Aspects of Jaina Monasticism

Author(s): Nathmal Tatia, Mahendramuni
Publisher: Jain Vishva Bharati
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001332/1

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Booba Aspects of Jaina Monasticism MUNI WANENDRA KUMTARI DR. NATHMAL TATIA MUNI MAHENDRA KUMAR (Bombay)

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Aspects of Jaina Monasticism By Dr. Nathmal Tatia & Muni Mahendra Kumar (Bombay) June 1981. 23 cm. 150 pages Rs. 65,00 $ 14.00 tentative The publication of this book is a prelude to the Encyclopaedia of Jainism that the Jain Vishva Bharti is going to publish shortly. The treatment is historical and comparative throughout, giving, at the same time, a comprehensive and critical view of the topics selected for exposition. Really speaking the book contains rare and valuable information regarding the monastic order of the Jainas and its value is all the more enhanced when one finds oneself able to appreciate it among other systems of monastic order. The learned writers of this book have made a detailed and comparative survey of the field of study covered by the topics. OIB T.T.P.P. 95.0 Jain Education

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ASPECTS of JAINA MONASTICISM DR NATHMAL TATIA MUNI MAHENDRA KUMAR (Bombay) Published Under the Auspices of JAIN VISHVA BHARATI, LADNUN-341306, RAJASTHAN, INDIA om Today & Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers

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COPYRIGHTS (c) JAIN VISHVA BHARATI, LADNUN (RAJASTHAN), INDIA First Published, 1981 Rs. 65.00 US $ 14.00 Composed by: B.N. Printers 4240, Budh Nagar, Rampura, Delhi-110035 Printed at : Regent Printers & Packers, 69, Moti Nagar, New Delhi-110015 Published under the auspices of Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, Rajasthan (India) by Shri R.K. Jain : Today & Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers 24-B/5, Desh Bandhu Gupta Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi-110005

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ajJAnatimirAndhAnAM jJAnAJjanazalAkayA / cakSurunmIlitaM yena tasmai zrIgurave namaH // Agamapurisasseva tulasIgurusatNo / pasAeNa viNimmittA satthameyaM samappiyaM // 1 // tassa jugappahANassa tasseva jA dayAkiI / dhI tagguNamuddhA saddhA viNaNa ya ||2 // java vijaya tithaM siribhikkhugaNesiNo / tAvamesA marAlIva kIlejjA kaimANase || 3 || AgamapuruSasyaiva zAstuH zrItulasIguro: / prasAdena vinirmAya zAstrametatsamarpitam / / 1 // tasmai yugapradhAnAya tasyaiva yA dayAkRtiH / zraddhayA vinayenApi dhiyA tadguNamugdhayA // 2 // yAvadvijayate tIrthaM zrImadbhakSugaNezituH / tAvadeSA marAlIva krIDatu kRtimAnase ||3||

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To Yugapradhana Acarya-Sri-Tulasi, the scripture incarnate, this work, the creation of his own grace, is most respectfully dedicated in humility, and in appreciation of his great virtues. May this work delight the learned all through the dispensation of Acarya Bhiksu !

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PUBLISHERS' NOTE sub The contents of the present book have been primarily written for the Encyclopaedia of Jainism that the Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan), is going to publish. The project of the publication of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism is, of course, vast and needs collaboration of the scholars from various branches of learning. Hence it is felt necessary that the contents of the present book may be placed before as many scholars as possible for suggestion and cooperation. To achieve this objective the publication of the matter in a book-form has been considered desirable. Really speaking the book contains rare and valuable information regarding the monastic order of the Jainas, and its value is all the more enhanced when one finds oneself able to appreciate it among other systems of monastic order. The learned writers of this book have made a detailed and comparative survey of the field of study covered by the topics. It is hoped that the readers of the book will feel enlightened by acquainting themselves with the facts contained in the book. I feel highly elated to extend my heartfelt thanks to Dr Nathmal Tatia and Muni Mahendra Kumar for their hard work which is evinced in every line of the work they have done. My thanks are also due to the Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan), which has been devotedly designing such projects under the holy inspiration emanating from Acarya Sri Tulasi for entrusting the publication work to us. May, 15TH, 1981 R.K. JAIN

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PREFACE The publication of this small book is a prelude to the Encyclopaedia of Jainism that the Jain Vishva Bharati is going to publish shortly. It is intended to give an idea of the style of presentation of the subject to be treated of in the Encyclopaedia. The treatment would be historical and comparative throughout, giving, at the same time, a compehensive and critical view of the topic selected for exposition. The chapters of the present book are thus only a part of the article to be written for the Encyclopaedia under the main entry acara that would describe in detail the nature and principles governing the monastic and the lay orders of the Jainas. We give below an outline of the plan of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism for the consideration of our readers, inviting suggestions from them for the improvement of the plan as well as the style of treatment and presentation of the subject matter. A Brief Sketch of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism 1. Critical studies of the different aspects of Jainism and its contribution to the different branches of Indian thought and culture have come out and enriched our knowledge of the learning and culture of ancient India. Exploration of the Jaina Sastra Bhandaras has revealed, in addition to the literature pertaining to Jainism, a number of very important Brahmanical and Buddhist texts which were hitherto deemed irrecoverably lost. Another unique feature of Jainism has been an absolutely unbiased representation of non-Jaina views and extensive quotations from texts which were otherwise lost. A compilation of such views and texts with their critical evaluation from the Jaina standpoint would be a very valuable contribution towards the reconstruction of the history of the religious and philosophical movements that took place in ancient times. For a total and comprehensive view of the contribution of Jainism to Indian thought and culture, a work of reference is urgently in demand which could bring before the scholars of Jainism at one place the vast knowledge accumulated over a century and a half of intense scholarly effort and also give valuable new information from works so far not brought to sufficient light. Our plan of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism would meet this demand of the gradually increasing number of scholars and readers interested in Jainology.

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viii 2. A number of important attempts, though with very limited aims, have been made in the past for compiling works of the nature of a Jaina Encylopaedia. The Abhidhana-Rajendra, for instance, in seven volumes, is a gigantic work in which original Prakrit and Sanskrit Svetambara texts have been quoted in extenso, sometimes in full, to explain the technical terms of Jaina philosophy. Similarly the JainendraSiddhanta-Kosa, in four volumes, and the Jaina Laksanavali, in three volumes, are valuable works of reference in the same field based mainly on the Digambara texts and summarising mostly the work done on the texts they have quoted, giving a critical study only in a limited number of cases with Hindi versions. The Jaina Siddhanta-Bola-Samgraha, in eight volumes, is also a valuable work written in Hindi, which introduces the reader to the rich heritage of Jaina technical terms in a style which is easy to understand. The Prakrit Proper Names, composed in the style of the Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, though not as informative as the latter, is another work which can be regarded as complementary to the above works of reference. But there still remains the vital necessity of an encyclopaedia in English covering the entire range of Jainology, where articles are written in a style which is lucid and reliable for accuracy and insight. The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics edited by Hastings, The Hindu World by Benjamin Walker, and the two volumes of The Great Ideas-A Syntopicon (published in the series of Britannica great books) may serve as models for our work. 3. The Encyclopaedia of Jainism will contain enteries representing broad subjects on which articles are to be written by experts covering the entire topic with necessary references. We give here a tentative list of such subjects, about 550 in number. The entries comprise Sanskrit, Prakrit and English terms-all arranged in the order of the Roman alphabet. Adequate care has been taken in the selection of the entries so that no important subject is left out and no unimportant subject is entered, in order to make the Encyclopaedia fully representative and at the same time avoiding unnecessary augmentation of the bulk. Calculating the average length of each articles at ten pages, the total number of pages in the Encyclopaedia is estimated at 4500. The question of the space to be allowed to each entry is very difficult to decide in advance. The principle should be that no vital information is left out, but all information is given as concisely as possible. 4. The reference works on Jainism published up to date are almost all written in Hindi and as such are of little use to the foreign scholars working in the field of Jainism. It has, therefore, been decided to write the Encyclopaedia in the English language. 5. The tentative list of entries that the Encyclopaedia is intended to comprise is given below:

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Abhava (Negation) Abhavya (Incapable of Liberation) Abhiseka (Aspersion, Ablution) Abrahmacarya Acara Acarya Adhyatma Aeon (Ages of the World) Aesthetics Agama (Scripture) Agurulaghu ahara Ahimsa, Himsa Ajnanavada (Agnosticism) Akasa (Space) Akriyavada Alchemy Allegory and Allegorical Inter pretation Altruism Amarighosana Amusements Ananumodana (Non-cooperation) Anatomy Anekantavada Angavijja Animals Animism Antaralagati Anukampa Anupreksa (Contemplation) Anuyogas Anuyogadvarani Apabhramsa language & literature Aprigraha (Non-possession) Apavada Aradhana, Viradhana Arambha, Samarambha, Samr ambha Arati Architecture Ardhamagadhi (Language) Arham Army Art Arthakriyakaritva Arya, Anarya Asamjnin Asana (Posture) Asatya Asceticism Asrava (Influx of Karmans) Astika, Nastika Astikaya Astral body Astrology Astronomy Atheism Atisaya Atithisamvibhaga Atman, Anatman Atomic Theory Auspicious Signs and Symbols Avidya (Nescience) Avirati (Absence of Vows) Ayagapattas (Votive Slabs) Ayurveda (A Medical System) Bala, Pandita Bandha (Bondage) Baptism Being, Becoming Benevolence Bhakti Bhandaras (Libraries) Bhasa (Speech) Bhasyas (Commentaries) Bhattaraka Bhavana (Maitri, etc.) Bhiksacarya (Madhukari, Gocari, etc.) Bijamantra Biographies Biology Botany Brahmacarya and Brahmacarin (Celebacy and Celebates)

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Brahmavihara Buddha and Buddhism Buddhi (Four Kinds of Intellect) Caitya (Temple) Caityavasin Cakravartin (Universal Monarch) Calendar Calligraphy Caritra Casteism Catechism Categorical Imperative Caturyama Caubisis Cause, Casuality (Theories of) Caves Chadmastha (A person in the state of Bondage) Chandas (Prosody, Metres) Channels of the Subtle Body Charitble Institutions Charity Charms and Amulets Chemistry Chronology Circumambulation Civilization Clairvoyance Commemoration Volumes Constitution (of the Monastic Order) Conversion Cosmogony Cosmography Cosmology Councils & Synods Creation Crime Crystal-Gazing Curnis Custom and Convention Dana Danda Dandaka Darsana (Constituent of Moksa marga) Daya (Pity) Death Debates Determinism Devotional Songs Dharma (religion, element of existence, adjunct) Dhuta Dhyana (Meditation) Digambaras Diksa Divination Dosa (faults), Acaradosa, Adha karmadidosa, Aticara Dowry Dravidians Dravya, Bhava Dravya-guna-paryaya (Substance, Attribute, Mode) Dravya-ksetra-kala-bhava (Subs tance-space-time-mode) Dreams and Sleep Dress Drinks, Drinking Drsti (Vision) Drstivada Dualism Dynasties Earth, Earth-Gods Eclecticism Eclipses Education Ego Embryology Emotions Ends and Means Epics Epigraphy Epistemology (Jnanamimainsa) Erotics

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xi Error (Theories of) Error and Truth Eschatology Eternity Ethics and Morality Etymology (Niryukti) Faith Fasung Fatalism, Fate Fear, Fearlessness Festivals Fine Arts First Sermon Folklore Forgetfulness and Forgiveness Free will Gaccha Games Gana Ganadhara and Ganadharavada (Apostles and their Initiation) Gandhi, M.K. Gati Gems, Precious Stones Geography Geology Good Gods and Goddesses Good and Evil Gosalaka, Mamkhaliputta Gotra (Family Status) Grammar (Vyakarana) and Gra- mmarians Granthavali (series of publications) Granthi (Complex) Gunasthana, Jivasthana (Stages of Soul, or its Evolution) Guru Health and Hygiene Heavens, Hells Heredity Heresy Heretics (of Mahavira's times) Hierarchy History--Origin, Spread, Develop ment Hospitals Householders and Housewives (in the Agamas) Humanism Humanitarianism Human Types Iconoclasm Idealism Identity Idolatry Immaculate Conception Immortality, Conditional Immorta lity Incarnation Inscriptions (Silalekha) Isvara (God) Javas Jina (Victor) Jiya Jivadaya Jnana Kalas (Arts) Kalpataru Karmabhumi Karuna Kasaya (passion) Kavya (Poetry) Kayotsarga (Abondonment of Body) Kings, Queens and Princes in the Agamas) Kosa (Lexicon) Kriya-Akriya (Action, Non-action) Ksanabhangavada Kula Kutasthanityata Labdhi (Attainment) Labdhidhari Sadhus (Mystic Saints) Lanchanas Law

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xii Legends and Stories Lesya (cf. Abhijati) Life Lipi (Alphabets, Scripts) Literature Logic and Logical Literature Mahapurusa Laksanas Mahasilakantaka and Rathamusala Samgrama Mahavira Mahavrata (Great vows) Maitri Malli (Tirthankara) Mangala Mantra (Incantation) Mantra-Vyakarana Manuscripts Marga (Path) Marganasthana Marriage Materialism Mathas Matnka Matrkapada Matter (Pudgala) Meat-eating Meditation Memory Metaphysics Mind Miniatures Ministers Miracles Mithyatva (Perverted Attitude) Moksa (Liberation), Moksamarga Monasteries Monks and Nuns (eminent in the Agamas) Monolyths Motive Mudita (Pramoda) Music and Musical Instruments Muslim Patronage Mysticism Naiyayika Namokkara-mantra Narratives Nava-tattva (Nine Categories) Naya (Instrument of Partial Comprehension) Nidana Nigoda (lowest form of life) Nihnavas Niksepa Nirgranthas. Nirjara (dissociation of karmas) Niryuktis (Prakrit verse commen tary) Nirvana Nisitha Nitisastra (Ethics) Niyati No-kasaya, No-jiva, No-karma, etc. (minor passions, etc.) Nudism Numerals Obsequies Occult Sciences Olisboi Om Omens Omniscience One and Many Ontogeny and Phylogeny Ontology Ordeal Padmavati Paintings, Painted Covers Palmistry Pancakalyanaka Pantheon Papa (Sin) and Papasthana Paramatman Parigraha (Possession) Parijna Parinaminityata (Endurance through Change)

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xiii Parisaha (Sufferings) Parsva Parsvapatya Paryapti Pasanda Pasattha Passivity Pasyatta Pattavali Perception Pessimism and Optimism Philanthropists Physicians Physics Physiology Pilgrimage Pinjarapolas Pleasure and Pain Pluralism Poetics Polity Polygamy Posadha Prakrits, Language and Literature Pramana (Organ of knowledge) Prana (Vitality) Pranatipata (Synonyms and Names) Pratima (Pkt. Padima, icon) Pravacanamata (Scriptural Matrices) Pravrajya, Upasampada (Initiation) Pravstti, Nivrtti Prayer Preksa (Prolonged Vision, Intro- spection) Presentation Volumes Priests and Sevakas Prostitution Psychology Puja Punishment Punya (Merit) Purana Purusartha Purvas Quantum Theory Raga-dvesa (Attachment and Ani mosity) Ratribhojanavirati (a vow not to eat at night) Rddhi Reality Re-incarnation Relations Relativism Relativity Religion Republics Rites and Rituals Rosaries Royal Patronage Rsabha (the first tirthankara of the Jainas) Rucaka-pradesa Rulers Sabdabrahmavada Sacraments Saints and Martyrs Saivism Saktas Salaka-purusas (Eminent Perso nages) Salya (thorn) Samadhi (Ecstatic Trance) Samanya (Universal)-Visesa (Parti cular) Samaropa Sama, Samvega, Nirveda, Anu kampa, Astha Samata (Equanimity) Samavasarana (Samosarana, Holy Assembly of the Jina) Samavaya (Niyati, Purusartha, etc.) Samgha (Monastic Order) Samgrahani (gathas) Samhanana (osseous structure)

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xiv Samharana Steya (Stealing) Samjna (Instincts, etc.) Sthana ka Samka, Kamkha, Vicikiccha Sthavira (Ten Classes of Elders) Samkhya Stotra, Stuti, etc. (Hymns) Samlek hana Stupa Samsayavada (Scepticism) Sub-consciousness Samudghata (Exteriorization) Subha, Asubha, Suddha (MeriSamvara (Stoppage of Karmic torious, Demeritorious, Pure) Inflow) Subjectivism Samyaktva Suffering Samyama (Restraint) Suicide Saraks Svadhyaya (Study of Scriptures) Sarasvati Svetambaras Sarira (Audarika, etc.) (Gross Body) Syadvada Sarvajna (Omniscient) Tabbas Satya (Pkt. Sacca) truth Tamra-patra (copper-plate) Satyagraha Tantra and Tantrism Sayings Tapas (Bahya and Abhyantara Schism Penance, External and Internal) Science Tattvartha Scientific Methods Teleology Sculpture Telepathy Sects, Subsects Temples Self-Discipline Theism Self-Mortification Thokadas Self-Realization Tikas (Commentaries) Sense-Organs Time (Kala) Shamanism Tirtha, Tirthasthana Siddha (Emancipated) Tirthankara Siddhasila (the abode of the libera- Tithis, their importance, influence ted souls) on health Siksapada Tolerance Town and Village (in the Agamas) Social Culture (Dance, Drama, etc.) Transcendentalism Sraddha Tripadi Sramana Samsksti Triratna Sramanopasaka (in the Agamas, Ugra, Bhoga etc. Disciple of Ascetics) Untouchability Sramanopasika (in the Agamas) Upama Sresthins Upasarga (Calamity) Sripujya Upasraya Srutakevalin (knower of scriptures) Upayoga (Experience) Srutvakevalin, Asrutvakevalin Upeksa Sin

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oppen Vacana (Exposition) Vows Vainayika Vyasana Vaisesika Vyavahara, Niscaya Vaisnavism War and Peace Vaiyarsttya (Respectful Service) Warriors Vargana (a molecule having infinite Weights and Measures atoms) Women Varuna Writing Material Vedana (Feeling) Yajna (Sacrifice) Vedanta Yaksas and Yaksinis Vedas Yantra (Mystical Diagram) Vegetarianism Yapaniya (A class of the Jaipas) Vernaculars Yati Vidyas Yatra Vijnaptipatras (Scrolls) Yaugalika (Twins) Vipasyana Yoga Virtue and Vice Yogasatya Virya (Power) Yoni Vivekakhyati (a theory of error) Zoology

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INTRODUCTION 1. Vidya-avidya, jnana-kriya The rites and rituals of early Brahmanism, specially the sacrificial cults. gradually lost their relevance and were replaced by different types of ceremonies that were conducive to social welfare. At this stage, the ancient rites and rituals and also the activities of social welfare came to be dubbed avidya, whereas self-knowledge that was considered as leading to spiritual liberation was called vidya. The following assertion of the Isopanisarl obviously represents such uses of the terms vidya and avidya. andham tamah pravisanti ye'vidyam upasate / tato bhuya iva te tamo ya u vidyayam ratah// anyad evahur vidyaya anyad ahur avidyaya/ iti susruma dhiranam ye nas tad vicacaksire// vidyam cavidyam ca yas tad vedobhayam saha/ avidyaya motyum tirtva vidyayamstamasnute// Into blinding darkness enter those who worship avidya (that is, who engage themselves in formal ritualism, being indifferent to the cultivation of vidya or knowledge), while those who delight in knowledge (being indifferent to the social duties, daily or occasional) virtually enter into still greater darkness. Distinct, indeed, they say, is the result of vidya and distinct, they say, is the result of avidya. Thus have we heard from the wise who have explained these to us. He who knows the two, namely, vidya and avidya, together is bound to cross death by means of avidya and attain the immortal through vidya. The above passage of the Isopanisad lays down the efficacy of vidya (meaning self-knowledge, atmopasana) and avidya (meaning the

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xviii totality of the duties and responsibilities of varna and asrama, varnasramadharma-jatam), when they are coordinated. One who appreciates the validity of vidya and avidya as the two mutually coordinated essential aspects of the path of liberation does not enter into the blinding darkness as mentioned above.2 There is thus the equipollence of vidya and avidya, that is, knowledge and action. Neither is to be discarded at the cost of the other. In other words, an ascetic can pursue his path without interfering in or undervaluing the importance of the householder's life. In fact, a householder also can attain the highest liberation by honestly pursuing his vocation and simultaneously cultivating self-knowledge and comprehension of the uitimate essence of the Vedas (Vedanta). This equipollence is illustrated by the incompetence of a bird to fly with one wing (na hy ekapakso vihagah prayati). In the Harita Smrti,4 the coordinated practice of tapas (austerity) and vidya (knowledge) is explained as the path of liberation by means of two illustrations as follows: yatha ratho'svahinas tu yathasvo rathihinakah/ evam tapas ca vidya ca samyutam bhaisajam bhavet// yathannam madhusamyuktam madhu va'nnena samyutam/ ubhabhyam api paksabhyam yatha khe paksinam gatih// yathaiva jnanakarmabhyam prapyate brahma sasvatam/ vidyatapobhyam sampanno brahmano yoga-tatparah// dehadvayam vihayasu mukto bhavati bandhanat/ na tatha ksina-dehasya vinaso vidyate kvacit// Even as a chariot without a horse or a horse without a charioteer is inoperative (while both together are capable of the desired movement), so austerity and knowledge together prove an effective medicine for the patient involved in samsara. Even as food mixed with honey or honey mixed with food is conducive to health, even as a bird can fly in the sky by means of both the wings, or even as knowledge and action jointly lead to the realization of Brahman, similarly does a brahmana endowed with knowledge and austerity and by being engaged in meditation immediately attain liberation from bondage, leaving

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behind his twofold mortal body. He is no more subject to metempsychosis being freed from the embodied existence. From the above account of vidya and avidya as constituting the pathway to liberation, it is evident that the meaning of avidya underwent a great change in that its original emphasis on activities of social welfare gave way to the pursuit of moral and mental purification in later times. This new ideology comes very near to that of the Jainas and the Buddhists who gave a complete code of monastic life, called samyagdarsana (right view of things), samyagjnana (right knowledge of things) and samyakca ritra (right conduct). The Brahmanical emphasis on the householder's life as an essential support to the monastic order continued to enjoy its validity unabated among the Indian religious codes including the code of some sections of the Jainas. The Buddhists, however, had given a new orientation to the householder's life in consonance with their bodhisattva ideal in the light of their paramitas (perfections in the practice of charity, moral precepts, etc.). It is interesting to note in this connection that Bhadrabahu in his Avasyaka-Niryukti,5 following the ancient tradition, gives a number of illustrations to explain the efficacy of the coordinated cultivation of suya-nana (scriptural knowledge) and carana (conduct), leading to nivvana (liberation).? A person, well-versed in the scriptural lore, is not capable of attaining liberation in the absence of the practice of austerity and self-restraint.8 Even as a ship, though helmed by an expert captain, is not capable of crossing the great ocean and reaching the land desired by the maritime trader in the absence of a favourable wind, so does a person never succeed in crossing the ocean of samsara being bereft of the merit of good conduct.9 Even as the blind cannot be gifted with vision by a million lamps, so for a person bereft of good conduct the study of the vast scripture is useless and futile. 10 On the contrary even the scanty study of the scriptures brings enlightenment to a person of good conduct, just as a single lamp is powerful enough to reveal objects to a person endowed with eyesight. Even as a donkey bears in vain the burden of the load of sandal-wood without enjoying its fragrance, so does a learned person bereft of good conduct bear in vain the burden of his knowledge without attaining liberation (which is the resultant of knowledge co-ordinated with good conduct).11 Futile indeed is knowledge without action, and so indeed is action without knowledge; a lame man though endowed with eyesight is burnt to ashes in conflagration (being unable to run away), and similarly a blind man meets the same fate though capable of running.12 It is the conjunction of knowledge and action alone that leads to the desired result; a chariot cannot indeed move by means of a single wheel; the blind and the lame could escape from the conflagration by helping each other out of the forest.13 The Avasyaka Niryukti now concludes that the triad of know xix

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xx ledge (nana), austerity (tava) and self-restraint (samjama) is necessary for the attainment of liberation according to the discipline propounded by the jinas; knowledge reveals the truth, austerity cleanses the soul of its impurities, and self-restraint protects the soul against incursion of fresh impurities. 14 The vidya-avidya issue has also a social significance. The sacrificial cult of the Vedic priests gradually lost its impact and gave way to philosophical speculations, Contradicting R. Garbe, Winternitz asserts that the awakening of philosophical speculation came before the period of the Brahmanas. He further says in this connection that "In some hymns of the Rgveda doubts and scruples already arose concerning the popular belief in gods and the priestly cult. These sceptics and thinkers, these first philosophers of ancient India, certainly did not remain isolated ... We are not, however, likely to find these oldest philosophers of ancient India among the priests, who were engaged in the science of sacrifice.... We can scarcely imagine that the brahmanas, who lived by the sacrifices, had many men amongst them who doubted the existence of Indra himself, and raised the question whether there was any sense in sacrificing to the gods...... The fact that the warrior-caste was closely connected with the intellectual life and the literary activity of ancient times is proved by numerous passages in the Upanisads, in fact already in the Brahmanas."15 This emergence of the warrior-caste or the ksatriyas as philosophers is also confirmed by the advent of the religious reformers like Mahavira and Buddha who were ksatrijas. There was perhaps a popular feeling among the people of those days in favour of the ksatriyas as protagonists of new thinking which rejected ritualism and the sacrificial cult as vain superstition. There was perhaps anti-Brahmanical leaning among them. This is confirmed by the miraculous episode of the tranfer of the embryo of Mahavira from the womb of the brahmani Devananda to that of the ksatriyani Trisala, as mentioned in the Kalpasutra of the Svetambara Jainas.16 2. Sramana-brahmana According to the Dhammpada, the bralumana is one who has put aside his evil propensities; a samanu (sramana) is so called because of his equanimous conduct (samacariya); a pabbajita (pra vrajita) is so designated because he has put away his impurities. 17 Similarly, in the Uttarajjhayanani 18 a samana is defined as a person practising equanimity (samaya, Skt. samata); a bambhana (Skt. brahmana) as one who cultivates bambhacera (Skt, brahmacarya) - the knowledge of the brahman or the self19 and the entire course of ascetism.20 The terms sramana and bralmana thus stood for the highest spiritual values. The natural antagonism

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xxi between the sramana and the brahmana as mentioned in Patanjali's Mahabhas ya21 appears to be a later development. This antagonism is found accentuated in works like Srimacchankara.digvijaya, 22 where samnyasa representing sramanism and agnihotra representing brahmanismi are juxtaposed as antagonistic creeds. An important problem in this connection arises as regards the genesis of this natural antagonism. In the Asokan inscriptions,23 as in the early Jaina and Buddhist scriptures as shown above, the sramanas and brahmanas occupy an equally respectable position. Of course, the Jainas and the Buddhists as well as other ascetic sects were totally opposed to the sacrificial cult of the brahmanas and their other rituals and formalities. They also did not consider the householder's life as suitable for the spiritual pursuits. But they had no antagonistic feeling against it. However, in course of time, specially on account of the very high position occupied by the ascetic communities, specially in the times of Asoka, and on the advent of powerful religious leaders, there appears to have grown up a sort of rivalry between the ascetic's life and the life of the householder. Such development is also attested by the unqualified praise bestowed on the householder's life in the Manusmrti 24 and the Mahabharata.25 It is, however, interesting to note in this connection that in Jainism even a householder is considered capable of attaining the highest liberation,26 and also as superior to a monk in special cases.27 Neither Jainism nor Buddhism took a pessimistic or negative view of worldly life, as wrongly assessed by some modern scholars, specially the western savants. The sramana-brahmana antagonism was thus purely ideological and not based on class or caste pattern. Both Sankara and Mandana were Brahmins. But they differed in ideology, the former advocating renunciation and spiritual emancipation, and the latter propounding rites and rituals for worldly welfare and attainment of heaven. Thus viewed, Sankara may be taken as an exponent of sramanism and Mandana of Brahmanism. Indian political thought also evinced such patterns. While emperors like Asoka and Harsavardhana were inspired by the Sramanic ideals, King Pusyamitra and the Gupta emperors who performed horse sacrifices were followers of the Brahmanic ritualism. In modern times, in our struggle for independence, these two political ideologies were distinctly discernible in the stands taken by Gandhi and Tilak. 3. The Sangha The sangha occupies a very important place in Jainism as well as in Buddhism. It is one of the three gems in Buddhism, the other two being the Buddha and the dhamma. This triad of gems is fully described

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xxii in the Digha Nikaya.28 The essential characteristics of the sangha are described there as follows: suppatipanno bhagavato savakasangho, ujuppatipanno bhagavato savakasangho, nayappatipanno bhagavato savakasangho, samicippatipanno bhagavato savakasangho, yad idam cattrari purisayugani attha purisapuggala, esa bhagavato savakasangho ahuneyyo pahuneyyo dakkhineyyo anjalikaraniyo anuttaram punnakkhettam lokassa' ti. Rightly established on the path, upright, just, and law-abiding indeed is the Order of the Lord's disciples, represented by four couples, that is, eight personalities (four on the path of sotapatti, etc., and four established in the fruit of sotapatti, etc.), who are worthy of honour, of hospitality, of gifts, and of reverence, being the supreme fertile ground of merits for the world. The supreme excellence of this triad of gems 29 is brought out in its full glory in the Ratanasutta of the Suttanipata. The sangha is held in highest esteem in Jainism too. Its glory and importance are brought out in the Nandisutra in its initial hymn of fifteen beautiful verses. We are tempted to give a free translation of the verses for the benefit of the reader in order to enable him to compare the Jaina and Buddhist concepts of sangha. "May the well laid-out city of sangha give us shelter, where buildings are made of a great many virtues and filled with gems of scriptures, where the pathways are made of pure faith, and boundaries protected by the invulnerable ramparts of good conduct(4). "May the wheel of sangha be always victorious without a rival, the wheel of which self-restraint constitutes the hub from which radiate the spokes of austerity, the right faith being its felly (5). "May the chariot of the blessed sangha be triumphant, with its banner of sila (moral virtues) flying on the crest, with the steeds of penance and morality duly harnessed with sweet and auspicious chant of scriptural incantation surcharging the environment (6). "May the lotus of sangha flourish in its fullness, rising above the mass of water polluted with the mud of karman, with its long stalk made of the gem of scripture, with its steadfast pericap of five great vows, with its pollen consisting of virtues, surrounded by the bees of the laity gathering honey of spirituality from it, blossoming forth by the rays of the jina-sun, the community of the ascetics making up its thousand petals (7-8). "May the moon of sangha shine in its glory with its insignia of penance and self-restraint, never eclipsed by the rahu of the doctrine

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xxiii of akriya (inaction), with its pure radiance of unclouded faith manifest in full (9) "May the serene and tranquil sun of sangha shine in glory in the world eclipsing the lustre of the heretical teachers, with its hue, effulgent with the power of austerity and glowing with the light of knowledge (10). "May the unruffled vast ocean of sangha flourish for ever, never transgressing the felly of forbearance, (devouring the evils) by its seamonsters of scriptural study (11). "(To the great Mountain Meru) with its fourdation of the diamond of great right faith firmly fixed deep down into the earth), with its golden girdle adorned with the gem of majestic righteousness (12), strewn over with the golden slabs of morality, possessed of bright and luminous variegated peaks, citrakuta, and also the heights of mental purity, cittakuta, heavily perfumed with the fragrance of the moral purity of the charming odour of the heavenly garden (13), with beautiful caves of compassion for living beings, teeming with dauntless lions of great ascetics, with its caverns and grottos full of the gems of shining herbs, with melting metals of a thousand logical probanses (14), with beautiful garlands of fountains of streaming water of excellent self-mastery, with its crevices resounding with the dancing peacocks of multitude of lay disciples singing joyously (15), with its summits radiant with the lightning of the effulgence emanating from the great ascetics bowed down in humility and modesty (offering homage to arahantas and siddhas), with its orchards teeming with kalpa-trees (of ascetics) laden with flowers and fruits of multitude of virtues (16), I offer my homage bowing down in humility to the Mountain Meru, the Order of monks and nuns, with its peaks shining like brilliant and pure cat's-eye stone of the gem of excellent knowledge (17)." The above-mentioned passages clearly demonstrate the importance of sangha as an organization of the Jaina and Buddhist monastic orders. Of course, in ancient times, there were ascetics who wandered alone and practised austerities and penances to attain salvation, without affilating themselves to any particular Order. But the emergence of well-knit organizations of monks and nuns took place when great leaders like Mahavira, Buddha, or Makkhali Gosala made their advent and founded tirthas, that is, fords to walk across the samsara. 4. Selection of Aspects Our selection of aspects does not follow any pre-conceived plan. The topics are selected at random, the purpose being only to give an idea of the varieties of topics that we should like to treat of under the

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xxiv entry "acara' in the forthcoming Encyclopeadia of Jainism. We do not want to give a summary of the chapters here, as they themselves are brief accounts of topics they deal with. We should like to inform the readers that the texts quoted in chapters X and XI are mainly based on the critical editions published by Dr. L. Alsdorf, W. Schubring, and Yuvacarya Mahaprajna. We are sincerely grateful to these great scholars of Prakrit and Jainology whose contributions to the subject would ever remain valuable. We should also express our thanks to Shri R.K. Jain of Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, who so kindly undertook the publication. Our thanks are also due to Shri RS. Soni for his kind cooperation in the arduous work of correcting the proofs and seeing the publication through the press. We thank Dr. S.C. Jain for preparing the bibliography and the indexes giving full particulars and thereby enhancing their utility. Our thanks are also due to the sisters of the post-graduate department of the Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan), namely Kusum, Savita, Usha, Chetana, Subhash and Jayavanti for their co-operation in writing some of the chapters. References 1 Verses 9-11. 2 vidyamatmopasanam avidyam varnasrama-dharma-jatam anyonyasamuccitam etad ubhayam yo moksopayatvena veda janati nasavandhata mah pravisati. (Yajnavalkya Smrti, Apararka Tika, p. 959). 3 Ibid., p. 960; quoting the following verse from the Yogayajnavalkya : svakarmanam anusthanat samyag atmanidarsanat/ vedantanam parijnanad gshastho'pi vimuccyate/ 4. VII. 9-12. 5 Verses 93-103. 6 Suyagado, 1. 12. 11. (= Amgasuttani, I, p. 329). 7 Cf. Avasyaka Niryukti, verse 93 : samaiyamasyam suyananam java bindusaraol tassavi saro caranam Saro caranassa nivvanam// 8 lbid. verse 94. 9 Ibid., verse 97. 10 Ibid., verse 98. 11 Ibid., verse 100, 12 Ibid., verse 101. 13 Ibid., verse 102. 14 Ibid., verse 103. nanam payasayam sohao tavo samjamo ya guttikaro/

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XXV tinha mpi samaoge mokkho jinasasane bhanioll 15 A History of Indian Literature, vol. I (2nd edition, 1972), pp. 225-227. 16 Sutras no. 16 ff. 17 XXVI. 60 : bahitapapo ti brahmano samacariya samano ti vuccati/ pabbajayam attano malam tasma pabbajito ti vuccati// 18 XXV. 30. 19 Cf. Ayaro, III. 1. 4.(J.V.B.) 20 Cf. Ibid., IV. 4.44.(J.V.B.) 21 II. 4.9. 22 VIII, verses 30 and 31 : kva brahma kva ca durmedhah kva samnyasah kva va kalih/ svadvannabhaksakamena veso'yam yoginam dhetah/ kva svargah kva duracarah kvagnihotram kva va kalih/ manye maithunakamena veso'yam karminam dhetah// 23 D.C. Sircar : Inscriptions of Asoka (Publication Division, Ministry of Informa tion and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Delhi, April, 1967), p. 24. 24 VI. 89-90 25 Santiparva, XXIII. 5. 26 Tattvartha Sutra, X. 7. Also Uttarajjhayanani, XXXVI. 52. 27 Uttarajjhayanani, V. 20. 28 II, p. 75. 29 It is interesting to note in this connection that the Jaina triad of gems (ratna traya) refers to samyagdarsana. samyagjnana and samyak caritra (see Purusarthasiddhyupaya, verses 209, 220) and not the buddha, dhamma, and sangha as in Buddhism. The Jaina counterpart of the Buddhist triad of gems (tiratana) is the tetrad of arahanta, siddha, sahu and dhamma-which are called mangala, loguttama, and sarana (see Padikkamanajjhayana, 12-14). It is evident that in this Jaina tetrad the arahantas and the siddhas jointly correspond to the buddhas and the suhus to the sangha of the Buddhist triad. In the Jaina incantation the following is recited instead of the Buddhist "buddham saranam gacchami, dhammam s. g., sangham s.g. : cattari saranam pavajjami-arahante saranam pavajjami, siddhe saranam pavajjami, sahu saranam pavajjami; kevalipannattam dhammam Saranam pavajjami. (Ibid., 14). The Prakrit expression pavajjami (Skt. prapadye) in place of Pali gaccami deserves notice. The influence of the prapatti concept of the Bhakti cult is obvious on the Prakrit expression pavajjami. For the doctrine of prapatti see Krishna : Myths, Rites and Attitudes, edited by Milton Singer, University of Chicago Press. Chicago and London, 1964, pp. 157-59.

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CONTENTS PAGES iii-iy vii-Xv xvii-xxv Dedication Publishers' Note Preface Introduction The Five Vyaraltaras or The Sources of Monastic Legislation Meaning and Literary Sources---1; The Five Sources, Agama, Suya, Ana, Dharana, Jiya-1-2; In Buddhism - 3; In Brahmanism-3-4. 1-5 . II 5-10 The Samacari or The Ten Rules of Monastic Deportment Meaning ---5; The Ten Samacaris : Icchakara, Micchakara, Tahakkara-6; Avassiya, Nisihiya, Appucchana, Padipucchana -7; Chandana, Abbhutthana, Uvasampaya -8; Important aspects of the Samacari - 8-9. III 11-13 The Asamahitthanas or The Twenty Occasions of the Inibalance of mind According to Ayaradasao -- 11; In Buddhism - 12; In Brahmanism -13. 14-20 IV The Sabalas or The Twenty-One Types of Monks with Tainted Conduct Meaning -- 14; Twenty-one Sabalas : Hatthakamma, Mehuna-padisevana -- 15-17; Raibhoana, Ahakammabhoanam, Raipimda-bhoanam, Kiyam, Enjoyment of a given-up article repeatedly --- 18; Changing gana more than once within six months, Crossing naveldeep stream thrice a month, Practising deceit thrice a month, Accepting food from him who has offered residence, Committing injury to life deliberately, Telling a lic deliberately, Taking deliberately what is not given, Deliberately standing, lying down or sitting on live earth, The above acts on earth wet with live

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xxviii V water and covered with live dust, The same acts on a live stone slab etc., To partake of deliberately the root, bulb, stem, skin, sprout, etc., Crossing navel deep stream ten times a year, Practising deceit ten times a year, Partaking of asana, pana, khaima, etc., deliberately taking it from hands or pot, or ladle, or utensil moist with live water-- 19-20. The Four Stages of Sin In Jainism-21; In Buddhism-22-23; In Brahmanism -24; In Modern Law-25; Conclusion-26. VI Asayana or Disrespectful Conduct VIII Thirty-three types of asayana according to Ayaradasao-27-28; Thirty-three types of asayana according to Avasyaka Sutra--29; In Buddhism, In Brahmanism-30. VII Ganisampada or The Qualifications of the Ganin (Religious Head) Qualifications according to Ayaradasao: Ayara, Suya, Sarira, Vayana- 31; Vayana, Mati, Paoga, Samgaha-Parinna-32; Vinaya-padivatti of the Acarya: Acara-Vinaya, Suya-Vinaya, Vikkhevana-Vinaya, Dosa-nigghayana-vinaya -33; Vinaya-padivatti of the Antevasin Uvagarana-uppayanaya, Sahillaya--33; Vannasamjalanaya, Bhara-paccoruhanaya-34; In Buddhism-34-35. Ctttasamahitthanas or The Ten Stages of the Concentrated Mind Introduction-36; The Ten Stages: Dhamma-cinta -36; Memory of one's own past lives, Veritable dreams never experienced before, Unprecedented vision of deities, Clairvoyance, Clair-intuition--37; Power of telepathy, Pure and perfect knowledge, Pure and perfect intuition, Pure and perfect disembodied existence-38; Versified summary --- 39-40. IX The Four Monastic Courses 1 Sthavira-kalpa or the Course of the Elders : (i) Initiation and Ordination; (ii) Training; (iii) Comprehension of meaning-42; (iv) Life of a Wanderer-43; (v) Consummation-44; (vi) Itinerary--- 45-55; (vii) Deportment-56-58. PAGES 21-26 27-30 31-35 36-40 41-85

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xxix PAGES 2 Jina-kalpa or the Course of the Victors : (i) The basic conditions-59; (ii) Tulana -- 60; (iii) Bhavana; (iv) Parikarma--61; (v) Monastic Outfit; (vi) Posture; (vii) Adoption of the Victor's Course; (viii) Forgiveness and its merits; (ix) Admonition to the Successor - 62; (x) Admonition to other Monks; (xi) Departure; (xii) Deportinent-63-65; (xiii) Essen tial Features -66-68. 3 Pariharavisuddhika or Suddhaparibarika or Puri fictory Cooperative Course : (i) Introductory; (ii)Extension of the Rules of Victor's Course and their Exceptions--69-72. 4 Yathalandaka or the Time-bound Course : (i) Meaning -- 7.; (ii) Points of Agreement and Depar ture - 74-77; (iii) Jina-kalpa -78-80. X The Ideal Monk XI The Victor's Penance Appendix : A Note on the word Monasticism Bibliography Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words English Words 87-95 96-107 108 109 113 135

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I THE FIVE VYAVAHARAS MEANING AND LITERARY SOURCES or The Sources of Monastic Legislation The expression vyavahara is used in two senses. Firstly, it means the sources or the authorities of legislation, and secondly, it stands for the subject matter of legislation, viz. the common sense monastic propriety (abhavamto, abhavamtito (abhavantiko), abhavana), and the rules of expiation (prayascitta).1 Here we are concerned with the former, viz. the sources or the authorities which are five in number, and discussed in the Bhagavati Sutra,2 the Thanam,3 and the Yavahara Sutra. They are: (i) agama, (ii) suya, (iii) ana, (iv) dharana, and (v) jiya-arranged in order of importance. The Vyavahara Sutra,5 in this connection, says: "Where the agama is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the agama; and where the agama is not available, but the suya is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the suya; and where the suya also is not available, but the ana is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the ana; and where the ana too is not available, but the thirana is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the dharana; and where the dharana also is not available, but the jiya is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the jiya...; the samana-niggamthas are devoted to the agama, and so the samana-niggamtha, meting out justice according to the fivefold sources of legislation, completely datached and dispassionate, is the true executor of the Lord's command." A brief account of the five sources is given below. THE FIVE SOURCES 1. Agama: Under the first source or authority, called agama, are included the personages conversant with the eleven Angas and the fourteen Purvas or at least ten or nine of them (Purvas) and also those who are possessed of the powers of telepathy, clairvoyance and omniscience. In the absence of the power of directly apprehending the mental conditions of the delinquent monk, the confessor acarya has to depend on his own scriptural learning and experience and power of discerning the truth of what he is told by the confessing penitent. The confessing monk is to be exhorted to reveal the truth. The qualifications of

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2 The Five Vyavaharas the competent confessor are elabo- of the occasions of expiation are rately discussed in the Vyavahara- considered by him thoroughly in the Bhasya.8 Among these, the eight- light of the relevant texts and the fold GANISAMPAYA" and the four- necessary sanction is conveyed to fold VINAYA-PADIVATTI10 occupy the expiator through an experienced a central position. monk who witnesses the expiation. The first and foremost authority 4. Dharana : Under the authoof monastic legislation is thus the rity of dharana fall those rules of agama 'scripture' or those who are expiation which are formulated after conversant with it in full or in part, a thorough consideration of the releat least upto the ninth Purva. vant texts. These rules derive their 2. Suya : The sutra containing validity from the ancient texts as the fivefold vyavahara, that was interpreted by able exponents of the extracted from the twelve Angas by principles of monastic conduct.14 Bhadrabahu, who possessed the Such rules are conveved to the disknowledge of the fourteen Purvas, ciples by the elders according to even as butter is churred from milk, milk, the their capacities for application in is called suya (Skt. sruta).11 The different cases. These principles suya consists of the Kappa (Brhat are called dharana because they are kalpasutra) and the Varahara (Vya meant to be retained in mind for vaharasutra). The dispensing of application as and when occasions justice according to the suya is arise. 15 suya-vavahara. 12 5. Jiya (Skt. jita) : The This is the second authority; in fifth order of importance, of monastic authority of monastic legislation is legislation. jiya which stands for the customs 3. Ana: The third authority of and conventions that are firmly monastic legislation is ana, that is established on account of their the concurrence or sanction of a repeated practice by the eminent competent acarya who must be acaryas of the Order through the possessed of the GANISAMPAYA and ages. 16 The expiations prescribed VINAYA-PADIVATTI. Such sanction by a particular acarya on specific becomes necessary when a monk, occasions and duly imitated by on the eve of undertaking bhak- others in similar cases are carefully tapratyakhyana (renunciation of recorded for future guidance. Such aliment), wishes to pluck off what- records constitute the corpus of the ever thorns of passions and monas- jiya law.17 The jiya (custom or contic irregularities niay be vitiating vention) which is vicious (savajja) his conduct and expiate them. If the in any way is not commendable ; it acarya competent to give the sanc- is only the immaculate (asavajja) tion is residing elsewhere at a dis- jiya which conformns to the basic tance, the occasions of the expiation moral and religious principles that are conveyed to him through a is accepted as an authority in qualified monk. 18 The pros and cons monastic Jurisprudence."

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In Brahmanism 3 IN BUDDHISM 4. Sadacara (the conduct of the pious men). The customs and conCorresponding to these five fun- ventions prevalent among different damental bases of monastic con- peoples at different places also fall duct, there are the four great under this category, provided they sources (mahapadesas) that were do not go against the fundamental considered as authoritative in Bud- moral principles of the Srutis and dhism, although the final authority Smrtis. rested on their consistency and con- 5. Self-satisfaction, i.e., congruence with the original Sutta and science (of course, governed by the the Vinaya. The four mahapadesas foregoing sources).20 or ihe great sources of monastic Kumarila, in his Tantravartika law as given in the Mahaparini- on Sabarabhasya21 has discussed at bbana Sutta of the Digha Nikaya19 length the problem of self-satisfacare as follows: tion, which, according to him, is valid and dependable only if it was 1. The law coming forth straight born of the will purified by the faithfrom the Buddha himself. ful observance of the Vedic Norm 2. Rules formulated by the in its entirety. In this connection, sangha (Order) consisting of elderly Kumarila refers to Kalidasa's dicand learned monks at a particular tum that in matters of doubt, the monastery. inner spiritual urge of a truly pious man is a dependable guide.22 The 3. Rules originating from the deliberations of very learned elderly propriety or impropriety of an act of monks. conscience is to be judged by the inclinations and propensities of the 4. Rules laid down by a very person, and not merely by the learned pontiff of a reputed monas nature of the act. This point is tery. made clear by Kumarila when he IN BRAHMANISM asserts that only that act which is strictly in conformity with the pious The Brahmanical law-givers like acts of the holy men is to be consiManu and Yajnavalkya have very dered religious, and not simply on clearly defined the ultimate sources account of its resemblance with of dharma or Law. Manu enume that of an enlightened person.23 rates them as follows: Yajnavalkya24 adds another important source, viz. the worldly 1. The entire Vedic corpus. desires for universal welfare inspi2. The Smrti literature com- red by the right will and intention. posed by rsis like Manu and Yajna This is of course in consonance with valkya. Manu's dictum that all the vows 3. The sila (religious and moral and religious practices are born of vows) of persons who are fully con- will (samkalpa). All the worldly versant with the Srutis and Smrtis. desires (kama) and sacrifices have

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4 The Five Vyavaharas also their origin in this will (samkalpa).25 Manu however does not accept any activity as completely References 1 Vyavahara-Bhasya, X, vv. 58-59; 181; 200. 2 Amgasuttani, vol. II, p. 364 (J.V.B.) Bhagavati Sutra, VIII, 8.30. 3 Amgasuttani, vol. I, pp. 582-583 (J.V.B.) Thanam, V. 2.24. 4 Uddesaka X, sutra 3; VyavaharaBhasya, vv. 51-724. 5 X. 3. 6 Vyavahara-Bhasya, X, vv. 218-221. 7 Ibid., v. 226. 8 X, vv. 243-334. 9 Ibid., vv. 252-296. 10 Ibid., vv. 301-328. 11 Ibid., v. 603. 12 Ibid., vv. 604-608. 13 Ibid., vv. 610 ff. free from worldly desires, which he unambiguously declares to be unelevating.26 14 Ibid., vv. 683-684. 15 Ibid., vv. 687-689. 16 Ibid., v. 693. 17 Ibid., vv. 706-707; 713. 18 Ibid., v. 715. 19 Vol. II, pp. 96-97 (Nalanda). 20 Manu Smrti, II. 6; 12. 21 I. 3.7. 22 Abhijnanasakuntalam, I. 22. vartate sa 23 tatra yah karya-rupena sistanevanudharmo kevalo eva netarah pranimatragah-Tantravartika, p. 128 (Anandasrama Edn.). 24 Yajnavalkya Smrti, I. 7. 25 Manu Smrti, II, 3. 26 kamatmata na prasasta, na caivehasty akamata-Manu Smrti, II. 2ab.

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II THE SAMACARI or The Ten Rules of Monastic Deportment LITERARY SOURCES yacara; and, thus, samayacarika means the practices based on popuThe topic of samacari appears lar conventions that are found in the Bhagavati Sutra 1 Sthananga, 2 in the Smoti texts which derived Uttaradhyayanas, Avasyaka Nir- their validity from the Vedas.14 yukti4 and Bhasya of Jinabhadra In the Buddhist scripture the with Curni, 5 Brhatkalpa-Bhasya,6 word samici which means right or Mulacara,? Sri-Pancasaka-Prakara- proper conduct may be taken as na8 of Haribhadra with Abhaya- equivalent to the samacari of the deva's Commentary, and Pravacana- Jainas. This is evident from the saroddhara9 with Vstti. Yaso- characterization of the monastic vijaya, in his Samacari- Prakarana Order as samici-patipanno, that is, with auto-commentary gives a criti- following the right course, the cal exposition of the subject. other qualifications in this context being supatipanno (well-behaved), MEANING ujupatipanno (of straightforward Explaining the expression sama- behaviour), and naya-patipanno cari, Acarya Malayagiri, in his (judiciously disposed).15 commentary on the Avasyaka Nir The Mulacara explains samacara yukti10 says : samacara stands for as equanimity (samada), or right right conduct, that is, the set of conduct (sammacaro), or unvarying activities performed by the cul- and uniform conduct (samo acaro), tured; the expression samacari is or the conduct common to the derived from samacara. 11 entire monastic Order (savvesim The word samacari may be sammanam).16 compared with the expression Samacari stands for the general samayacarikah of the Apastamba conduct, behaviour or deportment Dharmasutra12 and the Gautama of the monastic Order. It has no Dharmasutra. 13 The Mitaksara fixed content. It falls in three Vrtti on the Gautama Dharmasutra categories, namely, (1) the ogha defines samayacarika as follows: which is derived from the 20th The word samaya stands for popular Prabhrta (called Oghaprabhrta) of convention; the practices based on the 3rd Vastu (called Acara) of the such conventions are called sama- 9th Purva, and is embodied in the

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6 The Samacari Oghanir yukti, (2) the tenfold sama- tary act. This aspect of monastic cari (that we are going to expound behaviour is characterized by the below) based on the XXVIth expression icchakara, which stands chapter of the Uttaradhyayana, and for the principle of 'voluntarism'. (3) the padavibhaga-samacari which In brief, all monastic acts are is contained in the Cheda Sutras absolutely voluntary and self-imwhich are derived from the same posed. This is the general rule. A 9th Purva as mentioned above.17 monk should be absolutely indepenThe Mulacara18 identifies the ten- dent and self-supporting. He fold Samacari with ogha-samacari should not seek any help from a and includes all other samacaris fellow monk as far as possible. He under the padavibhaga-samacari. should exert himself fully without This is also the view of Santisuri, sparing any of his abilities in the the commentator of the Uttara- performance of his duties towards dhyayana Sutra. The Praracana- the welfare of the organization.22 saroddhara19 designates the tenfold Although the monastic Order is samacari as cakravala-samacari, thus supposed to be a purely volunwhereas according to the Brhat. tary organization, yet occasions kalpa-Bhasya, 20 the samacaris other may arise when a monk is to be than the tenfold samacari fall warned to behave in accordance under the cakravala-samacari Pre- with the rules. Such warning is an cisely speaking, the daily routine application of the ajna or the comduties of a monk constitute the mand. In case a monk is recalcicakravala-samacari. 21 trant, some sort of coercion is also The ten rules of monastic possible. In brief, an Order may deportment appear to have been be either a voluntary organization formulated in consonance with the (icchak ari), or guided by the counspiritual vigilance (apramattata) of sel of the Head (ajnakari), or a monk who is expected to be in the forced to act properly (balabhiyoseventh gunasthana (stage of spiri- gakari).23 tual development) called apramatta. Every act of his should be preceded (2) Micchakara (Skt. mithyakara) : by an awareness that he is going to In case of lapse, a monk has to engage himself in a particular acti- self in a particuiar acti- retrace and repent for the miscon retrace and vity concerned with monastic life. duct. This is called micchakara 24 The ten rules are as follows seriatim: (3) Tahakkara (Skt. tathakara) 'Assent' : THE TEN SAMACARIS On occasions of the sermons or any other instructions by the pre(1) Icchakara (Skt. icchak aru): ceptor the disciples are to give their No coercion or compulsion is complete assent with humility. This desirable in monastic deportment is called tahakkara, i.e., the accepwhich should be absolutely a volun- tance of the preceptor's words. 25

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The Ten Samacaris 7 (4) Avassiya (Skt. avasyaki) 'leav- entry into and exit from a temple ing the abode for necessary work': of the jina jinayatana) or the abode of ascetics (yatinivasa).30 The word When a monk has to move from uttered at the entry was nisidhika his abode for some necessary duty, and that uttered at the exit asidhihe has to be aware of that act. ka. For the ascetics it was specifiSuch awareness is technically called cally prescribed that they should avasyaki kriya meaning that he is observe these formalities while occuimmediately going to engage him- pying a place or eating or going to self in that act.26 bed or going out for any necessary purpose.31 The words used here (5) Nisihiya (Skt. naisedhiki): are asahi and nisahi respectively, On the completion of that act, which are obviously derived from avassai and nisihia. when he returns to his abode, he This is also has to be aware that he has com confirmed by the use of the exprespleted the duty. This is technically sions asia and nisihia in the Mulcalled nisidhika.27 The avasyaki is acara,32 in connection with the ten mainly concerned with samitis samacaris enumerated there. In the whereas naisedhiki is related in Bhagavati Aradhana,33 the same essence to guptis. In brief, they words (nisidhiya, asia) are used in represent the positive and the nega the same sense. tive aspects of monastic beha Pandita Asadhara exposes the viour. 28 spiritual aspect of these two formaIn this connection the Avasyaka lities and confirms his view by quotNiryukti says that there is no ing a number of verses from earlier essential difference between avassai texts. Two of these verses are as and nisihia. Their difference, if follow any, is morphological and not "The nisahi is truly observed by semantic. The formality of avassai him who has established himself in is observed while going out, where his soul or has withdrawn himself as that of nisihia is observed while from all passions ; in the case of returning from outside. Both others it is a mere formal utterance. these acts are imperative and are Similarly, only the ascetic who has not different in essence or content. renounced all desires is the observer The purpose of these two observan- of asahi in the true sense of the ces is to cultivate vigilance or term ; such an ascetic is not only awareness of anything that is done an utterer of the word asahi (but a or of any idea that may cross the sincere practitioner of the spirituamind. There is, thus, an essential lity embodied in the word)" 34 identity between the two monastic (6), (7) Appucchana (Skt. Aprcchana) practices 29 and Paaipucchana (Skt. Pratiprcc* In comparatively later times, hana): the practice of these formalities Similarly a monk has to seek the a ppears to have been extended to permission of his superior for an

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8 The Samacari act he has to perform for himself or for others. These formalities are called aprcchana and pratiprcch- ana.35 Aprcchana is sometimes explained as initial permission and pratiprcchana as confirmation of that permission or obtaining a fresh permission for what has once been refused. 36 (8) Chandana (Skt. Chandana) : The eighth type of deportment, chandana, is concerned with the invitation of the superior or the fellow monks to take what has been brought, as a monk should not keep anything secret.37 (9) Abbhutthana (Skt. Abhyutthana) or nimamtana (Skt. nimantrana): Rendering services to the organi- zation in respect of food, medicine, robes, etc., is called abbhutthana.38 Sometimes, the expression nimamt- ana is used in place of abbhutthana. Nimamtana means permission of elders regarding what is to be acquired for them.39 of services which are not available in one's own gana. As regards special study,41 it can be necessary for three reasons, viz. for (i) strengthening the knowledge of what has been studied in one's own gana; (ii) the filling up of the lacunae in the text ; or (iii) the study of a particular text which is not possible in one's own gana. These three purposes are respectively called vattana (Skt. vartana), anusamdhana (Skt. anusandhana) and gahanam (Skt. grahanam),42 and they fall under jnanaupasampad. Similar purposes may also relate to darsana-upasampad, i.e., going to another gana in order to get clarification regarding darsana (faith). Similarly, one can go to another gana for offering specific services (vaijavrtja) and performing penance (ksapana).43 The above mentioned rules of deportment throw welcome light on the spirit of the monastic organization which was an absolutely voluntary society devoted to selfservice and service of the fellow monks. Theoretically, no monk enjoyed a right for getting service from any other monk. What each monk was entitled to was the duty to serve himself and the fellow monks. Of course, each monk was required to offer voluntary service to his superiors, who, however, did not demand, theoretically, any such services as a matter of right. Another important aspect of the samacari is the vigilance which a monk was expected to cultivate. At the time of undertaking any (10) Uvasampaya (Skt. Upasam- pada): The last type of deportment is called uvasampaya which means approaching a teacher in another gana (group) for acquiring special knowledge on a particular subject for a limited period. 40 Among these ten deportments, the last, viz. upasampada deserves a detailed exposition. It is resorted to when another gana (group) of monks is to be approached for a specific purpose, such as special study of a scripture or special kind

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necessary duty, he was expected to remain fully aware of the act, technically called avassiya, until it was completed; and on completion also, he was to detach himself formally from the act, which was technically called nisihiya. In case of lapse, he was to retrace and repent (micchakara). The monk was to give assent (tahakkara) to whatever was done by his superiors or the organization, which implied that every member of the organization fully participated in the activity of the monastic society. The monk was to invite (technically called chandana) the fellow monks to partake of what he collected in his begging round and ask them for any further requirements of theirs (technically called nimamtana) that he could References 1 XXV. 7.555. 2 X. 102. 3 XXVI. 4 V. 665. 5 Pp. 341-354. 6 Vv. 1378-1623. 7 IV. vv. 125 ff. 8 XII. 9 Vv. 760-767. 10 V. 665. 11 samacaranam samicarah-sistacarikarya-kalapah, samacara eva tah samacaryam... 12 I. 1. 1. 13 1.8.11. 14 pauruseyi vyavastha samayah, tanmula acarah samayacarah, tesu bhavah samayacarikah smarta dharmah. 15 Anguttara Nikaya, II, p. 60 (Nalanda). 16 samada samayaro sammacaro samo va ayaro/savvesim sammanam samacaro du acaro//-Mulacara, IV,v.123. The Ten Samacaris 9 meet in his next begging round. The monk was required to obtain the permission of the Head for engaging himself in any act concerned with himself or the Order. This was technically called apucchanna (seeking permission). In case a fresh approval of the superior monk or the organization was to be taken, it was called the act of padipucchana (confirmation). This system of samacari throws light on the cohesive character of the monastic organization. In fact, it was a voluntary body, governed by rules framed by itself, and practically with no authority to enforce them. It was the good will of each monk that worked as an impelling power behind the administration. 17 Malayagiri's commentary on Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 665, 18 IV, v. 124. 19 Vv. 760-761. 20 Vv. 1381, 1624. 21 Brhatkalpa Bhasya, v. 1265 Commentary. 22 Avasyaka Niryukti, vv. 668-669. jai abbhatthijja param karanajae karijja se koi/tatthavi icchakaro na kappai balabhiogo u//abbhuvagayammi najjai abbhattheum na vattai paro u/aniguhiyabalaviriena sahuna tava hoyavvam// 23 Malayagiri's commentary on Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 677. 24 Avasyaka Niryukti, vv.. 683-688; Mulacara IV.v. 126; Uttarajjhayanani, XXVI. 6. 25 Avasyaka Niryukti, vv. 689-690; Mulacara, IV. v. 126; Uttarajjhayanani, XXVI. 6. 26 Uttaradhyayana Brhadvrtti, p. 534. 27 Ibid., p. 534.

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10 The Samacari 28 Avasyaka Niryukti, vv. 694-695. 29 avassaim ca nimto jam ca aimto nisihiam kunai/vanjaNGameam tu duha attho puna hoi so ceval/-Ava syaka Niryukti, v. 692. 30 Anagaradharmamsta, VIII, v. 130. 31 Bhagavati Aradhana, Vijayodaya tika on v. 150. 32 IV, vv. 126-127. 33 V.2056. 34 Anagaradharmamsta, VIII, p. 641. 35 Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 697. 36 Ibid., v. 697 ab. 37 Ibid., v. 698 c; Mulacara, IV, V, 128, Uttarajjhayanani, XXVI. 6. 38 Uttarajjhayanani, XXVI. 7. 39 Avasyaka Niryukti, v. 697d; Mula cara IV, v. 128. 40 Ibid, vv. 698-700 ; Mulacara, IV, v. 128 ; Uttarajjhayanani, XXVI. 7. 41 Ibid., vv. 701-702, 42 Ibid., vv, 698-699. 43 Ibid., v. 699 cd.

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III THE ASAMAHITTHANAS or The Twenty Occasions of the Imbalance of Mind The first chapter of the Ayaradasao deals with twenty occasions of the imbalance of mind, which are as follows: THE TWENTY OCCASIONS 1. Walking quickly (davadavacari) without circumspection. Though the explicit reference is to walking alone, other kinds of activities are also implied. Such implication is also to be understood in the cases that follow. 2. Walking without wiping off the place with the broom (duster, rajoharana). 3. Walking by badly wiping off the place with the broom. 4. Use of additional beds and seats. 5. Reproaching or insulting one's superiors in rank (ratinia-paribhasi). 6. Finding fault with (the conduct or morality or intellectual competence of) one's superiors. 7. Causing injury to one-sensed beings (such as vegetation) for the sake of one's enjoyment and embellishment (bhuo vaghaie). 8. Becoming inimical. 9. Becoming angry. 10. Indulgence (pitthimamsie). 11. Repeated self-assertion (arro in backbiting gance). 12. Raising of new unraised disputes (ahigarana). 13. Raising of the condoned and settled old disputes. 14. Study of the scriptures at prohibited periods. Or Study of the prohibited scrip tures. 15. Moving with hands and feet not properly dusted or wiped off. 16. Shouting loudly. 17. Creation of dissension. 18. Instigation of quarrels. 19. Engagement in eating from sun-rise to sun-set. 20. Not preserving equilibrium of mind during the begging tour. These occasions of mental imbalance can roughly be distributed over the first three samitis, namely, irya, bhasa and esana. The number twenty here is arbitrary, because there can be many other occasions with reference to different sense-organs, objects and passions. In fact, there can be as many types of loss of self-control or self-possession as there are causes and conditions of the disturbance and agitation of the mind. In the Digambara tradition, these imbalances are not specifically

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12 The Asamahitthanas mentioned. But in the Mulacara,1 Similarly, in place of the occathe expression asamahi is found in sion of imbalance no. 7, there is the the same sense. This indicates the pacittiya no. 11 which reads bhutaimportance of the topic in monastic gamapatavyataya pacittiyam, that conduct, which appears elaborated is, for destruction of vegetable by the Svetambara elders. growth there is an offence of expi ation. It is interesting to note here IN BUDDHISM that although, in Buddhism, the Let us now see how such imbal- vegetable growth is not due to the ances have found a record in the existence of soul or life in it, their Buddhist monastic code which was monastic code prohibits destruction definitely influenced in some way of vegetation, most certainly under or other by the life led by the Jaina the influence of the Jaina view of monks and nuis in those days. the vegetable kingdom as possessed The first occas on of imbalance of life and soul. may be compared with several sekhi- The occasion of imbalance no. ya dhamma (rules connected with 10 may be compared with the pacitraining prescribed for the Buddhist ttiva no. 3 which says; bhikkhumonks and nuns). For instance, pesunne pacittiyam, that is, there is the sekhiya dhamma no. 5 prescribes an offence of expiation in backbiting that a monk should learn to enter a or slandering. house, completely self-possessed and Again, the occasion of imbalance not indulging in careless movement no. 13 finds its very close parallel of his limbs. Again no. 11 prescri- in the pacittiya no. 63 which runs as bes that he should not enter the follows: yo pana bhikkhu janam house with a wavering body (kaya- yathadhammam nihatadhikaranam ppacalakam) or with body stiffened puna kammaya ukkoteyya, pacitti(Khambhakato). yam which means "whatever monk Corresponding to the occasion should knowingly open up for a of imbalance of mind no. 5, there is further act a legal question settled the Buddhist pacittiya no. 2 which according to rule, there is an offence reads on asavade pacittiyam. Here of expiation." This rule provides omasa means reproach or insult. an insight into the legal disputes The etymology of the word is not that were a common feature of the known but the commentary explains monastic organizations of those it as 'insulting' by pointing out to days. the birth, name, family, profession, Similarly the 16th imbalance has etc., of one's superiors. In the Curni a parallel in the 13th sekhiya dhaof the Ayaradasao there is the men- mma, the 17th in the 10th sanghadition of eight madasthanas (sources sesa. of pride), namely, jati 'birth', etc., in this conneccion. There is, therefore, IN BRAHMANISM no doubt that there is a very close, In the Brahmanical texts on the relation between these two concepts. yatidharma, and the duties of a

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brahmacarin, similar rules are for prescribed. A brahmacarin, instance, is asked to be self-possessed and self-controlled and very careful while collecting alms. In the Yajnavalkya-smrt,2 it is said that an ascetic should beg food, being wakeful (apramatta). There are some chapters in the Smrti literature, that are exclusively devoted to yatidharma. For instance, in the Vasistha References 1 IV. v. 171. 2 II. 58. In Brahmanism 13 smrti, there is a full section on yatidharma where paisunya (backbiting), matsara (envy), abhimana (pride), ahankara (egotism), asraddha (absence of faith), anarjava (crookedness), atmastava (self-praise), paragarha (condemning others), dambha (deception), lobha (greed), moha (delusion), krodha (anger) and asuya (repugnance) are mentioned as the disqualifications of an ascetic. 3 Sutras 244-267.

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IV THE SABALAS or The Twenty-One Types of Monks with Tainted Conduct MEANING vaikkama (infringement) and atiyara (violation of the rule and perpetThe Prakrit expression sabala is ration of the offence). But as soon identical with the Sanskrit world sab- as he indulges in anayara (misconala meaning spotted or variegated. duct), he falls down from his life of Here it means a taint, blemish, cor- a monk. Here atikkama stands for ruption or infection. A monk whose the desire for some offence, vaikconduct is tainted or corrupt is also kama for the preparation for that called sabala. offence, atiyara for committing that In the Anguttara Nikayal of offence, and anayara for enjoying the Buddhists, the terms khandakari that offence and addiction to it.3 (maker of splits), chiddakari (maker As distinguished from the aboveof holes), sabalakari (maker of mentioned case of mulagunas, there taints), and kammasakari (maker are offences relating to the uttaraof spots) are given as the antonyms gunas (secondary rules), viz. adhakof santatakari (acting consistently) kama (acceptance of food prepared and santatavutti (behaving consis- for oneself), etc., which do not tently). Here sabala is obviously a make the offender fall down from person of bad conduct (dussila). his monkhood even if he passes Similarly, the negative expressions through all the four stages of the akhandani, acchiddani, asabalani, offence, but makes him only sabala akammasani are also used in the tainted). Digha Nikaya.2 Another criterion of distinguiA distinction is made between shing the sabala from the acaritti a monk who is sabala (tainted) and is that the former is the perpetraa monk who is fallen from his tor of offences that deserve only monkhood (acaritti). So far as the one of the first seven categories of mulagunas (basic qualifications, or Prayascitta (expiation) and not primary rules, viz. the five great any from the last three beginning vows, mahavratas) are concerned, a with the mula, while the latter is monk is called tainted so long as he the doer of sins punishable with indulges himself in atikkama (trans- any of the last three prayascittas gression, pollution of the mind), according to their gravity.

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Meaning 15 An offence is committed in the pot. Here also there is an stages starting with the intention. offence of dukkata. But now if he The penalty prescribed is in accor- shakes (phandapeti) it, he commits dance with the stage of the offence. a grave offence called thullaccaya For instance, for the initial stage (a serious transgression). Further. of intending to do some offence, it if he removes the pot from the is sufficient to confess the guilt as a place, and appropriates its contents, dukkada (wrong-doing). And at a he commits the gravest guilt called later stage, some higher penalty is parajika which makes him liable to necessary. This principle has been be expelled from the Order.5 accepted also in the monastic code Now let us enumerate the of the Buddhists. Let us here offences called sabala (taint) as conquote the second parajika concer- tained in the second chapter of the ned with adinnadana (stealing) and Ayaradasao, mentioning similar see how different penalties are ideas, if any, in the Buddhist prescribed for the different stages. code. yo pana bhikkhu adinnam theyyasarkhatam adiyeyya, yatharupe THE TWENTY-ONE SABALAS e raiano coram gahetva 1. Hatthakamma (masturbation). hanevyum va bandhey yum va pabba- This is comparable to the jeyyum va oro'si balo'si mulho'si hist sanghadisesa no. 1 which reads: theno'siti tatharupam bhikkhu sancetanika sukkavissathi sanghaadin nam adi vamano ayam pi diseso (intentional emission of parajiko hoti asamvasoti.4 semen is a matter entailing the (Whatever monk, with an intention penalty to be imposed by the to steal, should take what has not sangha). This is a very heavy been given to him, in such manner punishment, next only to the one of taking as kings, catching a thief, prescribed for the parajika offence flog him or imprison him or banish which is the gravest. The emission him, saying: "you are a robber, is effected by using the hand (hatiyou are foolish, you are wrong, you hena upakkamitva). are a thief", even so a monk taking 2. Mehuna-padisevana (sexual interwhat is not given him, is also one course). who is parajika (defeated), is asam- This is comparable to the vasa (not worthy of living together Buddhist parajika no. 1 amended as on account of the diversity of be- "yo pana bhikkhu methunam dhamhaviour, purpose and training). mam patiseveyya antamaso tiraccha Now suppose a monk intends to nagataya parajiko hoti asamvaso" steal some thing which is hidden (whatever monk should indulge in under ground. He seeks for a com- sexual intercourse even with an panion or he seeks for a hoe or a animal is one who is parajika 'defeabasket or goes towards the hidden ted' and is no longer fit to live with treasure. At this stage the offence the sangha), commuted into sanghais dukkata. Again, he lays hold of disesa in connection with the case

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16 The Sabalas of the upasika named Saddha.6 and ends in the satisfaction of the In Jainism, as in Buddhism, the offender. sexual intercourse is one of the The above-described two offences gravestsins. But its gravity is are elaborately treated in the first reduced under special circumstances. few sutras of the Nisitha Adhyayana If such an offence is committed and the Bhasya and Curni on them. under an unavoidable necessity and This treatment has an astonishing has a strong ground and justifica- affinity with that of the relevant tion (salamba) and is accompanied text of the Parajika-Pali. This affiwith utmost self-control (jayana) nity is certainly not accidental but and remorse, its gravity was com- presupposes a common m@nastic muted from that of the parancika code that was prevalent in the days into the one of a sabala. of the Buddha and Mahavira and The above-mentioned two saba perhaps formilated in still earlier las (taints) are much discussed in times. We do not, of course, know the monastic code of the Jainas the exact nature of the language in and the Buddhists. The discussions which that common code was are sometimes carried on in written. But there is no doubt that great detail. In some cases the the language in which the above line of demarcation between offen- texts have come down to us is a ces that are to be considered as direct descendant of that common cases of sabala or acaritti is very language. thin. The principle of benefit of The expression sabila is not doubt is often applied in such cases. found in the above mentioned sense The last stage of offence, viz. of a moral taint in Brahm inical anacara, is the crucial test. The literature. Almost an exact definition of anacara is difficult equivalent of it is found in the word issue. If the result of an offence is avakirna (which is a similar offence) freely enjoyed without any com- or avakirnin (the offender). The punction, it is anacara. The defini- word avakirna means 'scattered' or tion paribhoge anayaro means that 'spread over' which comes very near as soon as the offender begins to to the meaning of the word sabala relish the result of his offence he "spotted, variegated'. commits anacara. Sometimes the We quote below Manusmrti? on word asvadana is used in place of the subject : paribhoga. Amitagati's statement "The avakirnin shall sacrifice to "vadant yanacaramihatisaktatam" Nirsti at night, at the crossroads, (that is, the unmitigated and abso- a one-eyed ass by the ritual approlute attachment to the result of a priate to sacrifices of cooked crime is anacara) is impressive. It food (118). is thus the psychological factor "Having offered oblations in fire, that is most important in determin- he shall finally pour oblations of ing the gravity of an offence which ghee to Vata, Indra, the Teacher, starts with the intention and motive and Agni, with the Rk verse

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"sama", etc. (119). "Those who know dharma and utter the Veda say that it is a breach (atikrama) of his observance if a twiceborn who has undertaken the observance intentionally emits semen (120).8 "To the Maruts, to Puruhuta (Indra), to the Teacher, and to the Fire, to these four passes the Brahmic glory of the man bound by the observance, who is an avakirnin (121). "When this sin has been committed he shall clothe himself in the ass's hide and go begging to seven houses, proclaiming his act (122). "Subsisting on a single meal consisting of the alms received from there and ritually cleansing himself at the three periods (morning, noon and evening), he is purified after one year (123)". Dr P.V. Kane, in his History of Dharmasastra, tracing the genesis of the idea of avakirnin, writes as follows: "The most reprehensible act in a brahmacarin was to have sexual intercourse with a woman. The Taittiriya Aranyaka10 speaks of the prayascitta for such a brahmacarin who is called avakirnin. The Gautama Dharmasutrall quotes the Taittiriya Aranyaka..., and further provides that he should kindle fire at midnight on a new moon day and then offer two ajya oblations by way of penance...The Baudhayana Dharmasutra 12 contains the same rules. Jaimini13 prescribes that ordinary (laukika) fire is to be used for the pasu to be sacrificed (viz. ass to Nirrti which is symbolic The Twenty-one Sabalas 17 of the stupid lapse the student is guilty of) and Sabara quotes a Vedic passage that 'a brahmacarin who has become avakirnin should sacrifice ass to Nirrti'. The Apastamba Dharmasutra,14 Vasistha Dharmasutra,15 Manusmrti16 and Yajnavalkyasmrti17 contain a similar provision. The Manusmrti18 and Visnu DharmaSutra19 prescribe that a brahmacarin so guilty should for one year wear the skin of the ass, should beg for food at seven houses announcing to them his lapse, should bathe thrice and then only he becomes pure." as The above treatment of the subject clearly shows the different patterns of punishment prescribed in Jainism and Buddhism on the one hand, and Brahmanism on the other. Another important aspect of the subject that draws our attention is the bewildering details found in the Jaina and Buddhist texts opposed to the simplicity of the offence in the Brahmanical literature. Dr I. B. Horner, in her Introduction to The Book of the Discipline20 (Vinaya Pitaka) has characterized the relevant passages as 'crude', and has raised three points in this connection. "In the first place", she says, "they were neither spoken nor written down for a general public, but were intended only for the devotees of celibacy. Secondly, the motive which led to their being uttered or written down was not a desire to shock, but the need to prevent unchastity. Thirdly, the pattern on which the compilers of the Suttavibhanga worked was one of almost unbelievable detail, for in

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18 The Sabalas their efforts to be lucid, case after in the Brahmanical way of life. This case of possible or actual deviation was evidently responsible for the from the general rule was investiga- comparative lack of sexual aberrated, penalised and perpetuated. tions mentioned in the Brahmanical Hence it cannot justly be said that literature. The absence of intensive the tendency to be detailed is moral and spiritual programmes greater or more insistent in one was also perhaps responsible for parajika, or in one sanghadisesa those aberrations in the life of than in others. Such lack of restraint monks and nuns who mostly found as is found may be embarrassing to themselves divorced and isolated us, but it must be remembered that from the common run of mankind. early peoples were not so much The Jaina acaryas were aware of afraid of plain speech as we are. this fact and recommended a heavy No stigma of indecency or obscenity daily routine for their monks and should therefore be attached to nuns to ward off the vagrancy of such Vinaya passages as seem un- their minds. necessarily outspoken to us. For A fter this long digression, we they were neither deliberately come to the other sabalas beginning indecent nor deliberately obscene. with the third. The matters to which they refer 3. Raibhoana (taking food at night). had to be legislated for as much as This is comparable to the Buddhad matters of theft and murder, of hist pacittiya no. 37 : yo pang choosing sites for huts and viharas." bhikkhu vikale khadaniyam va These passages, however, are regar- bhojanijam va khadeyja va bhunded by her interesting historically, jeyya va pacitriyam. Here a monk scientifically and psychologically, is prohibited from taking food in even psycho-analytically, because the afternoon. In the Yajnavalk yathey might be of value to anyone smrti21 a yati (ascetic) is allowed to making a detailed comparison of beg food only in the fourth quarter Eastern and Western monachism of the day. It follows, therefore, But the question remains why that the Buddhists and the Brahthe subject is treated so elaborately manas also did not allow taking in Jainism and Buddhism whereas food at night. it finds a very brief representation 4. Ahakamma-bhoanam (taking food in the Brahmanical discipline. One prepared for the monk). of the reasons was perhaps the 5. Raipimda-bhoanam (taking food admission in the monastic organi- offered by the king). zations of persons irrespective of 6. Kiyam (purchased), pamiccam their age and worldly experience by (borrowed), acchijjum (snatched), the Jainas and the Buddhists. There anisittham (not disowned), ahattu was, however, an intervention of dijjamanam (offered as carried from two stages of life, viz. those of the elsewhere for the monk). grhastha and the vanaprastha bet- 7. Enjoyment of a given up article ween the brahmacar ya and samnyasa repeatedly

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The Twenty-one Sabalas 19 8. Changing gana (group) more than hist pacittiya no. 1: sampajanamuonce within six months. savade pacittiyam (in telling a cons9. Crossing navel deep stream thrice cious lie, there is an offence of a month. expiation). This is comparable to the Budd- 14. Taking deliberately what is not hist pacittiya no. 53 : udake hasa- given. dhamme pacittijam which is explai- 15. Deliberately standing, lying ned as if the monk immerses the down, or sitting on live earth (anampart above the ankle in the water, tarahiya). or draws it out or swims, there is 16. (The above acts) on earth wet an offence of expiation'. In this with live water and covered with live connection the practice of taking dust. bath by a monk also deserves atten- 17. The same acts on a live stone tion. The pacittiya no. 57: yo slab, a clod of earth, worm-eaten pana bhikkhu prenaddhamasam timber, and a place infested with nahayeyya pacittiyam (whatever living organisms, eggs, beings possemonk should bathe at intervals of ssed of two or more senses, seeds, less than half a month, there is an vegetation, dew or hoar-frost, ants, offence of expiation). fungus, moist earth, spider's web.22 10. Practising deceit (maitthana) 18. To partake of deliberately the thrice a month. root, bulb, stem, skin (bark), sprout This is comparable to pacittiya (shoot), leaf, flower, fruit, seed, no. 73...mohanake pacittiyam. Here vegetation. mohanaka means cheating, deceiv- This is comparable to the Budding, pretending. hist pacittiya no. 11: bhastagamaThis comparison may throw patavyataja pacittiyam (here bhutalight on the meaning of the Prakrit gama 'vegetable growth' refers to word maitthana which is probably five kinds of bija (seed), viz. mula derived from the Sanskrit maya bija (propagated from roots), khan dha-bija (propagated from stems), 11. Accepting food from him who phalu-bija (propagated from germs), has given residence (sagaria-pimda). agga-bija (propagated from cutting), 12. Committing injury to life deli- bija-bija (propagated from seeds). berately (without any sufficient This can be compared with Dasareason). veyaliya23 where the expressions This is comparable to the Budd- used are agga-biya, mula-biya, porahist pacittiya no. 61 : yo pana bhi- biya khandha-biya, biya-ruha, etc. kkhu sancicca panam jivita voropeyya 19. Crossing navel deep stream ten pacitti yam (whatever monk should times a year (Vide sabala no. 9). intentionally deprive a living thing 20. Practising deceit ten times a of life, there is an offence of expia- year (Vide sabala no. 10). tion). 21. Partaking of asana (food), 13. Telling a lie deliberately. pana (drink), khaima (dainties) or This is comparable to the Budd- saima (spices), deliberately taking

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20 The Sabalas it from hands or pot, or ladle, or utensil moist with cold (live) water. References I II, p. 200. dream. Yajnavalkya-smrti, III, 279 2 II, p. 65; III, p. 190. 9 Vol. II, part I, p. 374. 3 Vide Mulacara, XI, 11, with Vasu- 10 II. 18. nandi's Commentary. Also Ayaradasao 11 III. 7. 1-4. Niryukti, vy. 12-14, Curni : padisunane 12 IV. 2. 10-13. atikkamo, padabhede vatikkamo gah- 13 VI. 8. 22. ane atiyaro, paribhoge anayaro. For 14 I. 9. 26. 8. further discussion of the issue, vide the 15 23. 1-3. next article "The Four Stages of Sin." 16 XI. 118-21. 4 Parajika Pali, p. 55. 17 III. 279. 5 Ibid., p. 58. 18 XI. 122-123. 6 Ibid., p. 49, 19 28. 49-50. 7 XI. 118-23 20 Part I, p. xxxvii. 8 If one unintentionally emits semen by 21 III. 58 with the Apararka-tika. day or by night one should perform a 22 Cf. Dasaveyaliya, VIII. 13-15. lighter penance, ligther still if in a 23 IV. 8.

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THE FOUR STAGES OF SIN IN JAINISM the Curni on the Ayaradasao Nir yukti,2 the above four terms are The problem of sin or monastic explained as follows: crime that we are going to consider tattha padisunane atikkamo, padhere will be discussed from the abhede vatikkamo, gahane atiyaro, standpoint of monastic conduct. paribhoge anayaro. What is considered as the gravest stage spiritually is sometimes con- The implication is that as soon sidered as almost negligible monas- as countenance is given to an tically. For instance, a person offence, one arrives at the first falls down to the lowest level of stage called atikrama. The second spirituality as soon as his mind is stage, called vyatikrama, consists in polluted by passions. But such a fall from the station of monastic pollution is not considered a grave discipline (padabheda). In the third offence in the monastic code of stage, called aticara, the offence is crimes and punishments. In fact, committed (say an act of theft), and in the Canon Law, pramada or the finally in the fourth stage, called sway of passions and non-vigilance anacara, the offender starts taking of mind is not considered a punish- great pride in his achievement. able offence. An ordinary monk is Vasunandi, in his commentary on like a miserable person plunged the Mulacara, 3 explains atikramana upto his ears in debt and cannot be as the monk's desire for worldly seriously taken to task for every act pleasures (visayabhikanksa), vyatiof mental pollution that he may kramana as acquisition of ways and indulge in. The only punishment means (upakaranarjanam) for succeprescribed for such an offence is ssful operation, aticara as disregard confession (alocana) and retracing of vows (vratasaithilyam), a bit (pratikramana) 1 The Jaina monas- licentious behaviour (isad asamtic legislators consequently recogni- yama-sevanam), and anacara as sed four stages of a monastic offence, breach of the vows (vratabhanga) namely, atikrama (transgression, pol- and absolutely wayward behaviour lution of the mind), vyatikrama (sarvatha svecchaya pravartanam). (infringement), aticara (violation of A very lucid exposition of the the rule and perpetration of the above-mentioned four stages of an offence), anacara (misconduct). In offence is given by Amitagati in his

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22 The Four Stages of Sin Paramatma-dvatrimsika,4 which runs IN BUDDHISM as follows: ksatim manah-suddhi-vidher ati- In Buddhist monasticism also kramam similar stages are distinguished for vyatikramam silavrter vilangha- the purpose of meting out different nam; categories of punishment. For inprabho 'ticaram visayesu var- stance, if one digs a pit for a man tanam saying : 'falling into it he will die,' vadant yanacaram iha tisaktatam. there is an offence of dukkata (Atikrama, they say, consists in (wrong-doing); the man falls down the pollution of the texture of the into it, there is an offence of dukmind; vyatikrama in crossing the kata (wrong-doing); in falling down barriers of vows; aticara, O Lord, in a painful feeling arises, there is an indulgence in the pleasures of the offence of thullaccaya (grave transworld; and anacara in excessive gression); if he dies, there is an attachment to them.) offence involving parajika (defeat). The above-mentioned four stages Again suppose one digs a pit withcan be illustrated in the case of out a purpose and says of whoever the adhakarma offence. Suppose a falls into it, he will die', there is devotee closely related to the monk an offence of dukkata (wronginvites him to his house for offering doing); a man falls down into it, food specially prepared for him. there is an offence of dukkata The monk (1) accepts the invitation, (wrong-doing); in falling down a (2) proceeds towards the place with painful feeling arises, there is the his bowl, enters the house, and offence of thullacaja (grave transgreextends his bowl, (3) accepts the ssion); if he dies, there is an offence 'food', returns to the abode to in- involving parajika (defeat).? form his superior, starts eating, and Let us take another case. A finally, (4) swallows the food. Here monk commands another monk acceptance of invitation is atikrama. saying 'deprive so and so of life', The monk's movement towards the there is an offence of dukkata house upto the extension of the wrong-doing) for the commander; bowl is vyatikrama. Acceptance of the monk commanded, thinking the food upto the start of eating is this is the person (to be deprived of aticara. Actual swallowing of the life), kills him, there is an offence food is anacara.5 involving parajika (defeat) for both; The punishment prescribed for but in case he, by mistake, kills the first three stages mentioned another person (not intended to be above is heavy one month (masa- killed), there is an offence involving guru) austerity divided into three parajika (defeat) for the murderer, grades of increasing intensiveness. there being no offence for the instiThe punishment for the fourth gator. 8 stage in heavy four month (catur- The above account is from the masa-guru) austerity.6 Pali Vinaya Pitaka. In Sanskrit

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In Buddhism 23 Buddhism, the offence of killing is (pramatta-yogat ptanavyaparopanam very precisely defined by Vasuban- himsa). The expression 'pramattadhu in his Abhidharma-kosa. Tak- yoga' represents the essence of the ing away of life (pranatipata), definition. The concept of pramada according to him, is an aforethought is very wide as it comprises eight killing of another person unerr- factors, namely, (1) ignorance, (2) ingly. This definition clearly sets doubt, (3) wrong notion, (4) attachforth three factors of genuine ment, (5) hatred, (6) unsteady vigiloffence of killing, namely (1) fore- ance, (7) disrespect for principles of thought, (2) separate identity of the righteousness, and (8) perversity of person to be killed, and (3) killing mental, vocal, and physical actiof the iniended person. If any of vity. 12 The scope of pramada, thus these factors is wanting, it will not interpreted, is so wide that any be a case of genuine killing. mental or moral lapse, however In this connection, Vasubandhu small or covert, on the part of the enters a caveat against the Nirgran- doer is bound to make him incur tha philosophers who attributed the offence of violence (himsa). An sin to the killer of a living being act may be voluntary or involuneven if such killing was not preme- tary. The moral character of a ditated on the analogy of fire that voluntary act is obvious, but that burns the limb of a person, whether of involuntary acts not is so. he puts it into fire intentionally or They may spring forth from subconunintentionally. 10 This definition of scious propensities that are rooted in killing would, according to Vasu- passions and perversities. The Jaina bandhu, make sin a mechanical philosophers characterize such invoaffair bereft of any spiritual signi- luntary acts as covertly immoral ficance. Simply looking at a beauti- and as such make its perpetrator ful maiden or touching her without incur offence. Thus, for instance, any mental pollution would be an if a person has not taken the vow act of sin. The example of fire is of desisting from violent activities absurd according to him. It can- through thought, speech, and body, not prove the validity of the defini- he incurs offence for all kinds of tion. activities that he may be engaged Vasubandhu's definition of pran- in voluntarily or involuntarily or atipata appears to be influenced by even tacitly at the subconscious the early Buddhist conception as level. The vow, according to the explained above on the basis of the Jaina philosophers, brings about a Vinaya Pitaka. sort of moral purity which saves Let us now see how the Jaina him from perpetrating sinful acts thinkers look at the problem Uma- even in thought, much less in pracsvati in his Tattvarthasutra, 11 tice. This is a very wholesome moral defines himsa (violence, injury) as principle accepted in some way or taking av ay of life under the sway other by all systems of thought beof non-vigilance rooted in passions lieving in spirituality and asceticism.

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24 The Four Stages of Sin Vasubandhu's criticism of the blood drawn. Therefore one should Jaina definition of himsa is thus not threaten a brahmana with assafound to be inspired by an incorrect ult nor strike him or draw his appraisal of the Jaina philosopher's blood." The Gautama Dharmastandpoint. The definition of pran sutra15 has a similar dictum, viz. atipata given by him obviously that threatening a brahmana with pertains exclusively to the social assault in wrath prevents entry into life and the formal code of monas- heaven for a hundred years (or leads tic conduct. It is not applicable to hell for a hundred years).16 to the spiritual life. The Buddha, The Manusmrti17 also repeats as is well known, attached supreme the same dictum. It is thus clear importance to the mental act. The that Brahmanism also recognized very opening verse of the Dhamma- the stages of a sin. pada lays down that it is the mind Another aspect of the Brahmathat predominates everything; it is nical law concerning punishment the mind that transcends all; it is may be mentioned here. The Brhathe mind that pervades every thing; tparasarg18 and Kautilya's Arthaif one speaks or acts with a polluted sastra19 lay down that the award mind, suffering surely pursues him of punishment must be regulated by even as the wheel follows the foot a consideration of the motive and of the ox which draws the cart.13 nature of the offence, the time and We do not mean to accuse Vasuban- place, the strength, age, conduct dhu of any purposeful deviation (or duties), learning, monetary from the Buddha's Norm, but only position of the offender and by want to assert that his definition is the fact whether the offence is intended to satisfy the popular repeated.20 . conception, and the legal formalities The right of private defence of of the monastic order. person or property from an atata yin (desperado) was recognized by IN BRAHMANISM the Brahmanical Dharmasastra After this digression which was works. Apararka (on Yajnavalkyanecessary to define the Buddhist smrti21) remarks that persons have and Jaipa positions on the issue of to be regarded as atatayin while himsa, let us now consider the Brah- they are about to set fire or to kill manical view of the stages of a sin or are in the act of setting fire or crime. The Taittiriya Samhital4 or killing and the like, that where says: "He who threatens a brah- it is not possible to prevent them mana should be fined a hundred, he from doing what they intend to do who strikes a brahmana should be except by killing them, there only fined a thousand, he who draws the texts allow killing, but where blood would not reach (or find) the it is possible to prevent them abode of pitrs for as many years as by merely wounding them with a the dust particles that may be made weapon or stick, killing them into a paste by the quantity of would be an offence.22

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In Modern Law 25 been distinguished thus: "Two categories of criminal homicide are recognized: murder (those committed with malice afterthought) and manslaughter (all criminal homicides that are not murder)... In the modern law two divisions of manslaughter are recognized voluntary and involuntary. The most important type of voluntary manslaughter consists of sudden killing in anger or "heat of passion" by one who has suffered serious provocation from the deceased. Not all provocations are legally adequate to reduce a homicide from murder to manslaughter. (Cf. Apararka's view quoted above). Blows or other physical injuries inflicted on the accused by the deceased may be regarded by the jury as adequate. The killing of one found committing adultery with the slayer's wife may also amount to voluntary manslaughter. In most AngloAmerican jurisdictions mere words, however insulting, do not constitute adequate provocation; but in a few U.S. jurisdictions, as well as in England and Wales since the Homicide act, 1957, a contrary rule obtains. The proper definition of involuntary manslaughter has been the subject of considerable controversy. It was asserted by the common-law commentators that any killing resulting from commission of an unlawful act is a criminal homicide. This offence was murder if the unlawful act was a felony, but manslaughter, if a misdemeanour. Involuntary man Murder and manslaughter have slaughter may also be committed IN MODERN LAW The above-described stages of sin or crime and the attitude of the Indian law-givers to crimes and punishments find striking parallels in modern law. We should like to illustrate our point with reference to the crime of homicide in English law. a In modern English law-books the crime of homicide is considered as having four distinct stages, namely, assault, aggravated assault, manslaughter, and murder. Assault stands for violent attack with physical means as blows or weapons. Aggravated assault is regarded as more heinous than common assault. It is an assault combining an intent to commit crime other than that involved in the mere assault itself. Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of a human being without expressed or implied malice. Murder means the killing of a person secretly or with concealment as opposed to an open killing. The first-degree murder deserves either capital or severe punishment because of being willful and premeditated, being committed with atrocity or cruelty (as by poisoning, starvation, mayhem, or torture), being committed in the course of the commission of a serious felony (as arson, burglary or kidnapping), or being committed after lying in wait for the purpose of killing the victim. The second-degree murder is all other murder not classified as firstdegree murder.23

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26 The Four Stages of Sin when, without intent to kill, the from the Jaina, Buddhist and actor engages in unjustifiable dan- Brahmanical ancient literature and gerous behaviour resulting in death its comparison with modern law to another,"24 should throw ample light on the essential unity of all legal specuCONCLUSION lations by the thinkers all over the world, concerned with religious, The above brief account of social and cultural welfare of grades of crime and punishment mankind. References 1 Brhat-kalpa-Bhasya, Verse 1655. Mala- dveso'navasthanam smrter dharmes yagiri, commenting on this verse, says: vanadarah. yoge duspranidhanam ca manasa 'panne' pyaparadhe nasti tapah- pramado'stavidhah smstah; tena yogat prayascittam sthavirkalpikanam. alo- pramattah syad apramattastato cana-pratikramana-prayascitte tu tatra- 'nyatha. pi bhavata iti mantavyam. 13 manopubbangama dhamma manosettha 2 Vy. 12-14. manomaya; manasa ce padutthena 3 XI. 11. bhasati va karoti va, tato nam dukkham 4 Verse 9. anveti cakkam va vahato padam. 5 Vyavahara-Bhasya-pithika, pp. 44-46. 14 Il. 6. 10. 1-2. 6 Ibid., gatha 44 (p. 18 a), with Malaya- 15 HII. 3. 20-22. giri's tika. 16 P.V. Kane : History of Dharmasastra, 7 Parajika Pali, p. 94. Vol. II, part I, pp. 151-52. 8 Ibid., p. 92. 17 X1. 206-07 9 Abhidharma-kosa, 1V, 73 ab: prana- 18 P. 284. tipatah sancintya parasyabhranta-mara- 19 IV. 20. nam. 20 P.V. Kane : op. cit., III, pp. 391-92. 10 Ibid., Bhasya : abuddhi-purvad api 21 III. 227. pranivadhat kartur adharmah, yatha 22 P.V. Kane: op. cit., pp. 517-18. agnisamyogad daha iti nirgranthah. 23 Webster's Third New International 11 VII. 8. Dictionary, 1976, s.v. murder. 12 Svopajna-Bhasya-tika on Tattvartha. 24 Quoted from Encyclopaedia Britan sutra, VII. 8, p. 65 : ajnanam samsayas- nica, 1973, Vol. II, p. 647. Portion in caiva mithyajnanam tathaiva ca; rago brackets is ours.

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VI ASAYANA or Disrespectful Conduct The third chapter of the Ayara- oneself, he washes before allowing dasao gives thirty-three types of the superior to do so. asayana (Skt. asatana derived from 11. If on return from the place a-tv sad causative, meaning de- of easing oneself (viyara-bhumi) or stroying, cutting off completely) the place of study (vihara-bhumi), 'disrespectful conduct which are as he performs aloyana (self-examinafollows: tion at the completion of the visit) before allowing the superior to do A seha disciple' commits the so. offence of disrespect : 12. If he indulges in a talk in 1. If he walks in front of the advance with an outsider who has rayaniya "superior in respect of come for a talk with the superior. knowledge or monastic standing' 13. If at night or the afternoon, (without any specific reason). the superior asks "Venerables, are 2. If he walks by the side of the you asleep or waking?" and if the rayaniya (because such walking waking monks do not answer (delimay entail touching the robe or berately). rubbing any limb of him). 14. If on return from begging 3. If he walks too near to the asana (food), pana (drink), khaima superior. (sweets), saima (condiments), he 4. If he stands in front of the performs aloyana (confession) in superior. front of another monk instead of 5. If he stands by the side of the superior. the superior. 15. If on return from begging 6. If he stands too near to the asana (food), pana (drink), khaima superior. (sweets), saima (condiments), he 7. If he sits in front of the shows the alms to another monk superior. instead of the superior. 8. If he sits by the side of the 16. If on return from begging superior. asana (food), pana (drink), khaima 9. If he sits too near to the (sweets), saima (condiments), he superior. invites other monks instead of the 10. If at the place of easing superior before inviting the latter.

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28 Asayana 17. If on collecting, together 29. If he disrupts the address with the superior, asana (food), pana being delivered by the superior. (drink), khaima (sweets), saima 30. If he repeats the same story (condiments), he distributes them twice or thrice as has already been without the permission of the narrated by the superior before the assembly that has not risen up, not wishes, in good quantity. broken up, not interrupted, not 18. If on collecting asana (food), scattered. pana (drink), khaima (sweets), 31. If he rubs the bed and the saima (condiments), he partakes of mat of the superior with his feet them along with the superior, in and walks without begging pardon good quantity (khaddham khadd- in humility and modesty. ham), the vegetable food (dagam 32. If he stands on, sits on, and dagam), the dainties (usadham usa- lies down upon the bed and the mat dham), juicy food (rasiyam rasiyam), of the superior. delicious food (manunnam manunnam), 33. If he stands on, sits on, and choice food (manamam manamam), Jies down upon a seat which is fatty food (niddham niddham), dry higher than or on the same level and spiced (lukkham lukkham) food. with that of the superior. 19. if he does not respond to There are different arrangements the call of the superior. of the asayanas in different texts. 20. If he responds to such call The following table will show the unmoved from the place where he difference : is. ADasi SVV12 HAVr3 21. If he answers by a counter question like "What do you say?"? 22. If he replies by addressing the superior in second person singular (tumamti) which is an impolite way of addressing the superior. 23. If he answers in a harsh tone. 24. If he retorts (angrily) in the same words as used by his superior. 25. If he attempts to revise the statement of the superior. 26. If he ascribes loss of memory to his superior. 27. If he does not feel elated at the sermon of the superior. 28. If he tries to dissolve the assembly that is being addressed by the superior.

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Asayana 29 28 27 29 31 eighty-four according to different calculations. In a similar way, various items are given under the other two categories. 6 In brief, all occasions of disrespectful behaviour or impolite conduct are regarded as cases of asayana. In the Padikkamanajjhayana of the Avasyaka Sutra, the thirty-three asayanas are described differently. 29 Here the disrespectful conduct is 30 stated to be in respect of the 30 following: 31+32 32 +33 Arahamta (the adorable), siddha (the emancipated), ayariya (precepBriefly speaking, in the Samava- tor), uvajjhaya (teacher), sahu ya, our no. 27 is missing and our no. (monk), sahuni (nun), savaya 33 is split up into two, viz. 31 and (layman), (avman saviga (laywoman) 32. In the Haribhadra's Commen- deva (god), devi (goddess), tary on the Avas yaka Niryukti, on ihaloga (this world), paraloga (the the other hand, our no. 25 is miss- other world), kevali-pannatta-dhaing, and our no. 33 is split up into mma (religion as propounded by two, viz. 32 and 33. The difference the omniscient), sadeva-manuyasurin the serial numbers will be appa- aloga (1 he world consisting of gods, rent from the table. men and asuras 'demi-gods'), savvaThe word asayana is used in the pana-bhuya-jiva-satta (beings with sense of 'injuring in the Ayaro4. two, three, and four senses, vegetaIn the Mulacara,5 the expression tion, the five-sensed animals, and asana (asadana) is used in the same other living beings), kala (time), sense with reference to the five suya (scripture), suya-deva(the scripastikajas, six kinds of living beings, ture-deity), vayanayariya (the the five mahavratas, the eight prava- expounder preceptor) vaiddha cana-matas, and the nine tattvas, (uttered topsyturvy), vaccameliya thus making a total of thirty-three (mixing up the texts), hinakkhariya items. (omission of syllable), accakkhaThere are some other ways of riya (addition of syllable), payahina enumerating the items. For in- (omission of words), vinayahina stance, sometimes the items of (lacking humility), ghosahina (imdisregard are counted under the properly accented), jogahina (lack categories of jnana (books of the of mental, vocal and physical scripture), deva (deity), guru steadiness), susthu dinna (taught (teacher), etc. In respect of deva, beyond the capacity of the student), such items are ten or forty or dutthu padicchiya (learnt with im For Private & Personal use only

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30 Asayana pure design), akale kao sajjhao not offend (asayayai) him in any (untimely study), kale na kao way, is a monk worthy of respect. sajjhao (abstaining from study at Such disciple offers due respect to the proper time), asajjhaye sajjhai- the monks who are superior and yam (to study what is not to be senior in age and monastic standing studied in respect of time, place, and is obedient to them and abides subject, etc.), sajjhaiye na sajjhai- by their counsel and carries out yam (abstaining from study of what their command. is to be studied in respect of time, IN BUDDHISM place, subject, etc.). All these are concerned with wrong way of In the Buddhist Vinaya, the acquiring knowledge and are offen- duties of the disciple towards his ces of wrong-doing (dukkada). acarya are very elaborately given in The above-mentioned classifica- the sekhiya dhamma no. 57 to 72. It tions do not appear to be based on has been laid down that the teacher any definite principle. The number should not teach if the disciple is thirty-three is common to three of not properly behaved. the above-stated classifications. The overall impression given by these IN BRAHMANISM different modes of counting types of disrespectful conduct is that In the Manusnsti, 10 the duties attempts were made by different of the student towards his teacher authors at different times to bring are similarly defined. There duties together the occasions of disrespectare laid down for brahmacurins and misconduct with reference to a and not for the patis. But the particular way of life, based on duties of the patis are not essentiprinciples determined at random ally different, in this case, from In the Uttarajjha yananithe those of the brahmacarins. The duties of a disciple towards his treatment of the subject in the teacher are lucidly given. In the Manusmrti is comparatively fuller Dasycalija Suttas also such duties so far as the relationship between are prescribed. In the same text, the teacher and the taught is conit is laid down that the disciple who cerned. In the asaj una list there practises modesty in his conduct, are some items which are only inlistens to his preceptor's words directly concerned with teaching, with devotion and a sense of ser- being mainly concerned with the vice, and desires to do as he is general conduct of monks and nuns ordered by the preceptor, and does vis-a-vis the acarya. References 1 Ayaradasao, III. 6 Vide Abhidhana-Rajendra, Vol. II, p. 2 Samavayamga Vrtti, 33. 478 (s.v. asayana). 3 Haribhadriya Avasyaka Niryukti 71. 18-30, 37-38, 40-47. Vrtti, Pratikramanadhyayana, 8 IX, 2. 17-21. 4 1.6.5. 104. 9 IX, 3. 2-3. 5 II. 54. 10 II. 192-205.

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VII GANISAMPADA or The Qualifications of the Ganin (Religious Head) The subject is treated under three broad heads in the fourth chapter of the Dyaradasao. The heads are: (1) Qualifications of the ganin, (II) Vinaya-padivatti of the acarya, and (III) Vinaya padivatti of the antevasin (student). I. QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GANIN. These qualifications are eight in number, viz. (1) ayara (conduct), (2) suya (learning), (3) sarira (personality), (4) vayana (diction), (5) vayana (exposition), (6) mati (perception), (7) paoga (apt application), and (8) samghaparinna (comprehensive planning). Of these qualifications, each is subdivided into four kinds as follows: 1. Ayara (conduct): In respect of ayara, the ganin is (a) samjamajoga jutta, constantly vigilant about his behaviour); (b) asampaggahiyaappa (enjoying non-obsession of the mind); (c) aniyata-vitti (homeless), and (d) vuddha-sila (steadfast observer of the vows signifying maturity). 2. Suya (learning): In respect of suya, the ganin is (a) bahussuya (of versatile study), (b) parijiya suya (deeply familiar with the scripture); (c) vicitta-suya (possessing expertise in his own and alien traditions); and (d) ghosavisuddhikaraa (able to teach correct pronunciation). These qualifications may be compared with those mentioned in the Pali Mahavagga,1 where a monk is described as bahussuto, agatagamo, dhammadharo, vinayadharo, matikadharo, pandito, vyatto, medhavi, lajji, kukkuccako, sikkhakamo. According to the Gautama Dharmasutra,2 the characteristics of a bahusruta are-knowledge of the Vedas and the Vedangas and proficiency in logic, history, Puranas, He should moreover be fully conversant with the duties of a priest and the rules of social conduct. etc. 3. Sarira (personality): It is also of four kinds, viz. (a) arohaparinaha-sampanna (symmetrical); (b) anotappa-sarira (unreproachable body); (c) thirasamghayana (with strong bone-joints); and (d) bahupadipunnindiya (with perfectly and fully developed sense-organs). 4. Vayana (diction): In respect of vayana, he is (a) adeya-vayana (of

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32 Ganisampada impressive diction); (6) mahura- ber, (v) retention without any bias, vayana (of sweet and attractive dic- and (vi) retention without ambition); (c) anissiya-va yana (of unbi- guity. ased diction); and (d) asamdiddha- 7. Paoga (apt application or art vayana (of unambiguous diction). of debate): It is of four kinds, viz. 5. Vayana (exposition): In (a) application of one's knowledge respect of vayana, he (a) vijayam after a complete assessment of uddisai (selects the subject matter one's own powers in debate, (b) according to the interest of the application of one's knowledge in disciple); (b) vijayam vayei (explains debate after a full assessment of the the meaning fully); (c) parinivvaviya parisa (assembly), (c) application of vaei (brings the subject home to one's knowledge in debate after a the disciple); and (d) atthanijjavaya full appreciation of the environ(exposes the sequence of the sub- ment (khetta) of the debate, (d) ject). application of one's knowledge in The Prakrit word pariniyvaviya debate after a full estimation of the can be compared with the Pali nature of the adjudicators, the word pariyapunana3 which means ability of the opponent and the 'mastery over' or 'accomplishment attitude of the authorities, etc. in'. (vatthu). 6. Mati (perception): It is also in the Anguttara Nikaya,4 the of four kinds, yiz. (a) avaggaha tathagata is likened to a cakravar(sense-perception); (b) iha (specula- tin king who governs his kingdom tion); (c) avaya (determination); through righteousness which conand (d) dharana (retention). sists of the following five factors: Each of these four kinds is (i) the purpose (attha), (ii) the duty again subdivided into six subvarie- (dhamma), (iii) the measure (matta ties. Thus the sense-perception Skt. matra), (iv) the time (kala), may be (i) quick, (ii) comprehensive and (v) the assembly (parisa). of many things at a time, (iii) com- 8. Samgha-parinna (comprehenprehensive of the manifold charac- sive planning for the Order): It ter of the thing, (iv) steadfast is also of four kinds, viz. (a) selecperception, (v) unbiased comprehen- tion of a suitable place for the sion, and (vi) unambiguous compre- rainy retreat with sufficient accomhension. The subvarieties of specu- modation for the whole Order lation and determination are exactly including guest monks that may the same as the above-mentioned visit the place, (b) arrangement of ones. The six subvarieties of sufficient outfit such as cot, plank, retention are, however, slightly diffe- bed, mat, etc., for the use of the rent as follows: (i) retention of Order and other inmates, (c) permany things, (ii) retention of the formance of all necessary arrangemanifold character of a thing, (iii) ments at proper times, and (d) due retention of memories, (iv) reten- attention and reverence to all comtion of what is difficult to remem- panions according to their rank and

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Vinaya-padivatti of the Acarya 33 status. stood by him before and firmly The above eightfold gani-sam- convincing him of the new knowpada is differently explained in the ledge, (b) to train the student who Pravacanasaroddhara, and its has thus understood the truth in commentary which gives a number the discipline practised by the of other views from a source which acarya himself, (c) re-establishing is different from the Ayaradasuo. him in the righteousness from which he had fallen down, and (d) II. VINAYA-PADIVATTI OF exertion of the acarya himself THE ACARYA. ceaselessly for the welfare, joy, In addition to the above eight forbearance, emancipation, and qualifications, our text gives some continuity of the righteousness. additional ones that easily follow (iv) Dosa - nigghayana - vinaya from the above-mentioned ones. (discipline qua eradication of pasIt is the duty of the acarya sions). It is also of four kinds, viz. properly to train the student in the (a) calming down the anger of the practice of the discipline (vinaya. angry, (b) calming down the hatred padivatti) which is of four kinds as of the hateful, (c) removal of the follows: doubt of the doubtful, and (d) (i) Ayara-vinaya (discipline qua making the student perfectly selfconduct): It is fourfold, viz. (a) possessed and equipoised. deportment qua self-restraint (sam III. VINAYA-PADIVATTI OF yama-samayari), (b) deportment qua austerity (tava-samayari), (c) THE ANTEVASIN. deportment qua communal living The qualifications and the duties (gana-samayari), and (d) deport- of the ganin are followed by the ment qua solitary life (ekalla- fourfold duties of the student (antevihara-samayari). vasin) that result from the training (ii) Suya-vinaya (discipline qua received by him from the ganin. learning): It is also fourfold, viz. These duties are : (a) teaching the recitation of sutras (i) Uvagarana-uppayanaya (aqui(suttam vaei), (b) bringing home the sition of outfit): It is fourfold, viz. meaning of the sutras (attham raei), (a) acquisition of outfit that has (c) teaching according to the capa- not been acquired, (b) preservation city of the student or teaching what of the old used outfit, (c) augmenis beneficial to the student (hiyam tation of the meagre quantity of vaei), and (d) teaching the sutras outfit, and (d) proper distribution completely without any residue of the outfit. (nisse sam vaei). (ii) Sahillaya (co-operation): It (iii) Vikkhevana-vinaya (disci. is also fourfold, viz. (a) to be agreepline qua assurance, by dissuading able in words, (b) to be agreeable in the student from wrong faith). It physical action, (c) rendering physiis also fourfold, viz. (a) training cal comforts to the teacher, and the student in what was not under- (d) being favourably disposed to the N .

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34 Ganisampada teacher in all matters. tha-Bhasya. He has to train the (iii) Vannasamjalanaya (appreci- disciples who are also, in their turn, ation of merits). It is also four required to fulfil their duties of fold, viz. (a) appreciation of the alleviating the burden of the true merits, (b) expulsion of the teacher and keep the Order away slanderer, (c) encouragement of from disputes, dissensions and the admirer, and (d) rendering ser- quarrels. vice to the elders. In the Buddhist Vinaya also the (iv) Bhara-paccoruhanaya (alle- monks engaged in quarrels and viation of the burden). It is also dissensions are very severely defourfold, viz. (a) bringing back the nounced. In the Malavagga,? the deserter to the fold, (b) training Buddha expresses his deep disgust the novice in conduct and rules of against such monks. In fact, he begging alms, (c) exerting oneself segregated himself from the Order in the proper service to the sick for some time in Order to ventilate partners, and (d) exerting oneself his displeasure with internal quarceaselessly and in the right manner rels. The following words of the for fostering forbearance and calm- Buddha give full expression to his ness in respect of the disputes that feeling of joy in secluded life away may arise among the partners, be- from such quarrelsome monks. ing free from attachment or hatred aham khu pubbe akkinno na phasu and without partiality, cultivating vihasim tehi kosambakehi bhikkhuhi the spirit of equanimity and bhandanakarakehi kalahakarakehi abiding by the rules of jurispru- vivadakarkehi bhassakarakehi sandence. ghe adhikaranakarakchi so'mhi etarThe student should behave in ahi eko adutivo sukham phasu such a manner that his partners viharami annatrera tehi kosambashould desist from wordly duels, dis- kehi bhikkhahi bhandanakarkehi sensions, quarrels, passions, abusing kalahakarakehi vivadakarakchi bhaone another by using second person ssakarakehi sanghe adhikaranakasingular (tumamtuma), so that they rakehi. may fully practise self-restraint, Formerly, beset by those monks self-control, equillibrium and be of Kosambi, makers of strife, vigilant, being engaged in practis- makers of quarrels, makers of dising penance. putes, makers of brawls, makers of A critical look at the contents legal questions in the Order, I did of this ajjhayana (chapter) would not live in comfort; but now that I show that the concept of ganin here am alone with no other, I am living is very broad. In fact, the ganin in comfort, removed from those has to discharge the function of all monks, makers of strife..makers the classes of five acaryas, viz. of legal questions in the Order. pravrajaka, digacarya, srutoddesta, As regards the sampada or the srutasamuddesta and amnayarthava- qualifications of a ganin, it is to be caka as mentioned in the Tattvar- noted that the Head of an Order is

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Vinaya-padivatti of the Antevasin 35 expected to exert himself for the initiation (upana yana) and teaching well-being of himself as well as the Vedas and the six Vedangas others. Such exertion is called and the Upanisads. The acarya atma-hitapratipatti-sampat and par- confers a new spiritual life on the ahita-pratiprati-sampat respectively disciple, which is undecaying and in Buddhism.8 The Buddha is con- immortal.10 sidered as possessed of both kinds The subject of the qualifications of sampat. He pursued a discipline of the Head of a religious organiza(pratipatti) that enabled him to get tion or an acarya who confers a self-enlightenment by totally eradi- new life by initiating the pupil in cating his own darkness of ignor- the path of mental and moral purifiance. This is atma-hita-pratipatti- cation was considered an important sampat which is accompanied with part of culture in all branches of infinite compassion (karuna) that Indian thought. This is evident compels him to exert ceaselessly for from the comparative notes that universal welfare, called para-hita- we have been able to insert in our pratipatti-sampat. treatment of the subject of ganiIn the Manusmrti,9 the fun- sampada. ctions of an acarya are given as References 1 P. 28. 2 1, 8. 4-11. 3 Pali-English Dictionary. S.V. Pariya pumana. 4 Vol. II, p. 402. 5 Vv. 543-46. 6 IX. 6. 7 P. 383. 8 Vide Abhidharmakosa-Bhasya, I. 1. 9 II. 140. 10 Manusmrti, II, 148.

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VIII CITTASAMAHITTHANAS or The Ten Stages of the Concentrated Mind I. INTRODUCTORY time and the entire range of the dhammas is comprehended as a The fifth chapter of the Ayara- result thereof. dasao gives a very lucid and simple S uch knowledge has a very close exposition of the entire course of affinity to what is expressed in the spiritual development, starting with following utterance of the Buddha the practice of the five samitis (com when he attained enlightenment portment) and three guptis (res- about the first noble truth called traints), and passing to the various dukkha (suffering i : idam dukkham stages of knowledge, through the ariya-saccam ti me, bhikkhave, pubbe practice of meditation. The chapter ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhum can be considered as one of the ear | udapadi, manam tudapadi, panna liest Ardhamagadhi texts embody udapadi, vijja udapadi, aloko udaing the essence of Mahavira's teach padi (on realizing that this indeed ing. It gives in fact the nirgrantha is the noble truth of suffering, there ideology in its simplest form. The arose in me vision, knowledge, eight matrices of the scripture insight, wisdom, light, not heard of (pravacana-mata) are here held to before at any time). Such expericonstitute the entire course of ence is repeated in respect of the preliminary conduct which is the other three noble truths, viz. the basis of spiritual progress. They are cause of suffering, the cessation of followed by the practice of medita- suffering and the path leading to tion which leads to the various the cessation of suffering. Such stages of enlightenment. These enlightenment is called dhammacastages are briefly ten as described kkhu (the eye that discerns the below : nature of the truth). The dhamma-cinta mentioned II. THE TEN STAGES above is identical with what is 1. At the first stage of the con- called samyag-darsana (right vision) centrated mind, there arises the that is identical with the fourth knowledge of the essential nature gunasthana. Even as the person of things (dhamma-cinta) that was born blind can see the world as it never experienced before at any is on the sudden acquisition of the

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The Ten Stages 37 eye-sight, so can the soul having experienced the vision see the truth as it is. Such vision is comparable to the stambhara prajna of Yogadar- sana 2 2. At the second stage, there arises the memory of one's own past lives as a result of the practice of meditation. Such memory did never arise in him before at any time. This is known as pubbe-nivasanussatinana (memory of the past in Buddhism, which is the result of meditation.3 In the Yogadarsana, this is called as janmakathanta-sambodha (the memory of the whereabouts the achievement of stead-fastness in the vow of non-posses- sion (aparigraha-sthair ye janma- kathanta-sambodhah.4 The medita- tion on the samskaras (impressions) can also lead to the memory of the past lives. 5 3. At the third stage, there veritable dreams that were never experienced before. The tradition says that Lord Mahavira saw ten dreams before attaining kaivalya, which symbo- lized his future achievement.6 (Thanam, X. 103). The Buddha also is reported to have dreamt five dreams before attaining sambodhi.7 The importance of dream for the steadiness of the mind is reco- gnized in the Yogadarsana8: svapnanidrajnanalambanam ca, that is, the mind of the yogin who has seen a beautiful image of Siva in dream or has a memory of deep pleasant sleep develops steadiness in medita tion. 4. At the fourth stage, there arises an unprecedented vision of deities, divine supernormal powers, divine radiance, divine majesty. In the Yogadarsana,' it is said that a yogin is able to meet his desired deities by means of svadhyaya 'recitation of scripture' (svadhyayad ispadevata-samprayogah). Again in it10 murdhajyotisi siddha-darsanam, it is said that the yogin, by concentrating his mind on the light of the susumna, gets the vision of emancipated souls who live in the region between the earth and the heaven. 5. At the fifth stage, there arises rvoyance (ohinana Skt. avadhijnana) which did never arise before. This is comparable to the dibbacakkhunana of the Buddhists.11 In the Yogadarsana, 12 tatah pratibhasravana- vedanadarsasvadavarta jayante, it is said that extra-sensory perception of subtle, concealed remote, past and future objects takes place by the power of meditation, and it is possible for the yogin to hear, feel, see, taste and smell supersensuous sound, feeling, colour (and shape), taste, and smell. 6. At the six stage, which is not different from the fifth and is rather a necessary concomitant of it, there arises clair-intuition (ohidamsana, Skt. avadhidarsana). The distinction between nana and damsana has been discussed by the great Jaina acaryas like Siddhasena Divakara, Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana and also by Yaso

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38 Cittasamahitthanas vijaya of the seventeenth century Buddhist conception of bodhi, the A.D. The expression darsana equivalent of Jaina kaivalya, also (which is the Sanskrit form of dam- deserves mention in this connecsana) has also a quite different tion. The bodhi is defined by Vasuconnotation. It means the realiza- bandhu in his Abhidharma-kosa, 15 tion of truth as it is without the as the knowledge of the non-rise of services of any other instrument of klesa (affliction) in the future and knowledge. It is direct intuition also the knowledge of its absolute of the truth. destruction (anut padaksayajnane 7. At the seventh stage, there bodhih). arises the power of telepathy Corresponding to this highest (mana-pajjaya-nana) which never state of knowledge of the Jainas, arose before. The Jogin can there is the highest stage of vipassnow know phases of the mind ana-nana (introspective knowledge) of the fully developed rational five- called asavakkhaya-nana (knowsensed beings. ledge of the destruction of the This is comparable to the Bud intoxicant afflictions).16 The dhist cetopariyanana, 13 that is power of omniscience is also ascriachieved by the power of medita- bed to the Buddha. tion. In the Yogadarsana, 17 there is In the Yogadarsana, 14 pratyaya- the mention of vivekajam jnanam sya paracitta-jnanam, it is laid which is almost identical with the down that by concentration on the sarvajnata of Jainism. Such knowmind of others, there arises the ledge is achieved by concentration knowledge of other minds. on the moment and its sequence 8. At the eighth stage, there (ksana-tatkramayoh samyamad vivearises pure and perfect knowledge kajam jnanam). . that never arose before, and the 9. At the ninth stage, there yogin is able to know the cosmos arises pure and perfect intuition (loka) and the transcosmos or a (kevala-damsana) that never arose cosmos (aloka). before. The nature of pure and perfect The distinction between kevalaknowledge which is expressed by jnana and kevala-darsana and their the word kevala-nana is a contro- occurrence in succession is a debaversial issue. Usually kaivalya is table issue. identified with sarvajnata (omnis- 10. At the tenth stage, which cience). But in the Yoga system is the highest, there arises pure of philosophy, kaivalya is pure and perfect disembodied existence, light of consciousness that has the like of which was never attained nothing to do with knowledge in before. It is the cessation of all the ordinary sense of the term. In suffering. Jainism also, kaivalya is evidently This is the highest attainment purity of the soul cleansed of its called siddhatva. It can be comimpurity of passions (kasaya). The pared to the anupadise sa-nibbana

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Versified Summary 39 of the Buddhists, ignoring the negative interpretation that is imposed on the concept by scholars, ancient as well as modern. 5. Free from desires all, Enduring misfortunes, resigned; The power of clairvoyance he gets, Engaged in penance and self possessed. 6. III. VERSIFIED SUMMARY The account of the ten stages of the concentrated mind is followed by seventeen slokas (verses) that contain the summary of the chapter. In consideration of their lucid style and the importance of their contents as giving a complete view of the nirgrantla discipline, we are tempted to attempt a versified rendering of them : With coloration by austerities made clean, Shines bright his intuition pure; Above, below and in front, Does his clear intuition spread. 1. With mind pure and passionless, And deeply in meditation engrossed; Firm in righteousness with doubts gone, The joy of nivvana one achieves. 7. With coloration restrained in full, And free from discursive view; Liberated from bondage clean, His soul the mental phases does know. 8. When the coating over knowledge, Vanishes in full; The victor does know, The cosmos and a-cosmos too. 2. With the recollection of lives past, Never for this world he longs; The highest state of the self, Perceives he in memory deep. 9. When the coating over intuition, Vanishes in full; The victor does intuit, The cosmos and a-cosmos too. 3. Dreams true forthwith he dreams, Restrained fully as he is; Crossing the ocean of samsara of camsara soon, Releases himself from suffering 10. When by intensive penance pure, Freed is he from delusions all; The entire cosmios and a-cosmos too, Intuits he, restrained in full. all. Taking abode in wilderness, And meditating in loneliness; With scanty diet, self restrained, Gets vision of deities soon. 11. As when pricked on the crest, A palm-tree dies; So do the karmas wither,

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40 Cittasamahitthanas departs. When delusion departs for good. 12. As when the commandant is killed, The army does flee; So do the karmas vanish, When delusion has for ever gone. 15. As of the seeds burnt up, Sprouts do never come; So of the karmic seed decayed, Sprouts of samsara do never spring. 13. As fire smokeless, Is extinct with fuel exhausted; So do the karmas decay, When delusion for ever departs. 16. Relinquishing the body gross, And the name and status; Also tearing up the life-span and suffering, Pure he becomes, the Perfect One. 14. As a tree with roots dried up, Grows not even though watered; So never rise the karmas, When delusion for ever 17. Thus enlightened, O long-lived one, And with mind concentrated; Following the stairs pure, Purity does the soul attain. References 1 Mabavagga, p. 13. 2 I. 48. 3 Mahavagga, p. 71. 4 Yogadarsana, II. 39. 5 Ibid, III, 18. 6 Thanam, X, 103. 7 Anguttara Nikaya, II, p. 480. 8 I. 38. 9 II. 44. 10 III. 32. 11 Digha Nikaya, I, p. 72. 12 III. 36. 13 Digha Nikaya, I, p. 70. 14 III. 19. 15 IV. 67ab. 16 Digha Nikaya, 1, p. 73. 17 III. 53-54.

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IX THE FOUR MONASTIC COURSES The monastic course begins with the renunciation of the world and acceptance of the five great vows, and continues till the end of life without any break. There are rules of monastic life that are to be strictly followed and any breach of them is duly expiated. The monastic course is essentially unitary and single. But it can be distinguished, in its aspect of intensiveness, into several stages that are, from one view-point, four in number. These are known as (1) the Elder's Course (sthavira-kalpa), (II) the Victor's The word 'elder' (sthavira) is used in the sense of a 'cenobite', i.e., a monk who lives in a 'stem' (gaccha) or a group (gana). The cenobites fall into five categories: (i) preceptor (acarya), (ii) teacher (upadhyaya), (iii) monk (bhiksu), (iv) 'senior' (sthavira), and 'junior' (ksullaka).2 The course of the elders is described under eight main heads viz. (I) initiation and ordination (pavvajja, Skt. pravrajya), (II) Course (jina-kalpa), (III) the Purificatory Cooperative Course (parihara-visuddhi-kalpa), and (IV) the Time-bound Course (yatha-landakakalpa). The Victor's Course is formulated in imitation of the one followed by Lord Mahavira himself, as recorded in the Ayaro.1 The Elder's Course is designed in view of the limitations of ordinary human beings, the final end, however, being the Victor's Course. In between these two lie the other two courses. A brief account of the the four courses is attempted here.. I STHAVIRA-KALPA or The Course of the Elders training (sikkhapaya, Skt. siksapada), (III) comprehension of meaning (atthagahana, Skt. arthagrahana), (IV) life of a wanderer (aniyaavasa, Skt. aniyatavasa), (IV) consummation (nipphatti, Skt. nispatti), (VI) itinerary (vihara), (VII) deportment (samayari, Skt. samacari), and (VIII) essential features (thii, Skt. sthiti).3 A brief account of these heads is given below, showing the main features of each head.

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42 The Four Monastic Courses I. Initiation and Ordination (Pravrajya).4 There are two categories of pupils, viz. (i) those who spontaneously (abhisamecca, Skt. abhisametya) accept initiation, and (ii) those who need inspiration and instruction (socca, Skt. srutva) from an acarya. Occurrence of an event such as the memory of the past lives leading to spontaneous renunciation of the world is called abhisamagama, which sometimes takes place without any apparent cause. It is the duty of the acarya to attract his audience to the following ways of religious life strictly according to priority: (i) Yati-dharma: the monastic (iv) Madya-mamsa-virati: abstinence from alcoholic drinks and non-vegetarian food. (v) Virati-phala: the merits of abstinence. (iv) Nava-nava-samvega: ever growing fear of worldly life. (v) Nikkampaya (niskampata): steadiness of faith and austerity way. (ii) Sraddha-dharma: the way of including self-discipline and selfthe lay devotee. control. (iii) Samyag darsana cultivation of right faith. (vi) Tava (tapas) twelvefold penance. (vii) Nijjara (nirjara): acceleration in shaking off the karmic matter. (viii) Paradesiyattam (Skt. paradesikatva-margadesikatva): enhancement of competence in attracting pupils to the right path.8 The acarya incurs offence in case he does not observe the order of priority.5 II. Training (Siksapada). The next duty of the acarya is to train the disciple in the scripture (grahana-siksa), and the deportment (asevana-siksa). It appears that at the time of the author of the Brhatkalpa-Bhasya the disciples preferred to remain satisfied with asevana-siksa only, the grahana-siksa being more or less ignored. This is evident from the lengthy discussion of the necessity and merits of grahana-siksa in the Bhassya. The following eight special merits of training in the scripture are given? : (i) Ayahia (Skt. atmahita): welfare of the self. (ii) Parinna (Skt. parijna): (a) jna-parijna-cultivation of knowledge, and (b) pratyakhyana-parijna-cultivation of renunciation. (iii) Bhava-samvara: practice of spiritual self-restraint consequent upon the knowledge of the scrip ture. III. Comprehension of Meaning (Arthagrahana).9 A period of twelve years was prescribed for the study of the scripture (sutra-grahana), and another period of twelve years for understanding the meaning of the scriptural texts.10 The pupil here learns to distinguish the varieties of

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the sutras such as (i) samjna-sutrascontaining the technical words, (ii) svasamaya-sutras-concerned with one's own doctrines, (iii) para-samaya-sutras concerned with alien doctrines, (iv) utsarga-sutras-concerning the general rules of conduct, (v) apavada-sutras-concerning the exceptions to the general rules of conduct, (vi) hinaksara-sutras-containing lacunae of syllables, (vii) jinakalpika-sutras - concerned with the Victor's Course, (viii) sthavirakalpika-sutras-concerned with the Elder's Course, (ix) aryasutras - concerned with the nuns, (x) kali ka-sutras concerned with time, past or future, (xi) vacanadi-sutra-concerned with the grammatical number, gender, etc. 11 IV. Life of a Wanderer (Aniyatavasa),12 After fully mastering the scriptural texts and their meaning, a monk is to travel throughout the length and breadth of the country familiarizing himself with the flora and fauna, and the geographical conditions,13 and the different dialects of the different regions, which are likely to throw light on vocabulary employed in the scriptural texts.14 Moreover, wide travelling gives him an opportunity to verify the contents of the scriptural texts depicting the life and culture of the people in the different parts of the country. Mere knowledge of the scripture is compared to the experience of a person born blind, while the verification of the scriptural descriptions as actually lived by the Sthavira-Kalpa 43 people is like the achievement of vision for the first time by the blind.15 The merits of visits to the different countries are: (i) Purification of the faith (damsanasohi): On account of the direct acqaintance with the place hallowed by the occurrence of different important events, such as the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon, and emancipation (nirvana) of the tirthankaras and other eminent personages (salakapurusas), the faith is purged and intensified (agadha).16 (ii) Confirmation (sthirikarana) of the faith of the followers, the devotees, and the people at large.17 (iii) Efficiency in regional languages (desa): The visits enable the monk to learn different dialects and propagate his religion among the people of the different regions through their own dialects, and attract them to the Order. 18 (iv) Development of Extraordinary Personality (aisesa-Skt. atisaya)19: During the visits to different places, the monk gets an opportunity to develop his knowledge and power of expression, and influence people, who, as a result, imbibe faith in the extraordinary powers of the acarya. These extraordinary powers fall into three categories: (a) those pertaining to the scripture and its meaning (sutrarthatisaya), (b) those pertaining to deportment (samacariatisaya), and (c) supernatural powers through cultivation of vidyas or the occult sciences. The third category comprising supernatural powers is 1

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44 The Four Monastic Courses sometimes considered as falling attract able monks and nuns to his under the first category and thus own Order. On account of his the number of these categories is successful exertion for the prospereduced to two. rity of his Order, he is installed as (v) Geographical knowledge in- an acarya on his return from the cluding flora and fauna (janapada- travels. His mature experience is pariksa)20 : During his wide travels, now fruitful. Now if he is asked the monk gets an opportunity to by his teacher to make journeys to acquaint himself with the social different parts of the country, he is activities of the people and all able to get the assistance of his other aspects of their life, habits new disciples whom he admitted and customs, sources of mainte- during his past travels to those nance of life, and so on. places. (ii) Stabilization of the Order V. Consummation (Nispatti).21 (Sthirikarana)24 : Now, for stabiThe consummation is discussed lizing the Order, he properly trains under the following four heads : his disciples in the scriptural lore (i) Admission of Disciples (Upa- (grahana-siksa) and rules of monassampada)22 : During his visits, the tic conduct (asevana-siksa). Under monk (would-be acarya) succeeds this head, self-estimation and estiin attracting inquisitive people who mation of the followers are also would like to learn the scripture considered. Along with the consiand its meaning from him. He deration of the needs of the Order, develops such abilities that people such as food and outfit, the acarya flock to him, attracted by his great is also required to assess his own qualities and traits. The acarya ability to sustain the Order in does never speak of himself, but times of famine and other natural his intrinsic merits spontaneously calamities. He has to safeguard attract people. because it is the his Order against the moral and nature of such merits to shine spiritual lapses of himself and the bright without any external effort. members of the Order. The Order Those merits are like gems that is also to be acquainted with all are mute and silent, but are esti- possibilities of adverse situations, mated at millions (of rupees) by and trained in facing such circumsexpert jewellers.23 By dint of the tances with patience and forbeaexcellence of his knowledge and rance strictly in accordance with conduct, he attracts monks and the rules of monastic conduct, as nuns of other stems to his own fold. far as possible. This is called upasampada. During (iii) Discrimination in Imparting his travels, he also gets oppor. Knowledge (Padicchuna): The acarya tunity, at religious celebrations and should, at this stage, discriminate meetings of monks and nuns, to between the samvigna (genuinely demonstrate his learning, and thus detached from the world) monks

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and others (such as parsvastha, i.e., prone to laxity, and the like). To the former, he should impart knowledge of the scripture, and cultivation of faith in the discipline and also give training in the rules of conduct; but to the latter, he should impart only the training in the rules of conduct, and desist from imparting knowledge of the scripture. The reason seems to be that those who are not genuinely detached from the world should be asked to observe the monastic rules and cultivate proper behaviour in consonance with the requirements of the Order. In case they do not conform to the monastic standard, they should forthwith be expelled from the Order. The Order consisted of the samvignas and the parsvasthas. The parsvasthas were again of two kinds: (i) initiated by another parsvastha, and (ii) initiated by a samvigna. The samvignas again fell into two categories, viz. (i) samanunna (identical with sambhogika), and (ii) asamanunna.25 The monk initiated by the parsvastha is subject to alocana with effect from the date of initiation. There were also monks who were originally initiated by the samvigna, but later, on account of lapses, fell down (avasanna) to the level of parsvastha. Such monks are called samvigga-purana (Skt. purana-samvigna). They are subject to alocana (confession) from the date of their fall. As regards samvigna, who falls into two categories, viz. samanunna Sthavira-Kalpa 45 and asamanunna, the rule is that if he has deserted his own stem, he is to be subjected to alocana from the date of his desertion, and after com-plete purification through proper expiation, such as tapas (austerities), cheda (cutting down of the standing), or mula (re-initiation), he is to be reinstated in the samacari of the stem, called 'Cakravala'. (iv) Training in Scripture and Its Meaning (Vacana)26: After they have learnt the cakravala samacari in full, the disciples are to be trained in the scripture and its meaning. The acarya should warn them again and again against the lapses in samacari prescribed for the gaccha and any kind of non-vigilance, but he should always be moderate in warning, and never aggressive.27 But if the monks were found to be recalcitrant and disobedient, they should be expelled with utmost caution (nicchuvana, Skt. niskasana),28 VI. Itinerary (Vihara). Unlike that of the practitioners of the Victor's Course29 the itinerary (Vihara) of the elders is unrestricted (apratibaddha) in respect of numerical strength, place, etc.,30 and may be discussed in detail under the following heads: (i) Time (Kala): The itinerary. commences at the end of the rainretreat (varsavasa) on the first day. of Margasirsa under usual circumstances, and continues for eight months. It may commence earlier or may also be delayed in special cases.31

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46 The Four Monastic Courses (ii) Place (Ksetra) : Proper sur that of the preceptor. If, on being vey of the place is necessary before properly asked, a disciple does not commencing the itinerary. The pre- give a complete and correct inforceptor should consult his stem mation about the place being con(gaccha) or group (gana) before sidered for itinerary, he is guilty of sending monks for the survey work an offence punishable by a light(ksetra-pratyupeksana). Various monthly- penance (masa-laghu), and expiations32 have been prescribed the whole responsibility of any for the non-fulfilment of this con- inconvenience caused to the group dition. or the stem falls on him. The preceptor should take In other words, the preceptor advantage of the experience of the and his disciples and guest monks experts in his stem and get the should share the responsibility places covered by the itinerary duly ic surveyed. In the absence of proper (ii) Inspection Party (Pratyusurvey in advance, his party may peksakah): For the purpose of surface obstructions like thieves, fero vey, the inspection parties consisting cious beasts, mosquitoes and insects, of seven, five, or three monks famines, trials and tribulations, should be constituted and despatcalamities and misfortunes, and so ched in different directions. Those on. The places included in his who are experienced in survey work itinerary may be inhabited by un proceed on their duty with the percivilized people (mleccha) or un mission of their Head (ganavucchechaste women in the garb of nuns daka). In the absence of such ex(tapasi). The preceptor should consult both his own disciples and perts, the Head himself should proceed. The following are unfit the guest monks (padicchaga) who for the survey work : (a) attendant might be there at that time, because otherwise he may hurt their feel (vaiyarsttyakara), (b) novice (bala), ings, and create dissension that may (c) old (vrddha), (cl) mortifier (kha maja, Skt. ksapaka), (e) monoharm his plan of itinerary. In brief, maniac, such as a book-worni, it is the duty of the preceptor to (vahamta=Skt. Jogarahin), and () consult all the monks and nuns, irrespective of their age and monas non-adept (agitartha). tic standing, treating the whole Only the adept (gitartha) discistem or group as one well-knit ples should be engaged in the surorganization. Any kind of discri- vey work. But in the absence of mination in the act of consulting such experts, any among the above on the part of the preceptor was six in order of priority beginning considered an offence that was from the last mentioned, may be penalized by light-monthly-penance commissioned. Such selection on (masa-laghu). the part of the acarya obliges The responsibility of the disci- him to observe different kinds of ples in this matter is not less than penances.

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Sthavira-Kalpa 47 Thus, if he is compelled to of the novices or the physically commission an attendant or a infirm monks should be supplemennovice or an old monk, he has to ted respectively by experienced observe heavy-four-monthly penance and physically strong ones (cauguruka), whereas in the case of (vrsabha).35 the last three, viz. mortifier, mono- This procedure of despatching maniac, and the non-adept, he has surveyors in different directions to observe "light-monthly-penance" makes separate provisions for the (laghu-masa). The reason is that monks living in the stem (gacchathe absence of such monk from the vasi), and the monks practising Order causes some disadvantages, the Time-bound Course attached such as difficulty in begging food to stem (gaccha-pratibaddha-yathaand medicine for the ailing monk Tandika). The stem should desin the absence of attendants, or the patch at least three monks in one assistance (though illegitimate) of direction, while the latter (i.e., the deities or the common men in the gaccha - pratibaddha - yathalandika) absence of the mortifier whom the only two in one particular direcdeities and the common people tion. As regards the remaining might favour, and so on. Likewise three directions, it is the responsithere are many a disadvantage like bility of the Head of the stem to inefficiency on the part of such send surveyors in the other three commissioned monks on account directions for the stem itself and of their physical infirmity or intel- the yathalandika group.36 lectual immaturity or unilateral (iv) Survey (Pratyupeksana) : interest, and the like 33 The duties of the survey parties inThe above-mentioned six types cluded a survey of proper places of monks should be given specific for easing nature (sthandila), faciinstructions before being commis- lities of drinking water, resting sioned. For instance, the non- places, availability of alms-food, the adept should be given proper ins intermediate short distance resting truction in the deportment prescri- places, climate, the route of the bed in the Ogha-Niryukti (i.e.,ogha- itinerary, and such other matters.37 samacari).31 If a non-adept is not The members of the yathalanavailable, the mono-maniac (vaha- dika parties followed their daily inta) should be advised to give up his routine as usual, whereas others angularities and mania before being did not engage themselves in study, despatched on duty. In his absence but collected food from a nearby a mortifier is to be asked to give village. The latter do their Survey up his mortifictory practices. As work in the afternoon, which incluregards the attendants, they should ded occupation of an abode, perforbe asked to leave a complete mance of the daily duties (avasyaaccount of the pivotal families ka), and evening study, and resting (sthapana-kulani) specially devoted and sleeping for two quarters. Opto the Order. Similarly the party tionally, instead of sleeping, they

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48 The Four Monastic Courses might continue their study or meditation till morning. At the end of the first half quarter of the day, the group went out on the begging tour. This exceptional case of begging in the forenoon is defended on the ground that the newcomers should cultivate acquaintance with the families of the almsgivers and ascertain the availability of suitable abodes for the Order that might include the place in their itinerary. Such begging can be done also in the middle and the last quarters of the day for the aforesaid purpose, and also to ascertain the availability of yoghurt, milk, butter, molasses, porridge (khira), etc., for the infant (atarana), ailing, decrepit, mortifier, and guest monks.38 It is interesting to note in this connection that the alms-giving families were differently designated in respect of their faith or absence of it in the monastic Order. Thus the expression dina-sraddha stood for the families which were by nature inclined to offer alms to the Order. Similarly, abhigama-sraddha stood for those families that practised anuvratas, samyaktva-sraddha for the people who were established in the fourth gunasthana called avirata-samyagdrsti. There were families that professed wrong faiths (mithya-drsti-kulani), and again, families called mamaka who prohibited the entrance of monks in - their houses; again there were those called aciyatta, who were unsympathetic towards the monks. It was the duty of the survey party to distinguish such families for the purpose of the itinerary of the Order to particular places.39 As regards the selection of abodes (upasraya), the rule was that the abodes that were built or repaired or reconditioned for the Nirgrantha Organizations or for the sramanas in general, were not considered acceptable. In those days, the sramana community comprised the Tapasas (hermits), the Sakyas (Buddhists), the Parivrajakas (wanderers), the Ajivikas (the followers of Gosalaka), and the Nirgranthas (i.e., the Jaina monks and nuns).40 Regarding the location of the abode, it is explained with reference to the different parts of a bull lying down facing east and inclined towards the left. If the abode was located at (the space occupied by) the horns, it was likely to be a source of quarrels; if at the feet, there would be lack of stability; if at the rectum, there was the likelihood of abdominal disorder (puttaroga); if at the tail, there was the likelihood of eviction; if at the mouth (throat), there would be abundance of food; if at the head or the hump, there would be abundance of outfit, reception, and worship; if at the shoulder or the neck, there would be rush of incoming monks and nuns; if the abode was selected at the space occupied by the abdomen, the order would enjoy all amenities in their fullness (dhaya, Skt. dhrata),41 As far as possible, the abode should he selected outside the village in a caitya of a temple (devakula). If such abode was not available, an abode inside the village

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Sthavira-Kalpa 49 might be selected with the permi- (v) Guest Monks : Great care ssion of the owner.42 For the us- was taken for the comforts of the able (prayogya) equipments such guest monks. If there was no as cot, mat, spittoon, etc., and the accommodation, an even number use of the spots of the abode for of monks could be transferred to easing oneself, washing robes, and other abodes to accommodate the so on, express permission was need guests. But if the abode was eared. In the absence of an express marked in advance for particular permission, it would be taken as monks, the guest monks were appimplied, on the analogy of the rised of the fact. But if, in spite example of hospitality (bhojana- of such apprising, the guest monks drstanta), which automatically continued to occupy the abode, included all aspects of lodging and they were liable to a light-monthly boarding.43 penance (laghu-masika). 47 As regards the owner's query (vi) Selection of Site for Cemeabout the duration of the stay, no tery: Another important part of te answer was to be given, or the survey work was the selection decision could be left to the of cemetery (mahasthandila). Malaowner himself or the acarya, accor- yagiri48 here mentions that selecding to the circumstance, though tion of a suitable place for disposal ordinarily the duration was only of dead bodies was an important one month. The numerical strength item of town planning in those of the monks was to be kept inde- days. In fact, the planning started finite by comparing the function of with such selection as the first the acarya to that of the ocean item. which constantly expands and con- As regards the location of the tracts and has the capacity to acco- cemetery, the following diagram mmodate all that may seek shelter. will illustrate their directions in There are, however, expiations order of priority : prescribed for the unauthorized use of the equipments,44 and also for defining the duration of the stay, or the numerical strength of the monks in advance.45 If the owner himself happened to select the particular monks for stay or propose a particular number irrespective of who those monks were, that was tantamount to lack of permission. Monks should not accept such abode under ordinary circumstances. But if no other 4 suitable abode was available, they could use such abode 46 NW Sh

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50 The Four Monastic Courses The results of selection of these particular abode being used by directions for the cemetery are other parties of monks who might respectively as follows: be in urgent need of that abode. In both such cases, the members of the SW1 Abundance of food and survey party incur offences, such as the consequent atmos- blameworthy command (ajnadayah phere of tranquillity and dosah) expiable by a light-monthly peace. penance.51 S2 Paucity of food and drink. On the completion of the survey 3 Theft of equipments. work, two members of the party SE4 Mutual bickerings, and returned to the acarya, and submit the resultant chaos. ted their report confidentially to NW5 Disputes and quarrels. him in the night, so that nobody E Dissension and split in else might overhear. Such precauthe organization. tion was taken in order to avoid Ny Health hazards. controversy (asamkhada=kalaha) NE; Fatal misfortunes. that might arise in favour or against the selection of a particular place Random selection of sites for or abode. The reporter incurs cemetery led to bad consequences offence, if he divulges the report to mentioned above, and they (survey others, which is expiable by a lightparty) incur penance of the category monthly-penance.52 of "Four-months' uncommuted" (ix) Selection of Abode : It is (caturmasa-anudghata), and also the the prerogative of the acarya to faults concerned with command decide upon the selection of the (ajna), etc., and disservice (vira place, keeping in view the amenities, dhana) to the Order 49 specially facilities for the obser**(vii) Abodes for Time-bound vance of the daily routine of study, Penance : The abodes selected by meditation, etc., and the availability the above-mentioned survey party irty of alms at proper time. Different of al are generally not suitable for the monks may like different places observers of the Time-bound according to their personal interests Penance (yathalandika), because of such as availability of delicious the latter's specific and special food, or better opportunity for conrules of begging alms and selection ducting recitation of the scripture, of abodes that are not subject or devoting themselves to the deep to repair, reconditioning, etc.50 understanding of it, and so on. The (viii) Return of Survey Party : acarya, however, has to keep in As a general rule, the survey party view the overall interests of the should not make any commitment organization and strict observance as to their return to the places sur- of the rules prescribed.53 Here, the veyed, because such commitment acarya is guided by the example of may not be fulfilled for various cau- the donkey (cuuthassa) that, if ses, or may stand in the way of the overfed, would jump and break the

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earthenware, and if underfed, would become too weak to carry them.51 Special care of health is prescribed for a monk above fifty-five, who may need special food to preserve his health. For the old and convalescing monks, suitable places (other than the place selected for the whole Order), in accordance with their convenience, were selected, and they were put in charge of an adept (gitartha) monk. The convalescing monks were recalled after their full recovery which might take 5, 10 or 15 days.55 (x) Departure from Abode : While leaving the abode, proper permission of the house-owner was necessary; otherwise a light-monthly-penance (laghuka-masa) was to be observed as expiation.56 This permission was considered necessary as a popular custom and expression of gratitute. Departure from place without informing the owner might also entail suspicion in the mind of the house-owner and also the neighbours. Non-observance of such customary duties was calculated to have an adverse effect on the future of the Order. The departure of the Order should not be too abrupt to cause suspicion in the minds of the people of the place or any member of the house-owner's family. Nor should the date of departure be divulged in advance to prevent dislocation of the routine programme of the people and their indulgence in carnivals (pahudia, Skt. prabhrtika) to celebrate the occasion.57 (xi) Procedure for Seeking Permission: In order that the depar Sthavira-Kalpa 51 ture did not appear too abrupt, it was necessary to keep the houseowner and the local people aware that the survey parties had been despatched and the Order was waiting for their report. The conditions favourable for departure should also be impressed upon them gradually, so that they might be psychologically prepared for the day of the farewell. And on the eve of the departure, the house-owner should be entertained with religious stories, which could result in his prayer for conferring ordination on him, or accepting him as a lay devotee partially observing the vows (anuvratin or desa-virata), or his being confirmed in right faith (darsana-sraddha) that is an equivalent of the fourth gunasthana (avirata-samyagdrsti) or at least becoming an admirer of the Order, desirous of offering his services to it. (xii) Time of Departure: As regards the exact hour of departure, it would depend on the distance to be covered. Ordinarily, the Order moves after the first two quarters of the day. But depending on the distance, the itinerary may start at the end of the first quarter or during the first quarter itself after inspection (pratilekhana) of the outfit, or immediately after or even before the sunrise,58 if the distance was too long, and the Order was likely to suffer from thirst, fatigue, and other privations. But if any particular monk, khagguda 'drowsy or sluggish or punctilious', was unwilling to violate the rule, he might be allowed to start

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52 The Four Monastic Courses later on, having been apprised of the destination. The date and time of departure are fixed considering the lunar days (tithi), such as nanda, bhadra, etc., the astrological divisions (karana) of the day such as bava, balava, etc., and the constellations (naksatra) that are favourable to the leader of the Order. The advance party consists of the adept (gitartha) monks, who were capable of reading the omens.59 At the time of departure, the acarya should appreciate the services rendered by the house owner, and encourage him for further services to the Order. The other monks should pack up their outfit behind a curtain (cilimili),60 set up for the sake of privacy. The transport of the outfit should be entrusted to physically strong monks, sparing as far as possible the infant, old, and ailing monks, allowing the latter to carry their own usual minimum (ahajayam) outfit.61 In the Order there were usually some predetermined (abhigrahika) monks who were used to carry the excess outfit of the infant, old, and sick monks.62 (xiii) Expiation for Overstay: On the itinerary the Order could halt at a suitable place for the prescribed period of one day only, and penance was prescribed for any overstay, with which increased the length of the stay.63 Six gradually intensive kinds of penance (tapah)64 are prescribed for the halts of two to seven days; for a halt beyond seven days, the expiations called cheda, mula, anavastha pya and parancika were prescribed for stays of 8, 9, 10 and 11 days respectively.65 According to some texts, a harsher punishment was prescribed for such overstays. The harshness of the punishment varies directly with the status of the monk. For instance, for a similar overstay, "heavy four-monthly-penance" is prescribed for the acarya, "light one-monthly-penance" for a bhiksu (ordinary monk),66 The chief reason for this punishment was the probable inconvenience caused to the house-owner at the next stay, and to the Order itself on account of the sudden change in the schedule of pre-arranged itinerary. In addition, such overstay could result in the Order's undue attachment to the place or people of the locality.67 (xiv) On Arrival: On reaching the destination, the adept should read the omens while entering the abode, exactly as he did at the time of departure from the previous place. A senior member of the advance survey party should greet the acarya who should then express his appreciation of the house-owner for offering residence to the Order.68 (xv) Maryada or Samacari 'Deportment' The first item now is the allotment of space to the monks according to their seniority. For the acarya, three apartments called nivata (unbreezy), pravata (breezy), and nivata-pravata (unbeeezy-cumbreezy) were reserved, and for other monks, proper accommoda

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Sthavira-Kalpa 5:3 etc. 69 tion was allotted strictly according pride, deceit' and greed (koha-manato seniority. The Order was now maya-lohilla), peeper (kouhala) and made acquainted with the wishes of studious (padibaddha) monks should the house-owner in respect of the never be sent to the pivotal place for the sick monks, the site families.73 For, the indolent and for easing oneself, washing pots, drowsy monk, if they reached there place for study and meditation earlier, would incur the blemish of virahans (Skt. viradhana)-disser(xvi) Sthapana : The next item vice to the acarya, etc., because of importance was sthapana, i.e., they would not be able to get the acquaintance with the families required material; and in case they according to their devotion to the reached there late, they would incur Order, falling under the categories the blemish of ussakka (Skt. utsvasmentioned before.70 The item is kana), i.e., late cooking, because in called sthapana, because the adept that case the food would be cooked monks properly point out (vyavas- for them after the usual time; and thapayanti) the families that were they would also be responsible for to be approached or avoided for the blemish of (thavana, Skt. sthathe purpose of alms.71 This act pana) - storing food beforehand. In fell within the duties of the mem the case of a monk going earlier for bers of the survey party. Special alms, there is also the possibility of routes were prescribed for going to not getting anything whatsoever these families for alms. It was (alabha), and also the almsgiver's only a particular group of adept cooking food earlier avasakka (Skt. monks engaged in special services avasvaskana), or getting inferior to the acarya and old and sick material that is unhealthy for the monks, who was allowed to go to acarya or the sick monks. Again, the pivotal families (sthapana-kula). if the monk was gluttonous, he Such families were known as aisesi would either serve the acarya with (Skt. atisesi), i.e., extraordinarily cold food, if he collected the food devoted to the Order. The reason for the acar ya before collecting the is that the entry of more than one same for himself, or would incur group for special diet, medicine, the offence of avasvaskana, if he etc., could cause annoyance (cama entered the select families before dhana) to the family, resulting in time. In case he collected food for the non-availability in future of himself at the outset, he would those articles72 for the acarya reach the pivotal families late, and and the old, sick, and the guest if, in order to avoid this delay, he monks. collected food from the pivotal (xvii) Monks unfit for Service families before collecting for him(veyavacca, Skt. vaiyavsttya) : Indo- self, he would not get sufficient lent (alasa), gluttonous (ghasira), food to fill his own belly, which drowsy (suvira), mortifier (khamaga), would result in chronic (anagadha) swayed by the passions of anger, or acute (agadha) ailments (pari

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54 The Four Monastic Courses tapa).74 sinful both for the alms-giver and Similarly the mortifier and the the monk to give and take what was monks under the sway of the pas- 'impure' (i.e., not in conformity sions would also incur such offen with the basic rules of the scripces for reasons which are obvious. ture). But in circumstances of The mortifier may collect necessary famine and other exigencies, it was alms for his acarya, and nothing considered positively wholesome to for himself. The monks under the offer or receive what was even no sway of passions may anger the strictly according to the rules, on alms-giver, and thus do harm to his the analogy of alms offered and religious faith. The peeper and accepted for the sick monks.76 studious monks may also incur the The usable (prayogya) food and offences of avasvaskana and abhis drink fall under two categories : (i) vaskana (=utsvaskana) as already samcayia (Skt. sancayika), i.e., explained in the case of the indo- storable, such as ghee, molasses, lent, drowsy and gluttonous atten- sweets, etc., and (ii) asamcayia (Skt. dant monks. asancayika), i.e., non-storable such (xviii) Monks fit for service : In as milk, yoghurt, boiled rice, soup, order to avoid all these blemishes etc.. The usables of the first cateand offences, it is necessary that the gory should be accepted only at attendant monk should be free from intervals when unavoidably required all the above-mentioned defects, for the sick and the guests, while and should positively be (a) kada- those of the latter category can yogi (Skt. krtayogin), i.e., experien- be freely accepted for daily use ced and adept, (6) naya-silayara from the pivotal families (sthapana. (Skt. jnata-silacara), i.e., well-versed kula).77 in the vows and the cakravala-sam- (xx) Deportment at Begging of acari, (c) gurubhattima (gurubhakti- Food and Drink (Bhaktapana-grahane man), i.e., devoted to the guru, and samacari): The monks should pro(d) vinita, i.e., modest. These quali- perly consider the following points fications of the attendant monks while going to the alms-giver: are considered very valuable for the (a) The quantity of rice, etc., welfare and prosperity of the Order (davvappamana) cooked there. because such attendants are capable (b) Counting (ganana) the meaof infusing faith in the alms-giver sures of ghee, etc., used there or and also train him in rendering pro- counting of number of persons who per service to monks and nuns, dine there. among whom there can be practi- (c) The salty dainties, conditioners of different intensive cour- ments, etc, or curry (kharia). ses requiring special knowledge on (d) Incensed or flavoured (phothe part of the alms-giver to satisfy dia) with pepper, jiraka (cumin their needs.75 seed), etc.. (xix) Pure and Impure Alms : (e) The proper time (addha) In the conditions of bounty, it was when alms are available there.

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under Only a single party should enter the house, because the entry of more than one party is likely to entail fifteen blemishes of preparation, udgama-dosa (beginning from adhakarma and ending in anisrsta, the blemish called ajjhoara (Skt. adhyavapuraka) being included misrajata)78. (a-b) Concerning the quantity of the edible, etc., it is laid down that a full meal could be accepted if the food was cooked regularly for a fixed number of ten persons. But a monk is not allowed to go to such families on the next day, because the alms-giver may add some more quantity to the usual one in order to accommodate such monk, and consequently incur the blemish of ajjhoyara.79 But if the food is cooked for an indefinite number of persons, may be ten or even less, irregularly, a monk is permitted to go there for alms everyday without break. (cd) The same rule applies with regard to the salty dainties and dainties incensed with pepper, jiraka (cumin seed) and other condiments. (e) As regards time, it should be strictly observed, because otherwise the blemishes of avasvaskana and utsvaskana may be incurred. (xxi) Divisions of the Jaina Order and Commensality: The Brhatkalpa Bhasya80 gives a very valuable information of the days of its author, regarding the divisions of the Jaina Order into different gacchas (stems). The Bhasyakara characterizes his own gaccha as samvigga (Skt. samvigna) and those of others as asamvigna. Among the samvignas again, there were two Sthavira-Kalpa 55 branches sambhogika81 (commensal) and asambhogika (noncommensal). The samvigna monks should not go to the families entertaining the asamvignas, because fifteen blemishes are likely to be incurred there. In special circumstances, for the sake of the old and the sick monks, one could go to such families and receive alms, provided they were absolutely pure and permissible strictly according to the rules. In the case of non-commensal samvigna new-comers (agantuka), the rule is that the pre-settled (vastavya) monks might agree to allow them to go to the pivotal families and sustain themselves by means of accepting residua from unfamiliar houses (ajnatoncha),82 In the case of the pre-settled monks being intolerant, the pivotal families might be equally divided for the purpose of alms among the new-comer gacchas (stems) and the pre-settled ones. But, in case the new-comer gacchas were tolerant, they might take to the prac tice of accepting residua from unfamiliar houses (ajnatoncha), allowing the pre-settled ones to go to the pivotal families. All the above rules were applicable to the Order of nuns also. If it were not possible to accommodate the commensal party of new-comers in the same abode, they might be accommodated in a separate abode. In such case, the junior acarya (avama-ratnadhika) and his party should go to the abode of the senior one to take

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56 The Four Monastic Courses meal along with him. If any mem- prescribed for the sthavira-kalpa, ber or members of the party of vide the chapter "The Ten either acaryas were unwilling on Samacaris. account of ill-health or immaturity, The observance of all the ten they were allowed to finish their rules or only a few of them would meal at their own abode, and then depend on the status of the practileaving behind the immature mem- tioner. For instance, the deportbers, others would accompany the ment of tahakkara is not applicable junior acarya to the abode of the to the acarya or the Head of the senior one. gana or the gaccha as he has not In case, the junior acarya him- to confirm his faith in any of the self was physically unable to go to instruction or sermon delivered to the senior acarya, or unable to wait others by the subordinate monks. upto that time or there was none In addition to the tenfold sama. else competent to give necessary cari there is another consisting of instruction in deportment or con- 27 items84 that would be described fession (alocana) to the immature in connection with the practice of members, then the two caryas the Victor's Course. 85 It, however, might take their meals separately. deserves a brief treatment here so But if the senior acarya were pleased far as the practitioners of the Elder's to do so, he might go to the abode Course are concerned. of the junior acarya for the purpose (1) Knowledge of Scripture of the meal (samuddesartha).83 (Sruta): The minimum study expec In case, there were more than ted of the practitioners of the one party of new-comers, the pre- Elder's Course is cultivation of the eight scriptural matrices (pravacanaexperienced attendant monk (vaiya mata), viz. five comportments yrttrakara) to accompany his coun- (samitis) and three restraints (gupterpart from the new-comer party or tis) of mind, speech and body. The parties for the purpose of collecting maximum extent is the entire alms. In such case, the experienced scripture including the fourteen monk should reduce proportionately Purvas. 86 his own share of alms in order to (2) Bone-joints (Samhanana): accommodate the new-comers. All the six types of bone-joints are It was generally prohibited to possible. Forbearance (dhsti) may go to the families devoted to asam- be either strong or weak, 87 he vignas. But in extreme cases of (3) & (4) Trials and Tribulanecessity for the sick monks, such lions (Upasarga), Calamities and families could be approached for Misfortunes (Atanka): They may food and drink that was worthy of be able or unable to tolerate them.88 acceptance. (5) Sufferings (Vedana) : They VII. Deportment (Samacari) may or may not be able to tolerate As regards the tenfold samacari them. 89

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Sthavira-Kalpa 57 (6) Numerical Strength (Kati janah) : The minimum strength of a gaccha is 3, the maximum strength being fixed at 32,000 as was the case with the Order of Rsabhasena, the first ganadhara of the first Tir. thankara, Lord Rsabha.90 (7) Place for Easing oneself (Sthandila) : The first type of stha ndila, viz. anapatam-asamlokam (i.e., not frequented by people, nor exposed to their sight), is prescribed. In exceptional cases, other types of sthandilas were permissible. 91 (8) Abode (Vasahi): The act of wiping alone was permissible, but ut in special circumstances possessiveness and reconditioning (or repairing) were also allowed.92 (9) Duration of Stay (Kiyaccira): It could be shortened or lengthened according to circumstances.93 (10)-(19) Easing oneself' to 'How many would stay' (uccura to ratsyatha kati janah):94 Considerable relaxations were made in these rules under special circumstances, Malayagiri disposes of all these items by the cryptic statement : 'In all these cases, the prohibition is effective, if there is no special reason for the violation of the rule; that is, in ordinary circumstances, the monks and nuns continue to stay but they may resort to exception if there was any valid reason, with utmost care and caution.95 (20)-(27) 'Begging of Alms' to the 'Victor's Course' (bhiksacarya to jinakalpa): Similar relaxations are also provided in item nos. 20 to 27.96 VIII. Essential Features (Sthiti) The general principle in considering the items under the 'Essential Features' is that the restrictions peculiar to the other three courses (kalpas) 97 are not applicable here, inasmuch as the latter are practised only by specially qualified monks who belong to the first or second generation of the tirthankaras (founders, to be precise, the revivers of the religion). (1)-(11) 'Place of birth,' etc. upto Meditation' (Ksetra upto dhyana): These are practically the same as in the Victor's Course and can be understood by common sense, with necessary alteration of details that follow spontaneously from the general rules of conduct. The reader will do well if he goes through pp. 66-69 before reading this dvara of essential features. (12) Number (Ganana): At the stage of initiation, the minimum number may be nil at a particular time, or one, two or three upto the maximum of 2000 to 9000; and the minimum number of those engaged in practice may be 2000 koti and maximum 9000 koti, 98 (13) Secret Resolve (Abhigraha) : Such resolve pertains to (a) the substance (drovva) substance (dravya), or (b) the place (ksetra), or (c) the time (kala), or (d) the mode (bhava). (a) As regards the substance, the resolve refers to the nature of the food to be accepted and also the mode and the instrument (ladle, etc.) of offer.99 (b) The place refers to the lanes, where the alms-giving houses and families are situated. Such

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58 The Four Monastic Courses lanes may be visited in movements They are to be understood as comthat are ; (i) straight (rivi), (ii) up prising the other four, viz. (i) siksaand down (gatva pratyagatika), pana 'training', (ii) upasthapana 'or(iii) zigzag (gomutrika). (iv) grass- dination', (iii) samblunjana 'comhopper-like (patanga-vithika), (v) mensalism', and (iv) samvasana 'corectangular (pedha), (vi) semi-rec- habitation'. This is technically called tangular (ardhapedha), (vii) interna- sacittadravya kalpa, i.e., deportment lly spiral like a conch (abhyantara- in respect of animate beings. All sambuka), and (viii) externally spiral these functions can be transferred like a conch (bahih sambuka), 100 The to other competent acarya in case resolve about the 'spatial measure of personal inability on account of of the food and the 'houses situa- ill health or other reasons. 104 ted in the village of monk's sojourn (16) Expiation for Mental Indulor any other also fall under the gence (Manasa apattih) : Unlike the item of 'place'.101 practitioner of the Victor's Course, (c) As regards time, the resolve a monk observing the Elder's is made about the hours of the Course, is exempted from expiation begging round which may be for mental indulgence in sin, techeither usual time, or any time, nically called atikrama.105 The before or after it. The reason reason given is that such monk is in favour of begging before or like the miserable person plunged after the usual time is the avoi- deep in debt, who will never be dance of the inconvenience to the able to repay. If such monk was givers and recipients such as paupers subjected to expiation for every and habitual beggars, and the deme- mental indulgence, there will be no rit of the usual time is the possibi- end of the matter. He is, however, lity of incurring the blemishes rela- liable to the expiations of alocana ted to the activities of the house- (confession) and pratik ramana holder before and after the act of (retrace).106 giving (purah-karma, pascat- (17) and (18) Exception (Karana) karma).102 and Avoidance of Physical and Medi(d) As regards the bhavabhi- cal Treatment (Nispratikarma): graha, it refers to the various Unlike the observer of the Victor's modes of the giver's movements or Course, 107 the practitioner of the postures that are to be satisfied Elder's Course, in a special circumsstrictly according to the resolve of tance, could deviate from the genethe monk. For instance, if the ral rule and take resort to physical resolve is to receive food from the care and medical treatment. 108 hands of the house-holder who is (19) and (20) Time of Begging weeping or shackled and so on, Food and Departure (Bhaktam panthat is an example of 'bhavabhi- thah) : Such exceptions are also graha'. 103 applicable to the case of the time (14) and (15) Initiation (Pravra- of begging iour, and departure janaanb Tonsure (Mundapana): from the place. 109

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Jina-Kalpa 59 JINA-KALPA Or The Course of the Victors Resolute Conduct and Resolute Victor's Course, (ii) suddhapariharaDeath kalpa or Purificatory Cooperative The highest end of monastic Course, and (iii) yathalanda-kalpa or life is spiritual elevation and per Time-bound Course, while fection of the self, and preparation under the latter come the following three : (i) bhatta-paccakkhana or for dying in peace. These ends received proper treatment from Suspension of aliment, (ii) imgini the philosopher-saint Socrates, and or limited suspension of movement, were also dealt with in the state and (iii) paovagamana or peniten tial death (absolute suspension of ment of Cicero and the great essayist Montaigne who devoted a long movement). essay to the subject that to philo 1. The Basic Conditions sophize is to learn to die. According to Cicero, "to study philoso- The most essential features of phy is nothing but to prepare one's the Victor's Course is an eremitical self to die." 110 Socrates, in con- life as distinguished from the life in versation with his friends in prison the cenobitic organization. A conwhile awaiting death, tells them crete knowledge of the principles that "the true votary of philosophy of monastic life and a penetrating is always pursuing death and dying." insight into the nature of truth is He tries to prove to them, by his essential for the aspirant to this action as well as by his words, that form of highest spiritual disci"the real philosohper has reason pline. to be of good cheer, when he is about to die."111 The following are the basic conTwo very significant terms have ditions of initiation into the Vicbeen used to denoie the intensive tor's Course : perfection in physical course of spiritual discipline, each and mental forbearance, power of consisting of three stages. These enduring austerities, and a strong terms are abhyudyata-vihara and physique capable of bearing all abhyudvata-marana, ie., fresolute hardships, and freedom from conduct' and (scriptural prescrip- fear.113 Only the persons possessed tion for 'resolute death.'112 of these qualities in full are entitled Under the category, represented to leave the monastic organization by the former, fall three intensive and retire into the life of the Victor courses, viz. (i) the jina-kalpa or (jina).

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60 The Four Monastic Courses I]. Tulana (Comparative Estimate) undertake the Victor's Course pro vided he is physically fit to travel Here the Victor's Course starts. and lead a solitary life indepenThis is in fact the counterpart of dently of assistance from anybody the sixth dvara, called vihara, of thc else. But if, in spite of the good Elder's Course. The first five dvaras conditions of the vital powers, he mentioned under the Elder's Course finds himself incapable of leading a are common to both the Courses, solitary life on account of his phybeing the basic preliminaries of the sical infumity, he is advised to monastic courses in general. retire to rddharasa 'the monastery Through tulana or "consider- of old monks'. 114 ation of the pros and cons of such (3) Thirdly, tulana, in its aspect retirement, and a relative estimate of estimation or test of the abilities of its consequence', the aspirant of the possible successor, who is would take the final decision to appointed temporarily on trial to adopt the Victor's Course. Tulana discharge the duties of an acarya,115 has a number of aspects : is concerned with the future of the (1) Firstly, it refers to the offi- monastic organization which should cers who are fit for higher penances. be given the highest priority, if The usual qualification of an as- necessary, by sacrificing one's perpirant to the Victor's Course is the sonal spiritual ambitions. 116 The status and position of the monastic cause of the organization should in officers, viz. acarya, upadhyaya, pra- no case be allowed to suffer. The vartaka, sthavira, and ganavacche- charge of pessimism, fatalism and daka. escapism levelled against the Indian (2) Secondly, tulana has refe- monastic Order is thus found to rence to mental and physical abili- have no valid ground. ties of the aspirant. With the (4) Fourthly, the most imporadvancement in spiritual life, there tant precondition of undertaking comes a stage when several avenues an intensive course of penance is of intense spiritual endeavour pre- a penetrating self-estimate (tulana) sent themselves. But the aspirant in the following five prasasta bharahas to be very cautious in selecting nas (wholesome thoughts), 117 i.e. the alternative that is most suitable concrete tests which determine the to him. The condition of health, propriety of leaving the monastic the power of forbearance and the Order for the sake of personal prospects of longevity are to be emancipation : (i) tava, (ii) satta, considered carefully. If it is found (iii) suya, (iv) egatta, and (v) bala. that the vitality is meagre, the as. (i) Tava (Skt. tapas)118 : The pirant is to undertake any one of conquest of hunger and thirst is the three ways of the spiritual pur- the first test, which may consist in suit of death. But if the vital fasting even for a period of six powers are intact and a long life is months at a stretch, if that became clearly envisaged, the aspirant may necessary.

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(ii) Satta (Skt. sattva)119: The second item is the conquest of fear and sleep. For the conquest of fear, the aspirant should practise kayotsarga 'detachment from body and concentration on self' at various places including the cemetery. He should remain vigilant and avoid sleep, thus mostly keeping himself at the stage of the seventh gunasthana, called apramatta 'freedom from wakelessness'. (iii) Suya (Skt. sruta) 120: He should practise the recitation of the scripture with uniform speed and carefulness so that even in the absence of any device for measureing time, he is in a position to measure time by means of the length of the scriptures recited. The implication is that not a single moment should pass unnoticed, and there should be no lapse of vigilance. His familiarity with the contents of the scripture should be deep and penetrating so that the distinction between the self and the faculty of knowledge is obliterated. It (iv) Egatta (Skt. ekatva): means complete spirit of renunciation and withdrawl into solitude, isolating oneself from all external relationships, including those with the preceptors and close colleagues.121 (v) Bala (or endurance of upasarga) It stands for the unlimited tolerance of hardships, dissociating oneself completely from all worldly ties, with extraordinary power of forbearance.122 Such hardship may be physical as well as mental. The aspirant starts with a strong Jina-Kalpa 61 physique which gradually, on account of the penances like fasting, is attenuated and becomes weak; but this weakness is compensated by the augmentation of the power of dhrti 'forbearance, tenacity'. In other words, the yogin's mental forbearance varies inversely with the decrease of his physical strength. This self-assessment (tulana) has two other counterpats, viz., bhavana and parikarma.123 III. Bhavana (Self-contemplation) Bhavana124 is the practice of self-contemplation leading to the conquest of the senses and passions, and rectification of conduct and activities of mind, speech, and body.125 Bhavana, in essence, is the cultivation of the spiritual values for the elimination of the passions. IV. Parikarma (Purification) The consummation of self-estimation (tulana) and self-contemplation (bhavana) is parikarma, i.e., purification. Parikarma has two concerned aspects: Firstly, it is with the purification of the soul through the conquest of the senses, passions and the rectification of one's conduct, mental and physical. Secondly, at a higher stage of penance, which may be immediately followed by the adoption of the Victor's Course, it is concerned with the reduction of the quantity of outfit and paraphernalia, and suspension of aliment as far as possible through a stricter observance of the rules of begging food, and im

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62 The Four Monastic Courses posing on oneself secret resolves habitat. He has now to practise (abhigraha) to test one's capacity physical posture of ukkudua (Skt. for the most extreme form of self- utkutaka squatting) only, and not mortification, finally leading to fas- any other kind. 128 ting upto death technically called, abhyudyata-sasana or abh yudyata- VII. Adoption of the Victor's Course marana. Ordinarily the Victor's Course The first aspect of parikarma is is adopted in the presence of a achieved by the five prasasta bha- tirtharkara or a ganadhara or a yanas126 or tests mentioned above. monk versed in fourteen or ten In the second aspect of parikar- purvas, or in the absence of any of ma out of the four basic necessities these, under a banyan tree or an of life, viz. (i) shelter, (ii) medicine, asoka tree, or other suitable trees. (iii) outfits such as garments, and Before the adoption of such (iv) food, the aspirant has already Course, a competent ganin who done away with the first two, and has headed the organization tempois now bent upon reducing the last rarily on trial should be placed in two. Besides the reduction and charge of the organization. In final elimination of monastic out- case the aspirant himself is not a fits, the most important item of gamin, the formality of placing parikarma is the begging of food another ganin in charge would not which is now restricted in various be necessary. ways, including its quality, by the aspirant. In monastic life one is to VIII. Forgiveness and its Merits be very careful in respect of begg. Then the aspirant should appro Then the ac ing food-pindaisana. He is now ach the monastic organization for absolutely indifferent about the mutual forgiveness. On the comquality of the food, remaining satis- pletion of the ceremony of forgivefied even with stale and insipid ness, the aspirant is freed from the inferior quality of grains easily emotional thorns and passions. available everywhere. Health is The formality of forgiveness confers now no concern for the aspirant. six merits, viz. (i) absence of thorns His spirituality sustains him of deceit, etc., (ii) humility, (iii) illthrough this great spiritual ordeal. umination of the spiritual path for V. Monastic Outfit (Upakarana) the practice of others, (iv) freedom from burden of crimes committed As regards the monastic outfit in the past, (v) solitude on account like robe, bowl, etc., he does not of his isolation consequent upon accept the new ones until the old forgiveness, (vi) absence of attach forgiveness. (vil ab ones are out of use and new ones ment on account of the dissociation are offered. 127 from the Order of disciples. 129 VI. Posture The aspirant has now no fixed IX. Admonition to the Successor 130 Before departure, the aspirant

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Jina-Kalpa 63 gives the following admonition to He proceeds alone towards a place his successor : fit for his monthly resort. He can "You should nourish the orga- travel only upto the end of the nization with enthusiasm according third quarter of the day, and has to to the prescriptions and prohibi- stop wherever he is at that time, tions. You should not mind my without proceeding any further. leaving the organizaton, because this is the traditional way of tea XII, Deportment (Samacari) chers and disciples, as you have also This is the counterpart of the to leave the organization after seventh dvara of the Elder's Course. transfer of charge to an able succe- Out of the ten samacaris, 132 the ssor in due course. five, viz. icchakara, tahakkara. "You should not fail in your padipucchana, chamdana and nimaduty to offer due reverence to your mtana, stand excluded for a jinakalseniors in learning and standing, pika (follower of the Victor's and to those worthy of respect. Course), because these are neceYou should also encourage the ssary only when a monk lives in a monks for the performance of aus- society of monks. The remaining terities (tapas), learning the scrip- five are resorted to as and when tures (svadhyaya), and service to necessary in connection with his the organization (vaiyavsttya) daily duties and association with according to their capacity for the the householders. 133 This number attainment of 'freedom from kar- can be reduced to three, viz. avasimic bondage' (nirjara)." ya, nisihiya, and uvasampaya, in special cases. 134 X. Admonition to other Monks131 In addition to the above ten "Do not belittle your new pon- types of samacari, there are others, tiff on the ground that he is junior called cakravala that may become or equal in standing, or less learned necessary in the daily routine of the than yourselves, and do not think jinakalpika. Additional rules of that you are not bound to obey conduct are discussed under the his orders and direction on those following twenty-seven heads : 135 grounds. He is now your Head in (1) Knowledge of Scriptures my place and should be duly. hono- (Sruta): The minimum scriptural ured by you on account of his knowledge required of an aspirant superior qualities and abilities. to the Victor's Course is his acquaYou should offer complete obedi- intance with the third vastu (secence and loyalty to him." tion) concerned with acara, in the ninth Purya known as PratyakhXI. Departure yana. This is necessary because After giving such admonitions, a study of this text enables the the aspirant for the Victor's Course aspirant to know the proper time leaves the organization with his for undertaking the Victor's outfit, like a bird with its wings. Course. The maximum range of

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64 The Four Monastic Courses scriptural knowledge of such an aspirant is the study of the ten Purvas in part only, because a complete knowledge of the ten Purvas would rather disqualify him for such undertaking on account of the fact that such an ascetic could effect greater dissociation (nirjara) of karmic matter through higher services to the dissemination of scriptural knowledge and doing social service.136 (2) Bone - joints (Samghayana, Skt. Samhanana): The aspirant to the Victor's Course should be possessed of a strong physical structure with joints characterized as vajarsabhanaraca samhanana, 137 This gives him the necessary power of forbearance (dhrti) which is of the nature of mental steadiness as unshakable as the wall made of vajra (the material as hard as the diamond or the thunderbolt of Indra),138 (3) Trials and Tribulations (Upasarga): These may occur or may not occur, but the aspirant always has to remain prepared to endure them with equanimity and patience.139 (4) Calamities and Misfortunes (Atanka): These also may arise or not, but the aspirant has always to remain prepared to bear them.140 - (5) Sufferings (Vedana): This is of two kinds: (i) self-imposed (abhyupagamiki), being due to the undertaking of the Victor's Course, and (ii) earned (aupakramiki) on account of the past karman. Under the first category are the routine plucking of hair, the austerity of exposure of body to the sun, and so on; under the second are included various diseases, old age, and other painful sufferings earned due to the past karman.141 (6) Number (Kati janah): There can be only one aspirant living alone,142 without any companion aspirant, as he has to live a solitary life, both physically and spiritually. (7) Place for easing oneself (Sthandila): This is considered with reference to a place that is frequented or not frequented by people, and that is exposed and not exposed to their sight. The various combinations of these alternatives would give rise to four situations. 143 The only one among these prescribed for the aspirant is a place which is neither frequented nor exposed to sight. Such a place is also suitable for depositing worn - out garments. 144 His excrement is meagre and unbroken (whole) giving no occasion for besmearing the body, on account of his scanty and dry food.145 He never uses any other kind of place for easing himself or depositing his worn-out garments or any other kind of activity, even if he has to stop them for a very long period on account of natural calamities or periods of trials and tribulations. This extreme form of hardship is relaxed in the case of the monastic Course of the Elders.146 (8) Abode (Vasati): The aspirant to the Victor's Course should have no possessiveness to the abode nor should he indulge in any kind of reconditioning it such as painting or embellishing. In the sthavi

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Jina-Kalpa 65 ra-kalpa also this is prohibited, al- secret resolve (vide parikarma) 153 though wiping of the place is per- for food and drink, (23-24) refusing missible for them.147 The aspirant sticky (or oily) and accepting only to the jinak alpa does not plug up non-sticky edibles and drinks, such the holes, nor does he interfere if as dry pulse and gram and gruel.154 the abode is being demolished, nor (25) Avoidance of Acamla : He does he close the doors or bolt should avoid acidic and sticky nonthem. The sthavirakalpikas, how- acidic drink and food. 155 ever. can undertake such acts under (26) Avoidance of padima : He special unavoidable circumstances, avoided the intensive courses of but not out of whim (darpa).148 fasting for month, etc., or penances (9-15) Kiyaccira-uccara-prasra- called bhadra, mahabhadra, etc. 156 vana-avakasa - trnaphalaka-samraksa- (27) Masakalpa (Conduct during na - samsthapana: He does not Monthly Stay) : (a) Division of a accept an abode with any precondi village or town was made into six tions laid down by the owner, such avenues for the purpose of begging as (9) duration of stay, (10-11) res- so that he could visit any one of triction about the place for easing these each day without any fixed these each day without a oneself of stool and urine, (12) res order, in order to be easily able triction in respect of seats, (13) res not to allow prior knowledge of triction about using straw, wood- his visit to the prospective almspieces, etc., (14) protection of fields giver, who may unwittingly indulge from being grazed by cattle, and in adhakarma, etc., in respect of (15) repair of dilapidated abode 149 dry or fried food (avagahima), (16-19) Prabhrtika-agni-dipaka- which will remain nutika (unaces avadhana : He should not take table) for a period of three days.157 abode in a place where (16) sacri On being asked by a disappoinfices are performed, or (17) a lampted housewife about the reason of is burning, or (18) fire is kindled, not obliging her with acceptance of or (19) he is asked to look after the food, the ascetic may keep silent food, the ascetic ma abode. 150 or observe as follows: "Uncertain (20) Vatsyatha kati janah : In indeed are the abodes (and tours) case the house-owner expresses the of the ascetics, just as those of the least hesitation in offering a place, bees, cattle, birds, and autumnal he should not accept the offer. clouds."'158 For, the abode may already be over-crowded, and the owner may (b) The reason of such division fsel embarrassment in allowing is that the jinakalpika has to repeat hint to stay. 151 his visit to the first vithi (avenue) (21-24) Bhiksacarya-panaka-lep- on the seventh day. 159 aleja-(alepa): This is concerned (c) At the same village or town, with going out for begging food there can sojourn seven jinakalpior drink and acceptance of them, from a smeared hand or pot.152 kas in the maximum. No two jina(21-22) He goes out for begging in kalpikas should visit the same vithi the third quarter of the day with a (avenue) simultaneously. This is

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66 The Four Monastic Courses a rule to be rigidly observed. They divisions, there being only four out do not converse with each other. of six, viz. susama-susama, susama, susama-dusama and dusama-susma,164 XIII. Essential Features (Sthiti) apportioned according to the Now we come to what is the regions. Specifically speaking, the counterpart of the eighth dvara fourth division occurs in the regi(head) of the Elder's Course called ons of the Mahavideha, and there sthiti (essential features), which is only the jinakalpika can be born explained under 20 subheads : 160 and adopt and practise the Course. (1) Ksetra (Place of birth and There are, however, exceptions in place of adopting and practising the respect of the regions and the diviintensive conduct of the Victor's sions of time-cycle, so far as the Course): Both these places should adoption and the practice are conbe situated in any of the karma- cerned. Suppose a would-be jinabhumis. 161 So far as the latter (the kalpika is born in the Mahavideha, place of adopting and practising) but is carried away by some divine is concerned, it may take place agency to another region where the outside the karmabhumis, in the cir- divisions of time-cycle may be diffcumstance of the aspirant's being crent. In that case, the adoption carried away outside the karma- and the practice are possible in all bhumis by some god (saharuna, Skt. the six divisions, according to the Samharana). 162 circumstance.165 (2) Kala (Time of birth, adop (3) Caritra (Monastic Stages) : ting and practising jinakalpa): His There are five monastic stages, viz. birth and adopting are necessarily (i) samayika 'initiation', (ii) chedoin the third or the fourth ara (divi pasthapaniya 'ordination or confirsion) of the avasarpini (descending) mation', (iii) pariharavisuddha 'intime-cycle, while his practice may tensive conduct of Purificatory continue into the fifth division. In Cooperative Course' (iv) suksmathe utsarpini time-cycle, the posi samparaya 'the stage where the rise tion is just the reverse. In other of subtle passions only is possiwords, the birth is possible in the ble' (which is identical with the second, third, and fourth divisions, tenth gunasthana),166 and (v) yawhile the adopting is possible only thakhyata the highest state of in the third and the fourth division. monastic life' 167 The adoption and practice are not possible in the second division, be- An aspirant established in the cause the monastic Order (tirtha) first or the second monastic stage is itself has not come into existence qualified to adopt the Victor's in that division, as it is possible Course.168 The tradition says that only in the third. 163 the second stage was introduced by In the Jain cosmography, there Lord Maha vira for the first time, are regions where avasarpini and and it was prevalent in the times utsarpini do not occur in all their of Rsabha as well, there being

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Jina-Kalpa 67 no such stage in the times of the study of any new scripture, but the other tirtharkaras. It is inter- properly retains his memory of the esting to note in this connection previously studied scripture intact, that in the Buddhist monastic orga- in order to preserve the balance nization, there are similar stages and steadiness of his mind.174 known as pabbajja and upasampa (7) Veda (Sex): The aspirant da 169 the latter corresponding to must be a male or possessed of an uvatthana (or chedo pasthapaniya) of unafflicted neutral sex, the female Mahavira. sex thus being excluded. During Apart from the question of the practice of the Victor's Course, adoption of the Victor's Course, he remains either possessed of the there is the issue of the higher sta- sex (saveda) or can become sexless ges called suksma-samparaya and (aveda)175 on the achievement of yathakhyata of the ladder of subsi- f subsi- the higher spiritual state (i.e., the the dence170 (upasamasreni).171 The ninth gunasthana) in the ladder of aspirant to the Victor's Course, it subsidence (upasama-sreni). should be noted in this connection, (8) Kalpa (Practice), compulsory cannot ascend the 'ladder of destruc (sthita) or optional (asthita) : There tion' (ksapaka-sreni) which is possi are 10 practices (kalpa) which are ble only for the practitioner of the to be compulsorily followed by the Elder's Course. monastic Orders of the first and the (4) Tirtha (Religious Reign) : last tirthankaras. Some of these The Victor's Course is possible practices are, however, optionally only during the currency of the reli observed by the followers of the gious rule established by a tirthan remaining twenty-two tiriharkakara. It cannot be possible either ras.176 But as the practitioners of before the advent of such rule or the Victor's Course can belong to after its extinction. 172 the Orders of all the tirthankras (5) Par yaya (Standing): It is two they fall under both the categories, fold: (i) grhi-paryaya 'the length of viz. those observing the practices householder's life'; and (ii) yati compulsorily or those doing so opparyaya 'the length of monastic life'. tionally, according as they belong The former is identical with janma to the Orders of the particular tirparyaya, because it is calculated thankara, 277 from the date of birth. The aspirant's age must be 29 in the minimum 173 (9) Linga (Monastic Equipmentand his minimum monastic standing Physical and Spiritual): So far as must be 20. Thus calculated, if a the physical equipments (dravyaperson gets ordination at the age linga, such as robe, pots, broom, of 9, he has to wait at least for 20 etc.) are concerned, the practitioner years for adopting the Victor's may or may not be possessed of Course. them, but he is necessarily posse(6) Agama (Scriptural Study): ssed of the spiritual equipment. The aspirant does not undertake bhava linga, such as the mahavra

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68 The Four Monastic Courses tas (the great vows), the samitis mer case is one, two, three, etc., and the guptis. At the time of ini- while in the latter it is 2000.181 tiation, he has both these kinds of (13) Abhigraha (Secret Resolve): equipments, but later on he may be The practitioner of the Victor's dispossessed of the physical equip- Course does not make occasional ment, and left with only the spiri- secret resolves pertaining to beggtual one, which is the essential fea- ing, etc., as the Victor's Course ture of the practitioner.178 itself is a lifelong resolve.182 (10) Lesya (Colour Indices): Ini (14 and 15) Pravrajana, Mundatially the practitioner of the Vic- pana (Initiation and Tonsure or tor's Course has necessarily any of Hairplucking) : He does not initiate the three benevolent lesyas and or give advice to any ordinary none of the three malevolent ones. candidate. But in a special case of But later on he may change to any an extraordinary candidate who is one of the six. The practitioner, sure to adopt a monk's life, he may however, would not sink to the recommend him to competent leardeeper levels of the malevolent loss ned monk (gitartha) for initiation. yas, and also would not continue to Similarly, he would not accept a be there for a long period. 179 candidate for hairplucking.183 (11) Dhyana (Meditation: The (16) Minimum Expiation : He is practitioner, at the time of initia itio liable to the third category of tion, is in a state of gradually dee punishment, viz. anugghaya, i.e., pening meditation on the nature of caturguruka for even mentally things (dharma-dhyana), but later indulging in a subtle act of transon he may fall down to the inauspi- gression (aticara). 184 cious (aprasasta) categories of (17) Karana (Unexceptional Condhyana, viz. meditation on account duct): His conduct is not liable to of painful experience (arta) or the any exception or change under eruption of the passion of anger any circumstance (karana), such as (raudra). But this fall is not going to another acarya for knowmostly so deep as to be capable of ledge, and so on.185 producing a resultant (anubandha) (18) Nispratikarna (Avoidance in the future, because of the pre- of Physical Care and Medical Treatdominance of virtuous propensities ment): He does not even clean his in bim, 180 eyes or take any medicine for any (12) Ganana (Number): At the ailment.186 stage of initiation, the maximum (19) & (20) Bhaktam (Time of number of such practitioners may begging food) and panthah (deparbe upto 900 at a particular mo- ture) : He should perform these ment, but the maximum number duties in the third quarter of the of those engaged in practice may day, 187 devoting the remaining be 9000 at a particular moment. quarters mostly to the practice of The minimum number in the for- kayotsarga. As regards the second

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Pariharavisuddhika or Suddhapariharika 69 duty of departure from the place, for a longer time or even permait would depend on his health and nently at a particular place under capacity to move. He does not such circumstance.188 incur any blame if he has to stay III PARIHARAVISUDDHIKA OR SUDDHAPARIHARIKA or Purificatory Cooperative Course I INTRODUCTORY The order of treatment of Victor's Course as given in the Brhatkalpa Bhasya, 189 and followed by us in our above description, is applicable to the Purificatory Coopera- tive Course (pariharavisuddhika) as well as the Time-bound Course (yathalandaka). We should therefore note here only the points of departure from the Victor's Course. 190 II Extension of the Rules of Victor's Course and their Exceptions. (1) Place and Time of Practice : The practice of the Purificatory Cooperative Course is possible only in the reign of the first and the last tirtharkaras, who are born in the last part of the third and the fourth periods of the descending time. cycle. As regards the regions of such practitioners, it is possible in the ten regions of Bharata and Airavata. (2) Period of Floruit : In the reign of Rsabha, the first tirthan- kara, it flourishes for one hundred thousand purvas 191 only of the third period, while it lasts for several scores of years in the reign of the last tirtharkara.192 But the maximum duration of the practice of the Course by the practitioner is one purva-koti less 29 years, because his longevity is one purva-koti and he cannot adopt the practice before he cannot adopt the practice is 29. Similarly, a disciple initiated by such practitioner will also be able to practise the Course for the same number of years. Thus the total length would come to two parva-kotis less fifty-eight years. In the same way, in the reign of the last tirtharkara, the maximum duration of the practice of this penance by a particular aspirant can be 100- 29=71 years. This is calculated on the presumption that the practitioner lives for full 100 years, which is the maximum length of life in the period under reference. The total length in this case would be 71+71=142 years. The reason of the discontinuance of this Course beyond the second generation of the tirtharikara is that only the jina himself or the disciple initiated by the jina can initiate an aspirant into the practice of this Course. A disciple's disciple. (sthapita - sthapaka) cannot do so.193

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70 The Four Monastic Courses (3) Qualifications : The aspirant nions. In addition to this, he is also to this Course must be perfectly advised by the tirtharkara on the established in samyag - darsana acceptable food (dravya), the place, (right faith), and samyak-caritra and the period for monthly stay (right conduct). As regards the (masa-kalpa) or the stay during the scriptural knowledge, he must be rainy seasons (varsavasa), and also conversant with the nine Purvas in the control of the passions like anger, the minimum, and with the ten Pur- the abandonment of embellishment, the abandonmen vas less a part in the maximum. He the lesyas, and meditation (dhyana), must also be familiar with the five and such other items of mental and Vyavaharas (the sources of monastic moral discipline. law),194 and the twofold kalpa (5) Abhigraha (Secret Resolve): (conduct), viz. (i) The Course of As regar regards the acceptance of food the Victors (jinakalpa), and (ii) the and drink and outfit, he adopts the Course of the Elders (sthavira same procedure as prescribed kalpa), or the twofold sthapana- for the Victor's Course (jinakalpa (conduct qua commissioning kalpa). a monk), viz. (i) akalpa-sthapana- (6) Time of Adoption and the kalpa (non-commissioning of un- Numerical Strength of Groups : The N, trained monks), and (ii) saiksa aspirants adopt this Course not sthapana-kalpa (commissioning of long after the sunrise, after finishing trained monks).195 the act of confession (aloyana) and He is also possessed of consum disowning the wrong doing (mithyamate knowledge of the ten catego dusksta). Now they form three ries of expiations (prayascittas). groups, each consisting of nine The aspirant knows, by the monks in the minimum power of his extraordinary scrip The duties among the nine tural knowledge, his life-span, his monks of each group are distribuown physical strength (bala), vital ted as follows: one of the nine is powers (virya), and capacity (para. made the leader of the group krama). He can also see the future (kalpasthita) and four of them are health-hazards (pratyapaya). appointed as assistants (pariharika) (4) Permission of the Tirthan in penance, and the remaining four kara: Such aspirant has to seek as sub-assistants (anu-parihathe permission of the tirtharkara rika. 196 and get his advice about the proper way (marga) such as deportment For the practitioner of this (samacari), which includes all the Course no misfortunes and calamipramanas (the numerical strength of ties arise during the first eighteen different categories) and the various months. They may, however, arise types of secret resolves (abhigraha). after that period, and in case any of As regards the numerical strength, those practitioner dies or adopts it refers to the gana (group), the the Victor's or the Elder's Course, outfits (upadhi), and the compa- then the following procedure should

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Pariharavisuddhika or Suddhapariharika 71 be adopted for the next eighteen medial, and minimum extent of months : The same number of new penance undertaken by the practimonks should be admitted from tioners in the three seasons. among those that may be willing to enter the group. The remaining Nun Winter Summer candidates should be kept in reserve Meals Season and engaged in self-assessment Dropped (tulana) 197 as regards their compe- Maximum 12 meals 10 meals 8 meals tence. Their deportment should be Medial 10 meals 8 meals 6 meals in harmony with that of the assis. Minimum 8 meals 6 meals 4 meals tants and the sub-assistants. If an adequate number of candidates (10) Breaking of Fast (Parana) arrives, then together with them, and Change of Duties: At the end they would constitute a separate of the twelve meal penance (dvadagroup (gana). sam tapah), the practitioners (assisIn case no one has left the group tants) break their fast by acamla at the end of the first eighteen (subsistence on a single-meal-a-day months, the new candidates should consisting of saltless cereal of any ked to wait till their number one kind). They beg alms sepacomes to nine, so that a new group rately, with secret resolves in respect could be constituted. of the last five esanas. They do (7) Prayascitta: The leader of not partake of food, etc., jointly.198 each group engaged in this course The remaining participants of the is competent enough to prescribe group, viz. the leader and the subexpiation according to the offence assistants would constitute a sub. that might be admitted by the par group, eating and living together ticipants. This rule applies to (sambhoga) and undertake acamla both the assistants and sub-assis everyday. The leader, however, tants. does not go on the begging tour, The assistants and the sub-assis- which is done by the sub-assistants. tants would bow down, avow The assistants observe the penance (aloyana) and vow not to commit for the first six months. Similarly, (paccakkhana) any offence in the the sub-assistants also do the same, future. while others discharge the function (8) Silence : They practise of the sub-assistants. At the end their Course in silence, excepting of the first twelve months, the occasional queries on and study of leader observes the penance. Then the scriptural texts and their mean- anyone among the rest is made the ing. On special unavoidable leader, while others discharge the occasions, a member can express function of the assistants or subhimself in respect of his bare neces- assistants according to their fitsities and activities. ness, 199 there being no incompatibi(9) Penances: The following lity in this arrangement, because the table illustrates the maximum, service to the Order or a group is a

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72 The Four Monastic Courses common responsibility of each member, irrespective of his monastic status. In other words, at the end of the first six months, the assistants retire having completed their penance (nirvistakayika), and are followed by the sub-assistants as the observers of the penance for the next six months. At the end of the twelve months, the duty of observing the penance falls on the leader for the next six months. (11) Options at the End of Eighteen Months: At the end of the eighteen months, such practitioners have the option of continuing the penance or adopting the Victor's Course, or reverting to the Course of the Elders. Those who continue in the Course may do so irrespective of their numerical strength, which may fall down to eight or even less. The above account distinguishes four kalpas (conduct), viz. (i) the conduct of those who have fulfilled the penance (nirvista), (ii) the conduct of those who are fulfilling the the (nirvisamana), (iii) penance Victor's Course, and (iv) the Course of the Elders. Adding to these four, the two conducts, viz. Samayika (Initiation) and Chedopasthapaniya (Ordination), we get six types of conduct (kalpasthiti) arranged in the following order: (i) samayika, (ii) che dopasthapaniya, (iii) nirvisamana, (iv) nirvistakayika, (v) jinakalpa, and (vi) sthavirakalpa. Of these six, the third and the fourth may be subject to the entrance (samavatara) into the second while the first four may have entrance into the last two. The monks who revert to the Course of the Elders at the end of the Purificatory Cooperative Course are known as itvara (engaged in temporary practice), while those who adopt the Victor's Course are called Yavatkathika, i.e., practitioners for whole life.200 The Purificatory Cooperative Course has thus three alternatives, viz. (i) adoption of the Victor's Course, (ii) continuance of the same Purificatory Cooperative Course, or (iii) reversion to the Course of the Elders. (12) Upsarga, Atanka, and Vedana: It is an established convention (jita) that trials and tribulations (upsarga), misfortunes and calamities (atanka), and sufferings (vedana) do not take place in the case of the practitioners of itvarika (temporary) Purificatory Cooperative Course. (13) Samharana : The practitioners cannot be kidnapped by any agency. (14) Kala (Time): Their floruit is possible only in the avasarpini and utsarpini, and not in sarpini, etc., as in the case of the jinakalpika. no-ava (15) Kalpa-sttaiti: As a rule, this penance is possible only in the sttaiti-kalpa (fixed conduct).201 (16) Caritra (Monastic Stages): Each monastic stage has several points of development of self-control called samyama-sthana. In the first two stages, viz. initiation and ordination, the minimum points of self-control are similar, there being parity of purification (visuddhisamya). In the case of practitioners of the Purificatory Cooperative Course, their points of self-control are much higher in quality- their

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Pariharavisuddhika or Suddhapariharika 73 to the first, called samayika, or the second called chedopasthapaniya stage of conduct, and therefrom, can directly go to the fourth stage of monastic conduct, viz. suksmasamparaya. In such case the aspirant is technically called puvvapadivanno (i.e., one who passed through the Course in the past), but is not established in it at the moment he passes on to the higher stage of the monastic conduct.207 (17) Numerical Strength Relating to Groups and Personnel : The following table gives the maximum and minimum number of practitioners groupwise and personwise in respect of the padivajjamana and puvvapadivanna.208 qualitative difference from those of the first two types of monastic stages being innumerable X innumerable202 times purer.203 The purity of those points is again graded, the highest points being innumerable 204 times purer than the lowest. Such purity is possible also in the first two stages of monastic conduct, because a spiritual aspirant does not necessarily adopt the Purificatory Cooperative Course for higher spiritual development. In such case, his purification is exclusively due to his station in the first two monastic stages. This purity attained through the Purificatory Cooperative Course or directly without such Course, is followed by the stage of the rise of subtle passions only (suksma-samparaya) which lasts for less than a muhurta and is attended with innumerable205 points of samyama (selfcontrol) that are purer successively. This is followed by a single solitary moment of self-control which is infinitely purer being the consummation of purity, called the ideal stages of monastic life (yathakhyata),206 The practitioner of the Purificatory Cooperative Course may revert I MEANING The expression landa stands for time. Here the minimum span of time is the time taken by the wet Practitioners No. of Groups each of 9. Min. Max. 1. Initial Adoption 3 2. Old Practitioners 200 3. Subse quent Entrants (a) New Nil Nil (b) Old IV YATHALANDAKA or The Time-bound Course 900 900 Nil Nil No. of persons Min. Max. 27 1800 1 1 8100 8100 8 0 00 8 palm to dry,209 and not an infinitesimal instant, because the latter is unsuitable in the context of a monastic course.210 The maximum

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74 The Four Monastic Courses period denoted by the expression, tioners have to complete the study in connection with the Time-bound under the same acarya, along with Course, is five days.211 The obser- practising their penance. Usually vers of this Course are called yatha- the acarya himself has to go to landika, because they go on the them for teaching the remaining begging round for a maximum part, though in the special circums. period of five days only in a parti- tance of his inability to move to cular avenue, and not beyond that another place, the practitioner of period.212 In the minimum, three the Time-bound Course has to go ganas (groups), each consisting of to the acarya for learning the leftfive members, undertake the over portion. In the latter case, Course.213 the teaching is to be conducted in a lonely place to avoid the presence II. The Points of Agreement and of other disciples. The reason is Departure that the yathalandika is not expecOn the tulana (estimate), etc., 214 ted to offer obeisance to his erst while seniors, on account of his there is essential agreement between the Victor's Course and the Time observance of a higher spiritual discipline. The sudden discontinubound Course, there being points ance of study mentioned above is of departure only in respect of the accounted for by the chance occuitems of sutra (knowledge of scrip rrence of specially auspicious lucky tures),215 bhiksacarya (going out on stars for undertaking the Timebegging tour),216 masakalpa (con bound Course. 220 duct during the monthly stay)217 and pramana (or ganana 'numerical The points of basic differences strength').218 A brief account of between the practitioners of the these items is given below: Time-bound Course, belonging to the categories of those intending (i) Sutra (Knowledge of Scrip to revert to the Elder's Course and tures): The practitioners of the those intending to pass on to the Time-bound Course fall into two Victor's Course, are as follows: categories, viz. (i) gacchapratiba (a) In the case of their inability ddha (tied to the original stem), on health grounds to observe the and (ii) others (not so tied), each Course, the former can revert to of the two again being subdivided their original stem (gaccha) to be as the jinas (those who would pass received with sympathy and given on to the Victor's Course), and all necessary medical treatment sthavirus (those who would revert even in cases of extremely difficult to the Elder's Course).219 The gacchapratibaddhas are so called types of diseases. 221 because they are yet to learn the (b) The practitioners of the formeaning of a part of the text which mer category keep alms-bowl and they were engaged in the study of also wear robes. These outfits are under their acarya. Such practi- optional in the case of the second

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category of practitioners, depending on their initial resolution to utilize or not these outfits.222 (ii) Bhiksacarya (Going out on Begging Tour): The yathalandika group can live in the same village or town for one month. They have, however, to divide the place in six parts, called vithis (avenues), and spend five days in each part restricting their begging tour also to that avenue. In this way, they can spend the full month at one place. In case the village is not big enough, they can select five other nearby villages for the purpose of the monthly stay and begging rounds using one village as one vithi. In the rain-retreat, they can stay at one place for four months at a stretch.223 As regards their jurisdiction (uggaha), it is identical with that of the original stem in the case of the yathalandikas tied to the stem, there being no such restriction in the case of those not so tied.224 (iii) Masakalpa (Conduct during Monthly Stay): During the rainretreat, they spent four months in a village or town, whereas at other times they could stay there only for one month. But the special condition for the observers of the Time-bound Course was that they could not spend more than five days at a stretch in a particular part of the village called vithi.225 And this is the justification of the nomenclature yathalandika, meaning an observer of the five day course, as distinguished from the observers of the other three courses. As regards the jurisdiction, the same rule as mentioned under the bhiksacarya will be applicable. (iv) Numerical Strength Relating to Groups and Personnel: The following table gives the maximum and minimum number of practitioners groupwise and personwise in respect of the padivajjamana and puvvapadivanna 226 Practi tioners 3. Subse 1. Initial Adoption 3 900 2. Old Practitioners Nil quent Entrants (a) New (b) Old Yathalandaka 75 No. of Groups each of 9. Min. Max. Min Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil No. of persons 15 Max. 1 Nil 4500 2 2 Koti Koti 100 Nil In the Vijayodaya Our account of the four monastic courses has been based mainly on the Brhatkal pa-Bhasya. There are, however, other similar courses which have not found place in our treatment. For instance, the twelve bhiksu-pratimas also form an intensive course to be practised by a single monk, unlike the Elder's Course, or the Purificatory Cooperative Course, or the Time-bound Course. It is also distinct from the Victor's Course, as it consists of twelve definite stages, one following the other. There is no such gradation in the Victor's Course. The different courses have found a lucid exposition in the Vijayodaya

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76 The Four Monastic Courses Tika227 on the Mularadhana. that the practitioners may need The Course of the Elders is not help at times of sickness or other given there. The order of treatment kinds of privations, specially when of these courses in the Mularadhana they undertake austerities. The as explained by the Vijayodaya is implication is that the implication is that the observers of as follows: this course are not perfectly (1) Athalanda; capable of enduring all kinds of (II) Parihara; parisahas (hardships) under all cir(III) Jinakalpa, cumstances. The author of the Vijayodaya (e) Another important feature makes some observations in connec ne of the practitioners of this course tion with these courses, that throw is that they cultivate vigilance and further light on the subject. We awareness round the clock, avoiding note here the most important sleep and are engrossed in uninterones. rupted meditation. But they do not take such vow and are not I. Athalanda transgressors if slumber forces itself (a) The monks unable to under on them (yadi balad ayata nidra, take Purificatory Cooperative tatraksta-pratijna).229 This reminds Course (parihara - visuddhi) adopt us of Lord Mahavira's ascetic life the Athalanda (Time - bound as recorded in the Ayaro, where the Course). Lord's constant vigilance and self(6) This course is adopted by awareness are expressed as follows:230 a group of five, eleven, or nine monks. niddam pi no pagamae, sevai bhaga(c) Their outfit is autsargika, vam utthae; ie., they possess no outfit. How jaggavai ya appanam isim saiyasi ever, they keep pratilekhana (or apadinne. piccha, 'broom or brush' usually (Even sleep for pleasure and made of feathers) soft enough to rest, wipe off small living beings without The Lord, waking, did never seek; injuring them, in any way, from And waked himself up, the sitting places, or from the path When by chance drowsy, the during their journey to other places unaffected One). or study-spots or begging rounds. But otherwise they endure all hard They undertake the vow of ships, abandoning the attachment silence excepting on three occasions, to the body and not using any out- viz. (i) query as to the path, or (ii) fit (such as robes, bowls, etc.) in the acceptability of food, etc., or imitation of the conduct of the jina (iii) permission of the house-owner (victor). 228 for stay. (d) The cenobitical character of The Vijayodaya specifically menthis course is justified on the ground tions that to the queries about his

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Yathalandaka 77 movement and about the duration mandam parakkame bhagavam, ahinof his stay, etc., the only reply that samano ghasam esittha. he could give is "I am a sramana" (Or a mahana or a samana, (sramano'ham).231 This also reminds A village-beggar or a guest; us of the Ayaro :232 A candala, or a cat, ayam antaramsi ko ettha, aham amsi' Or a dog, standing on the tti bhikkhu Xhaffu; way; ayam ut tame se dhamme tusinie se Obstructing not their livelikasaie jhai, hood; (Who is inside there? And frightening them not; I am here, a bhiksu, said He; Slowly moved the Lord, That was His way unique, And begged his food, injuring Silent, though ill-treated, medi none). tated He). Sometimes people asked him to (i) They may acquire some leave the place (apasaratah stha- supernatural powers such as assumnat).283 This is also an echo of the ing bodies (vikriya) according to Ayaro :234 their desire, flying through air uvasamkamantam apadinNGam gaman- (caranata), and feeding people tiyam pi appattam; with milk products at will (ksirasrapadinikkhamittu lusim su yao param vitva).237 palehi'tti. (Him, on journey, the unaffected II Parihara-vieuddhi One, (a) The monks unable to adopt Though village yet was not the Victor's Course could undertake reached, the Pariharavisuddhi-kalpa (PurificaComing out, they attacked, tory Cooperative Course). The Saying 'Get away from here? Vijayodaya explains that the pari(8) It was, however, optional for harikas and the anupariharikas are them to cleanse their eyes of dust, so called because the parihara-samor to pull out thorns from their yama (service to the group) is an This was, however, com- essential part of their conduct.238 pulsory for the jinakalpika.235 The expression 'cooperative' in our (h) They would go on the begg- rendering of the course is in fact ing round in the third quarter when intended to stress this aspect of the decrepit (krpana), street beggars service in the course. (vanipaka), birds and animals have (6) The Vijayodaya asserts that left the place. This is comparable if the number of persons undertakto the Ayaro : 236 ing the course be three, one of adu mahanam va samanam va, gama them Pindolagan ca aihim vo; is made the kalpasthita (the | sovagam musiyaram va, kukkuram va leader of the group), another a viviham thiyam purao. pariharika (attendant), and the vitficcheyam vajjanto, tes'appartiyam third an anupariharika (sub-atten pariharanto; dant). Similarly, if the total num

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78 The Four Monastic Courses ber is five, one of them is made course that is to be followed by the the kalpasthita, two are made the ideal monk, the other courses being pariharikas and the remaining only imperfect approximations to two are appointed as the anupari- the ideal one, namely, the jinaharikas. kalpa. (c) On the completion of the (b) Another remarkable diffecourse they may attain clairvoyance rence as mentioned in the same (avadhi), telepathy (manahparyaya) work in respect of the Victor's and even omniscience (kevala), or Course is that the practitioners emancipation disincarnate (sid- could attain omniscience244 which dhi).239 In the Dhavala, 240 it is said was denied to them in the Brhatthat the practitioner of this course kalpa Bhasya.245 This is an imcannot attain any gunasthana portant issue having an essential beyond the seventh. The Panca- bearing on the relative importance samgraha247 asserts that such prac of the Elder's Course which had a titioners cannot achieve the power wider application to the welfare of of telepathy (manahparyaya). These the society and the people at large. views of the Dhavala and the Pan The practitioner of the Victor's casam graha are to be reconciled Course withdraws himself comwith the view of the Vijayodaya pletely from all social contact, that even omniscience was possible devoting himself exclusively to his on the completion of this course. personal spiritual welfare. The The fact appears to be that the Victor's Course was thus a purely aspirant does not get telepathy or personal affair whereas the Elder's omniscience during the practice of Course provided a better opporthe course, there being no inconsis tunity to propagate the religion in tency if he achieved such knowledge the interest of humanity in general. on the completion of it. This human aspect of the monastic course thus gets its due importance III. Jinakalpa in the Elder's Course. The denial (a) The most important aspect of omniscience to the follower of of the jinakalpa 'Victor's Course', the Victor's Course by the Svetamas pointed out in the Vijayodaya, baras seems inspired by the conis that the adoption of this course ception of the Elder's Course as is possible at all times 242 and not only in the time of the jina or his that transcends personal ambition immediate successor. This is also that is self-centred and indifferent true of the practitioner of the to the well-being of others. athalanda (yathalanda) course. 243 This difference of view is evidently The Elder's Course in the Digamdue to the insistence of a section bara Tradition of the Jaina Sangha, viz. the Dig- The origin of the Elder's ambaras and the Yapaniyas, on the Course is an important issue. It Victor's Course to be the only presupposes an elaborate code of

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Yathalandaka 79 conduct and intimate association public welfare, on the completion of the acarya with the laity on the of the course. This is very pecuone hand and the members of the liar. The Digambara account of Order on the other. the life of Lord Mahavira, after the The practitioners of the jina- attainment of omniscience, is very kalpa were practically completely meagre and provides very little isolated ascetics leading an eremi- information about the versatile and tical life. But the followers of the magnetic personality of the Lord. Elder's Course had to live an active life in the interest of the fourfold nudity (acela-dharma)247 did not Sangha--the lay men and women, perhaps enjoy lasting influence. and the monks and nuns. The His Order of monks and nuns Digambara view of the Elder's continued to follow, it appears, the Course is very much influenced by time-honoured monastic code intheir conception of sthavirakalpa herited from the Parsva's Order, being not much different from preserved in the Purvas that formed that of jinakalpa. The monks of a part of the twelfth Arga, called sthavirakalpa are allowed to look Drstivada, which must have been a after the social welfare to a very store-house of the doctrines of prelimited extent. The Svetambara Mahavira Indian thinkers, both view, on the other hand, provided Vedic and non-Vedic. This also a wider scope to the monastic explains the authority of the ChedaOrder. Lord Mahavira's attitude in Sutras, said to have been composed this regard is, however, difficult to by Bhadrabahusvamin about 150 ascertain. The accounts found in years after the parinirvana of the the Ardhamagadhi Agamas that are Lord. The relevant question in extant confirm the view that Lord this connection is the final source Mahavira took live interest in all of authority for Bhadrabahu himaspects of life : social, political, self. If Lord Mahavira did not scientific, and so on. In the words give these rules, where they were of Dr Schubring, Lord Mahavira derived from? We may here venwas "the most versatile thinker, we ture to suggest that the earlier know of in ancient India",246 His monastic code was inherited from ascetic life, of which we find an sources which were pre-Mahavira, authentic record, unmixed with and the inheritance was bequeathed myth, in the Ayaro, was respon- to the followers of Nigantha Nayasible for the conception of the jina- putta by the twenty-third tirthankalpa. Lord Mahavira's active kara Parsva. It is admitted that life starts with his first sermon the Chedasutras and even the Dasaafter his enlightenment at the end veyaliya owe their authority to the of his ascetic career. The aim of the Purvas which were considered to be jinakalpa, as described in monastic their original source.248 treatises, is, however, not an active The controversy about the life of the practitioner devoted to keeping of outfits such as robes,

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80 The Four Monastic Courses bowls, etc., as discussed in the was familiar with the caujjama dhaVijayodaya,249 is clearly based on the mma252 which he ascribed to Purvagamas (ancient Agamic texts) Nigantha Nayaputta, though, in that are still extant and sanction fact, it was a discipline propounded the use of those articles.250 Pandit by Parsva. It is evident from such Nathuram Premi has also conclu- ascription that Lord Mahavira's sively proved that the munis innovations of the "five siksapadas" (monks) and aryikas (nuns) were was not known to the Buddha. classed in the same category by the Moreover, the characterization of author of the Mulacara.251 Now, the Nirgranthas as ekasataka253 as the authority of the Mulacara also proves that the Buddha was and the Mularadhana is acceptable familiar more with the Parsva's to the Digambaras, it is necessary discipline than with that of Niganto reconcile nudity with the use of tha Navanutta To be nrecise the clothes by a section of monks on Buddha mistook the Parsva's discithe one hand, and the entire com- pline as that of Lord Maha vira. munity of nuns on the other. The The controversy on nudity recorded authenticity of the texts containing in the Uttarajihayanani between the the references to monastic outfits followers of Parsva and Mahavira is also an important problem that and the attempt at reconciling the may be reviewed in the light of our two disciplines can be considered above-mentioned suggestion. as a proof in favour of our conten tion. Nudity was not universally The pre-Mabavira character of accepted and a solution to the issue the Nirgrantha monastic code was sought in a spirit that was is also proved by the fact that the representative of the non-absolutisBuddha prescribed many a rule tic (anekanta) attitude of the partiafter the pattern of that code. He cipants at the debate. References 1 Chapter IX. That the Victor's Course was conceived in imitation of the actual ascetic life of the jina is admitted by the Jaina thinkers.Cf. Bhavasamgraha, v. 123 cd : jina iva viharanti sada te jinakappe thia samana 2 BKBh, v. 1447. 3 Ibid., v. 1446 (=1132). 4 Ibid., vv. 1132 ff. 5 Ibid., vy. 1133-42. 6 Ibid., vv. 1143-1218. 7 Ibid., v. 1162. 8 Ibid., vv. 1163 71. 9 Ibid., vv. 1219-22. 10 Ibid., v. 1220. 11 Ibid., v. 1221. 12 Ibid., vv, 1223-40. 13 Ibid., v. 1239. 14 Ibid., vv. 1223, 15 Ibid., v. 1224. jo vi pagaso bahuso gunio paccakkao na uvaladdhol jaccamdhassa va camdo, phudo vi samto taha sa khalull 16 Ibid., v. 1227. 17 Ibid., v. 1228. 18 Ibid., vv. 1229-31. 19 Ibid., vv. 1235-38, 20 Ibid., v. 1239. 21 Ibid., vy. 1241-79. 22 Ibid., v. 1242-52.

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References 81 23 Ibid., v. 1243, Commentary : abhanapta vi hu najjanti, supurisa gumaganehim niyaehim/ kim bollanti manio, jao lakkhehim ghippamti// 24 Ibid., vv. 1253-58. 25 Cf. Ayaro, VIII. 1. 1, 2, 28, 29 (J.V.B.). The expression samanunna (Skt. samanuja, but samanojna according to Malayagiri, which appears in correct) stands for sambhogika. 26 BK Bh., vy. 1266-77. 27 Ibid., vy. 1268. 28 Ibid., v. 1272. 29 Vide infra, pp. 3017. 30 BK Bh, Commentary on v. 1447. 31 lbid., v. 1450. 32 (a) Aprar yupeksi (lack of survey) leading to light four-monthly expiation (masalaghu). (6) Ajna-bhariga (breach of Law) leading to heavy four-monthly expiation (masaguru). (c) Anavastha (indecision) leading to light four-monthly expiation (masalaghu). (d) Milyalva (perversion of faith). (e) Samyama-viradhana (breach of restraint) leading to corresponding prayascitta. (f) Sending the surveyor without consulting the stem leading to light -monthly expiation (masalaghu). 33 BK Bh, vv. 1450-1470. 34 Vide the chapter on Samacari. 35 BKBh, v. 1471. 36 Ibid., v. 1472. 37 Ibid., v. 1473. 38 Ibid., vv. 1474-1483. 39 Ibid., v. 1489. 40 lbid., Commentary on vv. 1490-1491. 41 lbid., v. 1495. 42 Ibid., samgraha-gatha, 1496. 43 Ibid., v. 1499. 44 lbid., v. 1498. 45 Ibid., v. 1501. 46 Ibid., v. 1502. 47 lbid., v. 1503. 48 Ibid., Commentary on v. 1505 : grama-nagaradinam tatprathamataya nivesyamananam vastuvidyanusarena prathamam smasana-vastu nirupya tatah sesani deva-kula-sabha-sau dhadi-vastuni nirupyante, 49 Ibid., vv. 1509-1510. 50 Ibid., vv. 1511-1513. 51 Ibid., vv. 1514-1515. 52 Ibid., vv. 1518-1522. 53 lbid., vv. 1525-1526. 54 Ibid., v. 1527. 55 It is interesting to note in this conne ction that in ancient medical science, the minimum convalescing periods for different species are as follows: Dog: 1 day; Man: 5 days; Bull : 15 days; Elephant : 60 days. Cf. Ibid., v. 1530. 56 lbid., vv. 1531-32. 57 Ibid., vv. 1533-1537. 58 Ibid., v. 1543: tadubhaya suttam patilehana ya uggayamanuggae va vi/ padicchahigarana tene, natthe khag guda samgarol/ This is in contrast with the original law. Vide BKS, III. 47. 59 BK Bh, v. 1545. The bad omens are as follows: a dirty and ill-dressed fellow, or with body smeared with oil, a dog crossing the path from left to right, a hunch-backed or a dwarf, a redrobbed monk (Buddhist), a follower of Kanada, a hermit of dubious character (sarajaska), a diseased person such as a leper, a person with mutilated limbs, a miserable person, a physician, a saffron-robed, and a person with his body smeared with ashes. 60 Cf. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dic tionary, p. 231 : Cilimilika or ciliminika---some kind of cloth, or article made of cloth; cf. Pali cilimika, cimilika; Ardha-Magadhi cilimini curtain. Cloth used as a curtain, also cilimiliga, cilimiliya, cilimili: also cf, Culavagga, Nalanda, p. 243; also cf. the Sanskrit root V cila (=to put on clothes). 61 BKBh, v. 1552 : balajya uvahim, jam vodhum taranti tattiyam ginhe/ jahannena ahajayam, sesam taruna virimcantil 62 Ibid., Commentary on v. 1552.

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82 The Four Monastic Courses 63 Ibid, v. 1558. 64 The six gradually intensive penances are: (i) Light-monthly penance (masalaghu). (ii) Heavy-monthly penance (masa guru). (iii) Light-four-monthly penance (caturlaghu). (iv) Heavy-four-monthly penance (caturguru). (v) Light-six-monthly penance (sadlaghu). (vi) Heavy-six-monthly penance (sad guru). 65 BK Curni quoted by the commentator: BK Bh, Commentary on v. 1559. 66 Ibid., v. 1560. 67 Ibid., v. 1561. 68 lbid., vv. 1570-1572. 69 lbid., vv. 1574-1575. 70 Vide supra, p. 48. 71 BKBh, v. 1580. 72 Ibid., v. 1584 (Niryukti-gatha). 73 Ibid., v. 1592. alasam ghasiram suviram, khamagam koha-mana-maya-lohillam/ kouhala padibaddham, veyavaccam na karijja// 74 lbid., Commentary on v. 1956: tatasca avamaharataya tasyaiva-anagadha-agadha-paritapadayo dosah. 75 BKBh, vv. 1602-1607. 76 Ibid., v. 1608: samtharanammi asuddham, donha vi ginhanta-dintayana'hiyam/ aura-ditthantenam, tam ceva hiyam asamtharane// This was the view of the liberal monastic legislators, which, however, was not definitely acceptable to the puritans who would stick to the general law enunciated in the scriptures that were acceptable to them. The Bhasya here reflects only the position of the Order of which its author might have been a learned advocate. 77 lbid., v. 1609. 78 Cf. Pindaniryukti, v. 269; Dasavealiyam, V, 1. 55. 79 BKBh, v. 1612. 80 Ibid., vv. 1615 ff. 81 The institution of sambhoga has been treated of in the Buddhist monasticism also. The term apparently enjoys a wider association there, as it is concerned with participation in a monastic act (sangha-karma) like uposatha, etc., and sleeping under the same roof. (Vide Pacittiya, p. 185, Nalanda). But if sambhoga is taken in its wider connotation as defined by Malayagiri in his Commentary on Brhatkalpa Bhasya, v. 1617, there is no essential difference between the Jaina and Buddhist concepts of sambhoga. Malayagiri here explains sambhogika as ekasamacarika, i.e. follower of the same type of conduct and rules of deportment: sambhogika ekasamacarikah. Here, samacari is almost identical with the samici of the Buddhists. 82 Cf. Dasavealiyam, VIII. 23; IX. 3. 4; X, 16. 83 Cf. Gacchacara Prakirnaka, v. 96, Commentary. 84 Cf. BkBh, vv. 1382-84. 85 Vide infra, pp. 63 fr. 86 BKBh, v. 1627 cd. 87 Ibid., v. 1628 ab. 88 Ibid., v. 1628 cd. 89 libd., v. 1629 ab. 90 Ibid., v. 1630 ab. 91 Ibid., v. 1630 cd. 92 Ibid., v. 1629 cd. 93 lbid., v. 1631. 94 Cf. infra, pp. 64 ff, 95 BKBh, v. 1632, Commentary: etesvapi niskarane pratisedhah, na vasantu yatanam titi bhavah, karane kurvanti. 96 Ibid., v. 1633. 97 Vide infra, pp. 66 ff. 98 BKBh, v. 1647. 99 Ibid., v. 1648. 100 Ibid., v. 1649 a. 101 Ibid., v. 1649 bcd. 102 Ibid., vv. 1650-1651. 103 Ibid., v. 1652. 104 Ibid., v. 1654. 105 Cf, the Chapter on The Four Stages of Sin.

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References 83 106 BKBh, v. 1655. 107 Vide infra, p. 68. 108 BKBH, v. 1655, Commentary. 109 lbid. 110 Syntopicon, I, p. 1018. 111 lbid. 112 BKBh, v. 1282 ff. 113 Ibid., VI, vv. 6483ab, 6484 : gacchammi ya nimmaya, dhira jahe ya muniya-paramattha. (v. 6183ab). dhitibaliya tavasara, ninti ya gacchato te purisa-siha/ bala-Viriyasamghayana, uvasagga- saha abhiru ya//(v. 6484). 114 Ibid., v. 1284. 115 Ibid., v. 1285ab. 116 Haribhadra's Pancavastuka, Vy. 1380-81. 117 BKBh, v. 1328, Commentary, 118 Ibid, vv. 1329-1332. 119 lbid. vv. 1333-1339. 120 lbid., vv. 1.340-1344. 121 Ibid., vv. 1345-1352. 122 Ibid., vv. 1353-1358. 123 PSU vrtti, p. 126: tulana bhavana parikarma iti ekarthah. 124 Bhavanu (self-contemplation). It is wholesome (prasasiu) as well as unwholesome (aprasasta), just like meditation (dhruna), which may be good (subha) as well as bad (asubha). For the aspirant of Victor's Course, the prasasta bhavanas are prescribed and the aprasasta ones are prohi bited. 125 BKBh, vv, 1286-1329. 126 Ibid., v. 1328, Commentary. 127 Ibid., v. 1285cd. 128 lbid., vv. 1364-65. 129 Ibid., vy. 1367-1370. 130 lbid., vv. 1371-1372. 131 Ibid., v. 1373. 132 Vide the Chapter on Samacari. 133 BKBh, v. 1379 : avasi nisihi miccha, apucchuvasam- padam ca gihiesu/ anna samayari, 'na homti se sesiya panca// 134 Ibid., v. 1380 : avasiyam nisihiyam, mottum uva sampayam ca gehiesu! sesa samayari, na homti jinakappie satta// 135 Ibid., vv. 1381-84. 136 Ibid., v. 1385 : ayaravatthutaiyam, jahannayam hoi navamapuvvassa/ tabiyam kalannanam, dasa ukkosena bhinnajm// Commentary : sampurna-dasapurvadharah punar amoghavacanataya pravacana-prabhavana-paropakaradidvarenaiva bahutaran nirjara-labham asadayati ato nasau jina-kalpam pratipadyate. 137 The different samhananas give an idea of Jaina osteology, specially, the aspect relating to the strength of the joints of the human body. Vajrarsabhandrica - samhanana stands for the joint of bones fastened together in a special way (naraca, i.e., markatabandha) surrounded by a bony ring or plate (rsabha) with a bony nail (vajra) piercing the plate and the two bones. This symbolizes extra-ordinary sturdiness and strength. The other five samhananas are to be understood mutatis mutandis. The second structure is called rsabhanaraca, there being no nail (vajra). The third one is called naraca, the bones being held together by the special kind of fastening (naraca) alone. The fourth is called ardhanaraca, the fastening being on one side of the joint, and the fifth is called kilika, there being only a bony nail holding them together without any kind of fastening. The sixth is called sevarta, because the bones are here only in mutual touch (seva) and are held together by an oily material which they always need for their sustenance. (Cf. Pannavana Sutta, Vitti, pp. 470-72), 138 BK Bh, v. 1386ab: padhamilluga samghayana, dhiie puna vajjakudd asamana. 139 Ibid., v. 1387ab. 140 Idid., v. 1387cd. 141 Ibid., v. 1388. 142 Ibid., 1388d. 143 Cf. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, XXIV. 16-17.

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84 The Four Monastic Courses 144 BKBh, v. 1389. 145 lbid., v. 1390 : appam abhinna vaccam, appam Tuham ca bhoyanam bhaniyam/ dihe vi uvasagge, ubhayamavi atha- mdile na kare!! 146 Ibid., v. 1630; vide supra, p. 57 147 Ibid., v. 1391 : amamatta aparikamma, niyama jinakappiyana vasahjo/ emeva ya the ranam, muttuna pamajjanam ekkami 148 Ibid., v. 1392 : bile na dhakkanti na khajjamanim gonai varinti na bhajjamanim dare na dhakanti, na va'ggalinti dappena thera bhai, u kajje// 149 Ibid., vv. 1393-94. 150 Ibid., v. 1395. 151 Ibid., v. 1896; also cf. Haribhadra's Pancavastuka, v. 1450. 152 Cf. Mulacara, p. 371. 153 Vide supra, p. 61. 154 BKBh, v. 1397. 155 Ibid., v. 1398ab. 156 Ibid., v. 1398cd, 157 Ibid., vv, 1400, 1401ab. chavvinio gamam, kaum ekkikkiyam tu so adai/ vajjeum hoj suham, aniyayavittissa kammai// (v. 1400) abhiggahe dathum karanam, bhatt ogahimaga tinni puiyam (v. 1401 ab). 158 Ibid., vv, 1410, 1411 : kim nagaya ttha taiya asavvao me kao tuha nimittam iha puttho so bhagavam biiyaese imam bhanai// aniyatao Vasahio, bhamarakulanam ca gokulanam ca/ samananam saunanam, saraianam ca mehanam// 159 Ibid., v. 1401d. 160 Ibid., vv. 1413-14. 161 Cf. Tattvartha Sutra, III. 37. 162 BK Bh, v. 1415. 163 Ibid., v. 1416. 164 Cf. Tattvartha Sutra, III. 27. 165 BKBh, v. 1417. 166 Cf. Tatia, Nathmal : Studies in Jaina Philosophy, p. 278. 167 Cf. Tattvartha Sutra, IX. 18. 168 BKBh, v. 1418ab. 169 Vinaya Pitaka, Mahavagga, p. 23 (Nalanda). 170 BKBh, v. 1418 cd. 171 Cf. Tatia, Nathmal : Studies in Jaina Philosophy, pp. 275-276. 172 BK Bh, v. 1419a. 173 The number 29 here has a special significance, because Lord Mahavira renounced the world at this age and started practising the jinak alpa, which illustrates all the rules prescribed for the penance. We shall have occasion at the end of the chapter to demonstrate with reference to the ninth adhyayana (chapter) of the first srutaskandha (book) of the Ayaro how these rules are found there verbatim. 174 BKBh, v. 1420a. 175 BKBh, v. 1420bcd. 176 Vide Mularadhana, v. 421. 177 BK Bh, v. 1421a. 178 lbid., v. 1421b : linge bhayana u davvalingenam; Commentary : linge cintyanane bhajana tu dravyalingena karya, tu-sabdo visesane, kim visinasti? prathamatah pratipadyamano dravya-bhava-lingayukta eva bhavati. urdhvam api bhavalingam niyamid bhavati dravyalingam tu jirnatvat cauradibhir apahsiatvad va kadacinna bhavatyapi. uktancaiyaram tu jinnabhava iehim sayayam na hoi vi kayai/ na ya tena vina vi taha jayai se bhavaparihani// Pancavastuka, v. 1502. 179 BKBh, v. 1421cd. 180 Ibid., v. 1422ab. 181 lbid., v. 1422cd, 182 Ibid., v, 1423ab. 183 Jbid, v. 1423bcd. 184 Ibid., v. 1414b; also Commentary on v. 1423. 185 BKBh, v. 1424b. 186 lbid., v. 1424a. 187 Yajnavalkya Smrti (111.58) prescribes the fourth quarter of the day for begging food instead of the third prescribed here. In this connection the following sutra of Vasisha Smrti (sutra no. 250) is worth notice : mundo- 'mamo- 'parigrahah saptagarany asamkalpitani

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References 85 cared bhaiksyam vidhume sanna musale. 188 BK Bh, 1424cd. 189 Ibid., v. 1132. 190 BKBh, v. 6447-6481; also cf. Anuogaddaraim (English transla tion), p. 173n. 191 1 purva is equivalent to 84,000,00 X 84,000,00 years. Cf. Anuogaddara im (English translation), p. 131. 192 BKBh, v. 6450 : puvvasaya-sahassaim, purimassa amusajjati Visaggaso ya vasaim, pacchimassan- usajjati) 193 Ibid., 6453 : padivanna jinindassa padamulammi je viu/ thavayanti u te anne, no u thavita havaga// 194 See the chapter on Five Vyavaharas. 195 BK Bh, vv. 6442-3. 196 lbid., v. 6463. 197 Vide tulana in Jinakalpa, supra, p. 59. 198 BKBh, v. 6473, Commentary: na parasparam samuddesanadi-sambho- gam kurvanti. 199 Ibid., v. 6474. Cf. footnote 3 on p. 1703 : scsah punar anuparihari. kaivam pariharikatvam va yathayo gyam pratipa dyante. 200 Ibid., v, 1426cd. 201 lbid., v, 1431c. 202 Cf. Anuogaddaraim, 502. e mathematical calculation of purity is an invention exclusively of the Jaina thinkers. It appears that their close association with the mathematicians of the ancient period is responsible for such mathematical orientation of psychological facts, In fact the atomic theory of the Jainas played an important part in the exact calculation of the spiri tual development of the soul. 204 Here the 'innumerable' means the number of space-points in the loka. 205 This innumerable number is to be understood as identical with the same number of time-instants constituting an antarmuhurta. Cf. Anuogaddaraim, 367, 511. 206 BKBh, v. 1432-33. 207 Ibid., v. 1434. 208 Ibid., vv. 1435-37. 209 BK Bh, v. 1438, Commentary : landas tu bhavati kalah...yavata kalenodakardrah karah susyati tavan jaghanyah. 210 Cf. PSU, Tika, p. 173 A : asya cena jaghanyatvam pratyakhyana-niyamavieesadisu visesata. upayogitvat. anyatha 'tisuksmatarasyapi samayadilaksanasya siddhantoktasya kalasya sambhavat. 211 BKBh. v. 1438, Commentary : utksstah panca ratrindivani. 212 Ibid.: utkrstam landam pancara trarupam ckasyam Vithyam caranasila yasmat, tato mj...yathalandika ucyante. 213 Ibid., trayo gana amum kalpam pratipadyante...landamanam utksstam pancatmakam ekaikasya ganasya purusanam pramanam drastavyam. 214 Vide supra, pp. 59 ff. 215 Vide supra, p. 64, where the expres sion sruta is used instead. This discrepancy is explainable on the ground that the Prakrit Version varies as suya or sutta in the original texts. 216 Vide supra, p. 65. 217 Vide supra, p. 65. 218 Vide supra, p. 68. 219 BKBh, v. 1414, Commentary : yathalandika dvidha, gaccha-pratibaddha itare ca punar ekaike dvividhah-jinas ca, sthaviras ca. * 220 Ibid., v. 1440. 221 Ibid., v. 1442. 222 Ibid. 223 Ibid., v. 1440, Commentary, PSU, Commentary, pp. 173B and 174A. 224 PSU, v. 616 : gacche padibaddhanam ahalandinam tu aha puna viseso/ uggaha jo tesim tu so ayariyana abhavail/ 225 PSU, p. 173A and 173B. 226 BKBh, vv. 1443-5. 227 Pp. 353-6. 228 Vijayodaya, p. 353 : athalanda samyatanam lingam autsargikam...

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86 The Four Monastic Courses pranasamyama-palanartham...gshsta- pratilekhana gramantaragamane, viharabhumi-gamane... 229 Ibid. 230 Ayaro, IX. 2.5. 231 Vijayodaya, p. 353. 232 IX. 2.12. 233 Vijayodaya, p. 353. 234 IX. 3.9. 235 Cf. Ayaro, IX 1.20 : acchim pi no pamajjiya, no vi ya kanduyaye muni gayam. 236 IX. 4. 11-12. 237 Cf. Ayaro, VIII. 8.24; Yoga darsana, III. 48-51. 238 Vijayodaya, p. 254 : kalpasthitam acaryam muktva sesanam ardha agre parihara-samyamam gshnanti iti pariharika bhanyante sesas tesam anupariharikah. 239 Ibid., p, 256 : avadhir manahparya yam kevalam va yoga-samaptau prapnuvanti siddhyanti va. 240 Vol. 1, 1, sutra 126. 241 1. 194. 242 Vijayodaya, p. 356 (line 19): kalatah sarvada. 243 Ibid., p. 354 (line 9): kalatah sarvada. 244 lbid., p. 356: avadhi-manah- paryayam kevalam va prapnuvanti kecit. kevalinas te niyamena sidhyanti. 245 BKBh, v. 1420, Commentary : tatra jinakalpikasya tadbhave kevalot pattipratisedhat. 246 The Doctrine of the Jainas, p. 40. 247 Cf. Uttarajjhayanani, XIII, 13. 248 Vide H.R. Kapadia: A History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas (Bombay, 1941), pp. 87-90, and pp. 15-16 for Bhadrabahu as the author of the Chedasutras, etc. 249 Mularadhana, v. 421, Vijayodaya, pp. 609-616. 250 Vijayodaya, pp. 611-2: athaivam manyase purvagamesu vastrapatradigrahanam upadistam tatha hy acarapranidhau bhanitam-pratilikhet patrakambalam dhruvam iti...sutrakrtasya pundarika-adhyaye kathitan-na kahejjo dhammakaham vattha-pattadihedum iti nisedhe 'pyuktam-kasinaim vatthakambalaim... aryikanam agame anujnatum vastram karamapeksaya. bhiksunam hriman ayogyasariravayavo duscarmabhilambamanabijo va parisahasahane va aksamah sa glhnati... tatha coktam kalpe--hirihetukam va hoi dehaduguncham ti... 251 Jaina Sahitya aura Itihasa (Hindi), Bombay, 1956, p. 552. 252 Digha Nikaya, I, p. 50. 253 Anguttara Nikaya, III, p. 93.

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X THE IDEAL MONK The Uttarajjhayanani, XV, and the Dasavealiyam, X, contain under the common caption "Sa Bhikkhu" the essential characteristics of the ideal monk. We give here a versified English rendering of the two chapters, each English verse being preceded by its Prakrit original. The contents of these two chapters are comparable to those of the Bhikkhuvagga of the Pali Dhammapada. Uttarajjhayanani, XV SA-BHIKKHUYAM 1. monam carissami samecca dhammam sahie ujju-kade niyana-chinne samthavam jahejja akama-kame annaesi parivvac, sa bhikkhu. (1) A monk's life shall I lead, perceiving the truth, Wishing well, upright, tearing off intents deep; Abandoning acquaintance, longing not for objects sensual, Who begs from families strange, he is indeed the ideal monk. 2. raovarayam carejja ladhe virae veyaviyaya-rakkhie , panne abhibhu ya savva-damsi je kamhim ci na mucchie, sa bhikkhu. (2) With affection ceased, and vivacious, Abstaining, knowing the lore, self-protected, Wise and conquering, perceiving all, Who is attached not anywhere, he is indeed the ideal monk. 3. akkosa-vaham vittu dhire muni care ladhe niccam aya-gutte; avvagga-mane asampahitthe je kasinam ahiyasae, sa bhikkhu.

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88 The Ideal Monk (3) Overcoming abuse and injury, steadfast, Vivacious ever, the sage travels self-protected, Undistracted in mind, not elated, Who endures all, he is indeed the ideal monk. 4. pantam sayana sanam bhaitta si'unham viviham ca damsa-masagam arvagga-mane asampahithe je kasinam ahiyasae, sa bhikkhu. (4) Using beds and seats lowly, Cold and heat diverse, gnats and mosquitoes, Undistracted in mind, not elated, Who endures all, he is indeed the ideal monk. 5. na sakkaim icchai, na puyam, no vi ya vandanagam, kuo pasamsam; je samjac suvvae tavassi sahie aya-garesad, sa bhikkhu. (5) Desires not treatment respectful, nor homage, Nor reverence, let alone praise; Self-restrained, keeping the vows, ascetic, Wishing well, who introspects the self, he is indeed the ideal monk. 6. jena puna jahai jiviyam moham va kasinam niyacchai (nara] narim pajahe saya tavassi na ya kouhallam uve, sa bhikkhu. (6) For whom one gives up life, Or falls into delusion deep; Such women ever, the ascetic, avoids, And is not enamoured, he is indeed the ideal monk. 7. chinnam sara bhomam antalikkham suminam lakkhana-danda-vatthu-vijjam anga-viyaram sarassa vijjam je vijjahi na jivai, sa bhikkhu. (7) The rent (in garment), tones, (portents) earthly and celestial, Dreams, science of signs, staffs and building-sites, Defects physical, and the science of cries, Who lives not on sciences such, he is indeed the ideal monk. 8. mantam (mulam) viviham ca veija-cintam, vamana-vire yana-dhumanetta-sinanam aura-saranam tigicchiyam ca, tam parinnaya parivvac, sa bhikkhu.

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(8) Charms strange and doctor's prescriptions, Emetics, purgatives, fumigation, and bathing, The patient's asylum and treatment medical, Eschewing, who renounces, he is indeed the ideal monk. 9. khattiya-gana ugga rayaputta mahana bhoiya viviha-sippino ya, no tesi vai siloga-puyam; tam parinnaya parivvae, sa bhikkhu. (9) Ksatriyas, guilds, Ugras, princes, Mahanas, Bhogas, and artisans of all sorts; Who praises not, nor honours, And avoiding them, renounces, he is indeed the ideal monk. 10. gihino je pavvaiena dittha appavaiena va samthuya havejja, tesim ihaloiya-pphal'attha [jo] samthava na karei , sa bhikkhu. (10) The householders whom, after renouncing, he met, Or, ere renunciation, was acquainted with; With them, who, for gains earthly, Cultivates not acquaintance, he is indeed the ideal monk. 11. sayanasana-pana-bhojanam viviham khaima-saimam paresim adae padischi niyanthe je tattha na paussai, sa bhikkhu. (11) Beds and seats, drink or food, Sa-Bhikkhuyam 89 Dainties various, and spices, by others, Refuses to partake of, the Nirgrantha, Who gets not angry, he is indeed the ideal monk. 12. jam kim c'ahara-pana-jayam viviham khaima-siimam paresim [laddhum] jo tam tivihena nanukampe mana-vaya-kaya-susamvude, sa bhikkhu. (12) Food and drink of kind any, And dainties various, and spices, by others, (Being offered), who blesses them not in the triple way, Restrained in thought, word, and deed, he is indeed the ideal monk. 13. ayamagam ceva javodanam ca siyam soviram javodagam ca no hilae pinda nirasam tam, panta-kulai parivvae, sa bhikkhu.

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90 The Ideal Monk (13) Rice-water and barley-pap, Cold sour gruel, and barley-water, Insipid alms, who despises not, And visits the houses lowliest, he is indeed the ideal monk. 14. sadda viviha bhavanti loe divva manussaga taha tiriccha bhima bhaya-bherava urala - je socca na vihijjai, sa bhikkhu. (14) Sounds manifold there are in the world, Of gods and men, and of beasts too, Dreadful, frightening and aweful ones; Who bears them unperturbed, he in indeed the ideal monk. 15. vadam viviham samecca loe sahia khey'aige ya koviy'appa panne abhibhu ya savra-damsi uvasante avihedae, sa bhikkhu. (15) Knowing doctrines different in the world, Wishing well, griefless, and learned; Wise, conquering, and perceiving everything, Tranquil and unoffensive, he is indeed the ideal monk. 16. asippa-jivi agihe amitte ji'indie savvao vippamukke anu-kkasai lahu-appa-bhakkhe cecca giham egacare, sa bhikkhu. (16) Not living on craft, without house and friends, Subduing his senses, free from ties all; With passions tenuous, eating light and little, Houseless and living alone, he is indeed the ideal monk. Dasave aliyam, X SA-BHIKKHU 1. nikkhamma-m-anaya buddha vayane niccam citta-samahio havejja itthina vasain na yavi gacche, vantam no padi yayai (je), sa bhikkhu. (1) Abiding by the Law, who renounces the world, Contemplates ever on the words of the Enlightened One; And avoiding all women, swallows not back The vomit, he is indeed the ideal monk.

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2. pudhavim na khane [na] khanavac, sioyaga na pie [na] piyavae, aganim sattham jaha su-nisiyam (2) Who digs not the earth, nor makes others dig, Drinks not water cold1, nor makes others drink; Kindles not fire, the weapon sharp, Nor gets it kindled, he is indeed the ideal monk. 3. anilena na vie na viyavae, tam na jale na jalavat [je], sa bhikkhu. 4. 5. hariyani na chinde [na] chidavac; biyani saya vivajjayanto (3) Who fans not the air, nor gets it fanned, Wounds not the vegetation, nor makes others wound; Always gives up the seeds, and takes not The live food, he is indeed the ideal monk. 6. saccittam naharae [je], sa bhikkhu. vahanam tasa-thavarana hoi pudhavi tana-kattha-nissiyanam, tamha uddesiyam na bhunje, no vi pae na payavae [je], sa bhikkhu. (4) Involves as that, killing of being, mobile and immobile, Infesting earth, straw, and wood, Who accepts not the food for himself intended; Nor cooks, nor gets cooked, he is indeed the ideal monk. roitta Nayaputta-vayanam appa-same mannejja chap-pi kae panca ya phase mahavvayaim pancasava-samvarae [je], sa bhikkhu. (5) With unshakable faith in the words of the Naya-scion, Who identifies himself with the world of sixfold beings; And observes in full the five vows great, Restraining the five doors of influx, he is indeed the ideal monk. Sa-Bhikkhu 91 cattari vame saya kasa dhuva-jogi ya havejja buddha-vayane, ahane nijjaya-ruva-rayae gihi-jogam parivajjae [je], sa bhikkhu. I Here 'cold' stands for 'live' (sacitta).

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92 The Ideal Monk (6) Giving up passions fourfold, Absorbed always in words of the Enlightened One; Without possessions, away from silver and gold, Who forsakes the world, he is indeed the ideal monk. 7. sammad-ditshi saya amudhe "atthi hu nane tave ya samjame ya" tavasa dhunai purana-pavam mana-vaya-kaya-susamvide [je], sa bhikki. (7) With faith set right, and ever from delusion free, Believer in wisdom, austerity and restraint; Who shakes off sins old by penance (from the soul), Restrained in thought, speech, and body, he is indeed the ideal monk. 8. taheva asanam panagam va viviham khaima-saimam labhitta "hohi attho sue pare va" tam na nihe na nihavae Lje), sa bhikkhu. (8) And thus on getting any food or drink, Dainties various, and spices; Intending to use them on the morrow or further still, Who stores them not, nor gets stored, he is indeed the ideal monk. 9. Taheva asanam panagam va viviham khaima-saimam labhitta chandiya sahammiyana bhunje, bhocca sajjhaya-rae ya je, sa bhikkhu. (9) And also on getting any food or drink, Dainties various, and spices; Inviting fellow monks, who eats, And engages in study after eating, he is indeed the ideal monk. 10. na ya vuggahiyam kaham kahejja na ya kuppe nihu' indie pasante, samjama-dhuva joga-jutra uva sante avihedae ( je), sa bhikkhu. (10) Who indulges not in talks contentious, Nor is angered, with senses unruffled, and tranquil; Always devoted, and absorbed in restraint full, Quiet and calm, belittling none, he is indeed the ideal monk.

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Sa-Bhikkhu 93 11. jo sahai hu gama-kantae akkosam ca pahara-tajjanao fya), bhaya-bherava sadda sa-ppahasa sama-suha-dukkha-sahe ya ja, sa bhikkhu. (11) Who tolerates the set of sensual thorns, Abuses, beating, and rebukes; Scornful laugh, terrible, dread and loud, And, with equanimity, pleasure and pain, he is indeed the ideal monk. 12. padimam padivajjiya masane no bhae bhaya-bheravas dissa, viviha-guna-tavo-rae ya niccam na sariram c'abhikankhai jel, sa bhikkhu. (12) In intensive penance at the cemetery engaged, Who fears not the terrible and dreadful sight; Engaged ever in various deeds of merit and penance, Longs not for the body, he is indeed the ideal monk. 13. asaim vosatha-catta-dehe akkutthe va hae va lusie va pudhavid same muni havejja anipane akuuhale ya je], sa bhikkhu. (13) Every now and again, detached and aloof from body, Abused or beaten or wounded; The saint who remains un moved like the earth, Free from desires and curiosity, is indeed the ideal monk. 14. abhibuya kaena parisahaim samuddhare jai-pahao appayam viittu jai-maranam mahabbhayam tave rae samania [je), sa bhikkhu. (14) Physically enduring hardships all, From metempsychosis himself who saves; And realizes the dreadfulness of birth and death, In ascetic penance engaged, he is indeed the ideal monk. 15. hattha-samjae paya-samjac vaya-samjae samjaindiye ajjhapparae susamahiyappa suttattham ca viyanai [je), sa bhikkhu. (15) Restraining the hands, and also the feet, Restraining the speech, and the senses too; Absorbed in self, and with self concentered deep, Who knows scripture in letter and in spirit, he is indeed the ideal monk.

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94 The Ideal Monk 16. uvahimmi amucchie agiddhe annaya-uncham pula-nippulae kaya-vikkaya-sannihid virad savva-sangavagae (ya ja), sa bhikkhu. (16) Neither attached to possessions, nor greedy of them, Begging remnants from families strange, and free from monk hood hollow; Abstaining from purchase, sale, and hoarding, Who is away from attachment all, he is indeed the ideal monk. 17. alola-bhikkhu na rasesu giddhe uncham care jiviya nabhikankhi iddhim ca sakkarana puyanam ca cae thiy'appa aniha [jel, sa bhikkhu, (17) The mendicant, with senses not loose, nor greedy of tasty food, Living on remnants, and longing not for life; Powers supernal, respect, and reverence, who wants not; With self steadfast and energy unconcealed, is indeed the ideal monk. 18. na param vaejjasi "ayam kusile", jen' anne kuppejja, na tam vaejja; janiya patteya punna-param attanam na samukkase ( je), sa bhikkhu, (18) Who calls not anyone names, And says not what angers him; Knowing the virtues and vices of each, Exalts not himself to the skies, he is indeed the ideal monk. 19. na jai-matte na ya ruva-matte, na labha-matte na suena matte, mayani savyani vivajjayanto dhamma-jjhana-rae ya je, sa bhikkhu. (19) Who prides not himself on caste, nor on beauty, Nor on gain, nor on learning; Eschewing all prides, Absorbed in meditation on dhamma, he is indeed the ideal monk. 20. paveyat ajja-payam maha-muni, dhamme thio thavayai param pi; nikkhamma vajjejja kusila-lingam na yavi hasam kahae [je), sa bhikkhu.

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Sa-Bhikkhu 95 (20) Teacher of the noble goal, the great saint, Himself established in steadfastness, establishes others too; Renouncing all, who shuns the vestiges of monkhood bad, Indulges not in laughter silly, is indeed the ideal monk. 21. tam deha-vasam asuim asasayam saya cae niccu-hija-thiy'appo; chindittu jai-maranassa bandhanam uvei bhikkhu apunagamam gaim tti bemi. (21) The mortal frame impure and fragile, One should ever forsake, steady in perennial weal of self, Tearing off the bondage of birth and death, The monk attains the state, from metem psychosis free. -Thus do I say.

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XI THE VICTOR'S PENANCE The Uvahanasuyam (the sruta on penance) of the Ayaro (First Srutaskandha, Chapter IX) gives a vivid picture of the ascetic life of Lord Mahavira, that sets the example to be followed by the aspirants to jinahood. It is in fact a description that led the authors of Jaina monasticism to formulate the Jinakalpa, the Victor's Course, of which we have given a brief account in the chapter "The Four Monastic Courses". Here we give a versified English rendering of the Uvahanasuyam, each English verse being preceded by its Prakrit original. The Prakrit expression uvahana is comparable to the Pali word padhana, meaning 'exertion, energetic effort, striving, concentration of mind'. UVAHANASUYAM 1. ahasuyam vaissami, jaha se samane bhagavam utthaya; samkhae tamsi hemante, ahuna pavvaie riittha. (1) Relate shall I, as actually I heard, How that Samana, the Lord, waking, Perceiving, in that autumn, Travelled, just ordained. 2. no cev'imena vatthena, pihissami tamsi hemante; se parae avakahae, eyam khu anudhammiyam tassa. (2) With this robe, shan't I, Cover myself that autumn (vowed He), And observed (the vow) for ever; His obedience to the Law indeed was such. 3. cattari sahie mase, bahave pana jaiyagamma; abhirujjha kayam viharimsu, arusi yanam tattha himsimsu. (3) More than four months, Living beings of varieties many, gathering, Climbing, crawled over His body, And wounded Him stinging in anger and wrath,

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Uvahanasuyam 97 4. Samvaccharam sahiyam masam, jam na rikka'si vatthagam bhagavam; acelae tato cai, tam vosajja vattham anagare. (4) For a year and a month, The robe the Lord left not off; (But), naked and relinquishing was He, then, Giving up the robe, as a houseless monk. 5. adu porisim tiriya-bhittim, cakkhumasajja antaso jhai; aha cakkhu-bhiya-sahiya, te "hanta-hanta" bahave kandimsu. (5) Then on wall in front of man's length, Fixing His eyes, inwardly did He meditate; Frightened by His eyes, and assembled, Exclaiming 'Oh alas, Oh alas' cried many. 6. sayanehim viimissehim, itthio tattha se parinnaya; sagarivam na se seve, iti se sayam pavesiya jhai. (6) In abodes intermixed, Women He avoided; In sexual act He never indulged, (But), secluding Himself, meditated deep. 7. je ke'ime agarat tha, misibhavam pahava se jhai; putjho vi nabhibhasimsu, gacchai naivattai anju. (7) Whosoever were there in the house, Shunning them all, He meditated alone; Answered not, when asked, Left, but unconcerned, never swerving. 8. no sukaram etam egesim, nabhibhase abhivayamane; hayapuvvo tattha dandehim, lusiyapuvvo appapunnehim. (8) Not easy indeed was it for all, Not to respond, being greeted, Or with sticks beaten, Or cut by people of merit thin. 9-10. pharusaim duttiikkhaim, aiyacce muni parakkamumane; aghaja-nafta-giyaim, dandajuddhaim mutthijuddhaim. (9) gadhie mihu kahasu, samayammi nayasue visoge adakkhu; etaim so uralaim, gacchai nayaputte asaranae. (10) (9-10) (Sounds) harsh and the unbearable, Overcoming, the Sage exerted hard; The tales, dances, and songs, Stick-fighting and boxing, (9)

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98 The Victor's Penance And people in conversation, And compacts, the Naya-scion, griefless, (avoided); All sights coarse and vulgar, The Naya-son left, recalling not. (10) 11. qvi sahie duve vase, siodam abhocca nikkhante; egattagae pihiyacce, se abhinnayadamsane sante. (11) And for more than a couple of years, Before renouncing, cold water He eschewed; Solitary, guarding His body and mind), With intuition gained, and tranquil. 12. pudhavim ca au-kayam, teu-kayam ca vau-kayam ca; panagaim biya hari yaim, tasa-kayam ca savvaso nacca. (12) Beings earth-bodied, water-bodied, Fire-bodied, and air-bodied too, Lichens, seeds, vegetation, And creatures mobile, fully He perceived. 13. eyaim santi padilehe, cittamantaim se abhinnaya; parivajjiyana viharittha, iti samkhae se mahavire. (13) These He marked as facts existent, And knowing them as objects animate, Injured them not, and wandered, Perceiving the truth, the Hero Great. 14. adu thavara tasattae, tasajiva ya thavarattae; adu sarvajoniya satta, kammuna kappiya pudho bala. (14) The immobile turns into the mobile, And the mobile also goes the immobile's way; The beings of species manifold, Ignorant, are differently by karma wrought. 15. bhagavam ca evam annesim, sovahie hu luppai bale; kammam ca savvaso nacca, tam padi vaikkhe pavagam bhagavam. (15) And convinced was the Lord, With possessions, shall perish, the ignorant. Knowing the karma perfectly well, The evil, the Lord forsook. 16-17. duviham samecca mehavi, kiriyam akkhay'anelisim nani; ayana-soyam airaya-soyam, jogam ca savraso nacca. (16) aivattiyam anauttim, sayam annesim akaranajae; jass'itthio parinnaya, savvak animavahao se adakkhu. (17) 1 Here 'cold' stands for 'live' (sacitta).

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(16-17) Comprehending the twofold, the Prudent, The kiriya-(and-akiriya) doctrine unique, expounded by the wise, The current inflowing and the current vicious, And knowing activity (threefold) in full, (16) Indulged not in that vice, Himself, and dissuaded others too; Women forsooth He completely forsook As source of evil all, and was the seer true. (17) 18. ahakadam na se seve, savvaso kammuna ya adakkhu; jam kimci pavagam bhagavam, tam akuvvam viyadam bhunjittha. (18) What was made for Him He never used, As the Law of karma He perfectly knew, In whatever was sinful, the Lord, Indulged not, and the immune alone He consumed. 19. no sevai ya paravattham, parapae vi se na bhunjittha; parivajjiyana omanam, gacchai samkhadim asaranae. (19) Another's robe He never used, Nor did He eat from vessels of others; The (crowded and) despicable, Avoided feasting places, recalling not. 20. mayanne asana-panassa, nanugiddhe rasesu apadinne; acchim pi no pamajjiya, no vi ya kanduyaye muni gayam. (20) Measure of food and drink, He knew, Greedy not of tastes, unaffected, Rubbed not even the eye, Nor did the Saint His body scratch. Uvahanasuyam 99 21. appam tiriyam pehae, appam pitthao u pehae; appam buie apadibhani, panthapehi care jayamane. (21) Little looking sideward, And turning behind little; In reply, speaking little, Vigilant, looking on His path, He wandered. 22. sisiramsi addhapadivanne, tam vosajja vattham anagare; pasarettu bahum parakkame, no avalambiyana khandhamsi. (22) On winter half advanced, The Ascetic, leaving off the robe, And stretching the arms, exerted Himself; (But) never by them, the shoulders He clasped.

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100 The Victor's Penance 23. esa vihi anukkanto, mahenena maimaya; apadinnena virena, kasavena mahesina. - tti bemi. (23) This course, indeed, was followed, By the Mahana wise; The Hero, unaffected, The Kasava, the Seer Great. - Thus do I say. 1. cariyasanaim sejjao, egaijao jao buiyao; aikkha taim sayanasanaim jaim sevittha se mahavire. (1) Of the accustomed seats and abodes, Reported as they are, Those abodes and seats please relate That the Great Hero did use. 2. avesana-sabha-pavasu, panijasalasu egava vaso; aduva paliyathanesu, palalapunjesu egaya vaso. (2) At workshops, assembly halls, water-sheds, And shops, sometimes He lodged; Or at manufactories And under straw-sheds sometimes He dwelt. 3. agantare aramagare, nagare vi egaya raso; susane sunnagare va, rukkhamule vi egaja vaso. (3) At travellers' halls, garden-houses, And towns sometimes He lodged; At cemetery or deserted house, And at the foot of trees, sometimes He dwelt. 4. etehim muni sayanehim, samanc asi patclasa vase; raindiyam pi jayamane, appamatte samahie jhai. (4) At such abodes, the Sage, The Ascetic, some thirteen years spent; Day and night careful, And vigilant, meditating, quiet and calm. 5. niddam pi no pagamae, sevai bhagayam 11thae; jag gavai ya appanam, isim saiyasi apalinne.

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Uvahanasuyam 101 (5) Even sleep for pleasure and rest, The Lord, waking, did never seek; And waked Himself up, When by chance drowsy, the unaffected One. 6. sambujjhamane punaravi, asimsu bhagavam usthae; nikkhamma egaja rao, bahim camkamiya muhuttagam. (6) Rising (from sleep), again, The Lord seated Himself, waking; And going out in the night sometimes, Walked about for a while. 7. sayanehim tassuvasagga, bhima asi anegaruva ya; samsappaga ya pana, aduva pakkhino uvacaranti. (7) At those abodes, trials, Terrible and manifold He had; The crawling creatures, And birds upon Him preyed. 8-10. adu kucara uvacaranti, gamarakkha ya sattihatiha ya; adu gamija uvasagga, itthi egaiya puriso ya. (8) ihaloiyaim paraloi yaim bhimaim anegaruvaim; avi subbhi-dubbhi-gandhaim, saddaim anegar uvaim. (9) ahiyasae saya samie, phasaim viruvar uvaim; araim raim abhibhuya, rijai mahane abahuvai. (10) (8-10) And bad people molested Him, The village-guards, and the lancers too; The trials by the village folk, And varieties of women and men too; (8) Of this world and the other world, Terrible and of sorts many; And smells, good and bad, Sounds of varieties diverse; (9) Endured He ever self-restrained, Touches of varieties great; Overcoming displeasure and pleasure, Travelled the Mahana, silent and calm. (10) 11. sa janehim tattha pucchimsu, egacara ri egaya rao; avvahie kasaittha, pchamane samahim apadinne. (11) Interrogated by wayfarers there, And sometimes at night by waylayers too; Unmoved and silent, maltreated by them. Engrossed in meditation, unaffected, was He.

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102 The Victor's Penance 12. ayam antaramsi ko ettha, aham amsi'tti bhikkhu ahattu; ayam uttame se dhamme, tusinie sa kasaie jhai. (12) Who is inside there? I am here, a bhiksu, said He; That was His way unique, Silent, though ill-treated, meditated He. 13-15. jamsippege pave yanti, sisire marue pavayante; tamsippege anagara, himavae nivayam esanti. (13) sanghadio pavisissamo, eha ya samadahamana; pihiya va sakkham.o, aidukkham himaga-samphasa. (14) tamsi bhagavam apadinne, ahe viyade ahiyasae davie; nikkhamma egaya rao, caei, bhagavam samiyae. (15) (13-15) Some tremble with cold, In winter, when gales blow; Then some monks houseless, At ice-fall, seek place sheltered from wind; (13) Rugs shall we wrap round, And kindling fuel, Or staying indoors, shall we bear, So painful the touches cold; (14) In (winter) that, the Lord, unaffected, Endured (pain) so terrible, strong in will; And going out in the night, sometimes, The Lord endured, quiet and calm. (15) 16. esa vihi anukkanto, mahanena maimaya; apadinnena virena, kasavena mahe sina. -tri bemi. (16) This course, indeed, was followed, By the Mahana, wise; The Hero, unaffected, The Kasava, the Seer Great. -Thus do I say. II 1. tanaphase siyaphase ya, teuphase ya damsa-masage ya; ahiyasae saya samie, phasaim viruvaruvaim. (1) The touches of grass and the touches of cold, The touches of fire and gnats and mosquitoes too; Ever did He, with equanimity, bear, The touches of varieties diverse,

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Uvahanasuyain 103 2. aha duccara-ladham acari, vajjabhumim ca subbhabhumim ca; pantam sejjam sevimsu, asanagaim ceva pantaim. (2) Then travelled He, in the Ladhas, the pathless tract, The Vajjabhumi and the Subbhabhumi; Rough beds there He used, And rough seats too. 3. ladhehim tassurasagga, bahave janavaya lusimsu; aha luhadesie bhatte, kukkura tattha himsimsu nivaimsu. (3) In the Ladhas, dar gers many He faced, Attacked was He, by natives many; In that land of insipid food, Dogs ran at Him to bite. 4. appe jane nivarei, lusanae sunae dasamane; chuchukarenti ahamsu, samanam kukkura dasantu'tti. (4) Few people warded off, The dogs, attacking and biting the samanas; Crying chu-chu instead, They let the dogs bite. 5. elikkhae jane bhujjo, bahave vajjabhumim pharusasi; latphim gahaya naliyam, tattha eva viharimsu. (5) People there were mostly such, Many in the Vajjabhumi, on coarse food lived; Carrying stick and staff, Travelled there (the samanas too). (6) 6. evam pi tattha viharanta, puttha-puvva ahesi sunaehim; camana sunaehim, duccaragani tattha ladhehim. Travelling even thus (equipped), Bitten were they by dogs; And also torn by them; Dangerous indeed, were the Ladhas to travel. 7. nidhaya dandam panehim tam kayam vosajjamanagare; aha gumakantae bhagavam, te ahiyasae abhisamecca. (7) Without enmity against creatures those, Abandoning the body, the Houseless Monk, The set of thorns sensual, the Lord, Endured, with patience, knowing full. 8. nao samgamasise va, parae tattha se mahavire; evam pi tattha ladhehim, aladdhapuvvo vi egaya gamo.

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104 The Victor's Penance (8) Like the elephant at the head of battle, Victorious was the Hero Great; And there in the Ladhas, No village sometimes was reached. 9. uvasamkamantam apadinnam, gamantiyam pi appattam; padinikkhamittu lusimsu, eyao param palehi tti. (9) Him, on journey, the unaffected One, Though village yet was not reached, Coming out, they attacked, Saying 'Get away from here'. 10. haya-puvvo tattha dandenam, aduva mutthina adu phalenam; adu leluna kavalcnam, hanta-hanta bahave kandimsu. (10) Striking Him with stick, Or with fist, or lance-head; Or with clod, or potsherd, Exclaiming 'Oh alas, Oh alas', cried many. 11. mam suni chinnapuvvaim, uthubhanti egaja kayam; parissahaim luncimsu ahava pamsuna avakirimsu. (11) His flesh was cut, And on His body, sometimes they spat; Tortured Him, inflicting hardships, Or with dust they covered Him. 12. ucsalaiya nihanimsu, aduva asanao khalaimsu; vosatthakae pana jasi, dukkhasahe bhagavam apalinne. (12) Throwing Him up, they let Him fall, Or in His postures, they disturbed Him; Abandoning the body, modestly did He, Bore suffering, the Lord, unaffected. 13. suro samgamasise va, samvude tattha se mahavire; padisevamane pharusaim, acale bhagavam riittha. (13) Or like the hero at the head of battle. Armoured (self-restrained), there the Hero Great, Bearing all hardships, Unmoved, the Lord, travelled. 14. esa vihi anukkanto, mahanena maimaya; apalinnena virena, kasavena mahesina. - tti bemi.

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(14) This course, indeed, was followed, By the Mahana wise; The Hero, unaffected, The Kasava, the Seer Great. -Thus do I say. 1. omoyariyam caci, aputthe vi bhagavam rogehim; puttho va se aputtho va, no se saijjai teiccham. IV (1) Scanty food the Lord ever took, Though by diseases unattacked; Attacked or not attacked; Medical treatment, he desired not. (2) Purgatives and emetics, 2. samsohanam ca vamanam ca, gayabbhamganam sinanam ca; sambahanam na se kappe, danta-pakkhalanam parinnae. Anointing the body, and bathing, And massaging behoved Him not; From cleansing teeth, he ever abstained. 3. virae ya gamadhammehim, riyai mahane akahuvai; sisirammi egaya bhagavam, chajae jhai asi ya. (3) Averse from pleasures sensuous, Wandered the Mahana speaking but little; In winter sometimes, the Lord, Meditated, seated in the shade. 4. ayavai ya gimhanam, acchai ukkudue abhi ate; adu javaittha luhenam, oyana-manthu kummasenam. (4) To heat, he exposed Himself, in summer, Or facing hot wind, sat squatting; And lived on rough food, Rice, pounded jujube and beans. Uvahanasuyam 105 5. eyani tinni padiseve, attha mase ya javae bhagavam; apiittha egaya bhagavam, addhamasam aduva masam pi. (5) Only taking these three, the Lord, Sustained himself, eight months, Drank not water, sometimes, For a fortnight or even a month.

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105 The Victor's Penance 6. avi sahie duve mase, chappi mase aduva apivittha; rayovarayam apadinne, annagilayam egaya bhunje. (6) And for more than two months, Or six months, He did not drink; Day and night awake, unaffected, Stale food sometimes, He took. 7. chatthenam egaya bhunje, aduva atthamena dasamenam; duvalasamena egaya bhunje, pehamane samahim apadinne. (7) The sixth (meal), sometimes He took, Or the eighth or the tenth; The twelfth, sometimes, He took, Engrossed in meditation, unaffected. 8. naccana se mahavire, no vi ya pavagam sayam akasi; annehim vi na karittha, kirantam pi nanujanittha. (8) Knowing (the truth), the Hero Great, Never did commit any sin Himself; Nor induced others do, To sins of others, nor did he consent. 9. gamam pavise nayaram va, ghasam ese kadam paratthae; suvisuddham esiya bhagavam, ayata-jogayae sevittha. (9) Village or town he entered, Begging food for others made; Food perfectly immune, the Lord begged, And used, with impulses restrained in full. 10-12. adu vayasa diginchanta, je anne rasesino satta; ghase sanae citthante, sayayam nivaie ya pehae. (10) adu mahanam va, samanam va, gamapindolagam ca aihim va; sovagam musiyaram va kukkuram va viviham thiyam purao. (11) vitticcheyam vajjanto, tes'appattiyam pariharanto; mandam parakkame bhagavam, ahimsamano ghasam esittha. (12) (10-12) And the hungry crows, Or the creatures thirsty; Waiting there, intent on food, Seeing them, assembling oft; (10) Or a mahana or a samana, A village-beggar or a guest; A candala, or a cat, Or a dog, standing on the way; (11) Obstructing not their livelihood, And frightening them not; Slowly moved the Lord, And begged His food, injuring none. (12)

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Uvahanasuyam 107 13. avi suiyam ra sukkam va, siyapindam purang-kummasam; adu bakkasam pulagam va, laddhe pinde aladdhae davie. (13) And spiced or unspiced, Cold food, old bean, Or old pap, bad grain, Even secured or not, contented was He. 14. avi jhai se mahavire, asanat the akukkue ihanam: uddham ahe tiriyam ca, pehamane samahim apadinne. (14) And meditated, the Hero Great, Seated in some posture, undistracted, in meditation; (Looking) above, below, in front. Engrossed in meditation, unaffected. 15. akasai vigayag hi, saddaruvesu amucchie jhai; chaumaithe vi parakkamaman?, no pamayam saim pi kuvvittha. (15) Passionless, freed from greed, Not attached to sounds and colours, meditated He; Exerting hard, vestiges of karma though still there, Non-vigilant He never was. 16. sayam eva abhisama gamma, ayaya-jogam ayasohie; abhinivvude amaille, avakaham bhagavam sami yasi. (16) By Himself knowing the truth, With impulses restrained, and self purified; Finally liberated was He, deceitless, Throughout life, self-controlled was the Lord. 17. esa vihi anukkanto, mahanena maimaya; apadinnena virena, kasavena ahesina. - tti bemi, (17) This course, indeed, was followed, By the Mahana wise; The Hero, unaffected, The Kasava, the Seer Great. - Thus do I say.

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APPENDIX A note on the word "monasticism" The word 'monasticism' is derived from the Greek word movos meaning 'alone, solitary', from which a whole family of words has been formed : Movn and uovaotypov, 'monastery'; povaxos, 'monk' or 'solitary'; poyaselv, 'to lead the solitary life'; pova sovtes, 'solitaries'; Movaotpia, 'nun'; uovadkos, uovaxikos, PLOVASTiKos, povrens, 'monastic ; uova jousa, povazouca, uovaxn, 'nun'; TO Movay.ckov, 'monasticism'; HOVAOTIKWS, *monastically' ; je ovay'suos, 'monachism'. In Latin this word has given monachus and its derivatives monacha, monachatus, monachare, monachizare, monachismum, monachatio, monasterium and a few other words. All these words, derived as they are from the same root, indicate the idea of solitude, of isolation. This solitude must not, however, be interpreted as implying absolute isolation---such asthat of the hermit in the desert. The term 'mook' has come to be applied to men living the same life in common-a life in which they are indeed separated from the world, but not from one another. -Adapted from Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VIII, page 781.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abhidharmakosa and Bhasya (of Vasubandhu), edited by Prof. P. Pradhan, K.P.J. Research Institute, Patna, 1967. Abhidhana-Rajendra, Ratlam, 1913-1926. Abhijnanasak untalam, Ratan Prakashan Mandir, Agra. A History of Canonical Literature of the Jains by H.R. Kapadia, Bombay, 1941. Anagaradharmamsta by Asadhara, translated and edited by Pt. Kailash Chandra Shastri, Bharatiya Jnana Pitha Prakashan, 1977. Amgasutrani edited by Muni Nathmal, Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, V.S. 2031, vols. 1-3. Anguttara Nikaya, Nalanda Edition. Anuogaddaraim, English Translation by Taiken Hanaki, published by Research Institute of Prakrit, Jainology & Ahimsa, Vaishali, Bihar, 1970. Apastamba Dharma sutra, Chaukliamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1969. Avasyaka Niryukti, Malayagiri's commentary, published by Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1928, 1932 and 1936. Ayaradasa, edited by Muni Shri Kanhaiyalal 'Kamal', Agama Anuyoga Prakashan, Sanderav (Rajasthan), 1977. Avaradasao (or Srida sasrutaskandha, Mula, Niryukti, Curni), published by Shri Mani Vijayaji Gani Granthamala, V.S. 2011. Araro, Edited by Muni Nathmal, Jain Vishva Bharati Prakashan, V.S. 2031. Also Acararga Sutra, Erster Srutaskandha, Text, Analyse and Glossar von Walther Schubring, Leipzig, 1910. Baudha vana Dharmasutra, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi. Bhagavati aradhana (or Mularadhana) with Vijayodaya Tika by Apara jita Suri, Mularadhana Darpana by Asadhara, Sanskrit slokas by Amitagati and Hindi Tika by Jinadasa Parsvanath Fadakule, Sholapur, 1935. Bhagavari Sutra, see Angasuttani. Bhavasamgraha by Devasena, translated by Jinadasa, Sholapur. Brhat Kalpa Sutra, with Bhasya (BKBh) by Sanghadasa Gani Ksama sramana and Commentary by Malayagiri and Ksemakirti, Atmanand Jain Sabha, Bhavnagar, part I, 1933; part II, 1936; part III, 1936; part IV, 1938; part V, 1938; part VI, 1942.

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110 Bibliography Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, by Franklin Edgerton, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi. Dasaveyaliyam, edited by Muni Nathmal, Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Raj.) 1974. Prof L. Alsdorf's edition of Dasavealiya Suttta, chapter X, as published in Ludwig Alsdorf, Kleine Schriften, Franz Steiner Verlag Gmbh Wiesbaden, 1974. Dhammapada, translation by S. Radhakrishnan, Oxford University Press, 1968. Dhavala, Satkhandagama, part I (Jivasthana), edited by Dr. Hiralal Jain, Jaina Samskriti Samraksaka Samgha, Sholapur, 1973. Digha Nikaya, Nalanda edition. Gacchacara Prakirnaka along with the Vrtti by Vanara Rsi, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1913. Gautama Dharmasutra (Mitaksara-vrtti), Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1966. History of Dharma-Sastra by P.V. Kane, vol. I-V (1968-77), Bhandarakar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. Haritasmrti, see Vasisthasmrti. Jaina Sahitya aura Itihasa by Nathuram Premi, Hindi Grantha Ratnakara (Private) Limited, Bombay, Oct., 1956. Kalpa Sutra of Bhadrabahu, translated by Kasturchand Lalwani, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1979. Kappa, see Brhat Kalpa Sutra. Kautilya's Arthasastra, Delhi, part I, II, III, edited by R.P. Kangle, University of Bombay, 1969, 1972, 1975. Mahaparinibbana Sutta, edited by Bhiksu Dharmaraksita, Banaras Jnana Mandal Limited, V.S. 2015. Mahavagga, Nalanda edition. Manusmrti, edited by Gopal Sastri Nene, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1970. Mulacara (parts I and II) by Acarya Vattakera with commentary by Vasunandi, Manikchand Digambara Jaina Granthmala, V.S. 1977. Mularadhana, see Bhagavati Aradhana. Nisitha Adhyayana with Bhasya and Curni, Visesa Nisiha Curni by Jinadasa, edited by Vijayaprema Suri, vol. 1-4, Agra, 1957-60. Ogha Niryukti, published by Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1919. Padikkamanajjhayanam, printed in Avassaya Suttam, Jaina Agama Series, 15, Shri Mahavira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1977. Pali-English Dictionary, Pali Text Society, London, 1972. Panca Samgraha, edited by Pt. Hiralal Jain Siddhanta Shastri, Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, 1960. Pancavastuka (of Haribhadra Yakinisanu), published in the D.L.P. series, no. 69, together with Svopajna Tika, Bombay, 1932.

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Bibliography 111 Pannavanasutta, vrtti by Malayagiri, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1918. Parajika Pali, Nalanda edition. Paramatma-dratrimsika, (of Amitagati) in Mangala Vani, Sanmati Jnana Pitha, Agra, 1965. Pinda Nirjukti, published with the commentary by Malayagiri in D.L.P. series, no. 44, Bombay, 1918. Pravacanasaroddhara (PSU) (of Nemicandra) published with the commentary of Siddhasena by Hiralal Hamsraj, Jamnagar, 1914, and also in the D.L.P. series No. 58 and 64, Bombay, 1922. Sabara Bhasva. Mimamsadarsanam, with sanara Bhasva and Tantra vartika, Anandasrama Samskria Granthavali, No. 97, 1970. Samacari Prakarana, by Yasovijaya, Atmananda Jaina Sabha, Bhav nagar, V.S. 1913. Samavayanga l'ruti (SVVr) by Abhayadeva, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1918. Srimacchankaradigvijaya, edited by N.S. Anantha Krishna Shastri, the Sringeri Math, Sringeri, 1956. Sri-Pancasaka-Prakarana, (Haribhadra Suri), published with Abhaya deva's commentary, Surat, 1941. Sthananga Sutra, edited by Muni Kanhaiyalal Kamal', Agama Anuyoga Prakashan, Sanderav (Rajasthan), Oct., 1972. Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Nathmal Tatia, Jain Cultural Research Society, Banaras. Suttavibhanga, The Book of the Discipline, Vol. 1, Pali Text Society, 1970. Syntopicon, The Great Ideas - A Syntopicon, Great Books of the Western World, Vol. I & II, University of Chicago, 1977. Taittiriya Aranyaka, Anandasrama edition. Taittiriya Samhita, Anandasrama edition with commentary of Sayana. Tantravartika, see Sabarabhasya. Tattvariha Suira, see Tartvartha Sutra Bhasya. Tattvartha Sutra Bhasya by Umasvati, Parama Sruta Prabhavaka Jain Mandala, Bombay, 1932. Thanam, edited and commented by Muni Nathmal, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan), V.S. 2033. The Book of Discipline (Vinaya Pitaka), Vol. I.VI, translated by I.B. Horner, London, 1938-1966, Second Impression, Vol. I, 1970. The Doctrine of the Jainas by Walther Schubring, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1962. The Principal Upanisads, edited by S. Radhakrishnan, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1968. Uttaradhyayana Brhadvstti, published as DLJP No. 33, 36, 41, Bombay, 1916-1917.

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112 Bibliography Uttarajjhayanani (Two Parts) translated and edited by Muni Nathmal, Jaina Svetambara Terapanthi Mahasabha (Agama Sahitya Prakashan Samiti, Calcutta, 1967). Uvahana Suyam, Chapter IX of Ayaro. Vasistha Dharmasutra, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi. Vasisthasmrti, published in 20 Smrtiyan, edited by Shri Ram Sharma, Samskriti Sansthana, Bareilly, (U.P.), second edition, 1968. Vavahara (also Vavahara sutta), edited by W. Schubring for Jaina Sahitya Samsodhaka Samiti, Poona, 1923, and at Leipzig, 1918. Vijayodaya (Tika)-see Bhagavati Aradhana. Visnu Dharmasutra, edited by Dr. Jolly, Calcutta, 1881. Vyavahara, published with Niryukti, Bhasya and Malayagiri's Commentary by K.P. Modi, Ahmedabad, V.S. 1982-85. Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Vol. 1-3, U.S.A., 1971. Yajnavalkya Smrti with commentary by Apararka, Anandasrama Sanskrit Granthavali No. 46, 1903. Yogadarsana (Patanjali), edited by Dr. Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Varanasi, 1963.

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SANSKRIT, PRAKRIT AND PALI WORDS abbhattheyum, to seek help 9n. abbhatthijja, on request 9n. abbhutthana (abhyutthana), rendering of service to the organisation 8. abbhuvagayammi, on being accepted 9n. abhavamtito, monastic propriety 1. abhavamto (abhavat), monastic propriety 1. abhavana (abhavana), monastic propriety 1. abhavantiko, monastic propriety 1. abhigama-sraddha, families practising anuvratas 48. abhiggaha (see abhigraha) 84n. abhigraha, secret resolve 57, 62, 68, 70. abhyudyata marana, resolute death 59, 62. abhyudyata-sasana, fasting unto death 62. abhyudyata-vihara, resolute duct 59. abhigrahika, predetermined 52. abhimana, pride 13. abhinnam, unbroken 84n. abhiru, free from fear 83n. abhisamagama, occurrence of an event such as memory of past life leading to spontaneous renunciation of the world 42. abhisamecca (abhisametya), spontaneously accepting initiation 42. adhisvaskana (=utsvaskana), see ussakka 54. abhyantara-sambuka, internally spi- adhakarma, see adhakamma 22, 55, ral like a conch 58. abhyupagamiki, self-imposed 64. acamla, acidic and sticky non-acidic drink and food 65, subsistence on a single-meal a day consisting of saltless cereal of any kind 71. acara, conduct vii, 63. acarapranidhi, name of a scripture 86n. acaritti (acaritri), fallen from monkhood 14. con acarya, head of a samgha with scriptural learning and high discipline 1, 2, 18, 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 60. accakkhariya (atyaksarika), addition of syllable (a fault connected with knowledge) 29. acchijjam (acchedya), snatched 18. acela-dharma, monastic practice of nudity 79. aciyatta (apriya), unsympathetic towards the monks 48. addha, proper time when alms are available 54. addhapadivanna, half-advanced 99. adeya-vayana (adeya-vacana), of impressive diction 31. adhakamma (adhakarma), acceptance of food prepared for the monk 14, 18. 65. adharma, sin 26n. adhikaranakaraka, makers of legal question 34. adhyayana, chapter 84n. adinnadana (adattadana), stealing 15.

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114 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words adinnam, not offered 15. ajnatoncha, begging from unfamiagadha, intensified, acute 43, 53. liar houses 55. agama, scripture 8'n. ajya, melted butter used for oblaagama, a source of monastic legis- tions or for pouring into the holy lation 1. scripture or a person fire at the sacrifice 17. conversant with at least upto akale kao sajjhao (akale krtah ninth Purva 2, scriptural study 67. svadhyayah), untimely study 30. agantuka, new-comer 55. akalpa-sthapana kalpa, conduct agga-bija (agrabija), plant propa relating to non-commissioning of gated from cuttings 19. untrained monks 70. agitartha, non-adept 46. akiriya (akriya), the doctrine that agni, vedic god of fire 16. propounds the non-existence of agnihotra, sacrificing to Agni XXI. soul 99. ahajayam (yathajatam), usual mini- akinno, beset by 34. aki mum outfit 52, 81n, minimum 81. akstapratijnah, those who do not ahalandinam, of the observers of take a vow, unresolved 76 the time-bound course 85n. alabha, possiility of not getting ahakadam, what was made for him anything 53. 99. alasa, indolent 53, 82n. ahankara, egotism 13. alepa, accepting only non-sticky ahattu dijjamanam (ahstya diya ma edibles and drinks 65. nam), offered as carried from else alocana, confession 21, 45, 56, 58, where for the monk 18. 70, 71. ahigarana (adhikarana), (raising new aloka, transcosmos or a-cosmos 38. unraised) disputes 11. aloko (alokah), light 36. aisesa (=atisaya), development of aloyana (alocana), self-examination extra-ordinary personality 4. atisesi (atisesi), extra-ordinarily de- amnayarthavacaka, an acarya who amnavarthavir voted to the order 53. reveals inner meaning of utsarga ajivikas, followers of Gosalaka 48. (the general rules of conduct), and ajjhayana (adhyayana), chapter 34. apavada (the exceptions to the ajjhoara (adhyavapuraka), addition general rules of conduct) 34. of some quantity of food to the a moghavacanataya, on account of usual one in order to accommodate his words being fruitful 83n. a monk 55. ana (ajna), a source for monastic ajjhoyara, see ajjhoara 5). legislation; sanction of any acarya ajna, warning to monk to behave 1. according to the rules 6, 50. anacara, breach of vows 21; excesajnabhanga, breach of law 81n. sive attachment to the pleasures of ajnadayah dosah, blameworthy the world 22. commands, etc. 50. anacara, misconduct 16, 21. ajnakari, guided by the counsel of anagadha, chronic 53. the Head. 6. anamtarahiya (anantarhita), living ajnana, ignorance 26n. 27. 19.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 115 ananussuta, not heard of before at any time 36. anapatam-asamlokam, a place for easing themselves used by monks, not frequented by people and not exposed to their sight 57. anarjava, crookedness 13. anavastha, indecision 81n. anavasthanam, unsteady vigilance 26n. anavasthapya, the ninth variety of expiation in which a monk is temporarily debarred from observ- ing a vow and made to undergo penance 52. anayara (anacara), enjoying of offence and addiction to it 14, the fourth stage of sin 20, miscon- duct 21. anekanta, non-absolutistic attitude 80. anga, a part of canonical literature 79. anga viyaram, physical defects 88. anisittham (anisrstam), taking of anything not disowned by the almsgiver 18. anisssta, see anisit tham 55. anissiya-vayana (anisstavacana), one having unbiased diction 32. aniyaavasa (aniyatavasa), life of a wanderer 41, 43. aniyatao, not fixed beforehand 84n. aniyata vitti (aniyatavstti), home- less 31, 841. anna (anyah), others 83n. annaesi, strange families, 87. anotappa-sarira (anupatrapya sa rira), unreproachable body 31. antalikkham, celestial 88. antarmuburta, an interval of time equivalent to 48 minutes 85n. anubandha, resultant 68. anudhammiyam, obedience to the law 96. anugghaya (anud ghata) unmitigated severity of expiation 68. anukkasai, with tenuous passions 90. anupadisesa-nibbana (anupadisesanirvana), Buddhist equivalent to siddhahood 38. anupariharika, sub-attendant monks practising the purificatory cooperative course 70, 77, 78, 86n. anupariharikatvam, duties of the sub-assistant 85n. anusamdhana (anusandhana), filling up of lacunae in the text in the context of special study 8. anutpadak saya-jnana, knowledge of the absolute destruction of affliction 38. anuvratin, observer of partial vows 51. apadinne, unaffected 76, 99, 100, 101, 104. a parikamma, not reconditioning 84n. apavada sutra, sutras concerning the exceptions to the general rules of conduct 43. apramatta, freedom from wakelessness (seventh gunasthana) 6, 13, 61. apramatta, vigilant 26n. aprasasta, inauspicious 68, 83n, unwholesome 83n. apratibaddha, unrestricted 45. apratyupeksa, lack of survey 8ln. apuccha, initial permission 83n. apucchana (aprcchana), asking for permission of the superior to perform an act for himself or others, initial permission 7, 8, 9. ara, division 66. arahamta, the adorable 29,

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116 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words ardhanaraca, a samhanana where fastening is on the one side of the joint 83n. ardhapedha, semi-rectangular 58. ariya-saccam (arya-satyam), noble truth 36. aroha-parinaha-sampanna, symme trical 31. arta (dhyana), engrossing in painful thoughts 68. arthagrahana, comprehension of meaning 42. aryasutras, sutras concerned with the nuns 43. aryika, nun 86n. asahi, derived from avassia and equivalent to it 7. asajjhaye sajjhaiyam (asvadhyaye svadhyayah) to study what is not to be studied in respect of time, place, subject etc. 30. asamahi (asamadhi), imbalance of mind 12. asamahitthana (asamadhisthana) occasion of imbalance of mind 11. asamanunna (asamanujna), see asambhogika 45. asambhogika, non-commensal 55. asamcayia (asancayika), non-storable 54. asamdiddha vayana (asandigdha vacana), unambiguous diction 32. asamkalpitani, not pre-meditated 84n. asamkhada (=kalaha), controversy 50. asampaggahiya-appa (asampragrhita-atma), one enjoying non-obsession of mind 31. asamtharane, in circumstances of famine and other exigencies 82n. asamvigna, opposite of samvigna 55, 56. asana (asana), food 19, 27, 28. asana (asadana), injuring 29. asanapana, food or drink 89. asaranae, not recalling 97, 99. asavajja (asavadya), immaculate 2. asavakkhaya-nana (asravaksayajnana), knowledge of the destruction of the intoxicant afflictions 38. asayana (asatana), disrespectful conduct 27, 28, 29. asayayai (asatayati), offends 30. asevana-siksa, training in the rules of monastic conduct 44. asia, equivalent to asahi 7. asidhika, word uttered at the exit from the temple of a jina 7. asoka, a kind of tree 62. asraddha, absence of faith 13. asthita (kalpa), optional practice 67. astikaya, extended substances 29. asubha, bad 83n. asuddham (asuddham), impure 82n. asuya, repugnance 13. asvadana, see paribhoga 16. atanka, calamities and misfortunes 56, 64, 72. atarana, infant 48. atatayin, desperado 24. athalanda, see yathalanda 76, 78. athalanda samyata, an ascetic observing the time-bound course 85n. athamdila, place unfit for easing oneself 84n. aticara, disregard of vows 21; indulgence in pleasures of the world 22. aticara, violation of the rule and perpetration of the offence, 3rd stage of sin 14, 21, 68. atikkama (atikrama), transgression, pollution of mind 20, 21.

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atikrama, breach of observance according to the Veda 17, transgression, pollution of mind (first stage of sin) 21, mental indulgence 58. atikramana, desire for worldly pleasures 21, 22. atiyara (aticarah), violation of the rule and perpetration of the offence 20, 21, 22. atmahita pratipatti-sampat, wellbeing of oneself (in Buddhism) 35. atmastava, self-praise 13. atthagahana (arthagrahana), comprehension of meaning 41. attham vaci (artham vacayati), brings home the meaning of the sutras 33. 65. avadhi, clairvoyance 78, 86. avagahima, dry or fried food 65. avaggaha (avagraha), sense-percep tion 32. avakasa, restriction in respect of seats 65. atthanijjavaya (artha-niryapaka), exposes the sequence of the subject 32. aupakramiki, earned 64. aura-ditthantenam, on the analogy of alms offered and accepted for the sick monks 82n. autsargika, relating to the general rules of conduct 76. autsargikam (lingam) usual practice (non-possession of any outfit, which is the usual, autsargika, practice) 85n. avassiam (avasyaki), leaving the abode for necessary work 10n. avasvaskana, see avasakka 54, 55. avasyaka, daily duties 47. avaya, determination 32. aveda, sexless 67. asevana-siksa, training of the disciple in deportment 42. avidya, ignorance 4, 5. avirata-samyagdrsti, the fourth stage of spiritual development called vowless right faith 48, 51. ayahia (atmahita), welfare of the self 42. avadhana, to look after the abode ayara (acara), conduct; qualification of the ganin 31. ayaravatthutaiyam, (section) concerned 83n. ayara vinaya (acara vinaya), discipline qua conduct 33. ayariya (acarya), preceptor 29. ayogyasariravayava, possessed of an ugly limb 86n. bahih sambuka, externally spiral like a conch 58. avakirna, scattered; an offence (in Brahmanism) equivalent to sabala, spotted, variegated 16. avakirnin, offender, genesis of-by P.V. Kane 16, 17. Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 117 avama-ratnadhika, junior acarya 55. avasakka (avasvaskana), cooking of food earlier by almsgivers, 53. avasanna, fallen down to the level of the parsvastha 45. avasarpini, descending (time cycle) 66, 72. avasi (avasyaki), leaving the abode for necessary work 83n. avasiyam (avasyaki), leaving the abode for necessary work 83n. avassia (avasyaki) (avasyaki kriya), leaving of the abode for necessary work, concerned with samitis, observed while going outside 7, 9, 63. third vastu with acara

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118 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words bahu padipunnindiya (bahuprati- parnendriya) with perfectly and fully developed sense-organs 31. bahussuya (bahusruta), of versatile study 31. bala, unlimited tolerance of hard ship 61, physical strength 70. bala, novice 46. balabhiyogakari, a monastic order forced to act properly 6. balabhioga, coercion 9n. balava, an astrological division of the day 52. bala-viriyasamghayana, with strong and powerful bone-joints 83n: bambhacera (brahmacarya), celibacy XX. bambhana (brahmana), XX. bava, astrological division of the day 52. bhadra, a particular lunar day 52. bhadra, an intensive course of penance 65. bhajana, division 84n. bhaktam panthah, time of begging and departure 58. bhaktapana-grahane samacari, de- portment at begging of food and drink 54. bhakta, pratyakhyana, renunciation of aliment 2. bhandanakaraka, makers of strife 34. bhara-paccoruhanaya (bhara-pra- tyavarohanata), alleviation of the burden 34. bhasa (samiti), carefulness relating to speech 11. bhassakaraka, makers of brawis 34. bhatta-paccakhana, see bhakta- pratyakhyana 59. bhava, mode 57. bhavabhigraha, modes and postures of the giver to be satisfied according to the resolve of the monk 58. bhavalinga, spiritual equipment 67, 84n. bhavana, practice of self-contemplation, cultivation of spiritual values 61, 83n. bhavaparihani, dispossession of the spiritual equipment 84n. bhava-samvara, spiritual self-rest raint 42. bhikkhupesunne pacittiyam, (Buddhist) expiation for the offence of backbiting or slandering 12. bhiksacarya, going out on begging tour, 57, 65, 74, 75. bhiksu, monk 41, 52, 87, 102. bhiksu-pratimas, an intensive course to be practised by a single monk 75. bhogas, the name of a dynasty 89. bhojana-dsstanta, example of hos pitality 49. bhojanam, food 89. bhojaniyam, edible 18. bhomam, earthly 88. bhuovaghaie (bhutopaghatikah), causing injury to one-sensed beings for one's enjoyment 11. bhutagama (bhuta grama), vegeta ble kingdom 19. bhutagamjapatavyataya pacittiyam, (Buddhist) expiation of an offence of destruction of vegetable growth 12. biiyacse(dvitiyadese), alternately 84. bija-bija, vegetable propagated from secds 19. biya-ruha (bija-ruha), vegetable propagated from seeds 19. bodhi, Buddhist equivalent of Jaina kaivalya 38. bodhisattva, a buddha in the mak ing XIX. bollanti, speak 81.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 119 48. brahmacarin (Brahmanical), person cittasamahitthana, (cittasamadhi who observes celibacy 13, 17, 30. sthana), the stages of concentrated brahmacarya, the first part of the mind 36 Brahmanical way of life 18. dagam-dagam (desi), vegetable caitya, temple of vaksa 48. food 28. cakkam, wheel 26n. daha, burning 26n. cakkhum (caksu), vision 36. dambha, deception 13. cakravala-samacari, (Pravacana damsanasohi (darsana-suddhi), purisaroddhara) same as ten-fold fication of the faith 43. samacari, daily duties of a monk, dana-sraddha, families by nature 6, 45, 63. inclined to offer alms to the order camadhana (camadhana), annoy- 48. ance 53. danda, staff 88. carana, conduct XIX. dandajuddhaim, stick-fighting 97. caranata, yogic power of flying darpa, whim 65. through air 77. darsana, realization of truth withcaritra, monastic stages 66, 72. out the services of any other caturguru, heavy four-monthly instrument of knowledge 38. penance 82n. darsana-sraddha, confirmed in right caturguruka, see caturguru 68. faith 51. caturlaghu, light four-monthly darsana upasampad, going to anpenance 82n. other gana to get clarification caturmasa-anudghata, four months' regarding faith 8. uncommuted penance 50. davada vacari (dravamdravamcari), caturmasa guru, sec caturguru 22. walking quickly without circumscauguruka, see caturguru 47. pection and similar activities 11. caujjama dhamma (caturyama dhar- davvappamana (dravyapramana), ma), the discipline of four vows quantity of rice etc., cooked in the 80. context of begging alms 54. cetopariyanana (Buddhist cetas- dehaduguncham, desire to hide the paryayajnana), telepathy 38. body, 86n. chandana (chandana) invitation of desa, efficiency in regional langusuperior or fellow-monk to take ages 43. what has been brought 8, 9, 63. desa-virata, observing the partial cheda, a kind of expiation effected vows 51. by the cutting down of the monas- devakula, temple 48. tic standing 45, 52. dhammacakkhu (Buddhist dharmachedopasthapaniya, ordination or caksu), eye that determines the confirmation 66, 67, 72, 73. nature of truth 36. chiddakari (chidrakari), having dhamma-cint.(dharma-cinta), knowfauliy conduct 14. ledge of the essential nature of chinnam, rent 88. things 36. cilimili, a kind of cloth used as a dharana, an authority for monastic curtain 52, 81n. legislation, rules formulated after

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120 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words a consideration of relevant texts 2, (fault connected with knowledge) retention 32. 29. dharma-dhyana, gradually deepen- dvadasam tapah, the twelve meal ing meditation on the nature of penance 71. things 68. dvara, head 60, 63, 66. dhaya (dhrata), enjoyment of dvesa, hatred 26. amenities in their fullness 48. egacare, living alone 90, 101. dhitibaliya, strong in forbearance egatta (ekatva), complete spirit of 83n. renunciation and withdrawal into dhsti, forbearance 56, 61, 64. solitude 60, 61. dhuma-netta, fumigation 8. ekalla-vihara-samayari (ekkaki-vidhyana, meditation 68, 70, 83n. hara samacari), deportment qua dibba-cakkhunana (Buddhist divya solitary life 33. caksur jnana), faculty of clairvo- ekasamacarika, followers of the yance (cf. avadhi jnana) 37. same type of conduct and rules of digacarya, an acarya who grants deportment 82n. permission to disciples to acceptekasataka, having a single vestment anything 34. 80. digambara, a sect of the Jaina esana (: amiti), carefulness relating believing in the efficacy of nudity to receiving alms 11, situations for attaining liberation 11, 80. concerning acceptance of food and dipaka, lamp 65. drink 71. dosa-nigghayana vinaya (dosa-nir- gaccha, stem 41, 45, 46, 55, 74. ghatana vinaya), discipline qua gacchapratibaddha, tied to the eradication of passions 33. original stem 74, 85n. dravya, substance 57, acceptable gaccha-pratibaddha - yathalandaka, food 70. monks practising the time-bound dravyalinga, physical equipment course attached to stem 47. 67, 84n. gacchavasi, monks living in the dukkada (dusksta), wrong doing stem 47. 15, 30. gahanam (grahanam), a kind of dukkata (Buddhist dusketa), wrong $ksta), wrong jnana upasampad; study of a doing (cf, dukkada) 15, 22. particular text which is not possidukkha (Buddhist duhkha), suffer- ble in one's own gana 8, 20, 21. ing, the first noble truth of gamapindologam, village beggar 77. Buddhism 26n, 36. gana, organisation of monks 8, 41, dusama-dusama, the sixth aeon of 46, 70, 71, 74, 85n. the time-cycle 66. ganadhara, apostle 57, 62. dussila (duhsila), a person of bad ganana, counting of measures of conduct 14. ghee etc, used for ascertaining the dutthassa (dustasva), donkey 50. number of persons who dine at the house of an almsgiver; number dutthu padicchiya (dusthu pratic- or numerical strength 54, 57, 68, chita), learnt with improper design; 74,

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 121 31. ganavaccheda ka, a monk-officer hirihetuka, cause of shyness 86n. in charge of a part of a gana, hiyam vaei (hitam vacayati), teachresponsible for supplying nece- ing what is beneficial 33. ssaries to the order 46, 60. hriman, shy 86n. ganin, head responsible for dis- icchakara, voluntary monastic charging the functions of all the behaviour 6, 9n, 63. classes of the five acaryas 34, 62. icchakari (samgha), voluntary orgaganisampaya (ganisampad), quali- nization 6. fications of the religious head 2, iha, speculation; second stage in the generation of sensual knowledge gana-samayari (ana-samacari), de 32, portment qua communal living ihaloga (ihaloka), this world 29. 33. imgini, limited suspension of movegatva-pratyagatika, movement up ment 59. and down 38. irya (samiti), carefulness relating ghasira, gluttonous 53, 82n. to movement 11. ghosahina (ghosahina), improperly isad asamyama-sevanam, a bit licenaccented 29. tious behaviour 21. ghosavisuddhikaraa (ghosavicuddhi- istadevata, desired deity 37. karaka), a ganin able to teach itvara, engaged in temporary praccorrect pronunciation 31. tice 72. gitartha, adept monk 46, 51, 52, 68. jaghanya, minimum 83n, 85n. gomutrika, zigzag movement 58. janapadapariksa, geographical grahana-siksa, training of the dis- knowledge including flora and ciple in scripture 42, 44. fauna 44. grhastha, the householder's stage janma-kathanta-sambodha, memory of the Brahmanical way of life 18. of the whereabouts of past lives glhi-paryaya, the length of house- 37. holder's life 67. jati, caste 12. gunasthana, the fourteen stages of jayana (yatana), self-control 16. spiritual development of a jiva 6. jinakappia, see jina-kalpika 83n. 36, 48, 61, 66, 67. jina, victor 7, 59, 69, 76, 78, guptis, restraints 56, 68. 85n. guru, teacher 29. jinas, practitioners of the Timegurubhattima (gurubhaktiman), de- bound Course who will pass on to voted to the guru 54. the Victor's Course 74. hatthakamma (hastakarma), mas- jinakalpa, the Course of the Victor turbation 15. 41, 59, 65, 70, 76, 78, 79, 83n, himsa, violence 23. 84n, 96. hinak khariya (hinaksarika), omis- inakalpika, practitioners of the sion of syllable 29. Victor's Course 63, 65, 66, 72, 77, hinaksara-sutra, sutras containing 78, 86n. lacunae of syllables 43. jinakalpika-sutra, sutras concerned

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122 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words with the Victor's Course 43. of spots 14. jina hood, the state of a jina 96. karana, astrological divisions of the jinayatana, temple of the jina 7. day 52. jiraka, cuminseed 54. karana, exception in a special jiya, (jita), the fifth authority of circumstance 58, 66, 68. monastic legislation which stands karanapeksa, dependent on a special for customs and conventions circumstance 86n. firmly established on account of karma-bhumi, region of labour their repeated practice by the (agriculture etc.) 66. eminent acaryas 1, 2. karuna, compassion 35. jnana, books of scripture 29. kasava (kasyapa), name of a clan, jnana-upasampad, going to another 100, 101, 105, 107. gana to get clarification regarding kasinaim, entire 86n. knowledge 8. kati janah, numerical strength 57, jna-parijna, cultivation of know- 64. ledge 42. kayappacalakam kayapra-calakam), joga-hina (yoga-hina), lack of wavering of body 12. mental, vocal and physical steadi- kayotsarga, renouncing of attachness 29. ment to the body for a particular kadayogi (krtayogi), experienced period or for one's life-time 68. and adept monk 54. kevala, omniscience 78, 86n. kaivalya (Jaina), purity of the soul kevala-damsana (kevala-darsana), cleansed of its impurity of pas pure and perfect intuition 38. sions; (Yoga) pure light of con kevali-pannatta-dhamma (kevalisciousness that has nothing to do prajnapta-dharma), religion as with knowledge 37, 38. propounded by the omniscient 29. kalahakaraka, makers of quarrels khadaniyam, hard or solid food 34. 18. kala, time 45, 57, 66. khaddham khaddham (desi), in kale na kao sojjhao (kale na ketah svadhyayah), good quantity 28. abstaining from khagguda, drowsy or sluggish or study at proper time 29. punctilious 51, 81n. kalika-sutras, sutras which could khaima (khadima), dainties, sweets be studied at prescribed times 19, 27, 28, 89. only 43. khamaga (ksapaka), mortifier 53, kalpa, conduct or course 57, 67, 70, 82n. 72, 85n. kalpasthita, leader of the group 70. khamaya (ksapaka), mortisier 46. kalpasthita, engaged in the course khambhakato (stambhakatah), stif fened body 12. 86n. khandha-bija (skandha-bija), plants kalpasthiti, practice of ascetic propagated from stem 19. rules, types of conduct 72. khandakari, maker of splits 14. kama, worldly desires 3. kharia (ksarita), salty dainties, kammasakari (kalmasakari), maher condiments or curry 54.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 123 67. khetta (ksetra), environment (of the lobha, greed 13. debate) 32. loka, cosmos 38, 85n. khira (ksira), porridge 48. lukkham lukkham (ruksam ruksam), kilika, a samhanana where bones dry and spiced 28. are held together with a bony madasthana, source of pride 12. nail without any fastening 83n. madya-mamsa-virati, abstinence kiriya, a doctrine that propounds from alcoholic drinks and nonthe existence of the soul I. vegetarian food 42. kiyaccira, duration of stay 7, 65. mahabhadra, a penance 65. kiyam (kritam), purchased 18. mahana, an epithet of Mahavira koha-mana-maya-lohilla (krodha- 89, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 107. mana-maya-lobhin), swayed by the mahapadesas, sources of authority passions of anger, pride, deceit of monastic law in Buddhism 3. and greed 53, 82n. mahavideha, the name of a region koti, ten millions 57. in Jaina cosmology, 66. kouhala (kutuhalin), peeper; curious mahavratas, the great vows 14, 29, person 53. kouhala-padibaddham, imbibing mahuravayana (madhura vacana), curiosity 82n. sweet and attractive diction 32. kriya, action XVII. maitthana, mayatthana (mayasthakrodha, anger 13. na), deceit 19. ksapakasreni, ladder of annihila manahparyaya, telepathy 78, 86n. tion 67. manamam manamam (manaapta ksapana, penance 8. manaapta), choice food, 28. ksetra, place 46, 57, 66. mamaka, persons who prohibited ksetra-pratyupeksana, survey of the entrance of monks in their place 46. houses 48. ksirasravitva, a supernormal power manasa apattih, expiation for men of feeding people with milk pro- tal indulgence 58. ducts at will 77. mana-pajjava-nana (manah-paryaya ksullaka, junior 41. jnana), telepathy 38. ladha, ancient name of a province manomaya, pervaded by mind 26n. of West Bengal 103, 104. manopubbangama, predominated ladhe, vivacious 88. by mind 26n. laghu-masa (laghuka-masa, laghu manosettha, transcended by mind 26n. masika), light monthly penance mantam, charm 88. 47, 49, 51. manunnam manunnam (manojnam lakkhana, science of signs 88. . manojnam), delicious food 28. landa, time 73, 85n. marga, proper way such as deportlepalepa, acceptance of food from ment (samacari) 70. a smeared hand or pot 65. margadesikatva, see paradesiyattam lesyas, colour indices 68, 70. 42. linga, monastic equipment 67, 85n. marut (Vedic), storm-god 17.

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124 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words margasirsa, the name of a lunar musiyaram, cat 77. month 45. mutthijuddhaim, boxing 97. markatabandha, see naraca 83n. naksatra, constellation 52. maryada (or samacari), deportment nana (jnana), knowledge XX, 36. 52. nanda, a particular lunar day 52. masaguru, heavy one-month aus- naraca, a samhanana where bones terity 22, 82n. are held together by a special kind masakalpa, conduct during monthly of fastening (naraca) alone 83n. stay 65, 70, 74. nava-nava-samvega, ever growing masa-laghu, light monthly penance fear of worldly life 42. 46, 81n, 82n. naya-patipanno (nyaya pratipanmatsara, envy 13. nah), judiciously disposed 5. mati, perception 31. naya-silayara (jnata-silacara), wellmehuna padisevana (maithuna versed in the vows and the cakrapratisevana), sexual intercourse 15. vala samacari 54. methunam, sexual intercourse 15. naya-son (jnatr-son), an epithet of miccha, repentance 83n. Mahavira 98. miccbakara (mithyakara), retracing nicchuvana (niskasana), expelling and repenting by a monk for his with utmost caution 45, misconduct 6, 9. niddham niddham (snigdham snigmisrajata, a fault incurred by an dham), fatty food 28. ascetic by accepting food prepared nijjara (nirjara), shaking off the for both an ascetic and a house karmic matter from the soul 42, holder 55. 63, 64. mithyadrsti-kulani, families that nikkampaya (niskampata), steadiprofessed wrong faith 48. ness of faith and austerity 42. mithyaduskria, withdrawing from nimamtana (nimantrana), permiswrong doing 70. sion of elders regarding what is to mithyajnanam, wrong notion 26n. be acquired for them 8, 9, 63. mithyatva, perversion of faith 81n. nipphatti (nispatti), consummamleccha, uncivilized people 46. tion 41. moha, delusion 13. nirgranthas, Jaina monks and nuns mohanaka, cheating, deceiving, pre 23, 26n, 39, 48, 80, 89. tending 19. mahasthandila, cemetery 49. nirjara, see nijjara 83n. nirvana, emancipation 43. mottum, excluding, 83n. mula, a type of expiation in the nirvista, see nirvista-kayika 72. form of re-initiation 45, 52. nirvistakayika, retiring having mula-biya (rnula-bija), plants pro completed penance 72. pagating from roots 19. nirvistamana, those who are fulfillmulaguna, basic rules or qualifica ing the penance 72. tions 14. nisahi, see nisihia 7. mundapana, tonsure or hair pluck- nisidhika, word uttered at the entry ing 58, 68. into a temple of the jina 7.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 125 nisihi, see nisidhika 83n. less than half a month 19. nisihia (nisedhiki), awareness pabbajja (Buddhist pravrajya), iniregarding completion of duty, it tation 67. is concerned with guptis; observed paccakhana (pratyakhyana), vow while returning from outside 7, 9, not to commit any offence 71. 63. pacittiya (Buddhist), expiation 12, nisihia, equivalent to nisahi 7. 18, 19. nisihiyam, see nisidhika, 83n. pada bheda, preparation for an nisithiam, see nisidhika 10n. offence 20, 21. nispatti, see nipphatti 44. payabina (padahina), omission of nispratikarma, avoidance of physi- words 29. cal care and medical treatment medical treatment pada, foot 26n. 58, 68. padavibhaga samacari, a class of nissesam vaei (nihsesam vacayati), samacari contained in the Cheda teaching the sutras completely Sutras derived from the 9th without residue 33. Purva, includes all other samanivata, unbreezy 52. caris 6. nivata-pravata, unbreezy-cum-breezy padhamilluga, first 83n. 52. padibaddha (pratibaddha), studious nirsti (Vedic), the goddess of death (monks) 53. and corruption 16, 17. padibaddha, attached 85n. nivvana (nirvana), liberation XIX. padicchaga (pratiksaka), guest no-avasarpini, regions where the monks 46. avasarpini does not occur in all padicchana (praticchana), discriits divisions 72. mination in imparting knowledge ogahimaga, fried 84n. 44. ogha, a category of samacari, padilekhana, inspection 81n. derived from Ogha Prabhsta, the padima (pratima), intensive courses 20th Prabhita 5. of fasting for a month etc. 65. ogha samacari, Mulacara identifies padipucchana (pratiprcchana), askwith tenfold samacari; also seeing for permission to perform ogha 6. an act for others 7; confirmation chidamsana (avadhi-darsana), clair- of permission or obtaining a fresh intuition 37. permission for what has been omanam, despicable 99. refused 8, 9. ohinana (avadhijnana), clairvo panisunana, acquiescence 20, 21. yance 37. padivajjamana (pratipadyamana), omasa, reproach or insult 12. subsequent entrant 73. omasavade pacittiyam (Buddhist), padivanna, practitioner 85n. an expiation related with utte- padutthena manasa, with polluted rance of reproaching and insulting mind 26n. words 12. pagamae, for pleasure and rest 76, orenaddhamasam, at intervals of 77.

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126 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words pahudia (prabhrtika), carnivals 51. paisunya, back-biting 13. paliyatthanesu, at 100. pamiccam (desi), borrowed 18. pana (pana), drink 19, 27, 28. panaka, acceptance of drink 65. pancaratrarupam, for five nights 85n. manufactories pancatmakam, consisting of flve persons 85n. pantam, stale food 88. (prayopagamana), panna (prajna), insight 36. panthah, departure 68. paoga (prayoga), apt application or art of debate 31, 32. paovagamana penitential death (absolute suspension of movements) 59. paradesiyatta (paradesikatva), enhancement of competence in attracting pupils to right path 42. paragarha, condemning others 13. parahita-pratipatti-sampat (Buddhist), exerting oneself for the wellbeing of others, universal welfare 35. parajika (Buddhist), gravest guilt making the monk liable to be expelled from the Order 15, 16, 18, 22. parakrama, capacity 70. paramita, perfection in the practice of charity, moral precepts, etc. XIX. parana, breaking of the fast 71. parancika, expiation in the form of expulsion 16, 52. parasamaya-sutra, sutra concerned with alien doctrines 43. parasyabhranta-maranam, killing of another person unerringly 26n. paribhoga, relishing of the result 16, 20, 21. pariharakatvam, attendant 85n. duties of the pariharavisuddha, practitioner of purificatory co-operative course 41, 66, 69, 76. pariharavisuddhi kalpa, purificatory cooperative course, 76, 77. pariharika, assistant monks practising the purificatory cooperative course 70, 86n. parihara samyama, service to the group 86n. parijiya-suya (paricitasruta), deeply familiar with scripture 31. parikarma, purification of the soul through the conquest of the senses, passions etc. 61, 62, 65, 83n. parinirvana, liberation 79. parinivvaviya vaei (parinirvapya vacayati), brings the subject home to the disciple 32. parinna (parijna), cultivation 42. parisa (parisat), assembly 32. paritapa, ailment 53. parivrajakas, wanderers 48 pariyapunana (Buddhist), mastery or accomplishment 32, 35n. parsvastha, monk prone to laxity 45. paryaya, duration of standing 67. pascat karma, blemishes related to the activities of the house-holders after the act of giving 58. pasu, brute (symbolic of stupidity) 17. patanga vithika, grass-hopper-like movement 58. patrakambalam, pot and blanket 86n. pavajja, see pabbajja 41. pedha, rectangular movement 58. phalu bija, plants propagating from germs 19.

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phodia (sphotita), incensed flavoured 54. piccha, broom or brush 76. pihiyacca, guarding his body 98. pindaisana, carefulness in begging food 62. pitthimamsia (prsthamamsika), indulgence in backbiting 11. pitrs (Brahmanical), or deceased ancestors 24. porabiya (parvabija), plants propagating from joints 19. porisim tiriya-bhittim, wall of man's length 97. prabhrtika, sacrifices performed for deities 65. pradhana, exertion, energetic effort, striving, concentration of mind 96. pramada, sway of passions and nonvigilance of mind 21, 23. pramatta, non-vigilant 26 n. pramatta-yoga, mental, vocal and physical activity associated with pramada 23. pramatta-yogat pranavyaparopanam himsa, violence in taking away of life under the sway of non-vigilance rooted in passions 23. pramanas, numerical strength of different categories 70, 74. pranasamyama, life and self-restraint 86 n. pranatipata, (Vasubandhu) taking away of life; an aforethought of killing of another person unerringly 23, 26 n. prasasta, wholesome 83 n. prasasta bhavanas, thoughts 60, 62. prasravana, easing oneself of urine 65. pratibha, extra-sensory 37. pratikramana, retracing 21, 58. wholesome Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 127 name of the pratilekhana, inspection of outfit 51, broom or brush 76. pratipatti, discipline 35. pratyakhyana, the ninth Purva 63. pratyakhyana-parijna, of renunciation, 42. pratyapaya, future health hazards 70. pratyayasya paracitta-jnanam, by concentration on the minds of other, there arises the knowledge of other mindss 38. pratyupeksakah, inspection-party pratyupeksana, survey 47. pravacana-mata, scriptural matrices, namely five samitis and three guptis 29, 36, 56. pravacana-prabhavana, dissemination of scriptural knowledge 83n. pravrajya, see pabbajja 42. pravartaka, a monk-officer responsible for the administration of the samgha 60. 46. cultivation pravata, breezy 52. pravrajaka, an acarya who initiates the disciples 34. pravrajana, initiation 58, 68. prayascitta, expiation 1, 14, 70. prayogya, usable 49, 54. pubbe-nivasanussatinana (purvanivasanusmrtijnana), memory of past lives 37. purakarma, blemishes of the activities of the householder before the act of giving 58. puruhuta, (Vedic) Indra 17. purva, a variety of Jaina scripture 1, 2, 62, 64, (84,000,00 x 84,000,00 years) 85 n. purvagamas, ancient Agamic texts 86n. purva-koti, ten million purvas 69.

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128 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words putika, unacceptable on account of its being mixed with adhakarmika food 65. respect of animate beings 58. sadeva-manuyasuraloga (sadevamanujasuraloka), the world consisting of gods, men and demigods 29. sadguru, heavy six monthly penance 82 n. puvvapadivanna (purva-pratipan 82 n. na), one who passed through the sadlaghu, light six monthly penance course in the past 73. raga, attachment 26 n. raibhoana (ratribhojana), food at night 18. raipimda bhoana (rajapinda-bho jana), taking food offered by the king 18. rajoharana, broom 11. raovarayam, with ceased affection 87. rasiyam rasiyam (rasitam rasitam) juicy food 28. ratinia-paribhasi (ratnika-paribhasi), insulting one's superior in rank 11. raudra (dhyana), engrossing in thoughts resulting from the eruption of the passion of anger 68. rayaniya (ratnika), superior in respect of knowledge or monastic standing 27. putiyam, unacceptable 84. putta roga (desi), abdominal disorder 48. rjvi, straight 58. rk, (Vedic) hymn 16. taking rsabha-naraca (samhanana), the joint of bones fastened together in a special way surrounded by a bony ring or plate with no nail. (vajra) 83n. rtambhara prajna, right vision in Yogadarsana 37. sabala (sabala), a monk of tainted conduct 14, 16, 17. sabalakari (sabalakari), maker of taints in conduct 14. sa-bhiksu, an ideal monk 90. sacittadravyakalpa, deportment in sagaria-pimda (sagarika-pinda), taking food from one who has given residence 19. saharana (samharana), being carried away by some god 66. sahillaya (sahayakata), coopera tion 33. sahu (sadhu), monk 29. sahuni (sadhvi), nun 29. saiksa-sthapana-kalpa, commissioning of trained monks 70. saima (svadima), ments 19, 27 28. spices, condi saimam, spices 89. sakyas, the Buddhists 48. salakapurusas, eminent personages 43. salamba, having strong ground and justification 16. sama, an incantation of the Rk beginning with the word sama 17. samacara, right conduct including the set of activities performed by the cultured 5. samacari, general conduct, behaviour, deportment of the monastic order 5, 6, 8, 9, 41, 45, 56. 63, 70, 83 n. samacara, equanimity, right conduct or unvarying and uniform conduct or the conduct common to the entire monastic order 5. samacari-atisaya, extra-ordinary powers pertaning to deportment 43.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit an - Pali Words 129 samacariya, deportment XX. yukta) constantly vigilant about samada (samata), equanimity 5, 9n. one's behaviour 31. samana, non-Vedic monks 48, 96, samjna-suira, sutras containing the 103, 106. technical words 43. samana-nigamtha (sramana-nirgran- samkalpa, will 3. tha), Jaina mionk 1. samkhadi, feasting places 99. samanunna (samanujna), identical sammacaro (samvagacarah). with sambiogika 45. conduct 5, 9 n. samavatara, entrance 72. samnyasa, the fourth and the last samaya, popular convention 5. part of the Brahmanical way of samaya (samata), equanimity XX. life 7, 18. samayacarika, practices based on sano acaro (sama acarah), uniform popular convention 5. conduct 5. samayari, see samacari 83 1). samprayoga, meeting 37. samayaro, see samacari 9 n. samraksana, protection of field from samayika, initiation 66, 72, 73. being grazed by cattle 65. sambhoga, cating and living to samsara, transmigration XVIII. gether 71, 82 n. samsayah, doubt 26 n. sambhogika (ekasamacasika), fol sanskaras, impressions 37. lowers of the same type of conduct samsthapana, dilapidated abode and rules of deportment 82n, com requiring repairs 65. mensal 55, see samanunna 45. samtharana, abundance 82 n. sambhunjana, commensalism 58. samthava, acquaintance 87. sambodhi, equivalent of kaivalya samuddesana acceptance of food 85 n. samcayia (sancayika), storable 54. samuddesartha, for the purpose of samgaha-parinna, comprehensive knowledge and planning for the the meal 56. order 31, 32. samvasana, cohabitation 58. samvasa, worthy of living together samgha-karma, monastic act 82 11. 15. samhanana, bone joint 56, 64, aspects relating to strength of joints samvigga (samvigna), see samvigna 55. of the hunian body 83 n. samharana, kidnapping 72. samvigga-purana (purana-samvig na), fallen down to the level of samici, right conduct equivalent of samacati 5, 82 n. * parsvastha 45. samici-patipanno (samici-prati- samvigna, genuinely detached from pannah), following the right course the world 44, 45, 55. of conduct 5. samyak caritra, right conduct 70. samitis, attitude of carefulness 11, Samyag-darsana, cultivation of comportments 56, 68. right faith XIX, 36, 42, 70. samjama (samyama), self-restraint samyaktva-sraddha, people esta blished in the fourth gunasthana samjama-joga-jutta (samyama-yoga 48. 37. XX.

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130 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 83n. siddha, the emancipated 29. siddhatva, highest attainment 38. siddhi, emancipation discarnate 78. sikkhapaya (sik sapada), training 41, 42, 58, 80. sila (sila), religious and moral vows 3. samyama, self-control 73. samyama-samayari (samyama-sam- acari), deportment qua self-restraint 33. samyama-sthana, points of develop- ment of self-control 72. samyama-viradhana, breach of rest- raint 81 n. sancicca, intentionally 19. sangha, order of monks 79. sanghadidesa (sanghadidesa), in- struction to the order 12, 15, 18. santatakari, behaving consistently 14. sara, tones 88. sarajaska, a hermit of dubious cha- racter 81 n. sarassa vijja, science of cries 88. saraia (saradika), autumnal 84n. sarira (sarira), personality 31. sarvatha svecchaya pravartanam, absolutely wayward behaviour 21. sarvajnata, omniscience 38. satta (sattva), conquest of fear and sleep 61. sauna (sakuna), bird 84. sa vajja (savadya), vicious 2. savaya (sravaka), layman 29. saveda, possessed of sex 67. saviga (sravika), laywoman 29. savva-pana-bhuya-jiva-saita, beings with two, three and four senses, vegetation, the five-sensed animals, and other living beings 29. savvesim sanmanam (sarvesam samanam), common to entire monastic order 5. seha, disciple 27. sekhiya dhamma, duties of disciple towards his teacher 12, 30. sevarta, samhanana where bones are only in mutual touch and are held together by an oily material smasana, cemetery 81. socca (srutva), needing inspiration and instruction 42. sraddha-dharma, the way of the lay devotee 42. sruta, knowledge of scripture 54, 63, 85 n. srutarthatisaya, extra-ordinary powers pertaining to scripture and its meaning 43. sruta-samuddesta, an acarya who imparts special instructions in scriptures to make home their thorough comprehension to the disciples 34. srutaskandha, book 84 n. srutoddesta, the acarya who initiates the teaching of the scriptures 34. sthandila, proper place for easing nature 47, 57, 64. sthapana, acquaintance with the families according to their devotion to the order 53. sthapana-kalpa, conduct qua commissioning a monk 70. sthapana-kula, pivotal families 47, 53, 54. sthapita-sthapaka, a disciple's dis ciple 69. sthavira, senior, 41, 60, those who would revert to the Elder's Course 74. sthavira, elder 85 n. sthavira-kalpa, the Course of the Elders 41, 56, 64, 70, 79.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 131 Surse 59 sthavirakalpika, observing elder's conduct 26 n. sthavirakalpika-sutra, sutra con- cerned with the Ek'er's Course 43. sthirikarana, confirmation of the faith of the followers 43, 44. sthita, compulsory, 67 sthitakalpa, fixed conduct. 72. sthiti, essential features 57. 66. subha, good 83 n. suddhaparibara-kalpa, purificatory cooperative course 59. suddhapariharika, observer of puri- ficatory cooperative course 69. suksma-samparaya, stage resulting from the rise of the subtle passi ns 66, 67 73. sumina, dream 88. supatipanna (supratipanna), well behaved S. susumna, spinal chord 37. sutra-grahana, the study of scripture 74. sutra, knowledge (works) extracted from twelve angas, consisting of Bihatkalpasutra and Vyavahara- sutra 2, knowledge of scripture 74, am vaer, teaching the racitation of the sutras 33. sutthu divna, taught beyond the capacity of student 29. suvira, drowsy 53, 82n. suya (sutra), a source for monastic legislation 1, learning 2, 31, XXX, scripture 29, 85n, recitation of scripture with uniform speed 60, suya-vinaya (sruta-vinaya), discip line qua learning 33. svadhyaya, recitation of scripture 37; learning of scripture 63. syasamaya-sutra, sutra concerned with one's own doctrine 43. svetambara, a sect of the Jainas VIII, 12. tahakkara (tathakara), assent by disciples to the instructions from the preceptor 6, 9, 65, 63. tahiyam, true 83n. tapas, austerities, 'fasting, 42, 45, 60, 63. tapas, penance as expiation 52. tapasas, hermits 48. tapasi, unchaste women in the garb of nuns 46. taranti, are capable of 810. tatprathamataya, for the first time 81n. tattvas, principles of Jainism, nine in number 46. tava (tapas), austerity XX. tava-samayari (tapas-samacari) deportment qua austerity 33. tavasura, valiant practiiioners of austerity 830. thavana (sthapana), storing food beforehand 53. thapayanti, initiate 85n. thavita thavaga (sthapita-sthapaka), disciple's disciple 85n. theyyasankhatam, what has not been given 15. thii (sthiti), essential features 41. thirasamghayana (sthirasamhana na), with strong bone-joints 31. thullaccaya (Buddhist), a serious transgression 15, 22. tiriyam pehae, looking s.deward 99. tiracchanagata, belonging to the class of anmials. tirtha, order, religious reign 66, 67. cr46. 61. suya-deva (sruta deva), the scrip- ture deity 29. suya-nana, scriptural knowledge XIX. suya-vavahara (sutra-vyavahara), dispensing of justice according to sruta 2.

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132 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words tirthankara, founder of the four-fold order 43, 57, 62, 67, 69, 70, 79. tithi, date of the lunar calendar 51. trnaphalaka, straw, woodpieces etc. 65. tulana, comparative estimate; consideration of the pros and cons 60, self-assessment 71, 74, 83n, 85n. tumamtuma (desi), abusing one another by using second person singular 34. tumanti (tvamiti), second person singular 28. uccara, easing oneself $7. udapadi, arose 36. udgama-dosa, blemishes of preparation of alms 55. uggaha, jurisdiction 85n. of ugras, the name of a dynasty 89. ujupatipanna (rjupratipanna), straight-forward behaviour 5. ukkudua (utkutaka), squatting 62. upadhi, outfit 70. upadhyaya a teacher of scriptures 41, 60. upakarana, monastic outfit 62. upakaranarjanam, acquisition of ways and means for successful operation 21. upanayana, (Vedic) initiation 35. upasamasreni, the ladder of subsidence 67. upasampada, approaching a teacher in another gana 8, admission of disciples 44, ordination 67. upasarga, trials and tribulations 56, 64, 72. upasika, (Buddhist) lay female devotee 16. upasraya, abodes for monks and nuns 48. upasthapana, ordination 58. uposatha (Buddhist, upavasatha), the day for recitation of the patimokkha (a collection of various precepts contained in the Vinaya for the purpose of confession) 82n. usadham usadham (utsrtam-utsrtam), dainties 28. ussakka (utsvaskana), late cooking of food by almsgivers 53, 55. utkrsta, maximum 85n. utsarga-sutra, scripture concerning the general rules of conduct 43. utsarpini, ascending (time cycle) 66, 72. uttaragunas, secondary rules 14. uvagarana-uppayanaya (upakaranautpadanata), acquisition of outfit 33. uvajjhaya (upadhyaya), teacher 29. uvasagga-saha, enduring trials and tribulations 83n. uvasagga, see upasarga 84n. uvasampada, approaching a teacher in another gana 83n. uvasampaya (upasampada) approaching another gana for acquiring special knowledge for a limited period 8, 63. uvatthana (upasthapana), see chedopasthapaniya 67. vacana, training in scripture and its meaning 45. vacanadi sutra, sutras concerned with grammatical number, gender etc. 43. vaccameliya (vyatyamredita), mixing up texts 29. vahamta (yogavahin), mono-maniac 46, 47. vaiddha (vyaviddha), uttered topsyturvy 29. vaikkama (vyatikrama), infringement, preparation for offence 14.

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vaiyavrttya, service to the organization 8, 53, 63. vaiyavrttyakara, attendant monk 46, 56. vajjabhumi, the name of an ancient province 103. vajjakuddasamana, (as unshakable) as the wall made of diamond 83n. vajra, bony nail made of material as hard as diamond or the thunderbolt of Indra 64, 83n. vajra rsabha-naraca-sambanana, the joint of bones fastened together in a special way surrounded by a bony ring or plate with a bony nail piercing the plate and the two bones 64, 83n. vamana, emetics 88. vanaprastha, the third part of the Brahmanical way of life 18. vanjanameam, only the word 10n. vannasamjalanaya (varnasamjvalanata), appreciation of merits 34. varna, class XVIII. varnasramadharma-jatam, XVIII. varsavasa, stay during rainy seasons 45, 70. vasahi (vasati), abode 57, 64. vastavya, pre-settled 55. vastu, section of the purva text 63. vastuvidya, science of architecture. vata, Vedic god of air 16. vitikkama (vyatikrama), infringement 20, 21, 22. vatsyatha kati janah, how would stay 57, 65. vattana (vartana), strenthening knowledge of what has been studied in one's own gana 8. vatthu (vastu), the nature of adjudicators; ability of opponents, the attitude of the authorities etc. during a debate 32. vatthu-vijja, science of architecture many Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 133 88. vayana (vacana), diction 31. vayanayariya (vacanacarya), expounder preceptor 29. vayana (vacana), exposition 31. veda, sex 67. vedana, sufferings 56. 64, 72. vedanta, the essence of the Vedas I-2. vejja-cintam, doctor's prescriptions 88. the veyavaccam, service 82n. vicitta-suya (vicitra-sruta). possessing expertise in his own and alien traditions 31. vidyas, occult sciences 43. vihara, a place where monks reside 18, itinerary, 41, 45, 60. vihara-bhumi, place of study 27. vijayam uddisai (vijayam uddisati), the religious head selects the subject matter according to the interest of the disciple 32. vijayam vayei (vijayam vacayati), the religious head explains the meaning fully 32. vijja, wisdom 36. vikala, afternoon 81. vikkhevana vinaya (viksepana vinaya) discipline qua assurance 33. vikriya, power of assuming bodies according to wish, 77. vinaya-hina, (vinaya-hina) lacking humility 29. vinaya-padivatti (vinaya-pratipatti), practice of discipline 2, 32, 33. vinita, modest 54. vipassana nana (vipasyana-jnana), introspective knowledge 38. virahana (viradhana), disservice to the acarya 50, 53. virati-phala, the merits of absti nence 42. virimcanti, carry 81n.

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134 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words vyatikramana, aquisition of ways and means for sucessful operation 20, crossing the barriers of vows 22. vireyana (virecana), purgatives 88. virya, vital powers 70. visayabhikanksa, desire for worldly pleasures 21. visuddhi-saniya, parity of purifica tion 72. vithi, avenue 65, 75. vivadakaraka, maker of disputes 34. vivekajam jnanam (Yogadarsana), equivalent to omniscience of Jai nism 38. viyadam, immune 99. viyara-bbumi (vicara-bhumi), place for easing oneself 27. vratabhanga, breach of vows 21. vratasaithilya, disregard for vows vyavahara, authorities and subjectmatter of monastic legislation 1, 2, 70. vyavasthapayanti, properly point out 53. yathakhyata, highest or ideal state of monastic life 66, 67, 73. yathalandaka (kalpa), Time-bound Course 41, 59, 69. yathalandika, practitioner of the Time-bound Course 47, 50, 73, 74, 75, 85n. yatidharma, (Brahmanical) code of the monks, Jaina inonastic way, 12, 13, 42. yati-paryaya, the length of mona stic life 67. yati, monk 30. yavatkathika, yavatkal practitioner for whole life 72. yoga - duspranidhana, disrespect for principles of righteousness 26n. yoga-samapti, the completion of the practice 86n. 21. vsddha, old 46. veddhavasa, the monastery of the old monks 60. vssabha, experienced and physically strong monk 47. vuddha-sila(vrddhasila), a qualifica tion of the acarya, steadfast obser- ver of the vows signifying maturity 3. vyatikrama, infringement (the se- cond stage of sin.) 21.

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ENGLISH WORDS abode, vasahi, upasraya 57. abdominal disorder, putta roga 48. absence of faith, asraddha 13. accomplishment in, paryapunana 32. acosmos (transcosmos), aloka 38. acquisition of outfit, uvagarana uppayana 33. acute, agadha 53. adept, gitartha 46. adorable, arahamta 29. affliction, klesa 38. ailment, paritapa 53. acting consistently, santatakari 14. alleviation of burden, bharapaccoru hanaja 34. anger, krodha 13. annoyance, camadhana 53. appreciation of merits, vannasam- jalanaja 34. apt application, payoga 31. assembly, parisa 32. assistant, pariharika 70. assuming bodies, vikriya 77. attendant, vaijavrti yakara 46. avenue, lithi 65. backbiting, pitthimamsia paisunya 13. bad conduct, dussila 14. begging food, pindaisana 62. begging from unfamiliar houses, ajnatoncha 55. begging of alms, bhiksacarya 57. behaving consistently, santata-vutti 14. bone joints, samhananas 57. borrowed, pamiccam 18. breach, atikrama 17. breaking of fast, parana 71. breezy, pravata 52. broom, pratilekhana 76, piccha 76, rajoharana 11. capacity, parakrama 70. calamities and misfortunes, atarka 56. carnivals, pahudia (prabhrtika) 51. celibacy, brahmacarya 49. cemetery, mahasthandila 49. chapter, ajjhayana 34. choice food, manamam manamam 28. chronic, anagadha 53. circumstance, karana clair-intuition, chidamsana (avadhi darsana) 37. clairvoyance, ohinana (avadhjnana) 37. colour indices, lesyas 68, command, ajna 50. commensal, sambhogika 55. comparative estimate, tulana 60. compassion, karuna 35. competent learned monk, gitartha 68. comportments, samitis 56. comprehension of meaning, attha gahana (arthagrahana) 41. comprehensive planning, samgaha parinna 31, compulsory, sthita 67. concurrence, ana (ajna) 2. conduct, ayara 31, kalpa 70. conduct during monthly stay, masa kalpa 65. confession, alocana 21. confirmation, sthirikarana

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136 English Words discipline, pratipatti 35. discipline qua assurance, vikkhevana vinaya 33. discipline qua conduct, ayara-vinaya 33. chedopasthapana 66. confirmation of permission, prati- prcchana 8. consummation, nipphatti (nispatti) 41. controversy, asamkhada-kalaha 50. conventions, jiya ( jita) 2. cooking food earlier, avasakka (avasvaskana) 53. cooperation, sahillaya 33. cosmos, loka 38. courses, kalpas 57. crookedness, anarjava 13. cumin seed, jiraka 55. curry, kharia 54. curtain, cilimili 52. customs, jiya (jita) 2. dainties, khaima 19, usadham usadham 28. deception, dambha 13. decrepit, krpana 77. defeated, parajika 15. deity, deva 29. delicious food, manunnam manunnam 28 discipline qua eradication of passion, dosa-nigghayana-vinaya 33. discipline qua learning, suya-vinaya 33. disservice, viradhana 50. disregard of vows, vratu-saithilya 21. disrespectful conduct, asayana 27. donkey, duttha 50. drink, pana 19. drowsy, khaguda 51, suvira 53. delusion, moha 13. duty, dhamma 32. earned, aupakramiki 64. egotism, ahamkara 13. elder's course, sthavira-kalpa 41. emancipated, siddha 29. emancipation, nirvana 43. enjoying in fullness, dhaya (dhrata) 48. entrance, samavatara 72. emancipation disincarnate, siddhi 78. envy, matsara 13. essential features, lhii (sthiti) 41. equanimity, samada (samata) 5. expiation, prayasciita 14. exposition, vayana 31. extraordinarily devoted, aisesi (atisesi) 53. faith, darsana 8. fallen from monkhood, acaritti 14. fatty food, niddham niddham 28. fixed conduct, sthita-kalpa 72. flavoured, phodia 54. flying through air, caranata 77. food, asanna 19. forbearance, dhrti 61. forced, balabhiyogakari 6. fried food, avagahima 65. departure, panthah 68. deportnient, samayari (samacari) 41. deportment qua austerity, tava samajari 33. deportment qua communal living, gana-samayari 33. deportment qua sell-restraint, samyama-samayari 33. deportment qua solitary life, ekalla ment qua solitary lile, ekalla- vihara-samayari 33. descending time-cycle, avasarpini 66. desire for worldly pleasures, visa yabhikanksa 21. desperado, atatayin 24. determination, avaya 32. diction, vayana 31. disciple, seha 27. disciple's disciple, sthapita-sthapaka 69.

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English Words 137 future health hazards, pratyapaya 70. give assent, tahakkara 9. grass-hopper-like, patarga-yithika 58. great vows, mahavratas 67. greed, lobha 13. group, gana 41. guest monks, padicchaga 46. gluttonous, ghasira 53. hairplucking, mundapana 68. hardships, parisahas 76. having completed penance, nirvis- takayika 72. heavy four-monthly penance, cau- guruka 47. heavy tour-monthly austerity, caturmasaguru 22. heavy one-monthly austerity, masa laghu 22. hermits, tapasas 48. highest attainment, siddharva 38. homeless, aniyata-vitti. 31. indolent, alasa 53. initial permission, aprcchana 8. initiation pavvajja (pravrajya) 41. immaculate, asavajja (asavadya) 2. impressions, samskaras 37. inauspicious, aprasasta 68. infant, atarana 48. infringement, vaikkama 14. in good quantity, khaddham khad dham 28. initiation, upana yana 35, samayika 66, pravrajana 68. injuring, asayana, asana, asadana 29. inspection, pratilekhana 51. inspection party, pratyupeksakah 46. intensified, agadha 43. introspective knowledge, vipassana nana 38. itinerary, vihara 41. judiciously disposed, naya-pati panna 5. juicy food, rasiyam rasiyam 28. junior, ksullaka 41. junior acarya, avama-ratnadhika 55. jurisdiction, ug gaha 75. ladder of subsidence, upasama-sreni 67. late cooking, ussakka (usvaskana) 53. law, dharma 3. layman, savaya 29. laywoman, saviga 29. leader of the group, kalpasthita 70. learning, suya 31. length of house-holder's life, glhi paryaja 67. length of monastic life, yati-paryaya 66. learning the scriptures, svadhyaya 63. leaving the abode for necessary work, avassiya 7. life of a wanderer, aniya yuvasa (ani yatavasa) 41. light monthly penance, masa-laghu 46, laghu masika 49. limited suspension of movement, imgini 59. live, sacitta 91. maker of holes, chiddakari 14. maker of splits, khandakari 14. maker of spots, kammasakari 14. maker of taints, sabalakari 14. mastery over, pariyapunana 32. masturbation, hatthakamma 15. matrices of scripture, pravacana mata 36. misconduct, anayara 14. measure, matta (matra) 32, meditation, dhyana 68. memory of past lives, janma-kath anta-sambodha 37. mode, bhava 57.

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138 English Words monastery of old monks, vsddha- vasa 60. monastic act, samgha karma 82n. monastic deportment, samacari 5. monastic equipment, linga 67. monastic legislation, vyavahara 2. monastic outfit, upakarana 62. monastic stages, caritra 66. monastic way, yatidharma 42. monk, sahu 29, bhiksu 41, muni 80. monks with tainted conduct, sabalas samya 72. passions, kasayas 38. peeper, kouhala 53. penance, tava (tapas) 42. penitential death, paovagamana 59. perception, mati 31. perfect intuition, kevala-damsana 38. 14. performing penance, ksapana 8. permission of elders, nimamtana 8. personality, sarira 31. . physical equipment, dravyalinga 67. physically strong, vrsabha 47. physical strength, bala 70. pivotal families, sthapana-kulani 47. place, ksetra 57. places for easing nature, sthandila 47. mono maniac, vahamta (yogavahin) 46. monthly stay, masa-kalpa 70. moral vows, sila 3. mortifier, khamaya 46, khamaga 53. novice, bala 46. new-comer, agantuka 55. non-absolutistic, anekanta 80. non-adept, agitartha 46. non-commensal, asambhogika 55. non-storable, asamcayia, (asan- cayika) 54. not-disowned, anisittham 18. nudity, acela dharma 79. number, ganana 57. nun, aryika 80. occasions of in balance of mind. asamahitihana 11. of dubious character, sarajaska 81n. offender, avakirnin 16. offered as carried from elsewhere, dijjamana 18. old, isddha 46. omniscience. kaivalya 1, sarvajnata 38, vevikajam jnanam 38. optional, asthita 67. order, samgha 2, tirtha 66. ordinary, laukika 17. ordination, chedopasthapana 66. outfits, upadhi 70. parity of purification, visuddhi- place of easing oneself, viyara-bhumi 27, sthandila 64. place of study, vihara bhumi 27. pontiff, acarya 3. popular convention, samaya 5. porridge, khira 48. possessed of sex, saveda 67. practice, kalpa 67. practice of discipline, vinaya-padi vatti 32. preceptor, ayariya 29. pre-determined, abhigrahika 52. pre-settled, vastavya 55. pride, abhimana 13. primary rules, mulagunas 14. prone to laxity, parsvastha 45. proper conduct, samici 5. punctilious, khaguda 51. purchased, kivam 18. pure light of consciousness, kaivalya (Jaina), bodhi (Buddhist) 38. purification, parikarma 61. purification of faith damsana-sohi 43. purificatory cooperative course,

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parihara-visuddhika, suddha-pariharika, parihara-visuddhi-kalpa 69. purpose, attha 32. qualifications, sampada 34. qualifications of a religious head, gani sampada 31. rain retreat, varsavasa 45. realization of truth, damsana (darsana) 38. recitation of scripture, svadhyaya 37. rectangular, pedha 58. religious reign, tirtha 67. resolute conduct, abhyudyata-vihara 59. resolute death, abhyudyata-marana 59. reproach, omasa 12. repugnance, asaya 13. restraints, guptis 56. resultant, anubandha 68. retention, dharana 32. retrace and repent, micchakara 9. retracing, pratikramana 21. right conduct, sanacara, samyak caritra, samyag-acara 5. right vision, samyagdarsana, dhammacinta 37. sanction, ana (ajna) 2. scripture, sruta 2. scripture deity, suyadeva 29. scriptural study agama 67. secondary rules, uttaragunas 14. secret resolve, abhigraha 57. self-contemplation, bhavana 61. self-control, jayana 16, samyama 73. self-estimate, tulana 60. self-imposed, abhyupagamiki 64. self-praise, atmastava 13. semi-rectangular, ardhapedha 58. senior, sthavira 41. sense-perception, avaggaha 32. serious transgression, thullaccaya 15. service to the organization, vaiya English Words 139 vrttya 63. sex, veda 67. sexless, aveda 67. sexual intercourse, methuna-padise vana 15. sluggish, khaguda 51. snatched, acchijjam 18. legislation, sources of monastic vyavahara 1. sources of monastic law, vyavaharas 70. sources of pride, madasthana 12. speculation, iha 32. spiced dry food, lukkham lukkham 28. spices, saima 19. spiritual equipment, bhavalinga 67. spiritual matrices, pravacana-mata 56. spiritual self-restraint, bhava-samvara 42. stabilization, sthirikarana 44. stages of concentrated mind, cittasamahitthanas 36. stage of rise of subtle passions suksma-samparaya 73. standing, paryaya 67. stem, gaccha 41. stealing, adinnadana 15. storable, samcayia (sancayika) 54. storing food beforehand, thavana (sthapana) 53. straight, rjvi 58. street beggar, vanipaka 77. student, antevasin 33. studious, padibaddha 53. sub-assistant, anupariharika 70. substance, dravya 57. sufferings, vedanas 56. survey work, ksetra-pratyupeksana 46. suspension of aliment, bhattapaccakkhana 59. symmetrical, panna 31. aroha-parinaha-sam

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140 English Words taking food offered by kings, raipimda bhoana 18. taking food prepared for monks, ahakamma-bhoana 18. teacher, guru, uvajjhaya 29. telepathy, manahparyaya 1. temple, devakula 48. temple of the jina, jinayatana 7. temporary, itvarika 72. tenacity, dhrti 61. tied to original stem, gaccha-pratibaddha 74. time, kala 57. time-bound course, yathalandakakalpa 41, athalanda 76. time of begging food, bhaktam 68. tonsure, mundapana 68. training, sikkhapaya (siksapada) 41. transgression, atikkama 14. trials and tribulations, upasarga 56. twelve meal penance, dvadasam tapah 71. unacceptable, putika 65. unaffected, apadinna 76. unbreezy, nivata 52. unbreezy cum-breezy, nivata-pravata 52. uncivilized people, mleccha 46. uncommuted, anudghata 50. unreproachable body, anotappa sarira 31. unrestricted, apratibaddha 45. up and down, gatva pratyagatika 58. usual minimum, ahajayam 52. vegetable food, dagam dagam 28. vegetable growth, bhutagama 19. verses, slokas 39. vicious, savajja (savadya) 2. victor, jina 39. victor's course, jinakalpa 41. violation of rule, atiyara 14. violence, himsa 23. vital powers, virya 70. voluntary, icchakari 6. wakeful, apramatta 6. wanderers, parivrajakas 48. way of lay devotee, sraddha-dharma 42. whim, darpa 65. wholesome thought, prasasta bhava 60. will, samkalpa 3. with a wavering body, kayappaca lakam 12. with stiffened body, khambhakata 12. worldly desires, kama 3. wrong-doing, dukkada 15. zigzag, gomutrika 58.

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Page Column Line 22. 14222 12 14 22222 242235 37 37 48 59 72 72 1 1 1 1 2222 2 2 Appendix 10 12 14 32 2222 24 21 29 21 19 36 42 2 1 CORRIGENDA 32 34 16 Incorrect datached 10 15-16 adhakkama not is Samgha akkinno ariseson 22. nuis onasavade not enter i six of kouhala suddhaparihara kalpa sttaiti sttaiti asthat Correct detached 19. nuns omasavade not do so laughingly; no. 15 and 21 that he should not enter in adhakamma is not Samgaha akinno arises on sixth or kouhala suddhapariharakalpa sthiti sthita as that

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HOOPY Ayaro (Acharanga Sutra) Synod Chief: Acharya Shri Tulsi Editor, Commentator: Shri Yuvacharya Mahaprajna English version by: Muni Mahendra Kumar Foreword by: Dr. Nathmal Tatia 1981, 425 pages Rs. 190.00 $ 38.00 tentative Text in Devanagari & Roman scripts with English Translation, Annotations, Glossary and Index Ayaro is the first part of the first book of The Jaina Scripture. The Acharanga Sutra begins with the quest for the soul. The soul is both general and ephemeral, the creator and the enjoyer. There is bondage and there are causes of it. There is liberation and there are means of attaining it. These are the basic principles of the science of ethics, which have been discussed in the present sutra. It discusses a large number of themes namely, non-violence, bondage and emancipation, fearlessness, friendliness, mysticism, renunciation meditation and such other subjects which offer copious insight into the moral and spiritual background of Mahavira's teachings. & Personal Use Only!

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Bulletin on the Religion of India by M.A. Barth Translated in English by James Morrison as published in Indian Studies: Past and PresentVol. 1 No. 4. July 1960. Rep. 1972. 24 cm. 60 pages. Paper bound Rs. 15.40 $ 3.00 Fundamental Problems of Indian Philosophy By Pandit Shukhlaji Sanghvi Translated in English by Dr. I.M. Jhavari Reprinted from Indian Studies Past and Present: Vol. 1. No. 4. Rep. 1972. 24 cm. 102 pages Rs. 40.00 $ 8.00. Fundamental problems of Indian philosophy is the English translation by Dr. Indu-Kala of Panditji's Introduction to Acharya Hemachandra's Pramana-Mimamsa which was edited by him, and published in the Sanghvi Jaina Granthmala, Calautta, 1939. Key of Knowledge By Champat Rai Jain (Vidya Varidhi Bar-at-Law) Rep. 1975. 23 cm. 1072 pages Rs. 175.00 $ 35.00 This mammoth and courageous work covers 947 pages with many notes and quotes in lower case, summarise the many facets of the whole exploration which deals with the Ideal, Creation, God, The Fall, Redemption, The Kingdom of God, Yoga Resurrection, The Holy Trinity, The Siddhantas, Reconciliation, Summary and Conclusions. Shraman Mahavir (His Life and Teachings) By Yuvacharya Shri Mahaprajna (Formerly Muni Nathmal Ji) English Translation by Dr. T.M.P. Mahadevan, 1980, 22 cm. 340 pages, Rs. 55.00 $ 11.00 This book is an outcome of a long, continuous and devoted piece of research in the Jain scriptures and other sacred works. The impartial and unbiased evaluation of the two traditions of Swetambara and Digambara and the clear presentation of the facts in an interesting manner are noteworthy. on TODAY & TOMORROW'S PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS 24-B/5, Desh Bandhu Gupta Road. Karol Bagh, New Delhi-110005