Spiritual Awakening and other Essays

Author(s): Kamalchand Sogani
Publisher: Prakrit Bharti Academy
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006930/1

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SPIRITUAL AWAKENING (SAMYAGDARAANA) AND OTHER ESSAYS Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani For Personal & Private Use Only

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Prakrit Bharati Pushpa - 255 SPIRITUAL AWAKENING (SAMYAGDARSANA) AND OTHER ESSAYS Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani Former Professor of Philosophy M.L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur PRAKRIT BHARATI ACADEMY JAIPUR For Personal & Private Use Only

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Publisher: Founder & Chief Patron Prakrit Bharati Academy, 13-A, Main Malviya Nagar, Jaipur - 302017 Phone: 0141 - 2524827, 2524828 Director, Dhanraj Dhadda & Sons Pvt. Ltd., 1208, Panchratna, Opera House, Mumbai - 400 004. Phone: 022 - 23697374, 23632603 (c) Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani First Edition 2008 ISBN No. 978-81-89698-63-8 Price Rs. 150.00 Computerisation: Shyam Agarwal, Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur. Printed at: Raj Printers & Associates, Jaipur Mobile : 09413341382 SPIRITUAL AWAKENING / Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani / 2008 This book is printed on Eco-friendly paper. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Dedicated to Mylate wife Smt. Kamala Sogani (29-03-1935--12-11-2008) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Publisher's Note An established name in the fields of Jaina philosophy and related studies, Dr. Sogani has enriched Jainology with his radical approach backed by immaculate research. His style of presentation of complex topics successfully creates a bridge between the rarified realm of the spiritual and the pragmatism of the mundane. The first anthology of Dr. K. C. Sogani's essays was well received by scholars as well as researchers. Prakrit Bharti is pleased to bring out the second volume of his erudite articles. This second anthology contains the following, fifteen articles selected by the author himself: 1. The Concept of Samyagdarsana (Spiritual Awakening) in Jainism, 2. The Concepts of Parisaha and Tapa in Jainism, 3. Indian Culture and Jainism, 4. The Concept of Anuvratas in Jainism, 5. Expressions of the Highest Good in Jainism : A Comparative Study, 6. Rightness of Action and Jaina Ethics, 7. Ahimsa and the Good, 8. Jaina Ethics and the MetaEthical Trends, 9. The Avadhi and Manahparyaya Types of Supersensuous Cognition, 10. The Concept of 'Arahanta' in Jainism, 11. Science and Jaina View of Values, 12. Gandhi's Contribution to Philosophy and Religion, 13. Comparative Study of the Expressions of the Ethical Ideal According to the Upanisads, the Gita and Jainism, 14. Concepts Common to the Upanisads, the Bhagavadgita and Jainism, 15. Story of My Contact with Dr. A. N. Upadhye, 16. Discussion, 17. Apabhraisa: Language, Manuscripts and Paumacariu of Svayambhu. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Like the first collection, this one also covers a wide range of topics. The author presents the ancient doctrines and their application in life in the much needed modern way to make them relevant and significant in the present day world. We are sure, this work will also get similar reception by general readers, researchers as well as scholars. We are thankful to Dr. Sogani for entrusting us with the publication of his articles in English. Our thanks are also due to Shri Surendra Bothara for copy-editing and editorial advice. Nihal Dhadda Director, Dhanraj Dhadda & Sons Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai * D. R. Mehta, Founder & Chief Patron Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur For Personal & Private Use Only

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CONTENTS 1. THE CONCEPT OF SAMYAGDARSANA (SPIRITUAL AWAKENING) IN JAINISM 2. THE CONCEPTS OF PARISAHA AND TAPA IN JAINISMI1 3. INDIAN CULTURE AND JAINISM 4. THE CONCEPT OF ANUVRATAS IN JAINISM 79 5. EXPRESSIONS OF THE HIGHEST GOOD IN-JAINISM:93 A COMPARATIVE STUDY 33 151 6. RIGHTNESS OF ACTION AND JAINA ETHICS 115 7. AHIMSA AND THE GOOD 126 8. JAINA ETHICS AND THE META-ETHICAL TRENDS 138 9. THE AVADHI AND MANAHPARYAYA TYPES OF 146 SUPERSENSUOUS COGNITION 10. THE CONCEPT OF ARAHANTA' IN JAINISM 11. SCIENCE AND JAINA VIEW OF VALUES 156 12. GANDHI'S CONTRIBUTION TO PHILOSOPHY AND 160 RELIGION COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EXPRESSIONS OF 170 THE ETHICAL IDEAL ACCORDING TO THE UPANISADS, THE GITA AND JAINISM 14. CONCEPTS COMMON TO THE UPANISADS, 184 THE BHAGAVADGITA AND JAINISM 15. STORY OF MY CONTACT WITH DR. A. N. UPADHYE 199 16. DISCUSSION 205 17. APABHRAMSA : LANGUAGE, MANUSCRIPTS AND 209 PAUMACARIU OF SVAYAMBHU 13. For Personal & Private Use Only

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THE CONCEPT OF SAMYAGDARSANA (SPIRITUAL AWAKENING) IN JAINISM The ultimate goal of the spiritual aspirant is the achievement of the perfect state of existence. The ideal is not something situated in a distant land but it consists in the realization of the transcendental nature of one's own self. It is the self in its veritable, dignified, and ontological nature. We may pose a simple question: how can an innate nature of a thing be remote from it? or how can the original qualities and modifications of a substance exist apart from the substance even for a moment? The answer is that the self has been in a defiled state of existence since beginningless past. Notwithstanding the ideal as the realization of one's own true self the effort for its revival and actualization is not so attractive as may be expected. Rather the life of flesh is becoming easier than the life of the spirit. It is overwhelmingly astonishing, but it is a fact and undeniably stares us in the face. This convincingly gives one to understand that there is an intermediatory something which compels' one to cling to the creature comforts and earthly pleasures, and offer a great resistance to the realization of the sublime end. Confronted with this recognition, we cannot deny that there exists a principle known as Mithyatva (spiritual perversion), which offers a great resistance to the realization of the sublime end. Mithyatva acts as a barricade to the soul's true life. It is at the root of all evils, the seed of the tree of Samsara. It For Personal & Private Use Only

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poisons all our activities so as to check the realization of the Summum Bonum of life. Moreover, it is responsible for the perversity of knowledge and conduct alike. The whole outlook, knowledge and conduct are vitiated by its operations. So long as Mithyadarsana (spiritual perversion) is operative, all our efforts to witness the sun of self's glory are bound to fail. It is to be rooted out in the interest of rendering its unwholesome functions null and void. In other words, Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening) is to be attained, which in turn will make knowledge and conduct conducive to the attainment of liberation. It is only after the acquisition of Samyaktva (spiritual awakening) that the soul attains the primary qualification even for marching towards emancipation from the wheel of misery. If Mithyatva (spiritual perversion) is at the root of Samsara (transmigration), Samyaktva (spiritual awakening) is at the root of Moksa (liberation). It is the beginning of the spiritual pilgrimage, and the foundation of the magnificent edifice of liberation. The Yasastilaka tells us that it is the prime cause of salvation, just as the foundation is the mainstay of a palace, good luck that of beauty, life that of bodily enjoyment, royal power that of victory, culture that of nobility and policy that of Government.' Right knowledge (value knowledge) and ethico-spiritual conduct are acquired through Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening). Thus it forms the root and backbone of what may be called religion. The Uttaradhyayana envisages that right knowledge (value knowledge) remains unattainable in the absence of right belief (spiritual awakening), and right conduct (ethicospiritual conduct) is out of question without right knowledge (value knowledge). Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Right Knowledge (value knowledge) and Right Conduct (Ethico-Spiritual Conduct) are Possible After Attaining Right Belief (Spiritual awakening): A question is apt to be asked: how is right knowledge (value knowledge) acquired through right belief (spiritual awakening)? This may be replied by saying that knowledge becomes the cause of spiritual unfoldment only after right belief (spiritual awakening) is kindled and stirred up. Here the prefix right does not possess epistemological significance, but is indicative of spiritual value. Even though the possessor of right belief (spiritual awakening) cognizes rope as a snake which is no doubt epistemologically invalid, yet his knowledge is announced to be right. On the contrary, the man destitute of right belief (spiritual awakening) even though knows a things as it is after dispelling doubt, perversity and indefiniteness, he does not deserve to be called spiritually a right knower. Hence epistemological ascertainment has little to do with right knowledge which originates from spiritual awakening (right belief). In other words, in the context of supermundane experience, right knowledge (value knowledge) presupposes right belief (spiritual awakening). Though they are related as cause and effect, yet they are born simultaneously, just as light comes with the lamps. Simultaneous emergence cannot annul their distinctness. Again, right conduct (ethico-spiritual conduct) is preceded by right belief (spiritual awakening) and right knowledge (value knowledge). In their absence conduct even of the highest type will ever remain incapable of transcending morality, hence spiritualism will remain shrouded in mystery. The Darsana Pahuda tells us that the right belief (spiritual awakening) engenders right knowledge (value knowledge) by virtue of which the virtuous and vicious paths are Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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cogitated, the possessor of right belief (spiritual awakening) in turn blows away vices and adopts Sila and thereby he enjoys prosperity and emancipation. The man possessing Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening) must recognize his self as his own as well as the causes of his misery, and the means of their elimination. He must recognize passions as his only foes; though he may not know their names, yet he must have the feeling that real happiness requires their extirpation. * Eight Components of Samyagdarsana: (spiritual awakening) Let us now dwell upon the eight components of Samyagdarsana. They may also be called the organs of Samyagdarsana. Just as the different organs constitute the body, similarly these eight organs are the integral constituents of Samyagdarsana. The omission of even one of them will inevitably clip the wings of a man who soars high in the realm of spiritualism with the object of quenching his thirst for undying, unabating and soul-enrapturing happiness. Samantabhadra announces that the pain arising from venom cannot be eliminated by using an incomplete Mantra. Similarly he says that Samyagdarsana with mutilated organs is incapable of undermining the disquietude permeating the empirical existence. The eight organs of Samyagdarsana are: (1) Nihsankita, (2) Nihkanksita, (3) Nirvicikitsa, (4) Amudhadssti, (5) Upaguhana, (6) Sthitikarana. (7) Vatsalya and (8) Prabhavana. First, he who possesses the Nihsankita Anga does not doubt the principle that kindness to all creatures is Dharma and injury to beings is Adharma.? The nature of this Anga must not point to the throttling of the inquisitive nature possessed by man. Doubt is not reprehensible if it aims at the decision of the nature of things. But if pushed Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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contrariwise, it is suicidal. The initial skepticism may lead to final certitude. Where logic can streatch its wings one should pin one's faith on a thing after following the course of rational thinking, so that dogmatism may not creep in. Because of spiritual awakening the possessor of this Anga, eschews the seven kinds of fear* which are ordinarily present in the perverted souls. (1) He is not frightened when the things imparting him physical and mental pleasures part company and when the sorrows and the agonies shake hand. (2) Nor is he perturbed by the fearful thought concerning the life hereafter. Besides, (3 to 7) he has ousted the fear of death, of discomfiture arising from disease, of his safety and lastly of losing his affluence or self-restraint. Secondly, the Nihkanksita Anga implies that the true believer (spiritually awakened) never hankers after the worldly opulence and empyreal pleasures, inasmuch as he is convinced of the fact that these earthly enjoyments are impermanent, fraught with miseries, procreative of sin and evil and are caused by the filth of Karman. Thirdly, the Anga known as Nirvicikitsa signifies that there should not be a feeling of disgust at the various bodily conditions caused by disease, hunger, thirst, cold, heat etc., or at the sight of foul excretion. The body is impure by nature but is rendered venerable by the triple jewels or right belief, right knowledge and right conduct. The Nirvicikitsa Anga, consists in declining the scornful attitude towards the body even if it is diseased, unclean'' etc. Fourthly, the Amudhadssti Anga (non-stupidity) consists in steering clear of the causes of perversity and in dissociating oneself from the person pursuing wrong path." According to Svamikartikeya he who does not recognize Himsa as Dharma, being overwhelmed by fear, inferiority and greed for profit, is free from stupidity. 12 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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* The fifth Anga is Upavshana. He who develops in himself spiritual qualities by virtue of contemplating upon pure thoughts is said to practise the Upavshana Anga. 13 : Sixthly, oppressed by the overwhelming intensity of passions like anger, pride, greed, deceit etc. or by other seductive causes, one may be constrained to deviate from the path of righteousness. At such a juncture, to re-establish the aspirant in the path by reminding him of his innate glory and magnificence is called the Sthitikarana Anga.!4 In other words, to strengthen the conviction of those who are faltering in their aderence to the spiritual path and also to save oneself from lapses--both these constitute the Sthitikarana Anga. The seventh Anga is Vatsalya which implies deep affection for spiritual matters, for the integral principle of non-injury, and for those who are spiritual brethren.'' Or he who is devoted to the meritorious persons, follows them with great respect, and speaks nobly, is said to have possessed the Vatsalya Anga." Lastly, the Prabhavana signifies the imperativeness of glorifying one's own self with spiritual qualities. It also implies the dissemination of the spiritual practices through the medium of exceptional charity, austerity, devotion, profound learning and by employing other means best suited to time and place." Characteristics accompanying the subsistence of Right Belief: (spiritual awakening) In addition to these eight Angas constitutive of Samyagdarsana, there are certain characteristics which accompany the subsistence of right belief (spiritual awakening) in the being of self. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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First, there are four characteristics, namely, (1) manifestation of auspicious qualities, (2) turning away from the causes which enhance worldly career, (3) expression of the non-skeptical attitude towards the self and lastly (4) manifestation of universal compassion. These are respectively called (1) Prasama, (2) Samvega, (3) Astikya and (4) Anukampa.18 Somadeva observes that just as the virility of a man, which cannot be perceived with senses, can be ascertained from his fortitude in danger, or the execution of his designs, similarly, the existence of the jewel of right faith (spiritual awakening), although extremely subtle owing to its being the condition of the soul, may be inferred from the qualities of Prasama, Samvega, Anukampa and Astikya.'' Secondly, there are three other characteristics which are also possessed by the spiritually awakened, namely, (1) censuring of one's own sins in one's own mind, (2) divulging one's own weakness of conduct before the Guru, (3) devotion to Arhantas. These are respectively called (1) Ninda , (2) Garha, and (3) Bhakti. Thirdly, the spiritually awakened is exceedingly scrupulous in not allowing the filth of pride to maculate the self, thus striking out the eight kinds of pride namely, pride of (1) learning, (2) honour, (3) family, (4) caste, (5) power, (6) opulence, (7) penance and (8) of body, from his mind and demeanour. 20 Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening) as Forming the Spiritual Background of Jaina Ethics: We have endeavored to explain the nature of Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening). This naturally creates an impression of its momentousness for the path to Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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emancipation. Without Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening) conduct is incapable of surpassing the province of morality. An ascetic who bases his asceticism on the mere moral concepts cannot be said to be superior to a householder whose interior has been illumined with the light of Samyagdarsana, inasmuch as the former is paving the way to the achievement of empyreal pleasures far away from the blissful state of existence, while the latter's face is turned in the right direction, which will in due course yield whatever is worthy of his inherent nature. The auspicious Bhavas (mental states) are contemplated by the spiritually converted persons as the temporary places of stay, when they find themselves incapable of staying at the pinnacle of spiritual realization. These Bhavas (mental states) serve as a halting place for them and not as a permanent dwelling. Thus such aspirants absolve themselves even from subconscious egoism in performing auspicious activities. On the contrary, those who are only morally converted regard the acquisition of auspicious mental states and performance of auspicious activities as ends in themselves, hence they are bound to endless mundance existence, which shall deprive them of the spiritual bliss,21 Besides, their profound learning and the austere penances performed by them even for thousands of years or more are spiritually unfruitful in the absence of Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening).22 Thus we may say that the whole Jaina Acara whether of the householders or of the Munis is out and out sterile without having Samyagdarsana as forming its background. In other words, without the assimilation of Samyagdarsana which is nothing but the belief in the superempirical conscious principle or spiritual awakening the entire Jaina Acara is a labour wholly lost. Thus the Jaina Acara is Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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grounded in spiritualism. We can scarce forbear mentioning that Jainism is not merely ethics and metaphysics but spiritualism too which is evidently manifest from the persistent emphasis laid by all the Jaina philosophers on the veritable achievement of samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening) before any Acara subscribing to the attainment of emancipation is practised and pursued. Thus spiritualism pervades the entire Jaina Acara, hence the charge that the Jaina ethics is incapable of transcending morality and does not land us deep into the ordinarily unfathomable ocean of spiritualism gives way. REFERENCE Yasastilaka and Indian Culture by K.K. Handiqui P. 248. (Jivaraja Jaina Granthamala, Sholapur). Uttaradhyayana 28/30. (Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XLV). Purusartha-siddhi-upaya of Amrtacandra P. 34. (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay). Darsana Pahuda of Kundakunda Pa. 15. 16; Mulacara 903, 904. (Anantakirti Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay). Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra 21. (Vira. Seva Mandira, Delhi, under the title 'Samicina Dharmasatra'). Caritra Pahuda of Kundakunda 7. (Patani Digambara Jaina Granthamala. Marotha under the title "Asta Pahuda').; Uttaradhyayana 28/31. Kartikeyanupreksa 414. (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay). Seven kinds of fear: (1) Lokabhaya, (2) Paralokabhaya, (3) Maranabhaya, (4) Vedanabhaya, (5) Akasmikabhya, (6) Araksabhaya, and (7) Aguptibhaya. Mulacara 53.; (Anantakirti Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay). Bhavanaviveka by Chainsukhdass 41, 43 to 51. (Sadbodha Granthamala, Jaipur). 8. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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9. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra 12. 10. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra 13. 11. Ibid. 14. 12. Kartikeyanuprekna 417. 13. Purusartha-siddhi-upaya of Amstacandra P. 27. 14. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra 16 Purusartha siddhi-upaya of Amstacandra P. 28. 15. Kartikeyanuprekna 419. Purusartha-siddhi-upaya of Amstacandra P.. 29. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra 17. 16. Kartikeyanupreksa 420. 17. Purusartha-siddhi-upaya of Amstacandra P. 30. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra 18. Kartikeyanupreksa 421, 422. 18. Rajavarttika, Vols. I of Akalanka I. 2/30. (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi). Yasastilaka and Indian Culture by K.K. Handiqui P. 255. 20. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra 25. 21. Pancastikaya of Kundakunda along with the Commentary of Amotacandra P. 135, 136 (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay). 22. Darsana Pahuda of Kundakunda 4: 5 19. y 10 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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THE CONCEPTS OF PARISAHA AND TAPA IN JAINISM The householder and the saint are the two wheels on which the cart of Jaina ethical discipline moves on quite smoothly. It is to the credit of Jaina Acaryas that they have always kept in mind these two orders while prescribing any discipline to be observed. They never confounded the obligations of the one with the other. In consequence, Jainism could develop the Acara of the householder with as much clarity and precison as it developed the Acara of the Muni. We shall, first, dwell upon the basic distinctions of these two disciplines before dealing with the concepts of Parisaha and Tapa in Jainism, inasmuch as the exposition of the distinctions will make us clear why the conquest of Parisaha and practice of Tapa have direct reference to the life of the saint or the Muni. First, the upshot of the householder's discipline is to alleviate Himsa to a partial extent; but the aim of the ascetic discipline is to adhere and conform to the standard of negating Himsa to the last degree. In other words, the partial character of the householder's vows is disrupted by the potent life of the Muni, hence the Muni observes complete vows (Mahavratas) in contrast to the householder's observance of partial vows (Anuvratas). Secondly, the life of complete renunciation adopted by the saint makes possible the extirpation of inauspicious Bhavas, which remains unrealized in the householder's life For Personal & Private Use Only

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of partial renunciation. The consequence of this is that vice totally vanishes from the life of the Muni. . Thirdly, the life of asceticism aptly illustrates the existence and operation of Subha Dhyana, and which, in the life of the householder is never found unmixed with its contrary. We may mention in passing that the life of asceticism is not to recoil from the world of action, but from the world of Himsa. As a matter of fact, action as such is not abandoned, but the supramundane character of action displaces its mundane form which inevitably entails Himsa. Even the high discipline of asceticism associated with auspicious Bhavas along with samyagdarsana prevents the complete realization of Ahimsa on account of the presence of subtle spiritual enemies. The ascetic life, no doubt, affords full ground for its realization, but its perfect realization is possible only in the plenitude of mystical experience. Thus the saint's life is an example of dedication of his integral energies to the realization of the sublime. In consequence, he regards the subjugation of Parisahas (afflictions) and practice of Tapas (austerities) as falling within the compass of his obligations. The saint allows no compromise with anything entangling him in the mire of Samsara. His career is indicative of his complete detachment from mundane life and living. Anything incompatible with, and discordant to, his second birth in a holy world, anything which drags him down to breathe in the suffocating air of the profane world must needs be subdued, strangled and overthrown. If the Parisahas are not met with the adequate attitude and disposition of mind, they would tend to mar the saintly life; on the contrary, if they are encountered with the inner conviction of truth, and invaded with the non-violent army of fortitude, meditation, and devotion, they would Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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confer jubilation, and yield the joy of victory. And if the austerities are spiritedly practiced they would bring about the inner rejection of desire, which would let the aspirant experience unalloyed happiness far beyond the joys of this world or of any heaven. Parisahas : Those (afflictions) that are to be endured for the purpose of not swerving from the path of spiritualism are termed as Parisahas.' The Uttaradhyayana tells us that "a monk must learn and know, bear and conquer, in order not to be vanquished by them (Parisahas) when he lives the life of a wandering mendicant".? Some of the Parisahas3 are: (1) hunger (Ksudha), (2) thirst (Trsa), (3) cold (Sita), (4) heat (Usna), (5) ennui (Arati), (6) walking (Carya), (7) abuse (Akrosa), (8) disease (Roga), (9) respect (SatkaraPurasakara), (10) conceit of knowledge (Prajna) etc. We now discuss the attitude of the saint towards these Parisahas. This will also make clear the meaning implied in them. The saint accepts faultless food and water. It is just possible that he may not get faultless food and water. Then he, (a) who does not get perturbed by the distress caused by hunger and thirst, (b) who is not inclined to receive food and water in improper country and in improper times, (c) who remains occupied with self-study and meditation, (d) who prefers non-obtainment of improper food and water to their obtainment, is deemed to have swam over the affliction originating from hunger and thirst. Not to dwell upon the pangs of hunger and pains of thirst amounts to the surmounting of hunger and thirst Parisahas. It is evident that the saint has renounced resorting to external protections against cold and heat, and he remains Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 13 For Personal & Private Use Only

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undecided regarding his habitation like a bird; and if, by his sojourn in the forests or at the peak of mountains, he is troubled by cold breeze, or by frozen ice, or by blasting hot wind, even then if he remains steadfast in his spiritual pursuit, he is called the conqueror of cold and heat Parisahas. The saint who subjugates the feeling of ennui, which may be caused by the control of senses, by certain ills and maladies, by the behaviour of vicious persons, and by other formidable difficulties of ascetic life, is understood to subdue ennui Parisaha. In leaving one place for another according to the prescribed rules of ascetic discipline, if the saint bears hardships owing to sharp pointed pebbles and thorns lying on the path, he is said to have got over walking Parisaha. The saint who keeps an attitude of indifference towards reviles and remonstrations, and remains mentally undisturbed by them, overcomes abuse Parisaha. In spite of being invaded by a number of diseases, the saint who conquers disease Parisaha endures them with fortitude without the neglect of his daily duties. If the saint is not disturbed or attracted by the disrespectful or respectful attitude of the persons around him, he has overcome respect Parisaha. By not allowing himself to be puffed up with pride of knowledge, the saint attains the designation of the conqueror of the conceit of knowledge Parisaha. Distinction between Parisahas and Austerities: The distinction between Parisahas and austerities consists in the fact that the former occur against the will of the saint, who endures them or rather turns them to good 14 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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account by contemplating them to be the means for spiritual conquest, while the latter are in concordance with the will of the saint to have the spiritual triumph. Secondly, most of the Parisahas may be the creations of vicious man, cruel nature and jealous gods, viewed from the common man's point of view, but austerities are the enunciations and resolutions of the aspirant's soul. Again, if Parisahas have enduring value, austerities have pursuing value. Thirdly, Parisahas which are obstacles to spiritual life, represent themselves as the passing phase in the career of the aspirant, where as the austerities form the indispensable part and parcel of the discipline which is enjoined in order to escape from this distressed and sorrowful worldly life. Lastly, we may say that the performance of austerities subscribes to the endurance of Parisahas with equanimity and unruffled state of mind. Nature and Kinds of Tapa (Austerity): * Austerity (Tapa) implies the renunciation and rejection of desire, as the real enemy of the soul. The Satakhandagama pronounces that the extirpation of desire in order to actualize the triple jewels of right belief, (spiritual awakening) right knowledge (value knowledge) and right conduct (ethico(spiritual conduct) is affirmed to be Tapa. Thus, in the Jaina view of Tapa, the idea of expelling all desires, the whole root of evil and suffering in favour of attaining to the freedom of the soul, tranquility and equality of mind, is not only prominent but paramount. It is at the basis as well as at the summit of Jaina preachings. Despite the supremacy of this inward reference, Jainas do not ignore the outer physical austerities. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 15. For Personal & Private Use Only

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In keeping with this trend of exposition, Tapas are announced to be of two kinds, namely, the external and the internal. The former is so called because of the preponderance of the physical and perceptible abandonment, while the latter is so called on account of the inner curbing of mind.? We shall first dwell upon the austerities in their external forms. External austerities: The external austerities are enumerated as six in kind, namely, (1) Anasana, (2) Avamaudarya, (3) Vrttipatisankhyana, (4) Rasaparityaga, (5) Viviktasavyyasana and. (6) Kayaklesa.S (1) Anasana' implies fasting or abstinence from food either for a limited period of time, or till the separation of the soul from the body. It is performed for the purpose of practicing self-control, exterminating attachment, annihilating Karmas, performing meditation and acquiring scriptural knowledge, and not for the purpose of any mundane achievement whatsoever. It may be noted that Anasana has been recognized as the simultaneous renunciation of food and the attachment to it. Mere maceration of the body is not fasting." (2) Avamaudarya means not to take full meals; i.e. out of the normal quantity of thirty-two morsell2 for man, and twenty-eight for woman, the reduction of even one morsel will come within the range of this Tapa.'? The observance of this austerity has been calculated to offer control over the senses and sleep, to assist in the practicing of self study and meditation.'+ (3) Vittiparisankhyana's means the predetermination of the saint regarding the number of houses to be visited, the particular manner of taken food, the specific type of food, 16 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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the giver of specific qualification, when he sets out to beg for food. In other words, the saint adheres to his predecided things; if the things conform literally to his predecision he would accept the food; otherwise he would go without it for that day. This is to uproot the desire for food. 17 (4) Rasaparityaga indicates the abstinence from the one or more of the following six articles of food, namely, milk, curd, ghee, oil, sugar, salt; and from one or more of the following kinds of tastes, namely pacrid, bitter, astringent, sour and sweet. 18 This is performed for the emasculation of the senses, subduing sleep, and the unobstructed pursuance of self-study. 19 (5) Viviktasayyasana20 implies the choice of secluded place which may serve the real purpose of meditation, selfstudy and chastity and is not the cause of attachment and aversion.21 (6) Kayaklesa means the putting of the body to certain discomforts by employing certain uneasy and stern postures and by practicing certain other bodily austerities.22 The object of Kayaklesa is to endure bodily discomfort, to alleviate attachment to pleasures.23 We have so far explained the nature of external austerities, and have seen that the performance of these austerities does not merely aim at the physical renunciation, but also at the overthrow of the thraldom of the body and senses. In other words, the external asceticism is capable of being justified only when it contributes towards the inner advancement of man; otherwise in the absence of which it amounts to labour which is wholly lost. The Mulacara24 says that the external austerity should not engender mental disquietude, abate the zeal for the performance of disciplinary Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 17. For Personal & Private Use Only

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practices of ethical and spiritual nature, but it should enhance spiritual convictions. This exposition brings to light the inward tendency of outward asceticism, or physical renunciation, and decries the mere flagellation of the body. The enunciation of Samantabhadra25 that the external austerity serves for the pursuance of spiritual austerity also clearly shows the emphasis laid by Jainism on the internal aspect of Tapa. After vindicating the claims of the outward ascetic discipline in the ethical set up of Jaina preaching, we set out to discuss the nature of internal austerities. Internal austerities The internal austerities26 are also enumerated as six in kind, namely, Prayascitta, (2) Vinaya, (3) Vaiyavstta, (4) Svadhyaya, (5) Vyutsarga and (6) Dhyana. (1) The process by virtue of which a saint may seek freedom from the committed transgressions may be termed as Prayascitta.27 According to Kartikeya, that is the real Prayascitta wherein the commission of some fault is not repeated even if the body may be cut to hundred pieces.28 (2) Vinaya implies either the control of senses and the eradication of passions, or the holding of humbleness for the triple-jewelled personalities.29 All scriptural study in the absence of Vinaya gose to the wall. The outcome of the former should be the latter which in turn entails progress and prosperity.90 The outward and mundane consequences of Vinaya are wide recognition, friendship, respect, grace of Guru, destruction of ill-will, while the inward and suprermundane fruits of Vinaya are easiness in Selfrestraint and penances, the acquisition of knowledge, purification of self, the emergence of the feeling of gratitude, simplicity and commendation of other man's 18 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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qualities, the destruction of conceitedness, and lastly the attainment of emancipation.31 (3) The rendering of service to saints by means of medicine, preaching etc. when they are overwhelmed by disease, Parisahas and perversities is called Vaiyavittya. 32 This austerity is performed for uprooting the feeling of abhorrence of dirt, disease etc., for spiritual realization, and for revealing affection for the spiritual path.13 *(4) Scriptural study or Svadhyaya, in the first place, comprises the fact of faultlessly making intelligible either the words or meaning or both to the person curious to learn. 34 secondly, the asking of questions with a view to clear away doubts or to confirm one's conviction regarding words and meanings, or both;35 thirdly, the constant dwelling upon the assimilated meaning36 fourthly, the fact of memorizing the scriptures and their repeated revision with unerring pronunciation,37 fifthly, the moral preachings illustrated with the life of great men.38 Scriptural study can enlighten the essence of life, foster self-control, direct the mind from the "abyss of sensuality to the plane of the spirit"39, instill the spirit of detachment, inspire the pursuance of noble path, and develop fraternal feelings with all beings40. Besides, it confers upon the aspirant the benediction that senses are restrained, mental concentration is obtained, and humbleness pours in.41 The man with the knowledge of Sutras saves himself from being led astray, just as the needle with threat is not lost. 42 Pujyapada points out that the purpose of Svadhyaya is to enrich intellect, to refine moral and spiritual efforts, to infuse detachment and fear from the mundane miseries, to effect an advancement in the practice of austerities, and to purify defects that may occur when one pursues the divine path.43 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 19 For Personal & Private Use Only

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For those who are fickle-minded, intellectually unsteady, nothing is so potent to terminate such a state of mind as the pursuance of Svadhyaya or the scriptural study, just as darkness can only be nullified by the light of the sun. 44 It brings about mental integration and concentration, inasmuch as the aspirant overcomes the hindrances by ascertaining the nature of things through the study of the scriptures. 45 Without the acquisition of scriptural knowledge, there always abides a danger of being led astray from the virtuous path, just as the tree full of flowers and leaves cannot escape its deadening. fate for want of the root.46 (5) Vyutasarga signifies the relinquishment of external and internal Parigraha. 47 The former comprises living and non-living Parigraha, and the latter, the different kinds of passions.48 General nature and types of Dhyana Having discussed the nature of five kinds of internal Tapas, we now proceed to dwell upon the nature of Dhyanas. It will not be amiss to point out that all the disciplinary practices form an essential background for the performance of Dhayana. all the disciplinary observances find their culmination in Dhyana. Thus Dhyana is the indispensable, integral constituent of right conduct (ethico-spiritual conduct) and consequently, it is directly related to the actualization of the divine potentialities. It is the clear, and single road by which the aspirant can move straight to the supreme good. To define Dhyana, it represents the concentration of mind on a particular object.49 The stability of thoughts on one object is recognized as Dhyana and the passing of mind from one object to another is deemed as either Bhavana, or Anupreksa, or Cinta.50 20 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays' For Personal & Private Use Only

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Now, the object of concentration may be profane and holy in character. The mind may concentrate either on the debasing and degrading object, or on the object which is uplifting and elevating. The former category is divided into two types, namely, Dharma-Dhyana and Sukla-Dhyana (Prasasta), and the latter, also into two types, namely, ArtaDhyana and Raudra- Dhyana (Aprasasta). S2 The Prasasta category of Dhyana has been deemed to be potent enough to make the aspirant realize the emancipated status. 53 On the contrary, the Aprasasta one forces the mundane being to experience worldly sufferings. 54 Thus those who yearn for liberation should abjure Arta and Raudra Dhyanas and embrace Dharma and Sukla ones." In dealing with Dhyana as Tapa, we are completely concerned with the Prasasta types of Dhyana, since they are singularly relevant to the auspicious and transcendental living. But we propose, in the first instance, to discuss the nature of Aprasasta types of Dhyana, since its exposition would help us to understand clearly the sharp distinction between the two categories of Dhyana. Aprasasta Dhyana (a) Arta-Dhyana The word "Arta' implies anguish and afflictions; and the dwelling of the mind on the thoughts resulting from such a distressed state of mind is to be regarded as Arta-Dhyana. 56 In this world of storm and stress, though these are illimitable things which may occasion pain and suffering to the empirical soul, yet all of them cannot be expressed by the limited human understanding. The four kinds of Arta-Dhyanas have been recognized. 1) The first concerns itself with the fact of one's being constantly occupied with the anxiety of overthrowing the associated undesirable objects (Anista Samyogaja) of varied nature. 58 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 21 For Personal & Private Use Only

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2) The parting with of agreeable objects may also occasion discomposure of mind. To be overwhelmed by anxiety for restoring the loss is called the second type of Arta-dhyana, namely, Ista-viyogaji.59 3) The constant occupation of mind to remove the distressing state of mind resulting from the diseased condition of the body is called the third of Arta-dhyana, namely, Vedana-Janita.60 4) To yearn for agreeable pleasures and to contrive to defeat and slander the enemy constitute what is called as the fourth type of Arta-dhyana, namely, Nidana-Janita.61 In other words, to make up one's mind for and to constantly dwell upon the acquisition of the objects of sensual pleasures is termed as the fourth type of Arta-dhyana, namely, NidanaJanita.62 (b) Raudra-Dhyana Raudra-dhyana has also been enumerated as of four kinds. 1) To take delight in killing living beings, to be felicitous in hearing, seeing and reviving the oppression caused to sentient beings, to seek ill of others, to be envious of other man's prosperity and merits, to collect the implements of Himsa, to show kindness to cruel persons, to be revengeful, all these come within the purview of the first kind of Raudradhyana, namely, Himsanandi Raudra-dhyana. 63 2) The individual whose minds is permeated by falsehood, who designs to entangle the world in troubles by dint of propagating vicious doctrines, and writing unhealthy literature for the sake of his own pleasure, who amasses wealth by taking recourse to deceit and trickery, who contrives to show faults fraudulently in faultless persons in 22 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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order that the king may punish them, who takes pride and pleasure in cheating the simple and ignorant persons through the fraudulent language, may be considered to be indulging in the second type of Raudra-dhyana, namely, Mrsanandi Raudra-dhyana.6+ 3) Dexterity in theft, zeal in the act of thieving, and the education for theft should be regarded as the third type of Raudra-dhyana, namely, Cauryanandi Raudradhyana.65 4) The endeavour a man does to guard paraphernalia and pleasures of the senses is called the fourth type of Raudradhyana, namely. Visayanadi Raudra-dhyana. 66 Prasasta Dhyan and it's Pre-requisites Next in order comes the Prasasta type of Dhyana which may be called Dhyana proper. This type of Dhyana is contributive to Moksa or final release. Before we directly embark upon the study of the types of Prasasta Dhyana, it is of primary and radical importance to delineate their prerequisites which will enforce banishment of all the inimical elements robbing the soul of the legitimate disposition and proper conduct for spiritual advancement. In consequence the self will gain strength to dive deep into the ordinarily unfathomable depths of the mysterious self. Indubiously, in the initial stages the purity of empirical and psychical background is the indispensable condition of Dhyana. The necessary pre-requisites, of Dhyana, in general, may be enumerated by saying that the subject must have the ardent desire for final liberation, be non-attached to worldly objects, possess unruffled and tranquil mind, be self-controlled, stable, sense-controlled, patient and enduring.67 Besides, one should steer clear of mental distractions, and look towards the suitability of time, place, posture, towards the attainment Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 23

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of mental equilibrium, before one aspires for Dhyana conducive to liberation. The control of mind which in turn leads to the control of passions and senses is also the essential condition of Dhyana. Mental distraction hinders meditational progress, and to achieve liberation without mental purity is to drink water from there where it is not, i.e. from the river of mirage.68 That is Dhyana, that is the object of Dhyana by virtue of which the mind after transcending ignorance submerges in the self's own nature.69 A man who talks of Dhyana without the conquest of mind is ignorant of the nature of Dhyana.70 On the reflective plane, the recognition of the potential divinity of the empirical self and the consciousness of the difference between the empirical self and the transcendental self will unequivocally function as the mental pre-requisite condition of Dhyana.71 The practice of the fourfold virtues of Maitri (friendship with all creatures), Pramoda (appreciation of merits of others), Karuna (compassion and sympathy) and Madhyastha (indifference to the unruly) has also been prescribed as the mental pre-requisite conditions of Dhyana. These quadruple virtues, practised in an earnest spirit, cause to disappear the slumber of perversion, and to set in eternal tranquility." 71 The selection of proper place, posture and time is no less importance for the performance of Dhyana. The aspirant should choose those places which are associated with the names of holy Tirthankaras and saints.73 A bank of a river, a summit of a mountain, an Island, and a cave and other places of seclusion and inspiration, should be chosen for practicing spiritual concentration.74 24 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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As regards the posture for Dhyana, for the people of this age who are generally deficient in energy, Padma and Kayotsarga postures are especially recommended.75 For him, every posture, every place and every time is fit for meditation, whose mind is immaculate, stable, enduring, controlled and detached. 76 A place may be secluded or crowded, the saint may be properly or improperly seated, the stability of saint's mind is the proper time for meditation." (i) Prasasta Dhyana : Dharma-Dhyana The four types of Dharma-dhyana have been recognized, namely, (1) Ajna-vicaya, (2) Apaya-vicaya, (3) VipakaVicaya, and lastly (4) Samsthana-vicaya.78 (1) When the aspirant finds no one to preach, lacks subtle wit is encountered with the subtleness of objects and experiences the deficiency of evidence and illustration in upholding and vindicating any doctrine, he adheres to the exposition of the Arahanta after believing that the Arhanta does not misrepresent things. The aspirant may thus be said to have performed Ajna-vicaya Dharma-dhyana. 1o Or he who has understood the nature of objects and who therefore makes use of Naya and Pramana for justifying certain doctrines may be believed to have performed Ajna-vicaya Dharmadhyana.80 We may here say that the purpose of this Dhyana is to maintain intellectual clarity regarding the metaphysical nature of objects propounded by the Arahanta. (2) To ponder over the adequate ways and means of emancipating the souls from the wordly suffering8l and to meditate on the means of ascending the ladder of spiritual welfare, are to meditate on the means of ascending the ladder of spiritual welfare,82 signify Apaya-vicya Dharma-dhyana. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 25 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Besides, the aspirant should give himself to serious contemplation: 'who am I?' Why there are inflow and bondage of Karmas? How Karmas can be overthrown? What is liberation? and what is manifested nature of soul on being liberated?83 If Ajna-vicaya establishes oneself in truth, Apaya-vicaya lays stress on the means of realizing the essential nature of truth. (3) Vipaka-vicaya Dharma-dhyana implies the reflection on the effects which Karmas produce on the diverse empirical souls.84 (4) The reflection on the nature and form of this universe constitutes what is called as Samsthana-vicaya Dharmadhyana. 85 This kind of Dhyana impresses upon the mind the vastness of the universe and the diversity of its constituents. By this Dhyana the aspirant realizes his own position in the universe. These four types of Dhyana serve twofold purposes namely, auspicious reflection and self-meditation; i.e. they supply the material for the intellect and offer inspiration to the self for meditation. Though they do not seem to suggest any process of meditation, their subject matter is such as to evoke active interest for nothing but self-realization through self-meditation. Thus Dharma-dhyana is meditation as well as reflection, the latter may pass into the former and the former may lapse into the latter. In other words, the four kinds of Dhyana are reflective when intellectual thinking is witnessed, and they are meditative when the mind attains stability in respect of them. The best kind of Dharma-dhyana is to meditate upon the self by fixing one's mind in it after renouncing all other thoughts. 86 26 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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(ii) Prasasta Dhyana : Sukla-Dhyana Dharma-dhyana which has so far been expounded prepares a suitable ground and atmosphere for ascending the loftiest spiritual heights. It claims to have swept away every iota of inauspicious dispositions from the mind of the aspirant. The Yogi has achieved self-mastery to the full, and has developed a unique taste for the accomplishment of that something which is unique. The Yogi, having brushed aside the unsteadiness of his mind now resorts to Sukla Dhyana (Pure Dhyana). Not all Yogis are capable of performing this type of Dhyana. Only those who are possessing bodies of the best order can have all the four types of Sukla-dhyana.87 The four types88 of Sukla-dhyana are 1) Psthaktva-vitarka-vicara, 2) Ekatva-vitarka-avicara, 3). Suksmakriyapratipati, and 4) Vyuparatakriyanivarti. The first type (Psthaktva-vitarka-vicara) is associated with Psthaktva, Vitarka and Vicara, i.e. with manyness, scriptural knowledge, and transition from one aspect of entity to another, for example, substance to modifications and vice versa, from one verbal symbol to another, and from one kind of Yoga (activity) to another. 89 In the second type (Ekatva-vitarka-avicara) Vicara is absent, consequently oneness displace manyness. The mind shortens its field of concentration to the effect that the Yogi meditates upon one substance, an atom, or a modification of substance with the assistance of one kind of Yoga.90 Hence the second type of Dhyana is associated with Vitarka and Ekatva, i.e. with scriptural knowledge and oneness. In consequence, the Yogi experiences infinite intuition, knowledge, bliss, and energy. Thus the state of Jivanamukti is attained. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 27 For Personal & Private Use Only

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The omniscient occupies himself with the third type of Sukla-dhyana (Suksmakriyapratipatin) when an Antarmuhurta (48 minutes) remains in final emancipartion."2 After establishing himself is gross bodily activity, he makes the activities of mind and speech subtle. 93 Then after renouncing the bodily activity, he fixes himself in the activities of mind and speech, and makes the gross bodily activity subtle.94Afterwards mental and vocal activities are stopped "5 and only subtle activity of body is left. 95 In the last type of Sukla-dhyana (Vyuparatakriyanivartin) even the subtle activity of body is stopped. The soul now becomes devoid of mental, vocal and physical vibrations, and immediately after the time taken to pronounce five syllables it attains disembodied liberation.9 28 LIST OF ABBREVATION AND WORKS Amita. Srava .... Amitagati-Sravakacara (Anantakirti ........ Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay). Anaga Dharma (Khusalacanda Gandhi, Solapur) Anagaradharmamrta of Asadhara Bhaga. Ara........ Bhagavati-Aradhana (Sakharama Nemacanda Digambara Jaina Grantha-mala, Solapur) Istopa. Istopadesa of Pujyapada (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay) Jnana Jnanarnava of Subhacandra (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay) Karti. Kartikeyanupreksa (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay) Mula..... Mulacara of Vattakera (Anantakirti Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay) Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Prava ......... Parvacanasara of Kundakunda (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay) Rajava ........ Rajavartika of Akalanka (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi) Sat Vol VIII & XIII ........ Satkhandagama of Puspadanta and Bhutabali (Jaina Sahitya Uddharaka Fund Karyalaya, Amraot) Sarvartha ................... Sarvarthasiddhi of Pujayapada (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi) Svayambhu ........ Svayambhustotra of Samantabhadra (Viraseva Mandira, Sarasava) T. Su ........ Tattvarthasutra of Umasvati under the title Sarvarthasiddhi (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi) Uttara ........ Uttaradhyayana (Sacred Books of the East Vol. XLV). ........ Yoga of the Saints by Dr. V.H. Date (Popular Book Depot, Bombay-7) ........ History of Jaina Monachism by S.B. Deo. (Deeran College, Poona) REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. T. Su. IX. 8. Uttara: 2. T. Su. IX. 9; Uttara. 2. Sarvartha. IX. 9, Uttara. 2. Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 55; Anaga. Dharma VII-2. Sarvartha. P. 439; Sat. Vol. XIII. P. 54; Anaga. Dharma. VII-6, Uttara. 30/7 Sarvartha. P.439 T. Su. IX. 19; Bhaga. Ara. 208; Mula. 346. Mula. 347; Uttara. 30/9; Bhaga. Ara.209. 7. 8. 9. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 29. For Personal & Private Use Only

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10. Sarvartha. P. 438. 11. Sat. Vol. VIII-p. 55. Morsel consists of 1000 rice grains. (Anaga Dharma. VII-22) Sat. Vol. XIII-p.56. 13. Mula. 350; Bhaga. Ara. 211, 212; Anaga. Dharma. VII-22; Uttara. 30/15; Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 56. 14. Mula. 351: Anaga. Dharma. VII-22. 15. The Uttaradhyayana calls it Bhiksacari. "It consisted of imposing certain restrictions upon one-self regarding the mode of begging or the nature of the donor, or the quality of food or the way in which food was offered. (History of Jaina Monachism P. 188). 16. Mula. 355; Karti. 443; Anaga. Dharma, VII-26; Bhaga. Ara. 218 to 221; Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 57. 17. Sarvartha. P. 438. 18. Mula. 352; Uttara 30/26; Bhaga. Ara. 215; Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 57. 19. Sarvartha. P. 438. 20. The Uttaradhyayana calls it Sanlinata. "It implies the choice of lonely place of stay devoid of women, eunuchs and animals. (Uttara. 30/28). 21. Sarvartha. P. 438, Karti. 445, 447; Mula, 357; Bhaga. Ara. 228; Sat. Vol. XIII - P. 58. 22. Mula. 356; Sarvartha. IX-19; Uttara. 30/27; Karti. 448; Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 58; Bhaga Ara. 222 to 227. 23. Sarvartha. IX-19. 24. Mula. 358; Bhaga. Ara. 236. 25. Svayambhu. 83. 26. T. Su. IX-20; Mula. 360; Uttara 30/30. 27. Sarvartha. IX.20; Mula. 361; Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 69. 28. Karti; 452. 29. Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 63; Anaga. Dharma. VII. 60. Uttara 30/32. 30. Mula. 385; Bhaga. Ara. 128; Anaga. Dharma. VIII.62. 31. Mula. 386 to 388; Bhaga. Ara. 129 to 131. 32. Mula. 391, 392; Sarvartha. IX. 24. 33. Sarvartha. IX. 24. 34. Sarvartha. IX. 25; Rajava. IX. 25. 35. Ibid. 30 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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36. Ibid. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. Rajava. IX-27/10 to 15. Sat. Vol. XIII-P. 64. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. Yoga of the Saints. P. 66 Mula. 267, 268. Mula. 410, 969. Ibid. 971. Sarvartha. IX. 25. Amita. Srava. XIII-83. Prava-III.32. Amita. Srava. XIII.88. Mula. 406; Sarvartha. IX. 26. Mula. 407. Karti. 468. Karti. 469; T. Su. IX-28. T. Su. IX-29 Sarvartha. IX-29. 55. Tattvanusasana. 34, 220. 56. Sarvartha. IX. 28. 57. Jnana. XXV. 37. T. Su, IX. 30 to 33. 58. T. Su. IX. 30; Karti. 471; Jnana. XXV -28. 59. T. Su IX: 31; Jnana. XXV. 31; Karti. 472. 60. T. Su. IX. 32; Jnana. XXV. 32. 61. Jnana. XXV-36. 62. Sarvartha. IX-33. 63. Jnana. XXV-4, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15; Karti. 473. 64. Jnana. XXVI-16, 17, 18, 20, 22; Karti. 473. 65. Jnana. XXVI-24; karti. 474. 66. Jnana. XXVI-29; karti. 474. 67. Jnana. IV-6. XXVII-3. 68. Jnana. XXII-19. 69. Jnana. XXII-20. 70. Jnana. XXII-24. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 31

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71. Jnana. XXVII-4. 72. Jnana. XXVII-18. 73. Jnana. XXVII-1. 74. Jnana. XXVIII-2 to 7. 75. Jnana. XXVIII-12. 76. Jnana. XXVIII-21. 77. Jnana. XXVIII-22. 78. T. Su. IX-36. 79. Sarvartha. IX-36. 80. Sarvartha. IX-36. 81. Sarvartha. IX-36. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. Karti. 480. 87. Jnana. XLII-5. 88. T.Su. IX-39. 89. Jnana. XLII-13, 15 to 17. 90. Jnana. XLII-27. 91. Jnana. XLII-29. 92. Jnana. XLII-41. 83. Ibid. 48. 94. Idld. 49. 95. Ibid. 50. 96. Ibid. 58, 59. Mula. 400. Mula 11. Sarvartha. IX-36; Mula.401. Sarvartha. IX-36. 32 do de d Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDIAN CULTURE AND JAINISM It is an acknowledged fact that Indian culture is the result of an interaction between two streams, Vedic and non-Vedic, Brahmana and Sramana. The relationship of the Harappan to the Vedic civilization has remained a puzzle, nevertheless, recent records tend to favour their close relationship, though there exists a difference of opinion on the exact nature of this relationship. "How exactly Vedic and non-Vedic cultures were related is not clearly known, but there is no doubt that the two gradually fused in the post-Vedic age to from the classical culture of India." It requires to be accepted that the dominant note of India culture is the dissemination of the everlasting ethico-spiritual values without any diversion. This has been practised by the great personalities of India from the Vedic seers and the Sramanic sages to the medieval saints and modern savants."2 Thus it is the ethico-spiritual truth which has been tenaciously held in Indian culture through all its vicissitudes as the essential and consistent tradition. Rsabhanatha as non-Vedic and the founder of Jainism : In consonance with the ethico-spiritual adherence of the Indian saints and sages, non-Vedic, Sramanic and Ksstriya Jaina tradition of twenty-four Tirthankaras headed by Rsabhanatha or Adinath, the first Jaina Tirthankara has been responsible for the rise and development of Jainism in the history of Indian culture. The symbol of Rsabhanatha is 'bull'. This remnds us of the Mohenjodaro seals wherein the bull has played a prominent part in the cult of the Indus people. "A large number of seals have been found bearing For Personal & Private Use Only

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the figure of a bull and it is an undeniable fact that such seals are far greater in number than those bearing the figures of other animals."3 Along with the bull, the figure of the deity has been represented as nacked and he has adopted Kayotsarga (standing) meditative posture. The presence of bull in the large number of seals, the adoption of nudity and the Kayotsarga meditative posture-all these seem to be sufficient to identify the figure on the seals as Ksabhanatha, the first Tirtharkara of the Jainas. "Since in the seals from the Indus Valley we have the earliest evidence of a yogic posture and since Yoga as a system of self-realisation is foreign to the earlier Vedic texts, are we to conclude that the Vedic people learnt about meditation and its technique from the Indus Valley people."4 On the basis of the Rsabhanatha cult it may be said that Jainism represents the continuation of Sramanic culture which is as old as the Vedas so far as the literary evidence goes, though the archaeological evidence takes Sramanism. far back to Harappan civilization, which is predominantly a yoga-based non-Vedic culture. According to Dr. G.C. Pandes "the anti-ritualistic tendency, within the Vedic fold, is itself due to the impact of an asceticism which antedates the Vedas. It is recognised that "some of the relics, recovered from the excavations at Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa, are related to Sramana or Jaina tradition. "The nude images in Kayotsarga, i.e., the standing posture lost in meditation, closely resemble the Jaina images of the Kusana period. Kayotsarga is generally supposed to belong to the Jaina tradition. There are some idols even in Padmasana pose." "Even after the destruction of the Indus civilization, the straggling culture of the Sramanas, most probably going back to pre-Vedic times, continued even during the Vedic period as is indicated 34 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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by some such terms as Vatarasana, Muni, Yati, Sramana, Kesi, Vratya, Arhan and Sisnadeva". "There can hardly be any doubt that the Muni was to the Rgvedic culture an alien figure." "In the Rgveda, Arhan has been used for a sramana leader." "The mention of Sisnadevas (naked gods) in the Rgveda is also noteworthy?." All this speaks of Jainism as a pre-Vedic religion and Ksabhanatha as its founder. According to tradition, Ksabhanatha founded the social order and family system, taught to mankind the cultivation of land, different arts and crafts, writing etc., improving the lot of his people. That is why the Indian tradition preserves the memory of Ksabha and has been called in the Brahmanical texts as an incarnation of god Visnu and Bharata, a Mahayogi. Owing to the importance of Rsabha in the history of Indian culture, he is called Prajapati, Mahadeva, Pasupatinatha, Brahma etc. It will not be out of place to point out that ancient Indian Script Brahmi has been styled 'Brahmi Script' after the name of his daughter, Brahmi. Bharata after Rsabhanatha's son Bharata: "All the main Puranas like the Visnu, Agni, Markandeya, Brahmanda, Skanda, Linga Purana, etc. unanimously record that India came to be styled as Bharata after Bharata Cakravarti, a supreme ruler and a great victor, the son and successor of the mighty and enlightened paramount monarch and the first Jaina Tirthankara. Adinatha or Rsabhanatha of the solar dynasty"}, although certain scholars erroneously accosicate India's name as Bharata after Bharata, the son of Sakuntala and Dusyanta. It may be noted here that attempts are being made to change tradition into history in the modern sense of the word. The historicity of Parsva (887 B.C.) the 23rd Tirthankara has been established. The predecessor of Parsva is Aristanemi (Neminatha) the first cousin of Lord Krsnal0. The twenty first Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 35 . For Personal & Private Use Only

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Tirtharkara Nami of Mithila in Videha seems to have given rise to the spiritualistic thought of the Upanisad." Discourses of Mahavira in Praksta and his first sermon at the advent of a Vedic Brahmin Scholar: Mahavira (598 B.C. - 527 B.C.) is the twenty-fourth Tirtharkara, who attained omniscience (Kevalajnana). Mahavira remained silent and did not deliver, according to Digambara tradition, any sermon for sisty-six days. At the advent of a renowned Vedic, Brahmin scholar, named Indrabhuti Gautama in the Samavasarana (religious. assembly) Mahavira delivered his first sermon at the Vipulacala mountain outside the city of Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha, on Saturday the 1st July 557 B.C. 12 This day is celebrated as the Virasasana day and Indrabhuti Gautama was designated as the first Ganadhara (chief disciple) by Mahavira. Along with Indrabhuti Gautama his five hundred pupils joined the order of Mahavira. Gradually Mahavira initiated more Brahmin Vedic scholars into the ascetic order. It is of capital importance to note that Mahavira made use of Praksta for his discourses'), as a result of which the whole canonical literature in Praksta was prepared by the Ganadharas. Now the question is why did Mahavira deliver his first sermon only at the advent of a Vedic Brahmin scholar? My interpretation of the event is : Vedic scholar is a Prakrta scholar, since the Vedas have been composed in Loka Bhasa (language of the masses) of that period. Pt. Kisoridasa Vajapaye tells us that the language of the Vedas is the first form of Praksta, though this underwent change in form in course of time and became the second stage of Praksta. This second stage was prevalent in a very large area and Mahavira's discourses were meant for all without any 36 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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distinction of cast and creed, classes and masses, so he chose Praksta for his deliverances. I have no hesitation to say that the mother tongue of even Panini was Praksta. Since the eleven Ganadharas including Indrabhuti Gautama were Vedic Brahmana scholars they were well-versed in Praksta language. Mahavira gave them the most important task of Agamic preparation. My contention is that just as the seeds of Laukika Samskrta are inherent in the Vedic language, similarly the seeds of Praksta constructions may be easily discerned in the Vedic language. Thus the Vedic language is the precursor of Laukika Samskrta as well as Praksta constructions. Thus to say that Praksta is derived from Laukika Samskrta is an improper approach to the history of language development in India. I may, therefore, conclude by saying that the study of Vedic language will constitute an all-embracing foundation of Indian culture. Unfortunately India is missing this aspect of culture and it must be remembered that the study of language is basic to the study of any culture. This will open the way to Praksta and Apabhramsa studies and the study of regional languages. By virtue of this, the origin of national language, Hindi will be understood in a right perspective. Religion of Mahavira as Sarvodaya-Tirtha : It will not be idle to point out that after attaining supreme knowledge known as Kevalajnana, Mahavira for full thirty years visited different parts of country especially the important centres in Eastern and Northern India and promulgated socio-spiritual values throughout. Owing to the magnetic personality of Mahavira and his metaphysical, ethical and spiritual teachings, number of kings, queens, princes, princesses, ministers and merchants accepted him as their teacher. Thus males and females of all casts and Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 37 . For Personal & Private Use Only

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classes became the ardent followers of Mahavira, and a fourfold order of Sadhus (male ascetics), Sadhivis (female ascetics), Sravakas (male householders) and Sravikas (female householders) came into existence. In view of the allembracing character of Mahavira's principles the Jaina Acarya Samantabhadra, as early as second century A.D. called the religion of Mahavira a 'Sarvodaya' Tirtha,l4 which term is so commonly used now-a-days after Gandhiji. Thus Mahavira is one of those few towering personalities who fought for individual liberty in the context of social life, He revolted against the socio-religious exploitation and oppression of man and introduced vigorous innovations in the then existing social law and order. He did not confine himself to individual upliftment, but he dedicated himself to the development of a new creatives social order for the healthiest orientation of the individual. Though he was a man of contemplative values, yet social values got his fullest attention. Those who regard Mahavira only as an apostle of spiritual message do great injustice to him. In fact, he serves as an illustration both of spiritual realisation and social reconstruction. Mahavira attainted Nirvana at Pava in Bihara at the age of 72 on Tuesday the 15th October 527 B.C. This day is being celebrated as the Dipavali festival (festival of lamps) throughout India. Besides, Mahavira's Nirvana day marks the beginning of Vira Nirvana Samvat. This Samvat is the oldest Samvat followed in India. Unprecedented contributions of Jainism to Indian Culture : I take this opportunity to enumerate and discuss in brief the unprecedented contributions which have been made by Jainism to Indian culture, by virtue of which this culture has been enriched and adorned. 38 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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1. Classification of empirical selves as the basis of socio spiritual principle of Ahimsa and the dissemination of the doctrine of Aparigraha. Inclusion of the notion of Paryaya (modification or change) in the definition of Substance and its spiritual implication. 3. Theory of Metaphysico-axiological Anekanta along with the doctrine of Naya (view-point). Device of Syadvada as the key to the pointed communicability of knowledge. Doctrine of Karma as an explanation of the cognitive, conative and affective differences existing in the world at large. Mystical journey of the self from darkness to light, from slumberness to perfect spiritual awakening. Composite Sadhana of Tri-ratna (Samyagdarsana, Samyagjnana and Samyakcaritra) leading to emancipation (Moksa). 8. According religious freedom to women and down trodden people. 9. Propounding the philosophy of vegetarianism and the philosophy of fighting defensive wars. 10. Accepting Sallekhana as the spiritual welcome to death without any fear and perturbation. 1. Classification of Jivas (empirical selves) as the basis of socio-spiritual principle of Ahimsa and the dissemination of the doctrine of Aparigraha. The doctrine of Ahimsa is the be-all and end-all of the Jinist way of life and living. The oldest Jaina Agama Ayaro Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 39 For Personal & Private Use Only

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remarkably pronounces that none of the living beings ought to be killed, ought to be ruled, ought to be enslaved or possessed, ought to be distressed and ought to be put to disquiet. (sabbe pApA Na haMtavvA, Na ajjAvetavvA, Na parighettavvA, Na paritAveyavvA, OT Beducat)'s. The socio-political organisations and the capitalistic set up can easily derive inspiration from this ethico-social statement. Thus the Ayaro (Acaranga) conclusively pronounces that after understanding the importance of kindness to beings, the enlightened person should preach, disseminate and applaud it at all places in East-West and North-South directions. (EU TRI GIOTTI Yigui, uiui, gilgui satu 3119 ore fane Pore adt)6. The Prasnavyakarana Sutra designates social Ahimsa as kindness, (dayA) security (rakSA) salutariness (kalyANa) fearlessness (abhaya) and so on.!? The Acaranga gives us certain arguments to renounce Himsa. (i) Socio-political argument against Himsa : The Acaranga condemns Himsa by saying that its operation is without any stop, cessation and discontinuance and it goes on increasing to the extent possible with the political consequence that the race of armaments becomes unarrestable and continues to grow without any check. In contradistinction to this it eulogizes Ahimsa by saying that its observance is total and not piece-meal, with the result that the armament race discontinues and comes to a stop. (atthi satthaM pareNa paraM, Natthi asatthaM pareNa paraM) 18. *** (ii) Psychological Argument against Himsa : After comprehending and beholding the significance of peacefulness of beings, one should renounce Himsa, inasmuch as Himsa causes suffering to beings and human suffering caused by theft, hoarding, falsehood, slavery, 40 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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economic exploitation, social oppression, curtailment of legitimate freedoms and the like is a great mental disturbance, is dreadful and is associated with unbearable pain and affliction. Since life is dear to all beings, pleasures are desirable, pain is undesirable for them, beings ought not to be killed, ruled, possessed, distressed and so on (TUSHISTII paDilehittA phteyaM pariNivANaM savvesiM pANANaM assAtaM apariNivavANaM mahamayaM dukkheN| 'save pANA suhasAtA dukkhpddikuulaa| savvesiM jIvitaM piyaM). It will not be idle to point out that the talk of Ahimsa is not possible without a world of living beings. Social Ahimsa begins with the awareness of the 'other'. Like one's own existence, it recognises the existence of other beings. In fact, to negate the existence of other beings is tantamount to negating one's own existence. Since one's own existence can not be negated, the existence of other beings also can not be negated. Thus there exists the universe of beings in general and that of human beings in particular. (uta H ati amAikkhejjA, Neva attANaM amaaikkhejjaa| je logaM amAikkhati)20. The Jaina Agama classifies living beings (Jivas) into five kinds, namely, one-sensed to five-sensed beings.21 The minimum number of Pranas possessed by the empirical self is four (one sense, one Bala, life-limit and breathing), and the maximum number is ten (five senses, three Balas, lifelimit, and breathing). The lowest in the grade of existence are the one-sensed Jivas which possess only the sense of touch and they have only the Bala of body, and besides they hold life-limit and breathing. These one-sensed Jivas admit of five-fold classification;22 namely, the earth-bodied (Psthivikayika) water-bodied (Jala Kayika) fire-bodied (Agnikayika) air-bodied (Vayukayika) and lastly, vegetablebodied (Vanaspatikayika) souls. The two-sensed Jivas posses six Pranas, i.e., in addition to the four Pranas of one-sensed souls, they have two Pranas Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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more; namely, the sense of taste, and the Bala of speech; the three-sensed souls have the sense of smell additionally; the four-sensed souls have the sense of colour besides the above; and lastly, the five-sensed souls which are mindless are endowed with the sense of hearing in addition; and those with mind possess all the ten Pranas. Thus the number of Pranas possessed by one-sensed to five-sensed souls is four, six, seven, eight, nine and ten respectively. This classification of Jivas into five kinds is used for the measurement of the degree of Ahimsa. The more the senses the more the evolved consciousness. As for example, two-sensed Jivas are more. evolved than the one-sensed beings, five sensed beings are more evolved than the one, two, three and four-sensed beings. Thus Ahimsa will be directly proportionate to the Ahimsa of the beings (Jivas) classified. Spiritual Perspective of Ahimsa : We have dwelt upon Ahimsa as a social value. This view regards Ahimsa as 'other' oriented and is concerned with the progress and development of the 'other'. The Purusarthasiddhyupaya moves in a different direction when it unambiguously expresses that nonemergence of attachment, aversion etc. on the surface of self is Ahimsa (aprAdurbhAvaH khalu rAgAdinAM bhavatyahiMseti). 23 This pronouncement has a deep inward reference and regards Ahimsa as a spiritual value. This method of dealing with Ahimsa obliges us to peep into one's own inner life, so that attachment and aversion along with their ramifications like anger, pride, deceit and greed are completely got rid of. The Prasnavyakarana Sutra designates Ahimsa as Nirvana (H), Samadhi (samAhI) Supreme tranquillity (saMtI), happiness (pamoa), super satisfaction (fat) and purity (af) and so on.24 In other words, we may say that even the slightest fall from complete self-realisation is to be regarded as Himsa. Thus Himsa 42 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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commences with the appearance of passions on the ground of self. The Acaranga gives us spiritual argument to renounce Himsa. Spiritual Argument against Himsa : Since all the selves are transcendentally alike, killing the other is killing one's own self, ruling the other is ruling one's own self, enslaving the other is enslaving one's own self, distressing the other is distressing one's own self, and disquieting the other is disquieting one's own self. By reason of this Himsa of all the living beings has been abandoned by those desirous of self-realisation (TH PHA a da o coa fa Hufh, TH A NAma taM ceva jaM ajjAvetav ti maNNasi, tumaM si NAma taM ceva jaM paritAvetataLa ti maNNasi, tumaM si NAma taM caMva jaM parighetalaM ti maNNasi, evaM taM ceva jaM Bedco fa Houif. 1)25. Dissemination of the doctrine of Aparigraha26 : Mahavira was well aware of the fact that economic inequality and the hoarding of essential commodities very much disturb social life and living. These acts lead to the exploitation and enslavement of man. Owing to this, life in society is endangered. Consequently, Mahavira pronounced that the remedy for the ill of economic inequality is Aparigraha. The method of Aparigraha tells us that one should keep with one self that which is necessary for one's living and the rest should be returned to society for its well-being. Limit of wealth and essential commodities are indispensable for the development of healthy social life. In a way wealth is the basis of our social structure and if its flow is obstructed because of its accumulation in few hands, large segments of society will remain undeveloped. The hoarding of essential commodities creates a situation of social scarcity which perils social life. In order to resist such inhuman tendency, Mahavira Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 43 : For Personal & Private Use Only

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incessantly endeavoured to establish the social value of Aparigraha. 2. Inclusion of the notion of Paryaya (modification or change) in the definition of Substance and its spiritual implication ! - Definition of Substance (Dravya): In consonance with the perspective adopted by the Jainas in their metaphysical speculation, substance is that which exists or that which is characterised by simultaneous origination, destruction and persistence, or that wihich is the substratum of attributes (Guna) and modes (Paryaya)27. Permanence signifies persistence of substance along with attributes, and change refers to fluctuating modes along with the emergence of the new modes and the disappearance of the old ones at one and the same time. To illustrate, gold as a substance exists with its modifications and qualities. Now after making an ornament, gold as a substance is existent along with its attributes and what changes is the mode. Thus existence which is inseparably bound up with substance (gold) accompanied by its attributes and modes necessitates the production of a new form, the cessation of the old one, and continuation of gold as such simultaneously.28 In other words, the denial of the different aspects of the Jaina view of substance will lead us either to the Buddhist philosophy of universal change which disregards the underlying permanent being, or to the Vedantic monism which declares the accompanying change as appearance or illusory. Substance (Dravya) and modification (Paryaya): The notion of Paryaya is peculiarly Jaina.29 In conformity with the nature of substance as permanence in change, Paryaya alludes to the changing aspect of a thing. Every quality changes its state every moment; and this mode of being is called 44 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Paryaya which is incessantly transforming itself into the next, though the quality as such is never abrogated. It is on this account alleged that substance is in a state of perpetual flux. However incessant and infinite the transformations may be, the underlying substantiality and permanency can never part with existence. Substance and Paryaya are not to be distinguished like two different things, for it is substance through qualities which because of its flowing nature attains the qualification of Paryaya. Substance and modes are neither exclusively identical nor exclusively different, but the relation is one of identity-in-difference. Thus origination and destruction are applicable to Paryayas, and persistence to qualities along with substance. Thus thee is no substance (Dravya) without modification, and modification is inconceivable without substance.30 Hence permanence is not the denial of change, but includes it as its necessary aspect. Spiritual implication of Paryaya: Svabhava Paryaya and Vibhava Paryaya Kundakunda, the great philosopher of the 1st Century A.D. discusses the spiritual implication of Paryayas (modifications) of self. According to him, the self, as an ontologically underived fact, is one of the six substance subsisting independently of anything else. Consciousness is the essential quality of the self. It manifests itself at the mundane stage of existence in auspicious and inauspicious psychical modifications. Whenever the auspicious mode of kindness originates, inauspicious mode of cruelty ceases and the quality of consciousness continues simultaneously. Thus self as a substance exists with its modifications and qualities. Kundakunda speaks of essential modifications (Svabhava Paryayas) and non-essential modifications Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 45

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(Vibhava Paryayas) and accepts that the empirical self has been associated with the non-essential modifications (Vibhava Parvayas) since an indeterminable past, thereby it has identified itself with attachment and aversion.3! We may point out in passing that the transcendental self occupies itself with essential modifications (Svabhava Paryayas) and goes beyond the quality of attachment and aversion and is the doer of detached actions and the enjoyer of pure knowledge and bliss. The empirical self is potentially transcendental, though this transcendental state of existence is not actualised at present; hence the distinction is incontrovertible. The wordly human beings have identified themselves with the non-essential modifications (Vibhava Paryayas) from beginningless past. Kundakunda, therefore, draws our attention to the essential modifications (Svabhava Paryayas) of self. He advises us to relinquish the working of Vibhava Paryayas after turning to Svabhava Paryayas of self. No doubt we are in the empirical form of existence from beginning past, but his theory of Svabhava Paryaya reminds us of our spiritual magnificence and glory. The doctrine of Svabhava Paryaya does not assert that the self is at present perfect but simply affirms that the self ought to attain the height illumined by it. It has the force of 'ought' and not of 'is'. But the force is valid for empirical selves having VibhavaParyayas. Kundakunda regards the attainment of Svabhava Paryaya as the attainment of knowledge-consciousness (Jnana Cetana) which is the full-fledged and legitmate manifestation of consciousness. 32 The Arhat or Siddha state is the state of knowledge-consciousness, the state of omniscience and bliss. 33 For Personal & Private Use Only

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3. Theory of Metaphysico-axiological Anekanta along with the Doctrine of Naya (view-point) Metaphysical Anekanta : It is incontrovertible that metaphysics deals with the problem of reality or substance. For Jaina thinkers, reality is constituted of apparent contradictions. So its one dimensional exposition is not possible. It is an inalienable complex of permanence and change, existence and non-existence, oneness and manyness, universality and particularity etc. Because of this complexity, reality or substance is styled 'Anekantic'. It is thus multi-dimensional possessing antagonistic dimensions of permanence and change, one and may etc. These antagonistic dimensions are infinite in number, of which we know only a few of them. Thus the Jaina philosopher differs from all absolutists in their approach to the unfoldment of the inner nature of reality. The jaina advocates change to be as much ontologically real as permanence. Being implies becoming and vice versa. It may be said "if the Upanisadic thinkers found the immutable reality behind the world of phenomena and plurality, and the Buddha denounced everything as fleeting, Mahavira found no contradiction between permanence and change, and was free from all absolutism." While discussing the nature of substance we have already said that permanence signifies persistence of substance along with attributes, and refers to fluctuating modes along with the emergence of the new modes and the disappearance of the old ones at one and the same time. (i) Metaphysical Anekanta and the Classification of Substance: (Plurality, Duality and Unity) Jainism resolves the whole of the universe of being into Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 47 For Personal & Private Use Only

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two everlasting, un-created, co-existing, but independent categories of Jiva and Ajiva. The Ajiva is further classified into Pudgala (matter), Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space) and Kala (time). Hence reality is dualistic as well as pluralistic. But, according to the Jaina, plurality, considered from the point of view of one existence, entails unity also. According to Kundakunda, in spite of the unique characteristics possessed by the different substances, existence has been regarded as an all-comprising characteristic of reality which ends all distinctions.34 Samantabhadra also endorses this view by affirming that in view of the conception of one universal existence all are one, but from the point of view of substances distinctions arise.35 In his Saptabhangitarangini Vimaladasa concludes that both the postulation of existential identity and the articulation of differences from the stand-point of different substances are logically necessary and justifiable.36 Thus Jainism gives credence to the recognition of existential oneness but not exclusively, since it is always bound up with plurality. This is quite consistent with the Anekantatmaka view of reality propounded by the Jaina philosopher. Hence unity, duality, and plurality-all are inseparably and inevitably involved in the structure of reality. This is the Anekantic view of reality. (ii) Knowledge of Anekantic reality (Pramana and Naya) According to Jainism reality or substance is cognised by Pramana and Naya. 37 Pramana refers to the grasping of reality in its wholeness, while Naya points to an aspect of infinitely-phased reality illumined by Pramana, thus the latter takes into consideration only a fragment of the totality. 38 A substance embellishes itself with apparent antagonisms. The emphasis on the one and the cancellation of the other would Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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irresistibly lead us to the biased estimation and Ekantic view of reality. Pramana assimilates all the characteristics at once without any contradiction and animosity between one characteristic and the other, for instance, between one and many, existent and non-existent, etc. Of the unfathomable characteristics, Naya chooses one at one moment, but keeps in view the other characteristics also. "Though the Jaina thinker has made critical estimation of the philosophical assumptions of other schools of thought, they paid proper respect to them and accept their truth-value on the basis of different Nayas.39 "We can thus say that both Pramana and Naya are essential for the proper understanding of the nature of reality. Reality being the repository of infinitem attributes, the apprehension of it from a particular angle of vision, i.e., Naya, which is objectively given and not subjectively contemplated, does not exhaust the whole of the multiphased reality. We may point out here that corresponding to the infinite antagonistic characteristics, there are infinite Nayas. But summarily speaking, all the Nayas from the metaphysical point of view can be summed up into two kinds, namely, Dravyarthika Naya and Paryayarthika Naya. These two Nayas can very well expound the nature of reality, or substance. Dravyarthika Naya refers to the permanent aspect of a substance and Paryayarthika Naya refers to the changing aspect of a substance. (iii) Axiological Anekanta For the proper intelligibility of the Anekantic reality, Jaina Acaryas have given us two Nayas, namely Dravyarthika Naya and Paryayarthika Naya corresponding to the permanent and changing aspects of reality. This type of comprehension yields intellectual satisfaction yet it does not Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 49

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show us the way to spiritual growth, satisfaction and selfrealisation. Axiological consciousness is very much different from descriptive consciousness produced by metaphysical curiosity of the human mind. So the Jaina Acaryas have propounded two axiological Nayas, namely Niscaya and Vyavahara for properly evaluating the manifested and unmanifested Paryayas of self. Thus we have axiological Anekanta and the metaphysical Anekanta. (iv) Meaning of two axiological Nayas : 40 The Niscaya Naya grasps the soul in its undefiled state of existence in contradistinction to the Vyavahara Naya which describes the self as bound, impure and the like. No doubt, we are in the defiled form of existence from beginningless past, but the Niscaya Naya reminds us of our spiritual magnificence and glory. It prompts the sullied self to behold its spiritual heritage. It endeavours to infuse and instill into our minds the imperativeness of Suddha Bhavas after abundantly showing us the empirical and evanescent character of Subha and Asubha Bhavas that bind the soul to mundane existence. It does not assert that the soul is at present perfect but simply affirms that the self ought to attain the height illuminated by it. It has the force of 'ought' and not of 'is', but this force is valid for empirical selves. Niscaya Naya points to the potentiality of the empirical self to become pure and enjoy its unalloyed status. Briefly, we may say that to make Anekantic reality intelligible from the metaphysical perspective, Dravyarthika and Paryayarthika Nayas are necessary and to make an axiological assessment of Anekantic reality from the spiritual perspective, Niscaya and Vyavahara Nayas cannot be dispensed with. 50 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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4. Device of Syadvada as the key to the pointed communicability of knowledge The significant fact about knowledge is its communicability. When the knowledge is for one's own self, the question of communicability can be dispensed with; but when it is for the other, the question needs serious consideration. Communicability is accomplished through properly worded propositions and formulation of propositions is dependent on the content of knowledge. If there is discordance between the content of knowledge and formulation of propositions, serious misunderstandings are bound to arise. Syadvada is the linguistic device to represent without any omission and distortion the content of knowledge. Thus in a way Syadvada and knowledge become the obverse and the converse of the same coin. The Jaina thinkers propound that the object has infinite antagonistic characteristics some known, some in the process of being discovered and many as yet unknown. This is known as the doctrine of Anekantavada. Syadvada is the method of communicating the manifold characteristics of a thing to the other. Thus Syadvada is the expression of Anekantavada in language. If Anekantavada is the mode of cognition, Syadvada is the mode of expression. The significant point to be comprehended in regard to Anekantavada is that every characteristic of a multiphased things is maintaining its identity through the existence of its opposite as its aspect.41 In fact, a thing cannot be the same thing without the negation of other things in it. For example, a colour can not remain a colour without the negation of other characteristics like taste, smell etc. in it. Thus nonexistence is as much an essential aspect of the real as existence is. Negative propositions cannot be asserted Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 51

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without accepting non-existence as an element in the constitution of the real. Similarly, the characteristics of one and many, permanence and change, generality and particularity are reconciled in a thing without any incongruity. Thus when the Jinist is faced with the problem of expressing the complex content of knowledge in language in a way which can communicate to the other the knowledge as such, he had to devise the method of Syadvada. The word 'Syat' when added to a proposition is indicative of the presence of multiple characteristics in a thing in addition to the characteristic referred to in the proposition under consideration. In the propostion 'Syat Ghata is colourful', the word 'Syat' implies that the subject Ghata is a manifold of attributes, of which the attribute of being colourful referred to in the proposition is there in the Ghata as a matter of fact. This should not be understood, as it is generally done, to mean that the existence of colour in the Ghata is doubtful. In other words, certainty of colour along with the manifoldness of characteristics is indicated by the word 'Syat'. Thus Syadvada is the custodian of clarity, certainty and unambiguity in the field of philosophy. It is by no means the doctrine of doubt and uncertainty. Saptabhangivada (Doctrine of seven-fold propositions) 42 Although an existent is possessed of infinite attributes, yet the knowing of it is not a simple affair. The question is: what is it to know a thing? And how may propositions are requisite to express the content of knowledge? The conviction of the Jaina is that the seven distinct propositions, neither more nor less are needed to express the content of knowledge in regard to an existent. Let us now illustrate the doctrine of seven-fold proposition by taking an example of the attribute 'existence' in respect of pen. 52 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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1. The first proposition is : Syat pen exists. This means that the existence of pen is contextual, the context being its own Dravya (substance), Ksetra (space), Kala (time) and Bhava (state). 2. The second proposition is : Syat pen does not exist. It states the non-existence of pen is respect of other Dravya, Ksetra, Kala and Bhava. Thus it strengthens the first proposition rather than cancel it. The pen is pen only because it is non not-pen. Thus both existence and non-existence are co-present in the pen without any contradiction. According to the Jaina, non-existence is as much constitutive of the nature of thing as existence. 3. The third proposition is : Syat pen exists and does not exist. The fourth proposition is : Syat pen is inexpressible. In this proposition the two attributes of existence and nonexistence instead of being asserted successively as in the third proposition, are asserted simultaneously. Since words are incapable of expressing this apprehension of pen, the pen is inexpressible. 5. Syat pen exists and is inexpressible. 6. Syat pen does not exist and is inexpressible. 7. Syat pen exists, and does not exist and is inexpressible. All these propositions, according to the Jaina, represent a new aspect of the real.. 5. Doctrine of Karma as an explanation of the cognitive, conative and affective differences existing in the world at large. The empirical selves differ from one another in respect Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 53 For Personal & Private Use Only

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of cognition, conation and affection etc. What is the cause of this difference? How to account for these perceptible distinctions among empirical selves? The answer of the Jaina is that it is the beginningless material subtle principle known as Karma that is responsible for the cause of differences in the empirical selves. This karma has been exercising its limiting and crippling influence on the empirical conscious principles from the beginningless past. This material subtle principle is known as Dravyakarma, and its psychical counterpart in terms of Raga and Dvesa is called BhavaKarma. Karmas are of varied nature, but the fundamental kinds of Karma are eight in number*?-namely. 1. Knowledge-obscuring, (Jnanavaraniya-Karma) 2. Intuition-obscuring, (Darsanavaraniya-Karma) 3. Feeling-producing (Vedaniya-Karma) 4. Delusion-producing, (Mohaniya-Karma) 5. Longevity-determining, (Ayu-Karma) 6. Body-making (Nama-Karma) 7. Status-determining (Gotra-Karma) 8. Obstruction-generating (Antaraya-Karma) 1. Just as the curtain obstructs the knowledge of things inside the room, so also the knowledge-obscuring Karma obstructs the expression of knowledge. 2. Just as a door keeper does not allow persons to meet the king etc. so also the intuition-obscuring Karma does not allow apprehension of things. 3. Just as on licking honey from the sharp edge of a sword, the person enjoys honey as well as suffers pain, so also the feeling-producing Karma produces pleasure and pain in man. 4. Just as wine stupefies a person, so also the delusionproducing Karma perverts the person. 5. Just as wooden fetters 54 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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stop the movement of a person, so also the longevitydetermining Karma obliges the soul to stay in a particular body, 6. Just as the painter produces different pictures, so also the body-making Karma makes different bodies. 7. Just as a potter makes earthen pots of different sizes, so also the statusdetermining Karma determines status in society. 8. Just as a treasurer generates obstructions in giving money etc. to other, so also the obstruction-generating Karma causes handicaps in charity, in gains and in self-power. It is no doubt true that Karmas bind the self to mundane existence. Now the question that arises is this : How the self is bound by Karmas? What are the causes that create Karmic bondage in the self? The answer of the Jaina is that it is actions (mental, bodily and vocal) polluted by passions that cause empirical bondage to the self. The passion-free actions do not bring about any mundane bondage whatsoever. When there are no passions, there is no bondage (Bandha). It is passions that mar the spiritual career of an aspirant. 6. Mystical journey of the self from darkness to light, from slumberness to perfect spiritual awakening The equivalent expressions in Jainism for the word 'mysticism' are: Suddhopayoga45, Arhat and Siddha46 state, Pandita-Pandita Marana47, Paramatmanhood48, Atmasamahita state49, Samatvasi, Paradrsti52, Ahimsa" etc. All these expressions, convey identical meaning of realising the transcendental self. The traditional definition of Jaina mysticism may be stated thus : Mysticism consists in the attainment of Arhathood or Siddha-hood through the medium of Samyagdarsana (spirital awakening) Samyagjnana (value knowledge), and Samyakcaritra (ethico-spritual conduct) after dispelling Mithyadarsana (spiritual perversion), Mithyajnana (perverted Value Knowledge), and Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 55 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Mithyacaritra (perverted conduct)54. Kundakunda (1st cent A.D.) records departure from this terminology when he says: Mysticism consists in realising the Paramatman (transcendental self), through the Antaratman (internal self) after renouncing the Bahiratman (external self)". Thus we may say that the Paramatman is the true goal of the mystic quest. The whole mystic journey may be put as follows: 1. Awakening of the self, 2. Purgation, 3. Illumination, 4. Darkperiod of the soul, and 5. Transcendental life. The Jaina tradition deals with the mystic journey under the fourteen stages of spiritual evolution, technically known as Gunasthanas. However, these stages may be subsumed under the above heads in the following way." 56 1. Dark-period of the self prior to its awakening: Mithyatva Gunasthana (First) In this Gunasthana the empirical souls remain in a perpetual state of spiritual ignorance. The soul staying in this Gunasthana identifies itself with bodily colour, physical frame, sex, cast, creed, family, friends and wealth. The consequence is that it is constantly obsessed with the fear of self-annihilation on the annihilation of the body and the like and is tormented even by the thought of death. 2. Awakening of the self-Aviratasamyagdrsti Gunasthana (Fourth) Fall from awakening: (a) Sasadana Gunasthana (Second) (b) Misra Gunasthana (Third) The soul in this Gunasthana considers his own self as his genuine abode regarding the outward physical dwelling places as artificial. He renounces all identification with the 56 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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animate and inanimate objects of the world and properly weights them in the balance of his discriminative knowledge. He is the only person who has acquired the right of Moksa. Fall from awakening : It the spiritual awakening is due to the total annihilation of spiritual ignorance the self has thrown over all the chances of its fall to the lower stages. But if the spiritual awakening is consequent upon the suppression of spiritual ignorance, the self either falls to the lower stages or remains in the same stage with the emergence of certain defects ordinarily incognisable. 3. Purgation : (a) Viratavirata Gunasthana (Fifth) (b) Pramattavirata Gunasthana (Sixth) After dispelling the dense and intense darkness caused by spiritual ignorance, the passionate and ardent longing of the awakened self is to purge the defects of conduct which now stands between it and the transcendental self. In the fifth Gunasthana, the aspirant who is a householder is incapable of making himself free from all Himsa root and branch. In consequence, he adopts the five partial vows (Anuvratas) along with the seven Silavratas in order to sustain the central virtue of Ahimsa as for as possible. The shows that the householder's life is a mixture of virtue and vice, which obstructs the purgative way pursued by the mystic. Hence the aspirant, being motivated by certain incentives to spiritual life (Anupreksas), gradually renounces the householder's type of living, becomes a saint in order to negate Himsa to the last degree. In consequence, the saint observes five Mahavratas, and practises internal and external austerities with special attention to meditation, devotion, and Svadhyaya. This stage may be regarded as the terminus of purgative way. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays : 57 For Personal & Private Use Only

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4. Illumination : (a) Apramattavirata Gunasthana (Seventh) (b) Apurvakarana Gunasthana (Eighth) (c) Anivsttikarana Gunasthana (Ninth) (d) Suksmasamparaya Gunasthana (Tenth) ; (e) Upasantakasaya Gunasthana (Eleventh) (f) Ksinakasaya Gunasthana (Twelfth). These Gunasthana from the seventh to the twelth are the meditational stags or the stages of illumination and ecstasy. By the time the aspirant reaches the seventh Gunasthana, he has developed a power of spiritual attention, of self-merging and of gazing into the ground of the soul. It is through the aid to deep meditation that the mystic now pursues the higher path. In consequence, he arrives at the eighth and the ninth stage. In the tenth Gunasthana there is only subtle greed that can disturb the soul. The soul suppresses even this subtle greed in the eleventh Gunasthana. If the self follows the process of annihilation instead of suppression it rises directly from the tenth to the twelth Gunasthana. 5. Dark-period of the soul post-illumination : Fall to the first or the fourth Gunasthana Owing to the suppressed passions gaining strength, the illuminated consciousness of the eleventh Gunasthana falls to the lowest stage or to the fourth stage. The consequence is that the ecstatic awareness of the transcendental self gets negated and an overwhelming sense of darkness envelops the mystic. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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6. Transcendental life : (a) Sayogakevali Gunasthana (Thirteenth) (b) Ayogakevali Gunasthana (Fourteenth) The slumbering and the unawakened soul, after passing through the stages of spiritual awakening, moral and intellectual preparation, now arrives at the sublime destination by dint of ascending the rungs of meditational ladder. In the thirteenth stage the soul possesses dispassionate activities and develops omniscience. It is a state of JivanaMukta, a supermental state of existence and an example of divine life upon earth. In the fourteenth stage the soul annuls all activities, but preserves omniscience and other characteristics. After this, disembodied liberation results(Videha Mukti). The 'self in these two Gunasthana bears the title of 'Arhat' and after this, the title of 'Siddha'. This state of Siddha is beyond all Gunasthanas. It may be noted here that the self in these two Gunasthana is called Paramatman. This perfected mystic is established in truth in all directions. He experiences bliss, which is supersensuous, unique, infinite, and interminable. He has transcended the dualities of friends and foes, pleasure and pain, praise and censure, life and death, sand and gold, attachment and aversion. The supreme mystical experience is ineffable and transcends all the similes of the world. It is a movement from darkness to light and slumberness to perfect spiritual awakening. 7. Composite Sadhana of Tri-ratna (Samyagdarsana, Samyagjnana and Samyakcaritra) leading to emancipation (Moksa)57 Jainism regards Moksa (emancipation) as the highest objective of human life and for the attainment of which it Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 59 For Personal & Private Use Only

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has prescribed the composite Sadhana of Tri-ratna known as Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening), Samyagjnana (value-knowledge) and Samyakcaritra (ethico-spiritual conduct). Jainism regards spiritual awakening (Samyagdarsana) as the beginning of the spiritual pilgrimage, and it is the foundation of the magnificent edifice of liberation. 58 Spiritual perversion acts as a barricade to soul's true life. So spiritual awakening is to be attained, which in turn will make knowledge and conduct conducive to the attainment of Moksa.59 Even performing very severe austerities, persons devoid of spiritual awakening do not attain spiritual wisdom even in thousands and crores of years. Value knowledge is acquired through spiritual awakening. The spiritually awakened self considers his own self as his genuine abode and regards the outward dwelling places as artificial. He renounces all identification with the animate and inanimate objects of the world, and properly weighs them in the balance of his awakened spirit. Thus he develops a unique attitude towards himself and the world around him. The person having .value knowledge becomes free from wordly attachment. Knowledge becomes the cause of spiritual unfoldment only after spiritual awakening is kindled and stirred up. As regards ethico-spiritual conduct (Samyakchritra), Jainism recognizes that the person who is devoid of all attachments and who is engrossed in the self apprehends and experiences the self in its basic nature. He should devote his energies to meditation on the self, perform devotion to Arthat and Siddha and engage himself in Svadhyaya of ethico-spiritual literature along with the performance of other spiritual exercises. Before taking up these spiritual practices, he resorts to moral discipline in the form of Anuvratas and 60 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Mahavratas. It may be noted here that Mahavira gave utmost importance to the practice of Dhyana, since it is directly related to the actualisation of the divine potentialities. 8. According religious freedom to women and downtrodden people: Mahavira gave complete religious freedom to women. They were allowed to accept the life of asceticism like men. Mahavira himself initiated Candana into the ascetic order. In the Samgha of Mahavira 36000 Sadhvis were following religious observances. We hear of large number of women in the history of Jainas who distinguished themselves as teachers and preachers. "The followers of Jaina religion have been divided into four categories, viz., Sadhus, Sadhvis, Sravakas and Sravikas. Sadhvis are female ascetics who follow the five great vows in a very strict manner. This shows that complete freedom was given to women to enter the ascetic order. Female sex was no bar to the practice of asceticism. The Jaina Acaryas were extremely sympathetic is their attitude to women and admitted them freely into their order, no matter whether the candidates for admission were royal consorts, members of the aristocracy, and women belonging to the common run of society." 60 Religious freedom given to women enhanced their prestige in society. They were imparted education like men." The first Tirthankara, Rsabhadeva realised the utmost importance of imparting education to females and advised his two young daughters, Brahmi and Sundari that "only when you would adorn yourself with education, your life would be fruitful, because just as a learned man is held in high esteem by educated persons, a learned lady also occupies the highest position in the female world. Both the girls were first initiated to writing by their father and later on with the help of teachers Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 61 For Personal & Private Use Only

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they studied all branches of knowledge to such an extent that they could be regarded as incarnations of Sarasvati, the Goddess of Learning."61 The greatest name among Jaina Women in Kannada Literature was Kanti who, along with Abhinava Pampa, was one of the gems that adorned the Court of Hoyasala king Ballala (A.D. 1100-1106). She was redoubtable orator and a poet who completed the unfinished poems of Abhinava Pampa in the open court of that ruler. Similarly, a Jaina lady Avvaiyara, the Venerable Matron, was one of the most admired amongst the Tamil poets. "62 In times of need women did rise to the occasion and held important positions in the political sphere from the very beginning." In the first quarter of the 10th century A.D. figures a remarkable Jaina woman administrator, Jakkiyabbe, and it is stated that she was skilled in ability for good government, and protected the Nagarakhanda 70 (a name of a place). It is recorded that a Jaina lady Saviyabbe accompanied her husband on horse-back to the battle-field and fell fighting in the battle of Bagiyur.63 "It appears from Epigraphia Carnatica that the office of Nadagauda, an important rural official, was held by a Jaina woman. An incription dated A.D. 918 shows that a Jaina widow was a Nadagauda and was distinguished for the skill and ability of her management. It states that though a woman, she well protected her change with pride in her own heroic bravery. In the 16th century A.D. when the Jaina queen Bhairavadevi, while ruling over the kingdom of Gerosoppe, was attacked by the neighbouring Saiva Saradara, she faced the enemy bravely and defeated him in the battle."64 As the full religious freedom was allowed to females, widows could devote their time for their spiritual upliftment and thus carve a respectable position for them in their family and in the minds of people in general. 62 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Mahavira based the fourfold division of society on activities and not on birth. He accorded full freedom to one and all including women and down-trodden people to perform religious practices and admitted them into the order of ascetics.65 Thus "the doors of Jainism were thrown open to all and equal opportunity was given to everybody to practise religion according to his capacity. Those who followed religion as house-holders were known as Sravakas and Sravikas and those who observed it fully by leaving their houses were called as Sadhus and Sadhvis."66 The Uttaradhayayana says that Harikesa who was born in a family of untouchables attained saintly character owing to the performance of austerities. Good conduct and not caste is the object of reverence. Merit is the basis of caste and the pride of caste destroys right living.67 It is significant to point out that Mahavira's social mind exhorted that Ahimsa consists in recognising the dignity of man irrespective of caste, colour and creed. Man is man and should be recognised as such without any hesitation. The dignity of man is sacred and it is our duty to honour this dignity. Every individual, whether man or woman, should enjoy religious freedom without any distinction. A nonviolent society cannot subscribe to class exploitation and social oppression of man. Mahavira bestowed social prestige upon the down-trodden individuals. This led to the development of self-respect in them. Thus he showed that no man or woman should be deprived of availing himself of the opportunities of socio-spiritual advancement. 9. Propounding the philosophy of vegetarianism, and the philosophy of fighting defensive wars The term Himsa maybe defined as the committing of injury to the Dravya-Pranas and the Bhava-Pranas through Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 63

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.the operation of intense-passion-infected Yoga (activity of mind, body, and speech). Suicide, homicide and killing of any other life whatsoever aptly sum up the nature of Himsa, inasmuch as these villainous actions are rendered conceivable only when the Dravya-Pranas and the Bhava-Pranas pertaining to oneself and to others are injured. The minimum number of Dravya-Pranas has been considered to be four and the maximum has been known to be ten; and the BhavaPranas are the very attributes of Jiva. The amount of injury will thus be commensurate with the number of Pranas injured at a particular time and occasion.68 Himsa is of two kinds, namely, intentional and nonintentional. The intentional perpetrator of Himsa engages himself in the commitment of the acts of Himsa by his own mind, speech and action; provokes others to commit them; and endorses such acts of others. Besides, Himsa which is unavoidably committed by defending oneself from one's foes is denominated as non-intentional defensive Himsa. This leads us to the philosophy of fighting defensive wars.69 Now the householder is incapable of turning away completely form Himsa; hence he should keep himself away from the deliberate commission of Himsa of the two-sensed to five-sensed beings. The commitment of Himsa in adopting defensive contrivances, cannot be counteracted by him. Thus he has to commit intentional injury to one-sensed Jivas, namely, the vegetable-bodied, the air-bodied, the fire-bodied etc; and non-intentional injury in fighting defensive wars. Even in the realm of one-sensed Jivas and in the realm of fighting defensive wars he is required to confine his operations in such a way as may affect the life and existence of a very limited number of Jivas. In these two province the point to be noted is that of alleviating the amount of injury 64 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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that is apt to be caused and not that of total relinquishment which is not possible without jeopardizing the survival of man. The hard fact to be noted is that man is subject to Himsa by the very condition of his existence. Yet instead of aggravating the natural weight of Himsa by falling foul upon one another and by our cruel treatment of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, we should endeavour to alleviate this general curse, to the extent to which we are capable of doing, by conforming ourselves to the sacred injunctions enjoined by Jaina spiritual teachers. 70 Vegetarianism is therefore prescribed. It limits us to the unavoidable injury caused to only one-sensed-Jivas. This is the philosophy of vegetarianism propounded by Jainism. 10. Accepting Sallekhana as the spiritual welcome to death without any fear and perturbation." Sallekhana implies the enervation of external body and internal passions in a legitimate way by the gradual removal of the causes of their nourishment, so that one may renounce the present body with a view to having a new bodily modification. Sallekhana is performed on the occasion when the time of natural death has been known in all probability. No doubt the body which is the medium of upliftment of the soul is to be properly nourished and cared for and the diseases are to be seriously met with without any retreat. But if the body refuses to respond to our earnest endeavours, we should not falter to forsake it in the interest of saving the peace of mind. Thus if one is encountered with the termination of duration of the present life one should resort to the performance of the process of Sallekhana, which is not other than the spiritual welcome to death. This is not yielding to death, but a way of meeting the challenge of death undauntedly and adequately. "Self-restraint, study, Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 65 For Personal & Private Use Only

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austerities, worship, and charity - all become useless if the . mind is not pure at the last hour of life, just as the training of a king who has learnt the use of weapons for twelve years, becomes useless if he faints on the battlefield." The person performing Sallekhana should observe self-control, and than fix his mind in the Atman, when the vital forces depart from the body. The process of Sallekhana must needs be distinguished from suicide. Sallekhana is undertaken only when the inevitability of death is a matter of undisputed certainty, while suicide may be committed at any time in the life under the spell of emotional disturbance or passionate attitude of mind. uu. . . The person performing Sallekhana should make his earnest request to the members of his family and others around him to pardon him for the vicious deeds committed by him to affect them wittingly and unwittingly. He should also forgive them from the bottom of his heart for being troubled by them on certain occasions. Nourishment is to be renounced gradually, so that mental disturbance may be avoided. The persistence of equanimous mental state is the prime necessity. For this the person should devote himself to meditation (Dhyana) and bid farwell to his body. It will not be out of place to mention that Acarya Vinoba Bhave adopted the method of Sallekhana in order to renounce the body with equanimity of mind. It is important to note that there are other factors contributed by Jainism for the enrichment of Indian culture. 1. Jaina Art 2. Jaina Literature 1. Jaina Art: At the outset, it may be noted that Jainism does not subscribe to the philosophy of 'Art for Art's sake'. 66 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Jaina Acaryas have always exhibited their concern for the ethico-spiritual development of man. In conformity with this view, art must give ethico-spiritual message to mankind. This means that for Jainism art is purposive and the purpose is to inspire people to translate into action the ideals of life and living. Thus Jaina Art has been essentially religious with ethical predominance, but this did not obstruct the manifestation of aesthetic consciousness of an artist dedicated to the Jaina values of life. Jaina-Art expresses itself in diverse forms, important of which are caves, temples, pillars, towers and paintings. Jainas built cave dwellings for monks, so that they may get secluded places for their sadhana. A large number of rock-cut caves has been identified in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Hills in Orissa (2nd Cent. B.C.) the picturesqueness of their forms, the character of their sculptures and architectural details combined with their great antiquity, render them one of the most important groups of caves in India.72" The other caves are found at Junagadha in Gujarata (2nd Cent. B.C.), Rajagiri in Bihara (1st Cent. A.D.)) Udayagiri in Madhyapradesa, (4th Cent. A.D.), Candragiri at Sravanabelagola in Mysore, (4th Cent. B.C.), at Ellora and at Usmanabada in Maharastra (5th Cent. A.D.) and Sittanavasala in Tamilnadu (3rd Cent. B.C.)73. "By far the most interesting cave-temples of the Jainas, from the artistic point of view, are, however, the Indrasabhaand Jagannatha-sabha groups at Ellora. According to Percy Brown, "No other temple at Ellora is so complete in its arrangements or so finished in its workmanship as the upper storey of the Indrasabha."74 It is of capital importance to note that since Jaina religion regards the construction of temples as an auspicious act, Jainas Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 67 For Personal & Private Use Only

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have constructed a large number of temples throughout India. The two temple complexes, known as the Delavada temples at Mt. Abu and built in the 11th and 12th centuries A.D., by the minister of the kings of Gujarata are regarded as the minor wonders of the world."75 Henry Cousens wrote, "The amount of beautiful ornamental detail spread over these temples in the minutely carved decoration of ceilings, pillars, doorways, panels and niches, is simply marvellous."76 : Again the Jaina temple at Ranakapura in Mevada (1440 A.D.) is the most complicated and extensive Jaina temple in India."? Fergusson remarks that "no two pillars in the whole building are exactly alike - the grace with which they are arranged, the tasteful admixture of domes of different heights with flat ceilings, and the mode in which the light is introduced, combine to produce an excellent effect."78 The other temples of such superb character are the temples of : Parsvanatha at Khajaraho in Bundelakhanda (11 cent., A.D.), the temple at Lakkundi in Karnataka (12th cent. A.D.), The Jinanathapura temple near Sravanabelagola in Mysore (12th cent. A.D.) and Hosa Basti at Mudabidri in South Kanara (14th cent. A.D.).79 Besides, the grouping together of temples into what may be called "Cities of temples" is a peculiarity which the Jainas have practised to a greater extent than the followers of any other religion in India."80 "Such notable temple-cities are found, among other places, at Satrunjaya or Palitana and Giranara in Gujarata, at Sammeda sikhara in Bihara, at Sonagiri in Bundelakhanda, at Muktagiri in Maharastra, at Kunthalgiri in the Deccan, at Sravanabelagola in Mysore and at Mudabidri in South Kanara."81 Another remarkable contribution of the Jainas to the whole of Indian art, is the free standing pillars found in front of almost every Jaina temple in South India. 82" There are 68 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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more than twenty such pillars in the district of south Kanara alone. Nothing can surpass the stately grace of these beautiful pillars. During the past one hundred years numerous such pillars have been erected in different parts of the country.83" The Jainas generally call these pillars Manastambhas. 84 Apart from pillars, a tower known as Kirtistambha in Cittoda, Rajasthana was constructed in 12th cent. A.D. and it was dedicated to Adinatha.85 It may be noted that "the most distinctive contribution of Jainism to art was in the realm of icon-making. Innumerable Jaina images made of stone, metal including gold, silver and bronze, wood, terracotta, and even precious stones, are available. "86 On the basis of the Hathigumpha inscription (2nd cent. B.C.) of Kharavela, the history of Jaina iconography takes us back at least to the 4th cent. B.C. The Mathura School of Art speaks of the development of Jaina icons from the 1st cent. B.C., to 12th cent. A.D. Statues of Tirthankara were made by Jainas in good number. In the Mathura School "Adinatha or Rsabhanatha was shown with hair falling on his shoulders and Parsvanatha had a snake conopy over his head and 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha was presented flanked by Balarama and Krsna.87" The Image of Sarasvati is found at Mathura (132 A.D.). This is the earliest statue of Sarasvati known to us. Gradually it assumed many forms. 88 This shows that Sarasvati was worshipped in Jaina tradition. Undoubtedly the most remarkable of the Jaina statues is the statue of Bahubali situated at Sraavnabelagola in Mysore (constructed in 983 A.D. by Camundaraya and it is 561/2 Ft. in height) it is the largest free standing statue in Asia.89 Painting on walls, palm-leaves and paper : The earliest example of wall paintings is found in Sittanavasala cave in Tamilnadu in the 7th cent. A.D. in the 10th and 11th cent. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 69. For Personal & Private Use Only

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A.D. the temple of Tirumalai presents beautiful wall paintings. 92 After 11th cent. A.D. paintings on palm-leaves began. The plam-leaves paintings are found at Mudabidri in the South and at Patana (Gujarata) in the North.' In London is preserved the Kalpasutra which is the earliest example of paper painting (1427 A.D.)92 Painting on cloth and wood are preserved in Jaina Sastra Bhandaras of various places. It is of capital importance to note that Jainas have carefully maintained manuscript libraries throughout India. These libraries possess not only Jaina literature but preserve also the non-Jaina literary works. In Rajasthana, Madhyapradesa, Gujarata, Karnataka and Maharastra, a large number of manuscript libraries preserving vast and varied literature, both religious and secular have been maintained, Jaina Literature : According to Jainism a Tirthankara, along with self-realisation, propagates socio-spiritual values for the benefit of mankind. His deliverances form the canonical (Agamic) literature of the Jainas. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara preached in the language of the masses which was known as Praklta. Thus the Jaina Agamas (canons) are in Prakrta. These Agamas form the 'Holy Scriptures of the Jainas'. These cover a wide variety of subjects. It is of capital importance to note that the Jaina Acaryas continued to compose works in Praksta up to 13th cent. A.D. namely, the Agamic commentaries, the metaphysico-spiritual works of Kundakunda, logical works of Siddhasena and Devasena, Tiloyapnnati of Yativisabha, Trilokasara of Nemicandra, Bshatsangraha of Candrasuri, Vicarasara Prakarana of Pradyumnasuri, Bhagavati Aradhana of Sivarya, Mulacara of Vattakera, Pravacanasaroddhara of Nemicandra, Savayapannatti, Yogasataka and Dhurtakhyana of Haribhadra, Kattigeyanuvekkha of Svamikumara, 70 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Paumacariya of Vimalasuri, Caupannamahapurisa-Cariya of Silarkacarya etc. 93 There are numerous Caritras in Prakrta which describe the life of individual Tirthankaras such as Rsabha, santinatha, Neminatha, Parsva and Mahavira. Jainas own abundant narrative literature in Praksta. Vasudeva-Hindi of Samghadasagani, Samaraicca-kaha of Haribhadra, Kuvalayamala of Uddyotanasuri and many Katha-Kosas have been composed by the Jainas.94 All this shows that Jainas have to their credit voluminous Prakrta literature, but unfortunately the study of Praksta language has practically disappeared from India. What will be its consequence is a matter of great concern for the custodians of Indian culture. Apart from the vast Praksta literature Jaina authors adopted various languages such as Apabhraiia, Kannada and Tamil for their compositions. "The credit of inaugurating an Augustan age in the Apabhramsa, Tamil and Kannada literature unquestionably goes to the Jainas."95 Apabhraisa which enjoyed the credit of being the national language of Northern India for a very long time has been nourished by Jaina authors. From the 6th Cent. A.D. to 15th Cent. A.D. the cultivators of Apabhramsa language were Jainas. % Svayambhu (8th Cent. A.D.) Puspadanta (10th Cent. A.D.), Dhanapala (10th Cent. A.D.) Vira (11th Cent. A.D.) Nayanandi (11th Cent. A.D.), Kanakamara (11th Cent. A.D.), Hemacandra (12th Cent. A.D.) Harideva (15th Cent. A.D.), Raidhu (15th cent A.D.) etc. 97 are the immortal literary figures of India. Joindu, Muni Ramasimgha, Devasena etc. are the prominent ethico-spiritual writers who have been recognised as the precursors of Kabir, Tulasi and other mystic poet-saints of India.98 It will not be amiss to point out that the national language, Hindi owes a great deal to Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 71 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Apabhramsa. Hindi has inherited all its literary forms from Apabhraiba. The regional languages such as Sindhi, Punjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani, Bihari, Udiya, Bangali, Asami and the like have grown from the soil of Apabhramsa language and literature.99 As regards Jaina literature in Tamil, it is not a mere accident that the best literature, known as the Sangama literature, of the ancient Tamil country was the creation of the Jaina scholars. The two great works, Kural and Naladiyar are the compositions of Jaina authors.100 Of the five major Kavyas, the three, namely, Jivaka Cintamani, Silappadikaram and Valaiyapati are by Jaina writers.101 Jivaka Cintamani is the greatest existing Tamil literary monument. 102 Besides, all the five minor Kavyas were also composed by Jaina authors.103 Tolkappiyam, the earliest Tamil grammar, Nannul, the most popular grammar in Tamil language and the works on Tamil lexicography-all these were written by Jaina authors.104 We may conclude by saying that Jainism prevailed in the South from before the Sangama period (350 BC to 20 A.D.) of Tamil literary history. Regarding the Kannada language, we may say, "The Jainas have undoubtedly been the foremost cultivators of the Kannada language from the inception of its literary history which is traced back to the 4th - 5th century A.D. by the end of the 10th century, they had made it a well established literary language."105 Professro R. Narsimhachari observes, "The earliest cultivators of the language were Jainas. The oldest works of any extent and value that have come down to us are all from the pen of the Jainas.106 Jaina authors in Kannada are far more numerous than in Tamil. To name only a few, we have, Pampa, Ponna, 72 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Ranna, Gunavarma Nagacandra, Nayasena, Nagavarma, Aggala, Nemicandra, Janna and Madhura, authors whose works are admired as excellent specimens of poetic composition. "Besides Kavyas written by Jaina authors we have numerous works by them dealing with subjects such as grammar, medicine, veterinary science, cookery and so forth. Altogether the number of Jaina authors in Kannada is nearly two hundred." "107 In addition to the Prakrta, Apabhramsa, Kannada and Tamil literature Jainas started writing in Samskrta also as early as 1st cent. A.D. The Tattvarthasutra of Umasvati is the compendium of Jainism in Samskrta. Pujyapada (5th cent A.D.) and Akalanka (8th cent. A.D.) wrote commentaries on it. Works on Jaina logic have been written from 2nd cent to 15th Cent. A.D. Some of the great logicians are Siddhasena, Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Vidyanandi, Haribhadra, Manikyanandi, Hemacandra, Prabhacandra, Vadidevasuri, Mallisena, Vimaladasa and Yasovijaya. Samskrta literature has also been enriched by Jaina Puranas, Mahakavyas, devotional literature, grammar, Campukavyas and large ninber of ethico-spiritual works. Besides, Jaina scholars wrote treatises on politics, mathematics, lexicon, poetics, medicine, astronomy, geography and astrology. Jainas recognized the genius of Kalidasa, so much so that the Jaina writer Mallinatha wrote commentaries on the works of Kalidasa and thus paid homage to this great luminary of Samskrta literature. 109 In conclusion we may say that in the field of sociospiritual values, logico-metaphysical pronouncements, diverse Indian languages and meaningful artistic, scientific and secular consciousness, Jainism has enormously contributed to Indian Culture. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 73

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1. 2. 3. 4. .5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 11. 12. 13. REFERENCES The Dawn of Indian Civilization upto 600 B.C. edited by Dr. G.C. Pande, Page 13. (PHISPC/Centre for Studies in Civilizations, Delhi, 1999). Ibid. Page, 7. Ibid. Page, 388. Ibid. Page, 387. Studies in the Origins of Buddhism by Dr. G.C. Pande, P 317. (Allahabad 1957). Lord Mahavira and His Times, by Dr. Kailash Chand Jain, P. 9 (Motilal Banarsidasa, Delhi, 1991). Ibid. P. 9. Bharata and Bharata by Dr. Prem Sagar Jain, foreword by Dr. Munish Chandra Joshi, page (ii) (Jaina Vidya Samsthana, Sri Mahaviraji). 10. Religion and Culture of the Jains (RCJ) by Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain, P. 12. (Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi 1975). Ibid. P. 1 1. 74 Lord Mahavira and His Times (LMHT) by Dr. Kailash Chand Jain, P. 1 1, (Motlal Banarsidasa, Delhi, 1991). LMHT, P. 57. Tirthankara Vardhamana Mahavira by Pandita Padarna Chandra Sastri, P. 82. (Jaina Vidya Samsthana, Sri Mahaviraji, 1997). 14. Yuktyanusasana of Samantabhadhra 61 (Vira Seva Mandira, Delhi). 15. Acaranga Sutra, 132, Edited by Muni Jambuvijayaji (Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1976). 16. Ibid. 196. 17. Prasnavyakarana Sutra, 6,1,3, Pages 683, 684, Edited by Muni Nathmal under the title Angasuttani (3) (Jaina Vishva Bharati Ladnun, 1974). 18. Acaranga Sutra, 129. 19. Ibid. 49, 78. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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30. 20. Ibid. 22. 21. Pancastikaya, 112 to 117, (Srimad Rayacandra Asrama, Agasa, 1968). Pancastikaya, 1 10. Purusarthasiddhyupaya 44 (Srimad Rayacandra Asrama, Agasa, 1986). 24. Prasnavyakarana Sutra, 6.1.3. Pages 683, 684. Acaranga Sutra, 170. 26. Ethical Doctrines in Jainism (EDJ) by Dr. K.C. Sogani, Pages 86,87. (Jaina Samskrti Samraksaka Samgha Sholapur, 1967). Pancastikaya, 10. 28. EDJ, Page 16. 29. Pravacanasara Introduction, P. LXVI (edited by Dr. A.N. Upadhye, (Srimad Rayacandra Asrania, Agasa). Pancastikaya, 12. 31. Niyamasara, 14,15 (P. 133) - Sri Kundakunda Kahana Digambara Jaina Tirthi Suraksa Trust, Jaipur 1933). 32. Pancastikaya, Comm. Amstacandra, 39. 33. Ibid. 38. 34. Pravacanasara, Comin. Amotacandra, 11. 5. 35. Aptamimamsa, 34. (Muni-Anantakirti Granthamala, Bombay). 36. Saptabhanayatarangini P. 78 (Srimad Rajacandra Asrama, Agasa). Tattvarthasutra, 1.6. (Under the title Sarvarthasiddhi, Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Delhi). Sarvarihasiddhi, I. 6. 39. Life, Thought and, Culture in India Vol II (LTCI) edited by K. Satchidananda Murty, (300 A.D. to 1000 A.D.)P. 318. (PHISPC/ Centre for Studies in Civilizations, 2002). 40. EDJ, Page, 36, 41. LTCI, Page 315. 42. Ibid. Pages, 316, 317. 43. Tattvarthasutra, VIII-4. 44. EDJ, Pages, 50, 51. 45. Pravacanasara, 1. 14 (Rayacandra) 38. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 75 . For Personal & Private Use Only

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46. Dravyasamgraha, 50 (Sacred Books of the Jainas Vol. 1); Bhagavati Aradhana, 2144 (Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Sholapur). 47. Bhagavati Aradhana, 27. 48. Moksa Pahuda, 5, 51 (Patani Digambara Jaina Granthamala Marotha, under the title, Asta Pahuda) Acaranga Sutra, 1. 4. 18 (Jaina Svetambara Terapanthi Mahasabha, Calcutta). 50. Sutrakstanga, 1. 2. 1, 1, (Sacred Books of the East Vol. XLV). 51. Jnanarnava, XXIV, 3. (Rayacandra) 52. Yogadrstisamuccaya, 178 (L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad). 53. Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 44 (Rayacandra) 54. Tattvarthasutra, 1. 1. 55. Moksa Pahuda, 4. 7. 56. Jaina Mysticisam and other Essays by Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani, Pages 1 to 13 (Praksta Bharati Academy, Jaipur). 57. Tattvarthasutra, 1. 1. 58. Yasastilaka and Indian Culture by Handiqui, P. 248 (Jivaraja Granthamala, Sholapur). 59. EDJ, Page, 61 60. Jaina Community - A Social Survey (JCSS) by Vilas A. Sangave, Pages, 169, 170 (Popular Prakasana, Bombay, 1980). 61. Ibid.P.172. 62. Ibid. P. 173. 63. Ibid. P. 177. 64. Ibid. P. 177. 65. Ibid. P. 65. 66. Ibid. P. 66. 67. EDJ, P. 273. 68. Ibid. P. 76. 69. Ibid. Pages, 77, 78. 70. Ibid. P. 78. 71. Ibid. Pages, 117, 188. Spiritual Awakening (Samyardarsana) and Other Essay's For Personal & Private Use Only

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72. JCSS, P. 372. 73. Ibid. P. 372. 74. RCJ, Pages, 140, 141. 75. Ibid. P. 143. 76. Ibid. P. 143. 77. JCSS, P. 371. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid. P. 372. 81. Ibid. P. 372. 82. Ibid. P. 372. 83. RCJ. P. 146. 84. Ibid. P. 146. 85. JCSS, P. 373. 86. RCJ, P. 135. 87. Life, Thought and Culture in India, Vol. I edited by Dr. G.C. Pande, P. 1164. (PHISPC/Centre for Studies in Civilizations, Delhi). 88. Ibid. Pages, 1164, 1165. 89. JCSS, Page, 374. 90. RCJ, Page, 147 91. Bharatiiya Samskrti Ko Jaina Dharma Ka Yogadana (BSJDY) by Dr. Hiralal Jain, P. 365, (Madhyapradesa sasana Parisad, . Bhopal 1962) . 92. Ibid. 370. 93. BSJDY, Pages, 72 to 134. 94. Ibid. Pages, 134 to 151. 95. RCJ, Page, 151. 96. Apabhraisa; Eka Paricaya, (AEP) by Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani, P. 2. (Apabhramsa Sahitya Academy, Jaipur). 97. Ibid. Pages, 8 to 21. 98. RCJ, Page, 156. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 77 For Personal & Private Use Only

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99. AEP, Page, 44. 100. Jaina Literature in Tamil by A. Chakravarti, P. 28. (Bhartiya Jnana Pitha, Delhi, 1974). 101. Ibid. Page, 48. 102. Ibid. Page, 63. 103. Ibid. Page, 83. 104. Ibid. Pages, 19, 129, 130, 131. 105. RCJ, Page, 157. 106. Ibid. Page, 157. 107. Ibid. Page, 157. 108. Ibid. Pages, 85 to 99. 109. RCJ, Pa-e, 165. 78 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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THE CONCEPT OF ANUVRATAS IN JAINISM Jainism recognizes Moksa as the consummation of human pursuits. Moksa presupposes a way of life, just as the end presupposes the means. The celebrated book Tattvarthasutra of Umasvati, generally recognized as the compendium of Jaina thought, in the first Sutra of the opening chapter pronounces that right belief (spiritual awakening), right knowledge (value knowledge) and right conduct (ethico-spiritual conduct) constitute the path to liberation. This Sutra summarises the end as well as the means of its achievement. Right belief is spiritual awakening, right knowledge is value awakening and right conduct is ethico-spiritual endeavour to achieve the goal. Thus right conduct which is preceded by right knowledge and right belief signifies that moral life without spiritual awakening, cannot lead us to liberation. In other words, spiritualization of moral life must take place if Moksa is to be attained. This statement, of course, does not deny that moral life is not possible without spiritual awakening, it simply entails that for the accomplishment of Moksa moral life must have a stamp of spiritual awakening. It is of capital importance to note that at no stage of the process of the Moksa these three integral principles styled as Ratnatraya can be dispensed with. We are not concerned here with the right belief (spiritual awakening) and right knowledge (value knowledge) but only with the one aspect of right conduct (ethico-spiritual conduct). It is to be borne in mind that inauspicious activities emanating from the inauspicious psychical states can in no For Personal & Private Use Only

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way be the part of right conduct, hence they are to be completely relinquished. 1&2 Thus, in order to stamp out the inauspicious psychical states from the texture of self, the aspirant must abstain himself root and branch from the vices of Himsa (violence), Asatya (falsehood), Steya (theft), Abrahma (unchastity), and Parigraha (acquisition) by following the virtues of Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacarya (chastity), and Aparigraha (non-acquisition). But it is astonishing that in spite of not being the part of right conduct in any way, these vices refuse to be completely relinquished at the start on account of their being ingrained in the mind of man. Hence there arises the concept of limited morality in contrast to that of perfect morality wherein these vices are completely renounced. In Jainism the concept of limited morality is expressed by the term Anuvratas, while that of perfect morality is expressed by the term Mahavratas. He who observes the Anuvratas being not able to renounce the vices to the full is called a Grhastha (house-holder), while he who observes the Mahavratas being able to renounce the vices to the full claims the title of a Muni (ascetic). We are chiefly concerned here with the concept of Anuvratas. The Vratas which can be observed by the householder are then called Ahimsanuvrata (partial non-violence), Satyanuvrata (partial truthfulness), Acauryanuvrata (partial non-thieving) Brahma-charyanuvrata (partial chastitiy), Parigrahaparimananuvrata, (partial non-acquisition). For the proper understanding of the five Anuvratas (partial vows), we shall first discuss the nature of the five vices- Himsa, Asatya, Steya, Abrahma, and Parigraha one by one and shall derive from them the scope of Anuvratas. 80 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Nature of Himsa : -- Himsa, in its popular meaning, may be defined as the committing of injury to the Dravya-pranasy and the Bhava-pranas through the operation of intense-passion-infected Yoga (activity of mind, body and speech). Suicide, homicide, and killing of any other life whatsoever aptly sum up the nature of Hirsa, inasmuch as these villainous actions are rendered conceivable only when the Dravya pranas and the Bhava-pranas pertaining to oneself and to others are injured. The minimum number of Dravy.pranas has been enumerated to be four, and the maximum has been known to be ten; and the Bhava-pranas are the very attributes of Jiva. The amount of injury will thus be commensurate with the number of Pranas injured at a particular time and occasion. If the bodily movements etc. are performed with circumspection, nevertheless if any living being is oppressed, it cannot be called Hirnsa, for the infecting element of intense-passion is missing. On the contrary even if, by careless bodily movements, no animate body is oppressed, the actions are not free from Hissa. Here though the soul has not injured others, yet it has injured itself by defiling its own natural constitution. He who employs his mind, body, and speech in injuring others commits Hirsa on account of actually indulging in it. Thus, wherever there is inadvertence of mind, body or speech, Himsa is inevitable.? Kinds of Himsa : - Himsa is of two kinds; namely, intentional and non-intentional. The latter has been again subdivided into Udyami, Arambhi, and Virodhi. The intentional perpetrator of Himsa engages himself in the commitment of the acts of Himsa by his own mind, speech and action; provokes others to commit them; and endorses such acts of others. Besides, Himsa which is unavoidably committed (1) by reason of one's own profession, (2) by the Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 81 For Personal & Private Use Only

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performance of domestic activities, and (3) by defending oneself, one's neighbour, one's country, one's belongings and the like from one's foes is denominated as (1) Udyami, (2) Arambhi, and (3) Virodhi respectively. Ahimsanuvrata:-Now the householder, being snared in the meshes of infirmities, is incapable of turning away completely from Himsa; hence he should keep himself away from the deliberate commission of Himsa of the two-sensed to five-sensed beings.10 The commitment of Himsa in being engaged in a certain profession, in performing domestic activities, and in adopting defensive contrivances, cannot be counteracted, by him. Thus he commits intentional injury to one-sensed Jivas, namely, the vegetable-bodied, the airbodied, the fire-bodied etc. and non-intentional injury in performing Arambha (domestic activities), Uddyoga (profession) and Virodha (defence). He can, therefore, observe the gross form of Ahimsa which is known as Ahimsanuvrata. Even in the realm of one-sensed Jivas and in the realm of non-international injury he should so manage to confine his operations as may affect the life and existence of a very limited number of Jivas." In these two provinces the point to note in that of alleviating the amount of injury that is apt to be caused and not that of total relinquishment which is not possible without jeopardizing the survival of man. Nevertheless, Himsa, even in the realm of one-sensed Jivas and in the realm of non-intentional injury, is unjustifiable. If we reflect a little we shall find that man is subject to Himsa by the very condition of his existence. Yet instead of aggravating the natural weight of Himsa by falling foul upon one another and by our cruel treatment with the animal and vegetable kingdoms, we should endeavour to alleviate this general curse to the extent to which we are 82 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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capable of, by conforming ourselves to the sacred injunctions enjoined by the Jaina spiritual teachers. For the observance of Ahimsanuvrata, (1) One should avoid the use of (i) wine and (ii) meat.12 (2) One should not sacrifice animals for the adoration of gods, being dominated by the perverted notion of receiving benediction in return. " It is inconceivable how the gods seek satisfaction and serenity from such inhuman deeds which cause unbearable pain to the animals. (3) It must not be obligatory to kill animals for the entertainment of guests, a pious design by impious means. 14 (4) To harbour notion that the vegetable food necessitates the killing of innumerable lives abiding in it as compared with the slaughter of one living being may be fascinating at the inception, but it is imprudent in view of the fact that the body of an animal possesses countless microscopic lives which will inevitably be injured in its killing; and that the five-sensed Jiva would entail more, vice owing to the occupation and consequential loss of more Dravya and Bhava Pranas than those of one-sensed Jiva belonging to the vegetable Kingdom.15 (5) Snakes, scorpions, lions and the like should not be killed on the ground that by so doing large number of lives will be saved, and that they (snakes, scorpions etc.) will get the opportunity of avoiding the accumulation of more sin by their continued violence. 16 (6) Under the weight of misconception that those who are in distress and calamity on being killed will soon obtain relief from anguish and agony, the living beings should never be killed."7 (7) Moved by the pangs of other being's hunger, one should not provide one with the flesh of one's own body to appease one's appetite. 18 Nature of Asatya: - Asatya is concerned with the expression of intense passion through the outlet of speech which 'expresses itself in language and gestures. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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* Dispassionate speech is synonymous with the mystical realization which is the height of truth man is capable of achieving. The perfect soul of Tirthankaras who preach for the upliftment of human and other beings should not be regarded as being moved by any passion inasmuch as they speak for the good of all without any selfish desire and without any constraint of passion. It follows from what has been described that Asatya, is a double fall from the loftiest heights of truth. It defiles both the internal soul and the external demeanour, the social living and the spiritual upliftment, hence it should be forsaken in the interest of advancement. We now define Asatya. Under the constraint of anger, greed, conceit deceit, lust and the like, the use of language which affects others and ourselves should be understood as Asatya.'' It does not merely mean the pronouncement of the existent as non-existent, nor can it be said to embrace merely the proclamation of the non-existent as existent, but also involves the misrepresentation of the true nature of the existents and the use of speech which arouses intense-passion and causes pain to others. Accordingly, Satya must not merely mean the announcement of the existent, but must also mean the use of words which are soothing, gentle, and ennobling. It should be borne in mind that, even if by our most vigilant and gentle speaking, others are somehow perversely and painfully affected, we shall not be considered as transgressing and setting at nought the vow of truth. Ontologically speaking, no word is pleasant or unpleasant in isolation and in itself. It is the spirit that counts. A word, being the modification of Pudgala, has infinite characteristics. Therefore it possesses the potency of affecting others in infinite ways, all of which are incapable of being known by 84 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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imperfect human beings. In pronouncing a word as pleasant or unpleasant, the circumstances, the place and the time, the character of the man, the mental and the physical effects on himself and others that surround him should all be counted. According to Amstacandra (1) the first kind of Asatya refers to the affirmation of the existent as non-existent,20 (2) the second refers to the declaration of the non-existent as existent,21 (3) the third refers to the representation of the existing nature of things as different from what they really are,22 and (4) the fourth is indicative of the speech which is (1) condemnable (Garhita), (2) sinful (Savadya), and (3) disagreeable (Apriya).23 To explain the fourth form of Asatya, (1) back-biting, ridiculous speech, harsh language and violent words are comprised under condemnable speech.24 Besides, useless gossiping, language inciting unfounded beliefs, and superstitions should also be grouped under it.25 (2) Sinful speech comprises the use of language for defence, for running the household and for professional purposes 26 (3) Disagreeable words are those which arouse uneasiness, engender fear, excite repugnance, inflame dolour, and intoxicate brawl.27 Satyanuvrata: - Out of these forms of Asatya, it is beyond the power of the householder to shun totally the use of words concerning his houlsehold affairs, the affairs relating to his profession and safety, and these necessarily entail Himsa. The avoidance of sinful (Savadya) speech is not possible without imperiling his life and that of his dependents; just as it is not possible for him to abandon the Himsa of one-sensed Jivas. Thus the householder should abandon all other forms of Asatya, except sinful speech as mentioned above. 28 This is the gross form of the vow of truth or Satyanuvrata. It should be noted that Samantabhadra Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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allows not telling the truth, if it endangers the life of anyone, in Satyanuvrata.29 The truthful man should denounce exaggeration, fault-finding and indecent speech, and speak words that are noble, beneficial and balanced.30 He should be grave and equanimous, noble-charactered personality, philanthrophist, kind and sweet-tongued. He should not extol himself, and caluminate others. 31 Nor should he hide the merits of others that are existent, and describe those of himself that are non-existent. 32 Nature of Steya : - Under the influence of intense passions, the acquisition of things without their being given by the owner is called Steya." In this world, the transient things constitute the external Pranas of a man, and he who thieves or plunders them is said to commit Steya, inasmuch as such misdeeds necessarily ruffle the evenness of mind of others and that of himself.34 This, then, is not other than Himsa.35 Asteyanuvrata or Acauryanuvrata :- Not to take anything without the permission of others is a discipline parexcellence; but it lies beyond the power of the householder; so he is required to use such things freely as are of common use without their being given, such as well-water, sand, 36 etc. This is Acauryanuvrata or gross form of the vow of Asteya. According to Samantabhadra the keeper of the householder's vow of Asteya does neither appropriate to himself things, which are unoffered, placed, dropped, and forgotten by others nor gives them to anyone else.?? Swami Kartikeya includes even the purchasing of costly things at reduced prices under Steya, which is probably due to the possibility of selling a thing after mis-appropriating. 38 Somadeva holds that the underground property belongs to the king or the State; so also the property of unknown 86 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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ownership.39 .39 To take the possession of property at the death of one's own kinsman is justified, but, when he is alive, his sanction is required to sustain the householder's vow of Asteya.40 Nature of Abrahma : - The copulation arising from sexual passion is Abrahma. This is Himsa in two ways.41 In the first place, many living beings are deprived of their vitalities in the vagina in the sexual act, just as a hot rod of iron, when it is introduced in a tube filled with sesamum seed, burns them up.42 Secondly, psychical life is affected because of the emergence of sexual passion, and so also the material pranas are affected owing to the lethargic condition consequent upon coition.4 43 44 Brahmacaryanuvrata : The householder cannot relinquish copulation as such. Hence he should abstain himself from the sexual and lustful contacts with all other women except his nuptial partner. This is Brahmacaryanu vrata or gross form of the vow of Brahmacarya. In view of Vasunandi, the householder following this vow should not succumb to the unnatural ways of sexual satisfaction like masturbation, sodomy and the like and should not copulate even with one's own wife on the two pious days (Astami and Caturdasi) of each fortnight.45 Samantabhadra pronounces Brahmcaryanuvrata as renouncing lustful contacts with another man's wife, and as seeking contentment in one's own wife.46 Such an observer of vow neither enjoys another man's wife, nor instigates another person to do so.47 Somadeva enunciates Brahmacaryanuvrata as conceiving all women or concubines as one's mother, sister or daughter with the exception of one's own wife.48 "Wine, meat, gambling, music with song and dance, personal decoration, intoxication, libertines and * Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 87

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aimless wandering - these ten are the concomitants of sexual passion".49 Besides, "one should be careful not to excite oneself by erotic acts, aphrodisiac potions and erotic literature." "50 53 Nature of Parigraha: - The characteristic of parigraha is attachment. The definition of Parigraha shows, in the first place, that those who have a feeling of attachment, notwithstanding the renunciation of all worldly acquisitions, are far from Aparigraha.52 Secondly, it expresses that the possession of mundane things is not possible without internal attachment. Thus both the internal attachment and the possession of mundane things come within the sweep of Parigraha. We may now say that, if one is disposed to remove the internal attachment, one should correspondingly throw aside mundane possessions also. In the presence of mundane possessions, if non-attachment is claimed, it will be self-deception and fraudulence, since without psychical proneness mundane possession cannot be perforce with us. It may happen that, despite insignificant mundane possessions, one may have conspicuous internal inclination for possession, just as a poor man may have. But this must not brush aside the difference in internal attachment corresponding to the kind of external possession. In other words, there occurs internal variation in attachment by virtue of the longing one possesses for the kind of external objects. For example, attachment is feeble in a young deer which continues to live on green blades of grass in comparison to a cat which kills a host of mice for procuring its food. Thus, the external and the internal influence each other. 54 Parigraha as such can never preclude Himsa and those who wish to practise Ahimsa should avoid the internal and the external attachment. So Ahimsa will be commensurate 88 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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with the degree of avoidance. Perfect non-attachment and consequently perfect Ahimsa is rendered possible only in the life of Arhantas and below this only degrees of Aparigraha are possible. 1 Parigraha Parimananuvrata : - The householder is incapable of renouncing all Parigraha. He should limit the Parigraha of wealth, cattle, corn servants, buildings etc. inasmuch as the spirit of renunciation is the right principle.55 This is Parigraha-parimananuvrata or the gross form of the vow of Aparigraha. We may say in passing that the householder's vow of Aparigraha would tend to annual the economic inequality rampant in society and thereby everybody will be able to get things of daily necessities at least. Today, men, and nations are striving for the enhancement of their wealth and territory at the cost of others with the consequence that the individual and national tensions are increasing. Parigraha is detrimental when it engenders inordinate clinging. An attitude of a philanthropist is essential for the observance of the vow of Parigraha-parimananuvrata. REFERENCES 2. Kundakunda, Pravacanasara, 1-7 (Ed. A.N. Upadhye: Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala). Ibid. 11-6. The empirical self is recognized by the Pranas it owns. The lowest in the grade of existence is the one-sensed Jivas. These one-sensed Jivas admit of five-fold classification, namely, earth-bodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, air-bodied, and lastly vegetable-bodied souls (jivas). They possess four Pranas-sense of touch, Bala of body, life limit, and Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 89 For Personal & Private Use Only

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. breathing. The two-sensed Jivas possess six pranas i.e. in addition to the four pranas of one-sensed Jivas, they have two pranas more, namely, sense of taste and Bala of speech; the three-sensed Jivas have the sense of colour besides the above; and lastly the fivesensed Jivas which are mindless are endowed with the sense of hearing in addition and those with mind possess all the ten pranas-- five senses (senses of touch, taste, smell, colour and hearing), three Balas (Balas of body, speech and mind), life limit and breathing. Thus the number of pranas possessed by one-sensed to five-sensed Jivas are four, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten respectively. Umas vati, Tattvarthasutra, VII. 13. (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi under the title Sarvarthasiddhi). Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhiupaya, 43 (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala). Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 45. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 46, 47 Ibid. 48. 90 Chainsukhadass, Jainadarsanasara, P. 63. (Sadbodha Granthamala, Jaipur). Ibid. p. 63. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 75; Kartikeyanupreksa, 332, (Jaina Grantharatnakara Karyalya, Bombay). 11. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 77; Vasunandi Sravakacara 209. (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi). 12. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 61, 72; Asadhara, Sagaradharmamrta, II. 2 (Mulacanda Kisanadasa, Kapadiya, Surata,) Amitagati Sravakacara V.I. (Anantakirti Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay). Ibid. 79, 80. 13. 14. Ibid. 81. 15. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 82. 83. 16. Ibid. 84. 17. Ibid. 85. 18. Ibid. 89. 19. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 91 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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20. Ibid. 92. 21. Ibid. 93. 22. Amotacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 94 23. Ibid. 95 Ibid. 96. 25. Ibid. 97. 26. Ibid. 98. 27. Ibid. 99 28. Ibid. 101. 29. Samantabhadra, Ratnakaranda Sravakacara, 55. (Sarala Jaina Granthabhandara, Jnbniapurn). Vasunandi Sravakacara. 210. 30. Kartikeyanupreksa. 334, Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture. P. 266. (Jivaraja Jaina Granthamala) 31. Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, p. 266. 32. Ibid. p. 266. 33. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 102. 34. Ibid. 103. 35. Ibid. 104. 36. Ibid. 106. 37. Samantabhadra, Ratnakaranda Sravakacara, 57, Vasunandi Sravakacara. 211; Amitagati Sravakacara, VI. 59. 38. Kartikeyanupreksa, 335. 39. Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, p. 265. 40. Ibid. p. 265. 41. Amotacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 107. 42. Ibid. 108. 43. Ibid 109. 44. Ibid 110.. 45. Vasunandi Sravakacara, 212. 46. Samantabhadra, Ratnakaranda Sravakacara, 59. 47. Ibid, 59. Spiritual Awakening (Sainyagdarsana) and Other Essays 91 For Personal & Private Use Only

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48. Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, P. 267; Kartikeyanupreksa, 338, Amitagati Sravakacara, VI. 64.66. 49. Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian culture, p. 267. 50. Ibid. p. 267. 51. Amrtacandra, Purusartha-siddhi-upaya, 111. 52. Ibid. 112. 53. Ibid. 113. 54. Ibid. 121, 55. Ibid. 124-128. 92 o o ofe Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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EXPRESSIONS OF THE HIGHEST GOOD IN JAINISM : A COMPARATIVE STUDY Jainism is a system of philosoply embracing logicometaphysical reflection and indicating a path to ethicomystical realisation. If the fountain-head of Jaina ethics is logico-metaphysical thinking, mysticism is its culmination. Thus Jainism is not merely ethics, logic and metaphysics but mysticism too. It will not be amiss to point out that ethics is the connecting link between logico-metaphysical speculation and mystical realisation which is the highest good. It paves the way from metaphysics to mysticism. In other words, the journey from intellect to intuition can only be traversed through moral observances resulting in meditation and devotion. Prof. Ranade says "Metaphysics, Morality and Mysticism are as inseparable from each other in the interest of the highest spiritual development of man as intellect, will and emotion are inseparable for his highest psychological development."'' Again, he says -- The mystics of all ages and countries form an eternal divine society.? There are no racial, no communal, no national prejudices among them. Time and space have nothing to do with the eternal and infinite character of their mystical experience. They may weave out their mysticism with the threads of any metaphysical structure, but they always try to go behind the words and realize a unity of significance." The mystic, according to Jainism, gets sublime satisfaction from immediate contact with the transcendental self and along with it with the whole of existence through the For Personal & Private Use Only

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medium of infinite, intuitive knowledge in contradistinction to the metaphysician who gets merely intellectual satisfaction by mediately comprehending the whole of existence. In other words, the mystic has Pratyaksa Anubhava, while the metaphysician has only Paroksa Anubhava. . In the ethico-religio-philosophical works of the Jainas the highest good is diversely formulated. Fed up with the kaleidoscopic transformations of the world, the Jaina Acaryas have dived deep into the inner hidden regions of the spirit, and have expressed the highest good in different ways. But it may be noted here that all the formulations of the highest good convey identical meaning. LIBERATION (MOKSA) AS THE HIGHEST GOOD : First, the liberation of self is deemed to be the highest good. Every human being ought to render strenuous efforts to seek his own salvation from the miseries of the world. All the systems of Indian philosophy with the solitary exception of Carvaka acquiesce in recognising liberation as the ethical ideal, though they differ in the nature of realisation. Though the system like Nyaya-Vaisesika, Samkhya-Yoga, later PurvaMimamsa of Kumarila, Prabhakara, Vedanta of Sankara and early Buddhism regard liberation as the Summum Bonum of human life, yet they differ widely in expounding its nature. Some schools of thought describe it negatively as freedom from sorrows and sufferings, as an escape from the trammels of Samsara, while the others describe it as a positive attainment of happiness or bliss. The champions of the former view are the Vaisesikas, the early Naiyayikas, the SamkhyaYoga and some among the later Mimamsakas, and the early Buddhists. Of the latter view are the Jainas, the later 94 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Naiyayikas like Bhasarvajna, some of the Mimamsakas and the Advaita-Vedantins. Not only these systems differ in the nature of deliverance, but also they show divergence in the possibility of its attainment here or elsewhere, in this world or hereafter. The former is styled Jivanmukti, while the latter is Videhamukti. Jainism, Advaita Vedanta, Samkhya-Yoga and Buddhism subscribe to both the above-mentioned views, while the Nyaya-Vaisesika and the Mimamsa recognise the latter view to the exclusion of the former. According to the Advaita Vedanta of Sankara, Moksa consists in the identification of individual self with the Brahman, the universal reality, the essence of the universe. It is not merely the absence of misery, but a positive state of bliss. This state is capable of being achieved even in this world while one is having the body. Jainism views the attainment of infinite knowledge, infinite bliss etc., as necessary correlates of emancipation. The concept of Tirthankara illustrates the possibility of attaining divine status even when the physical frame continues. The state of Videhamukti is to attain Siddhahood. Thus it is not the identification of self with the Brahman, as contemplated by the Vedantin, but it is the attainment of Siddhahood, wherein self-individuation is sustained. The Sutrakstanga tells us that liberation is the best thing, just as the moon is the best among the stars. The Acaranga pronounces that liberation is achieved by a man who does not feel disinterested in Self-denial. Just as fire immediately burns the dry sticks, so the self established in itself forthwith annuls the filth of Karmas. In the state of final liberation the empirical self is metamorphosed into transcendental, permanent existence.' Again, having totally Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 95 For Personal & Private Use Only

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annihilated the eight types of Karman, and having experienced the supersensuous bliss that passes understanding, the empirical self becomes completely bereft of any collyrium that may again cause bondage. PARAMATMAN AS THE SUMMUM BONUM : Secondly, the ideal is also described as the attainment of Paramatman after one's passing through the state of Antaratman and renouncing the state of Bahiratman.10 These three states of the same self may very well be compared with the three types of attitudes as recognised by Dr. Caird: "Man looks outward before he looks inward, and he looks inward before he looks upward.' "The Bahiratman sees outward; when it becomes Antaratman, it sees inward; and when it becomes Paramatman, it is said to see upward. Thus the realisation of the Paramatman amounts to the realisation of the highest good. In other words, non-conceptual and perpetual meditation on the supreme self ought to be effected after abandoning the Bahiratman through the intermediation of the Antaratman; i.e., Bahiratman is to be of necessity renounced to attain Antaratman, which will in turn lead us to an unimaginable transformation into Paramatman through the medium of meditation and other practices of moral nature. Following Kundakunda, Yogindu," 12 Pujyapada, 13 Subhacandra,14 Karttikeya15 etc., have endorsed this very statement. It will not be idle to point out here that in realising the transcendental self, the whole of existence is intuited on account of the spontaneous efflux of omniscience. The realisation of self and intuition of other substances are synchronal. It is the transition from the life of sense to the life of spirit, which is tantamount to achieving the immortal 996 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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heritage of man. This amounts to the realisation of the transcendental self. The limited character of the individual self is disrupted and invaded by the Parama Atman which the individual feels as his own. According to the Kathopanisad, the Brahman or the Parama Purusa is the highest goal of the aspirant's journey, which, after being known by the mortal man, releases immortality, transcends the senses, the objects of senses, the mind, the intellect, the great self, and the unmanifest. 16 The same may be expressed by saying that the senses need be merged into mind, mind into the Jnana-Atman, Jnana-Atman into Mahat-Atman and lastly, Mahat-Atman into santa-Atman. Thus Santa-Atman which is equivalent to Parama-Purusa or Brahman or Atman is the terminus of all endeavours. 17 According to Jainism also, Param-atman or Brahman is the highest object to be pursued. The aspirant should enquire into, long for, and strive after the eternal light of knowledge which is subversive of ignorance.18 The nature of Paramatman according to the Jainas and Upanisadic thinkers is similar to a great extent. Paramatman is eternal, without any flaw, is devoid of colour, smell, sound, taste, touch, is without birth, death etc.!' The Bhavapahuda tells us that the supreme self is devoid of taste, colour, smell, touch and sound; it is characterised by consciousness, not assignable by any mark and lastly indefinable as regards form.20 Here a word of caution is necessary. The words Paramatman and Brahman are synonymously used in the Jaina philosophical texts, but they should not be confused with the Upanisadic Brahman which is the cosmic prinicple. The Jaina gives credence to the existence of infinite Brahmans, i.e., Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 97 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Paramatmans which are the consummatory stages of spiritual evolution of the individuals existent in their own right. Soul and God, according to Jainism, are identical, inasmuch as they are the two stages of the same entity. Thus every soul is potentially divine, and the manifestation of divinity is called Paramatmanhood. If this connotation implicit in the Jaina view of Paramatman is not conceded, that would constitute a virtual abandonment of the ontological pluralism of selves which it champions. Though Brahman of the Upanisads and Brahman of the Jainas exhibit many resemblances, yet they differ enormously. NISCAYA NAYA AS THE HIGHEST GOOD: Thirdly, we encounter a different mode of expressing the highest good. The Jainas in order to expound this speak in the language of Nayas. Kundakunda, the outstanding ethico-religious philosopher of the first century A.D., is conspicuous for using Niscaya Naya (Transcendental view) and Vyavahara Naya (Empirical view) as the language of spiritualism to make out the highest good. The Niscaya Naya which grasps the soul in its undefiled state of existence may very well serve as the highest good to be achieved in contradistinction to the Vyavahara Naya which describes the self as bound, impure, and the like. No doubt, we are in the corrupt form of existence from beginningless past, but the Niscaya Naya reminds us of our spiritual magnificence and glory. It prompts the sullied self to behold its spiritual heritage. It does not assert that the soul is at present perfect but simply affirms that the self ought to attain the height illumined by it. It has the force of 'ought' and not of 'is', but this force is valid for empirical selves. 98 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Mundakopanisadai distinguishes between the Para and Apara Vidyas and seems to decide in favour of the former as constituting the ethical Summum Bonum, by the realisation of which all else becomes known. The Para-Vidya which is the same as the higher knowledge consists in knowing the Brahman which is invisible, unseizable, without connections, without hue, without eye or ear, without hands, or feet, eternal, pervading, impalpable, imperishable, and the womb of creatures.22 This does not amount to the intellectual, but to the intuitional apprehension of Brahman. The Apara Vidya which may be equated with the lower knowledge comprises within its fold the Rg-Veda, the YajurVeda, the Sama-Veda and the Atharva-Veda, also chanting, ritual, grammar, etymological interpretation, prosody and astronomy.23 The above recognition of Para-Vidya as the highest good may be corroborated by the conversation between Narada and Sanatkumara as given in the Chandogya Upanisad. 24 Narada in spite of his vast study comprehending the Vedas, history, mythology, mathematics, logic, ethics, fine arts etc., complains to his spiritual teacher Sanatkumara that he is invaded by grief on account of not having the knowledge of the self. Thus we learn that the intuitive knowledge of the self alone is capable of making us able to cross the ocean of sorrow and no amount of mere intellectual equipment. Hence the Para - Vidya is the crowning experience, the sublime good. Thus the Apara-Vidya or the Vyavahara-naya is true to the extent to which it leads a man intellectually on the path, but it is not all. There is witnessed another meaning ascribed to Niscaya and Vyavahara. The former indicates that the self as unbound Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 99 . For Personal & Private Use Only

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* and untouched by Karmas, while the latter indicates that it is bound and touched by Karmas.25 The spiritual experience however transcends these in-tellectual points of view:26 In a similar vein, Amotacandra argues that the proper results of instruction to a disciple can only issue if he, after assimilating the nature of Niscaya-naya and Vyavahara-naya, adopts the attitude of indifference towards both of these, i.e., if he transcends these intellectual points of view.?? Thus according to this interpretation the Apara Vidya corresponds to these points of view, and the Para Vidya, to spiritual experience. In other words, Niscaya-naya-may be understood to mean mystical experience as well as the knowledge of the pure self, or both the intuitional and intellectual ideals, and Vyavaharanaya may be understood to mean a lapse from the superb heights as well as the knowledge of the impure self. Considered from the view-point of spiritual expecience or the knowledge of the pure self, Vyavahar-naya includes a lapse from superb heights and the knowledge of the impure self. In the present context of Para Vidya and Apara Vidya, Suddhanaya or Paramartha-naya in the sense of intuitional experience represents the former, and Vyavahara-naya in point of intellectual knowledge of any sort expresses the latter. Hence the Para- Vidya or Suddhanaya or Paramartha-naya may be legitimately said to denote the highest good in contrast to the Apara Vidya or Vyavahara-naya.?! It may be noted here that like the Paramartha and Vyavahara Nayas enunciated by Kundakunda, Sankaracarya, the great exponent of the Advaita doctrine, makes use of the Paramarthika and Vyavaharika view-points as the corner stones of his philosophy. But the two differ widely. The 100 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Paramarthika view as advocated by Sankara negates the Paramarthika existence of other material and non-material objects of the world which, in the view of the Jaina, have their own independent existence. The Vyavahara Naya of the Jainas simply points to our slumbering state in the domain of spiritualism, and does not in the least touch the existential aspects of things. The Suddhanaya or Paramartha Naya simply serves to awaken the slumbering soul to attain its spiritual heritage. It does not pretend to annul the external things by mere spiritual outlook. We may say that Sankaracarya seems to be indebted to Kundakunda for using the terminology of Paramartha and Vyavahara. SUDDHA UPAYOGA AS THE HIGHEST GOOD : Fourthly, the attainment of Suddha Upayoga is the highest goal of human pursuance. Therein the self synchronically realises omniscience and happiness which are its cognitive and affecting potencies respectively. According to Jainism, consciousness is the discriminative characteristic of the soul. It manifests itself in Upayoga, which follows from consciousness as the conclusion from premises. The Upayoga is of three kinds, namely, Subha (auspicious), Asubha (inauspicious) and Suddha (pure). The self is said to possess auspicious Upayoga when it is absorbed in the performance of meritorious deeds of moral and spiritual nature. Hence the self acquires celestial births which, it may be noted, are also a part and parcel of worldly career. Besides, when the self entangles itself in demeritorious actions of violence, sensual pleasure, and the like, it is said to possess inauspicious Upayoga. Hence the self is led to the sub-human and hellish births. Both these auspicious and inauspicious Upayogas Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 101 : For Personal & Private Use Only

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results on account of the Karmic Upadhis, and these Upayogas will again continue to captivate the self in the never-ending wheel of misery. Consequently, the attainment of these two Upayogas can never function as the Summum Bonum of human life. The Jaina, therefore, makes an explicit pronouncement that so long as the self is mated with these two types of Upayoga, it will be unfruitfully dissipating its energies in pursuit of vain mirages; and so the highest good will ever remain shrouded in mystery. But as soon as the self parts company with these auspicious and inauspicious Upayogas, it joins hands with Suddha Upayoga. In other words, the experience of Suddha Upayoga automatically obliges the Asuddha Upayoga (Subha and Asubha) to disappear, with the consequence that the transmitgratory character of the self evaporates in totality. Spiritually considering, we may say that both the impure Upayogas in the form of virtue and vice prevent the soul from attaining to the loftiest mystical heights, hence they should be equally condemned as unwholesome for the healthiest development of the spirit. But if the empirical self finds that it is difficult to rise to mystical heights, it should perform auspicious activities so as to achieve atleast heavenly happiness but with the clear knowledge that these performances however intensely and ceaselessly conducted will in no way enable it to relish the pure Upayoga. The inauspicious activities should by all means be disapprobated, inasmuch as they will bring about thousands of heart-rending miseries. The pure consciousness which relinquishes the impure Upayogas associated with the empirical consciousness realises omniscience and such happiness as is transcendental, born of the self, supersensuous, 102 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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incomparable, infinite and indestructible.29 This transcendental self as the transcendental ideal may also be designated as 'Svayambhu'.30 To make it clear, it is a state of self-sufficiency which requires no other foreign assistance to sustain itself. It is itself the subject, the object, the means for its achievement, it achieves for itself, destroys the extraneous elements, and is the support of its infinite potencies. Hence the self manifests its original nature by transforming itself into six cases; it is at once the nominative, the accusative, the instrumental, the dative, the ablative, and the locative case respectively. 31 The Mundakopanisad represents that he who has realised the Brahman, the lord and governor of all, has shaken off merit and demerit, and has attained perfect equanimity. 32 The consideration of the Upanisad and the Jaina conform to each other regarding the transcedental plane of life. The highest state of existence transcends both good and evil. Such persons as have realised it within themseleves go beyond righteousness and unrighteousness. According to Kundakunda, the worldly persons generally recognise inauspicious conduct as bad and auspicious one is taken by them as good. But how can the latter be understood as good, since it makes the entrance of the self into the cycle of birth and death.33 Just as a shackle, whether of gold or of iron, indiscriminately ties a man, so also the auspicious and inauspicious conduct bind the self to mundane miseries. 34 The wise shun both Subha and Asubha. 35 Rare are such persons as are disposed to discard even Punya as Papa. " Pujyapada tells us that vowlessness causes vice and the observance of vows engenders virtues; but deliverance is the destruction of both.37 The aspirant should adhere to vows after renouncing vowlessness and after attaining to the Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 103 For Personal & Private Use Only

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supreme status the former should also be abjured like the latter. 38 The highest state of the Paramatman transcends both good and evil; and such persons as have realised Him within themselves go beyond the vicious circle of Samsara or the reach of good and bad. ATTAINMENT OF BLISS AS THE HIGHEST GOOD : Fifthly, Kundakunda pronounces that the realiser of the highest good experiences unprcedented bliss which originates from the inner most being of self and which is supersensuous, unique, infinite and interminable."9 Pujyapada and all others speak of the Atman as full of excellent bliss. "0 In the Istopadesa he tells us that a supreme kind of happiness is experienced by the Yogi who is established in his own self."' The Yogasara of Yogindu recognises that those engrossed in great meditation after renouncing all conceptual thinking enjoy ineffable bliss which is equivalent to the happiness of liberation.42. The Taittiriyopanisad says, "Brahman is the delight of life and mind, the fullness of peace and eternity.":43 It compares Brahmanic bliss with other type of physical blisses and after enumerating a number of blisses enjoyed by men, gods etc., concludes that hundred blisses of Prajapati constitute the bliss of Brahman. Such an Ananda is experienced by the sage who is free from all desires. "4 The Chandogya Upanisad also lays stress on the pursuance of immortal happiness which consists in seeing, hearing and meditating upon the Atman to the utter exclusion of the radically different kinds of perishable happiness experienced in seeking things beside the Atman.45 It may be pointed out here that the spiritual bliss which is experienced in realising Paramatman in course of meditation is impossible to be had in the mundane life. Even Indra in the 104 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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company of crores of nymphs is incapable of having such an infinite bliss of the sage in contemplation.46 SIDDHA GATI OR THE SIDDHA STATE AS THE HIGHEST GOOD : Sixthly, Jainism speaks of Siddha Gati and the four Gatis (celestial, human, sub-human and hellish). The former is permanent and immutable, and it implies the complete cessation of transmigratory existence. The latter indicate the rounds of birth and death in the empirical world. The Siddha state transcends the realm of cause and effect, inasmuch as the Dravya and Bhava Karmas and the consequential four types of transmigratory existence have ceased to exist. The category of causality is applicable only to mundane souls and not to the Siddha who is an unconditioned being. Kundakunda announces that the Siddha is neither the product of anything nor produces anything, hence neither effect nor cause. *7 According to the Satkhandagama he who has destroyed all the Karmas, who is independent of external objects, who has attained infinite, unique, intrinsic and unalloyed bliss, who is not attached to anything, who has achieved steady nature, who is devoid of all sorts of malcharacteristics, who is the receptacle of all virtues is Siddha.48 The acquisition of Siddhahood is indistinguishable from the accomplishment of Nirvana, where, negatively speaking, there is neither pain, nor pleasure, nor any Karmas nor auspicious and inauspicious Dhyanas, nor anything such as annoyance, obstruction, death, birth, positively speaking, there is perfect intuition, knowledge, bliss, potency, immateriality and existence.49 The Acasanga pronounces: "All sounds recoil thence where speculation has no room, ror does the mind penetrate there." "The liberated is without body, without Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 105 For Personal & Private Use Only

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resurrection, without contact of matter; he is not feminine, nor masculine, nor neuter; he perceives, he knows, but there is no analogy; its essence is without form; there is no condition of the unconditioned."'50 The Kathopanisad tells us that the realisation of Paragati delivers one from the mouth of death.51 Again, of the two paths which are open to man, the wise one after distinguishing them properly chooses the path of good in preference to the path of pleasure, by virtue of which the true aim of life is realised. On the contrary, the fool hankering after the path of pleasure is defeated in attaining to real beneficence. 52 The mundane path which many men follow must be distinguished from the supermundane one which relieves man from the transitoriness of worldly objects, and from sorrows and sufferings. According to the Chandogya Upanisad the forest ascetics adorned with knowledge and faith tread the path of the gods (Devayana) which consequentially leads to the attainment of the Brahman or deliverance in contrast to the householders who are busy performing sacrifices and who therefore go by the path of fathers (Pitryana) to be born again in this world. 53 ACTIVISM AS THE HIGHEST GOOD: Seventhly, According to Jainism the Tirthankara exemplifies the ideal life of Activism. There is a difference between a Tirthankara and a non-Tirthankara. The former is capable of preaching and propagating religious doctrines in order to guide the mundane souls immersed in the life of illusion, and his sermons are properly worded by the Ganadharas; while the latter is not the pro-pounder of religious faith or principles, but silently enjoys simply the sublimity of mystical experience. These do 106 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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54 not differ in their nature of spiritual experience. These two tendencies of the perfected mystics or Arahantas may be compared with the 'activistic' and 'quietistic' tendencies of the mystics. Therefore, the attainment of Siddhahood without passing through the stage of Tirthankaraship has been conceived to be a possibility. Thus the life of Activism in the sense of Tirthankara, according to Jainism, can not be the universal rule of life. The Isopanisad tells us that "a man should try to spend his life-span of a hundred years only in the constant performance of actions. It is thus only that he can hope not to be contaminated by actions."" Prof. Ranade remarks, "The actions that are here implied have no further range than possibly the small circumference of 'Sacrifice', and further, the way in which, even in the midst of a life of action, freedom contagion with the fruit of action may be secured is not here brought out with sufficient clearness."" According to the Bhagavad-Gita, Karma-Yoga or the life of activism constitutes the supreme end to be aimed at. It is no doubt true that we can find passages in the Gita where Jnana is superior to Karma, where Karma is superior to Jnana, and where they are at par. But "the law of the body, the law of society and the law of the Universe indicate and even vindicate activism." "The Niskama Karma is the natural accompaniment or result of a spiritually illumined life; it simply cannot exit, if egoism is not completely annihilated."57 AGENCY OF TRANSCENDENTAL BHAVAS AS THE HIGHEST GOOD: Eighthly, Kundakunda, the prominent exponent of Jaina spiritualism, has bequeathed to us the philosophy of the doer and the deed. He proclaims that in Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 107

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whatever deeds the self may get itself engaged in the world, they are not the representatives of the self in its pure, undefiled and transcendental nature. The impure empirical dispositions do not pertain to the self in its original nature and are the results of Karmic association, the transcendental self is denied the agency even of these impure dispositions. There is no denying the fact that the empirical self has been the doer of impure dispositions since an indeterminable past. When the Jaina says that the empirical self is not the agent of impure dispositions, he simply persuades the empirical self to look behind the Karmic veil. Hence here the chief point of reference is the self in its pure nature. The Jaina reads no contradiction in affirming that the enlightened self which has become familiar with its true nature manifests the pure Bhavas and thereby becomes the substantial agent of those Bhavas, and in affirming that the ignorant self because of its erroneous identification with the alien nature develops impure dispositions, and thereby it is called their agent.58 Just as from gold only golden things can be produced, and from iron only iron things, so the enlightened self produces pure Bhavas and the ignorant self porduces impure ones. 59 When the ignorant self becomes enlightened, it starts generating pure Bhavas without any discongruity. Thus the self is simply the doer of its own states and not the doer of anything else whatsoever. Thus the transcendental self is the agent of transcendental Bhavas. PANDITA-PANDITA MARANA AS THE HIGHEST GOOD : Ninthly, the Jainas also proclaim the ideal in terms of death in order to reveal the nature of the Summum Bonum. According to them the goal of the aspirantas one-pointed endeavour ought to be the attainment of the Pandita-Pandita 108 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Marana (Sublime death) to the utter exclusion of the Pandita Marana, the Bala-Pandita Marana, the Bala Marana and the Bala-Bala Marana.60 The lowest and the most detestable kind of death (Bala-Bala Marana) occurs to that man who leads the life of utter perversion.61 The highest sort of demise (Pandita-Pandita Marana) is exemplified in the consummate lives of embodied omniscient beings when they part with their body. 62 Those souls which have crowned themselves with spiritual awakening. but have remained incapable of observing partial vows in their life-time succumb to Bala-Marana.63 This is to be distinguished from the Bala-Pandita Marana64 which is the destiny of those who give themselves to partial vows after being spiritually awakened. The saints observing complete vows enjoy Pandita Marana.6s All these types of death except the Pandita-Pandita Marana are pregnant with the future possibility of birth; hence they may be designated as empirical deaths. And these are required to be distinguished from the death of the transcendent type of the Pandita-Pandita Marana wherein the mundane life is cast aside. Thus this latter type of departure is of the happiest kind, and consequently it requires our paramount devotedness. This sort of soulas release from bodily confinement appears before us as an illustration of challenge to death. Here the inevitability of death has been properly met with. AHIMSA AS THE HIGHEST GOOD: Tenthly, the highest good finds its expression in the realisation of perfect Ahimsa. The Samanasuttam tells us, "just as in the world there is nothing higher than the Meru mountain and nothing more extended than the sky, so also in the world, there is no value excellent and universal corresponding to Ahimsa." 66 Ahimsa Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 109 . For Personal & Private Use Only

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is so central in Jainism that it may be incontrovertibly called the beginning and the end of Jaina religion. The statement of Samantabhadra that Ahimsa of all living beings is equivalent to the realisation of Parama Brahma sheds light on the paramount character of Ahimsa.67 The Sutrakstanga exhorts us to regard Ahimsa as the quintessence of wisdom.68 Since Nirvana is not other than Ahimsa, one should cease to injure all living beings.69 The Acaranga pronounces that one should neither deprive any living being of life, nor rule over him, nor torment him, nor excite him. This is tantamount to saying that Ahimsa is the pure and eternal Dharma.?! Since all the selves from the one-sensed to the five-sensed selves are transcendentally alike, 72 killing the 'other' is killing one's own self, ruling the other is ruling one's own self, enslaving the other is enslaving one's own self, distressing the other is distressing one's own self, and disquieting the other is disquieting one's own self. By reason of this, Himsa of all the living beings has been abandoned by those desirous of selfrealisation." The Atman which is Apramatta is Ahimsa and the Atman which is Pramatta is Hirsa.74 Amstacandra in the Purusarthasiddhyupaya holds that the apperance of any sort of passion on the surface of self is Himsa, and the self in its pure form is Ahimsa." This pronouncement has a deep inward reference and regards Ahimsa as a spiritual value. This method of dealing with Ahimsa obliges us to peep into oneas own inner life, so that attachment and aversion along with their ramifications like anger, pride, deceit and greed are completely got rid of. The Prasnavyakarana Sutra designates Ahimsa as Nirvana (nivvana), Samadhi (samahi), Supreme tranquility (santi), happiness (pamoa), supersatisfaction (titti) 110 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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and purity (pavitta) and so on. In other words, we may say that even the slightest fall from complete self-realisation is to be regarded as Himsa. Thus Himsa commences with the appearance of passions on the ground of self. It will not be out of place to point out that the realisation of perfect Ahimsa results in the unruffled frame of mind in the midst of life and death, loss and gain, friend and foe; pleasant and unpleasant events, pleasure and pain." This is Samata (equanimity). The Acaranga and the Pravacanasara regards Samata as the highest good. 78 KNOWLEDGE CONSCIOUSNESS AS THE HIGHEST GOOD : Lastly, the attainment of knowledge consciousness (Jnana Cetana) ought to be the end of aspirant's endeavours in contrast to action-consciousness (Karma Cetana) and resultconsciousness (Karmaphala Cetana).79 The attribution of consciousness to the auspicious and inauspicious psychical states occasioned by Karmas is called action-consciousness; and the confusion of consciousness with enjoyment of the duality of pleasure and pain is termed result-consciousness. 80 These two types of consciousness are the results of the misunderstanding regarding the inherent nature of things. Hence they need be abjured in the interest of ascending the supra-ethical plane of life. The five types of onesensed souls are the illustrations of holding result-consciousness; the twosensed to five-sensed souls exemplify those having predominantly action-consciousness; and the souls devoid of ten Pranas experience knowledge-consciousness.81 Thus knowledge-consciousness is the fullfledged and legitimate manifestation of consciousness. The Arhat or Siddha state is the state of knowledge-consciousness, the state of omniscience and bliss. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 111 For Personal & Private Use Only

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REFERENCES 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Constructive Survey of Upanisadic Philosophy by R.D. Ranade, P. 288. Mysticism in Maharastra, by R.D. Ranade, Preface, P.2. . Pathway to God in Hindi Literature, by R.D. Ranade, P.2. Parmatmaprakasa of Yogindu, Introduction by A.N. Upadhye, P. 26. Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, by K.C. Sogani, P. 171. Sutrakstanga, I, 11, 22. Acaranga, 1, 2, 2, P. 17. Acaranga, 1, 4, 3, P. 39. Gommatasara Jivakanda, 68. Moksa Pahuda, 7. Evolution of Religion, II. 2 (Vide, Constructive Survey of Upanisadic - Philosophy. P. 247). Paramatmaprakasa of Yogindu, I. 12. Samadhisataka of Pujyapada 4, 27. Jnanarnava of Subhacandra, XXXII 10. Karttikeyanupreksa of Svami Kumara, 192. Kathopanisad, I, 3-10-11; II 3, 7, 8. Ibid. I, 3. 13. Istopadesa of Pujyapada, 49. Paramatmaprakasa of Yogindu, I, 17, 19. Bhavapahuda of Kundakunda, 64. Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, II. 80. Pancastikaya of Kundakunda, 127. Mundakopanisad, I, 1, 3, 4 and Commentary of Sankara, Ibid. I, 1-5, 6. Ibid. I, 1, 5. Chandogya Upanisad VII 1, 2 3. Samayasara of Kundakunda, 141. Ibid. 142. Purusarthasiddhyupaya of Amstacandra, 8. Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, by K.C. Sogani, PP. 213, 214. Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, I. 19, 13. Siddha Bhakti of Kundakunda, 7. Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, I. 16. Pravacanasara of Kundakunda Commentary Amstacandra, I. 16. Mundakopanisad, III. 1, 3. 18. 19. 20. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 112 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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33. Samayasara of Kundakunda, 145. 34. Ibid, 146. 35. Yogasara of Yogindu, 72. 36. Ibid, 71. 37. Samadhisataka of Pujyapada, 83. Ibid, 84. 39. Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, I, 13. 40. Samadhisataka of Pujyapada, 32. Istopadesa of Pujyapada, 47. 42. Yogasara of Yogindu, 97. 43. Taittiriopanisad, 1-6. 44. Ibid. II-8. 45. Chandogya Upanisad, VII, 22, 23, 24. Paramatmaprakasa of Yogindu, I. 116, 117. 47. Pancastikaya of Kundakunda, 36. 48. Satkhandagama, Vol. I P. 200. 49. Niyamasara of Kundakunda, 178 to 181. 50. Acaranga, I, 5-6-3-4, P.52.. 51. Kathopanisad, 1-3-11. 52. Ibid, 1-2-1, 2. 53. Shandogya Upanisad, V-10-1, 3, 5. 54. Mysticism in Maharastra, by Ranade, Preface, P. 28. 55. Isopanisad, 2. 56. Constructive Survey of Upanisadic Philosophy, by Ranade, P. 298. 57.. The Bhagavadgita as Philosophy of God-realisation, by Ranade, PP. 196-197. 58. Samayasara of Kundakunda, 128, 129. Ibid, 130, 131. 60. Bhagavati Aradhana of Sivarya, 26. 61. Ibid, 30. 62. Ibid, 27. 63. Ibid, 30. 64. Ibid, 2078 65. Ibid, 29. 66. Samanasuttam Vol. I, English Tr. by Dr. K.C. Sogani, 158. 67. Svayambustotra, 117. 68. Sutnakitanga, 1.1, 4.10, 1.11 10. 69. Ibid, 1.11 11. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 113 For Personal & Private Use Only

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70. 71. 72. Dasavaikalika, X.5. 73. Acarangasutra, 170. 74. 75. 76. 77. Mulacara of Vattakera, 23. 78. 79. Acaranga, 1.4.1. Ibid 114 Samanasuttam Vol. I, English Tr. by Dr. K.C. Sogani, 157. Purusarthasiddhyupaya of Amrtacandra, 44. Prasnavyakarana Sutra, 6.1.3. Acaranga Cayanika, 88, Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, I. 7. Pancastikaya of Kundakunda, 38. Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, II. 31. 80. Pravacanasara of Kundakunda, II. 32. 81. Pancastikaya of Kundakunda, 39 and Comm. Amrtacandra. os de d Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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RIGHTNESS OF ACTION AND JAINA ETHICS He who lives in society inevitably asks himself and others on many occasions in life, "What shall I do in a particular situation? Or whether I ought to do or ought not to do certain action?" Many a time we have been told, "What you have done is wrong. Or you ought not to have done this." Sometimes in answer to such questions and such statements, judgments or evaluations, it may be said that an action is wrong if it does not conform to the moral code in question. Particular actions are to be performed in a particular moral code of the community. An impartial reflective mind cannot be satisfied with such kinds of decisions, regarding the rightness or wrongness of doing certain actions. Besides, moral codes may conflict and what is considered right according to one moral code may be regarded as wrong according to the other moral code. For instance, in accordance with one moral code untouchability is right, whereas in accordance with the other moral code untouchability is wrong. In one moral code meat-eating is forbidden, while in the other it is enjoined. The situation is worsened when two parts of the moral code of community prescribe contradictory performances to be right or wrong. All this means that moral codes cannot be relied upon as a sure guide to the rightness of an action. Of course, I do not wish to deny that there may be moral codes which prescribe universal rules of conduct but even then it cannot be said that 'right' and 'wrong could be defined in terms of conformity or otherwise to the moral code of a particular society. The reflective mind is not convinced of the reason for an action's being right or wrong in terms of moral code. In For Personal & Private Use Only

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fact, he is concerned with the criterion of the rightness of actions. He wishes to enquire the ground on which the rightness of actions depends. In Jaina terminology it may be asked, "How do we regard an action as Samyak? Or by what standard is an action judged to be Samyak?" It will not be out of place to point out here that the terms Samyak action in Jaina Ethics is not equivalent to the term right action in modern ethics,' but it implies that the action has a good motive in addition. It is, therefore, called good action. The other term in Jaina Ethics for good action is Subha action. But for our purpose we shall treat Samyak-action or Subha action right action without any inconsistency. In the present paper I propose to discuss the theories of the criterion or standard by which we can determine whether an action is right or wrong Further, I shall endeavour to point out the stand of the Jaina Ethich regarding the issue under consideration. In order to judge the rightness or wrongness of an action or rule, if the goodness or badness of its consequences is taken into consideration, we have the theory known as the teleological theory of right or wrong. For instance, gambling is wrong because it leads to many bad consequences and helping other in distress is right, because it leads to good consequences. In other words, the teleologist contends that an action or rule is right, if it is conducive to the greatest balance of good over evil, for the agent or for the society. The former position is taken by an ethical egoist, whereas the latter one, by the utilitarian. Since ethical egoism cannot be consistently maintained as a moral theory, we set it aside without going into the argument for its rejection. What concerns us now is to discuss utilitarianism as a teleological theory of the rightness or wrongness of an action or rule. 116 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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The other theory regarding the rightness or wrongness of an action or rule is styled deontological theory of right or wrong according to which rightness or wrongness of an action or rule is not the function of consequences, but is decided by the nature of certain characteristics of the action or rule itself. In other words, the deontologist holds that an action or rule is right even if it does not bring about any good to self or society. For instance, promise or conformity in mind, body and speech ought to be kept even if bad consequences are brought into being. Thus the difference between the teleologist and the deontologist consists in the fact that the former regards the rightness or wrongness of an action or a rule as a function of good or bad consequences alone, while the latter regards rightness or wrongness as depending on factors other than the goodness or badness of consequences, For the teleologist there is no way of determining the right apart from the good, while for the deontologists right owes nothing to the good. Both of them may regard certain actions as right or wrong, but the reason or justification given by each is different. If I say that I ought to do actions of gratitude to my benefactor and then suppose I am asked the reason for holding it. In reply, I may say, if I hold teleological point of view, that I ought to do actions of gratitude to my benefactor if they contribute to the productiveness of good, and if they do not, the 'ought' loses its significance; but if I hold deontological point of view, I may say that I ought to do actions of gratitude to my benefactor, even if they lead to bad consequence, i.e. 'ought' on this theory is to be followed under all circumstances regardless of the consideration of any effect. To be more clear, suppose I have borrowed a sword from my friend for self-defence, shall I return it to him at a time Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 117

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when my friend is planning to kill his parents owing to some discord? The teleological reply is 'no', the deontological reply seems to me to be 'yes'. Thus the teleologist believes in hypothetical imperatives and the deontologist, in categorical ones. Having explained the two general types of tests or criteria of rightness of actions or rules, I propose first, to examine the forms of deontological positions upheld by moral philosophers and secondly, shall go on to the utilitarian positions regarding the issue under consideration: While examining these theories, I shall endeavour to bring out the contribution of the Jaina ethics to the problem of the rightness of actions. (i) The deontologist may take two positions, (a) actdeontology and (b) rule-deontology. (a) For the act-deontologist, particular actions are in themselves intrinsically right or wrong without regard to the goodness or badness of their consequences. The moral judgement that in this situation, I ought to do so and so is a function of the immediate intuitive knowledge of the rightness or wrongness of an action in a particular situation. In other words, the rightness or wrongness of actions is ascertained by simply looking at the actions themselves without considering their consequences, i.e. it is cognizable apart from the goodness or badness produced by them, either for oneself or for the society. It may be noted here that the act-deontologist may hold without contradicting himself that the gener)] mile cop be formed ipqirect]y by makipa jee of the general rule can be formed indirectly by making use of perceptions regarding the rightness or wrongness of particular acts. But this general rule cannot outweigh the particular judgement considering the rightness or wrongness of particular action. 118 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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(b) As distinguished from act-deontologism, the ruledeontologist, holds that what is right or wrong is to be ascertained by appeal to general rules intuitively apprehended. The validity of these rules does not depend on the productivity of the goodness or badness of consequences, and they are not inductively arrived at, but rather given to us directly by intuitive apprehension. For example, the particular action of killing or stealing is wrong, because it violates the rule, 'Do not kill' or 'Do not steal' which is intrinsically right, and the particular action of fulfilling a promise is right, because it observes the intrinsically right rule 'keep your promise'. Thus the rule-deontologist asserts that there are certain rules which are absolutely always wrong regardless of the goodness or badness of consequences. In other words, there are certain actions, like telling the truth, keeping the promises, repaying the debt ought to be performed even when they do not promote any good whatsoever, that certain actions are our duties is sufficient ground for our doing them and considering them as right. * According to Jaina Acaryas, both (a) act-deontologism and (b) rule-deontologism are untenable theories of the criterion of rightness or wrongness. a) The weakness of act-deontologism is that it regards human situations as extremely different from one another, and does not recognize the universal element inherent in them. No doubt each human situation has something of its own, but it is contrary to moral experience to say that it is not like other situations in morally relevant respects. In many human situations, because of their likeness in important respects, the general rule do not kill' can be applied without any incongruity. In practical life, according to Jaina ethics, moral rules cannot be dispensed with and each man's moral Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 119 For Personal & Private Use Only

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judgements cannot be relied upon. The fact is that when one makes a moral judgement in particular situations, one implicitly commits oneself to making the same judgement in any similar situations. The merit of act-deontologism is that it takes into consideration the particularity of the situation. It advises us to look into the act as such. The weakness of rule-deonotologism is that it occupies itself with the extreme rightness or wrongness of the rule without allowing any exception to it. In this case, fulfillment of duty may sometime become fanaticism. Truth ought to be spoken even if the society has to face bad consequences. The defect of this position in particular and deontologism in general is that they do not take account of the specific situations and goodness or badness of the consequences following from such circumstances. Actions cannot be right or wrong in vacuum. They always produce effects either good or bad, and to be indifferent to effects is to ignore the verdict of moral experience which is deeply rooted in the goodness or badness of human situation. Jaina ethics does not condemn the action of telling a lie to enemies, robbers, and even to persons who ask questions when they have no right to ask. Under some circumstances it is right to break a promise, or to take something that belongs to another without his permission. Thus no rule can be absolutely always right or wrong as the rule-deontologist prescribed. Mill rightly remarks, "It is not the fault of any creed but of the complicated nature of human affairs that rules of conduct cannot be so framed as to require no exception, and that hardly any kind of action can safely be laid down as either always obligatory or always condemnable."3 The merit of rule-deontologism is that it gives excessive importance to rules in moral life. 120 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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After critically examining the deontological position from the point of Jaina ethics, we now proceed to examine the position taken by the teleologist. Since teleologists have often been called utilitarians, we shall be regarding teleological position as utilitarian position (a) Act-utilitarians say that the rightness or wrongness of each action is to be determined by appealing to goodness or badness of its consequences and I ought to do an action in a situation which is likely to produce the maximum balance of good over evil in the universe. One ought not to tell the truth in a situation which is such as to cause maximum balance of evil over good by telling the truth. (b) Rule-utilitarians hold that moral rules like truthtelling etc., are significant in life and duty in a particular situations is to be decided by appeal to a rule. In this respect they are like rule-deontologists; but, unlike deontologists, they affirm that rules are to be framed on the basis of their effects on the society as a whole. Thus rules have utilitarian basis and they must be selected, maintained, revised and replaced on this basis. Once rules are so framed, they are to be followed even if it is known they do not have the best possible consequences in certain particular cases. It may be noted here that Jaina ethics subscribes to the utilitarian basis of the judgements of right or wrong. Do Not kill, Do not tell a lie, Do not hoard, Do not steal and Do not commit adultery-all these rules have as their basis the productivity of good consequences to the society. However, Jaina Acaryas maintain that sometimes it is not the following of the rule that produces maximum balance of good over evil, but its breaking. Thought Jaina Acaryas allow breaking of the moral rules in exceptional circumstances on utilitarian basis, yet they have warned us time and again that breaking Spiritual Awakening (Sarnyagdarsana) and Other Essays 121 For Personal & Private Use Only

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of the rule should not be made common, since it may lead to the weakening of faith in rules which are in a way the basis of social order. The Nisitha Sutra is a compendium of exceptions to moral rules. This work has very carefully laid down the principles of breaking the rules. This implies that Jaina ethics does not allow superstitious rule-worship, but at the same time holds that scrupulous conscientious caution is to the exercised in breaking the rules. Thus ruleutilitarianism like rule-deontologism does not find favour with Jaina ethics. Rules are merely guiding principles in common circumstances, but when the circumstances are exceptional we have not to look to rules for making any moral decision, but to situations and particular actions from the point of view of producing greater balance of good over evil. This goes to show that every time, as the act-utilitarian suggests, we have to calculate anew the effects of each and every action on the general welfare. The whole discussion brings us to the view that both acts and rules, specific situations and general principles, are to be taken into account for deciding the rightness or wrongness of actions. This may be called modified act-utilitarianism which cannot allow a rule to be followed in a particular situation, when, following it is regarded as not to have the best possible consequences. This means that Jaina ethics accepts the possibility that sometimes general moral principles may be inadequate to the complexities of the situation, and in this case a direct consideration of the particular action without reference to general principles is necessary. Thus according to Jaina ethics acts are logically prior to rules and the rightness of the action is situational. The corollary of this view is that duty is not self-justifying, it is not an end in itself. It is good as a 122 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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means. Its rightness is dependent on the fact of producing a greater balance of good over evil in the universe than any other alternative. Here it may be said that rightness or wrongness of an action does not depend upon the goodness or badness of consequences, but upon the motive or motives from which it is done. We can find references in Jaina ethical texts wherein good motives are given prime importance for the performance of action producing good consequences. So long as good motives issue in right action productive of good consequences, there is nothing wrong in accepting the dependence of rightness of action on good motive. Jaina ethics seems to tie the good motives with the rightness of actions producing good consequences. Its conviction is that if there is good motive, like kindness or charitable disposition, right actions are bound to occur. At one stage in man's moral evolution it may be possible; at ordinary man's level this may not happen. Since Jaina ethics, it seems to me, could not evenly face the problem arising from the fact that sometimes good dispositions are not able to produce right actions issuing in good consequences, it made rightness of action productive of good identical with good motive. But the point is that such actions are not so blameworthy as they would have been if they had been done from bad motives. No doubt the agent deserves praise for acting as he did, but the action is wrong. Jaina ethics seems to confuse "that to call an action morally praiseworthy is the same thing as to say that it is right, and to call it morally blameworthy the same thing as to say that it is wrong. 4 In point of fact these two judgements are not identical. It so often happens that a man may act wrongly from a good motive, i.e. conscientiousness may lead to fanatical cruelty, mistaken Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 123 For Personal & Private Use Only

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asceticism etc., and he may act rightly from a bad motive, for instance, feeling of revenge may be able to check certain action. However, in the former case we regard the actions as wrong. Whereas in the latter we regard them as right. This means that the consideration of motives does not make any difference to the rightness or wrongness of actions. In other words, goodness or badness of disposition is to be distinguished from the rightness or wrongness of action. Thus if a right action is done from a good motive and the same action is done form a bad motive, though the goodness of the consequences will be the same, yet the presence of the good motive will mean the presence of an additional good in the one case which is absent in the other.'5 In conclusion, we may say that according to Jaina ethic the criterion of right or wrong is the goodness or badness or consequences. It rejects the view that certain rules ought absolutely always to be followed, whatever the consequences may be. No action is to be unconditionally done or avoided. No action can be our duty irrespective of the goodness of the consequences. The question whether an action is right or wrong does not depend on motive, and the presence of motive whether good or bad constitutes an additional factor in the rightness or wrongness of action. 1. 124 REFERENCES In some of our moral judgements, we say that a certain action or kind of action is morally right, wrong, obligatory, a duty or ought or ought not to be done. In others we talk, not about actions or kinds or action but about persons, motives, intentions, traits of character, and the like and we say of them that they are morally good, bad, virtuous, vicious, responsible, blameworthy, saintly, despicable, and so on. In these two kinds of judgement, the things Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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2. 3. talked about are different and what is said about them is different. (Frankena, Ethics) pp. 8-9 (Prentice-Hall, India). Frankena, Ethics, p. 22 (Prentice-Hall). Mill, Utilitarianism, Chapter II, P. 23 (Everyman's Library ed., New York) Moore : Ethics, P. 116 (Oxford University Press, London). Moore : Ethics, P. 115 (Oxford University Press, London). 4. 5. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 125 For Personal & Private Use Only

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AHINSA AND THE GOOD It goes without saying that the doctrine of ahimsa is the be-all and end-all of the Jinist way of life and living. May be, keeping in view this inclusive nature of ahimsa, the Ayaro remarkably pronounces that none of the living beings ought to be killed, ought to be ordered, ought to be enslaved, ought to be distressed and ought to be put to unrest (savve pana .... na hantavva, na ajjaveyavva, na parighetavva, na paritaveyavva, na uddaveyavva?). It is a unique and unparalleled statement in the entire Jinist literature. I need not say that it basically embraces all the aspects of social experience in its normative perspective. The political organisation, the economic orientation and the institutional set up can easily derive inspiration from this ethically significant statement. Thus this above statement of the Ayaro is representative of the extent which ahimsa is supposed to include, although most of the Jaina texts seem to include in ahimsa only non-killing. As for example, we find pramattayogat pranavyaparopanam himsa? (The severance of vitalities out of passion is himsa). Panavahan niggantha vajjayanti' (Munis discredit killing). And Javanti loe pana na haae no ghayae* (One should neither kill nor cause to kill living beings). The essence of being a wise-man is this that he does not kill any being. It should be borne in mind that if ahimsa is understood only in the sense of non-killing, it is narrow and socially not of wide significance. In fact killing is the last limit of himsa and not the only expression of himsa. There are hundreds of expressions of himsa and ahimsa below that last limit. It seems to me that owing to the fact of avoiding For Personal & Private Use Only

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this sort of expression of himsa and ahimsa, the Purusarthasiddhyupaya seeks to explain falsehood and truth, stealing and non-steeling, unchastely and chastity, possession and non-possession etc. as forms of himsa and ahirsa. This way of expression regards ahimsa as the essence of all virtues, thus giving supreme status to ahimsa it deserves. In the pages to follow, I shall be using the word ahimsa in this comprehensive sense. It is of capital importance to note that ahimsa presupposes, first, a world of living beings, both human and non-human, along with the fact each of them is constantly affecting the other and is being affected by the other either evenly or unevenly. Secondly, ahimsa presumes that life is dear to all (Savvesim jiviyam piyamo) and for all living beings pain is disturbance, fearful and unpleasant (Savvesim Pananan. ..... assayam aparinivvanam mahabhayam dukkham"). This is also expressed by saying that just as pain is unpleasant for oneself, so also it is unpleasant for all living beings (Jaha te na piam dukkham ..... emeva savvajivanamo). Again, it is stated that to kill the other is to kill oneself (Jiva vaho appavahoo) and a being to be killed is not other than your self (Tumam si nama sa ceva jam hantavvar ti mannasi!'). Thus without these two presuppositions the talk of ahimsa is inconceivable. . It may be noted that these two presuppositions are psychological in nature and the statement of ahimsa evaluative in nature. The former are factual or descriptive assertions, while the later is a normative or a value-assertion. Does this mean that value-assertions can be derived from factual assertions, ethical conclusions can be drawn from non-ethical premises, 'ought' .can be derived from, 'is'? This problem of the derivation of 'ought' from 'is' is an important discussion in contemporary ethics, but here I do not propose to argue from Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 127 For Personal & Private Use Only

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the point of view of the Jinist that value can not be derived from fact. I simply wish to say that for the Jinist ahimsa is not a logical deduction from the above mentioned presuppositions. Had it been a deduction like the angles of a triangle as equal to two right angles, the whole of mankind would have understood ahimsa immediately. Thus though the Jinist maintains the autonomy of normative ethical discourse by maintaining the distinction between facts and values, yet it holds that there is some connection between fact and value. Though the two, fact and value, are no doubt distinct, yet they are not unrelated to each other. The relation is not of entailment but it is empirical. Life is dear to all (Savvesim jiviyam piyam) does not entail 'we ought not to kill life' but at the same time it can not be said that there is no connection between the two. The connection is empirical, not-logical. What I wish to say is this : it is not necessary that anybody who comprehends the factual assertion, life is dear to all (Savvesim jiviyam piyam), will logically adopt the value assertion 'we ought not to kill', or 'we ought to follow ahirsa'. He may as well say that we must exploit all to the extent possible. Yet the two are not unrelated to each other. After ascertaining the relation between ahimsa and its two presuppositions, let us now proceed to analyse the implications of the first presupposition, namely, 'ahimsa' presupposes a world of living beings, both human and nonhuman along with the fact that each of them is constantly affecting the other and is being affected by the other evenly or unevenly. This means that living beings are constantly engaged in action, which is by its very nature directed to some end, conscious or unconscious. In other words, every action is impregnated with some conscious or unconscious 128 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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end. It follows from this that actions with unconscious end are absolutely determined having no choice, whereas the actions with conscious end involve freedom of choice. The former are excluded from the scope of ethics, since they are non-moral actions, but the later are the subject of ethical enquiry, since they are either moral or immoral. It has been very well recognised that non-human actions are unconscious, and therefore, instinctive, and the human actions which are conscious, are deliberative. It is with human actions that we are concerned here. Human beings are behaving with other human beings and with other non-human beings either morally or immorally. Now the question is what end does make human actions moral? and what end does make human actions immoral? The Jinist may answer : If the end is good the action that is directed towards it will be called moral action or right action, and if the end is bad, the action that is directed towards it will be called immoral action or wrong action. We all ordinarily know what an end is. We should, therefore, enquire, what is good? and what is bad? The question, what is good? is different from the question, as Moore says, What is the good? i.e. What things are good? The former is a basic question, whereas the later has a derivative significance. But to understand the good' or 'the subha' the first and the fundamental step is to understand, what is good? or what is subha? What, then, is good or subha? How is subha or good to be defined? According to the Jinist, subha is an experience in tune with ahiisa. The experience in tune with ahimsa, is a complex phenomenon constituting a unified whole. The ingredients of this experience are analysable into knowing, affective and active elements. Subha anubhava is constituted by these elements. It is called subha caritra in Jaina ethics. Subha caritra Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 129 For Personal & Private Use Only

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without ahimsa is inconceivable. Thus good or subha, according to the Jinist, is definable, since the experience which it entails is complex, therefore, analysable into its constituents. The experience of good is not a simple nonanalysable experience. Had it been so, it would have been indefinable. We can better understand the nature and importance of the question, 'What is good or subha in the realm of ethics, when we find that it is like the question, "What is dravya (substance) in the realm of metaphysics? The definition of dravya given by the Jaina acaryas is : Dravya is that which is sat (being). Here being is used in a comprehensive sense and not in any particular sense. But no particular thing can be apart from being'. Logically speaking, we may say that 'being' is the highest genus, whereas particulars are its species and the relation between the two is of identity in difference. Similarly, when I say that 'subha is an experience in tune with ahimsa', I am using the term 'ahimsa! in the comprehensive sense and not in a particular sense. But no particular subha can be separated from ahimsa and ahimsa manifests itself in all particular subhas. In a logical sense it can be said that ahimsa is the highest genus and particular ahimsas are its species, and the relation between generic ahinsa and particular ahimsas is a relation of identity-indifference. As for example, in non-killing and nonexploitation, though the identical element of ahimsa is present, yet the two are different. So the above is the most general definition of subha just like the definition of dravya. It may be noted that we can understand being only through the particulars, similarly, the understanding of general ahimsa is possible only through the particular examples of ahimsa, e.g. non-killing, non-exploitation, non-enmity, non-cruelty etc. 130 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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I may point out in passing that particular kinds of ahimsa are a matter of exploration. Every age develops many kinds of subtle himsa, which are a matter of exploration. Gross ahimsa, like non-killing, is easily recognisable; but subtle ahimsa, like non-exploitation is a matter of discovery. Thus different forms of ahimsa, will ever be appearing before us by our exploring outlook and tendencies. Thus the, definition of subha as the experience in tune with ahimsa is the most general definition like the definition of dravya as that what is sat. It is all right that good is definable as the experience in tune with ahimsa, but it may be asked what is ahimsa? Now the question, what is ahimsa in the value-world is like the question, what is sat in the factual world? Just as sat is understandable through the particular examples of things like pen, table, book etc., so also ahimsa is understandable through the particular examples of ahimsa, like non-killing, non-exploitation, non-enmity, non-cruelty etc. When it is so easily understandable through examples, the craving for the definition of ahimsa is pedantry serving no purpose. Ahimsa can be taught by examples, just as in arithmetic 2 + 2 = 4 can be taught to a child with the help of an example like two balls + two balls and gradually the child learns to do big sums without examples. In the same way ahimsa can be understood gradually. The argument of understandability can not be adduced in the case of subha without definition. For understanding subha, definition is a necessity, but a similar necessity does not exist for ahimsa in view of the above mentioned facts. It may be noted that the Purusarthasiddhyupaya defines ahimsa by saying that non-emergence of attachment etc. is ahimsa (Apradurbhavah khalu ragadinam bhavaty Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 131

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ahimseti"l). This definition of ahimsa has its own significance but this is not the type of definition required by the socioethical consciousness of mankind. This definition makes social values like devotion to the teacher, devoted service of the country etc. as exclusive of ahimsa. It is a deeply inner oriented definition, which though spiritually valuable yet ethically not of much significance. The same thing can be said of the definition, 'Apramatta is ahimsaka' (^Appamatto ahissago'12) because apramatta again is said to be the nonemergence of attachment etc. To adopt the above definition of ahimsa is tantamount to living in the realm of mysticism, which does not concern us here. Our enquiry in ethics is concerned with the pursuit of subha (good) and avoidance of asubha (bad). After dealing with the question, what is subha or good? we now propose to discuss, what is the good or the subha according to the Jinist? In other words, the question now confronts us is : What kinds of things are intrinsically good according to the Jinist. This means that there are ends which are to be desired for their own sake. The Jinist does not subscribe to the view recognised by Dewey that there are no ends intrinsically good or worthwhile in themselves. The Jinist view is that not all things are instrumentally good : there are goods which are final and intrinsic and should be pursued for the goods themselves.' This brings us to the distinction between good as a means and good in itself. What I wish to say is this : the question what is the goodi.e. what things are good comprises two things namely (1) good as a means, and (2) good in itself.'? But the definition that "Good is an experience in tune with ahimsa is applicable to both. "Whenever we judge that a thing is good as a means, we judge both that it will have a 132 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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particular kind of effect, and that effect will be good in itself". It may be noted that ethical judgements regarding good as a means may not be universally true; and many, though generally true at one period, will be generally false at others"l4 where as ethical judgements regarding good in itself are universally true. And besides, we have to assume ourselves that "probable future evils will not be greater than the immediate good". And there are judgements which state that certain kinds of things are themselves good, they are all of them universally true. In both these kinds of good, the criterion of good as ahimsa is to be adhered to. I may say in passing that the principle that the end justifies the means' need not be rejected as immoral if the above definition of good is accepted. For our present purpose, the good means good in itself or the things which are intrinsically good. Now the answer to the question, what is the good, i.e. what kinds of things are intrinsically good according to the Jinist, is as follows : : (1) The first thing which is good for the Jinist is the ahimsa of all living beings (Ahimsa bhutanai jagati viditam brahma paramam.'s Savve pana na hantavva.'6). The Jinist classifies living beings (jivas) into five kinds, one-sensed to five-sensed Jivas. The Jinist uses this classification as the measurement of the degree of ahimsa. The classification of jivas is in the ascending order of the importance of jivas owing to the fact of having evolved consciousness known from the number of senses manifested. As for example two-sensed jivas are more evolved than the one-sensed jivas, five-sensed jivas are more evolved than the one, two, three, and four-sensed jivas. Thus ahimsa will be directly proportionate to the ahimsa of the jivas classified. The Good 'Ahirsa of all living beings' means the ahimsa of these living beings. Though this measurement of Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 133 For Personal & Private Use Only

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ahimsa emphasises the number of senses for calculating ahimsa, yet in certain situations ahimsa can not always be commensurate with the number of senses affected. This presents before us situations wherein mere mathematical calculation on the basis of senses can not guide us in calculating ahimsa. In simple situations number of senses may be useful in the calculation of ahimsa, but in complex situations this method may misguide us. The Purusarthasiddhyupaya seems to be aware of this fact. Therefore, it says, though himsa may be committed by one yet there may be many who will have to suffer the consequences; it may be committed by many, the consequences may be suffered by one. Besides, in spite of the two persons following the same course of himsa, divergence at the time of fruition may be exhibited on account of the differences in their states of mind. Moreover, he does not explicitly commit himsa, may also reap the fruits of himsa because of his continual inclination towards indulging in himsa; and he who apparently employs himself in the acts of himsa may not be liable to fruits of himsa. Thus we may conclude that in judging the acts of himsa and ahimsa, it is the internal state of mind that counts. This does not mean that the outward commission of himsa has no relevance. The importance of the internal state of mind should not be overemphasised. The Purusarthasiddhyupaya tells us that he who exclusively emphasises the internal aspect at the expense of the external, forgets the significance of outward behaviour."7 (2) The second thing which is the good or good in itself according to the Jinist is virtuous disposition and action and the appreciation for the virtuous. The virtuous are those who have disposition not to act unjustlys, who have disposition to bestow fearlessness on the fearful", to treat the distressed, the thirsty and hungry with kindness20, to act charitably 134 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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towards the needy21. Besides, the virtuous practise forgiveness22, straight forwardness22, humbleness22, egolessness22, non-acquisitivenes23, self control etc. Such persons should be treated respectfully, so much so that they may not feel hurt in society.24 (3) The third thing which the Jinist may call the good is knowledge. In other words, the experience of knowledge in tune with ahimsa is the good. It is significant to acquire and give to others knowledge of facts and values. The Purusarthasiddhyupaya tells us that efforts should be made to have knowledge of objects in the multiple aspects. (Kartavyo'dhyavasayah sadanekantatmakesu tattvasu25) Again, it says that let there be endeavour to acquire knowledge of words and their meaning at proper time and with proper zeal.26 It may be noted that since knowledge is liable to be misused the Purusarthasiddhyupaya advises us to acquire knowledge only after having cultivated right attitude (Inanaradhanamistham samyakuvanantaram27) and right attitude is the ahimsa attitude. In a similar vein the Samanasuttam tells us that vast knowledge without right attitude is of no use. (4) The fourth thing that can be called the good or intrinsically good according to the Jinist is pleasure. But all pleasures are not of equal value, only that pleasure which is in tune with ahimsa is the good. Ross rightly remarks28, a state of pleasure has the property, not necessarily of being good, but of being something that is good.' Thus there is no doubt that there are bad pleasures. The Jinist recognises four types of bad pleasures which are to be avoided. They are known as Rudra Dhyanas, namely, to feel pleasure in killing (himsanandi), to feel pleasure in cheating (Mrsanandi), to feel pleasure in stealing (Couryanandi) and to feel pleasure in sexual indulgence (visayanandi). Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 135 For Personal & Private Use Only

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According to the Jinist, four things are the good i.e. intrinsically good-ahimsa of all living beings, virtuous disposition and action, knowledge and pleasure. There may be other things which are the good, but they can, on analysis, be shown to be the combination of two or more of the above goods. For example, Vatsalya (mutual love), which is the good, is a combination of virtuous disposition with knowledge and pleasure. Aesthetic enjoyment which is again the good is a combination of pleasure with the knowledge of the art object. Thus Jaina ethics upholds the doctrine of value pluralism; and this theory of the good or intrinsic goodness may be styled ahimsa-utilitarianism. REFERENCES 1. Ayaro: 4.1.1. Sarvarthasiddhi VII. 13. Samanasuttam: 148. 4. Ibid., 149. 5. Ibid., 147. Ayaro, 2.3.64. 7. Ibid., 1.6.122. 8. Samanasuttam, 150. 9. Ibid., 151. 10. Ayaro, 5.5.101. 11. Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 44. 12. Samanasuttam, 156. 13. Moore, Principia Ethica, P. 22. 14. Ibid. 15. Svayambhustotra, 119. 16. Ayaro, 4.1.1. 17. Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 50 136 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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21. 18. Mulacara 10/15 19. Uttaradhyayana 18/1 1. 20. Pancastikaya, 137 Sarvarthasiddhi VII 1 1. Samanasuttam 84. Ayaro, 1.2.117. Sarvarthasiddhi, VII, 1 1. Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 35. 26. Ibid. 36. 27. Ibid. 33. 28. Ross, The Right And The Good, Chap. 5. 24. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 137 For Personal & Private Use Only

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JAINA ETHICS AND THE META-ETHICAL TRENDS The main questions which meta-ethics is concerned with are usually three : (1) What is the meaning or definition of the terms like 'good', 'bad', 'right', and 'wrong' used in normative ethics? (2) What is the nature of normative judgements of ethics (Moral Judgements) in which the terms good, right, etc. are used? (3) How can moral judgements be justified? Modern ethics is occupied with these questions and is predominently devoted to the philosophical analysis of ethical terms or judgements. It may not have any relevance to our practical problems, but a sort of conceptual understanding is essential prior to any use of ethical concepts. In Jaina terminology the questions reduce themselves to the following: (i) What is the meaning or definition of the terms like Subha and Asubha? (ii) What is the nature of judgements in which these terms are used? (iii) How can such judgements be justified and supported? I shall take these questions one by one and discuss the answer of Jaina thinkers regarding these contemporary questions of meta-ethical concern. The first question that confronts us is : What is 'good' or 'Subha'? This question, as Moore says, should not be confused with the question, what is the good' or 'Subha' or what thing or things are good or Subha? The former question is more basic than the latter one. It may be asked whether the question of 'good' or 'Subha' can be decided in a universe where there is no element of conciousness. In such a universe, according to the Jaina, there will, be material things, but in For Personal & Private Use Only

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the absence of consciousness good and bad are inconceivable. Thus, a universe without consciousness would be a universe without value."Whatever is good, then, must stand in relation to consciousness." In the history of ethical thought good has been defined in various ways, namely as pleasent, as liked by me or most members of the group, as an object of favourable interest and so on. . Any serious student of ethics would outright reject these definitions of 'good' or 'Subha'. According to the Jaina ethics, Subha is an experience in tune with Ahimsa. Since there are degrees of Ahimsa, so their are degrees of Subha or good. The ingredients of this experience which is complex but unified are emotions, and knowledge issuing in endseeking action. Satisfaction on the fulfilment of ends is the accompaniment of the experience. The implication of the definition of Subha or good is that goodness does not belong to things in complete isolation from feeling; a thing is good, because it gives rise to an experience in tune with Ahimsa. Besides, that a thing does this is an objective fact and not an imaginary construction. The question, What is right can be answered, according to the Jaina, by saying that right cannot be separated from the good. Thus, right is that which tends to produce experience in tune with Ahimsa. . The question, what is subha in the realm of ethics is like the question, what is Dravya in the realm of metaphysics. The definition of Dravya given by the Jaina Acaryas is : Dravya is that which is sat (Being). Here being' is used in a comprehensive sense and not in a particular sense. But it is to be borne in mind that no particular thing can be apart from being. In a logical way we can say that being is the highest genus whereas the particulars are its species and the relation between the two is identity-in-difference. Similarly, Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 139 For Personal & Private Use Only

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when I say that subha is an experience in tune with Ahimsa, I am using the term Ahimsa in the comprehensive sense and not in a particular sense. No particular Subha can be separated from Ahimsa and Ahimsa manifests itself all particular Subhas. It can be said that Ahimsa is the highest genus and particular Ahimsas are its species, and the relation between Ahimsa and Ahimsas is a relation of identity-in-difference. As for example, in non killing and non-exploitation though the identical element of Ahimsa is present, yet the two are different. So the above is the most general definition of Subha just like the definition of Dravya. It may be noted that we can understand being only through the particulars since general being is unintelligible owing to its being abstract, though we can think of it factually, i. e. value-neutrally. Similarly, the understanding of general Ahimsa shall come only through the particular examples of Ahimsa, e.g. nonkilling, non-exploitation, non-enmity, non-cruelty, etc., though we can think of it evaluatively. I may point out in passing that particular kinds of Ahimsa are a matter of exploration. Every age develops many kinds of subtle Himsa which are a matter of exploration. Gross Ahimsa like nonkilling is easily recognisable but subtle Ahimsa like nonexploitation is a matter of discovery. Thus, different forms of Ahimsa will ever be appearing before us by our exploring outlook and tendencies. In fact, Ahimsa presupposes a realm of living beings, both human and non-human. So Subha will be operative only in such a realm of living beings. No living beings, no Subha. Thus the definition of Subha as the experience in tune with Ahimsa is the most general definition like the definition of Dravya as that which is Sat. The former can be thought of evaluatively, just as the latter can be thought of factually, i. e. value-neutrally. 140 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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It is alright that good is definable as the experience in tune with Ahimsa, but it may be asked, what is Ahimsa? Now the question, what is Ahimsa, in the value-world is like the question, what is 'being' in the factual world? Just as 'being' is understandable through the particular examples of things like pen, table, book, etc. so also Ahimsa is understandable through the particular examples of Ahimsa, like non-killing, non-exploitation, non-enmity, non-cruelty, etc. When it is so easily understandable through examples, the craving for the definition of Ahimsa is pedantry serving no-purpose. Ahimsa can be taught by examples, just as in arithmetic 2 + 2 = 4 can be taught to a child with the help of an example, two balls + two balls = four balls, and gradually the child learns to do big sums without examples. In the same way Ahimsa can be understood gradually. The argument of understandability cannot be adduced in the case of Subha without definition. For understanding Subha a definition is a necessity, but the similar necessity does not exist for Ahimsa in view of the above mentioned facts. The above definition of good or Subha presented by the Jaina thinkers avoids the two extremes of naturalism and non-naturalism, subjectivism and objectivism which are the present-day meta-ethical trends. According to naturalism moral terms like 'good' or 'right' can be reduced to empirical terms of psychology, biology, sociology, etc. For instance, good means actually desired by oneself or by people generally, or what tends to further human survival or what makes for social stability. The defects of these definitions are (a) they reduce ethics to a branch of natural science, thus robbing it of its autonomy; (b) they do not leave any place for 'ought' experience since they refer only to what is. Frankena' is right when he says 'when we are making Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 141

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merely factual assertions we are not thereby taking any pro or con attitude towards what we are talking about. But when we make an ethical or value judgement we are not neutral in this way: it would seem paradoxical if one were to say 'X is good', 'Y is right, but he is absolutely indifferent to its being sought or done by himself or anyone else.' The merit of naturalism is that it regards value in the world as relative to consciousness. According to non-naturalism, moral terms cannot be reduced to non-moral terms of science. No doubt 'good' or 'right' have objective properties for their being recognised as such, but they are indefinable in non-ethical terms. They are of a very different kind being non-natural or nonempirical and so to speak 'normative rather than factual'. For instance, if we say that knowledge is good', it means that it is good by virtue of the non-natural character of goodness in knowledge known to us directly and not by any empirical observations. The defect of non-naturalism is that it regards good as simple, unanalysable, and indefinable, but the merit of this position is that it regards goodness as objective and not merely subjective. Now when the Jaina says that Subha is an experience in tune with Ahimsa, he is accepting the merit of both naturalism and non-naturalism. The statement that Subha is an experience in tune with Ahimsa accepts value in the world as related to consciousness and leaves room for 'ought' expericnce. For example, to say that kindness is an experience in tune with Ahimsa implies that we ought to be kind. Besides, that experience is not of the type 'liked by me' or 'approved byme' and so is not subjective or reducible to feeling but possesses an objective character, and at the same time this experience is not simple, unanalysable but complex 142 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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and analysable, and therefore definable as has been explained above. The second and third meta-ethical questions that draw our attention are : (2) What is the nature of normative judgements of ethics? Or what is the nature of ethical judgements (obligatory and value) according to the Jaina? (3) What is their justification? Let me now state the second question more clearly. There have been recognised three kinds of knowledge : (1) Knowledge of facts; as this flower is yellow; (2) Knowledge of necessity, as 7 + 5 = 12 and (3) Knowledge of value, as A was a good man or murder is wrong. The question under discussion reduces itself to this. Are ethical judgements expressive of any cognitive content in the sense that they may be asserted true or false? Or do they simply express emotions, feelings, etc. ? The upholders of the former view are known as non-cognitivists (emotivists). When we say that Himsa is evil, are we making a true or false assertion or are we experiencing simply a feeling? Or are we doing both? According to the cognitivists, the ethical judgement, 'Himsa is evil is capable of being objectively true and thus moral knowledge is objective, whereas the non-cognitivists deny both the objectivity of assertion and knowledge inasmuchas, according to them, ethical judgements are identified with feeling, emotions etc. Here the position taken by the Jaina seems to me to be this that though the statement, 'Himsa is evil'is objectively true, yet it cannot be divested of the feeling element involved in experiencing the truth of the statement. In moral life knowlege and feeling cannot be separated. By implication we can derive from the Tattvarthasutra that the path of goodness can be traversed through knowledge (Jnana) and feeling and activity. Amstcandra says that first of all Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 143 For Personal & Private Use Only

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knowledge of right and wrong, good and evil is to be acquired afterwards, moral life is to be practised. Thus the conviction of the Jaina is that the knowledge of value and obligations is tied up with our feelings and that in their absence we are ethically blind. In fact, our feelings and knowledge are so interwoven into a complex harmony that we have never a state of mind in which both are not present in some degree. So the claims of cognitivists and non-cogintivists are one sided and are very antagonistic to the verdict of experience. Blanshard3 rightly remarks 'Nature may spread before us the richest possible benquet of good things, but if we can look at them only with the eye of reason, we shall care for none of these things; they will be alike insipid. There would be no knowledge of good and evil in a world of mere knowers, for where their is no feeling, good and evil would be unrecognisable. Again 'a life that directs itself by feeling even of the most exalted kind will be like a ship without a rudder'. Thus the nature of ethical judgement according to the Jaina is cognitive-affective. "The achievement of good is a joint product of our power to know and our power to feel". 4 The next question in meta-ethics is to ask how our ethical judgements (value and obligation) can be justified. That the ethical judgements are objectively true need not imply that their justification can be sought in the same manner as the justification of factual judgements of of ordinary and scientific nature. The reason for this is that value cannot be derived from fact, ought from is. In factual judgements our expressions are value-neutral, but in ethical judgements we cannot be indifferent to their being sought by ourselves or by others. That is why derivation of ought from is, value from fact is unjustifiable. The value judgements, according 144 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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to Jaina, are self-evident and can only be experienced directly. Thus they are self justifying. The conviction of the Jaina is that no argument can prove that 'Himsa is evil' and 'Ahimsa is good'. What is intrinsically good or bad can be experienced directly or immediately. The justification of right can be sought from the fact of its producing what is intrinsically good, i. e. from the fact of its producing experience in tune with Ahimsa. 1. 2. 3. 4. REFERENCES Ethics, Frankena; p. 83. Tattvarthasutra 1. 1 (Tattvarthasutra of Umas vati under the title Sarvarthasiddhi, Varanasi) Reason and Goodness by B. Blanshard, p. 68 Ibid, p. 68. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 145

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THE AVADHI AND MANAHPARYAYA TYPES OF SUPERSENSUOUS COGNITION The Avadhi and Manahparyaya types of cognition form part of Jainist epistemology. They are not our ordinary ways of perception through sense-organs but are completely and radically different from them. Ordinary persons and even some thinkers and scientists look at these ways of perception with scepticism. To them, the postulation of such ways of knowing is just dogmatic assertions without any scientific basis. The Jainist saint-philosophers seem to be so sure of the phenomena of supersensuous cognition that they have unhesitatingly called it Pratyaksa' (immediate and direct). This is in contrast with the Paroksa (mediate and indirect) types of knowledge which are given to us through the sense organs and the normal instrumentality of the mind. The contention of the Jainists is that knowledge is the essential function of the soul; so it should be able to know without the intervention of sense-organs and the brain. But somehow this inherent capacity of the soul has been obstructed; hence, we need the spectacles of sense-organs for the occurrence of knowlege. Tatia remarks, "Knowledge is as independent as existence. As existence does not depend upon some other existence for its existence so knowledge does not depend upon something else for its knowledge. Knowledge is there in its own right as its objects are there in their own right." If we reflect a little, we shall find that knowing independently of sense-organs is our birth right and our dependence on For Personal & Private Use Only

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them is due to the fact that our real freedom has been robbed. Not only this, but we have lost faith in our right of freedom to know supersensuously. Parapsychology, a developing science, has taken the responsibility of re-establishing our sense of freedom by taking recourse to the scientific method of discovering and explaining the existence of the supersensuous knowledge. To return to our point, the Jainist view of Avadhi and Manahparyaya is comprised under supersensuous cognition. Our present purpose is to make an endeavour to represent these concepts of Avadhi and Manahparyaya as they have been described by the Jainist philosophers. The Avadhi type of supersensuous cognition refers only to the knowledge of material objects along with that of the embodied souls. In other words, the scope of Avadhi Jnana is simply the material objects in space and time together with the bodies of the souls. The nonmaterial objects like souls, space, time etc. are excluded from its extent and range. Thus it has a limited scope. Not all human beings are possessed of this type of knowledge, but only those who have striven to attain right faith etc. possess this.? This simply shows that both the house-holder and the saints are capable of attaining this type of super-sensuous cognition. Broadly speaking, the Avadhi Jnana admits of a twofold classification, namely, Desavadhi and Sarvavadhi.' The former extends to only limited space and time as distinguished from the latter which extends to unlimited space and time. 10 Again, the Sarvavadhi is the privilege of severely disciplined persons, whereas the Desavadhi type of supersensuous knowledge can be present in both ordinary and disciplined persons alike. The latter may be classified into six kinds. 12 (1) Anugami--The Avadhi Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 147 . : For Personal & Private Use Only

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Jnana which accompanies the individual in the next birth, just as light accompanies the sun. (2) Ananugami -- that which does not accompany the individual in the next birth. (3) Vardhamana -- that which increases in extensity owing to the increase in the purity of right faith etc. (4) Hiyamana - that which decreases in extensity owing to decrease in the purity of right faith etc. (5) Avasthita-- that which is steadfast, i.e., without any increase or decrease till death or the attainment of omniscience. (6) Anavasthita-- that which is unsteady i.e. increases or decreases during the life time. All this classification shows that the different individuals differ in regard to their extensity and durability of Avadhi Jnana. It is of capital importance to note that the Desavadhi type of cognition may disappear at any time, and consequently this means that the individual who is showing the presence of Avadhi at one time may show its absence at some other tirne. However the Sarvavadhi type of cognition is incapable of parting with the individual. Recent parapsychological researches do support the different types of the Desavadhi Unana. The Manahparyaya type of supersensuous cognition is concerned with the knowledge of the material objects thought of by the minds of other people. In other words it cognises the material objects thought of by the minds of others; the very nature of this type of knowledge signifies that it is to be without the help of the sense organs. Another interpretation of Manahparyaya is that it knows only the mental states like thoughts and ideas of others directly.14 Thus according to the former interpretation the man possessing the Manahparyaya Jnana can cognise mental states as well as the nature of material objects thought of by the minds of 148 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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others. It is possessed only by those persons who are spiritually advanced.'s It is to be remembered here that the Avadhi Jnana can be possessed by the undisciplined, partially disciplined and completely disciplined persons, but the Manahparyaya Jnana can be acquired only by the completely disciplined ascetics of a very high order. This means that the instances of Manahparyaya Jnana are rarely found. The Manahparyaya Jnana is of two kinds. 16 Rjumati and Vipulamati. The minimum which the former is capable of knowing is two or three past or future births of oneself and others, while the maximum that can be known is seven or eight past or future births." Besides, it can cover the space having a range of two miles to eight mles. 18 The minimum that the latter can know is seven or eight past or future births, whereas the maximum that can be known is innumerable births in the past and in the future.'' Again, it can cover the space within the range of eight miles to the entire abode of human beings.20 Apart from these distinctions the Vipulamati is everlasting and purer in contrast with the Rjumati which is less pure and liable to disappear.21 From what has been delineated regarding Avadhi and Manahparyaya, it follows that the Jainists simply by experiencing them in their own selves by severe disciplines arrived at the aforementioned conclusions. It is perhaps right to say that by virtue of the experience of saints, these thoughts have been made accessible to us. It is to be noted here that the modern counterparts of Avadhi and Manahparyaya are clairvoyance and telepathy respectively. Experimental procedure launched by the science of parapsychology has led us to believe that there exist the phenomena of clairvoyance and telepathy. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 149 . For Personal & Private Use Only

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REFERENCES 1. Sarvarthasiddhi, I. 12 (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi,1955) Ibid., 1.11. Tatia, N., Studies in Jaina Philosophy, P. 62. (Jaina Cultural Research Society, Banaras, 1951) 4. Sarvarthasiddhi, I. 27 5. Rajavarttika, Vol. I P. 326 (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi, 1953.) 6. Sarvarthasiddhi I. 9. It is important to note that according to the Jainist animals also possess this faculty of supersensuous cognition (Sarvarthasiddhi, I. 22) Gommatasara, Jivakanda, 374 (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala Bombay. 1959) 9. Rajavarttika, Vol. I P. .323. 10. Ibid P. 321-2. 11. Gommatasara, Jivakanda, 374. 12. Tattavarthavrtti, I. 22 (p. 356) Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi, 1949). 13. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, I-29 (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay-1932). Visesavasyakabhasya, 814 (Vide some problems in Jain. Psychology by Kalghatgi). 15. Gommatasara, Jivakanda, 445. 16. Sarvarthasiddhi, 1-23. 17. Ibid. 18-20. Sarvarthasiddhi, I-23. 21. Ibid, 1-24. 150 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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THE CONCEPT OF 'ARAHANTA' IN JAINISM According to Jainism, Arahantal and the Siddha? are the supreme objects of devotion. They are subsumed under the category of Deva (divine being). Considered from the perspective of mystical realisation, Arahanta and Siddha stand at par. But as the former enjoys embodied liberation and the latter, disembodied one, it is averred that Siddha occupies a higher status. Notwithstanding this, Arahantas are everywhere bowed first and Siddhas, next. But for this the argument adduced by the Jaina is this that it is through Arahantas that we have been able to recognise Siddhas and it is through his preachings that supreme values have been made intelligible to us. Hence Arahanta is our supreme Guru (spiritual Teacher) and the Guru is entitled to receive our preferential obeisance. Thus owing to the delivering of sermons for general beneficence, Arahanta is the perfect Guru and he is also the perfect Deva on account of the complete actualisation of the divinity potential in himself. It is through his medium that mystical life has been possible on earth. In consequence, he must have our highest gratitude and reverence. Thus the concept of Arahanta in Jainism plays a dual role : the role of the perfect Deva (divine being) and the role of the perfect Guru (spiritual teacher). And this is quite consistent with the viewpoint of spiritual experience, and the consequent upliftment of mankind at large through preaching. Guruhood refers to the outward manifestation of intuitive experience; while Devahood signifies simply the For Personal & Private Use Only

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inward spiritual realisation. Thus the concept of Arahanta stands for the consistent identification of Devatva and Gurutva, of the inward experience and the outward expression. In the state of the Siddha, there is no outward representation of mystical experience, which on the other hand, is integrally connected with the life of Arahanta. Because of this dual role, Arahanta is bowed first in preference to the Siddha who is simply the Deva on account of his being incapable of preching Dharma. Prof. A.N. Upadhyaya rightly remarks: "The magnanimous saint, the Jaina Tirthankara, who is at the pinnacle of the highest spiritual experience is the greatest and ideal teacher and his words are of the highest authority." This does not imply the belittlement of the Siddha, but simply the glorification of the Arahanta as the supreme Guru, Gurutva being his additional characteristic. There are two kinds of Arahanta, namely, Tirthankara and non-Tirthankara. The distinction between the two is this that the former is capable of preaching and propagating religious doctrines in order to guide the mundane souls immersed in the life of illusion and his sermons are properly worded by the Ganadharas, while the latter is not the propounder of religious faith or principles, but silently enjoys simply the sublimity of mystical experience. It is to be borne in mind that the word 'Arahanta' in the Namokara Mantra should be regarded as referring to the Tirthankara. In Jaina texts, though Arahanta and Siddha are styled 'God', yet, as Dr. Upadhye says; "neither Arhat not Siddha has on him the responsibility of creating, supporiting and destroying the world. The aspirant receives no boons, no favours, and no curses from him by way of gifts from the divinity. The aspiring souls pray to him, worship him and 152 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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meditate on him as an example, as a model, as an ideal that they too might reach the same condition". But it should not be forgotten that unified, single-minded devotion to Arahantas or Siddhas accumulates in the self the Punya (auspicious Karma) of the highest kind, which as a natural consequence, brings forth material and spiritual benefits. Samantabhadra observes that the adoration of Arahanta occasions great heap of Punya (auspicious Karma). He who is devoted to him. realises prosperity and he who casts aspersions, sinks to perdition; in both these the Arahanta is astonishingly indifferent. The aspirant, therefore, should not breathe in despondency for the aloofness of God (Arahanta and Siddha). Those who are devoted to him are automatically elevated. The ultimate responsbility of emancipating oneself from the turmoils of the world falls opon one's own undivided efforts upon the integral consecration of energies to the attainment of divine life. Thus every soul has the right to become Paramatman (Supreme Self) who has been conceived to be the consummate realisation of the divine potentialities. Arahantas are consummate mystics. They lead a life of supermoralism, but not of a-moralism. It is inconceivable that the Arahanta who had attained supremacy on account of the realisation of perfect Ahimsa may in the least pursue an ignoble life of Himsa, a life of vice. He is no doubt beyond the category of virtue and vice, good and evil. Punya and Papa, auspicious and inauspicious psychical states, yet he may be pronounced to be the most virtuous soul, though the pursuit of virtnons life is incapable of binding him to the cycle of life and death. Samantabhadra ascribes inconceivability to the mental, vacal and physical actions of Arahanta, since they are neither impelled by desire nor born Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 153 For Personal & Private Use Only

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of ignorance. Whatever issues from him is potent enough to abrogate the miseries of the tormented humanity. Hundreds of souls get spiritually converted. His presence is supremely enlightening. Even his body causes amazement to Indra in spite of his beholding it with 2 thousand eyes. Since he has transcended the limited human nature and is revered and worshipped even by celestial beings, he is the supreme Atman. Thus he is the embodiment of mystical virtues, and is the spiritual leader of society. He is beyond attachment aversion and infatuation, and consequently, he is absolutely dispassionate. By virtue of his intuitively apprehending the nature of reality, all his doubts have been resolved. By reason of his self-realization, he has transcended the dualities of friends and enemies, pleasure and pain, praise and censure, life and death, sand and gold. The Arahanta is the omniscient being. He, therefore, neither accepts nor abandons, nor transforms the external objectivity, but only witnesses and apprehends the world of objects without entering into them. Just as the eyes see the objects of sight. The knowledge, which is independent, perfect, immaculate, intuitive and extended to infinite things of the universe may be identified with bliss on account of the absence of discomposure arising from the knowledge which is dependent, imperfect, maculate, mediate and extended to limited things. In other words, the consciousness of the Arahanta is not only omnipotent and intuitive but also blissful. Bliss is naturally consequent upon the destruction of the undesirable and accomplishment of the desirable. Thus the Arahanta experiences unprecedented bliss which originates from the innermost beings of self and which is supersensuous, unique, infinite and interminable. We may conclude by saying that the cognitive, conative and affective 154 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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tendencies of the Arahanta reveal their original manifestation in his supreme mystical experience, which is ineffable and transcends all the similies of the world. REFERENCE 1. 2. Embodied spiritually perfect souls. Disembodied spiritually perfect souls. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 155. For Personal & Private Use Only

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SCIENCE AND JAINA VIEW OF VALUES We are living in an age of science. The scientific progress has affected practically all walks of life. The methodology of science has revolutionized our approach to the empirical world. Natural and social sciences along with psychological studies have added new dimensions to understanding of nature and man. The tangles of nature and the depths of human personality are getting unraveled with the passage of time. The techniques developed by applied sciences are amazingly changing the face of the world. The sources of communication, the means of transportation, the researches in the medical and agricultural science, the use of the electrical and mechanical appliances and so on have, no doubt, enriched our living facilities. Thus the natural and human sciences have influenced mankind in their own ways. There is no denying the fact that science and human life are intertwined. Men all over the world are enjoying the gifts of science. But however important the achievements of science may be, man does not seem to be peaceful. Human relationship is disturbed. Destructive tendencies in man are prominent. Individual dissensions and political strifes are becoming common. Political boundaries have divided mankind into antagonistic groups. Man's love of power is abnormally increasing. Destructive weapons are piling up. The atmosphere rampant at the national and the international level has endangered the life of man. For Personal & Private Use Only

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All this shows that, inspite of scientific achievements, man has lost sight of the ultimate values of life. The question : Can science not teach us the values of life? The answer is: It can not teach us this aspect of life. The value aspect of life is left beyond the reach of scientific method, since it concentrates on the observation of facts and arrives at some general laws on their basis. Thus science is a value free pursuit. By the very nature of scientific enquiry the realm of values is excluded from its scope. Value judgments differ in nature from factual judgments. In point of fact, scientific method is incapable of proclaiming what is good or bad, right or wrong, just or unjust and so on. For making these values of life intelligible moral philosophy is to be pursued. Beyond good and bad lie spiritual values of religion which is inclusive of both the moral and spiritual values of life. This shows that religion is not to be confounded with morality. For the proper development of man, the use of scientific achievements should be made in consonance with the moral and spiritual values. It shows us the direction in which man has to move for making sustained progress with the help of science. It is significant to note that the rise of Jainism as a religion is a marked phenomenon in the spiritual history of mankind. It is one of the oldest living religions of the world. It represents the continuation of indigenous Sramanic culture which is as old as the Vedas themselves. According to Jaina tradition, Jainism owes its rise to Rsabha, the first of the twenty-four Tirthankaras. The last two Tirthankaras, namely Parsva (91h Century B.C.) and Mahavira (6th Century B.C.) are historical figures. In this way Jainism has its source in the spiritual Utterances of the great personalities. These extraordinary individuals proclaim a religion which has a Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 157 For Personal & Private Use Only

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universal appeal. "In individualizing it here meant construing religion as something inward and personally realized; and as men have the same spiritual nature, they can partake of the same religious experience." It is not idle point out that Jainism as a religion embraces both the moral and spiritual values of life. An unbiased eye can look into its spiritual fervor and moral earnestness. These two elements are so greatly twined together in it that one is apt to confuse religion with morality and vice-versa. The fact is that one can not be reduced to the other. In practice though the two are closely associated, yet, they are quite distinguishable. Jainism subscribes to the view that 'religion if taken seriously and rationally will be deeply moral; but it is not morality'. The two are not identical. Thus it will not be contradictory to aver that a religious man will be necessarily moral but a moral man may not be necessarily religious. In other words, religion 'in co-extensive with morality. A man may be moral without being religious. All this shows that the realms of religion and morality are theoretically distinguishable. The Jain saints and sages have always exhorted us to look beyond the mere moral nature of man to transcendental horizons of life. This is not to decry social morality, but to save religion from being identified with it, and to keep the domain of religion as quite distinct from that of morality. Ahimsa is a moral and spiritual value from the Jaina point of view. In fact, Ahimsa is primarily social value. Socio-individual behaviour if it is to be moral ought to be based on Ahimsa. But spiritual-moral traditions speak of Ahimsa is two ways (i) Moral way and (ii) Spiritual way. For speaking of Ahimsa in a moral way, social-individual behaviour is the focus of attention. But for speaking of 158 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Ahimsa in a spiritual way individual self is the focus of attention. In the latter case Ahimsa becomes synonymous with spiritual unfoldment. The appearance of attachment and aversion on the surface of self is Himsa (Violence), but the disappearance of these passions with the growth of selfawareness is Ahimsa. In Jaina methodology, these two approaches to Ahimsa go together without any inconsistency. In both the Socio-moral and spiritual fields, Ahimsa is the supreme value, the highest thing to be achieved in life, sociomorally and spiritually. It is not one of the values, but the essence of all the values conceivable. All the values are lifeless and insignificant without the element of Ahimsa in them. Thus the Prasnavyakarana Sutra uses moral and spiritual denominations for Ahimsa in order to show its comprehensive and all inclusive character. The denominations like Nirvana (liberation), Samadhi (meditational submergence), Vimukti (freedom from bondage), Sakti (energy), Vishuddhi (self-purity), Sthiti (State of permanence), Pavitrata (purified state of existence), Apramada (spiritual awakening) etc, exhibit the spiritual nature of Ahimsa and those like Daya (Kindness), Rati (Love and friendship), Samiti (carefulness is activities), Samyama (self control), Vrata (elimination of vices), Sila (observance of virtues), Raksa (security of all living beings),Asvasa (consolation), Visvasa (trustworthiness), Bodhi (value awareness) etc. express the socio-moral disposition of Ahimsa. The pronouncement of the Svayambhustotra that Ahimsa of all beings is equivalent to the realization of Paramahrahma (supreme consciousness) sheds light on the spiritual moral character of Ahimsa. Thus Ahimsa is the fountain-head of all the values. Negate Ahimsa, all the value are negated. Posit Ahimsa, All the values are posited. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 159 For Personal & Private Use Only

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GANDHI'S CONTRIBUTION TO PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION Gandhi's contribution to philosophy cannot be given simply by enumerating certain contributions which Gandhi might have made to philosophy. It should be borne in mind that the word philosophy is ambiguous and vague. What does it connote can hardly be easily determined? The history of philosophy both eastern and western illustrates the divergence of meaning attributed to the world "philosophy'. So what contributions Gandhi has made to philosophy can be determined only when we are clear in our mind as regards the meaning which we attach to the word 'philosophy'. This means that there may be some who regard him as a great philosopher, while there may be others who are hesitant to call him so. This difference of conclusion is due to the difference of meaning ascribed to the word "philosophy'. So before I venture to say anything regarding Gandhi's contribution to philosophy, I propose to analyze the meaning of this word, which may be regarded as digression, but after we reach the end, this digression will look important and relevant. So let me now analyze, though in a summary way, the meaning of the word "philosophy'. At the outset it should be said that there is no general agreement among philosophers as to what philosophy is. What philosophy is, is itself an important philosophical question. "Philosophy" it has been said, "is its own first problem." For Personal & Private Use Only

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(1) Traditionally speaking, we may say that philosophy is concerned with the origin of universe, sources of knowledge, the place of man in it and the realization of the highest of which man is capable. Upanisads, Jainism and Buddhism and other systems of Indian Philosophy aptly exemplify this meaning of philosophy. That is why they proclaim that philosophy is Darsana In the west, the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition summarizes the goal of philosophy thus includes the achievements of scientists, moralists and mystics. It covers a very large scope, so much so that the questions of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and of the social sciences are comprised under it. This attitude governed philosophy for about two thousand years. But with the development of pure mathematics on the one hand and the progress of natural and social sciences (by the discovery of scientific method) on the other, philosophy got separated from these disciplines. Now what is left to philosophy is the problem pertaining to ethics, religion and knowledge. But the question is by what method these problems are to be solved. (2) The deductive method followed by sciences, is unfruitful for philosophy. Philosophers for a very long time followed or, I must say, imitated the deductive method of mathematics in solving problem of God, self etc., without looking to its relevance. (3) Because of the failure of these methods for solving the philosophical problems, gradually philosophy came to be interpreted as an activity of clarifying ideas by an analysis of meaning. The result is that the problems of ethics, religion and metaphysics have been declared non-sensical without any cognitive meaning. This led philosophy to occupy itself with the analysis of language and propositions, since Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 161

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ordinary language is inadequate for philosophical purposes by reason of its vagueness, inexplicitness, ambiguity, contexdependence and misleadingness." (4) Conceptual analysis as the job of philosophy goes with the analysis of language. What this method of conceptual analysis is "fitted to produce clarity, and explicitness with respect to the basic concepts in terms of which we think about the world and human life" , (5) Alongside this meaning and function of philosophy, there is another meaning which is ascribed to philosophy. According to this, philosophy is concerned with fundamental human situations: love, birth, suffering, struggle, death, subjectivity, authentic and inauthentic human existence, and so on. Now the question is : In what sense of the term Gandhi is a philosopher? Gandhi is certainly not a philosopher in the second and third connotation of the term. What I mean to say is that neither Gandhi set before himself the task of constructing great systems of philosophy by using the deductive method just as Descartes, Spinoza, Hegel etc. did, nor did he declare that the ethical statements, metaphysical expressions and religious propositions are meaningless and do not have any cognitive content. That Gandhi is not an academic philosopher is surely true in these senses of the term. He may be called a philosopher partially in the first and fourth senses and completely in the fifth sense of the term. The fourth sense of the term appears in Gandhi when he asks such questions - What is Ahimsa? What is truth? What is God? The questions are just like the questions asked by Socrates. What is justice?, What is virture?, etc. If Socrates can be given the title of a philosopher, Gandhi deserves it all the more. 162 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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The first sense of the term, also brings to Gandhi the honour of a philosopher. I need not discuss how. But here he mostly followed the schools of Indian philosophy like the Upanisad, Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, etc. In the fifth sense of the term Gandhi is a fullfledged philosopher. His doctrine of end and means, non-violence, love; subjectivity, Satyagraha, self-analysis etc illustrate his concern with fundamental human situations. In addition to other things he was moved by the suffering of the masses and wanted to remove the suffering of humanity in general and India in particular. If Gandhi is a philosopher in some senses of the term, the question is what is his contribution to philosophy? The most significant contribution of Gandhi to philosophy is his transition from "God is Truth" to "Truth is God." He writes, "Denial of God we have known, denial of truth, we have not known." When Gandhi says that God is Truth, he is simply emphasizing the Upanisadic expression that Brahman is Truth, knowledge and Infiniteness. God is in us, thus we are partakers of the highest reality. This is just like saying that the kingdom of God is within us. This is not something original in Gandhi. The originality lies in saying that "Truth is God." Though the conversion of the proposition God is Truth to Truth is God may seem trivial from the logical point of view, yet it is very important for Gandhi who says, "And I came to the conclusion after a continuous and relentless search after truth which began fifty years ago." Reason can reject everything but not truth. Truth has the greatest appeal to all human beings. The hope of humanity lies in organization based on appeal to reason, rather than to blind religious notions about God which have wrought havoc in Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 163

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the world. So he changed his emphasis from God to Truth "which seemed to suggest I do not care for God, if he is anything but truth, anything but the undeniable reality revealed in man and outside." This truth must be existent. "It is the regulative principle of our thinking." Gandhi is saying nothing new when he tells us that he has "no argument to convince through reason about the existence of God. Faith transcends reason. That which is beyond reason is surely not unreasonable. Unreasonable belief is blind faith and is open to superstition." He again says, "There is an indefinable mysterious power that pervades everything. I feel it though I do not see it. It is thus unseen power which makes itself felt and yet defies all proofs, because it is so unlike all that I perceive through my senses. It transcends the senses". Lively and vigorous emphasis on the spiritual truths of ancient Indian tradition seems to me to be the next significant contribution of Gandhi to philosophy. In a way he infused new life into the old ideas of universal importance. By this he reconciled the tradition of nonviolence upheld by Jainism and Vaishnavism with the tradition of Truth propounded by the Upanisads and the Vedas. Thus what Gandhi contributed to philosophy may seem to us to be very meager. This is so because we are in the habit of looking to philosophy in the sense of system building. But as I have said, Gandhi is a partial philosopher in the traditional sense of the term and a full fledged philosopher in one of the contemporary senses of the word. In brief, he is the philosopher of fundamental human situations. What are the contributions of Gandhi to Religion? In fact, the word religion, like the word 'philosophy' does not connote something clear. But I shall not dwell upon its Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 164 For Personal & Private Use Only

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various meanings inasmuch as it has at least one meaning which is generally accepted by all i.e. religion is something spiritual. It is to accept a spiritual way of life. Gandhi's religion follows from his philosophy, God is Truth or Truth is God. For him God is a living reality. His whole way of life is nothing but a sincere, whole-hearted, devoted practice of religion. Gandhi says, "the essence of religion is morality. 'True religion and true morality are inseparately bound up with each other'. So the question of Gandhi's contribution to religion will bring along with it the question of his attitude towards religions, religious scriptures and prayer. Let us begin with the last, like morality "Prayer is the very soul and essence of religion", Heiler writes, "Prayer is the center of religion, without prayer faith remains a theoretical conviction, worship is only an external and formal art; moral action is without spiritual depth; man remains at a distance from God, an abyss yawns between the finite and infinite." Gandhi's view is in consonance with Heiler's view. According to him the language of the heart is to be spoken in prayer. "The prayers of those whose tongues are nectared but whose hearts are full of poison are never heard." Thus Gandhian prayer is integrating in the sense that it operates in the direction of firmer moral life. But the question is how to speak the language of the heart? It is only the true Bhakta who can do so and such Bhakta is rarely found. So Gandhi has remarkably suggested that one should adopt the religion of service as the means in the direction. "God himself seeks for his seat the heart of him who serves his fellow man. A prayerful heart is the vehicle and service makes the heart prayerful". He further says, "Those Hindus who in this age serve the untouchables from a full heart truly pray." This means that Gandhian prayer is socially effective. This Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 165 For Personal & Private Use Only

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association of prayer with social upliftment is in a sense Gandhian. I may point out here that according to Gandhi prayer is not only a call to self-purification but also a "call to social service'. I must reduce myself to Zero. He always dedicated the results of his efforts to God. He thus tried to escape the maddening vanity of success and the depressing effect of failure. All this leads us to think that Gandhian attitude to prayer is predominantly subjective as distinguished from the objective. His main focus is on the individual who prays rather than on the object of his prayer. His prayer is not the glorification of God without any dynamic effect on the individual but it is prominently a cleansing and purification of the soul for exalted individual and social living. In the words of Gandhi, "The man of prayer will be at peace with himself and with the whole world, the man who goes about the affairs of the world without a prayerful heart will be miserable and will also make the world miserable". The question of religion brings with it the question of Gandhi's attitude towards different religions and religious scriptures of the world. Though he has always said that religion does not mean formal religion or customary religion, but religion which underlies. all religions, yet he could not avoid the question of different religions. Is Gandhi's religion antagonistic to religions? Gandhi replies, this religion transcends Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, etc. It does not supersede them. It harmonizes them and gives them reality'. Religions are different roads conversing to the same point. Gandhi has always preached mutual tolerance among religions. "Tolerance gives us spiritual insight which is as far from fanaticism as the north pole from the south". According to Gandhi tolerance should not be understood to 166 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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mean the inferiority of other faiths to one's own. Tolerance means reverence for other faiths. But the reverence should not blind us to their faults. Gandhi says, "we must be keenly alive to the defects of our own faith also, yet not leave it on that account, but try to overcome those defects. Let us look to all religions with an equal eye". Thus according to Gandhi all religions are true and all religions have some defects in them. The same thing applies to all religious scriptures. Now the question is: by what test good and bad elements in religions are to be found. Gandhi lays down the test of truth and Ahimsa for finding the elements to be rejected and accepted in every religion and religious scriptures. It should not be forgotten that Gandhi has always decried the practice of conversion. In his view conversion brings no good. It is merely a change of name whereas we need a change of heart. When we turn to morality we come to the heart of religion. Morality is the back-bone of individual as well as social progress. If religion in the sense of spiritual realization along with social advancement and freedom is the end, morality is to be regarded as its means. In other words, Sarvodaya requires adherence to moral principles and moral ways of life. This exposition brings us to the problem of end and means. Gandhi makes the goodness of end dependent on the goodness of means. Impure means cannot result in good end. "As the means so the end", "The means may be likened to a seed; the end to a tree, and there is just the same inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree". The theory that the end justifies the means is dangerous in the view of Gandhi, since it warrants the use of violence, fraud, opportunism and the like, which lead us to moral degeneration. History and contemporary experience bear testimony to the fact that Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 167 For Personal & Private Use Only

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"violence engenders violence, revenge leads to counterrevenge and a war sows the seeds of further wars." The Indian Law of Karma and the Gita's view of Niskama Karma strengthen Gandhi's position that he has taken regarding means. In other words, immoral actions will entail ignoble consequences and too much attachment to ends, will detract the attention of the doer from the means, which may lead us to the use of defiled means. So Gandhi believes, "if one takes care of the means, the end will take care of itself.". Now the question is: by what criterion the moral nature of means is to be decided. Gandhi unequivocally pronounces that non-violence is the test of shifting the moral from the immoral and it is to be regarded as the guiding factor in all affairs of life. Thus Ahirnsa is the supreme virtue. In a way Ahimsa is truth itself. In fact, truth and Ahimsa are so intertwined that it is difficult to separate one from the other. Like truth it is not a matter so much of argument as of faith and experience. The practice of Ahimsa develops in man other virtues of Aparigraha, Asteya, compassion, friendship, etc. But what is Ahimsa? Gandhi says, "Ahimsa means avoiding injury to anything on earth in thought, word or deed". But such absolute Ahimsa is possible only in the plenitude of mystical experience. In fact, "man is subject to Himsa by the very condition of his existence, yet instead of aggravating the natural weight of Hirsa by falling foul upon one another, we should endeavour to alleviate this general curse to the extent to which we are capable of doing". The major defect of Himsa is that it invades both the sin and the sinner, whereas Ahimsa distinguishes between man and his deeds. Ahimsa hates the sin but not the sinner. Besides, it lays stress on self-reform before taking any step to reform others. In short, 168 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Gandhi has dwelt upon Ahimsa at such a length that it requires a separate paper to present it in its various aspects. What Gandhi contributed to the doctrine of means is not the doctrine of Ahimsa as such, but its universal application to every aspect of life, social, political and economic, and so on. Thus Gandhi is a philosopher of fundamental human situations and a mystic of activistic type. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. REFERENCES Gandhi, M.K. My Religion. Datta D.M., The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi p. 38. Raju, P.T., Idealistic Thought of India, p. 297. Dhawan, The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi P. 55. Sogani, K.C., Ethical Doctrines in Jainism. Clark, W.H., The Psychology of Religion, p. 327. Alston, Philosophy of Languages, p.6 'Ibid, P. 6 . o 7. 8. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 169 For Personal & Private Use Only

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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE EXPRESSIONS OF THE ETHICAL IDEAL ACCORDING TO THE UPANISADS, THE GITA AND JAINISM IN INDIAN soil we find the growth of different solutions for ontological, ethical and religious problems. The Vedic, the Jaina and the Buddhist speculations illustrate the enormous divergence of thought current in the domain of India Philosophy. Notwithstanding the differences in metaphysical conclusions arrived at by the various trends of thought, their exponents, confronted with the same sort of transitoriness of the things of the world, have resorted to similar methods and contrivances in order to go beyond the manifest superficialities of objects. It is astonishing that they concur remarkably with one another on the psychological, ethical and religious planes of existence. It is proposed to deal in this paper with the various expressions of the ethical ideal made use of in the Upanisads and the Gita with a view to comparing them with those used in Jainism. It is of capital importance to note that the diverse formulations of the ethical ideals signify simply the diversity of expression and not the difference in the essential meaning conveyed by them. * First, of the two diverse paths that are open to man, the wise one distinguishes them properly and chooses the path of good in preference to the path of pleasure, by virtue of which the true aim of life is realized. On the contrary, the fool hankering after the path of pleasure is defeated in attaining to real beneficence.' The mundane path which many For Personal & Private Use Only

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men follow must be distinguished from the supermundane one which relieves man from the transitoriness of worldly objects and from sorrows and sufferings. In Jaina terminology the path of right belief, right knowledge and right conduct is traversed by the prudent souls, while that of wrong belief, wrong knowledge and wrong conduct is traversed by the ignorant. The former emancipates man from terrestrial curses in contradistinction to the latter which entangles him in the mire of distressing and insatiable sensual desires. According to the Chandogya Upanisad? the ascetics in the forest adorned with knowledge and faith treat the path of the gods (devayana) which consequently leads to the attainment of the Brahman or deliverance in contrast to the householders who are busy performing sacrifices and go by the path of the fathers (pitsyana) to be born again in this world. In a similar way the Gita' also recognizes two paths, namely the bright and the dark; the former is conducive to emancipation and the latter, leads to rebirth. The bright gati amounts to the termination of transmigration, while the dark gati, to the wanderings into the wheel of birth and death. * Jainism speaks of Siddha-gati and the four gati-s, celestial-human, sub-human and hellish. The former is permanent and immutable, and it implies the complete cessation of transmigratory existence. The latter indicate the rounds of birth and death in the empirical world. Secondly, the realization of Para Gati," the deliverance of one from the mouth of death, 6 is tantamount to experiencing the Brahman or Atman which is the dearest of all, the target to be aimed at, 8 the only desirable, singularly discernible, preferentially knowable, lo and the resting abode of all that is conceivable and perceivable." As viewed by the Gita, the attainment of anamayam padam 2 (status beyond Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 171 For Personal & Private Use Only

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misery), Brahmi sthiti 3 (divine state), Brahmanirvana! (beatitude of God). Para Gatils (highest goal), Para santi 16 (supreme tranquility), Para Siddhi!? (highest perfection) and the like have been conceived to be the transcendental aim. According to the Kathopanisad, the Brahman or the ParamaPurusa is the highest goal of the aspirant's journey, which, after being known by the mortal man, releases immortality, transcends the senses, the objects of the senses, the mind, the intellect, the great self and the unmanifest. 18 The same may be expressed by saying that the senses need be merged into mind, mind into the Jnana-Atman, Jnana-Atman into Mahat-Atman and lastly, Mahat-Atman into Santa-Atman.19 Thus Santa-Atman which is equivalent to Parama-Purusa or Brahman or Atman is the object of all our endeavours. The Santa-Atman or Brahman is bereft of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell, is eternal, indestructible, infinite, stable and higher than Mahat. 20 According to Jainism also, Paramatman or Brahman.is the highest object to be pursued. The aspirant should enquire into, long for and strive after the eternal light of knowledge which is subversive of ignorance.21 The nature of Paramatman according to the Jainas and the Upanisadic thinkers is similar to a great extent. Paramatman is eternal, without any flaw is devoid of colour, smell, sound, taste and touch, and is without birth, death etc. The Bhavapahuda tells us that the supreme self is devoid of taste, colour, smell, touch and sound, it is characterized by consciousness, not assignable by any mark and lastly indefinable as regards form.23 Notwithstanding a very close similarity in the characteristic nature of Paramatman, the difference is also striking and cannot be ignored. The difference is that on account of the metaphysical perspective adopted by the 172 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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Jainas, Brahman cannot be the cosmic principle. In view of the metaphysical pluralism of souls advocated by Jainism each soul is potentially Brahman or Paramatman. Thirdly, the attainment of bliss is the objective to be aimed at, Brahman is the delight of life and mind, the fullness of peace and eternity.24 The Taittiryopanisad compares Brahmanic bliss with other types of physical blisses and after enumerating a number of blisses enjoyed by men, gods etc. concludes that hundred blisses of Prajapati constitute the bliss of Brahman. Such an Ananda is experienced by the sage who is free from all desires.25 It may be ponted out here that the spiritual bliss is a type of its own and no physical bliss can stand in comparison with it. Kundakunda recognizes that the highest happiness is beyond any comparison.26 Yogindu affirms that the attainment of the highest bliss which is experienced in realizing Paramatman is course of meditation is impossible to be had in mundane life. Even Indra in company of crores of nymphs is incapable of having such an infinite bliss of the sage in contemplation.27 In order to emphasize the blissful aspect of life, the Taittiriyopanisad28 proclaims it in terms of the five sheaths of the soul, the last being the Anandamaya-Atman which includes the other four and transcends them. The first sheath or Atman is constituted of food essence, the second of virtal air, the third of mind, the fourth of intelligence and the fifth of bliss. Each subsequent sheath includes the preceding ones and the last embraces all the four. In the third chapter of the Taittiriyopanisad Varuna is said to have been not satisfied with the different answers as food, vital air, mind and intellect, given in succession by Bhrgu on the questions of the nature of ultimate reality. He is convinced only when Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 173 For Personal & Private Use Only

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eventually the result of his enquiry is presented in terms of 'beatific consciousness'29 constituting the source of all things whatsoever. "We have different kinds of pleasures answering to the different levels of our existence, the vital pleasure, the sensuous, the mental and the intellectual, but the highest is Ananda"30 With certain reservations we may regard Bahiratman of Jainism as comprising Annarasamaya, Pranamaya, Manomaya Atman-s; Antaratman may be regarded as Vijnanamaya Atman, and Paramatman as Anandamaya Atman or the beatific consciousness, though not cosmic consciousness. According to the Gita' also the attainment of bliss is the supreme end, the absolute value. The Yogin whose mind is thoroughly quiet, who is passionless, stainless, constantly putting himself into the Atman, experiences easily and happily the highest bliss of contact with the Brahman. Pujyapada32 and all others speak of the Atman as full of excellent bliss. In the Istopadesa he tells us that a supreme kind of happiness is experienced by the Yogi who is established in his own self. 33 The Yogasara of Yogindu recognizes that those engrossed in great meditation after renouncing all conceptual thinking enjoy ineffable bliss which is equivalent to the happiness of liberation. 34 The author of the Chandogya-upanisad also lays stress on the pursuance of immortal happiness which consists in seeing, hearing and meditating upon the Atman to the utter exclusion of the radically different kinds of perishable happiness experienced in seeking things other than the Atman. 35 The experience of great happiness is consequent upon the realization of the Atman as above and below before 174 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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and behind, to the right and to the left." The author of the Tattvanusasana proclaims that on account of looking into the self by the self and on account of supreme concentration, nothing else is seen by the Yogi inspite of the existence of external objects.37 According to Pujyapada, the Yogi engrossed in meditation transcends all bodily consciousness. 38 Thus the Gita and the Upanisadic and the Jaina saints exhibit remarkable concurrence regarding infinite happiness as the only object of pursuit, only the Jaina does not acquiesce in making all other objects of the world dependent on or indentical with the Atman. Fourthly, the Mundakopanisadoo distinguished between the Para and Apara Vidyas and seems to decide in favour of the former as constituting the ethical summum bonum, on the realization of which all else become known. The Para Vidya, which is the same as the higher knowledge, consists in knowing the Brahman which is invisible, unseizable, without connections, without hue, without eye or ear, without hands or feet, enternal, pervading, impalpable, imperishable and the womb of creatures.40 This amounts not to the intellectual, but to the intuitional apprehension of Brahman. The Apara Vidya which may be equated with the lower knowledge comprises within its fold the Rgveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda, also chanting ritual, grammar, etymological interpretation, prosody and astronomy.41 The above recognition of Para Vidya as the highest good may be corroborated by the conversation between Narada and Sanatkumara as given in the Chandogyopanisad.42 Inspite of his vast study comprehending the Vedas, history, mythology, mathematics, logic, ethics, fine arts etc., Narada complains to his spiritual Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 175 For Personal & Private Use Only

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teacher Sanatkumara that he is invaded by grief on account of not having the knowledge of the self. Thus we learn that the intuitive knowledge of the self alone is capable of enabling us to cross the ocean of sorrow and no amount of mere intellectual equipment. Hence the Para Vidya is the crowning experience, the sublime good. It may be pointed out here that intellectual knowledge should not be utterly depreciated on this account nor should it be overemphasized at the expense of intuition. When the highest is reached the intellectual is displaced by the intuitional. We find striking concordance when Kundakunda announces that the Suddha-naya is true and Vyavahara-naya is false. 43 Paramartha-naya and Niscaya-naya are indistinguishable from Suddha-naya. Suddha-naya is identical with the intuitional experience of the Atman. Vyavahara-naya creates differentiations in the unitary nature of the Atman by explaining it through its distinguishing characteristics. Those who have ascended the loftiest height of mystical experience deserve the knowledge of Suddhanaya, but those of the aspirants who fall short of this sublime ascension should take shelter under Vyavahara-naya without losing sight of the ideal. 44 Thus the Apara Vidya or the Vyavahara-naya is true to the extent to which it leads a man intellectually on the path, but it is not all. "just as every householder submits himself to Sannyasa or renunciation and realizes his spiritual aim, so ultimately Vyavahara is discarded in favour of Niscaya." 45 There is yet another meaning ascribed to Niscaya and Vyavahara. The former indicates that the self is unbound and untouched by karmas while the latter indicates that it is bound and touched by karmas. 46 The spiritual experience however transcends the intellectual points of view. 46a 176 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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In a similar vein, Amrtacandra argues that the proper results of instruction to a disciple can issue only if he, after assimilating the nature of Niscaya-naya and Vyavahara-naya, adopts the attitude of indifference towards both of these, i.e., only if he transcends these intellectual points of view.47 Thus according to this interpretation the Apara Vidya corresponds to these points of view, and the Para Vidya, to spiritual experience. In other words, Niscaya-naya may be understood to mean mystical experience as well as the knowledge of the pure self, or both the intuitional and intellectual ideals, and Vyavahara-naya may be understood to mean a lapse from the superb heights as well as the knowledge of the impure self. Considered from the viewpont of spiritual experience or the knowledge of the pure self, Vyavahara-naya includes any lapse from superb heights and the knowledge of the impure self. In the present context of Para-Vidya and Apara Vidya, Suddha-naya in the sense of intuitional experience represents the former, and Vyavahara-naya in point of intellectual knowledge of any sort expresses the latter. Hence the Para Vidya or Suddhanaya may legitimately be said to denote the moral ideal in contrast to the Apara Vidya or Vyavahara-naya. Fifthly, the consummation of human pursuits has been conceived to be the attainment of a state of life beyond good and bad, virtue and vice. The Mundakopanisad represents that he who has realized the Brahman, the lord and governor of all, has shaken off merit and demerit and has attained perfect equanimity.48 In a similar vien, the Kathopanisad points out that Paramatman is beyond duty and non-duty, action and non-action, past and future.49 According to the Gita, the attainment of supreme status exceeds the fruits of meritorious deeds resulting from the study of Vedas, the Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 177

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performance of sacrifices, pursuance of austerities and charitable gifts.s0 Again, the realization of Brahman will liberate one from results, both good and evil, which constitute the bonds of action.si This spirit of transcendence is expressed also in the Gita in another form. When the embodied soul rises above the three guna-s, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas, which cause the bodily existence, he is freed from the subjection to birth and death, old age and suffering, and thus attains the life eternal. 52 Thus, to go beyond the spell of the three guna-s is the ideal. In other words, one is required to be possessed of the self to be free from the dualities, to be fixed in the true being, to be away from the triple modes, and gettings, and havings, $3 inasmuch as the bondage to these gunas leads one to the rounds of birth. To be more clear, when Sattva predominates, the embodied is born in the spotless worlds of the knowers of the highest principles, when Rajas prevails he appears amidst those who are attached to action, and lastly, when Tamas invades him, he takes births in the wombs of beings involved in nescience. 54 The same may be expressed by saying that those in Sattva rise upwards, in Rajas stay in the middle and in Tamas sink downwards. SS Thus the culmination of human achievement consists in transcending the ethical level and rising to the spiritual. The considerations of the Gita, the Upanisads and the Jaina conform with one another regarding the transcendental plane of life besides and beyond righteousness and unrighteousness. According to Kundakunda the worldly persons generally recognize inauspicious conduct as bad and the auspicious one is taken by them as good. But how can the latter be understood as good, since it too makes the entrance of the self into the cycle of birth and death?56 Just as a shackle, 178 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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whether of gold or of iron, binds a man, indiscriminately so both auspicious and inauspicious conduct bind the Self to mundane miseries. The wise shun both subha and asubha.58 Rare are such persons who are disposed to discard even Punya and Papa.59 Pujyapada tells us that vowlessness causes vice and the observance of vows engenders virtues; but deliverance is destruction of both.60 The aspirant should adhere to vows after renouncing vowlessness and after attaining to the supreme status the former should also be abjured like the latter. The highest state of the Paramatman transcends both good and evil; and such persons who have realized Him within themselves go beyond the vicious circle of samsara or the reach of good and bad. Sixthly, the ethical ideal may be expressed in terms of action. The Isopanisad tells us that "a man should try to spend his life-span of a hundred years only in the constant performance of actions. It is only thus that he can hope not to be contaminated by actions."62 Prof. Ranade remarks: "The actions that are here implied have no further range than possibly the small circumference of 'Sacrifice', and further, the way is which, even in the midst of a life of action, freedom from contagion with the fruit of action may be seured is not here brought out with sufficient clearness."63 According to the Bhagavad-Gita, Karma-yoga or the life of activism constitutes the supreme end to be aimed at. It is no doubt true that we can find passage in the Gita where Unana is superior to Karma. 64 where Karma is superior to Unana, and where they are at par.66 But "the law of the body,67 the law of societyos and the law of the Universe69 indicate and even vindicate activism."70 The Gita tells us that the actions should be performed after brushing aside all attachment to and the desire for the fruit." Besides, their Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 179 For Personal & Private Use Only

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performance is to be effected by dint of wisdom"2 and equanimity.73 We may affirm here that the performance of action in the afore-mentioned spirit is rendered possible only when the ideal of Karma-yoga which is the same as Atmainc steadfastness is accomplished. "The Niskama-karma is the natural accompaniment or result of a spiritually illumined life; it simply cannot exist if egoism is not completely annihilated."74 In the view of Jainism the Tirthankara exemplifies the ideal life of activism. He performs all actions dispassionately, and, therefore, spontaneously. But according to Jainism all the Bhavya-souls are not capable of this life of activism; only those souls which have earned Tirthankara-bodymaking karma can lead a life of benevolent activities, while others remain engrossed in the life of contemplation which indirectly elevates human beings. Thus the life of activism, according to Jainism, cannot be the universal rule of life, though in the case of some souls it accompanies spiritual experience without being incompatible. But this does not negate punya-engendering activities of saints for the benefit of human beings. REFERENCE: 1. 2. 3. 4. Kathopanisad (Katha) 1, 2, 1.2, References to the Upanisads are to their editions from Gita Press, Gorakhpur. Chandogyopanisad (Chand) 5, 10, 1; 3; 5. Bhagavad-Gita (BG), (Gita Press), 8, 26 Samayasara of Kundakunda, (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay), p.1; Gommatasara, Jivakanda, (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Verses 145-52. 180 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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5. Katha. 1,3, 11. 6. Ibid. 1, 3, 15. 7. Bihadaranyakopanisad (Brhad.) 1,4,8. 8. Mundakopanisad (Mund) 2, 2, 2. Svetasvataropanisad (Svet.) 1, 1, 12. 10. Chand. 8, 7, 1. 11. Prasnopanisad (Prasna.) 4, 7-9. 12. BG 2, 51. 13. Ibid. 2, 72, 14. Ibid. 5, 25. 15. Ibid. 6, 45; 9, 32. 16. Ibid. 4. 39. 17. Ibid. 14. 1 18. Katha. 1, 3, 10-11; 2, 3, 7-8. 19. Ibid. 1, 3, 13. 20. Katha. 1, 3, 15. 21. Istopadesa of Pujyapada. (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala), Verse 49 22. Paramatmaprakasa of Yogindu, (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala), . 1, 17, 19 23.' Bhavapahuda of Kundakunda, (Patani Digambara Jaina Granthmala). 64; CF. also Pravacanasara, 2. verse 80, and Pancastikaya of Kundakunda, (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala) Verse 127. 24. Taittiriyopanisad (Tait.) 1, 6. 25. Ibid. 2, 8. 26. Pravacanasara 1, verse 13. 27. Paramatmaprakasa 1, 116; 117; Tattvanusasana of Ramasena, (Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay) verse 264. 28. Tait. 12, 1-5. 29. Ranade, Constructive Survey of Upanisadic Philosophy, vol. 2 (Poona, 1926) p. 301. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 181 For Personal & Private Use Only

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30. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 208. 31. BG6, 27-28 32. BG 6. 27-28 33. Istopadesa, verse 47. 34. Yogasara, verse 97; Tattvanusasana, verse 170, 35. Chand. 7, 22-24. 36. Ibid. 7, 25, 2. 37. Tattvanusasana, verse 172. 38. Istopadesa, verse 42. 39. Mund, 1, 1, 3-4 and Sankara's Bhasya thereon. 40. Ibid. 1, 1-5; 6. 41. Ibid. 1, 1.5. 42. Chand. 7, 1, 2-3. 43. Samayasara, verse 11. 44. Ibid. 12. 45. Paramatmaprakasa, Inrro. P. 30. 46. Samayasara, verse 141. 46a. Ibid, verse 142. 47. Purusarthasiddhyupaya (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala) verse 8. 48. Mund. 3, 1, 3. 49. Katha. 1, 2, 14. 50. BG 8, 28. 51. Ibid., 9, 28; 2, 50. 52. Ibid., 14, 20. 53. Ibid., 2, 45. 54. Ibid., 14-15. 55. Ibid., 14, 18. 56. Samayasara, verse 145. 57. Ibid., 146. 58. Yogasara 72. 182 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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59. Ibid., 71. 60. Samadhisataka, verse 83. 61. Ibid., 84 62. Isopanisad, 2 (Translation, vide Ranade, Constructive Survey of Upanisadic Philosophy, p. 297). 63. Ranade. ibid., p. 298. 64. BG 4, 33; 2, 49. 65. Ibid. 5, 2; 6. 66. Ibid 6, 2; 5, 4; 5, 5. Fns. 64-66 are from Ranade, The Bhagavad Gita as a Philosophy of God-Realization, pp. 194-95. 67. BG 3,8. 68. Ibid., 3. 20. 69. Ibid., 3. 16. 70. Ranade, The Bhagavad-Gita as a Philosophy of God- Realization, pp. 196-97. 71. BG 2. 47. 72. Ibid., 2, 50. 73. Ibid., 2. 48. 74. V. H. Date, Vedanta Explained, (Bombay) vol. II, p. 527. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 183 : . For Personal & Private Use Only

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CONCEPTS COMMON TO THE UPANISADS, THE BHAGAVAD-GITA AND JAINISM INCENTIVES TO SPIRITUAL LIFE: In the Upanisads and the Bhagavad-Gita we may discern certain incentives which prompt man to strive for immortality, First, the incentive of being struck by the impermanence of worldly opulences may be seen when Naciketas rejects the offer of mundane things and pleasurescattle and elephants, gold and horses, sons and grandsons with long life, wealth, kingdom and all sorts of pleasureson being asked by the god of death. He declares that these transitory things wear away the glory of the senses and even a long life is insufficient to make something out of them with the consequence that dissatisfaction prevails.' Again he disapproves the desire for a lengthy duration of life of sensual pleasures when he has come into the presence of ageless immortals.? In the Brhadaranyakopanisad Maitreyi prefers immortality to the possession of the whole earth full of wealth, since riches are incapable of bestowing eternal life upon her." The Maitri Upanisad portrays the mutable nature of the world. According to it, the gnats and mosquitoes, the grass and the trees grow and decay. There is the drying up of great oceans, the falling away of mountain peaks, the deviation of the fixed pole-star, the submergence of the earth, the departure of the gods from their station. In such a world as this, what is the good of enjoyment of desires? For Personal & Private Use Only

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In a similar spirit the Gita tells us that the sensual pleasures are the sources of sorrow; they have a beginning and an end and do not last for ever; hence the wise man does not take delight in them. This incentive may be compared with the incentive of transitoriness of things as presented by Jainism. The Uttaradhyayana instructs us not to be careless even for a moment, since man's life is not permanent. It comes to a close with the passage of time like a dew drop or a leaf of a tree falling to the ground. Besides, the sense pleasures, being impermanent, desert a man just as a bird flies away from a tree void of fruit.? The Bhagavati Aradhana tells us that all the objects of Bhoga and Upabhoga vanish like a lump of ice and worldly fame and recognition take no time in disappearing. Just as water of the flowing river cannot return so also youth cannot reappear after once it has passed away.? the Karttikeyanupreksa points out that the body in spite of its due nourishment is sure to decay like an unbaked earthen pot which crumbles when filled with water.'' Friends, beauty, wife, children, wealth, and domestic animals are unstable is character like a newly shaped mass of clouds or like a rainbow or a flash of lightning." The Atmanusasana says, "What purpose is capable of being served with wealth which, like fuel, inflames the fire of desire"?l? The fortunes of the rulers of the earth vanish in no time like the extinction of a flame of a lamp.1What gust is there in sense-gratifications which are well-known as bitter like poison, terrible like serpents, incapable of quenching the thirst like salt water, and fraught with impermanence?!4 Secondly, the incentive of suffering and transmigration may be exhibited when we are required to realize the self while the body endures, failing which we will have to wander Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 185 For Personal & Private Use Only

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for a very long duration in different kinds of existence.15 The Kenopanisad declares that great is the perdition which comes to the lot of a man who falls short of self-knowledge while this body lasts.16 The Gita accordingly tells us that the cycle of birth and death entangles a man who is not devoted to sovereign knowledge, king-secret, and supreme-sanctity.1? Those great souls who have realized the Atman do not come to this transient and painful birth. 18 Hence, having entered this impermanent, unhappy world, one should endeavour to capture spiritual truth.19 21 This incentive may be compared with the incentive of transmigration delineated by Jainism. The Acaranga tells us that "those who acquiesce and indulge in worldy pleasures are born again and again,"20 and again "those who, not freeing themselves from ignorance, talk about final liberation, turn round and round in the whirlpool of birth" In the Uttaradhyayana, when the parents of Mrgaputra try to discourage his entrance into ascetic life, by pointing to the difficulties of Sramanic life.22 Mrgaputra says, "In the Samsara which is a mine of dangers and a wilderness of old age and death, I have undergone dreadful births and deaths."23 The Paramatmaprakasa points out that he who has not amassed religious merit and practised austerities will have to descend into hell after being gnawed by the rats of senility.24 Again it is self-deception if the human birth has not been utilized for performing penances after having purified the mind. The self is snared in the millions of birth bearing affliction and is deluded by sons and wives till the supreme knowledge does not dawn upon it.25 Thirdly, the Maitri Upanisad presents an incentive of bodily nature and impurity. It tells us that in this foul Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 186 For Personal & Private Use Only

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smelling, unsubstantial body, a conglomerate of bone, skin, muscle, marrow, flesh, semen, blood, mucus, tears, rheum faeces, urine, wind, bile and phlegm, what is the good of the enjoyment of desires ?26 The Gita does not speak in terms of bodily impurity. This incentive may be compared with the incentive of bodily impurity as discussed by Jainism. The Uttaradhyayana tells us that the body is impure in nature and it is born of impurity.27 The Tattvarthabhasya pronounces that the impure nature of the body may be testified to by several considerations.28 In the first place, the antecedent conditions of its origination, for example, semen and blood, are themselves abominable, so also the consequent conditions, for instance, flesh, fat, blood etc. which are stored from the transformation of food particles. Secondly, it is the storehouse of all sorts of nasty things like bile, phlegm, perspiration, filth of ear, nose and throat. Thirdly, it is constantly discharging excreta through its several openings. Fourthly, its impurity cannot be removed by bath, perfumes, incense and other means. The Svayambhustotra points out that the body is dependent on self for its actions; it is detestable, foul-smelling, perishable and cause of sorrows, hence to set one's affections for it is of no purpose.29 The Paramatmaprakasa tells us that this body is replete with foul things, its washing, oiling, decoration and its nourishment with palatable food--all these are of no avail like favour shown to a vile person.30 IMPORTANCEE OF FAITH, KNOWLEDGE AND CONDUCT After dwelling upon certain incentives which actuate a human being to tread on the path of self realization, and to ascent the heights ordinarily inaccessible, we shall now pass Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 187 For Personal & Private Use Only

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on to the consideration of the way by the pursuance of which the challenge implicit in the incentives may be adequately encountered. In other words, the question we have is: in what sort of life an aspirant should engage himself, so that the obstacles to the moral and the spiritual betterment may be surmounted. To start with, faith is the first necessity for any progress in spiritual life. The Katha Upanisad tells us that Brahman or Purusa is incapable of being attained by mind, speech and eyes. He cannot be achieved unless one says, "he is". 31 Again, When he has been grasped with the certainty of His existence, only then the essential nature of God dawns up a man.32 The Prasna Upanisad says that the Atman is to be discovered through faith, knowledge, austerity, and chastity.33 Hence, not only faith, but knowledge and conduct along with it constitute the pathway to emancipation. The Gita recognizes that men who have no faith in the sovereign truth wander in the wheel of birth and death.34 Those who have full faith and are free from cavil are released from the bondage of work, while the ignorant, the faithless and the sceptic go to perdition.35 The offerings of gift, the penance, and any other rite or work when performed without faith is 'Asat' and, is nought here or hereafter.36 Only he who has faith, who is absorbed in wisdom, and who has subdued his senses gains wisdom, and having gained it, attains quickly the supreme peace. 57 In Jainism, the attainment of liberation is dependent on the acquisition of right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. 38 We may point out here that in the Upanisads and the Gita the faith in the supreme Atman, the cosmic principle as identical with the self within, has been advocated; but with Jainism, transcendentally speaking, belief in the superempirical conscious principle imprisoned in the body 188 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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constitutes right faith. Yogindu says that solitarily Atman is Samyagdarsan.39 Notwithstanding this distinction they believe in something divine to be mystically realized. Transcendental awakening is acceptable to all the three. After the faith has been imbibed, knowledge and conduct are to be made the objects of one's own pursuit. According to the Mundaka Upanisad, the Atman which is inside the body which is radiant and pure, is capable of being invariably accomplished by right knowledge, truth, austerity, and chastity.40 Besides, It may be seen by those who have destroyed all blemishes, and all desires.! Mere intellectual knowledge leads nowhere. The Katha Upanisad recognizes that the self can be reached neither by eloquent discourse nor by subtle intellect, nor by much learning. 42 He who has not ceased from doing evil, whose mind is not calm and equipoised cannot hope to attain the self inspite of his being equipped with the intellect of deep penetration.43 The Mundaka Upanisad points out that the self cannot be realized by a man without potency, or with inertia or errors in the seeking, or by improper austerity. 44 In accordance with the Gita those who have the eye of wisdom see the indwelling soul.45 Three types of knowledge have been recognized. The Sattvika knowledge witnesses one immutable being in all existence. To distinguish it from the Rajas, one which sees multiplicity of beings and from the Tamas one which clings to one single effect as if it were the whole. 46 The foremost one is right knowledge according to the Gita. Sublime height cannot be attained by the undisciplined."7 The evil doers, robbed by illusion, partaking of the nature of demons, low in the human scale cannot reach the supreme; while tranquility is realized by those who have renounced all desires, and who are free form attachment, Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 189. For Personal & Private Use Only

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pried and selfishness. 48 Desire breeds wrath and envelops wisdom; consequently it is the eternal enemy of the soul.49 In contrast to the Gita and the Upanisads, the Moksapahuda pronounces that the cognition of the distinction between sentiency and non-sentiency constitutes right knowledge.50 This divergence is in tune with the metaphysical assertion of the Jaina. Exclusively neither knowledge nor austerity is fruitful, but the fusion of the two brings about emancipation. To explain it differently, Sila and knowledge are not opposed to each other; rather, right belief, knowledge, austerity, self-control, truth, non-stealing, chastity, contenment, and compassion towards living being form the family of the former. 52 The Atman can only be realized by the Yogi who is detached from the animal pleasures, 53 and has abandoned all conceivable flaws. 54 He with the sword of conduct dismembers the pillars of sins.55 It may be pointed out here that sila has been preferred to the knowledge of grammar, meter, and Nyaya.56 Again without relinquishing the foreign psychical states, the knowledge of the scriptures is of no avail. The Mulacara observes that the scriptural knowledge without detachment is unfruitful and acts like a lamp in the hand of a blind man.58 Neither intellectual study, nor the keeping of books and peacock feather, nor dwelling in a religious habitation, nor pulling out the hair can be equated with Dharma.59 He who, abandoning attachment and aversion, resides in the Atman moves towards the eternal Gati.60 Again, he who is free from pride, deceit, anger, greed, possession, infatuation, wordly sinful engagements, who has conquered passions, and endured hardships, is established in the path of liberation and attains supreme happiness. Hence the importance of conduct is evident. 190 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERFECTED SAGE: We now propose to represent the similarities and dissimilarities in the conception of perfected mystic or the ideal sage as propounded by Jainism, the Gita and the Upanisads. We are concerned with the characteristics which a mystic has evolved in his person by virtue of his strenuous striving after the spiritual goal. First, he has banished and brushed aside all the desires from the texture of his self because of his exclusive occupation with the accomplishment of the supreme desire, namely, the realization of the Atman, thus seeking consummate satisfaction in the self by self. 62 His undertakings exhibit destitution from desire.63 On account of his self-control renunciation of all Parigraha and desires, and conquest of all the senses, he escapes and eludes the bondage despite his performance of action for the benefit and guidance of mankind.65 In other words, he remains uncontaminated by the fruits of actions like the leaf of lotus which does not get polluted by water.66 In short, the perfect Yogi sees action in inaction and inaction in action.67 We find concordance on this point when Jainism announces that the consummate mystic has extirpated the inimical passions depriving the self of highest attainments along with the conceptual transformations of the mind and rests satisfied with the Atmanic experience.68 His mental, vocal and physical actions are neither impelled by desire nor born of ignorance.69 The activities of standing, sitting, walking and preaching, knowing and seeing are not the results of desire, and consequently they are incapable of entangling the self in bondage. Just as a mother educate her child for his benefit and a kind physician cures diseased orphans so also the perfected mystic instructs humanity for Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 191 For Personal & Private Use Only

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its upliftment and dispenses spiritual pills to suffering humanity." He is the leader of man-kind."2 (2) Secondly, the crowning experience of the mystic has made possible the termination of all sorrows, since the mystic experiences the self everywhere." According to Jainism, he has put an end to all sorrows because he has destroyed all attachment to the objects of the world. (3) Thirdly, Jainism, the Gita, and the Upanisads concur with one another regarding the fact that by virtue of selfrealization or establishment in Brahamanic experience, the perfect mystic has transcended the dualities of friends and foes, pleasure and pain, and censure, life and death, sand and gold, attachment and aversion.74 (4) Fourthly, in view of the Kathopanisad and the Mundakopanisad the tangles of the heart of the perfected mystic are unraveled.75 In other words, on account of his arriving at the acme of realization, the mystic is freed from all doubts whatsoever. According to Jainism, the mystic has intuitively known all the objects of the world, owing to the outright removal of all the filth of karman,76 consequently the invasion by any doubt is out of question."7 (5) Fifthly, he who has ascended the mystical heights has necessarily identified himself with evenness and equanimity and kept himself away from the accumulation of the detrimental elements of Punya and Papa.78 The Bodhapahuda opines that the Arhat has transcended Punya and Papa etc., and equanimity follows from this by implication.79 (6) Sixthly, the Kathopanisad and the Gita recognize that the excellent mystic experiences illimitable bliss.80 The Moksapahuda pronounces that the Yogi after extinguishing 192 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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conceit, deceit, anger and pride, and after attaining pure nature realizes happiness par 81 excellence. (7) Seventhly, the state of the saint who has reached culmination in Yoga, is totally opposed to the persons pursuing ordinary life. What is night for all beings is the time of waking for perfected soul; and what is waking time for all beings is the night for the save who has attained perfection. 82 According to Kundakunda, the true Yogi sleeps in Vyavahara, while he is awake in his own work of selfrealization. 83 The Acaranga tells us that the unwise sleeps, the sages are always awake.84 Samantabhadra speaks that the commonplace persons work hard is the day, being impelled by the desire to live and enjoy and after getting tired, they resort to sleep at night, but the mystic keeps awake day and night in the process of self-purification and selfrealization without being overwhelmed by indolence, inertia and looseness.85 In spite of all this happy concurrence, the fundamental difference that remains is that the mystic according to Jainism, though has full experience of the Atman does not experience it everywhere like the mystic of the Upanisad and the Gita. (8) Eighthly, the saint who has ascended the sublime heights is like an impenetrable rock. Anything dashing itself against it shatters itself. In a similar vein, he who persecutes such a holy personage causes ruin to himself.86 Samanthbhadra says that desolation and perdition stare one in the face who calumniate such lofty spirits.87 (9) Ninthly, the Mundakopanisad tells us that a man who wishes to be prosperous should adore the mystic who has realized the sefl.88 Jainism affirms that the pious name of the mystic serves as an aid for the accomplishment of auspicious and desired purposes.89 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 193

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(10) Tenthly, there exists nothing which is required to be achieved by that mystic who takes delight in the self and who is content and satisfied with the self. He does not need any of the things of the world for any interest of his.90 In view of Jainism the saint has done what ought to have been done by resorting to pure meditation." ABREVIATION AND REFERENCES 1. Acara.---Acaranga-Sutra (Sacred Books of the East., Vol. XXII. Oxford) Atmanu.--atmanusasana of Gunabhadra (Sacred Books of the Jainas, Vol. VII. Lucknow). 3. B.G.-Bhagavad-Gita. (Gita Press, Gorakhpur) . . 4. Bhaga. A.-Bhagavati Aradhana (Sakharama Nemacandra Digambara Jaina Granthmala, Solapur) 5. Bhava Pa.--Bhava Pahuda of Kundakunda (Patani Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Maroth, under the title "Asta Pahuda.) 6. Bo. Pa.-Bodha Pahuda of Kundakunda (Patani Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Maroth, under the title 'Asta Pahuda.) 7. Bi. Up.-Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, (Gita Press Gorakhupur) Cha Up.--Chandogya Upanisad (Gita Press Gorakhupur) 9. Kartti.--Karttikeyanupreksa (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala. Bombay) 10. Ka. Up.-Katha Upanisad (Gita Press Gorakhupur) 11. Mai. Up.-Maitri Upanisad (under the title "Principal Upanisads'. George Allen Unwin, London) 12. Mo. Pa.-Moksa Pahuda (Patani Digambara Jaina Granthamal, Maroth, Under the title 'Asta Pahuda.) 194 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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13. Mula. -- Mulacara of Vattakera (Anantakirti Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay) 14. Mu. Up. - Mundaka Upanisada (Gita Press, Gorakhapur) 15. Pp. -- Paramatmaprakasa of Yogindu (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay) 16. Pra. Up. -- Prasna Upanisada (Gita Press, Gorakhapur) 17. Prava. -- Pravacanasara of Kundakunda (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay) 18. Si. Up.-Sila Pahuda of Kundakunda (Patani Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Maroth, under the title 'Asta Pahuda.) 19. Svayambhu.-Svayambhustotra of Samantabhadra (Vira Seva Mandira, Delhi) Sve. Up.- Svetasvatara Upanisad (Gita Press Gorakhupur) 21. Tsu. Bhasya-Tattvarthasutra Bhasya of Umasvaiti (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala. Bombay) 22. T. Su.--Tattvarthasutra (Bharatiya Jnana Pitha, Kasi. Under the title "Sarvarthasiddhi') 23. Uttara.-Uttaradhyayana (Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XLV) 24. Yogasara-Yogasara of Yogindu (Rayacandra Jaina Sastramala, Bombay) REFERENCE 1. 2. 3. 4. Ka. Up. 1.1. 23 to 27. Ibid. I. 1.28 Br. Up. II. 4. 2. Mai. Up. I. 4. (translation vide Radhakrishnan, "The Principal Upanisads'.) Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 195. For Personal & Private Use Only

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B.G. Il-14; V-22. Uttara. X-1,2. Ibid. XIII-31 8. Bhaga. A. 1727. 9. Ibid. 1789. 10. Kartti. 9. 11. Kartti. 6, 7. 12. Atmanu. 61. 13. Ibid. 62. 14. Atmanu. 38, 51, 87 15. Ka. Up. II. 3, 4. 16. Ke. Up. II. 5 cf. Br. Up. IV-4-14. 17. B.G. IX. 2, 3. 18. Ibid. VIII. 15. 19. Ibid. IX. 33. 20. Acara. I. 4. 1. p. 36. 21. Ibid. I. 5. 1. p. 43. 22. Uttara. XIX. 24-42. 23. Ibid. 46. 24. Pp. Ii. 133. 135. 25. Ibid. II. 123. 26. Mai. Up. 1. 3. (Translation vide Radhakrishnan, 'The Principle Upanisads'). 27. Uttara, XIX. 13. 28. Tsu. Bhasya. IX-7. Svayambhu. 32. 30. Pp. II. 148. 149. 31. Ka. Up. II. 3. 12. 32. Ibid. II. 3. 13. 33. * Pra. Up. I. 10. 34. B. G. IX. 3. 196 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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35. Ibid. III. 31; IV. 40. 36. B. G. XVII. 28. 37. Ibid. IV. 39. 38. Tsu. I. 1. 39. Pp. I. 96. 40. Mu. Up. III. 1.5. 41. Mu. Up. III. 1. 5, Ka. Up. II. 3. 14. 42. Ka. Up. I. 2. 23. cf. Mu. Up. III 2, 3. 43. Ka. Up. 1. 2. 24. 44. Mu. Up. III. 2. 4. 45. B. G. XV. 10. 46. B. G. XVIII. 20 to 22. 47. Ibid. XV. II 48. Ibid. VIIO 15.; II. 71. 49. Ibid. III. 37, 38, 39. 50. Mo. Pa. 41. 51. Ibid. 59. Si. Pa. 66. 54. Bhava. Pa. 85. 55. Ibid. 159. 56. Si. Pa. 16. 57. Yogasara. 96. 58. Mula, 894. 59. Yogasara. 47. 60. Ibid. 48. 61. Mo. Pa. 45, 80 62. Kau. II 3.14, Mu. Up III 9, B.G. 55 63. B.G. IV 19 64. Ibid. IV 21, V7 65. Ibid. III 25 197 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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66. Cha. Up. IV 11 67. B.G. IV. 11 68. Svayambhu. 67. 69. Svayambhu. 74. 70. Svayambhu. 73. 71. Svayambhu. 11. 35. 72. Ibid. 35. B.G. II 65; V. 26. I. Up. 7; Mu. Up. III. 1. 2. 74. Prava. III. 41; Svayambhu. 10; Ka. Up. 1. 2. 12; B. G. VI. 7, 8, 9; II 56, 57. 75. Ka. Up. II. 3. 15; Mu. Up. II. 2. 8. 76. Prava. I. 15. 77. Prava. II. 105. 78. B. G. II 50; V. 19; Mu. Up. II. 1. 3. 79. Bo. Pa. 30. 80. Ka. Up. 1. 2. 13; B. G. VI. 28. 81. Mo. Pa. 45. 82. B.G. II. 69. 83. Mo. Pa. 31. 84. Acara 1. 3. 1. (P. 28) 85. Svayambhu. 16. 86. Cha. Up. I 2 87. Svayambhu. 69. 88. Mu. Up. II 10 89. Svayambhu. 89. 7 90. B.G. III 17-18, Sve. Up. II 9, 11 91. Svayambhu. 110 198 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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STORY OF MY CONTACT WITH DR. A. N. UPADHYE Till my M. A. in philosophy in 1955, I could not hear about the works of Dr. A. N. Upadhye. The reason might be that I offered the papers of Sankara's Vedanta and Ramanuja's Vedanta at my M. A. level. Though I offered Vedanta at my M. A. level, yet Dr. P. T. Raju, the then head of the Deptt. of Philosophy, University of Rajasthan asked me to work on the topic 'Ethical Doctrines in Jainism' for my Ph. D. thesis under the supervision of Dr. V. H. Date. I readily agreed to work on this topic. May be, this was due to my reverence for Pt. Chainsukh Das Nyayatirtha, Principal, Jaina Sanskrit College, Jaipur and Master Motilalji Sanghi founder of Sri Sanmati Pustakalaya, Jaipur. After my registration in 1957 I started my work seriously and then I studied the introductions of Pravacanasara, Paramatmaprakasa and Karttikeyanupreksa along with other works relevant to my topic of research. Out of these, the two are Prakrta works of great Jaina Acaryas, namely, Kundakunda and Svami Kumara and the third is an Apabhramsa work of Yogindu. Dr. Upadhye has written an erudite introduction to these works. His introductions are critical, analytical, comparative and historical. His technique of editing works is unprecedented and presents an imitable model for the present-day scholars. His command over Sanskrit, Prakrta, Apabhramsa, Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, English and Hindi languages is unusual, therefore, highly commendable. He deals with a topic from many points of For Personal & Private Use Only

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view, thus making an indelible impression on the reader by his depth of learning and wide reading. We may mention here that in his introduction to Pravacanasara (Pavayanasara) he discusses about the names and the date of Kundakunda in admirable details. He dwells upon the philosophical aspects of Pravacanasara in varied manner and presents philosophical analysis of concepts like Omniscience and Syadvada. His treatment of the commentators of Pravacanasara and its Praksta dialect has been handled in a masterly style. In his introduction to Paramatmaprakasa (Paramappapayasu), Dr. Upadhye has discussed 'Philosophy and Mysticism of Paramatmaprakasa' and the "Apabhraisa of Paramatmaprakasa' in a very lucid and impressive style. He has also dwelt upon the commentaries on Paramatmaprakasa and the author of Paramatmaprakasa along with other points concerning Paramatmaprakasa and Yogasara. Thus the introduction to Paramatmaprakasa exhibits Dr. Upadhye's acumen and keen insight in dealing with the subject of Paramatmaprakasa and Yogasara. Karttike yanupreksa (Kattigeyanuppekkha), an important Prakrta work of Svami Kumar is an exhaustive treatise dealing with Jaina doctrines, especially the twelve Anupreksas. Dr. Upadhye writes "The Anupreksas, as topics of reflection, are of great religious significance; and in Jainism, they have played a fruitful role. Their significance, scope and purpose and their evolution through and exposition in different strata of Jaina literature are discussed in detail in the Introduction. Different aspects of the text are critically studied, and fresh light is thrown on the personality and age of Svami Kumar. Subhacandra's commentary is presented as satisfactorily as possible from the available Mss. Personal 200 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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details about him and his literary activities are collected; and the contents, sources and language of his commentary are critically scrutinised." The study of these works for the subject of my Ph. D. helped me a great deal in structuring the presentation of my thesis. I may now mention that Dr. A. N. Upadhye and Dr. Hiralal Jain were appointed examiners for my thesis and on the basis of their reports, degree of Ph. D. was awarded to me in 1961. Since Dr. Upadhye and Dr. Jain were the general editors of the Jivaraja Jaina Granthamala, I humbly approached Dr. Upadhye for the publication of my thesis in this Granthamala. His acceptance to publish my thesis under his editorship was a great source of inspiration for me. His remarks in the general editorial always encourages me to work hard on the lines appreciated by him. He writes, "Dr. Sogani has given us an exhaustive study of the ethical doctrines in Jainism, presenting his details in an authentic manner." "It is earnestly hoped that an exhaustive exposition of the Jaina ethical doctrines like this will enable earnest students of Indian religious thought to understand Jainism in its proper perspective." The thesis was published in 1967. After this I was in regular correspondence with him and I may mention that every letter was responded without any delay. On several occasions I was fortunate to meet him in seminars and conferences. His love for the Prakrta studies seems to me to be extraordinary and notably unusual. He was never in favour of teaching Praksta through Sanskrit. Sanskrit Chaya eclipses the beauty of Praksta language. Perhaps I imbibed his love for Prakrt, so I planned to have a Department of Jainology and Prakrta at the University of Udaipur, while working as a Reader/ Prof. of Philosophy in the Department of Philosophy, University of Udaipur. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 201 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Fortunately in Feb. 1978, the Department of Jainology and Prakrta' was established in the University as a result of the effort which commenced in 1971. I wrote a letter to Dr. A. N. Upadhye, Prof. and Head, Deptt. of Post Graduate Studies & Research in Jainology and Prakrit, University of Mysore, Mysore on 29. 7. 71 for guiding us in the matter of opening a Department of Jainology and Praksta at the University of Udaipur. Dr. Upadhye sent a letter on August 4, 1971 in response to my letter of 29. 7. 71. Dear Dr. Sogani, I thank you for your kind letter of 29.07.71. I am glad that a Jain Chair is proposed to be established in the university of Udaipur. The Sahu Jain Charitable Society, Calcutta, donated a sum of Rs. 2 Lakhs to the University of Mysore for founding a Jain chair. The University authorities met the additional financial responsibilities and have started a Department of Jainology and Praksta. At present, one professor and 2 lecturers are appointed. The office staff is already given. In due course, a reader may be added to the Department as and when the work increases. I am enclosing herewith a note. It will give you an idea as to how the department of Jainology and Praksta was planned. You know, there is plenty of Jaina literature in Kannada and other language based. In your University, you can lay stress on Philosophy and Apbhramsa how the things developed there. With thanks and kind regards, I am Your sincerely, A.N. Upadhye In this way under the guidance and inspiration of Dr. A. N. Upadhye the process started. Sri Akhila Bharatavarsiya Sadhumargi Jaina Sangha, Bikaner donated a sum of Rs. 202 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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2,00,000/- to the University of Udaipur for the said purpose through its convenor Shri Himmat Singh Saruparia, Udaipur. Since I developed a love for Prakrta and Jaina studies, I was asked to select Gathas of Praksta from the original sources for the preparation of the central book of Jainism, known as Samanasuttam. Because I showed interest in this venture, I was invited to attend the conference in Delhi. I was accommodated in Ahimsa Mandir, Daryaganj. Fortunately Dr. Upadhye, Pt. Kailashchandji, Sri Jinendra Varniji etc. were also staying there. I had an occasion to meet these celebrated scholars in person and could hear their views about the central book of Jainism. My humble contribution has been recorded in the Samanasuttam on Page 4. After my retirement from the University of Udaipur as a Prof. of Philosophy in the Deptt. of Philosophy, I came to Jaipur, my home-town and persuaded the trustees of Digambara Jaina Atisaya Ksetra Sri Mahaviraji to establish "Apabhramsa Sahitya Academy' and fortunately they acceded to my request and the academy was started in 1988. I was supported in this regard by Acarya Vidyanandji Muniraja. In this Academy correspondence courses for learning Apabhramsa and Prakrta have been started. These correspondence courses have been started for the first time in this country and abroad. I was selected for "Acarya Kundakunda Award' which was offered to me on 3 Nov., 1996. The money of this award was donated to the Digambara Jaina Atisaya Ksetra Sri Mahaviraji of which I am at present one of the trustees. Along with the initiation of many academic awards for the students of correspondence courses, 'Dr. A. N. Upadhye award' was introduced in Dec. 1996 for the best article in the 'Apabhramsa Bharati' published by the 'Apabhramsa Sahitya Academy', Jaipur. This is due Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 203 For Personal & Private Use Only

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to my deep regard for and indebtedness to Dr. Upadhye. I have no doubt that owing to my long association with Dr. Upadhye I have developed a sort of love for Prakst and Apabhraisa studies. Here I should not forget to mention that because of my increasing interest in Prakrt and Jainological studies, Dr. Upadhye, it seems to me, developed some sort of affection for me. It happened that in one of the conference in Delhi, he went to my room for conveying something to me, but unfortunately my room was locked. So he returned and did not tell me anything. Even today, I remember this misfortune. In the end, I express my deep sense of gratitude to Upadhyaya Gyan Sagarji Maharaj who invited me to attend this national seminar on the life and works of Dr. A. N. Upadhye through Dr. Ashok Kumar Jain, Ladnun and Prof. Shubha Chandra, Mysore. 204 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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DISCUSSION SOME COMMENTS ON "'THE ACTIVE AND THE CONTEMPLATIVE VALUES" Professor Daya Krishna has given a valuable analysis of the distinction between the Active and the Contemplative values. (Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, March, 1969). According to him, the difference between the two is a difference of primacy and direction, the latter being much more important. One may agree with him at the theoretical level at which one only thinks and does not see. But the history of civilization, particularly Indian, does not testify his theoretical conclusion regarding the trenchant distinction between the two realms of values. If they are theoretically apart, they have never been so practically and empirically. The great contemplatives like Mahavira, Buddha, Christ, Gandhi etc., were neither nonactivist nor did they regard activity as a necessary evil. Professor Daya Krishna does not seem to distinguish between a pure action and an action done by affective prejudices. In my view, he who has opted for contemplative values will perform the actions more devotedly and efficiently than the man who is dedicated only to active values, inasmuch as, in the former, the dutyconsciousness hence his involvement in commitments will always have egoistic leanings. In my opinion, the crisis of character is the result of separation of the active and contemplative values. The contemplative values do not obstruct but encourage actions in a right spirit. The emphasis on contemplative values in Indian tradition is simply for the For Personal & Private Use Only

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sake of the right orientation of action and not for the sake of negating action. When Professor Daya Krishan says that "At best, it is a necessary evil, something that has to be done if a society or personality, or culture is to survive at all. But then one's heart is never in it; one does it only to the minimum extent required and that too in a perfunctory manner," he might not have real contemplatives like Christ, Mahavira, Buddha, Gandhi, etc., in his mind, but pseudo contemplatives at the ordinary man's level. Professor Daya Krishna's article seems to me, in a way, the falsification of historical experience, which he himself, I hope, probably would not like. Apart from these general comments, I wish now to raise some points concerning his paper in this Journal. 1) The statement that "the contrast between the values that pertain essentially to the realm of action and those that do not has seldom been drawn in axiological thought" and the statement that "in India the controversy between the path of knowledge and the path of action has been perennial" - these are contradictory. He tries to evade this contradiction by saying that this distinction between knowledge and action is not quite the same as he is trying to point out. This is not convincing. This very problem of the relation and distinction between active and contemplative values is just the same as the problem of Karma-yoga and Karmasamnyasa in the Gita. The sthitaprajna of the Gita, the Arhat of Jainism and the Bodhisattva of Buddhism direct our attention towards the problem of contemplative and active values. What I wish to point out is that this problem has always concerned the Indian mind and is not new to it. And I 206 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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may say that it has drawn the highest attention in India and the Gita alone is its superb example. The meaning of active values as the continuous engagement in an activity which may probably help others or achieve a certain state of affairs in the natural or the social world' seems to me to be narrow. Where will Prof. Daya Krishna place a man of pure mathematics or a philosopher like Kant? Do they not withdraw temporarily, so also I may say that the man devoted to contemplative values retires into his own self temporarily and returns to the world of action with greater vigor and energy. Being lost in one's own self cannot be a permanent feature of consciousness. In fact, I cannot think of a man of contemplative values without active values. The nature of action may differ from one man to the other. According to Professror Daya Krishna, there "is an intrinsic opposition between the two in the sense that the seeking for one jeopardizes and obstructs the seeking for the other." What does he mean be saying this? Does he mean that the two are antagonistic like love and hatred? If so, I feel his view is untenable. For this no other argument can be given except that the great personalities have lived in these two realms of values without any difficulty, as has already been pointed out. It does not, therefore, seem to me justified to say that "the nurturing and development of one type of value concern militates against the development of the other type." The two can go together. The same man is capable of participating in both the realms of values. 3) Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 207. For Personal & Private Use Only

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4) In fact, the mystic and the drug addict do not differ in degrees but in kind. Prof. Daya Krishna seems to adopt the difference between the two as the difference of degrees and not of kind. That the mystic keep a minimal relationship to the world of objects does not, as a matter or fact, support the withdrawal activity of the mystic. As a criterion of withdrawal, is he thinking in terms of the number of objects or in terms of their significance? The mystic may occupy himself with the activity of writing for which he withdraws from all those things which obstruct his work. Will it be called a withdrawal from the world of the other? Or will it be the pursuit of active values in sincere earnestness? 208 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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APABHRAMSA: LANGUAGE, MANUSCRIPTS AND PAUMACARIU OF SVAYAMBHU Apabhramsa language is one of the richest Indo-Aryan languages and it developed from Prakrit, one of the most ancient and sacred languages of India. Early Vedic literature is not averse to Prakrit expressions, which indicated its ancient character. Prakrit, the flowing language, gave rise to Apabhramsa in the course of time. Like Prakrt, Apabhramsa was the language of the masses. Apabhramsa literature, in all its varied forms, has made a considerable contribution to the cultural heritage of Indian tradition. Svayambhu, Puspadanta, Dhanapala, Vira, Nayanandi, Kanakamara, Joindu, Ramasimha, Hemacandra and Raidhu are some of the celebrated authors in this language. In the sixth century A.D. Apabhramsa was the lingua franca of Northern India. From east to west and Kashmir (north) to Maharastra (south), it served the needs of common men as well as those of the literary world. Apabhramsa also contributed to the emergence of some other modern Indian languages like Sindhi, Punjabi, Marathi, Bangala, Gujarati, Maithili, Rajasthani and Oriya. Even Hindi owes its origin to Apabhramsa as most of the literary tendencies in Hindi literature flow from the Apabhramsa tradition and the relation between Hindi and Apabhramsa is very intimate. As a result, For Personal & Private Use Only

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a proper understanding of Apabhramsa language and literature is indispensable for comprehending the development of Hindi literature correctly and adequately. In Search of Manuscripts It is interesting to note that the existence of Apabhramsa manuscripts in India went undetected till 1913-1914 A.D. When Pischel completed the book 'Grammar of the Prakrit Languages' in 1900, he was not aware of any information regarding Apabhramsa literature except a few Apabhraiba dohas mentioned by Hemacandra in his Apabhramsa grammar. H. Jacobi who was engaged in studying Indian literature inferred the existence of Apabhraisa manuscripts. In 1913 in Ahmedabad he saw a manuscript in the custody of a Jaina saint. The saint believed it to be a Prakrit manuscript. When H. Jocobi took a closer look at it he found that it was Bhavisyattakaha composed by Mahakavi Dhanapala in tenth century A.D. in Apabhramsa. This manuscript was subsequently published by the Munich Royal Academy (Germany). In 1923 it was published again, this time as a part of the Gaekwad Oriental Series, Baroda. After this, a large number of Apabhramsa manuscripts were traced and Indian scholars gradually occupied themselves with the task of editing Apabhramsa manuscripts. Many Apabhraisa manuscripts are currently stored in the collection of Sri Mahaviraji at Jaipur in the Jaina Vidya Samsthana. The most important of these is the Paumacariu composed in eighth century A.D. by Mahakavi Svayambhu. Retrieval of Paumacariu It is incontrovertibly recognized by scholars of Apabhramsa language and literature that Paumacariu of Svayambhu occupies the foremost place among the literary 210 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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treasure of Apabhramsa language. The great Apabhramsa poets like Puspadanta, Vira, Harisena, Nayanandi, Raidhu and Gani Devasena remember him with gratitude. The celebrated scholar of Buddhism and Hindi literature Pandit Rahul Sankrityayan says, "Among all the five periods of Hindi poetry, Svayambhu is the greatest. He is one of the dozen immortal poets of India." Muni Sri Jinavijaya got the opportunity of seeing the manuscript of Paumacariu at Poona in 1919-1920 while examining the rich Bombay Government collection of old manuscripts. In fact, this collection was finally shifted to Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. After going through the manuscript of Paumacariu, Muniji was impressed by the poetic genius of Svayambhu and he inspired Dr. P.D. Gune and Pandit Nathuram Premi to write upon the importance of this great work. Much later, in 1942 he encouraged Prof. Bhayani to take up the study of Svayambhu's Paumacariu, the earliest Puranic epic in Apabhramsa available until then in manuscript form. It will not be out of place to mention that the Paumacariu has ninety sandhis and is divided into five kandas known as- Vidyadharakanda, Ayodhyakanda, Sundarakanda, Yuddhakanda, and Uttarakanda. For the purpose of his doctoral thesis, under the supervision of Muni Jinavijayaji, Prof. Bhayani decided to edit the first of the five kandas (Vidyadharakanda) comprising twenty sandhis. For the preparation of the critical edition of the Vidyadharakanda of Paumacariu, Prof. Bhayani was able to secure only two manuscripts, one from Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona and the other from the Godika Temple at Samganera, Jaipur. The Poona manuscript is dated Vikrama Samvat 1521 or 1464 A.D. and Samganera Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only 211

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manuscript is earlier than Vikrama Samvat 1775 or 1718 A.D. At the outset, and only on the basis of these two manuscripts, Prof. Bhayani constituted the text of Paumacariu. However, some time later, a third manuscript was secured from the Pandulipi collection of Jaina Vidya Samsthana Digambara Jaina Atisaya Ksetra Sri Mahaviraji, Jaipur by Pandit Chainsukhadasaji Nyayatirtha and it was sent to Prof. Bhayani. Though the copying date of the manuscript (1541 Vikarma Samvat or 1484 A.D.) is twenty years later than the Poona manuscript, yet the original text was preserved more faithfully in it than in any of the other two manuscripts and thus it was concluded that Mahaviraji's manuscript was based on an original which was older than the original of either Poona or Samganera manuscript. So Prof. Bhayani was constrained to reconstitute the text of the first twenty sandhis of Vidyadharakanda on the basis of Mahaviraji's manuscript. Prof. Bhayani says "A very significant fact may be noted in this connection. As stated above in the beginning, I had constituted the text with the help of the rnanuscripts in Poona and Samganera only, as the manuscript of Mahaviraji was not available at that time. The text so constituted has numerous lines which were metrically defective. I had noted down all such cases and after due consideration suggested probable emendations for most of these cases. Later on, when I could secure the Mahaviraji's manuscript, I found that in almost all cases in which Poona and Samganera had a reading which spoiled the metre, Mahaviraji's manuscript had a corresponding reading that preserved the metre, and some ninety per cent of the emendations suggested by me were 212 Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays For Personal & Private Use Only

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actually supported by Mahaviraji's manuscript. In several of these cases Mahaviraji's manuscript reading is found superior to that of Poona and of Samganera." One the basis of the above presentation we can conclude that the Paumacariu of Svayambhu in Mahaviraji's Pandulipi collection is of great importance for future generations.* * * It may be noted here that Prof. Bhayani's critical edition of the Vidyadharakanda was published in 1953 by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai. On the advice of Muni Jinavijayaji, Prof. Bhayani edited the rest of the kandas of Paumacariu, which were published by Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai also in two volumes in 1960. Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) and Other Essays 213 For Personal & Private Use Only

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MUS PRAKRIT BHARTI ACADEMY Dhanraj Dhadda & Sons Pvt.Ltd. ISBN No. 978-81-89698-63-8 For Personal & Private Use Only