct information about the real shape of the earth and its location. One finds no reference to it in Jain literature

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available today. According to those books, Bharataksētra has the length of more than 14471 Yojanas and width of 526 Yojanas and 6 Kalā s. The present-day Bhārata i.e. India, cannot be said Bharatakşētra. The description of Bharataksētra given in Jain scriptures does not at all coincide with the present-day situation of Bhārata. That is why present-day Jain scholars and Ācāryas believe that the earth of today is a portion of middle section (khanļa) of the southern part of Bharataksētra.
Rev. Pannyāsa śri Abhayasagaraji has made tremendous efforts to show that the earth is not round.
1. In order to prove that the earth is round, present-day scientists give the example of boat. sailing on the sea. They say that as the boat. ship or steamer goes farther, its bottom, then the upper part and the top part disappears because roundness of the earth obstructs. But this is not true. As the steamer goes farther, it looks smaller. But one can see it and see it as a whole. If not the whole steamer but its upper part is seen with the nacked eyes, on account of Earth's roundness, it would not be possible to see the whole steamer through a telescope. But practically, when the steamer goes
out of the nacked eyesight, the whole steamer can be seen with the help of . a telescope.
Really speaking, the structure of our eye is such that as the object goes farther, its image on the retina becomes smaller and when the object goes extremely far away, its image on the retina becomes so small that optical nerves cannot grasp it. This also happens to aeroplanes etc. flying high in the sky. These facts prove that the earth is not round.
2. In America, the light-house of Heterash is seen from a distance of 40 miles. What is the reason? If the earth is round, the curve of the earth at forty miles, would be 900 feet but the light-house is only 300 feet high.
3. The Suez canal is built on the principle that the earth is not round and it was built by French engineers. This is mentioned in the law of British parliament
4. In 1838 Captain J. Ras went on a voyage with Captain Freshier towards the south pole. They sailed in a ship as far as it was possible. Then they came across a strong snow-wall which was 450 to 1000 feet high. On it they walked continuously for four years and travelled a distance of 40,000

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miles but did not reach the end of the snow-carpet.
The circumference of the earth at the degree of latitude of the place where the snow-carpet was found is only 10,700 miles. If the earth is round, they would have come to the place four times. But instead of that, they had to come back and they took two and half years to come back. This fact also proves that the earth is not round.
5. The distance between two longitudes changes with the latitude. As we go northward or southward from equator, the distance between two longitudes decreases. The distance between two longitudes in the north at 23.5 latitudes is 40 miles. If the earth were round like a ball, the distance between two longitudes at 23.5 latitudes even in the south would be 40 miles, that distance is found to be 25 miles, and south below, the distance increases instead of decreasing and at some place the distance is found to be of 103 miles. If this is so, how can the principle that the earth is round like a ball, stand?
6. According to the scientific belief the earth moves round the Sun with its axis bent at 23.5°. Its north pole is, therefore, always infront of the pole star. The pole star appears in the middle of the sky over the head of man on the north pole and man on the equator see the pole star on the horizon. The pole star can never be seen to the south of the equator. But Captain Mill saw the pole star to 30° latitude in the south. What can be the reason for it?
7. The longest day on Shetland island on 70° latitude in southern hemisphere is only of 16 hours and 53 minutes. But the longest day in Norway on 70° latitude in the north is of three months. If the earth is round like a ball, how can this happen??
All these evidences only prove that the earth is not round like a ball. But what is the shape of the present day earth? It cannot be known. In order to prove that the earth is not round, the arguments of scientists have been refuted. Similarly, in order to prove that the earth does not move or rotate Rev. Śri Abhayasāgaraji and other researchers also have adopted negative approach. They should adopt a constructive approach, strengthen the faith of people and make experiments according to the principles shown in Jain scriptures. As long as we do not give practical proofs, nobody will accept what we say.

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Concept of Time
On one hand, there is a great difference between principles of Jain geography and astronomy and those of the modern geography and astronomy and many questions have been raised against Jain scriptures but on the other hand, the principles mentioned by Jain scripturists in the field of physics, have proved to be entirely true. There is a wonderful similarity between the principles regarding time, space and matter given in Jain scriptures and the principles of modern science.
Ancient great sages and modern great scientists have given serious and elaborate thought to the concept of time. In Jain philosophy, much has been written about time, space and pudgala (matter). Similarly, in modern physics, western scientists have written a lot and even today new researches as being made. We shall compare here the beliefs accepted in the Jain philosophcal tradition and in modern physics.
131
The relativity of time according Jain scriptures, shown by Śri Vijaya Udayasūriji while commenting on the word frif 'samayakhittammi' in the verse 'savvē vi pavvayavarā fa quarı' (verse No. 29 ) of 'Jambudvipasangrahaṇi ' sūtra and the relativity of time shown by Einstein, the great scientist of the present century, have a wonderful similarity.
The Jain philosophy shows two types of time (1) relative time and (2) absolute time.
Einstein says that time-practical time i.e. relative time, day and night etc. are only on the earth because day and night are caused by daily motion of the earth i.e. rotation of the earth on its axis. Jain scripturists say that day and night are only in the two and a half islands ( samayakṣētra ) where the sun, the moon, planets, constellations, stars etc. move around Mt. Mēru. Such divisions of time as day and night are caused only by rotation of the sun and the moon.
8
Einstein says that there is nothing like day and night in space. Jain scriptures say that outside the two and a half continents where the sun, the moon etc. are motionless, there is nothing like day and night.
Still however, the life-span of living beings outside the two and a half continents and of the celestial and hellish beings is calculated according to

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day and night of the two and a half continents. Similarly, 80 or 82 days are discounted from the life-span of an astronaut who lives in space for 80 or 82 days. But it is said that there has no experience of day and night.
The Nyāya and Vaiśēşika systems of thought also accept Kāla (time) as a separable material cause. They also believe that time is a substance.
Is time substance or not? On this point, too, there is a difference of opinions among Jain philosophers. Referring to this, the author of the Tattvārtha Sūtra states : tartalo 11 kālaścētyēkē .. (Sūtra 38 Cha. 5). i.e. Some Ācāryas believe that time is also a substance. The scriptures of the Digambar tradition attach a special importance to the five substances : 1. Jiva (soul) 2. dharma (medium for motion) 3. adharma (medium for rest) 4. space and 5. matter. But Acārya Nemicandra, the Digambar Jain philosopher, says in the following gāthā i.e. verse of his' Dravyasangraha ' that time has as many particles i.e. paramāņus (atoms) as the cosmic space has pradēśas (space-points). :
लोयायासपदेसे इक्किक्के जे ठिया हु इक्किक्का । रयणाणं रासी इव ते कालाणू असंखदव्वाणि ।। löyāyāsapadēsē ikkikkē jē thiyā hu ikkikkā. rayaņāņam rasi iva tē kālāņū asarkhadavvāņi ..
From the view points of vartnā, (perduration), pariņāma (transformation), kriyāparatva (activity), aparatva (non-activity), the real time i.e. time is absolute and it is acceptable to Niscayanaya (the definitive stand-point). But as long as space is considered from the practical view point, the time is relative. Digambar Jain scriptures show that space and time are co-related with each other. Similarly, the modern physics also accepts that time is in every space point. To the three dimensional world, Einstein adds the fourth dimension called time-space continuum.
Jain scriptures believe that time, the non-spatial continuum pervades the whole cosmos (Lāka) because it is related to verious transformations of substances and the living element (soul) and the element pudgala i.e. matter pervade the whole cosmos, all the fourteen Rājalõka. Einstein explains this with time-space continuum. A simple illustration can be given as under:
Suppose there are three points A, B and C in a straight line in space at a distance of 30 lakh kilometres from one another.

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•<=====30 lakh kms.=====>•<=====30 lakh kms.======>
Suppose there is flash of light on point A. This flash of light will be seen on point B after 10 seconds. Then for point A, the place of its origin, at that time the flash of light will be a matter of the past and for point C, it will be a matter of the future. Thus time is a distance between space points. It is, therefore, necessary to mention with all that happens in space, the time of its happening. As the time-space continuum is important in the modern physics, so it is regarded as very important in ancient Jain scriptures. The real time can be divided into (1) the relative and (2) the non-relative and this can be included in the relative real time.
On studying the following citations of modern science regarding time, one can see that there is a great similarity between concepts of science regarding time and Jain philosophical beliefs.
1. The speed of space-point relative to its surrounding points is the fundamental aspect incorporated in the design of the universal space and from this basic phenomenon of changing positions or space-point' arises the very ' concept of time'.
2. Since the dynamic state of space is eternal, time, too, is basically eternal.
3. Since all the material phernomena originate from space, the time related with changes in our material environment is also a product from the primary time inherent in the dynamic substratum of space. Time is real since space and its motion are real. Time is absolute since space is absolute.
All these three citations reflect the definition of real time of Jain philosophy.
4. The' time' of our day-to-day experience emerges from the changes in the position of material bodies and also changes in their structure due to the inevitable field interactions causing assembly, decay and disintigration.
According to Jain philosophy, space is a single indivisible and inactive substance but pudgala i.e. matter is active or mobile and pervades the whole cosmos. Therefore, if the word ' space' is replaced by 'pudgala ' i.e. matter

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in the above mentioned scientific concepts, all these concepts will be acceptable to Jain philosophy.
Thus the present-day scientific researches regarding time largely substantiate the concept of Jain philosophy. Mathematics in Laghusangrahanisūtra Jambūdvipasangrahanisūtra does not make any special use of mathematics. It only shows how to find the circumference and area of Jambūdvipa which has a diameter of 1,00,000 Yojanas.
The circumference of Jambūdvipa can be obtained by multiplying the square of its diameter by 10 and the finding square-root of the result. It can be shown in a formula as under :
Circumference = V10 ( diameter ) ? ..............1
The modern mathematics uses the following formula to find the circumference of a circle :
Circumference = 2 mt radius ..........................|| Comparing formulae (1) and (II) we get t = vio i. e.
tt = 3.1622776 approximately.
The area of Jambūdvipa can be obtained by multiplying the circumference of Jambūdvipa by one forth of its diameter i.e. one half of its radius. It can be shown in a formula as under :
diameter Area of a circle = circumference and
=
diameter 10(diameter) ? x 4
diameter. diameter
-
10
2radius. 2 radius
= vio radius 2

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The modern geometry also uses the following formula to find the area of a circle :
Area of a circle = π (radius) 2. Here also π = √10.
Almost everywhere in svētāmbara tradition = √10. But various values of it are found in Digambar tradition. In the Trilōkasära 10 70 = 162/92 i. e. 256 / 81
Here TC =
3.1604938271..... The Trilökasāra also shows 3 and
·
√10 to be the value of but they are very gross.' Moreover, Acārya Virasēna shows quite a different value of TC. Showing the method of finding the circumference of a circle, he says,: Multiply the diameter by three and then add to it what you get by dividing by 113 the diameter multiplied by 16. You will then get the circumference of the circle. It can be shown in a formula as under:
Circumference = 3 (diameter) + 16 (diameter) /113
By simplification, we get circumference =355/113 diameter
Comparing this formula with the well-known formula of today i. e. circumference 2π radius, we get 12 = 355/113. Here = 3.1415929
This value of T was well-known in China also. Possibly, they took the value of π from Indian tradition. Perhaps, Buddhist monks who went to China from India made it popular. 13
In short, four different values of π
tion.
π
π
3..
√10 = 3.1622776..
= 256 / 81 = 3.1604938271....III
= 355 / 113 = 3.1415929.........IV
The first of these values is very gross and it is not accepted now-a-days. This value is shown in the book the Trilōkasāra. The second value is also found in the Trilōkasära. It is accepted everywhere in svētāmbara tradition also. The third value is also shown in the Trilokasära. But the fourth value is shown by Śri Virasēnācārya.
元
π
=
13
135

11
are found in the ancient Jain tradi

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According to modern mathematics tt = 3.141592653.... This shows that the value of it shown by Virasēnācārya is true upto six digits after the decimal point.
There is no special reason why, in the Jain tradition, there are different values of it and different methods of finding the circumference and the area of a circle.
Really speaking, the Jain philosophy is spiritualistic and its ultimate aim is salvation. In Jain scriptures we find the description of the form, shape etc. of the cosmos (Löka ) because they help in spiritual development. The form of Loka, i.e. universe, the form of the hell, the form of gods, the human world - the two and a half islands (dvipas) - the Jambūdvipa etc. are shown in order to enable us to know where and in what condition our soul is at present, in what condition it was in the past, and what condition it can have in the future.
It is not inconsistent to believe that since the common people had no other use of this knowledge that at different times, with different sorts of people in view, these different methods were used in order to impart this knowledge to common people in simple way. This is why one finds different values of it in various Jain scriptures which are available today.
Ācārya Śri virasēna shows that it = 355 / 113. The Indian mathematician Sri Ramanujan shows this value of it in a different way. He solved the problem of squaring the circle, the problem suggested by Greek mathematicians. As a result he got 355/113 as a value of t.
This article is accompanied by a brief article on various values of . On reading it, one can pretty well understand the perplexity of it. Jain Time-cycle and Cosmic Calendar In the commentry on Laghusangrahaņisutra, Ācārya Śrī has given a detailed discription of the seven kşētras (regions) such as Bharata etc. as well as the time-cycle constituted 12 ārās exprienced in Bharata-ksētra and Airavatakņētra. It is possible that some may doubt whether the time-cycle is real. We shall, therefore, here think of it from the view-point of modern science. Let us first understand the divisions (ārās) of the time-cycle.
The time-cycle has two chief divisions--Utsarpiņikāla and Avasarpiņikāla.

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In Utsarpinikāla the height, life-span, physical capacities etc. of human beings and animals develop, spiritual blemishes (kaşāyas) such as attachment, aversion, anger etc. diminish and inauspicious tendencies also diminish gradually. Thus, few spiritual blemishes of men and women, birds and beasts, rise.
In Avasarpinikāla, the development is contrary to this. In the beginning, the height, life-span etc. of human beings and beasts etc. are the utmost. But as time passes, they diminish. In the beginning inauspicious tendencies, jealousy, illusion, attach, aversion, anger etc.of human beings are very slight but then as time passes, they increase.
Both Utsarpiņikāla and Avasarpiņikāla have six ārās ( spokes of the wheel of time ) each. Twenty-four Tirthankaras are born in each half of the timecycle. The joint duration of both is 20 kādākādi i.e. 20X10" Sāgarōpamas (10 kādākāļi Sāgaropamas of Utsarpinikāla and 10 kādākādi Sāgarõpamas of Avasarpiņikāla). The present time belongs to Avasarpinikāla. So, we shall first think of it. Utsarpinikāla is contrastive to it.
The first ārā (spoke of the wheel of time) in Avasarpiņikāla is of duration of four kādākādi Sāgarāpamas; the second ārā is of three kõļākādi Sāgarāpamas; the third ārā is of two kādākādi Sāgarōpamas, the fourth ārā is of one kõļākāļi Sāgarāpamas less by 42000 years and the fifth and the sixth ārās of 21,000 years each. By the end of the third ārā, the first Tirthankara is born. The fourth ārā begins shortly after nirvāņa of the first Tirtharkara. The rest twenty-three Tirthankaras of this group of twenty-four Tirthankaras are born in this fourth ārā. Shortly after nirvāṇa of the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, the fourth ārā comes to an end.
According to Jain scriptures, human beings and birds and beasts in the beginning of the first ārā, are yugalik or twins and they have a hight of 3 Gāus and a life-span three palyõpamas." Height, life-span of living beings gradually decrease and in the beginning of the second ārā, their height is of two Gāus and life-span is of two palyāpamas. In the beginning of the third ārā, the decreasing height and life-span of twin human beings and beasts etc. are one Gāu and one palyāpamas respectively. At the end of the third ārā, the life-span of the human beings is of 84 hundred thousand pūrva years 15 and their height of 500 Dhanusyas. Half-way in the fourth ārā, man

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has a height of 450 Dhanuşyas and a life-span of nearly 72 hundred thousand pūrvas. In the beginning of the fifth ārā, their height is of 7 hands and their life-span is of 72 years approximately. At the end of the fifth ārā, his height is of only one hand and its life-span is only of 20 years. As time passes, life-span and height go on decreasing, though not in a specific ratio. It is definite that as time passes in Avasarpiņikāla, the rate of reduction in life-span and height, is higher and higher.
A well known scientist Mr. Carl Segan has made a cosmic calendar. It gives dates of cosmic incidents. The chart given in Darwin's world-famous book, 'Origin Of Species ' also gives dates of cosmic events. Leave alone the names of the events, the ratio of time intervals between the events shown in them is very similar to time intervals between the incidents in Avasarpiņikāla of the time-cycle shown in Jain scriptures.
The scientists of today may think that there is an exaggeration about the life-span and height etc. of the first Tirthankara śri Aşabhadēva. But if the Jain time-cycle and the cosmic calendar are minutely studied, it does not at all seem to be improbable or impossible. Among the fossilized ruins of giant animals found now-a-days on the earth, the fossilized ruins of the dinosaur are chief. The ruins show that the dinosaur was 150 feet long and according to the chart of Darwin, it belonged to the masozoic period. This time is believed to be earlier than nearly seventy million years.
According to the Jain time-cycle, this time was later than that of śri Vāsupūjyasvāmi, the twelfth Tirthankara and earlier than that of śri śāntinātha, the sixteenth Tirthankara. A comparison with the ratio of time duration according to the cosmic calendar shows nearly the same. Someone may raise the question that the calculation of scientists of today shows that this was the time prior to only seventy million years while according to Jain time-cycle this was the time prior to the time between forty-seven Sāgarōpamas and three and a half Sāgaropamas. According to Jain calculation of time, ten kõđãkõdi palyopamas make one Sāgarōpama and one palyāpama contains innumerable years. What accounts for this great difference?
In order to determine the date of fossils, scientists use isotopes of carbon-14 and determine their ancientness i.e. date of its existence on the basis of the ratio of radiation of radio-active rays emerging from the fossils.

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139
But scientists themselves have admitted that this method is faulty and leads to a difference, not of hundreds or thousands of years but of millions of years. Therefore, an object which is 70 or 80 million years old according their calculation, may be a thousand million years old or perhaps still older. The principle of the method adopted by scientists being faulty, their calculations
ir conclusions are only inferential and, therefore, they are not at all reliable.
Regarding this, Max Toth and Greg Nielsen, the authors of the book' Pyramid Power' write :
" It should be noted here that to determine the date of an archaeological find, excavators all over the world have been using the analysis of radioactive carbon, the isotope C-14.
Unfortunately, it now appears that the dates obtained through the use of this method are highly questionable, since contamination from presentday organic materials could substantially affect the process. Archaeologists now believe that most of the sites dated with carbon-14 are older than the dating process showed that they were. There is currently an enormous controversy ranging in archaeological circles over the claim of some archaeologists that carbon-14 dating is incorrect by thousands of years, not hundreds as was previously thought." ( Pp. 20 )
Regarding this Dr Narendra Bhandari (Chairman, Solar system, Space unit, PRL, Ahmadabad) mentions that Carbon-14 method works period below 50,000 years. For older fossils other methods are used. According to his opinion, Carbon-14 dating process is useful only for the fossils that possess carbon.
The present day scientists fear that if the developed and developing countries make excessive use of the space shuttles to launch satellites in space often and to make experiments in space, the ozone layer of atmosphere which stands against the ultraviolet rays of the sun which are harmful to human beings and the living world, will be used up and ultraviolet rays of the sun will destroy the living world. The sun will pour fire and the earth will be utterly destroyed.
The description of the sixth ārā in Jain scriptures is similar. They state that there will be a very poisonous rain of fire, salt etc. and there will be a

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widespread lamenation. Thus the earth will be utterly destroyed. During the day-time human beings etc. will live in caves of Mt. Vaitāḍhya. They will come out only at night. All will be non-vegetarian.
In short, the fear of scientists is true. Lord Mahāvīra forecast it more than 2500 years ago.
Thus the ruins which are the evidences of Darwin's theory of evolution can serve as evidences of Avasarpin ikāla of the Jain religion. What is needed is more research work in the field.
According to Jambūdvīpasangrahaṇīsūtra, it is a universal truth that the earth is neither round nor mobile nor it rotates. We shall have to prove it with scientific experiments. If the earth were perfectly round like ball, the perfectly north-south circumambulation around it would be possible like the eastwest circumambulation. As an aeroplane can fly over the north pole, it should be able to fly over the south pole. But Trans World Airlines and Pan-American Airways have informed on inquiry that no such air-flight is available.
Information about the orbit of satellites and of satellites of fully northsouth orbit, was sought from the ISRO, the famous space-science institution of India and from the observatory. There is no reply from the ISRO at that time. Now, it is available. We, therfore, to think of it. The reply from the observatory contained information irrelavant to the answer.
In conclusion, if anything discordant with scriptures is written in the preface to this book, written with a broad scientific out look, I pray forgiveness. I stop here.
[Adopted from the preface to the book, Jambudvipasangrahanisūtra]
References:
1. A. W. Barton [ Introduction,
Cosmology: Old And New by G. R. Jain]
2. Though it is diffcult to say whether this work is of Yakini mahattarāsūnu Acārya Haribhadrasūriji Mahārāja or some other Acārya named Śri Haribhadrasūriji, this statement is made according to the current tradition and the statement of Rev. Acārya Sri Vijaya Udayasūriji, the author of the commentry. Śri Haribhadrasūriji ' written by But it is stated on page No.50 in the book, Prof. Hiralal Rasikdas Kapadia and published in Sayaji Granthamala -- " The name of Yäkin imahattarāsūnu Śri Haribhadrasūriji as the author of
T
.

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141
Jambūdvipasangrahani, is mentioned by Peterson, M. K. Mehta, M. N. Doshi, Pandit Hargovindadas, Pannyas Kalyanavijay, Pandit Bechardas Doshi etc., but on the page No.48 of the same book, the list of works of Śri Haribhadrasūriji Mahārāja is given according to bruhadvrtti i.e. sanskrit commentary written in Vikram era 1295 by Šri Sumatigani on verse No. 55 of Ganaharasaddhasayaga .e. Ganadharasārddhaśataka; it includes ' sangrahaniivetti' but not 'Jambūdvipasangrahani '. It is not clear which 'sangrahani' is meant by the word 'sangrahani' in 'sangrahanivștti'. In short, no strong ancient evidence is available to show that Yākinimahattarāsūnu Haribhadrasūriji is the author of this Laghusangrahani (Jambūdvipasangrahani).
3. People of today may find these statements about god to be untrue. The E.S.P. researchers find during experiements that some people describe their past birth. And their description is fully in full agreement with the description given in Jain scriptures. Please, see 'Science Discover Eternal Wisdom' by Muni Śri Amarendravijayji Mahārāja. ____4.जम्बूद्वीपलवणादयः शुभनामानो द्वीपसमुद्राः।७। द्विद्धिर्विष्कम्भाः पूर्वपूर्वपरिक्षेपिणो वलयाकृतयः ||८|| jambūdvipalavaņādayaḥ śubhanāmāno dvipasamudrāḥ.. 7.. dvird virviskambhaḥ pūrvapūrvapariksēpiņö valayākrtayaḥ ..8..
(Tattvārtha Sūtraa, Adhyay-2)
5. Tirtharkara ( A Hindi magazine ), May, 1987 P. No.5
6. Jain cosmology has inspired many descriptions of this kind. There is also a tradition of manuscript illustration more than 1000 years old, which despite its age remains amazingly fresh.
(Jain Cosmology-cover page - 2) 7. '1-2-3-4-5-6-7' The Tattvajñāna Smārikā, Part IV, P. 27 by Ashish Manekalal Shah ____8. तन्मध्ये मेरु भिवृत्तो योजनशतसहस्रविष्कम्भो जम्बूद्वीपः ।।९।। सूर्याश्चन्द्रमसो ग्रहनक्षत्रप्रकीर्णतारकश्च ।।१३।। मेरुप्रदक्षिणागतयो नृलोके |१४। तत्कृतः कालविभागः ।।१५।।
tanmadhyē mērurnābhivrtto yojanaśatasahasraviskambho jambūdvipaḥ.9. sūryāścandramasõ grahanaksatraprakirnatārakaśca .. 13.. mēnupradakṣiṇāgatayo nrlokë ..14. tatkrtaḥ kālavibhāgah ..15...
(Tattvārtha Sutra, Adhyay-4, sūtra No.13,14,15)
9. 1-2-3-4, BEYOND MATTER by Paramahansa Tewari P. 87-88

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10. r = 9/16 (side of square equal area) or p = (16/9)2 ..........(V. 18)
[ Basic Mathematics by Prof. L. C. Jain, P. 47] 11. 1, p.(gross) = 3d .......(V-311). 2, p(subtle) = vio d.......(V- 311)
[Ibid P.47] 12. Ibid. P. 33 13. Ibid. P. 33 14. In a palyõpama, there are innumerable years. 15. A pūrva year consist of 70,56,000,00,00,000 years.
WHAT IS SOUNDLESS, TOUCHLESS, FORMLESS, IMPERISHABLE, LIKEWISE TASTELESS, CONSTANT, ODOURLESS, WITHOUT BEGINNING, WITHOUT END, HIGHER THAN THE GREAT, STABLE BY DISCERNING THAT, ONE IS LIBERATED FROM THE MOUTH OF DEATH.
KATHOPNISHAD – 3.15
KNOWLEDGE, WHICH COMES FROM SUCH AN EXPERIENCE, IS CALLED “ABSOLUTE KNOWLEDGE

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The Cosmic Calendar
Since the development of his thinking faculty, man has been tirelessly trying
to find solutions to the questions of the form and origin of the universe. Whether the attempts are spiritual or scientific, everyone ultimately wants to know the laws and secrets that governs the universe. It is difficult to know the secrets with scientific methods. The great sages of the past, have known them with spiritual methods and have put them before us. But under the influence of the present times and the western civilization, we hesitate to believe as to be true. The absolute truth is out of bounds of time and space. Time does not make even a scratch on it, let alone a deep mark. On the contrary, backed in the oven of time, absolute truth becomes very ripe. Such are the doctrines of Jainism, ripened by being backed in the oven of time. They have passed through various tests.
Since the origin of the branch of atomic physics and the branches establishing relations of time, space, matter and its energy among various branches of science and since decades prior to it, the question of origin and destruction of the universe, and mass-accumulation of the universe has always been confusing and various theories have been put forth for them. Of all these theories, the Big Bang Theory has got the greatest acceptance. Though the Jain religion partially believes in the Big-Bang theory, it does not believe in the presentation that scientists make of it.
There is a great similarity between the duration of time of the origin of the sun, of the earth, of the living world, of human beings etc. following Big-Bang, as described by Carl Segan according to the belief of scientists and the timecycle mentioned in Jain scriptures. Though the durations are almost equal, the differences of incidents and circumstances are great. According to the Jain doctrine the sun, the earth, the living world or living beings and the humanworld or beings are not originated from nothing i.e. they are not newly created.

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But the modern science believes that they are born a new and in the evolution of the universe, first unicellular micro-organisms then multicellular organisms and gradually other higher insects, the monkey and then the man was evolved. This is completely an illusion and untrue.
First of all, let us see the cosmic calendar of Carl Segan. Mr. Carl Segan divided the time between Big-Bang and the moment of destruction of the whole universe (pralayakāla) into 12 months and 365 days. The Big Bang occurred on the first day of January and Carl Segan gives as under the account of incidents that followed.
The Big-Bang - January, 1. The formation of the milky way - May, 1. The creation of the Sun - September, 9. The creation of the earth - September, 14. The beginning of life on the earth - September, 25 The oldest rock formed on the earth - October, 2. Fossils formed - October, 9. Formation of sex organs of generation among micro-organisms
- November, 1. Development of living cells - November, 15. Oxygen in atmosphere on the earth - December, 1. Ditches at high temperature on the Mars were formed - December, 5. Insects were born - December, 16 Fishes were born - December, 19.
Birds were born - December, 27. 15. Gigantic mammals were born - December, 30.
Man was born - December, 31.
Now follows the interesting account. After man was born on December 31, the time of incidents is shown in hours, minutes and seconds as under
16.
18.
19.
Man was born at 10.30. p.m. Stone instruments and weapons began to be used at 11.00 p.m. Farming invention at 11 hours, 50 minutes and 20 seconds Buddha was born at night at 11.59.55 Jesus was born at night at 11.59.56 - Invention of Zero in India at 11.59.57
20.
21.

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23. The renaissance in Europe and the
experimental method in science, originated at night at 11.59.59. 24. The progress of technology, the invention of weapons to kill mankind,
the beginning of the universal civilization and the beginning of space
flight - now and at the first second of the new year. This is the ultra-modern cosmic calendar, made by Dr. Carl Segan, the toprank scientist of the world and approved by other high rank scientists.
According to the chart given in the book 'Origin Of Species' written by Charles Darwin and published recently in 1979 A.D. 'cosmological' incidents can be shown as under : 1. Nearly 5 thousands million years ago - The Big-Bang and separation of the
earth. 2. Nearly 4.6 thousand million years ago - The crust of the earth was formed. 3. Nearly 3.5 thousand million years ago - Life began and bacteria were
produced 4. Nearly 1.7 thousand million years ago - Oxygen was produced in the
atmosphere 5. Nearly 70 crore years ago - Production of multicellular living beings, earth
worms and their fossils. 6. Nearly 57 crore years ago - Production of fossils of many kinds of
invertebrate animals for the first time. 7. Nearly 52.5 crore years ago - Production of fishes. 8. Nearly 38 crore years ago - Production of insects. 9. Nearly 36 crore years ago · Production of frogs etc. i.e. amphibians i.e.
animals moving on earth and in water. 10. Nearly 28 crore years ago - Production of reptiles etc. i.e. snakes etc. 11. Nearly 22 crore years ago - High level and final-stage development of
reptiles and production of dinosaurs 12. Nearly 21 crore years ago - Production of mammals 13. Nearly 13 crore years ago - Control of dinosaurs i.e. Dinosaurs as a
dominant and prominent animal. 14. Nearly 7 crore years ago - Utter destruction of dinosaurs. 15. Nearly 5 crore years ago - Development of mammals. 16. Nearly 1 crore years ago - Production of hominids for the first time.
Such durations of time as are mentioned above are shown in Jain

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cosmology. These are described in ancient Āgamas i.e. Jain canonical scriptures and other treatises. They are as under:
According to Jain doctrine the time-cycle has two main divisions called Utsarpiņikāla and Avasarpiņikāla in Jain-terminology. The Avasarpinikāla is the time of our modern cosmic calendar. The Avasarpiņikāla has six subdivisions called ārās, spokes of the wheel of time i.e. era or epoch. According to Kalpasūtra, a Jain canonical scripture, the first spoke (ārā) is called susamasuşama and its duration is of four kādākodi (4 x 10,00,00,00 x 10,00,00,00) i.e. 4 x 1014 Sāgarōpamas (ocean-measured periods of time). One Sāgarōpama is equal to 101 palyāpamas (glass measured periods of time). In short the
uration of time of the first susama-susama ārā is equal to 4 x 1024 palyöpama years. Palyāpama is the smallest of the big units of time. The number of years in a palyāpama is certain but not clearly expressed and cannot be shown in figures. Even Agamas and other scriptures say that a palyāpama has innumerable years. This is, therefore, a matter for further research. The second ārā (Spoke of time-wheel) is called susama. Its duration is of 3 x 1029 palyāpamas. The third ārā is called suşama-duhşama and it has 2 x 1029 palyāpama years. The fourth ārā is duhsama-susama. It has a duration of 42000 years less 1 x 1020 palyāpama years. The fifth ārā is called duhşama. It has only 21000 years. The sixth ārā is called duhsama-duhşama. It also has 21000 years. Thus, the total duration of Avasarpiņikāla is of 10palyāpama years.
Reverse is the order of Utsarpinikāla. Both together make time-cycle of 2x103 palyāpama years.
Non-Jain books of Indian culture also give a similar description of time. The Manusmrti and its commentators divide the life-time of the cosmos i.e. universe into four divisions, namely, Krta, Trētā, Dvāpara and kali. There is Sandhyā in the beginning and Sandhyāmsa at the end of every epoch. Krta - Sandhyā-400 years, the main division-4000 years, Sandhyāmsa-400 years. Trētā- Sandhyā- 300years, the main division-3000 years, Sandhyāmsa-300 years. Dvāpara-Sandhyā-200 years, the main division-2000 years, Sandhyāmía-200 years. Kali -Sandhyā 100 years, the main division - 1000 years, Sandhyāmsa - 100 years.
According to the commentators, this number is of heavenly years and each

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year in heaven is as long as 360 years of man (human years/years on earth). All these four epoches make a Devayuga and 1000 Dēvayugas make a Brahma's day.
147
The calculation of Jain doctrine and the calculation of the first chapter of the Manusmrti, shown above are both almost alike. The only difference is that the total number of years of the fourth, the fifth and the sixth ārās, counted jointly are 1 kōḍākōḍī Sāgarōpamas. The number of years of Kaliyuga is equal to 100 years of Sandhya, 1000 years of main division, and 100 years of Sandhyāmsa.
According to the Jain religion there are 63 excellent men. Their life history has been written and are available even today. Their birth-time etc. are important for Jain scriptures. Of them 24 Tirthankaras are chief. Their birth, death etc. occur at definite intervals of time. The importance is, therefore, given to their birth etc. in Jain scriptures. We shall, therefore, regard them as illustrations for the purpose of time durations of incidents in the time-cycle and with reference to the length of the body, life-span etc. of contemporary men. Out of these 24 Tirthankaras, 23 Tirthankaras were born in the last and first 1 x" Sāgarōpamas of the avsarpini and Utsarpiṇīkāla respectively, while the first Tirthankara in Avasarpiṇīkāla, and last Tirthankara in Utsarpiṇīkāla were born before and after some crore years from them.
A circle has 360 degrees, in all. The time-circle also has 360 degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 minutes. Again 1 minute is divided into 60 seconds, further second is also divided into subseconds, microseconds etc. and incidents are shown with reference to the time of their occurrence. First 180 degrees of time-cycle mention Utsarpiṇīkāla and later 180 degrees of timecycle mention Avasarpiņikāla.
00°-00-00-01"- Very difficult circumstances of life, underground residence of human beings and animals, gradually obtained slight im provement in auspi cious colour, smell, taste and expansion in life-span and construction of bone-joints (Sanghayana), fully non-vegetarian human beings. The first spoke (epoch) of time-wheel.
00°-00-00-45"-Generally miserable life, continuous rain of water, milk and nectarfor the first seven-seven days, creation of proper atmosphere, production of plant life, coming out of human beings and animals from their underground residence, human beings becoming vegetarian, end

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of the first ārā and beginning of the second ārā.
00-00-01-00-End of the second ārā, intellectual development of people, gradual expansion of body and life-span.
00°-00-02"-00"-Birth, nirvāņa and duration of dispensation (säsanakāla) of the first, second, third, fourth and fifth Tirthankaras.
00°-00-03-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the sixth and seventh Tirthankaras.
00°-00-04-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the eighth Tirthankara. 00°-00-05-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the ninth Tirthankara. 00°-00-07-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the tenth Tirthankara. 00°-00-10-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the eleventh Tirthankara. 00°-00-15-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the twelfth Tirthankara. 00°-00-30-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the thirteenth Tirthankara. 00°-00-50"-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the fourteenth Tirthankara. 00°-01-30-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the fifteenth Tirthankara. 00°-03-30-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the sixteenth Tirthankara. 00°-07-00-00"-Birth, nirvanaand duration of dispensation of the seventeenth Tirthankara. 00°-15'-00-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the eighteenth Tirthankara. 00°-30'-00-00"-Birth, nirvanaand duration of dispensation of the nineteenth Tirthankara. 01-00-00-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the twentieth Tirthankara. 03°-00-00-00"-Birth, nirvanaand duration of dispensation of the twenty-first Tirthankara. 05°-00-00-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the twenty-second Tirthankara.
090-00-00-00"-Birth, nirvana and duration of dispensation of the twenty-third Tirthankara. 18°-00-00-00-01"-Birth of the twenty-fourth Tirthankara and beginning of the fourth ārā of 2x101 Sāgarōpamas.
18°-00-00-00"-50-Dīkṣā (initiation), attainment of omniscience, nirvana and end of dispensation of the twenty-fourth Tirthankara and beginning of
kulakaras.
18°-00-00-01"'-00"-The end of kulakara-tradition and the beginning of the yugalika (twins) tradition.
54°-00-00-00" -The end of the fourth ārā of 2x10" Sāgarōpamas and the beginning of the fifth ārā of 3x10" Sagarōpamas.
108°-00-00-00" -The end of the fifth ãrã of 3x10" Sāgarōpamas and the beginning of the sixth ārā of 4x10 Sagarōpamas.
180°-00-00-00" -The end of the last and sixth ārā of Utsarpiņikāla and the beginning of the equally long (in time duration) first ārā of Avasarpiņikāla. 252°-00-00-00" -The end of the first ārā of 4x10 Sāgarōpamas of Avasarpiņikāla

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and the beginning of the second ārā of 3x10* Sāgarõpamas. 306o-00--00--00" - The end of the second ārā of 3x10" Sāgaropamas and the beginning
of the third ārā of 2x10" Sāgaropamas. 3410-59-59-30" -Beginning of the tradition of kulakaras. 3410-59-59-59"-05" -Birth of Sri Ādinātha, the first Tirthankara. 3410-59-59*-59"-56"-The first Tintharkara's Diksā (initiation) and attainment of omni
science. 3410-59-59-59"-59" -The nināna (death)of the first Tirtharkara, śri Ādinātha. 3420-00-00-00" -The end of the third ārā and the beginning of the fourth ārā. 350°-59-59-56" -Birth, Diksā and omniscience of the second Tirthankara, Sri
Ajitanātha. 350°-59-59-59" -Nirvana of the second Tirthankara. 354-00-00--00" -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvana of the third Tirthankara
Śri Sambhavanātha 3560-00--009 -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvana of the fourth Tirthankara
Śri Abhinandansvāmi 357°-10--00" -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the fifth Tirtharkara
Śri Sumatinātha 3580-05-00 -Birth, Diksā, omniscience and nirvana of the sixth Tirthankara
Padmaprabhasvāmi 3590-00-00 -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the seventh Tirtharkara
3590-45-00"
3590-53-00"
3590-56-30"
3599-58-30"
Śri Supārsvanātha -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the eighth Tirthankara
Śri Candraprabhasvāmi -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the ninth Tirtharkara
Sri Suvidhinātha -Birth, Diksā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the tenth Tirthankara
Śri sitalanātha -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the eleventh Tirthankara
Śri śrēyāmsanātha -Birth, Diksā, omniscience and nirvāṇa of the twelfth Tirthankara
Śri Vāsupūjyasvāmi -Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvāṇa of the thirteenth Tirthankara
Śri Vimalanātha -Birth, Diksā, omniscience and nirvana of the fourteenth Tirthankara
Sri Anantanātha -Birth, Diksā, omniscience and nirvana of the fifteenth Tirthankara śri Dharmanātha
3590-59'-104
3590-59-30
3590-59'-45
3590-59-50"

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-
3590-59-53" -Birth, Diksā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the sixteenth Tirthankara
Śrī śāntinātha 3590-59'-546-30"-Birth, Diksā, omniscience and nirvāṇa of the seventeenth Tirthankara
Śri Kunthunātha 3590-59-574-00"-Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvana of the eighteenth Tirthankara
Śri Aranātha and the nineteenth Tirthankara śri Mallinātha 359°-59-58-30"-Birth, Dikṣā, omniscience and nirvāņa of the 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd,
24th Tirthankaras. 3590-59'-58-31" -Beginning the fifth ārā of 21000 years. 3590-59'-58"-40" -Origin, development and destruction of the modem science. 3590-59-59-30"-The end of the fifth ārā and the beginning of the sixth ārā. Disturbance
in atmosphere. Falling of the Sun's ultraviolet rays directly on the earth. Human beings and animals going underground and destruction
of plant life (kingdom). Extremely difficult circumstances of life. 360°-00-00--00*(0000-00-00--00')-The end of the sixth ārā and again beginning of
Utsarpiņikāla By comparing the two tables given above, one can see that the beginning of the evolutionary period of Darwin's theory marks the beginning of the first ārā of the Avasarpiņikāla part of the time-cycle of the Jain scriptures. The beginning of formation of the crust of the earth marks the beginning of the second ārā. The time of beginning of life and production of bacteria marks the beginning of the third ārā and the production of oxygen in the atmosphere marks the beginning of the fourth ārā of 1 x 10" Sāgarāpamas.
Modern science does not believe that life existed on the earth before the time mentioned above because the lowest of the layers of fossils and other fossils discovered during excavations of the earth belong to a time subsequent to the time mentioned above. Rocks (fossils) of earlier times are not discovered. The reasons for this can be given as under on the basis of the Jain scriptures, the Brhatsangrahani, the Kșētrasamasa, the Pravacanasārāddhāra etc.
The human life and life of beasts on the earth during the first, second and third ārās of Avasarpiņikāla were quite independent of each other. Men and women among human beings and males and females among animals were born as twins, became young together, enjoyed together and gave birth to pair of twin (yugala). They brought up the twins (yugala) for a few days and then

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made it free. They died together. They had only slight spiritual blemishes (Kaşāyas) and only a slight desire of sexual pleasures. They were almost devoid of anger, pride, illusion, greed and infatuation. They never quarrelled or fought. They never died a premature death. Human beings and beasts had few needs which were supplied by kalpavrksas (desire-yielding trees). For all these reasons, the sword (asi) i.e. war, ink (maśi) i.e. writing and farming (krşi) had not came to be used. In those days nobody knew plants and no science of plants, history of plants, kinds and uses of plants existed. But it does not mean that plant kingdom and animal kingdom had not at all developed in those days. Also, natural calamities perhaps befell subsequently in the Avasarpinikāla. Fossils in form of ruins were, therefore, perhaps formed subsequently.
In short, a fully natural life was lived during the first three ārās.
The cosmic calendar has only one division, which is called the period of evolution. In view of intellectual, physical and technological circumstances of the human society, it is called evolution, but the Jain-time-cycle has two chief divisions - Utsarpinikāla and Avasarpiņikāla. The Jain scripture entitled Brhatsangrahani states that in Utsarpinikāla, there is a gradual development of physical strength, height, life-span, spirituality etc. and bad tendencies of all living beings subside. Contrarily, in Avasarpinikāla, physical strength, height, life-span etc. diminish and spirituality deteriorates. Bad qualities such as anger, jealousy, pride etc. come into power i.e. become prominent.
Modern science and its ecological and geological evidences support these observations. The ruins in form of fossils of dinosaurs of many years ago, bear witness of their gigantic size. The American Science magazine 'Discover' states that the ruins in form of fossils of birds with the length of 11.5 feet and with wing of the expanse of 23 feet, have been discovered. According to the Jain terminology, this dinosaur is a one type of reptiles. The mongoose, the squirrel, the house-lizard etc. belong to this phylum of animals. As stated in the ‘Jiva vicāra Prakarana' written by Ācārya Śrī śāntisūriji in the twelfth century of Vikram Era and in the 'Jivābhigama', the 'Pannavanā' and other Jain canonical scriptures written earlier by the year 450 A.D., the largest size of these living beings is of the length 2 to 9 Gāus (1 Gāu = 3.2 kms.) It is estimated that this dinosaur is 80 feet in height and 150 to 175 feet in length. According to science, dinosaurs are of different kinds, different sizes and different peculiarities. They belong to the mesozoic period. According to the

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present calculation, dinosaurs lived perhaps nearly seven crore years ago. But the Jain scriptures mention quite a different calculation. A Dhanuşya (bow) is equal to six feet and the length of a dinosaur is nearly 25 Dhanuşyas (bow). Supposing that the length of a dinosaur was equal to one-third of the height of man, when man was 75 Dhanuşyas (bow) tall, the dinosaur was 25 Dhanusyas long. Man's height in the interim of the times of the eleventh Tirthankara Sri Śrēyāmsanātha and the twelfth Tirthankara śri Vāsupujyasvāmi was nearly 75 Dhanusyas. Therefore, it can be said that the dinosaur belonged to that period.
According to another calculation, when man was 3 Gāus in height (1 Gāu=3.2 kms) the reptile was 2 Gāus in length. Therefore, when man was 1 Gāu tall, the reptile was 2/3 Gāu long and when man was 500 Dhanusyas tall in the times of Bhagavān Śri Adinātha, the reptile was 333 Dhanuşyas long. This means that when the dinosaur was 25 Dhanuşyas long, man was 37.5 Dhanusyas tall and man had this height in the interim of the times of Śri. śāntinātha, the Sixteenth Tirthankara and śri Kunthunātha, the seventeenth Tirthankara. It, therefore, does not at all seem to be improbable or impossible that the existence of the dinosaur belongs to the period beginning before nearly 47 Sāgarōpamas and ending before nearly at least three Sāgar According to the cosmic calendar, the gigantic dinosaur was born on the 30th December and the Jain-time-cycle shows nearly the same. It coincides with the 30th December of the modern cosmic calendar because 365 days of the cosmic calendar are equal to 180° (180°-00-00--01" to 360°-00-00--00*') of Jain-time-cycle.
Moreover, the methods of modern scientists for deciding the life-span of archaeological objects is faulty according to the calculations of the Jain-timecycle and it is natural to be because according to the Brhatsangrahani, the speed of transformation of objects decreases as time passes in Utsarpinikāla i.e. first half of the Jain-time-cycle, and the speed of transformation of increase as time passes in Avasarpinikāla i.e. later half of the Jain-time-cycle. The Jain scriptures also give a theory for this. The life-span of human beings varies from 16 to 20 years and they are nearly 1 hand (1.5 feet) tall in the beginning of Utsarpiņikāla. When the first ārā of 21000 years and the second ārā of 21000 years come to an end, their height varies from 5 to 6 hands and their life-span is nearly of 80 years. As time passes, the transformation

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becomes slower and slower. It is illustrated as under.
After a lapse of the first fifty million million Sāgarōpamas years of the Utsarpiņikāla, the life-span rises from 20 years to nearly 72 hundred thousand pūrva years (1 pūrva=7056000,00,00,000 70.56x1012 years) and his height rises from 1 hand to 450 Dhanusyas (bow). But after lapse of the next 50 million million Sāgarōpama years, the life-span rises only to 84 hundred thousand pūrva years and the height rises from 450 Dhanusyas to 500 Dhanusyas. Similarly, at the end of the fourth ārā having 2x101 Sāgarōpama years of Utsarpiņikāla, the life-span rises to nearly 1 palyōpama years and height rises to one Gau, and at the end of the fifth ārā of Utsarpiņikāla, the life-span rises to nearly 2 palyōpama years and height rises to two Gaus. The fifth ārā is 3 x 10" Sāgarōpama years long. At the end of the sixth ārā, having 4 x 4" sagaropma years the life-span is of three palyōpama years and the height is of three Gāus. Jain scriptures mention that in each period (ara) of 2 x 10 Sāgarōpama, 3 x 10" Sāgarōpama years, 4.0x101 Sāgarōpama years, life-span rises by one palyōpama years and height rises by one Gau. Similarly, life-span and height decreases in Avasarpiņikāla, the later half of the Jaintime-cycle.
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Today on the basis of radiation of radioactive element of archaeological objects, scientists can say how old the objects are. But according to what has been stated above, compared to the rate of radiation of radioactive element from those objects today, the rate of radiation of radioactive element from those objects was perhaps low a few years ago and it was perhaps extremely low many more years ago. But without taking this into account, we work out the time of radiation of the past and, therefore, there is all possibilities of errors. e.g. An archaeological object would perhaps have previously taken fifty years to emit as much radiation as it emitted during the last five years and it would have perhaps still previously taken 5000 years to emit as much radiation as it emitted during the fifty years. I, therefore, suggest that more research work should be done on this subject and on this method. Then we shall come nearer to reality.
The basic difference between the modern cosmic calendar and the Jain time-cycle is that in the cosmic calendar everything happens over again, anew or de nova after utter destruction of the universe and suddenly animals of gigantic size are created and bacteria and viruses are believed to be their

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origins/sources. But according to the Jain time-cycle, all sorts of insects, animals and plants always exist and they develop in favourable circumstances. The size of their body increases in Utsarpiņikāla and decreases in Avasarpiņikāla. Plants are produced by plants and plants of a particular species produce plants of the same species. Unicellular plants produce unicellular plants and multicellular plants produce multicellular plants. There is no cross production between unicellular plants and multicellular plants.
At the time of destruction of the earth, animals and human beings are preserved underground in sleeping, oval and manifest forms. These animals and human beings cannot bear the temperature of the time of destruction of the earth. But later on when the atmosphere becomes normal and the temperature becomes tolerable, they come out from underground and begin to develop themselves. Animals procreate animals of their own species. We cannot, therefore, say that in course of development of one species of animals procreate other species of animals. Some scientists believe that animal-cells were produced from plant-cells and some other scientists believe that plantcells were produced from animal-cells. But all these beliefs are ultimately based on inferences. It is possible that reality is quite different from all these inferences of scientists.
In short, Indian scientists belonging to different branches of science such as geology, physics, biology, atomic physics, geography, astronomy etc. should make a deep study of ancient Indian philosophical and other books and do research work on the basis of it. It is the need of the day. If this is done, India will be able to make a very valuable contribution in the field of science.
( Navneet-samarpana, a Gujarati magazine, September,'84 & Tulasi Prajñā, Vol.23 No. 4, Jan.-March,1998)
Note-1:After five years of publication of this article, a context proving that this inference is true, has been found in the book, 'The Pyramid Power'. It has been stated in the article - 'The Jambūdvipa Laghusangrahani and Modern Science'. p. 139

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Origin Of Life?
From the days when man abandoned the natural life style to adopt the life
style created by himself, man's intellectual power began to develop. Man made life style produced in man a sort of curiosity to know the secrets of life, the secrets of all natural phenomena and the factors controlling them. This curiosity and the needs of the new life style inspired him to make new inventions. That was the beginning of science and its inventions. This curiosity played a very important role in material development in human life.
Formerly, man with his small family lived in forests and lived on fruits etc. of trees growing in forests. In those days no man had any fear from another man or any woman and no woman had any fear from another woman or any man. In fact so much fearlessness prevailed that none was afraid of the so called violent birds and beasts. Man in those days lived unclad but the mutual sexual attraction was not strong. As time passed by, they changed. They found shortage of fruits etc. growing in forests and needs of people were not fulfilled. From those days, people began to quarrel, fight and attack. All struggled for their existence. Thus emerged a new life-style and a new social order. Gradually, people adopted the new social order. Man began to think of the natural and artificial phenomena occurring around him. That precisely was the beginning of man-made science, which has been continuously progressing.
Thus man's power of thinking laid the foundation of science and then man began to think of time of beginning of the universe and the great men of succeeding ages, with their powers of knowledge and logic, found answers to this and tried to explain them to other people of society. Religious leaders, original founders of various religions, saviours of religions, great men who redeemed religion made their best efforts and contributed to the solution of problem regarding to the origin of the universe and life. Bhagavān Mahāvīra presented a unique theory and solved many problems related to the universe. Most of the religious leaders believe that the whole universe is without a beginning and is endless. But scientists do not accept it. They believe that

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the earth has both, a beginning and an end. The living world was created after crores of years of creation of the earth and it developed gradually. This is what the scientists have been believing. But according to the Jain philosophy, the world of living beings is never created. Since beginningless time the living world has been on the earth and will continue to be there for endless time. It has neither a beginning nor an end. It goes on ascending and descending. The periods of ascent and descent are respectively called Utsarpiņikāla and Avasarpinikāla. The present time is Avasarpinikāla. The geological fossils etc. which are the evidences of the famous theory of evolution by Charles Darwin can be evidences of the Avasarpinikāla of the Jain philosophy and they can disprove the theory of evolution because even the Darwin's theory of evolution is ultimately based on inferences and not on direct proofs or evidences. In short the living world is neither created nor destroyed.
Before thinking of the origin of living organisms, according to the Jain philosophy, let us examine various theories presented by different scientists; the experiments made by them in order to prove their theories and their results and reasons for such results according to the doctrines of the Jain philosophy.
Since many centuries, the problem of the origin of the living organisms has been a headache to scientists and philosophers. In the beginning, philosophers believed that there was someone who created all kinds of animals, insects etc. i.e. all living beings and they called him a creator. But this theory of special creation is not acceptable to scientists nor is it acceptable to the Jain philosophy. A great question arises to it is that if the creator made all then there must be someone to make the creator. Who made the creator? Nobody can give a clear explanation to this.
Regarding the beginning of the living organisms, scientists believed that the first living thing perhaps came from a heavenly body i.e. celestial object or the most microorganisms came as cosmic dust. But this cosmozoic theory is also not acceptable to scientists because even on other planets there is no atmosphere conducive to life. The problem of existence of living organisms on other planets has not been yet solved. But according to the Jain geography and astronomy there are many regions which are vaster even than the earth and human beings, animals, plants, insects etc. all the living beings there,

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but no object can come from there to this earth. All animals human beings, insects are confined to their region, out of which they cannot go. Even if one goes by supernatural power or help of a god or goddess, one cannot survive there and if one survives there by virtue of some divine power, it is regarded to be very miraculous. (see: The Kalpasūtra, The origin of the Harivamśakula). In short the Jain philosophy also does not believe in any such theory as cosmozoic theory.
According to the Jain philosophy, the whole universe (all the fourteen Rājalokas) is inhabited by living beings. They take birth on this earth too.
Their bodies are constituted of the substances existing here. The body structure of some micro-organisms takes shape first and then the life-element /soul comes into it. But in macro-organisms, the soul comes first and it develops its body and organs according to its capacity.
There is another theory which is called the theory of spontaneous generation. According to it, the living world originated on the earth, all of a sudden, accidentally and in a very short time. No external factor was necessary. It was produced casually. The Greek philosophers believed that the living organisms were produced from sea-slimes under the influence of the Sun, heat and atmosphere. Scientists accepted this belief of the Greek philosophers. But they did not accept the reasons that the Greek philosophers gave for creation of the living world. Down to the sixteenth century, some
believed that frogs were produced in the mud of water, scorpions were produced in the excretion of animals and rats, house-flies and earth worms were produced from soil or clay. But some experiments were made to know whether this was true or not. One such experiment was performed by the Italian physicist Francesco Redi and he proved that the theory of spontaneous generation was wrong. He showed that the maggots are produced only from eggs laid on rotten meat and fishes. When meat and fishes are kept in a closed glass vessel and kept away from house-flies, maggots did not develop in it. Ultimately he concluded that life originates from life and non-living beings can never give birth to life. This theory is called biogenesis. Later on Louis Pasteur went still further and proved that very minute microorganisms can be produced from other germs of a kindred kind. Thus Redi and Pasteur proved that living organisms were not produced in surroundings similar to the present day surroundings. The question arises here whether it

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is possible that the living organisms were formerly in different surroundings originated from nonliving substances. This is the idea in the background of abiogenesis and scientists try to prove that living organisms were originated from non-living substances.
In the book entitled, 'The Origin of Life' published in 1936 A.D. A. I. Oparin, a Russian biochemist said about the origin of living organisms that in the beginning of the earth, the atmosphere contained only hydrogen, water vapour, ammonia and methane. There was no free oxygen but there was a little quantity of Carbon-di-Oxide (CO). The earth cooled down and then it rained. Rivers, ponds and seas came into existence. Ammonia(NH,), methane(CH.), hydrogen(H2), water vapour(H.O), salts, minerals etc. mixed with water. On account of ultraviolet rays, ozone and oxygen remained in the atmosphere. According to Oparin, these conditions brought about decomposition of gases and production of organic compounds, which were building blocks for living micro-organisms in the beginning. But can there be organic compounds in the form of such organic building blocks before the creation/origin of life? For solution of this question, a scientist named Stanley Miller made an instrument in 1953 A.D. and proved with experiments that with compounds of H,, CH, NH, and H.O(vapour), amino acids only in the liquid form and some organic compounds, DNA and RNA which could be seem in living organisms, could be prepared within a week.
Another experiment proving the theory of A.I. Oparin was performed in 1964 A.D. by scientist named Sydney Fox. He heated a mixture of some amino acids. Then polypeptides were prepared after some chemical processes. They took form of small chains. They were called proteinoids because their nature resembled the nature of proteins. The protenoids were put into hot water. When the hot water cooled, some subtle microspheroids took shape
In the primitive initial surroundings conceived in the theory of A.I. Oparin, chains of long chemical reactions were made and such big atoms as poyneucleotides, which contained DNA and RNA, were made.
Though the microspheres and poyneucleotides were not like living cells, they were particles of organic substances which had acquired natural tendencies of elasticity etc. These particles and microspheres mixed with one another and made more complex substances which could not grow in

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sea water. They were like DNA. They doubled themselves. It means that they could produce other substances, similar to them. They were like viruses. The cellular structure emerged from them. They lived on organic substances and gave out CO,. They were called heterotrophs. It is believed that as a result of some flaw in there development, simple photosynthetic cells were originated. Thus scientists believe that, first the primitive cells of living organisms of animal kingdom were originated and then the primitive cells of plant kingdom originated from them.
But the contention of the Jain philosophy is altogether contrary to this. Besides, the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom, there are also in cosmos, kingdoms of earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied and wind-bodies living beings. But that is irrelevant here. The Jain philosophy believes that the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom and even their all species had separate existence in the present and they will have separate existence in the future They are produced and destroyed, their new kinds/species are developed and old kinds/species destroyed only according to changes in atmosphere, surroundings, mineral salts etc. The primitive cells of plant kingdom did not originate from the primitive cells of the animal kingdom.
According to the Jain philosophy, a living being is born in one of the three ways: (1) Sammūrcchima Janma: i.e. asexual production. Without male-female copulation, living beings are born in the place of their birth. As late as in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists have discovered and showed that living beings can be reproduced and their families can be extended without a malefemale copulation. It is called asexual reproduction. Reproduction means to produce a living being from a living being. But according to the Jain philosophy the living beings take birth according to the karma i.e. the deeds of their past births. And reproduction is a subsequent step. (2) Garbhaja Janma (sexual reproduction): After a male-female copulation, living beings are reproduced from spermatozoa and blood at the birth place i.e. Yāni. They then develop in different female organs for various periods of time. After their development, they come out of the embryo. They take birth through the female reproductive organs. Scientists call it sexual reproduction. (3) Upapāta Janma: (reproduction of celestial and hellish beings). Only celestial and hellish beings take upapāta birth. It is, therefore, not necessary to describe it here. But it is rather interesting to know how upapāta birth takes place. In

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their celestial abodes, beds of celestial beings are spread. They are covered with bed-sheets. When a god takes birth in a bed, his whole body, with garments, ornaments, garlands etc. becomes ready in 48 minutes as if by a magician's magic. Then the god turns and twists the body to shake off idleness and gets up. This is how gods are born. For hellish beings, there are recesses in the walls. Hellish beings take their birth and make their bodies in the recesses of a wall. They get only body and no garments, ornaments, garlands etc.(For this see : The Tattvārtha Sūtra ch.2, Sūtra-31).
This is how living beings are reproduced and born. The reproduction and birth of living beings of asexual reproduction are identical i.e. same and one thing. In sexual reproduction, souls of the living beings first come in wombs and in the due course of time they take birth. They are of three kinds : (1) jarāyuja ( born with wrapper called placenta, (2) andaja (born through eggs) and (3) põtaja (born without placenta). Living beings born with placenta containing blood are called jarāyuja. The man, the cow, the buffalo, the goat etc. are jarāyuja. Living beings born without placenta on their body are called pötaja e.g. the elephant, the hare i.e. rabbit, the mongoose, the rat etc. The snake, the pigeon, the parrot, the hen, the sparrow etc. lay eggs. After incubation for a certain period, a babe comes out of it. This is called andaja garbhaja janma (sexual birth through eggs).
Before we proceed to talk about asexual reproduction let us talk about their birth places. In Jain terminology, they are called Yönis. There are innumerable birth places (Yönis) of living organisms or beings. But based on same colour, smell, taste and touch, there are 84 hundred thousand types of birth places (Yonis). There may be innumerable birth places with similar colour etc. and these all are included in one type of Yoni. The number of types of birth-places for earth-bodied beings is seven hundred thousand typ Similarly, water-bodied beings are also born in the birth places of seven hundred thousand types. Fire-bodied living beings are also born in the birthplces of seven hundred thousad types. Wind-bodied living beings are also born in birth places of seven hundred thousand types. Praty ēka Vanaspatikāya(i.e. plants having a single soul in a single body ) are born in birth places of ten hundred thousand types. Pratyēka Vanaspatikāya means plants etc. that have different souls in the root, the seed, the leaf, the flower, the fruit, the stem and the skin and the whole tree also has one soul. Sādhāraņa Vanaspatikāya are plants with a single body containing infinite

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souls that take birth, die, live and breathe together. They are born in birthplaces of fourteen hundred thousand types. Two-sensed, three-sensed and four-sensed living beings are born in birth-places of two hundred thousand types each. Celestial, hellish and Tiryanca (living beings other than celestial, human and hellish beings) having five-senses are born in birth-places of four hundred thousand types each. Human beings are born in birth-places of fourteen hundred thousand types. Thus in the living world, there are eighty four hundred thousand types of birth-places for all types of living beings. Now we are thinking of asexual birth and asexual living beings. i.e. Sammūrcchima Janma and types of sammūrcchima living beings.
Sammūrochima birth is birth without male-female copulation. Sammūrochima birth takes place amongst one-sensed (non-movin beings and moving beings i.e. two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed, Tiryanca i.e. beasts and birds having five senses and also human beings (see: the Tattvārtha Sūtra, ch-2, Sūtras-32, 33, 34, 35 and 36). All sammūrcchima human beings are born in fourteen types of impurities or excretion. The impurities are as under: (1) faeces (2) urine (3) mucus (4) mucus (5) vomit (6) bile (7) pus (8) blood and flesh (9) semen (10) wetted particles of dried up semen (11) dead body (12) woman-man copulation (13) the city gutter and (14) all impure places. The sammūrcchima type of living organisms among the five non-moving , two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed
d beasts and birds i.e. Tiryanca having five senses, living organisms can take birth at any time and place. Some of them need faeces, urine etc of their own species. Here the cosmozoic theory and the theory of spontaneous generation are refuted and disproved. Even scientists do not accept these theories
Now let us think what Greek philosophers say. They might have seen living organisms being produced in water from sea-slime under the effect of heat, sun and atmosphere. On seeing the generation of sammūrcchima living organisms in sea water, they perhaps concluded that the living organisms were originated from sea slimes but they could not give reasons for their conclusion because it was only their inference and they were quite ignorant of the real fact.
Francesco Redi, the Italian physicist, performed an experiment. He took two jars. In both the jars, he put flesh and fishes. He closed one jar in an air

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ht manner and kept the other iar oben. After a few days, he found that maggots were produced in the jar that had been kept open and no maggots were produced in the jar that had been kept closed. He believed that maggots were produced in the open jar because house-flies etc. had laid eggs on flesh and fishes in it. And there was truth in it. On open flesh, fishes and edible things mix with excretion and chemical reaction takes place and when the mixture gets favourable atmosphere and temperature, sammūrcchima living beings are born in it. They grow by getting nutrition from flesh etc. Sometimes mould is produced on edible substances put in air tight jar. Mould is produced because of favourable atmosphere and constant moisture. All these productions of living beings are regarded as sammūrcchima births and all these places are among eighty four hundred thousand types of birth places (Yonis) of production, stated in Jain scriptures.
As soon as flesh or blood of any type gets separated from the body, subtle sammūrcchima living organisms are produced in it. It is no wonder, then, that the experiments performed by Francesco Redi obtained such results in the conditions of his days.
As a result of experiments performed by himself, Louis Pasteur concluded that subtle living organisms can produce other subtle living organisms of their own kind and they are themselves also produced by germs of their own kind e.g. amoebae. According to Jain scriptures the reproduction of amoebae can be explained in the following manner. First, the size of amoebae expands. Then its nucleus grows big. When another soul comes into it , the nucleus gets divided. The two nuclei then go apart and try to keep their independence. As a result protoplasm gets divided and they both try to live an independent life. In short the subtle organism of Louis Pasteur's experiment were perhaps of the amoebae type and that is why his experiments led to this conclusion. Here the theory of biogenesis of Francesco Redi and Louis Pasteur comes to an end.
Before coming to the theory of abiogenesis, let us discuss biogenesis and abiogenesis of the Jain philosophy. Both are discussed in Jain scriptures. Both biogenesis and abiogenesis contribute to the production of sammürcchima micro-organisms. Sometimes like amoebae, other microorganisms are produced from the same microorganism. But sometimes even in the objects regarded to be lifeless, living micro-organisms are

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produced after a long time, the duration of their lifeless existence. This is the abiogenesis of the Jainism. Even gods are born according to this abiogenesis theory. But the beasts and birds that reproduce through embryo, i.e. garbhaja animals, namely jarāyuja (born with a wrapper containing blood called placenta) põtaja (born without placenta) and andaja (born through eggs) take birth by themselves, take birth certainly according to the theory of biogenesis. jarāyuja, andaja and potaja organisms are reproduced as a result of copulation of male and female and born through the female reproductive organ of animals.
Let us examine Oparin's belief of abiogenesis and the results of the experiments of Miller and Sidney Fox. Oparin only stated his belief and inference of how and in what circumstances the living organisms were originated. He did not perform any experiment about it. But Miller and Sidney Fox performed experiments to find out whether Oparin's belief was right or not. They mixed together H, CH, NH,,HO(vapour) and began to discharge them electrically. They did so for a week. Then they got some liquid. This liquid contained four amino-acids and some organic substances. They found that all these were non-living because gases, water etc. and remained hot. Jain scriptures also say that water molecules contain life i.e. they are living. Besides, water contains other micro living organisms. But when water boils they become lifeless. But water particles and other subtle bodies of micro moving organisms regain life after a certain period. This time limit is nearly 12 hours in winter, nearly 15 hours in summer and nearly 9 hours in the rainy season, it regains life after above mentioned time limit. In short, Miller perhaps decomposed the solution of water, H,, CH, and NH, for a week, heated it and examined it within a time limit mentioned above and therefore found the substances to be lifeless. Had he examined them after the above mentioned time limit, he would certainly have found the substances contained life.
in his experiments Sidney Fox heated the mixture of amino acids and proteinoids were produced. The proteinoids were put into hot water which was then cooled. In the cold mixture he saw that the subtle spheres and big molecules were produced according to Oparin's belief. Both were mixed. Living cells were thus made. Here, too, poyneucleotides were added perhaps after cooling down the mixture of hot water. Meanwhile living cells were perhaps produced and he probably saw the living organisms through a microscope. The results of the experiments of Sidney Fox is, therefore, not

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surprising. Even if today experiments were made, as described above, the results would be the same.
In short, all various experiments about the origin of the living organisms, made on the basis of different hypotheses, will lead to the similar results on account of the production of sammürcchima living organisms. As a result, the question of origin of living organisms will become more and more complex. It will be at last necessary for all living organisms and the whole universe to believe that they are beginningless and endless according to the Indian tradition.
(Navneet-Samarpana, Oct.'85 & Tulasi Prajñā, Jan.,2000)
WHEN THE EASTERN MYSTICS TELL US THAT THEY EXPERIENCE ALL THINGS AND EVENTS AS MANIFESTATIONS OF A BASIC ONENESS, THIS DOES NOT MEAN THAT THEY PRONOUNCE ALL THINGS TO BE EQUAL. THEY RECOGNIZE THE INDIVIDUALITY OF THINGS, BUT AT THE SAME TIME THEY ARE AWARE OF THAT ALL DIFFERENCES AND CONTRASTS ARE RELATIVE WITHIN AN ALLEMBRACING UNITY. SINCE IN OUR NORMAL STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS, THIS UNITY OF ALL CONTRASTS-AND ESPECIALLY THE UNITY OF OPPOSITES—IS EXTREMELY HARD TO ACCEPT, IT CONSTITUTES ONE OF THE MOST PUZZLING FEATURES OF EASTERN PHILOSOPHY
FRTJOF CAPRA

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I his happened nearly 400 years ago. It is a wonderful and thrilling incident of the memorable meeting of Baijā Bāvarā, the supreme musician who holds a matchless position among accomplished musicians and Tānasēna, the court musician of the Mogul Emperor Akbar.
Under the pretext of beating the world as a musician, Tānasēna set out from Bāngāgadha (Rājasthāna) in search of Baijā Bāvarā, the senior disciple of his guru Haridāsa, went to various royal courts and defeated the musicians there. But nowhere did he find Baijā Bāvarā. At last Tānasēna
ed Agrā and challenged the court musicians of Akbar, the Mogul Emperor of Delhi. But the court musicians of Delhi had not the courage to compete with Tānasēna, who had natural talent, musical aptitude etc. Emperor Akbar confessed the weakness of his singers and with open heart he accepted the supremacy of Tānasēna. He made him his court musician.
But Tänasēna was still uneasy because he had not yet succeeded in his aim of beating the world as a musician.
But when Baijū came to know of Tānasēna's craze of beating the world in music, his sentiments as an artist were greatly hurt. He made up his mind to humiliate Tānasēna and challenged him and according to the order of Emperor Akbar, arrangements for an extraordinary musical competition between them were made in the garden near the city Agrā.
It was a fine morning that filled the mind with joy. The atmosphere of the garden was also full of natural beauty. It was filled with soft and sweet sounds of birds. The musical competition was to begin in this charming atmosphere.
Emperor Akbar, his queens, the nine gems of Akbar's court and fanatic admirers of music - all came to the garden.
There came a musician, wrapped in tattered and old clothes and equipped with only a stringed musical instrument (Tānapūrā). Tānasēna, the court musician, was astonished to see his strange appearance. He was Baijā him

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self. Since they were not familiar, the two disciples of the same guru did not recognize each other. Still however, Tānasēna had great fascination and high regards for him.
The competition started.
According to the order of the emperor, Tānasēna first sang in the Tõdi mode and filled the atmosphere with music. Soon a small flock of deer, fascinated by the music, came to Tānasēna and stood there. Tānasēna put a garland around the neck of a deer fascinated by music. As soon as the music was over, the deer frightened of the human crowd, ran away into the forest.
Baijū cheerfully looked at Emperor Akbar and said, " O, Sovereign! Tānasēna sang in the Todi mode, fascinated the deer and called them here from the forest. Now I shall sing in the Mrgarañjani mode. Under the influence of this mode, only that deer will come which has the garland around its neck."
The Emperor allowed Baijā to sing in the Mrgarañjani mode. As soon as Baiju tuned his voice, the deer around whose neck Tānasēna had put the garland, came running from the forest and sat by Baijū's feet as if it were familiar since long, as if it were tame. Baijā took the garland of the deer's neck and gave it to Emperor Akbar.
Then the Emperor asked Baijū to sing something else and expected him to be answered by Tānasēna.
Baijū then said, "o, Emperor! I shall now sing the Mālakaum sa mode. Under its influence the stone lying in the front, will melt like wax and I shall put my stringed musical instrument into it. When the music will be over, the melted stone will again solidify. Let Tänasēna take my stringed musical instrument out without breaking the stone."
The audience was astonished to hear this.
With full concentration, Baijū began to sing in the Mālakaumsa mode and soon the stone began to melt. The stone completely melted into a liquid form. As soon as Baijū went to put his stringed musical instrument into it, Tānasēna stood up and knelt at the feet of Baijū. With great respect and high regards he said, "According to what my guru said to me, there is a

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-
greater singer than I am. He is my guru's disciple and senior to me. His name is Baijūnātha. Who are you?"
When Baijū heard this his eyes were filled with tears of joy. Both the disciples of the same guru affectionately embraced each other.'
There is a traditional belief of Jain Āgamas that Tirthankara Paramātmās deliver their religious discourse only after attaining omniscience and their religious discourse never fails. At least some people certainly accept the holy orders and Tirthankara Paramātmās always deliver their discourse in the Mālakaumsa mode.? Like the first religious discourse of Sramaņa Bhagavān Mahāvirasvāmi, if the religious discourse of a Tirthankara fails, it is believed to be an uncommon incident.3
The Malakaumsa mode has such a tremendous potentiality that under influence of its vibrations, even a stone melts into liquid. What to talk of a human heart? The religious discourse delivered in the Mālakaumsa mode is capable of changing hearts of the greatest of men. That is perhaps the reason why Tirthankara Paramātmās deliver their religious discourse only in the Mālakaumsa mode.
There is also a traditional belief that after conquering the city of Cāmpānēra, when Humāyu ordered indiscriminate wholesale slaughtering in the city, the great musician Baijā Bāvarā sang a mode named Jaunapuri which forced him the flow of sentiments of mercy from his heart to people. Even the heart of Humāyu was filled with pity and he stopped the slaughtering and made the prisoners free.*
Once when Tānasēna sang in the Dipaka mode and enkindled lamps, two Nāgara brahmin girls of Vadanagara, Tānā and Riri, sang in the Malhāra mode, caused the rain to pour down and relieved Tānasēna from the heat of the enkindled lamps and Dipaka mode and made the atmosphere calm."
As an effect of Bhairava mode , some musicians could squeeze juice from sugarcanes and oil from oilseeds with the help of machines working without bullocks. By singing in the Hindola mode some musicians could take long and high swings automatically by sitting in swinging cots.6
The śri mode has a wonderful effect. In the hot summer, it can make a dry garden full of greenery and rich with fruits and flowers.?

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What is music? How are various potentialities generated in music and what is their source?
Music is sound produced systematically and methodically with certain high or low intensity and at fixed intervals of time whether it is produced with a bin (kind of stringed musical instrument ), a Sārangi, ( kind of stringed musical instrument ), a lute, Tambūrā, Sitāra, Dilarubā (kind of stringed musical instruments), Khañjari (small tambourine), Mañjirā (cymbals), Dhõlaka (a large drum), Tabalā (kind of musical instrument), a piano or a harmonium
c. or it is produced by the musician himself with his mouth. Though these sounds have no clear meaning, they have strange and wonderful potentialities.
Music has its own physics. If a musician knows phonetics or if a phoneti. cian is a musician, they make very good combination.
A well-planned combination of many notes of various frequencies and various intensities is produced in music. By pressing various keys of a harmonium or a piano, we easily know that the note produced by pressing one key is different from the note produced by pressing another key. From sharpness and flatness of a note, the musician knows which note has high pitch and which note has a low pitch. It has been stated above that every key of a harmonium produces a note of a fixed frequency.®
The key-board shown above, shows only one octave. In it C, D, E, F, G, A, B, c' etc. are shown as general symbols. The symbols - do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, do'- are written below them are according to the western music. The symbols sā , ri , ga , ma 8, pa 4, dha gf, ni A, sā' FT', are shown according to the Indian music, the figures shown in the lowermost line, show the frequency of the notes. In Indian classical music and in Sanskrit literature, all these seven notes are known by special names. sā , ri Riga 1, ma , pa 4, dha , ni A are called Şadja, Rşabha, Gāndhāra, Madhyama, Pañcama, Dhaivata and Nişāda respectively."
We can see that the same note has twice as much frequency as the frequency of the same note of preceding octave. e.g. sāH has the frequency 256 while the frequency of sā' in the beginning of the second octave is 512.
The word 'interval' is used to show the difference of frequencies of two

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notes, which are produced when a harmonium keys are pressed. In music an 'interval' is a very important quantity. An 'interval' shows the difference in pitch between two notes on a given scale. For this let us study the intervals on the key-board of a piano or a harmonium. The figure shows the frequency of the note produced by pressing a key. We can see here that if we press two neighbouring keys of piano, we obtain a small interval between two notes. Similarly, if we press two distant keys of a piano, we obtain a large interval between two notes. We can, therefore, easily conclude that the interval is determined by the difference between frequencies of two notes. But this is not the whole truth. Really speaking, the interval is determined by the ratio of frequencies. The intervals of the octave shown above, are determined as under.
This is only a model. Many such intervals can be determined on the basis of the ratio of different frequencies. Some such intervals are given special names in the western music. They are shown in the Table. These names belong to the western music but in the Indian classical music also, corresponding keys of a piano, their notes and the ratio of their frequencies are shown instead of their names.
Duration of interval
Name of the intervals
Symbol of the
Ratio of
Name of the notes
of notes
key of the
frequencies
piano E-F D-E C-D E-G
16/15 10/9 9/8 6/5 5/4 4/3
CF
1 Half-tone, Minor Second 2 Minor tone, Major second 3 Major tone 4 Minor third 5 Major third 6 Perfect fourth 7 Perfect fifth 8 Minor sixth 9 Major sixth 10 Minor seventh 11 Major seventh 12 Octave
mitt - fah ref . mit doसा - reरि mit - sola doसा - miग doसा - faम do FIT - solg mirt - do'n doसा - lau mit - re'f do II - till do WT - doʻHT
3/2
E-c
8/5 5/3
C-A E-d C-B
9/5
15/8
C-c"
2/1

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GT"
250 | 788 320 321
382 | 426
450 | 512 |
9/8
10/ 9
16/15
9/8
10/ 9
9
/8
16/15
mi
fa
sol
la
do
4/3
312
5/3 -
15/8
In short, what is really important here is the ratio of frequencies of two notes. One comes across a similar description in Jain scriptures. It is a description of happiness of gods living in the residence of gods (Vimāna) named Sarvārthasiddha. Before describing the happiness of gods of Sarvārthasiddha in the poem of Vēdan iya karma of poems of sixty-four kinds intended to ward

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off the eight kinds of karma, Pandit Sri Viravijayaji Mahārāja shows the internal construction of the residence of gods there. According to the description, the gods there always keep lying in the bed and a fine chandelier of 253 pearls hangs over them. Its construction is worth knowing. In the centre, there is a pearl weighing 64 maunds. On the four sides of it, there are four pearls weighing 32 maunds each. In the outer (second) circle there are eight pearls weighing 16 maunds each. In the third circle, there are 16 pearls of 8 maunds each. In the fourth circle, there are 32 pearls of four maunds each. In the fifth circle, there are 64 pearls of 2 maunds each. In the sixth i.e. last circle there are 128 pearls of one maunds each. Blown by the wind when all these pearls strike against the inter-located pearls, they produce sweet musical modes and patterned arrangements characteristic of classical music. They also produce drama. The god in the bed enjoy seeing it.12 Here is a constant ratio of the weight and the number of pearls. Notes of certain frequency are produced when two pearls strike against each other. The natural combinations of the notes produce musical mode of the best quality. Here it is stated that along with musical modes a drama is also produced. This requires to be explained. In all the nine Graivēyaka and all the five Anuttara abodes of gods only gods live and gods and goddesses from no other heavenly abodes can go there. It is, therefore, impossible that they make a drama. But it can be explained as under.
13
As it will be shown later on someone of the western musicians saw in the sky, the figures dancing to the tune of notes and such ones as Ashok Kumar Dutt, who are endowed with super perceptivity, can see colours of sounds. Similarly, the gods can see various fine figures made of groupings of pudgalas (Vargaṇā) of Bhāṣā (speech) produced by sweet musical modes and their varieties. These gods have such a superior quality of avadhijñāna that if they have a doubt, from their abode, they can ask a question to Tirthankara Paramātmā and Tirthankara Paramātmā answers the question through groupings of manas particles i.e. paramāņu-units of Manō-Vargaṇā namely thoughts. The gods in their abodes know the answer to their question by seeing the thoughts of Tirthankara Paramātmā in the form of parmanu-units of ManōVarganā. 14 Here the parmanu-units of Bhāṣā Vargaṇā of musical modes and their varieties take forms of various figures and the gods see them appearing and disappearing. Moreover paramāņu units of Bhāṣā Vargaṇā are bigger than the parmanu-units of Manō-Vargaṇā namely thoughts. The gods,

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therefore, can see them well and enjoy seeing them in the form of a drama. This is my conclusion.
Depending on the authority of P. D. Ospensky's book 'In Search of The Miraculous' and other books Lieut. Col. C.C.Baksi, writes in his book 'Vaiśvika Cētanā' [Coscon) that seven musical notes are of great importance in the universe." Every note has its colour and its planet and it influences various parts of our body. The tables given by him are as under. The table relating to the ratio of octaves is given on the top of it.
Western notes
Indian Organ of the Colour Notes body
Planet Voice of Element the animals of the
universe
do
sā H
soul
rip
head
gа пт hands
ma 4
chest
Red Mars Peacock Spreme
being
God,
Pure soul Orange Sun Acertain the moon|
bird Yellow | Mercury Goat. The earth |
Sheep Green Saturn Heron, All Planets
Crane Blue Jupiter Horse, frog The Sun Skyblue Venus Horse All suns Purple Moon Elephant Whole
universe -Supreme
being. God, pure soul
pa ч | dha 9 ni A
neck waist legs
sā'
' .
Notes(western) do re mi fa sol lla til do' Fractional ratio 1/1 9/8 5/4 4/3 3/2 5/
3 15/8 2/1 Integer
24 273032 36 40 45 48 Indian Notes sā 21, rift, gat, mat, paq, dhaa, nif, sā' Fr,

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Now - a - days, two varieties of music are generally well-known. One is the western music and the other is Indian classical music.
Since their aims are different, there is a vast difference between the Western music and the Indian classical Music. The western music is only for momentary joy and it fully gives sensual gratifications. Since it is provocative, it appeals to the senses. But the aim of the Indian classical music is attainment of the final emancipation. It is characterised not by sensual pleasures but by the spirit of abandonment, feeling of aversion to worldly pleasures, self surrender and devotion. Great men absorbed in devotional music do not care for any worldly thing. They rejoice in themselves, the god of their faith and in worship. Sometimes, the worship of such worshippers changes even poison into nectar. 16
According to the Jain philosophical contention, sound is produced from the paramāņu units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā. And every paramāņu of matter j.e.pudgala has colour, smell, taste, and touch." Every sort of sound, therefore, necessarily has good or bad colour, smell, taste and touch. But they are so few or subtle that they cannot be perceived by our sense-organs. True, every one feels the touch of sound. There are some like Ashok Kumar Dutt who can perceive with their eyes, the colour of sound i.e. different colours of vowels and consonants."
Even the science of today accepts that matter i.e. pudgala atoms have inestimable energy. In the sunday supplement of English daily, The Times of India' of September 3,1995, there was an article. It clearly stated that air is charged with musical ions. Of course, the writer described the western pop dance and disco dance and during the music, some spectators saw colourful various figures dancing in the atmosphere i.e. They perceived the colours of sound.19
of the Jain Agama literature, the Āgama entitled 'śri Anuyōgadvāra sūtra', gives an elaborate information about the seven notes of music as under:
"What are the seven types of notes? They are described as under: 1. Şadja, 2. Rşabha, 3. Gāndhāra, 4. Madhyama, 5. Pancama, 6. Dhaivata or Raivata and 7. Nişāda
1. The note that is produced jointly from the nose, the throat, the heart,

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the palate, the tongue and the teeth is called Sadja.
2. The note that acts like a bull (Rṣabha or Vṛṣabha) is Ṛsabha. There is a clear definition of Asabha. It says that the wind produced from the navel strikes in the throat and the head and bellows like a bull. That is the reason it is called Ṛsabha or Vrsabha.
3. That which has smell called Gāndhära or that which carries smell is called Gāndhāra. The wind produced in the navel and struck in the heart and the throat makes the Gāndhāra note producing many varieties of smells.
4. That which is produced in the centre of the body is called Madhyama. When the wind produced in the navel passes through the chest and the heart to return to the navel, it produces a heavy note. That is called the Madhyama note.
5. That which is the fifth among the seven notes, namely Şaḍja etc. is Pañcama or the note that is produced in the five places namely, the navel, the chest, the heart, the throat and the head, is called Pañcama.
6. The note that joins the above mentioned and other notes to one another is called Dhaivata or the Raivata note.
7. Where notes are produced or sit side by side, the joint note is called Niṣāda. This note beats all the rest. Its god is the Sun. 20
Telling the names of special/chief places of production of all the seven above-mentioned notes, the author of Sri Anuyōgadvāra sūtra says that the Şadja note is produced from the forefront of the tongue, Ṛṣabha is produced from the chest, Gāndhāra is produced from the throat, Madhyama is produced from the central portion of the tongue, Pañcama is produced from the nose, Dhaivata is produced by joint efforts of teeth and lips and that note is Niṣāda in production of which eye-brows are contracted.21
All souls from the two sensed to the five-sensed, having a tongue, can produce sound/voice. Of course, we cannot hear sounds of minute two-sensed organisms because they are infrasonic or ultrasonic. Notes of all souls are among the aforementioned seven notes or they are in form of combination of various notes. The author himself shows clear voices of the nearest souls as examples of the above-mentioned seven notes.

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" The note of a peacock is Şaļja, the note of a cock is Rşabha, the note of a swan is Gāndhāra, the notes a cow, a bull and a sheep is Madhyama, when the spring sets in, the sweet cry of a cuckoo is Pañcama, the note of the crane is Dhaivata and the note of the heron is Nişāda." 22
With reference to various non-living things i.e. various kinds of special musical instruments, examples of all the seven aforementioned notes are given as under:
"The Mşdanga (kind of tabor) produces Şadja, the Gõmukhi (kind of drum) produces Aşabha, the conch - shell produces Gāndhāra, the gong produces Madhyama, the tabor (the small drum) produces Pañcama, the large drum produces Dhaivata and the Mahābhēri (kind of large kettle drum) produces Nişāda." 23
Showing what influence all these seven notes have on living beings and what the living beings can gain from the influence, the author says, "He whose note is Şaļja or tries to develop mainly the Şadja note can very well get wealth and his livelihood and the wealth that he has got is not destroyed. He comes to have cows, sons and friends and he is a favourite of woman.
The man whose note is Rşabha or who tries to develop the Rşabha note, gets wealth, commandership, clothes, sweet-smelling objects, ornaments, women, beautiful beds, bedsteads etc.
The man whose note is Gāndhāra or who tries to cultivate the Gāndhāra note, gets the best kind of livelihood, becomes an artist knowing various arts, a poet of a high rank and well versed in various scriptures.
The man who has the Madhyama note or who tries to develop the Madhyama note, is happy, has enough to eat and drink and gives to others, things to eat and drink, i.e. he is charitable.
Men with the Pañcama or men who try to cultivate the Pañcama note, become kings. They are brave, they store many kinds of things and are leaders of various groups."
Men with the last two kinds of notes are unhappy. The two notes have the following bad influences:
"Men with the Dhaivata note are unhappy and have a bad livelihood.

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They are thieves and murderers. They commit many sins, hunt birds and beasts and kill deer and pigs.
Men with the Nişāda note are quarrelsome. They are bearers of burden, labourers and messengers. 25"
As shown above, these seven musical notes influence the body and the mind of men. Moreover, they indicate the nature and the fate of men. If efforts are made, these notes can change the fate of men.
We see in our everyday life that when a small child is weeping, the mother sings a sweet lullaby and swings the child and the child soon stops weeping and goes to sleep. Though the child does not know sounds but the pause and pleasingness of sound can make the child silent and send it to sleep.
Today new experiments are made in therapeutics all over the world. As a result, various therapies have come into existence in the world. Among them allopathy, the modern medical science and Ayurvēda, the ancient Hindu system of medicine are very famous. Moreover, some other new therapies have been found out. Of course, the roots of the so called new therapies lie in the ancient literary traditions e.g. 1. the acupuncture therapy, 2. the acupressure therapy, 3. the magnetic therapy, 4. the colour therapy, 5. the pyramid therapy.
To these various therapies a new therapy, the music therapy is added. Of course, this is not a new therapy in India. On the basis of practical experimentation, western scientists have only substantiated this therapy.
For music therapy, they have mainly relied on the Sāmavēda, the third Vēda and the Gāndharvavēda, the musical science, among the four Vēdas of ancient India. There is 70% water in our body and the modern science also agrees that water and the motion of the moon have a special kind of relation and that is the reason why there is flood tide in the sea on the full moon day and the last day of the dark half of every lunar month. Indian astronomers, therefore, attach greater importance to the moon than the Sun. And they have prepared the Indian calendar (Pancānga) on the basis of the
ne moon. Of course, the motion of the Sun is also taken into consideration here but it has no special importance. But western astronomers have attached importance only to the motion of the Sun in preparing the solar calendar.

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The development and other processes in the human body, the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom, depend on the motion of the moon. Its attraction i.e. gravitational force 1 with it, a special note / mode of music also has an influence on our body. Accordingly our ancient musicians have fixed certain periods of time for certain modes of music. Regarding music, Tulasidāsa himself says:
राग हरे सब रोग को, कायर को दे सूर । सुखिया को साधन बने, दुःखिया को दुःख दूर ।। rāga harē saba rõga kā, kāyara kā dē sūra .
sukhiyā kā sādhana banē, duḥkhiyā ko duḥkha dūra ..
[ Modes of music cure all diseases, make cowards brave, supply sources of happiness to the happy and remove miseries of the miserable.127
Every activity of our body is controlled by the brain which is controlled by the mind. Of course, there are some who believe that the brain and the mind are the same. i.e. In every activity of our body, the mind directly or indirectly plays its role and the composure and discomposure of our body depends upon our mental composure. Our mind is also paudgalic (material). Regarding this Carl Gustav Jung states in his book entitled "Aion":
" Psyche cannot be totally different from matter, for how otherwise could it move matter? And matter cannot be alien to psyche, for how else could matter produce psyche? Psyche and matter exist in the same world and each partakes of the other, otherwise any reciprocal would be impossible. "28
Since our mind is material, it goes on being vibrated or affected by various kinds of thoughts. The vibration or effect is sometimes good and sometimes bad i.e. harmful. The mind influenced by harmful vibrations becomes discomposed and consequently the body also becomes discomposed.
Regarding this, Fritjof Capra, the celebrated physicist states in his book entitled 'The Turning Point':
"The notion of illness as originating in a lack of integration seems to be especially relevant to approaches that try to understand living organisms in terms of rhythmic patterns. From this perspective synchrony becomes an important measure of health. Individual organisms interact and communicate with one another by synchronising their rythms and thus integrating themselves into larger rythms of their environment. To be healthy, then,

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means to be in synchrony with oneself physically and mentally and also with the surrounding world. When a person is out of synchrony, illness is likely to occur.” 29
Good vibrations which are by nature antithetical to vibrations which are harmful to the mind and the body, improve mental and physical health.
Since our mind is influenced by various modes of music, music has great effect on our physical health. Since ancient times the music therapy has been shown in Ayurvēda with the help of Gāndharvavēda, Sage Caraka, the promulgator of Ayurvēda gives in the sixth chapter of his work, entitled 'Siddhisthāna' a detailed description of medical uses of music. The whole Gāndharvavēda fully deals with the science of sound. Our classical and quasi-classical modes of music themselves are scientific form of these sound waves. These sound waves have a direct effect on gas, bile and mucus in our body. The book entitled 'Sangita Svarāmộta' states:
उच्चस्तरो ध्वनिः रूक्षो, विज्ञेयो वातजो बुधैः । गम्भीरो घनशीलश्च, ज्ञातव्यो पित्तजो बुधैः ।। स्निग्धश्च सुकुमारश्च, धुरः कफजो ध्वनिः । त्रयाणां गुणसंयुक्तो, विज्ञेयो सन्निपातजः ।। 30 ucсaistaro dhvanih rūksā, vijñeyā vātajā budhaih. gambhiro ghanasilasca, jñātavyö pittajā budhain .. snigdhaśca sukumā rasca, dhurah kaphajo dhvanih . trayānām gunasamyukto, vijñēyo sannipātajah ..
Sound waves of high intensity are dry and they are product of gas. Deep and thick sound waves are product of bile. Soft, smooth and melodious waves are product of mucus. The sound waves which have all these three qualities are called a combined derangement. What effects these sound waves produce on the body, is not shown here.
Very loud sound waves of as high intensity as 100 to 110 decibels are mostly produced by loudly beating drums of bands. Perhaps most of that if we are standing behind drums of a band, we feel as if hammers are beaten on our bellies and such sound waves produce fear and uneasiness in us. These sound waves have a very great amplitude. According to the Jain philosophical contention, these sound waves have a very large number of groupings of particles of speech i.e. paramāņu-units of Bhāşā -Vargaņā.
in the last three verses of Sri Ajitaśānti Stõtra compiled by Muni śri Nandişēna of Jain Svētāmbara sect.mentioned the importance of chanting

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this stotra in the morning and evening, that the person chanting and listening this Stõtra will never have any diseases or if he has any disease he will be cured of it.
Time
Modes of Music
4:00 a. m. to 7:00 a. m.
1. Hindāla, 2. Bhairava, 3. Ahira Bhairava, 4.Bhairavi, 5. Siddha Bhairavi, 6. Rāmakali, 7. Gunakali,
2
7:00 a. m. to 10:00 a. m. 1. Jaunapuri, 2. Āśāvari, 3. Todi,
14. Gurjara Todi, 5. Ahilya Bilāvala
3
10:00 a. m. to 1:00 p. m. 1. Mēgha Malhāra 2. Suddha Sāranga,
13. Sura Malhāra 1:00 p. m. to 4:00 p. m. 1. Madhuvanti, 2. Multāni
15
4:00 p. m. to 7:00 p. m.
1. Pātamañjari, 2. Mākhā, 3. Rāgasri, 4. Kalāvati, 5. Puriyā Dhanasri,
6
7:00 p. m. to 10:00 p. m. 1. Yamana Kalyāna, 2. Kalyāņa, 3. Puriyā,
4. Śivarañjani 5. Yamana, 6. Suddha Kalyāna, 7. Maruvihaga, 8. Kēdāra 9. Šāma Kalyāna, 10. Priya Kalyāna,
17
10:00 p. m. to 1:00 a. m. 1. Darabāri, 2. Kānada, 3. Nāyaki Kanada,
4. Mālakaumsa, 5. Dipaka, 6. Bhāgyaśri, 7. Candrakauņsa, 8. Kaumsi Kānada 9. Jayajayavanti
8.
1:00 a. m. to 4:00 a. m. 11. Lalita, 2. Nara Bhairava, 3. Sõhani,
4. Vasanta, 5. Vasanta Bahāra
In the present era, nobody has much faith in this theory but in the verses of śri Ajitaśānti Stotra, the last word which comes, instructs the Rāgas (mode), Chandas of the verses. All the Rāgas (modes i.e. tunes) are ancient

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and to sing this, special tunes are there. By singing or listening it in these tunes in the morning and evening, the effect of these verses will be felt by us immediately and can be experienced, first hand about this and so it can be said that the different Rāgas (tunes)/Chandas inscribed in Sri Ajitaśānti Stātra can be used as "Musical Therapy". The only thing required is that while singing this Stõtra, the knowledge of singing the modes and tunes should be original.
Deep and dense sound waves have a high frequency. These sound waves produce very sharp notes, When we hear these notes, we feel as if thick and long thorns pierce our body. According to the Jain philosophical contention, every grouping of particles of speech, i.e. every paramāņu-unit of Bhāṣā Vargaņā has a very large number of paramānus i.e. atoms. Though the number and size of paramāņu-units are equal, they contain more atoms. But sound waves which are not very big nor have a very high frequency give unusual calmness and ease to our body.
Precisely this is a great difference between Indian classical music and the western music. That is the reason why the western music seems to be very noisy and the Indian classical music is pleasing, quiet, calm and resolute.
Of course, in western music, there are also some modes like the modes of Indian classical music that are pleasing, quiet, calm and resolute, but they are not popular in people, e.g. Bethovan, Mozart, Backha and others.
The following table shows which modes of music are useful in various diseases. 31
Thus Indian classical music is the greatest and the best means of physical and mental health on the one hand and on the other hand, the same classical music is the best means of worship too. In ancient culture of India, the devotional poets have written a large number of prayer songs (Bhajanas). praise songs (Kirtanas), hymns of praise (Stotra), pynegyrics (Stuties), poetic forms (pada), prayer songs sung while waving lights before deity (ārati) etc. in the language of the common people and also in Sanskrit, the language of the learned.
Miran, Narasimha Mahētā, Sūradāsa, Tulasidāsa, Ānandaghanaji, Upādhyāya sri Yaśāvijayajī, Pandita Uttamavijayaji, Pandita Rūpavijayaji,

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Cidānandaji, Pandita Padmavijayaji, Pandita Viravijayaji śri jñānavimalasūriji, śri Vijayalaksmisūriji, Upādhyāya Sakalacandraji, Pandita Dēvacandraji, Vācaka Udayaratnaji, Pandita Dipavijayaji, and many such other poets have created various kinds of poetic literature in the forms of hymns of praise (Stotras) eulogies (stavanas), panegyrics (Stuties), songs of worship (Pūjās), songs sung at the time of circular dance (Rāsa) etc. in popular Gujarati, Prakrit, and Hindi languages.
A defect in a constituent of body The balancing mode of music
Defect of Rasa
Dipaka, Śuddha Sāranga
Defect of Blood
Puriyā, Mālakaussa
Defect of Fat
Kalāvati, Mēgha Malhāra, Siddha Bhairava
Defect of Bone
Bhairavi,
Defect of Marrow
Kēdāra, Darabāri Kānada, Sāmavēda Lalita, Āśāvari
Defect of Semen
Ancient great sages such as Kalikāla Sarvajña śri Hēmacandrācāryaji and Sri Haribhadrasūriji have composed hymns of praise -panegyrics etc. in Sanskrit and Prakrit languages.
Now, in the modern times also such classical musical devotional songs are composed. Recently, a few months ago, His Holiness Pannyāsa śri silacandravijayaji Mahārāja published 'Bhini Kșaņānā Vaibhava', a book of devotional songs composed by him in ancient diction, based on beautiful classical modes of music.
Showing the importance of this devotional music, sri jñānavimalasūriji says:
जिनवरबिम्बने पूजतां, होय शतगणुं पुण्य, सहस्रगणुं फल चन्दने जे ले ए ते धन्य । लाखगणुं फल कुसुमनी, माला पहेरावे, अनंतगणुं फल तेहथी, गीत गान करावे ।। iinavarabimbanē pūjatām, höya sataganum punya, sahasraganum phala candanē jēlē ē tē dhanya .

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lākhaganum phala kusumani, mālā pahērāvē, anantaganum phala tēhathi, gita gāna karāvē ..
[Hundred fold merits are earned by worshipping the idol of Jina Paramātmā, Thousandfold merits are earned by worshipping the idol with sandal paste. Blessed is he who earns such merits. He who puts a garland of flowers on the idol of Jina, earns a hundred times thousand fold merits. He who sings songs of Jina earns infinite fold merits]
Disease
Modes of music useful in treatment
Anaemia
Priyadarsini Sāmavēda
Asthma
Puriyā, Mālakaumsa, Yamana
Cancer
Nāyaki Kānaça, Siddha Bhairavi, Ragasri, Sāmavēda
Nervousness
Ahira Bhairavi, Puriya
Heart disease
Bhairavi , Śivarañjani, Ahilya Bilāvala,
Hindola, Puriyā, Kaunsi Kānada
High Blood Pressure
Acidity
Māravā, Dipaka, Kalāvati
Mental Disease Lalita, Kēdāra
Ulcer
Madhuvanti Dipaka
Skin Disease
Mēgha Malhāra, Multāni, Madhuvanti
Diabetes
Jaunapuri, Jayjayvanti Kaumsi Kānada, Multāni
Colour blindness
High fever
Mālakaupsa, Vasanta Bahāra
Leucorrhea
Āśāvari, Rāmakali. Sāmavēda
Insomnia
Bhairavi, Dipaka, Bhāgyasri

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Why is so much importance given to music in God's worship? Pondering over this, we feel that music gives ease to the mind and then to the body and the man who is drenched deep in worship totally forgets mental anxiety, physical diseases and worldly troubles during that time and thus becomes absorbed in God. The devotional music renders unusual help in cultivating concentration of mind, speech and body in spiritual field.
And that is why according to the Jain traditional belief when Rāvaṇa, the king of Lanka, went on a pilgrimage to Aṣṭāpada (Kailisa), his wife, Queen Mandōdari, performed a devotional dance before the God, Tirthankara Paramātmā. At that time Rāvana himself played on a lute and as soon as a string of the lute broke, Rāvana pulled out a vein of his leg and tied it in place of the string and kept Mandōdari's devotional song unbroken. By virtue of this devotion, Rāvana attained the merits of becoming a Tirthankara Paramātmā in future. It can make a worshipper a Tirthankara.
183
The Indian art of dancing is connected with Indian classical music. The ex-actress and present day's Odyssey dancer, Miss Pratima Gauri says about the ancient art of dancing:
"
All ancient dances of India are in reality artistic varieties of God's worship, God's prayer. We, Odyssey dancers and dancing girls perform dances to propitiate God Jagannatha. The Kathak mode of dancing is full of Kṛṣṇa's worship. But in Bharatanatyam, the first artist of the universe, Śiva is propitiated. The chief aim of our dances is God's pleasure.
33
The modern science also supports the description of various potentialities of music, given by ancient spiritual great men such as Indian musicians and sages possessing spiritual insight. May living beings get happiness in this world and the next world and may they attain spiritual heights and welfare of soul through Indian classical music.
References:
1. "Baiju Bāvarā" Sangita Pratibha (A musical genius) Author: Vimal Dhami (Jai Hind, weekly supplement, Date 9-5-1993)
2. Ślōka (verse) No 3, Fifth Prakāśa, Vitarāga Stōtra, compiled by Kalikāla Sarvajña Śri Hēmacandrācāryaji
3. Kalpasūtra, commentary Subodhika, second part, p. 66.

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4. Jina Sangita Saritā by Muni Śri Daksavijayji. Introduction by Prof. Laxmichandra Mohanlal Shah p. 9.
5, 6, 7. Ibid p. 10.
8. Dhvanijagat by Dr V.B. Gohel (Uni. Granth Nirman Board, Ahmedabad. p.33.)
9. Amarakośa First Kānd, Śabdavarga, verse 1
10. Dhvanijagat by Dr V.B. Gohel p. 34.
11. Ibid p. 35.
12. Vēdaniyakarma Nivirana Pūjā -Dipaka Pūjā Compiled by Śri Viravijayaji Mahārāja.
13. Tattvārtha Sūtra by Umāsvāti, Adhyāya 4, commentary by Śri Siddhasēna Gani.
14. AHS 3last out, 61-777-furrat | nirmala avad hijñānē jāņē, kēvalimana-parināmā rē. (By pure Avadhijñāna i.e. E.S.P. thought of Kevali i.e.omniscient can be known). Vēdaniyakarma Nivirana Pūjā -Dipaka Pūjā Compiled by Śri Viravijayaji Mahārāja.
15. Vaisvika Cētanā (Coscon) by Lieut. Col C.C.Bakshi (published by Pravin Pustak Bhandar, Rajkot, p. 381).
16. Engrossed in the worship of Krsna , Miran could digest the poison sent by Rāņā, her husband.
17. Tattvārtha Sūtra by Umāsvāti, Adhyāya 5, sūtra 24..
18.'Dhvanino Alaukika Gunadharma Varna Ranga' by Urmiben Desai & Varnamālā Anē Mantroccāraṇanum Rahasya' by Ashok Kumar Dutt (Farbus Quarterly Oct-Dec. 1992).
19. Times of India' Sunday Review', September 3, 1995- Vinod Advani. 20. Śri Anuyõgadvāra sūtra p. 127 commentary. 21, 22, 23. Ibid p. 128. 24, 25. Ibid p. 129.
26. Music Therapy : Rāga Rõga Mațādē Chē' by Janardan Dave (Cārē Bāju, April, 15, 1994. p. 16).
27. Jina Sangita Saritā by Muni Śri Daksavijayaji. Introduction, p. 6.

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185 28. The Turning point by Fritjof Capra (Flamingo, p. 396). 29. lbid (p. 355)
30. Music Therapy : Rāga Rõga Matādē Chē' by Janardan Dave (Cārē Bāju, April, 15, 1994. p. 17).
31. Ibid (p. 17, 18).
32. Jina Sangita Saritā by Muni Śri Daksavijayji. Introduction p. 4 by Prof. Laxmichandra Mohanlal Shah .
33 'Dharatikā Ākāśa Pukārē' by Amin Kureshi, An interview with Pratima Gauri (Sandesh Date 7-7-1991, Sunday, Weekly supplement page 8,6)
THE EASTERN RELIGIOUS PHILOSOPHIES ARE CONCERNED WITH TIMELESS MYSTICAL KNOWLEDGE, WHICH LIES BEYOND REASONING AND CANNOT BE ADEQUATELY EXPRESSED IN WORDS. THE RELATION OF THIS KNOWLEDGE TO MODERN PHYSICS IS BUT ONE OF ITS MANY ASPECTS AND, LIKE ALL THE OTHERS, IT CANNOT BE DEMONSTRATED CONCLUSIVELY BUT HAS TO BE EXPERIENCED IN A DIRECT INTUITIVE WAY.
FRITJOF CAPRA

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17. Mantra, Yantra
And Sound : A Scientific Analysis
Samsāra i.e.cosmos and time are both ever-flowing like the current of a river. There is a proverb in English : "We cannot cross the same river twice." Once we have crossed a river, we cannot cross it again. I.e. When we cross the river again, the water is not the same. In this ever changing cosmos, every living being wishes to be happy and no one wishes to be unhappy. Of course, for every man and for the same man at different times, definitions of hap and unhappiness go on changing. If all these definitions of happiness and unhappiness are to be summed up in a one/single definition, one can say that attainment of what is desired and separation from what is not desired, is happiness; and separation from what is desired and attainment of what is not desired, is unhappiness.
Happiness and unhappiness comes to every soul in consequence of good or bad karmas i.e. deeds done by him previously. Sometimes, worldly happiness may not be happiness in reality and sometimes externally appearing worldly unhappiness may not be unhappiness in reality because there is no difficulty about enduring the unhappiness in the hope and expectation of attaining happiness in future. Really speaking, our state of mind alone is the source of our happiness.
Every man in the world makes efforts to get the peace of mind. Man always goes on making various efforts for it. In their efforts, those who seek the shelter of yogis, accomplished great souls, get with blessings the strength of enduring and reducing mental, physical and worldly troubles.
For destroying our unhappiness and for getting us happiness, ancient sages have taught us many kinds of mantras, mystical diagrams (yantras) and various branches of knowledge (Vidyās). Thus we can reduce or fully eliminate our bad karmas by means of many kinds of mantras (spells), yantras (mystical diagrams), tantras (religious text of mystical formulae for attainment of

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superhuman powers), medicines etc. Sometimes in the presence of an auspicious instrumental cause (nimitta) or an auspicious aspiration (bhāva) an inauspicious karma is transformed into an auspicious one.'
Of course, it should also be mentioned here that such great men impart such highly important knowledge only to those who deserve. If deserving persons are not there, after the death of those great men, that particular knowledge exists only in the form of legends.
In ancient Indian literature one comes across many traditions about mantras, yantras and tantras and there are also various types of manuscripts about them. Of course, though these manuscripts contain full rites for attainment of success through mantras, yantras and tantras yet one cannot attain success because in these highly confidential rites, one or two links are kept hidden and they are shown only to the disciples or some worthy men. That is the reason why one does not attain desired success even if rites are performed as shown in the books published on mantras, yantras and tantras.
in the introduction to his book entitled 'Mantra-Vidyā' śri Karanidan Shethia writes about this:
" The greatest difficulty in literature about mantras is of the key. Ancient experienced sages and monks invented mantras and tantras. But important words from some of them are missing, some of them do not show the rite; and some of them mention but do not show the yantras about them." 2
Nearly five years ago, I came across an ancient manuscript in which various prescribed ways of worshipping goddess Padmāvati were preserved. Various ways were prescribed in each ritual procedure and each one of them found to be incomplete. Of all the five ritual procedures, only one showed its yantra (mystic diagram). The other four did not show the yantra. Later on I got from the collection of ancient manuscripts of my reverned Guru, His Holiness Ācārya Śri Vijay Sūryodayasūriji, a small manuscript having only two leaves (pages), that prescribes the rite of Padmāvati-Hrim. I found this rite to be perfect and systematic but it did not contain the yantra. Thus though mantras, yantras and tantras found in ancient manuscripts are true, one cannot attain success through them without guidance of an experienced guru.
One need not, therefore, believe that these mantras are altogether wrong. Really speaking, mantras, yantras and tantras are accompanied by aspirations

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of the great men who invented them with a desire to make people happy. The stronger the desire, the greater the power of the mantra and the influence of the yantra. Many factors are responsible for attainment of success through a mantra. Even if one of the factors is ineffective, success cannot be attained through the mantra.
A mantra is a form of sound put into a script by a particular class of great men by combining particular words and letters for a particular purpose and it is supported by a presiding deity. With their extraperceptual knowledge great saints of ancient time could see definite meanings or subjects of their special mantras and that is why Śri Ashok Kumar Dutt who possesses extraperceptua! knowledge uses the phrase 'Visionaries of meanings of mantras' for our ancient seers and monks.
Explaining the secret of sound of mantras Šri Ashok Kumar Dutt describes his own experience and says : "While uttering a mantra or the name of Bhagavān or any deity, I see blue and white particles and they give nutrition to a body and along with it the glitter and sharpness of a mass of light of the subtle body rises. I, therefore, realised that the prescription of the Jāpa (repetition) of the name of God and utterance of its mantra are perfectly scientific."
In his book entitled 'Vaisvika Cētanā' (Coscon) Lieut. Col. C.C. Bakshi states about mantras that when it is mentally or vocally pronounced every note, sound or word produces vibrations of a certain definite form. Even while we think, indistinct words/sounds are produced in our mind. Expert Sanskrit grammarians and philosophers call them bursting of sound (Sabda-Sphõța) and these letters make a definite kind of impressions on our mind.
Mantras can produce good as well as bad effects. Moreover, desired effect
be produced through mantras on birds, beasts, plants, human beings and presiding deities of the mantras. There are some mantras which cure us of
e are some mantras which protect us. There are some mantras which can be used for subduing or killing some body or for malevolent purposes. In a Kuśandikā sacrificial rite a man lighted fire only with some mantras and 'Ram' (), the mystic mantra of fire.
Talking of mantra-sounds, mantra-letters, yantra and idols, śri C.C. Bakshi states that sound of a mantra is unidimensional. (Of course, we cannot

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see sounds and that is perhaps the reason why it is unidimensional for us. Yet for those who can see colours of sounds, sound is no doubt tridimensional.) Letters of mantras and diagrams of mantras in the form of yantras are twodimensional. But idols are three-dimensional.®
In my article “Kinds of Jāpa and Their Scientific Importance" I have already given a detailed description of types of Jāpa and their influence, alongwith a scientific analysis. I, therefore, do not discuss them here again.
In ancient, times, perhaps in the times of the battle of Mahābhārata, the science of arms and the mystic science of missiles were used. Here arms are ordinary weapons such as a sword, an arrow etc. while the arms which were hurled with mantras or mystic science were missiles." After killing the enemy, these missiles returned to him who hurled them. Kings, army-commanders and others of those times, also had the mystic knowledge of defeating the missiles.
Thus, it seems that the mystic knowledge of mantras is very antiquarian in the Indian tradition.
Chief among various traditions of mantra, yantra and tantra born and developed only in India are 1. Brahmin (Hindu), 2. Buddhistic and 3. Jain traditions. The Brahmin i.e. Hindu tradition has three subdivisions. 1. Vaişņava 2. Śaiva 3. Śākta.
The Jain tradition of mantras, yantras and tantras is very antiquarian. There is a book authored by Śri Sanghadāsa Gaņi and entitled 'Vasudēva Hindi'. It is believed to have been written in the fifth century A.D. According to the reference found in it, when śri Rşabhadēva, the first Tirthankara of this Avasarpinikāla time, renounced the world, he distributed his wealth and kingdom to his sons and grandsons and others. Nami and Vinami, his grand sons had been far away. On returning, when they knew all that had happened, they went to Sri Aşabhadēva to ask for their share. Since Śri Aşabhadēva was silently meditating, they began to serve him. Once Nāgarāja Dharaņēndra, (Lord of gods and goddesses of Nāgakumāra type) came to pay obeisance to Śri Rşabhadēva. Pleased with the service of Nami and Vinami, he said, "Lord Rşabhadēva is a renouncer. He has now nothing to give you. But pleased with your worship of Lord Rasabhadev, I impart to you 48000 mystic kinds of knowledge (Vidyās)“. He imparted the mystic knowledge to them, settled cities of Vidyadharas on the north range and the south range of Mt. Vaitādhya
.

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and appointed them to rule over the cities." Their tribe came to be called the tribe of Vidyadharas. Among various branches of ancient Jain monks, one is known by the name of Vidyadhara.12 According to the Kalpasūtra, there is a reference to the branch of Acarya is Vidyadhari." Thus, according to the Jain tradition, the origin of mystic science or science of mantra can be traced to times earlier than nearly one crore multiplied by one crore i.e. a thousand billion (104) Sāgarōpama years."
190
In the Jain Agama tradition, the twelve Arga sūtras are regarded to be chief. Among them, Dṛṣṭivada, the twelfth Anga sūtra has special significance. Of course, this Anga sūtra is not available today. It is lost. The fourteen pūrvas in them were very important. One of the fourteen purvas, was entitled Vidyāpravāda. According to its name, this purva is perfectly an inexhaustible treasure of the science of mantra. It was from this pūrva that Acārya Śri Bhadrabāhusvāmi who has knowledge of all the fourteen purvas, extracted the Grahaśānti Stōtra. 15 There have been many powerful Acāryas succeeding to the holy tradition of disciple of Śramana Bhagavan Mahāvirasvāmi, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara of Jain tradition. According to Sthaviravali, given in the commentary to the Kalpasūtra, Arya Vajrasvāmi had the mystic knowledge of bodily transformation (Vaikriya labdhi Vidya) and Ākāśagāminī Vidyā (a knowledge of going from one place to another place through sky i.e. to fly in the sky). There are clear reference to show that Sri Sthulibhadrajī, śri Priyagranthsuriji, śrīguptācārya (a Guru of Rōhagupta), Ārya Samitasūriji and others also knew mantra and tantras. 16
Moreover, Śri Vṛddhavādī, śri Siddhasēna Divākara, Śrī Mānatungasūrijī, Śri Nandiṣēņa, Śrī Mānadēvasūrijī, śri Skandilācārya, Śrī Pādaliptasūriji, śri Nāgārjūna, Śri Haribhadrasūriji, Śrī Hēmacandrasūriji, śri Jinaprabhasūriji and many other Acāryas are famous as experts in the science of mantra.
When we think of the mantra literature of the Jain tradition, we are reminded of Namaskāra Mahāmantra Kalpa, Lōgassa Kalpa, Namutthunam Kalpa, Uvasaggaharam Stotra Kalpa, Hrikāra Kalpa, Vardhamānavidya Kalpa, Rşimandala Kalpa, Santikaram Stōtra Kalpa, Tijayapahutta Stōtra Kalpa, Bhaktamara Kalpa, Kalyāṇamandira Kalpa which belong to very famous and customary, literature. Propitiation of Surimantra is regarded to be chief and compulsory duty for Jainācāryas. By Sūrimantra chiefly Śri Gautamasvāmi, the first disciple of 24th Tirthankara Śri Mahāvirasvāmi, who

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possesses infinite achievements (Ananta-labdhi i.e. infinite extra-ordinary powers), is propitiated. śri Gautamasvāmi and all other Ganadharas i.e. main disciples of Tirthankaras, the authors of the twelve Anga sūtras and all holy Ācāryas, well-versed in fourteen pūrvas, are called Śrutakēvalis. One of their epithets is 'Savvakakhara Sannivāiņam' i.e. He who knows all Vidyās (mystic sciences) composed of all various kinds of combinations of all letters.""?
Besides, sri Gautamasvāmi, Saraswati, the presiding goddess of all shastras, the knowledge obtained through all kinds of letters, sri Tribhuvanasvāmini Dēvi, goddess, predominating influence on all the three fold world and lives on Mt. Manuşõttara, Laxmi Dēvi (sridevi) goddess of wealth, śri Yakşarāja Gaņipitaka , the god of the corpus of twelve Anga sūtras, Jain religious texts, presiding gods and goddesses of the dispensation of the twenty-four Tirthankaras i.e. Yaksas and Yakşiņis, Sixty four Indras, the governor of nine treasures, sixteen Vidyādēvis, i.e. goddesses of different types of mystic science, nine planets etc. are also propitiated."
There is no doubt that those who perform this propitiation become great and powerful. Besides, since Ācāryas helm the affairs of the Jainism they need to acquire the strength to ward off the calamities that may be fall the Jain dispensation. Through propitiation of mantras, they get the support and presence of gods.
In the present day society, there is a class of people who remain engaged in uttering mantras, yantras and tantras and they spread blind faith to serve their own interest. There is another class of people who believes that mantra, yantras are absolutely false. There are many people who do not understand the science of mantra. They jest and joke and say that it is full of rumours and misapprehensions. They do not know the power of words/sounds. They. therefore, believe that those who believe in the science of mantra are foolish and backward and deride them. Both these classes of people hold that their beliefs are true. Of course, some change has come of late. Those who believed mantras, yantras and tantras to be absolutely false, slowly but certainly accept mantras, yantras and tantras.
Really speaking, their beliefs are based on only scientific proofs of mantras, yantras and tantras. Currently, a special type of research work on mantras, yantras and tantras is in progress in the western countries. The

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secrets of mantras, yantras and tantras are presented in scientific ways through various books.
A yantra is a graphic representation of sounds of words made of combinations of letters of a mantra." Recently I came across a book 'Yantra' published from England. A scientist named Ronald Nameth passed the sounds of the Sri Sukta mantra with the help of a scientific instrument through the electronic vibration filed and the sounds were transformed into diagram of the śriyantra. A permanent picture of this is given in the book.20
This means that the Sriyantra is nothing but a figure form i.e. diagram of the sounds of śrisukta. As sounds are printed on a gramophone record or a magnetic tape, so any mantra, if it is passed through the above-mentioned instrument can be transformed into a diagram. There are some people who believe that mantras can be transformed back from their diagrams i.e. yantras, as sounds can be transformed back from a gramophone record or a magnetic
ver, as modern science transforms energy into material particles(matter) and matter into energy, so yantras i.e. mystic diagrams can be transformed into mantras and mantras can be transformed into yantras. Therefore, yantras and mantras can be replaced by each other.21
Great sages of ancient times could, perhaps, see with their supernatural vision, the diagrams of mantras that they gratified with their recitation of mantras, the presiding deities, perhaps, showed them the diagram of the corresponding mantras. Later on, the great mantra-reciters, perhaps, draw the figures of yantras of the corresponding mantras on barks of birch trees or palmleaves with writing materials. Perhaps through this tradition the diagrams of yantras have come to us.
Really speaking, a yantra is one kind of combination of various geometrical figures. As mantras are made of combinations of different consonants and vowels, so various yantras are made of combinations of geometrical figures of different types. Every yantra has its presiding god or goddess. As the form or the name of the god or goddess changes, the mantra and the yantra also change. All these mantras and yantras are in the form of matter i.e. pudgala and that is why they are inert and not alive. i.e. having no desired effect.22 There are special processes of making them vital or effective. Yantras can be made vital through their original mantras. In order to make mantras alive, the

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letters of sanskrit alphabet are putting on the both sides of the mantras and when the mantra is recited 108 time, it becomes invested with life. Other various methods for making mantras vital, are also given in the text-books on mantras and tantras.24 : Yantras are invested with effectiveness and idols of God and of gods and goddess are invested with life. This rite can by performed with the best and special type of mantras only be competent Acāryas. Through special waves produced by mantra sounds Acāryas transplants his vital elements into the idol only for a few moments. Then the idol does not remain only a piece of stone but becomes actual God or god or goddess because the sound-waves of the mantras make the archetypal space of idol, an inexhaustible treasure of energy. Then those who worship the idol can commune with Paramātmā, the Supreme being or god or goddess.
The Jain tradition believes that an idol which is more than a hundred years old has inconceivable power because since it was worshipped by very many spiritual men with various mantras and pious sentiments during the period of more than a hundred years, the idol was filled by sound-waves of the mantras with an inexhaustible treasure of energy which uplifts the spiritual man and his desires are fulfilled. The same is in case of yantras. If on an auspicious day, a yantra is drawn according to the prescribed rite and with good intentions and if it is invested with effectiveness by a great sage, who has an expert knowledge of yantra, mantras and tantras, it soon gives a great fruit i.e. success because it is accompanied by the great sage's desire of doing good to people.
Modern research scholars believe that the yantra is archetypal space and the mantra is a pious sound. They also believe that the yantra and the mantra are not different. They believe that if the yantra is a body of the mantra, the mantra is the soul of the yantra. 25 Besides, according to the Indian tradition, a yantra is a place where gods and goddesses reside in a subtle way. Especially among chief seats of main goddesses Ambikā, Durgā, kāli, Mahākāli and others, yantras of the goddesses are more highly esteemed than idols of the goddesses.
These symbols in the form of yantras are an inexhaustible treasure of psychic energy. These yantras find out our missing element and supply it. Thus they make our life joyful, energetic and meaningful

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Generally two types of yantras are found in the present times. Yantras are always a combination of diagrams. But letters of mantras are also written in them. But as shown above, diagrams of yantras are nothing but a visible form of letters of mantras. In order to help a common man to know which mantra letters are visibly represented by a particular yantra, the learned sages and monks also write mantra-letters in yantras. That is the reason why we find, yantras along with mantras simultaneously. While in some yantras there are numbers written in squares or various geometrical diagrams. There are various types of yantras related to these numbers, e.g. the yantra of fifteen, the yantra of twenty, the yantra of thirty four, the yantra of sixty five, the yantra of one hundred seventy. In the yantra of fifteen, numbers from one to nine are used and they are so arranged that each set of three numbers added vertically, horizontally or transversely, gives a total of fifteen. That is why they are called yantras of fifteen.
Books on mantras and yantras show four varieties of yantras of fifteen. Each variety of these yantras has different elements, colours and effects. Besides, when those yantras are written on a piece of paper or on a bark of the birch tree with special kind of materials, if the order of writing numbers in the same variety of yantras is different, different effects are produced.26
8 1 6 This yantra of fifteen 3 57 is known by the technical 4 9 2 Brahmin
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
2 9 4 This yantra of fifteen
7 5 3 is known by the technical
6 18 term Vaisya

This yantra of fifteen 4 3
8
is known by the techni9 5 1 cal term Ksatriya
6
This yantra of fifteen is known by the technical term Śūdra
2

6
7 2
1 5
8 3 4
Such other yantras are made in respect of the Sun, the Moon, the Mars and other planets in order to propitiate them. The yantra for the sun is a yantra of fifteen. It is different from all the four yantras shown above. For the moon, there is a yantra of eighteen. For the Mars, there is a yantra of twenty-one.
9

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The Sun Yantra
The Moon Yantra
The Mars Yantra
618
7 2 9
8 3 10 753 1864
9 715 3 105
| 116 Similarly, there are yantras for other planets, too. 27 Besides, there are also other ways of making yantras of fifteen. But each of them gives different success and effects. And it is a subject for research.
Thus various kinds of numerical symbols i.e. yantras have various kinds of mystic energy or powers.
In the Jain Tradition also, both the types of yantras are found. Among yantras related to mantras, there are many kinds of yantras such as sri Siddhacakra Mahāyantra, Sri Rşimandala Yantra, śri Vardhamānavidyā Yantra, śri Sūrimantra Yantra, śri Padmăvati Yantra, Sri Vairāļyādēvi Yantra, śri Ghanțākarņa Mahāvira Yantra, śri Gautamasvāmi Yantra, Śri Labdhipada Yantra, Śri Māņibhadradēva Yantra, etc. Numerical yantras are also found in the Jain tradition. The mostly found yantras of this type are the yantra of one hundred-seventy i.e.Sarvatõbhadra Yantra concern with Śri Tijaypahutta Stotra, the yantra of sixty five concern with twenty-four Tirthankaras, and the yantra of fifteen concern with Navapada etc.
Sometimes it happens that an author or a research scholar who is not familiar with sectarian traditions of mantras and yantras, does not properly understand the yantras, the letters written in the yantras and the methods of the yantras e.g. In the book entitled 'Yantra', the Labdhipada yantra related to the Sūrimantra, is published. There the mantras of the Labdhipadas are
ven in the Prakrit language. Moreover, the letters of each pada are given in the reserve order. e.g. The pada 35 741 fororu (OM namo jiņāņam 1) is written as '1. nam ņā ji mo na OM'. o om 7 3 All these padas are found in the Sūrimantra. Of course, this yantra was drawn at least 200 or 250 years ago. These yantras sometime contain the name of one who invests them with effectiveness or the name of one for whom it is drawn. One finds the name
AMICII (Kalyāṇadāśa) inserted in the above mentioned yantra. On the basis of the name, the whole yantra is named Kalyānacakra ( 15), the wheel of fortune.28 But this is improper.

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In the "Sūrimantra Kalpa-samuccaya' this yantra is given in a new form. The letters are written there in the original-actual order but not in reverse order as shown in above-mentioned yantra.29
There are also two ways of reciting mantras. 1. pūrvānupūrvi. i.e. Mantras are recited according to the order in which padas or letters of the mantra are given. 2. paścānu pūrvi. i.e. Mantras are recited in the reverse order of padas or letters of the mantra. Both these types of recitation of mantras give different types of result. Generally, the pūrvänupūrvi recitation of mantras gives spiritual success and paścānupurvi recitation of mantras gives worldly or material success.
In modern science, there is a branch of telepathic science. Likewise in therapeutics, a Bengali homeopathic doctor Śri Binitosh Bhattācārya has developed the teletherapy. In this therapy he uses medicines but along with medicines he also uses such mantras and yantras as shown above. The mantras and yantras are arranged on a special type of instruments and a special type of vibrations are produced form them. With the help of a photo or the name of the patient arranged in front of the vibrations, they are invisibly directed towards the patient. Surprising improvements in patients have been detected as a result of using this therapy.
Yantras are symbolic marks. In different traditions, these symbolic marks i.e. diagrams are interpreted in different ways. The reason for this is the knowledge or experience that they have gained. e.g. If a physicist is asked about "energy", he will introduce "energy" as an inherent active force of matter. If a psychologist is asked about it, he will introduce energy as "mind' producing effect on the brain through an external factor/a stimulant. If a spiritual sage/yogi is asked about it, he will say that realization of the Supreme Brahmā i.e. universal consciousness (Vaiśvika Cētanā), through Yoga, is an energy.
Thus, we all who possess very little knowledge and knowledge-obscuring karmas are not fully removed from whose souls, interpret the symbols of tantras and yantras according to our intellectual level. Only the Omniscient great men can know the full and real significance of the symbols. Omniscient great men clearly know all modifications of all substances and all living organisms related to the past, the future and the present tenses in the whole

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hand.30 For them, the past tense and the future tense do not exist at all. All is in the present tense. If omniscience is to be described in a single sentence in the modern scientific english terminology, one can say that "Omniscience is nothing but the hologramic effect or power of the soul regarding to time, space, matter and all souls". Only those who have the supreme knowledge i.e. omniscience, know the full significance of symbolic marks of these yantras. Of various kinds of yantras, it is the Śriyantra which is most discussed by common as well as learned people and experts in sciences of mantra and tantra.
Śriyantra is regarded as a very mysterious treasure of occult lore. Foreign scientists are doing their best to find out the mystery of this yantra and they are comparing the Śrīyantra with the principles of science and of spirituality. A point is shown in the centre of the Śrīyantra. It is called Mahābindu. According to the vedic tradition, it is regarded as a symbol of the origin of the universe and it is also called zero (Śūnya). It is also divided by the universal impulse i.e. The seed-energy of Śiva rises from deep sleep and becomes active.
When the point is divided, pairs (Visargamandala) are created. They are known as pairs Śiva-Sakti, fire-water or Puruşa-Prakṛti.
The original triangle represents the universe trio. It is the origin of all objects.
The division or bisection and development of the original triangle in the form of Śiva Fire-Puruşa and Sakti (energy)-water-Prakṛti.31
Śiva
-
197
Śakti
Ã
Δ
Prakṛati
Water

Prakṛati
Fire
Śiva
✡
Sakti

Water
Puruşa
Fire
The basic subtle elements of the mind māyā (illusion), Kalā (art), Vidyā (knowledge), rāga (attachment), kāla (time), niyati (destiny) - are created by combinations of Śiva and Sakti or fire and water or Puruşa and Prakṛti.
Puruşa

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Physical elements are created by combination of Puruşa and Prakrti - 1. Intellect 2. Pride and 3. the thinking faculty (the mind) are created from Sattvaguna (the first or highest of the three costituent qualities of nature). The five sense organs (of tuch, taste, smell, sight and hearing), the five organs of body (hands, legs, mouth, abdomen and the reproductive organ) are created from rajõguna (the second of the three constituent qualities of nature) The gross as well as the subtle earth, water, fire, wind and space are created from tamöguņa (the third of the three constituent qualities of nature.) 22
This interpretation is according to the vaidic tradition.
Experts on science of mantra and yantra, the worshippers of mother goddesses, say that Sriyantra is the abode of goddesses and accomplishments (Śaktis). These accomplishments are eight - 1. animā (the super human power of making a very minute form), 2. mahimā (the super human power which enables one to enlarge one's size maximum), 3. laghimā (the super human power which enables one to modify a very light form), 4. garimā (the super human power which enables one to modify a very heavy form), 5. prāpti (the super human power of touching the mountain-peak with one's finger), 6.isitva (the super human power of sovereignty) 7. prākāmya (the super human power of obtaining all desired thins) and 8. vasitva (the super human power of bringing all under one's control). The goddesses are eight-Brāhmi, Māhēśvari, Vaisnavi, Cāmundā, Mahālakṣmi etc. and they reside in the eight triangles. This circle of eight triangle is called Sarvarõgahara Cakra. It is this Śriyantra which they know by the name of the yantra of the goddess Tripurāsundari.
The ten triangles of the Sarvarakṣākāra cakra of the second inner circle indicate the ten Mahāvidyās (great branches of knowledge). The ten triangles of the Sarvārthasādhaka cakra of the inner third circle are the ten prāņas (vital elements). The circle of fourteen triangles on the outer most side is called the Sarvasaubhāgyadāyaka cakra. Mahātripurāsundari or Mahālakṣmi resides in the point in the triangle in the centre of the Sriyantra. 33
Experts on yoga science compare śriyantra with the six cakras contained in our vital body namely Mūlādhāra cakra, Svādhisthāna cakra, Manipura cakra, Anāhata cakra, Viśuddhi cakra and Ājñā cakra. While Mahābindu is compared with Sahasrāra cakra which is on our head and already outside the physical body. 34

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These symbolic marks can be linked with Jain philosophy as under :
Creation
Soul Matter Subsistance Destruction The point or the Mahābindu indicates the pure soul or the pure matter. Of course, the pure soul is colourless and shapeless, while pure matter i.e. pudgala has a shape and it also has a colour, a smell, a taste, and a touch. But as far as energy is concerned, both are equal. The pure soul possesses infinite energy and pure matter also possesses infinite energy. The infinite energy of the soul is self-directed while infinite energy of the matter is directed by other forces.
A pair of Mahābindus is formed when the soul and the matter are shown separately.
Creation
Destruction
Subsistence
Soul
Matter
Soul
Matter
Subsistence
Destruction
Creation
The soul and the matter have three phases each : to be created, to be destroyed and to remain stable as original element. In Jain terminology, this is called Tripadi : 1. uppannē i vā ( 341 591) 2. vigamē i vā (fara 5 21) 3. dhuvē i vā (ga 9) and it is indicated by the three sides of the triangle. Every object in the world has these three phases or stages. The Vaidic tradition also believes in creation, subsistence and destruction of the world. Brahmā , Vişn Mahēša are regarded as gods of creation, subsistence and destruction
spectively. The Jain tradition does not believe in the creation of the whole universe but it believes in various modifications of various elements like soul and matter. It believes that the universe as a whole is beginningless and endless
According to the Jain philosophical belief, the combination of the pure soul with a pudgal i.e. matter is never possible. But it is believed that it is since beginningless time that the soul is associated with pudgala i.e. matter. All

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objects of the universe are originated and destroyed only as a result of this beginningless association.
Karmas are paudgalic (material) and through karman Vargaņā, matter is transformed into the eight types of karma. The eight types of karmas are 1. jñānāvaraniya, 2. Darśanāvaraniya, 3.Vēdaniya, 4. Mõhaniya, 5. Āyuşya, 6. Nāma, 7. Götra and 8. Antarāya.36 They are indicated by the eight triangles of the first circle around the pudgala triangle of the Sriyantra. Ten types of Saññā (inclinations) are produced in the soul accumulating the eight types of karma. The ten types of instincts are - 1. Ahāra (nourishment), 2. Bhaya (fear), 3. Maithuna (sex). 4. Parigraha (attachment), 5. Krõdha (anger), 6. Māna (pride), 7. Māyā (deceit), 8. Lõbha (greed), 9. Ogha Sanjñā (common sense), 10. Lõka Sanjñā 36 (inclination for Samsāra). They are indicated by the ten triangles of the second circle near the eight triangles of the first circle. As a result of these inclinations, a Jiva (the soul with karma) gets the ten vital elements; the five sense organs, the three powers/energies namely manas i.e. the mind, vacana i.e. the speech, kāyā, i.e. the body, breathing i.e. respiratory system and life-span.37 They are indicated by the ten triangles of the third circle. Samsāri Jiva i.e. the soul with karma possesses these ten vital elements. The souls with karma are of fourteen categories. 30 All these fourteen categories of Jivas are indicated by the fourteen triangles of the fourth circle. All the souls except pure souls, of the whole universe belong to these fourteen categories of Jivas.
Around this, there is a circle representing eight petals of a lotus. Anger, pride, deceit and greed which were previously introduced as instincts (Sanjñās) of the soul act here as deadly enemies of soul. These four added to the four namely attachment, aversion, infatuation and ignorance, make a group of eight. All these together are great enemies of all the fourteen categories of Jivas i.e. all the Jivas of the whole universe. All these eight obstruct spiritual development of the soul. In order to conquer them, one should first of all become introvert, gain knowledge and remove ignorance. In order to do so, it is necessary to concentrate on the 16 vowels namely 34 347 इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ऋ लु लु ए ऐ ओ औ अं अः (aaiiuorirre ai bau am ah) which are symbolic of the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet or Dēvanāgari script. Along with these sixteen vowels, the thirty-three consonants are also concentrated on. This is indicated by the circle of the sixteen petals of the lotus.

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By concentrating on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, one shakes of jñānāvaraniya karmas and attains omniscience and its light, crossing the boundaries of the universe beyond innumerable islands and oceans that are in the universe, reaches even at the portion above the universe i.e. beyond the universe called aloka. The circular bangle-shaped figures are symbols of the innumerable islands and oceans. Through the gates shown on all the four sides of the shape of Lõka (universe) in the square form, it is suggested that the illumination of omniscience spreads even towards Aloka.
Thus the śrīyantra also contains the Jain philosophy and as shown above, every one who engages in contemplation and concentration, destroys his inauspicious karmas and along with spiritual prosperity, he gains happiness and wealth in this world and next world or birth and the success that he desires.
The ancient literature shows mantras meant for propitiation of hundreds of various gods and goddesses of the Indian tradition as well as the Jain tradition. If we get a tonoscope or a modern scientific instrument with an electronic vibration field and a qualified research-scholar to operate it we can get the real form of yantras of all mantras. And that will open a new horizon or field for research work in the science of mantras.
Thus, yantras, mantras and tantras are a wonderful heritage of our ancient knowledge. Moreover, even from the .view point of modern science, they produce wonderful and distinct effects not only on human beings and the living world but also on lifeless matter. Let us, therefore, hope and wish that intelligent research-scholars and scientists will do more dependable and experimental research work and disclose to the world more secrets of yantras, mantras and tantras.
Date : 3rd November, 1996,
Bhavnagar.
References: 1. See. 'Sankramaņa karana' in the book 'Karmapraksti”. 2. 'Mantra-vidyā' by Karanidan Sethia, Introduction, p.20.
3. 'Acintya Cintāmani Bhagavati Padmāvati.' Ed. Nandlal Devluk, Arihant Prakashan, Bhavnagar, p.361-386.
4. 'Jainism : Through Science' (Gujarati section) by Muni Nandighoshvijay (Śri

.

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Mahāvira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay-400 036), p.45
5. 'The significance of the alphabet and utterance of mantras' by Ashok Kumar Dutt, Forbus Quarterly No.4, October-December, 1992. p. 279
6. The mantras are also intimately associated with the theory of eternal word. Sphõțavāda expounded by the philosophers of Sanskrit grammar, who traced the gem of speech or words back to divine source. (an imperishable unit of speech : Sphòța also known as Vāk or Pranava or Śabda-Brahma)- 'Yantra' by Madhu Khanna, p.41.
7. Vaisvika Cētanā (Coscon) by Lieut. Col. C. C. Baksi, p.95 8. Ibidem, p. 97
9. Jainism : Through Science' (Gujarati section) by Muni Nandighoshvijay (Śri Mahāvira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay-400 036), p. 123-126.
10. (Astra-mantra 37 m) - Mantra by which a missile is consecrated before it is thrown. (The Standard Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 88).
11. 'Mantra-Vidyā' by Karanidan Sethia, Introduction, p. 12-13. 12. Ibidem. Introduction p.13. 13.थेरेहिंतो णं विज्जाहर गोवालेहिंतो कासवगुत्तेहिंतो इत्थ णं विज्जाहरी साहा निग्गया
thērēhinto nam viijāhara gāvālēhinto kā savaguttēhinto ittha ņam vijā hari sāhā niggayā
(Śri Kalpasūtra, Eighth part, Sthavirāvali), p.510. 14. Innumerable years make a palyāpama. 10 x 1 crore x 1 crore i.e. 1015 palyāpamas make a Sāgarõpama. One kõạākāļi Sāgarõpamas equal 10** Sāgaropamas or 102° palyāpama years.
15.भद्रबाहुरुवाचैवं पञ्चमः श्रुतकेवली । विद्याप्रवादतः पूर्वाद् ग्रहशान्तिरुदीरिता ।। bhadrabāhun vācaivam pañcamaḥ śrutakēvali. vidyāpravādataḥ pūrvād grahaśāntirudiritā.. (Grahaśānti Stõtra) 16. Kalpasūtra, eighth part, Sthavirāvali, Subodhikā Vịtti.
17.समणस्सणं भगवओ महावीरस्स तिन्निसया चउद्दसपुवीणं अजिणाणं जिणसंकासाणं सव्वक्खरसन्निवाइणं जिणो विव अवितहं वागरमाणाणं उक्कोसिया चउद्दसपुवीणं समणसंपया हुत्था ।
samaņassaņam bhagavaõ mahāvirassatinnisayā cauddasapuvviņam ajiņāņam jiņasarkāsāņam savvakkharasannivāiņam jiņā viva avitaham vāgaramāṇānam Ukkösiyā cauddasapuwiņam samaņasampayā hutthā . (Śri Kalpasūtra, Sixth Part, sūtra-138).

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18. वाणी तिहुअणसामिणी सिरि देवी जक्खराय गणिपिडगा ।
गह दिसिपाल सुरिंदा सयावि रक्खन्तु जिणभत्ते ।। vāņi tihuaņasāmiņi siri dēvi jakkharāya gaṇipidagā gana disipāla surindā sayāvi rakkhantu jiņabhattē ..
(Santikaram Stötra, Gāthā-4). 19. 'Yantra' by Madhu Khanna p.6. 20. Ibidem. p. 116
21. Mantra and Yantra are parallel to each other and in some cases may be interchangeable ("Yantra' by Madhu Khanna p.38) 22. T EM PRITE, quity 014 !
caitanyarahitā mantrāḥ, prāktā varņāstu kēvalam. ('Agocar Visva' by Davesh Mehta, Gujarat Samachar, 13th Oct., 1996, p.6) 23. 'Yantra' by Madhu Khanna p.6
24. Mantra-Tantra-Yantra Mahā samuccaya (Published by Gajanan Pustakalaya, Surat, p.15)
25. Yantra and mantra present the union of archetypal space and sacred sound. Each is inseparable from the other. Mantra is the soul and yantra is the body of subtle sound.
l'Yantra' by Madhu Khanna P.44) 26. 'MantraVidyā' by Karanidan Sethia, 'YantraVidyā' Khand, p.18, 19, 20
Mantra-tantra-yantra Mahā samuccaya, p.320, 321, 322. 27. 'Mantra Vidyā' - 'YantraVidyā' Khand, p.31. 28. 'Yantra' by Madhu Khanna, p.48. 29. 'Sūrimantra kalpa sarnuccaya' part-II, p.360-361.
(Ed. Pūjya Muni śri Jambūvijayaji Mahārāja) 30. THATS feet, tea to set karāmalakavad viśvam, kalayan kēvalasriyā.
(Śri Sakalā rhat Stotra - verse - 11 by śri Hemacandrasūrijī) 31. 'Yantraraj : Śriyantra' by Pankaj Dixit (Swagat Sept., 1995, p.52) 32. 'Yantra' by Madhu Khanna, p.72 & 74. 33. 'Yantraraj : śriyantra' by Pankaj Dixit (Swagat, Sept., 1995, p.52, 53). 34. Ibidem, p.53.

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35. इह नाण-दसणावरण-वेय-मोहाउ-नाम-गोआणि । विग्धं च.......||३८ ।। _iha nana-damsanāvarana-vaya-māhau-nama-goani . viggham ca.........38.. (Navatattva, Verse-38).
36. यतः प्रज्ञापनायां दश संज्ञाः | ताश्चेमाः - कइणं भंते ! सण्णाओ पण्णत्ताओ ? गोयमा ! दस सण्णाओ पण्णत्ताओ, तं जहा-आहारसण्णा, भयसण्णा, मेहुणसण्णा, परिग्गहसण्णा, कोहसण्णा, माणसण्णा, मायासण्णा, लोहसण्णा, ओहसण्णा, लोगसण्णा ।।
yatah prajñāpanāyām dac sañjñāh . tăócāmāh - kainam bhantế ! sannãõ pannattai ? goyama ! dasa sannao pannattao, tam jaha - āhārasanna, bhayasanna, mehunasanna, pariggahasanna, kohasanna, manasanna, māyāsaņņā, lõhasannā, Õhasannā, lõgasannā ..
(Ācārānga Tikā, First Part, First Chapter, First Subchapter). 37. दसहा जिआण पाणा इंदिय ५ उसास १ आउ १ बलरुवा ३ ।। dasahā jāņa pāņā imdiya 5 usāsa 1 āu 1 balaruvā 3 ..
(Jiva -vicira prakarana, Verse-42). 38. एगिदिय सुहुमियरा, सन्नियर पणिंदिया य सबितिचउ ।
अपज्जत्ता पज्जत्ता कमेण चउद्दस जियट्ठाणा ।। ēgindiya suhumiyarā, sanniyara panindiyā ya sabiticau.
apajjatta pajjatta kaména cauddasa jiyatthānā .. (Navatattva, verse-4). 1. Sūkşma Aparyāptā ĒKēndriya 2. Sūkşma Paryāptā ĒKēndriya 3. Bādara Aparyāptā ĒKēndriya 4. Bādara Paryāptā ĒKēndriya 5. Aparyāptā Dvindriya 6. Paryāptā Dvindriya 7. Aparyāptā Trindriya 8. Paryāptā Trindriya 9. Aparyāptā Caturindriya 10. Paryāptā Caturindriya 11. Asamjñi Aparyāptā Pañcēndriya 12. Samjñi Aparyāptā Pañcēndriya 13. Asamjñi Paryāptā Pañcēndriya 14. Samjñi Paryāptā Pañcēndriya
These are fourteen types i.e. species of living beings.

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18. Two Great Scientists : One From
Eastern India And One From
Western India
This is what happened long ago, a Professor of Gujarat College of Ahmedabad, happened to go to the intermediate class to give a lecture. He looked at the blackboard and loudly read what was written on it :'It is trousers that the professor wears.' And then, looking at the students, he added," If you wish, I will come from tomorrow onwards without wearing trousers." Hearing this, the class burst into a loud laughter.
This plain, simple and straight forward man with interesting nature was none else than the highly intellectual, extraordinary mathematician, Dr P. C. Vaidya.
Recently, at 9-30 a.m. on October 24, 1995, a rare and unusual astronomical event happened in India. It was a total solar eclipse - an event that in the day-light, gave the evening experience. The time of the total solar eclipse was at the most only one minute and thirty-eight seconds but the scientists of India and other countries had to make the best use of the little time. This renowned mathematician gave guidance about the principles for the experiments to be made during the one and a half minutes.
What made Dr Vaidya famous was his research work on Einstein's general theory of relativity. Of Indian scientists, only two were directly connected with Einstein for research work. One was Dr Satyendranath Bose who was every inch a Bengali and the other was Dr P. C. Vaidya who besides being every inch a Gujarati, was totally devoted to the Gandhian thought. Today we shall talk about research work of two pre-eminent scientists from two ends of India, the eastern end and the western end. Dr Satyendranath Bose During the period from 1905 A.D. to 1920 A.D., Einstein was renowned as a world famous scientist and scientists all over the world were impressed by his inventive and creative genius. Meanwhile, Dr Satyendranath Bose, a Bengali professor of India, came in contact with him. Both these scientists

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were very fond of music. Einstein himself used to play on the violin and Bose was fond of classical music. Bose was ambitious to do research work in physics in collaboration with Einstein but this dream of him was never realized. Still however, the present-day Bose - Einstein statistics, is a result of his correspondence with Einstein. In the correspondence he addressed Einstein as his guru according to the ancient Indian tradition. He met Einstein in October 1925 A.D. Einstein's approval of his research work as a beginner, made Bose famous all over the world. Bose was no doubt a great scientist of this century. Through his important research works he made revolutionary changes in quantum statistics. In 1900 A.D. Max Planck proposed a new revolutionary hypothesis regarding radiating energy of completely black body lying in a closed container. Of course, in his new equation, E= hv , Max Planck regarded light particles / photons as electromagnetic waves. Max Planck(1900), Peter Debye(1910) and Einstein (1917) -- all the three used the classical idea of electromagnetic waves directly or indirectly in explaining the formula for the energy in the radiation from a black body. All these three were faced with some kind of difficulties which they had never been able to solve.
The first and the most famous of Bose's papers (1924 A.D.) was a fourpage long paper entitled 'Planck's law and the light quantum hypothesis". This research paper marks the beginning of the quantum statistics in the modern physics. When Bose totally abandoned Planck's wave and aspects of photons and challenged the classical statistical mechanics, he was only 30 years old. Bose submitted a paper on this work to the Philosophical Magazine. Six months latter, the paper was rejected because of the negative recommendation by the referee. On June 4, 1924, Bose then sent the rejected manuscript along with a handwritten cover letter to Einstein in Germany. Bose stated in his letter that " I regard the paper as an important contribution and I will have it published." Einstein was very much impressed with the derivation of Max Planck's formula presented by Bose treated photons as particles and not as waves. The derivation was totally regardless of the wave form of photons. Still however he regarded photon particles as massless. Einstein himself translated Bose's research paper into German and got it published in the 1924 August issue of a German magazine. To this article Einstein added the following comment : 'Bose's derivation of Planck's formula appears to me an important step forward. The method used here gives also

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Two Great Scientists : One From Eastern India And One......
207
the quantum theory of an ideal gas, as I shall show elsewhere." Dr S.N. Bose was the first mathematician to put quantum statistics logically in formulae.
E(v)dy = 802.
hv
-dy
C
[exp(
)-1]
This is the world-famous radiation equation of Max Planck. At the experimental level, it has been proved fully true. In explaining this equation, several scientists accepted radiation in the wave form but in deriving this formula Bose accepted radiation in the form of electromagnetic particles. It was his own original achievement.
It was a fortunate coincidence that Bose discovered his quantum statistics when de Broglie was developing theory of wave-particle duality of matter. Since this discovery was derived from the wave form of particles, it may well be predicted that the Bose would have certainly discovered the wave form of electrons if de Broglie had not done so in 1924.
Einstein was the first scientist who fairly well understood Bose's statistics. He also used Bose's statistics in the quantum theory of an ideal gases. He showed that Bose's statistics is not confined only to photon particles but it also applies to gases and other material particles. This statistics developed by Einstein is known ever today in the world of science as Bose-Einstein statistics.
In late thirties and early forties of the nineteenth century, Bose participated in the freedom movement of India. Bose believed that if knowledge of science and technology is to be disseminated to the common man, it should be imparted through the mother tongue. For this purpose he established "Bangiya Bignan Parishad."
In 1962 Bose visited Japan to attend a conference on science and philosophy. This conference was held in sad memory of the dropping of the atom-bombs over Hirosima and Nagasaki in August 1945 A. D. During this visit to Japan, he was very much impressed with scientific, economic, social and cultural progress of Japan. From this visit, he got a direct experience of the influence of scientific education imparted through the mother- tongue.

.

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After coming to India, he supported compaign for imparting scientific education through the mother-tongue. On this point, he shared the same view with Rabindranath Tagore and Svāmi Vivekanand.
Recently, two years ago, the birth century of Bose was celebrated and life and works were commemorated and eulogised. Dr P. C. Vaidya
Dr Vaidya is a professor of mathematics but his field of research is physics. The general theory of relativity is his favourite subject. His research work in this field is matchless and rare.
When Einstein discovered his Theory of Special Relativity in 1905 A. D. He was only 26 but, when Dr Vaidya presented his research paper on Einstein's General Theory of Relativity in 1942 A. D., he was only 24. Recently I happened to see Dr J. Krishna Rao, Head of Mathematics Department of Bhavnagar University. Dr J. Krishna Rao is also a student of Dr P. C. Vaidya. Under the guidance of Dr P. C. Vaidya, he did his research work from 1961 A. D. to 1963 A.D. . Dr Vaidya's professor, Dr Vishnu Vasudeva Narlikar was his professor, too. Since preceding ten years, Dr Narlikar had been pondering on the research work which Dr Vaidya did only in nine months. The thought occured to Dr Vaidya and within a week, he completed his research work. His research paper was only half page long. But in it, he solved one of the two problems that had been confusing Einstein.
In 1915 A.D. Einstein gave a new theory of gravitational force. In order to determine the definite motion of planets according to the new theory, it was necessary to know the gravitational force of the Sun. In the year in which Einstein gave the Relativity Theory i. e. in 1915 A. D., the scientist named Schwarzschild got a solution to Einstein's equations which could determine the gravitational force of the Sun. But this solution regarded the Sun as a cool star. Naturally, therefore, he had not taken into account light-heat and energy. Now the subject for the research suggested by Dr V. V. Narlikar dealt with finding the solution to Einstein's equations based on the contention that the Sun is a radiating star. In the solution given by Schwarzschild treated the Sun as a cool object. Naturally, its mass was considered to be constant. Since mass was thought to be constant, the calculation was very simple. But it was not definite/real. Since in Dr Vaidya's research regarded

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Two Great Scientists: One From Eastern India And One......
the Sun as a hot and radiating substance, the mass of the Sun went on changing/decreasing as it went on emitting energy. Therefore, there is a slight variation in the gravitational force of the Sun. But this variation is very slight and negligible. As Dr Vaidya himself stated there is only as much difference as 10-27 between Schwarzschild's calculation and his calculation. While finding a solution every researcher engaged in this research compared the light emitted by the Sun with a liquid and then determined the gravitational force according to Einstein's theory. He depended on the prevalent belief that the density of liquid/light is three times as much as the pressure on it. But Dr Vaidya discarded the said belief, compared light with flowing water and attached importance only to the velocity of light. Dr Narlikar accepted this and they jointly soon arrived at a new equation. Later on Dr Vaidya made other equations and found their solutions. His research work was thus completed only within a week. Really speaking, we can say that a series of research works in his life, began only in this week.
209
Since the calculation made by Dr Vaidya showed only a slight difference, his research was not regarded as very important. In 1945 A. D., his article showing the details of his solution was sent to Royal Astronomical Society in London for publication in its magazine, it was rejected. The solution arrived at in 1942 - 43 A.D. was ultimately published in the magazine of Indian Academy of Sciences' as late as 1951 A.D.
But after 20 or 22 years, circumstances changed and the research works of Dr Vaidya suddenly assumed importance. In the international conference held in Texas in December 1964, this solution given by Dr Vaidya, was discussed as long as two hours. Subsequently, his research papers published in 1943-51-53 and 1955 A.D. became very famous. The only reason was that quasars were discovered in 1963 A. D. and pulsars were discovered in 1967 A.D. Both these types of stars, constellations, emit many times as much radiation as the Sun does. Their gravitational force is thousands- millions of times more powerful than that of our Sun. The decrease in gravitational force caused by their radiation is, therefore, not negligible. The decrease in their gravitational force is hundred thousand times greater than the decrease of the gravitational force in the Sun. If it is not taken into consideration, we shall obviously get unreal and deceptive figures showing their position, distance and mass. These powerful centers of gravitation must, therefore, be described according to the theory of Einstein and in that case it becomes

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THE EXTERNAL FIELD OF A RADIATING STAR IN
GENERAL RELATIVITY
(i) dm-0, (11) & (r3 e ̃à T1') = 0,
(iii)
Ir is well known that the generalization of It is found that the field equations amount to Schwarzschild's solution corresponding to the external field of a radiating star has not yet been obtained. The internal field describes a mixture of matter and radiation. In the outer field there is the expanding inner zone of pure radiation, with radius r, at time t, beyond which the mpty space is described by Schwarzschild's static solution. The zone of pure radiation is given by
ds1 =
· − (1 − 2)* dr3 — ‚1 (de2 + sin" 9d4")
+ m2 (1-2m) de3,
(1)
f(m) = m'
(1-2m).
(2)
[As usual an overhead dot denotes a differentiation with regard to t and an overhead dash a differentiation with regard to r. f(m) is an arbitrary function of m.]
with
so that
Since the lines of flow of radiation must be null geordesics the radiation tensor has to be Tur = por o Spot = 3 (pv)μ= 0 and (v); v = 0. The surviving components of the tensor given by -T'=T1=
m' Am T.
m'2 4mm
T1=
For differentiation along a line of how have the operator
d=ex2+e
in 4nr*
(3)
(4)
(5)
are
(6)
we
(7)
(r' p) = 0, (iv) do
dr
-=0. (8) The equation that is most difficult to handle corresponds to T, 0. But it can be shown to be equivalent to (ii). The equation of continuity then leads to (iii) and (iv) readily. Thus, along the lines of flow of radiation m, vl and rp are all conserved. It is worthy of notice that m' is positive while is negative. This as well as the results (6) and (8) are suggested by the Newtonian analogue.
The total energy of matter and radiation is conserved. m is the affective mass of the whole system at a point. The value of mat the boundary rr, at t=t, is a constant, M. At time t,, for all values of r exceeding r,, the field is given by Schwarzschild's line-element corresponding to the value M Also-f(M) wher TT, and t=t,.
Th: new results are (1), (2), (6), (8). Further details and astronomical applications are considered in a paper to be published elsewhere.
My thanks are due to Prof. V. V. Narlikar under whose guidance this work was done and who showed me the result 8 (i).
Benares Hindu University, March 22, 1943.
P. C. VAIDYA
Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann, Annals of Mathematics, 1938, p. 65; Narlikar, V. V., Bombay Univ. J.. 1939, 8, 37.
Reprinted from "Current Science", Vol. XII, No. 6, June 1943, page 183
Vaidya. His research contribution is therefore very important in astrophysics. necessary to make calculations according to the solution suggested by Dr
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
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211
The Vaidya-metric of Dr Vaidya is very widely used today in astrophysics. of the articles published in science magazines such as General Relativity and Gravitation, Quantum Theory and Gravitation, Physical Review, Physics Today, nearly 20 articles published every year, widely use Vaidya-metric.
Showing his gratitude to Dr V. V. Narlikar, Dr Vaidya writes about his first research paper : "Professor Narlikar wrote only my name as the author of the article that we wrote to give publicity to this solution. Generally, the authorship of an article is attributed to the teacher who suggested the problem and the name of the student is mentioned as the co-author but Narlikar did not do so because the basic idea of finding a solution had occurred to me. He, therefore, gave all the credit for finding the solution only to me. Today when I think of this I realized that Narlikar very well knew the full importance of the solution that we had found. If as the author of the article he had mentioned his name also along with my name, the solution would have been famous by his name and since I was very young at that time to know all this, he could have very easily attributed to his name the solution which is known today as "Vaidya's solution". But he stuck to academic decorum and decided that since the main idea of the solution was Vaidya's, the solution should be attributed to Vaidya's name. This is academic honesty."
In 1963 A.D. a scientist named Roy P. Kerr found the solution to the problem of determining the field of external gravitational force of 'Black Holes', non-luminous stars moving round. Later on, several scientists made attempts to find a solution to the problem of determining the field of gravitational force of luminous stars moving round but they did not succeed.
Dr Vaidya had already solved the problem of determining gravitational force of luminous stars by taking into consideration the light / energy emitted by them. In 1973 A.D. Dr Vaidya and Dr Liladhar K. Patel, one of his students, found out an original method of determining the gravitational force of rotating stars. This method is known as 'Radiation Kerr Metric'. This is another important research of Dr Vaidya in the field of relativity and gravitational force.
Very many students have done research work in the guidance of Dr Vaidya. Till today he has been directly or indirectly associated with world - famous science institutes of India and especially of Gujarat. Even today, the scientists of 'Physical Research Laboratory'(PRL).' 'Indian Space Research Organization

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
(ISRO),' 'Vikram Sarabhai Community Center' etc. of Ahmedabad, look upon Dr Vaidya with full respect and regard his opinions as authentic. Dr Vaidya has been an honorary member or chairperson of many foreign institutes dealing with relativity, gravitational force and mathematics. He has also graced the chair of a good many science conferences
In order to make students take interest in mathematics, he established' Gujarat Ganit Mandal'. Through it, he publishes the magazine, 'Suganitam'. Since 33 years 'Gujarat Ganit Mandal' has been regularly publishing 'Suganitam'. All the credit for it goes to Dr Vaidya and his nephew Prof. Arunbhai Vaidya who is also a mathematician. He has also published as many as seven books. Frequently, he wrote articles in the magazines Kumar, Buddhiprakash, Navchetan etc. The letters that he wrote to his daughters are of such high value that they serve as special articles. Even today he regularly writes every week one letter on an average to one or another of his daughters.
It is a great fortune of India and especially of Gujarat to have such distinguished mathematician. By giving to Dr Vaidya in July, 1993, the Dr Vikram Sarabhai Award for science out of the seven awards meant for the best persons in seven different fields, the Gov. of Gujarat has rightly appreciated his services and research contribution.
It is a happy coincidence that the Bose-Einstein statistics of Dr Satyendranath Bose and Dr P. C. Vaidya's research regarding the field of gravitational force of radiating stars substantiates the concept of physics of Jain Philosophy.
In February 1991, a conference about Jain philosophy and modern science was organized by the Jain Centre of Ahmedabad. Two important research papers about Jain philosophy and physics were presented in the conference. 1. Limitations of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity--- a paper written by Munishri Nandighoshvijayji and presented by Prof. H. F. Shah, Professor of the famous St. Xavier's College of Ahmedabad. 2. Jain philosophy and Bose-Einstein statistics' --- a paper written and presented by Prof. Parasmal Agrawal (Madhya pradesh).
Bose-Einstein statistics enlightens on particles of ideal gases and photon particles. In the whole of the universe, space-units are limited in number and pudgala particles are infinite in number according to the Jain philosophy.

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How can infinite pudgala particles be occupied in space occupied by limited space-units? And how can infinite paramāņus be occupied by a single space-unit? A space-unit can be occupied by only single independent paramāņu. But in the same single space-unit a congregation of infinite paramāņus can be occupied.
213
This theory of physics shown by the Jain philosophy, also applies to the bodyless souls which are free from all the eight kinds of karma particles.
Emancipated souls reside in Siddhaśīlā, the rock acting as seat of location at the top of the universe for emancipated souls. These emancipated souls are Arūpi (devoid of form) and bodyless. Each one of them has his independent existence. According to the Jain theory the hight of the emancipated soul is two-third of height that he had at the time of nirvana i. e. emancipation. Still however, infinite other emancipated souls occupy the space which is occupied by a single emancipated soul. Acāryas commenting on Jain scriptures give an easy and simple explanation for this by giving the example of a lamp's light. If a small lamp is lighted in a room, light spreads everywhere in the whole room. If twenty or twenty-five or hundreds of lamps are lighted in the same room, light of all the lamps spreads everywhere in the room and on the walls of the room but it does not happened that light of a single lamp falls only on a particular spot.
According to Prof. P. M. Agrawal, the condition of infinite paramāņus Occupying the same space-unit and the condition of infinite souls occupying common space-units, can be explained by Bose-Einstein statistics.
Dr P. C. Vaidya's research also substantiates the pudgala-paramāņu theory of Jain philosophy. According to his research, the gravitational force of radiating stars or of the Sun is less than that of non-radiating stars of the same mass and volume. He has shown these calculations by mathematical equations.
According to Jain philosophy, energy is a quality and that which has qualities and modifications is a substance. [ a guṇaparyāyavad dravyam]-- (Tattvärtha Sūtra, Ch. 5, Sūtra No. 37) ] Qualities and modifications belong to substances. The pudgala i.e. matter which has a form, certainly has a mass. The rays of light are a matter, not qualities. The matter pudgala has a quality in the form of energy. When radiating star or

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the Sun emits light, really speaking, it is subtle rays or micro particles that are emitted. These subtle rays or micro particles also have a mass and they strike against the objects which lie in the field of gravitational force of the luminous object which emits them. They slowdown the motion of the object or reduce their attraction towards the star or the Sun. Of course, this reduction is very meagre according to the meagre momentum (p = mv = mc ) of light. Dr P. C. Vaidya has given us the calculation of this negligible reduction. But even today the modern physics regard photons to have zero mass.
The modern physics believes that according to the excessive gravitational force of the Sun etc. and of the stars with a very great mass, the space around it contracts and the path of the objects passing through it, slightly curves. Really speaking, according to the Jain philosophical contention, space is a single whole substance, it is non-material and inert and it has no qualities. Of course, Naiyāyikas (other ancient tradition) regard sound as a quality of space. But the Jain philosophy regards sound as fully material, this can also be proved through modern scientific instruments. Therefore, according to the Jain philosophical contention, the gravitational force of no object has any influence at all on the inert space devoid of qualities. But its gravitational force influences material object in its gravitational field and if the object, the Sun or a star is radiating, its radiation reduces the gravitational force of the object. This reduction proves that the energy emitted by stars or the Sun in the form of light/photons, also has a mass. According to Einstein's General Theory of Relativity the apparent change of place caused by the gravitational force of the Sun through solar deflection of a star-light, could be approved during the total solar eclipse. This also proves that photons have a mass because only that object is influenced by gravitational force which is material and has, therefore, a mass. If light particles have zero
mass, according to the equation F=G-
2, it is not at all influenced
d2
by a strong gravitational force of any kind. But as shown above, the effect of the strong gravitational force of the Sun on the light of the star, has been reported in the G. T. R.. This proves that the mass of light particles is not zero. Of course, this is my own conclusion. I cannot say that all will agree to it. But I will not be at all surprised if in very near future all scientists agree to this my conclusion.

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215
-
It is a happy coincidence that research contributions of both these Indian scientists in the field of physics thus surprisingly substantiate Jain philosophical contentions.
THE EASTERN SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS SHOW THEIR FOLLOWERS VARIOUS WAYS OF GOING BEYOND THE ORDINARY EXPERIENCE OF TIME AND OF FREEING THEMSELVES FROM THE CHAIN OF CAUSE AND EFFECT- FROM THE BONDAGE OF KARMA, AS THE HINDUS AND BUDDHISTS SAY. IT HAS THEREFORE BEEN SAID THAT EASTERN MYSTICISM IS A LIBERATION FROM TIME. IN A WAY SAME MAY BE SAID OF RELATIVISTIC PHYSICS.
FRITJOF CAPRA

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19. Why Does Omniscient Tirthankara
Moves About On A Golden Lotus?
Indian culture has two traditions : 1. The śramaņa tradition and 2. The Brahmin tradition. The Brahmin tradition is believed to be more than 5000 years old and its scriptures include the Vedas and the Smrutis. The śramaņa tradition is of two types : 1. The Jain Śramaņa tradition of Bhagavān Mahāvira and 2. The Buddhist tradition of Gautama Buddha. Though both these traditions are contemporaneous, they are absolutely independent of each other. Since they are contemporaneous, there have always between them discussions and disputes over scriptural interpretations. Still however, both these traditions are chiefly non-violent. The premier founder of the Buddhist tradition was Gautama Buddha himself. Bhagavān Mahāvira, the twenty fourth Tirthankara in the Jain tradition, which he promulgated. It means that twenty three other Tirthankaras, his equals preceded him. Modern historians recognize Bhagavān Pārsvanātha and Arhat Aristanēmi (Nēminātha), the cousin of Sri Krsna, as great men of pre-historical times. Moreover in the Agvēda, which is regarded as the most ancient scripture of the Brahmin tradition, there is a reference to Bhagavān Aşabhadēva, the first Tirthankara of the Avasarpiņikāla (the descending half of the time cycle) of the Jain tradition. This proves that Bhagavān Aşabhadēva and Jainism are more ancient than the Vēdas. We are here talking of only the present group of the twenty four Tirthankaras. In the past there were infinite such groups of twenty four Tirthankaras and there will be infinite such groups of twenty four Tirtharkaras in future. Soon after attaining omniscience, all the Tirthankaras move about by putting their feet on golden lotus flower.' This is a special characteristic of every Tirtharkara.
What is the reason, why instead of putting his feet on earth, the omniscient Tirthankara puts his feet on golden lotus flowers? There are some who say that śri Simandharsvāmi and other Tirtharkaras are renouncers of Samsāra, i.e. world, of wealth and wife and they are non-acquisitive. Why

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Why Does Omniscient Tirtharkara Moves About On A Golden Lotus?
217
do they then need a golden throne to sit on and golden flowers to put their feet on?
Jain scriptures do not give any clear explanation about this. In reply to this question, some modern thinkers, scholars and Jain monks say that after the omniscient Tirthankara attains omniscience, his body emits a large quantity of energy. The earth cannot bear this large quantity of energy. Only gold can bear this quantity of energy. That is the reason why soon after Tirthankara attains omniscience, gods make golden lotus flowers and Tirthankara either moves about by putting his feet on them, sits on them or sits on the golden throne in Samavasarana and gives sermons. At that time also, his feet rest on golden lotus flowers.
in this regard, my reverend Gurudev, His Holiness Ācārya Śri Sūryodayasūriji says that this is not true nor has it any support of scriptures and since gold is also produced in the earth, it is earth-bodied. If earth is not capable of holding the large quantity of energy of the omniscient Tirthankara, how can gold have that capability? There must, therefore, be some other reason for creating golden lotus flowers.
Thinking on the basis of scientific principles, this question can be answered as under. Today science has proved that every living being constantly emits such type of energy. Scientists know this energy as bio-electromagnetic energy. This cannot be seen but it can be perceived. Some times great men with their extra sensory powers can see this energy. Where there is electric energy, magnetic energy is always there. Both these energies are connected with each other. Michael Faraday proved this in 1833 A.D. Where there is electro-magnetic energy, there is electro-magnetic field.
Of course, we cannot see bio-electromagnetic energy but today with the help of modern scientific instruments, coloured photographs of bioelectromagnetic field can be snatched by Kirlian photography. Moreover on the basis of their colours and by detecting their defects, diseases can also be diagnosed. In ancient times great men knew this bio-electromagnetic field by the name of aura.
Śri Ashok Kumar Dutt, who is a mechanical engineer in Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Noida, (Ghaziabad), can see the aura of men. Not only that but he also can know the kinds of thoughts of men on the basis of its colours.

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The effect of a disease comes to the aura three months before the disease enters the body. By examining photographs of aura, taken by Kirlian photography, one can know disease, cure it, prevent it from entering the body and remain healthy. Of course, the disease enters in the vital body in a minute form but it does not appear in a gross form in the physical body.
In short, bio-electromagnetic energy is a scientifically proved fact and there is no doubt about it.
It is that every living being emits energy. But the kind and quality of it depends on the physical, mental and spiritual development of the living being. It also depends on the extent to which auspicious and inauspicious karma particles attached to the soul and karma particles covering the original property of the soul, are cast off. All these factors - parameters exist in omniscient Tirthankara Paramātmā to the highest extent. Their bio-electromagnetic energy is, therefore, of the excellent quality and the greatest quantity. This can be explained by mathematical formulae as under :
1. Bio-electromagnetic energy (BEME)a physical state x mental state 2. BEMEα spiritual level x AKFAK
where AKFAK is auspicious karma related to the four aghāti
(not affecting soul-properties) karma
3. BEME α 1/(IKFAK)(FGK)
Where IKFAK is inauspicious karma related to the four aghāti karma and FGK is four ghāti (affecting soul-properties) karma.
The sign of variable (a) used in these equations is not without significance. It is used here only to show that in no circumstances the bioelectromagnetic energy of a soul is reduced to zero.
According to the Jain philosophical tradition, of the three kinds of activities namely, mental, vocal and physical, every soul can do at least one kind of activities i.e. activities of body, even if the soul belongs to the lowest and most primitive stage.
According to the Jain tradition, only sañjni (possessing mind) womb born five sensed animals (elephants, cows, horses and such other animals,

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Why Does Omniscient Tirthankara Moves About On A Golden Lotus? 219
sparrow, mynas, cuckoos and such birds, fish and other acquatic animals) and gods, hellish beings and sañjñi human beings can do activities of mind. The one sensed, i.e. earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, wind-bodied and plant; the two-sensed, the three-sensed, the four-sensed and asañjni beasts, birds etc and sammürcchima human beings do not have material mind and therefore, auspicious and inauspicious karma particles do not bind them through mind activities and therefore their bio-electromagnetic energy does not increase or decrease for such cause. But since they have a body which is bound by auspicious and inauspicious karma particles, their bio-electromagnetic energy increases or decreases through body-activities. Because living beings bound by karma particles, this element is never reduced to zero.
Similarly, to whatever state, a samsari soul may belong to primitive stage, his spiritual energy is never reduced to zero. Even in the souls of the most primitive state (nigōda), auspicious variety of nama-karma, vēdaniya-karma, ayuṣya-karma and gōtra-karma and especially of namakarma and vēdaniya-karma, is never reduced to zero. Contrarily, no amount of inauspicious variety of these four kinds of karma particles accumulated together can fully cover the infinite energy of the soul. Similarly, no amount of the four kinds of ghati-karma namely jñānāvaraṇiya, darśanavaraṇiya, mōhaniya and antarāya karma particles accumulated together can fully cover the infinite energy of the soul.
The sign of variable is used in the equations given above, in order to show that in the whole of the living world, the bio-electromagnetic energy even in the most primitive state of the soul, is never reduced to zero.
According to the rule of mathematics, when the sign (=) (equal to) is used in the above equations, "k" (a constant number) is placed. We can call this constant number, a universal co-efficient. Of course, this constant number is unknown to nescient beings like us. Only the omniscient great men can show its precise value. We can now only imagine it as a constant number.
The omniscient Tirthankaras have the following types of characteristics:
1. They have the highest physical powers because they have the superior type of bone-construction namely, Vajraṛṣabhanārāca, which is ca

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pable of tolerating the greatest discomforts and harassments. Even if the Kāla-cakra is thrown on their head, they do not die.
2. Since they have the greatest physical strength, they have the greatest mental strength because only a sound body can have a sound mind (mana). That is the reason why men in Vajrarṣabhanārāca cannot be diverted from dhyāna, i.e. meditation even by gods.
3. Dhyāna is concentration of mind, speech and body. Therefore, they have a strong body and strong mind, can have superior type of dhyānal meditation and a superior type of spiritual state.
4. The greater the rise of auspicious karma of a soul, the greater the bioelectromagnetic energy. Tirthankaras have the best and most distinctly meritorious Tirthankara nāma-karma accumulated by them in the penultimate (immediately preceding the last) birth by virtue of their auspicious acts and auspicious thoughts. That karma and karmas related to it very strongly come into rise and therefore, they have the most powerful bio-electromagnetic energy.
5. Since they are Tirthankaras, perhaps no inauspicious karma come into rise and therefore their related karmas raise no obstacles to their bioelectromagnetic energy.
6. There are chiefly four types of karma that veil and obstruct the infinite qualities of the soul namely, (1) knowledge obscuring (2) darśana obscuring, (3) infatuating and (4) obstructing karmas. The omniscient souls are perfectly free from these karmas.They, therefore, experience the infinite qualities and energy of soul.
In all the six ways shown above, the greatest/ highest energy of the omniscient Tirtharkara manifests in the largest quantity. This energy is in the form of subtle bio-electromagnetic energy. It is believed that since the earth cannot bear the burden of this highest energy, Tirthankara walks by putting his feet on the golden lotus. But this is not the fact. This energy tremendously energizes the atmosphere. Human beings and other animals can not catch this energy. If at all they do so, they are probably harmed rather than helped. In order to enable men to make the best use of the greatest energy of Tirthankara for a long time, gods create golden lotus flowers to pull down into the earth, the superior type of bio-electromag
'

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Why Does Omniscient Tirthankara Moves About On A Golden Lotus?
netic energy of the Tirthankara and Tirthankara walks by putting his feet on the golden lotus flowers.
We generally see that a copper wire is set high on a sky-scapper and another end of the wire is set down under the ground. The reason is that the wire absorbs the high electrical charge in the atmosphere of the rainy season and takes it down into the earth. The lightening, therefore, does not fall anywhere about the place. It is my contention that gods create golden lotus flowers only in view of this principle because gold is very sensitive and highly conductive to electricity and it is more conductive than copper. Tirthankara's energy, therefore, passes down into the earth through golden lotus flowers. As a result, wherever Tirthankara wanders about or wherever he has wandered about and left, for six months and within certain area, a natural calamity such as epidemic or a famine does not come nor there is an excessive rain-fall or absence of rain nor there is harrassment from mosquitoes, flies, butterflies, locusts and other insects and creatures. Moreover inauspicious activities of human beings and animals in that region are probably removed.2.
Mahāvirasvāmi lived more than 2500 years ago. But in Magadhas land of his wanderings, i.e. Bihar of today, places of his Kalyāṇakas, especially places of attainment of omniscience, the bank of the river Ṛjuvālikā and the place of nirvāṇa kalyāṇaka i.e. final emancipation Pāvāpuri even today give delightful and divine experiences to holy men.
Thus Tirthankara does good to the whole world.
This is the excellent result of Tirthankara's excellent aspirations.
References: 1.

221
पादौ पदं धत्तस्तव तत्र सुरासुराः । किरन्ति पङ्कजव्याजात् श्रियं पङ्कजवासिनीम् ।।
yatra padau padam dhattastava tatra surāsurāḥ. kiranti pankajavyājāt śriyam pańkajavāsinim ..
(Vitarāgastōtra, Fourth Chapter, Verse No. 3)
2. Vitarāgastōtra, Third Chapter, verses No. 4 to 10)

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20. Kinds Of Jāpa
And Their Scientific Importance
पूजाकोटिसमं स्तोत्रं, स्तोत्रकोटिसमो जपः । जपकोटिसमं ध्यानं, ध्यानकोटिसमो लयः ।। pūjākāțisamam stõtram, stötrakõțisamo japaḥ.
japakõțisamam dhyānam, dhyānakoțisamā layah ..' A Stotrapãtha or Stutipātha ( recitation of a song and praise i.e. prayer) of vitarāga paramātmā or any other god, gods and goddesses etc. is worth his worship performed a crore times. A Jāpa is worth a Stotra (praise) recited a crore times. A meditation is worth a Jāpa muttered a crore times. An absorption, delight in the form of Paramātmā or unification of one who performs meditation, meditation and the object of the meditation is worth a meditation performed a crore times.
Here worship generally means worship of idol of a god or a goddess performed with the best meterials of worship. It is of various kinds Aştaprakāri (with eight types), Pañcaprakāri (with five types). Ēkāpacāri (with single type), Ekavimśatiprakāri (with twenty-one types) and Bahuvidhaprakāri (with various types). The materials and means of worship are chiefly important in this worship. Here the activities are mainly of the body. A Stotra i.e. praise recited once is worth a Pūjā performed a crore times. If complete concentration of mind, speech and body is attained while performing Pūjā of the Dēvādhidēva Paramātmā, the great God and if the mind indulges in auspicious thought processes i. e. meditation, one can also attain omniscience while performing Pūjā e.g. Worship with flowers performed by Nāgakētu. Similarly, recitation of Stuti or Stõtra (song of praise) chiefly involves the activities of speech and body, while the activities of mind or sensorium are subordinate. A Jāpa is worth a Stotra recited a crore times. A Jāpa mainly involves the activities of mind or sensorium. There is probably no activity of speech or body. According to the saying "mana ēva manusyāņām kāraṇam bandhamoksayoh ." (मन एव मनुष्याणां कारणं बन्धमोक्षयोः 1) when the mind receds from inauspicious activities and engages in auspicious activities such as Jāpa

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etc. the inflow of inauspicious karma come to stop and there is an accumulation of auspicious karma and thus proceeding further he who performs Jāpa indulges in meditation. Therefore, a one-time meditation is worth a Jāpa muttered a crore times. He who engages in meditation, the meditation, the object of meditation and himself - all these are separate. Only the concentration of mind, speech and body is important. When the object of meditation, meditation and the meditator 2 -- all these three -- are unified in the form of Paramātmā (the super soul ) or the soul, he attains the stage of absorption and such an absorption is worth meditation of crore times.
According to the above verse, worship, Stuti or Stötra (song of praise), Jāpa, meditation and absoption i.e. unification are gradually ascending power. Jāpa is of three kinds 1. spoken Jāpa 2. speechless Jāpa and 3. mental Jāpa.
1. Jāpa muttered with loud pronunciation so that others can hear, is called a spoken Jāpa. (Bhāșya)
2. Jāpa muttered mentally by making a flapping sound so that others cannot hear, is called speechless Jāpa. (Upāmśu)
3. Jāpa muttered mentally without using lips, tongue etc., called mental Jāpa. (Mānasa)
Upadhyāya Śri Mānavijayaji states in the book entitled 'Dharmasangraha': ".........ARCA111 T 1 TUA 1114: THIS TY: 9:11 "
......sasabdānmaunavān śubhah. maunajānmānasaḥ śrēşthah jāpaḥ ślāghyah parah parah..
Speechless Jāpa is better than the spoken one and mental (Mānasa) Jāpa is superior to speechless Jāpa. All these three varities of Jāpa are gradually more praise worthy.)
Pratişthāpaddhati (kalpa) written by śri Pādaliptasūriji states that there are three kinds of Jāpa : Mānasa (mental), Upāmśu (speechless) and Bhāşya (spoken).
Jāpa which does not involve even a low utterance, which is muttered in mind and which only its mutterer can understand, is called Mānasa (mental) Jāpa. Jāpa which involves low utterance and which others cannot hear is

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called Upāmśu (speechless) Jāpa. Jāpa which others can hear is Bhāşya (spoken) Jāpa. Mānasa (mental) Jāpa is difficult to perform. It is performed for doing works of peace. It is, therefore, the best. Upāņśu (speechless) Jāpa is performed for common welfare. It is a common kind of Jāpa. Bhāşya (spoken) Jāpa is easy to perform. It is generally performed for doing such wicked acts as subduing or fascinating others. It is, therefore, bad. *
In the modern physics, the scientists named de- Broglie states in his particle- wave theory of material particle that subtle particles behave like waves and the formula of wave-length of waves pertaining to the particles is
h a=-- , where I is wave-length, h is Planck's constant, mis mass of the
miy particle and vis velocity of particle. In this formula, if mv = p , then I = h/p, where p is momentum. The formula of energy of particle of matter is E= nhf, where Eis enrgy, h is Planck's constant, fis frequency and n stands for integer numbers i.e. n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,..............etc. The energy of particles of a matter which are in the form of wave, depends upon its frequency and the frequency varies inversely with the wave-length. If the wave-length increases, the frequency decreases and the wave-length decreases, the frequency increases. The wave-length inversely varies with the product of the mass of the material particle and its velocity. If there is an increase either in mass or velocity or in both of a subtle material particle, the wave-length of the material particle decreases proportionately. And, therefore, frequency and consequently energy increases. This rule can be applied to the kinds of Jāpa shown by our sages.
According to the Jain scriptures, there are eight types of Vargaņās (grouping of physical material particles i.e. paramāņus). Vargaņā is a technical word of Jain scriptures. Vargaņā is a kind of unit of a constituent paramāņus i.e. particles. The first Vargaņā means separate - single particles i.e. paramāņus spread all over the universe. The second Varganā means groups of units of two paramāņus each. The third Vargaņā means units of groups of three paramānus each. The fourth Vargaņā means units of groups of four paramānus each. Thus there are infinite kinds of units of paramāņus. But the following eight types of Vargaņās are useful to living beings :

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1. Audārika Vargaņā, 2. Vaikriya Vargaņā 3. Ahāraka Vargaņā, 4. Taijas Vargaņā, 5. Bhāṣā Vargaņā, 6. śvāsācchrāsa Vargaņā, 7. Mano Vargaņā, 8. Kārmana Vargaņā.
Every constituent unit of all these Vargaņās have infinite particles i.e. paramāņus and yet a constituent unit of a Vaikriya Vargaņā has a larger number of paramānus than the number of paramāņus of the unit of Audārika Vargaņā and a constituent unit of Ahāraka Vargaņā has a still greater number of paramāņus than the number of paramāņus of the unit of the Vaikriya Vargaņā. Similarly, a constituent unit of each subsequent Vargaņā has a gradually increasing number of paramānus. And with increasing number of paramāņus in the unit of each Vargaņā, the size of paramānus becomes gradually subtler and subtier. As a result a constituent unit of Mano Vargaņā has a greater number of paramāņus than a constituent unit of Bhāṣā Varganā. ?
It should be remembered here that Jain Agamas were written in a fifth or sixth century of Vikram Era. Till then it was customary for monks and nuns of Jain tradition to commit Āgamas to memory. While the quantum mechanics of modern physics was invented as late as at the end of the 20th century of Vikram Era.
According to the modern physics, the velocity of sound i.e. constituent units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā is only 330 metres / second, but the speed of constituent units of taijas Vargaņā i.e. electromagnetic waves, light waves waves of radio and television is 30 crore metres /sec. That is why the constituent units of Bhāṣā Vargaņā have les energy, though they have a far greater number of paramāņus than the constituent units of taijas Vargaņā. The constituent units of Mano Vargaņā have a very large number of particles (paramānus) that gets tranformed as thoughts or mind and they are very subtle, too. As we experience in our daily life, the speed of mind and its thought- pudgalas is tremendous. Therefore, their energy is infinite or very high,
of the three kinds of Jāpa taught by spiritual sages, the first spoken Jāpa uses the constituent units of paramānus of Bhāṣā Vargaņā. Since their speed is very slow, their frequency is low and as a result their energy is very small. In that kind of Jāpa, therefore, the message takes time to reach the

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presiding deity. Its intensity is also very low.
The second kind of Jāpa namely speechles Jāpa, uses the constituent units of paramāņus of Bhāṣā Vargaṇā and its speed is 330metres / sec.. Still however this kind of Jāpa produces inaudible sound waves. Generally, we can hear sound waves only of a certain frequency. Sound waves having frequency 20 to 20,000 are audible. Sound waves having more frequency than 20,000, cannot be grasped by the ear. Therefore, ultrasonic waves of a high frequency produced in speechless Jāpa have a considerable energy." That is why speechless Jāpa is better than spoken Jāpa.
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
Mānasa Jāpa is the best of all. It has only the constituent units of paramāņus of Manō Vargaṇā. It has the largest number of particles and its velocity is also highest. Since the waves produced by mānasa (mental) Jāpa have the highest frequency, their energy canot be imagined. Since the waves of Manasa Jāpa have a far greater velocity and a far larger number of paramāņus than the electromagnetic waves of taijas Vargaṇā, they have infinite energy. Really speaking, this Jāpa does not at all use speech. It is, therefore, also called ajapā-Jāpa, a Jāpa without utterance and it is natural and auotmatic. Only the mind is used in this Jāpa.
In conclusion, I pray, "May all living beings fulfil their desires through mänasa Jāpa, engage in meditation of the Dēvādhidēva i.e. great God and ultimately attain eternal bliss.
References:
1. Dharmasangraha part-1, Gujarati Translation p. 347.
2. ध्याता ध्येयं तथा ध्यानं त्रयमेकात्मतां गतम् । इति ते योगमाहात्म्यं कथं श्रद्धीयतां परैः ।। dhyātā dhyēyam tatha dhyānam trayamēkātmatām gatam. iti tē yōgamāhātmyam katham śraddhiyatām paraiḥ ..
(Vitarägastōtra, prakāśa-14)
3. Dharmasangraha part-1 Gujarati Translation p. 346.
4. lbidem
5. Quantum Mechanics by P. M. Mathews & K.Venkatesan p. 2
6. Ibdem p. 7

7. Detailed information of these Vargaṇās is given in the commentary of Śri Acārāngasūtra, The Pañcasañgraha, The Karma-Prakṛti. Readers may read it in

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these books.
8. With the help of the ultrasonic waves, a urine stone is broken into powder and forced out of the body without a surgical operation and sometime a thrombous in the body is melted. This speaks of the energy of these inaudible ultrasonic sound waves
THEY REALIZE THAT GOOD AND BAD, PLEASURE AND PAIN, LIFE AND DEATH, ARE NOT ABSOLUTE EXPERIENCES BELONGING TO DIFFERENT CATEGORIES, BUT ARE MERELY TWO SIDES OF THE SAME REALITY, EXTREME PARTS OF A SINGLE WHOLE. THE AWARENESS THAT ALL OPPOSITES ARE POLAR, AND THUS A UNITY, IS SEEN AS ONE OF THE HIGHEST AIMS OF MAN IN THE SPIRITUAL TRADITIONS OF THE EAST.
FRTJOF CAPRA
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21. Scientific Importance
Of Guru In The Spirituality
ध्यानमूलं गुरोर्मूर्तिः, पूजामूलं गुरोः पदौ ।। मन्त्रमूलं गुरोर्वाक्यं, मोक्षमूलं गुरोः कृपा || dhyānamulam gurõrmūrttiḥ, pūjāmīlam gurõh padau ..
mantramūlam gurõrvākyam, mākşamūlam gurõh krpā .. The centre of meditation is guru's idol. The place of worship is at guru's feet. Guru's word is the source of mantra. Guru's blessings results in 'mökşa' i.e. final liberation.
No other western tradition holds guru in a such high esteem as the Indian spiritual tradition. In Indian spiritual tradition, there are three chief elements, God, guru and dharma (religion). God and guru are living entities and dharma is a conceptual entity of qualities. The basic difference between God and guru is that the previous status of God is that of guru and then he attains the status of the great God. To attain the eternal bliss i from the bondage of karma is our ultimate aim. It is the guru who introduces to us the concepts of God and dharma. Showing the importance of guru , Kabiraji says:
गुरु गोविंद दोनों खडे, किसको लागु पाय । बलिहारी गुरु आपकी, गोविंद दियो बताय ।। guru govinda dönöm khadē, kisakā lāgu pāya. balihāri guru āpaki, govinda diyā batāya ..
Guru has not yet attained perfect Godhood but he has started his journey on the path of attaining Godhood. His knowledge of the right path and experience offers guidance to every aspirant. And without a guide, none can attain the highest state and experience of self-realisation. That is why in Indian spirituality, guru is regarded not only indispensable but extremely inevitable.
It is said: गुरु देवो, गुरु देवता, गुरु विण घोर अंधार । जे नर गुरुथी वेगला, रडवडिया संसार ||

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229
guru dēvē, guru dēvatā, guru viņa ghõra amdhāra . jē nara guruthi vēgalā, radavadiyā saņsāra ..
[Guru is the lamp, guru is God, and without guru there is dreadful darkness. Those who are far from guru, wander badly in Samsāra i.e. birth and death cycle.
It was not without reasons that our ancient sages gave so much importance to guru. They were erudite and they also had knowledge from experience. Whatever they attained, they attained only through the blessings of their guru. They directly experienced and saw that those who had not acquired guru's blessings, wandered here and there in Samsāra in spite of being very capable and learned. Therefore, the importance that they gave to guru is justified and also from the viewpoint of modern science, it is proper.
Every living being, gross or subtle, has a sort of energy. In spiritual terminology, it is called spiritual power but in scientific terminology, it is called electromagnetic energy that depends upon the spiritual evolution of soul. The more purity of the soul, the more manifest the energy.
A scientific magazine entitled 'New Scientist' has published the results of certain experiments. Accordingly, there is a magnetic compass in the human body. Though unknowingly, we can come under the influence of a magnetic field.
Those who know even elementary science, know that around a magnet, there is its own magnetic field and it is represented by magnetic lines. The magnetic field is invisible but if you put a magnet on a piece of paper on a able, spread a few iron particles around it and pat the table with your finger, the iron particles will automatically be arranged along the magnetic lines in the magnetic field. If a piece of iron comes in the magnetic field, the magnet attracts it. If changes are often made in the magnetic field, an electric current is produced and if this electric current is passed through metal wires etc. magnetic energy or magnetic field is produced in them. Thus electric energy and magnetic energy are interdependent or co-related. When both these energies combine, electro-magnetic energy is produced. This sort of energy is there in living beings also but it is subtler and more powerful. The laws of gross electromagnetic energy and its field also apply to bioelectromagnetic field and energy. If one magnet is brought into the magnetic

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field of another magnet, like poles repel and unlike poles attract. A magnet influences another magnet or an object in its magnetic field. Similarly, thoughts of a living being influence the thoughts of other living beings nearby. Around every living being, there is an electromagnetic field. It is called an aura (abhamandal). With the help of Kirlian photography, this aura can be photographed. That is why our ancient sages said :
चित्रं वटतरोर्मूले, वृद्धाः शिष्या गुरुयुवा । गुरोस्तु मौनं व्याख्यानं, शिष्यास्तु छिन्नसंशयाः ।। citram vatatarõrmūlē, vrddhāḥ śişyā gururyuvā . gurõstu maunam vyākhyānam, śişyāstu chinnasamśayāḥ
[It is a surprise that among the ascetic monks sitting under the banyan tree, the disciples are old and the guru is young and it is a greater surprise that the guru's lecture is his silence which removes the doubts of the disciples.)
Thus, a mere company of a spiritually accomplished guru inspires spiritual development of his disciples.
In different sects of Indian spiritual tradition, the guru imparts blessings to his disciples in different ways. A blessing is a sort of transmission of energy. Generally, the disciple who seeks blessings, bows at the feet of the guru and holds guru's feet who offers blessings. Then the guru lays his hand on the disciple's head and blesses him. During this process, the electric current emitting from the guru's hand, passes through the disciple's head to his hands and as his hands touch the guru's feet, it passes into the guru's body. Thus as the electric circuit is completed, guru's energy passes into the disciple. In another tradition, the guru smells the disciples head. There also such a transmission of energy takes place.
In the Jain tradition, śramana Bhagavān Mahāvira was the twenty fourth Tirthankara and his first disciple was Śri Gautamasvāmi.' Their masterdisciple relation was famous. His original name was Indrabhūti and Gautama was the name of his family (Götra). But as great men are now-a-days known by their surname, sages of ancient times were known by the name of their Götra. He was, therefore, known in the Jain tradition as Gautamasvāmi and today also he is worshipped by the same name. As stated in Jain religious scriptures, when Mahāvirasvāmi was 42 years old and Indrabhūti Gautama was 50 years old, they met each other. Prior to their meeting, he

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was a Brahmin pundita well-versed in 14 Vidyās i.e. 14 different branches of ancient literature, and he used to perform sacrificial rite. He had 500 Brahmin disciples. So long as Indrabhūti Gautama had not seen Bhagavān Mahāvira and had not entered in his spiritual bio-electromagnetic field, he cherished the ambition to conquer Bhagavān Mahāvira in debate and establish his supremacy in all branches of literature all over the world. But as soon as he came near Samavasaraņa, a place of sermon, where Bhagavān Mahāvira was sitting and saw him, his ambition to defeat Bhagavān Mahāvira crumbled and he lost himself in the surrender to Bhagavān Mahāvira and thus justified the statement that a guru's idol is a centre of meditation : " *** Tetofor I dhyānamūlam gurõrmürttin"
It is said that when Tirthankara Paramātmā gives religious sermon, people, birds, and beasts from a distance of as many as 12 Yojanas ( 1
iles) come to hear his sermon. His spiritual bio-electromagnetic field expands as far as twelve Yojanas.
Now-a-days as the techniques of acupuncture, acupressure and colour therapy are used to cure physical diseases, so magnetotherapy is also used. This is what follows from the description of the state of omniscience of śramaņa Bhagavān Mahāvira, the Guru of the whole universe. His bio-electromagnetic field was so powerful that wherever he went, people of that region were cured of their diseases and nobody fell ill as long as six months after his departure. Enmity could not prevail. No famine was caused by absence of rain or excessive rainfall. That was the effect of his grand power. It seemed as if he had hypnotised or mesmerised all
Really speaking, it will not be surprising if western scientists prove in near future that all these excellences or unexplained properties (Atiśayas) of a Tirthankara's life were not miracles but they were the effects of the pure bio-electromagnetic field of their spiritual power that was revealed on removal of karmic obscurities of his soul, When Indrabhūti Gautama got from Bhagavān Mahāvirasvāmi the explanation which solved his doubt about the existence of soul, he accepted Bhagavān Mahāvira as his guru, devoted his life to him and justified that a guru's feet are a place of worship- qorini FT: 94 1 būjāmūlam guron padau ..
And when śramana Bhagavān Mahāvira gave Dikṣā (initiation) to his

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eleven Ganadharas (prime disciples) namely Indrabhūti Gautama etc. by sprinkling the fragrant powder on their head from the golden dish held by Indra, lord of the first heaven. Through his blessings he transmitted a part of the light of his omniscience to his disciples. With that knowledge they composed the complete Angasūtras (main scriptures) and fourteen Pūrvas ( sub scriptures) out of only three sentences ( which are known in the Jain terminology as Tripadi) told by lord Mahāvira:- (1). Uppannē I Vā, (2) Vigamē I Vā, (3)Dhuvē I Va. Thus guru's words in the form of three sentences became mantras. Thus it is justified that guru's sentence is the source of Mantra." Thalai i mantramūlam gurõrvākyam"
For thirty years after initiation, Gañadhara śri Gautamasvāmi served and worshipped śramana Bhagavān Mahāvira. As a result he attained extra ordinary powers (labdhis). That is why his name is preceded by the well deserved epithet - 'Ananta-Labdhi-Nidhāna'. Yet he did not attain omniscience. The only reason for it was his attachment to śramaņa Bhagavān Mahāvira. On the night of his nirvāņa i.e. liberation, lord Mahāvira sent śri Indrabhūti Gautama to give sermon to Brahmin Dēvasarmā who lived in the village nearby. Mahāvira did so in order to ward off Gautama's attachment towards him. While he was returning after giving sermon to Brahmin Dēvaśarmā , Śri Gautamasvāmi became disturbed and agitated on hearing, on the way, the news of nirvāņa of Śri Mahāvirasvāmi. Detachment grew out of the pain of separation from guru and when the tie of attachment towards Śri Mahāvirasvāmi was broken, he attained omniscience. Thus it is justified in the life of Śri Gautamasvāmi that guru's blessings results in ‘mākṣa' i.e. final liberation. 'Heuci Tet: 941 I mākşamūlam guron kopā...'
In short, the importance that is given to a guru in the Indian spirituality is fully upheld by scientific principles. One need not doubt it at all. This article, too, is a fruit of words and grace of my Rev. Gurudēva Ācāryasrivijaya Sūrõdayasūriji Mahārāja.
References:
1. This Gautamasvāmi is different from Gautama Buddha of the Buddhist religion and the Gautama Rși of the Nyāya-Vaiśēșika darśana.
2. A description of the Gautamsvāmi's mental struggle at that time, is found

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in Jain religious scriptures namely, the commentary on the Kalpasūtra , the commentary on the Āvaśyakasūtra etc.
TO THE ENLIGHTENED MAV... WHOSE CONSCIOUSNESS EMBRACES THE UNIVERSE TO HIM THE UNIVERSE BECOMES HIS ‘BODY’, WHILE HIS PHYSICAL BODY BECOMES A MANIFESTATION OF THE UNIVERSAL MIND, HIS INNER VISION AND EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST REALITY, AND HIS SPEECH AN EXPRESSION OF ETERNAL TRUTH AND MANTRIC POWER.
LAME ANAGARIKA GOVIND, FOUNDATIONS OF TIBETAN MYSTICISM P.225

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22. Light : Animate
Or Inanimate?
ramana Bhagavān Mahāvira lived more than 2500 years ago but his dispensation prevails even today. He has pretty well explained in his sermons the nature of the material world that he saw through omniscience and even today the doctrines expounded by Bhagavān Mahāvira is passing the tests of science.
It must be admitted that Jain scriptures have made an incomparable contribution in the field of biology.
According to the Jain philosophical tradition, besides animals and plants, earth, water, fire and wind have life. Today, it is very necessary to prove not only on the basis of logic but practically in scientific ways that there is an element of life in all these. This is an urgent demand of the day and it is our responsibility to satisfy the demand.
Since last few centuries, some wrong beliefs about light have become popular in the Jain society and especially among monks and nuns. These popular beliefs have no strong support of Jain canonical scriptures. Generally there are no lamps in Upāśrayas i.e. places of Jain monks and nuns.The Jain monks and nuns do not use lamps because it is very necessary for them to observe non-violence and according to Jain philosophical belief fire also has life.
Now-a-days there is a custom among Svētāmbara idolatrous Jain monks that whenever one wishes to go through the light of a lamp, one should go, wrapped in a woollen cloth. The reason for this custom is that light is firebodies i.e. it is living being and as soon as it touches our body, it dies. A woollen cloth should, therefore, be wrapped around the body in order to save the living beings of light of electric lamps, candle-sticks from falling on it. The Night of the Sun, the moon, the planets, the constellations and the stars is regarded to be lifeless.
On the other hand, lots of researches are now-a-days done in science and these researches inspire some people to believe that the light of lamps of

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electricity and of lamps of ghee, oil kerosene etc. is lifeless. It is, therefore, very necessary to know the real nature of light on the basis of Jain scriptures.
According to Jain scriptures there are chiefly six kinds of the Pudgala Dravya (matter). 1. subtle-subtle, 2. subtle, 3. subtle-gross, 4. gross-subtle, 5. gross, 6.gross-gross. The commentary of the Jain canonical treatise of Sri Daśavaikālikasūtra written by Rev. Ācārya sri Haribhadrasūriji Mahārāja states on the authority of the Jivābhigamasūtra that every separate unit of a Pudgala Dravya i.e. matter, or paramānu/atom of the matter belongs to the class of the subtle-subtle; pudgala aggregates (skandhas) of two units of matter i.e. paramānus to aggregates of infinite units of matter belong to the class of the subtle; pudgala aggregates of smell (good and bad) belong to the class of the subtle-gross; wind-bodies belong to the class of the gross-subtle; water-bodies belong to the class of the gross; fire-bodies, plant-bodies earthbodies and moving beings such as the two-sensed, three-sensed etc. belong to the class of the gross-gross. In the commentary on the Tattvärthasūtra Sri Siddhasēna Gani, also shows that wind-bodies are subtler than fire bodies. The reason that he gives for this is that fire-bodies can be directly seen but wind-bodies cannot be directly seen.
On the other hand, modern science clearly states that particles of light called photons are subtle like electrons but gases such as hydrogen, oxygen etc. are grosser than them because a hydrogen atom has one electron, one proton and one oxygen atom has 8 electrons, 8 protons and 8 neutrons and each gas contains pairs of atoms which are called molecules in the terminology of science. From this point of view, light particles should not be considered as fire-bodies i.e. living being but fire-producing substances, their flames etc. should themselves be regarded as fire-bodies i.e. living beings. When electricity is passed into an electric lamp, the filament of the tungston metal gets heated and emits light. Fire is produced in it and it is regarded to be a live filament. Similarly, only burning live-coals, flames of fire, lightning in the sky and fire particles covered with ashes are called fire-bodies but the light coming out of them cannot be called fire-bodied. In this context the prakrit commentary of the fourth uddēšaka of the first chapter (adhyayana) of part 1 (first śrutaskandha) of the Jain canonical treatise named Ācārāngasūtra states only five types of gross fire-bodies:(1) burning live coals etc. (2) fire (3) flames detached from the source (4) flames attached to the burning object (5) fire particles covered with ashes in the furnace.

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Nowhere is light shown here to have life but light and its hot touch are shown as characteristics of life in fire i.e. source of light. In this context the author of a niryukti ( prakrit commentary in verses) of the Acārāngasūtra, gives the illustration of a glow-worm. He says that the glow-worm emits light only while it has life but after death it cannot emit light and, therefore, its light is a characteristic of its life. Similarly fire-bodies can emit light only while have life and only the body of living animals or human beings is hot and after their death it becomes cold. Fire has a hot touch only because it has life. The hot touch proves that fire bodies have life. The light coming out of fire should, therefore, not be believed to have life.
Well-versed in ten Pūrvas (the Jain canonical scriptures) Śri Śayyambhavasūriji Mahārāja states in the Daśavaikālikasūtra that monks and nuns should not burn or cause to burn common fire, pieces of charcoal, dungfire, lamp-fire, flames, pieces of live-coal, pure-fire, electricity, firebrands etc., nor sprinkle it with a fuel of ghee etc. nor touch it, nor mix to different kinds of fire, nor to enkindle it by fanning etc. i.e. nor to enlarge them, nor to extinguish it nor cause or encourage some-one to do all this.
This means that he who does all this, commits the sin through violence of fire-bodies.
Nowhere it is stated here that if the light emitted by fire-bodies falls on the body of a monk or a nun, the firebodies are hurt. If fire or a lamp is burning, a monk cannot have it extinguished. If the light of a lamp contained life and if it died by falling on the body of monk or nun, omniscient or canonical scriptures would fully allow the monks and nuns to teach to extinguish lamps for observance of non-violence or would clearly teach to keep away from such places. This shows that fire from which light and heat emerge or emit, contains life and that is why who extinguishes or teaches to extinguish fire-bodies commits the sin through their violence. Since light does not contain life, so if light falls on the body of a monk or a nun, he does not commit the sin through violence of fire bodies.
As stated above, nowhere in Āgamic (canonical) literature is light stated to have life. It means that it is non-living. It is, therefore, necessary to think when and how the tradition of believing that light has life, originated. First of all, references of this are found in religious scriptures of Svētāmbara idolatrous

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tradition of tapagaccha, dealing with literature of failure of conduct of monks, nuns and lay-persons and in the Sēnaprasna.
Both the texts (references) are as under :
1. If the lightning and light of lamps touch the body of man, it causes a failure-of-conduct.
237
2. (1) Question: If lightning touches the body of man while he is performing the ritual of Pratikramana in the rainy season, does it cause a failure-ofconduct (Aticāra)?
Answer: It has been heard from Rev. Śrīvijaya Hirasūriji and Rev. Śrīvijaya Dānasūriji that while one is performing the ritual of Pratikramana or Yoga (a special type of ritual process) in the rainy season or in the rest of the seasons, if the light of lightning falls, there is a failure-of-conduct and Kālagrahaṇa (a special type of ritual process) fails.
(2) Question: If the light of lamps etc. touches the body of man in moonlight, does it cause a failure-of-conduct?
Answer: It is traditionally believed that if the moon-light touches the body of man, the light of lamps etc. does not cause a failure-of-conduct, but if the moon-light does not touch the body of man, the light of lamps etc. causes a failure-of-conduct. The book Sandeha-dōlāvali-prakarana written by Acārya of Kharatara sect also says same thing.
In the beginning of the 14th century of the Vikrama era, Śri Jinadattasūriji, the disciple of Sri Jinavallabhasūriji wrote the book 'Sandeha-dōlāvaliprakaraṇa'. This book is in the question-answer form. The reference to this point is found in the commentary on verse 41 and 42 and it seems that traditional belief that light contains life started from that time, though no such meaning is derived from the original verses of this 'Sandē ha-dōlāvaliprakaraṇa'. But the bruhadvrtti written by Vacanācārya Śrī Prabōdhacandra Gani gives a detailed discussion of this. A summary of the discussion is as under :
If a man (monk or nun or layman or laywoman) while performing Sāmāyika, Pratikramana, touches electricity, a lamp etc. twice, thrice, four times or many times, he should make confession (Alōcana) of it. Here the word 'etc." means other living beings such as earth-bodies etc. It means that living beings

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should not be touched while one is performing Sāmāyika, Pratikramana etc. Fire, lamps etc. also contain life. They should, therefore, not be touched. The word 'lightning' is used in verses of 'Sandēhadolāvali' and there it means the lightning that appears in the sky and it has life. But one who is performing Sāmāyika, Pratikramana cannot touch it. Therefore commentators and others have taken the word 'lightning' to mean the light of lightning. It can, therefore, be inferred that the tradition of believing that light of any kind of fire contains life, perhaps started from that time.
On the other hand, discussing the question 'whether light of lamps cause failure-of-conduct in moon-light,' the author of the Vrtti i.e. commentator of 'Sandēhadölāvali', says that light of the Sun and the Moon does cause a failure-of-conduct, but it is unremediable. Soon afterwards he gives another answer or solution that the light of the Sun and the Moon only touches but since it is lifeless, there is no possibility of failure-of-conduct.
But later on, he raised the doubt that light contains life by giving a citation from the Bhagavatisūtra, a Jain canonical scripture. Giving an answer to it, he quotes the words of the commentator Sri Abhayadēvasūriji that livingness of light of the Sun, the Moon etc. is only a formality. Really, it does not contain life. The paudgalic (material) aggregates of residences i.e. vimānas or planes of the sun and the moon etc. are earth-bodied, therefore, they contain life but their light does not contain life. Since their body is far away, some living beings in the moon emit light that is not hot but cold because their Udyotanāmakarma is operative. Since their body is far away, some living beings in the sun emit light that is not cold but hot because their Atapanāmakarma is operative. The touch of their light, therefore, does not cause failure-ofconduct.
But here the doubt is raised that if it is so, the light of electricity or lamps etc. also does not cause failure-of-conduct because their fire-body is far away.
Giving an answer to this the author of Vrtti of 'Sandēhadolāvali', says that Udyotanāmakarma does not operate in fire-bodies and since they are not earth-bodies, Atapanāmakarma does not operate in them because Agamas, i.e. Jain canonical scriptures say that only the gross earth-bodies which are Aparyāptā (having inadequate bodily capacities) have the operation of Ātapanāmakarma. How is it then that the light of lamps etc. gives light and heat to distant objects?

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Giving an answer to this, Vācanācārya Śri Prabodhacandra Gaņi says that as a result of operation of a hot touch and of Lāhitavarnanāmakarma, lighted fire-bodies spread over the surrounding region. fire-bodies have no Prabhā (irregular spread, reflection etc. of light) but these fire bodies being extremely subtle, they themselves are known as irregular spread, reflection etc. of light.
This last answer given by Vācanācārya Śri Prabodhacandra Gani is incomplete and contrast to the reference of Jivābhigamasūtra, a Jain canonical scripture, stated in Sri Haribhadrasūriji's commentary of the Daśavaikālikasūtra, a Jain canonical scripture. Śri Haribhadrasūriji Mahārāja clearly says that fire-bodies are grosser even than water-bodies. Wind-bodies are subtler even than water-bodies. Light particles are very much subtler than wind-bodies. How can they be regarded as fire-bodies? This is an important question to ponder on.
Another classification of pudgala (matter) is into Varganās (groupings). There are chiefly eight varieties of Varganās : 1. Audārika, 2. Vaikriya, 3. Ahāraka , 4.taijas, 5.Bhāsā , 6. śvāsācchvāsa , 7. Mano and 8. Kārmaņa. The body of all living beings except the celestial (Dēva s ) and hellish ones, is made of pudgala aggregates i.e. paramāņu-units of the Audārika Vargaņā. The body of celestial beings (i.e. devas) is made of pudgala aggregates (paramāņu-units) of the Vaikriya Vargaņā.
Monks, well-versed in the fourteen Pūrvas scriptures and endowed with Āhāraka labdhi, make use of pudgala aggregates (paramāņu-units) of the Ahāraka Vargaņā in making the Āhāraka body. Every living being of the world, has the subtle bodies - taijas and Kārmaņa. Bhāşā Varganā produces sound. Svāsõcchvāsa Varganā is used in taking breath. Mano Varganā is used in making the mind (sensorium) and thinking.
According to the Daśavaikālikasūtra, gross-subtle, gross and gross-gross material aggregates are assimilated in Audārika Vargaņā. If we think that light contains life, it should be included in the gross-gross type of material aggregates. But science has proved that light particles are very subtle and therefore, it seems proper to include them in the taijas Vargaņā. If along with other Vargaņās, we regard the taijas Vargaņā as a subtle type of grouping, everything is all right. It should be noted here that infinite paramānus (atoms) aggregates of all the eight Vargaņās are gradually subtler transformations and

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they are made of infinite particles (atoms). It, therefore, seems logical and true to believe that light is lifeless.
The Sēnapraśna mentions that light of electricity or a lamp, touching the body of a man, causes a failure-of-conduct (Aticāra) but it is not quite fruitless or frustrate. The sense of this sentence needs to be understood.
Firstly, Ācārya Śri Sēnasūriji Mahārāja clearly states that he heard it from Ācārya Śri Hirasūriji. It means that perhaps there was no reference to this in Agamic literature or any literature of tapagaccha which was available at that time.
Secondly, instead of answering the question whether light of lamps etc. dies by touching the body of man in moonlight from Agamic literature and literature of the tradition of tapagaccha, he quotes from 'Sandēhadolāvali' of Kharataragaccha written 200-250 years ago. This means that tapag had no such tradition but it came into tapagaccha from Kharataragaccha.
Thirdly, if light of electricity or a lamp touches the body of one who is performing Sāmāyika. Pratikramana etc. it causes a failure of conduct and the reason for this is that if light comes from somewhere into darkness at the place of performance of Sāmāyika, Pratikramana etc. concentration is broken and mind is disturbed. Also, everything looks clear in light and the performance of Sāmāyika, Pratikramana etc. becomes easy and comfortable. The performer, therefore, likes light and silently supports the act of lighting up the lamp. But it is not fit for a monk or nun to support it because he is forbidden to do it or cause or support it to be done. It can, therefore, be inferred that Acārya Śri Hirasūriji perhaps said that under these circumstances the performance of rites i.e. Sāmāyika, Pratikramana etc. of monks and nuns causes a failureof-conduct because it supports the act of lighting up the lamp.
According to the modern physics also light is only in the form of electromagnetic waves. The atmosphere is now-a-days teeming with thousand million kinds of electromagnetic waves. Their speed i.e. velocity is also as great as the velocity of light. i.e. 3,00,000 km/sec. Its frequency is very high or very low and, therefore, we cannot see it.
Thus, thousand million kinds of electromagnetic waves dash against every living being on the earth now-a-days. If we think that they all are living beings, it would be difficult to live on earth. Every living being emits, from his body,

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24)
waves of a certain kind of frequency according to his physical capacity and spiritual development and the wave-length, frequency of these waves change according to his mental conditions i.e. peace, danger, anger, agony, sorrow etc. It is on this basis that the branch of science called telepathy has developed. In western countries, many research works are done and are being done on this subject.
It is stated regarding Agāra (IIR) of Kāusagga (om) mentioned by the word upon (Agaņio) in the following verse of the prakrit commentary of Āvaśyakasūtra, a Jain canonical scripture.
अगणीओ छिंदिज्ज बोहिअ खोभाइ दीहडक्को वा । आगारेहिं अभग्गो उसग्गो एवमाइहिं ।। aganio chindija bõhia khõbhāi dihadakkö vā. āgārēhim abhaggo usaggo ēvamāihim.. यदा ज्योतिः स्पृशति तदा प्रावरणाय कल्पग्रहणं कुर्वतोऽपि न कायोत्सर्गभङ्गः ।
'yadā jyotiḥ sprśati tadā prāvaraņāya kalpagrahanam kurvatö'pi na käyõtsargabhangah .' (lf a flame of fire is touched during Kāyõtsarga, the Kāyātsarga is not broken by taking a piece of cloth for wrapping.)
But two meanings of the word (Aganio) mentioned in this verse are given in the Gujarati commentary entitled 'Prabodhatikā' on Pratikramaņasūtra. This verse belongs to the niryukti of Annatthasūtra, the Āvaśyakasūtra.
1. If fire comes spreading and if the performer of Kāyotsarga (Kāusagga), goes to another place to complete Kāusagga, the Kāusagga is not broken.
2. The second meaning is that which is shown in the commentary on Avaśyakasūtra.
Nowhere among words related to fire-bodies in his dictionary, 'Abhidhānacintāmani' Kalikāla Sarvajña Śri Hēmacandrācāryaji has shown 'light' to be a fire-body. In 'Abhidhānarājēndra' too, there is no mention about this.
of the two meanings noted above, the first meaning seems to follow the Āgamas, the original Jain canonical scriptures. The second meaning is not clear. Of course, the original verse of the niryukti does not show 'light' to be a fire-body, nor does the second meaning clearly show that 'light' in the form of a fire-body, has life. Even then, those who believe that light has life depend on that reference and its meaning. But looking to the nature of the other three

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considerations shown herewith the second meaning does not seem to be proper.
Only omniscients know the reality. (and I am · tattvam tu kēvaligamyam).
The sum and substance of all this discussion is that it is a characteristic of fire-bodied lives to emit electromagnetic waves in the form of light. It is, therefore, not proper to believe that there is life in any kind of light.
This does not mean that I agree that the monks and nuns should be allowed to read, write, or do other activities at night in the light of a lamp nor I have written this article in order to get such freedom. Really speaking, monks and nuns cannot use lamps for themselves nor can they make others use lamps, nor should they regard him to be good who lights up a lamp or extinguishes it or switches an electric lamp on or off. This means that they should not encourage him. Also, they are not allowed to do any work in the light of other house nearby or in the light of the municipal lamp because they thus encourage the use of light. Everyone accepts that though the lamp is not lighted for the monk or on his asking, it is sinful to use it. There is no question. therefore, of giving or asking for such freedom. This is only a humble attempt to find an answer to the question whether light contains life.
(Reference Books : The commentary on the Daśavaikālikasūtra by Śri Śri Haribhadrasūriji, The commentary on the Tattvārtha Sūtra by Śri Siddhasēna Gani, The commentary on the Ācārāngasūtra by Śri. Śilārkācāryaji. The Sēnapraśna, The Sandēha-dolāvali-prakarana, The Abhidhāna-cintamani by Kalikāla Sarvajña Śri Hēmacandrācāryaji,The Abhidhāna-Rājēndra by Rājēndrasūriji, The Āvaśyakasūtra - niryukti, Text book of Quantum Mechanics by P.M. Methews & K. Venkatesan).
(Special Research issue of Sankalpa magazine
& Tirthankara, Jan., 1988)

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23. Directions In Jain Agamas
All have heard the name of the device called compass and many have also seen it. The dial on compass shows directions as in figure No. 1. Generally, people believe that there are only ten or eight directions.' They are counted as under : east, west, north, south, north-east, south-east, south- West, north-west, the direction up wards and the direction downwards. Of these ten directions only eight can be shown on the dial. The upward and downward directions cannot be shown because a three-dimensional medium is necessary to show them, but a dial is always two-dimensional. Fig. No. 1
Fig. No. 2
Fig. No. 3 NW
NE NWN N NEN NWNE WNW
NEF Eight Rucaka Pradēša
N
SWWSWI
SWS 5
ESE ... S E W :.... E
SW ESS
Thirteen Pradeśātmaka Yantra
The compass shows directions as stated above. Moreover, as shown in figure No. 1, it shows the directions : NEE between north-east and east, ESE between east and south-east, ESS between south-east and south, SWS between south and south-west, SWW between south-west and west, WNW betwen west and north-west, NWN between north and north-west and NEN between north and north-east.
The English language has words only for the four principal directions - east, west. north, south. There are no words for subdirections (fax). They are, therefore, named by the joint name of the two adjacent principal directions. e. g.. For the corner between the north and the east, the word northeast is used. Similarly, for the corners between the east and the south, the south and the west, the west and the north, the words east-south, southwest and west-north are respectively used. But in Indian literature, different

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words are used for different sub-directions. This shows that the Indian literature has a vast vocabulary. There being no special words for bisections of sub-directions in English, it is thought that they are shown only for convenience. But Ācārānga, the holy Jain canonical scripture mentions these bisections of sub-directions. Also, the nature and kinds of directions are fully discussed.
Generally, the outer space is thought to have no directions. The direction from which the Sun rises on the earth is considered to be the east direction, but in outer space there is no sunrise or sunset.
The Jain canonical scriptures also consider that direction to be the east from where the Sun rises. But they do not accept that the outer space is quite directionless.
Since eight rucaka pradēśas (i.e. space points or space units ) which are of the shape of a cow's teats and which are at the centre of the universe and they are the orgin of all directions and sub-directions, the outer space, too, has directions. 2
Generally, the Jain canonical scripture entitled the Ācārānga, describes a figure for showing directions and it has thirteen space points or space units. It is represented as shown in figure No. 2.3 Jain scriptures also show how directions and sub-directions are formed. The four principle directions are as wide at an origin as two space points. As the directions go one space point further from the centre, their width increases by two space points and the four sub-directions go one space point further in a straight line in their respective corners. They are shown in figure No. 3. The directions upwards and downwards are in a series of four space points.
Describing the shape of all the four directions and sub-directions, sri Bhadrabāhusvāmi, the author of Niryukti on Ācārāngasūtra, says that all these four principal directions are of the shape of the yoke of a cart because these four principal directions are narrow at their origin and as they go further, they become wider. The four sub-directions are like an unbroken string of pearls. The directions upwards and downwards are like upward and donward line of four rucaka pradēśas (space points) each.“
The directions in respect of the eight rucaka pradēśas ( space points) at the centre of the universe as shown above, are the real directions. Also,

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-
there are directions from the view point of the teller, (Parjñāpaka) who tells the directions. They are called Parjñāpaka - directions. There are also directions in respect of the region (kņētra) like Bharataksētra, Airavataksētra etc. They are called ksētra-directions. Fig. No. 4 Fig. No, 5
Fig. No. 6 S
Sāvitri Prajñavrtti Urdhja
Vāyavya Pariyādharmā
śyāmā
1
1śāna
Mia
Meru
Ahidharmā
Utthāni
Nairtya
Khēlidyā
Agni Kapila
Lavana
S
Ocean
According to Jain scriptures, Mt. Mērū in Jambūdvipa is at the centre of the whole of the Tiryak-Loka (madhya-Lõka) and the Sun, the moon, the planets, the constellations and the stars always go on moving around it in a circle. The direction of sunrise is called the east and the other directions are represented with reference to it. Since the Sun comes from the eastMahāvidēhaksētra, at the time of sunrise in the Bharataksētra, it is the east direction for Bharataksētra and Mt. Mērū is in the north. The south direction of Bharataksētra, is the east direction for the west-Mahāvidēhaksētra and Mt. Mērū is in the north to west-Mahāvidehaksētra too. The ksētra-directions of Airavataksētra is quite opposite to the directions of Bharataksētra. The east of Airavataksētra is really the west of Bharataksētra and the west of Airavataksētra is the east of Bharatakşētra. The north of Bharataksētra is the east of east-Mahāvidēhaksētra and the south of Bharataksētra is the west of the east-Mahāvidēhaksētra. Mt. Mērū is always to the north and the Lavanasamudra (Lavana ocean) is always to the south as shown in Figure No. 5.
The kşētra-directions of Bharataksētra are similar to the real directions of the whole universe.

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Parjñāpaka directions प्रज्ञापकदिशा :
In representation of kṣetra-directions and real directions only ten directions are shown. But in representation of Parjñāpaka directions, the author of Niryukti on the Acārāngasūtra, shows eighteen directions.
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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
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Parjñāpaka is one who shows directions. The direction infront of the person, sitting or standing or in respect of whom, directions are to be represented, is called the east, even if it is the south or the west or the north.R As the direction before the Parjñāpaka is the east, the direction behind the Parjñāpaka is the west. The direction to his left is the north and the direction to his right is the south. The directions between these four principal directions are called sub-directions. These make eight directions. There are eight more sub-directions intermediate between these eight directions. All these sixteen directions have the height and thikness of Parjñāpaka. The directions upwards and downwards are of the size of the Parjñāpaka's body and of the shape of a thik staff i. e. stick.10
Jain scriptures give the names of the four sub-directions in both the ways. The method adopted for naming the directions as the north-east, east-south south-west and norht-west in the English language is also an ancient method. Śri Bhadrabahusvāmi, the author of Niryukti on Acārāngasūtra shows the names of the directions thus: 1. east, 2. east-south, 3. south, 4. south-west, 5. west, 6. north-west 7. north, 8. north-east," though in presentation of real directions he describes south-east as Agni, south-west as Nairṛtya, northwest as Vāyavya and north-east as Īsāna.
The intermediate sub- directions between any two adjacent directions of the eight directions, are named by the author of Niryukti on Acārāngasūtra, as 'Syāmā, Utthānī, Kapilā, Khēlidyā, Adhidharma, Pariyādharmā, Sāvitri and Prajñavṛtti."12 śrī śīlānkācārya, the commentator does not clearly say whether the names of these eight intermediate sub-directions should be started from the sub-direction between east and north-east or from the subdirection between east and south-east. But since the names of sub-directions are started from the north-east sub-direction, it will be proper to start from direction between the east and the north-east.

Seeing these references of directions in Jain canonical scriptures, the common man may ask why it is necessary to describe these directions in Jain

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philosphy which is soul-oriented. Man's soul and every soul has been transmigrating since beginningless time. In order to know where he was, in what surroundings, he was in the last birth, it is necessary to know the form situation of the universe. As a part of it, the form of directions is described here. Here is a reference given by the scripturist as under :
• Here in this world, some people do not know whether they (their souls) have come here from the east, from the west, from the north, or from the south or from sub-directons (fafem) or from the upward direction or from the downward direction. "13
Śri Bhadrabahusvāmi, the author of Niryukti on Acārāngasūtra represent the science of directions as a special explanation of this sūtra. There is a special method of composing commentaries on Jain canonical scriptures. i. e. Āgamas. The name, representation and especially the obvious and intrinsic aspects of every word or component of a compound word are explained in detail. Similarly, the directions mentioned above are general directions that are famous in all societies and men. They are called in Jain techanical term Dravyadisā (f) i.e.obvious aspect. While for the scripturist and monks and nuns who are learning, only intrinsic directions Bhāvadiśā (af) are important. They are also eighteen in number. A detailed explanation these Bhāvadisā is found in the Niryukti of Sri Bhadrabāhusvāmi and commentary of Sri Silänkācārya on Acarangasūtra. Being irrelevent, it is not given
here.
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References:
1, इंदग्गेई जम्मा य, नेरूती वारूणी य वायव्या ।
सोमा ईसाणावि य, विमला य तमा य बोद्धव्वा ।। (आचारांग नियुक्ति गाथा-४३)
आसामैन्द्री विजयद्वारानुसारेण शेषाः प्रदक्षिणतः सप्तावसेयाः ऊर्ध्वं विमला तमा चाघो
टीका
बोद्धव्या ।
imdaggēi jammā ya, nērūti vārūņi ya vāyavyā.
sōmā īsāṇāvi ya, vimalā ya tamā ya bōddhavvā .. (ācārānga niryukti gāthā
43)
ṭīkā - āsāmaindri vijayadvārānusārēņa sēṣāḥ pradakṣiņataḥ saptāvasēyāḥ ūrddhvam vimalā tamā cadhō bōddhavyä.

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2. अट्ठ पएसो रुयगो, तिरियं लोयस्स मज्झयारंमि ।
एस पभवो दिसाणं, एसेव भवे अणुदिसाणं ।। (आ. नि. गा. - ४२) attha paēsā ruyagõ, tiriyam löyassa majjhayārammi . ēsa pabhavā disāṇam, ēsēva bhavē aņudisānam .. (ā. ni gā. - 42) 3. तेरस पएसियं खलु, तावइएसुं भवे पएसेसुं ।
जं दव्वं ओगाढं, जहन्नयं तं दस दिसांगं ।। (आ,नि.गा. ४१) तत्स्थापना- त्रिबाहुकं नवप्रदेशिकमभिलिख्य चतसृषु दिक्ष्वेकैकगृहवृद्धिकार्या ।। tērasa paēsiyam khalu, tāvaiēsum bhavē paēsēsum, iam dawam gadham, jahannayam tam dasa disangam .. (a,ni.ga. 41)
tatsthāpanā: tribāhukam navapradēśikamabhiliknya catasrşu diksvekaikagrhavrddhikārya .. 4. दुपएसाइ दुरूत्तर, एग पएसा अणुत्तरा चेव ।
चउरो चउरो य दिसा, चउराइ अणत्तरा दुन्नि ।। (आ.नि. गा. ४४) dupaēsāi durūttara, ēga paēsā aṇuttarā cēva. caurā cauro ya disā, caurāi anattarā dunni ..(ā.ni. gā. 44) 5. सगडुद्धी संठिआओ, महादिसाओ हवंति चत्तारि ।
मुत्तावली य चउरो, दो चेव हुंति रुयगनिभा || (आ.नि. गा. ४६) sagaduddhi santhião, mahādisāð havanti cattāri. muttāvali ya cauro, do cēva hunti ruyaganibhā .. (ā.ni. gā. 46) 6. जस्स जओ आइच्चो, उदेइ सा पुव्वदिसा होइ ।
जतो अ अत्थमेइ उ, अवरदिसा सा उ णायव्वा ।।४७।। दाहिण पासंमि य, दाहिण दिसा उत्तरा उ वामेणं ।
एया चत्तारि दिसा, तावखित्ते उ अक्खाया ||४८।। (आ. नि. गा. ४७, ४८) jassa ja äicco, udēi să puvvadisā hõi jato a atthamēi u, avaradisā sā u nāyavvā ..47.. dahina pāsammiya, dahina disa uttara uvāmānam. . ēyā cattāri disā, tāvakhittē u akkhāyā ..48.. (ā. ni. gā. 47, 48) 7. जे मंदरस्स पुव्वेण, मणुस्सा दाहिणेण अवरेण ।
जे आवि उत्तरेणं सव्वेसिं उत्तरओ मेरू ||४९।। सव्वेसिं उत्तरेणं मेरू, लवणो य होइ दाहिणाओ । पुवेणं तु उदेइ, अवरेणं अस्थमइ सूरो ।।५०।। (आ.नि.गा.४९-५०)

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jē mandarassa puvvēņa, manussā dāniņēna avarēna . jē āvi uttarēnam sawēsim uttarað mērā ..49.. savvēsim uttarēnam mērā, lavaņā ya hõi dāniņāð. Duvvēnam tu udēi, avarēņam atthamai sūro ..50.. (ā.ni.gā.49-50) 8. जत्थ जो पण्णवओ, कस्स वि साहइ दिसासु य णिमित्तं ।
जत्तो मुहो य ठाई, सा पुव्वा पच्छओ अवरा ||५१।। (आ. नि. गा. ५१) jattha jā pannavaõ, kassa vi sāhai disāsu ya ņimittam. jatti muhi ya thai, sa puwa pacchao avara ..51.. (a. ni. ga. 51) 9. दाहिणपासंमि उ दाहिण दिसा उत्तरा उ वामेणं ।
एयासिमन्तरेणं अण्णा चत्तारि विदिसाओ ||५२।।
एयासिं चेव अट्ठण्हमन्तरा अट्ट हुंति अण्णाओ | .................... ||५३ ।। (आ.नि.गा. ५२-५३) dāninapāsammi u dāhina disā uttarā u vāmēnam. byasimantarénam anna cattari vidisao ..52.. āyasim céva atthanhamantarā attha hunti annai ........53.. (a.ni.ga. 52-53) 10. सोलस सरीर उस्सय बाहल्ला सव्व तिरिय दिसा ।।५३।। (आ.नि.गा. ५३) sõlasa sarira ussaya bāhallā savva tiriya disā ..53.. (ā.ni.gā. 53) 11. पुव्वा य पुव्वदक्खिण दक्खिण तह दक्षिणावरा चेव ।
अवरा य अवरउत्तर उत्तर पुव्युत्तरा चेव ।।५६।। (आ.नि.गा. ५६) Duvvā ya puvvadakkhina dakkhina taha dakkhiņāvarā cēva. avarā ya avarauttara uttara puvuttarā cēva „,56.. (ā.ni.gā. 56) 12. सामुत्थाणी कविला खेलिज्जा खलु तहेव अहिधम्मा ।
परियाधम्मा य तहा सावित्ती पण्णवित्ती य ।।५७।। (आ.नि.गा. ५७) sāmutthāni kavilā khēlijā khalu tahēva ahidhammā pariyadhamma ya tahā savitti pannavitti ya ..57.. (a.ni.ga. 57)
13. सुयं मे आउ ! तेणं भगवया एवमक्खायं - इहमेगेसिं णो सण्णा भवइ । तं जहा - पुरत्थिमाओ वा दिसाओ आगओ अहमंसि, दाहिणाओ दिसाओ वा आगओ अहमंसि, पच्चत्थिमाओ वा दिसाओ आगओ अहमंसि, उत्तराओ वा दिसाओ आगओ अहमंसि, उड्ढाओ वा दिसाओ आगओ अहमंसि, अहो वा दिसाओ आगओ अहमंसि, अण्णयरीओ वा दिसाओ आगओ अणुदिसाओ वा आगओ अहमंसि, एवमेगेसिं णो णायं भवति ।। सूत्र - १-२।। ( आचारांगसूत्र, प्रथम श्रुतस्कंध, प्रथमाध्ययन, सूत्र - १ -२)
suyam mē āusam! tēņam bhagavayā ēvamakkhāyam - ihamēgēsim ņā saņņā bhavai . tam jaha - puratthimā vā disao agai ahamamsi, dahinai disao va

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āgaõ ahamamsi, paccatthimãā vā disão āgað ahamassi, uttarãā vā disão āgao ahamassi, uddhãā vā disão ägao ahamamsi, ahā vā disão āgað ahamassi, annayarið vā disāā āgað aņudisāā vā āgaō ahamamsi, ēvamēgēsim nō nāyam bhavati .. Sūtra - 1-2..
( Ācārārgasūtra, Prathama śrutaskandha, Prathamādhyayana, Sūtra - 1 -2)
BUT ARISTOTLE HIMSELF BELIEVED THAT QUESTIONS CONCERNING THE HUMAN SOUL AND THE CONTEMPLATION OR God's PERFECTION WERE MUCH MORE VALUABLE THAN INVESTIGATIONS OF THE MATERIAL WORLD. WHEN ALL IN THE WORLD UNDERSTAND BEAUTY TO BE BEAUTIFUL, THEN UGLINESS EXISTS, WHEN ALL UNDERSTAND GOODNESS TO BE GOOD, THEN EVIL EXISTS.
THE NOTION THAT ALL OPPOSITES ARE POLAR-THAT LIGHT AND DARK, WINNING AND LOSING, GOOD AND EVIL, ARE MERELY DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE SAME PHENOMENON--- IS ONE OF THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE EASTERN WAY OF LIFE.
FRITJOF CAPRA

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24. Celibacy: A Scientific Analysis
Today AIDS has spread all over the world. For married men, the only preventive which can ward it off is the vow of sexual satisfaction confined to one's own life partener and for others, it is observance of celibacy (Brahmacarya). Today man is everywhere surrounded by deterioration which is mistaken for culture. Therefore, lessons on the importance of celibacy are as futile as music falling on deaf ears. But there is a class of society today which thinks about celibacy from physiological and hygienic view points and it is a good indication. The society today is so much dazzled by scientific achievements that it relies on scientific results as ultimate truth. But scientists of all branches admit that though they have revealed many secrets of nature, many more secrets are yet to be revealed. Therefore, no research in
science should be accepted as the ultimate or absolute truth."
Generally, it is in the nature of human beings and for that matter of all animals to accept soon what is suitable to them. The instincts of food, fear, sex and possession are so strong in all living beings from beginningless time that they soon accept the thoughts that are suitable to these instincts. That is why the so-called researches of sexologists and the researches of psychologists like Freud are accepted sooner than researches showing the importance of celibacy. Freud says, "Desires should not be suppressed. Suppressions of desires create many perversions. If natural desires are suppressed, the suppressed desires make man perverted and mad. Desires should, therefore, not be suppressed."
Of course, these researches are not totally invalid or baseless. But they are only one side of the coin. The later half of their conclusions and statements is as under. Regarding celibacy, Freud himself says : Semen has a great strength. That strength should be well channelised. By observing celibacy mental/intellectual and physical strength should be increased. We should, therefore, also think of other side of the coin. In case of women they can preserve the sex hormones by obeserving the celibacy through which they attain youth forever. First, we shall talk of the scientific and medical experi

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ments showing the benefits of observing celibacy and then we shall think of scientific aspects of celibacy shown by great sages of ancient times.
In this connection 'Science of Regeneration', the book written by Raymond Bernard is worth reading. He says that man's sexual tendencies are fully controlled by endocrine glands. The endocrine glands produce sex hormones and they control other glands. Youth subsists on abundance of sex hormones in the blood. As endocrine glands decrese the production of sex hormones, we begin to experience old age and weakness. Semen is a treasure of inexhaustible strength. By protecting and preserving it man can maintain his energies and youth for a very long time.
Freud himself observed celibacy from the age of 40. The secret of life of a long-lived and physically and mentally strong man is, in most cases, the observance of celibacy. Great men of the world, Einstein, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Isaac Newton, Morarji Desai etc. observed celibacy since youth, though they were householders. Plato also said that sportsmen and athletes should observe celibacy for a certain period before participating in sports.
If celibacy is not observed by body, speech or mind /sensorium, sex hormones flow out of the body of men and women. The sex hormones are mostly made of lecithin, phosphorus, nitrogen, and iodine, the components which are very useful to life, body and brain. The latest research works show that the chemical, lecithin nourishes the brain. The test of blood of mad men in lunatic asylums shows that lecithin is almost absent. Studies of their past lives show that in thier youth, most of them had fallen in a bad company. Indulgence in excessive sexual plays is dangerous to a house-holder's life. Sometime one has to give up hope for life as a result of excessive sexual plays.
Modern science does not lag behind in making experiments for regaining youth, rejuvenation etc. All those experiments can produce energy in body only for three or four years. These experiments have proved it beyond doubt that in order to sustain, youth endocrine glands should be kept active and sex hormonmes in blood should be abundant. The sex hormones should not be made to flow out of the body as a result of failing to keep or preserve celibacy either physically, vocally or mentally.?
In these days of excessive indulgence in sexual enjoyments, is it

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possible to observe perfect celibacy physically, vocally or mentally ? Most of the people will answer this question in the negative. But in my opinion, the observance of celibacy is very simple and natural if the nine rules of celibacy, which in Jain terminology, are called nine guptis ( restrictions related to activities of body, speech and mind) of celibacy are rightly and strictly observed. The nine rules of celibacy are as under : 3
1. One should live in a place devoid of woman (man), a beast or a eunuch.
2. A lonely man/woman should not tell religious stories or give sermon to a lonely woman/man. A man should refrain from talks about a woman and a woman should refrain from talks about a man.
3. A woman should not sit by a man on a comon seat. As long as 48 minutes, a man should not sit on a seat left by a woman and as long as three hours a woman should not sit on a seat left by a man.
4. A woman should not look steadily at eyes, face and other organs of man's body nor should a man look steadily at eyes, face and other organs of a woman's body.
5. One should leave the place, where words of amorous plays of a woman and a man from the other side of the wall are heard.
6. One should abstain from recollections of amorous plays indulged in previously.
7. One should abstain from very oily, nutritive and infatuating food. 8. One should not take in excess even the dry, unoiled or arid food.
9. One should not attractively and artistically cut or decorate hairs on the head, hairs on the body, finger-nails or toe-nails. One should refrain from cosmetic treatment and bodily decoration.
Celibacy has a great importance in the Svāminārāyana religion also. Śri Nişkulānandaji of that religion has made a poem on the nine rules of celibacy. This shows the importance of celibacy.
The nine rules of celibacy are perfectly scientific and their scientific analysis can be given as under:
The first rule of celibacy says that a monk or nun should stay in a place,
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which is uninhibited by the opposite sex or a eunuch or a beast etc. This rule is very important and full of scientific secrets.
Every living being has electricity of a very subtle power. In the sea, there is a fish named electric eel.“ It produces a powerful electric current. Where there is elctric power, there is magnetic power. Thus we all have bio-electromagnetic power. Therefore, every living being has his bio-electro-magnetic field. Scientists have proved this. It is a general rule of magnetism that like poles repel and unlike poles attract, if they are within the magnetic field of each other.
Men and women have their bio-elctro-magnetic poles in the opposite order. Eunuchs can also have their magnetic poles, but in my opinion, they are not definite because magnetic poles depend on changes in mind, i.e. thoughts. When an eunuch's mind changes, its magnetic poles also change. The sexual excitement of eunuchs is great, and therfore, their magnetic power and magnetic field are very strong. Changes of poles go on in eunuchs, like an alternate current of electricity. If, therefore, a monk lives in a place inhabited by a woman, a beast or an eunuch, on account of attraction of unlike poles, it becomes very difficult for him to observe celibacy. In order to observe celibacy fully, it is necessary for a monk to stay in a place uninhabited by a woman, an eunuch or a beast.
The second rule of celibacy is that a lonely monk should not tell religious stories to lonely women and a man should avoid talking about a woman and a woman should avoid talking about a man.
When a lonely man talks to a lonely woman, generally the woman looks at the man and the man looks at the woman. Since the bio-elctro-magnetic poles of a man and a woman are in the opposite order, when they look at each other, the elctro-magnetic lines emerging from their poles, join together and as their electro-magnetic fields join together, their bio-electromagnetic attraction becomes stronger. In these circumstances, if their electromagnetic waves are of unequal frequency, their mutual attraction also becomes unequal. If the wavelength and the amplitude are not proportionate, the thoughts in their minds mutually differ from each other. As a result, the circuit of magnetic-electric current remains incomplete. But if the electro-magnetic waves emerging from them have equal frequency, their power of attraction also becomes equal. If the wavelength and amplitude of the

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waves are equal, the circuit of the magnetic-electric current is also completed. As a result, strong mental attraction is produced and that becomes ultimately the cause of fall of a self-restrained man.
It should be noted here that according to the modern physics, the energy of bio-electro-magnetic waves, which in Jain terminology are called Vargaṇā (paramāņu-units of matter), depends upon their frequency. This can be shown in physics by the equation E = nhf. Here E denotes energy,f denotes frequency, n denotes integers i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4....etc., and h is the Planck's constant. i.e. The greater the frequency, the greater is the energy. The kind of bio-electro-magnetic waves depends on the wavelength and amplitude of the waves. i.e. The wavelength and ampiltude of common thoughts may be equal.
255
Further in the fourth rule of celibacy, it is stated that a woman should not look steadily at the eyes, face and other organs of a man nor should a man look steadily at the eyes, face and other organs of a woman. For that also, this is the reason.
According to the third rule a woman and man should not sit on a common seat. Moreover, for as long as 48 minutes a celibate man should not sit on a seat left by a woman and for as long as three hours a woman should not sit on a seat left by a man.
While a man sits at a place, an atmosphere is formed around his body. The atmosphere can be good or bad according to the thoughts of the person's mind. Moreover, invisible particles also drop from the body of the person. A mushroom, which is called Anantakāya according to Jain scriptures, sprouts up anywhere in the rainy season. If its upper portion is cut off, and put up side down on a piece of paper for a while, the particles emitted from the mushroom, will make a circular figure there. Similarly, particles drop from the body of a man or a woman and lie there for a long. These particles produce a bad effect on our mind and defile it. That is why this rule is included in the nine rules of celibacy.
6

The fifth rule of celibacy says that one should keep away from a place near a small house where the words of amorous plays of a man and woman on the other side of the wall, are heard and the sixth rule says that one should abstain from recollections of amorous plays indulged in former life as

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a house holder.
Both these types of activities defile the bio-electro-magnetic field of a person. Really speaking pure or impure, good or bad thoughts of our mind make our bio-electro-magnetic field good or bad.
When electricity is passed through steel, it also becomes magnet and, like a magnet, it has its own magnetic field. But a peculiar characteristic of the bio-electro-magnetic field of living beings is that they can expand or contract it to any extent and in any direction as the amoeba can expand or contract its pseudopodia. Really speaking, according to the belief of Jain philosophy, the magnetic field is formed by Mano Vargaņā (paramāņu-units of material particles) emitted by sensorium, as the sensorium is made of material particles. When a man looks at a particular object or person in a particular direction, his magnetic field extends as far as the object or person. Of course, mathematically, the magnetic field of any living or non-living thing extends as long as infinite distance but it has very little influence on very distant objects.
When a man thinks of sensual pleasures with a woman, his mind attracts the woman's mind and thoughts of mind create attraction between unlike poles of each other. Their mind gets united, the circuit of bio-electromagnetic current is completed, misconduct is unknowingly and invisibly committed and there is a mental breach of celibacy.
Electricity is an energy and it is stored in a battery. It has positive (+ve) and negative (-ve) poles. The chemical substance is between the poles and this energy is stored in it. Unless the positive pole and the negati joined, the energy is not used. But as soon as the poles are connected, the energy begins to be used and ultimately it is exhausted. Simila haustible and undivided energy is accumulated in the world in the form of men and women. Men and women are two poles of it. When these two poles are connected in one way or another, energy comes to be used. This connection is established in five ways: (*1) through the actual sexual intercourse, (2) only through touch, (3) through eyes,(4) through words and (5) through mind or sensorium. This is why scripturists have forbidden one who fully and sincerely observes celibacy to touch a person of opposite sex, to look steadily at him or her, to talk with him or her for a long time or even to think of the person of opposite sex.

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The description of sexual pleasures of celestial beings given in the fourth chapter of the ancient Jain scripture, 'The Tattvartha Sutra' supports this statement. Śri Umāsvāti, the author of the 'Tattvärtha Sutra" says that gods who live up to Saudharma, the first heaven and Iśāna, the second heaven satisfy their sex urge with actual sexual intercourse. Of the higher types of gods, some enjoy sexual pleasures only through touch, some enjoy only through eyes, some enjoy them through words and some enjoy them only through sensorium."
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If the other person is only imaginary, is energy used up? Generally, there is not a living person in front of him who reads a sexual novel or a sexual part of a novel. In his mnd there are only imaginary characters imagined by the novelist. Does one loose his energy by thinking of the imaginary characters? This can be replied in the affirmative on the basis of the modern science and ancient narrative literature.
In ancient stories, we come across incidents which show that, sages of distinguished power created with their thinking power or will powerspecial charaters of a young girl etc. for a particular purpose and when the purpose was fulfilled, they dissolved what they had created. The same thing happens here at a subtler level. The strong will-power of the reader of a novel creates an imaginary character invisibly with subtle pudgalas i.e. paramāņus of the surrounding atmosphere and as soon as the mental association of the reader with the character, joins both the poles of the bio-electro-magnetic current, the electro-magnetic circuit is completed and consequently the reader's energy is consumed. That is why they who observe self- restraint should abstain from reading very sexual novels or literature.
For observance of celibacy, very oily, nutritive and stimulative food should be abstained from. For every living organism, food is an important source of energy, which is necessary for life. Generally, a monk should not take milk, curds, ghee, jaggery, oil and sweets for his food. The Jain scripturists call all these six substances to be infatuating food items because they can produce infatuation in the body. But if a monk is constantly engaged in study, thinking, meditation and specially learning and teaching and if he is physically weak, scripturists allow him to take all the six kinds of infatuating food items with his guru's permission. Food should be eaten only to get necessary strength of the body. Infatuation is also caused by getting more than neces

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sary physical strength. For observance of celibacy, one should, therefore, not take very oily and nutritive food.
Similarly, food without milk, curds, ghee, oil, jaggery, sweets etc., taken in excess, also leads to physical deterioration and inactiveness. Therefore, even dry food must be taken in a limited quantity.
Semen is an energy. If the semen produced in our body is prevented from being wasted, it gets sublimated. To put it in terms of modern science, according to the natural arrangement in our body, semen itself is again absorbed in blood, reaches the brain and ultimately fast develops in the form of intellect and memory. Spiritually speaking, this is the sublimation of energy
Celibates are also forbidden to shave or cut attractively and artistically hairs on the body, hairs on the head, finger-nails, toe-nails and to take cosmetic treatment because celibates natuarlly have a bright personality, full of vitality. Their celibacy is their bathing and chastity is fragrance. They, therefore, do not need a bath and a cosmetic treatment. If they take bath and cosmetic treatment, they may look bright and shiny and become a centre of attraction for others. As a result, the magnetic field i.e. sensorium of some
on may become defiled by inauspicious thoughts. A contact with a person of defiled magnetic field may soon defile the magnetic field of a celibate person. A celibate, therefore, should not decorate his body, nor should he take bath or cosmetic treatment.
Even in these days, it is possible to observe physical and mental celibacy, if one strictly follows these nine rules.
It is said that the credulous god Sankara opened his third eye and with flames of fire shooting out from it, he reduced Kāmadēva to ashes. Thinking scientifically about this, we know that our endocrine glands are controlled by the centres of our brain below the Brahmarandhra (crown cakra) called third eye (Ajñā Cakra ) i.e. in the straight line in the place of third eye of Sankara. With his spiritual practice, if the ascetic makes these centres inactive, desire for sexual enjoyments, can be thororughly eradicated. In this sense, any ascetic can even today thoroughly eradicate, with his 'third eye', the desire of sexual enjoyments.
It is also my experience that abundant strength for observing devoted celibacy is obtained by keeping company with saints who observe devoted

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celibacy and by remembering the names of such great persons who lived in the near past.
I take pride in writing that His Holiness Rev. Gurudēva Śāsanasamrăţ Ācārya Śrivijaya Nēmisūriśvaraji Mahārāja, who lived in near past and was very benevolent to us all was highly illuminated with his devoted celibacy and the daily prayer that we offer to him gives us the strength to observe celibacy. He was born in Mahuva (Saurashtra, India) and in Mahuva, he died also. As luck would have it this article comes to an end in proximity of his majestic foot-prints engraved in marble, in the Upāśraya erected at the place of his death.
In conclusion, I hope that this article will remove false notion of people regarding celibacy and all will properly observe celibacy according to their capacity and will make their lives sublime.
References:
1. Truth is generally beleived to be absolute, however in the domain of science, the results of scientific investiagations do not always fit into this expectation. Grinnal says that the reality described by science is not complete or absolute since changes occur with alternations in scientific attitude. ( Everyman's Science, 1993, p. 131, Published by ISCA Calcutta. )
2. On account of restrictions of a monk's life, I donot enter into a detailed analysis of this, but I suggest that the readers may read, for other scientific aspects, Shri Kanti bhatt's article 'Advantages of Celibacy' (second part) in jñāna Gathariyā' column in the Shatadal supplement of Gujarat samachar'of wednsday, February, 17, 1993.
3. 'śramaņakriyā Nā Sūtrā' (artha sahita) p. 260.
4. In an acquarium, a fish named 'Electric Eel' is preseved. This fish produces an electric current of 600 volts and with that electricity, the board 'Electric Eel' is lighted.
5. In a foreign country, a woman had an amazing electric energy. If an electric bulb was put into her hand, it got lighted up. This is what I read long ago.
6. Now, a photographic technique has been invented. If someone sits at a place for some time and then goes away and if a photograph of his former place is taken, his figure and aura stand out in the photograph. In future, this tech

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nique will be used to identify criminals. 7. कायप्रवीचारा आ ऐशानात् ।।८।। शेषाः स्पर्श-रूप-शब्द-मनःप्रवीचारा द्वयोर्द्वयोः ।।९।।
kāyapravicārā ā aišānāt ..8.. śēşāḥ sparsa-rupa-sabdamanaḥpravicārā dvayõrdvayon ..9.. (The Tattvārtha Sūtra, chapter 4, Sūtra 89.)
This will be fully understood by reading a detailed explanation and commentary of these Sūtras.
FOR AN UNDERSTANDING OF ANY OF THE PHILOSOPHIES TO BE DESCRIBED , IT IS IMPORTANT TO REALIZE THAT THEY ARE RELIGIOUS IN ESSENCE. THEIR MAIN AIM IS THE DIRECT MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE OF REALITY, AND SINCE THIS EXPERIENCE IS RELIGIOUS BY NATURE, THEY ARE INSEPARABLE FROM RELIGION. MORE THAN FOR ANY OTHER TRADITION THIS IS TRUE FOR HINDUISM. FRITJOF CAPRA

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25. Advantages And Secrets
Of Penance : The Scientific View-point
The Jainism prescribes various means to follow dharma for spiritual evolution of soul. Whatever chief means you adopt, other means also become useful in a subsidiary way.
A very important means of self-realization is penance. Penance is chiefly of two kinds : External penance and internal penance. Century after century non-Jain philosophers pondered over the external penance prescribed in Jain scriptures and every time they presented it as mortification of body or supression of self or supression of senses. Even in the scientific age of today, we are overawed by splendour and prosperity of external penance but they who call it as useless and hypocritical are not few. Really speaking, though external penance restrains sensual pleasures and desires, purification of soul or thought or mind is not attained because external penance is not combined with internal penance. The external penance alone can, therefore, not lead one to salvation. The kinds and rules of external penance, shown in the Jain scriptures are full of secrets of science. Though they cannot lead one to salvation in the present era, they are very beneficial from the physical and hygienic view-ponts.
First of all, let us think of abstention from taking food at night,
Various magazines etc. often write about scientific advantages of ab. stention from taking food at night. It is, therefore, not necessary to deal with it in detail here. Generally, physical activities and exertion are not engaged in at night and therefore, the function of metabolism is very slow and therefore, he who eats food at night probably suffers from indigestion and diseases of gas. At night in the absence of sun-light minute insects are born in the atmosphere and do a lot of harm. Only the sun-light, having mysterious power or energy, can destroy atmospheric pollution and useless insects and prevent the production of new insects. Jain scriptures forbid to take food at night, including forty-eight minutes before sunset and forty-eight minutes

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after sunrise. At sunrise and sunset, small insects namely a flies, mosquitoes etc. do a lot of harm. Since insects start causing trouble at sunset and stop causing trouble at sunrise, they are especially numerous at those times.
Generally, taking food only twice a day, is not regarded as a penance. But from practical view-point, taking food only twice a day (Biyāśana) is regarded as a penance. Since food is taken at a sitting only twice a day. there is a complete abstention from taking food and water at night and only boiled water is used during day-time, from the hygienic view-point there is no possibility of diseases being spread through insects in water. By taking food only twice a day one abstains from irregular food habits and unwholesome and improper food.
Ēkāśaņa means taking meal at a sitting and only one time a day. Nothing else except boiled water is taken throughout the day. The new generation habituated to take tobacco and flavourings (masala) every now and then, finds it difficult but it is not at all difficult for Jains, living life of regular habits. If food is taken regularly only once a day, the body gets complete rest at night. Therefore, blood and oxygen are needed in a very small quantity for the functioning of various parts of the body and the heart and lungs are not over strained. The whole body gets complete rest. A wonderful alertness is experienced in doing morning duties. After a good mental, intellectual and physical exertion taken during the day, rest is needed. In a one time meal or a two time meal a day, one takes food of one's own choice but abstains from food described in Jain scriptures as Anantakāya i.e. modifications of various roots e.g. potato, sugar-bit, green ginger, onion etc. unwholesome and unfitto-be eaten. One does not, therefore, fall a victim to deteriorations produceufd by all kinds of unfit-to-be eaten, unwholesome and an anger-provoking (Tāmasika) food.
Food is chiefly of three kinds : Sāttvika ( conducive to the highest of the three qualities of nature), Rājasika ( conducive to the second of the three qualities of nature) and Tāmasika ( conducive to the lowest of the three qualities of nature). During penance of a one time meal a day or a two time meal a day. generally, limited Sāttvika food should be taken. Sometimes, Rājasika food also taken for the sake of taste. But one should fully abstain from Tāmasika food because it is anger-provoking, nutritive and stimulating. He who lives according to norms of morality described in Jain scriptures, can

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easily and naturally abstain from Tamasika food. His health is not, therefore, at all deteriorated unless he is careless and fails to follow even the general rules for maintaining health.
Ayambila is a special type of penance, in which tasteless and dry food is taken only once a day. In this penance, six infatuating food items (Vigais) namely milk, curds, ghee, jaggery (sugar), oil and sweets are abstained from. Turmeric and chillies are also not used. Spiritually speaking, by this type of penance, the sense of taste come under control and therefore, all the other senses are conquered, the four spiritual defilements (Kaşayas) and mind are conquered. As a result, the bondage of karma is reduced and when there is a lot of cleansing off karma, one approches salvation.
This type of penance has many other advantages, too. Since ghee, milk, curds, jaggery and sweets which produce mucus and green vegetables which generally stimulate bile are fully abstained from in this type of penance, mucus and bile are tranquilized by practising this type of penace.
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From the Ayurvedic view-point, the root of all diseases lie in the imbalance of gas, bile and mucus elements created in the body. In everyday life, food causing mucus and bile is taken excessively. The proportion of mucus and bile, therefore, rises in the body and health is endangered. If it is possible the penance of Ayambila should be practised four or five times a month. Scripturists have greatly obliged us by prescribing performance of the nine day penance (continuous Ayambilas) in the month of Caitra and Aśvina. And this is the secret of it. The month of Caitra and Asvina fall in the transition period of two seasons and in the transition period, changes occur in health. If discremination is not used regarding wholesome and unwholesome in this season, one sometimes becomes a victim to a long-term illness. It is said in Ayurveda vaidyānām śāradī mātā, pitā tu kusumākaraḥ. (वैद्यानां शारदी माता, पिता तु कुसुमाकरः । ) ( For physicians, Sarada one of the six seasons of the year covering Asvina and Kārtika months- is as good as mother and Vasant i.e. spring- one of the six seasons of the year covering the Caitra and Vaisakha months is as good as father.) It is in these two seasons that people fall ill and the doctors and physicians earn a lot. If possible, the penance of nine days - Ayambila, from 7th day of the first half of Caitra and Asvina, to 15th day of first of Caitra and Aśvina, should be performed.

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Fast is a distinct type of penance of Jainism. This penance is chiefly of two types: 1.Tivihāra Upavāsa means taking only boiled water during the day time. 2. Cauvihāra Upavāsa means nothing can be taken as food and water also are abstained from. According to the Jain tradition a fast begins in the evening of the previous day and it is completed in the morning of the next day. It means that a fast is of thirty-six hours in all. In the fast of the Jain tradition, tea, milk, cofee, fruits, sweets made of condensed milk or dry fruits as in fasts of other traditions are not taken nor is it a symbolic fasts of 12 hours from 8 a. m. to 8 p. m. observed in order to realise some political object. Such a symbolic fast is begun after a full breakfast in the morning and after the end of the fast in the evening a full dinner is taken. But in Tivihāra Upavāsa of the Jain tradition, only boiled water is taken from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. A Cauvihāra Upavāsa is complete abstainment for full 36 hours from the evening of the previous day to the morning of the next day and not a single drop of water is taken i.e. water is also fully abstained from.
There are only three necessities of life, food, water and air. It is necessary to take needed wholesome food regularly in order to keep the body fit. If less food is taken or no food is taken, the body becomes weaker and weaker and in the long run it becomes unable to do other activities. For digestion of food, water is very indispensable. The body contains 75 to 80 % water. If water is reduced in body on account of passing tools or vomitting, blood-pressure fast begins to decrease and the body becomes uneasy. One has, therefore, to take glucose-water etc., to prevent dehydration. Water is also, therefore, very indispensable for subsistence of life. Oxygen is very indispensable for process of metabolism. By combustion of fat and sugar through oxygen, we get necessary energy. Oxygen is taken from air through breathing. Air contains nearly 20 % oxygen. Not even for a few minutes can a human being nor any living being nor even a plant live without air. Without water one can live for some hours and without food one can live for some days. Form the scientific view-point, a fast of many days can, therefore, be observed by taking only water and no food. Without taking any food or water, a fast can be observed only for four or five days and not for a longer period.
Besides being a means of self-purification and self-control, a fast is a means of purification of the body and of control of internal activities of body. By observing a fast one disposes of the internal solid waste of the body. Bile,

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mucus and gas produced in the body are controlled or thrown out and the body is purified. Some people vomit bile on the second or third day of fasting. Really speaking, the surplus bile in the body is vomitted out and the body feels relief. During a fast only boiled water is taken and therefore, the surplus faeces is excerted. Since they get no food, worms ec. themselves go
And if there is mucus accumulation, it is removed. Since surplus bile and surplus mucus go out of the body, gas, bile and mucus are balanced. There
re, at least a one day fast should be observed in a fortnight or in amonth. That is why scripturists have mentioned a one-day fast as a fotnighty atonement. Generally, the body of virtuous and self-restrained monks and nu who constantly observe a fast of three days or more is occupied by gods and goddesses. He who performs penance is helped by gods and goddesses. If an ordinary man observed a long fast of eight days, eleven days, fifteen days, thirty days or forty-five days, he generally becomes physically weak or lean and incompetent but by virtue of his will power and spiritual power he can do without food for many days. Some people can abstain from both food and water as long as 16 days. Those who have even an ordinary knowledge of science will find this very surprising. But thinking further on this point, we find that our body takes three days in adjusting with a new situation. During the first three days it opposes the new situation. During these first three days, its physical and mental functions are disturbed but when the reaction of the body does not get any external response, the body gets adjusted to the new situation. According to this principle, during routine days our body gets heat and energy from the food and water that we take. But it does not consume fat and glucose lying within the body, it is so accustomed. When we observe a fast or an Ayambila, our body tries to get heat and energy from the food and water taken from outside, but since it is totally stoped to take
water, the body resists the new situation in the form of hunger etc. And if our will-power is not strong, we break the fast. If we do not break the fast and continue to observe fast, our body instead of getting heat and energy from outside, gets necessary heat and energy from fat, glucose etc.
ored in the body. This arrangement is setteled in three days. They who go to America from India and come to India from America take three days to get the biological clock of their body adjusted to the new surroundings. In medical terminology it is called 'jet lag'. During the three days, they sleep during day time and keep awake at night, they do not become hungry during day

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time but at night as before. The mind also remains up set and disturbed for sometime. That is why the ambassadors who go to foreign country are instructed not to take decisions on policy matter or make confidetial deliberations for three days. This is the reason why one does not feel hungry or weak after the first three days of his fast. During the three days, the body makes alternative arrangements for getting heat and energy.
In short, the penance of Navakārasi (taking food and water after 48 minutes of sunrise), Cauvihāra (not taking food and water etc. during the whole night) Biyāśana (taking food only twice a day), Ekāśaņa (taking food only once a day), Āyambila (taking only once aday, food without ghee, oil, milk, curds, jaggery, sweets etc.), a fast of 36 hours (Upavāsa), etc. prescribed in the Jain tradition, is fully scientific from the view points of medical science and physiology. Besides spiritual benefits, it brings numerous advantages of physical health. They should not be overlooked. Even if one is allergic to the words 'religion' and 'religious', the penance described above and its rules should be observed in the name of science and health.
IT MOVES. IT MOVES NOT. IT IS FAR. IT IS NEAR. IT IS WITHIN ALL THIS, AND IT IS OUTSIDE OF ALL THIS.
ISHA UPANISHAD 5.

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26. Prohibition Of Fresh Vegetables On Parva-Tithis - Auspicious Days: A Scientific View-Point
From very ancient times Jains are famous all over the world for their food
habits and life-style. All their religious doctrines and rules of food habits and life-style are perfectly scientific because they were not introduced by an ordinary person. After having obtained omniscience, Śramana Bhagavan Mahāvira expounded them for the greatest welfare of not only his disciples, monks and nuns and laymen and laywomen but also for the greatest welfare of the entire human race and the whole living world. If they are scrupulously and wisely observed, they, no doubt, secure self-welfare. By observing these rules, many living beings secured self-welfare and ultimately attained the final liberation. Ancient scriptures give such illustrations.
Among many rules of food habits prevalent in the Jain tradition, there is a rule in the Śvētāmbara Idolatrous sect that forbids the use of fresh vegetables (greens) on the twelve parva-tithis (the second, fifth, eighth, eleventh, fourteenth and fifteenth days of the bright half and dark half of every month) or five parva-tithis (the fifth, eighth and fourteenth days of the bright half and the eight and fourteenth days ofthe dark half) of every month, the seventh to fifteenth days of the bright half of the months of Caitra, Āśvina, Kārtika, Phāgana and Aṣāḍha and eight days of Paryuṣaṇā parva. This tradition is not new. It is many centuries old and it has authenticity of Āgamas. In the book of life of ten śrāvakas, entitled "Ananda-sundara'' composed in the first half of the sixteenth century of Vikram era, there is a reference to Parva-tithis as under :
पर्वाणि सन्ति सर्वज्ञैर्भाषितानि जिनागमे ॥ २६४ ॥
सांवत्सरं चतुर्मासत्रयं चाष्टानिकाद्वयम् । मासगं पर्वषट्कं वा, पक्षगा पञ्चपर्व्यपि ।।२६५ ।. एतेषु निरतीचार- पञ्चाचारपरो नरः । शुभं परभवायुष्कं बध्नाति शुभकर्म च ।। २६६ ।।
यदुक्तं महानिशीथे- भयवं ! बीया पमुहासु पव्वतिहीसु विहियं धम्माणुट्ठाणं किं फलं हवइ ? गोयमा ! बहु फलं हवइ । जम्हा एयासु पव्वतिहीसु पाएणं जीवो परभवाउयं कम्मं समजणइ, तम्हा सावएणं

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मापागमतिसकिनपिताlalsनागामारसांवमरंचत्रमसिायंचाक्षादिकारयामामगंपवायगापंचपचिपात युनिस्नाबारायंतावारपारासावतंयरतवायुक्ताबमतिलनकर्मवयनंग्रामदानिटातटावंबाटापरदासपतिदासवि विटांधम्माएवाकिफलंदगाटामा।बजफतववाहमापदामुपवतिदायपाएणंबावापश्नवानयंकासमणिशतनामावं पागंसाविटापसाऊरणासाजणीएवाधानगवाविडीवणातानविदाधम्माएहाणसुदपरिणामणकायवाआम्रपघाविसावा कानयावसायमाबाजिगमपतवाafmarहमिवरहमानियामणावविजापासदिमायालाकवाणिवपक्षमास्वाम
Areference of Ananda Sundara written in 1549 Vikram Era, depicting the life of ten śrāvakas, mentions about Parva-tithis and prohibition regarding eating of life containing fruits, fresh/green vegetables on Parva-tithis.

पृ.१
करण? नवनागघिदिवमंERESTEानायनाटाघधर्मवत्पउकातंवरलामाकरवारामधन्यावश्यतमोतादाद्या पंauraमामतिघाटायचामावद्यारसमचिन्नात्यागंतावनावाटल्वागतासाना गयामनशासवपक्सविधि पंचरामश्विपक्रम तदपिमारंगमिघुनंबनावनात्यकावउविधादारामारस्मारंतमक्रियाणप्रतिपादनलानात
[Curtsy : L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380 009]
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सावियाए साहुणा साहुणीए वा अन्नेण वा जीवेणं तवो विहाणाई धम्माणुट्ठाणं सुहपरिणामेणं कायव्वं !
parvāṇi santi sarvajñairbhāṣitāni jināgamē ..264.. sāmvatsaram caturmāsatrayam căştāhnikādvayam. māsagam parvaşatkam vā, pakşagā pañcaparvyapi ..265.. ētēşu niraticāra-pañcācāraparo naraḥ śubham parabhavāyuşkam, badhnāti śubhakarma ca ..266..
yaduktam mahāniśithē - bhayavam ! biyā pamuhāsu pavvatinisu vihiyam dhammānutthānam kim phalam havai ? göyamā ! bahu phalam havai . jamhā ēyāsu pawatinisu pāēņam jivo parabhavāuyam kammam samajaņai, tamhā sāvaēņam sāviyãē sāhuņā sāhuniē vā annēņa vā jivēņam tavā vihāņāim dhammānutthāņam suhapariņāmēņam kāyavam.
"In Āgama scriptures, Omniscient Tirthankaras have enumerated parvas thus : six eight-day-festivals which are as under: 1. The Paryusaņā festival, 2, 3, 4. three eight-day-festivals of the month of Kārtika, Phāgana and Āsādha, 5-6. two eternal (śāśvati) eight-day-festivals (though they contain nine days) of months Caitra and Āśvina. These are all called Atthai i.e. eight-day-festivals. There are six parva-tithis in a month or five parva-tithis in a fortnight, ten parva-tithis in a month. On these auspicious days, a human being perhaps acquires the life-span for next birth and other auspicious karma for the next birth.
It is said in the Mahānisithasūtra, "O Lord! What is the result of observing religious rules on parva-tithis such as the second day etc. of each fortnight etc.?
Gautama ! The result attained is great. A living being probably binds āyuşya (life-span) of the next birth on these days of parva-tithis. Laymen, laywomen, monks and nuns should therefore, perform penance etc. with auspicious thoughts."
In the same scripture, there is a further verse as under : द्वितीयाद्याः पञ्च पक्षे, मासे षट् तिथयोऽथवा | सावद्यारम्भसच्चित्तत्यागं तास्वेव भावयेः ।। dvitiyādyāḥ pañca paksē, māsē sat tithayö'thavā . sāvadyārambhasaccittatyāgam tāsvēva bhāvayāḥ .. "On the five parva-tithis (the second-day etc.) in a fortnight or ten parva

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tithis in a month, one should abstain from sinful activities and from eating what possesses life."
What is the reason, why six parva-tithis are mentioned of a month and five parva-tithis are mentioned of a fortnight here, is not explained. But in the Śrāddhadinakṛtya Sūtra written by Acarya Sri Dēvēndrasūriji Mahārāja and in the vrtti writeen by him, there is a contex of six parva-tithis of a month as under :
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
मूलम् छण्हं तिहीण मज्झम्मि का तिही अज्ज वासरे ? किं वा कल्लाणगं अज्ज लोगनाहाण संतियं
1129 11
-
स्वोपज्ञवृत्ति मासाभ्यन्तर इति गम्यते षण्णां तिथीनां सितेतराष्टमी- चतुर्दशी- पूर्णिमाऽमावास्या लक्षणानां मध्ये का तिथिरद्यवासरे ?
( श्राद्धदिनकृत्यसूत्रम् स्वोपज्ञवृत्तिविभूषितम्
ग्रन्थकाराः श्रीदेवेन्द्रसूरयः )
mūlam- chanham tihiņa majjhammi kā tihi ajja vāsarë ? kim vā kallāṇagam ajja lōganāhāņa santiyam ..21..
svōpajñavṛtti - māsābhyantara iti gamyatē. sannām tithinām sitētarāṣṭamicaturdaśi-pūrṇimā'māvāsyā lakṣaṇānām madhyē kā tithiradyavāsarē ?
( Śrāddhadinakṛtyasūtram by śri Dēvēndrasūriji )
-
"Of the six parva tithis, the eighth days of the bright half and the dark half, the forteenth days of the bright half and the dark half and fifteenth days of the bright half and dark half, which parva-tithi is today ?""
Here, the fifth days of the bright half and the dark half of the month are not considered in the six parva-tithis of the month. There is no clarification regarding the five parva-tithis of each fortnight. Still however, the second, the fifth, the eighth, the eleventh and the forteenth day are perhaps included in the five parva-tithis of a each fortnight. The full moon and the new moon day following the forteenth day of each half of the month succesively without interruption and for that reason they perhaps not regaded as parvatithis.

Since fresh vegetables (greens) possess life, one should abstain from the use of greens even as one's own food in order to avoid the himsā (violence) of greens and other moving organisms living under their shelter.
It needs to be made clear here that it is not absolutely compulsory that all

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laymen and laywomen should abstain from green vegetables on all parvatithis. That is why parva-tithis are differently enumerated. Some laymen and laywomen observe five parva-tithis in a month, some observe six, some observe ten or twelve parva-tithis.
The point is, on parva-days, one should do as little sin and as much auspicious deeds as possible.
All kinds of green vegetables possess life. Flour, rice, split pulses, etc. do not possess life. Wheat, barley, pulses like moong, matha, adada (black beans), grams, chola, tuver, (pigeon pea) etc. may or may not possess life because they themselves become lifeless after some time of their complete growth. The following statements are made about them in the chapter captioned 'Dhānyānām Abijatva Dvāra' in the book Pravacanasārāddhāra :
जव १ जवजव २ गोधूम ३ सालि ४ वीहि ५ धन्नाण कोट्ठयाइसुं । खिधिऊण पिहियाणं कित्ताणं मुहियाणं च।।९९५।। उक्कोसेणं ठिइ होइ, तिशि वरिसाणि तराणु एएसि । विद्धं सिज्जइ जोणी, तत्तो जायइ अबीयतं ।।९९६।। तिल १ मुग्ग २ मसूर ३ कलाय ४ मास ५ चवलय ६ कुलत्थ ७ तुवरीणं ८ । तह कसिणचणय ९ वल्लाण १० कोट्याइसु खिविऊणं ।।९९७ ।। ओलिताणं पिहियाणं लंछियाणं च मुदियाणं च । उक्कि ट ठ ठिइ बरिसाण पंचगं ततो अबीयत्तं ।।९९८।। अयसि १ लट्ठा २ कंगु ३ कोडूसग ४ सण ५ वरट्ठ ६ सिद्धत्था ७ । कोरव ८ रालग ९ मूलग बीयाण कोट्याइसु ||९९९।। निक्खित्ताणं एयाणु क्कोसठि इए सत्त वरिसाइं । होइ जहशेणं पुणो अंतमुहुतं समग्गाणं ।।१००० ।। java 1 javajava 2 godhūma 3 sāli 4 vihi 5 dhannāņa kõtthayāísum. khiviuna pihiyānam kittānam muddiyanam ca..995.. ukkāsēņam thii hõi, tinni varisāņi tayaņu ēēsim . viddhamsijjai jāņi, tatto jāyai abiyattam ..996.. tila 1 mugga 2masūra 3 kalāya 4 māsa 5 cavalaya 6 kulattha 7 tuvarinam 8 taha kasinacanaya 9 vallana 10 kotthayaisu khiviunam ..997.. õlittānam pihiyāṇam lañchiyāṇam ca muddiyānam ca. ukkittha thii varisana paicagam tato abiyattam ..998.. ayasi 1 latthā 2 kangu 3 kõļūsaga 4 saņa 5 varattha 6 siddhatthā 7. kiddava 8 rālaga 9 mulaga biyana kotthayaisum ..999.. nikkhittānam ēyāņukkosathijē satta varisäim . hoi jahannénam puno amtamuhuttam samaggānam ..1000..

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"If barley, a special other kind of barley, wheat, paddy, a variety of rice, i.e. juwar, millet etc. are stored in a vertical cylindrical container of grains etc. made of mud and if it is properly covered, daubed with cow-dung etc. they live as seeds possessing life as long as three years and then the organ of generation gets destroyed and seeds become lifeless. They do not grow even if they are sown i.e. They become lifeless.
Thus even if they are stored with great care as shown above, sesame seeds, different kind of pulses like moong, lentil, field peas, black beans, chola, kalathi, pigeon peas, grams, vaals etc. certainly become lifeless after five years.
If linseeds, cotton seeds, kangoo (cereals like yellow rice), kodara ( a kind of cheap coarse corn), jute, white rapseeds, kodari (husked grains of kodara), ralaka ( a kind of kangoo), radish etc. are stored in a vertical, cylindrical container and preserved as above, saved from insects as described above, they can possess life as long as seven years as living seeds and then they certainly become lifeless."
The life span shown above is the longest. The shortest life-span for all kinds of grains is an Antarmuhurtta i.e a period of less than 48 minutes. It means that after life is created in a grain/seed, if its life span is completed within 48 minutes, it becomes lifeless. But omniscient beings know it. Nescient beings do not know it. Therefore, even if a seed has become should not be used. This is the reason why Śramaņa Bhagavān Mahāvira did not grant permission to his thirsty group of monks to drink from pond water which had naturally become lifeless on account of destruction of water body's lives caused by the heat of the Sun.
As shown above, grains can be lifeless. Therefore, abstinence from greensvegetables does not cause that much sin that is caused by the use of greens. As a result there is less bondage of karma.
There is one more logical and scriptural reason why man should abstain from greens on parva-tithis. If he abstains, he does not develop attachment towards greens, fruits etc.
Generally, green vegetables, fruits etc. have much more taste, sweetness etc. than dry pulses. Man, therefore, prefers green vegetables, and fruits to dry pulses. If he eats various fresh vegetables, fruits etc. he will

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form a habit and will not be able to do without green vegetables, fruits etc. even for a day and he will develop attachment towards them. He will cultivate a habit for green vegetables and fruits. We can know it from the following illustration. : Pēthadaśā, a minister and king's advisor was a Jain merchant. In the beginning of his career, he dealt in ghee. It was Pēthadašā's policy to sell only fresh ghee every day. Fresh ghee has distinct smell and taste. They who bought ghee from Pēthaďaśā's shop never bought it from anyone else. King Jayasimha always got fresh ghee from Pēthadaśā's shop and took his meal.
Once the king's maid-servant went to Pēthadaśā's shop to buy ghee. Pēthadaśā has been out. Pēthadaśā's son Jhāñjhanaśā was there in the shop. The maid-servant asked Jhāñjhanaśā to give her ghee. Jhāñjhanaśā said, "No" He said that there was no ghee. The king again sent the maidservant to buy ghee but she did not get ghee. The king did not take his meal. He sent for Jhāñjhanaśā and asked him reason. Jhāñjhanaśā said, "Oh, King! There was plenty of ghee but before the maid-servant came to buy ghee another customer had come. He sneezed and the vessel containning the ghee was open at that time. Since it was open, the poisonous matte excreted from the body of the house lizard might have dropped into it. Thinking of this possibility, I did not give ghee to your maid-servant."
In short, attachment for tasty food may develop into a habit. To avoid attachment, we should eat greens only intermittently.
It is a general principle to karma philosophy that one is born among those for whom one develops attachment. In scriptures there are many illustrations about this. Not even gods are in exception to this. If they develop attachment for beautiful gems of heaven which are earth bodies, sweet smelling water of stepped wells, wells, ponds etc., beautiful fregrant flowers etc. gods of heaven also after their death, are born as earth bodies among gems etc., as water bodies, as trees, flowers etc. among plants.
Gods in heaven do not use fire and wind etc. In absence of any pleasure derived from them, gods do not develop any attachment for them. Therefore after their death in heaven, gods are never born as fire bodies or wind bodies.

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Lest man should continuously relish the taste of green and fresh vegetables and fruits, lest he should develop attachment for such worthless things as green vegetables and fruits and lest he should take birth among them, parva-tithis are perhaps arranged inorder to abstain from green vegetables and fruits at an interval of every two days.
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By the way, it needs to be noted here that there is a possibility of production of minute organisms in unsplit pulses and therefore monks and nuns do not take unsplit pulses (gram etc) as food during the rainy season and on parva- tithis.
Really speaking, it is not very necessary for those who are vegetarians to take greens. But those who are non-vegetarians need to take greens in their diet because the non-vegetarian diet does not contain carbohydrates, salts, vitamins etc. that are necessary for a human body. Besides flesh etc. have no fibres and the want of fibrous food may cause constipation. They should, therefore, take greens in a large quantity. Experiences of physicians also prove this. Vegetarians regularly take fresh vegetables and therefore, they do not suffer from such diseases. They, therefore, do not need to take more green vegetables.
Greens are full of haemoglobin. It gets oxygen from air and purifies blood in lungs. Since it is not at all there in non-vegetable diet i.e flesh etc., the body of non-vegetarians becomes pale. Since there is a good amount of haemoglobin in the body of vegetarians, they do not need to take greens. Besides, there is a lot of haemoglobin in pulses etc.
Speaking from the Ayurvedic view-point, green vegetables increase bile and pulse increase gas. If green vegetables are taken excessively, bile is excited. In order to prevent it and in order to maintain the balance of gas, bile and mucus, one should abstain from fresh vegetables at intervals of two days. It is also necessary that he should eat pulses. Parva-tithis also come approximately after an interval of two days. The first parva-tithi is the second day of the lunar month then after two days comes the fifth day, then eighth, eleventh and fourteenth days after an interval of two days each. At the end of the whole fortnight, the fourteenth and fifteenth days come as joint parva-tithis. The only reason for this is that if the bile has slightly increased during the fortnight, it can subside as a result of abstinence from green vegetables continuously for two days.

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The nine days from the seventh to the fifteenth days of the bright fortnight of the months Kārtika, Phāgaṇa and Aṣāḍha are called days of aththais (a religious eight or nine days festival coming at the interval of four months). Really speaking, this is a period of transition. In this season, imbalance of gas, bile, and mucus occurs in the body. Health is reduced. Restrictions of food become necessary. Similarly, the periods of observance of nine-daylong penance in the month of Caitra and Aśvina are favourable to diseases. It is said somewhere "vaidyānām saradi mātā, pitā tu kusumākaraḥ . ( वैद्यानां शारदी माता, पिता तु कुसुमाकरः 1)' (For physicians, the season śarada is mother and the season spring is father).
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During these periods, mucus is much excited. Therefore, wise people have prescribed that penance of Ayambila should be performed in these days. It reduces mucus and bile. He who performs this penance abstains not only from green vegetables, fruits etc. but also from ghee, oil, jaggery (sugar), milk, curds, sweets, chillies and sour food because they cause mucus. It should be noted that along with green vegetables, unripe or ripe fruits too are considered green. But very few Jains abstain from ripe fruits. The Jain religion is ultimately a religion of renouncement. The greater the renouncement, the greater the benefit. Therefore, when laymen and laywomen take the vow of abstinence from green vegetables etc., they abstain from them to the extent they decide.
Thus it is proper that on parva-tithis, we who are vegetarians, should abstain from green vegetables from religious, scientific, hygienic and Ayurvedic points of view.
References:
1. This book is not yet published. A manuscript of this book written in the year 1549 of Vikram era, is in collection of L. D. Institute of Indology, Navarangpura, Ahemdabad 380009. Another manuscript is in the collection of Acarya Śrivijaya Nēmisūri Jñānaśālā, Khambhāta. This book is written on the basis of the Jain canonical scripture entitled Upāśakadaśānga ".
1

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27. 'Vigais'
And
'Mahāvigais'
[I have recently got the book "Role of Vegetarian Diet in Health and Disease" published by the Bombay Hospital, Institute of Medical Science. Preceding the index, there is a section: 'Our Contributors", which contains photos of all the writers, doctors etc. who have contributed articles to the book. The most important fact of the book is that not a single writer or doctors a Jain. All are eminent scholars of their subject. On the basis of scientific research, they have supported vegetarianism. In writing this article on Vigais and Mahāvigais, I have made use of this book. The author]
"The philosophical aspect of the Jain religion is logical and therefore, it is
irrefutable. It is not questionable. But as far as geography, astronomy, fitness and unfitness of food to be eaten etc. are concerned, various questions were raised in different ages and if some doubts are raised on account of them, there is nothing surprising."
33 1
During the last four or five decades, science has made a remarkable progress. Today, everyone is probably overpowered by achievements of science. He, therefore, thinks of every rule and principle of religion, morality or good conduct from the scientific view point. Not largely, but to a very small extent, norms about food that is fit or unfit to be eaten, have been changing from time to time. It is, therefore, very necessary to scrutinize the changed modern norms about food that is fit or unfit to be eaten. So much material is available on this subject that a book can be written on it. But in view of the limited space available here, we shall think only about 'Vigais and Mahāvigais'.
fas (Vigai) or fan (Vigaya) is originally a prākṛta word. Its samskṛta form is fafa (vikṛti). The thing which is capable of bringing about a change in nature, quality or form of soul or mind and of defiling it is called a vikṛti in the Jain terminology.2 The things which have called Mahāvikṛtis. According to Jain scriptures vikṛtis are six in number: 1. milk, 2. curds, 3. ghee, 4. oil, 5. jaggery or sugar, 6. fried food.3 Mahāvigais
greater such capacity, are

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"Vigais' And 'Mahāvigais' include 1. Butter, 2. Honey, 3. Wine, 4. flesh (or meat)." Jain laypersons who are purified by the true quality of a śrāvaka keep away from all these four Mahāvigais whose names begin with letter 'ma' (# ) for life long time. Others are Jains only by birth, not by deeds. They have destroyed the limit, grandeur and splendour of the word 'śrāvaka'. It is a matter of deep worry for us; these things have been adopted by Jains who have lost the Jain quality.
As far as possible, a real śrāvaka keeps the five anuvratas, three gunavratas and four śikṣāvratas. The discussion of the seventh vow bhõgõpabhöga viramana vrata contains some description of what is fit and what is unfit for a śrāvaka to eat. 1. honey 2. butter 3. wine and 4. meat are strictly prohibited there. We shall think of them later on. Let us now think of Vigais which are generally eaten.
Jain scriptures clearly do not allow monks and saints to take milk, curds, ghee, oil etc. without a special reason or condition or by exception. Only a fatigued monk or a physically weak monk or a monk excessively devoted to scriptural study or meditating can use Vigais according to the permission of the Acāryas etc. These Vigais are forbidden because they defile the mind and the body as their names suggest. Therefore, it is not proper for a
an to take ghee, milk, curds etc. in a great or excessive quantity.
1. Milk
From a scientific point of view, milk is a perfect food. Milk contains probably all kinds of elements necessary for human body. Therefore; milk is considered to be very necessary for man. There are some people who say that milk is obtained /derived from female animals and it should, therefore, be abstained from. It is like non-vegetarian food. But what they say is not true. If this is believed, then there is perhaps no person in the world who did not take milk in childhood. Really speaking, for all living beings particular to the animals, milk is the primary necessity of life. In the mamillae of every female it is produced for the nutrition of her children. The first food for every child is milk whether the child is of a lioness, a deer, a cow, a buffalo or even a woman. Milk is made for food and since infinite/biginingless times every human child has been taking milk as food. It is, therefore, unnecessary to entertain such doubts about milk. Of course, in the present times, the milk of cows and buffaloes is extracted with machines and sometimes in order to

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get more milk, the machine is kept fixed for a long time and therefore, blood of animals possibly comes along with milk. It is, therefore, proper to abstain from such milk. But such possibilities are very slight in India.
According to Jain scriptures, milk of cows, buffaloes, female goat, female camels, and female sheep is generally regarded as Vigais. Only these five kinds of milk are regarded as Vigais. Milk of no other animal is regarded as Vigai.5
Milk contains protein called casein (80%) and it is easily digestible with HCL and rennin that secrete in the stomach. Milk contains a good deal of fat and it is also easily digestible. Along with them, there is a carbohydrate named lactose. Milk also contains mineral elements namely, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, sulphur, magnesium, iron etc. Though iron is in a very meagre proportion, its quality is the best. That is why it soon mixes with blood."
2. Curds
Curds are made of milk. Jain scriptures state that there are four kinds of curds. If the milk of a cow, a femal buffalo, a female goat or a female sheep is coagulated, it becomes curds. Curds are not made of the milk of a female camel. Therefore, though there are five kinds of milk, there are only four kinds of curds.' Whether curds are fit or unfit to be eaten is a question that arises from time to time. There are some who say that when milk is spoiled and its original taste, smell and colour are lost or changed, it becomes curds. There are some others who say that curds are not made without bacteria, Through a microscope in a laboratory, a large number of living bacteria are seen. Therefore, in view of himsā and ahimsā (violence and non-violence), curds should be certainly abstained from.
If one believes that curds are a spoiled food, the belief is entirely wrong. There is a great difference between the process by which milk is spoiled and the process by which the milk is coagulated. Under the effect of atmospheric temperature when milk gets spoiled without curd being added to it, its colour, smell, taste etc. are never like those of curds. Some antibacterial microorganisms are produced in it. When curd is added to milk, the bacteria in curds called lacto-bacillus, transform milk into curds.

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A gastric juice named lactose is secreted in our body. It transforms the carbohydrates named lactose occurring in milk into lactic acid. If lactose is not produced or slightly produced in the body, it is preferable to eat curds instead of milk. Milk is heavy to digest., while curds are light. It is, therefore, a stupidity to say that curds is spoiled milk.
Generally, it is popular belief that curds are not coagulated without bacteria and, therefore, curds should not be eaten. From a study of microbiology, we come to know that some bacteria that are sometimes found in milk etc. do not die by any means even if you boil the milk as long as half an hour, because as the atmospheric temperature rises, bacteria of this kind make protection cover all around them which is called spore, and lie sleeping inside the cover till the atmosphere becomes favourable.
The bacteria that turns milk into curds are of a special kind. In our body too, there are a large number of bacteria and micro-organisms. Even if milk is taken instead of curds, when it goes to the stomach, mixes with hydrochloric acid and gets transformed into curds. We should, therefore, believe that curds can be taken as food even if it contains bacteria because the atmosphere favourable to their life, is present in our body also and therefore, they do not die and that is why curds are not prohibited in Jain scriptures. But after two nights the curds become unfit to be eaten because the bacteria that make curds grow profusely and there is a possibility of growth of microorganisms of other kinds.
Scientifically speaking, all food items are mixed to a small or great extent with viruses and bacteria. No food is, therefore, fit for us to eat. But all food tems do not become unfit to be eaten simply because they contain bacteria.
It is necessary to show here that dicotyledons from which oil cannot be extracted i.e. pulses namely black beans, moonga, chola (kind of pulse), gram, methi (foenugreek seeds) etc. are not fit to be eaten with unboiled milk, curds (products of cow-milk, buffalo-milk). But dicotyledons from which oil is extracted namely oil-seeds, ground nuts, charoli (kind of dry fruit i.e. chirongia sapida), almond etc. are fit to be eaten with unboiled milk, curds and their products. The verses about pulses are as under :

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जंमि उ पिलिज्जंते, नेहो नह होइ, बिंति तं विदलं । विदले विह उप्पन्ने नेहजुअं होइ नो विदलं ।।१।। मुग्गमासाइ पभिई, विदलं कच्चंमि गोरसे पडइ । ता तस जीवुप्पत्ति, भणंति दहिए वि दुदीणुवरि ।।२।। विदलं जिमिउं पच्छा, पत्तं मुहं च दो वि धोवेज्जा । अहवा अन्नय पत्ते, भुजिज्जा गोरसं नियमा ।।३।।
jammi u pilijjantē, nēho nahu hõi, binti tam vidalam. vidalē vihu uppannē nēhajuam hõi nõ vidalam ..1.. muggamāsāi pabhiim, vidalam kaccammi görasē padai. tā tasa jivuppatti, bhaṇanti daniē vi dudinuvarim ..2.. vidalam jimium pacchā, pattam muham ca do vi dhôvējā . ahavā annaya pattē, bhuñjijā görasam niyamā ..3.. 9
Here the second verse clearly shows that on the third day, curds become unfit to be eaten. The third verse shows the method of eating curds as food. After eating pulses the vessel and the mouth should be washed and curds should be taken as food or curds should be eaten from another vessel.
Elsewhere, the verses are found as under : मुग्गमासपभिइ, आमगोरसे जो भलइ । उवइ तसरासि असंखजीवा मुणेयव्वा ।।१।। विदले भोयणे चेव, कंठे जीवा अणंतसो होइ । उयरंमि गए चेव, जीवाण न होइ उप्पत्ति ।।२।। muggamāsapabhii, āmagörasē jo bhalai. uvai tasarāsi asankhajivā muņēyavvā ..1.. vidalē bhūyaņē cēva, kanthē jivā aṇantasõ hõi. uyarammi gaē cēva, jivāna na hõi uppatti ..2.. 10
According to modern botany, pulses include all dicotyledon vegetables i.e. beans or pulses e.g. moongo, black-bean, bean, pea, grams, chola, moth, lentil, fenugreek etc. from which oil cannot be extracted and groundnut, cashew-nut, charoli, sesame, mustard seeds, almond, rape seeds, turiya, lady's finger etc. from which oil can be extracted. But according to Jain scriptures and tradition, pulses include only dicotyledons from which oil cannot be extracted.
Here one doubt also arises that whether dahimvadā / ghõlavada are fit to be eaten or unfit to be eaten ? There are some uncertainties about dahimvadā (kind of fried cakes made of pulses, dipped in curds).For lay-folk, dahimvadā are shown to be unfit to be eaten and it is mentioned in the aticāra sutra of lay-folk. But the paccakkhāņa bhăşya shows thirty food items of six soul defiling foods i.e. Vigais. There fried cakes made of pulses,

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dipped in curds are shown to be fit for being eaten.
In my opinion, according to the verses quoted above, if fried cakes are dipped in unheated curds, they are unfit to be eaten, but if they are dipped in heated curds, they are fit to be eaten. What is meant here by unheated curds? Is it curds made of unheated milk or curds made of heated milk but the curds so made is then not heated? It is not possible to find a solution to this question or many such other questions without making experiments. Therefore a laboratory is essential for it.
281
It is a rule, regarding to whey, observed by monks and nuns of the śvētāmbara idolatrous sect of Jains that if unboiled water is poured into whey during churning it and all butter is taken out, the whey becomes lifeless. The whey is drunk soon and time limit for use of that whey is two days. Though in the present times, no monk accepts whey on the next day, this is heard traditionally. There must be some reference in scriptures in support of it, but it has not yet come to my knowledge.
And according to the tradition of Jain svētāmbara idolatrous sect, if unboiled water is poured into whey after churning, it remains with life up to 48 minutes and after 48 minutes, it becomes lifeless and monks and nuns may take it as a food. This tradition is also now prevailing somewhere.
3. Ghee
Curds are made from milk, whey is made from curds, butter is made from whey and ghee is made from butter. When whey is churned, butter surfaces and floats. When it is separated from whey and heated, butter is transformed into ghee. Thererfore, there are as many kinds of ghee as curds. It means that curds, butter and ghee are obtained from the milk of cows, buffaloes, female goats, and female sheep.
Here a question may arise, if the butter, taken out of curds or whey, is unfit to be eaten, how can ghee, which is made by heating the butter be fit to be eaten? Really speaking, butter remains fit to be eaten as long as 48 minutes after it is taken out of whey. Afterwards, micro-organisms of its own colour are produced in it. Therefore, ghee should be made soon after butter is separated from whey.
In the present times some non-Jain ghee makers go on collecting butter

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for ten or fifteen days after the butter is taken out of whey and then make ghee out of it. Many years ago, it was seen in the kitchen of a Jain gentleman in a city of south India that one afternoon when a cook began to a vessel three or four big lumps of butter covered in a black piece of cloth, the butter began to melt and micro-organisms like larva appeared in it. Therefore, the ghee so made, is unfit to be eaten. But now-a-days there are machines which directly extract ghee (fat) from milk. Also, cream of milk is accumulated. It is heated and ghee is made. Ghee thus made is, therefore, fit to be eaten.
Scientifically speaking . ghee, oil etc. are in reality a kind of fat which is necessary in body-machine for heat and energy. In the body, it burns and produces energy that activates all other parts of body. If a man takes more than necessary ghee, milk, curds etc. the surplus fat gathers under skin and when for some reason or another a man does not get food or when he observes fast etc. as a penance, the fat gathered under the skin, burns and produces energy. Every man, therefore, should take ghee, milk etc. only in a limited quantity
4. Oil
As out of many kinds of milk, curds etc., only four or five are regarded as Vigais, so Jain scripturists regard four kinds of oils as Vigais: 1. of sesame seeds, 2. oil of lin seeds, 3. oil of rape seeds, 4. oil kusumbha (kind of plant or grass i.e. carthamus tinctorius). The remaining other oils are not regarded as Vigais." But ground nut oil, coconut oil etc. should be regarded as Vigais. In the times when these books were written probably most of the people mostly used only these oils in food and perhaps they did not even think of using the remaining oils. That is why the author has included only these oils in the list of Vigais.
The oil of sesame seeds makes the body strong and stimulates digestion. Rubbing the oil body with it, makes the skin and eyes better. Those who take sesame oil in food, do not suffer from paralysis. The oil of rape-seeds cures gas and mucus, balances their proportion and also removes intestinal worms. Rubbing the body with it, removes the dryness of the skin and makes the skin strong, smooth and tender. The groundnut oil controls mucus."

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5. Jaggery and Sugar
According to Jain scriptures, there are two kinds of jaggery: 1. lump and 2. hard. Both kinds of unheated jaggery are among Vigais." Jaggery gives a lot of strength. Body becomes very strong by eating jaggery with dry fruits and roasted grams. Even today jaggery and grams are fed to horses as it was done in ancient India. Sugar soon spreads energy in the body. Both are good source of energy." Jaggery stimulates the desire for sexual pleasures." Abstinent monks and those who can keep the vow of celibacy should not. therefore, eat unheated jaggery.
Hygienically speaking, jaggery makes the heart strong and prevents various heart diseases." Jaggery water (sugar water), makes the kidney and the system of urine excretion clean. 19
6. Fried food
Food, fried in oil and fried in ghee are Vigais. Food, fried first, second or third time in the same base of heated molasses, ghee or oil are called sweets." Another word for this is Avagāhika. Frying in fourth, fifth, sixth etc. times in the same base of heated molasses, ghee or oil makes the food nonVigais because it cannot defile the mind or body of one, who eats it. Through six Vigais, thirty varieties of non-defiling (non-Vigaic) food items are prepared. And according to the tradition of the Jain svētāmbara idoltrous sect, when a monk or nun practices Yoga in order to get permission to study Agama sūtras or when a śrāvaka (lay-person) practices penance of upadhāna in order to get permission to study Navakāramantra etc. sūtras, he takes that food while taking his single meal a day (Ēkāśaņa). 20
of the four Mahāvigais, meat and wine do not need useless repetition. Much has been told/written about them elsewhere. But only their kinds will be described here.
1. Meat
Jain scriptures show three kinds of meat: 1. that of aquatic animals such as fishes etc. 2. that of animals on lands such as a hog, a cow, a buffalo etc. 3. that of birds etc. flying in the sky such as the swan, the crow, the sparrow etc. 24 According to Jain belief as soon as living animals die, innumerable micro-organisms of their colour are produced in their meat, blood etc. It is,

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therefore, necessary to abstain from them in order to keep the vow of nonviolence. 22
2. Wine
According to the Jain scriptures, there are two kinds of wine: 1. that which is directly derived from fruits and flowers (kāṣṭhamadya) and 2. that which is made by bringing about organic decomposition in flour (piṣṭamadya).23 Jain scripturists say that wine is a cause of slackness (pramāda). Delirium is created by taking wine. The following sanskrit verse shows sixteen bad effects of drinking wine:
24
वैरूप्यं, व्याधिपिण्डः, स्वजनपरिभवः, कार्यकालातिपातो, । विद्वेषो, ज्ञाननाशः, स्मृति-मतिहरणं, विप्रयोगश्च सद्भिः ।। पारुष्यं, नीचसेवा, कुलबलतुलना, धर्मकामार्थहानिः । कष्टं भो ! षोडशैते निरुपचयकराः मद्यपानस्य दोषाः ।।
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
vairūpyam, vyādhipindaḥ, svajanaparibhavaḥ, kāryakālātipātō, . vidvēsō, jñānanāśaḥ, smṛti-matiharanam, viprayōgaśca sadbhiḥ pārūṣyam, nicasēvā, kulabalatulanā, dharmakāmārthahāniḥ. kastam bhō! ṣoḍaśaitē nirupacayakarāḥ madyapānasya dōṣāḥ..
In order to make wine, its component substances are organically decomposed and melted. This is only one sort of bacterial fermentation which causes harm to mind and body. That is why Jain scriptures entirely forbid winedrinking.
3. Butter

25
Butter is talked about along with ghee. No repetition is, therefore, made here.
4. Honey
Jain scriptures show that there are three kinds of honey: 1. that which is collected by honey-bees, 2. that which is collected by male and female blackbees and 3. that which is collected by butter flies or moth-insects.26 Honey is only a nectar of flowers but in collecting it, it becomes necessary to kill innumerable insects like bees etc. Therefore, from the point of view of violence, its use is forbidden. The saliva from the mouth of bees etc. gets mixed with honey and therefore, innumerable micro-organisms of its own colour are

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produced. They are very capable of defile our minds and, therefore, scripturists have forbidden it.
About honey, butter, wine and meat, lives of ten śrāvakas entitled 'Ananda sundara' composed in the Vikram era 1549 states: मज्जे महुम्मि मंसम्मि नवनीयम्मि चउत्थए । उप्पिजंति अणंता तवण्णा तत्थ जंतुणो ।।९०३ ।। अमासु य पक्कासु य, विपच्चमाणासु मंसपेसीसु । सययं नियमुववाओ, भणियो य निगोय जीवाणं ९०४11
majjē mahummi mamsammi navaniyammi cautthaē. uppijanti anantā tavvannā tattha jantuno ..903.. amā su ya pakkāsu ya, Vipaccamāņāsu maņsapēsisu . sayayam niyamuvavai, bhamiyo ya nigāya jivanam ..904..।
Infinite micro-organisms of the same colour are produced in wine, honey, meat and butter. In the tissues of meat that is uncooked, cooked or being cooked, infinite very small micro-organisms are continuously produced.
Here a brief description of Vigais and Mahāvigais is given from scientific view-point on the basis of Jain scriptures. It is hoped that after reading and understanding this, śrāvakas will raise in the society the grand image of a real srāvaka.
References:
1. जैनधम का दार्शनिक पक्ष युक्तियुक्त है । उसके आगे पीछे कोई प्रश्न चिह्न नहीं है किन्तु जहां तक भूगोल-खगोल का प्रश्न है, विभिन्न युगो में तरह तरह के दबाव उन पर आए हैं, अतः उन्हें लेकर कुछ शंकाएँ सामने आती हैं तो उसमें आश्चर्यजनक कुछ भी नहीं है ।
-- Dr Nemichand Jain, 'Tirthaikara' May 1987, p. 5 2,3,4,5,7,11,12,14,19,20,21,23,26
pravacanasārāddhāra--pratyākhyāna dvāra, verses 217 to 235 and its sanskrit commentary.
6,8,13,15,16,17,18 Role of vegetarian diet in Health and Diseases, p. 5-6-76-85-86 9,10. Tirthankara, September, 1989, p. 29 22,24,25 मांसभक्षणदूषणाष्टकम्, मद्यपानदूषणाष्टकम् (अष्टकप्रकरणम् कर्ता- आचार्य श्री
-

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हरिभद्रसूरिजी)
Māmsabhakşañadūşaņāştakam and Madyapānadūşaņāştakam (Aștakaprakaraṇam by Ācārya Śri Hariibhadrasūriji)
27. 3Fİcriçe, Teraman, Fantas Ananda-Sundara, Prathamādhikāra, ślāka
- 903,904
THAT WHICH IS A FINEST ESSENCE ——THIS WHOLE WORLD HAS THAT AS ITS SOUL. THAT IS REALITY. THAT IS ATMAN. THAT ART THOU.
CHHANDOGYA UPANISHAD, 6.9.4
FORCE AND MATTER, PARTICLES AND WAVES, MOTION AND REST, EXISTENCE AND NON-EXISTENCE—THESE ARE SOME OF THE OPPOSITE AND CONTRADICTORY CONCEPTS, WHICH ARE TRANSCENDED, IN MODERN PHYSICS.
FRITJOF CAPRA

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28. Water : Sentient
And Non-sentient: A Scientific View-point
According to Jain scriptures water is a living organism. Every molecule of it is a living organism. Also, since it is a place of production i.e. birth-cavity of other living organisms, there are numerous organisms and micro-organisms in it. They are capable of producing a number of diseases in the body. It is, therfore, good for the sake of health to drink water after boiling it.
In the present times at some places ash, lime or sugar is mixed with water in order to make it lifeless. Though, according to the Jain canonical scriptures, water becomes lifeless if ash, lime or sugar is mixed with it, scriptures and other sources give no instruction about the quantity of ash, lime or sugar that should be added into water and about the preiod of time after which that water becomes lifeless. Really speaking, it is proper only for monks and nuns to accept such water which has thus been made lifeless because if a layperson hurts earth, water, fire, air or vegetables i.e. plants or other living organisms in order to procure these things for monks or nuns, those monks and nuns commit a sin. If water is thus made lifeless only for monks and nuns, it is not acceptable to monks and nuns even if it is lifeless.
In ancient times, monks and nuns, during their begging rounds, were accepting in their begging bowls, water, in which pulses or rice had been washed or water containing some residue of flour left over at the end of baking breads if the water did not contain any grains or did not give any taste of flour or any eatable substance, and if the water could quench thirst. And for the laypersons, it is prescribed that while practising penance or otherwise, they should drink thrice boiled lifeless water. This was an ancient Svētāmbara tradition based on scriptures. In the present times, this custom prevails among monks and nuns of the some sects, groups, gachchas or divisions. Therefore, their followers also thus make water lifeless by mixing into it ash or lime but this is altogther improper. By accepting water made

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lifeless in this way, the main purspose is defeated. Therefore, monks and nuns of Śvētāmbara idolatrous sect accept only thrice boiled lifeless water and it is called in sanskrit language 'acitta' (fa) i. e. lifeless water and in Jain canonical scriptural terminology it is called 'prāsuka' (r) i. e. lifeless.
There are some people who ask if ash or lime is the only remedy for making various kinds of water lifless sweet water of rainy season, collected in a small ditches, salty water of wells, purified water of the river Ganges etc., mineral water, hot sulphuric water of ditches and all kinds of water. They believe there should be different remedial things for various kinds of water. But it is their false notion.
Jain canonical scriptures show two possibilities how life-containing earth, water etc. become lifeless. When earth comes in contact with earth of different kind, both the kinds of earth become lifless. Both the kinds of earth destroy themselves. When water is poured into earth, both the water and the earth destroy each other and make each other lifeless. Ash is a defiled form (vikāra) of plant and lime is earth. Any kind of water can, therefore, be made lifeless by ash or lime. It should, therefore, not be doubted how the same substance makes all kinds of water lifeless.
Regarding the use of lifeless water, most of the laypersons use lifeless water only for drinking and for all other purposes they mostly use water that contains life. It is enough to tell them that there is lack of power of discrimination. Water is a mass of water-lives. Therefore, the least possible use should be made of water whether it contains lives or it is lifeless. For laypersons, water that contains lives is not absolutely forbidden. Therefore, there is no objection to drinking water that contains lives but from the view point of hygiene and physical science, it is most beneficial to drink lifeless water.
One of the well-established rules of the Jainism is that everyone should drink, if it is possible, lifeless water and for the laypersons who are practising penance and for the monks and nuns, there is no exception to this rule. According to Jain biology water itself is a living organism.
In the present times if a Jain monk or nun or one who is proficient in Jain philosophy or an odinary scientist is asked, "Why is it prescribed in the Jain religion to drink boiled water ?" they all will say that water itself is a living organism and there are various and numerous micro-organisms in it. It is

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doubted that they produce a number of diseases in the body and such microorganisms always continue to be produced in water conaining lives. The micro-organisms cease to be produced in boiled water. We should, therefore, drink water after boiling it. Here it may be argued that it is not proper according to Jain philosophy to cause or to stop expansion of family of any person or animal. That is also fully sinful. Like one who only sees, we should see everything indifferently. It is not proper to involve oneself in any activity. What right, then, do we have to stop the expansion of somebody's family? For us all, the answer to this question is difficult. Boiling water is for us an activity of himsā i. e. violence, whether we boil it for ourselves or for others.
Therefore, the question stands as it was - Why should we drink water only after boiling it?' On the basis of modern scientific investigations, this question can be answered as under :
According to the principle of science, there are positively charged particles called cations and negatively charged particles called anions in every iquid and in the water of wells, ponds, rivers, rain etc. There is salt and a larger proportion of negatively charged particles. Water containing anions make the body very fresh. It sometimes produces excessive energy also. But when water is heated, it not only becomes lifeless, but also makes the negatively charged particles neutral i. e. devoid of elecric charge. Consequently, heated water does not produce bad mental or physical effects. Therefore, only heated water is proper for monks and nuns and for the laypersons who practise penance.
As a scientific evidence for this I would like to say that in America and other developed countries special apparatuses have recently come to the market for making the atmosphere of air-conditioned offices etc. free fr cations or filling it with negatively charged particles, anions i. e. for ionizing the atmosphere and they are in a great demand. The main reason for this is that in air-conditioned places, where cold wind is blowing, no heat is experienced at all. Yet workers sit there. they do not feel like working. There is physical and mental non-activity. Work is, therefore, not done as much as it is expected. It has been found on investigation that in air-conditioned atmosphere there is a greater proportion of cations. If their number is reduced and the proportion of anions is increased, the atmosphere becomes fres ing and energizing. On the basis of this research that the ionization appara

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tus is used to a very great extent for negatively charging the air. This machine produces and throws off billions of anions every second. In the rainy season we experience the tendency of sleeping after taking meals and do not feel like doing anything because in those days, there is a larger number of cations in the atmosphere. Not only from the view points of compassion for living beings and hygiene but also from the view point of mental complacency and health, it is, therefore, necessary to drink boiled water. All that has been said here is fully scientific.
There are some people who say that lifeless water is a cause of many possessions. But it is a bad logic. It is not proper to say that the instruments necessary for observing non-violence and compassion for lives are possessions. Ācārya Sri Haribhadrasūriji also say this in his 'aştaka prakarana!
There are some people who say that all kinds of water available on earth is mixed with some or other kind of earth, ash etc., therefore, it is lifeless. Why should it, then be again made lifeless? Pure water is ava the laboratory. We are non-omniscient. We are, therefore, not hundred percent sure whether this water contains life or it is lifeless. Therefore, even if water is naturally lifeless, it should be again made lifeless.
There are some people who compare rainy water with water formed from the vapour in the kitchen. They say that if rainy water contains life, drops of water attached to the lid of a vessel in the kitchen which are made of vapour, should also be regarded as cotaining lives. But this is a wrong belife. Superficially looking both these processes seem to be similar but in fact the difference between them is veery great.
'Vivavicāra Prakarana' composed by Ācārya Śrī śāntisūriji in the twelfth century of Vikram Era and Jain canonical scriptures such as 'Jivābhigama' etc. mention the rainy water as life containing water. Perhaps sometimes there are fishes also in the rainy water. Therfore, rainy water should not be believed as lifeless water. Generally, in Gujarat and also in other states laypresons filter the water in the early morning once a day, that contains life. The treatise 'Pravacana Sārāddhāra '(verses 881-882) of the Svētāmbara tradition states that the thrice boiled lifeless water becomes life containing after 15 hours in summer, 9 hours in monsoon and 12 hours in winter. The verse is as under :

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जायइ सचित्तया से, गिम्हमि पहरपंचगस्सुवरिं। चउपहरोवरि सिसिरे, वासासु पुणो तिपहरुवरि ।।८८२।।
jāyai sacittayā sē, gimhammi paharapañcagassuvarim.
caupaharõvari sisirē, vāsāsu puņo tipahanuvari ..882.. And therefore, the water turned into drops from vapour in the kitchen is lifeless because it has not crossed the prescribed time limit, while the rainy water, after being transformed into water crosses the prescribed time limit. Scripturists say that the rainy water contains lives. Similarly, the distilled water produced in the laboratory, which doctors use for injections also contains life, though it is extremely pure.
Minute water drops that are produced by vapour present in the atmosphere and attached to the external surface of the vessel containing ice and such other things which are cooled in the refrigerator, are not acceptable to monks and nuns and laypersons who abstain from things that contain life, even though it is lifeless because for that water drops, ice which has life containing water bodies and things cooled in the refrigerator are mixed with it. No question, therefore, arises for accepting minute water drops produced through the contact of ice etc.
In the end, the question arises that as we make water lifeless, so we should also make air lifeless because according to Jain scriptures air also contains life. But this is not logical. Though water and air are very indispensable to human life, there is a tremendous difference between their forms. Therefore, if we apply to air whatever we apply to water, it will show our intellectual bankrupcy. Therefore, no solution is necessary here.
In short all monks and nuns and laypersons, moreover all persons who want to pass healthy life, have to use the thrice boiled water.
CO3
THE PROBLEMS OF LANGUAGE HERE ARE REALLY SERIOUS. WE WISH TO SPEAK IN SOME WAY ABOUT THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOMS ...... BUT WE CANNOT SPEAK ABOUT ATOMS IN ORDINARY LANGUAGE.
W. HEISENBERG

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29. Jainism And Science:
Solutions Of Some Problems
In the present age, science has become an essential component of human life. Every man, therefore, looks at a problem in a scientific manner and tries to find its solution with a scientific method. Though a number of scientific principles are found in Jain scriptures, there are many present-day problems on which science and Jain scriptures clearly differ.
We shall discuss here some such problems. Length/Height of Living Beings : The 'Trişthisalākāpuruşacaritra' written by śri Hēmacandrācāryaji (V. Era 1145-1229) is an unique work among Jain mythological works (Purāņas). Many historical references are found in its 'Parisista Parva'. In this work he has elaborately described the lives of sixty three great men. The heights of body of all of them is given in Jain scriptures.
According to this book, the height of body of Bhagavān Rşabhadēva was 500 Dhanuşyas (1 Dhanuşya= 6 feet). One Dhanusya is equal to 4 hands. Taking one hand to be equal to one and half feet, the height of the body of Bhagavān Ādinātha (Aşabhadēva) measures 3000 feet. In the same way the height of the body of Bhagavān Sāntinātha measures 40 Dhanusyas i.e. 240 feet. The height of the body of Bhagavān Mahāvira was seven hands i.e. ten and half feet. Today we don't believe all this to be true but we should very well bear it in mind that not a single principle of science is unchangeable. The principles that have been proved today to be true, can be proved tomorrow to be untrue.
Recently, Carl Sagan, an American scientist, has developed a cosmic calendar. It is very similar to Jain time cycle. According to scientists, the
produced out of the Sun nearly four and half thousand million years ago. They have contemplated the period from this incident to the incident of the destruction of the whole universe to be of 12 months i.e. 365

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days and the calendar of the period shows date-wise record of the incidents that took place during the period. It fits in with the time-cycle of Jainism. ! have made all this analysis in my article captioned, 'The Jain Time Cycle and Cosmic Calendar.'
. Only a few years ago, the American science magazine entitled 'Discover' presented photographs of fossils of birds with 11.5 feet long and 23 feet broad wings.
Science has been searching the gigantic living world of ancient times and has procured fossils of gigantic animals such as the dinosaur. On the basis of these fossils, scientists believe that the height of their body was at least 150 feet and their existence belonged to an age prior to 7 crore years. The Jain biology places the dinosaur in the one part of phylum reptiles
hparisarpa. The mongoose etc. of the present times belong to ame phylum.According to the Jain scriptures, namely, the Jivābhigama, the Pannavanā etc., the utmost height of these living organisms varies from two Gāus (1 Gāu = 3.2 km) to 9 Gāus. If the utmost height of the dinosaur was 2 Gāus , the utmost height of man was 3 Gāus in those times. According to this calculation, the height of dinosaur is 2/3 of the height of man. If one Dhanuşya is equal to six feet, the height of the dinosaur determined on the
fossils is 25 Dhanusyas and the height of man of those times was 37.5 Dhanuşyas. Man of this height lived in the times of Bhagavān śāntinātha, the sixteenth Tirthankara and according to the calculation of time-cycle these times were prior to three Sāgarāpamas.
Though there is an appreciable difference between three Sāgarāpamas years and 7 crore years, we can say it beyond doubt that the inference of 7 crore years is wrong because the method with which the antiquity of ancient fossils is determined seems to be wrong method. This method used the isotopes of carbon-14(C-14). Regarding this method it is written in the book entitled 'The pyramid Power' -
“Unfortunately, it now appears that the dates obtained through the use of this method are highly questionable, since contamination from present day organic materials could substantially affect the process. Archaeologists now believe that most of the sites dated with carbon-14 are older than the dating process showed that they were. There is currently an

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enormous controversy ranging in archaeological circles over the claim of some archaeologists that carbon-14 dating is incorrect by thousands of years, not hundreds of years as was previously thought." (p. 20).
From this reference we can say that in determining the time of ancient fossils according to this method miscalculations of not hundreds or thousands of years but of lacs of years has been made. Therefore, the fossils which we believe, according to this can be at least three or four hundred thousand years old can be at least 3 or 4 thousand million years old. fore, the possibility that the dinosaurs belong to the times not prior to 7 hundred million years but to the time of three Sägar Öpama years, should not be ruled out.
Similarly, it is not proper to entertain any doubts about the hight of the great men. On the contrary, it is necessary to prove this in a scientific way.
Bulbous roots :
A number of questions are raised about bulbous roots i.e. modifications of roots. It is said that if there were micro-organisms in bulbous roots they would certainly be seen through a microscope as bacteria are seen in curds. But this is a very wrong belief. Bacteria etc. being two-sensed organisms can be seen distinctly in a state of motion in curds. But the plant itself is a living being and, therefore, there is no question of seeing micro-organisms in it through a microscope. The plant kingdom is of two types:
1. Pratyēka Vanaspatikāya (having a single soul in a single body of plant, seed, root, flower, leaves and fruit) and 2. Sādhāraņa Vanaspatikāya (having infinite souls in a single body or cell of a plant). In Pratyēka Vanaspatikāya every soul has his own independent body and in Sādhārana Vanaspatikāya, infinite souls have only a single common body. It means that there are infinite souls in a single body or cell. The fruits, flowers, leaves, roots etc. that we see make the body of the plant lives. Can soul be seen as different from the body through a microscope? According to modern science every living being has basic cells of body. Billions of such cells join together and make the body of a living organism or an animal. Again every cell is a living cell. Not only all the cells of potatoes etc. are living cells but also every cell has infinite lives i.e. souls in it. That is why bulbous roots are regarded as unfit to be eaten.

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Another question also arises. If favourable conditions for life are removed from the place where there is multitude of living organisms, the multitude of living organisms will die. There will be decaying and the vegetables will not last for a long time. But bulbous roots remain fresh for use for a long time. If they have lives, they can remain protected underground. If they are taken out of earth, living organisms die and decaying will begin. But these beliefs are entirely wrong. Bulbous roots do not become lifeless after they are taken out of the ground. They continue to retain life for a long time after they have been taken out of the ground. There are only two ways to make the bulbous roots lifeless. It becomes lifeless by means of weapons such as knife etc. With a knife they should be cut into pieces or they should be cooked on fire.
It should also be noted that after living organisms i.e. souls have ended up, they do not decay as a rule. In order to preserve dead bodies for a long
the dehydration technique was adopted in ancient Egypt and it is also adopted in modern times and the mummies found from pyramids of ancient Egypt are a testimony to it. Even after lives in bulbous roots have ended up, if they are dehydrated, they do not decay, e.g. ginger. After lives have ended up in ginger, it automatically get dehydrated. But potatoes etc. do not automatically get dehydrated. They get dehydrated only after they have been cut with knife etc. Therefore, dry ginger is fit to be eaten but potatoes etc. are not fit to be eaten even after they have become dry.
It can also be argued that micro-living beings are found in non-bulbous roots but bulbous roots are quite clean, when they are cut. But here it needs to be noted that Jain scriptures say that it is a characteristic of Sādhārana Vanaspatikāya ( having infinite souls in a single body or cell of a plant ) that when it is cut, it is cut in regular pieces and there are no fibres and knots nor do leaves have veins. Really speaking, in scientific terminology, bulbous roots are a modifications of roots. Bulbous roots therefore, cannot become fit to be eaten just because they are neat or clean.
Purity of life or character or conduct depends on purity of food. Purity of food is, therefore, necessary.The potato, the radish etc. are Sādhārana Vanaspatikāya. It is, therefore, best to abstain from them. There are some people who argue that there cannot be any reference to potato in our ancient scriptures because it is originally not a product of India. In 1586 A.D. Sir William Raleigh brought it to England from South America (Brazil). Later

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on about 1615 A.D. it came to India. A reference to it in ancient scriptures is, therefore, impossible. On this ground they say that it is not a statement made by Omniscient God that 'The potato is an Anantakāya or Sadhārana Vanaspatikāya' but it is rule made by nescient (chadmastha). But this argument is not proper.
It is not possible for scriptures to talk of all kinds of plants, Anantakāya and animals etc. Scriptures only give characteristics and some names of Anantakāyika plants. On the basis of their characteristics our ancient sages have shown that potato etc. are Anantakāya. The tomato, the apple etc. too are not products of India and nowhere do the scriptures talk of them. Our scripturists of later times have not prohibited them because they do not show the characteristics of Anantakāya.
It was a tradition of our ancient sages that they never wrote anything against scriptures. They also observed the rule that nothing should be written without a reference or basis and they had no reason to make statements that were not true. They were more learned and more sin-fearing than we are. Their statements, therefore, are not unacceptable simply because they were not omniscient.
Another question may be raised that if we are prohibited to eat bulbous roots, how are we justified in eating dry ginger and dry turmeric? How can we be allowed to eat them even if they are dry? This is an excellent question. When ginger and turmeric are green, they are no doubt Anantakāyas. Later on when they dry up, they automatically become lifeless and knives and other instruments are not needed in order to dehydrate them. But the potato does not become dry naturally or automatically. If the potato is kept somewhere in sunlight for a long time, in a few days, it begins to decay. If it is to be dehydrated, it should be cut into small and fine chips. Then they become lifeless. As food, potatoes are used in a great quantity. It is not proper to kill those infinite lives or living beings for our sake. The potato is, therefore, prohibited for us. Ginger and turmeric are not food. In a very small quantity they are used as medicine to add to the quality of food. They are, therefore, acceptable. The dry potato is, therefore, altogether unfit to be eaten but ginger and turmeric are fit to be eaten after they become dry.
Another question may arise. Is ground-nut a bulbous root or not? Really speaking, though a ground-nut grows underground, it is not regarded to be

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a bulbous root because the upper husk of a ground-nut has fibres. Unlike the parts of other bulbous roots, every organ of a ground-nut cannot produce a new plant nor can its pieces produce a new plant, whereas pieces of a potato etc. can produce new plants. Thus no characteristics of Sādhāraņa Vanaspatikāya or Anantakāya are found in ground-nut. The ground-nut is, therefore, fit to be eaten. Multi-seeded vegetables : A question may also be raised about multi-seeded vegetables like brinjal. There are some people who ask that if the brinjal, the fig etc. are unfit to be eaten because they are multi-seeded. Are not ghosby, musk-melon (kind of vegetables) cucumber, round gourd also multi-seeded ? This question demands a lot of thinking. After thinking about multi-seeded vegetables, it has been found that the vegetable is not unfit to be eaten simply because it is multi-seeded. The kind of seeds of multi-seeded vegetable is the determining factor. There are two kinds of seeds. Some seeds become lifeless while being cooked and some seeds do not become lifeless while being cooked. The seeds of brinjal, guava etc. do not become lifeless while being cooked and figs are eaten uncooked and, therefore, they are not fit to be eaten. The seeds of ghosby, musk-melon, cucumber, lady's finger etc. become lifeless while being cooked. They are, therefore, fit to be eaten. According to the book 'Dharmasangraha' the seeds of multi-seeded vegetables do not have a subtle transparent cover on them. This is a main characteristic of multiseeded vegetables. The vegetables, namely ghosby, cucumber, lady's finger etc. have a subtle transparent cover on their seeds. They are, therefore, not considered as multi-seeded.
Another point to be noted is that researches of modern science show that brinjals have more toxic substance than other vegetables. For that reason also brinjals should not be eaten.
It is true that many uncertainties prevail among us about foods that are fit or unfit to be eaten because they are classified by those who are non-omniscient. We should, therefore, think about this in a scientific way in this scientific age. About foods that are fit or unfit to be eaten, we, the monks of new generation, think only in a scientific way. We, therefore, invite such questions. We shall try to solve them as best as we can. I hope that this logical

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solution will prove to be satisfactory.
In Jain tradition carefulness (Yatanā) is a main characteristic of religious activity. In the 'Daśavaikālika Sūtra' when the disciple is taught that himsā, i.e. violence is committed even in walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, speaking and eating, the disciple asks how one can live one's life if himsā, i.e. violence is committed even in walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, speaking and eating? कहं चरे ? कहं चिट्ठे ? कहमासे ? कहं सए ? कहं भुंजंतो ? भासंतो ? पावकम्मं न बंधइ ?
(Trafo 372247-8, TRT-6) kaham carē ? kaham citthē ? kahamāsē ? kaham saē ? kaham bhuñjantā ? bhāsanto ? dāvakammam na bandhai ?
(Daśavaikālikasūtra Adhyayana-4, Gāthā - 7) It is said in reply to this :: जयं चरे, जयं चिट्टे, जयमासे, जयं सए । जयं भुजंतो भासंतो पावकम्मं न बंधइ ।
(agdana 3792749-8, TIRA-C) jayam carē jayam citthē jayamāsē jayam saz jayam bhuñjantā bhāsanto pāvakammam na bandhai.
(Daśavaikālikasūtra Adhyayana-4, Gāthā - 8)
Walk with care, stand with care, sit with care, sleep with care, speak with care and eat with care so as not to commit sin.
Thus carefulness is important in the Jain religion. Scripturists teach us to live a life of least sinful activities and this can be done by observing utmost carefulness.
Genders of living beings :
A question also arises about genders of living beings. According to Jain scriptures, one-sensed, two-sensed, three sensed and four-sensed living beings belong to neuter gender and they reproduce asexually. But science (botany and zoology) shows that this is wrong. Zoology shows that ants, flies, butterflies etc. undergo sexual intercourse and they produce offsprings with a gender. Among them there are genders of males and females. Botany shows that there are male and female genders even among trees and plants

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also. Then what is the reality regarding the classification of genders of living beings according to Jain philosophy?
This is a good question. But in order to find an answer to it, we should, properly, minutely and elaborately study and contemplate on Jain scriptures. First of all, we should coordinate from various view-points, mutually contradictory statements found in Jain scriptures. Talking of genders of all living beings in the whole universe Vācaka Umāsvāti, well versed with Purvas, the author of Tattvārtha Sūtra says in the second chapter of the Tattvārtha Sūtra that " pravi fant HT 114911 7 dal 114311 " nārakasammürcchino napumsakāni ..51.. na dēvāḥ ..52.. Living beings born in hellish Yoni and all living beings born asexually belong to the neuter gender. No god belongs to the neuter gender. All celestial beings (gods) belong either to the genders of the gods (males) or goddesses (females). Embryonic human beings and other five-sensed embryonic beasts have any of the three genders.
The Tattvārtha Sūtra shows three types of birth (1) sammūrcchima janma (asexual birth) (2) garbhaja janma (sexual birth) (3) upapāta janma (asexual birth of celestial and hellish beings). Celestial and hellish beings are born only asexually. The sexual birth is of three types- (1) jarāyuja - birth with wrapper which contains blood (2) andaja - birth through eggs (3) põtaja- birth without a wrapper. Human beings, cows, buffaloes, horses, deer etc. are born with wrapper containing blood. Snakes, cuckoos, fishes, tortoises etc. are born through eggs. The goose, the parrot, the pigeon, the hawk, the crow, the peacock etc. are also born through eggs. The mongoose, the hare, the mouse etc. and the vampire, the bat, etc. are born without a wrapper and they all are five-sensed. Apart from these, one-sensed to four-sensed living beings are all asexual i.e. sammūrcchima.
On the other hand, the 'Kalpasūtra' edited by śrutakēvali Caturdaśapūrvadhara Ācārya sri Bhadrabāhusvāmi describes five types of subtle eggs:
से किं तं अंडसुहमे ? अंडसुहुमे पंचविहे पण्णते तं जहा - उदंसंडे, उक्कलियंडे, पिपीलियंडे, हलियंडे, हल्लोहलियंडे । (कल्पसूत्र, सामाचारी)
sē kim tam amdasuhumē ? amdasuhumë pañcavihē pannattē tam jahā - uddamsandē, ukkaliyandē, pipiliyandē, haliyanqē, hallöhaliyaņņē.
(Kalpasūtra. Sāmācāri)

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Which are the subtle eggs? The subtle eggs are of five types: 1.Uddamsanda- those of butterfly, a bug, i.e. a matkuna etc. 2. Utkalikāṇḍa those of spider 3. Pippilikakāṇḍa- those of an ant etc. 4. Hallikāṇḍa - those of a lizard etc. 5. Hallöhallikäṇḍa those of a chameleon etc.
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On the one hand, there is a statement of Vacaka Umāsväti and on the other hand, there is a statement of Acarya Sri Bhadrabāhusvāmi. Both these statements are mutually contradictory. But we should bear it in mind that both these statements are made from different points of view. Therefore, thinking from the real point of view (4), we find that the statement of Vācaka Umāsvāti is true and from the practical view point (@gray) the statement of Acārya Sri Bhadrabāhusvāmi seems to be true because though the insects namely, the ant, the fly, the bug are asexual and, therefore, of neuter gender, they emit such substances out of their body as are generally known by people as eggs. Now the only question that arises is this: If they belong to the neuter gender, how do they indulge in sexual intercourse of a male and a female?
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
All living beings have four instincts, expressed or unexpressed. They are 1. food, 2. fear, 3. sex, 4. covetousness. At some places, scriptures say that there are ten instincts and they also include these four instincts. Therefore, all living beings whether they are males, females or neuter beings, have the sex instinct. Therefore, all living beings of Samsara (universe) indulge in sex activities. But in celestial beings and hellish beings, these sex activities do not cause reproduction. Similarly, all living beings, from the one-sensed to the four-sensed, indulge in sexual activities which do not cause reproduction.
According to the Jain canonical treatises namely, Karmagrantha, Karmaprakṛti etc. a male's desire for copulation is like a fire laid on grass. his desire for sex is soon satisfied. Female's desire for copulation is like a fire covered with ashes. She takes a long time in satisfying her sex desire. A neuter being's desire for copulation is like a fire laid on a great city. His desire for copulation is never satisfied. The sex instinct is, therefore, most active in neuter beings. Sometimes, the dissatisfaction of sex, causes their death; e.g. the death of a butterfly.
"The Manusmrti says स्वेजाः कृमिदशाद्याः (svejah krmidamśādyāh ) "
It means that two-sensed, three-sensed and four-sensed living beings are born

"
"

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in their excreta, urine, sweat etc. Therefore, we take the substances emitted by them for eggs and that is our wrong belief.
In the jñāna-Vijñāna Pūrtti' supplement of 'Sandesh' (July, 8, 1987), a daily newspaper, published from Ahmedabad, it has been recently said about the lizard that 'the whip-tail lizard' found in south-west America and north Mexico, is only the female lizard.
Prof. David Fuze has made experiments on it. He kept two female lizards in a cage. One of the lizards behaved as a male and the other lizard behaved as a female. Eaas were got from the lizard which behaved as a female, but after ten or fifteen days, the roles were interchanged. The lizard which behaved as a female, began to behave as a male and the lizard, which behaved as a male began to behave as a female.
The photograph shown in 'Sandesh' show sexual intercourse between two lizards having sex organs of the same gender. This proves that sexual activities between lizards do not cause reproduction.
The 'Tattvārtha Sūtra' names the lizards as 'the domestic cuckoo' (Jensitand places it in the class of five-sensed Tiryancas, i.e. beas birds. born without a wrapper. Along with it, such other insects as the chameleon (which changes color according to the surroundings) and the iguana (which is like the lizard) are also placed in this category. On the other hand, well -versed in fourteen pūrvas (the Jain canonical treatises), śri Bhadrabāhusvāmi mentions in the Kalpasūtra that Hallohallikā and Hallikā i.e. the lizard and the chameleon lay subtle eggs. The question, therefore, arises whether the lizard and the chameleon are four-sensed or five-sensed? We have no scriptural solution of this. Scholars are, therefore, requested to send scriptural solution, if they know any. Different kind of Pudgala (Matter): Pudgala i.e. matter is of four kinds: (1) Skandha (physical aggregate), (2) Dēša (part of physical aggregate), (3) Pradēša (constituent unit) and (4) paramāņu i.e. the most micro undividable unit (atom). Pudgala-skandhas i.e. physical aggregates are of six kinds. 1.extremely gross (Bādara-Bādara) 2. gross (Bādara) (3) gross- subtle (Bādara-Sūkşma) 4. subtle-gross ( SūkşmaBādara ) 5. subtle (Sūkşma) 6. extremely subtle (Sūkşma-Sūkşma). All agree that there are these six kinds. But the problem is related to their examples.

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There are some who say that Jain scripturists classify air as subtle-gross and they classify light as gross-subtle. But modern scientists have proved that light particles are very much subtler than air particles and the contention of Jain philosophy is, therefore, not proper and the kinds of a pudgala- skandha (material aggregates) should be re-examined.
All is well and proper with the four kinds of the pudgala- skandha namely, 1. extremely gross, 2. gross, 3. subtle and 4. subtle-subtle. We need to think about only gross-subtle and subtle-gross. A statement of Jain scriptures always refers only to a particular point of view. From another point of view, it may be wrong. But it is not wrong from all points of view.
Air is classified as subtle-gross and light is classified as gross-subtle. Here the statement of the scripturists is only relative. After a considerable pondering, one comes to the conclusion that air and light are properly classified. By light, some mean light- particles/photons and by air, some mean molecules of oxygen, nitrogen etc. But that is not the fact. Air means airbodies. We can take air molecules as air bodies but this is not true of light. The word light should be taken to mean light-bodies because they are made of aggregates of material particles i.e. Audārika Vargaṇā, Thinking thus, we conclude that fire itself can be in grouping of Audārika Vargaṇā, the particles/photons emerging from it, can be different from it. They can be included in grouping of Taijas Vargaṇā. It should be noted here that there is vast difference between a light-body (fire) and photon particles. In both of them, the light particles/photons are very much subtler than light- bodies.
If from practical point of view, we contend that this classification of material aggregates refers to light-bodies and air- bodies, this classification sounds to be true. With our eyes, we can clearly see fire, and if we touch it, we feel its heat. When air is in motion, it can be perceived through touch only. It is, therefore, proper that fire (not light, but the flame etc. that produce light) is classified as gross-subtle and air is classified as subtle-gross.

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30. Some References To Human Physiology In
Jain Scriptures
In Jain scriptures we get information about different subjects like Physics, Mathematics, Biology, Geography and Cosmology. Similarly we also get some references to Human Physiology i.e. the physical structure of human body.
Jain scriptures on Karma-philosophy such as Karmagrantha of þri Dēvēndrasūri, Karmaprakrti of Upadhyāya sri Yaśāvijayaji and cosmological treatises like Lokaprakāśa and Brhatsangrahani give us an idea of different types of bone-joints.' The technical word, used in the Jain scriptures for bone-joints, is Sanghayana. The names of bone-joints are as follows: (1) Vajra-Rşabhanārāca (2) Rşabhanārāca (3) Nārāca (4) Ardhanārāca (5) Kilikā and (6) Sēvārtta
In the first bone-joint, Vajra-Rşabhanārāca, there are two Markatabandhas, one bandage and a bone-pin. Two Markața-bandhas are surrounded by a bandage of bone and a bone-pin passes through the bandage and two bones, which are joined. (fig. 1) Except a bone-pin, the second bone joint Rşabhanārāca Sanghayana is just like the first bonejoint. (fig.2) The Third bone-joint, Nārāca, is formed by only two Markațabandhas (fig. 3) while in the fourth bone-joint Ardhanārāca, there is only one Markața-bandhas. (fig. 4) In the fifth bone-joint Kilikā, two bones are joined with a bone-pin. (fig.5) And in the last i.e. the sixth Sēvārtta Sanghayana bones are attached to each other as shown in the figures 6 (A), (B) and (C).
According to the Jain treatises, at present we all possess the last Sēvārtta Sanghayana ? and that is why our bones move from their original position with a slight jerk. The first Sanghayana is the strongest bonejoint, while the last Sanghayana is the weakest bone-joint. Jain scriptures describe that the stronger the bone-joint, the better or worse work can be done by the animals or men. So only a possessor of the first type of bonejoint, i.e. he, who has Vajra-Rsabhanārāca Sanghayana. can free himself from the bondage of karma. i.e. he can attain emancipation, and due to

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(4)
(B)
(4)
(B)
(C)
Fig. 1 Vajrarṣabhanaraca
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Fig. 2 Rsabhanărăca
Fig. 3 Näráca
&
Fig. 4 Ardhanaraca
Fig. 5 Kilika
O
Fig. 6 Sevärta
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
몽

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the worst actions he even goes to the seventh hell also.' Similarly all men, with different types of bone-joints, have different bearing power. Kalpasūtra approves that only Lord Mahāvira could endure the great calamity caused by god Sangama, because he had the first type of bone-joint.
Lõkaprakāśa (part III) and Brhatsangrahani mention that the number of ribs of a man's (human) skeleton during the first, second and third subdivisions ( ārās) of the second half of the time-cycle (Avasarpinikāla) and the sixth, fifth and fourth sub-divisions ( ārās) of first half of the time-cycle (Utsarpiņikāla) is 256, 128 and 64 each and the height of their bodies is 3 Krośas, 2 Krāsas and 1 Krāsa respectively." So we conclude that in Avasarpiņikāla, the number of ribs decreases as time passes. And so at present we possess only twelve ribs.
Tandulavēyāliya Payannā and Pravacana Sārõddhāra give details of human biology of the present time. There are twelve ribs. They arise from the twelve joints of the back-bone of human body and join with the breastbone, to form a cage. There are also six half-ribs hanging on each side of the back-bone. Technically they are called Kațāha. Without any bone, a tongue is seven angulas long and its weight is 4 palas. The weight of each cornea is 2 palas. There are four parts of the skuil, each is called Kapāla. The weight of flesh, in the cavity of the chest-cage, perhaps lungs, is 3.5 palas, while the heart's weight is 25 palas. There are 160 bone-joints in our body and two intestines, a small one and a large one, each weighing five Vāmas. The small intestine is long but thin and the large intestine is short but thick.
Tandulavēyāliya Payannā and Pravacana Sārāddhāra mention that generally men, women and impotents possess 700, 670 and 680 veins respectively. Their situation is as follows :
160 veins going upwards from the navel ( Urddhvagāmini) 160 veins going downwards from the navel ( Adhāgāmini) 160 veinks going oblique on both sides of the navel ( Tiryaggāmini) 160 veins going downwards to anus ( Adhögāmini Gudā Pravişta) 025 veins possessing mucus or mucus ( Ślēşmadhāriņi) 025 veins possessing bile ( Pittadhāriņi) 010 veins possessing semen ( śukradhāriņi)

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The speciality of the Yoni (female organ) has been described in the ninth chapter of the Pannavaņāsuttam? and in the third chapter of the Thānangasuttam. It is of three types : (1) Kūrmānnată, (2) Sarkhāvartta and (3) Vamsipatrā. The terms denoting these three types of Yoni are descrptive and self-explanatory. The term Kūrmõnnatā suggests its tortoise like curve, the term Sankhāvartta suggests its conch like coiled shape and the term Vamsipatrā suggests its resemblance to bamboo leaf.
The Kūrmānnatā Yõnis give birth to great personalities such as Tirthankaras, Cakravartis and Vāsudēvas. Striratna (Chief queen of Cakravarti ) has invariably the Sankhāvartta Yöni. Many living beings descend to this Yoni but they invariably die before their actual birth. That is, none is born from this Yoni. Ācārya Malayagiri records an old view that Striratna's embryo gets destroyed on account of excessive heat of her sex passion. (Prajñāpanā-Țikā, folio 228 A). Generally women have Yonis of Vamsipatrā.
We find in the Bhagavat isūtra (Šataka-2, uddēšaka-5), the Pravacana Sāröddhāra (p. 296) and the Tandulavēyāliya Payannā that on account of gaseous trouble or if some devil makes the embryo stable, it could live for 12 years at the most. After that period the embryo dies or takes a birth through a vulva.
On account of sinful actions of previous births one could live as an embryo for a maximum period of 24 years by descending again to the same embryo after the first twelve years. In Jain treatises, technically it is called Kāyasthiti of embryo.
Tandulavēyāliya Payannā and Vicāraratnäkara of Sri Kirtivijaya Upādhyāya describes the developing process of human embryo during different months of pregnancy." In the first week of pregnancy sperms and blood combine to form a liquid solution and in the second week it becomes more solid, in the third week tissues multiply in number. At the end of the first month, the weight of the embryo rises to three Karşas i.e. 48 Māşās or 240 Guñjās. During the second month, the embryo looks like a cubic piece of tissues and develops into a more solid form. In the third month the mother desires things because of the embryo. During the fourth month of pregnancy, different parts of the mother's body such as mammary glands get nourished. In the

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fifth month, formation of two hands, two feet and a head takes place. In the sixth month, blood and bile are formed and during the seventh month 700 veins, 500 functional cavities, 9 main pipes (dhamanis) take their shapes. At the end of the seventh month construction of 99 lakhs of hair-holes and 3.5 crores of hair take place. During the last month the embryo becomes completely ready for independent life.
Tandulavēyāliya Payannā and Vicāraratnākara show that if the embryo is on the right side in the womb of the mother, its modification takes place as a boy or male and if the embryo is on the left side in the womb, it becomes a girl or female."
We find the reproductive period of men and women during life time in Pravacana Sārõddhāra and Tandulavēyāliya Payannā If the longevity is of a hundred years, mostly men and women can reproduce a child from 16 years to 75 years and from 12 years to 55 years respectively. The developing time for human embryo is 277 days approximately and Kalpasūtra also approves of this fact by giving the developing period of Tirthankaras" embryo in their mother's womb. 13
Fertilization of an egg with a sperm i.e. descending of soul to a woman's womb takes place within 12 Muhūrttas i.e. 9 hours and 36 minutes after the copulation of man and woman within 12 days after the menstruation period."
Even though the menstruation cycle in woman's body and the reproduction of sperms in man's body start at the age of 12 years and 16 years respectively, they become capable to reproduce a healthy and welldeveloped child at the age of 16 years and 20 years respectively. 15
After giving an anatomical idea about the human body and embryology, the authors of Jain scriptures give us the sermon that we have got a precious human life as a reward of auspicious deeds of previous births and after bearing great sufferings in our mother's womb. So, we should use this precious life for emancipation of soul by doing good actions and attaining spiritual knowledge. Otherwise our precious human life becomes meaningless.
(Jain Journal, July, 1986)

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References
1..
संघयणमट्ठिनिचओ, तं छद्धा वज्जरिसहनारायं । तह रिसहनारायं नारायं अद्धनाराय ।। ३८ ।। किलिअ छेवं इह रिसहो पट्टो अ किलिआ वज्जं । उभओ मक्कडबंधो नारायं इममुरालंगे ||३९||
Scientific Secrets of Jainism
sanghayanamaṭṭhinicao, tam chaddha vajjarisahanārāyam. taha risahanārāyam nārāyam addhanārāyam ..38.. kilia chevaṭṭham iha risahō paṭṭo a kiliā vajjam. ubha makkadabandhā nārāyam imamurālange ..39..
• [ The first Karmagranth of Sri Devendrasuriji Verses-38 and 39]
• Lōkaprakāśa of Śri Vinayanijayaji part-1 Sarga-3 Verses 398 to408 Brhatsangrahanisūtra of Sri Candrasūriji Verses159-160
• Karmaprakṛti, Commentary on the first verse by Śri Yaśōvijayaji 2. संपइ खलु आउसो ! मनुयाणं छेवठे संघयणे वट्टइ ।
sampai khalu ausō ! manuyāṇam chevaththe sanghayanē vaṭṭai.
[ Tandulavāyāliya Payannā P.27]
3. छेत्रट्ठेण उ गम्मइ, चउरो जा कप्प किलियाईसु
चउसु दुदु कप्पवुड्ढी पढमेणं जाव सिद्धो वि ।। १६२ ।। दो पढम पुढवी गमणं, छेवट्ठे किलियाइ संघयणे । इक्किक्क पुढवी गुड्ढी,. .........।।२५५ ।।
chevaṭṭhēna u gammai, caurō jā kappa kiliyāisu causu du du kappavuddhi padhamānam java siddhā vi..162.. dō padhama pudhavi gamanam, chevaṭṭhe kiliyai sanghayaņē puḍhavi vudghi............255. [Brhatsangrahanisūtra of Sri Candrasūriji Verses 162 and 255]
ikkikka
4. Kalpasūtra Subodhika Commentary by Śri Vinayavijayaji Sixth part
5.• Commentary on Brhatsangrahanisūtra verses- 3 & 4
• Lökaprakāśa of Sri Vinayavijayaji part-3, Sarga-29, Verses 178-276
277-284
Tandulavēyaliya Payannā P.26-A

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• Kālasaptatikā Prakarana Verse-10
6. • आउसो ! अणुपुव्वेणं अट्ठारस्स य पिट्टकरंडगसंघिओ बारस पंसलिया करंडा, छप्पंसुलिए कडाहे, ..... चउ पलिया जिब्भा, दु पलियाणि अच्छीणि, चउकवालं सिरं,.....सत्तंगुलिया जीहा, अद्भुट्ठपलियं हिययं, पणवीस पलाइं कालिज्जं, दो अंता पंचवामा पण्णत्ता - तं जहा थूलते य १ तणुयंते य २ ...आउसो ! इमंमि सरीरए सट्ठि संघिसयं.......सत्तसिरासयाई.......आउसो ! इमंमि सरीरए सट्ठिसिरासयं नाभिप्पभवाणं उड्ढगामिणीणं, ....आउसो ! इममि सरीरए सट्ठिसिरासयं नाभिप्पभवाणं अहोगामिणीणं......आउसो ! इमंमि सरीरए सट्ठिसिरासयं नाभिप्पभवाणं तिरियगामिणीणं.....आउसो ! इमस्स जंतुस्स सट्ठिसिरासयं नाभिप्पभवाणं अहोगामिणीणं गुदप्पविट्ठाणं......आउसो ! इमस्स जंतुस्स पणवीसं सिराओ पित्तधारिणीओ, पणवीसं सिराओ सिंभघारिणीओ, दस सिराओ सुक्कधारिणीओ, सत्तसिरासयाई पुरिसस्स, तीसूणाई इत्थीयाए, वीसूणाई पंडगस्स.....
āuso! anupuwēnam atthārassa ya pitthakarandagasandhið bārasa pamsaliyā karanda, chappamsulie kadahe, ..... cau paliya jibbha, du paliyani acchini, caukavālam siram,.....sattariguliya jiha, addhutthapaliyam hiyayam, panavisa dalāim kālijjam, do amtā pañcavāmā pannattā - tam janā thūlantē ya 1 tanuyanté ya 2 ...ausi ! imammi sarira satthi sandhisayam.......sattasirāsayā im.......āuso ! imammi sariraē satthisirāsayam nabhippabhavānam uddhagamininam, ....auso ! imammi sarira satthisirāsayam nabhippabhavānam ahigamininam,.....ausi ! imammi sarira satthisirāsayam nabhippabhavanam tiriyagamininam.....ausi ! imassa jantussa saţthisirāsayam nābhippabhavānam ahogāmiņinam gudappavitthānam......āuso ! imassa jantussa paņavisam sirāö pittadhāriņio, paņavisam sirão simbhadhāriņio, dása sirāð sukkadhāriņio, sattasirāsayāim purisassa, tisūņāim itthiyae, visunaim pandagassa..... [ Tandulavéyaliya Payanna P. 35-36-A] • अट्ठार सपिट ठ क र ड यस्सा संधीउ हुति दे ह मि । बार स पंसुलियक रं ड या इह तह च्छ पंसुलिए ।।६८।। होइ क डाहे सत्तंगुलाई जीहा पलाइ पुण च उरो। अच्छीउ दो पलाइं सिरं तु भणियं चउक्क वाल ।।६९।। अद्भुट्ठपलं हिययं......| कालेज्जयं तु समए पणवीस पलाई निदिनें ।।७० ।। अंताई दोन्नि इहयं पत्तेयं पंच पंच वामाओ । सट्ठिसयं संधीण........ | ७१ ।। ......सटिट सयां अन्नाण वि सिराण अहोगामीणीण तहा ।।७३ ।।
सटि ठ र सिराणं नाभिप्पभावाणं सिर वगयाणं । .......अथराण गुद पबिट ठाण होइ सटि ठ सय तह सिराणं ।
...तिरि गमाण सिरणं सटि ठ सय होइ अाराणं ।।७६ ।। .......पणवीस सिभधारिणीओ
||७७।।

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तह पित्तधारिणीओ पणवीसं दस य सुक्क धारिणीओ । इय सत्त सिरासयाइं नाभिप्पभवाण पुरि सस्स ।।७८ ।। तीसूणाई इत्थीण, वीसूणाई हुंति संढ स्स ।...... atthārasapitthakarandayassa sandhiu hunti dēnammi . bārasa pamsuliyakarandayā iha taha ccha paņsulië ..68.. hõi kaļānē sattangulāim ji nā palāi puņa cauro. acchiu do palāim siram tu bhaniyam caukkavālam ..69.. addhutthapalam h iyayam.............................. kālējjayam tu samaē panavisa palā im nidittham..70.. amtāim dõnni ihayam pattēyam pañca pañca vāmão . satthisayam sandhiņam,..
.........71.. ........satthisayam annāņa vi sirāņa ahāgāminina tahā ..73.. satthisayam sirāņam nābhippabhavānam siramuvagayānam. ........avarāņa gudapаvitthāṇa hõi satthisayam taha sirāņam . ........tiriyagamāņa sirāņam satthisayam hõi avarāņam ..76.. ........paņavisam simbhadhariņio.............. ..77.. taha pittadhāriņio paņavisam dasa ya sukkadhāriņio . iya satta sirāsayāim nābhippabhavāņa purisassa ..78.. tisūņāim itthiņa, visūņāim hunti sandhassa ...... [Pravacana Sārõddhāra P. 402) 7. • Lokaprakāśa of śri Vinayavijayaji part-1, Sarga-3, Verses 55 to 60
• Pannavanā Suttam P. 192 published by Śri Mahāvira Jaina Vidyālaya, Bombay
• Brhatsangrahanisūtra of Śri Candrasūriji Verse 325 8. • गभट्ठिइ मणुस्सीणुक्किट्ठा होइ वरिसबारसगं gabbhatthii maņussinukkitthā hõi varisabārasagam [Pravacana Sārõddhāra of Śri Nēmicandrasūriji P. 401-A]
• मणुस्सी गब्भे णं भंते ! 'मणुस्सी गभेत्ति कालओ केवच्चिरं होइ ? गोयमा जहनेणं अंतोमुहुत्तं उक्कोसेणं बारस संवच्छराई ।
maņussi gabbhē ņam bhantē ! 'manussi gabbhē'tti kālað kēvacciram hõi? göyamā jahannēņam amtõmuhuttam ukkosēņam bārasa samvaccharāim.
(Bhagavati Sūtra part - 1, P. 98, published by Śri Mahāvira Jaina Vidyālaya, Bombay)

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• कोइ पुण पावकारी बारस संवच्छराई उक्कोसं ।
अच्छइ उ गब्भवासे असुइप्पभवे असुइयंमि ।। kõi puna pāvakāri bārasa samvaccharāim ukkosam. acchai u gabbhavāsē asuippabhavē asuiyammi . [Tandulavēyāliya Payannā P. 14-A]
9. • कायभवत्थे णं भंते कायभवत्थे त्ति कालओ केवच्चिवरं होइ ? गोयमा जहन्नेणं अंतोमुहुत्तं उक्कोसेणं चउवीसं संवच्छराई ।
kāyabhavatthē ņam bhantē kāyabhavatthē tti kālað kēvaccivaram hõi ? göyamā jahannēnam amtõmuhuttam ukkosēņam cauvisam samvaccharāim.
[Bhagavati Sūtra part - 1, P. 98, published by Śri Mahāvira Jaina Vidyālaya, Bombay)
• गब्भस्स य कायठिइ, नराण चउवीस वरिसाई । gabbhassa ya kāyathii, narāṇa cauvisa varisäim. [Pravacana Sārāddhāra of Sri Nēmicandrasūriji P. 401-A] • तु शब्दात् मनुष्यतिरश्चां कायस्थितिः चतुर्विशतिवर्षप्रमाणा.....तावत् स्थितिः ।
tu sabdāt manuşyatiraścām kāyasthitih caturvimsativarşapramāņā.....tāvat sthitih . [Tandulaveyaliya Payanna P. 6] ___ 10. इमे खलु जीवो अम्मापिउसंयोगे माउउयं पिउसुक्कं ते तदुभय संसट्ठे कलुसं किब्बिसं तप्पढमाए आहारं आहारित्ता गभत्ताए वक्कमइ, सत्तहं कललं होइ, सत्ताहं होइ अब्बुयं, (सूत्र-१) अब्बुया जायए पेसी, पेसीओ य घणं भवे।। तो पढमे मासे करिसूणं पलं जायइ १ बीउ मासे पेसी संजायए घणा २, तइए मासे माउए दोहलं जणइ ३, चउत्थे मासे माउयए अंगाई पीणेइ ४, पंचमे मासे पंच पिंडियाओ पाणि पायं सिरं चेव निव्वत्तेइ ५, छठे मासे पित्तसोणियं उवचिणेइ ६, सत्तमे मासे सत्तसिरासयाई (७००). पंच पेसी सयाई (५००), नव धमनीओ नव नउई च रोमकूवसयसहस्साई निव्वत्तेइ (९९,००,०००) विणा केसमंसूणा । सह केसमंसूणा अद्भुट्ठाओ रोमकूव कोडीओ निव्वत्तेइ । (सूत्र-२) ।
imē khalu jivõ ammāpiusamyōgē māuuyam piusukkam tē tadubhaya samsattham kalusam kibbisam tappachamāē āhāram āhāritā gabbhattāē vakkamai, sattaham kalalam hoi, sattaham hoi abbuyam, (sutra-1) abbuya jāyaē pēsi, pēsio ya ghaṇam bhavē.. to padhamē māsē karisūnam palam jāyai 1 biu māsē pēsi sañjāyaē ghaņā 2, taiē māsē māvē dõhalam jaņai 3, cautthē māsē māuyaē amgãim pinēi 4, pañcamē māsē pañca pindiyāā pāņi

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pāyam siram cēva nivvattēi 5, chatthē māsē pittasōniyam uvaciņēi 6, sattamē māsē sattasirāsayāim (700), pañca pēsi sayāim (500), nava dhamaniō nava nauim ca romakuvasayasahassāim nivvattei (99,00,000) viņā kēsamamsūņā. saha kēsamamsūṇā addhuṭṭhāō rōmakūva kōḍiō nivvattēi. (sūtra-2)
[Tandulavēyaliya Payannā P. 7]
11. • दाहिणकुच्छी पुरिसस्स होइ, वामा उ इत्थीयाए य । । dāhiņakucchi purisassa hōi, vāmā u itthiyāē ya..
[Tandulavēyaliya Payannā P. 6]
• Vicāraratnākara P 171-A
12. • पनपन्नाए परेण जोणि पमिलायए महिलियाणं । पणसत्तरिइ परओ, पाएण मं भवेऽओ
11
panapannāē parēnam jōni pamilāyaē mahiliyāṇam Danasattarii paraō, pāēņa pumam bhavē'bio...
[Tandulavēyāliya Payannā P. 4]
• तथा चोक्तं स्थानाङ्गटीकायाम्
मासि मासि रजः स्त्रीणामजस्त्र स्रवति त्र्यहं । वत्सरात् द्वादशादूर्ध्वं याति पञ्चाशतः क्षयम् ।।
tathā cōktam sthānāngaṭīkāyām -
māsi māsi rajaḥ striņāmajasra sravati tryaham vatsarat dvādaśādūrddhvam yāti pañcāśataḥ kṣayam ..
[ Ibidem P. 5-A]
13. दुन्नि अहोरत्तसए, संपुण्णे सत्तसत्तरि चेव । गब्भंमि वसइ जीवो अद्धमहोरत्तमणणं च ।।
dunni ahōrattasaē, sampuņņē sattasattari cēva
gabbhammi vasai jivō, addhamahōrattamaṇaṇam ca..
[Tandulavēyaliya Payannā P. 3-A]
And the Kalpasūtra Subodhikā commentary on the last Sūtra of the fourth part.
14. • मस्स पंचेदिय तिरिक्ख जोणिय बीए णं भंते ! जोणिब्भूए केवतियं कालं संचिट्ठेइ ? गोयमा ! जहन्नेणं अंतोमुहुत्तं उक्कोसेणं बारसमुहुत्ता ।
maņussa pañcēdiya tirikkha jōniya biē nam bhantē ! jāņibbhūē kēvatiyam kālam sanciṭṭhei ? gōyamā! jahannēņam amtōmuhuttam ukkōsēņam

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___313
313
bārasamuhutta.
(Bhagavati Sūtra part - 1, P. 98, published by Śri Mahāvira Jaina Vidyālaya, Bombay)
•रिउसमय ण्हाय नारी, नरोवभोगेण गभसंमूह | बारसमुहुत्तमज्झे जायइ, उवरिं पुणो नेय ।। riusamaya ņhāya nāri, narõvabhōgēņa gabbhasammūha . bārasamuhuttamajjhē jāyai, uvarim puņā nēya .....................
[Pravacana Sārāddhāra P. 401]
• बारस चेव मुहुत्ता, उवरिं विद्धंस गच्छइ सा ।
bārasa cēva muhuttā, uvarim viddhamsa gacchai sā. (Tandulavēyāliya Payannā P. 4]
15. FIT THE FONTSTEARITA - पूर्ण षोडशवर्षा स्त्री, पूर्ण विशेन संगता । शुद्धे गर्भाशये १ मार्गे २ रक्ते ३ शुक्रे ४ ऽनिले पुनः ।। वीर्यवन्तं सुतं सुते, ततो न्यूनाब्दयोः पुनः । रोग्यल्पायुरधन्यो वा गर्भो भवति नैव वा ।।
tathā cāktam sthānāngatikāyām būrņa soļaśavarşā stri, pūrņa vimśēna sangatā. suddhë garbhāśayē 1 mārgē 2 raktē 3 śukrē 4 'nile punah .. viryavantam sutam sutē, tatö nyünābdayāḥ punan. rögyalpāyuradhanyō vā garbho bhavati naiva vā ..
[Tandulavēyāliya Payannā P. 5-Al
N. B. [The Tandulavēyāliya Payannā, The Vicāraratnākara and The Pravacana Sārāddhāra are published by Śri Dēvacandalālabhāi Jaina Pustakāddhāra Fund. Surat 1
WE WERE PARTED MANY THOUSANDS OF KALPAS AGO, YET WE HAVE NOT BEEN SEPARATED EVEN FOR A MOMENT. WE ARE FACING EACH OTHER ALL DAY LONG, YET WE HAVE NEVER MET
D. T. SUZUKI. THE ESSENCE OF BUDDHISM P.26

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism Appendix I
Index of Proper Names Abhay adēvasūri 238
Candraprabhasväml 149 Abhayasāgara, Pannyāga 129, 130
Candrasūriji 308,310 Abhinandansvāmi 149
Capra, Fritjof 19,31,38,177,185 Agrawal, P.M. (Parasmal) 212, 213
Captain Freshier 129 Ajitanātha 149
Captain J. Ras 129 Akbar 165, 166
Captain Mill 130 Amarēndravijaya, Muni 83, 141
Caraka, Sage 178
Cardon H. 95,107 Ambikā, 193 Amin Kureshi 185
Carl Gustav Jung 177 Anantanātha 149
Carl Segan 138,143,144,145,292 Aranātha 150
Cāmundā, 198 Archimedes 116
Chandrashekhar, Subramanyam 53, 70,
71 Aristanēmi (Nēmanātha-Naminātha) 216
Cidānandaji 181
Colebrook, C.T. 12 Ashoka, King 118
Collet Caillat 123 Anandaghana 180
D.Shanks 117 Āryabhatta 117 Aryabhatta-1 98
Daksavijayji, Muni 184, 185 Aryabhatta -2 98
Darwin, Charles 138,145,150, 156 Backha 180
Dānasūriji 237 Baijā Bāvarā 165, 166, 167, 183
De Broglie 26,27,28,,207,224 Baksali 98
Demorgan 117
Desai, Urmiben 84,184 Baksi, C.C., Lieut. Col. 137,172, 184, 188, 202
Desal, Morarji 252 Barton, A. W. 123, 140
Deshpande, V. K. 15 Bethovan, 180
Devid Fuze 301 Bhadrabāhusvāmi 124,190,202,244,
Devluk, Nandlal 201
Dewison, C. J. 27 246,247,299,300,301 Bhandari, Narendra 15,139
Dāvēndrasūriji 270, 303, 308 Bhāskara-1 98
Dāvacandraji, Pandita 181 Bhāskara-2 98
Dāvarddhigani kşamāśramana 100, 124 Binitosh Bhattācārya 196
Dāvašarmā 232 Boltzmann 23
Dharanēndra 189
Dharmanātha 149 Bose, Satyendranath (S. N.) 205,206, 207,208,212,213
Dixit, Pankaj 203
Dipavijayaji 181 Brahmā 147,196,199,
Doshi, Bechardas, Pandit 141 Brahmagupta 98,107 Brāhmi 198
Doshi, M. N. 141 Buddha Gautama 99,144,216,232
Durgā 193 Buffon 117
Dutt, Ashok Kumar 73,74,76,77,78,79,

Page #346

Appendix I Index of Proper Names
315 80,81,82,84,85,86,88,89,171,173. Jain, Nemic hand 128,285 184, 188,202, 217
Jambūvijayaji, Muni 203 Einstein 3,4,5,6,8,9,10,122,13,14,17, Janardan Dave 184,185
18,24,26,32,36,41,42,49,52,53,55,57, Jayasimha, King 273 60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,70,73,90,10 Jean Bornard, 21 9,110,111,113,132,205,206, 207,208, Jean-Plerrie Luminet 69,71 209,212,213,214,252
Jeans 23 Euclid 100,111
Jesus 144 Fahy an 118
Jhanjhanaśā 273 Faraday, Michael 3, 21, 217
Jinabhadrasūriji, Ācārya 96 Foucault, Lean 21
Jinadattasūriji, 237 Fox 117
Jlnaprabhasūriji 190 Fox, Sydney 158,163
Jinavallabhasūriji 237 Fresnel, A. J. 21
Jñanavimalasūriji 181 Freud 251, 252
John Michell 51,53,70 G. Leibnitz 116
Kabiraji 228 Galile 5,9
Kalyāṇadāsa 195 Ganguly, J. B. 112
Kalyanavijay,Panny as 141 Gautama Rşi 232
Kamalakara 98 Gautamasvāmi, Indrabhūti 6,64,65, Kanti Bhatta 260
190, 191,230,231,232,233,269 Kapadia, Hiralal Rasikdas 141 George Cantor 100
Karanidan Shethia 187,201,202,203 Gerge Nielsen 83,139
Kāli 193 Germer 27
Kāmadēva 259 Gohel, V. B. 184
Kerr, Roy P. 211 Hargovindadas, Pandit 141
Kirchhoff 22 Haribhadrasūrijā, Ācārya 125,140,141, Kirtivijaya, Upādhyāya 306
181,190,235,239,242,286,290 Krsna 184,206 Haridā sa 165
Kunthunātha 150,152 Heber, G. 43
L. Euler 116 Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf 21,22,23
Laplace, Marquis de 52,43,70 Hēmacandrācāry aji 181,183,190,203, Laxmi Dāvi (śridēvi), 191 241,242,292
Laxmichandra Mohanlal Shah, Prof Hēmahansa Gani 107,114
184,185 Hirasūrlji 237,240
Lazzarini 117 Hu-en-sang 118
Lenard 24 Humāyu 167
Lene Vestergeard Hau 16 Huygens, Christian 20
Leonardo da Vinci 252 lan Shelton 53,71
Lijun Wang 14,15 J. Wallis 116
Lindemann 115 Jain, G.R. 12,140
Lord Brounker 116 Jain, L. C. 113,118
Madhu Khanna 89,203 Jain, Nandalal (N. L.) 11,35
Mahākāli 103 -

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316 Mahālakṣmi 198 Mahātripurāsundari 198 Mahāvira(svāmi) Lord, Bhagavān 6.
60,62,64,65,94,99.100.124,140, 155,167,190,216,221,230,231,232,23
4, 267,272,292,305 Mahāvirācārya 95,98,107 Mahendrakumar "Dvitiy a',Muni 12,60 Mahēša 199 Malayagiri, Ācārya 102,306 Mallinātha 150 Mandödari 183 Mathews, P. M. 226,242 Max Toth 83,139 Maxwell, James Cleark 21,22 Mähāśvari 198 Mänadēvasūriji 190 Mānatungasūriji 190 Mānavijayaji, Upādhyāya 223 Mehta, Davesh 203 Mehta, M. K. 141 Michelangelo 252 Mikhall D. Lukin 16 Miller, Stanley 158,163 Miran 180,184 Mozart 180 Munisvara 98 Nagendra Vijay 89 Nami 189 Nandanasūriji, Ācārya 72 Nandisēna 178, 179,190 Nandighoshvijay, Muni 39,72,113,114,
201,202,212 Narasimha Mahātā 180 Narlikar, J. V. 14,15 Narlikar, V.. V. 208,209,211 Nāgārjūna 190 Nāgakētu 222 Nārāyaṇa 98 Newton, Isaac 6,20,21,23,43,52,109,
110,252 Nēmicandra, Ācārya (Digmbara) 132 Namicandrasuriji 310
Scientific Secrets of Jainism Nēmisūrīśvaraji, Ācārya 259 Niskulānandaji 253 Olaiis Roemer 51,70 OMP bilaniuk 15 Oparin, A. I. 158,163 Ospensky, P.D. 172 Pādaliptasūriji 190,223 Pārsvanātha 216 Pēthadašā 273 Padmaprabhasvāmi 149 Padmavijay aji, Pandita 181 Pasteur, Louis 157,162 Patel, Liladhar K. 211 Peter Debye 206 Peterson 141 Pierre Simon 52,70 Pierre Luminet 69,71 Planck, Max 23,24,36,206,207,224,255. Plato 252 Prabodhacandra Gani 237,239 Pratimă Gauri 183,185 Priyagranthasuriji 190 Pythagoras 91,94 Rao, J. Krishna 208 Rayleigh 23 Raymond Bornard 252 Rāmānujan, Srinivasa 94,118119,136 Rānā 184 Rāvana 183 Redi, Francesco 157,161,162 Riri 167 Robert Resnik 72 Ronald L. Walsworth 16 Ronald Nameth 192 Rohagupta 190 Rūpavijay aji, Pandita 181 Rsabhadēva, Bhagavāna Adinātha)
100,138,149,152,189, 216, 292, Sakalacandraji, Upadhyāya 181 Sambhavanātha 149 Samitasūriji, Ārya 190 Sanghadāsa Gaņi 189 Saraswati 191

Page #348

317
Appendix I Index of Proper Names Satsangi, O. K. 90
Uttamavijayaji, Pandita 181 Schwarzchild, Karl 53,70,208,209
Vaisnavi 198 Sõnasūriji 240
Vaidya, Arunbhai 212 Shah, H. F. 212
Vaidya, P.C. 103,106,205, 208,209, Shah, Ashish Manekalal 141
210,211,212,213,214 Shipman, Harry L. 53,66,69,71,72,
Vaidya, Paresh 92 Siddhasēna Divakara 190
Vajrasvámi, Arya 190 Siddhasēna Gani 82,83,184,242
Vakharia, Nirajanbhai N. 57,58,72 Simandharsvāmi 216
Varāha Mihira 98 Skandilācārya 190
Vāsupūjy asvāmi 138,149,152 Smith 117
Venkatesan, K. 226,242 Sthulibhadraji 190
Vişnu 199 Sudarshan, G. 3.15
Vijay alakşmi sūriji 181 Sumati, Gani 141
Vikram Sarabhai 212 Sumatinātha 149
Vimal Dhami 183 Supārsvanātha 149
Vimalanātha 149 Suvidhinātha 149
Vinami 189 Suradāsa, 180
Vinayavijayaji 100,113,308,310 Sūryöday asūriji, Acārya 187,217,232 Virasēna, Ācārya 94,118,135,136 Svāmi Vivēkānanda 181
Viravijayajī, Pandita 171,181,184 śāntinātha 138,150,152,292 293
Vrddhayādi 190 śāntisūriji, Ācārya 151,290
Weber, G. 43 Śayyambhavasūriji 236
Wien 22 Śilac andravijayaji 181
William Raleigh 296 silankācāryaji 242,246,247
Wolf 117 Śitalanātha 149
Yasovijayaji, Upadhyāya 181,303,308 Śankara 258
Yaksarāja Ganipiaka 191 Sankarācāryaji 102,103
Young 45 Srāyāmsanātha 149,152 Śrīdhara 98 śriguptācārya 190 sripati 98 Tagore, Rabindranath 208 Tānā 167 Tānasõna 165,166, 167 Towari, Paramahansa 142 Thomson, J. J. 22,24 Tiwari, Sarju 101,112,113,114 Tribhuvanasvāmini Dēvi 191 Tulasidasa 180 Udayaratnaji, Pandita 181 Udayasūriji 131,141
Umāsvāti 33,62,66,184,257,300,301

ΓΟΙ

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318
Abiogenesis 158, 162, 163
Alpha rays 34
Amino acids 158, 163
Ammonia (NH) 158 Amphibians 145
Amplitude 15,16,30,36,37,45,
47,64,178,254,255
Appendix II Glossary
Index of Scientific Terms
Anions 289, 290
Area 39,42,43,48,53,55,71,100,
115,117,118,134,135,136,142, 221
Asexual Reproduction 160 Astrophysics 16,49,109,210,211 Atom 14,16,18,19,27,31,32,34,41,
44,55,62,65,74,75,76,77,82,85,
103,105,132,143,154,158,173,
207,235,239,240,301 Beta rays/particles 18,34,110 Big bang theory 143,144 Bio-electromagnetic field / energy
81,217,218,219,220,221,229,
230,231,256
Biogenesis 157,162,163 Black hole 6,13,49,50,51,52,53,54,
55,56,57,58,60,61,64,67,68,69,70,71,
Bose-Einstein statistics 207,212, 213
Calcium 278
Carbohydrates 274,278,279
Carbon dioxide (CO) 78
Carbon-14 isotopes 139,293,294
Cations 289, 290
Casein 278
Cell 144,154,158,159,163,294,295 Centrifugal force 51,69
Centripetal force 51
Circumference 81,100,115,116,
117,118,130,134,135,136
Compass 115,229,243 Complex number 95

Scientific Secrets of Jainism
Conservation of mass 47
Constructive interference 45,46,47,48
Cosmic 50, 132,136, 138,143, 144,
145,146,151,152,153,156, 292, 293
Cosmic dust 156
Cosmozoic 156, 157, 161
Crest 25,45,46,47,84,85
Cube 108
Decibel 178
Deflection 52,53,214
Destructive interference 45,46,47, 48,
84,85
Diameter 50,51,52,53,70, 100, 115, 116, 118, 134, 135
DNA (Dioxy Ribo Nucleic acid) 158, 159 Doppler's effect 40, 41, 42, 48, 68 Electromagnetic waves/force/field 9,21,
22,23,25,26,27,32,33,34, 36,
37,38,43, 44,67, 73, 74, 77, 78, 80, 81, 206, 207, 225, 226, 229, 230, 231, 240,242,254,256
Electron 11,24,27,28,31,32,34,43,
44,74,84,207,235
Endocrine glands 252,258,259 Escape velocity 50,51,67,69,70
Even number 91, 93
Evolution 24, 96, 140, 144, 150, 151,
156,
Fission 33,34,77
Fossils 139,144,145,150,151, 156,
293,294
Frequency 22,24,25,26,27,33,37,
40,41,42,43,45,47, 73,74,77,
168,169, 171,180,224,225,226, 240, 241,254,255
Fusion 33,34,77
Gamma rays 34
General Theory of Relativity 52,57, 61,

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319
Appendix II Index of Scientific Terms 63,109,111, 205,208,214
67,68,71,74 Geology 158
Neutron star 53,55, 67,68,71 Gravitational force 13,50,51,52, 53, Nitrogen 252,302
55,58,61,62,63,64, 67,69, 109,110, Non-mechanical waves 25
111,177,208,209,211, 212,213, 214, Nucleus 31,162 Heterotrophs 159
Octave 168,169,172 Hydrochloric acid (HCL) 278, 279
Odd number 91,93 Hydrogen (H2) 158, 235
Oxygen 78,144,145,150,158,234, Infrared rays 64,67,73,77
235,262,264,274,302 Infrasonic waves 33,74,174
Ozone 139,158 Interference 20,31,33,44,45,46,47, 48,84 Particle theory 19,20,21,22,23,24, Interval 3,4,5,138,146,168,169, 274,275
31,32,44, lodine 152
Phobos 50,69 lonization 290
Phosphorus 278 Iron 21,229,278
Photo-electric Effect 24,28,31,43, 44, Irrational number 94,115
73,84 Isotope 139, 293
Photon 3,4,5,6,10,11,13,16,17, 24, Jet lag 265
25,26,27,32,34,36,37,39,40,42,43 Kinetic energy 17,25,66
Photosynthetic 159 Lacto-bacillus 278
Pin 90,94,101,115,117,118,119, Lactose 278, 279
134,135,136,142 Latitude 130
Pole 129,130,140,230,254,256,257 Lecithin 252
Polyneucleotides 158,163 Longitude 130
Polypeptides 158 Magnesium 278
Positron 11,34,43 Magnet 21,80,229,230,256
Prime number 93 Magnetic force/force line/field/pole
Protein 158, 278 21,25,28,31,37,80,176,192,217, Proteinoids 158,163 229,230,254,256,258,259
Proton 11,27,31,34,44,55,71,74, 235, Mass 3,4,5,6,9,12,13,17,18,26,27.
Protoplasm 162 36,43,47,50,51,52,62,63,64,65,
Pseudopodia 256 66,67,69,70,71,73,110,188,208, Quantum theory/statistics/ mechanics 209,213,214,224,288
23,24,25,31,32, 73, Mechanical waves 25
84,206,207,211,225, 226, 242 Meson 43
Quark 11, 27, 34,74 Mesozoic 151
Radiating 206,208,209,212,213, 214 Methane gas (CH) 158,163
Radiation 22,23,24,31,39,42,67, Momentum = my 26,28,43,47, 214,224
139,153,206,207,209,211,214 Multicellular 144,145,154,
Radio-active 139 Natural number 91,92,93,94
Radio telescope 49, 60, 67,127 Negative number 6, 93,95,106,107
Rational number 94 Neutron 11,27,31,34,43,44,53,55,
Real number 94, 95
Rennin 278

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism Waves 10,16,19,21,22,23,24,25,
26,27,28,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,43, 44,45,46,47,52,67,73,74,78,82,84,17 8.180.193,206,224,225,226,227,240,
241,242,254, 255 White dwarf 51,53,67,68,69,71
320 Reptile 145,151,152.293 Retina 129 RNA (Ribo nucleic acid) 158 Sexual reproduction 159,160 Sodium 278 Special creation 156 Special Theory of Relativity 14,17, 18,
24,61,62,64,65,109,110 Spontaneous generation 157,161 Square 12,17,39,40,45,57,71.91,
94,95,108,111,115,118,134, 142,
194,201 Square root 6,95,108,111,115,118 Sulphur 278 Superlighnic 10 Supernovae 50,53,54 Supersonic 109 Tachyon particles 3,15,16 Telepathy 241 Teletherapy 196 Thermodynamics 22 Time-space continuum 132,133 Tonoscope 201 Ultrasonic waves 33,74,174,226, 227 Ultraviolet enigma 22,23,24 Ultraviolet rays 22,24,33,67,73,78,
84,139,150,158 Unicellular 144,154 Variable 10,17,18,40,42,218,219 Vector 5,13,25,47,95,110 Velocity 3,4,5,6,8,9,10,11,12,13,
14,15,16,17,18,20,21,22,26,27,36,37, 38,39,41,42,43,50,51,52,61,62,63,64, 65,66,67,68,69,70, 110,
209,224,225,226, 240, Viruses 153,159,279 Vitamin 274 Volume 27,32,35,50,63,64,66,67,
71,100,213 Wave theory 19,20,21,22,23,24,26,
31,32,44,47,89,224 Wavelength 20,22,23,26,27,28,33, • 36,37,42,45,47,254,255

Page #352

Appendix No. III
Glossary Index of Jain Technical Terms
जैन पारिभाषिक शब्दसूची 31-12TH (1557) agnityābha
and south-west directions (sukrābha) - One kind of अर्धनाराच ardhanārāca - gods/divine bodies out of Fourth type of bone-joint nine gods
interlocking the bones on 318in aghātikarma - The one side and a pin through
karmas that do not cover the both bones main properties of the soul Hentett adhōlōka - Lower like etc.
portion of the universe ufan acitta - Nonliving /
37EZTORITZ adhyavasāya - 1. nonsetient
Thoughts 2. Fillings 37Tots aththāi - 1. Group of
31ha anantakāya - See eight or nine sacred days 2. साधारण वनस्पतिकाय Penance like fasts of eight
Sādhāraņa Vanaspatikāya days
3779? da anuttara dēva - 31101i animā - A labdhi i.e.
Highest quality of gods capacity to make one's body having highest happiness micro like anu
He antarmuhūrtta - Jules aņuvrata - Five vows, Time less then 1 muhūrtta out of twelve vows for a
i.e. any time from two layperson
time-units (samayas) to 48 30Su andaja - Animals and minutes less one time unit birds that reproduce
37 Foligi antarajāta - Third through eggs
type of sound from four uffyg atiśaya - Excellent
types of sound described in qualities of Tirthankaras
Jain scriptures 3er (3erhiffronty) adharma अन्तरायकर्म antarāyakarma - (adharmāstikāya) - A
One type of karma that medium for rest
causes unsuccess in any act अधिधर्मा (अहिधर्मा) adhidharmā अन्धकार andhakāra - Darkness (ahidharmā) - A
or absence of light sub-direction between west 379g aparatua - Nearness
-

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322
regarding to time or place, з aparyāptā - A living being which has not sufficient abilities to live з apkāya - Water-bodied living beings
aprasasta - Bad or
inauspicious
3 arista - One kind of gods out of nine Lōkāntika gods 350 aruna - One kind of gods out of nine Lōkāntika gods 3f, fret arci, arcimāli - Types of residences i.e. vimanas of gods out of nine Lōkāntika gods
зata alōka - Beyond universe з alōkākāśa - Space beyond the universe, Transcosmic space
E avagāhanā - Length or hight of bodies of living beings अवधिज्ञान avadhijñānaKnowledge through which one can know without the aids of senses the material objects having shape, colour, smell, taste and touch
fof avasarpiņi - Half of time-cycle in which height and life of living being decrease. Descending cycle of Six aeons з avуābādha - A place or condition where there is

Scientific Secrets of Jainism
nothing like pain and
unhappyness зish asañjni - Living beings
that haven't material sensorium/mind, which are not able to think
зi asankhyāta - Which cannot be denoted in
numbers or mathematical equation
अशुभ कर्म asubha karmaInauspicious karma. Accumulation of karma through bad deeds अष्टापद astāpada - 'A
mountain having eight steps', Mt. Kailasa situated in Mt.Himalayas
зfew ahimsā - Nonviolence з ākāśa - Space 34 āgama - Jain canonical books
3 ätapa - Sunlight, Hot radiation आतपनामकर्म
ātapanāmakarma
- A type of karma which causes hot light
зfe aditya - One kind of gods out of nine Lōkāntika gods
आध्यात्मिक ādhyātmika -
Related to the soul आभामंडल ābhāmandala - Aura or bio-electromagnetic field

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Appendix No. III Index of Jain Technical Terms
323 आयंबिल āyambila - A vow in उत्कृष्ट असंख्यात असंख्यात utkrsta which person takes food
asarkhyāta asankhyāta only one time without ghee, - The highest /ninth oil, milk, curd, jeggery/ sugar innumerable from the nine and sweets
types of innumerable system 314e āyuşya - Life span of Bronce afra Breata utkrsta living beings
paritta asankhyāta - The wafaat āvalikā - Unit of time seventh innumerable from आहारक वर्गणा āhāraka
the nine types of vargaņā - Specific types of innumerable system paramāņu-units useful for Bronce um Ticar utkrșța specific body
yukta asankhyāta - The आहारक शरीर āhāraka sarira fifth innumerable from the - Additonal body of a
nine types of innumerable saint with a specific power
system $iśāna - 1. A sub-direction Frerit utthāni - A between north and east
sub-direction between the directions 2. A name of
east and south-east second dēvaloka where
directions gods live
Brefroita utpattijāta - First feira išitva - A ability to show type of sound from four the affluence of indra or
types of sond that are cakravarti
described in Jain scriptures उत्कृष्ट अनंत अनंत utkrsta
Bruiunt utsarpiņi - Half of ananta ananta - Ninth
time-cycle in which height grade of infinity from the
and life of living being nine types of infinite system increase. Ascending cycle of उत्कृष्ट परित्त अनंत utkrsta
Six aeons/epochs paritta ananta - Seventh yra udaya - The time in which grade of infinity from the
souls experienced the karma nine types of infinite system that are attached to them in Brose 37-ta utkrşta yukta past. Fruition of past karma. ananta - Fifth grade of
302195 uddēšaka - A subpart infinity from the nine types of of a chapter of the Jain infinite system
canonical scriptures
Beta udyota - Light like that of

Page #355

324
Scientific Secrets of Jainisin Moon-light
(rajoharana). A sweeping उद्योत नामकर्म udyota
rod with woolen threads of nāmakarma - A type of
Jain monks and nuns karma due to which the BUITER Õjāhāra - Intake by an moon gives off cold light
embryo in the form of blood 3997717 Utan upapāta janma - and semen, sapdrawn from
Type of asexual reproduction parents
in hell and divine beings औदारिक वर्गणा audārika 34998 upavāsa - A fast of 36 vargaņā - Specific types of hours (From previous
paramāņu-units useful for evening to the next morning) the body of the living beings Bir upasarga - Physical or other than divine and hell mental annoyance from
beings mankind, beasts-bird and औदारिक शरीर audārika sarira divine beings to Tirthankara - A gross body of living and saints
beings other than divine and 3491# upaśama - Subsidence hell beings
of the karma attached to the CE kațāha -Hanging half soul
ribs उपांशु जाप upāmsujāpa - 0910 kapāla - Skull
Repetition of Mantras with a foch kapilā - A sub-direction
slight noise that is not clear betwen south and south-east ऊर्ध्वलोक-देवलोक
FREITUT5 kalyāņaka - Five ürdhwaloka-dēvalūka -
specific incidents in the life of Upper part of the universe
Jain Tirthankara , 1 ऋषभनाराच rsabhanārāca
Ascending of the soul in the Second type of bone joint womb of mother, 2. Birth, Phyta ēkāšana - A vow of
3. initiation, 4. Attaining taking food only one time a omniscience and 5. day
Emancipation papie ēkēndriya - Living CATATET kavalāhāra - A food beings having only one
taking with mouth, The in sense organ-skin
take of gross food trana airavata kșētra. A Chryfof kāyasthiti - Time portion of Jambūdvipa
spent in the same species 311E (PONTEPUI) õghā

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Appendix No. III Index of Jain Technical Terms
325 Cuat kāyātsarga
4 kşaya - Eradication of Meditation technique
karma attached to the soul prevalent in Jain tradition 414874 kşayopaśama - कार्मण वर्गणा kārmana
Eradication-cum-Mitigation vargaņā - Specific types of of karma paramāņu-units useful for Uriarto kharataragacchabondage of karma
A sub-sect. of Jain monks Cum kārmaņa sarira - datan khēlidyā - A Karmik body, cause of all
subdirection between south bodies
and south-west Chic kāla - Time
fra garimā -A labdhi i.e. Chicas kālacakra -
capacity of a man to make Time-cycle, contains 12
his body too much heavy epochs, 6 in utsarpiņi
que ganadhara - Prime (ascending part) and 6 in
disciple of Tirthankara avasarpiņi (desending part) m gangā - A river coming HIGIle kālõdadhi - A circular from east side of lake Padma ocean around the
situated on Mt. Himavat ciferoha kilikā - Fifth type of esta gardatoya - One kind
bone joint, pin betwen two of gods out of nine bones
Lākāntika gods Gutaci kurmõnnatā - Type of fut f4 garbhaja janma -
yoni i.e. female reproductive Sexual reproduction with organ
copulation of male and urefu krşņarāji - A black female portion under the fifth
Ta gõtra karma - A kind heaven named Brahma that of karma due to which one contains darkness
takes birth in lower cast or केवलज्ञान kévalajnana -
higher cast Omniscience
TEUTUTTI grahaņajāta - Fourth most kēvali - A person that
type of sound from four possesses omniscience
types of sound described in 54791-773-tet krõśa-gāu-kośa Jain scriptures
- An unit of length that is am 34 ghāti karma - The equal to 2000 dhanuşyas
karmas covering the main
properties of the soul like

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326
infinite-knowledge, etc. चउरिंदिय (चतुरिन्द्रिय) caurindiya (caturindriya) - Living beings having four sense organs - skin, tounge, nose and eyes afar cauvihāra - A vow of
not taking food, water etc. after sunset to sunrise a candrabha - A place of one kind of gods out of nine Lōkāntika gods at cāturmāsa - Four
months of rainy season
chadmastha - A living
being who has not attained omniscience, who is 'covered'
जघन्य अनंत अनंत jaghanya
ananta ananta - Third type of infinite from the nine types of infinite system जघन्य परित अनंत jaghanya
paritta ananta - First type of infinite from the nine types of infinite system जघन्य युक्त अनंत jaghanya yukta ananta - Second type of infinite from the nine types of infinite system जघन्य असंख्यात असंख्यात
jaghanya asankhyāta asankhyāta - Third type of innumerable from the nine
types of innumerable system जघन्य परित असंख्यात jaghanya

Scientific Secrets of Jainism
paritta asankhyāta - First type of innumerable from the nine types of innumerable system
जघन्य युक्त असंख्यात jaghanya yukta asankhyāta -
Second type of innumerable from the nine types of innumerable system जम्बूद्वीप jambudvipa A
-
continent in the central portion of Madhyalōka (Tircchālōka) having diameter 1,00,000 yōjanas GRR jarāyuja - Type of sexual reproduction with wrapper containing blood, born with placenta Gч jāpa Repetition of mantras
fa jiva A living being Gulfa za jyotiska dēva - A
divine body like sun, moon, planets and stars etc. Sun god, Moon god etc. ज्ञानावरणीय कर्म jñānāvaraniya
karma A karma that
covers the property of knowledge
-
तपागच्छ tapāgaccha A sub-sect. of Jain monks
tamaskāya - Black
substance in Kṛṣṇarāji under the fifth heaven named Brahma
fata tiryañca - Living beings

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327
Appendix No. III Index of Jain Technical Terms
other than man, divine and property of right faith hell beings
ç duhşama - The fifth Rafaet tivihāra - A vow of
epoch of avasarpiņi and taking only water during the second epoch of utsarpiņi, a whole night
period of privation siteter tirthankara - The दुःषम-दुःषम 'conqueror' of rāga and
duḥsama-duḥsama - The dvēsa
last epoch of avasarpiņi and तीर्थकर नामकर्म tirthankara
the first epoch of utsarpiņi, a nāmakarma - A type of period of extreme privation karma necessary for a
ç: 94-8744 duḥsama-susama - Tirthankara
The fourth epoch of itsfase tēindriya - Living
avasarpiņi and the third beings having three sense epoch of utsarpiņi, a period organs skin, tounge and
of privation and plenty nose
dan dikşā - Initiation OCHTUT - gurraferas tēukāya - da dēva - Divine beings, gods taijaskāyika - Fire bodied dagfa dēvaparigha - Name living beings
of seventh Krsnarāji out of तैजस वर्गणा taijas vargana - eight Krsnarājis
Specific types of paramāņu देवपरिघोक्षोभ units useful for vital body or dēvaparighökşõbha bio-electromagnetic field
Name of eighth Krsnarāji out gry taijas sarira - The of eight Krsnarājis vital body a cause of
di dēvi - Divne beings bio-electrornagnetic
godesses energy/field
hai dēšanā - Sermon of 126727 trasakāya - Animal
Tirthankara kingdom (moving animals) द्वादशाङ्गी dvādasangi . Forget tripadi - A trio of
Twelve sacred Jain canonical sentences told by
treatises Tirthankara to the prime
pse duindriya - Living disciples
beings having two sense दर्शनावरणीय कर्म
organs skin and tounge darśanāvaraņiya karma (EraffPETCATI) - A karma that covers the
dharma(dharmāstikāya)

www.

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328
- A medium for motion E dharma - 1. Spirituality 2.
Philosophical tradition ETV dhanuşya - Unit of length
equal to 4 hātha or 6 feet Ecus dhātakikhaņda -A
circular continent around the
ocean Lavanasamudra &- dhyāna - Meditation नमस्कार महामंत्र (नवकार)
namaskāra mahāmantra (navakāra) - A main mantra of Jainism 7a naya - A philosophical view
point, A partial view Taoisit navakārasi - A vow
of taking food and water after
48 minutes of sunrise 775nāmakarma -A type of
karma due to which soul obtains body etc.
nāraka - 1. Hell 2. Hell beings tra nārāca - Third type of
bone joint, interlocking of
bones on both sides Arts nigoda - Sūkşma
Sādhāraņa Vanaspatikāya
that contains infinite souls निर्विकृतिक nirvikrtika -
Non-infatuating food, The food items that do not defile the soul, made from six vigai(viksti)s that defile the soul like Ghee, Milk, Curd,
Scientific Secrets of Jainism Jaggery, Oil and sweets Araucht niscayakāla - A real
time, - A type of time - that becomes cause of the change in the condition of material objects according to
omniscience निश्चयनय niscayanaya -
Absolute view-point Aqe nişadha - A name of
mountain in Jambūdvipa fifa nivi - A vow of taking
nirvikstika food only once a day, that do not defile the
mind परकायशस्त्र parakayasastra
- Any opposite substance that renders living organism dead 741° paramāņu - The
smallest indivisible particle of matter pa paratva - Farness
regading to time or space
(place) que parigraha - 1. Hoarding
of worldy things 2.Attachment to worldy
things, possession offunta pariņāma - 1. Feelings
2. change, transformation परियाधर्मा pariyādharmā - A
sub direction between west
and north-west directions fac parişaha - Inconvenient
conditions like hunger, thirst,

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Appendix No. III Index of Jain Technical Terms
cold, heat etc. that are 22 in number
qan paryavajāta - Second type of sound from four types of sound qufen paryāptā - A living being which has sufficient abilities to live
qata paryaya - A micro or macro transformation in a
substance
ч
paryuṣaṇā - A group of eight days from śrāvana vada-12 to bhādaravā suda
4
qdfafa parvatithi - Main days like 2nd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th and 15th in each half of
Indian month
pala - Ancient unit of weight
чч palyōpama - 1. The unit of time which contains uncountable years, 2. 'Pit measured' period पश्चानुपूर्वी paścānupurvi
Reverse order
of pañcendriya - Living being having five sense organs skin, tounge, nose, eyes and ears a pudgala - Matter पुष्करवर द्वीप puskaravara
dvipa - A circular continent around the ocean Kālōdadhi qd pūrva - Unit of time equal

to 70,56,000,00,00,000 years
чd pūrva - The 14 sacred canonical treatises of Jainism also known as 12th anga, Dṛṣṭivāda
329
पूर्वानुपूर्वी pūrvānupūrviRegular sequence
qera prthakatva - Any number from two to nine numbers
पृथिवीकाय - पृथ्वीकाय pṛthivikaya-pṛthvikaya - Earth-bodied living beings
potaja - Type of sexual
reproduction, without
wrapper vertebrates without placenta
-
प्रक्षेपाहार praksēpāhāra A food taking through the hole or with injection
प्रज्ञवृत्ति ( प्राज्ञवृत्ति)
prajñavṛtti(prājñavṛtti) -
A sub direction between north and north-east directions
5ч prajñāpaka - A person who is telling
प्रतिक्रमण pratikramanaRetreat from sin
प्रत्याख्यान pratyākhyāna A vow of abstaining from certain things for a certain period
प्रत्येक वनस्पतिकाय pratyeka vanaspatikāya - Having

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330
single soul in a single body of plant like seed, leaf, root,
flower etc. da pradēśa - 1. A single paramāņu 2. A point of space for only single
paramāņu, Space unit quia prabhankara - A place
of one kind of gods/divine bodies out of nine Lökāntika
gods 991 prabhā - Irregular spread,
reflection etc. of light प्रमोद भावना pramoda
bhāvanā - To rejoice in geen pravrajyā - Initiation u praśasta - Good, of
good quality UTTRI prākāmya - A 'labdhi'
(potentiality) through which one can walk on water or enter in earth as if it was a
water gift prāpti - A 'labdhi'
(potentiality) through which one can touch the top of Mt. Mēru from the surface of the
earth ara prāsuka - Nonliving i.e.
soul-less food etc. atge(atre) bādara(bāyara) -
Gross faretu biyāsaņa - A vow of
taking food twice a day atsisa bēindriya - Living
being having two sense
Scientific Secrets of Jainism organs skin and tounge ब्रह्म देवलोक brahma divalika
- A name of the fifth heaven HECT ta bharata kşētra - A
section of Jainbūdvipa H9 bhava - 1. Birth, 2. The
world 1979 fa bhavanapati - A type
of divine bodies i. e. gods
and godesses Harefa bhavasthiti - Time
spent in the same body, i.e.
life-span HTHCA bhāmaņdala - A divine
circular light behind the head
of Tirthankara, aura Hra bhāva - 1. Feelings,
2. Thoughts 17971 bhāvanā. To ponder, To
think again and again over
same truth भाषावर्गणा bhāsāvargana -
Specific type of paramāņu units useful for speech or
sounds HQ/T114 bhāşyajāpa -
Repetition of mantras with a
loud pronounciation भुजःपरिसर्प bhujahparisarpa -
Reptiles भोगोपभोग विरमण व्रत
bhõgõpabhāga viramaņa vrata - A 7th vow of laypersons in which person puts limit on use of worldy things

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Appendix No. III Index of Jain Technical Terms
331 HET maghā - A name of
types of innumerable system Nāraki or Narakāvāsa or HERTSITCH(forefatas) third Krsnarāji out of eight madhyalūka(tircchālāka) Krşņarājis
- Central part of the universe मतिज्ञानावरणीय कर्म
मनोवर्गणा manövarganā -A matijñānāvaraņiya
type of paramāņu units karma - A type of karma useful in thought process for covering the empirical Hocat markațabandha - knowledge
Interlockiing between two
bones मध्यम अनंत अनंत madhyama मरुत् marut - One kind of gods
ananta ananta - The sixth out of nine Lõkāntika gods infinite from the nine types of Halfariş mahāvigai - A infinite system
substance having high मध्यम परित्त अनंत madhyama potentiality to defile the soul,
paritta ananta - The fourth Highly seasoned or infinite from the nine types of infatuating food items infinite system
HET 4917 mahāhimavān - A FEZTA T Shia madhyama
name of mountain in yukta ananta - The fifth
Jambūdvipa infinite from the nine types of hi mahimā - A 'labdhi' out infinite system
of eight labdhis to make मध्यम असंख्यात असंख्यात
one's body as big as one madhyama asankhyāta wishes asankhyāta - The sixth heart māghavati - A name of innumerable from the nine
Nāraki or Narakāvāsa or types of innumerable system third Krsnarāji out of eight मध्यम परित्त असंख्यात
Krsnarājis madhyama paritta माथुरी वाचना māthuri vācanā . asankhyāta - The fourth
Text of Jain canonical innumerable from the nine
scriptures, decided in a types of innumerable system conference of learned Jain मध्यम युक्त असंख्यात
monks hold in Mathurā madhyama yukta
HIES(HES) asankhyāta - The fifth
māhēndra(mahēndra) - A innumerable from the nine name of fourth heaven

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332 jaufe mumhapatti - A mouth
cloth TET muhūrtta - 48 minutes horrifor mēgharāji - 1. A name
of Nāraki 2. Second Krsnarāji out of eight Krşņarājis 5 mēru - Central mountain in
Jambūdvipa Ha mākṣa - Emancipation मोहनीय कर्म mohaniya karma
- Infatuating karma मौन(मानस) जाप
mauna(mānasa) jāpa - Repetition of mantras without
even a little noise USHTRUT) yatanā(jayaņā)
- Doing every thing with care that any living being should
not hurt through the action yhi yõgi - A saint el yöni - 1. Types of birth
places 2: Female
reproductive organ Pracht raktavati - A name of
river of Airavata in
Jambūdvipa Pihi raktā - A name of river of
Airavata in Jambūdvipa Pula Puc) rajju(rājalūka)
- 14th part of height of universe according to
Jainism Myhi ratnaprabhā - The
name of the first hell prich ramyak - A section of
Scientific Secrets of Jainism Jambūdvipa fe rişta - One kind of
gods/divine bodies out of
nine Lõkāntika gods of rukmi - A name of
mountain in Jambūdvipa 5665 yagt rucaka pradēśa - 1.
Eight space points located in the centre of the universe 2. Eight most micro-units of soul that are totally free from
karma afegi laghimā - A 'labdhi'
potentiality to make body too
much lighter Afshar laghuhimavān - A
name of mountain in
Jambūdvipa af labdhi - An extrasensory
power, Miraculous power Ou mus lavaņa samudra - The ocean around the
Jambūdvipa la lõka - The Universe
191 lõkākāśa - Universal space, Cosmic space ther lõmāhāra - Food taken
through hairs and skin वज्रऋषभनाराच
vajrarṣabhanārāca - First type of bone joint, interlocking the bones on both sides,streghtened with
plate and pin वनस्पतिकाय vanaspatikāya .
Plant kingdom

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Appendix No. III Index of Jain Technical Terms
333 arfoi vargaņā - Types of
type of gods & goddesses aggregate of paramāņu q1h váma - Ancient unit of qutarat varņamātrkā - A
weight Sanskrit alphabet
area vāsakņēpa - Powder of asti vartanā - Change in
sandal wood used as a positions or conditions of
medium for blessings or material objects, Becoming worship वलभी वाचना valabhi vacanā - arrada vāsudēva - Semi Text of Jain canonical
supreme lord scriptures, decided in a
fairs(fafa) vigai(viksti) - The conference of learned Jain
foods that defile the mind monks hold in Valabhipura facra vijaya -A parts of in 454 A.D.
Mahāvidēha वसति(उपाश्रय)
fags vidala - Mixing of dry or vasati(upāśraya) - A place fresh dicotyledon vegetables where Jain monks and nuns with unboiled milk or curds stay
faenter vidyādhara - A afgica vasitva - A 'labdhi' out branch of ancient Jain of eight 'labdhis' through
monks which one can have control fau viskambha - Diameter on others
of a circle 0311931 vamśipatrā - Type of fart vihāra - Wandering of
yoni, Female reproductive Jain monks & nuns on foot organ
वीतराग देव vitarāga deva - 13chta vāukāya - Wind
The 'conqueror' of rāga and bodied living beings
dvēșa 2. Prophet of Janism वातपरिघोक्षोभ
ac vēda - A will for copulation, vātaparighökşõbha - A
sex instict name of sixth Krsnarāji out of a vēdaniya karma of eight Krsnarājis
-A type of karma that gives a fsta vātapaligha - A
happiness or unhappiness to name of fifth Krsnarāji out of soul eight Krsnarājis
after a fer vaikriya labdhi - ats vāda - A law, (A limit),
A 'labdhi' potentiality to Restrictions
make desired type of body JJUTQiar vāņavyantara - A fonet gufuli vaikriya vargaņā

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334
- Specific type of paramāņu-units for the desire-body and the body of
divine & hell beings arby te vaikriya sarira -
A desire-body aan vairõcana- A place of
one kind of gods out of nine
Lõkāntika gods ACCU vaitāð hya - A mountain
dividing the Bharata kşētra into two sections 125 vaimānika - A type of
gods & goddesses ale vyantara - A type of
gods & goddesses 21967 Tilaa vyavahāra kāla -
A type of time used in our
daily life व्यवहार नय vyavahāra naya .
Relative or practical view
point PTSTC5 śataka - A part of a
chapter of Bhagavatisūtra piutgh samakhāvarta - Type
of yoni, A female
reproductive organ MAT(af)śāśvata(ti) - 1.
Eternal 2. immortal forest śikhari - The name of
mountain in Jambūdvipa शीर्षप्रहेलिका sirsaprahelika -
Heighest numerical value mantioned in Jain scripture
having 250 or 194 digits [357H śukrābha - A place of
Scientific Secrets of Jainism one kind of gods out of nine
Lokāntika gods शुभकर्म Subhakarma .
Auspicious karma FITH śyāmā - A sub-direction
between north-east and east श्रावक-श्राविका
śrāvaka-śrāvikā - A layman & laywoman of
Jainism STARTSEI śrutaskandha - A
volume of Jain canonical
treatises श्वासोच्छवास वर्गणा
śvāsõcchvāsa vargaņā - Specific type of paramāņu-units useful for
respiraton of all living beings mfaa sacitta - Living i.e.
having life 15AT sanatkumāra - A
name of third heaven 44 samaya - The most
micro-unit of time That samayakņētra - A
circular field having the dimeter 45,00,000 yojanas where there is time like day &
night 4449ETTU samavasaraņa - A
special assembly for sermon
of Tirthankara सम्मूर्छिम जन्म sammurcchima
janma - Asexual
reproduction WRICT samyaktva - A faith on

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Appendix No. III Index of Jain Technical Terms Jainism and Tirthankara,
Enlightened true belief, Trust in Dharma
Ads sarvajña- Omniscient sarvadarsi - Omniseer • सर्वार्थसिद्ध sarvārthasiddha - A place of supreme gods in heaven
संक्रमणकरण
sankramaṇakarana - A process by which karmik paramāņus interchange
संख्यात sankhyāta - 1.
Numbers 2. That can be expressed in number or in mathematical equation vis sañjñā - 1. Insticts 2. Knowledge, rationality, recognition
is sañjni A living being having intelligence or
sensorium i.e. mind
संघयण sanghayana A
bone-joint
HR samsara - Birth-death
cycle
सहस्रार चक्र sahasrāra cakra - A centre for meditation on the head
सागरोपम sāgarāpama - The
largest unit of time that
15
contains 10 palyōpamas, Ocean measured period साधारण वनस्पतिकाय sādhārana vanaspatikaya - Having
infinite souls in a single body

335
or cell of a plant
E sadhu -A Jain saint sadhvi - A Jain nun sāmāyika - Exercise
for meditation for 48 minutes HRA sārasvata - One kind of gods out of nine Lōkantika gods
fa săvitri - A sub-direction between north and
north-west
f sindhu - A name of river सुप्रतिष्ठाभ supratisthābha - A
place of one kind of gods out of nine Lōkāntika gods
SUSAMA - Second epoch of avasarpini and fifth epoch of utsarpiņi, Time period of planty
सुषम- दुःषम susama-duhsamaThird epoch of avasarpini and fourth epoch of utsarpiņi, Time period of planty with privation
सुषम- सुषम susama-susama - First epoch of avasarpini and last epoch of utsarpini, Time period of supreme planty
(E) sūkṣma(suhuma) - Micro, Subtle
suryabha - A place of one kind of gods out of nine Lōkäntika gods
Har sēvārta The sixth type of bone joint in which bones

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336
touche only The skandha - Aggregate of
paramāņus, clusters of
matter Fifa (Fitat) stuti(stötra) - A
hymn Boite striratna - Chief queen
of Cakravarti REITGTC syādvāda - The theory
of seven folded logical prediction assimilating
dissimilar viewpoints Pepenterne svakāyasastra -A
similar substance that
renders living beings dead स्वदारासंतोष विरमण व्रत
Scientific Secrets of Jainism svadārāsantosa viramaņa vrata - A Vow of abstention from sexual activity with a woman other
than one's own wife KATETIT svādhyāya - To study frad harivarşa - A part of
Jambūdvipa te hātha - Unit of length eqal
to 1.5 foot PHF) himavanta - A part of
Jambūdvipa PHOTa himavān - A mountain
in Jambūdvipa हैरण्यवत् hairanyavat A part of
Jambūdvipa

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337 Bibliography Index of Reference Books
(Sanskrit-Prākrta-Hindi-Gujarāti) Abhidhānacintāmaņi - Śri Hēmacandrācāryaji Abhidhānarājēndra - Śri Rājēndrasuriji Abhiyāna 6 April, 1992 Acintya Cintāmaņi Bhagavati Padmavati (Edi. Nandalāla Dēvaluka, Publi.
Arihanta Prakāśana, Bhavanagar) Ajitaśāntistõtra - Muni Nandişēna Amarabhārati - March-April, 1985 Amarakāşa - Amarasimhaji Anuyōgadvārasūtra - Śri Sudharmāsvāmiji Aştakaprakaraņa - Śri Haribhadrasūriji Aticārasūtra Ācārānganiryukti - Śri Bhadrabāhusvāmiji Ācārārgasūtra - Śri Sudharmāsvāmiji, Commentator - Śri silānkācāryaji Anandasundara (Dasaśrāvakacaritra) - Manuscript - śri Sarvavijaya Gani Avaśyakasūtra - Niryukti - Śri Bhadrabāhusvāmiji Āvaśyakasūtra - Commentary by - Śri Malayagiriji Brhatsangrahanisūtra - Śri Jinabhadra Gani Bhini Kșanono Vaibhava By Pa. Pū. Pam śri silacandravijayaji Mahārāja,
Publi, Bhadrankarõdaya Śiksana Trasta, Gödharā Bhagavadgitā Bhagavat isutra(Vyākhyāprajñapti/Viyahapannatti/Vivāhapannatti) - Śri
Sudharmāsvāmiji, Commentator - Śri Abhayadēvasūriji Bhaktāmarakalpa (Yantra-Mahāpūjana) Cārēbāju (Pākṣika) - April 15, 1994 Côka Anē Dastara Dr P. C. Vaidya Publi. Suganitam Trasta, Ahmedabad,
1993 Cosatha Prakāri Pūjā By Śri Viravijayaji Mahārāja Daśavaikālikasūtra - Śri sayyambhavasūriji - Hāribhadriyavrtti Dharmasangraha . Upā. Śri Mānavijayaji Dhvani Jagat Dr V. B. Gõhēla, Uni. Grantha Nirmāņa Board, Ahmedabad Dravyasangraha - Digambarācārya Śri Nēmicandraji Dvipasāgaraprajñapti - Śri Sudharmāsvāmiji Gāndharvavēda Ganaharasaddhasayaga (Ganadharasārddha ataka) - Śri Jinadattasūriji.
Commentator - Śri Sumati Gani

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism Grahaśāntistötra - Śri Bhadrabāhusvāmiji Gujarāta Samācāra Dt. 13 Octo. 1993 Ravipūrti Gujarāta Samācāra Dt. 15 July 1993 Gujarāta Samācāra Dt. 17 Feb. 1993 Guru Gautamasvāmi By Śri Ratilāla Dipacanda Dēsāi Hrinkārakalpa - Edit. Pt. Dhirajalāla Tōkarasi Shah, Mumbai Išāvāsyöpanişad Jaina Sāhityano Sankşipta Itihāsa, By. M. D. Dēsāi Jainadarśana : Vaijñānika Drsțiē By Munisri Nandighõşavijayaji Publi. Śri
Mahāvira Jaina Vidyālaya, Mumbai 1995 Jambūdvipalaghusangrahani - śri Haribhadrasūriji, Commentator - Śri
Vijayodayasūriji Janmabhūmi-Pravāsi, Ravivāra, Sāptānikapūrti, Dt. 1-1-1984 Jayahinda, Ravivāra Sāptānikapurti, Dt. 9-5-1993 Jina Sangita Saritā By Munisri Dakşavijayaji Mahārāja, Intro.-Prof.
Lakşmicandra Mõhanalāła Shah Jivābhigamasutra - Śri Sudharmāsvāmiji Jivavicāra - Śri śāntisūriji Jyotişkarandaka Kālasaptikā Prakarana - Śri Dharmaghoșasūriji Kalpasūtra-śri Bhadrabhāhusvāmiji, Subõdhikātikā - Upā.Śri Vinayavijayaji Kalyānamandirastõtra / Kalpa. (Mahāprabhāvika Navasmarana - Publi..
Sārābhāi Navāba, Ahmedabad) Ksētrasamāsa (Bịhat ) - Śri Jinabhadra Gani Kșētrasamāsa (Laghu ) - Śri Ratnaśēkharasūriji Karmagrantha - Fifth - Śri Dāvēndrasūriji Karmagrantha - First - Śri Dēvēndrasūriji Karmagrantha - Fourth - Śri Dēvēndrasūriji Karmaprakrti (Kammapayadi) - śri sivaśarmasūriji, Commentary by
Upādhyāya Śri Yaśāvijayaji Lõgassa Svādhyāya (Kalpa) - (Publi. Sāhityavikāsa Mandala, Andheri,
Mumbai) Lokaprakāśa - Upā. Śri Vinayavijayaji Mahānisithasūtra - Śri Sudharmāsvāmiji Mantra-Tantra-Yantra Mahāsamuccaya - Publi. Gajānana Pustakālaya, Surat Mantravidyā(Yantravidyā) - Śri Karanidāna Sēniyā, Calcutta Manusmrti Namaskāra Svādhyāya/Mahāmantra Kalpa - (Publi. Sānityavikāsa Mandala,

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Sāhityavikāsa Mandala, Andheri, Mumbai) Sūryaprajñaptisūtra - Śri Sudharmāsvāmiji Sēnapraśna Sangitasvarāmrta Sakalārhat Stõtra - Śri Hēmacandrācāryaji Sandēša (Daily) - Dt. 8 July, 1989 Sandēša (Sāptāhika Pūrti) - Dt. 7 July, 1996 Sandēhadālāvali Prakarana - Śri Jinadattasūriji, Commentator -
Vācanācārya Śri Prabodhacandra Gani Santhārāpõrisisūtra Santikaram Stotra/Kalpa - (Mahāprabhāvika Navasmarana - Publi. Sārābhāi
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Ahmedabad Tattvārthasūtra - Vācaka Umāsvātiji, Commentator - Śri Siddhasēna Gani Tijayapahuttakalpal Stõtra (Mah prabhāvika Navasmarana - Publi. Sārābhāi
Navāba, Ahmedabad) Tirthankara - May, 1987 (Hindi Monthly) Tirthankara - Sept., 1989 (Hindi Monthly) Trilokasāra (Digambariyagrantha) Trişașiśalākāpuruşacaritra - Śri Hēmacandrācāryaji Thāṇāngasūtra (Sthānāngasūtra) - Śri Sudharmāsvāriji Uttaradhyayanasūtra - Śri Sudharmāsvāmiji, commentator - Śri
Bhāvavijayaji Uvasaggaharam Kalpa - (Mahāprabhāvika Navasmarana - Publi.. Sārābhāi
Navāba, Ahemedabad) Vitarāgastötra - Śri Hēmacandrācāryaji Vēdaniya Karma Nivāraṇa Pūjā By śri Viravijayaji Mahārāja Vaisvika Cētanā (Coscon) By Lieut. Col. C. C.Baksi, Praviņa Prakāśana,
Rajkot, 1995 Vardhamānavidyākalpa Vasudēva Hindi - Śri Sanghadāsa Gani Viśvaprahēlikā - Muni Mahēndrakumāra 'Dvit iya' (Jhavēri Prakāśana,
Mātungā, Mumbai) Vicāraratnākara - Upā. Śri Kirtivijayaji Vijñāna Anē Adhyātma Muniśri Amarēndravijayaji Mahārāja
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Muni in pursuit of science through
Jain treatise RANDOM NOTES
By Tushar Bhatt (Senior Editor, The Times of India,
Ahmedabad Edition)
In the spacious first floor hall at the Ambawadi Jain Upashraya, silence ruled, A few monks here and there, disciples of Acharya Suryodayasuriji, were seated on the floor, in front of small, reclining writing desks. There were only a couple of devotees around, whispering in order not to jar the peace. Outside, there was a steady drizzle and the aftemoon was dragging on at a drowsy pace, as if reluctant to make way for the evening. The monks seemed totally obvious to the somnolence that the weather was casting on worldly mortals.
Dressed in the mandatory white cloth of a Jain monk, Muni Nandighoshvijayji was absorbed in writing. Several ruled, foolscap pages, filled with neat handwriting lay around. Next to him stood a rack filled with books for reference.
He was making notes on a subject that many might think unlikely topics to preoccupy celestial mind of monks: mathematics and purer physics, Einstein's theories, quantumn leap. This in addition to the routine chores of a monk.
If Tao of Physics can be acceptable, it is, perhaps, perfectly in order for a monk to undertake a reverse examination of science. Leaming has been a time-honoured tradition among the Jain monks, as would be testified by the works done over centuries. Even today, new entrants to the order under any Acharya spend years, Sanskrit, Prakrit and Agams and other literature. Acharya Suryodayasuriji himself has done a lot of work in researching and writing in these areas.
But 42-year- Nandighoshvijayji has charted alınost a new course for nearly a decade-and-a-half now, exploring pure science and examining its compatibility with what has been observed, and remained buried to the cominon eye, in the Jain scriptures.
The Muni, with a frail body, topped by a head with receding hairline, face covered deliberately uncared for beard that sprouts inany grey strands, has a winsoine smile, sparkling eyes and a scientific teinper. He triggered a debate on

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Scientific Secrets of Jainism serious and profound topics in mathematics and physics by delving in to Jain Agamshastras and examining the modem theories vis-a-vis them, and brought out a book, Jainism: Through Science both in English and Gujarati, containing articles on what he has studied, observed and compared between ancient writings and the modern thought in these complex areas.
Nandighoshvijay, who received vows 23 years ago, was known as Nirmalkumar Nagindas Shah in his previous identity, and was keen student of science and mathematics. After eight years of his monkhood mastering Sanskrit and Prakrit to be able to study the scriptures, he took to empirical examination of the scientific concepts has expounded in the Jain scriptures and the modern day scientific thoughts.
The scriptures, he said, were 2500 years old, and were preserved in oral traditions for a thousand years before being put on palm leaves.
He does not find anything odd in what he is doing. He is not a dogmatic person, out to prove something with a fanatic finality; he has triggered a rational debate.
His articles in the book discuss a host of intricate issues such as concept of time and its units, origin and development of the universe, Darwin's theory of evolution, units of time and their relativity, the atomic theory of construction of material objects and energy, the corpuscular theory and the wave theory of light.
The basic scientific introduction to each topic has been followed up with a detailed discussion according to the Jain philosophical tradition. Dr P. C. Vaidya, a mathematics don of renown, has noted that "after awakening interest in both traditions, the Muni attempt to compare them."
Dr Vaidya went on the observe " The results of the comparison of these different traditions will hardly be acceptable to all. Muni Nandighoshvijayji, who makes the comparison is proficient in the reflective philosophical tradition. If the reader, like me, is a lover of empirical tradition, may not fully accept the conclusions, but that does not at all diminish the important of these writings."
What Muni Nandighoshvijayji has done is to set out various themes that indicate that Jain concept of science accord well with the modem science. The Jain concept of science is qualitative as expounded by tirthankaras while modem science is very much quantitative, as has been noted by Prof. Kanti V. Mardia, who holds the chair in Applied Statistics and is director of Centre of Medical Imaging Research at the University of Leeds in England.

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345 Normally, philosophy and religion on one hand, and science, on the others, belong to different fields since philosophy is based on thinking and reflection and science on experience. But Albert Einstein himself noted in 1940 that both sides were not totally incompatible.
Einstein wrote in an article, Science & Religion, in Nature magazine 57 years ago that Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind. Science is the attempt at the posterior reconstruction of existence by the process of conceptualisation.
The task is ambitious. For instance, an article in the book, on some shortcomings of the theory of special relativity according to Jainology, the Muni has made an attempt to point up drawbacks in Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity (STR) by putting forth arguments derived from the interpretation of Jain philosophy, with support from the hypothesis on the existence of "tachyon" which are currently postulated to have a velocity higher than light.
Einstein's theory being challenged by many scientists too, but, as Mr. P. Tewari, an officer of the Atomic Energy Comınission's Nuclear Power Board, has noted the reasons for the refutation by others were more profound and subtler than what was put forth in the Muni's paper,
Nandighoshvijayji hinself says that "Since I am Jain Muni, there are many limitations regarding practical work, I have not tested the scientific) principles in Jain Philosophical treatises, practically. I arrived at the conclusions on the basis of natural phenomena and social experience...... The research paper are only theoretical."
Nevertheless, he thinks that since many scientific principles lay hidden in ancient Jain treatises, it is very necessary to represent these in the modem world.
Acknowledging that this was too tall an order for a single individual, he fells that science has not discovered the complete truth yet. Eventually, in pure sciences such as inathematics, conceptualisation played an important role.
The immediately perceptible merits or otherwise apart, Muni Nandighoshvijay appears to be set on a life-time course of comparative studies of scripture and science, What he inscribed on a copy of his book summed up his inotto: " Knowing is not enough, we must apply. Willing is not enough, we must do."
(The Times of India, Ahmedabad, Saturday, August, 2, 1999)
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Scientific Secrets of Jainism
If the reader like me, is a lover of the empirical tradition, he may not fully accept the conclusion of the comparison made by the author. But that does not at all diminish the importance of these articles
Dr P. C. Vaidya (A great mathematician of India) The presentation of the papers by Jain Muni Nandighoshvijay is lucid and quite impressive. Some of the concepts mentioned in the papers need a very serious explanation in order to dwell deeper into the mysterious working of nature.
Prof. H. F. Shah, (Head, Deptt. of Physics, St. Xavier's College, Ahmedabad) I went through the manuscript and found the theories very interesting. I would like to convey my best wishes in your endeavour.
Dr Satya Prakash (Emeritus Prof., PRL, Ahmedabad) In the age of wide-spread scientific progress religion should be taught through the language of science and by relating it to interesting topics selected froin various branches of science Muni Shri Nandighoshvijayji is wonderfully doing just the job. Dr Pradip K. Shah M.D., (487, Jeremy, Bour Bonnias. ILL 60914. USA) I think that you have brought out the concept of the Einstein's theory extremely well. I agree with the conclusion arrived at by you in your initial review. I am very much glad and delighted to leam that though you are a worshipable Jain Swami, you have got great interest in the scientific advanced subjects like special theory of relativity, quantum mechanics and black holes etc, and even you are engaged in research in these highly scientific subjects. It is a great pride for India and for Jainism. I congratulate you for being a part of this big mission,
Dr Shamtilal M Shah, (Retd. Scientist, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Bombay) In my opinion, It is a noble task to 'relate' the concept of modem science to Jain thoughts and vice-versa. I congratulate you for this important and timely contribution and in particular 1 whole heartedly recommend the book to the scientific community, Jains and non-Jains alike.
Prof. K. V. Mardia, Ph.D. (Raj.) Ph.D, (N'cle), University of Leeds, LEEDS, U.K.

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There is one school of thought in India which argues that whatever western science is discovering today was already known to the eastern thinkers long ago. The attitude in this book is not of this kind. Instead the author has argued that Jain thinking has been more mature, more comprehensive and more satisfying than what science has to offer. Jayant Narlikar Director & Homi Bhabha Professor, IUCAA, PUNE-411007 (India) The present book written by Munishri Nandighoshvijayji is an attempt to bridge the gap between Jain school of thought and modern science. The book covers a wide variety of topics. In the beginning it takes up topics such as Special Theory of Relativity, Nature of Light, Doppler Effect, Black Holes etc., many of which form the foundations of modern physics and are deeply entrenched into current scientific thought. The problem whether light is a wave or a particle has been a fundamental problem of the 19th century physics. There is no such conflict with the Jain Philosophy since Anekantavada is one of the basic premise on which Jain thought has developed. It is impressive to see that a variety of topics, as diverse as the origin of life to cosmic time cycles were discussed in the ancient scriptures. The topics dealing with mantra, yantra, japa, colour and music point out their importance in Jain philosophy and spiritual practices. The bio-electromagnetic energy or extrasensory perception are the topics which are only lately being investigated scientifically. Dr Narendra Bhandari (Ph.D., F.A.Sc., F.N.A.Sc.) Senior Prof. & Chairman, Earth Science & Solar System, PRL, Ahmedabad-380009, (India) But the 42 year Nandighoshvijayji has charted almost a new course for nearly a decade-and-a half now, exploring pure science and examining its compatibility with what has been observed, and remained buried to the common eye, in the Jain scriptures. The scriptures, he said, were 2500 years old and were preserved in oral traditions for a thousand years before being put on palm leaves. He does not find anything odd in what he is doing. He is not a dogmatic person out to prove something with a fanatic finality, he has triggered a rational debate. Tushar Bhatt Senior Editor The Times of India, Ahmedabad, (India) ersonel