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NYĀYA AND JAINA EPISTEMOLOGY
expression of something. Negation expresses otherness. This view seems to resemble Ryle's view according. to which negative proposition can be analysed into different disjunctions, e. g. "The table is not red' means 'the table is green or blue or brown etc'. Thus, negative propositions describe contrary or contradictory characters of the object. Both Nyāya and Jaina realism, however, emphasise genuineness of negation in the sense that in both negative judgements are objective and informative and negative proposition is always the expression of something. Nyāya seems to be hyperrealistic when it points out that as knowledge points to something outside it, the knowledge of negation also implies its existence independent of knowing, i. e. knowledge of negation has an objective fact as its basis. This view may be compared with that of western realists like Russell who also admit the objective existence of negative facts while advocating correspondence theory of truth. Nyāya reslists believe that we are able to know directly not only substance, qualities but also negation of perceivable objects with the help of same sense organ which apprehends positive object. Incidentally, Buddhist doctrine of Apoha is significant in so far as it draws attention to negative function of a word. Of course, the Buddhists were wrong in exclusively emphasising negation. Jainas are, however, non-extremists and their position seems to be reasonable when they maintain that negation is complementary to affirmation and hence it is not unreal but is a necessary element in constitution of reality.
The Problem of Universal
Epistemologically, the problem of universal is
