Ambika on Jaina Art and Literature

Author(s): Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari
Publisher: Bharatiya Gyanpith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/002006/1

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ΑΜΒΙΚΑ
IN JAINA ART AND LITERATURE
O DR M.N.P. TIWARI

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AMBIKA IN JAINA ART AND LITERATURE
endeavours to give a detailed and critical assessment of the origin and development of Jaina Yakşi Ambikā. Acknowledged as the Yaksi of the 22nd Jina Arista-nemi or Neminātha, Ambikā enjoys an exalted position in Jaina worship. The popular worship of Mother representing fertility cult was adopted by the Jainas in the form of an early Yaksi Bahu-putrikā. By the close of the sixth century A.D., she got transformed into Yaksi Ambikā. The study portrays the evolution of the forms of Ambikā in the Jaina literature and iconographic texts with their visual manifestation in sculpture and painting. The work is based on a detailed and comprehensive study of the images of Ambikā from the sites which in past had been the centres of Jaina activities, namely Khajurāho, Osiān, Deogarh, Mathurā, Kumbhāriā, Mt. Ābū, Ellorā etc. The appendices, illustrations and a detailed bibliography will be found useful by the students of this and allied subjects.

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AMBIKĀ
IN
JAINA ART AND LITERATURE

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AMBIKĀ
IN
JAINA ART AND LITERATURE
Dr. Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari
Reader
Department of History of Art Banaras Hindu University
e
BHARATIYA JNANPITH NEW DELHI
1989

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© 1989 BHARATIYA JNANPITH
Published by Bharatiya Jnanpith, 18 Institutional Area, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110003 (India)
Printed at Vimal Offset, A-26 Panchsheel Garden, Navin Shahdara, Delhi-110032
Art work by Sri Tuliki Cover design by Mini Kapoor
Price Rs. 100/

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In The Sacred Memory of My DADAJI
Pt. Yadunandan Prasad Tiwari

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Publisher's Note
The Bharatiya Inanpith has over the years developed an extensive collection of about 15,000 photographs of Jaina antiquities. This has been done to build a systematic, comprehensive photographic record of ancient and medieval Jaina art, architecture, paintings, epigraphs etc. drawn from both public and private collections in India and abroad. These antiquities have made a significant contribution to our cultural heritage. These art objects pertain to the period from the Mauryan age to the close of the eighteenth century. The Universities and other academic institutions are aware of this rich collection and their research scholars have been consulting it for their work according to their requirements.
On the suggestion of some scholars we have planned a series of small monographs on Jaina deities. The present volume is the first of that series. Similar monographs of Pārsvanatha, Bahubalin, Sarasvati, Padmavati and others are contemplated. It is sometimes felt that even the surface of the rich historical and authentic information available on Jaina art has not been scratched. Such studies would be a small effort to let this information reach the interested readers.
The Bharatiya Jnanpith is grateful to Dr. Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari for his lucid and succinct treatise on Ambikā. His deep and wide scholarship is writ large on this work. Our thanks are also due to the scholars, archaeologists and philanthropists who have variously helped us in our programme. Shri Gopilal Amar and Dr. Gulab Chandra Jain of the Jnanpith staff have helped Dr. Tiwari and have worked hard to bring out this volume.
New Delhi
15th March, 1989
B.N. Tandon Director

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Preface
Ambikā, acknowledged as the Yaksi of the 22nd Jina Aristanemi or Neminātha, enjoyed a specially venerated position in Jaina worship. The popular worship of female principle as 'Mother', representing fertility cult, was adopted by the Jainas in the form of an early Yakşi Bahu-putrikā who towards the close of sixth century A.D., was transformed into Yaksi Ambikā. The concept and visual form of Ambikā, the most popular of all the Jaina Yaksis, have some very interesting and revealing aspects which, however, have so far not been properly studied. Hence, an exclusive work on Ambikā was a long felt need.
It has been endeavoured in the present work-a desideratumto give a detailed and critical assessment of the origin and development of the Jaina Yaksi Ambikā. The evolution of her iconographic forms, on the basis of Jaina literature and iconographic texts with their visual manifestation in sculpture and painting, have been dealt with in great details. I have personally visited a number of prolific Jaina sites, namely Khajurāho, Deogarh, Mathurā, Osiān, Kumbhāriā, Mt. Abū, Tārangā, Khandagiri, Elloră etc., to make a detailed study of the icons of Ambikā. The treatment of the subject has always been historical. The sculptural data have been compared with relevant textual prescriptions for showing the development of her iconic forms. Besides nine coherent chapters, the appendices, the detailed bibliography and illustrations have also been added.
I must record at this juncture my gratitude to those who assisted me in one or the other way in preparing this monograph. My heartfelt thanks are due to Prof. M.A. Dhaky, Associate Director (Research), American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi, for, kindly reading the manuscript and offering valuable comments.
I would like particularly to thank Dr. (Mrs.) Kamal Giri, Reader, Deptt. of History of Art, Banaras Hindu University and Sri Gopilal Amar, Research Officer, Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi, for their valuable suggestions and kind assistance in preparation of the monograph
I am also grateful to Prof. (Dr.) K.D. Bajpai, Former Tagore Professor and Head of the Deptt. of Ancient Indian History, Culture

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and Archaeology, Sagar University, Sagar, Dr. U.P. Shah, former Dy. Director, Oriental Institute, Baroda, Sri Krishna Deva, Varanasi and Prof. (Dr.) Anand Krishna, former Head of the Deptt. of History of Art, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, who have always been source of inspiration and guidance to me.
I am particularly indebted to Shri Bishan Tandon, Director, Bharatiya Ji inpith, New Delhi for kindly giving me an opportunity to prepare a monograph on Ambikā. I have greatly been benefited by his valuable comments as well.
I deeply appreciate ungrudging assistance extended to me by the American Institute of Indian Studies, Varanasi and the Archives of the Photographs of Jaina Antiquities of Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi for supplying the photographs. To M/s Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi are my special thanks for publishing this monograph so nicely and timely. The printers are likewise to be thanked for their cooperation.
Although I have made sincere efforts to cast fresh light on different aspects of the iconography of Ambikā, I am aware of my personal limitations reflected it the shortcoming of the production; I crave the indulę .ce of readers and reviewers for their kind suggestions.
Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari
Banaras Hindu University, Rama-navami, '6th March 1988

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Contents
Publisher's Note Preface
Chapter
Introduction
Chapter Il Ambika : Antiquity and Tradition Chapter Ill Ambika : Iconographic Concept
and Symbolism Chapter IV Ambikä in Art : Early Phase
25 34
Chapter V Ambikā in Art : Later Phase
(Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra) Chapter VI Ambikā in Art : Later Phase
(Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh)
101
Chapter VII Ambikā in Art : Later Phase
(Bihar, Bengal, Orissa) Chapter VIIl Ambikā in Art : Later Phase
(South India)
109
Chapter IX
Ambikā in Painting
123
References Appendices
A Temples of Ambikā B Jaina Texts and Their Dates C Eulogies Ambika D Bibliography E List of Illustrations
134 145-168
145 147 148 154 164

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1
Introduction
The political and economic conditions play a vital role in the development of religion and art. As regards Jainism, it received patronage and support from the rulers of north as well as south India. However, in comparison to south India, the number of rulers embracing Jainism in north India is smaller.2 Jainism also remained a popular religion throughout amongst almost all the ruling dynasties and the masses, specially the business class. There are inscriptions from Kankäli Tīlā at Mathura, Osian, Khajuraho, Jalore and several other places which frequently refer to the śresthin (head of a mercantile guild), sārthavaha (a merchant), gandhika (perfume seller), svarṇakāra (goldsmith), vardhakin (carpenter), lauhakarmaka (blacksmith), nāvika (sailor), nartaka (dancer), veśyā (prostitute) classes from the general mass and different gosthis (guilds of traders) making significant contributions towards Jainism. 3
The contribution of north India in the development of Jaina iconography is of much more significance than what has been brought out. According to the Jaina tradition, all the twenty-four Jinas of the present avasarpiņi aeon were born in this region and it was the reason that most of the Jaina deities gained sculptural representations first in the region. The earliest Jaina images with their characteristic iconographic features, such as the falling hair-locks of Ṛṣabhanatha, seven-hooded snake canopy of Parśvanatha, the śrīvatsa, the aṣṭa-prātihāryas, the cognizances and the Yakṣa-Yakṣi pairs also make their first appearance in this region. However, the
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? Ambikā
uşnişa and the śrīvatsa are generally absent in the Jina images of south India. The figures of the Jaina Mahavidyās, the complete sets of twenty-four Yakṣis, Jivantasvamin Mahavira and Jaina tutelary couples and so, are conspicuous by their absence in south India.
While Pārsvanatha and Mahāvīra were the most favoured Jinas in south India, Rsabhanatha and Pārśvanatha were the most favoured ones in the North. Among the Yakṣis Cakreśvari, Ambikā and Padmavati were accorded the most favoured position in the North, while in the South the popularity of Cakreśvarī was replaced by that of Jvālāmālinī. North India has yielded the remains of both the Svetambara and the Digambara sects whereas the remains from South belong only to the Digambara and the Yapaniya sects.
The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2300-1750 B.C.) is the earliest civilization of India. The figures on some of the seals from Mohen-Jo-Dāro and also a male torso from Harappa remind of the Jina images on account of their nudity and posture, identical with the kayotsarga-mudrā, all this much comparable with the Lohānīpur Torso. But nothing can be said with certainty until the Indus Valley script is deciphered finally.
Apart from the doubtful instance as above, we do not have any literary or archaeological evidence regarding any Jina image prior to Mahāvīra. Mahāvīra is never said to have visited any Jina temple or worshipped any Jina image. In this connection it would be relevant to make reference to the Jivantasvāmi-Mahāvīra image which is said to have been carved in the life-time of Mahāvīra (c. late sixth century B.C.), hence called Jivantasvāmin or Jīvitasvāmin. According to the tradition, a sandalwood image of Mahāvīra, wearing mukuta and other ornaments befitting royalty, was carved in his life-time during the period of his tapas in palace, about a year prior to his renunciation as prince. Like the Bodhisattva before reaching Buddhahood, Jīvantasvāmin also represented a conception which may be called Jinasattva. U.P. Shah, the first scholar to identity the Jivantasvamin images,' has accepted the literary tradition and conceded that Jivantasvamin image was carved in the life time of Mahavira. He has tried to reinforce his view on the strength of the two Jivantasvämin images of the early Maitraka period discovered from Akoță near Vadodara in Gujarat. These images exhibit Jīvantasvamin as standing in the kayotsarga-mudrā and wearing royal dress and ornaments, and one of the images also bears the word 'Jivantasāmi' in the pedestal inscription.

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The Jaina āgamas, the Kalpasūtra and early literary works like the Paumacariya of Vimala Sūri (A.D. 473), however, do not refer to the Jivantaswamin image. The earliest references to these images are found in the later commentaries of the āgamas (c. mid 6th century A.D. onwards), and other works, namely the Vasudevahindi, the Avaśyakacūrni and the Trisastiśalākāpurusacaritra of Hemacandra (A.D. 1169-72). These works mention the existence of the Jivantasvāmin images at Kośala, Ujjain, Daśapura (Mandsaur), Vidiśā, Puri and Vitabhayapattana. The Trişastiśalākāpurusacaritra' while dealing at length with the legend and the iconographic features of the Jivantasvāmin images, mentions that Chaulukya ruler Kumārapāla (c. A.D. 1145-76) caused the excavation at Vitabhayapattana and unearthed the livantasvāmin image. According to Hemacandra, the first and original image made by God Vidyunmālin was installed at Vidiśā. However, there is no literary or archaeological reference to the Jivantasvămin image prior to the fifth-sixth century A.D. Hence the tradition of the contemporaneity of the livantasvämin image with Mahavira seems only to represent the prevalence of such a belief in the later Gupta period."
The earliest known Jina image, preserved in the Patna Museum, comes from Lohānipur (Patna, Bihar) and is datable to c. third century B.C.12 The nudity and the kāyotsarga-mudrā, suggesting rigorous austerity, of the image were confined only to the Jinas. Another Jina image from Lohānipur is assignable to the Sunga period or slightly later. A terracotta Jina figure of c. third century B.C. is also reported from Ayodhyā." The reference to the 'Kalinga lina' (image), once taken away by Nandarāja, and brought back by Khāravela (c. 25 B.C.), in the Hāthigumpha inscription of Khāravela is of special interest in this connection.'4 Thus the Jina images from Lohānipur and Ayodhya and also the evidence of Hathigumphā inscription distinctly suggest that the antiquity of Jina image may well be pushed back at least to c. fourth-third century B.C.
The two early bronze images of Pārsvanātha of c. second-first century B.C. are in the collections of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay and Patna Museum." These figures, provided respectively with the five-hooded and seven-hooded snake canopy, are rendered as sky-clad and standing in the kāyotsarga-mudrā.
Mathurā was a stronghold of Jainism from c. 100 B.C. to 1177 A.D." The early (c. 100 B.C. to the Kusāna period) Jaina sculptures
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from Mathurā are of special iconographic significance, because they exhibit certain formative stages in the development of Jaina iconography. The vast amount of veritable vestiges includes the āyāgapatas, independent Jina images, pratima-sarvatobhadrikā, Sarasvati, Naigameşin and also the narrative scenes from the lives of Jinas Rsabhanātha and Mahavira." Of all these, the āyāgapatas (tablets of homage) of second-first century B.C. merit special attention, since they represent the transitional phase of Jaina iconography in which the worship of auspicious symbols together with the Jinas in human form was in vogue. One such example of C. first century B.C., bearing the figure of Pärsvanātha, seated in dhyāna-mudra in the centre, is in the collection of the State Museum, Lucknow () 253). The rendering of Jinas in dhyāna-mudrā (seated cross-legged) and the representation of śrīvatsa in the centre of their chest appear for the first time in the Sunga-Kuşāņa sculptures of Mathurā.
The Gupta period was a milestone in the development of Jaina iconography, and some of the most significant iconographic features, as for example, the distinguishing cognizances (lāñchana) and the Yaksa-Yaksi figures, were introduced during the period. The Gupta Jaina sculptures are reported from several sites, like Mathurā, Rājgir, Durjanpur, (Vidiśā), Vārānasi, Chausā and Akotā. The images of Rşabhanātha, Candraprabha, Puspadanta, Neminātha, Pārsvanatha and Mahavira were carved during the period. The first Svetāmbara Jaina image, known from Akotā, was also carved in the Gupta period. 18
The history of Jainism continued uninterrupted in the post-gupta period. The Jaina literature and art thrived most vigorously between the 10th and the 15th centuries A.D. The period saw the building of a very large number of Jaina temples with exquisite sculptural carvings. Gujarat and Rajasthan were the strongholds of the Svetambara sect while the vestiges yielded by other regions are affiliated mainly to the Digambara and the Yāpaniya sects.
The tradition of carving twenty-four devakulikās with the figures of the twenty-four Jinas therein was popular mainly at the Śvetāmbara sites. The Digambara Jaina images show much more variety in iconographic details than the Svetāmbara images, wherein the figures of Navagrahas, Bahubalin, Balarama and Krsna with Neminátha, Yakşa-Yaksi pair, and few other goddesses, like Laksmi and Sarasvati, are carved in the parikara. At the Svetambara sites
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the mention of the names of the Jinas in the pedestal inscription was preferred to providing them with their respective cognizances which are usually found in Digambara Jina images. The rendering of the narratives from the lives of the linas was popular mainly with the Svetāmbaras.
The sixteen Mahāvidyās were accorded the most favoured position after the Jinas in Western India while in other parts of the country the Yaksa-Yaksi pairs occupied that position. Of the sixteen Mahāvidyās Rohini, Vajrānkuśā, Vajraírnkhalā, Apraticakrā, Acchuptā and Vairogyä were the most popular ones. The representation of Santidevi, Brahmaśānti Yaksa, Jivantasvāmin Mahāvīra, Ganesa, the parents of the 24 Jinas, and some goddesses, not known in Jaina tradition, was confined mainly to the western Indian sites. The figures of Sarasvati, Asta-dikpalas, Navagrahas and Ksetrapālas were popular in both the sects. The figures of Rohini, Manovegā, Gauri and Gāndhāri Yaksis, Garuda Yaksa, Jaina tutelary couples and Rāma and Sitā occur only at the Digambara sites. There are also some icon types and images from the Digambara Jaina sites like Deogarh and Khajurāho, which were not known in the tradition. The rendering of the dvi-tirthi and tri-tirthi Jina images and the representation of Sarasvati and Bahubalin in the tri-tirthi Jina images, and Yaksa-Yaksi pair with Bahubalin and Ambikā are some such examples.
The figures of male deities in these sculptures are meagre in number compared to the female ones, which probably owes to the Tantric influence and Sakti worship. The Pārsvanātha Jaina temple (A.D. 950-70) at Khajuraho contains all along its facade the divine figures with their Saktis in alingana-pose, which include Siva, Visnu, Brahma, Rāma, Balarama, Agni and Kubera. Such figures are against the accepted norms of Jaina tradition and were actually carved under the influence of Brahminical temples at the site. Many of these divine figures, excepting Ambikā and a few Jinas, are somehow or the other related with the Brahminical pantheon.
On the south and north śikhara and also on the facade of the garbhagrha of the Pārsvanātha temple, there are four sculptures showing amorous couples."' The instances of erotic figures in Jaina context, datable between 10th and 12th centuries A.D., are also known from Deogarh (doorway, Temple No. 18), Śäntinātha temple at Nädlãi (Pali, Rajasthan), Ajitanātha temple at Tārangā (Mehsana, Gujarat) and Neminātha temple at Kumbharia (Banaskantha,
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Gujarat). The presence of erotic figures at Jaina sites is gross violation of the Jaina tradition which does not conceive of any Jaina god along with his Sakti in alingana-pose. This was due to the Tantric influence in Jainism during the early medieval times (c. 8th to 10th centuries A.D.). The Jaina Harivaṁsa Purana (A.D. 783) makes the point more clear by referring to the construction of a Jina temple by a śreşthi-Kāmadatta, who for the general attraction of the people also caused the installation of the figures of Kāmadeva and Rati in the temple.20 It also alludes to the worship of Rati and Kamadeva along with the Jina images.21 It may also be noted here that the Tantric influence was accepted in Jainism with certain restraints. Overt eroticism was never so pronounced in Jaina literature and sculptural manifestations as was the case with Brahminical and Buddhist religions, which is evident from the examples carved on the temples of Khajurāho, Modhera, Koņārk, Bhubaneśvara, and many other places. The erotic figures from Jaina temples as compared to Brāhminical ones are neither so large in number nor so obscene in manifestations. Jaina Divinities
The Jaina pantheon was evolved by the end of the fifth century A.D. At this stage it mainly consisted of the twenty-four Jinas, Yakşas and Yaksis, Vidyādevis, Sarasvati, Lakşmi, Balarama, Krsna, Rāma, Naigamésin, Bahubalin and other Salākāpurusas.22 The Salākāpurusas or Mahāpurusas, according to the Jaina tradition, are great souls. The lives of these Salākāpurusas, numbering 63, became favourite themes of Jaina Purāņas. Their list includes the 24 Jinas, 12 Cakravartins (Bharata, Sagara etc.), 9 Baladevas (Balabhadras) (Rāma, Balarama etc.), 9 Vasudevas (Nārāyanas) (Lakşmaņa, Krsna etc.) and 9 Prati-vasudevas (Prati-nārāyanas) (Bali, Prahlada, Rāvana etc.).
It may be noted here that only the names and some of the general features of the deities were finalized by this time, while their detailed iconographic features were finalised between the eighth and 13th centuries A.D. The development of Jaina pantheon was more or less identical in both the sects23 and the differences are noticed mainly in regard to their names and, at times, their iconographic features. Jinas or Tirthankaras
The Jinas or Tirthankaras occupy the most exalted position in Jaina worship. As a consequence, the Jina images outnumber the
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images of all other Jaina deities. The Jina images denote bhāva worship (mental attitude) and not the dravya worship (physical or idol worship). Jina worship is regarded mainly a worship not of a deity but of a human being who has attained perfection and freedom from all bondage. The passionless Jinas or Arhats are vītarāgas and therefore neither favour nor frown upon anybody. Because of this only Jinas were always represented in the seated or standing attitude of meditation while Buddha, in due course of time, was represented with such different gestures as the abhaya-mudra, the varada-mudrā etc., which show his concern about the world. Moreover, none of the Jinas was ever credited with the performance of miracle while the case was vice-versa with Buddha. Thus it is apparent that the Jainas by strictly adhering to the dhyāna (seated crosslegged) and the kayotsarga (standing erect) mudras in respect of the Jinas have shown their unceasing respect for yogic postures of transcendental merlitation and bodily abandonment.
The list of the twenty-four Jinas was first found some time before the beginning of the Christian era. The earliest list occurs in the Samavāyāngasūtra, Bhagavatīsūtra, Kalpasūtra (c. third century A.D.) and Paumacariya. 24 As we know the concrete representation of the Jinas started in c. fourth-third century B.C. The Kalpasūtra describes at length only the lives of Rṣabhanatha, Neminatha, Pārsvanatha and Mahāvīra who were most popular among all the twentyfour Jinas. As a natural corollary the Yakṣa-Yaksi pairs of these Jinas enjoyed a very favoured position. Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha, Supärśvanatha, Candraprabha, Santinātha and Munisuvratanatha happened to be the next favoured Jinas. The figures of the remaining Jinas are, however, very few in number.
Of all the Jinas, the iconographic features of Pārsvanatha were finalized first. The seven-hooded snake canopy was associated with Pārsvanatha in c. first century B.C. Thereafter, in c. first century A.D. Ṛṣabhanatha was endowed with flowing hair-locks, as is evident from the sculptures procured from Mathura and Chausā. Balarama and Krsna joined Neminatha as his cousin in the Kuṣāṇa period as is borne out by the Neminatha sculptures yielded by Kankali Ṭīlā, Mathura. During the Kuṣaṇa period, the images of Sambhavanatha, Munisuvratanatha and Mahāvīra were also carved but they are identified on the basis of the pedestal inscriptions, bearing their respective names. Of the aṣṭa-prātihāryas, only seven were finalized at Mathura by the end of Kuṣaṇa period; they are
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simhasana (lion-throne), prabhamandala (nimbus), camaradhara attendant hovering mālādhara, chatra, (parasol), caitya-tree and divyadhvani (divine music).
The rendering of the distinguishing emblems, Yakşa-Yaksi pairs and all the aştaprätihāryas25 with the Jinas which marks a significant development in Jina iconography, started as early as in the Gupta period. The Neminātha and Mahāvīra images respectively from Rajgir (Vaibhāra hill, Bihar) and Vārānasi (now in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, Acc. No. 161) are the earliest instances showing their distinguishing emblems. 20 The Rsabhanátha images from Akotā and Mahāvīra images from Jaina caves at Bādāmi and Aihole (Bijapur, Karnataka) are the earliest Jina images with Yaksa-Yaksi figures.27 The representation of tiny Jina figures at throne-ends and in the parikara also started in the Gupta period. The Brhatsamhita of Varāhamihira is the earliest text which mentions the iconographic features of the Jina images, 28
The list of the distinguishing cognizances of the twenty-four Jinas was finalized in c. eighth-ninth century A.D., the earliest references to which are found in the Kahāvali, Pravacanasāroddhāra (381-82) and the Tiloyapannatti (4,604-05). As far the cognizances of the Jinas, the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions are in agreement with each other with a few exceptions as in those of Supārsvanátha, Sitalanātha, Anantanātha and Aranātha. The rendering of the svastika and snake emblems respectively with Supārsvanātha and Pārsvanātha was rather a rare phenomenon in sculptures. However, the need to show the cognizances was not felt, probably due to the representation of five and seven-hooded snake canopy with them.
The Jina images reached the final stage of iconographic development in c. ninth-tenth century A.D. The fully developed Jina images invariably contain distinguishing emblems, Yakşa-Yaksi pairs, astaprātihāryas, dharmacakra with worshippers, diminutive Jina figures and, at times, navagrahas, Vidyādevis, elephants lustrating the Jinas and some other figures. The rendering of Santidevi with lotuses and deer in the centre of the throne, buil-faced figures and some other figures playing on flute and viņā with the linas was confined mainly to the Jaina sites in western India. 29
The carving of the narrative scenes from the lives of the Jinas occur mainly at the Jaina sites in western India, namely Kumbhāriä, Delvādā (Mt. Ābū, Vimala Vasahi and Lūna Vasahi) and Osian. These instances, datable between 11th and 13th century A.D., deal
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chiefly with the panca-kalyāṇakas (five chief events in the life of a lina--cyavana (conception), janman, dikṣā, kevalajñāna and nirvāna) and some other important events in the lives of Rşabhanātha, Santinātha, Munisuvratanātha, Neminátha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvira. Of all these, the scene of fight between Bharata and Bāhubalin, the story of previous life of Santinātha in which he generously offered the flesh of his entire body to save the life of a pigeon, the trial of strength between Krsna and Neminātha and also the marriage of Neminātha and his consequent renunciation, the story of Aśvāvabodha and Sakunikā-vihāra in the life of Munisuvratanātha and the previous births of Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra alongwith their tapas and meditation are of special iconographic interest.
The dvitirthi and tritirthi images were popular at the Digambara sites and a good number of such sculptures are found at Deogarh and Khajuraho. However, we do not find any literary reference to these images. These figures, datable between ninth and twelfth centuries A.D., show two or three Jinas standing on separate siṁhāsanas with cognizances, Yaksa-Yaksi pairs and other usual pratihāryas, which perhaps suggest that all the Jinas are of equal status. 30
The four-fold Jina image, known as Pratimă-sarvatobhadrikā or caumukha is one of the earliest and most significant form of Jina images. The term Pratimă-sarvatobhadrikā signifies that the image is auspicious on all the sides.31 The carving of Jina caumukha, showing four Jina figures, all either seated or standing on four sides, started as early as in the first century A.D. and its earliest examples are procured from the Kankāli Tilā, Mathurā. These images remained popular in all the regions in subsequent centuries. Scholars generally believe that the conception of Jina caumukha was based on the early conception of Jina samavasarana with an advancement upon it.32 But this view is not acceptable for the following reasons. The samavasarana is the congregation hall erected by the gods wherein every Jina delivers his first sermon after attaining kevala-jñāna (omniscience). It consists of three circular ramparts at the focal point of which is the figure of a seated Jina, facing east. The three image of the same Jina on the remaining sides were installed by the Vyantara gods to facilitate the worshippers to see their Master from all the sides. However, none of the early Jaina works like the Kalpasūtra and the Paümacariya refer to the installation of Jina images on the
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remaining three sides. Its first mention occurs only in the works of eighth-ninth century A.D. Moreover, in the Kusana sculptures four different Jinas, always standing, are carved on four sides, as against the original conception of samavasarana showing a seated Jina on the top (east) alongwith three images of the selfsame Jina on the remaining sides.
Under the circumstances, it would not be appropriate to conclude that the Jina caumukha of the Kuşäna period, showing four different Jinas on four sides, bear any influence of the conception of the samavasarana. It is rather difficult to find any traditional basis of the cenception of the Jina caumukha from the Jaina works. On the other hand, we come across a number of such sculptures in contemporary and even early art which might have inspired the fainas to carve Jina caumukha. It is not impossible that some such representations as the Sārnāth and Sanchi lion-capitals, multi-faced Yaksa figures and svastika33 may have been the source of inspiration.
We may divide all the Jina caumukha images into two groups. The first group consists of the images in which the figures of the same lina are carved on four sides. In the second group, the figures represent four different Jinas. The earliest lina caumukha figures hailing from Mathură belong to the second group, whereas the figures of the first group are carved in seventh-eighth century A.D. The figures of the first group are comparatively meagre in number and generally do not show the cognizances of the Jinas. The caumukha figures of the second group in most of the cases show the cognizances of only two, generally those of Rsabhanātha and Pārsvanātha, of the four Jinas. It is indeed surprising that even at a later stage when the cognizances of all the Jinas were evolved, the rendering of the cognizançes reinained confined only to the figures of Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanātha. This might be explained as a continuation of the earlier tradition of the Kuşāna lina caumukha from Mathurā wherein only these two Jinas (Rsabhanātha and Pārsvanātha) are identifiable on account of falling hair-locks and seven-headed snake canopy. In some instances from the Digambara Jaina sites, spread over in Uttara Pradesh, Bihar and Bengal, the cognizances of some other Jinas were also carved; they are Ajitanātha, Sambhavanátha, Supārsvanatha, Santinātha, Neminātha and Mahāvira. One of such examples, datable to c. eighth century A.D., shows the standing figures of Rşabhanātha, Ajitanātha, Sambhavanātha and Abhinandananátha, the first four Jinas of the
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present avasarpini, on four sides. The finas are provided with their respective cognizances, namely, bull, elephant, horse and monkey. The figure is procured from the Vaibhāragiri (Räjgir, Bihar) and now preserved in the Archaeological Museum, Nālandā.
Sāsandevatā or Yakşa-Yakşi Couples
Yaksas and Yaksis constituting a class of divine beings of Jaina pantheon are technically known as Sāsanadevatās, guardian deities of the order (inaśāsanaraksā-kārakāya; Acāradinakara). They figure in Jaina pantheon as the subsidiary deities and were accorded the most venerated position next to the Jinas. Their reference in the Harivaṁsapurāna (783 A.D.) as 'Sāsana' and 'Upāsaka' devas marks the beginning of the concept of Sāsanadevatās. The Harivamsapurana also speaks of the relevance of the veneration of the Sãsanadavatās who are capable of pacifying the malefic powers of the grahas, rogas, bhūtas, piśācas and raksasas. 34 According to the Jaina belief, Indra appoints a Yaksa and a Yakşi to serve as attendants upon every Jina. Thus they are mainly the attendant spirits regarded as devotees of the Jinas. In Jaina representations they possess divine attributes, and also symbolic meaning of various kinds. Gradually their position was elevated and most of them attained even the status of independent deities. We have literary as well as archaeological evidences between tenth and thirteenth centuries A.D. that the Yaksa Sarvānubhūti or Sarvāhna and the Yaksis Cakreśvarī, Ambikā, Padmāvati, and Jvālāmālini attained such a position in Jaina pantheon that independent cults developed around them. This, of course, happened due to the increasing importance of material achievements which could not, however, be obtained by the worship of the Vitarāga Jinas.
The Yaksas as a class of divinities existed in popular folk-belief and also in literary tradition of the Brāhmaṇas much before the rise of Buddhism and Jainism. The Jaina texts classify Yakşas as Vyantara devas, who are wandering spirits. The Yakşas have both benign and malign aspects. As benign spirits they bestow happiness upon devotees and fulfil their desires while as malefic spirits they bring about disaster. The early Jaina works like the Sthânăngasūtra, Uttaradhyayanasūtra, Bhagavatisútra, Tattvārthasūtra, Antagada. dasāo and Paumacariya make frequent references to the Yaksas. Of all the Yaksas, Manibhadra and Pūrnabhadra Yaksas and Bahuputrikā
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Yakşi appear to have been the most favoured ones. It may be noted that the earliest Yakşa-Yaksi pair (Sarvānubhūti, or Sarvāhna, or Kubera and Ambikā) associated with the Jina was evolved from the ancient concept of Manibhadra-Pūrnabhadra Yaksas and Bahuputrikā Yaksi. 35 The Yaksa-Yaksi pair conceived as the Sasanadevatās, makes its first appearance in art in c. sixth century A.D.36
The Jaina works from c. sixth to the ninth century A.D. mention only some of the iconographic features of Yaksarāja (Sarvahna or Sarvānubhūti) and Dharanendra Yakşas and Cakreśvari, Ambikā and Padmāvati Yaksis. The list of the twenty-four Yakşa-Yaksi pairs was finalized in about eight-ninth century A.D. as found in the Kahāvali, Tiloyapannatti (4.934-39) and Pravacanasäroddhāra (375-78), while their independent iconographic forms were standardized in c. 11th-12th century A.D. as mentioned in the Nirvanakalikā, the Trişaştiśalākāpuruşacaritra, the Pratisthāsāra-samgraha, the Pratisthāsāroddhāra, the Pratisthātilaka and the Acáradinakara and a number of other texts. However, we find much difference between the Svetāmbara and the Digambara traditions as to the names and other iconographic features of the Yakşas and Yaksis.
The names of the Mātanga, Yakseśvara and Isvara Yaksas and Naradattā, Mānavi, Acyutā and some other Yaksis occur with more than one Jina in both the traditions. Bhrkuti has been invoked both as Yaksa and Yaksi. The names and the iconographic features of the majority of the Yaksas and Yaksis bear the influence of the Brahminical and Buddhist38 gods and goddesses. The Jainas seem to have adopted either the names or the distinct iconographic features, sometimes both, in such cases.
The gods and goddesses borrowed from Brāhmana pantheon may be put into three groups. The first group consists of the YakşaYaksi pairs made up of minor divinities who are not known to have been related with each other before their adoption in Jainism. The second group comprises the pairs who are generally known as related with each other, such as isvara and Gauri, respectively the Yakşa and Yakşi of Sreyamsanatha, who are none else but Siva and his Sakti Umā and Pārvati. The third group includes Yaksa-Yaksi pairs such as Gomukha and Cakreśvari, respectively the Yaksa and Yaksi of Rşabhanātha who represent two different well known sects. Gomukha and Cakreśvari are Siva and Vaisnavi, the two principal deities of Saiva and Vaisnava sects. The Jainas have always been very liberal in assimilating the deities and other elements from
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Brahminical, Buddhist and folk cults. But at the same time they always maintained the supreme position of the Jinas and as a consequence call other deities are either shown on the pedestal or in the parikara of the lina images and even in case of their independent renderings the linas are shown at the top of their images.
The earliest Yaksa-Yaksi pair carved in Jaina sculpture was Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā." Next come, the figures of Dharanendra and Padmavati, the Yakşa-Yaksi pair of Pārsvanatha. The other Yakşas and Yaksis were carved in c. 10th century A.D. onwards. In the sculptures from C. sixth to the ninth century A.D. Rsabhanātha, Santinātha, Neminátha, Parsvanatha, Mahāvīra and some other Jinas are accompanied by the single Yakşa-Yaksi pair, Sarvănubhuti and Ambikā . It was only in c. 10th century A.D. onwards that separate Yaksa-Yaksi pairs were carved with the above Jinas, the examples of which are known mainly from Deogarh, Gyāraspur, Khajuraho and few other places. In such sculptures, Rsabhanātha, Neminātha and Pārsvanatha are accompanied respectively by the traditional Yaksa-Yaksi pairs, Gomukha-Cakresvari, Sarvānubhūti-Ambikā, and Dharanendra-Padmāvati, while the Yaksa-Yaksi pairs accompanying Sāntinātha and Mahavira do not have any traditional features.
The rendering of the Yaksa-Yaksi figures with the Jinas became a popular feature after ninth century A.D. It may be noted here that in independent sculptures, the depiction of the Yaksis was more popular than their male counterparts. We have come across three instances of the collective renderings of the twenty-four Yaksis 40 but the representation of the twenty-four Yaksas has not been reported from anywhere so far. The fact is suggestive of comparatively much favoured position enjoyed by the Yaksis.
Sarvänubhūti and Ambikä, the most favoured Yaksa-Yaksi pair at the Jaina sites of western India, were carved with almost all the Jinas. However, in few instances from the Svetambara sites, the independent Yaksa-Yaksi pairs with Rsabhanátha and Pārsvanātha were also carved. Gomukha-Cakreśvari, Sarvānubhūti-Ambikā and Dharanendra-Padmavati enjoyed the most favoured position in Digambara sculptures. It is surprising to note that faina sites spread over Bihar, Orissa and Bengal have yielded only a few Yaksa-Yaksi figures.
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Mahāvidyā
After the Jinas and their Sasanadevatās, Mahāvidyās enjoyed the highest veneration among both the sects." The Mahāvidyās form a group of Tantric deities. Like mantras, vidyās-power-also have been assimilated in Jainism for securing peace and tranquillity of body, mind and soul. The Jainas apparently became conscious of the vidyās from atleast the fifth century A.D., although we have some stray references to vidyās even in the earlier ägamic works. 2 The Paumacariya refers to various such vidyās-Garudā (later Cakreśvarī), Simhavahini (Ambika), Bahurupā (Bahurupini) etc. which were invoked and mastered by Rāma, Laksmana, Rāvana and his brothers on different occasions. 4. By the medieval period Kūsmandi (or Ambika), Padmavati, Vairotyā and Jvālāmālini came to the forefront as the most powerful of all the vidyās invoked and adored by the Jainas.
Jaina tradition speaks of as many as 48000 vidyās, of which only sixteen are considered to be principal (or Maha-) vidyās. The earliest list of the 16 Mahavidyās was prepared from a number of different vidyādevis in c. ninth-tenth century A.D. The earliest lists are enumerated in the Tijaya-pahutta of Mānavadeva Suri (c. 9th century A.D.), Samhitāsāra of Indranandin (Digambara; A.D. 939) and Stuti-caturvimšatiká or Sobhana-stuti of Sobhana Muni (C. A.D. 973). The final list of the 16 Mahavidyās supplied by the texts of both the sects, includes the following names: Rohiņi, Prajñapti, Vajrasrnkhalā, Vajrankuśā, Apraticakrā or Cakreśvari (Svetāmbara) and Jāmbūnadā (Digambara), Naradattā or Purusadatta, Kāli or Kālikā, Mahākāli, Gauri, Gāndhāri, Sarvāstra-mahājvālā (Svetāmbara) and Jválämālini (Digambara), Mānavi, Vairotyä (Svetambara) and Vairoti (Digambara), Acchuptā (Svetāmbara) and Acyutā (Digambara, Mānasi and Mahāmānasī. But their individual iconographic features for the first time are enunciated in Bappabhatti's Caturvimśatikä and the Sobhana-stuti. A number of later texts of Śvetămbara as well as the Digambara sects also deal with the iconography of the 16 Mahavidyās. 44
Unlike the Svetāmbara occurrence of Mahāvidyās in western India, no sculpture or painting of Digambara correspondence so far has been known, excepting on the facade of the Adinātha temple (c. late 11th century A.D.) at Khajurāho where a series of the 16 Mahavidyās are encountered. These goddesses, crowned by tiny Jina
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figures and possessing 4 to 8 arms, either seated in lalitāsana or standing in tribhanga, bear various attributes with their respective vāhanas. On the basis of the iconographical characteristics, identification of some of the figures with Acchuptā, Vairotyä, Gāndhāri, Mahāmānasi, Gauri, Apraticakrā and Purusadattā Mahāvidyās is possible. So far as the collective rendering of the 16 Mahāvidyās is concerned, only a few examples are so far known. These examples are in the Sāntinātha temple at Kumbhāriä (Banaskantha, Gujarat: ceiling: A.D. 1077), and the Vimala Vasahi (two sets, one in the rangamandapa ceiling: C. A.D. 1150, and the other in the corridor ceiling of cell No. 41: C. A.D. 1185), Lūna Vasahi (rangamandapa ceiling, A.D. 1230) and the Kharatara Vasahi (two sets, c. A.D. 1459) in Delvādā at Mt. Abú (Rajasthan).
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Ambikā : Antiquity and Tradition
The words Ambā, Ambikā, Ambālikā, Ambāli and Ambi are of great antiquity. They are frequently used in the Vedas, Epics, the Vājasaneyi Samhitā, the Satapatha Brahmania, the Astādhyāyi (of Panini) and several other Brahminical and Jaina works. These words have several applications such as the Mother, good woman (as a term of respect), sister of Rudra, name of Parvati or Durga (wife of Siva), the harvest (as the most productive season), one of the mothers (Krttikās) in Skanda's retinue and the Yaksi of 22nd Tirthankara Neminātha.
Of all the applications, the most common is the Mother' which is reflected in the concept and iconography of Jaina Yaksi Ambikā as well. The worship of the female principle as Mother can be traced in all the ancient civilizations of the world. In India the cult of the Mother goddess existed in some form or other in the Indus valley civilization. The importance of fertility for the existence of the entire mankind can well be understood by the remote antiquity and popularity of the worship of Mother goddess who is associated both with children and vegetation and hence called Jagan-mäta or Jagad-ambā. Her association with vegetation is well worked out in her Säkambari aspect (Markandeya-Purāna, Devi-mahātmya 91. 48-49). She is the mother par excellence sustaining her children,
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the men and animals of the universe with food produced from her body.
Religion and art belong together by identities of origin, theme and inner experience. Religious worship in India is that activity which results from a recognition of dependence upon those powers, benevolent as well as malevolent, which are beyond man's control. The origin of deities lies in the fear of, and reverence for elements and natural phenomena, diseases, and happenings around men and affecting them as good or evil. In religion we always find two main streams going hand in hand and in constant state of interaction. They are the "great tradition" (sampradāya) and the little tradition (loka). This interaction is clearly seen in case of Jaina Yaksi Ambikā when we try to trace her origin. The popular worship of female principle as 'Mother', representing fertility cult,' was adopted by the Jainas in the form of an early Yaksi Bahu-putrikā (one having many children) who towards the close of sixth century A.D., was transformed into Yaksi Ambika. Thus the Jaina Ambikā is a clear cut example of the assimilation of popular belief of the Mother goddess in Jaina worship to formulate the form of one of the most favoured Yaksi which is specifically shown with two sons. Her popularity doubtlessly was due mainly to her symbols of fertility such as a pair of sons and the amralumbi (a bunch of mango fruits) and, as a consequence, people propitiated her for begetting children.
The general assumption is that the Jaina Ambikā, also called as Ambā, Kuşmandini, Bālā-devi, is borrowed from the Brahminical pantheon. Observes B.C. Bhattacharya: "She is by name and appearance a borrowed form of Durgā. She further has the name, as in this case, of Kūsmāndini. Kusmāndi is the name of Durgā. Küşmāndas were a hilly clan attached to Siva."3 And writes J.N. Banerjea : "Ambikā or Kūsmandini is a Jaina adaptation of the Hindu goddess of the same name. But the Jainas have a mythology of their own about this goddess, which has very little in common with the stories associated with her Hindu original. Ambika in Jaina iconographic art rides a lion and holds in her four hands an āmra-lumbi, a noose, a child and an ankuša, and she is thus the Jaina opposite of Durgă, one of whose early appellations is Ambika; Küsmándini appears also to have been derived from an epithet of Drugā, which is Kūşmandi or Kuşmāndā. Sometimes she is shown accompanied by seven dancing female figures, and they may be
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the Jaina adaptations of the Sapta-matrkās in this context."'4 According to Debala Mitra : "The name Ambikā and the mount lion are clear indications of her borrowal by the Jainas from the Brahminical pantheon. Her holding of a child also points to the conception of the Mātrkās. At the same time, the figures of Buddhist Hārīti have a close iconographical resemblance with the icons of Amrā. The Jaina conception of this divinity is thus an amalgam of different ideas."5 And Kalipada Mitra observes : "It seems that the Jainas have taken the ideas of Ambikā from the Hindu goddess Ambika together with her vehicle, the lion. Hindu Ambikā is also called Ambā (Mother). Ambā is Amrā. From Ambā to Amrā is an early step... It should be remembered that Kūsmāndi is also another name of Durgā who was regarded as the protection deity of the Kūsmāndās, a hilly class attached to Siva.''6 And finally S.K. Jain thus explains the same point: "Ambika or Kūsmāndi Yakshini of Neminātha seems to be borrowed form of Simhavāhini Durga in as much as her names and vehicle. The attribute of child in her lap also tends to identify her with Ambā, the Mother Goddess."
But if we examine the basic concept of Jaina Ambikā in historical perspective, we find that virtually she has nothing in common with Durgā or Ambikā of Brahminical pantheon. The origin of Ambikā can well be traced in the earlier worship of Bahu-putrikā Yaksi, known to Jainism in its earlier days in Magadha. Bahu-putrikā represents the popularity of mother goddess or fertility cult known to Jainism, her dispositions suggested by the appellation Bahu-putrikā. In one of the Jaina Tantric passages (Ambikä-tādamka, c. 13th century A.D.) it is clearly stated that, by the worship of Ambikā, the devotees are blessed with children (putraṁ labhate).8 The rendering of a bunch of mangoes in her hand and also the shade of a mango tree over her head are also suggestive of her association with fertility. It was only at a later stage between the 10th and 13th century A.D. that some features of Sakti cult were induced in Jaina Yaksi Ambikā, as is evidenced by the details available in different iconographic texts wherein she is conceived with some such attributes as goad, noose, vajra, ghantā, sword and disc to manifest her sakti or power aspect. During the period between the 12th and the 13th century A.D. she was also endowed with such appellations and attributes, both in literature and art, which at once suggest her affinity with Brahminic Durgā or Ambikā. Some of the stotras devoted to Ambikä in the Bhairava-Padma
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vati-kalpa bear testimony to this fact. The terrific form of Ambikā propitiated in a number of Tantric rites such as śāntika, paustika, stambhana, marana, etc. are also enunciated in some of the stutis and the stotras given in the appendices of the Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla. Apart from the propitiatory rites, the gruesome rites were also accepted in the Tantric mode of her worship.
The Sthānanga-sūtra (sūtra 273) (c. mid 4th century A.D.) refers to Pūrna-bhadra as Yaksendra (lord of Yaksas) who has Putra and Bahu-putrā as two of his four agra-mahişis. According to the Vyākhyā-prajñpti-sūtra (popularly known as Viyāha-pannatti and also as Bhagavati-sūtra), Bahu-putrikā (one of the four chief queens of both the Yakşendras--Mani-bhadra and Pūrņa-bhadra) had an independent caitya for her near Viśālā, probably Ujjain or Vaishāli.9 The Jaina āgamas are full of references to the worship of Yakşa and Yaksi, the most important of them being Mani-bhadra and Purna-bhadra Yakşas and Bahu-putrikā Yakşī. These references at once suggest that the Jainas were keeping well with the time in those ancient days by embracing popular worship. U.P. Shah has rightly observed in this connection that the origin of the Jaina Sarvāhna (or Sarvānubhūti, i.e. Vaisravana or Kubera) and Ambikā, and Buddhist Jambhala and Hārīti is rooted in the ancient worship of Mani-bhadra and Pūrņa-bhadra Yakşas, invoked as a patron of tradesmen, indicated also by Manibhadra's early statue from Pavāyā (anciently called Padmavati, Gwalior, M.P., c. 1st century B.C.), set up by a gostha (guild) and called 'Bhagavan' in the inscription, and one of his two chief consorts, Bahu-putrikā Yaksi. 10
The emergence of Ambikā with Sarvāhna or Sarvānubhūti as the earliest Yaksa-Yaksi or Sāsana-devatā pair to be associated with the Jinas is a form of Śakti worship as well. The seed of the cult of Sakti both in the Brahminical and Buddhist faiths seems to go back to the worship of the mother goddess in remote past. The Jaina Yakși Ambikā, riding a lion and sitting under a mango tree with a bunch of mangoes and child (putra) in her hands and her second son standing nearby, is a wonderful creation of the Jainas combining in her both the Mother and the Sakti aspects which the Jaina devotees hail from all walks of life. They had not gone beyond the desires of the material world and hence could not remain satisfied with the austerity and asceticism and as a consequence with the worship of the vita-rāga Jinas. As such they gradually developed for their convenience some formulae so as to induct such deities in Jaina
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order who could bless their worshippers with the prosperity, wealth, kingly splendour and all other desired material objects and objectives. The idea finds best expression in the worship of the Sasanadevatās or the Yakşa-Yakşi pair attending upon the linas, which is why we find early Jaina works referring to Ambika as vidyā-power. In the Pauma-cariya (A.D. 473) we notice reference to the Simhavähini-vidyă (none else but Ambikā) who was bestowed on Rāma by Mahālocana-deva (59.84). The earliest reference to 'Ambikā' is obtained in the unfinished auto-commentary (c. A.D. 594) of Jinabhadra-ganin Ksamā-śramana on the Visesavasyaka-bhāsya (c. A.D. 585). The work, however, refers to her as Ambā-kūşmānda vidyā and not as the Yakşī.11 Hari-bhadra Sūri (c. A.D. 775) in his commentaries, the Lalita-vistarā-tīkā and the Avaśyaka-niryukti-vrtti also refers to Ambā-kūsmāņdi as a vidyā. 12 The supplementary commentary on the Višeşāvaśyaka-bhāşya of Jinabhadra-ganin Kșamā-śramaņa by Kottārya-vādi-ganin, sometime in the first half of the eighth century A.D., also alludes to Ambā-küşmāndi as a vidyā alongwith Mahā-rohiņi, Mahā-puruṣadatta and Mahā-Prajñapti vidyās (gātha 3590).13 It was only towards the close of the eighth century A.D. that she came to be known as 'Yakşi', as is evidenced by her references in the Caturviṁsatikā of Bappabhatti Sūri (22.88, 24.96) and the Hari-vamśa-purāņa of Jinasena (66.44).
The word Ambikā or Ambā simply means a Mother and hence the appellation, apart from her iconographic features, also suggests her Mother aspect. The word Ambikā is likewise used in the Brahminical context. The Devi-māhātmya refers to different aspects of Sakti or Devi like Mahisamardini, Sapta-matrkās and Candikā as the manifestations of Ambikā who, like a Mother, is to protect mankind from the demons and evil spirits. 14 As a Mother the Jaina Ambikā beautifully combines in herself the features suggestive of ecological balance. She rides a lion, the king of animals and also the personification of power, while the mango tree under which she rests and the bunch of mangoes in her hand suggest her intimate association with vegetation world. The rendering of the bunch of mangoes and a tree full of mango fruits also symbolize plentitude and prosperity, and, above all, the fertility aspect of the goddess. The two sons of Ambikā remind of her being the goddess of infants. She sometimes also holds a fruit which again is a symbol of prosperity which the goddess bestows upon her worshippers. Thus Ambikā is an original conception of the Jainas based on the
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ancient tradition of the worship of Mother goddess. As a great Mother, she protects children and also the entire mankind alongwith the vegetation and animal world. The Ambika-devi-stuti of Jinesvara Suri (c. 12th century A.D.) rightly invokes her as Jagaj-janani and Jagat-svåmini. 15 It was only at a later stage in about 11th century A.D. that she acquired some features characteristics of Brahminic Ambikā or Durgă.
The earliest reference to Ambikā, as noted above, is obtained in the vrtti of Jinabhadra-ganin kşamā-śramana on his Viśeşāvaśyaka-bhāşya. The earliest archaeological evidence also shows that Ambikā does not appear in Jaina worship prior to c. A.D. 550. The earliest known representation of Ambikā, both with the Jina (Rsabhanātha) and in independent image, is datable to late sixth century A.D. 16 These figures are procured from Akotā near Baroda in Gujarat. One of her early images was obtained from the Meguti temple (c. A.D. 634) at Aihole (Bijapur, Karnataka, now in Aiho!e site museum). An image of Aristanemi of about late seventh century A.D., discovered at Rājghāt (Varanasi, U.P., presently in Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, Acc. No. 212), also contains the figure of Yaksi Ambikā, joined as usual by her two sons. 17 The earliest work, the Caturvimśatikā of Bappa-bhatti Sūri dealing with the iconographic features of Ambikā, is assignable to the late eighth century A.D. Bappa-bhatti Sūri invokes Ambikā both with Neminātha and Mahāvīra (22.88, 24.96). A number of independent figures of Ambik, were carved during the eighth and ninth centuries A.D., the examples of which are known mainly from Dhank (Saurastra, Gujarat), Osian (Mahavira temple, Jodhpur, Rajasthan), Akotá, Mathurā, 18 Deogarh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862)19 and Ellora (aina Caves 30-34, c. 9th century A.D.; Aurangabad, Maharashtra).
After the ninth century A.D., Ambikā enjoyed still greater popularity as is evidenced by the innumerable instances of her rendering in sculpture and painting. Deogarh, Khajuraho, Delvādā, Kumbhāriā, and Khandagiri are the sites which have yielded large number of her sculptures datable between the 10th and the 15th centuries A.D. It was during the 10th and the 13th centuries A.D. that the iconographic form of Ambikā witnessed several such additions which hint at the elevation of her status, sometimes equalling even to the Jinas, highest in Jaina pantheon. The period also witnessed assimilation of several appellations and attributes of the Brahminic Durgā or Ambikā. In one of the instances from
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Khajurāho, datable to c. 11th century A.D. (Archaeological Museum, Khajurāho, Acc. No. 1608) Ambikā, like the Jinas, is joined by the figures of Yaksa and Yaksi. A nonpareil image of Ambika from Patian-dāi, (Satna, M.P.), assignable to c. 11th century A.D. (Allahabad Museum, Acc. No. 293), contains the figures of the remaining twentythree Yakşīs alongwith their names inscribed below their figures in the parikara which perhaps suggest that she is represented here as the head of the group of the twentyfour Yakşīs.
In addition to the usual amra-lumbi and son, the attributes like goad, noose, mirror, manuscript-cum-lotus, vajra-ghantā, sword and disc were also incorporated in the iconography of Ambikā. The rendering of goad and noose, however, finds textual support right from c. early 10th century A.D. onwards in north India, 20 while reference to sword and disc are found only in south Indian works. Although a number of forms of Devi such as the Tripura-Bhairavi and others show goad and noose in their hands21, their affinity with Jaina Ambikā merely on the strength of goad and noose is not plausible. Moreover, these attributes were most commonly shown with a number of deities, both of Brahminical and Jaina pantheons. The inclusion of goad, noose, sword and disc was intended probably to suggest the power of Yakşi Ambikā who has constant vigil and control over evil spirits such as the grahas, bhūtas, rogas, raksasas and piśācas. According to the Hari-vamsa-purāna, as a Sasanadevată, she was supposed to protect the sangha (church) and the interests of her worshippers.22
While earlier concept of Jaina Ambikā seemingly was rooted in the Bahu-putrikā Yakşi, we are encountered with a few stray literary references and also the concrete manifestations of the later period wherein Ambikā is shown with definite bearing of and hence nexus with Brahminic goddess Durgā or Ambikā. In one such image of Ambikā, from Mathurā (c. 9th century A.D., Government Museum, Mathurā, Acc. No. D7), the two-armed Yakşi is joined by Ganesa and Vaisravana respectively on right and left flanks. The rendering of eight female figures on the pedestal perhaps suggests the presence of Asta-mātkās. The presence of Ganesa and Mātrkās (?) with Ambikā may well be linked with the Brahminic Ambikā. It is mentioned in the Devi-mähätmya (c. eighth century A.D. and later) that Ambikä in one of her forms as Candika was assisted by Sapta-mātrkās in the battle against the demon Raktabīja 23
In some of the Jaina hymns of Ambikā (given in the appendices
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of the Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa), the terrific form of the goddess alongwith different mode of her Tantric worship have been enunciated which very largely correspond to the horrible forms of the great goddess Ambika in Brahminic pantheon. As a Mother she has to protect the entire universe from the onslaughts of demonic powers and hence she also assumes different terrific forms and attributes of destruction. It is Ambikā who had manifested herself as Mahisasuramardini, Durgā, Candikă etc. Thus the Tantric passages dealing with the Jaina Yaksi Ambikā undoubtedly suggest that her terrific form as Srsti-samhara-kartri clearly was inspired by the Brahminical Ambikā. Jaina Ambika, also called the Mother of the universe Vagaty-ambikā), is variously propitiated as graha-sphotini, samhara-sammărjani, and mahā-vighna-samghāta -nirnāśini.24 The Ambikā-tatarka conceives her with such destructive weapons as bow, arrow, staff, sword, disc etc.25 The Ambikā-tātanka, the Ambikä-tādamka and the Ambika-devi-stuti (appendices 18, 19, 21 of the Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla) also give her such appellations as Sivā, Sankari, Mantra-rupā, Gauri, Gāndhāri, Yakşeśvari, Kāli, Mahakāli, Aghorā, Bhima-nādā, Candikā, Canda-rūpā, Jayantā-kumāri, Yogeśvari, Tripur-ângi, Mahādevi, Amoghavāgiśvari, Mohini, Dīpani, Soşani, Trāsini, etc., which distinctly suggest strong influence of Brahminic Ambikā who is endowed with alike appellations in her manifestations as twelve Gauris, twenty-four Pārvatīs, nine Durgās and several other forms.26 In two examples reported from Darhat (Hamirpur, U.P.) and datable to c. 13th century A.D., Jaina Ambikā is surprisingly depicted with noose, vajra-ghantā, manuscript-cum-lotus and mirror (?) attributes. The forms of these images (State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. G 312 and 66/225), bear close affinity with Brahminic Sivā who likewise rides a lion and holds a mirror in one of her hands. The noose and the vajra-ghantă are suggestive of the power aspect of Ambikā while the manuscript represents her as amogha-vāgiśvari and Sarasvati as mentioned in Jaina stutis.27
From the foregoing discussion, it is apparent that the worship of Ambikä started as early as in the sixth century A.D. and atleast upto ninth century A.D. she was carved in association with Rşabhanātha, Pārsvanātha and Neminātha. Her more distinctive iconogaphic form was first visualized towards the close of the eighth century A.D. From the 10th century A.D. onwards she was mainly represented with Neminātha and as having either two or four arms.
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The concept and the earlier form of Ambikā show no imprint of Brahminic Ambikā or Durgā; instead it was based on the early worship of the Mother goddess. It was only during the 11th-12th century A.D. when she came to be worshipped in different Tantric rites with terrible forms. Gradually she acquired different appellations and attributes which undoubtedly were related with Brahminic Ambikā or Durgā. Contrary to other Jaina Yakṣi we do not find much variety in her iconographic forms although she enjoyed the position of the most favoured Yaksi of the Jaina pantheon in all the Jaina sects all over the country.
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Ambikā : Iconographic Concept and Symbolism
"May Ambikā, of golden complexion, riding on a lion and accompanied by her two sons, Siddha and Buddha, and holding a bunch of mangoes in her hand, protect the Jaina sangha from obstacles."'1
Ambikā, acknowledged as the Yakși of the twenty-second Jina Aristanemi or Neminātha, enjoyed an exalted position in Jaina worship. She is also considered one of the four most popular Yakşīs of Jaina pantheon. According to the Rūpa-mandana of Sūtradhāramandana (c. mid 15th century A.D.), the images of Ādinātha, Neminātha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra and so also their respective Yakşīs Cakreśvari, Ambikā, Padmăvati and Siddhãyikā, who are endowed with great power, occupy a specially venerated position.2 After the introduction of Ambikä in the Jaina Church as Yaksi, she progressively attained popularity in Jaina worship, as is evidenced by literary notices and archaeological material. There are several literary references to the ancient images as well as to the temples of Ambikā, the most important of them being at Mathurā, Urjayantagiri, Hastināpura, Ahicchatrā and Pratisthānapura. The Kalpa-pradipa (popularly known as Vividha-tirtha-kalpa) frequently refers to such temples. It mentions that Ambikā, riding a lion, was the guardian goddess of the Mathurā tirtha. A similar reference is found in the Ahicchatrā-nagari-kalpa in the selfsame work, wherein Ambikā is
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said to have stood near the rampart of the city of Ahicchatrā. The goddess riding a lion and holding a bunch of mangoes is accompanied by her two sons, Siddha and Buddha.
Iconographic forms of Ambikā
The present chapter endeavours to trace the evolution of the iconographic forms of Ambikā on the basis exclusively of the Jaina literature and iconographic texts. This development may be divided into two phases, early and late, with a view on more specificity and clarity concerning the linear evolution in Ambika's form. Compared to other popular Yaksis of the Jaina pantheon-Cakreśvari, Padmavati, and Jvālāmālini—the form of Ambikā did not undergo much development in respect of increase in number of arms and thereby the attributes. She mainly remained two-armed and at most four-armed with a few exceptions showing more hands, envisaged mainly by the Tantric, works.
Early Phase (c. 8th-12th century A.D.)
After making her first appearance in about sixth century A.D., she remained only two-armed atleast upto the end of the ninth century A.D. During the 10th and 12th century A.D. we find some development in her iconographic form, mainly in regard to the multiplication of arms rising to four and the attributes to be shown in them to accentuate the artistic and symbolic effect of her image. Between the 11th and 13th centuries A.D., the goddess is invoked also in different Tantric rites with terrific form and having more than four hands.
The earliest reference to the iconographic form of Ambika is found in the Caturvimsatikā of Bappa-bhatti Sūri wherein she is invoked into two dhyānas respectively with Neminātha and Mahāvira. In both the dhyānas, giving identical details, the two-armed Ambika is visualized as resting under a mango tree and riding on a lion who is compared poetically to the lightning in the clouds. The goddess, accompanied by her son, is believed to possess sharp nails which can easily break the sword (of an enemy). The text, however, does not refer to the bunch of mangoes (amra-lumbi) in her hand. Perhaps this is the reason why in early sculptures of Ambikā (from c. 7th to the 9th century A.D.), the rendering of āmra-lumbi has not been very regular, as has been noticed in case of her figures from Varanasi
26
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(Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, Acc. No. 212), Mathurā (inacaumukha) and Deogarh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862). The Stuti-caturvimsatikā of Sobhana Sūri likewise gives her dhyāna twice respectively with Neminátha and Mahāvira wherein she is conceived with two hands and as riding on a lion. She holds a bunch of mangoes and is accompanied by two wandering sons and hence called Cari-putrā.5 It may be noted that the later works also conceived Ambikā mainly with two arms and as holding an amralumbi and a child and riding a lion. She always rests under a mango tree with a tiny figure of Jina Neminātha carved at the top.
The Nirvāna-kalikā of Pada-lipta Sūri III (c. A.D. 900) is perhaps the earliest work which visualizes Ambika with four hands. According to this work, Kuşmandi, having golden complexion, rides a lion and holds a fruit (mātulinga) and noose (pāśa) in her right hands while the left hands bear a child and goad (ankuśa).? The Trişastiśalākā-purusa-caritra (latter half of the 12th century A.D.) also conceives the golden complexioned Yaksi with four hands and envisages the same attributes, as enunciated in the Nirvana-kalikā, excepting for the fruit (mātulunga) which is here replaced by a bunch of mangoes (āmra-lumbi).8 The Pravacana-sāroddhāra of Nemicandra Sūri (12th century A.D.) follows the description of the Trişasti-salākā-purușa-caritra.9
The Pratisthā-sara-samgraha of Vasunandin (c. 12th century A.D.) invokes Kūsmāndini or Amrā-devi both with two as well as four arms, but does not refer to her attributes. The work, however, alludes to her siṁhavahana. 10
Later Phase : (c.13th-16th century A.D.)
The later phase of the evolution of the iconographic form of Ambikā shows that the earlier form of two-armed Ambika was retained alongwith the four-armed and multi-armed forms. The later works also refer to her terrific forms in different Tantric rites. The Pratisthā-saroddhāra of Asadhara (first half of the 13th century A.D.) and the Pratisthā-tilaka of Nemicandra (A.D. 1543) visualize the dark blue complexioned two-armed Yaksi as riding on a lion and resting under a mango tree with a bunch of mangoes and a child (Priyankara), seated in lap, in her hands. Her second son Subhankara, however, stands on the right flank." It may be mentioned here in passing that references to two-armed Ambikā are
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found mainly in the Digambara works while the Svetāmbara works (from c. 10th century A.D. onwards) make the dhyāna of Ambikā with four hands.
The Caturvimśati-Jina-caritra or Padmananda-mahākāvya of Amara-candra Sūri (A.D. 1241) makes the dhyāna of four-armed Ambikā, riding a lion and holding the same set of attributes as prescribed by the Trişaști-salākā-puruşa-caritra. 12 The Ambika-devi-kalpa of Jina-prabha Suri (c. A.D. 1335), the Ācāra-dinakara of Vardhamana Suri (A.D. 1412) and the Rūp-avatāra also invoke four-armed Ambikā with similar attributes, 13 The Rupa-mandana and the Devata-mūrti-prakarana of Sūtradháramandana (15th century A.D.) envisage identical attributes for four-armed Ambikā with minor alteration. These works give nāga-pāśa in place of pāśa.14 The Mantrādhiraja-kalpa of Sāgara-candra Sūri (c. 13th century A.D.) also refers to the four-armed Ambikā as riding a lion and holding a bunch of mangoes, noose, goad and fruit. 15 Apparently, the usual child to be shown in the lower left hand has been substituted here by a fruit. However, both of her sons, according to this text, should be carved close to her breasts. The Aparājita-prcchă of Bhuvana-deva (c. late 12th or .13th century A.D., devoted a hymn to the Ambikā of Urjayantagiri, showing fruit and the varada-mudrā.16 It further mentions that both of her sons should be carved nearby, one of which remaining in the lap. Vastu-pāla, the famous Jaina minister of the Chaulukyas of 13th century A.D., devoted a hymn of the Ambikā of Urjayantagiri, titled the Ambika-stavana." Ambikā, addressed here as Kūşmandini, Padmalayā (seated on lotus) and Ambā, is visualized as holding a bunch of mangoes in her right hand. Jineśvara Sūri too conceives her with a bunch of mangoes. 18 It seems that Vastu-pāla and Jineśvara Suri both had a form of two-armed Ambika in their mind.
The forms of Ambikā, discussed above, belong to the north Indian tradition. However, we come across a few references to her forms in south Indian works as well. T.N. Ramachandran has given three such forms of Ambikā which belong both to the Svetāmbara and the Digambara traditions. In south Indian works Ambika is portrayed as having two and four arms. 19 The dark blue-complexioned Ambikā, also called Dharmă-devī, when two-armed, rides a lion and shows fruit and the varada-mudrā (boon-conferring gesture). This form is supplied by an untitled palm-leaf manuscript, now in the possession of the temple priest of Jina Kāñchi (Tirupparuttikkun
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ram). Another work based on a Canares tradition and recited by the temple priest at Jina Kāñchi, conceives the four-armed Dharma-devī as seated in lalitasana with her two sons, one on each lap. Her lower two hands resting in the lap support the children while the upper hands bear sword and disc. Her vahana as usual is a lion. The third work-the Yakṣa-Yakṣi-lakṣaṇa-also visualizes the four-armed Dharma-devī as riding a lion and sitting with her two sons, one on each lap. Two of her hands support the sons while in one of the remaining two hands (left) she bears a bunch of mangoes. However, one of her hands (right) is extended towards lion mount.
The figure of Kūṣmaṇḍinī published by James Burgess is noteworthy in this connection inasmuch as it is based on some late Canarese tradition collected by Alexander Rea. 20 Writes Burgess : "The Yakshini is Kūshmaṇḍini-four-armed, with two children in her lap, and a lion as her congnizance. She is the only attendant who has not the front right hand in the varada-hasta attitude." The figure, however, shows the four-armed Yakṣi as seated in lalita pose with simha-vahana close to her feet. The lower two hands of the Yakşi support her sons, seated in lap, while the upper right and left show respectively sword and disc. Thus it is apparent that the rendering of a bunch of mangoes in her hand and also the shade of a mango-tree over her head did not find much favour in south Indian tradition. And instead she was provided with sword and disc in her hands. Contrary to the north Indian tradition, the south Indian works envisage the rendering of both the sons in her lap.
Ambika in Tantric Works
The dhyana-mantras of Ambika given mainly in the appendices of the Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa reveal the Tantric mode of her worship. The Ambikāṣṭaka (of Ambā-prasāda, c. 12th century A.D.), the Ambika-tāḍamka, the Ambikātāṭarka, the Ambika-stuti and the Ambikä-devi-stuti (of Jineśvara Suri), datable between c. 12th-14th centuries A.D., enjoin her worship in all such Tantric rites as sāntika, paustika, vaśyakarana, mohana, stambhana, duṣṭa-sañcurṇana and uccaṭana. The various Tantric modes include her arcana yantra-vidhi, pitha-sthāpanā and mantra-pūjā alongwith different rites to be performed. Apart from propitiatory rites, the gruesome rites were also accepted and as a consequence the terrific form of
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Ambikā was visualized.21 These works variously address her as Dusta-sancūrnini, Satru-sancūrnini, Siva, Sankari, Ambikā, Mantrarūpā, Bhūta-graha-sphoţini, Samhära-sammārjani, Mahāvighnasåmghātanirnāśini, Stambhini, Mohini, Dipani, Bhima-nādā, Candikā, Mahākāli, Yogesvari and Yakseśvari which undoubtedly suggest the terrific as well as the Tantric forms of the goddess. She is also called srsti-samhāra-kartri (the destroyer of the entire universe) and one who is worshipped by the kings of the deities, Nagas, Bhútas and Candra.22 The recitation of her mantras and also the performance of different Tantric rites bestow various powers on the worshippers and remove the effect of evil spirits and help in fulfilment of desires.23 The mula-mantras of Ambikā are given in the Ambikä-tādaṁka and the Ambika-stuti. 24 The Ambikā-tadamka gives the details of mantra and the yantra-pujā of Ambikā. According to this work, the recitation of the mula-mantra for twelve, six and three thousand times with homa and other rites enables the worshippers to see the goddess in dream and get their desires fulfilled. It is further mentioned in the Ambika-tādamka that the siddhi of Ambikā is possible by the formation of several diagrams (yantra) which enables the devotees to allure beautiful lady, to acquire great powers, and entitles him also to receive instructions from Ambika in dream.25
The Ambikā staka gives a fine description of her ornaments and attributes in a poetic language alongwith an account of her previous life. It is mentioned that the colour of Ambikā varies in different rites such as white in śānti-karman, red in gruesome (mārana, stambhana) and yellow in the vasya-karana. 27 The colours are the same as found in the Buddhist and the Hindu Tantras in connection with alike rites. The dhyāna in the Ambikā-staka conceives the Yaksi with two arms and as sitting under a mango tree alongwith her two sons. Her váhana is a rampant lion. She hold an amra-lumbi in one hand while the other hand supports a child.28 The Ambika-stuti of unknown authorship, giving the details of yantră-puja in the form of a hexagonal diagram (şat-kona-yantra), perhaps conceives the Yaksi with two hands and as riding a lion with her two sons in the lap. 29 The Ambika-tatanka (c. 13th-14th centuries A.D.) makes the dhyāna of Ambikā with bow, arrow, staff, sword, disc, lotus and other attributes in her hand. She also bears mangoes in her hands (āmra-hastā). The goddess, riding a fierce lion, is accompanied by two sons. The dhyana here apparently refers to the multi-armed form of Ambika.30 The Tantric mode of her rakta-dhyāna, as given
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in the Ambika-tāḍamka (c. 13th century A.D.), mentions that the worshipper should meditate over the following form of Ambikā. Golden in colour Ambika wears red garments, and golden ornaments and rides on a lion. She is joined by her two sons, one holding her finger and the other one sitting in the lap. The four-armed Ambika holds a bunch of mangoes and goad in her upper right and left hands while the lower two hands show fruit and noose.31
U.P. Shah has quoted still another Tantric dhyāna of Ambikā, according to which, the four-armed Ambika, black in colour and sitting on a lion-throne, carries conch, disc, varada-mudra and noose. A deva-kanya stands close to her with the inscription vimupakadiśramatām (?) on her left hand. 32 Another dhyana quoted by U.P. Shah refers to the eight-armed variety of Ambika. According to the dhyāna, Amra-küṣmaṇḍini, black in colour, wields conch, disc, bow, axe, javelin (tomara), sword, noose and corn (kodrava) in her eight hands. 33
Parivära of Ambika
It appears that owing to the increasing popularity of Ambika, the idea of evolving her family was also developed after c. 10th century A.D. The Ambika-devi-kalpa of Subha-candra makes a distinct indication towards the family of Ambikā. The work gives a sadhana of Raṇḍā who is called a Yakṣi and an attendant of Kūsmāṇḍini. U.P. Shah has rightly observed that it would not be surprising if details regarding the parivara of Ambika are found in some unpublished Jaina Tantric work. 34 Some other works also mention that Ambika is attended by a number of gods and goddesses without specifying their names.35 An image of Ambika from Khajuraho, assignable to c. 11th century A.D., gives support to the above observation. The image, now deposited in the Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. No. 1608), contains the figures of two-armed Yakṣa and Yakṣi at two extremities of the pedestal, just in the manner as shown in the Jina images.
Ambika in Legends
In keeping with the traditions of Brahminical and Buddhist pantheons, the Jainas also developed legends about several of their deities, though at a fairly late date. The foremost among such
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32
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examples are the twenty-four-Jinas. The Jainas have given various legends regarding the previous births of the Jinas alongwith several other miraculous incidents including the upasargas (hindrances) put to them by some contemporaries who were enemies of their previous existence, and by evil spirits. The episode of Jina Pārsvanatha and Meghamalin (Kamatha in previous birth) is one such famous illustration of such legends.
Due to the extremely venerated position and popularity of Ambika in Jaina worship, different legendary stories developed around her after the 13th century A.D. It was perhaps intended to shroud the origin of Ambika in mystery and push back the antiquity of her worship to still remote period, i.e. even before the sixth century A.D. The legends also incorporate such details which gave rise to her basic iconographic form. The legends of Ambika also reveal how a common soul like that of Ambika gradually acquired the position of a highly revered Yakṣi by her virtues.
The earliest legendary account of Ambika is found in the Ambika-devi-kapla of Jina-prabha Sūri (c. A.D. 1335) forming the 61st chapter of the Kalpa-pradipa of the selfsame author. 36 The work mentions that there once lived an orthodox learned Brahmin Soma-bhatta in the city of Koḍinar in Saurashtra. Soma had a virtuous and devoted wife in Ambika (Ambini in Prakrit) who had a couple of sons, Siddha and Buddha. Once Soma invited some Brahmins to a dinner on the occasion of the śrāddha ceremony of his ancestors. While meals were ready Ambika's mother-in-law went out for a bath and a muni, who was on fast for complete one month, turned in and asked Ambikā for some food to break his fast. Ambikā happily offered different dishes prepared for the Brahmins to that muni. When the matter was reported to Soma, he was enraged and drove Ambika out of the house. As a consequence Ambika, alongwith her children, was rendered homeless.
Ambika felt helpless when her sons asked for food and water. Owing to the meritorious deed of Ambika (of her having given alms to the Jaina monk) some miracles occurred to her at this point when a dried mango tree by the road side came to bear mangoes and a dry lake nearby was filled at once with water to feed Ambika and her sons. Ambika tired of her aimless wandering then rested under the shade of the mango tree for some time. On the other hand, the miracles occurring in the home at once opened the eyes of Soma and his mother. They were then filled with remorse, and conse

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quently Soma went to search for Ambikā to persuade her to return. When Ambikā saw Soma rushing toward her, she misunderstood his intentions and tried to find out some hiding place. She jumped into the well alongwith her sons and, as a result, died. According to another tradition, quoted by the same author, she fell down from the top of the Raivataka hill and died. She was then reborn as a Yakși, devoted to the śāsana of Jina Neminátha, in one of the heavenly mansions called Kohamda-vimāna. She is hence known as Kohamdi, and Kūşmandi (or Kuşmāndini). Her husband also died soon and was reborn as a lion to serve Ambikā as her vāhana.
A Digambara version of this legend is supplied by the Yakşi-kathā found in a work called Punyaśrava-kathā which is a palm-leaf manuscript in the possession of the temple priest of Jina-Kāñcbi. The version of the Yaksi-kathā is slightly different from the above legend in respect of the names. According to the Yaksi-katha her nantie was Agnila and her husband Somaśarman was a Brahmin of Girinagara. The names of her two sons are given as Subhankara and Prabhankara. She likewise leaves her husband's house alongwith her sons and a faithful maid servant. It is further narrated that in course of her wandering she reached Ujjayantagiri where she offered food to a muni Vara-datta for breaking his fast.37
Thus both the legends coming from north and south India are, on essential points, similar. Apparently we find indications as to the distinguishing iconographic features of Ambikä in these legends. The two sons of Ambikā joined her again after she attained the position of a Yaksi. Likewise the association of mango-tree and a bunch of mangoes alongwith lion mount with Ambikā finds appropriate explanation in these legends.
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ROCKWONGAN
Ambikā in Art : Early Phase
The earliest archaeological evidence shows that Ambika finds visual representation towards the late sixth century A.D. The earliest known representation of Ambikā in north India, both in the linasamyukta (Rşabhanātha) and independent images are datable to late sixth century A.D. These figures are procured from Akotā near Vadodara in Gujarat.' South India has yielded independent figures of Ambikā towards the beginning of seventh century A.D. The two early images of Ambikā from south are obtained respectively from Bădāmi (cave No. 4, ealry 7th century A.D.) and the Meguti temple at Aihole (c. 634 A.D.; Fig. 1), both in Bijapur district of Karnataka. The rendering of Ambikā became more popular during the subsequent centuries as is evidenced from the increasing number of her sculptures both with the Jinas and in independent images. Some of the early examples of her rendering during the seventh and eighth century A.D. are found at Mathurā, Vārānasi (Rajghat), Dhank (Saurāṣtra, Gujarat, c. 8th century, A.D.), Osian (Mahāvīra temple, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, c. 8th century A.D.) and Akotā.
The figures of Ambikā from c, sixth to late eighth century A.D. distinctly show a formative stage. She was not associated finally with Neminātha at least upto the end of the eighth century A.D. and hence she is invariably represented with Rsabhanátha (Akotā), Pārsvanātha (Dhank, Akotā), and Mahāvīra (Osian), besides with Neminātha in few instances from Mathurā and Rājghāt. Ambikā remained exclusively two-armed upto the eighth century A.D. and increase in number of her hands, rising to four and sometimes even eight, came in vogue only from the ninth century A.D. The earliest figures of Ambikā from Akotā depict her as holding amra-lumbi
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1 Aihole (Bijapur), A.D. 634-35

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and child, seated in lap, and riding a lion with the figure of her elder son (nude), standing close to her on right. The goddess seated in lalitāsana in the earliest instance of her independent rendering from Akotā is provided with a beautiful halo, decorated with lotus petals and the figure of Jina Pārsvanātha over her head.2 While in western India, the distinguishing iconographic features of Ambikā, as is apparent from her images from Akotā, were manifested towards the close of sixth century A.D., the other regions did not share all these features atleast until eighth century A.D. As a consequence, āmra-lumbi and lion mount were not shown in the images of Ambikā from Mathurā until the beginning of the eighth century A.D. Both at Mathura and Vārānasi her Mother aspect was emphasized by the rendering of either one or both the sons. We have already observed that as compared to other Yakṣīs like Cakresvarī, Padmavati, and Jvālā-mālini, Ambikā did not experience much icongoraphic development. This is why we do not find much variety in her iconographic forms.
The present study of the evolution of the images of Ambikā is divided into two phases: early (from c. sixth to eighth century A.D.) and later (c. 9th to 16th century A.D.). The obove classification rests on two different stages of the development of her iconography. The independent as well as the figures carved with different Jinas (hereafter called lina-samyukta images) are taken together for the present study. The rendering of Ambika in painting is, however discussed separately.
Early Phase (c. sixth to eighth century A.D.)
Akotā has yielded four independent and 13 Jina-samyukta bronze images of Ambikā, datable between the sixth and eighth centuries A.D. In Jina-samyukta figures, she is represented with Rsabhanātha and Pārsvanātha only. In all the examples, the two-armed Ambika, seated in lalitāsana on a lion, invariably holds an āmra-lumbi in right hand while the left hand supports the younger son, seated in lap. However, her elder son Subhankara (Siddha) stands (nude) close to her on right. In Jina-samyukta figures the rendering of her elder son and lion mount was not very regular.
The earliest independent figure of Ambikā (Fig. 2) from Akotā is • assignable to latter half of the sixth century A.D. Over the head of
Ambikā, there appears the figure of Jina Pārsvanātha with fivehooded snake canopy. The modelling of the figure is excellent,
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Akoțā (Vadodara), c. 6th century (p. 38)

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With consort, Akoţā (Vadodara), c. mid 6th century
though exaggerated in certain respects in details. Ambikā is seated in lalita pose on a couchant lion, shown with bulging eyes and protruded tongue. The figure of Ambikā along with halo are attached on pitha, enriched by three bands of varied designs and a lotus pattern on its legs. The nimbus made of lotus petals and surrounded by a broad band of flames, is topped by the tiny figure of Pārsvanātha, sitting in dhyāna-mudrā. The halo surmounts the cross-bar of the back seat adorned with makara-mukha. The goddess bears an āmra-lumbi in right hand and a fruit in left. The younger son of Ambikā, as usual, sits in her left lap while the elder son stands nearby on the right. The image has a fragmentary inscription too, which is incised in characters assignable to latter half of the sixth century A.D.6 Ambikā has rather a plump face with broad jaws and long eyes. She is adorned with two heavy rings, ekāvali, a broad necklace and stanahāra with mangalamālā and a bell at its end. The lower garment (caranikā) worn in vikaccha fashion has a design of broad band interspersed with circular marks. The eloborate crown of Ambikā is made of a trikūta-mukutu with a big gem in the centre and a gavāksa motif or a solar representation at its top.
Another figure from Akotā (Fig. 3), datable to c. mid sixth century
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A.D., is a Jina-samyukta image. The two-armed bronze Ambikā joins Rsabhanātha as his Yaksi alongwith Sarvānubhūti as her male counterpart. The Yaksi carries an amra-lumbi and child in her two hands. The lion mount and her elder son are not shown here. Ambikā wears an ekāvali with an additional urah-sūtra passing between her breasts and forming a graceful curve. Al other figures from Akotā show identical features both in respect of art and iconography.
Aihole has also yielded one of the earliest images of Ambikā (see Fig. 1 above). The image, originally installed in the Meguți temple and datable to A.D. 634-35, is now preserved in the Aihole site museum. The image is a beautiful piece of Calukya art. The two-armed Ambikā is gracefully seated, giving slightly an impression of profile view. Although both the hands of Ambikă are damaged, yet atleast some portion of her palm resting on the raised pedestal could be seen. The perfect modelling with a smooth and slender treatment of her body limbs alongwith the tall decorated mukuta, and minutely carved ornaments, specially the girdle, suggest refind test and superb workmanship. The tenderness in modelling from abdomen downwards is exceptionally smooth and natural. Under her seat, there sits a rampant lion, behind which is shown a male cămaradhara. The sylvan background created by the rendering of bunches of mango tree and animals like peacock, monkey, and buffalo on its branches is very natural which reminds us of Ambikā being the goddess of vegetation and animal world as the mother of the universe (jagan-māt?). Both of her sons are carved but they are not shown as usual in the lap. The female attendant standing on right holds a baby, apparently the son of Ambikā, while the other son is shown on her left, standing close to a female attendant holding lotus. Another female attendant holds fly-whisk and lotus. Thus this magnificent, and also one of the earliest, image of Ambikā is important both as an icon and also as a piece of quality art.
Bādāmi was an important and prolific art centre of the Cālukyas. The Jaina cave (No. IV) at Bādāmi has only one figure of Ambikā, assignable to early seventh century A.D. The figure, carved on the northern wall of the mandapa, shows two-armed Ambikā as seated with her two sons, one standing on right and the other on the left. Ambikā holds a fruit in her right hand while the left hand is kept over the head of her child. The mount lion is conspicuous by its absence.
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4
With consort, Mathurā, c. 7th
century (p. 42)

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5
On Tirthankara pedestal, Mathura, 8th century (p. 42)

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Like Bādāmi, we have another example of the Jina-samyukta figure of Ambikā, belonging to c. seventh century A.D., where we do not find amra-lumbi and lion mount. The image, representing Neminátha, was procured from Rājghāt, near Vārānasi in U.P. (presently in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Vārānasi, Acc. No. 212). The figures of the Yaksa and Yaksi of Neminātha, carved under the throne, are standing on two sides of a tree. The two-armed Ambika in tri-bhanga holds a flower in right hand and a child, clinging to her breast, in the left. However, the second son stands close to her on right. The figure from Dhank, carved with Pārsvanātha, shows the two-armed Yakși as bearing an amra-lumbi and a child. The image, attributable to c. eighth century A.D., does not show lion mount and the bran·ches of mango fruit over her head, the latter feature being absent
also in the figures from Akotā. The Mahāvīra temple at Osian (8th century A.D.) also contains a two-armed figure of Ambika on the door-way of the gūdha-mandapa. The Yakşi, riding a lion, holds amra-lumbi and child.
There are two examples of the rendering of Ambika from Mathura. The first example showing a sarvato-bhadrikā-pratimă or Jina-. caumukha (Fig. 4), assignable to c. seventh century A.D., is exhibited in the Government Museum, Mathurā (Acc. No. В65). Of the four Jinas in the caumukha, only three are identifiable, they are Neminātha, Pārsvanātha and Rsabhanātha. Neminātha is identified on account of the rendering of the two-armed Sarvānubhūti Yaksa and Ambikā Yaksi, seated on pedestal. Ambika holds a flower in right hand while with left she supports a child, seated in lap. However, no other feature of Ambika is shown here. Another figure of about eighth century A.D. is a Jina-samyukta figure. Ambikā (Fig. 5), carved on the left extremity of the pedestal of Rsabhanātha, rides a lion and holds āmra-lumbi and child with the branches of mango tree beautifully spread over her head. The image obtained from Kankäli Tilā, Mathurā is now preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J 78). · Thus Ambikā, carved both in Jina images and in independent figures, remained always two-armed. Although the earliest figure from Akotā shows her with lion mount, āmra-lumbi and two sons (one in lap) but the rendering of the lion mount, āmra-lumbi and also her elder son was not very common until the beginning of the ninth century A.D.
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Ambikā in Art : Later Phase
(9th to 16th centuries A.D.) Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra
The linear development of the icons of Arnbikā took a new turn with the beginning of the ninth century A.D. The find-spot of her figures, both independent and Jina-samyukta, increased and covered almost the entire country. The most vigorous representation of Ambikā with variety and several innovatory features, sometimes even in the form of a cult deity, are met with during the ninth and the 12th century A.D. She is now shown both with two and four hands, although the former variety always remained a favoured one. In few instances, both in literature and art, she is conceived also as having more than four hands. The concept of atleast some sort of parivāra of Ambikā also developed during this period who is represented not only as the head of the 24 Säsana-devis in the instance of the Patian-dāi image but is also accompained by some minor goddesses, and above all, the Yakşa-Yakși figures in the images from Khajuraho, Deogarh, Singhpur, Ahār and Delvādā. Apparently, the images of Ambikā at Digambara Jaina sites reveal more variety and also the figures of Pārsva-devatās in parikara. Ambikā, as usual, rides a lion and a joined by her two sons, the younger one being in lap and the elder one standing close to her on right. The rendering of the branches of mango tree topped by
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the figure of her fina Neminātha became an invariable feature in her images and paintings. The figures of two-armed Ambikā from different regions likewise depict her as two-armed Yakṣi with āmra-lumbi and child. When four-armed, she either holds amra-lumbi in three hands and a child in the remaining one, or has āmra-lumbi, goad, noose and child in her four hands. The most prolific sites yielding profuse amount of the images of Ambikā are Deogarh, Mathurā, Khajurāho Nava-muni and Bārabhuji caves (Khan da-giri), Achutarājapur, Delvāļā, Kumbhāriā, Ellorā, Akotā, Sravanabelgola, Humcha and Malkheda. Of these, Deogarh, Khajurāho, Ellora and Mathurā are of special importance for yielding about 20 to 50 figures with greater variety in her forms. The present chapter deals with the icons of Ambikā in different regions with a view on more specificity and clarity concerning the evolution of the images of Ambikā in different regions. Gujarat and Rajasthan
Gujarat and Rajasthan, the strongholds of Jainism right from early sixth century A.D. to this day, had greately contributed towards the evolution of the iconography of Ambikā. The Jaina bronze collection from Akoțā alone contains about eight independent and 22 Jinasamyukta figures of Ambikā, ranging in date from sixth to the 10th century A.D. During the period under study Akotā has yielded four independent and 10 Jina-samyukta figures (Figs. 6 to 11). Like the earliest figure of Ambikā from Akotā, the later figures of ninth-tenth century A.D. from Akota also depict her as two-armed and as holding àmra-lumbi and child. However, the lion mount, second son Isometimes standing also on left), decorated aureole with the Jina figure and leaves of mango tree are shown only in independent figures. The Yakşi is always shown as seated in lalita-pose. In Jinasamyukta images, she is carved only with Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanatha.4
We find innumerable images of Ambikā, both independent and Jina-samyukta, from different places in western India. Ambikā alongwith her male counterpart Sarvāhņa or Sarvānubhūti, forms the most popular Yakşa-yaksi-pair commonly represented with almost all the Jinas. In Jina-samyukta images, Ambikā invariably appears as two-armed and as holding āmra-lumbi and child. However, the rendering of her elder son and also lion vāhana is found rarely in Jina-samyukta images.
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SERIER
Ar 564
Akoță (Vadodara), 9th century
An early bronze image of Ambikā of about c. seventh century A.D. is exhibited in the Baroda Museum (Acc. No. A 52).5 The image, comparable to the Ambikā images from Akoțā, depicts the two-armed YaKși as seated and holding, as usual, āmra-lumbi and child. Another two-armed image of about ninth century A.D. is found at Sāla at Ghatiyālā (Jodhpur). The goddess, sitting on lotus with couchant lion below her seat, holds amra-lumbi in right hand while the left hand is placed on thigh. On right, however, there stands her son.
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llo
Akotā (Vadodara), 9th century (p. 44)
10 With consort, Akoţā (Vadodara), 9th century (p. 44)
A figure of two-armed Ambikā is also found from the Mahavira temple at Ghānerāva. (Pali, Rajasthan; 10th century A.D.). The Yakşi sitting on a beautiful lotus seat with its stems delineated below is accompanied by lion vāhana. She bears āmra-lumbi and child (in lap). The figure of her elder son, somewhat grown up, stands on her right flank. The exquisitely carved figure of Ambikā, wearing rich jewelleries, is provided with karanda-mukuta and also branches of mango tree overhead. The beautiful figures of two apsarases further add to the compositional value of the image. Two metal
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Akotā (Vadodara), 9th century (in the middle; p. 44)
images, exhibiting identical features, are being worshipped respectively in the Jaina temples at Vadodara and Idar (V.S. 1134/A.D. 1077).? Another instance of two-armed Ambikā, likewise riding a lion and carrying āmra-lumbi and child, is obtained from Melaja (Viramgaon, Ahmedabad, 12th-13th century A.D.).
The Jaina deva-kulikās at Osiān, belonging to 11th century A.D., also contain about four figures of two-armed Ambikā on the exterior walls and door-sills. The Yaksi as usual rides a lion and shows the āmra-lumbi and child.
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11
was conven para convention
With consort, Akotā (Vadodara),
9th century (p. 44)

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With consort, Akotā (Vadodara), 9th century (p. 44)
Kumbhāriä, in Banaskantha district of Gujarat, was indeed a prolific centre of Jaina art. There are five magnificent Jaina temples and immense amount of iconic data at the site.8 The temples are dedicated to Mahāvīra (A.D. 1062), Sāntinātha (A.D. 1084), Neminātha (A.D. 1135), Pārsvanātha and Sambhavanātha (13th century A.D.). In the Jina-samyukta images, mostly in the deva-kulikās, the two-armed Ambikā invariably appears with almost all the Jinas. Besides, we are also encountered with a good number of her independent images wherein she appears as two-armed (Fig.
Ambikā 49

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50
Ambikä
12). Ambikā in all the cases sits in lalita-pose on lion mount and holds ämra-lumbi and child (in lap). However, in two instances, Ambika bears either sword or merely a fruit, in place of an amra-lumbi. These figures are carved on the west facade and the door-sill of the Santinātha temple.
However, in three examples from Kumbharia, Ambikä possesses four arms. All these figures are in the form of Jina-samyukta images, enshrined in the deva-kulikā Nos. 11 (A.D. 1081) and 12 of the Santinātha, and deva-kulikā No 5 of the Neminatha, temples. In all these instances, Ambika holds amra-lumbi in three hands while the fourth hand (lower left) supports a child, seated in lap and touching her breast. The source of this form of Ambika holding amra-lumbi in three of her four hands is apparently the earlier form of two-armed Ambikā.
An identical figure of four-armed Ambika bearing amra-lumbi in three hands and child (in lap) in the fourth one is obtained from a Jaina temple at Iḍar (V.S. 1230/A.D. 1173). The child in lap holds a fruit in left hand while his right hand is raised to pluck a mango fruit. The elder son, however, stands on right and holds a fruit in one hand.
Delvāḍa
The Delvada (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan) Jaina temples are world famous for their architectural beauty and marvellous carvings, appearing more like metallic work, in marble. The serene and supple-bodied figures in the Vimala Vasahi and Lūņa Vasahi are chiselled with excellent workmanship showing highly ornate figures with slim and sharp body. The small and tender faces and the delicate treatment in the rendering of different limbs of the figures are bewitching. The beauty in figural renderings is more like a feminine beauty. There are three main temples, known as the Vimala Vasahi, Lūņa Vasahi and the Kharatara Vasahi, dedicated respectively to Rṣabhanatha, Neminatha and Parsvanatha. As already pointed out, Ambikā enjoyed a very exalted position at Delvada and all other Jaina sites in western India right from the 10th to the 16th century A.D.
The Vimala Vasahi, built in A.D. 1031-32 (samvat 1088), with its ranga-mandapa, bhramikā and 54 deva-kulikās added between A.D. 1145-49, has numerous figures of Ambika wherein she mostly appears on the thrones of different Jina images. She is carved with

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12 Kumbhāriā (Banaskantha, Gujarat), A.D. 1062
(XXX
Ambikā 51

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52 Ambika
almost all the Jinas and possesses invariably amra-lumbi and son in her two hands. The two-armed Ambika in Jina-samyukta images is rarely accompanied by her vahana, lion. The identical figures of two-armed Ambika are also carved in the ceilings of the bhramikā and on the door-ways of deva-kulikās. In three instances from Vimala Vasashi, Ambika is shown with four hands. These figures, datable to the latter half of the 12th century A.D., are accompanied by lion mount (Fig. 13). In two instances, carved in the northern niche of the gudha-manḍapa and the south-west corner of the ranga-manḍapa ceiling she holds amra-lumbi in three hands while the fourth lower left hand supports a son (nude), seated in her lap and touching a breast. In both the cases, her elder son Subhankara stands on her right and holds a fruit in his left hand while the right hand is raised to pluck a mango from amra-lumbi held by his mother, Ambikā. She is joined by two female attendents, holding flywhisks. The third figure on the southern door-way of the gudha-mandapa depicts Ambika as riding a lion and holding amra-lumbi, noose, disc and a child.
Two interesting independent figures of four-armed Ambika, riding a lion, are carved on the Jaina temples at Taranga (Mehsana, Gujarat) and Jalore (Rajasthan), both assignable to the 12th century A.D. The figures carved on the eastern adhiṣṭhāna of the mula-prāsāda of the Mahāvīra temple at jalore shows her with amra-lumbi, disc, disc and child while in the figure on the north facade of the Ajitanatha temple at Tarangā, Ambikā, standing in tri-bhanga, bears the varada-mudrā, āmra-lumbi, noose and a child (clinging to waist). Another instance of the four-armed Ambika is carved on a Jaina temple at Nägda (Udaipur, Rajasthan; 12th century A.D.). The Yakṣi, standing as she is in tri-bhanga, is accompanied by her conventional conveyance, lion. She holds the varada-mudra, ämra-lumbi, amra-lumbi and a child.
H.D. Sankalia has also published four brass images, belonging to 12th century A.D.9 The figures are procured from Western India. In three examples, the two-armed Ambika holds amra-lumbi and child. The third figure (V.S. 1198/A.D. 1141) represents four-armed Ambika as seated in lalitasana on lotus seat with her mount lion carved below. She bears mango (?), lotus, lotus and child. Her second son, stands on right. One bronze image of four-armed Ambika, inscribed in samvat 1203, (A.D. 1146), is in the collection of the National Museum, New Delhi10 (Acc. No. 48.4/11; Figs.

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Mt. Abu (Vimala Vasahī), 12th century
Ambikā 53

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14 Western India (National Museum, New Delhi), A.D.
1146
14 and 15). The image, belonging to the Paramāra art, shows Ambikā as seated in lalitāsana on lion. The Yakși holds fruit, āmra-lumbi, āmra-lumbi and child. Her elder son as usually stands on right.
The museums at Koţā, Jhālāwār and several other places of Rajasthan preserve a good number of figures of two-armed Ambikā, seated on lion and bearing amra-lumbi and child. 11
The Lūna Vasahi, .constructed in A.D. 1230-31 (V.S. 1287), contains the images inscribed between A.D. 1230 and 1236. A colossal cult image of Ambikā (in deva-kulikā No. 24) accompanied by the diminutive figures of different Mahāvidyās and Yakşas in the parikara, is an important example which has close parallel to the figure of Ambikā from Patiān-dāi. The figure of Ambikā, however, is a later replacement, but the parikara is an original one. The two-armed Ambikā, as usual, holds an āmra-lumbi and child.
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15
Reverse view of the above
31
d
TELE21PLANAS
aly4127
Besides the rendering of two-armed Ambikā, as usual with āmralumbi and son in the Jina-saṁyukta images enshrined in the deva-kulikās, six independent figures of Ambikā are also noticed in the temple. These figures, identical in details, are carved on the walls of the corridor near main entrance and the ranga-mandapa and also in the ceiling of the porch near ranga-mandapa. In all these examples, Ambikā is two-armed and holds āmra-lumbi in her right hand and supports a child, seated in lap, with the left hand. Ambikā, invariably accompanied by lion, either sits or stands on bhadrāsana. However, in one example, the vāhana is not carved. The rendering of the bunches of mangoes, hanging over the shoulders of Ambikā, is beautifully done. The figure of second son is shown only in two examples. The goddess is usually attended upon by two flywhisk
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SOM
AM
17
11 R

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16
Tejapāla Temple,
Mt. Abu, 13th century
17
Mt. Abu, c. 13th century
bearing attendants. The figures of male and female devotees are also carved. The representation of four or six female figures, dancing and playing on different musical instruments, is also interesting. Ambikā, embellished with karanda-mukuta and other usual ornaments, appears as a graceful boon-conferring goddess. The figures have the following accession numbers 11A, B (Fig.16), 17A (Fig. 17), D and 18 (Fig. 18). In one of the examples, carved in the ceiling of the portico attached to the ranga-mandapa on west, the 68 female figures, arranged in three concentric bands, are also shown. These female figures, carved as dancing and playing on various musical instruments, are usually identified as dik-kumārīs but their actual meaning is yet to be clearly ascertained. Thus, Ambika in Lūņa Vasahi is represented only with two hands and without any variety in her form.
The Kharatara Vasahi (A.D. 1459) has yielded four figures of Ambikā. In all the instances, Ambika, seated in lalitasana and possessing four hands, rides a lion. In two examples, she is accompanied by her elder son Subhankara also. These figures, sometimes attended by female dancers and camaradhārins, exhibit two different sets of attri
Ambika

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18
Mt. Abu, c. 13th
century
butes. The first group, represented by two examples carved respectively on the door-lintel and as an independent image (A.D. 1483; upper storey) shows her as bearing ämra-lumbi in three hands while the fourth hand (lower left) supports a child seated in lap. The second variety, interestingly concurring with the Svetāmbara mantras depicts Ambikā with amra-lumbi, goad, noose and child (seated in
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lap). The figures are carved on the western adhisthāna and the torana (inside the sanctum) of the Pārsvanātha temple.
The Victoria Hall Museum at Udaipur preserves two bronze figures of the four-armed Ambikā, bearing inscriptions in V.S. 1305 (A.D. 1248) and V.S. 1349 (A.D. 1292). In both the figures, which were obtained from Bigod (Bhilwara, Rajasthan), Ambikā bears āmra-lumbi in her three hands and supports a child with the fourth one. Another identilcal figure, deposited in the Udaipur Museum, is inscribed in V.S. 1409 (A.D. 1352). 12
An interestting metal image of about 14th century A.D. is preserved in the Museum of Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xaviers College, Bombay. 13 The two-armed goddess stands over a lotus in tri-bhanga and carries an amra-lumbi and a child. Another two-armed metal image of A.D. 1350 is exhibited in the Baroda Museum (Acc. No. A8/325). 14 The Yaksi sits in lalita-pose on lion and carries an amra-lumbi and a child. Her elder son is also carved on right.
H.D. Sankalia has published two 15th century bronzes of Ambikā.15 Of these, one represents two-armed Ambikā as seated and holding āmra-lumbi and child, while in other example, inscribed in V.S. 1505 (A.D. 1448), the four-armed Ambikā, called Bālā-devi in inscription, sits in lalita-pose on a lion and bears amra-lumbi in her upper two hands while with each of the lower two hands she supports a child seated on lap.
A brass image from a Jaina temple in Baroda represents fourarmed Ambikā as riding on a lion and holding āmra-lumbi, noose, goad and child (in lap). Her elder son, however, stands on right. The image is inscribed in V.S. 1534 (A.D. 1477). Another identical image is found in the Cintamani Pārsvanātha temple at Cambay. 16 The image is inscribed in V.S. 1547 (A.D. 1490). A brass image of four-armed Ambikā is also preserved in the Bostan Museum, New York.17 The inscription on its back shows that it was installed in Samvat 1547 (A.D. 1490) by Sri Jina-samudra Sūri of the Kharatara-gaccha in the line of Sri Jina-bhadra. Ambikä shows amra-lumbi, child, trident and the damaru in her hands. Maharashtra
Maharashtra, although not so rich in respect of the figures of Ambikā as compared to Gujarat and Rajasthan, has yielded sufficient images, ranging in date from ninth to the 12th century A.D. and
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60
Ambikā
belonging mainly to the Digambara tradition. Besides the most prolific Jaina site at Ellora, which alone has yielded about 20 independent images, Rajanapur Khinkhini (Murtajāpur) in Akolā district is also credited with yielding some beautiful metal images of Ambika, belonging to 11th-12th century A.D.
We come across three independent and one Jina-samyukta images of Ambikā from Rajanapur Khinkhini, now preserved in the collection of Central Museum, Nagpur. Except for one instance where Ambika is four-armed, the Yakṣi is always shown with two hands. Of the two independent figures of two-armed Ambikās, one is seated on lion while the other stands gracefully in tri-bhanga with her lion mount carved on right. The seated figure (17x7.5 cms.) rests under a mango tree and supports a child with her right hand and holds a fruit in the left, the attributes apparently are here juxtaposed. The modelling is somewhat crude and the entire figure appears in static posture. However, the other figure (14.8x8.6 cms.; Fig. 19) is indeed a beautiful example of two-armed Ambika, standing in tri-bhanga on inverted lotus seat with a diminutive figure of Neminatha overhead. The rhythmic linear movement of body is full of tenderness and life. The ornaments and the coiffure are particularly interesting. The goddess standing under the foliages of mango tree with its creepers on her sides, holds amra-lumbi and matulunga in her hands. However, both of her sons stand on her sides. The son on right, bearing fruit and purse in his hands, rides on the lion mount of his mother. 18 The Jina-samyukta figure of two-armed Ambika, however, bears the traditional attributes, ämralumbi and child. However, in one instance (Fig. 20), the four-armed Ambika from Narsinghpur in M.P. sits in lalita-pose on lion under the shade of a mango tree. The Yakṣi holds in three of her surviving hands goad, noose and child (in lap). The other son, however, sits on her right. Ambika wearing beautiful ornaments and karandamukuta is benign in appearance. Thus the figures from Rajanäpur Khinkhini clearly give an idea as to the imagination of the artists to show her with some freshness by introducing certain changes which are strictly in tune with her traditional features.
Ellora
Ellora in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra occupies a singular position in respect of Indian art history for its long, continuous and quality art activity from the sixth to the 10th century A.D. The site

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19
Rājnāpur Khinkhini (Akolā,
Maharashtra), 11th century

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20 Narsinghapur (Madhya Pradesh), 11th century (p. 60)
becomes all the more important due to its being the confluence of the three principal Indian sects, the Vaidika, the Buddhist and the Jaina. A series of five Jaina caves (Nos. 30 to 34), occupying the northern horn of the Ellorā ridge, are very important from the stand-point of the study of Jaina iconography (and architecture) in south India in early medieval times. These caves, belonging exclusively to the Digambara tradition, are datable to the ninth century A.D. The Jaina caves apparently were carved during the reign of the Rāstrakūta king Amoghavarsa I (A.D. 819-881), the great patron of Jainism. These caves contain the figures of Jina Pārsvanātha, Jina Mahāvīra, Bahubalin, Sarvānubhūti Yakşa, and Cakreśvari and Ambikā Yaksis.
Among the Yakşīs Ambikā undoubtedly was accorded a very favoured position in Ellorā. She is represented by about 20 figures, the number being equal to the figures of Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra Jinas and hence suggesting her great popularity. The cave 32 (Indra-sabhā, C. A.D. 810-80; Figs. 21 to 23) alone has yielded 14 images while the other caves have one to three figures. In all the examples (Fig. 24), the two-armed Ambikā is shown as

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21 Ellora (Cave 32), 9th century

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$1 10
23 Ellora (Cave 32), 9th century (p. 62)

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22 Ellora (Cave 32), 9th century (p. 62)

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DE

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24
Ellora (Cave 33), A.D. 810-880 (p. 62)
seated in lalitásana on a high pedestal. The figures in most of the cases are excellent showing an advancement upon the earlier figures of Ambikă from Aihole and Bādāmi. Ambikā with her slightly tilted body, suggesting relaxed posture, rests against a cushioned pillow, a characteristic of the Rāstrakūta images inherited from the Chālukyas. The small and smiling faces of Ambikā with a remarkable slenderness and rhythmic linear movement in body alongwith pleasing ornaments, are typical of the Rāştrakūta art.
In all the examples, there appears a rampant lion under the feet of the goddess and beautifully delineated mango tree overhead with different birds and animals, like parrot, monkey, carved on its branches, which at once remind us of the images of Ambikā from Aihole. The goddess bedecked in different ornaments, specially with pleasing variety in coiffure, is provided with an oblong halo. Ambikā is usually accompanied by her younger son Prabhankara only, seated in lap or standing nearby. In all the instance she holds a bunch of mangoes and a son (or a fruit) in the right and left hands. In the images where Ambikā holds fruit in her left hand, the son (nude) is usually carved standing along her side. The necklace and girdle of her son are beautiful and also natural because such beaded necklace and girdles are usually worn by the children of early age even upto this day.
The most striking, rather intriguing, point in the images of Ambikā from Ellora is the rendering of a bearded devotee (sādhu) on left flank in most of the instances. The sādhu (?) wearing a loin-cloth with a short patkä on the front and thick band like yajñopavīta, holds a long parasol in his right hand while his left hand is raised in the attitude of appreciation of the goddess. In few instances, there also stands a male attendant, either holding a flower or fly-whisk, on the right. However, the definite identification of bearded devotee is not possible. Sometimes Ambikā is attended by female attendants too. Thus Ambika in Ellora is without any variety and variation in respect of her iconographic form.
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Ambikā in Art : Later Phase (9th to 16th centuries A.D.) Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
The regions of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are taken together because the development of the Jaina art and iconography remained identical and unilateral in both these states. The area also forms a nucleus region for yielding the earliest Jaina vestiges at Mathurā, showing several early stages of the development of Jaina iconography, and also the collective renderings of the 24 Śāsanadevis on Šāntinātha temple at Deogarh and in the parikara of an image of Ambikā from Patian-dãi. Like Gujarat and Rajasthan in western India, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh also have witnessed the most vigorous art activity of the Jainas, belonging mainly to the Digambara sect. However, a few sporadic instances of the Svetambara Jaina images are also encountered in the region. Ambikā undoubtedly occupies the most exalted position among all the Yaksis in the region, as evidenced by innumerable instances of her visual manifestations. She is represented both in independent figures and in Jina-samyukta images. Contrary to the figures from western India, she mostly appears with her conventional Jina Neminātha. However, in few exceptions known from Mathurā, Deogarh, Eļāwā, Agrā etc. she also joins Rsabhanātha, Muni-suvrata and Mahāvīra (State Museum, Lucknow, I 782, 1 776) Jinas as their Yaksi.
In Jina-samyukta figures Ambikā is invariably rendered as two-armed and sitting in lalitāsana, sometimes accompanied by her
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lion mount. She invariably holds ämra-lumbi and child. In few examples, she is also accompanied by her elder son on right. The four-armed figures of Ambikā show pleasing variety which suggest that keeping well within the framework of the Jaina tradition, the artists have introduced several innovatory features to break the monotony and also to keep the figures refreshing. This is why we find Ambikā holding, besides usual āmra-lumbi and child, lotus of different types, lotus-cum-manuscript, goad, noose, triśüla, ghantā, and mirror (?) attributes in her additional two hands. Ambikā also attains the position of a cult-goddess with a parivāra of her own, as is distinctly revealed by some of her cult icons from Mathură, Khajurāho, Deogarh, Patiān-dāi and Singhpur.
Ambikā became four-armed towards mid ninth century A.D., as noticed in case of her possibly the earliest four-armed figure from Deogarh (temple No. 12, A.D. 862). She acquires a very revered position of a cult goddess in Jaina worship which is clearly manifested in one of her ninth century independent images from Mathurā (presently in Govt. Museum, Mathurā, Acc. No. 07). Although a good number of her four-armed figures are obtained from Khajurāho, Deogarh and elsewhere, the rendering of twoarmed Ambikā was always preferred, apparently to show deep faith of the Jainas in tradition. To keep Ambikā, the great Mother, to the expectations of the contemporary people, specially the trader's community, for acquiring material affluence, the Jainas brought in certain changes by way of increase in number of her hands and thereby the attributes. But in doing so they had never compromised with the basic concept of Ambikā and they very carefully retained the basic form by providing her with amra-lumbi and child in hands and lion as mount, and also by the rendering of her elder son on right and the branches of mango tree overhead.
The images of Ambikā are found from Mathurā, Deogarh, Khajurāho, Gyārasapur, Sahdol, Hinglājgarh, Jabalpur, Vidiśā, Gwālior, Maihar, Siron, Thūbaun, Patiān-dãi, Chanderi, Ahār, Dhubelā, Sivapuri, Singhpur, Bhopal and many other places in the region. Of all the places, the figures from Deogarh, Khajuraho and Patian-dāi are of immense importance. A detailed account of the Ambikā images from these places will help us to understand the course of development of her iconography in the region.
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Deogarh
Deogarh, in Lalitpur district of Uttar Pradesh, has undoubtedly been one of the richest centres of Jaina religious art in India. There live in the ambience of Deogarh the superhuman Jaina Tirthankaras, their Yaksas and Yaksis and others in inanimate stone who have out-lived their human creators. The iconographic remains of Deogarh, spread-over ninth (A.D. 862) to the 12th century A.D., are the product exclusively of the Digambara sect. Besides the Jina images, a profuse amount of the figures of Yaksas and Yaksis are also available at the site. The Yaksis, of course, enjoyed a more favoured position at the site than their male counterparts, the Yakşas. This is evident by the greater number of independent figures of the Yakşīs and also by the fact that all the 24 Yaksīs are sculptured collectively all along the exterior wall of the temple No. 12 (A.D. 862) at the site, this being the earliest-known instance of the collective rendering of the 24 Yakşīs. On the merit of the frequency of her visual representation, Ambikā appears to have enjoyed the most exalted position among all the Yaksis at Deogarh. She is represented at the site by over 50 sculptures, excluding the tiny figures carved on the pedestal of different Jinas.?
As elsewhere, the figures of Ambikā at Deogarh also lack in variety in respect of iconographic forms. The exquisitely carved figures of Ambikā range in date from ninth (A.D. 862) to the 12th century A.D. She is portrayed either as standing or sitting in lalita pose with one leg hanging down and the other being folded. The formal posture is of more frequent occurrence. Ambikā, usually decked with dhoti, necklaces, stana-hāra, bejewelled coiffure, bracelets, armlets and anklets, is represented in two varieties of forms namely, the two-armed and the four-armed, the latter being represented only by three instances. The paucity of the four-armed figures at the site suggests that the artists of Deogarh were tradition abiding. Over the head of Ambikā there invariably appears a diminutive figure of her Jina Neminātha and the branches of mango tree, spread all along.
The two-armed Ambika always holds an amra-lumbi in the right hand while with left she supports a child, either seated in lap or standing by her side. However, in two instances, Ambikā carries a lotus in the right hand while in one instance the hand rests on the head of her second son, standing by her side. Thus the amra-lumbi
70 Ambikā.

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25
Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), 10th century
is conspicuous by its absence in these instances (Figs. 25 to 29). These figures, belonging to the 11th century A.D., are preserved respectively in the Sahu Jaina Museum (Fig. 30) at Deogarh and on the enclosure wall (northern) of the temple No. 12. Close to Ambika is carved her mount lion. In other examples to her right is usually sculptured the second son, standing and touching the amra-lumbi held by Ambika. In some examples, specially those on the free-standing pillars (stambhas) the second son of Ambika is not shown. Sometimes, the Yakṣi is attended by two fly-whisk bearers at the flanks and the two hovering mälädharas at the top. However, the two images, exhibited in the Sahu Jaina Museum Deogarh, also contain figures of Jina Supārsvanatha with fivehooded snake canopy overhead and the four-armed goddesses, bearing the abhaya-mudra, lotus, fly-whisk and kalasa, in the parikara. Thus the two-armed figures of Ambika at Deogarh apparently correspond to the injunctions of the Digambara
texts.
The earliest image of Ambikā at Deogarh is carved on the facade of the temple No. 12, also known as the Santinātha temple (A.D. 862). The four-armed Ambika here is shown in the group of 24
A

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26 Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), 10th century (p. 71) 27 Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), c. 10th century (p. 71)

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Yakṣis, carved all along the temple facade. The idea of associating a Yakṣi with each of the 24 Jinas with different appellations was manifested at Deogarh but their individual iconography, excepting Ambika, a Yakṣi of older tradition, was not yet settled. 'Ambayikā' as the inscription calls her, stands without her vahana. She bears flower (or fruit), fly-whisk, lotus and child in her hands. The absence of the lion mount and the amra-lumbi, the invariable features of Ambika, in the present instance is surprising, specially in view of
28
Deogarh (Lalitpur U.P.), c. 10th century (p. 71)

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29
Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), c. 10th century (p. 71)
their invariable rendering in the sculptures of ninth-tenth century A.D. at Deogarh and elsewhere.
The other two instances of the four-armed Ambikā, assignable to 11th-12th century A.D., are carved on the free-standing pillars adjacent respectively to the temple Nos. 11 (A.D. 1059) and 16 (12th century A.D.). In the former instance, Ambikā hold amralumbi, goad and noose in three hands while with the remaining one she supports a child, holding a fruit. Over her head as usual are carved a small figure of Jina and the branches of mango tree. Close to her seat, there also appears lion mount. The other image, exhibiting identical attributes, however, does not contain the figure of her conveyance.
It should be noted here in passing that the rendering of goad and noose in uppper two hands of the four-armed Ambikā at Deogarh, like the identical figures in the temple No. 13 at Khajurāho, is apparently guided by the prescriptions of the Svetāmbara texts which invariably conceive the four-armed Ambikā with these attributes. Such a borrowing, noticed also in cases of the figures of some other deities at the site, at once suggests a welcome trans-sectarian trend prevalent at Deogarh between the ninth and

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30
Deogarh (Lalitput, U.P.), c. 10th century (p. 71)

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the 12th centuries A.D
To complete the study of the figures of Ambikā at Deogarh, it is necessary also to make a brief reference to her small figures carved on the thrones of the Neminātha images.
In such instances, Ambikā is always represented as two-armed and as bearing an amra-lumbi in one of her hands. However, in two examples, installed in the temple Nos. 13 and 24 and attributable to the 11th century A.D., she holds a mango fruit (or a fruit), in place of an āmra-lumbi. The lion and her second son are rarely shown in such Jina-samyukta figures of Ambikā.
The four instances of her Jina-samyukta figures are preserved respectively in the temple Nos. 12, 13, 15 and on the enclosure wall of the temple No. 12.
Like Khajurāho, Deogarh also has yielded a few images of Ambika which reveal the form of a cult icon, by showing her with the entourage of the figures of four-armed goddesses, attendants, hovering mālādharas and, above all, the diminutive Jina figures, carved in the parikara.
In one such instance, preserved in the Sahu Jaina Museum at Deogarh (Acc. No. 136), the two-armed Ambika wearing dhammilla and necklace of high workmanship and holding lotus and child and accompanied by a lion mount, is joined by the figures of two and four-armed goddesses, seated in lalitāsana and showing the abhaya-mudrā, lotus, camara and kalasa. The image, fashioned in red sandstone and measuring 40.6"x 24", is datable to c. 11th century A.D. The image undoubtedly gives an idea as to the evolution of some sort of parivāra of Ambikā.
Artistically, the figures from Deogarh do not show that magnificence, delicacy and sharp linear movement as was very common during the early medieval times. The figures, though sometimes ornate, are simple and the postures and the body limbs are sometimes even static and show poor workmanship.
The swollen belly looking like that of a pregnant woman, in many a case, deserves a mention here. But at the same time, some figures reveal better modelling and proportion showing vigour and pulsating life which can easily be noticed in cases of two beautiful images deposited in the Sahu Jaina Museum at Deogarh.
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Khajuraho
Khajuraho, in the Chhatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh, has yielded profuse Brahminical and Jaina vestiges of iconographic and religious interest which vouch for the artistic dexterity and craving, and also the material affluence, of the artist of Khajuraho. Besides, about 32 new Jaina temples, there are three old Jaina temples at Khajuraho, namely, the Pārśvanatha (c. 950-70 A.D.), the Ghaṇṭāi (late 10th century A.D.) and the Adinatha (latter half of the 11th century A.D.). All these temples are dedicated to the first Jina Ṛṣabhanatha who was accorded the most favoured position at the site. The entire group of the Jaina temples and so also the sculptures at Khajuraho, spread over c. 950 to 12th century A.D., is the product exclusively of the Digambara Jaina sect. The images of only 13 out of 24 Jinas are found in Khajuraho collections. The Yakṣa and Yakṣi invariably join the Jinas but the representation of all the 24 Sasana-devatās was not shown in Khajuraho. However, the standardized and distinctive forms of only three Yakṣa-Yakṣi pairs, namely, Gomukha and Cakreśvari, Kubera (or Sarvānubhuti) and Ambika and Dharanendra and Padmavati, the Sasana-devatās respectively of Rṣabhanatha, Neminatha and Pārśvanatha, were known to the Khajuraho sculptors.
Ambika has enjoyed great prominence in Khajuraho which is evident from the eleven independent figures of Ambika at the site, besides a number of tiny figures, carved on the door-lintels.4 The images of Ambika at Khajuraho, datable between c. mid 10th to the 12th century A.D., are very much in agreement with the canonical injunctions which invariably conceive the two-armed Ambika with amra-lumbi and child in her hands and lion as her mount. The earliest figure of Ambika at Khajuraho is carved on the south facade of the Pārsvanatha temple wherein the two-armed Ambika (Fig. 31, on page 81) stands gracefully on a bracket and holds a bunch of mangoes in her right hand, while with her left she supports a child, clinging to her breast. It may be noted that it is a solitary example of two-armed Ambika at Khajuraho. The figure, however, agrees in regard to the attributes with the descriptions available in the Pratistha-säroddhara and the Pratistha-tilaka. Several bunches of mangoes are beautifully delineated at the back drop of the image. The second son of Ambika, somewhat grown up, stands close to her on right and holds possibly a fruit in one hand. The figures of her mount lion and Jina Neminatha to be
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shown at the top, are conspicuous by their absence. Another figure of Ambikā (Figs. 32 and 33), carved in a niche above the cornice of the Pārsvanātha temple on south, shows her with four arms. The Yaksi seated in lalitāsana on lotus with its stems spread below, is accompanied by her conventional vāhana lion. She bears lotuses in her two upper hands while the lower right and left hands hold respectively a bunch of mangoes and a child, seated in lap. The child is touching her breast. There appears a diminutive figure of her Jina Neminātha overhead. On each side of her head the foliages of mango tree can be seen. Behind the head of Ambikā is shown a circular halo, consisting of blossom circlet. Both the figures of Pārsvanātha temple are superb from the aesthetic point of view. The rhythmic contours of the body with a smiling face showing benign appearance is very soothing to the eyes
32 On door lintel, Khajurāho, 10th
century
of the visitors. The profuse ornamentation and angularity both of the face and in general treatment of the body give them a peculiar sensitiveness. The face is oval with round chins, prominently carved eyes and eye-brows, nose and lips. They convey a sense of pulsating life and have an irresistible individual attraction. But at the same time the divine aspect is also revealed aptly and the figures appear as supreme divine Mother with two sons and also amra-lumbi, the symbols of fertility, fortune and plenitude.
The Adinātha temple contains three figures of four-armed Ambikā, two carved on the exterior walls and one on the door-lintel. The figure on the western adhisthāna depicts her as sitting on the pedestal in lalita-pose with a lion. She shows a long-stalked rolled-up lotus
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33
Khajurāho (M.P.),
10th century

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34
Khajurāho (M.P.), 10th century
in her upper right hand and a manuscript-cum-lotus in the left. A bunch of mangoes is held by her lower right hand while the lower left supports a child, seated in lap (Fig. 34). However, the figure of Neminātha overhead and the shade of mango tree are not carved. The second figure, carved in the pillared niche of the cornice on east, shows her as standing on a pedestal and wearing a long garland, appearing more like the Vaijayanti of Visnu. She holds āmra-lumbi, long-stalked rolled-up lotus and long-stalked rolled-up lotus in three hands while the lower left hand is placed on the head of her younger son, standing nearby. Her mount lion appears on the right. The head of Ambikā is topped by the figure of Neminātha and the branches of mango tree are spread overhead. The third figure on the door-lintel, renders Ambikā with āmra-lumbi, long-stalked rolled-up lotus, manuscript-cum-lotus and child alongwith the figure of her conveyance lion.
The other examples of the rendering of Ambikā, mainly on the door-lintels, depict her as seated in lalitāsana with lion and as holding āmra-lumbi, lotus, lotus (or manuscript-cum-lotus) and a child. The rendering of different forms of lotuses and

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31 Khajurāho (Pārsvanatha temple), A.D. 950-70 (p. 77)
lotus-cum-manuscript was very popular at Khajuraho. (These symbols, however, were shown both with the Brahminical and Jaina deities without having any specific connotation.)
However, in a solitary instance of the figure of four-armed Ambikā (25.3"X12"), preserved in the modern Jaina temple No. 13, she is provided with goad and noose in her upper-right and left hands, in place of lotuses. The rendering of the second son of Ambika was seenningly not very regular. The two fly-whisk bearing female attendants, sometimes also holding lotuses, are carved with Ambikā possibly to suggest her exalted position at the site. The point is explained even more explicitly in a unique image of Ambikā at the site. The image (39" x 24"), assignable to c. 11th century A.D. is now in the collection of the Archaeological Museum, Khajurāho (Acc. No. 1608). Although the three hands are broken off, the child in her surviving lower left hand, lion mount and the branches of mango tree overhead make her identification with Ambikā doubtless. Besides the figures of adorers, and the male and female attendants, holding fly-whisk and lotuses, the rendering of the figures of Yakşa and Yaksī at the two extremities of the pedestal and a few minor goddesses, showing either viņā

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Lil Can
35
Khajuraho (M.P.), 10th century
(Sarasvati) or the abhaya-mudrā and the water-pot, are indeed very striking. These features are perhaps suggestive of some type of parivara of Ambika (Fig. 35). The present beautiful image is a cult image of Ambika showing her with nicely done ornaments. The two-armed Yaksi sitting on her right shows the abhaya-mudra and mongoose-skin purse (nakulaka) while two-armed Yaksi shows the abhaya-mudra and the water-vessel. The present image with all medieval elements is decorated also with gaja-vyala-makara trio as throne-frame animals.
the
Thus it is apparent that the rendering of four-armed Ambika was very much favoured at Khajuraho. The rendering of either lotuses or a lotus and manuscript-cum-lotus in two upper hands is a clearcut violation of the textual prescriptions which, on the contrary, envisage noose and goad in the upper two hands of the four-armed Ambikā. It should also be pointed out that no Digambara mantra refers to the four-armed Ambika and also as bearing noose and goad in hands. It is only in the Svetambara tradition, and also in Tantric worship, that she is visualised as holding goad and noose in her two upper hands. Regarding the popularity of Ambika at Khajuraho, it is interesting to note that although both the Pārsvanatha

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Pataurā (Patiān-dãi) (Satna, M.P.), c. 11th century
and Ādinātha temples are attributed to Rsabhanātha, Ambikā finds an important place on Jaina temples. On the contrary, Cakreśvari, the Yaksi of Rşabhanátha, has not been given that much of prominence and her images, barring a few instances carved on the north adhisthāna of the Adinātha temple, etc. can be seen only on the doorlintels of the Jaina temples.
Patiān-dāi
The Ambikā image (Fig. 36) procured from Patian-dāi temple, about six miles from Satna in M.P., is a nonpareil image of Ambikā inasmuch as it contains the tiny figures of other 23 Yaksis in the parikara alongwith their appellations inscribed below. It is quite interesting to find their iconographic details as well as the appellations greatly concurring with the dhyāna-mantras available in the Digambara texts. The image, fashioned in wine coloured sand-stone and measuring
1.700.920 metres, is now on display in the Allahabad Museum (Acc. No. AM 293). The image is datable to c. 11th century A.D. both on account of style and iconography.
Of the 23 Yakşīs carved in the parikara, the figures of 18 Yaksis, in vertical rows, are carved on two flanks of Ambikā while the remain

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ing five are portrayed in a horizontal row at the top parikara. The Yaksis in the top parikara are labelled as Vahurūpini, Cāmundā, Sarasati, Padumăvati and Vijayā, while those on the two flanks (from top to bottom) are Jayā, Anantamati, Vairotā, Gauri, Mahākāli, Kali, Pusadadhi and Prajāpati (on right), and Aparājită, Mahāmānusi, Anantamati, Gandhāri, Manusi, Jālāmālini, Manujā and Vajrasamkală (on left).
All the 23 Yaksis in the parikara, possessing four arms, are carved arbitrarily, instead of being in traditional order. They are all standing in tribhanga with their respective vāhanas. Except for Manujā and Sarasati, their names correspond with the list supplied by the Digambara works, namely, the Tiloya-pannatti of Yati-vrşabha, (c. 8th century A.D.), the Pratiştha-sāra-sangraha and the Pratişthāsāroddhāra. However, the name of Anantamati has been carved twice because of the engraver's mistake. The inscription, however, does not mention the names of Cakreśvari, Rohini, Manovegā, Mānavi, Ambikā and Siddhāyini Yakşīs. But the figures of Cakreśvari, Manovega (labelled as Manujā), Ambikā and Siddhāyinī (labelled as Sarasati) could distinctly be identified on account of their iconographic features.
The beautiful figure of four-arrned Ambikā, bejewelled in graiveyaka, necklaces, girdle (with suspended loops), anklets, bracelets, armlets, and karanda-mukuta, stands as she is in tribhanga. The jewelleries of Ambikā are minutely done with fine workmanship, appearing more like a metallic work. The plasticity in body and posture, linear movement and proportional body limbs are magnificent which all make this image a wonderful piece of India art. The goddess is provided with stellate cut halo. The small face of the goddess shows benign appearance while the contours and other bodily features give somewhat sensuous flavour. Although all the hands are damaged, remnant of the foliage of a mango tree overhead and the rendering of two sons (nude), Priyankara and Subhankara, alongwith lion mount, make the identification of the goddess with Ambikā doubtless. Of the two sons, Subhankara on right rides on lion, the vāhana of Ambikā, while the other son (Priyankara) stands to her left. The tiny figure of Jina Neminātha with conch lāñchana is carved over the head of Ambikā. Besides, the figures of 12 other Jinas, both seated in dhyāna-mudrā and standing in kāyotsarga-mudrā are also shown in the parikara. The nudity of the Jina figures and also the iconographic details of the Yaksīs carved in the parikara distinctly reveal that the image belongs to the Digambara sect. The figures of the gaja-vyāla
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makara trio as throne-frame animals, an invariate feature of the medieval images, are also rendered. Close to the feet of Ambikā, there appear a female and a male lay devotees. The representation of two-armed Sarvāhna Yakşa, the male counterpart of Ambikā, at the pedestal is also significant. The Yaksa, seated in lalitāsana, holds a mace and a mongoose-skin purse. Another point of interest is the rendering of the two-armed figures of Nava-grahas on the lowermost part of the pedestal. The present cult image thus renders Ambikā as the head of the Sāsana-devis.
An exquistely carved image (21"X17") of two-armed Ambikā (Fig. 37, on page 88) belonging to c. ninth century A.D., is exhibited in Govt. Museum, Mathurā (Acc. No. OOD7). The provenance is perhpas Mathură. The face and right hand of the Yakși are mutilated but the iconographic details of parikara are rather peculiar and show her affiliation with Brahminic Sivā. The image, hewn out of buff-coloured sandstone, shows Ambikä as seated in lalitāsana on a lotus seat with her lion mount carved underneath. The elegantly modelled figure of Ambikā supports a child with her surviving left hand. To her right there stands her elder son, Subhankara, touching her knee. Ambikā provided with a nimbus, consisting of lotus petals, is joined by two male attendants with fly-whisks and the figures of two-armed Ganeśa and Sarvāhna or Vaiśravana sitting on two extremities of the pedestal. The elephant-headed Ganesa on right shows abhaya-mudrā and the modaka-pătra while Sarvāhna, on the corresponding left, holds fruit and mongoose-skin purse. The lowermost portion of the pedestal contains eight female figures with folded hands; they may be asta-matrkās. The rendering of Ganesa, Sarvahna and astamatkās (?) are clear indication as to the bearing of the Brahminic Śivā on the iconography of Jaina Ambikā. It is further interesting to find the figure of Neminātha, surmounting Ambikā, being joined by the figures of four-armed Balarama and Krşna-Vāsudeva on his two flanks. It may be noted that in Jaina tradition Balarama and Krsna-Vāsudeva happen to be the cousin brothers of Neminātha. Balarama with three-hooded snake canopy stands in tribhanga and holds cup, musala, hala in three hands while the fourth hand rests on thigh. Krsna-Vāsudeva stands in tribhanga and shows the abhaya-mudrā, mace, disc and conch. The present image is thus a unique one both for its art and for iconography.
We have three other independent images of Ambikā, assignable between 10th and 11th century A.D., and coming as they do from
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Bateśvara (Agra) and Saheth-Maheth (ancient Śrāvasti in Baharaich district of Uttar Pradesh; Fig. 38). In all these instances, the two-armed Ambikā is seated in lalitāsana with her mount lion carved on the pedestal. She holds āmra-lumbi in the right hand and supports a child, seated in the lap, with her left hand. The tiny figure of her Jina Neminātha and foliages of mango tree alongwith her elder son
38
Saheth Maheth (Gonda, U.P.), 10th century
86
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(on right) have also been carved. All these images are now deposited in the Reserve Collection of the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. 1 798, J 853, 0.334). The images from Bateśvara ( 798) also contains in it parikara the figures of two-armed goddesses showing abhaya-mudra and kalaśa. The throne-frame animals, lay devotees and flying mālādharas are also carved. Ambikā, wearing dhammilla and the usual ornaments, is shown in a graceful manner.
The Mālādevi temple (10th century A.D.) at Gyārasapur (Vidishā, M.P.) has two figures of Ambikā, on its northern and southern śikharas. In both these intances the two-armed Ambikā, endowed with foliages of mango tree overhead, rides a lion and holds ämralumbi and child. Likewise, her images (10th-11th century A.D.) from Siron (Fig. 39)
39 Siron (Lalitpur, U.P.), 10th century
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STRICKSTEILY
37 Mathura, c. 9th century

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45 Jabalpur district, c. 11th century (p. 90)
46 Gandharvapuri (Gandhāwal, Ujjain, M.P.), 10th century (p. 90)
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and Chandapur (Fig. 40) in U.P. and Thubaun, Chanderi (Fig. 41), Budhi Chanderi, Kārī Talāi (Fig. 42), Narwar, Vidishā (Fig. 43) and some more places in M.P. represent the two-armed Ambikā, with lion mount, shade of mango tree overhead and ämra-lumbi and
40 With Kubera etc., Chandpur (Lalitpur, U.P.), 10th century
child in hands. Another identical figure of two-armed Ambikā, belonging to 10th century A.D., is reported from Khukhundoo (Gorakhpur, U.P.). The image, now in the State Museum, Lucknow (Fig. 44), also shows the figure of her elder son. One of her images from some place in M.P. is also preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi (Acc. No. 75. 890). In few other examples from Jabalpur (Fig. 45), Dhubelā, Gwālior, Vidishā and Gandharvapuri (Fig. 46, on page 90) belonging to 10th to 15th centuries A.D., Ambikā is represented with identical features. In few examples she is also accompanied by her elder son, standing nearby and plucking mango from the āmra-lumbi.
A beautiful Cedi period image of about 12th century A.D. depicts
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41
Chanderi (Guna,
M.P.), 11th century (p. 90)
42 Kārī-taläi
(Jabalpur, M.P.), 10th century
(p. 90)
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43 Vidishā (M.P.), c. 10th century (p. 90)
92 Ambikā

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44
Khukhundoo (Gorakhpur, U.P.), 12th century (p. 90)
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47
Dhubela (Nowgong, M.P.), 11th century
the four-armed Ambika as riding a lion and as holding amra-lumbi, lotus and child in her three surviving hands. A number of figures procured from different places in Madhya Pradesh are also preserved in different museums of Madhya Pradesh, namely-Dhubelä (Fig. 47), Gwalior, Vidisha Rewa and Bhopal."
Two exceptionally magnificant figures of two-armed Ambika, datable to c. 10th century A.D. are found from Hingalājagarh (Mandsaur, M.P.). One of these figures is a cult image (Fig. 48, on page 95) which represents Ambika as standing in tribhanga. The image is now preserved in Indore Central Museum. The dhammilla and the ornaments alongwith artistically tied breastband, are of fine workmanship. The elegantly modelled figure has slightly smiling face. The bunches of mango tree, although somewhat mutilated, beautifully form the nimbus. The present stele undoubtedly is an important piece of quality art. The right hand of Ambika is broken but with left she supports a child (nude), touching her breast and wearing surprisingly channavīra. The figure of her vähana, rampant lion, is carved on left. Over the head of Ambikā, there appears Neminatha, flanked by four other Jina figures, two of which are identifiable with Pārsvanatha and Supärśvanatha.

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The rendering of female attendants and six four-armed goddesses in parikara is quite important and suggests the specially exalted position enjoyed by Ambika. The other figure (Fig. 49) from Hingalājagarh, preserved in the Bhanpur State Museum, is not that elaborate. It shows Ambika as seated on lion with amra-lumbi and child. A third figure of Ambika from the same place (Fig. 50) is also remarkable.
Three exquisitely carved cult images of Ambika, belonging to 10th-11th century A.D., are also procured from Ahar (Tikamgarh; Fig. 51), Singhpur (Shahdol; Fig. 52) and Antra (Shahdol; Fig. 53). In all these examples, the two-armed Ambika sits gracefully on lotus with her lion mount carved below. She holds amra-lumbi in right hand while with the left she supports a child, seated in lap. (However, the right hand of Ambika is broken in the images from Shahdol.) The elegantly carved figures from Shahdol are excellent examples of Kalchuri art of about 10th-11th century A.D. The beautifully carved ornaments, dhoti, coiffure and nimbus are attractive. The carving of nimbus and parikara shows refined taste. Ambika sits in reposeful manner which apparently is suggestive of her divine character. The Yakṣi, accompanied by her elder son, is provided with foliage of mango tree and figure of
MOPS
48
Hinglajagarh (Mandsaur, M.P.), c. 10th century

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49
Hinglajagarh (Mandsaur, M.P.), c. 10th century)
(p. 95)
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50 At pedestal, Hinglajagarh (Mandsaur, M.P.), c. 10th century (p. 95)
51 Ahār (Tikamgarh, M.P.), 9th century (p. 95)
Neminātha overhead. In the figure from Singhpur, we also find the representation of Cakreśvari Yakşi and Sarasvati (playing on vīņā) in the parikara. The image from Ahār contains the figure of her elder son, standing close to her feet.
We find that after the 12th century A.D. the number of both independent and Jina-samyukta figures of Ambikā decreased sharply. This was apparently due to the Muslim invasions which put a sanction on image making and worship. As a consequence, the carving of images and also the construction of temples suffered badly.
However a few images of Ambikā found from Mathurā, Gwālior and some other places, show that the worship of Ambikā was still
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52 Singhpur (Shahdol,
M.P.), 10th-11th century A.D. (p. 95)
98 Ambikā

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53 Antra (Shahdol, M.P.), c. 10th century (p. 95)
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54 Hamirpur (U.P.), 13th century
55 Darhat (Hamirpur, U.P.), 13th century
in vogue. Barring two examples from Darhat (Hamirpur, U.P.), Ambikā is always represented as two-armed and as riding a lion. In all such instances, she holds as usual the āmra-lumbi and a child, and her elder son is carved on her right. Two 13th century images of Ambikā from Darhat (presently in the State Museum, Lucknow; Acc. Nos. G312 and 66.225; Figs. respectively 54, 55), are specially interesting for their iconography. In both the examples, the four-armed Ambikā, though crude in modelling, wears typical medieval stellate-cut mukuta and sits in lalita-pose on a bhadrāsana with her lion mount carved on left. In one instance, she holds āmra-lumbi, noose, vajraghantā and child (nude) while the other figure represents her with āmra-lumbi, lotus-cum-manuscript, mirror and child. Her elder son is carved either on right or near the folded leg of the Yaksi on left. Ambikā, in both the cases, rests under a mango tree topped by small seated figure of Neminātha. The rendering of manuscript-cum-lotus and vajra-ghantā does not find textual support and is perhaps intended to manifest the sakti aspect of goddess with atleast some bearing of Brahminic Sivā.
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7
Ambika in Art: Later Phase (9th to 16th centuries A.D.) Bihar, Bengal and Orissa
Bihar and Bengal did not contribute much to the development of Jaina Sāsana-devatās. It appears that their visual representations did not gain much favour in the region. This is why we find very few examples of the images of Ambika, both in stone and metal, from the region. These figures found mainly from Rajgir (Vaishālī) and Aluara (Dhanbad) in Bihar and Nalgora, Bänkurā, Barkolā, Pākbirā (Manbhūm) in Bengal, are datable between c. 10th and 12th centuries A.D. The figures belong exclusively to the Digambara tradition. One of the beautiful stone images of Pāla period belonging to c. 10th century A.D., is preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi (Acc. No. 63. 940; Fig. 56). The two-armed Ambika stands in sama-bhanga on a double petalled lotus with a dwarfish figure of her mount lion, carved in relief, below the lotus seat. Ambika, as usual, bears amra-lumbi and a child (nude), standing close to her and holding the finger of Ambikā. To her right there appears her elder son. The goddess, bejewelled in rich ornaments, is joined by the figures of attendants and musician in the parikara with the figure of her Jina Neminatha and foliages of mango tree overhead. The figure is a beautiful example of Pāla art showing slenderness in body and profuse ornamentation.' Another figure of about 12th century A.D. is preserved in the Modern Jaina temple at Rajgir. The two-armed Ambika here sits in lalitasana on lion mount under a
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56
Orissa (National Museum, New Delhi), c. 10th
century
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mango tree and holds a mango fruit and child in her hands. However, her elder son stands on right. The two other images of twoarmed Ambikā, found from Aluara (Dhanbad) and Nālandā, are preserved respectively in the Patna Museum (Acc. No. 10694) and the National Museum, New Delhi.? The figure from Aluara depicts Ambikā as standing in tri-bhanga. She is joined by her two sons and lion mount.
The two-armed figure from Pakbirà (Manbhūm) shows Ambikā with amra-lumbi and child (standing nearby). A bronze image of two-armed Ambikā from the forest Khadi-Pargana in the Sundarbana region of Bengal shows Ambikā as standing under mango creeper and as holding a child in her left hand and a bunch of mangoes in the right. On her right, there stands her second son alongwith lion."
Likewise the figures from Ambikānagar (Bankurā), Barkolā and Nalgorā (24 Parganas), show the two-armed Ambikā with lion mount. Ambika in these instances is either seated or standing in tribhanga on lotus seat and holds amra-lumbi and child in her two hands. The figure of her second son also appears in these instances. The younger son Priyankara holding the finger of Ambikā either sits in the lap or stands nearby. The 10th century bronze image from Nalgorā shows Ambikā as standing and as holding amra-lumbi in right hand and child in the left alongwith the figure of her elder son, standing close to her on right. The above images mostly contain the figure of Neminātha and the foliages of mango tree over the head.
Thus we can conclude that Ambikā in Bihar and Bengal is always shown with two hands and with traditional features, as envisaged by the Digambara works.
Jainism entered in Orissa as early as in c. second-first century B.C., as is evidenced by the Hathigumpha inscription of Khāravela and several early Jaina caves in the twin hills of Udaigiri and Khandagiri. Jainism continued to flourish uninterrupted in subsequent centuries and the most vigorous art activity after secondfirst century B.C. is witnessed in Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves between c. ninth and the 12th centuries A.D. The Jaina remains from Orissa apparently belong to the Digambara tradition. Ambikä like in other parts of the country was very popular in Orissa also which is approved from the large number of her images from different places in Orissa. Of all the Sāsana-devis, she was particularly given an exalted position. We come across quite a large number of her independent figures, both two-armed and four-armed, ranging in
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date from about ninth century A.D. to the 12th century A.D. She came to be venerated as an independent goddess, as in some of her images the figures of Jina Neminātha is conspicuous by its absence. Ambikā is usually shown with a small son seated in left lap while her elder son Subhankara, somewhat grown up, stands by her right side. The Yakşi invariably holds a bunch of mangoes in her right hand alongwith the branches of mango-tree, laddened with mangoes, over her head. Debala Mitra rightly observes that Ambika's popularity was undoubtedly due to her symbolized fertility?
The figures of Ambikā are found mainly from Anandpur, Khuntapal (Mayurbhanj), Podāsingidi (Keonjhar district)., Jambhira, Barudi Badasai, Balighat (Balasore district), Kachela (Koraput district), B. Singpur (Koraput district), Brahmeśvarpatna, Achutarājapur and Bārabhuji and Navamuni caves in Khandagiri (Puri district).8 In all the examples, Ambikā either sits in lalita pose or stands in tribhanga. The pedestal of Ambikā image is mostly decorated with lotus. The figure of her lion mount is usually carved below the pedestal. The branches of mango tree beautifully form the back drop in all the images with the figure of Neminātha, seated in dhyāna-mudrā, at its top.
The two Ambikā images from Badasai, however, do not contain the figure of Neminātha. In some examples an ornate nimbus and decorative torana pillars are also carved. In most of the examples, the figures of lay devotees are also shown. However, the figures of female attendants, bearing fly-whisk, are carved only in few examples. One such example is known from Podāsingidi (c. eighth century A.D.). The two-armed Yaksi here supports a child seated in lap with left hand while the right hand is damaged.
The two-armed Ambikā is invariably shown with amra-lumbi (or even an amra-śākhā) and child (in lap) in right and left hands. However, in one of the figures from Podāsingidi, she shows the varada-mudrā with right hand. In few instances, one or both the sons are shown standing and plucking the mangoes from the āmra-lumbi held by their mother, Ambikā. The rendering of the second son, was, however, not very regular. In few instances the goddess is also shown with four hands. One such image from Badasai shows her with varada-mudrā, āmra-lumbi and one hand being kept on the thigh. The other instance of the four-armed image from Barudi depicts Ambikā with the varada-mudrā, a bunch of
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mangoes and some indistinct objects. It may be observed here in passing, that the redering of the Sāsana-devatās with the Jinas was not at all popular in Orissa and hence the Jina-saṁyukta images of Ambikā are not found. .
As elsewhere, the form of only two-armed Ambikā was popular in Orissa. The rendering of two-armed Ambikā in the group of 24 and nine Yaksis respectively in the Bārabhuji (Figs. 57, 58) and
57
Khandagiri (Barabhuji Gumpha) (Puri, Orissa), 11th-12th century,
Ambikā 105

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58
Khandagiri (Puri, Orissa), 11th-12th
century
Navamuni caves at Khandagiri, datable to c. 11th-12th century A.D., are important inasmuch as they show her with Jina Neminātha. It is interesting to find that while most of the Yaksis possess four to 20 hands in their collective renderings in Bārabhuji and Navamuni caves, Ambikā retains her conventional form with two arms. In both the examples, Ambikā is seated in lalitäsana with her mount lion and branches of mango tree. The figure in Navamuni cave holds as usual amra-lumbi and putra. Close to the Yakşi, wearing Jata-mukuta, the figure of her elder son Subhankara (nude) is also carved. The example in Bārabhuji cave, however, shows fruit and the twig of a mango tree in the right and left hands. The figure of her younger son, Priyankara, however, stands on lefts.O
Three images of two-armed Ambikā from Orissa are preserved in different museums of India and abroad. Of these, the earliest figure (see fig. 56 above) belonging to c. 10th century A.D., shows the two-armed Ambika as standing reposefully with amra-lumbi in right hand and the younger son Priyankara (nude), standing and holding the finger of her mother, in the left. Apart from the beautiful double-petalled louts seat, lion mount, devotees, shade of mango tree and figure of Neminātha overhead, there also appears her elder son Subhankara (not nude) on the right flank. The figure, now exhibited in the National Museum, Delhi (Acc. No. 63. 940), is a magnificent piece of art.
The second figure, assignable to c. 11th century A.D., is now preserved in the British Museum, London. Ambikā stands gracefully on double lotus in flexed pose with the figure of her Jina at the top. On both the sides are carved rising creepers showing the figures of monkeys etc. The YaKși, standing under a mango tree, wears exquisitely carved ornaments and somewhat transparent sāri. The two-armed Yaksi holds an amra-lumbi in right hand, close to which there stands her elder son Subhankara, making a bid to pluck a mango from the āmra-lumbi. The Yaksi supports with her left hand, her younger son Prabhankara, clinging to waist and touching the breast. The lion is carved on the pedestal. Almost identical images of Ambikā from Orissa are preserved in Victoria and Albert Museum, London and Standahl Galleries U.S.A.11
Apart from the above stone figures of Ambikā, some of her bronze images are also discovered by Debala Mitra from the village Achutarajapur in Orissa. These bronze images are now preserved
U
.S.A
.
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in the Art section of Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswara. There are four images in the collection showing likewise the two-armed Ambikā as seated in lalitasana or mahārāja-lila pose. In all cases, Ambikā is two-armed and holds āmra-lumbi (or a twig with the bunch of mangoes) in her right hand while with left she supports a child. Her elder son, however, stands on her right. The rendering of lion and mango tree could also be seen. All these figures are heavily decked in different ornaments. 12
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SEDAN
Ambikā in Art: Later Phase (9th to 16th centuries A.D.) South India
Although the rendering of Ambikā started in south India in c. A.D. 600 (as evidenced from the examples at Bādāmi and Aihole), yet she could not attain that favoured position in the region as enjoyed by some other Yakşīs like Padmavati, Jvālāmālini and Cakreśvari. However the figures of Ambiká procured from almost all parts of south India are spread over ninth to the 16th century A.D. The rendering of two-armed Ambikā was the most favoured form in the region. We are encountered with only a few examples of her Jina-Samyukta figures. In most of the examples, the two-armed Ambikā is accompanied by her two sons and lion mount. Both the sons (instead of one being in the lap) are shown on her left flank. However, the rendering of āmra-lumbi in the hand of Ambikā was not a regular feature. The south Indian images show mango tree in place of its foliages over the head of Ambikā.
One of the early figures of Ambikā (Fig. 59), seated in lalitāsana on pedestal, is found from Hagargundagi (Gulbarga, Karnataka). The two-armed Ambikā is joined by her two sons (nude) on two sides. She holds an amra-lumbi in right hand while the left hand is kept on thigh. The figure of her lion mount is carved on left. The figure, belonging to later Chalukya period (10th century A.D.), is now preserved in the Govt. Museum, Gulbarga. The oval and
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59 Hagargundagi (Gulberga, Karnataka), c. 10th century

Page #125

somewhat elongated face and beautiful turban like headdress are particularly interesting. P.B. Desai has published several of the figures of Ambika from south India.' Anandamangalam (near Kanchi) has yielded an image of Neminatha wherein two-armed Ambika standing with her lion mount is carved as the Yakṣi. She holds some indistinct object in her right hand while the left hand is placed on the head of her child. An independent figure of two-armed Ambika is found from Kalugumalai (Koilpatti taluk, Dist. Tinnevelly). The image, belonging to 10th-11th century A.D., shows two-armed Ambika as standing and holding amra-lumbi in left hand while her right hand is placed on the head of a female child, instead of the son or even the attendent. However, both of her sons stand on left. Another image of about ninth-10th century A.D. is found from the hill of the charaṇas in Travancore state. The two-armed Ambikā stands with right hand in the varada-mudra and left hand hanging. The lion is carved on right while her both the sons stand on her left.
One of her images, procured from Venguṇram (north Arcot), shows the two-armed Ambika (Fig. 60) with amra-lumbi and varada-mudra. The image, belonging to 12th century A.D., also shows lion and both of her sons near the feet. One of her bronze images, belonging to 13th century A.D., is known from Singanikuppam (presently in the Govt. Museum, Madras, Acc. No. 321/57). The two-armed goddess stands gracefully in tribhanga on padmasana with her left hand kept on the head of a garland-bearing maid (ceti). The small figure of her son (nude) stands on right.2 Another bronze figure of Ambika, fairly late, is found in the temple at Tirupparuttikkuṇram.3 The two-armed Yakṣi stands on lotus and holds lotus bud in right hand while the left hand is hanging down. There appears a tiny figure of her Jina Neminatha on her jaṭāmukuta. Another identical figure is found again from Tirupparuttikkuṇram. The wall paintins from this place, also called Jina-Kanchi, show four-armed Ambika in Padmasana and holding goad and noose in her upper hands while the lower hands show the abhaya and the varada-mudrā.
The Jainas of Tantric traditions also invoked Ambika. One of such instances is that of Akalanka who is alleged to have vanquished his Buddhist opponents with the aid of Kūṣmaṇḍinī, another appellation of Ambikā. A number of figures of Ambika are found from different places in Karnataka. A two-armed figure from village Bankur
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60
Venkuņrum(North Arcot, Tamilnadu), 14th-15th century
112 Ambikā

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(Gulbargā), shows her with amra-lumbi and child. The image, assignable to c. 11th century A.D., also shows the lion mount and mango tree. The figures of Ambikā found at Ammānāgi (Hukeri, Belgaum; Pārsvanātha Basti, 13th century A.D.; Fig. 61), Gudigeri (Kundagola, Dharwar; Mahāvīra Basti, 11th century A.D.), Hubli (Dharwar, Anantanātha Basti, 13th century A.D.; Fig. 62, on page 115), Sedum (Gulbargā, Santinātha Basti, c. 12th century A.D.; Fig. 63, on page 116), Moodbidri (South Kanara, 14th century A.D. onwards; Fig. 64, on page 117), Terdal (Jamkhandi Bījāpur; Jaina temple, 12th century A.D.; Fig. 65 on page 122), Nallura (South Kanara, Pārsvanātha Basti, 12th century A.D.; Figs. 66, 67, on page 118 and 119), Vindhyagiri (Sravanabelgol, 13th century A.D.; Fig. 68, on page 120), Chandragiri (Sravanabelgol, 13th century A.D.; Fig. 69, on page 120), Malkhed (Sedum, Gulbargā, Neminātha Basti, 11th century A.D.; Fig. 70, on page 121) and Yadgiri (Gulbargā; Mahavira Basti, 16th century A.D.) are specially noteworthy. These figures invariably show two-armed Ambikā-either seated or in tribhanga with lion mount and as holding amra-lumbi (or lotus) and fruit (or child). The figures which do not show child in her left lap, represent both of her sons standing together. In some instances from Gudigeri one of her sons rides on lion mount while the second son stands on her right. The goddess, wearing karanda-mukuta, is usually provided with the figure of the Jina over head. In few instances, the lion mount has not been shown (Moodbidrī). The rendering of mango tree over the head of Ambikā was popular also in Karnataka. One of the beautiful figures of Ambikā (Fig. 71, on page 124) is found from Jaina Basti of Angadi (Chikmagalur). The profusely ornamented figure of 11th century A.D. shows beautiful rising creepers on both the sides with a small bunch of mango fruits hanging overhead. Ambikā in tribhanga holds an āmra-lumbi in right hand while her left hand is placed on the head of her younger son, standing (nude) and holding fruit and danda. However, the figure of her elder son, wearing decorated mukuta is shown sitting on her lion mount on right. The ornaments are minutely carved and the features are also pleasing. The figure of two-armed Ambikā bearing āmra-lumbi and fruit and with the figures of two sons on two sides (the figure on right rides a lion) is obtained from Śravanabelgol. Ambikā is profusely ornamented and wears particularly embellished tall mukuta. An 11th century figure of
Ambika 113

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61
Ammanagi (Belgaum, Karnataka),
13th century
114 Ambika

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62
Hubli (Dharwar, Karnataka), 13th
century (p. 113)
two-armed Ambikā (Fig. 72, on page 125) from Narayanapur (Dharwar, Karnataka) shows her in tribhanga and as holding āmra-lumbi in right hand while the left hand kept on the head of her son is mutilated. Her second son rides on lion. The figure is in the Kalyāni Govt. Museum. Her two-armed figure with āmra-lumbi and child is found from the Jaina Basti in Angadi. The second son and lion mount are carved on the right.
Humcha in Shimoga district has yielded about four independent figures of Ambikā, datable, between 10th and 11th centuries A.D. In all the examples (Figs. 73 to 76, respectively on pages 126, 128, 127 and 129), Ambikā, seated in sukhāsana, holds āmra-lumbi and child. Her mount lion and second son are carved either on the pedestal or on right flank. One such figure (Fig. 77, on page 130) is preserved in Shimoga Govt. Museum. Since these figures are fashioned in granite the workmanship is somewhat crude. Three figures of two-armed Ambikā are found at the Hoyasala sites at Halebid (Pārsvanātha temple; 2 figures; Fig. 78, on page 131) and Arsikere (Mahāvira temple). The figures, datable to 12th century A.D., represent her as seated in lalitāsana and as holding

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63 Sedam (Gulbarga, Karnataka), c. 12th century (p. 113)
amra-lumbi and fruit. Her younger son (nude) appears on left while the elder son, riding on his mother's lion mount is carved on right. In two instances the elder son shown as grown up man holds manuscript (or lotus) and fruit instead.
Two figures are found from Kambadahalli (Māndyā, Pāncakūta, Basti, 12th century A.D.; Figs. 79, 80, on pages 133 and 132). In both the instances, two-armed Ambikā, seated in lalita pose, holds āmra-lumbi and fruit. One of her sons stands nude on left while the elder son rides on her lion mount on right. Two of her figures from Karnataka standing in tri-bhanga and holding āmra-lumbi and fruit are displayed in the National Museum, Delhi (Acc. Nos. 74.127 and 48.4/21). The goddess stands under a mango tree with the figure of Neminātha and her younger son, standing on left. Her elder son, riding on lion, is depicted on right.56
Thus Ambikā in south India is represented mainly as two-armed with only two exceptions from Karnataka, where she is carved with four hands. One such figure is found from Terdal (Jamkhandi, Bījāpur). The figure, preserved in the Jaina temple, called Gonka Jinālaya, belongs to the 12th century A.D. Instead of her usual

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lion vähana an elephant is carved (on right) here with a figure of her son riding on it. The beautiful image with profuse ornamentation shows the Yaksi with āmra-lumbi, goad, noose and fruit. The younger son, however, stands (nude) on her left. The other figure (in bronze) is obtained from Nallura (Kārkala, South Kanara). The
64 Moodbidri (South Kanara, Karnataka), 13th century (p. 113)
Ambikā 117

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66
Nallur (South Kanara, Karnataka), 16th century (p. 113)
67 Nallur (South Kanara, Karnataka), 16th century (p. 113)
118 Ambikā

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68
Sravanabelgola (Hassan, Karnataka), 10th century (p. 113)
69
Sravanabelgola (Hassan, Karnataka), 10th century (p. 113)
image, belonging to 16th century, is found from the Pārsvanātha Basti. The four-armed Yaksi, seated on double lotus with her lion mount carved below, holds fruit, disc, conch and lotus bud. However, her younger child sits in her left lap while the elder son (Subhankara, nude) stands on the right.

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70 Melkote (Gulbarga, Karnataka), c. 10th century (p. 113)
Ambikā 121

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65
Terdal (Bijapur, Karnataka), 12th century (p. 113)
cropoCODE

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ED
TRANSHOP
Ambikā in Painting
Ambikā also appears in paintings from about 12th century A.D. onwards. Ambikā in all the examples is shown as seated in lalita-pose with her one leg dangling down and other being folded. Her slim body is beautifully modelled in paintings with unusually narrow waist, and sharp and long eyes and nose. Her serene appearance, beautifully done coiffure with small curls hanging on cheeks, prominent breasts, somewhat oblong halo, and above all, highly ornate dhoti, bodice and hovering scarf are also commonly noticed in all the paintings. She is bedecked in ornate golden mukuta, long necklaces, bracelets and anklets. Her dhoti is decorated with rosettes, cross and other designs. The colour scheme in the paintings is mostly sharp but soothing.
One of the paintings in the collection of U.P. Shah shows the Tantric form of the eight-armed Ambikā. The figure, concurring with the Tantric dhyana-mantra of the Digambara tradition referred to by U.P. Shah, shows her with corn, trident, bow and the abhayamudră in right hands while the left ones show goad, lotus, arrow and amra-lumbi. The presence of lion mount makes her identification with Ambikā doubtless.
Motichandra has published two paintings of Ambikā from western India.? Of these, the first is in the collection of Upādhyāyaji Sri Viravijayji Sastrasamgraha, Chhani (Vadodara Cat. No. 1155). The palm-leaf manuscript painting (folio No. 227; size 2"x2/8"), dated A.D. 1161 (V.S. 1218), shows the two-armed Ambikā as seated on
Ambikā 123

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Angadi (Chikmaglur, Karnataka), 11th century (p. 113)
a cushion. Her lion mount facing right is shown below the cushion. She holds a baby in her right hand while the left hand holds an āmra-lumbi, the attributes apparently are here juxtaposed. She wears beautiful green coloured sari decorated with pink coloured rosettes. The goddess, benign in appearance, is labelled as Ambai.
Another painting of Ambikā from the palm-leaf manuscript of the Neminātha-caritra of Hemacandra's Trişaşti-salākāpurusa-caritra, is preserved in the Sāntinātha Temple Bhandāra at Cambay. The painting, dated V.S. 1298 (A.D. 1241), renders the four-armed Ambikā, having golden complexion, with a child seated in her lower right hand. Of the remaining three hands, two carry āmra-lumbi, while the lower left bears only a mango fruit. The painting reminds us of her alike renderings in the Vimala Vasahi and the Kharatara Vasahi at Mt. Abu. Ambikā, fully ornamented and dressed in dhoti and fluttering scrarf, sits on a cushion in lalitāsana. Below her cushion there appears a crouched lion. The elder son (nude) Subhankara stands close to her. The goddess with smiling face wears beautiful black sārī decorated with white coloured cross-like design. The entire colour scheme and well

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72
Narayanpur
(Dharwar,
Karnataka), c. 11th century (p. 115)
proportioned body are excellent. The slim body with narrow waist and beautiful hair curls hanging on cheeks are also magnificent.
S.N. Nawab has published a painting of two-armed Ambikā, as usual seated in lalitāsana on a cushion with the figure of her mount lion shown below the seat. The paintings, dated V.S. 1241 (A.D. 1185), renders Ambikā with a child, seated in lap, in right hand and an amra-lumbi with seven mango fruits in the corresponding left. The goddess, wearing green coloured sārī showing pink coloured resette decorations, is shown giving motherly smiling look at her son in the lap. She wears a beautiful long necklace, triangular mukuta and hovering dupattā.
One very interesting palm-leaf manuscript of Pandava-caritra by Maladhārī-Devaprabha Suri in the Sāntinātha Bhandāra, Cambay, contains on its first folio a painting of Ambikā. The four-armed Ambikā sitting under a mango tree with its branches spread all around, shows the abhayamudrā, āmra-lumbi, āmra-lumbi and her son Priyankara, lying in lap. The golden complexioned Ambikā, wearing lower garment, hovering scarf, kundalas, mukuta and other ornaments, has benign appearance. Her vāhana lion and second son Subhankara are also

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73
Humcha
(Shimoga, Karnataka), c. 11th century (p. 115)
126 Ambika
shown in the painting. The figure of rampant lion is here shown standing separately. The painting is datable to 13th century A.D.
Another painting of four-armed Ambika is in the manuscript of the Rṣabha-deva-caritra which is now in Sangha-no Bhaṇḍāra of Patan (Gujarat). The manuscript, dated in A.D. 1232, shows

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Ambikā as seated in lalita pose on a cushion. There appears her rampant lion mount, facing right, under the seat. The Yakşi supports her younger son Priyankara, seated in lap, with her lower right hand while the remaining three hands carry respectively an amra-lumbi, āmra-lumbi and mango fruit. Ambikā dressed in ornate sārī, showing
75 Humcha (Shimoga, Karnataka), 10th century (p. 115)
Ambikā 127

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74 Humcha (Shimoga,
Karnataka), 10th century (p. 115)
densely designed circular marks, fluttering scarf, and mukuta, has her elder son Subhankara also standing (nude) on the right flank Subhankara also holds a mango fruit in his left hand. The delineation of mango tree over the head of Ambikā is beautiful.
A.K. Coomaraswamy has also published an old Jaina pata on cloth, datable to c. 15th century A.D. The four-armed Ambikā,
128 Ambikā

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76 Humcha (Shimoga, Karnataka), c. 11th century (p. 115)
seated in lalitāsana, holds lotuses in her upper hands while the lower right and left hands show the abhaya-mudrā (actually varada-mudrā) and the son. However, the figure of her lion mount is not discernible.
Thus it is apparent that in paintings, Ambikā is represented as possessing two, four and eight hands. The paintings mostly corres
Ambikā 129

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77 Shimoga (Karnataka), c. 11th century
(p. 115)
130 Ambika

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78 Halebid (South Kanara, Karnataka), 12th century (p. 115)
pond in details with the figures carved in the Svetāmbara Jaina temples of western India, specially Delvādā (Vimala Vasahi) and Kumbhāriā. In some cases, the rendering of son in the right hand and ämra-lumbi in the left are surprising.
Ambikā is also shown in the painting of the story of Agnilā (the
Ambikā 131

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80
Kambadahalli (Mandya, Karnataka), 10th century (p. 116)
name of Ambikā in previous birth) illustrated in the wall paintings in the sangīta-mandapa of the Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuttikkuņram (Jina Kāñchī). The Yakṣī, seated cross-legged and wearing conical mukuta, is joined by her two sons on the two sides, There stands a female attendant with garland on right. Another panel shows the four-armed Ambikā likewise sitting crosslegged and wearing a conical crown. The Yakși bears the abhaya-mudrā, goad, noose and, the varada-mudrā. To her left there stands a group of female figures, of which only two are, discernible in the old painting. The rendering of the figures of Ambikā in the narrative of Agnila is thus interesting since they show her without lion mount and āmra-lumbi.

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79 Kambadahalli (Mandya, Karnataka), 12th century (p. 115)

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Referenences Chapter 1
1. For details consult, Desai, P.B., Jainism in South India and Some Jaina
Epigraphs, Sholapur, 1957. The principal sites yielding Jaina vestiges in south India are Bādāmi, Aihole, Ellorā, Sravanabelgola, Halebid,
Humchā, Arsikere, Tirupparuttikkunram, Dánavulapádu etc. 2. Chandragupta Maurya, Samprati, Khāravela, Nāgabhata II (?) and
Kumārapāla Chaulukya. 3. Epigraphia Indica, Vol.I, Inscriptions, 1, 2, 7, 21, 29; Vol.II,
Inscriptions 5, 16, 18, 39, pp. 237-40; Nahar, P.C., Jaina Inscriptions, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1918, pp. 192-94, 233 (Inscription 898); Vijaya Murti
(Ed.), Jaina Silālekha Samgraha, Pt. Ill, Bombay, 1957, p. 108. 4. Unnithan, N.G., Relics of Jainism-Alatūr', Jour. Indian History, Vol.
XLIV, Pt. 1, No. 130, April 1966, p. 542. The Jina images from Bādāmi,
Aihole, Ellora etc. do not show these features. 5. Consult Marshall, John, Mohen-jo-daro and the Indus Civilization, Vol.
1, London, 1931, Pl. XII, Fig. 13, 14, 18, 19, 22, p. 45, pl. X; Chanda, R.P., 'Sindh Five Thousand Years Ago,', Modern Review, Vol. LII, No.
2, Aug. 1932, pp. 151-60. 6. Shah, U.P., 'Beginnings of Jaina Iconography', Bulletin Museums and
Archaeology in U.P. No. 9, June 1972, p. 2. 7. For details consult, Shah, U.P., 'A Unique Jaina Image of Jivantasvāmi',
Journal Oriental Institute, Vol. 1, No. 1, Sept 1951 (1952), pp. 72-79; Shah, 'Sidelights on the life-time Sandal-wood Image of Mahāvira,'
Journal Oriental Institute, Vol. I, No. 4, June 1952, pp. 358-68. 8. Shah U.P., Akotā Bronzes, Bombay, 1959, pp. 26-28, Pl. 9 a, b, 12a. 9. Jain, J.C., Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jain Canons, Bombay,
1947, pp. 252, 300, 325. The earliest literary reference is found in the
Vasudeva-hindi of Sanghadāsa Gani (c. mid 6th century A.D.). 10. Trişasti-salākā-purusa-caritra, 10.11.379-80. 11. It may be noted that there is no mention of Jivantasvāmin image in the
Digambara iso-canonical or literary works and as a consequence no Jivantasvāmin image is known from any of the Digambara (and even Yapaniya) sites. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Jivantasvāmi Images',
Bharati, New series, 2, 1984, pp. 78-83. 12. Jayaswal, K.P., Jaina Image of Maurya Period', Journal Bihar and
Orissa Research Society, Vol. XXIII, Pt. I, 1937, pp. 130-32.
134 Ambikā

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13. The Ayodhya excavation has yielded a terracotta figure of c. third
century B.C. which is taken to be the earliest Jaina terracotta figure so far excavated in India. Consult Lal, B.B. and Srivastava, S.K., 'Perhaps the Earliest Jaina Terracotta so far excavated in India', Madhu (Recent
Researches in Indian Archaeology and Art History), pp. 329-31. 14. Sircar, D.C., Select Inscriptions, Vol. I, Calcutta, 1965, pp. 213-21. 15. Consult Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, Varanasi, 1955, pp. 8-9;
Prasad, H.K., Jaina Bronzes in the Patna Museum', Mahāvira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Vol., Bombay, 1968, pp. 275-80. The image in the Patna Museum is procured from Chausa in Bhojpur district of
Bihar. 16. A colossal Tirthankara image from the Kankāli Tilā is dated in V.S.
1234 (A.D. 1177). 17. These narrative panels of the Kuşāņa period are on display in the State
Museum, Lucknow (Acc. Nos. J626, 1354). Consult, Buhler, G.,
Specimens of Jaina Sculptures from Mathurā', Epigraphia Indica,
Vol. II, pp. 314-18; Pauma-cariya, 3. 122-26. 18. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Jaina Pratima-vijñāna, Vārānasi, 1981,
pp. 49-52. 19. Consult, Tripathi, L.K., 'The Erotic Sculptures of Khajuraho and their
Probable Explanation', Bhārati, No. 3, 1959-60, pp. 82-104. 20. 3a 14cae taea sfasi TUCI
जिनागारे समस्तायाः प्रजायाः कौतुकाय सः ।।
Hari-vaṁśa-purana, 29.2. 21. Hari-vamśa-purāņa, 29. 1-10. 22. However, Ganesa, Nava-grahas, kşetrapāla, Brahma-śānti and
Kaparadin Yakşas, 64 Yoginis, Santi-devi and the parents of the Jinas
were included after c. eighth century A.D. 23. For details consult, Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, op.cit., pp. 29-44:
The story of the transfer of embryo of Mahavira, the image of Jivantasvāmin Mahavira and reference to Mallinātha as female
Tirthankara are not mentioned in the Digambara works. 24. Samavāyānga-sūtra, 157; Kalpasūtra, 2,184-203; Paumacariya 1.1-7. 25. The aşta-mahā-prātihāryas-eight chief accompanying attendantsare
the Aśoka tree, the deva-dundubhi, sura-puspavrsti (scattering of flowers by gods), the tri-cchatra (triple umbrella), the câmara (fly-whisk), the siṁhāsana (lion-throne), the divyadhvani (divine music) and the bha-mandala (halo)-See, Pauma-cariya, 2.35-36;
Harivarśa-purána, 3.31-38; Pratisthā sāroddhāra, 1.76-77. 26. Chanda, R.P., 'Jaina Remains at Räjgir Archaeological Survey of India,
Annual Report, 1925-26, pp. 125-26; Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, 'An Unpublished Jina Image in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi', Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal, Vol. XIII, Nos. 1-2, March-Sept.
Ambika 135

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1975, pp. 373-75. 27. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes, pp. 28-29. 28. आजानुलम्बबाहुः श्रीवत्साङ्कः प्रशान्तमूर्तिश्च । दिग्वासास्तरुणो रुपवांश्च कायोर्हतां देवः ।।
Brhat-sarhitā, 58.45; also see, Mänasära, 55, 46, 71-95. 29. Västu-vidyā-Jina-parikaralaksana, 22. 10-12, 33-39. 30. For details consult, Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Jaina Pratima
vijñāna, pp. 144-47. 31. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. II, pp. 202-03, 210; Bhattacharya B.C., The
Jaina Iconography, Lahore, 1939, p. 48. 32. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 94-95; De, Sudhin, 'Caumukha
a Symbolic Jaina Art', Jain Journal, Vol. VI, No. 1, July 1971, p. 27. 33. Banerjea, J.N., The Development of Hindu Iconography, Calcutta,
1956, p. 461; Shukla, D.N., Pratima-vijñāna, Lucknow, 1956, p. 315; Agrawala, P.K., 'The Triple Yaksa Statue from Räjghāt', Chhavi, Vol. I, Varanasi, 1971, pp. 340-42; Pandey, Deena Bandhu, Notes on Indian Iconography, Varanasi, 1978, pp. 15-21; Agrawala, V.S.,
Indian Art, Vārānasi, 1965, pp. 49-50, 232. 34. 1971: Fica a l-agfaff: HTI
हिताः सुतामप्रतिचक्रयान्विताः प्रयाचिताः सन्निहिता भवन्तु ताः ।। ग्रहोरगा भूतपिशाचराक्षसा हितप्रवृतौ जनविनकारिणः । जिनेशिनां शासनदेवतागणप्रभावशक्त्याथ शमं श्रयन्ति ते।।
Hari-vaṁsa-purāņa 66.43-45. 35. Shah, U.P. 'Yaksa Worship in Early Jaina Literature' Journal, Oriental
Institute, Vol. lll, No. 1, Sept. 1953, pp. 61-62. 36. Shah, U.P., Akota Bronzes, pp. 28-29; Shah, U.P., 'Introduction of
Sasana-devatās in Jaina Worship', Proceedings & Trans. of Oriental Conference, 20th Session, Bhubanesvara, Oct. 1959, Poona, 1961,
pp. 141-52. 37. Vişnu, Siva, Brahmā, Indra, Skanda Kārttikeya, Kāli, Gauri, Cāmunda
Vaişnavī etc.-See, Banerjea, J.N., op. cit., pp. 561-63. 38. Tārā, Vajraśrkhalā, Vajratārā, Vajrānkusi etc.-See, Bhattacharyya,
Benoytosh, The Indian Buddhist Iconography, Calcutta, 1968, pp. 56,
235, 240, 242, 297. 39. Shah, U.P., Akotā Bronzes, pp. 28-31. 40. These instances come from Deogarh (Temple 12, Uttara Pradesh, 862
A.D.), Patiyāna-dāi (Ambikā image, Madhya Pradesh, 11th century A.D.)
and Bārabhuji cave (Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa, 11th-12th century A.D.). 41. Shah, U.P., 'Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyās', Journal
Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. XV, 1947, pp. 114-77. 42. Sutra-krtānga (2.2.15) and Nāyā-dhamma-kahão (129). 43. Pauma-cariya, 7.73-107, 7.144-4, 59-84, 67.1-3.
136
Ambikā

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44. Nirvana-kalikā, Mantradhiraja-kalpa (of Sagara-chandra Sūri, c. 13th
century A.D.), Ācāra-dinakara (of Vardhamana Sūri, A.D. 1412): Pratisthă-sära-samgraha (of Vasunandin, c. 12th century A.D.), Pratişthă-săroddhāra (of Āsādhara, c, A.D. 1228), and Pratisthā-tilaka (of Nemicandra, A.D. 1543).
Chapter 2 1. In the vast galaxy of Indian divinities a number of such folk-goddesses,
as Revati, Putană, Sita-pūtanā, Şaşthi, Jata-hārini, Sitalā and also Bahu-putrikā, both benevolent and malevolent in character, were regarded deities mainly of infants. Banerjea, J.N., The Development of Hindu Iconography, Calcutta, 1956, pp. 489-96, 563. Mitra,
Debala, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, Delhi, 1978, p. 44. 2. Bhattacharya, B.C., The Jaina Iconography, Delhi, 1974 (rep.), pp.
86, 104. Banerjea, J.N., op. cit., p. 563. Mitra, Debala, op. cit., p. 44. Mitra, Kalipada, "Note on Two Jaina Images”, Jr. Bihar-Orissa Research Society, Vol. XXVIII, Pt. 2, 1942, p. 205. Jain, S.K. "Some Common Elements in Jaina and Hindu Pantheons Yakshas and
Yakshinis", Jaina Antiquary, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, Dec. 1952, p. 22. 3. Bhattacharya, B.C., op. cit., p. 104. 4. Banerjea, J.N., op. cit., p. 563. 5. Mitra, Debala, op. cit., p. 44. 6. Mitra, Kalipada, op. cit., p. 205. 7. Jain, S.K., op. cit., p. 22. 8. Ambika-tādamka (Appendix 19 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 93). 9. Bhagavati-sutra, 10.5, 18.2; Nirayāvaliyão, ii. 4, p. 79. Shah, U.P.,
"Yaksa Worship in Early Jaina Literature", Journal of Oriental Institute, Baroda, Vol. III, No. 1, Sept. 1953, pp. 54-71. Misra, Ramanath,
Yaksha Cult and Iconography, Delhi, 1981, p. 53. 10. Shah, U.P., 'Yaksa Worship in Jaina Literature' pp. 60-65. 11. Shah, U.P., Akotā Bronzes, p. 29, fn.6. Shah, U.P., "Introduction of
Śāsanadevatās in Jaina Worship", Proceedings & Trans. of Oriental Conference, 20th Session, Bhubaneswar, Oct. 1959, Poona, 1961,
p. 145. 12. Shah, U.P., "Introduction of Sāsanadevatās...", p. 145. 13. Ed. Pt. Dalsukh Malavania and Pt. Bechardas J. Doshi, L.D. Series,
No. 21, Ahmedabad, 1968. 14. Devi-mahātmya, 2.52, 3.1, 8.9, 10.24. 15. Ambika-devi-stuti, (Appendix 21 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 96). 16. Shah, U.P., Akotā Bronzes, pp. 28-31. Shah, "Beginnings of Jaina
Iconography", p. 12.
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138
Ambikä
17. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Elements of Jaina Iconography, p. 44. 18. Govt. Museum, Mathura, Acc. No. D7 (c. 9th century A.D.) B65 (c. 8th century A.D.) and State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. J 78 (c. 8th century A.D.).
19. The figure labelled as Ambayikā is carved with her traditional Jina Neminatha on the facade in the group of the twenty-four Yakṣis. 20. Nirvāṇa-kalikā, 18.22; Trişaşti-salākāpuruṣa-caritra,
8.9.385-86;
Acara-dinakara, 34.22.
21. Rao, T.A. Gopinatha, Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol. I, Pt. II, Varanasi, 1971, reprint, pp. 361-66.
22. Hari-vamsa-puraṇa, 66.45; Ambika-devi-kapla (61st chapter of kalpa-pradipa, p. 107) : निवारेइ विग्घ-संघायं.
The Jaina Yakṣīs Ajitā, Kālikā, Mahākālī, Sāntā, Aśokā, Jvālāmālinī, Mānavi, Gaurī, Ankuśā, Jaya, Dharini, Camuṇḍā, Padmavati and also Sarasvati are likewise provided with goad and noose in two of their hands.
23. Devi-māhātmya, 8.12-23. The Mātṛkās were none else but respective Saktis, issued forth and endowed with exceeding vigour and strength of different principal Brahminic deities such as Brahma, Śiva, Vişņu, Guha, (Kartikeya) and Indra.
24. Ambika-devi-stuti of Jineśvara Sūri (Appendix 21 of Bhairava-Padmä
vati-kalpa, p. 96).
25. धनुर्बाण - दण्डासि- चक्राम्बुजानेक-शस्त्रोदिते! सृष्टि संहार कर्त्रि... Ambika- tatarika (as appendix 18 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 91).
26. The Västu-vidya of Viśvakarma gives their detailed list. The names of Umā, Pārvati, Gauri, Lalita, Śriyä, Kṛṣṇā, Himavanti, Rambha, Savitri, Tri-jaṭā, Totalā, Tri-pură are included in the list of twelve Guaris while Totalā, Tri-purā, Saubhagya, Vijaya, Gauri, Parvati, Śūleśvari, Lalita, iśvari, Māneśvari, Umā, Vīņā, Hastini, Trinetrā, Ramaṇā, Trailokyavijayā, Kameśvarī, Rakta-netrā, Candi, Jangha, Jambhini, Navalaprabha and Bhairavi are referred to as twenty-four Pārvatīs. The list of Nava-durgas includes Mahalakṣmi, Nandā, Kṣemankarī, Śivadūti, Mahācaṇḍā, Bhramari, Sarva-mangalā, Raivati and Harasiddhi. 27. Ambika-taḍamka and Ambikä-stavana of Vastupala (appendices No. 19 and 20 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 92-95).
Chapter 3
1. सिंहयाना हेमवर्णा सिद्धबुद्धसमन्विता । कम्राम्रलुम्बिभृत्पाणिरत्राम्बा सङ्घविघ्नहत् । ।
Úrjjayanta-stave (verse 13) of Kalpa-pradīpa or Vividha-tirtha-kalpa (Ed. Jina Vijaya, Singhi Jaina Series No. 10, Pt. I, Santiniketan, 1934). 2. Rúpa-mandana 6. 25-26.

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3. इत्थ कुबेरा नरवाहणा अंबिया सीहवाहणा खित्तवालो असारमेअवाहणो तित्थस्स रक्खं कुणंति ।
Kalpa-pradipa, p. 19. पायारसमीवे सिरिनेमिमुत्तिसहिआ सिद्धबुद्धकलिआ अंबलुंबिहत्था सिंहवाहणा अंबादेवी चिट्ठइ ।
Kalpa-pradipa, p. 14. 4. जिनवचसि कृतास्था संश्रिता कम्रमानं समुदितसुमनस्कं दिव्यसौदामनीरुक् । दिशतु सततमम्बा भूतिपुष्पात्मकं नः समदितसुमनस्कं दिव्यसौ दामिनीरु।। CaturvimSatika 88.22. सिंहेसिं हेलयालं जयति खरनखैर्वीतनिष्ठेतिनिष्ठे, शक्ले शकक्लेशनाशं दिशति शुभकतो पण्डितेखण्डिते खम्। याते या तेजसाढ़या तडिदिव जलदे भाति धीरातिधीरा पत्यापत्यापनीयानमुदितसमपराधिमं बाधमम्बा ।।
Caturvimšatikā 96.24. 5. हस्तालम्बितचूतलुम्बिलतिका यस्या जनोभ्यागमद् विश्वासेवितताम्रपादपरतां वाचा रिपुत्रासकृत् ।
सा भूतिं वितनोतु नोर्जुनरुचिः सिंहेधिरूढोल्लसद् विश्वासे वितताम्रपादपरताम्बा चारिपुत्रासकृत् ।।
Stuti-caturvimsatikā 22.4, also see its 24.4. 6. At least in one mantra Ambikā is also provided with a buffalo as her
vāhana : ओं कूष्पाण्डिनि रक्ते रक्तमहिषसमारूढे शुभाशुभं कथय कथय झवीं स्वाहा । Ambikā-devi-kalpa of Subha-candra (in manuscript) as quoted by U.P. Shah, in his article 'Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambikā' Jour.
University of Bombay, Vol. IX, 1940-41, P. 149, fn 2. 7. कूष्माण्डी देवी कनकवर्णा सिंहवाहनां चतुर्भुजां मातुलिङ्गपाशयुक्तदक्षिणकरां पुत्रांकुशान्वित
वामकरां चेति।
Nirvana-kalikā 18.22. 8. ततीर्थजन्मा कुष्माण्डी स्वर्णाभा सिंहवाहना। आम्रलंबीपाशधरवामेतरभुजद्वया।।
पुत्रांकुशधरवामकरयुग्मामवत्प्रभोः। अंबिकेत्यमिधानेन भर्तः शासनदेवता।।
Trisasti-salaka-purusa-caritra 8.9.385-86. 9. श्रीनेमिजिनस्य अम्बा देवी कनककान्तिरुचिः सिंहवाहना चतुर्भुजा आम्रलुम्बिपाशयुक्तदक्षिण
करद्वया पुत्राङ्कुशासक्तावामकरद्वया च।
Pravacana-sāroddhara 22, p. 94. 10. द्विभुजा सिंहमारूढा आम्रादेवी हरिप्रभा।
देवी कुष्माण्डिनी यस्य सिंहयाना हरिप्रभा। चतुर्हस्ता जिनेन्द्रस्य महाभक्तिर्विराजिता ।।
Pratisthá-sāra-sangraha 5.64, 66. 11. सव्येकधुपगप्रियंकरसुतप्रीत्यै करे बिभ्रती, दिव्याम्रस्तबकं शुभकरकरश्लिष्टान्यहस्ताङ्गलिम्।
सिंहे भर्तृचरे स्थितां हरितभामाम्रद्रुमच्छायगां,वंदारुं दशकार्मुकोच्छ्यजिनं देवीमिहाम्रो यजे।। Pratisthā-sāroddhāra 3.176. धत्ते वामकटौ प्रियंकरसुतं वामे करे मजरी आम्रस्यान्यकरे शुभकरतुजो हस्तं प्रशस्ते हरौ। आस्ते भर्तचरे महाम्रविटपिच्छायं श्रिताभीष्टदा। यासौ तां नतनेमिनाथपदयोर्नम्रामिहाम्रां यजे।। Pratisthā-tilaka 7.22.
Ambikā 139

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12. अम्बिकाम्रलम्बीपाशालम्बिदक्षिणदोर्द्वया । सपुत्राङ्कुशवामदोर्द्वया सिंहवाहना।।
Padmānanda-mahakavya: appendix Neminatha,57. 13. सा य भगवई चउब्भुआ दाहिणहत्थेसु अंबलुंबि पासं च धारेई। वामहत्थेसु पुण पुत्तं अंकुसं च
धारेई। सिरिनेमिनाहस्स सासणदेवय त्ति निवसई रेवईगिरिसिहरे। Ambika-devi-Kalpa (61st chapter of Kalpa-pradipa), p. 107. सिंहारूढा कनकतनुरुग् वेदबाहश्च वामे, हस्तद्वंद्वेङ्कुशतनुभवौ बिभ्रती दक्षिणे च। पाशाम्रालीं सकलजगतां रक्षणैकार्रचित्ता, देव्यम्बा नः प्रदिशतु समस्तौघविध्वंसमाशु।।
Ācāra-dinakara, Pt. II, 22, p. 177. सिंहारूढाम्बिका पीताम्रलुम्बिनागपाशकम्। अकुशं च भया (? तथा) पुत्रं तस्य (स्याः) हस्तेषु कारयेत्।। Rūpāvatāra (As quoted by U.P. Shah in his paper on the iconography
of Jaina Goddess Ambikā, p. 159, fn. 4). 14. सिंहारूढाम्बिका पीता मुलंबि? (त्वाम्रक) नागपाशकम् । अंकुशंच तथा पुत्रं तथा हस्तेष्वनुक्रमात् ।।
Rupa-mandana 6.19; also see, Devata-murti-prakarana, 7.61. 15. कुष्माण्डिनी कनककान्तिरिभारियाना, पाशाम्रलुम्बिसृणिसत्फलमावहन्ती।
पुत्रद्वयं करकटीतटगं च (नेमि-) नाथ-क्रमाम्बुजयुगं शिवदा नमन्ती।।
Mantrādhiraja-kalpa 3.64. 16. हरिद्वर्णा सिंहसंस्था द्विभुजा च फलं वरम्। पुत्रेणोपास्यामाना च सुतोत्सङ्गा तथाम्बिका ।।
Aparăjita-prccă, 221.36. 17. Ambika-stavana(as appendix 20ofthe Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa,p.95) 18. हस्तविन्यस्तसहकारफललुम्बिका, हरतु दुरितानि देवि जगत्यम्बिका । ___ (As quoted by U.P. Shah in his paper Iconography of Ambika', p.
150, fn. 3). 19. Ramachandran, T.N., Tirupparuttikkunram and Its Temples, Madras,
1934, p. 209. 20. Burgess, J., 'Digambara Jaina Iconography', Indian Antiquary,
Vol. XXXII, 1903, pp. 463, pl. IV, fig. 22. 21. Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla, Appendices Nos. 16-19-21. 22. ...दुष्टसंचूर्णिनि! क्षद्रविद्राविणि! शत्रुसंचूर्णिनि! धार्मिका-रक्षिणि! देवि!... सष्टिसंहारकत्रि!
दिव्ये! देवेन्द्रनागेन्द्रभूपेन्द्रचन्द्रस्तुते! ...
Ambikă-tātanka (Appendix 18 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 91) 23. कूष्पाण्डिके! हूँ नमो देवि! अम्बिके! ह्रः सदा सर्वसिद्धिप्रदे! अलं रक्ष रक्ष मां देवि! वादे,
विवादे, रणे, कानने, शत्रुमध्ये, श्मशाने, अग्नौ, गिरौ, रात्रौ सन्ध्याकाले, विहस्तं, निरस्तं, नभःस्थं, निषण्णं, प्रमत्तं भयैर्व्याघ्रसिहैर्वराहैश्च रुद्धं तथा व्यालवेतालभूपालभीतं, ज्वरेणाभिभूतं, कृतान्तेन नीतं, नरेण उक्तं नरैराक्षसैदेवि! अम्बालये! त्वत्प्रसादात् शान्तिकं, पौष्टिकं, वश्यमाकर्षणं, स्तम्भनं, मोहनं, दुष्टसंचूर्णनं, धार्मिकारक्षणम्। Ambika-tatanka (Appendix 18 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla, p. 91). jinaprabha Suri invokes her as the remover of obstacles (निवारेइ विग्धसंघाय) and bestower of rddhi-siddhi (दीसंति अणेगरूवाओ रिद्धिसिद्धीओ). Ambika-devi-kapla (61st chapter of Kapla-pradipa, p. 107-08).
140 Ambikā

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24. ओं ह्रीं अम्बिके! ह्रां ह्रीं ह्रां ह्रीं क्लींब्लूं सः ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं नमः ।
Ambikā-stuti(appendix 17 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa p. 90). ओं ह्रीं आम्रकूष्माण्डिनि! ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं नमः। (अयं मूलमन्त्रः)।
Ambika-tadamka (Appendix 19 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 92). 25. ओं ह्रीं अम्बे! ओं क्रीं ह्रीं ह्रां ह्रीं क्लीं ब्लूं सः ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं नमः । इदं यन्त्रं पवित्रपट्टके
यक्षकर्दमकणवीरपुष्पैर्जाप्यं दिनसप्तकेन द्वादश सहस्राणि, ततः पुरुधृतमधुखण्डमिश्रजपाकुसुमदशांशचूर्णेन गुटिकाशत (12) त्रिकोणकुण्डे होमः । ततोम्बिका सिद्धा स्यात् । विश्वक्षोभणस्त्र्याकर्षण-पात्रावतार-स्वप्न देशसिद्धिर्मुद्गलादिग्रहनिग्रहं च विदधाति । अन्यदपि हितं सम्पादयति ।
Ambika-tadamka, (appendix 19 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 93). 26. व्यालोलालम्बमानप्रवणरणझणत्किङ्किणीकाणरम्यं, ध्वस्तध्वान्तं समन्तामणिकिरणगणाडम्बरोल्लासितेन।
देवी दिव्यांशुकानां ध्वजफ्टपटलैः शोभमानं विमानं, लीलारुढा भ्रमन्ती भुक्नकृतनतिः पातु मामम्बिका सा।। या देवी दिव्यदामाञ्चितचिकुरभरामोदमुग्धालिमाला, भास्वन्माणिक्यमालामिलदमलमहोमण्डलीमण्डितागा। सन्मुक्तातारहारैर्गगनतलगतास्तारकास्तर्जयन्ती, क्वालङ्कारभासा हसितरविका पातु मामम्बिका सा ।।
Ambika-staka, (appendix 16 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 88). 27. सान्द्राम्रालुम्बिहस्ता तरलहरिगता बालकाभ्यामुपेता, ध्याता या सिद्धकामैर्विघटितडमरा साधकैर्भक्तियुक्तैः ।
रक्ता रागानुरक्तैः स्फटिकमणिनिभा क्लेशविध्वंसधीभिः,पीता वश्यानुभावैर्विहितजनहिता पातु मामम्बिका सा।
Ambikā staka, (appendix 16 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla, p. 89). 28. Ambikā staka, (appendix 16 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla, 3-6, p. 88-89). 29. क्ली प्रचण्डे! प्रसीद प्रसीद क्षणं ब्लू सदा प्रसन्ने! विधेहीक्षणम्।
सः सतां दत्तकल्याणमालोदये! हस्कूल्ह्रीं नमस्तेम्बिके! अङ्कस्थपुत्रद्वये।। इत्थमद्भुतमाहात्म्यमन्त्रस्तुते! क्रोसमालीढषट्कोणयन्त्रस्थिते!। ह्रींयुतेम्बे! मरुन्मण्डलालङ्कृते! देहि मे दर्शनं ह्रीं त्रिरेखावृते! ।।
Ambikā-stuti, verses 4-5 (appendix 17 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla, p. 90). 30. सिंहारुढा सुतयुगविभूषिता कम्रनम्रमध्यगता। साम्बादेवी तीर्थाधिवासिनी हरतु मम दुरितम् ।।
...आम्रहस्ते! महासिंहयानस्थिते।...धनुर्बाणदण्डासिचक्राम्बुजानेकशस्त्रोदिते...
Ambika-tatarika (appendix 18 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kapla, p. 91). 31. "ऐं हस्कूल्ह्रीं हसौं नमः | सहस्तत्रय-जापः, रक्तध्यानेन मंजिष्ठारुणवसनां स्वर्णाभरणभूषिताङ्गीं
सिंहारुढामगुलीलग्नैकडिम्भां अङ्कस्थद्वितीयडिम्भां हेमवर्णां चतुर्भजामुपरितनवामकराङ्कुशामुल परितनदक्षिणकरात्ताम्रलुम्बीमधस्तनदक्षिणकरबीजपूरामधस्तनवामकरपाशां देवीमम्बिकां ध्यायेद् एकेनैवासने(न) जपः कार्यः । रक्तध्यानेन विशिष्टफलमफलं रागवश्यादि स्वप्नोपदेशश्च ।
Ambika-tadarnka, (appendix 19 of Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, p. 92) 32. ... देवी चतुर्भुजा शंखचक्रवरदपाशान्यस्वरूपेण सिंहासनस्थिता शांतिद्विभुजास्थिता पार्श्वदेवकन्या...
As quoted by U.P. Shah, in his paper 'Iconography of Ambikā', p. 161. 33. ... आम्रकुष्माण्डीमष्टभुजां शंखचक्रधनुःपरशुतोमरखड्पाशकोद्रवपौष्टिकैः देवी...
As quoted by U.P. Shah. op-cit., p. 161, fn. 1. 34. Shah, U.P., op-cit., P. 163. 35. . . .देवदेवीगणै सेविताङ्घ्रिद्वये जागरूकप्रभावैकलक्ष्मीमये।
Ambikā-stuti, verse 8 (appendix 17 of Bhairava-Padmăvati-kalpa, p. 90). 36. Ambika-devi-Kalpa, 61st Chapter of kalpa-pradipa, pp. 107-08. 37. For details consult, Shah, U.P., 'iconography of Ambikā', pp. 147-48.
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Chapter 4 1. Shah, U.P., Akoța Bronzes, pp. 20-31, pls. 10 and 14. 2. Ibid., pp. 30-31, pl. 14. 3. Ibid., pp. 29-31, 33-44, 48-49, pls. 10, 14, 22, 25-27, 29-31, 34, 41,
44b. 45a, 45c. 4. Ibid., pp. 30-31, pl. 14. 5. Ibid., pp. 35-49, pl. 49. 6. Ibid., pp. 30-31, pl. 14; Shah, U.P., Jaina Art and Architecture, (Ed.
A. Ghosh), Vol. I, pp. 139-40. 7. Shah, U.P., op. cit., pp. 28-29, pl. 10b. 8. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Elements of Jaina Iconography, p. 44. 9. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Jaina Pratima-vijñana, p. 225.
Chapter 5 1. The attributes here and elsewhere are reckoned clockwise starting from
the lower right hand. 2. Shah, U.P., op. cit., pp. 49-51, 53-60, pls. 48a, b, 50a, c, 460, 51,
55, 57a, b, 59-62, 65 and 68. 3. Ibid., pl. 50a, C., 48a, b. 4. The figures from Akoţă are now deposited in the Baroda Museum and
National Museum, Delhi (Acc. No. 68.190). 5. Devkar, V.L., 'Two Recently Acquired Jaina Bronzes in the Baroda
Museum,' Bull. Museum and Picture Gallery, Baroda, Vol. XIV, 1962,
pp. 37-38. 6. Agrawala, R.C., 'Some Interesting Sculptures of the Jaina Goddess
Ambikā from Marwar', Journal of Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol.
XXXII, No. 4, Dec. 1956, pp. 434-35. 7. Shah, U.P. 'Iconography of Jaina Goddess Ambika,' p. 154. 8. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Elements of Jaina Iconography, pp.
117-23. 9. Sankalia, H.D., Jaina Iconography', New Indian Antiquary, Vol.II,
1939-40, pp. 508-09. 10. Sharma, B.N., op. cit., p. 52. 11. Agrawala, R.C., 'Goddess Ambikā in the Sculptures of Rajasthan',
Quarterly Journal Mythic Society, Vol. XXXIX, No. 2, July 1958, p. 90. 12. Ibid, p. 91. 13. Shah, U.P., op. cit., p. 154. 14. Gadre, A.S., 'Seven Bronzes in the Baroda State Museum,' Bull, Baroda
Museum, Vol. I, Pt. II, 1944, p. 49. 15. Sankalia, H.D., op. cit., p. 509. 16. Shah, U.P., op. cit., p. 159.
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17. Ibid., p. 164. 18. Ibid., p. 155.
Chapter 6 1. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, 'Iconography of the Jaina Yakşi Ambikă
at Deogarh', Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal, Vol. XIX, Pts. 1-11,
1981, pp. 242-46. 2. The figures are mostly on the enclosure wall of temple No. 12 (about
40 figures), door-lintels (temple Nos. 12, 4, 5) and the free-standing
pillars near temple Nos. 1, 4, 12, 14, 26, and 29 (13 figures). 3. Nirvana-kalika 18.22; Trişasti-salākā-puruşa-caritra (8. 9. 385-86) and
the Acāra-dinakara (34.22, p. 177). 4. Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad, Elements of Jaina Iconography,
pp. 75-76. 5. For details see, Cunningham, A., Archaeological Survey of India Report
(Central India), Vol. IX, Varanasi, 1966 (Rep.) p. 32; Amar, Gopilal, 'Patian-dāi : Eka Gupta-kālina Jaina Mandira', Anekānta, Year 19, No. 6, February 1967, p. 344; Pramod Chandra, Stone Sculpture in Allahabad Museum, Bombay, 1970, p. 162; Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad', a Nonpareil Ambikā Image from Patiān-dāi', Jain Journal,
Vol. XVIII, No. 2, Oct. 83, pp. 45-53. 6. Sharma, B.N., op. cit., p. 31. 7. Khan, Mohd. Abdul Waheed and Jain, Balchandra, Jaina Art and
Architecture, (Ed. A. Ghosh) Vol. III, pp. 573, 582.
Chapter 7 1. Khan, Mohd. Abdul Waheed and Jain Balchandra, Jaina Art and
Architecture, (Ed. A. Ghosh) Vol. III, p. 564. 2. ibid., Vol. I, p. 166. 3. Prasad, H.K., Jaina Bronzes in the Patna Museum', Mahāvīra Jaina
Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, p. 289. 4. Mitra, Kalipada, 'Note on Two Jaina Images', Journal of Bihar Orissa
Research Society, Vol. XXVIII, Pt. 2, 1942, pp. 198-207. 5. Mitra, Debala, 'Some Jaina Antiquities from Bankura', West Bangal;
Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol. XXIV. No. 2, 1985, pp. 131-34; Banerjee, P., Jaina Art and Architecture, (Ed. A Ghosh), Vol. 1,
pp. 153, 155-56, 161. 6. Mitra, Debala, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, p. 44. 7. Ibid., p. 44 8. Mohapatra, R.P., Jaina Monuments of Orissa, Delhi, 1984, pp. 232-35,
98, 101, 114-15, 125, 133. The author has wrongly identified the
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female figures in the images showing tutelary couple with children as
Ambikā. These images possibly represent the parents of the Jinas. 9. Joshi, Arjun, 'Further Light on the Remains at Podasingidi', Orissa
Historical Research Journal, Vol. X, No. 4, 1962, p. 31. 10. Mitra, Debala, Sāsanadevis in the Khandagiri Caves', Journal of the
Asiatic Society, Vol. I, No. 2, 1959, pp. 129, 132. 11. Sharma, B.N., Jaina Art and Architecture (Ed. A. Ghosh), Vol. III,
p. 541; Sharma, B.N., Jaina Images, Delhi, 1979, pp. 101-106. 12. Mitra, Debala, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, pp. 45-48.
Chapter 8
1. Desai, P.B., Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, Sholapur,
1963, pp. 37, 64, 69, 73, 173, 184, 194. 2. Srinivasan, K.R., Jaina Art and Architecture (Ed.A. Ghosh), Vol. III,
pp. 599-600. 3. Ramachandran, T.N., Tirupparuttikkuņram and Its Temples, p. 20. 4. Desai, P.B., op. cit., p. 173. 5. Shah, U.P., op. cit., pp. 154-55. 6. Sharma, B.N., op. cit., p. 54.
Chapter 9 1. Shah, U.P., 'Iconography of Jaina Goddess Ambika', p. 161. 2. Motichandra, Jaina Miniature Paintings from Western India,
Ahmedabad, 1949, pp. 140-41. 3. Nawab, Sarabhai M., Jaina Paintings, Vol. I, Ahmedabad, 1980, p. 77
fig. 169, Col. PI, 22. 4. Ibid., pl. 7; Shah, U.P., op. cit., p. 156; Brown, W. Norman 'Early
Svetambara Jaina Miniatures', Indian Arts and Letters, Vol. III No. 1
(New Series), 1929, p. 17. 5. Nawab, Sarabhai, M., (Ed.), Jain Chitrakalpalată, Ahmedabad, 1940,
pp. 2-4, fig. 7. 6. Shah, U.P., op. cit., p. 157; Nawab, Sarabhai, M., Jaina Paintings,
p. 71, fig. 118. 7. Nawab, Sarabhai M., op. cit., pp. 60-61, pl. 12, fig. 34. 8. As quoted by U.P. Shah in his article 'Iconography of Ambikā', p. 157. 9. Ramachandran, T.N., Tirupparuttikkuņram and its Temples,
pp. 157-60, pls. XXIX, XXX, figs. 83-84; Shah, U.P., op. cit., p. 149.
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Appendix-A
Temples of Ambikā
Besides several literary references to the ancient images and temples of Ambikā, mainly found in the Kalpa-pradīpa of Jinaprabha Suri (first half of the 14th cent. A.D.),' we also come across a few existing archaeological remains of ancient temples of Ambikā, ranging in date between c. eighth century A.D. and the 16th century A.D.2 One of the earliest temples of Ambikā, datable prior to A.D. 784 (probably to mid-8th century A.D.), is at Mt. Girnar in Gujarat. The temple belonged to the Digambara sect.? An inscription of saṁvat 1249 (A.D. 1192) refers to the pilgrimage of Vastupāla, the famous Jaina minister of the Vaghela regent Vira-dhavala of western India, to the temple of Ambika on Raivataka hill (Mt. Girnar). Jinaharsa Sūri also refers to the visit of Vastupāla-Tejapāla to the temple of Ambika on Mt. Girnar. He further mentions that the two brothers caused the construction of a big mandapa in the Ambikā temple and also the parikara of the image of Ambikā. They also installed the images of Neminātha, Candapa, and his elder brother Malladeva.5 An eulogy given at the end of the golden lettered copy of the Kalpa-sutra also refers to the construction of the temple of Ambika on the Girnar hill by a śresthin Sāmala in samvat 1524 (A.D. 1467). The present temple on the Mt. Girnar apparently appears to be the construction of the 15th century A.D. Thus we have a long history of the construction and restoration of the temple of Ambikä on Mt. Gimar from c. eighth century A.D. to the 14th century A.D.
Another temple, again possibly of Digambara affiliation, and attributable to c. late 10th or early 11th century A.D., is found near Thān in Saurashtra (Gujarat).
The exquisitely carved unique image of Ambikā from Patiān-dāi temple in Satna district of M.P. is indeed a cult image of c. 11th century A.D. The image, presently preserved in the Allahabad Museum, originally was installed in the sanctum sanctorum of the Patiān-dāi temple.
Another temple, possibly of pre-medieval or early medieval founding was found at Kodināra in Saurashtra. Vastu-păla had founded a
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146 Ambikā
temple dedicated to Ambika at Kāshrada (Kāśindra), near Karṇāvati (Ahmedabad) in Gujarat. (The temple was founded between A.D. 1225 and 1235.) The 24th deva-kulika in the Lūņa Vasahi complex (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan, 2nd quarter of the 13th century A.D.) also enshrines a large cult image of Ambika, which possibly suggests that this deva-kulika was dedicated to Ambikā. An independent shrine dedicated to Dharma-devī (Ambikā), the Yakṣi of Neminatha, is situated to the south of the Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuttikkuṇram.8
1. The most important images and temples were in Mathura, Urjayantagiri (Mt. Girnar), Hastinapura, Ahicchatră and Pratiṣṭhānpura.
2. The list is mainly based on the information kindly supplied by Prof. M.A. Dhaky.
3. गृहीत - चक्राप्रतिचक्र देवता तथोर्जयन्तालय-सिंह-वाहिनी ।
शिवाय यस्मिन्निह सन्निधीयते क्व तत्र विघ्नाः प्रभवन्ति शासने । ।
Hari-vaṁśa-purāṇa, 66. 44.
4. Jaina Tirtha Sarva Samgraha (Ed. Ambalal Premchand Shah), Vol I, Ahmedabad, 1943, p. 128.
5. Ibid., p. 128.
6. श्री-अम्बिका - महादेव्या ऊर्जयन्ताचलोपरि । प्रासादः कारितः प्रौढः सामलेन सु-भावतः । ।
Jaina Tirtha Sarva Samgraha, Vol. 1, Pt. I, pp. 128-29.
7. The figure of Ambika is a later replacement but the parikara is original. 8. Ramachandran, T.N., op. cit., p. 20.

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Appendix-B
Jaina Texts and Their Dates (A.D.)
1. Ācāra-dinakara of Vardhamana Suri-1412. 2. Adi-purāna of Jinasena-c. early 9th century. 3. Aparājita-prcchā of Bhuvanadeva-13th century. 4. Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa of Mallisena Süri-1047. 5. Caturvimšati-Jina-caritra of Amaracandara Suri-1241. 6. Caturvimśatikā of Bappabhatti Sūri-c. latter half of the
eighth century. 7. Hari-vaṁśa-purana of Jinasena of Punnāța-gana--783-84. 8. Kahāvali—c. eighth century. 9. Kalpa-pradipa or Vividha-tirtha-kalpa of Jinaprabha Suri-C.
1335. 10. Mana-sara-c. seventh-eighth century. 11. Mantr-adhirāja-kalpa of Sāgaracandra Sūri-c. 12th-13th
century. 12. Nirvāṇa-kalikā of Pādalipta Sūri 111-C. A.D. 900. 13. Padma-purana of Ravisena-676. 14. Pratisthā-sara-samgraha of Vasunandin--c. 12th century. 15. Pratisthā-sároddhāra of Āsādhara--first half of 13th century. 16. Pratisthā-tilaka of Nemicandra-1543. 17. Pravacana-säroddhāra of Nemicandra Suri-12th century. 18. Rüpamandana and Devată-murti-prakarana of Sūtradhāra
Mandana-15th century. 19. Stuti-caturvimśatikā or Sobhana-stuti of Sobhana Sūri--C.
973. 20. Tiloya-pannatti of Yativrsabha-c. eighth century. 21. Trisasti-salākā-purusa-caritra of Hemacandra Suri-latter
half of the 12th century. 22. Uttara-purāna (of Maha-purāna) of Gunabhadra-C. 897. 23. Vāstu-vidyā of Viśvakarman-late 11th or early 12th century.
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Appendix-C
Eulogies
(i) श्रीअम्बिकाष्टकम्
व्यालोलालम्बमानप्रवणरणझणत्किङ्किणीक्वाणरम्यं ध्वस्तध्वान्तं समन्तामणिकिरणगणाडम्बरोल्लासितेन । देवी दिव्यांशुकानां ध्वजपटपटलैः शोभमानं विमानं लीलारूढा भ्रमन्ती भुवनकृतनतिः पातु मामम्बिका सा ।।१।। या देवी दिव्यदामाञ्चितचिकुरभरामोदमुग्धालिमालाभास्वन्माणिक्यमालामिलदमलमहोमण्डलीमण्डिताङ्गा । सन्मुक्तातारहारैर्गगनतलगतास्तारकास्तर्जयन्ती वज्रालङ्कारभासा हसितरविकरा पातु मामम्बिका सा ।।२।। या कौबेरं विहाय स्वपतिपरिभवात् साधुदानप्ररूढात् स्थानं श्रान्तातिमार्गे श्रमशमनकृते संश्रिता चूतवृक्षम्। क्षुत्क्षामौ वीक्ष्य पुत्रौ कृतसुकृतवशात् प्रार्थयन्ती फलानि क्षिप्रं सम्प्राप तानि स्वचरितमुदिता पातु मामम्बिका सा ।।३।। देवी याऽत्रोपविष्टा सरणिगतपतिं वीक्ष्य कम्पं दधाना स्मृत्वा श्रीरैवताद्रिं व्यवसितमरणा साधुधर्मं स्मरन्ती। आरुह्योत्तुङ्गश्रृङ्गं प्रपतनविधिना दिव्यदेवत्वमाप्ता जैनेन्द्रे पादपीठे सततनतशिराः पातुमामम्बिका सा ।।४।। या पश्चात्तापतप्तं गतमदमदनं दुष्कृतं स्वं स्मरन्ती दंष्ट्रास्यं पिङ्गनेत्रं खरनखरकर केसरालीकरालं । पुच्छाच्छोटप्रकम्पावनिवलयतलं दिव्यसिंहं स्वकान्तं संरूढा याति नित्यं जिनपतिनिलये पातु मामम्बिका सा ।।५।। सान्द्राम्रालुम्बिहस्ता तरलहरिगता बालकाभ्यामुपेता ध्याता सा सिद्धकामैर्विघटितडमरा साधकैर्भक्तियुक्तैः । रक्ता रागानुरक्तैः स्फटिकमणिनिभा क्लेशविध्वंसधीभिः पीता वश्यानुभावैर्विहितजनहिता पातु मामम्बिका सा ।।६।।
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देवी विद्याधरेन्द्रासुरसुरमनुजैर्वन्द्यपादारविन्दा प्रत्यूहान्निक्षिपन्ती क्षपितकलिमला बिभ्रती विश्वरक्षाम्। जैनेन्द्र शासनं या प्रकटयति महोत्साहशक्त्या स्वभक्त्या नित्यं नाम्ना नराणां विशदशिवफला पातु मामम्बिका सा ।।७।। एवं वृत्ताष्टकेन स्तुतिमुखरमुखः संस्तुतिं यः करोति ध्यानाधीनान्तरात्मा प्रशममुपगतो नित्यमेकाग्रचित्तः । प्रातमध्ये निशायां शयनतलगतो यत्र कुत्रापि संस्थो देवी तस्य प्रकामं प्रकटयति पटुं प्रौढमम्बा प्रसादम् ।।८।। (From Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa of Mallisena Suri, Appendix 16, Ed. K.V. Abhyankara, Ahmedabad, 1937, pp. 88-89).
(ii) श्रीअम्बिकास्तुतिः
ॐ महातीर्थरैवतगिरिमण्डने! जैनमार्गस्थिते! विघ्नभीखण्डने! । नेमिनाथाघ्रिराजीवसेवापरे! त्वं जयाम्बे! जगज्जन्तुरक्षाकरे! ह्रीं महामन्त्ररूपे! शिवे! शङ्करे! देवि! वाचालसत्किङ्किणीनूपुरे! । तारहारावलीराजितोरःस्थले! कर्णताटङ्करुचिरम्यगण्डस्थले! अम्बिके! ह्रां स्फुरद्वीजविद्ये! स्वयं ह्रीं समागच्छ मे देहि दुःखक्षयम्। हां हूँ तं द्रावय द्रावयोपद्रवान् ह्रीं द्रहि क्षुद्रसभकण्ठीरवान् क्ली प्रचण्डे? प्रसीद प्रसीद क्षणं ब्लू सदा प्रसन्ने! विधेहीक्षणम् । सः सतां दत्तकल्याणमालोदये! ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं नमस्तेऽम्बिकेऽङ्कस्थपुत्रद्वये इत्थमद्भूतमाहात्म्यमन्त्रस्तुते! क्राँ समालीढषट्कोणयन्त्रस्थिते! ह्रींयुतेऽम्बे! मरुन्मण्डलालङ्कृते! देहि मे दर्शनं ह्रीं त्रिरेखावृते! नाशिताशेषमिथ्यादृशां दुर्मदे! शान्तिकीर्तिद्युतिस्वस्तिसिद्धिप्रदे! दुष्टविद्याबलोच्छेदनप्रत्यले! नन्द नन्दाम्बिके! निश्चले! निर्मले! देवि! कूष्माण्डि! दिव्यांशुके! भैरवे! दुःसहे दुर्जये! तप्तहेमच्छवे! नाममन्त्रेण निर्णाशितोपद्रवे! पाहि मांमध्रिपीठस्थकण्ठीरवे! देवदेवीगणैः सेविताङ्घ्रिद्वये जागरूकप्रभावैकलक्ष्मीमये! पालिताशेषजैनेन्द्रचैत्यालये! रक्ष मां रक्ष मां देवि! अम्बालये!
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अत्र स्तुतौ गुप्तीकृतो मन्त्रस्त्वेवम्ॐ ह्रीं अम्बिके! ह्रां ह्रीं ह्रां ह्रीं क्लीं ब्लू सः क्ल्ह्रीं नमः । (From Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa: Appendix 17, p. 90.)
(iii) अम्बिकाताटङ्कम्
सिंहारूढा सुतयुगविभूषिता कम्रनम्रमध्यगता । साऽम्बा देवी तीर्थाधिवासिनी हरतु मम दुरितम् ।।१।। ___ ॐ ह्रीं जय जय परमेश्वरि! श्रीअम्बिके! आम्रहस्ते! महासिंहयानस्थिते! किङ्किणीनूपुरक्वाणकेयूरहाराङ्गदानेकसझूषणैर्विभूषिताङ्गे! सर्वसल्लक्षणैर्लक्षिताङ्गे! जिनेन्द्रस्य भक्ते! कले! निष्कले! निष्प्रपञ्चे? महाग्रानने! सिद्धगन्धर्वविद्याधरेन्द्रार्चिते! मन्त्रमूर्ते! शिवे! शङ्करे! सिद्धिबुद्धिधृतिकीर्तिकान्तिविस्तारिणि! शान्तिनिधितुष्टिहृष्टिप्रिये! शोभने! सुप्रहासे! जरे! जम्भिनि! स्तम्भिनि! मोहिनि! दीपनि! शोषणि! त्रासि ! मोटिनि! भञ्जिनि! दुष्टसञ्चूर्णिनि! क्षुद्रविद्रावणि! शत्रुसञ्चूर्णिनि! धार्मिकारक्षिणि! देवि! अम्बे! महाविक्रमे! भीमनादे! सुनादे! अघोरे! सुघोरे! सुरौद्रे! सुरौद्रानने! चण्डिके! चण्डरूपे! सुनेत्रे! सुवको! सुगात्रे! पवित्रे! नमन्मध्यभागे! जयन्ति! जयन्ताकुमारि! त्रैपुराङ्गि! गौरि! गान्धारि! गन्धर्वि! यक्षेश्वरि! ॐ कालि! कालि! महाकालि! योगेश्वरि! जनमार्गस्थिते! सुप्रशस्ते! धनुर्बाणदण्डासिचक्राम्बुजानेकशस्त्रोदिते! सृष्टिसंहारकत्रि! दिव्ये! देवेन्द्रनागेन्द्रभूपेन्द्रचन्द्रस्तुते! सुवर्णे! पवित्रे! महामूलविद्यस्थिते! ॐ वषट्कारस्वाहाकारस्वधाकारहींकारकेंकारबीजान्विते! दुःखदारिदयदौ
र्भाग्यनिर्णाशिनि! लक्ष्मीधृतिकीर्तिकान्तिविस्तारिणि! ह्रीं नमो यक्षेश्वरि! ह्रीं देवि! कूष्पाण्डिके! हूँ नमो देवि! अम्बिके! हृः सदा सर्वसिद्धिप्रदे! अलं रक्ष रक्ष मां देवि! वादे विवादे रणे कानने शत्रुमध्ये श्मशानेऽग्नौ गिरौ रात्रौ सन्ध्याकाले विहस्तं निरस्तं नभःस्थं निषण्णं प्रमत्तं भयैर्व्याघ्रसिंहैर्वराहश्च रुद्धं तथा व्यालवेतालभूपालभीतं ज्वरेणाभिभूतं कृतान्तेन नीतं नरेण उक्तं नरैराक्षसैर्देवि! अम्बालये! त्वत्प्रसादात् शान्तिकं पौष्टिकं वश्यमाकर्षणं स्तम्भनं मोहनं दुष्टसञ्चूर्णनं धार्मिकारक्षणम्। (From Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, Appendix 18, p. 91.)
(iv) अम्बिकाताडंकम्
पठेत् स्मरेत् त्रिसन्ध्यं यो भक्त्या जिनपशासने! सम्प्राप्य मानुषान् लभते लभते सुभगां गतिम् ।।
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अम्बे! दत्तावलम्बे! त्वं मादृशां भव नित्यशः । श्रीधर्मकल्पलतिके! प्रसीद वरदेऽम्बिके! ।। ___ॐ ह्रीं आम्रकूष्माण्डिनि! ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं नमः । अयं मूलमन्त्रः । द्वादशसहस्राणि रक्तकणवीरकुसुमैर्जापः, द्वादशांशेन होमः। जपापुष्पमध्याद् द्वादशशतानि छायाशुष्काणि कृत्वा गुग्गुल-दधि-दुग्ध-मधु-घृतमिश्रो होमस्त्रिकोणकुण्डे देयः बदरीपलाससमिधैः ।
ॐ ह्रीं आम्रकूष्माण्डिनि! सर्वाङ्गसुन्दरि! इवीं क्ष्वीं नमः । अयमपि तथैव साध्यः । ॐ ह्रीं आम्रकूष्माण्डिनि! सर्वाङ्गसुन्दरि! इवीं क्ष्वी स्वप्नान्तरदेशं कुरु कुरु स्वाहा । षट् सहस्राणि जापः अम्बिकामूर्तेः पुरतो भोगं कृत्वा सुप्यते चिन्तिताभिप्रायेण स्वप्नं स्यात्।
ऐं ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं ह्सौँ नमः । सहस्र ३ जापः रक्तध्यानेन मञ्जिष्ठाऽरुणवसनां स्वर्णाभरणभूषिताङ्गी सिंहारूढाम् अङ्गलीलग्नैकडिम्भाम् अङ्कस्थद्वितीयडिम्भां हेमवर्णां चतुर्भुजां उपरितनवामकराङ्कुशाम् उपरितनदक्षिणकरात्ताम्रलुम्बीम् अधस्तनदक्षिणकरबीजपूराम् अधस्तनवामकरपाशां देवीमम्बिकां ध्यायेत् एकेनैवासने (न) जपः कार्यः । रक्तध्यानेन विशिष्टफलमफलं रागवश्यादि स्वप्नोपदेशश्च। ___ॐ ह्रीं कूष्माण्डिनि! कनकप्रभे! सिंहमस्तकसमारूढे! जिनधर्मसुवत्सले! महादेवि! मम चिन्तितकार्येष शभाशभं कथय कथय अमोघवागीश्वरि! सत्यवादिनि! सत्यं दर्शय दर्शय स्वाहा।
अम्बिकामन्त्रः सत्प्रत्ययः । ॐ ह्रीं अम्बिके! हाँ ह्रीं ह्रां ह्रीं क्लीं ब्लू सः ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं नमः। अयमम्बिकामन्त्रः । ॐ ह्रीं अंबा अंबालुंबि हि लुंबिया ह्रीं। १०८ षण्मासान् यावत् महाभक्त्या स्मरेत् । पुत्रं लभते ।।
ॐ ह्रीं अंबे! आँ क्राँ ह्रीं ह्रां ह्रीं क्लीं ब्लू सः ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं नमः । इदं यन्त्रं पवित्रपट्टके यक्षकर्दमकणवीरपुष्पैर्जापो दिनसप्तकेन द्वादशसहस्राणि ततः पुरुघृतमधु खण्डमिश्रजप्तकुसुमदशांशचूर्णेन गुटिका शत १२ त्रिकोणकुण्डे होमः ततोऽम्बिका सिद्धा स्यात् । विश्वक्षोभण-स्त्र्याकर्षण-पात्रावतार-स्वप्नदेशसिद्धिर्मुद्गलादिग्रहनिग्रहं च विदधाति ।
अन्यदपि हितं सम्पादयति । ___ॐ आकाशगामिनि नगरपुरपाटनक्षोभिणि! रायराणासामन्तमोहिनि! ॐ अम्बिकादेवि! ह्रीं फट् स्वाहा।
जातिपुष्पैः सहस्त्राणि १० जापः इति पूर्वसेवा । नित्यं च वार २१ जापः वार ३ थूकमन्त्री वामकनिष्ठया पुण्ड्रं सभावश्यम्। ___ॐ आकाशगामिनि! नगरपुरपाटणक्षोभिणि! रायराणाअमात्यवशीकरणी ॐ ह्रीं अम्बिके! हूं फट् स्वाहा । २१ स्मरणा ।
ॐ ह्रीं अम्बिके! उज्जयन्तनिवासिनि! सर्वकल्याणकारिणि! ह्रीं नमः । स्मरणा। ____ॐ ह्रीं सिद्धमात अम्बिके! मम सर्वसिद्धिं देहि दहि ह्रीं नमः। सदा स्मरणा कार्या ।
ॐ क्लीं हर हर ठः ठः सर्वदुष्टान् वशीकुरु कुरु त्रिपुरक्षोभिनि! त्रिपुरवशीकरणि! ॐ ह्रीं अम्बिके! स्वाहा । सदा स्मरणा ।
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ॐ नमो भगवति! कूष्पाण्डिनि! क्ष्मीं ह्रीं ह्रीं शासनदेवि! अवतर अवतर घटे दर्पणे जले वाममेतं कायं सत्यं ब्रूहि ब्रूहि स्वाहा । दीपे कन्या शुभाशुभं वक्ति ।
ॐ ह्रीं रक्ते! महारक्ते प्रौँ शासनदेवि! एहि एहि अवतर अवतर स्वाहा ।
ॐ ह्रीं रक्ते! महारक्ते! हाँ ह्स्क्ल्ह्रीं ह्स्क्ल्ब्लू शासनदेवि! एहि एहि अवतर अवतर स्वाहा।
ॐ ह्रीं अम्बे! अम्बकूष्माण्डे! रक्ते! रक्तवस्त्रे! अवतर अवतर एहि एहि शीघ्रमानय आनय मम चिन्तितं कार्यं कथय कथय ॐ ह्रीं स्वाहा । दीपावतारमन्त्रः ।
ॐ कारसम्पुटस्थानं हयरेहपरिय.... । बिंदुकलासंजुत्तं लिहह सनामं सयाकालं ।। पुव्वाई अट्ठदलं सु. . .मणं लिहह भुजपत्तम्मि। दंसणनाणचरित्ता तव चतुरो छहि पुव्वाई ।। चन्दणकप्पूरेणं लिहह क्रम पञ्चबाणमन्तेहिं । अद्धाहं सेयकुसुमेहिं अलुत्तरं जाव ।। कांपाविअम्बिएणं गंधक्खयधूवकुसुमदीवहिं । अण्णं चिय इट्ठधुरं पण जं जरइ देवएण मन्तेणं ।। पुण पुत्तह वरकण्णा दीवणमज्झम्मि मीइ जं रूवं। सदवां आअम्बइ सुहासुहं तं फुडं होई ।। (From Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, Appendix 19, pp. 92-94.)
(v) श्रीअम्बिकास्तवनम् वस्तुपाल-विरिचितम्
पुण्ये गिरीशशिरसि प्रथितावतारामासूत्रितत्रिजगतीदुरितापहाराम्। दौर्गत्यपातिजनताजनितावलम्बामम्बामहं महिमहैमवती महेयम् ।।१।। यद्वक्त्रकुञ्जरहरोद्गतसिंहनादोऽप्युन्मादिविघ्नकरियूथकथाममाथम् । कूष्माण्डि खण्डयतु दुर्विनयेन कण्ठः कण्ठीरवः स तव भक्तिनतेषु भीतिम् ।।२।। कूष्माण्डि! मण्डनमभूत्तव पादपद्मयुग्मं यदीयहृदयावनिमण्डलस्य । पद्मालया नवनिवासविशेषलाभलुब्धा न धावति कुतोऽपि ततः परेण ।।३।। दारिद्र्यटुर्दमतमःशमनप्रदीपाः सन्तानकाननघनाघनवारिधाराः । दुःखोपतप्तजनबालमृणालदण्डाः कूष्माण्डि! पातु पदपद्मनखांशवस्ते ।।४।। देवि! प्रकाशयति सन्ततमेष कामं वामेतरस्तव करश्चरणानतानाम्। कुर्वन् पुरः प्रगुणितां सहकारलुम्बिमम्बे! विलम्बविकलस्य फलस्य लाभम् ।।५।।
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हन्तुं जनस्य दुरितां त्वरिता त्वमेव नित्यं त्वमेव जिनशासनरक्षणाय । देवि! त्वमेव पुरुषोत्तममाननीया कामं विभासि विभया सभया त्वमेव ।।६।। तेषां मृगेश्वरगरज्वरमारिवैरिदुर्वारवारणजलज्वलनोभ्दवा भीः । उच्छृङ्खलं न खलु खेलति येषु धत्से वात्सल्यपल्लवितमम्बकमम्बिके! त्वम् ।।७।। देवि! त्वदूर्जितजितप्रतिपन्थितीर्थयात्राविधौ बुधजनाननरङ्गसङ्गि। एतत्त्वयि स्तुतिनिभाद्भुतकल्पवल्लीहल्लीसकं सकलसंघमनोमुदेऽस्तु ।।८।। वरदे! कल्पवल्लि! त्वं स्तुतिरूपे! सरस्वति! पादाग्रानुगतं भक्तं लम्भयस्वातुलैः फलैः ।।९।। स्तोत्रं श्रोत्ररसायनं श्रुतसरस्वानम्बिकायाः पुरश्चक्रे गूर्जरचक्रवर्तिसचिवः ‘श्रीवस्तुपालः' कविः। प्राप्तः प्रातरधीयमानमनघं यच्चित्तवृत्तिं सतामाधत्ते विभुतां च ताण्डवयति श्रेयःश्रियं पुष्यति ।।१०।।
va-Padmavati-kalpa, Appendix 20, p. 95.) (vi) श्रीअम्बिकादेवीस्तुति : जिनेश्वरसूरिविरचिता
देवगन्धर्वविद्याधरैर्वन्दिते जय जयामित्रवित्रासने विश्रुते । नूपुरारावसुनिरुद्धभुवनोदरे मुखरतरकिङ्किणीचारुतारस्वरे ।।१।। ॐ ह्रीं मन्त्ररूपे शिवे शङ्करे अम्बिके देवि! जय जन्तुरक्षाकरे। स्फुरत्तारहारावलीराजितोरःस्थले कर्णताटङ्करुचिरम्यगण्डस्थले ।।२।। स्तम्भिनी मोहिनी ईश उच्चाटने क्षुद्रविद्रविणी दोषनिर्णाशिनी।। जम्भिनी भ्रान्तिभूतग्रहस्फोटिनी शान्तिधृतिकीर्तिमतिसिद्धिसंसाधिनी ।।३।। ॐ महामन्त्रविद्येऽनवद्ये स्वयं ह्रीं समागच्छ मे देवि दुरितक्षयम्। ॐ प्रचण्डे प्रसीद प्रसीद क्षणं (हे) सदानन्दरूपे विधेहि क्षणम् ।।४।। ॐ नमो देवि दिव्येश्वभे भैरवे जयेऽपराजिते तप्तहेमच्छवे! । ॐ जगजननि संहारसम्मार्जनी ह्रीं कूष्पाण्डि! दिव्याधिविध्वंसिनी ।।५।। पिङ्गतारोत्पतद्भीमकण्ठीरवे नाममन्त्रेण निर्णाशितोपद्रवे। अवतरावतर रैवतगिरिनिवासिनि अम्बिके! जय जय त्वं जगत्स्वामिनी ।।६।। ह्रीं महाविघ्नसङ्घातनिर्णाशिनी दुष्टपरमन्त्रविद्याबलच्छेदिनी। हस्तविन्यस्तसहकारफललुम्बिका हरतु दुरितानि देवी! जगत्यम्बिका ।।७।। इति श्रीजिनेश्वरसूरिभिरम्बिका भगवती शुभमन्त्रपदैः स्तुता। प्रवरपात्रगता शुभसम्पदं वितरतु प्रणिहन्त्वशिवं मम ।।८।। (From Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, Appendix, 21, p. 96.)
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Appendix-D
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(9) 'The Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyās as
Represented in the Ceiling of the Sāntinātha Temple,
Kumbhāriā', Sambodhi, Vol. 2, No. 3, Oct. 1973, pp. 15-22. (10) 'Uttara Bharat mein Jaina Yaksi Padmavati kā Pratima
nirūpana', Anekānta, Yr. 27, No. 2, Aug. 1974, pp. 215-41. (11) 'Uttara Bharat mein Jaina Yakşi Ambika kā Pratimā nirüpana,
Sambodhi, Vol. 3, Nos. 2-3, Dec. 1974, pp. 27-44. (12) Jaina Yaksa Gomukha ka Pratima-nirupana', Sramana, Yr.
27, No. 9, July 1976, pp. 29-36. (13) Jaina Pratimāvijñāna, Varanasi, 1981. (14) Elements of Jaina Iconography, Varanasi, 1983. (15) 'A Non-pareil Ambikā Image from Patiān-dāi', Jain Journal,
Vol. XVIII, No. 2, Oct. 83, pp. 45-53. (16) Khajuraho kā Jaina Puratattva, Khajuraho, 1987. Winternitz, M.,
A History of Indian Literature, Vol. |(Buddhist and Jaina Literature), Calcutta, 1933.
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Appendix-E
List of illustrations
Acknowledgement is hereby made up with thanks for each of the photographs printed herein. The source of each photograph is put up (within bracket, at the end of the description) followed by the negative in a few cases accession) number thereof. All the photographs, except the ones supplied by the American Institute of Indian Studies (AllS), Varanasi and another two which are supplied by the author himelf, are acquired from the Archives of the Photographs of Jaina Antiquities, Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi.
ASI' stands for the Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India, with its various Circle Offices at places. 1. Ambikā, Aihole (Bijapur), Meguti temple; Site Museum, Aihole,
A.D. 634-35 (AIIS; A13-38). 2. Ambikā, Akotā (Vadodara), c. 6th century (Museum and
Picture Gallery, Vadodara, Acc. 5. 141). 3. Ambikā with consort on pedestal, Akota (Vadodara), c. mid-6th
century (ASI, New Delhi; 277/1961). 4. Ambikā with her consort on pedestal, Mathura; Govt. Museum,
Mathurā Acc. No. B.65, c. 7th century (AIIS; 353-91). 5. Ambikā on Tirthankara pedestal, Mathurā; State, Museum,
Lucknow, Acc. No. , 78, 8th century (AIIS; 369-11). 6. Ambikā, Akotā (Vadodara), 9th century (Museum and Picture
Gallery, Vadodara; Acc. 5.4/Ar. 564). 7. Ambikā, Akotā (Vadodara), 9th century (AIIS, A 24-67). 8. Ambikā (in the middle), Akotā (Vadodara), 9th century
(Museum & Picture Gallery, Vadodara; Acc. 5.97/Ar. 554). 9. Ambikā (detached) with consort on pedestal, Akotā (Vadodara),
9th century, (ASI, Vadodara; 51/1951-52). 10. Ambikā with consort on pedestal, Akotā (Vadodara), Museum
8 Picture Gallery, Vadodara, Acc. No. 5/21, 9th century (AIIS;
A24-73). 11. Ambikā with consort on pedestal, Akotā (Vadodara), 9th
century (ASI, New Delhi; 276/1961).
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12. Ambika, Kumbhāria (Banaskantha, Gujarat), A.D. 1062 (Dept. of Archaeology, Gujarat, Ahmedabad; 81/1963-64).
13. Ambika, Mt. Abu (Vimala Vasahi; Sirohi, Rajasthan), 12th century (ASI, Agra; 1190/1955).
14. Ambika, western India (National Museum, New Delhi), A.D. 1146 (Vipin Kumar Jain, New Delhi; R2-9).
15. Rear view of the above (Vipin Kumar Jain, New Delhi; R2-10). 16. Ambikā (Lūņa Vasahi, Tejapala Temple), Mt. Abu, 13th century, (ASI, New Delhi; 1171/55).
17. Ambika, Mt. Abu, (Lūņa Vasahi), c. 13th century (ASI, Agra; 1175/1955).
18. Ambika, Mt. Abu (Lūņa Vasahi), c. 13th century (ASI, Agra; 1180/1955).
19. Ambika, Rajnapur Khinkhini (Akola, Maharashtra), 11th century, Central Museum, Nagpur; C 148-14).
20. Ambika, Narsinghapur (Madhya Pradesh), 11th century (ASI, New Delhi; 1607/1962).
21. Ambika, Ellora (Cave 32; Aurangabad, Maharashtra), 9th century (ASI, New Delhi; 977/1955).
22. Ambika, Ellora (Cave 32), 9th century (ASI, New Delhi; 971/1955). 23. Ambika, Ellora (Cave 32), 9th century (Vipin Kumar Jain; New Delhi; 32).
24. Ambika, Ellora (Cave 33), A.D. 810-880 (ASI, New Delhi; 990/1955).
25. Ambika, Deogarh (Lalitpur, U.P.), 10th century (Harish Chandra Jain, Vidisha; 32).
26. Ambika, Deogarh 10th century (Harish Chandra Jain, Vidisha; 32). 27. Ambika, Deogarh, c. 10th century (AllS; 406-17).
28. Ambika, Deogarh, (Temple No. 10;) c. 10th century (Author).
29. Ambika, Deogarh (Sahu Jain Museum, Acc. No. 136), c. 10th century (AllS; 406-15).
30. Ambika, Deogarh (Sahu Jain Museum, Acc. No. 136), c. 10th century (AllS; 406-13).
31. Ambika, Khajuraho (Pārsvanatha temple; Chhalarpur, M.P.) A.D. 950-70 (AIIS; 70-64).
32. Ambika on door-lintel, Khajuraho, Jardian Museum, Acc. No. 1467, 10th century (Niraj Jain, Satna; K-142).
33. Ambika, (close up of Fig. 32) Khajuraho (Jardian Museum, Acc.
No. 1467), 10th century (Niraj Jain, Satna; K-129).
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166 Ambika
34. Ambika, Khajuraho, 10th century (Niraj Jain, Satna; K-321). 35. Ambikä, Khajuraho (Archaeological Museum, Acc. No. 1608), 10th century (Niraj Jain, Satna; K-11).
36. Ambika, Pataura (Patiān-dãi) Satna, M.P. (Allahabad Museum, Acc. No. 293), c. 11th century (AllS; 70-64).
37. Ambika, Mathura Govt. Museum, Acc. No. D7, c. 9th century (AIIS; 353-89).
38. Ambika, Saheth, Maheth (Gonda, U.P.; State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. J 853), 10th century (AllS; 369-14). 39. Ambika, Siron (Lalitpur, U.P.), 10th century (AllS; 480-92). 40. Ambika with Kubera, Chandpur (Lalitpur U.P.), 10th century (ASI, New Delhi; 10/1960).
41. Ambika, Chanderi (Guna, M.P.) 11th century (ASI, New Delhi; BCD-52).
42. Ambika, Kari-talai (Jabalpur, M.P.; Bhopal Museum, Acc. No. 97), 10th century (AIIS; 241-7).
43. Ambika, Vidisha (M.P.), c. 10th century (Harish Chandra Jain, Vidisha; Vidisha Museum-4).
44. Ambika, Khukhundoo (Gorakhpur, U.P.) 12th century (State Museum, Lucknow; 0.334).
45. Ambika, Jabalpur district, M.P.; (Rani Duravati Museum, Acc. No. 137) c. 11th century (AIIS; 240-40).
46. Ambikä Gandharvapuri (Gandhawal, Ujjain, M.P.), 10th
century (local museum, Acc. 45), (Suresh Jain, Bhopal). 47. Ambika, Dhubela (Nowgong, M.P.), 11th century (Balchandra Jain, Jabalpur; 1775).
"
48. Ambika, Hinglajagarh (Mandsaur, M.P.; Central Museum, Indore), c. 10th century (AllS; 318-6).
49. Ambika, Hinglajagarh (Mandsaur, M.P.; State Museum, Bharatpur, Acc. No. 293), c. 10th century (AllS; 234-41). 50. Ambika at pedestal, Hinglajagarh (Mandsaur, M.P.), c. 10th century (AllS; 317-100).
51. Ambika, Ahär (Tikamgarh, M.P.) 9th century (Balachandra Jain, Jabalpur; 4169).
52. Ambika, Singhpur (Shahdol, M.P.), 10th-11th century A.D. (Niraj Jain, Satna; S-741).
53. Ambika, Antra, (Shahdol, M.P.; Birla Museum, Bhopal, Acc. No. 335), c. 10th century (AllS; 241-41).
54. Ambika, Darhat (Hamirpur, U.P.; State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. N. G312), 13th century (AllS; 370-13).

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300).
55. Ambikā, Darhat (Hamirpur, U.P.; State Museum, Lucknow,
Acc. No. 66,225/G314), 13th century (AIIS; 370-24). 56. Ambikā, Orissa, c. 10th century (National Museum, New Delhi;
4003/63; 63/940). 57. Ambikā, Khandagiri (Bārābhuji Gumphā) (Puri, Orissa),
11th-12th century (Author). 58. Ambikā Khandagiri, 11th-12th centry (Harish Chand Jain,
Delhi; BBO-308). 59. Ambikā, Hagargundagi (Gulberga, Karnataka; Govt. Museum,
Gulbarga), c. 10th century (AIIS; 276-47A). 60. Ambika, Venkunrum (North Arcot, Tamilnadu), 14th-15th
century (Dept. of Archaeology in Tamilnadu, Madras; 5). 61. Ambikā, Ammanagi (Belgaum, Karnataka), 13th century
(Parasurama Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-760). 62. Ambikä, Hubli (Dharwar, Karnataka), 13th century (Parasurama
Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-661). 63. Ambikā, Sedam (Gulberga, Karnataka), c. 12th century (Para
surama Bhatt; BJB-511). 64. Ambika, Moodbidri (South Kanara, Karnataka), 13th century
(Bharatiya Jnanpith; Ch-44). 65. Ambikā, Terdal (Bijapur, Karnataka), 12th century (Parasurama
Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-947). 66. Ambika, Nallur (South Kanara, Karnataka), 16th century
(Parasurama Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-985). 67. Ambikā, Nallur (South Kanara, Karnataka), 16th century
(Parasurama Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-984). 68. Ambika, Sravanabelgola (Hassan, Karnataka), 10th century
(Bharatiya Jnanpith; Ch-19). 69. Ambikā, Śravanabelgola (Hassan, Karnataka), 10th century
(Bharatiya Jnanpith; Ch-8). 70. Ambikā, Melkote (Gulberga, Karnataka), c. 10 century
(Parasurama Bhatt; 180-67). 71. Ambikā, Angadi (Chikmaglur, Karnataka), 11th century (AIIS;
180-67). 72. Ambikā, Narayanpur (Dharwar, Karnataka; Govt. Museum,
Kalyani), c. 11th century (AIIS; 281-30). 73. Ambikā, Humcha (Shimoga, Karnataka), c. 11th century
(Parasurama Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-187). 74. Ambikā, Humcha (Shimoga, Karnataka), 10th century
(Parasurama Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-191).
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75. Ambikā, Humcha (Shimoga, Karnataka), 10th century
(Parasurama Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-216). 76. Ambika, Humcha (Shimoga, Karnataka), c. 11th century
(Parasurama Bhatt, Udipi; BJB-233). 77. Ambikā, Shimoga, (Karnataka; Govt. Museum, Shimoga), c.
11th century (AIIS; 283-90). 78. Ambikā, Halebid (South Kanara, Karnataka), 12th century
(Bharatiya Jnanpith; Ch-109). 79. Ambikā, Kambadahalli (Mandya, Karnataka), 12th century
(Bharatiya Jnanpith; Ch-80). 80. Ambikā, Kambadahalli (Mandya, Karnataka), 10th century
(Bharatiya Jnanpith; Ch-85).
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Reader, Department of History of Art, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, is a wellknown scholar of Jaina art and icono
graphy. He has published three books: Jaina Pratimā Vijñāna (Hindi; Varanasi, 1981), Elements of Jaina Iconography (Varanasi, 1983), Khajurāho kā Jaina Purātattva (Hindi; Khajurāho, 1987) and a number of research papers. Presently he is working on the 'Mahābhārata Scenes in Indian Art' and 'Medieval Indian Sculpture and Iconography'.

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Bharatiya Jnanpith Aims & Objects To conduct researches so as to bring out the extinct, rare and unpublished works of knowledge and to give impetus to the creation of original literature for the benefit of the people. Founders (Late) Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain (Late) Smt. Rama Jain President Sahu Shriyans Prasad Jain Managing Trustee Shri Ashok Kumar Jain