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OUTLINES OF JAINA PHILOSOPHY
separation between the individual self and consciousness as if they could be separated from one another, it is the
fallacy of naigama naya. 2. Fallacy of sangraha naya.-The fallacy of sangraha occurs when
we describe the general properties alone as constituting'a thing. This kind of fallacious proposition gives rise to confusion of thought, because the general qualities alone can never constitute an actual object. For instance, the general qualities of a tree only give us the idea of treeness, never an actual tree. The latter will have to be some particular kind of tree-an oak, a mango, or the like—and will, therefore, possess its own special qualities along with
those of a tree in general. 3. Fallacy of vyavahāra naya.-This type of fallacy lies in wrong
selection of species, as for instance, is the case with the materialists (Cārvākas) who select only four primary
elements as real. 4. Fallacy of rjusūtra naya.-It occurs when the permanence of
things is altogether denied. In this fallacy, every object is taken to be momentary without having any kind of
permanent or general feature. 5. Fallacy of śabda naya.---This kind of fallacy occurs when we
ignore the distinguishing features of śabda saya and deal with synonymous words as absolutely having the same
meaning. 6. Fallacy of samabhirūdha naya.—This type of fallacy consists in
treating the synonymous words as having absolutely
different meanings. 7. Fallacy of evambhūta naya.—It lies in making the existence of a
thing absolutely dependent on the performance of the special function with reference to which a particular name has been awarded to it, e.g., to say that a teacher outside the class is absolutely a non-teacher because he does not
teach at that time, is fallacious. REFUTATION OF SOME OBJECTIONS
The opponent who does not regard the nature of reality as a synthesis of identity and difference, and makes an absolute judg
