Jaina Monuments Of Orissa

Author(s): R P Mohapatra
Publisher: D K Publications
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/022826/1

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JAINA
MONUMENTS
OF ORISSA
R.P. MOHAPATRA

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JAINA
MONUMENTS OF ORISSA
Archaeological evidences leave us in no doubt that at one time, Jainism flourished in Orissa, inspiring Indian sculptors to create rare works of the art. The discovery of the Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves first revealed to the world this ancient art heritage representing the earliest examples of Jain architecture throughout India.
A systematic study of the Jaina monuments of Orissa is attempted in this work. The author, a reputed archaeologist, has sought out and examined the Scattered shrine images in Orissa and those displayed in museums, to probe into their antecedents. The background, traditions and history of Jainism in Orissa are firstly delineated, based on legendary and traditional accounts. The author then makes a survey of the Jaina monuments concentrated in the hill tracts of Koraput, Keonjhar and Mayurbhanja and the plains of Cuttack, Puri and Balasore districts of Orissa. The descriptions of each individual monument are used to elucidate the development of art and anchitecture in Orissa.
The thesis is further developed in chapters on Jaina architecture whose structural features as displayed in the famous Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves and the lesser-known Gumphas (caves) is discussed. The Jaina art and iconography as depicted in the relief sculptures and In the large number of figures in bronze and stone are described. The representation of human figures as also of various birds, animals and reptiles reflect the rare and consummate skill of the sculptors of yore.
This treatise on the Jaina monuments of Orissa, well supported by black-and white plates, will evoke wide interest among historions and scholars of Jaina religion, art and architecture.
Rs. 600 $ 120

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JAINA
MONUMENTS
OF ORISSA

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JANA
MONUMENTS
OF ORISSA
R. P. MOHAPATRA
d.k. publications

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© Author First Published 1984
Published by
D.K. Publications 29/9, Nangia Park, Shakti Nagar, DELHI-110007.
Distributed by
D.K. Publishers' Distributors 1, Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, NEW DELHI-110002. Phone : 27-8368
Text Printed at
Shabdankan Printers DELHI-110053
Plates Printed at
D.K. Fine Art Press DELHI-110052.

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Foreword
The caves of Udayagiri in Orissa, associated with the great ruler Kharavela, have long been recognized not only as major landmarks in the development of early sculpture but also as the first examples of Jain architecture throughout India. Yet the subsequent history of Jainism in this area has been largely ignored. There was great need for a systematic survey of later Jain images and monuments, scattered in outlying regions from the jungles of Koraput to the hills of Mayurbhanj. This Dr. R.P. Mohapatra has accomplished with years of patient fieldwork and with the knowledge that only an informed man of the region can bring to bear in such a subject.
From the large number of examples catalogued here emerges a picture of the continuous development of Jain sculpture, beginning at least with the seventh century A.D. (the period of some bronzes and stone images such as those of Sainkul). We can see how these parallel the styles of Orissan art in general, while of course remaining distinct in iconography. And we can trace the continuity of Orissan Jainism into modern times, along with the way it may be overshadowed by more familiar Hinduism and Buddhism (witness the fascinating story of the Saraka community).
From the materials assembled here, we can also go on to ask new questions. Why the gap in stone carving between the early work at Udayagiri and the period of the Sailodbhavas? Are there peculiarly Jain features in the architectural design of temples such as those at Subei? How do the Jain iconography and cults of Orissa differ from those of neighbouring Bihar and distant Gujarat ? Dr. Mohapatra's work is an important step in our understanding of the complex fabric of religious art in Orissa.
Joanna G. Williams

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Preface
Dr. K.C. Panigrahi, former Superintendent of Archaeology, Archaeological Survey of India and Professor of History, Berhampur University, Orissa, encouraged me to undertake the study of the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills for a Ph. D. thesis. On the basis of his able guidance I completed the said work in 1975 and was awarded with a Ph. D. degree from the Utkal University during the year 1976. In the said work I concentrated my study on the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills with special reference to the history of the caves, their description, architectural pattern, art tradition, iconography of the Jaina Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis and the society as depicted in the sculptures of the place. This study substantially added to the limited works of earlier scholars on Khāravela and his achievements based on inscriptional evidences.
During the period of the said work and in course of my survey of archaeological remains in different parts of Orissa I came across a number of Jaina images and ruined Jaina monuments. The evidences so collected became so vast that it again tempted me to prepare a comprehensive work on the Jaina monuments of Orissa in the light of the work earlier done by Dr. K.C. Panigrahi on the "Archaeological remains of Bhubaneswar" and Dr. N.K. Sahu on "Buddhism in Orissa." These two works have shown the modern trend of research on the archaeological heritage of Orissa especially in the field of Buddhist faith and Brahmanical religion. Dr. Sahu investigated a number of hitherto unknown Buddhist sites scattered in the length and breadth of Orissa and Dr. Panigrahi concentrated his study on the large number of Brahmanical temples and cult images of Bhubaneswar, the metropolis of Orissan cultural heritage.
But Jaina religion and the large number of its monuments have not been systematically surveyed nor any scientific work done on them. L.N. Sahu had made an attempt in this line and the result was his book “Odiśāre Jainadharma" in Oriya. This work made the scholars of Orissa acquainted with the Jaina relics and emphasised the fact that Jainism in Orissa was not lagging behind. He based his study on a large number of published English articles on the Hathi-Gumphā and other inscriptions of Udayagiri and Khandagiri and the descriptions of the caves earlier made by R.L. Mitra, Fergusson, R.D. Banerji and few others. However, in a small chapter and in the appendix he tried to indicate the availability of Jaina relics in the districts of Keonjhar, Koraput,

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Cuttack, Mayurbhanja, Balasore and Puri. Besides he also quoted several instances of the Jaina influences on the Oriya literature, Jagannātha cult and life and customs of the Oriya people especially the Sarāka settlers of Orissa.
On the other hand Fergusson, Kittoe, R.L. Mitra, Prinsep, B.L. Indraji, Fleet, Luders, K.P. Jayaswal, R.D. Banerji, T.N. Ramachandran, B.M. Barua, N.N. Ghosh, D.C. Sircar, D. Mitra, N.K. Dash, N.K. Sahu, K. C. Panigrahi, B. Misra, K. N. Mahapatra, H.K. Mahatab, Sashikanta, and several other scholars contributed to the better understanding of the Jaina religion and its cultural heritage in Orissa. Both N.K. Dash and B. Misra attempted to associate Jagannātha cult with that of Jaina religion. Several stray articles on the Jaina relics of Orissa were also published by P. Banerji, D. Mitra, K.S. Behera, M.P. Dash, A. Joshi, B. Misra, N.K. Dash, L.N. Sahu, and others in the recent past.
To make a comprehensive study of the Jaina monuments of Orissa I undertook this work with the guidance of Dr. K.S. Behera, Professor of History, Utkal University of Orissa. This I hope will provide enough material for study on the hitherto neglected aspect of Orissan history and culture.
The present work on the "Jaina Monuments of Orissa" is divided into six chapters. In the first chapter an attempt has been made to trace in brief the background and tradition of Jaina religion in all India perspective. The life history of Pārsvanātha and Mahāvira with special reference to their preaching, spread of Jainism in India, Jaina councils and its division into Svetāmbara and Digambara sects, various Jaina rituals and practices, and their antiquity have been incorporated.
In the second chapter the history of Jainism in Orissa with special reference to the advent of Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra to Orissa on the basis of tradition has been vividly described. The association of a few other Tirathařkaras as evident from Jaina sources and puranic accounts has also been referred to. sources and pur
The historical survey of Jainism p ose andine incintornovidence and literaru: as known from the sculptural finding, inscriptional evidences and literary accounts in different periods up to the end of the Gajapatis has also been incorporated in this chapter. The achievements of Khāravela as revealed from the famous Hāthi-Gumphā inscription of Udayagiri and his patronage to the Jaina mendicants including the excavation of caves, distribution of charities and recovery of the Kalinga Jina are all elaborately dealt with. The survival of Jainism in the post Khāravela period side by side with Buddhism and Brahmanism in Orissa have also been discussed in this chapter. The available Epigraphical and Numismatic sources in this connection are critically examined. With the rise of Jagannātha cult, how Jainisin intermingled with the prevailing religious traditions and customs of Orissa has also been attempted here. To trace the background of Jagannātha cult and associate the Kalinga Jina as mentioned in the Hathl-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela with that of Jagannātha cult has also been dealt with in this chapter. In addition, the assimilation of Jaina faith with the Nätha cult, Mahimā religion, and other traditions and customs of Orissa has been indicated here. A special reference to the ritual practices of the Saraka setttlers of

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Orissa and the observance of Udaparva in association with the Chandrasenā stone image (chaumukha) of Badasai in Mayurbhanja district of Orissa have also been referred to.
The third chapter relates to the actual survey of Jaina monuments in Orissa. I have concentrated my investigation in the coastal districts of Puri, Cuttack and Balasore and the hilly tracts of Mayurbhanja, Keonjhar and Koraput districts of Orissa. As will be revealed from this chapter there were possibly three major centres of Jaina activity in Orissa i.e. Udayagiri and Khandagiri of Puri district, Podasingidi of Keonjhar district and B. Singpur in Koraput district. Several other sites developed in later stages in their peripheries. We find distinct trend of Jaina character of art and iconography of these main centres with the monuments recovered from their adjoining places. It is certainly a fact that the earliest evidences of Jaina monuments, and Epigraphical evidences are found from the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri. Large number of rock-cut caves, dilapidated shrines, modern temples and loose sculptures are traced in these districts. The concentration of Jaina monuments in the districts referred to above does not mean that they are totally absent in other regions of Orissa. But it is a fact that they are not so numerous in those districts nor they can add substantially to our study. On many occasions ancient relics have been collected from the centres referred to above and worshipped in new shrines in these areas. The Marwari communities settled in various parts have attempted to build modern temples for worship of Jaina divinities made of marble and brass. Such shrines are for the present seen at Khadial road of Kalahandi district, Jeypore town of Koraput district and Cuttack town of Cuttack district. Jaina relics of ancient date are said to have been reported from Talcher and Athamallik areas of Dhenkanal district. But in any case their availability is very limited in comparison to the districts I have throroughly investigated. While reporting these monuments no chronological sequence was maintained. But special care was taken to describe the topography of the sites, their location, description of the objects and their present condition.
It is further revealed in this chapter that in many places Jaina divinities are worshipped as relics of the Brahmanical and Buddhist pantheon. The Bhagavati image of Jeypore is nothing but the figure of a Chakreśvarī, the Sāsanadevi of Rsabhanātha. Similarly the Ambikā figures of Podasingidi of Keonjhar and Balighat of Balasore districts are worshipped as Ramachandis and Chandi respectively. The Adinātha figure of Hatadiha of Cuttack district is regarded as Bodhi Mahārājā. The two twelve handed Chakreśvari and Rohiņi figures in the verandah walls of Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill are also worshipped as twelve handed Durgā images. The Rşabhanātha image of the Gramesvar temple of Nibharana in Kakatpur area of Puri district is regarded as the figure of Kandarpa by the priests. The Chandrasenā image of Badasai in Mayurbhanja district is nothing but a Jaina chaitya (chaumukha) containing nude Tirthankara figures on its four side niches. A Rşabhanātha image is refashioned to that of a Mahādeva image and worshipped in a modern shrine built by the mother of late L.N. Sahu at Chaudwar of Cuttack district. Even the famous Mukteśvar temple of Bhubaneswar with a trong Saiva leanings contains within its niches figures of Tirthankaras both in seated and standing fashions.

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The fourth chapter deals with Jaina Architecture in Orissa. This chapter has been divided into two sections, one rock-cut caves and the other structural edifices. The architectural pattern of the only apsidal structure as revealed from the crest of Udayagiri hill and the series of rock-cut pools in both of these hills have also been incorporated. Various component parts of the rock-shelters like the cells, floors, verandah, roof, pillars, pilasters, door-ways, lintels, railings, steps, drainage system, brackets, arches, tympana, etc. have been vividly described. The second phase relates to the temples located at Suai, Kachela, Koisali, Khandagiri, Cuttack, Podasingidi, Chaudwar, Bhanpur and several other places. The chaumukhas revealing the characteristics of Jaina architecture in miniature forms have also been referred to.
The fifth chapter deals with Jaina art of Orissa. It too, is divided into three subsections. The first, relates to the artistic heritage of the rock-cut caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hill in which relief panels, decorative arches, bracket figures, guards, winged and enigmatic figures, pilaster decorations, animal and floral motifs, trees, linear designs, honey-suckles, birds, reptiles, costumes and decorative ornaments, dance and music, household articles, outdoor games and pastimes, etc. are exhaustively and critically. analysed with reference to their counterparts available at places like Bodhagaya, Sāñchi, Amaravati and Bhārhut.
The second section of this chapter gives an artistic account of the large number of bronze figures available in Orissa. The discovery of as many as eleven bronzes from Achutarajpur of Puri district, nine from Khuntapal of Mayurbhanja district, one from Bhanapur of Cuttack district and several others preserved in the Orissa State Museum added enough material evidence to our study. The recent work on the "Bronzes from Achutarajpur Orissa", by D. Mitra is an eye opener to the scholars of Orissa into this hitherto neglected aspect of study. The casting technique of these bronzes as reported by D. Mitra has been extensively referred to. A comparative study of Jaina icons in bronze and stone have also been attempted in this section.
The third section of this chapter reveals the artistic feature of the large number of Jaina icons in stone found from different parts of Orissa. The general composition of Jaina images, including the lotus pedestals, lañchanas, chauri bearers, toranas, kevala trees, umbrellas, heavenly music, Gandharvas and Kinnaras, body moulding, lions, postures, hair decoration, markings on the neck and chest, costumes of the attendant divinities, asațagrahas, Naga figures, decorative haloes etc. are extensively dealt with.
The last chapter i.e. chapter sixth deals with Jaina iconography of Orissa. In the very outset an exhaustive account of Jaina iconography as revealed from various literary sources and earlier published works of eminent scholars has been given. The chronological sequence and development of Jaina iconometry in all India perspective has been attempted here. The Jaina Tirthankaras, Sasanadevis and other divinities as available in Orissa are grouped together and discussed with special reference to their iconographic features. A serious thought has been given in providing material information on common features and special characteristics. Wherever possible their link with icons of

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been she sasand have 3
other religious faith has also been shown here. This chapter will further reveal the popularity of a particular Tirthankara or Sasanadevi in Orissa. The incorporation of Buddhist and Hindu features Sakta influence have also been specifically enumerated. Care has been taken to critically examine them with reference to such icons found elsewhere in the country.
At the end an exhaustive list of published materials of eminent scholars has been given. Besides this, I mostly relied on direct evidences i.e. by visiting most of the sites personally, preparing their accounts and arranging photography as far as possible. The present work has been profusely illustrated with numerous line drawings and photoprints of select sculptures. For secondary source materials I extensively utilised the books and periodicals preserved in the libraries of the Orissa State Museum and Orissa State Archives. I owe my gratitude to the authorities of these two institutions.
Since the work is limited to archaeological evidence of Jaina monuments I have not made elaborate discussion on the Jaina religion, ethics and practices. The assimilation of Jaina religion with other major prevailing religious traditions of Orissa and the influence it carried on the Oriya literature, custom and rituals would be a subject of further study.
Bhubaneswar
Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra

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List of Illustrations
Fig. 1 General view, Udayagiri hill. Fig. 2 General view, Khandagiri hill. Fig. 3 General view, Rāni-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 4 General view, Ganesa-Guniphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 5 General view, Bāgha-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 6 General view, Sarpa-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 7 General view, Tätowā-Gumphā, No. 1 &
Tätowa-Gumphā No. 2,
Khandagiri. Fig. 8 Second Frieze, Lower right wing, Rāņi-Gumpha, Udayagiri. Fig. 9 Third Frieze, Lower right wing, Rāni-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 10 Vidyādhar, Upper storey, main wing, Rāņi-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 11 Details of first frieze, upper main wing, Rāņi-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 12 Second frieze, upper main wing, Rāņi-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 13 Third frieze, upper main wing, Rāņi-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 14 Tree worship, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 15 Worship of sacred symbol, Mañchapuri-Gumpha, Udayagiri. Fig. 16 First Frieze, Ganesa-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 17 Third frieze-Ganesa-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Fig. 18 Worship of Elephant, Ananta-Gumphā, Khandagiri. Fig. 19 Gajalakşmi, Ananta-Gumphā, Khandagiri. Fig. 20 Decorative arch and tympanum, Tätowā-Gumphā No. 2, Khandagiri. Fig. 21 Decorative arch and tympanum, Tātowā-Gumphā No. 2, Khandagiri. Fig. 22 Decorative door pilasters with crowning animals, Tātowā-Gumphā
No. 2, Khandagiri. Fig. 23 Decorative door pilasters with crowning animals and ghata bases,
Ananta-Gumphā, Khandagiri. Fig. 24 Lady at the entrance of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

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Fig. 25 Guard
Fig. 26 Guard
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in Greek Costume, upper right wing, Rapi-Gumphâ,
Udayagiri.
Fig. 45 Fig. 46
in Indian Costume, upper right wing, Rāņi-Gumphā,
Udayagiri.
Bracket figure, Mañichapuri-Gumphã, Udayagiri. Bracket figure, Gaṇeśa-Gumphā, Udayagiri. Bracket figure, Gaṇeśa Gumpha, Udayagiri.
Fig. 27 Fig. 28 Fig. 29 Fig. 30
Bracket figure, Tätowa-Gumphā No. 2, Khandagiri.
Fig. 31 Hathi-Gumpha inscription of Kharavela, Cave No. 14, Udayagiri. Fig. 32 The apsidal structure, Udayagiri. Fig. 33 Akāśa-Gangā tank, Khandagiri. Fig. 34 Fig. 35
General view, Jaina temple Khandagiri.
Rsabhanatha, Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha,
Abhinandananatha,
Vasupujya, Pärsvanatha and Neminatha with their respective Sasanadevis and Ganeša, Navamunt-Gumphä, Khandagiri. Chakreśvari, Bārabhuji-Gumphã, Khandagiri.
Fig. 36
Fig. 37 Rohini, Bârabhuji-Gumphã, Khandagiri.
Fig. 38 Sambhavanatha, and Abhinandenanatha,
Khandagiri.
Fig. 39 Sumatinatha and Padmaprabha, Mahāvira-Gumphã, Khandagiri. Anantanatha (14th as 9th
Fig. 40 Supārsvanatha, Chandraprabha and Tirthankara), Mahavira-Gumpha, Khandagiri. Fig. 41 Sitalanatha, Mahavira-Gumphã, Khandagiri. Fig. 42 Väsupüjya, Mahavira-Gumphã, Khandagiri. Fig. 43 Vimalanatha, Mahävira-Gumphâ, Khandagiri.
Fig. 44
Mahavira-Gumpha,
Suvidhinatha (9th as 14th Tirthankara), Dharmanatha and Santinátha, Mahavira-Gumpha, Khandagiri.
Kunthunatha and Arānātha, Mahavira-Gumphã, Khandagiri.
Mallinatha and Näminätha (21st as 20th Tirthankara), MahaviraGumpha, Khandagiri.
Fig. 47 Munisuvrata and Neminatha, Mahāvira-Gumphā, Khandagiri.
Fig. 48 Sreyanfanatha (11th as 23rd Tirthankara) and Mahāvīra, MahaviraGumpha, Khandagiri.
Fig. 49 First Chlorite image of Rṣabhanatha,
Khandagiri.
Fig. 50 Second Chlorite image of Rṣabhanatha,
Khandagiri.
Mahavira-Gumpha,
Mahavira-Gumpha,

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Fig! 51 Third Chlorite image of Rşabhanātha, Mahāvira-Gumphā,
Khandari
Khandagiri. Fig. 52 Rşabhanātha images and Amra, Cave No. 10, Khandagiri. Fig. 53 Rşabhanātha, Gramesvar temple, Nibharana, Dist. Puri. Fig. 54 Rşabhanātha, Baudei near Bagalpur, Dist. Puri. Fig. 55 Rşabhanātha, Kakatapur, Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar. Fig. 56 Pārsvanātha, Kakatapur, Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar. Fig. 57 Ganadharas and Purvadharas and Rşabhanātha, Panchagaon, Dist.
Puri.
Fig. 58 Pasívanātha, Sisupalagarah, Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 59 Pārsvanātha, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 60 Sāntinātha, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 61 Ambikā, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 62 Chandraprabha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 63 Chandraprabha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 64 Vasupujya with Yaksa & Yakșini, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa
State Museum. Fig. 65 Ambikā with Neminātha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State
Museum. Fig. 66 Ambikā with Neminātha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State
Museum. Fig. 67 Ambikā with Neminātha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State
Museum. Fig. 68 Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack. Fig. 69 Rşabhanātha and Mahāvīra in a common slab, Jaina temple,
Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack. Fig. 70 Pārsvanātha, Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack. Fig. 71 Padmaprabha, Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack. Fig. 72 Pārsvanātha, Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack. Fig. 73 Chaitya Yugal (Chaumukhas), Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar,
Cuttack. Fig. 74 Rşabhanatha, Jagannatha temple, Dolamundai, Cuttack. Fig. 75 Sāntinātha, Daśvasamedha ghata, Jajpur, Dist. Cuttack. Fig. 76 Chaumukha, Badacharpoi near Mangarajapur, Dist. Cuttack, Orissa
State Museum. Fig. 77 Ādinātha, Hatadiha, (Jajpur) Dist. Cuttack. Fig. 78 Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanātha, Pratapanagari Dist. Cuttack. Fig. 79 Pārsvanātha, Bhanpur, Dist. Cuttack. Fig. 80 Säntinātha, Nasik Kotian, Jagatsinghpur, Dist. Cuttack.

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Fig. 81 Rsabhanatha, Adasapur, Dist. Cuttack. Fig. 82 Parsvanatha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar. Fig. 83 Rabhanatha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar. Fig. 84 Päršvanätha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar. Fig. 85 Fig. 86 Fig. 87
Fig. 88
Ambika with Neminatha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar. Ambika and Gomedha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar.
Rsabhanätha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar, Orissa State Museum. Pārsvanatha, Gadachandi, Vaidakhia, Dist. Keonjhar. Ambika with Neminatha, Jambhira, Dist. Keonjhar. Parsvanätha, Ana, Dist. Keonjhar.
Fig. 89
Fig. 90 Fig. 91
Rṣabnanatha, Thunigaon, Dist. Keonjhar.
Fig. 92 Parsvanatha, Vaidakhia, Dist. Keonjhar, Orissa State Museum.
Fig. 93 Pārsvanatha, Sainkul, Dist. Keonjhar.
Fig. 94 Pärlvänatha, Sainkul, Dist. Keonjhar.
Fig. 95 Santinätha, Martasol, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum.
Fig. 96 Santinätha (?), Manikchauk, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 97 Chaumukha, Manikchauk, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum. Rsabhanatha, Ayodhya, Dist. Balasore.
Fig. 98
Fig. 99 Gomedha and Ambika, Ayodhya, Dist. Balasore.
Fig. 100
Pārsvanatha, Ayodhya, Dist. Balasore.
Fig. 101
Pārsvanatha, Ayodhya, Dist. Balasore.
Fig. 102 Ajitanatha, Charampa, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum Fig. 103 Santinätha, Charampa, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum. Fig. 104 Rṣabhanatha, Dist. Mayurbhanja, National Museum, New Delhi. Fig. 105 Parivanatha, Bada Jagannatha temple, Baripada, Dist. Mayurbhanja. Fig. 106 Rsabhanätha, Bada Jagannatha temple, Baripada, Dist. Mayur
bhanja.
Fig. 107 Pärsvanatha, Bada Jagannatha temple, Baripada, Dist. Mayurbhanja. Fig. 108 Pärivanatha, Khuntapal, Dist. Mayurbhanja, Baripada Museum. Fig. 109 Ṛsabhanatha, Khuntapal, Dist. Mayurbhanja, Baripada Museum. Fig. 110 Parivanatha, Khiching Museum, Dist. Mayurbhanja. Rabhanätha, Khiching Museum, Dist. Mayurbhanja. General view, Jaina temple, Suai, Dist. Koraput. Rabhanätha, Suai, Dist. Koraput.
Fig. 111 Fig. 112 Fig. 113 Fig. 114 Mahavira, Suai, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 115 Babhanätha, Suai, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 116 Rsabhanatha, Suai, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 117 Santinātha, Kachela, Dist. Koraput.

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Fig. 118 Ajitanātha and Mahāvira, Kachela, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 119 Ambikā, Kachela, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 120 Gomedha and Ambikā, Kachela, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 121 Chakreśvari, Bhagavati temple, Jeypore, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 122 Sāntinātha, Bhagavati temple, Jeypore, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 123 Rşabhanātha, Kali temple, Jeypore, Dist. Koraput. Fig. 124 Rşabhanātha, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 125 Rşabhanātha, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 126 Rşabhanātha, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 127 Mahāvira, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 128 Pārsvanātha, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 129 Ambikā, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 130 Gomedha and Ambikā, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 131 Gomedha and Ambikā, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 132 Ambikā, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 133 Rşabhanātha, Charmula, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 134 Rşabhanātha, Kotpat, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 135 Pārśvanātha, Jamunda, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 136 Mahāvira, Janunda, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum. Fig. 137 Rşabhanátha, Kamta, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.

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List of Abbreviations
ΑΙ
ASI
ASIAR BDCRI BMA Ch. CHI
CII
Ed
EI
Fig. IA
IC
IHQ JA JAHRS JAS JAOS JASB JBBORS JBORS JGJRI JIA JISOA JJ JKHRS JNSI
Ancient India. Archaeological Survey of India. Archaeological Survey of India Annual Report. Bulletin of Deccan College Research Institute. Bulletin of Museum and Archaeology, (U.P.), Lucknow. Chapter Cambridge History of India. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Edited by. Epigraphia Indica. Figure Indian Antiquary. Indian Culture. India Historical Quarterly. Jaina Antiquary. Journal of Andhra Historical Research Society. Journal of Asiatic Society. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Researh Society. Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute. Journal of Indian Art. Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art. Jaina Journal. Journal of the Kalinga Historical Research Society. Journal of the Numismatic Society of India. Journal of the Oriental Institute.
JOI

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( xviii)
JPHRS JRAS JUPHS M MASI OBI OHRJ OSM
Journal of the Proceedings of Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Journal of U.P. Historical Society. Metre. Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India. Old Brahmi Inscriptions. Orissa Historical Research Journal. Orissa State Museum. Page. Political History of Ancient India. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Plate. Proceedings of the Oriental Conference. Part. Quoted by. Sacred Books of the East. Volume.
PHAI PIHC PL POC Pt Qtd. by
SBE
Vol.

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Contents
Foreword
Preface
List of Illustrations
xii
List of Abbreviations
xvii
1. Background and Tradition
2. History of Jainism of Orissa
3. Survey of Jaina Monuments of Orissa
4. Jaina Architecture of Orissa
139
5. Jaina Art of Orissa
161
6. Jaina Iconography of Orissa
196
Bibliography
239
Index
251

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Page #23

Background and Tradition
The name Jainism indicates the predominently ethical character of the system. As the Buddhists are the followers of Buddha, the Enlightened, the Jainas are the followers of Jina, the Victor, a title applied to all the Tirthankaras of the Jainas.
It is really difficult, nay impossible, to fix a particular date for the origin of Jainism. But it is now a recognised fact that Pārsva, the twenty-third Tirthankara of the Jainas, is an historical person, and Mahāvira like any other Jina, enjoyed no better position than that of a reformer in the galaxy of the Tirthankaras of the Jainas.
To the Jainas, Jainism has been revealed again and again in every one of these endless succeeding periods of the world by innumerable Tirthankaras. Of the first present age the first Tirthankara was Rşabhanātha and the last two were Parśva and Mahāvira. The lives of these Tirthankaras are found fully worked out both in the Jaina canonical literature and in the individual charita (life sketches) written by various Jaina Gurus. Of these Rşabhanātha is said to be 500 poles in stature and is believed to have lived for 84,00,000 Purva years, while both, Pasíva and Mahāvira lived for 100 and 72 years respectively. If we just compare the lives of these Tirth ankaras we find that there is a distinct decrement from Rşabhanātha. The one before Pārsva namely, Nemi attained the age of 1,000 years. This return to reason in the stature and years of the last two Tirthankaras induced some scholars to draw a probable inference that the last two alone are to be considered as historical personages.
Vardhamana Mahavira the last of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, also called as Nātaputta (Naţi-putta), was preceded by Pārsva, who is said to have died at the ripe age of one hundred years, and two hundred and fifty years before the nirvana of Mahāvīra, which is placed in 527 B.C. In fact Mahavira's parents followed Pārsva. Further, the Kalpa-Sutra refers to Mahāvīra as one following the straight road which the Jainas had taught. The famous dialogue between Kesin, the disciple of Pārsva, with Gotama, the disciple of Mahāyira, occurring in chapter XXIII of the UttarādhyāyanSutra, one of the earliest texts of the Jaina canon, almost conclusively helps to bestow historicity on Pārsva. The essential unity of the four-fold religion (Chaujjāma dhamma)

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
and the five-fold religion (Pañcha sikhiyo) of Mahāvira is also emphasised. Thus we are on surer grounds in placing. Pārsva, the twenty-third Tirthankara, having lived between 877-777 B.C. Pārsva is said to have been born at Varanasi and, like all the Tirthankaras, in a royal Ksatriya family.
The Kalpa-Sutra and other historical works mention the fact that Pārsvanātha came to a hill in Patna before his release from bondage. The hill is named "Parasanātha Hill" and it seems to be a monumental evidence in regard to the historicity of Pārsva.
of the remairing Tirthankaras, Sumati, the fifth Tirthankara, is evidently identical with Bharata's son Sumati, cf whom it is said in the Bhagavata that he will be irreligiously worshipped by some infidels as a divinity". Besides this, Arishtanemi, the twenty-second Tirthankara, is connected with Kệishna's myth through Rājulamati, daughter of Ugrasena, king of Girinagara. The prince, while proceeding to Girinagara, saw herds of cattle kept in ciclosures to be slaughtered for the marriage feast. This revelation caused remorse in his heart and he renounced worldly life. It is said that he performed penance on the Girnar mountain, became a Kevalin and passed away on the mountain after many years. It appcars that duis Tirthankara was responsible for emphasising Ahirsā, the first cardinal principle of Jainism. Although he is traditionally connected with Krişna of the Mahabharata tradition, being his cousin, it is difficult to stretch this legendary assc ciaticn ir definite terms and to bestow historicity to this Tirthafikara. Suffice to say that if the traci ion has any basis the period when Nemi lived was anterior to Pārsva.?
Going back we find that the twenty-first Tirthankara was Nemi, the king of Mithila and belonged to the family cf Janaka, the philosopher king of the Upanisadic times. Hiralal Jainatried to suggest that this legendary association, may have some vague historical basis. The ninth chapter of the Uttarādhyāyana Sutra describes the story of the renunciation of Nami.
We know, however, something of the teachings of Pārsva-nātha. He believed in the eternity of matter as did Mahāvira after him. The followers of Pārsva preached that self control results in the cessation of Karma and penance leads to its annihilation. With this Mahāvira agreed as well as with the four Vows enunciated by Paráva, viz. that life should not be taken, no falsehood spoken, nothing should be received which is not freely given and non-attachment should be practised. The last may have reference to celibacy and not to the Vow of non-possession as made out by later tradition. Finally there was this outward difference between the two sects, that Pārsva allowed the use of a white garment by the monks, while Mahāvira forbade even this. Hence the two Jaina
cts are entitled Svetāmbara (white-clad) and Digambara (sky-clad or naked).
1. C.J. Shah, Jainism in North India, p. 8. 2. M.N. Daspande, Jaina Art and Architecture, A Ghosh (ed.) Vol. I. p. 17. 3. Ibid,p., 17. 4. A.M. Ghatage, The age of Imperial unity, R.C. Majumdar (ed.), pp. 416-17.

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Background and Tradition
It is thus highly probable that some kind of Jaina faith existed before Mahavira and his teachings were based on it. The conversation between Kesi and Gotama testified to their friendly relations and points out that, inspite of some minor differences, the two were essentially the same. By the very nature of the case, tradition has preserved only those points of Pārsva's teachings which differed from the religion of Mahāvira while all other common points are ignored. The few differences that are known make Mahāvira definitely a reformer of an existing faith and the addition of a vow the importance of nudity and a more systematic arrangement of its philosophical tenets may be credited to his reforming zeal.
In the Jaina literature, Mahāvira, the last Tirthankara of the Jainas, is described as a supreme personality, who was acknowledged as "great Brahmana”, “a great guardian”, “a great guide", "a great preacher”, “a great pilot" and "a great recluse". He figures as a supremely gifted Kșatriya teacher and leader of thought who gathered unto him many men and women, and was honoured and worshipped by many hundreds and thousands of Srāvakas or lay disciples. He belonged to the Kāśyapa Gotra and shone forth as the moon of the clan of the Nāyas or Jñātras. He was the son of Ksatriya Siddhārtha and Ksatriyani Trisalā of the Vasistha gotra. His mother was a sister of Chetaka of Videha.
His parents who belonged to the jñātra Ksatriyas were the lay worshippers of Pārsva. They were pious, chaste in life and virtuous and cherished a very tender regard for all the six classes of living beings (cha jiva nikāya) following the teaching of Pārsva, they peacefully died by the practice of slow starvation of the senses.
Mahāvira was born in the town of Kundanagara, a suburb of Vaisali and an important seat of the jñātrkas. He was therefore called Vaiśālika-a citizen of Vaisali. On the day of his birth the prisoners in Kundanagara were released. Festivals kept the whole town bound in mirth and joy for ten days after which mary offerings were made to the Gods. But he was also known as a Videha-the son of Videhadatta. His parents fixed his name as Vardhamāna or prosperous one" because with his birth, the wealth, fame, and merit of the family increased. His aversion to love and hatred earned for him the appellation of Sramana or Recluse. The Gods gave him the name of Mahävira for his fortitude and hardihood in patiently bearing all sorts of privation and hardship for his strictly adhering to the rules of penance, and no less for his indifference to pleasure and pain. He was equally known as jñatra putra or scion of the Jñātr clan". The Jñatrakas are described as a people who were afraid of sin, who abstained from wicked deeds, did not cause harm to any living being and did not partake of meat.
Like Buddha, Mahāvira too was born of a Kşatriya aristocratic family. In fact all along, it has been the Jaina belief that a Jina must always come from a Ksatriya or some such noble family. Now it so happened that because of certain actions on his part in his former lives Mahāvira had first to take the form of an embryo in the womb of a Brahman lady named Devananda, the wife of the Brāhman Rşabhadatta and as usual with the lives of all such big prophets, there is a popular legend about Mahāvira also that when the God Sakra (Indra) “The chief of kings and gods" came to know about

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
this it was arranged by him to transfer the embryo from Devananda's womb to that of Ksatryant Trisalā, the wife of the Kşatriya king Sidhārtha of the Kaśyapa Gotra, belonging to the clan of the Jñātri-kșatriyas. Although at the instance of a miracle Mahāvira ultimately belongs to Ksatriya origin.
Curiously enough this legend has been worked out in sculptures also. Some specimens of Jaina sculptures from Mathura bear testimony to it with an exactness which is really surprising, which fact shows that this legend can be traced historically to the very beginning of the Christian era and therefore it can safely be said that it must have had some connection either with the life of Mahāvira or that it must have been connected with one or the other social characteristic of those days.5
In his thirteenth year, Mahāyira married Yosada, a Kşatriya lady who belonged to the Kaundinya gotra and had by her a daughter, named Anojjā or Priyadarśana. Anoijā was married to Yamāli, a Kşatriya who after becoming one of Mahāyira's followers and fellow workers ended by opposing him.
In his thirteenth year, he lost his parents. Afterwards with the permission of his elder brother and the authorities of the kingdom, he fulfilled his promise of going out to establish a universal religion of love and amity.
Having left the house, Mahāvira went through the usual career of ascetic. He wandered more than twelve years resting only during the rainy season. For about the first thirteen months the venerable ascetic Mahāvira wore clothes. “After that time he walked about naked casting aside every kind of garment. By uninterrupted meditation, unbroken chastity and the most scrupulous observation of the rules concerning eating and drinking he fully subdued his senses. He was out to neglect his body for twelve years and with equanimity he was prepared to bear, undergo and suffer all calamities arising from any sources. The robe that he was putting on during his wanderings was taken away from him in halves by some Brahman friend of his father named Soma.
For more than a couple of years he went without using cold water. He realised singleness, guarded his body, obtained intuition and became calm. He carefully avoided doing injury to the meanest form of life. He did not use what was expressly prepared for him. He used to eat only clean food. He did not use another man's robe nor did he eat out of another man's vessel. He observed moderation in eating and drinking. He neither rubbed his eyes nor stretched his body.
He meditated day and night undisturbed exerting himself strenuously. He never cared to sleep for the sake of pleasure. He waked up himself and slept only a little, free from cares and desires. Waking up again he lay down exerting himself, going outside for one in a night, he walked about for an hour.
5. C.J. Shah, Jainism in North India, p. 21.

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Background and Tradition
In his resting places, crawling or flying animals attacked him. Bad people, the guard of the village, or lance bearers attacked him. Well controlled, he bore all dreadful calamities and different kinds of feelings and he wandered about, speaking but little. Illtreated he engaged himself in his meditations free from resentment. He endured all hardships in calmness well-guarded, he bore the pains caused by grass, cold, heat, flies and gnats.
He travelled in the pathless country of Rādhas where he used miserable beds and seats. The rude natives of the place attacked him and set dogs to bite him. But he never used the stick to keep off the dogs. He endured the abusive language of the rustics being perfectly enlightened. The inhabitants of the place caused him all sorts of torture and disturbed him in his religious postures.
the flesdical tren the he
He abstained from indulgence of the flesh though never attacked by diseases. Whether wounded or not he did not desire medical treatment. In the cold season he meditated in the shade. In summer he exposed himself to the heat. He lived on rough food.
He meditated persevering in some posture, without the smallest motion. He meditated in mental concentration on the things above, below, beside. He meditated free from sin and desire, not attached to sounds and colours, and never acted carelessly.
Thus, as hero at the head of a battle, he bore all hardships and remaining undisturbed proceeded on the road to deliverence. Understanding the truth and restraining the impulses for the purification of the soul, he finally liberated.?
Mahāvīra renounced the world at the age of thirty. Twelve years thus spent in self penance and meditation were not fruitless. During the thirteenth year in the second month of summer in the fourth fortnight, the light fortnight of the month of Vaisakha, on its tenth day, out side the town of Jşmbhikagrāma on the bank of river Rjupāli, not far from an old shrine, in the field of the householder Syāmaka under a sala tree and the asterism Uttarāphalguni he reached the highest knowledge and intuition, called Kevala which is infinite, supreme, unobstructed, unimpeded, cornplete and full. He was then lest in deep meditation in a squatting position with joined heels, exposing himself to the heat of sun after fasting two days and a half even without drinking water.8
There after he was recognised as omniscient, as a Kevalin comprehending all subjects and as an Arhat for whom there is no secret in this world to learn. By this time he was already forty-two ard the remaining thirty years of his life he passed in teaching his religious system, organising his order of ascetics and wandering about preaching his doctrines, and making converts. He apparently visited all the great towns of
6. B.C. Law, Mahāvira : His Life and Teachings, p. 23 7. B.C. Law, Ibid, p. 24. 8. Ibid, p. 30.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
north and south Bihar dwelling principally in the kingdoms of Magadha and Anga. Most of the rainy seasons were spent round about his native town Vajśāli, at Rājgpha, the old capital of Magadha, at Champā, the capital of ancient Anga, at Mithila, the Kingdom of Videha and Srāvasti.
On the basis of references contained in the Kalpa Sūtra, B.C. Lawlo gives an account of the places in which Mahāvira spent the forty-two rainy seasons since he renounced the life of a householder. Taken in order, the places stand in the list as follows:
1. Aşthigrāma 2. Champā and Pșsti Champā 3. Vaisāli and Vanijagrāma 4. Rajgrha and Nalanda
Mithila 6. Bhadrikā 7. Alabhika 8. Panita bhumi 9. Srāvasti 10. Pāpā
First rainy season Next three rainy seasons Next twelve rainy seasons Next fourteen rainy seasons Next six rainy seasons Next two rainy seasons Next one rainy season Next one rainy season Next one rainy season Last rainy season.
His wanderings seem to have covered a wide area, and on occasions he visited Rajgrha the capital of Magadha ard other towns, where the utmost honour was shown to him. Further mcre, locking to the schisms in the Jaina church in his own day, the number of Mahāvira's followers, as believed by the Jainas does in no way discredit him. He had an excellent community of 14,000 Sramanas, 30,000 Nuns, 1,59,000 male layvotaries, 3,18,000 female layvotaries and something like 5,400 others who either knew the fourteen Pūrvas or were Kevalins and so on.11
Thus having become a Kevalin at the age of forty-two and having wandered for about thirty years as a reformer in the Jaina church, Lord Mahavira died at the age of seventy-two in the house of king Hastipal's scribe in Pāvapuri near Rājgrha, a place still visited by thousands of Jaina pilgrims. According to the traditional Jaina chronology the event is believed to have taken place in the year 527 B.C. differing by sixteen years from the nirvana of Buddha according to the chronology of the Ceylon or 543 B.C.12
The Kalpa Sūtra definitely records that Mahāvira lived thirty years as a householder, more than full twelve years in a state inferior to perfection, something less than thirty years as a Kevalin, forty-two years as a recluse and seventy two years on the
9. C.J. Shah, Jainism in North India, p. 26. 10. B.C. Law, Mahavira : His Life and teachings, p. 32. 11. C.J. Shah, Jainism in North India, p. 27. 12. Ibid, p. 27

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Background and Tradition
whole. That at the age of seventy-two in the town of Pāvā and in king Hastipāla's office of the writers, Mahāvira died, freed from all pains.13
Mahāvira seems to have had adversaries as well. A formidable adversary was Gosala Makhaliputta who founded the sect of Ajivikas. He flourished at Srāvasti. though the precise field of his influence cannot be determined. It is well known that the Ajivikas survived down to Asokan and post-Asokan periods.
Mahāvīra had eleven chief disciples or Ganadharas who seem to have kept the organisation of the church under proper discipline. All of them were Brāhmaṇas and seem to have come from settlements in Bihar, only two hailed from cities, viz., Rājgsha and Mithila. This again confirms that the spread of Jainism during Mahāvira's time was restricted to parts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West-Bengal.
The organisational tract of Mahāvira and the devotion of the Ganadharas kept the Jaina church in good shape. However, two schisms, viz. Bahurāya Jivapāssiya, took place even during the life time of Mahāvira, but they do not seem to have evoked much response. It is only the last schism, i.e. the Digambara-Svetambara, that has left its impress on the pattern of development of Jainism, its regional spread, monastic practices and iconography.14
The world, as painted by Mahāvira, represents thai state of existence of the soul in which it has to undergo repeated births and deaths and all their concomitant experiences. It is saṁsāra or course of life and death which appears like a boundless flood of water with its dangerous current. Earth, water, fire, ard air all contain lives. The sense and mental faculties become manifest in varying degrees in varicus forms of beings. Man finds himself in an awful situation where he has to work under the influence of affection, passion and attachment. The world presents a constant scene of quarrel and strife, death and carnage and of all mad pursuits of life, the ultimate end of which is utter disappointment. For the sake of food and drink, lodging and comfort, woman and wealth, a man is involved in various works that lead the soul from sin to sin. Attached to the agreeable sounds and colours, tastes and smells, touches and perceptions, in short to all seductive pleasures of the senses, the living beings suffer and find no escape from pain. The path to these pleasures is the path to birth, disease, decay and death. A reflection on these conditions of the world, as one daily sees them all around, leads a man away from them to seek safe island, to seek peace, to seek liberation, deliverence and perfection.
The reassuring message which underlies all his teachings is that soul is the highest reality of life, and nirvana is not extinction but the eternal and blissful condition of soul is realisable in this very existence and solely by human efforts if they are well directed. The development of manifestation of supreme personality is the visible fruition or reli
13. B.C. Law, Mahavira : His Life and Teachings, p. 52. 14. S.B. Deo, History of Jaina Monarchism, p. 80 ff.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
gious efforts leading to liberation. The life of the Master offered for imitation by his earnest disciples stands as one of the highest examples of such a personality. The heart of Jainism is emptied of all that go to constitute selfishness, haughtiness, cruelty, wickedness in consideration and such immoral propensities. These are removed so as to find the human heart filled with love, kindness, meekness, sincerity and such other best qualities of character.
Mahāvira laid a great stress on the activity of souls. The individual soul has innumerable unity of space. The soul is unearthed and possessed of the quality of existence. The soul knows and sees all, desires happiness, is afraid of pain, does friendly or unfriendly actions, and enjoys the fruits of them. That which has consciousness, is soul. The soul in combination with the body is the door of all actions. One should abstain from killing beings, theft, falsehood, sensual pleasure and spirituous liquor. Those who do not renounce these go to hell.
A sage should wander about free from sins. Self should be subdued. A monk should avoid untruth, sinful speech and should not be deceitful. Nothing sinful, hurtful and meaningless should be told by him. He must conquer twenty-two troubles, e.g. hunger, thirst, cold, heat, nakedness, erratic life, women, dirt, ignorance, etc. The pious Shtains purity and the pure stands firmly in the law. Delusion, pride, deceit and greed should be avoided. Monks or householders who are trained in self control and menance and who have obtained liberations by the absence of passion, go to the highest region. Those who are ignorant of the truth are subject to pain. One should not permit killing of living beings. He should not commit sins in thoughts, words and acts The pleasures are like a venomous snakes. The pleasures are the thorn that rankles and they should be given up. He should keep the severe now of chastity. Mental and hodily penances should be practised. An ascetic by virtue of his simplicity enter the path of nirvana.
Meditation means abstaining to meditate on painful and sinful things. One should with a collected mind engage in pure meditation on the laws.
There are three ways of committing sins by ones own activity, by commission, and by approval of the dead. By purity of heart one reaches Nirvana. Nirvana consists in peace. Mokşa is the essential point in the teaching of Mahāvira which is generally understood as emancipation. It really mans the attainment of the highest state of sanctification by the avoidance of pain and miseries of worldly life. The conception of nirvana in Buddhism differ essentially from the Mokļa view of the Jainas. With Buddhists, to be clearer its proposed meaning is extinction whereas with the Jainas it has a positive significance implying absolute purity and freedom from the snares of Karma.
Mahāyira's great message to mankind is that birth is nothing, that caste is nothing and that Karma is everything and on the destruction of Karma, the future happiness depends.

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Background and Tradition
There are four ways to meditate on purity of mind : (1) love, (2) love towards the suffering world, (3) love towards the happy, and (4) love towards the criminal or cruel person.
Right knowledge, belief, and conduct, these three are the sources of happiness. There are twenty-one qualities, the majority of which must be possessed before a person is ready to undertake the higher religious life : (1) he must be earnest, (2) he must be of sound mind, (3) he must be pleasing by nature, (4) he must be popular, charitable, well behaved, and of good mcral character, (5) he must not be cruel, (6) he must be cautious and honest, (7) he will live according to some principle, (8) he will be compassionate and sympathetic, (9) he must be just and impartial, (10) he must be grateful, polite, intelligent and of quick understanding, (11) he must be self controlled.
According to Mahavira, this universe is eternal and it is nothing but the sum total of substances which have been existing from eternity and shall remain for ever. In this universe nothing new is created nor is any thing annihilated. The substances of this eternal universe are described as jiva and ajiva, soul and no-soul. The characteristic of living substance is attention, consciousness and attentiveness.
Not only is man endowed with jiva but also all creatures, including plants, animals, birds, insects, and even atomic and invisible beings, like the smallest particles of the elements of the earth, the fire, the water and the wind are endowed with the soul (jtva). The great ideal of Ahimsa of the Jainas was actuated by feelings of love and friendship towards all beings. To a monk the rule of wounding nothing means that he must carry three articles with him, a staining cloth for his drinking water, a broom, and a veil before his mouth lest he might unconsciously swallow or crush any invisible animalcule. Even so, for fear of outraging the vow of Ahimsa, a layman also observes so many precautions in daily life but something which is rather striking is not to eat and if possible, not to drink after sun set, that he might swallow insects through mistake.
The Buddhist idea of Ahimsā is rather positive and humble as consisting in showing mercy to all living creatures of the world. The Jainas, on the other hand, have carried the idea of Ahimsā to probably an excessive limit, for instance in the utter abstention from hurting a living molecule and in the refusal to take as food even a dead creature's body.
Thus in brief the main tenets of Jainism as a practical religion consists of the following points: longing for liberation, disregard to worldly objects, desire of the law, obedience to the co-religionist and to the Guru, moral and intellectual purity of the soul, adoration of the 24 Jainas, paying reverence to the Guru, adoption of a particular posture of the body, self denial praises and hymns, punctuality, practice of penances, forgiveness, study and recital of sacred texts ... concentration of thoughts, self-control, practice of austerities, purging oneself of impurities arising from Karma, mental independence, using unfrequented places, remaining away from the world, renouncing pleasure, food, passions, company, etc., conforming to the standard, doing service fulfilling all virtues, freedom from passion, forebearance, freedom from greed, simplicity, modesty, sincerity

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10
Jaina Monuments of Orissa
of heart, watchfulness of the mind, speech and body, discipline of mind, speech, and body, possession of krowledge, faith, and virtue, subduing the organs of sense, cor quering anger, pride, deceit, greed, love, hatred and wrong belief, stability and freedom from Karma.15
The Jainas have certain original theories of knowledge, which form an important element of their philosophy and religion. According to them, philosophy consists in the voluntary and corsistent strivirg, intellectual and moral manifest in the removal of Karmic impediments. (1) On the way to Samyak jñāna (i.e. Right knowledge of the doctrine), (2) Saiiyak darśana (i.e. Right faith in the true doctrine), (3) Samyak Charitra (i.e. strict observance of Jaina precepts). These are called Triratna or three jewels as means to attaining Mokşa. Of these, krowledge is divided into five kinds.
(1) Mati-perceptual and inferential knowledge,
(2) Śruta-knowledge derived from the reading and hearing of the scriptural books,
(3) Avadhi- direct knowledge of things even at a distance of time and space,
(4) Mānahparyāya-- direct knowldege of the thoughts of other people,
(5) Kevala-perfect, limitless knowledge or omniscience.16
The Jaina rituals are not so claborate, observed the same learned author17 as those cf the Hirdus Lut certainly surpass those of Buddhism both in extent and variety. The customs peculiar to them and these which seem to be more emphasised among them than in Hinduism may only be touched here. The Jainas give all free access to their temples of gods and saints of whose images they worship with certain special rites and ceremonies.
They have what are known as Jala pujā (washing of the images), Chandan pujā (worship with sandals), Akşata puja (offering of unboiled rice), and Naivedya pujā (worship with food). All this is followed by Arati after the sunset. Another custom belonging to the Jainas is the samayike reading. They like the Hindus, believe in an practice prāyascita or expiation of sins but unlike them have the custom by confessing sins before the Guru. Great impertance is attached to pilgrimages, especially undertaken on the full-moon days that fall in October-November (Kārtika Purnimā) or in April-May. Four months in the year are more specially given to fastings, the reading of sacred books and spiritual meditations. They observe ihe most important fast on the last day of the Jaina year and of pājjusana sanirostari ard ordinary fast on the full-moon days, which fall in spring and summer. Some of the Brahmaric festivals have been mysteriously adopted by them among which may be mentioned the Dirāli, Dhanaterasa, Sārada Pujā, Lakşmi pujā,
15. B.C. Law, Mahavira : His Life and Teachings, pp. 106-07. 16. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 7. 17. Ibid, pp. 11-12.

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Background and Tradition
11
Jñāna Panchami, Sita!apujā, the Dasaharā and the Makarasankrānti. Besides the image worship of the Tirthankaras and some subordinate deities, the worship of the Siddha chakra which is kept in a Jaina temple has found a firm hold on the Jaina devotee.
Svetämbaras and Digambaras represent the two principal sects of the Jaina community. The Digambaras went about clothed in space, the term dik stands here for space and ambara, for clothes) impressing upon the world that they belonged to no group or community but to the whole of humanity and proclaiming that they had got over the last determining marks by casting off their cloths. The Svetämbaras wore the white clad (the term Sveta means white) and the white garment signified their ideal of purity.
The schism began as early as the time of the first Council of Pataliputra at the end of the fourth century B.C. The visitation of a terrible famine in Magadha led some Jaina to migrate to the south under their leader Bhadrabāhu about 315 B.C. They are said to have planted Jainism for the first time in the Deccan. Those who remained in the famine-stricken land found a leader in Sthulabhadra, who being anxious to preserve the Jaina scriptures summoned a council at Pataliputra, which collected the Eleventh Anga and renewed the Twelfth Anga. At the end of the famine, Bhadrabähu returned with his followers. They refused to accept the work of the council ard sternly disapproved the custom to wear clothes, which the followers of Sthulabhadra had already adopted. The division became permanent only in 83 B.C.
We shall note down some points of distinction between the two sects.
(1) The symbols given by the two sects to the idels differ to some extent.
(2) The Swetambara tradition depicts the idols as wearing a loin cloth, bedecked with
jewels and with glass eyes inserted in the marble.
The Digambara tradition represents the Tirthankaras as nude and with downcast eyes.
(3) The Svetāmbaras allow their Gurus to eat out of vessels, the Digambaras receive
their food in their open hands.
(4)
The Svetämbaras assert that there are twelve heavens and sixty-four Indras, the Digambaras maintain that there are sixteen leavens and one hundred olympian monarchs.
(5)
The Svetāmbaras picture Mahāvira to have been extremely philosophical from his childhood days, though he wanted to renounce, the world in his early years in deference to his parents wishes he did not do so. The Digambara version is that by his thirteenth year Mahāvira suddenly renounced world being disgusted with the ephemeral nature of things and that till then, he like any other prince, enjoy. ed all the luxuries of a palace life,

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(6) The Svetāmbaras have recorded that Mahāvira married at a fairly young age and
that he led a full-fledged householders life till he was thirty, when he became an ascetic. The Digambaras deny the fact of marriage altogether.
(7) The Svetāmbaras hold that though Mahāvira was keen on renouncing the world
earlier, he promised his mother that during his parents life time he would not become an ascetic. The promise was in response to the persuations of his mother. The Digambaras maintain that even during his parents life time and much against their wishes Mahāvira took to renunciation.
(8) The Svetämbaras believed that a woman could become a Tirthankara and so they
allowed women into the ascetic order. The Digambaras did not allow women to join the samghas and maintained, the women could attain the Tirthankara-status only after being born as men.
(9) The Svetāmbaras were divided into the non-idol worshipping (Sthanakavāsi) and
the idol-worshipping (Deraväsi) groups. There were four main sub-divisions among the Digambaras, the Kasthasamgha, Mulasamgha, Mathurasamgha and Gopaya-Saṁgha. There were only minor differences. The fourth sub-division agreed with the Svetāmbaras in most respects.
(10) The Svetämbara ascetic is allowed to have fourteen possessions including his loin
cloth, shoulder-cloth, etc. He was allowed to move from place to place and it is not surprising that the laymen complain that sometimes there is too much of interference from the ascetics. The Digambara ascetic is allowed to have only two possessions, a peacock's feather and a brush and has to live entirely in the jungle.
As regards Jaina temple worship B.C. Bhattacharya18 observes that the integral part of the Jaina worship is performed in their temples. In this way their temple may he said to be their repository of Dharma. In Brahmanic religion though temple is visited on occasions and pilgrimages, most injunctions of religion however, such as, the Trisandhyā, or the three prayers, the Gurupujā, Siva Pūjā, Srādha, Tarpana, Vratapājā, the Devi pujās and the Yajñas are followed in practice in individual homes. In this respect the Jaina religion marks a great contrast to Brahmanic religion. The Jainas in optional cases keep an image in their houses, do not undergo the special ritualistic formalism in their private worship. The temples are their churches, where besides the daily worship of the images by the religious officials, religious books are kept, the äratis or waving rites are attended largely by men, women and boys with sincere faith and devotion. There are occasions when the pages are specially decorated, the Samavasarana is arranged, readings from the scriptures are given by Brahmachärts, Yatis and Suris. In many other respects, the Jaina temple worship bears a close resemblance to Brahmanic customs. The images go through the same process of canonical installation, daily
18. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, pp. 20-22.

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Background and Tradition
13
worship, ceremonious worship, occasional processions, decorations and arar. Almost in the same way as that of the Brāhmaṇas the deities are offered rice, water and naivedya. There are bells, drums, chauries and no foreigner unless he is told, will find any appreciable distinction between a strictly Brahmanic temple and a Jaina one. In temple worship, the Digambaras and the Svetambaras differ in some important heiratic points. For instance the Digambaras bathe the images with abundance of water, but Svetämbaras use very little. The Digambaras may bathe and worship their images during the night but the Svetambaras do not even light lamps in their temples, much less do they bathe or worship the images lest in so doing they might thereby kill, or indirectly cause the death of any living thing, for to do so during the night they regard as a great sin. The Digambaras wash their images with palichamrita but the others do not.
The Jainas worship Pañchaparames!hins the five fold divinity, namely (1) Arhats i.e. the twenty-four Tirthankaras, (2) Sidha, the liberated soul, (3) Acharya, the preceptor (usually through his symbolic representation called sthapana, (4) Upadhyaya, the teacher, and (5) Sadhu, a monk who has renour.ced worldly ties. Specific qualities are attributed to them. There are different mantras or syllables to remember and revere them. The first syllables of the names of these parameşthinis constitute the sacred syllable OM, which has great religious significance. The real worship in the religious sense is confined to the first two especially the first under the twenty-four Tirthankaras whose biographies are elaborate in many respects. There are hymns of praise in their honour, which are not intended to ask for any thing from them, but the devotee who recites them wants their great qualitics to develop himself. There are rituals, pūjās of various kinds, etc., to express devotion to the Tirthankaras. All these aim at purifying oneself by pious activities at eliminating one's Karma, so that the Atman becomes Paramatman.

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History of Jainism in Orissa
Owing to paucity of materials of positive nature, the exact date of the beginning of Jainism in Orissa cannot be determined. However, from legendary and traditional accounts and indirect references it can be reasonably traced back to a period much earlier than that of the rise of Buddhism under Gautam Buddha.
Rsabhadeva, known in the traditional accounts of the Jainas as the founder of Jainism and Adinātha or the first Jaina Tirthankara, is believed to have been associated with the cultural history of ancient Orissa. In the Hāthi-Gumphā inscription of Udayagiri there is a reference to the fact that Kaliñga Jina was carried away from Kaliñga by a Nanda king. Scholars' asscciate this Kalinga Jina with that of Rşabha in view of the fact that he is generally linked with the places of his worship. For example the image of Rşabhanātha of Satruñjaya is called Satruñjaya Jina and that of Abu is called abuda Jina and so on. Similarly the Rşabhadeva of Kaliñga might have been designated as Kalinga Jina. Of course, here he was not named after a particular place but after the entire Kingdom. It is perhaps the solitary example to name a Tirthankara after a kingdom. The contentions of N.K. Sahu are that Rşabha has been most frequently represented in the Khandagiri caves. Besides, the Jaina temple standing at the highest point of the hill has been dedicated to Adinātha and Khāravela while reclaiming Pithunda employed ass drawr plough instead of bullock-drawn ones as bull was religiously associated with Rşabhadeva. However, this fact prompts us to think that Rşabhadeva, the first Jina, was the well reputed and established deity of Kalinga leng before the 6th century B.C. when Mahāvira, the last Tirthankara of the Jaina tradition appeared in the religious firmament of India. It was possibly for the outstanding significance of the deity that Nandarāja later on took away this image as war trophy to pronource his victory over Kalinga. But Rşabhadeva was not known to have preached Jainism in Orissa.
The next reference to the country of Kalinga in the Jaina literature is in connection with Sreyānsanātha, the eleventh Tirthankara. According to the Avaśyaka Nirukti?
1. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I. p. 353 and C.J. Shah, Jainism in North India, pp. 172-73. 2. Avas yaka Nirukti, p. 325.

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History of Jainism in Orissa
15
he was born at Simhapura, which was the capital of Kalinga. Arānātha, the eighteenth Tirthankara, received his first alms in the city of Rājapur, which according to the Mahabharata, was the metropolis of Kalinga.3
It was Pārsvanātha, to whom Jaina tradition given the twenty-third place in the hierarchy of Jaina Tirth ankaras, is believed to have visited Orissa and preached Jainism in this regior. It is evidert frcm rumercus sculptural representations in the caves of Khandagiri and Udayagiri near Bhubareswar where images of Pārsvanātha and epise des from the life of Pārsvanātha are found to have been carved magnificently. Specially the narrative parels, as believed by scme schclars on the facades of Rāņi Gumphā of Udayagiri faithfully depict the life and activities of this honcured saint. This fact goes a long way in proving that he was the most venerable and reputed of the Tirthankaras in ancient Orissa. If on the basis of the Jaina tradition, this great saint emerged two hundred and fifty years before Mahāvira, then as early as the 8th century B.C. Orissa was a reputed seat of Jainism with Parávanātha playing a distinguished role in the religious life of the people.
The romantic story current in regard to Pārsvanātha, the twenty-third Tirthankara is as follows:
"Praserjit, the king of Kusasthalapur, had a daughter named Prabhāvati who was unrivalled in her feminine accomplishments. The king left no stone unturned to find cut a suitable match for her, but in vain. One day, however, when the princess was moving in the royal garden, she heard some kinnaris singing a song in admiration of Pārsvanātha, a very virtuous and hardsc me sen of king Aśvasena of Varanasi. The Kinnaris said that the would be wife of Pārsvarātha was present in that very garden and further that who could be more fortunate than that lady. The song created a longing for Pārsvanātha in the heart of the princess. When the matter was brought to the knowledge of Prasenjit, he agreed to give Prabhāvati in marriage to Pārsvanātha. The news of Prabhāvati marrying Pārsvanātha spread far and wide, and Yavana, the king of Kalinga came to know about the marriage. He became furious and declared that during his life time Pārsvanātha would not be able to marry Prabhāvati. He proceeded to Kusasthalapur with a huge army. Prasenjit at this sent his envoy to king Aśvasena requesting for help, who in turn, sent Pārsvanātha to save Prasenjit. Having known the presence of Parśva in the city, however, the king of Kalinga decided not to fight and finally withdrew to his kingdom."
M.M. Chakravarty and A.C. Mittale on the basis of the above story of Pārsvanātha charita written by Bhavadeva Suri during the 13th century A.D. connected the panels of the upper storey of Rāņi-Gumphā to Pārsvanātha. As a result they suggest the elephant scene introduces Pārsva's future wife with her relatives and attendants, that in
3. P.C. Ray, Translation, Mahābhārata, śānti Parva, p. 4, 8. 4. M.M. Chakravarty, Bengal District Gazetteer, Puri, L.S.S. O'Malley (Ed.), p. 256. 5. Ibid, p. 256. 6. A.C. Mittal, An early History of Orissa, pp. 383-84.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
the next scene she is abducted by the Kalinga king, that in the fourth scene she is rescued by Parsvanatha in a forest while hunting, that the following scene depicts the wedding feast, the seventh, the consummation of marriage and the eighth scene a march. with elephants. Similarly a frieze in the lower wing may represent Parsvanatha as a Tirthankara, his wanderings and honours shown to him.
But there is no evidence to show that such traditions were prevailing in India in Pre-Christian centuries to inspire the poets and artists of the period. In the Kolpa Sätra, attributed to the 5th century A.D., the account of Pariva's marriage is not represented as the result of such romantic adventures. Moreover, the Parsvanatha charita differs in various details from the story depicted by these relief sculptures. According to the former, the Yavana king invaded the town of Kusasthala and forcibly took away his beautiful princess Pravavati, who was rescued by Pärśvanatha whom she later on married. But the sculptures mentioned above narrate the story of abduction in a different manner making the question of identification of the two accounts inappropriate.
The Jaina Kşetra Samasa represents Pārsvanatha as preaching at Tamralipti and Kopakataka identified respectively with modern Tamluk in West Bengal and Kupări in Orissa. The influence of Parśvanatha on the spiritual life of ancient Orissa was very considerable and there can be no reasonable doubt in the fact that Karanda (Karakandu) the earliest known Jaina king of Kalinga was one of his royal disciples. Karakandu flourished in Kalinga almost contemporaneous with Nimi, the penultimate ruler of the Janaka family of Videha. The Jaina Karakandu charita" reveals that Karakandu was the son of Dadhivahana of Champå instead of king Dadhivahana of Anga whose daughter Chandana or Chandanvat! was the first lady converted to Jainism by Mahavira. N.K. Sahu identified Dadhivahana, the father of Karkanḍu with his name sake described in the Dadhivahana jataka, where he has been represented as cccupying the throne of Benaras. It may be indicated that Anga was a vassal state of Kasi since the time of Manoja, the powerful Käsi monarch and herce Dadhivahana who came after Manoj has been confounded by later Jaina works as the king of Anga. It may, however, be said in support of Jaina tradition that the episode regarding the birth of Karakandu and his installation on the throne of Kalinga took place at the time when his father Dadhivahana was probably a Governor of Anga with the head quarters at Champa. The Jaina tradition reveals that "the queen of Dadhivahana who was heavy with child was once enjoying elephant drive in the forest when she lost her way and ultimately arrived at Kalinga. There she gave birth to a son who grew up in obscurity and was named Karakandu, while the king of Kalinga died without an heir, the boy Karakandu was miraculously chosen as king and with his accession to the throne the prevailing anarchy in Kalinga came to an end."
The Kumbhakara Jataka and Uttaradhyayan Sütta reveal that Karakandu flouri shed in Kalinga as contemporary of Dummukha (Durmukha) king of Päñchala, Naggaje (Nagnajit), king of Gandhara, as well as Nimi, king of Videha.
7. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 182.
8. Ibid, p. 179.
9. Ibid, p. 180.

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History of Jainism
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17
The Uttarādhāyayana Sutta further testifies to the fact that all the four kings referred to above were regarded as "bulls among kings" and adopted the faith of the Jainas after abdicating their thrones. They took the life of Sramaņas. This account reveals that Jainism was in a flourishing condition in India when these four kings were ruling. The popularity of Jainism in its Chaturyāma form i.e. Ahimsa (non-killing), Sunrta (truchful speech), Asteya (non-stealing) and Aparigraha (renouncing of all illusory objects) was widely prevailing in northern and eastern India since the time of Pārsvanātha. Mahāvira added Brahmacharya (chastity) as a separate vow to the existing four.
Karakandu patronised Jainism not only in Kalinga, his own kingdom, but also expanded his benevolent activities in the territories of his royal ruling friends.10 He dedicated shrines to the Jainas at Terapura in Maharashtra; which was then probably under the rule of king Bhima referred to in Aitareya Brahman. The Karakandu monastery was very likely named after him and the stone elephant which stood in the monastery was fore-runner of the Asokan elephant at Toshali (Dhauli). Owing to his munificence, religious contemplation and wisdom, Karakandu is hailed by the Jaina tradition as a "Rājasri'-an ascetic king. His abdication of the throne for leading the life of a Sramaņa has been preserved in Jaina and Buddhist sacred texts emphasising on his deep realisation of the transitory nature of the worldly property and giving exposition to his reflection upon worldly prosperity as the cause of sorrow.
Kalinga is again referred to in the time of Mahāvīra, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara. The Avasyaka Niruktill mentions two visits of Mahāvīra to Toshali in the eleventh year of his monkship. On both the occasions he had to meet terrible hardships at Toshali. On one occasion he was taken to be a robber and hit hard. On another occasion he was about to be hanged and was, however, rescued through the timely interference of Toshali Kshatriyas. Vyavahāra Bhāşyal2 also confirms the visit of Mahāvīra to Toshali. The Avasyaka Sutra13 confirms Mahāvīra's visit to Kalinga and adds that the king of Kalinga was a friend (or relation) of his father. The Jaina Harivamsa Puranal4 also speaks of Mahā vīra's visit to Kalinga in connection with the propagation of his faith.
On the evidencés maintained in Jaina literature15 we learn that Mahāvīra visited Vaisāli, Vamja-grāma, Mithila, Bhadrikā, Alabhika, etc. At last he expired in one dark fortnight of the pious month of Kārtika, at Pavā in the kingdom of Rājā Hastipāla. During his itinerary, he used to spend Chaturmāsya (rainy season retreat) in different places such as Champā, Pustigrāma, Hastigrāma, Vaisāli, Vanijagrāma, Rājgrha, Nalanda, Mithila, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, Srāvasti and Pāvā as is described in the Kalpasūtra.
10. Ibid, p. 183. 11. Āvas yaka Nirukti, p. 502-20. 12. Vyavahār Bhāşya VI, 115. 13. Āvas yaka Sūtra p. 219-20. 14. R.D. Banerji, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 61. 15. Jaina Sūtras, Pt. 1. p. 264.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
According to some scholars Panita bhumi is a synonym of Paniya bhumi as per Ardha Māgadhi language. Most probably it is the same as Phaniya-bhumi or Nāgaloka, the present Nagapura. In some cld records it is called Bhogapura, identified with the modern Bastar region of Madhya Pradesh and Kalahandi of Orissa.
According to the Bhagavati Sütra Bhagavāna Mahāvira started his earliest preachings of Dharma at Nālanda, Rājgļha, Paniya bhumi, Kurmagrāna and Sidhartha grāma, when eleven of his disciples called Ganadharas (teachers) have controlled the seven religious centres of the Nigrañthas.
Unfortunately, the identification of Paniya bhumi, Kurma grāma and Sidhārthagrāma is still not satisfactorily arrived at. The Bhagavati Sūtra informs that Mahāvīra stayed at Paniyabhumi (or Phaniya bhumi) for long six years with Acharya Gosala. From there they proceeded towards Kurma grāma and Sidhārtha grāma and met a yogi named Vesāyana, who was practising yoga by looking at the hot rays of the sun and raising both of his arms upward. The practice of similar form of yoga in Orissa is revealed from a verse of the copper plate grant of Madhyamarāja of the Sailodbhava dynasty of Kongoda extending from the right bank of Mahānadi till the foot of mount Mahendra.16
From the secord line of this verse it is understood that some yogis or munts used to practise yoga (penarce) by looking at the hot rays of the sun. Evidently this type of penance was popular in this region of Kongoda and Kalinga. Thus Mahāvīra met the Yogi Vesāyana in Sidhartha grāma at the moment when he was in the yogic pose by staring at the sun as is described in the Bhagavati Sutra. Probably Mahāvira's object of visiting Sidhārtha grāma was to learn that yoga system which Vesāyana used to practise. It is said that Mahāvīra used to perform yoga sadhana by standing upon heated rocks under the burning mid-day sun during the month of Jyestha.
At Sidhartha grāma it is said that Achārya Gosala violated some tenets, adopted by Mahāvīra and started a new creed under the name Ajivika. Some Buddhist works claim that the religion of Gosala was different from Jainism. But actually the Ajivikas and Nigranthas embraced the same religion although we notice a slight difference in their cult.
The ancient track through which Mahāvira travelled from Paniya-bhumi (Nāgaloka or Bhegapura) to Kurma grāma and Sidhārtha grāma is most probably the same road on which Samudra Gupta marched to Kalinga. Fortunately we get the name of Sidhārtha-grāma in some copper plate inscriptions of the early Ganga kings of Kalinga, In Achutapuram plates of Indra Varman (cir 580 A.D.)17 it is stated that one hala measure of land in the village Sidhārthaka grāma of Varāha varttini to a learned Brāhmaṇa named Durgaswā min. It is recorded in Sidhantam plates of Ganga Era 196 (A.D. 694)18 that Devendravarman donated another hala of land in the same village to a learned
16. J.K.H.R.S. Vol. I, Pt. II, pp. 196-98 17. EI. Vol. III, pp 127-30ff and S.N. Rajguru, Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol. II, pp. 24-88ff. 18. EI. Vol. III, pp. 212-216ff and S.N. Rajguru, Inscription of Orissa, Vol. II, pp. 81-85.

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History of Jainism
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19
Brāhman named Tamparaśarman Diksita who resided in Erandapalli. The plates were discovered from a village called Sidhāntam near a mile or two from Srikurman in Srikākulam district of Andhra Pradesh. G Ramdasa, while editing that inscription, has correctly, identified the village of Sidhārthaka with the modern village of Siddhāntam and that of Erandapalli with Aindavalasa, situated at the railway station of Srikākulam. The writer of the grant is the son of Matrachandra of Apurvanata Vama who also belonged to Erandapalli.19
In the Ganga era 87 and 196 the ancient name of Siddhārtha grāma was slightly changed to Siddhārthaka grāma while in Masunika grant of Devendra Varman of Ganga era 30020 and in Bangalore plates of Devendra Varman21 the same village of the district of Varahavarttini is called by the name Sidhata. At present, it is called Sidhatam. So in course of about fourteen hundred years the name of Siddarthaka grama was converted to Siddāmtam and there is little doubt that the same village in the time of Mahāvira was called Siddhārthagrāma. Probably it was named in honour of Mahāvīra's father, Sidhārtha as in commemoration of Mahāvīra Vardhamān one of the cities of Kalinga was named Vardhamānapura in the time of the Māthara kings of Kalinga. That Sidhārtha grāma, near Srikurmam or the ancient Kurma grāma was a centre of religious culture where the yogis like Vesāyana of the time of Mahāvira resided.
The Vyavahāra Bhāşya22 speaks of Toshali as a centre of Jaina preachers and laity and a place of a marvellous image of Jina which was guarded by king Toshalika. It further states that due to heavy rains crops failed and so Jaina monks lived on palmfruits which grew in abundance here.23 The Janibudiva pannati24 includes Kalinga in the list of Aryan countries suitable for wandering (or preaching tours) of Jaina monks.
The Jaina traditions25 allude wide dominions of the Nandas. The existence of a city called Nau-Nanda-Dehrā on the Godavari river also suggests that the Nanda dominions had once embraced a considerable portion of the Deccan, and therefore, of the Kalinga country. Moreover literary traditions speak of Mahāpadmananda26 as the ruler of Kalinga. Therefore the Nandrāja who took away the image of a Jina from Kalinga as mentioned in the Hāthi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela on the Udayagiri hill (Nandarāja nitam Kalinga Jina samnivesa) can be identified with Mahapadmananda. This reference is very interesting from the point of view of ancient religion of Orissa. It points out that Orissa since the time of Mahāvīra contained to be the stronghold of Jainism in as much as the Nandarāja carried off the image of Jina as the highest trophy.
19. EI. Vol. III, p. 7, ff. 20. JAHRS. Vol. XV. III, P. 115. 21. S.N. Rajguru, Inscriptions of Orissa Vol. II, pp. 113-117. 22. Vyavahāra Bhāsya, VI, 115. 23. Ibid, VI, 115. 24. Jambudiva Pannati, 107. 25. Parisiştha Parvana, VII. 8. 26. E.E. Pargitar, Dynasties of Kali Age, pp. 23-24.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
Jainism must have made great progress in Orissa during the rule of the Nandas, who according to literary traditions, were believers of Jaina faith.
The image of Kalinga Jina not only gives us an insight into the ancient religion and culture but also to the sculptural activities of the Orissans in the 5th/4th centuries B.C. The very look at it must have brought the greatest and proudest down upon his knees, and bow before it in reverence. That is why it was valued most and taken away by Nandarāja. This was a great loss to the people of Kalinga who were under the rule of the Nandas then. But when they could assert their independence and found themselves strong enough under the astute and able leadership of Khāravela they invaded Magadha, defeated its king and brought back their lovely and dear image. It therefore follows that Jainism was the major religion of Kalinga in the fourth century B.C. and we shall not be far from the truth, if we conclude that it was its state religion.
The history of Orissa from the days of the Nandas to the date of Asoka's invasion is completely dark and we do not know when Kalinga regained her independence so that there was the necessity of conquering it again by Aśoka. There is, however, no reason to think that Jainism ceased to be the dominant religion of Kalinga soon after its conquest by the Nandas. It must have continued as the major religion of this country and might have been one of the causes of Asoka's invasion. From all accounts we get the impression that Asoka was a Brahmanical Hindu prior to his invasion of Kalinga and it is therefore not unlikely that the war waged against this country, was tinged with a sectarian bias.
The thirteenth Rock Edict of Asoka reveals that the Kalinga war resulted in one hundred thousand people killed, one lakh and fifty thousand carried away as captives and many more that number dying of starvation and disease that followed in the wake of the terrible war. This description presents an over all picture of the devastation and the loss of life in Kalinga and it is difficult to determine as to how much of her culture survived after this great cataclysm but it cannot be imagined that Buddhism under Asoka had completely ousted the old religion of Jainism in Kalinga.
Jainism must have continued as one of the main religions of Orissa after the Kalinga war of 261 B.C. and the people of Kalinga must have been looking forward to an opportunity when they would regain not only their political freedom but also their religious freedom. We do not know when Kalinga became free again but it seems that she regained her indeperdence in the reign of one of Asoka's weak successors. As any rate there is little doubt that Kalinga had become an independent country under Khāravela's dynasty of which the Häthi-Gumphā inscription provides us with definite information. Khāravela was an independent Jaina monarch who carved out an empire, but there is nothing in the Hathi-Gumphā inscription to show that Kalinga regained her independence during his reign. Rather the description of the boyhood of Khāravela as given in this inscription gives us an impression that he was the son of an independent monarch. The liberation of Kalinga from Magadhan imperialism must have been achieved by one of his predecessors,

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It was however left to Khāravela to wage a war of revenge against Magadha to recover from it the honoured Kalinga Jina which appears to have had a great significance in the religious and cultural life of the people and to re-establish the supremacy of Jainism as the State religion of Kalinga. He succeeded in achieving all these objects one by one. According to the Hāthi-Gumphā inscription he twice led his expeditions against Magadha in the eighth and twelfth years of his reign and his second expedition resulted in the humiliation of the Magadhan king Bahasatimita and the recovery of the honoured Jina. This sacred object appears to have been connected with the state ritual or with the royal household or else shorn of its religious significance it would not have been counted as a war trophy either by a Magadhan emperor after his victory over Kalinga or by Khāravela after his victory over Magadha.
A panel in the verāndah facade of Mañchapuri-Gumphā of Udayagiri depicts the re-installation of Kalinga Jina by Khāravela and his family members with great pomp and ceremony.
The Hāthi-Gumpha inscription of Khāravela with those connected with his chief queen, successors and officials throw in mense material information on the state of Jainism in Kalinga. The Hāthigumphā inscription of the first century B.C. opens with a salutation to the Arahats and Sidhas indicating that Khāravela was a Jaina by birth. On ascending the throne he further promoted the cause of Jainism by extending great patronage to it. His digvijaya to adjacent dominions must have presupposed his visit to the established Jaina places like Mathurā in the north, Satruñjaya and Terapura in the west and Srāvanabelgola in the south. The analysis of epigraphic records and sculptural evidences of Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves will strengthen our view that the affection and honour of the family as well as of the people of Kalinga became bound up with the Jaina religion and with their presiding deity, the Kalinga Jina.
The inscription of Khāravela's chief queen records that the cave commemorating her name was made for the sake of Kalinga recluses of Arhata persuation.27 Similarly the record of Khāravela's thirteenth regnal year informs that he caused to be excavated for purposes of worship the Relic Memorial (in honour of the Arahamtas (who have), cast the transigration on mount Kumāri, the auspicious mountain in Vijaya circle.28
The Hāthi-Gumphā inscription opens with Namo Arahaṁtanom Namo sava Sidhanam and confirms to the traditional five-fold obeisance (Pañcha Namaskāra)29 of the Jainas adopted by Khāravela as a mark cf respect of the Jaina pantheon and its followers. This indicates to his sincere devotion to that religion in bending his head as a token of respect.
27. Arahanta Pāsõda (n) am Kalinga (na) m sa (m) a namam. 28 Arhate Pakhina samasitehi kaya nisidiyāya. 29. Sashikanta, Hathi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela and Bhābru Edict of Asoka, p. 60.
Arahaita-who has cast for transmigration. Sidha-The released--the perfect soul in the stage after Nirvana,

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Among the Jainas, Arahamta is not the common term for ascetics. The ascetics are called Samana (Sramana), Sahu (Sadhu) or Muni. It is clear from this inscription and that inscriptions on other caves that shrines were built in the honour of the Arahamta while cave dwellings were excavated for the use of the Sramaņas.
There is a reference to duality of soul (jiva) and matter (deha) in the fourteenth line of the Hāthi-Gumphā inscription. The Jainas recognised two categories as jiva (soul) and ajib (non-soul). Soul is independent with a separate cntity altogether and is not to be identified with the body (deha) a form of matter in which it is contained temporarily. Khāravela's statement in this connection that his soul is dependent (Sarita sk-asrita) upon body is quite in accord with Jaina concept.
Khāravela also defines Sramana as Suvihita or self possessed. Sramana is the general term used for the Jaina monks.30
In the eighth regnal year, Khāravela led an expedition to Mathura to protect this age old stronghold of Jainism from the hands of the invading Yavanas. On completion of his task, the army returned to Kalinga under his leadership with a sapling of the Kalpa Vīksa (Wishing tree) burdened with foliage in great pomp and rejoicing. On reaching the capital the emperor distributed the spoils of the victory to all house holders and religious orders. N.K. Sahu31 associates this tree with the Kevala tree of Rşbhanātha. He further points out that in the eleventh year of his reign Khāravela reclaimed the city of Pithunda which was once the metropolis of ancient Kalinga and in course of the work he cultivated the land with plough drawn by asses. The use of asses in place of bulls for drawing ploughs is perhaps due to the fact that Khāravela was a devotee of Rşabharatha. Bull has been spiritually associated with the representation of Rşabhanātha.
The line fourteen of the Hathi-Gumphā inscription relating to the thirteenth year record of Khāravela's reign indicates the royal support and patronage extended to the Jaina Arhatas. They are, according to N.K. Sahu32, the persons who depend on royal patronage, those who fulfilled their religious) vows (and) those sought shelter during the rains. Khāravela was the worshipper (Puja-nu-rata) of the monks who clad in fine garments (china vatāni) and observing rainy season retreat (Vasasitanani). This indirectly refers to the Svetāmbara Sect of the Jainas. As per the term Yapodyāpakas he inclired also to think the existence of the Digambara sect of the Jainas for whom Khāravela caused to have excavated a series of caves in the Kumāri hill (Udayagiri) for the resting of their bodies (Kāyānisidiyāva).
30. The order of the monks appear to have consisted of different grades which are mentioned in a des
cending order. First come the Śramana, who appear to have been quite unconcerned with all mundane affairs, then come the Jnanis who appear to have been masters of the scriptures, next come the Tapaşvi-Rsis who appear to have laid more stress on penance and lastly come the Sanghiyanas or the leaders of the organisational matters more particularly and therefore were the less detached
from mundane affairs as compared to the other three. Sashikanta, Ibid p. 62. 31. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 353. 32. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 354.

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23
Sashikanta33 assumes that Khāravela convened a council of Jaina monks, but no mention of it is made in the literature of Jaina monks of either the Digambara or Sverambara sect of the Jainas probably because it relates to the period till when the schism had not been finalised and the main object of its meeting was to avert the schism and attempt reconciliation. While disagreeing to the fundamentals, they seem to have agreed on this piece of practical wisdom. There was a school in Mathura which tried to keep away from schismatic tendencies till about the beginning of the Christian era and it might have preserved in memory of this council, but no literature of this school has come to light. It seems to have been represented by Aratiya yatis or the Yapaniyas
Taking a clue to this event Sashikanta34 assumes that the honoured recluses were particularly invited to the Jaina council on the Kumari hill (Udayagiri) the famous place of pilgrimage of Jaina retinues. It appears to have been a well attended assembly in which 3,500 monks from all directions joined. The site of the assembly was the quadrangle near the shrine of the Arahamta on the top of the hill more particularly on the roof top of the famous Hathi-Gumpha on the brow of which is the record inscribed. The quadrangle consisted of the stone platform.
He further assumes that in front of the assembly hall was set up a pale red and quadrilateral pillar inlaid with beryl, apparently to serve as a replica of the Manastambha in accord with the traditional, description of Jaina councils as yachana (reading) found in literature.
The excavations have revealed the remains of an apsidal structure just overlying the Hathi-Gumpha. The circular structure towards the apse might be a stupa or just a round platform on which the object of worship was placed. All this is in perfect accord with what the inscription says about the relic memorial (kaya nisidiya) excavated by Khāravela.
Further the excavation has also revealed an ancient imposing yamp built of laterite blocks. It is three metres wide, rising from the foot of the hill and reaches the terrace of the Hathi-Gumphã, and is supported on either side by retaining walls. It is wedge shaped in plan showing greater width near the head than at the tail. This ramp seems to represent the quadrilateral pillar mentioned in the inscription.
This magnificent building activity amply testifies to Khåravela's love and respect for the cause of religion and culture and at the same time it reveals his stately grandeur. Khāravela was also showing equal respect and honour for all religious denominations embracing the royal epithet Sava-päşänḍapujaka, as used in the concluding paragraphs of the Hathi-Gumpha inscription which undoubtedly confirms to the pattern adopted by Devanampriya priyadarli Asoka. There would have been no use of such an epithet had there been no followers among the common mass of Kalinga of different religious orders.
33. Sasnikanta, Ibid, p. 62.
34. Ibid, p. 63.
35. D. Mitra, Indian Archaeology-A review, 1958-59, p. 38-40; 1961-62, pp. 36-37.

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The inscription further testifies to the fact that he was the repairer of abodes of all deities (sava devāyatanasakära-kāraka) without, however, indicating to the names of particular shrines connected with a particular religious order. The repair of those monuments presupposes the earlier existence of religious shrines and his ardent love for maintaining their sanctity and proper preservation. Unfortunately no monument has yet been discovered with inscriptions or tablets, recording that they were caused to be repaired by Khāravela.
From the foregoing descriptions, it is amply clear that Khāravela was a Jaina by birth, but followed the policy of religious toleration which involved non-interference, nonintervention and not meddling in another man's religion.
The example set by him partially in patronising Jainism was followed by many officers and noblemen, presumably of his time as well as by his queens and successors. Some caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are associated with Chula Kamma, Kamma, Bhuti, Nākiya and Kusuma, who were responsible for their excavations. The chief queen herself dedicated a suit of caves to the honour of the Sramaņas of Kalinga while Mahārāja Kūdepasiri and prince Vedukha who probably came after Khāravela are known to have excavated beautiful cave dwellings being inspired by the same ideals.
Besides the positive evidence of the prevalence of Jainism in Orissa till the end of the Chedi rule in the first century A.D., we have negative evidences too. The Mahabhārata informs us that the Kalingas are people of no religion and that they are without the Vedas, without knowledge, without sacrifice and without power to assist at others sacrifice and that the gods do not accept any gift from them. Perfectly in the same spirit, the Baudhayāna Dharmasutra regards Kalinga as an impure country, but evidently unfrequented by Aryanas. 36
The Brāhmaṇa works have raised a cry and created a stir against the culture of the Kalingas and the significant role they played in the great Mahabharata war. The possible reason may be due to the prevalence of Jaina religion in this part of the country. The followers of Jainism were not seen eye to eye by the adherents of Brahmanic faith for they preached against sacrifice, condemned the authority of the Vedas and the efficacy of the vedic ritualism. That appears to be the reason why the people of Kalinga were ruthlessly criticised. Instances, of such condemnations are not wanting in ancient literature. The Brahman writers have created all doubtful notions against the origin of the Nandas probably because they linked themselves with the Jaina religion.
The Uttarādhāyayana Sūtra speaks of Jaina merchants carrying a sea-borne trade from Champā, the capital of Anga which situated on the lower course of the Ganges. We may well presume that Jaina merchants of Kalinga went to countries lying in Indian Archipelago for the purpose of trade in these islands. Traditions current in Java, the origins of which go back to the early centuries of Christian era, given the credit for the colonisation of Java to the people of Kalinga. One of these traditions speak of the settle
36. III, 30-31.

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25
ment of twenty thousand families of Kalinga.37 These traditions may not be historically absolutely correct. But they can be taken as fair evidence of the colonisation of this region by the people of Orissa much before the second century A.D. Of course there is no report yet of any Jaina antiquity in these places, the absence of which may be explained by the fact that Jainism was a very mild religion.
After the fall of Khāravela's dynasty the fortunes of Jainism cannot be clearly traced. From the end of the first century B.C. to the 7th century A.D. no clear chronological history of Orissa is available. Some stray specimens of art and architecture recently discovered throw welcome light on this dark period of Orissan history, but among such specimens, Jaina monuments do not form a prominent group. It seems that Jainism suffered a partial eclipse with the subsequent rise of Buddhism and Saivism in Orissa. It must be noted that Brahminism remained as a major religion of Orissa throughout the ages, though Jainism and Buddhism had their periodical ascendancy. The period of Jaina ascendancy in Orissa was over at the beginning of the Christian era and it then continued to co-exist along with other religious sects. Jainism had maintained all along a remarkable non-antagonistic attitude towards Hinduism, which according to the competent authorities is one of the causes of its survival. The same spirit worked in Orissa and Jainism continued to co-exist as a religion all along with other religions.
This religion again revived to a considerable extent during the period: when Kalinga was under the Murundas. The Murundas appear to have invaded Kalinga some time in the second century A.D. after the decline of Sātavāhana power over that region. The Murunda rule in Kalinga is suggested by large hoards of Kushāņa coins along with imitation Kushāna coins discovered in all the coastal disiricts of Orissa as well as hill tracks of Mayurbhanja and Keonjhar Districts. These coins have also been discovered in the districts of Ranchi and Singhbhum in Bihar and a few of these have been found in West Bengal.38 The rule of the Murundas in eastern India with Pataliputra as their capital is amply testified by the Jaina literary traditions.39 A.S. Altekar40 is inclined to identify the Mururda kings of the Jaina tradition with the Murundas of the puranic tradition which refers to thirteen Murunda Kings ruling in the post Andhra and preGupta period. According to Altekar", Mahārāja Dharmadāmodara who ruled over parts of Bihar and Orissa and circulated gold coins "may well have been a Jaina and belonged to the Murunda family." King Guhasiva has been taken to be the last Murunda king and later on converted to Buddhism by the influence of his Buddhist minister. Upon this all the Nigrañthas (naked) Jainas who were nick named as "Ahirika" left Kalinga and went to Pataliputra where king Pandu was ruling. The Nigrañthas complained to him against the Kalinga king. The Dātha Vaṁsa42 speaks in derogatory terms
37. R.C. Majumdar, (Ed.), Age of Imperial Unity, p. 665. 38. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 422. 39. Ibid, p. 421. 40. A.S. Altekar, Ancient India, No. 5, p. 100. 41. Ibid, pp. 100-101. 42. Datha Vamsa, II, 72-79 and J.A. Vol. XII, No. 2, p. 60.

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about the Jainas of Kalinga and reveals its strong intolerance against that religion. It further states that Guhasiva was worshipping the Nigrantha "who were cunning, enveloped in the darkness of ignorance, hankering after gain and fame and ignorant of the welfare of their own and of others". Such invective of the Buddhist chronicle indicates that there was bitter rivalry between Buddhism and Jainism at that time.
26
During this period the Acharyes of Jainism seem to have remained satisfied with delivering discourses to those who were interested in that religion and there was probably no organised missionary activities among the propagators. The Angas and the purvas restored at the council cf Patliputra about 300 B.C. began to be forgotten and no attempts were made in the 4th century A.D. to reorganise Jainism and to revive its scriptures. But unfortunately the Swetambaras and the Digambaras had already developed into rival sccts and the attempts of reorganisation during this period were probably made mostly by the Swetambara schcel. In the year 840 of the Vira era the Svetambaras convoked two councils, one at Mathura and the cther at Vallabhi presided over by Skandila and Nagarjuna (a Jeina saint) respectively. These two councils determined to correct texts cf Jainism which were later on confirmed and put to writing by the second Vallabhi council held in the year 980 of the Vira era.43
The further continuar ce of Jainism in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. when the Nagas and Guptes were the ruling dynastics is testified by the recent discovery of the Asunpata" inscrip ticus in the Kejar district of Orissa. According to the inscription one Mahārāja Satrubhanja of the Naga dynasty donated a large amount of wealth to some mathas (religious institutions) ad to Bhiksus, Charakas Parivrajakas, Nigranthas, etc. Although be was a great sciolri Vad, Vedangas, Puranas and Upanisadas of the Brahmanical faith le did not stop couraging the Baudha Bhikhus and Jaina Nigranthas. As a matter of fact the area areuad Asurpat, the place of discovery of the inscription is abundently riel. i. Jaina relics. B. Acharya informs us that the Baula range of hills in the Anandapur sub-civision in Keonjhar district is the veritable repository of Statues of Jain Tirthakares and their Sasanadevis. So the places like Podusingidi and Vaidaihia in the same sub-division containing Yogichaia may perhaps be taken as the centre of activitics of the Nigranthas to whom Satrubhanja donated large amount of wealth as revealed from the inscription referred to above.
45
When the Murunda kings were ruling in the northern parts of Kalinga, the southern part was under the Pitribhaktas cr Matharas who seem to have embraced Jainism at the beginning of their rule. That may be the reason why they named one of their headquarters as Vardhemanpur in honour of Mahavira alias Vardhamana. Mahārāja Umavarman and Maharaja Nenda Frablanjana Varmana of the Mathara dynasty of Kalinga have issued their charters from the city of Vardhamanpur."
43. The accounts of these councils are known from the Nandi Churni of Jinadas (578 A.D.) and Yogssastray of Hemachandra (1140 A.D.)
44. A. Das, OHRJ., Vol. XII, No. 2, pp. 4-5.
45. JKHRS, Vol. III, Nos. 1, 2, 3, pp. 225-27.
46. EI. Vol. XXVIII, pp. 298-302 and S.N. Rajguru, Inscription of Orissa, Vol. I. Pt. II, pp. 78-80.

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27
The early Gangas, succeeded the Matharas in Kalinga. The family tradition of the Eastern Ganga kings maintained by the Srāvan velgolā inscription of Mysore reveals that once upon a time two royal princes of the Ganga dynasty named Daddiga and Madhash, have started from Ayodhyā in search of shelters in the south. On their way, they met a Jaina monk named Simhanandi who advised them to establish two kingdoms, one at Kalinga and another at Gangavadi of Mysore. Accordingly Daddiga proceeded to the far South while Mädhash halted in Kalinga.47 They accepted Jainism and used elephant as a sacred emblem indicating thereby, their respect to that religion. Since then the Mysore Gangas used elephant as an emblem in their seals. But Gangas of Kalinga changed their adherence from Jainism to Saivism during the early medieval age, although in one instance a king named Devendra Varman 48 used the elephant emblem in the seal of his Bangalore Copper plate grant. It is recorded in the said inscription that Devendra Varman donated some lends in Sidhata-grāma (the ancient Sidhartha grāma) in the district of Varahavarttini, to s guru whe lived at Sriparvata for Vali and pujā of the God Paramesvara Parcmabhatāraka. Even after the Gangas of Kalinga shown their leanings towards Saivism, a parallel establishment of the Jaina faith began to function at the Rāmatirtha hill were a large number of Jaina images and monuments are seen up to the present day. This type of Jaina temples were built at the same time when the Yegichata temple at Baula mcuntain of Kecnjhar district in north Orissa was constructed. In the Chalukyana territory similar type of Jaina temples were built in the 7th century A.D.
The Aihole inscription relating to a Jaina temolc was inscised in Kaliyugābda 3735 cr Sakabda 556 corresponding te A.D. 634.19
In the 7th century A.D. Jainism was still ia affluent cor dition in Orissa as known from the account cf Yuan Chwarg who visited this regica in 638 A.D. politically Orissa was then divided into three principalities-Odra, Kongoda and Kalinga. During his visit, he observed that while in Odra there were oly 50 Deva temples, in Kongoda the Deva temples were 100 in number ard of Tirilikos, there were more than 10,000. In Kalinga the professed adherents of the various sects were very numerous, the majority being Nigrañthas.50 The Deva temples referred to therein might have been the Brahmarical shrines. However the cbservation of the Chinese pilgrim suggests that as late as the middle of the 7th century A.D. Jainism was in flourishing condition in Orissa although Brahmanism had its sway in this region.
The Banapur Copper plates of Dharmarāja Mānabhita51 (Cir 695-780 A.D.) of the Sailodbhava dynasty record a grant of lands at the Madhuvātaka village and at Suvarnarālondi situated within the vişaya of Thorana (which formed parts of Koñgoda) Mandala to Prabhudhachardra, a disciple of the arhadachārya Nāsichandra for meeting
47. B. Lewis Rice, Ep. Carn. Vol. VII, Introduction, p. 16 ff. 48. S.N. Rajguru, Inscription of Orissa, Vol. II, pp. 113-17. 49. D.C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphy, p. 19. 50 Watters-Yuanchwang Travels in India, Vol II, pp. 196-198. 51. S.C. De (Ed), Descriptive Catalogue of the Copper plate Inscription of Orissa, p. XXV.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
the expenses of the ceremonial worship of (bali sattra-charu Pravartatanya) an image, possibly of a Goddess. According to D.C. Sircar52 Prabhaudachandra was possibly a Jaina monk who was noted as Ekaśāta which has been interpreted by him as "one who has taken a vow to wear only one piece of cloth". The word Arhat, however, applies to Buddhist saints as well. For this reason and also in view of the name, the possibility of Prabhudha Chandra professing Buddhism cannot be entirely ruled out. In any case, that there was a Jain a establishment in the vicinity of Banapur is suggested by the find of nearly ten Jaina bronze images in Achutarajapur hoard and a late chlorite image of Rsabhanātha now fixed to the wall of the minor temple within the enclosure of the Dakşaprajapati temple at Banapur. Some of these bronzes display considerable artistic excellence and they range in date from the eighth to the eleventh century A.D.
According to Beal, the great Buddhist monk, Dharmakirtti, defeated Kumārila Bhatta53 of Kānchi and converted the Jaina scholars of Kalinga in the 7th century A.D. to bring them to the Buddhist fold. From an inscription of Nilakantheswar temple on a hill near Padmapur of Gunupur Sub-division of Koraput District of Orissa we trace that Dharmakirtti's ashrania was located somewhere nearby. Thus the struggle between the Jaina scholars and Buddhist monks in Kalinga continued for some time. But the Jaina establishment retained importance in Kaliñga for many centuries to come. A. Joshi reported 54 a Rşabhadeva image datable to 8th century A.D. from Podasingidi of Anandapur Sub-Division of Keonjhar district of Orissa, on the basis of palaeography of the inscription found on its body in fifteen letters. Besides several such other Tīrthankara images from Anandapur and Jajpur areas bear favourite characteristics of the Bhauma period. But there is no direct evidence to the fact that Bhauma kings had professed Jainism and patronised its Scholars. B. Acharya55 while discussing the virudas of the Bhañja kings of Ghumsur, Mayurbhanja, Keonjhar, Baud and Dasapalla on the basis of an unpublished manuscript and copper plate grants linked their lineage to one Ganadanda Virabhadra who professed Jaina faith. The mention of Devagana in the viruda had evident connection with the Jaina tradition. According to the Ukhundā Copper plate grant of Keonjhar district this Ganadanda Virabhadra was miraculously born from the egg of a pea hen in the penance grove of the Kofta and nurtured by sage Vasistha. He became the first king and the first Bhañja or Adibhanja in whose family, the subsequent kings like Kotta Bhañja and others took their birth. The Kesari plates 57 of Satrubhañja contain some more details of the legendary account. Here it is further stated that Ganadanda Virabhadra was born to one who sprang out of a pea hen and was originally nurtured by 88,000 sages and that at their request being served by Ramadeva, he became king of 88,000 villages. The mention of Virabhadra of the copper plate grants is also finds mention in Jaina Harivamsa where he taught Jaina philosophy to Vasisthamuni. It is further indicated in the said Harivañía that Vasistha muni being
52. D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, p. 34. 53. Watters, Yuanchwang. Vol. II, p. 198 (1905). 54. A. Joshi, OHRJ, Vol. X No. 3. pp. 74-76. 55. Nabābhārata, II, 12, pp. 81-87. 56. B. Misra, Dynasties of Medieval Orissa, pp. 57-60. 57. EI. V . XXXy,p. 161.

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92
humiliated by Ugrasena of Mathurā practised severe penance at Baranasi on the bank of Ganga, Virabhadra, the prophet with five hundred of his followers reached the spot and refrained him from observance of such severe penance.
In addition to the above traditional view we find representation of symbols like crescent moon, bull, lotus and lion, on the scale of the copper plate grants issued by the Bhanja rulers which on the other hand are lāñchanas of Chandra Prabha, Rşabha, Padmaprabha and Mahāvira respectively. The discovery of large number of Jain a sites like Khiching, Podasingidi, Vaidakhia, Hatadiha, etc. in the Mayurbhanja, Keonjhar districts of Orissa with numerous figures of Tirthańkaras and Säsanadevis strongly support the contention that the Bhanja kings followed the principle of religious toleration and patronised all prevalent religions including Jainism of the early medieval period.
e figures of Wed the principle the early me
Jainism continued to flourish in Orissa during the rule of the Somavaṁsis of the 10th-11th century A.D. although Saivism was in its ascendency then. This is evident by the epigraphic and iconic representations. There are three inscriptions belonging to the reign of Udyotakeśari, son and successor of Yayati II Chandihar Mahāśivagupta which are found engraved on the caves of Khandagiri. One of them is found in the Lalātendu Keśari-Gumph, and the remaining two in the Nava muni-Gumphā. The one in the Lalātendu Keśari-Gumphā and one of the two in the Navamuni-Gumphā expressly refer themselves to the reign of Udyota Kesari and since the donor of the third one is also the donor of the inscription in the Lalātendu Keśari-Gumphā, it has been generally accepted that all of them undoubtedly belong to his age.
One of the twoinscriptions of Navamuni-Gumphā records the work of Subhachandra, disciple of Kulachandra, who was the Acharya of the Desigapa belonging to the Grahakula of the Arya Samgha in the eigtheenth regnal year of Udyota Keśari (eleventh century A.D.) of the Somavaṁsi dynasty. K.C. Panigrahi58 reads Grahadevāla in place of Grahakula and suggests that in the eleventh century AD. the Jaina monks used to come to the Khandagiri from distant places like Garwal. The second inscription of the Navamuni-Gumphā refers to the Umbrella with the staff belonging to Subha Chandra, novice disciple of Sri Achārya Kulachandra.
The inscription in Lalātendu Keśari-Gumphā dated in the year 549 of the Ganga era (i.e. 1045 A.D.) of the same king records the restoration of a decayed Vapi and temples on the Kumāra hill (Khandagiri) and also the setting up of the images of twentyfour Tirthankaras there. The name of the hill Khandagiris has been given in this inscription as Kumara Parvata. From the Hathi-Gumphā inscription we come to know that Udayagiri was known as Kumāri Parvata. So the twin hillocks of Khandagiri and Udayagiri were respectively known as Kumāra Pārvāta and Kumāri Parvata in ancient times. During the rule of this dynasty several of the old monastic caves of Khandagiri were
58. K.C. Pa nigrahi, Chronology of the Bhaumakara and the Somavaṁsis of Orissa, pp. 52-56,

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
recommissioned into sanctuaries by removing the partition walls of the cells, increasing their height by digging the floor to a deeper depth and carving the images of the Tirthankaras on the walls. This period also witnessed the construction, on this hill, of structural edifices as indicated by the find of images and a large number of architectural remains of fallen temples. Besides the activity at Khandagiri, a large number of Jaina images belonging to this period have been discovered from different parts of Orissa. Mostly they were found at Charampa near Bhadrak town, Ayodhyā in the district of Balasore, Khiching in the district of Mayurbh anja and also several places in the districts of Keonjhar, Koraput, Cuttack and Puri. Jainism during this period flourished due to the fact that Saivas were not antagonistic to Jainism. Rather they had, in certain cases, allowed the Jaina images to be displayed in their temples. A number of miniature Tirthankara figures on the Saiva temple Mukteśvar at Bhubaneswar belonging to this period is a glaring testimony to this fact.
During the reign of the Imperial Gangas and even the Gajapatis Jainism in Orissa was not in a thoroughly neglected state. In 1100 Saka year or in the 11th regral year of Anantavarmā Rājarāja II of the Imperial Gariga dynasty one Kannama Nayaka, a devout worshipper of Jina and a subordinate of Utkal king installed a sacred image of Jina at Rāmavāmagiri (the modern Rāmatirtham) in a temple called "Rāja-rāja Jinālaya" for which some merchants of Bhogapur have granted lands to burn a perpetual lamp. 59
In the same inscription at lines 18 and 19 wc fird that Ambikādevi's image was also installed in that temple. Ambikā is the Sasanadevī of Neminātha the 22nd Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon.
The Digambara association of the Khandagiri caves during the reign of the Gargas and their successors the Gaja patis is proved by the crude reliefs of the Tirthan karas on the walls of Trisula-Gumphā of the Khandagiri which are not earlier in date than the fifteenth century and may be even later. Evidence regarding the cells of these caves being tenated in this period by Jaina recluses is, however lacking.60 Of course by this time the rulers and their subjects were the patrons of Brahmanism and Jagannātha faith strongly established in their minds. Naturally some Jaina centres migl.t have been victims to its mighty influence and thereby Jaina religion gradually lost its bearing on the people. There began a number of Jaina deities being worshipped as Hindu divinities and Jaina philosophy silently influenced Oriya literature, custom and traditions.
After 16th century Jainism gave away to the rising Jagannatha cult. Khardagiri, the most illustrious centre of Jainism in Orissa, was found to have been deserted. Having acquired spiritual domination for several centuries with occasional setback Khandagiri-Udayagiri stard today as silent witness to the rise, growth and decline of Jaira
59. S.N. Rajguru, Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol. III, Pt. il pp. 316-17, and SII, Vol. X, No. 710. 60. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, p. 6.

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religious faith in Orissa. In the early part of the 19th century the Digambara Jaina temple was built on the hill top of Khandagiri. In the recent times Jaina shrines came up at Jaunliapatti, Chaudhury Bazar, Alamchanda Bazar of Cuttack town, Bhanpur, Chaudhuar, Jeypore, Khariar road, etc., of Orissa. They preserve several ancient stone statues of Jaina Tirthankaras, chaumukhas, Ganadharas, in marble and brass.
THE KALINGA JINA
There is a reference in the Hathi-Gumphā inscription to the removal of the Kalinga Jina from Kalinga to Magadha by one Nandarāja at the time of his invasion and its subsequent recovery by the Chedi ruler Khāravela who invaded Magadha in the first century B.C.
There is no uniformity of opinion among scholars in the identification of this Kalinga Jins, as the only reference to it is found in the Hathi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela. There is no other literary tradition preserved anywhere in that connection. Secondly, we have found no material remains of an image from any of the excavations carried out in Orissa which could safely be attributed to any of the Jaina Tirthankaras.
But though they denied the existence of a supreme being, the Jainas regard the practice of worshipping images of their Tirathankaras as the foundation of their creed. The authenticity of this tradition may be doubted, but the custom of icon wors! ip among the Jainas certainly may be traced back to the Maurya and Sunga peried. One of the earliest stone images in the round discovered in India is associated with Jainism. It is the torso of a nude figure unearthed from Lohanipur in the Patna whose high polish erables us to date it in the Maurya period. Its nudity, the stiff straight pose of its arms har ging down by its sides ir dicative of the Kāyotsarga attitude characteristics of the Jairas and its general outlook unmistakably proves that it was originally the image of the Tirthankara.61 Its upper and lower portions being unfortunately lost there is no means to ascertain to which of the twenty-four Tirthankaras it represented.
K.P. Jayaswal2 writing on the Hathi-Gumphā inscription refers “He (Khāravela) returns home with rich trophies of Anga and Magadha together with the recovery (Padihāra) of some Kalinga heirlooms and the statue or foot marks (the detail is damaged) of the first Jina which had been carried away by king Nanda".
R.D. Banerji63 in his note on the Hāthi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela almost agreed to the same view. He asserts in the same year (twelfth year) the image of the Jina (Rişabhadeva) that had been carried away by king Nanda (?) was caused to be taken back to Kalinga."
61. JBORS, Vol. XXIII, PP. 130-32. 62. K.P. Jayaswal, JBORS, Vol. III, No. 4, p. 433. 63. R.D. Banerji, JBORS, Vol. III, No. 4, p. 501.

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But elsewhere both R.D. Banerji ard K.P. Jayaswal tried to identify this Kalinga Jina with the tenth Tirthankara, Sitalanatha who was born at Bhadalpur, which is probably the same as Bhadrachalam or Bhadrapuram in Kalinga country. This town is at present situated in Godavari District of Andhra Pradesh. The mention of Nandaraja in Hatht-Gumpha inscription as having brought away the image of Jina from Kalinga is interesting from the point of view of the ancient culture of Orissa. Orissa had been a Jaina stronghold from the very beginning. The Jaina Harivamla Purana says that Mahavira Vardhaman had preached his religion in Kalinga. Another Jaina work, the Haribhadriya Vṛitti says that Mahavira Vardhaman went to Kalinga as the king of that country was a friend of his father. The Jaina tradition on the other hand does not assign any of the 24 Tirthankaras of the present age of Kalpa to Kalinga. Besides the identification of Bhadrachalam appears to be wrong for Bhadrilpura was the capital of the Malaya Janapada, which is included in the list of 25 countries enumerated in the Jaina literature.65 The Malaya Janapada lay to the immediate south of Nalanda and its capital city has been identified with Bhadiya a village in the Hazaribag district. Many Jaina images have been discovered at this spot.66
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It has also been identified with Ajitanatha, the second Tirthankara of the Jainas who had elephant as his symbol and Kalinga at one time was famous for its clephants."" Lord Sreyamanatha, the eleventh Tirthankara, is also associated with Kalinga Jina as his birth place Simhapura as mentioned in the Mahavastu was the capital of the Kalinga country. Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara has been regarded by M.M. Chakravarty as the most venerable figure in Kalinga. Various episodes from his life are depicted in the long friezes of Rani-Gumpha of Udayagiri hill. We have earlier examined the veracity of the representations on the basis of medieval episodes from the writings of Bhavadeva Suri. Aranatha, the 18th Tirthankara is said to have received his first alms in the city of Rajpura, which according to Mahabharata was the metropolis of Kalinga. Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara visited the Kalinga country in the duration of his penances in the eleventh year and is said to have suffered great pains there. He was most prominently reverred in the north eastern Janapadas and also in Magadha. Memoirs of his visit to Kalinga country prior to his Enlightenment, may have been quite fresh in the minds of the people there, so that after his demise, the people of Kalinga probably made a lofty image of his for the purpose of worship. The same image was carried away by the Nanda king during his conquest of that country and the same was brought back by Kharavela after having subdued the people of Magadha later on."
Similarly Ṛsabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of the Jainas has also been regarded by some other scholars as the Kalinga Jina referred to in the Hathi-Gumphâ inscription.
64. R.D. Banerji, History of Orissa, Vol. I, pp. 60-61.
65. Avaś yaka Nirukti, 383, Qtd. A.C. Mital, An Early History of Orissa, p. 144.
66. District Gazetteer, Hazaribag, p. 202.
67. A.C. Mittal, An Early History of Orissa, p. 145.
68. Ibid, p. 145.
69. M.M. Chakravarty, Bengal District Gazetteer, Puri, LSSO'Malley (Ed.) p. 256. 70, A.C. Mittal, An Early History of Orissa, p. 146.

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N.K. Sahu identified Kalinga Jina in all probability with Rṣabhanatha for whom Kharavela had special veneration." In the eighth regnal year Kharavela led an expedition to Mathura to protect the Jaina stronghold of the place from the hands of the invading Yavanas. On completion of his part of duty, the retreating army under his effective leadership turned to Kalinga with a sapling of the Kalpa tree burdened with foliage. His vast army, with horses, elephants and chariots made a majestic procession while carrying the Kalpa tree and after reaching the capital the emperor distributed the spoils of victory to all householders and religious orders. N.K. Sahu associates this tree with the Kevala tree of Rṣabhanatha and further points out that in the eleventh year of his reign Khāravela reclaimed the city of Pithunda which was once the metropolis of the ancient kings of Kalinga and in course of the said work he cultivated the land with plough drawn by asses. The use of asses in place of bulls for drawing ploughs is perhaps due to the fact that Kharavela was a devotee of Rṣabhanatha. Bull, has been spiritually associated, with the representation of Ṛsabhanatha. In addition to this the Jaina temple on the crest of Khandagiri is dedicated to Rṣabhanatha and a marble image of the said Tirthankara is under worship in the temple. Among the Tirthankara figures depicted in the caves of Khandagiri Rabhadeva seems to have found prominent representation. From a sample survey of the stray sculptures all over the state one will definitely say that Rṣabhanatha images were extremely popular in the nooks and corners of Orissa. The Oriya literature of the medieval period and various traditions and customs prevalent in Orissa are replete with information to Rṣabhanatha and his gospels.
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C.J. Saha72 while discussing on this aspect gives the reasons why the Jina of Kalinga was known as Kalinga Jina during the period. "At first sight it seems strange why this image is called the Jina of Kalinga. It does not refer to any Tirthankara whose life history was connected with Kalinga, but it seems, according to the interpretation of Muni Jina Vijaya, that it is a practice still prevalent to designate the image of a particular Tirthankara after the name of the locality of the establishment. The first Tirthankara (Rṣabhadeva) at Satrunjaya for instance is called "Satrañjaya Jina". Similarly the image at Abu is called "the Arbuda Jina" and the one at Dhulew (Mewar) is called "the Dhulew Jina". Thus it is not necessary that the image must be of a Jina associated with Kalinga in his life history. The expression "the Jina of Kalinga" merely means that the Jaina image was worshipped at Kalinga or at the Kalinga, Capital".
Nilakantha73 Dash on the other hand identified the Kalinga Jina with earlier form of Jagannath. "This Jagannatha, it appears, was there in the coast of Kalinga (Present Orissa) as a piece of black stone which was called Kalinga Jina or symbol of Jina in Kalinga. Later on, it was somehow analysed and the analytic name Nilamadhava was given to it. It seems probable that this explanatory name had some connexion with the Sunya or Nihilistic theory which developed out of Mahayana and practically pervaded all the then philosophies of India. It came to be the ruling theory when definitely, a theory of creation was assumed to explain the beginning of the phenomenal uni
71. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 354. 72. C.J. Shah, Jainism in North India, pp. 172-73. 73. N.K. Dash, OHPJ, Vol. VII, No. 1, p. 7.

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verse. A creation really means to make things out of nothing. The maker also is assumed to be a reality though in fact he is also no where or nothing. So the Buddhist philoso phers of the Mahayana School i.e. the School of Buddhism which conceived Buddha as the creator of the universe and the fountain head of karuna or mercy, naturally developed the theory of Nihilism (Sunyavada which means, "everything comes out of nothing"). The Jaina symbol i.e. the stone called Kalinga Jina therefore under the stress of that theory came to be explained as Nila (black nothingless), Ma (mohter creative energy), and Dhava (white i.e. the phenomenal universe).
"Thus the Kalinga Jina or the Jina symbol of black stone was in course of time known as Nilamadhava. I am told a black stone is still worshipped under the name of Nilamadhava by the aborigins in the jungles of Pal Lahara, in the present Dhenkanal district of Orissa".
A.L. Basham on the basis of popularity of Jagannatha cult in Orissa speculates its prevalence in a different form in pre-Maurya or Mauryan times and the practices followed by this religion enraged Aśoka to attack Kalinga. He observes "It is well known that in more recent times, the people of Orissa have been particularly devoted to the cult of Jagannatha focussed on the great temple of Puri. Orissa's regional nationalism has centred round this cult for at least a thousand years. We cannot trace the cult of Jagannatha back to the days of Aśoka, but it is probable that it already existed in some form, no doubt in an unsanskritised form with the Hindu God Vișnu. Such a cult with its indigenous priesthood, might well have set itself in opposition to Mauryan imperialism and have encouraged sedition and revolt in favour of the former native rulers of Kalinga. This might provide sufficient reason for the suppression of Aśoka's twelfth Rock Edict in the Kalinga edition". We have earlier indicated that Orissa was a stronghold of Jainism during pre-Maurya and Mauryan times. The Kalinga Jina was considered as a prized object by the then Magadhan rulers. For this Kalinga Jina Khāravela also waged several expeditions against the king of Magadha. Aśoka's invasion of Kalinga was nothing but to suppress the Jaina religious sentiment to which the people and the king alike of Kalinga were so much attached. So the Kalinga Jina either in the earlier form of Jagannatha or with its separate identity of a pedestal or image was highly reverred in ancient Orissa.
On the inner wall of the verandah of Mañichapuri-Gumpha we notice a large panel showing the worship of some unidentifiable object. The object of worship has actually been decayed due to continuous rubbing of the surface and constant exposure to weathering conditions. The faint resemblance of the object leads the scholars from time to time to variously interpret its subject matter. T.N. Ramachandran's and following him K.C. Panigrahi, N.K. Sahu" and others tried to identify the panel by taking the unspecified object of worship to be the throne of the Kalinga Jina more possibly
74. A.L. Basham, "Some reflections on the separate Kalinga Edicts of Aśoka", Seminar paper, International seminar on Buddhism and Jainism, Cuttack, 1976. 75. T.N. Ramachandran, I.H.O., Vol. XXXVII, 1951 pp. 103-04.
76. K C. Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar, p. 206-07. 77. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, pp. 360-61.

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related to the event of reinstatement of the Kalinga Jina by Khāravela duly accompanied by his family members. On the high pedestal rests the object of worship obliterated beyond recognition. The assemblage on the right is a group of four standing votaries with folded hands who evidently came there on a majestic elephant. Above the figure is suggested the aerial region by the symbol of sun (shown in shape of multipetalled lotus), two flying Gandharvas carrying celestial musical instruments, and a flying Vidyādhara moving towards the object of worship in the attitude of scattering flowers from a tray held in his left hand.
The second figure from the left of the existing panel wears a turreted crown resembling the tiārā on Mauryan heads found at Sāranāth. The arrangement of his scarf in the fashion of an uttariya passing across his left shoulder, is distinct from that of others. All are in long dhoti, scarves, and heavy ear ornaments.
On the basis of the above details T.N. Ramchandran is inclined to relate the frieze to the family members of Khāravela "shall we take the scene as one in which the king (perhaps Khāravela), prince (perhaps Kūdepasiri), and the queens or princesses are doing honour to the image of Kalinga Jina which Khāravela recovered from Magadha and restored to his people".
But from the scanty evidences, it is clear that Jainism, as practised in those days in this part of the country, did not involve the worship of images for not a single Jaina Tirthankara figure appears in the earlier phase of carvings in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri or anywhere in Orissa. In the absence of any early image it is difficult to identify the Jina of Kalinga mentioned in the line twelve of the Hathi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela with the image of a Tirthankara. On the other hand, it appears that the worship of symbols was in vogue at that time among the Jainas as among the Buddhists. The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri datable to the first century B.C. are replete with these symbols. The Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha and Ananta-Gumphā depict a tree within railings being worshipped by devotees. On the back wall of Ananta-Gumphā appears a Nandipada on a pedestal flanked on either side by a set of three symbols, a triangle headed one, Srivasta and Svastika without forming part of a scene, all of which are also represented on the Jaina āyagāpatas of the Kushāna period from Mathura. The Hāthi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela is also enclosed between two pairs of such symbols, one to the left of line 1-2, the second to the left of line 3-5, the third at the end of line 3 and the fourth at the end of line 16-17. Besides some of them are repeated over the pointed arch bands of Rāņi-Gumphā, Ganesa-Gumpha and Ananta-Gumphā, These symbols are regarded by the Jainas as good omens and form four of the eight auspicious objects (astamangalas).
Bhagvanlal Indraji78 identify the nandipada symbol as a “Bull symbol” and not as a mere foot mark of the bull." Possibly on the basis of Chulla Kalinga Jātaka in which the tutelary deity of Kalinga is represented in the shape of white bull" and that of Assāka in the shape of a "black bull”. The other two symbols i.e. the tree within
78. Qtd, B.M. Baura, Old Brāhmi Inscriptions, p. 144.

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railings or Vikșa chaitya and the svastika are more commonly available not only in sculptures of ancient period, but also profusely decorate the punch-marked coins even having much earlier dates.
Sashikanta79 accepted the svastika and nandipada or nadyāvrata symbols as ones among the eight auspicious things required at the time of worship among the Jainas, but he regarded the vadha-mangala and the vk$a-chaitya symbols as replicas of a crown and the royal standard respectively as they occur at the beginning and end of the famous Hāthi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela.
Elaborating his contention further N.K. Dash is of the opinion that the Kalinga Jina (symbol of Jina in Kalinga) which had been taken from Orissan part of Kalinga by Nandarāja of Magadha of the 4th or 5th century B.C. was brought back to Kalinga by the then Kalinga Emperor, Khāravela, who was a professed Jaina. This Kalinga Jina, therefore, was there long before the 4th or the 5th century B.C. It was then a symbol of philosophy of Jagannātha.
It is very interesting to observe that evidently the Jina symbol (Kalinga Jina) of Puri coast was not there in Puri from the 4th century B.C. to the 1st century B.C. During these centuries, it appears, this empty-place of the symbol was a sacred place called Vedi (altar) or Mahāvedi (great altar). In Mahabhārata after crossing the river Vaitarani Yudhişthira proceeds on towards this place and bathes at this sacred Vedi on the coast 80 and then from there goes to the Mahendra mountain. The same name Vedi and Mahāvedi in the same place is mentioned in the Skandal Purana as the place where Jagannātha images were established replacing Nilamadhava. The same stone, it may give rise to the name of Nilamadhava when it was re-established by Khāravela after more than 300 years.
m there goes to tentioned in the Skandhava. The sam
M. Mansinha82 examining the Gālamādhava Legend indicates that the imaginary replica of the Nilmalāj Siva-lingam worshipped by the Savaras was perhaps later changed into a Jaina Tirthankara image, probably of Jinanātha or Jineśvara and that king Gājamādhava is no other than the historic king Khāravela of Kalinga who had recovered a Jaina image from Magadha and had installed in a place surrounded by the sea as Kusa grasss steppes." This description in the Hathi-Gumphā inscription fits in which the town of Puri even to day. The sudden disappearance of the deity in the legend refers perhaps to the snatching away of the Jaina image from Orissa by victorious Nanda king of Magadha. The Hāthi-Gumpha inscription proudly mentions its recovery by Khāravela after defeating the Magadha king. In the national consciousness of Orissa the historical Khāsavela changed into legendary Gālamādhava as the great restorer. Khāravela also restored Jainism in Orissa in place of Buddhism which was accepted by Aśoka as the state religion.
79. Sashikanta, Hathi-Gumpha Inscription of Khāravela and the Bhäbru edict of Asoka, p. 64. 80. Mahābhārata, Vanaparva (Tirthajatra Parva), Vangavasi, Edition, Ch. 114, Verse. 22-27, Bhandarkar
Oriental Rescarch Institute, Bombay, Ed. Ibid, Verse. 22-26. 81. Skanda Purana, (Utkal Khanda), XVIII, 16, XIX, 36, XXIX, 34. etc. 82 M. Mansinha, Saga of the land of Jagannātha, pp. 60,61.

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JAINISM AND JAGANNATHA CULT
The political greatness of Orissa is long past, but her religious greatness continues unabated. Her temples, images and many other monuments that stand proudly today rising above the ravages of time bear eloquent testimony to her predominence in the religious sphere and established beyond doubt the antiquity of the sanctity of the soil. Most of the monuments now stand were the centres of varied activities of a brave race vibrating with rich gay life. Their Gods and Goddesses, their temples and stupas and all that they held so dear have become a proud heritage to the present Oriya people. Out of these Gods and Goddesses, Tathāgatas and Tirthankaras, has emerged the great Lord Jagannātha, as the sole representative of all the extinct Gods and Goddessses embodying in Him the chief elements of all. So the cult of Jagannātha, is a curious mixture of Many elements hetrogeneous and homogeneous wielded to one through a long synthetic process of evolution. In short Jagannathism if we may say so is the synthetic epitome of the different Indian cults that had gained currency among the people in different periods of history.
The points of Jaina affinity with Jagannātha cult are so many and so intimate that one may legitimately consider if Jagannātha is really not a by-product of Jainism which is the older creed. Puri is the land of Jagannātha as the great Jagannātha temple is located here. He is worshipped here along with Balarāma, Subhadrā and Sudarśana. There are a number of ceremonies associated with these deities which may have been derived from Jaina religion and its practices.
The deities are taken out in decorated chariots pulled by people in the main road (Badadanda) during car festival (Rathajātrā) and its return festival (Vāhudājātrā) every year. The deities are bathed ceremoniously (Snānjatra). The body of the deities changed and fresh images are substituted periodically, the connected festival is called Nava Kalevara.
The Rathajātrā seems to be an idea taken from Jainism. The structure of the Rathas or chariots are like Jaina chaityas. In Puri Rathajātrā is held traditionally on the second day of the full moon in Asādha (June-July). This day is considered sacred. Any type of good work may be performed on that day as it is regarded as auspicious day (Kalyanaka di vasa). The Jainas believe that on the day of the second full moon in Āsādha, the first Tirthankara Rşabha was conceived for which Chaitya Jātra or Rathajātrā is observed.
Like the Snāna jātra (the bathing ceremony) of Lord Jagannātha, the Jaina deities also have their Abhişeka and Snāna ceremonies. The custom of colouring Lord Jagannātha's eyes and the Nava Jauvana dress after his snāna remind one of the same with the Jina idols.
It should be borne in mind that if the moon remains in the constellation of Puşya star on the same day the cars are drawn to the Gundicha temple, the festival is regarded specially auspicious. In that case, the moon reaches the constellation of the Uttară.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
phālguni star on the Herā ceremony day. It is significant to note that on that day (the 6th day of waxing moon of Asādha, the moon remaining in the constellation of the Uttarāphālguni star). Mahāvīra descended to the womb of Devanandi from the Puspattara83 heaven. Accordingly, Mahāvīra's descent is commemorated by the Herā ceremony. The term Herā seems to be variant to Sanskrit, avaroha (descent). The Goddess Lakşmi goes to the Gundicha temple probably as Devanandi.
The Navatattva or the nine principles of things preached by Mahāvira at Gunasila84 are probably indicative of the functions carried on in nine days of the car festival. Animation (Jiva), the first principle of things is quite comprehensible from the movement of Gods in cars on the 17th day. In flux (Aśrava), the fifth principle means the pouring (in to the soul) of the subtle matter ready to be transformed into the Karma. This is probably illustrated on Herā ceremony day in commemoration of Mahāvira's descent from the heaven to earth. Means, to keep the mind free from worldly attachment (Nirajara) as incorporated by Adapa-alati. Alati seems to be variant of Alamba, synonym of 'Prop'. Hence Adapaālati means the Enlightenment which is the prop in freeing the mind from the worldly attachment. Final deliverence (mokşa) the 9th principle is signified in the return of the Gods to their permanent abode.
On the day following the return of the deities from the Gundichā temple commences the festival of Harisayana. This event also suggests that the wandering of Jaina ascetics and their return to the place of meditation are signified in the car festival.
The name Jagannātha itself is Jaina origin. Abhidhāna Rajendra85 mentions that the Jagannātha is another name of Jineśvara or Adinātha Rşabha. The Vața vựik sa in the Jagannātha temple seems to be the symbol of Rşabhadeva's tree.
The Nilachakra of Jagannatha has probably some relation with Rşabha's dharmachakra. Wherever in India Lord Rşabha is worshipped, the place is known as Chakrakşetra. Mount Abu in Rajasthan, so well known to the Jainas is known as Chakrakşetra. Anandapur area including Podasingidi in Keonjhar district where Rşabha figures are extensively worshipped is another Chakrakşetra. Puri the seat of Jagannatha is also known as Chakraksetra. The offering of Mahāprasāda to Lord Jagannātha is known as Kaivalya and by taking it the devotees attain salvation (Kevala Jñana) which seems to have Jaina affiliation. A figure of Jaina Tirthankara is found fixed to the wall of the Jagannātha temple even now and Jaina adherents whenever visit Jagannātha temple worship it as Mahāvira, the 24th Tirthankara of their pantheon.
JAINISM AND NATHA CULT
Nätha cult has its strong hold in some parts of Orissa in the medieval period. People of certain areas in Keonjhar, Puri and Cuttack districts seem to have patronised this cult. The Nātha cult is essentially a Yogic cult, but among the innumerable Yogic
83. Kalpa-Sutra, 1. 23. 84. Ibid, p. 115. 85. Vol. IV, p. 138,

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39
sects of India, the cult is characterised as the Nātha cult due mainly to the fact that its stalwarts generally bear the title of Natha and the word Nätha has been regarded as a philosophic concept for a state of supreme existence.86 The Nātha cult seems to represent a particular phase of Sidha cult of India. This Sidha cult is a very old religious cult with its main emphasis on a psychochemical process of Yoga, known as the kāyā sādhana of the culture of the body with a view to making it perfect and immutable and thereby attaining an immortal spiritual life. The Jainas on the other hand believe in serious penance and their Tirthankaras all found in kāyotsarga or yogāsana mudrā. The Natha title of the prophets of the Natha cult like Matsendranātha, Gorakhanātha, Minanātha, Bodhinātha, etc. appears to have been derived from the Jaina religious thought. Most of the Tirthankaras of the Jaina sect used Nātha at the end of their names. Besides, the traditional belief of the Nathas is that Adinātha is the first in the list of the chronology of the Nathas and all secrets of Yoga proceed from him. Like wise Rşabha the first Tirthankara of the Jainas is also known as Adinātha. In a subsequent stage of their development the Natha yogis affiliated themselves with the Saivite cult. In the Sāralā Mahābhārata we find reference to the origin and practice of the Natha yogis which indicate their link with Jaina religion.87
JAINISM AND MAHIMA DHARMA
Exactly at the time when Raja Ramamohan Ray was carrying on his campaign against the worship of many Gods and idols in popular Hinduism and against other social and religious superstitions, an obscure person in the western jungle lands of Orissa was preaching the same heresies for which the great Rajā has come to occupy so distinguished a place in the social and political history of modern India.
The mysterious prophet is popularly known as "Mahima-Gosain". The expression “Mahimā Gosājn" means "the prophet of Glory” because perhaps he preached the Glory (Mahima) of Alekha the God that cannot be delineated, Gosāin standing for "master" or prophet in Oriya. The cult that he has left behind is also known as either Mahima Dharma "the cult of Glory" or simply Alekha Dharma 'the cult of Alekha or the void".
Mahimā Gosain it is said was wandering near the Himalayas. He came down to Gaya and stayed there for some years wearing a red loin cloth. Later on, after some years he travelled to Lord Jagannātha in 1826. He was rolling in the dust and people started calling him “Dhulia Baba". He preached his creed in certain parts of Cuttack and Puri districts and then travelled to Kapilasa hill at Dhenkanal and remained there in a state of trance for pretty long time. Rather he spent a substantial part of his active life in Kapilasa hill. Disciples such as Govinda Bābā and many more were attracted towards him. It is believed he travelled to Rairkhol to inspire and instil a spirit of devotion for "Mahimā" in Bhima Bhoi, a poet of the mass and directed him
86. S.B. Dasgupta, Obscure Religious Cults, p. 192. 87. Sāra!ā Mahābhārata (Oriya), Sabhāparva, Qtd. B.D. Mohanty, Odisāra Nātha Sampradaya O' Natha
Sahitya. p. 242.

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to propagate the religion through his mass appealing poetry. Mahimā Gosāin the founder of Mahima Dharma has not written any book and preached his teachings by oral instructions. But a considerable knowledge of his teachings is handed down to us by the writings of Bhima Bhoi the study of which shows that like all religions, particularly in India. Mahimā religion also is intermingled.
The main tenets of the Mahimā cult are (1) a casteless society.88
(2) recognition of one God who is Alekha or Void or He who cannot be described
in words or figures and who therefore should not be worshipped through man made idols.
(3) aban
abandonment of all external rituals, like pilgrimage or ceremonies as means of acquiring religious merit.
(4) preparation for spiritual emancipation through only strictly ethical way of living
and through meditation on Alekha, and
(5) thinking always of the good of humanity as an essential part of the religious
discipline.
As regards their monastic life the Sujāti (well known Bhikṣu) will discard all family usages and give up all (religious) practices and observances such as the performances of sacrifices and the making of burnt offerings.89 Cutting of all connections with his wife and children, leaving behind his property and doing away with all religious vows and ceremonies, he will put on barks of Kubhi trees (Kubhipatta) and wander about with matted hair. He will sow the seed (the religion of) Mahima in Jamvu-dvipa and will himself be blessed by finding his spiritual preceptor, Brāhman, learning the name of Anākära Mahimā (and singing his glories) he will maintain himself by begging alms of the Navašūdras. From Telis, Tantis, Bhātas, Kerās, Rajakas, Kalarakas, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Chandals, no alms are to be taken. They have been described in the sästras as impure. These are low origin and so have been marked out. But the Navasüdras are faithful follower of the Lords. So it is no sin to accept alms of boiled rice at their house. No other alms (than boiled rice) are to be taken from the house of the nine Sūdras and sleep has to be enjoyed in the proper time out side the town.
One might discern a touch of the nirākāra (formless) God of the sects like the Brahmos in their God. Their emphasis on sevā (selvice) tending the sick, inhibition against excessive sexual desire, scanty apparel, no partaking of food after sunset and their practice of burying the dead shows the influence of the Digambara Jainas. As a matter of fact, the hilly regions of Orissa and Bihar are replete with ruins of Jaina temples.90
88. M. Mansingha, Saga of the land of Jagannatha, p. 175. 89. N.N. Vasu, Modern Buddhism and its followers in Orissa, p 172. 90. L.S.S. O'Malley, Bengal District Gazetteer, Singhbhum pp. 23, 25.

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41
The Alekhists themselves indicate that their religion had originated, from the saints of angelic character of a very remote past who never cared to cover their nakedness even with a rag or the bark of a tree, who came to the hilly tracts of Orissa, lived there like beasts and tended the sick and the distressed in their own 'Mahima' (Glory of service to humanity).
Historians like B.C. Mazumdar affirm that those nude saints of the past were none other than the carly Jains who as history records, had in the olden times applied themselves to uplifting the forest tribes of Chotanagpur (Bihar) and Orissa by residing there and moving about with them in large numbers.
There goes an interesting story about how this sect originally moving about in nudity, came to wear the bark of Kubhi tree. Once a Mahima guru of very ancient times appeared before his naked disciples. As the discipies fell prostrate before him to do him honour the guru told them in Oriya verse.
Uthare tumbhey Jhata Pindharey Kumbhi Puṭṭā
(Rise ye soon and wear the bark of Kumbhi tree). Later the Mahima Svami who was the spiritual master of Bhima Bhoi was said to have advised his 64 principal disciples.
Puffa Chardi Pala pindha (Give up bark and put on cloth)
After the demise of Mahima Svänt, his disciples took to ordinary cloth dress dyed in yellow with a girdle of rope made from Kumbhi bark around their waists.
It was in this dress that Bhima Bhoi's followers clad when they raided Jagannatha temple in 1881. Their garments were obviously loose and scanty and no wonder they should have seemed "almost in a state of nudity" to the observers when they rushed and jostled about while being clad in them.
JAINISM AND THE UDAPARVA
A great festival is observed in village Badasai of Mayurbhanja district on Vaisakhi purnima when the people of the area use to worship a Chaumukha containing four standing Jaina Tirthankaras of Rsabhan tha, Ajitanatha, Chandraprabha and Parivanatha along with their chauri bearers and lanchanas within niches of the four sides. This Chaumukha is known at this place as "Chandrasena". N.N. Vasu identified this chaumukha with a Buddhist chaitya and accordingly connected the celebration to that of Buddhism.92
91. B.C. Mazumdar, Sonepur in Sambalpur Tract, pp. 126-36.
92. N.N. Vasu, Modern Buddhism and its followers in Orissa, p. 145.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
This practice has obtained for a long time past and is known in the locality as Udaparva. Some twenty-five thousand low class people muster there on the occasion, the Bathuries of course forming the majority. Dressed as Bhakta, they celebrate the ceremony of Chandrasena puja, suffer themselves to be pierced without a murmur with a hook and merrily and lustily swing on the Chadak. A very great enthusiasm prevails on the occasion. Some times even so large a number as two hundred Bhaktas vie with one another to have their bodies pierced with hooks impelled by a strong and irresistible desire to have their vows to the effect literally fulfilled, a piece of cloth is then tied round their bodies over the pierced parts and lustily do they enjoy swings on the chaḍaka post planted for the purpose. Even the public in general regard this festival held once annually as a highly holy and dignified one. Even the Brahmanas are second to no other castes in their regard and enthusiasms for this festival.
It is not known exactly in which way Udaparva is connected with this image. Different versions of this parva are widely prevalent in other parts of the state. It can be reasonably concluded that the local people either confused this chaumukha with their sacred deity of Chandrasena or this practice of serious torture to the body had some evident connection with the vigorous penance practised by the Tirthankaras in the past. The large number of Jaina relics of Parsvanatha, Ambika, Mahavira, and other Tirthankara figures in addition, at places like Badasai, Koisali, Pundal and Barudi strongly support this contention.
SARĀKAS
Sarākas (Sravaka), a caste of people are inhabiting parts of the districts of Cuttack, Dhenkanal, Balasore and Mayurbhanja of present Orissa. They are also extensively settled in Chotanagpur, Manbhum, Singhbhum areas of Bihar and a few adjacent areas in the West Bengal. They seem to be Hinduised remnant of the early Jaina people to whom local legends ascribe the ruinous temples, the defaced images and even the abandoned copper mines of some parts of Bihar and Bengal. The temples and images indeed are proved by their well marked and characteristic symbolism to be the handiworks of Jaina artists.
It is not at all possible to picture the ancient culture of the Sarakas. The materials available for reconstructing the past are meagre and unreliable, we shall avail ourselves of the dim light which they throw on the past glories of a lost race. There is a tradition that every Saraka family had its own tank. The sites of ancient settlements are studded with big tanks most of which have silted up. People say that the number of families in a particular settlement can still be traced by counting the number of contiguous tanks in the locality, as no Saraka family ever used a tank that did not belong exclusively to it. The tanks that exist to this day are quite big and their excavations indicate a high state of civilisation.
93. S.N. Ray, JBORS, Vol. XII, Part. III, p. 54.

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As regards their internal structure and marriages H.H. Rislay writes the Sarakas have no subcastes. Their sections are of the eponymous type and this fact coupled with their comparatively defined caste of features and light complexion, seem to confirm their claims to be deemed of Aryan descent. The prohibited degrees are the same as in the case of high caste Hindus. They marry their daughters as infants, forbid widows to remarry and do not recognise divorce. Polygamy is permitted in so far that a man may take a second wife if he has no hope of obtaining a male issue by his first wife. The marriage ceremony is of the standard type.
43
The Sarākas of Manbhun, while retaining the tradition, that their ancestors were Jains, appear themselves to have completely adopted Hinduism. They worship the Hindu Gods with the assistance of Brahmans, nor have they retained, as might perhaps have been expected any of the characteristics of Tirthankaras or glorified saints of the Jains under the disguise of minor or household gods. In Lohar danga on the other hand Pār vanitha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, who is believed to have attained nirvana on Parasnatha hill in Hazaribag is still recognised by the Sarokas as their chief deity though they also worship Syämächand, Radhämohana and Jagannatha. Brahmanas officiate as their priests and in no way forfeit their social reputation by doing so. In all Jaina temples, indeed the ministrant priests are Brahmanas,95
In point of social standing they rank high and Brahmanas will take water and bakki articles of food from their hands. Sarākas themselves retain all the prejudices of the Jains in regard to eating the flesh of any kind of animal. Life may on no account be taken. Their diet therefore consists entirely of vegetables and it is said that if in preparing their food any mention of the word "cutting" is made the omen is deemed so disastrous that everything must be thrown away. Subject to these conditions, Saraka will eat the leavings of Brahmanas and will take water or sweetmeats from Rajputs, Vaidyas and Kayasthas.
When Jainism entered into interior of Singhbhum in Chotanagpur area they came to be known as Sarākas or the Sravakas.97
O'Malley observes that the name Sarawak, Serāka or Saraka is clearly a corruption of Sravaka, the Sanskrit word for hearer, which was used by the Jains for the lay brethren i.e. Jains engaged in secular pursuit, as distinguished from "Yati" i.e. priests or ascetics. It appears probable that the latter remained in Manbhum where several Jaina temples have been found while the Sravakas or lay Jains penetrated the jungles where they were rewarded with the discovery of copper, upon the working of which they must have spent all their time and energy.98
94. H.H. Rislay, Tribes and castes of Bengal, pp. 236-37.
95. Ibid, p. 237.
96. Ibid, p. 237.
97. P.C. Raychaudhury, Jainism in Bihar,
p. 61.
98. Bengal District Gazetteer, Singhbhum, 1906, p. 25.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa
The same tradition of the former rule of these people was discovered by Major Tickell who in 1840 wrote. "Singhbhum passed in to the hands of the Surawaks, a race now almost extinct, but then numerous and opulent, whose original country is said to have been Sikrabhum and Pacheta. The oppressions of the Sarawaks ended in their total expulsion from the Kolalan","
This tradition is also referred to as follows by Colonel Daton in the Ethnology of Bengal. "It is admitted in all sides that one part of Singhbhum was held by the people who have left monuments of their ingenuity and picty in the adjoining district of Manbhum and who were certainly the carliest Aryan settlers in this part of India the Sarawaks or Jains."
In the Kolhan also there are still a large number of tanks called Saraka tanks by the Ho's. Not only Kolhan but other parts of Singhbhum and Sareikella and Kharsuan also abound in such ancient Saraka tanks. The enormous tank of Ahar Vanda with remains of ruins of temples near its banks in Karaikella Paraganah of Seraikella exstate and the Mullik Vandh are best examples of such Sarakatanks.100
The influence of Jainism in the district of Singhbhum is also borne out by many ancient relics at Benusagar.
in the interior of Mayurbhanj district extensive ruins of Sarika settlements are still met with. The Sarakas were an ancient people. Near about Khiching in Mayurbhanja, there existed in the long past extensive Sarika settlements. The sites are covered over with earthen mounds. In the Khiching and Baripada Muscums we have large hoards of Jains Tirthankara images displayed in the galleries. They have been recovered from different parts of the district. In addition places like Keiseli, Badasahi, Pundal, Kasaba, Adipur, Jagannath temple of Daripada town, cic. preserve series of Jaina
relics.
Tradition has it also that the Sarākas in the palmy days of their existence exercised a shodevy invener over the whole of Mayurbhanjn. Their culture and superior organisation stuck the imagination of the aborigal triles who looked upon them almost as demigods. Ruined temples at the sites of their settlements still testify to their ancient glery, Let their houses have completely dierppeared. They might have been built stone templs cxquisitely carved for their Gods, bet probably they did not care to build even store hoces for themselves. This is quite in keeping with their religious tempement. Feeple in the villeges cf Crissa even new build stone or brick temples for their Ceds although they are living from generation to generation in thatched mud huts.10 101
99. JASB, 1840, p. 695.
100. P.C. Raychaudhury, Jainism in Bilar, p. 63.
101. S.N. Rey, "The Sarakas of Mayurbhanj".
JBORS, Vol. XII, Pt. III. p. 49.

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45
The tanks that exist to this day are quite big and their excavations indicate a high state of civilisation. But that is not all. Iron implements of husbandry, tools, broken swords have been dug out in pretty large number from the mounds. Images of stone, some of them exquisitely carved and belonging to Jaina pantheon have been unearthed. Ruined temples of stone stand in cluster indicating the high water mark of civilisation. Tradition asserts that each Sarāke family had its own temple as its own tank. No graveyard exists near the site of settlement and the question naturally arises whether the Sarākas used to burn their dead. It is not possible to give a definite answer. The graveyard with its stone memorials is the last thing to perish, and if it existed at all it should have outlived the ruined temples. Tradition does not tell us anything about the manner in which they used to dispose of their dead. In the absence of better evidence we may presume that the Sarakas used to burn their dead.
The Famanghati copper plate102 grants of Fanabhañja records grant of villages to the Sarākas (weavers) in Devakunda and Korapindiya Vişayas of Uttarkhanda of Khijjinga. The villages so granted were Timandira, Nankola, Jamvapodaka and Vasantagrāma.
From Charampa (Bhadrak) a number of Jaina relics were brought to the Orissa State Muscum and still there are a few available in the site. A large tank is also noticed at the place. All these Jaina relics were found under a banyan tree on the eastern bank of the tank. Sarikos (Tantis), a class of weavers of the earlier days were associated with their worship.
In Dhenkanal district a number of Sarāka settlements also found in the Sadar subdivision. The villages like Kartapiţanā. Rajuāpāțanā, Aukhumāpāțaņā, Sarāka Pāțaņā, Nuagāon Pāțaņā, Champār tană, Jen sähupātā, ctc. are all inhabited by the Sarākas. Some of them even today live on weaving clothes. The more affluents among them practice various trades.
In Athagarh, Banki, Baramba and Tigiria areas of Cuttack district these Sarākas settling in villages lile Arakhapatana, Rago-dipātaņā, Nuāpāšanā, Jaripāțaņā and Manja tandha foliow weaving as their main occupation. Of late some of them indulged in trades of local commodities. Few of them also practice agriculture. In all these villages they vigorously follow thc habits and manners like their Sarāka bretherns scitled clsewhere. Their religious affinity must have been with Jainism. We have recovered a Jair a Tinthaikara image frem village Hatamala of Tigiria area. Another Tirthankara inage is also noticed in the Rupanātha temple of Narasinghpur area. In the past two Jaina Tirthankara images were also found preserved in the Baramba palace. In Vaideswara of Earki arca also a Jajna Pārsvanātha image is kept inside a small temple. 103
102. S.N. Rajguru, Triscriptions of Orissa. Vol. VI, p. 7. 103. C.D. Malapatre, Archaeological Rencins of Narasimhapur (Oriya).

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In the recent years some people regarded the Sarākas settling in village Nuāpāțaņā as Buddhists and a new Buddhist shrine constructed for them with the plantation of a Bodhidruma. Surprisingly enough, the Sarākas of these villages do not pay any ceremonial visit to the Buddhist site of Bānesvaranāsi of Narasimhpur area nor they have any religious link with the famous Buddhist sites in other places of the district. Rather they come occasionally to Udayagiri and Khandagiri to pay obeisance to the Jaina Tirthankaras.
JAINA IMPACT ON SOCIETY AND LITERATURE
The creed has had its impact on the life style of Oriyas. Vegetarianism is deep seated in the rural areas especially among the Sarakas. Worship of the Vata tree (Ficus) Kalpavata social custom are drawn from Jainism. Parables and some of the folk tales of Orissa are apparently drawn from the Jaina parables which are of very early age. Medieval Oriya literature including the Mahābhārata of Sāralā Dāsa is definitely coloured by Jainism. The story of Jagannātha in the Oriya Mahabhārata of Sāraļā dāsa appears to be a Jaina parable in a different form. Works like the old Baula charita and Rāmagātha have a strong Jaina influence Bhāgavata of Jagannatha Dasa, Vişnugarbha purāna of Chaitanya Dasa, Rasakollala of Dina Krushna Dasa are replete with versions of Jaina philosophical discussions and practices. The section on Rsabha Charita in the 5th Adhyaya of 5th Khanda of Jagannātha Dasa's Oriya Bhāgavata we find references to the practice of Bramhahcharya, Ahinsa Srādha, Satkarma, etc. as parts of the instructions of Rşabha Deva to his one hundred sons. Which are nothing but based on Jaina ideology and code of domestic life. The observance of Astamangala after marriages scems to have been derived from the Jaina tradition.
In Kalinga a measuring rod was introduced by the Jaina priests and it is called Jinako!a.104 Many Jaina scholars were employed as astronomers and administrators of the Courts of various south Indian royal families as observed by D.C. Sircar.105 These Jaina astronomers seem to have introduced the Saka era in this country. The earliest known 'Sakāvda' is used by the Jaina author, Simhasuri in his Lokavibhāga which was written at Kanchi in Sakāvda 388 (A.D. 466). In Orissa several writers and engravers of copper plate inscriptions seem to have belonged to the Jaina sect which is evident from their names such as Sarvachandra, Khandichandra, Bhanuchandra, Vinaya Chandra, etc. The Goldsmiths of south Orissa are generally called Sarabha, a derivation of Srāvaka.106 A sect of people known as Kalinga kumuti are practising trade and commerce. They are said to have hailed from the south (Mysore) and after adopting Jainism maintained trade link between the two areas.107
104. S.N. Rajguru, Inscription of Orissa, Vol. III, Part-I Page. 51, foot note. 3, p. 71 and p. 135. 105. D.C. Sircar, Indian Epigraphy, p. 263 ff. 106. S.N. Rajguru, Inscriptions of Orissa, Vol. II, pp. 2, 11, 16, 21, 26, and 31 and surnames, Ibid.,
Page 362 107. S.N. Rajguru, Konarka (Oriya), March, 1959, p. 19.

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History of Jainism in Orissa
Gopinatha Mohanty 10s referring to an account in the Sarala Mahabharata (Oriya) assumes that Janughanţa was probably a very powerful king of Kalinga who lived. through begging alms, remained naked (Digambara) and followed the principle of nonviolence. These practices are quite in common with Jaina religious faith.
The followers of this king are known as Jänughanția in rural Orissa. They have. their mathas in Baramba, Narasinghpur and Khandapara areas of Cuttack and Puri districts. They move in the main street of the villages without asking for doles. The villagers, hearing the tinkling sound of the bell tied to their thighs, offer them rice not in hand but in tiny baskets. But the followers of this sect wear tulasi garlands and fix tulasi sticks in their cars. They consider themselves as followers of Parasurama who after defeat in the hands of Rama retired to the life of Yogic practices.
108. L.N. Sahu, Odiśäre Jaina Dharma (Oriya) Appendix No. 4 pp. 218-19.

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Jaina monuments, are concentrated not only in the hilly tracts of Koraput, Keonjhar and Mayurbhanja districts but also in the plain areas of Cuttack, Puri and Balasore districts of Orissa. The earliest remains of this religion are noticed in the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri. In the early medieval period however, new centres developed in Keonjhar and Koraput districts when the areas surrounding Udayagiri and Khandagiri became centres of Buddhist and Brahmanical activities. But in a later phase Jainism seems to have received patronage from the major ruling dynasties of the medieval Orissa. In this chapter an attempt has been made to bring to light the Jaina relics of the districts referred to above. The stray findings of Jaina antiquities of other areas of the State do not make any substantial addition to our knowledge. While discussing the Jaina monuments special care has been taken to describe the sitcs, history of the monuments, and their present condition.
PURI DISTRICT
e caves that the we ha
With beginning at the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri Jaina activity seems to have spread to the rural areas of Puri district at different periods of Orissan history. But unfortunately we do not find Jaina relics of earlier phase comparable to the relief sculptures of the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri from any other site of the district. Rather it is evident that the caves of these hills maintained a continuous tradition of Jaina activity till recent times. We have elsewhere tried to associate Jaina religion with the development of Jagannātha cult in Orissa. In addition to Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills the other notable places of Puri district having Jaina relics are Sisupalgarh, Brahmesvar patna, Chadheibar, Bagalpur, Nibharana, Kakatput, Achutarajpur, Banapur, Puri, Sri Ramachandrapur, Panchagaon, Lataharana and Bhain-chua near Bhubaneswar. For the sake of convenience we may commence our investigation from Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills.
The caves on Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills near Bhubaneswar of Puri district dominated the scene of Jaina activity in Orissa since the days of Khāravela of the first

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49
century B.C. as revealed from the records incised in Hāthi-Gumphā and several other caves of the place. These caves were first noticed by A. Sterling who partially described them in the 15th volume of the Asiatic Researches published in 1825. After him several other scholars like Kittoe, Fergusson, R.L. Mitra, Hunter, Beglar, Princep, Luders, Flect, K.P. Jayaswal, R.D. Banerji, Bhagavanlal Indraji, John Marshall, M.H. Arnot, Stella Kramarisch, M.M. Chakravarty, B.M. Barua, B.P. Chanda, H.C. Raychoudhuri N.N. Ghose, K.C. Panigrahi, N.K. Sahu and D. Mitra, discussed on various aspects of these caves.
The two hills, rising abruptly amidst a wide expanse of arid laterite soil, are separated from each other by a narrow defile through which passes the modern road from Bhubaneswar to Chandaka. The Chasm is scarcely fifty yards wide in its broadest part, but at the base the two portions almost touch each other. This fracture has given its specific name to the second hill in question and the generic name to the entire range.
The crest of Khandagiri, on which is situated a modern Jaina temple, is 123 feet high, 13 feet higher than that of the Udayagiri.1
The entire area was earlier covered with a dense forest. Trees rising from the crevices of the rocks and ferns and small shrubs in cracks, hollows and low sheltered places, where the disintegrated rocks have left a layer of mould for their growth, enveloped it in a pretty thick coating of verdure. The most prominent and exposed surfaces remained bare as usual.
The substance of rocks in these hills is coarse grained sand stone of a varied, texture mostly soft, porous and incohering, easy to excavate but unsuitable for finished carvings. The stone being brittle, the caves which were once excavated on different ledges of the hills have become an easy prey to the inclemencies of weather.
The secluded situation of the hills, with no human habitations to disturb the tranquillity necessary for their meditation and religious practices, was probably responsible for the selection of the site for rock-cut monastic retreats of Jaina monks.
The legendary account reveals that the hills were formerly constituted a part of the Himalayas at which time they were inhabited by numerous Rșis who dug the caves now found in them. They were taken up bodily, ascetics, and all, by Mahāyira Hanumān, with other masses of rock to build the bridge of Rāma, but by some accident, were allowed to drop in their passage through the air, when they alighted in their present position.
The records on the walls of caves reveal that some time in the first century B.C. or slightly earlier, the rulers of the Cheti dynasty who called themselves Mahāmegha vāhanas exercised supremacy over Kalinga. Of the rulers of the dynasty only the names
1. R.L., Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, p. 6. 2. A Sterling, JASB. Vol. VI, p. 1076 (note).

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of Kharavela and Kūdepa, together with that of a prince, Vadukha, are known from the inscriptions though their mutual relationship is yet to be established satisfactorily.
It is obvious that during the rule of the Mahsmeghavahanas, the hills were excavated with caves. The activities of Kharavela are widely narrated in the HathiGumpha inscription so also of Küdepa and Vadukha are only known as the donors of the two cells of the lower storey of cave No. 9, (Mafchapuri) of Udayagiri. In addition, Khāravela's chief queen is known to have been the donor of the upper storey cave No. 9 (Svargapuri) of the same hill. The example set by the royal family in patronising Jaina religion was ably followed by many officials. Among them we find the names of Chulakamma, Kamma, Bhuti, the Nagar Akhadamhsa, Näkiya, the Mahamatra, and Kusuma, the Padamulika from inscriptions depicted in some of the caves of the place. It is also almost certain that the caves originated during this period. At the same time. an earlier origin of the Jaina establishment on the hills is not entirely ruled out. It is also not unlikely that the Kalinga Jina taken by the Nanda king and recovered by Kharavela had its original enshrinement on the hills and was reinstalled here by
Kharavela.
Though after the fall of the Mahameghvahana dynasty Jainism received a temporary setback, it still continued to be the religion of Kalinga with these hills as its strongThe dominance of Saivism at Bhubaneswar during the post-Gupta period had little to do with the Jaina establishment at Udayagiri and Khandagiri, which as inscriptions show, continued to be inhabited under the Bhaumas and their successors, the Somavarists. During the rule of the Somavathils, Khandagiri called Kumāra parvata in an inscription of the fifth year of Udyotakefart in cave No. 11, acquired greater importance and a few old cells were purposely converted into sanctuaries by the carving of images of the Tirthankaras and Sasanadevts on the walls. This period is also noted for the erection of structural temples suggested not only by the above mentioned epigraphical record revealing the setting up of twenty-four Tirthankaras, but also by the discovery of a large number of nude chlorite images of different Tirthankaras and architectural fragments and votive temples lying in some areas of the hill. The prolonged Digambara association of the Khandagiri caves during the reign of the Gangas and their immediate successors, the Gajapatis is proved by the series of crude Tirthankara figures carved on the inner walls of Mahavira-Gumphã of Khandagiri which are not earlier in date than the 15th century and may be even later.
In the late medieval period, Haridasa and Arakhita Dasa appear to have made the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri their abodes. The paduka matha at the foot of Udayagiri hill is said to have been established by him. His followers unaware of the date also claim that Arakhita Dasa was responsible for the excavation of these caves. Ananta Dasa and Sidha Baranga Dasa were the other mendicants who either remained at this place for some time or referred to the hills in their works. Haridasa's association is well preserved in tradition in naming a cave after him.3 Mahima Gosain, otherwise
3. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 383 (foot note-1).

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known as Dhulia Baba is said to have spent some years in Samādhi Yoga at this place."
Tradition also reveals that another mendicant known as Phalāhāri Baba (who lived on fruits only), the identity of whom is not properly established so far, once resided in the caves and worshipped the images of Ananta, Kišori and Vasudeva. He arranged car festivals for these deities every year till his death.
In the beginning of the 19th century, a temple was constructed on the crest of Khandagiri hill and the place is frequented by Jainas and Parwar merchants of Cuttack who assemble here in large numbers once every year to hold a festival of their religion. R.L. Mitras records two occasions when feasts occur at the temple, one on the thirteenth of the moon in the month of chaitra when a large number of Oswal merchants of Cuttack, Puri and other neighbouring places assemble to pay their respect to Mahāyira, the last of the twenty-four Jinas and celebrate the anniversary of his birth day of importance, the pariusana, or reading of the Kal pasūtra. During his visit to the place Brāhmana priests were attending to the temple rituals with little interference in the activities of the visiting Jaina devotees from distant parts of the country. There is no restriction even though, it is now managed by the Jainas to allow entry of casual visitors belonging to other religious order.
The images of Chakreśvari and Rohini on either side of the verandah wall of the Bārabhuji-Gumphã are still attended by Brāhmana priests of the neighbouring area. They, however, worship them in the name of Bārabhuji-Durgā and accordingly the cave derived its name as Bārabhuji-Gumphā.
In addition, a large gathering of people is held on Māgha saptami and continues till the full moon day of the same month. According to traditional belief, the devotees, who witness the rising sun at Konark (Chandrabhaga) on Mägha-Saptami day, pay a return visit to the place via Puri and then proceed to Viraja Kșetra (Jajpur) for culmination of their itineracy. During the whole period from Māgha saptami to the purnimā day the people visit the caves, arrange feasts, spend the nights in the caves with recital of Bhajanas to the tune of traditional musical instruments especially cymbals, mridangas and khañjasis.
It is thus evident that the Jaina occupation of the hills was continuous if with occasional breaks, from even before the time of Khāravela down to the present day.
As there is no river flowing by the side of the hills, a few reservoirs some of them stepped (vāpi), were cut into the rock to hold rain water, such reservoirs exist on both the hills. On the Udayagiri, two of them, called Hāthi-Nisuņi and Lalitakunda can be seen respectively to the east and north-east of cave No. 10 (Ganesa-Gumphā) on
4 Biswanatha Baba, Satya Mahima Dharma Tattvasāra (Oriya), p. 2. 5. R.L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, pp. 64-65.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa the Khandagiri there are two, the Akāśa Ganga(Fig. 33) and Radha kunda, besides two tiny ones, the Shyama kunda and Gupta-Ganga.
Apart from the two main routes to the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, a number of minor routes are noticed both on the rocks and amidst thick growth of vegetations. Those which are through living rock, are cut in steps at times very steep and inconvenient to pass through. The caves of both Udayagiri and Khandagiri were excavated at different heights and places for which it becomes difficult to follow a regular route to locate their positions. To overcome this difficulty the Archaeological Survey of India recently published a Guide Book written by Debala Mitra in which some eighteen caves in Udayagiri and fifteen in Khandagiri are enumerated along with their traditional names. The enclosed map of the said Guide Book indicate to their location on the hills on the basis of contour.
They are Udayagiri-(Fig. 1)
Cave No. 1-Rant-Gumpha-The lower storey -The upper storey.
No. 2-Bājāghara-Gumphā. No. 3-Chhota-Hathi-Gumphā. No. 4-Alakāpuri-Gumpha. No. 5-Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, No. 6-Panasa-Gumphā. No. 7-Thakurapl-Gumphā. No. 8-Pätälapuri-Gumphâ No. 9-Mañchapuri-Gumpha -Svargapuri-Gumpha
No. 10-Ganesa-Gumphā. No. 11-Jamveśvar-Gumphå. No. 12-Bagha-Gumpha. No. 13-Sarpa-Gumphā. No. 14-Hathi-Gumpha. No. 15-Dhanaghar-Gumphå. No. 16-Haridasa-Gumphā. No. 17-Jagannatha-Gumphā. No. 18-Rasavi-Gumpha
Khandagiri-(Fig. 2)
Cave No. 1-Tätowa-Gumphã No. 1 No. 2-Tätowa-Gumphã No. 2 No. 3-Ananta-Gumphā.
No. 4-Tentuli-Gumpha No. 5-Khandagiri-Gumpha
-The Lower storey. -The upper storey.

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No. 6-Dhyānaghar, Dhyana-Gumphā
or Shell Cave. No. 7- Navamuni-Gumphā No. 8-Bārabhuji-Gumphā No. 9-Triśula-Gumphā, Sātabakhāra or
Mahāvira-Gumphā. No. 10- Ruined cave beyond cave No. 9 No. 11-Lalātendu-Keśari-Gumphā No. 12- Ruined cave near Radhakunda. No. 13- Ruined cave beyond Rādhakunda. No. 14-Ekādasi-Gumphā. No. 15-Cave near Gupta Ganga.
These caves do not bear any authentic names on their bodies, but the local people have given them some fanciful names. They have little historical significance. Some of them have been named after their general shapes, some after specific sculptures or motifs on the facades and others after the names of medieval mendicants who occasionally made these caves their abodes. A few of them also bear names on them. To avoid confusion we have adopted the number and the traditional names adopted by the Archaeological Survey of India for our purpose. An account of these caves is given below.
Udayagiri
Cave No. 1 --Rāņi-Gumphā. (Fig. 3)
Rāņi-Gumphā consists of a two storeyed monastery covering three sides of a quadrangle, the fourth or south-eastern side being open. It is formed of the original rock, cut smooth with a gentle slope towards the open side. The cave deserves a unique place among the contemporary rock-cut caves by virtue of its lavishly sculptured friezes, commodious wings, large number of cells and the spacious quadrangle in front. It is now shorn of its pristine grandeur due to the fall of the verandah of lower storey of the main wing exposing the sculptured facade to the inclemencies of weather.
Lower storey-Right wing
Facing south-west, this wing consists of a large single cell with three entrances and a pillared verandah with bench in front. The roof of the cell is designed flat contrary to the floor which has been raised at the back. The three entrance doors of the cell are flanked by pilasters. The size of the door-ways compel a man to crawl to enter inside. The pilasters are crowned by bulls and winged lions on corbelled abacus. The tympana within arch-bands are all without decoration. But the arches over the door-ways are relieved with decorative motifs the lower parts of which are connected by railings.

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The arched band over the left doorway is carved with fruits like mangoes and plantations attached to creepers issued from the mouths of two animals at the base. Nandipada is the crowning element of this arch. The arched band over the central doorway is relieved with honey-suckles and a full blown lotus at the centre issued from the mouths of two couchant elephants. Srivatsa is the crowning object at the pointed top of this arch. The arch over the right door-way, as indicated from the available portions, is decorated with lotus bunds and their stems with Nandipada as the crowning element.
The two full and half spandrils are relieved with a series of human figures in various acts of devotion. The first scene from the left is a couple standing with folded hands flanked by a dwarf under a tree on the left and a casket like object in her right hand. The next compartment has one male and two females with folded hands, seated on a bench and flanked on the right by a woman holding a tray and on the left by another holding a vase (?). The third compartment shows a female dancing under a pavilion supported by decorated posts, and four seated accompanists playing on musical instruments like mridanga, drum, flute and harp. The fourth scene begins with a female holding forth a tray followed by a man advancing with folded hands and a woman carrying a tray and an urn. The last figure of the panel is a boy. On the walls flanking the terminal piers of the verandah are two sentries.
The cell including the verandah has a raised plinth. The verandah was once supported by a range of pillars which have disappeared leaving remnants of their stepped bases and crowning animals. The six animals on each capital consists of bulls on the left and lions on the right two seated back to back on the front and the rear and one each on the other faces. The capital of the side pilasters consist of three animals, horses in the left and elephants in the right resting on a corbelled abacus above a bell shaped lotus. The pilasters also placed over stepped bases, are divided into five sections of which the basal, central and terminal ones are square and the intermediate ones are rendered octagonal by chamfering the corners of the square. The verandah has a shelf on each side.
Left wing
The left-wing after a turn inwards, extends in an oblique direction outwards much beyond the limit of the right-wing. It has the usual composition of pillared verandah, raised plinth and stalwart guards like its counterpart in the right. The three cells of this wing are distributed on the three sides of the benched verandah. The pillars supporting the verandah roof are fallen, but from the marks on the floor and the side pilasters, it would seem that they were counterparts of what exists on the right wing. Traces of lions and bulls forming the capital of these pillars are visible near the verandah ceiling. Four modern masonry pillars have been provided to support the verandah ceiling. Lintels dug in the solid rock connect the pillars at the top.
Floors and ceilings of the three cells are similar to the right wing. A window is provided to the left cell. The room behind the verandah has three door-ways. On the east a similar chamber is accessible by a door placed a little close to one side. The sentries guarding this wing on either side are much defaced.

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At the angles, where the right and left wing meet main wing, are two small rooms. The room attached to the right wing has door-ways, one opening towards the east and the other towards the south, both set flush with the level of the courtyard. The room close to left wing has one door opening facing the east. The outer faces of these rooms are decorated with hills, springs, trees, wild animals, rock-shelters, birds, monkeys, and lotus pools with elephants. The pilasters flanking the doors have ghats bases placed on stepped pedestals and are crowned by winged addorsed animals from which spring the arches relieved with floral motifs with a nandipada finial.
Main wing
The lower main wing consists of four cells, three on the rear of the benched and the fourth on the right. The pillared verandah infront has already collapsed. The pillars were originally six in number. The side pilasters of the verandah are designed square below and octagonal at the top and placed on stepped pedestals. The only shelf is visible to the left of the verandah. The verandah having collapsed, the access to the rooms now is directly maintained through the open courtyard. The side rooms have each two doors, the central one three and the one on the right of the verandah has only one door opening. The ceilings of these cells are flat but the floors in each case are raised near the back wall. The doorways are designed with pilasters and arches, the arches being connected with by railings supported on bracket figures. The door pilasters are square at the base and top and octagonal in the middle. Except their much damaged crowning animals on stepped abacus they are devoid of any decoration on their shafts. The arches over the doorways are embellished with decorative designs but the tympana are all left plain. Due to continuous exposure to the vagaries of nature, the arched bands, rails, bracket figures, crowning animals of the door pilasters and friezes on its facade are all much obliterated.
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Extending over the whole length of the facade there were reliefs in nine separate compartments. The scenes of these reliefs from second to seventh are badly mutilated. From the remnants, whatever can be recognised are given below.
Starting from the left, the first compartment represents a tree and a double storeyed structure with barrel vaulted roof crowned by a row of finials. The second compartment is almost entirely affected, only the outlines of three figures riding on an animal and another figure, with a sword can with much difficulty be made out. In the third compartment busts and heads of several figures may be discerned. The figures over which the umbrella is visible appears to be seated on an animal duly accompanied by attendants. One of these attendants holds an object suspended from a stick and a horseman in his front. The fourth scene too, is mutilated, but several figures are traceable, one carrying a sword and two riding on an elephant. In the fifth relief, seven figures can with difficulty be made out of whom a royal figure with two followers behind, one holding an umbrella and another a sword on the left and four figures on the right, can be made out. Two of the figures depicted to the right are bowing to him with folded hands. The central one stands with his left hand hanging and the right placed on

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his chest. In the sixth relief only two figures can be traced, one holding an umbrella over the other in the centre. In the seventh, five figures are traceable of whom one stands with folded hands and the other holds a sword.
The eighth compartment at its extreme left end depicts a royal figure with two followers. One of these followers is holding the umbrella and the other seen with folded hands. A little further are two standing women bringing offerings, one carrying a tray and another a flower (?) and two kneeling figures, one of them with flowing fillets round the head. Of the latter group, the front one is holding the feet as a token of submission of a person who seems to be snatching at the head dress of the former and the rear one has his hands folded. Both of them seem to have alighted from a caparisoned horse standing to the extreme right.
The last of the series depicts a reception offered to the royal figure apparently on his return to the capital after victorious campaigns.
Upper storey: Main wing
The upper storey is not placed above the lower, but to some extent behind it. The roof of the cells of the lower storey forms an open terrace in front of the upper storey.
The roof of the verandah is supported by nine massive pillars, seven entirely modern on the old stepped pedestals and two repaired in the middle. The original pillars were once fixed with brackets as evident from their remnants. A continuous bench is running through the entire length of the verandah at the back and near side walls, cup-boards are noticed on two sides of the verandah wall. The ceiling of the verandah in front is designed flat. Grooves and deep channels have been cut in the living rock to drain out rain water leaking through the verandah roof. The main wing consists of four cells having door-ways flanked by side pilasters, the capitals of which are crowned by winged addorsed animals. The arches springing from the top of the pilasters are relieved with various floral devices, honey-suckles, creepers and animals chased by boys. Symbols of Srivatsa, nandipada, snake and lotus form the finials of these arches. A twobarred railing, supported by dwarfish figures, is running between the doors with breaks. The spaces in between the arches are relieved with various scenes, a few of which from the left are in good state of preservation.
In the beginning, a flying Vidyadhara dressed in a plain dhoti and a scarf (Chadar) and holding a tray of flowers, a roll of garland and few lotus buds is depicted.
The second compartment represents a duel between a herd of elephants and a large crowd consisting of one man and ten women. The third compartment depicts a duel between a man and a woman in front of a rock shelter and the carrying away of the woman by the man. The fourth scene represents a royal hunting scene. The figures in the fifth are much defaced but as far as they can be made out the panel centres round performance of a dance accompanied by music in front of a seated couple.

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The sixth scene of the series has completely been destroyed. The seventh much mutilated, seems to represent amorous scenes between a male and female repeated three times. The eighth panel, now much damaged shows the outlines of an elephant on the right and feet of two men on the left. The ninth compartment repeats the flying figure of the first.
The verandah is guarded by men mounted on animals.
Right wing
The right wing is formed of a narrow Verandah and a compartment with two door openings devoid of side pilasters and semicircular top mouldings. A continuous bench is running on the three sides of the verandah. The verandah roof is supported by a massive pillar of modern restoration with a bracket depicting a female figure. The guards against the side pilasters of the verandah represent a kilted man with boots on the left and a pot-bellied person dressed in dhoti and heavy turban on the right. The roof of the cell is flat and floor raised at the back.
Left wing
The left wing has two rooms, one opening into the other. The one directly accessible from the terrace has a raised bench on its three sides. The former has one door opening and is devoid of any guardian figure. The narrow verandah had two pilasters but no pillars. The cell is lighted by a small window in the wall of the inner chamber.
Cave No.2. Bājāghara-Gumphā
Bājāghara-Gumphā consists of two independent cells with a flat roofed verandah in front. The left cell, the front wall of which is damaged has the pilaster relieved with a pair of animals standing back to back with head of birds. The pillar has on its top pairs of winged animals. The ceiling of this cell is carved and floor raised at the back.
The right cell whose front wall and pillar are gone still preserves the side pilasters. Floor of the cell is of modern restoration and roof curved like the left cell. The architrave is now supported by two modern masonry pillars.
Cave No.3 Chhota-Hāthi-Gumphā
The cave is represented by a low roofed cell and the carvings of a series of six elephants on its facade. A boulder on the top provides natural protection to the carvings on the facade.
The ceiling of the cell is flat and the floor raised at the back. The pointed arch band over the door-way is supported by two pilasters, the capitals of which are crowned by winged animals. The arched band damaged at the left is depicted with full blown

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lotuses and plants. The tympanum contains letters of a dedicatory inscription. Below the sculptured facade is a three-barred railing, the up rights of which are relieved with half lotus medallions.
Cave No.4-Alakāpuri-Gumpha
The Alakāpuri-Gumphā comprises of two spacious cells in two storeys. As a result of ruthless quarrying, the lower cell has been rendcred destitute of its front wall and verandah and presents a bare appearance. The only pilaster of the verandah contains a much damaged bracket and a pair of winged horses.
The upper storey of this cave is entered through a series of steps in front of cave No.5. Like the lower storey the roof of the upper cell is convex in shape. This cell is entered by three door ways. The wall between the first two door-ways has fallen down. The floor of the cell was originally raised at the back but later on the raised portion has been removed.
Most parts of the pillars and the floor of the verandah have been renovated. Two shelves are noticed on the side walls of the verandah. The verandah roof is flat in shape.
The brackets of the upper storey are relieved with animal figures like lions and elephants some of which with wings and others with human and bird heads. One of the inner brackets contain the figure of four-tusked elephant flanked by two she-elephants. The other bracket is carved with a lion holding its prey in mouth. The left pilaster depicts a man carrying a woman in his left arm and pressing the trunk of the elephant in the right. In the same place of the right pilaster is an elephant entwined by a snake near a tree.
To the right of this cave is a small cell with a closed verandah entered from the side. Its floor has been raised at the back but the ceiling of the verandah and the cell are all flat. It has only one door opening on one side of the verandah is a bench. The end of the verandah ceiling is lowered at the end to prevent rain water entering into the cell.
Cave No. 5- Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā
Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā is a two celled cave excavated in a higher ledge near Alakāpuri-Gumphā. The lower part of this cave, an austerely plain cell with a spacious entrance and a fairly high arched ceiling.
The upper storey contains two cells having flat roofs, raised floors and separate door openings. The flat roofed benched verandah is supported by a massive pillar of modern restoration. The lintel designed in living rock extends on either sides of the pillar. The over hanging portions of the verandah roof prevents rain water entering

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inside. Cup-boards are noticed on the side walls of the verandah. The two pilasters at either end of the verandah bear on its body two standing sentinels to guard the entrance, one male and the other a female.
The door-ways of the cells are flanked by side pillars, the capitals of which are crowned by addorsed winged animals on stepped abacus. Connected by a three-barred railing the arches over the door-ways are relieved one with lotus medallions alternating with honey-suckles and the other with creepers issuing from the mouths of makaras. The tympana are without any carving but the space between the arches depicts a sacred tree within railing being worshipped by two couples with folded hands, flanked by flying figures holding trays full of flower garlands.
Above this cave are two badly damaged cells, the roof of the front verandah of which was once supported by a laterite pillar.
Cave No. 6-Panaśa-Gumpha
Immediately after a small scooping beyond cave No. 5 is Panafa-Gumphã now open in the front. Large scale quarrying has brought the original floor down to a deeper depth.
Cave No. 7. Thakurani-Gumpha
The Thakurani-Gumphà consists of two cells, one above the other. The lower cell is comparatively spacious and high with a convex roof. The benched verandah has a pillar of the usual type on a stepped base. The inner bracket has a pair of winged animals. Figures of makaras and winged animals, some with the head of birds found on the pillar and pilaster tops.
are
The upper cell, is a smaller one, preceded by a closed benched verandah with a semi-circular opening. Its floor has the usual pillow like inclination. The verandah has no pillar.
Cave No. 8-Pätälapuri-Gumphå
It consists of four dwelling cells, two at the back and one on either side of the benched verandah. Ceiling of the cells is arched and the floor raised at the back. With the fall of the partition wall the back cells now formed one room. The facade of the cells is devoid of workmanship. The walls between the door openings are of modern restoration. Of the two pilasters and three pillars, the central pillar has ceased to exist. The top portions of pillars and the only bracket are relieved with crude representations of winged animals and a man fighting with a lion. The walls of the back cells have holes at regular intervals near the ceiling.

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Cave No. 9. Mañchapuri-Svargapuri-Gumphā
Further south-west we come across this two storeyed range of caves designed somewhat in the style of the queen's palace (Rāni-Gumphā) bur on a reduced scale. The upper part of this two storeyed cave is known as Svargapuri-Gumphā whereas the lower part including the cell at its side is known as Mañchapuri-Gumphā.
Mañchapuri-(Lower storey)
The lower storey along with the wing consists of four cells. The main wing comprises of a suite of three cells, two in a line facing the west and one on the south. The whole range is fronted by a benched verandah. The ceiling of the back cells is slightly curved and the floor raised behind as usual. Major portions of the four pillars are of modern restorations. The brackets on the pillars are provided with figures of women and pairs of cavaliers. The five door-ways are flanked by side pilasters on ghata bases and crowning elements containing addorsed animals. The sami-circular bands relieved with floral devices, creepers and animals chased by boys. They are crowned by either Srivatsa or nandi pada. Both the wings are guarded by armed Dvārapālas.
The most important aspect of this cave is the badly damaged relief, the subject of which is no doubt the worship of some religious symbol carved on the space between the second-third door-ways of the main wing. The remaining space between the arches is relieved with three barred railings are supported by dwarfish figures. Between the third and the fourth arches occurs the inscription recording the dedication of this cave by Kūdepasiri or Kadampasiri, king of the Mahamegharāhana dynasty of Kalinga.
A similar dedicatory inscription of Prince (kumāra) named Vadukha occurs on the facade of the side cell. To the west of this cell there is a smail room running cast and west with two doors and a verandah divided into two intcr columinations by a heavy pillar. At the corner there is one guardian figure.
In front of the courtyard, the ground plan of a ruined cave is recently exposed. Svargapuri (Upper storey)
The upper storey consists of a long low roofed back ceil with three doors and a side cell with one entrance. The benched verandah in front is exposed due to the collapse of the verandah roof and its supporting pillars. The side room has in the middle of the western wall, a window. The heavily repaired side pilasters are crowned with winged animals and the arches springing over them are relieved with floral devices and creepers commencing from the mouths of makaras. The arches are connected by the representation of barrel-vaulted roof, with bracket figures below and finials above. The recoz of the chief queen of Khāravela is engraved in the space between the second and third arches dedicates this cave to the monks of Kalinga. The ceiling of the main cell is designed flat contrary to the side cell which is in curved shape. The floors have been raised at the back as usual.

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The outer face of the terrace infront is relieved with a three barred railing the uprights of which are shown with lotus medallions. The base of the railing is carved. with a procession of elephants and other animals.
Cave No. 10, Gaṇeśa-Gumphã (Fig.4)
Located a little distance away from Räni-Gumpha this cave consists of two dwelling cells with a benched verandah in front. The verandah is reached from the courtyard by a flight of four steps. The ceiling of the cell is somewhat low and flat but the floor raised at the back. In the partition wall between cells is a small window opening.
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The left cell has a Tirthankara image carved in relief on its back wall. Seated in yogamudra, the figure is devoid of any lanchana. It was once plastered with shell lime. Similarly on the back wall of the right cell, a Gaṇeśa image is carved. The date of carving of the Ganefa image can be inferred approximately from an inscription in five lines to the right of the figure which reveals that it was incised by a physician named Bhimmata, son of Nannata during the reign of the Bhauma king Santikara, who according to the Dhauli cave inscription of the same Bhimmata was ruling in Bhauma year 93 i.e. A.D. 829.
Each room has two door openings flanked by side pilasters. Over the door-ways are tympana capped by arch bands. The arches are relieved with floral devices and creepers issuing forth from the mouths of makaras and topped by nandipada and Srivatsa symbols. Spaces between the first and the second door-ways on the one hand and the third and fourth on the other are relieved with two scenes, each above a railing supported by three squattish pot-bellied male and female figures.
The two cells are opened to a common benched verandah in front whose flat roof is supported by a series of massive pillars. Small brackets protruding from the pillars and side pilasters are relieved with human figures displaying stalks of flowers, spouted vessels, trays, etc. Lintels designed in original rock connect the pillars. The cup-board and the lower part of the front wall are provided with railings. Infront of the left pilaster is carved a standing guard. Above its head on the outer face of the bracket is a couching humped bull.
The flight of steps leading to the verandah is flanked by a pair of elephants displaying flowers in their trunks.
The first frieze on the facade of Gaṇeśa-Gumpha is almost the repetition of the one carved in the second full spandril of the upper main wing of Rant-Gumpha. The second scene of the same facade is often linked with the Udayana-Vasavadatta episode.
Three more scoopings are noticed to the left of Gaṇeśa-Gumphã, two of which are in one block of stone.

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Cave No. 11. Jambeśvara-Gumphā
The cave is a low-roofed cell with two plain door openings preceded by a benched verandah. The roof of the verandah is supported on a pillar and two pilasters. The brackets projecting from their top are plain. The inscription on its right door records the cave was of Mahamada Nākiya and Bāriya.
To the north-west of the cave at a lower level is a small cave open in front.
Cave No. 12. Bågha-Gumphā (Fig. 5)
Located to the west of Hathi-Gumph, this cave consists of a cell and the verandah in front. The roof of the front verandah is formed by the expanded upper jaw armed with formidable teeth, eyes and nose capriciously shaped into the semblance of the head of tiger. The entrance to the cell is placed where the gullet in a living animal would be. The door-way is flanked by side pilasters with pairs of elephants as crowning elements on stepped abacus. Over the door is a plain arch, pointed at the top of the outer edge with a railing supported by beams on both sides. The two lined inscription on the outer wall in its right reveals that the cave is associated with the town Judge Bhuti. The inscription is flanked by a triangle headed symbol and the svastika.
Cave No. 13. Sarpa-Gumphā (Fig. 6)
To the west of Hāthi-Gumphā again is a detached boulder in which are excavated two tiny cells, the user one facing cast called Sarpa-Gumpha. It is remarkable for having the rude carving of the hood of a three hooded snake at the top of the entrance door. The facade of the cave has a very narrow verandah without any approach. It contains two short inscriptions, one above the door-way declaring it to be the abode of Chulakamma and the other on the left janb stating the cave was the gift of Kamma and Khina. The door entrance is large enough to admit a man crawling in. The floor has been raised at the back.
Cave No. 14. Häthi-Gumpha
This large cave in irregular shape is located at the end of the laterite path leading to Udayagiri caves. Adjoining this cave at different heights are a number of oblong excavations mostly open in front.
The nasonry shed in front of it was built in 1902 to protect the inscription from damage. The side walls of this cave contain a number of later inscriptions of different periods many of which are proper names. It is a natural cavern of considerable extent but appears to have been enlarged in subsequent date. There is no architectural moulding or form to show that it was ever occupied by man. The inscription of Khāravela is crgraved on its frontal boulder but continued up to a place where the stone

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has become actually the roof of the cave. The inscription covers an area of about 15'. 1'*5.6" (about 84' square) divided into 17 lines, each line containing 90 to 100 letters and each letter carrying from 3}" to 21" in height. (Fig. 31).
Cave No. 15. Dhānaghar-Gumphā
Proceeding towards Ganesa-Gumphā from the right of Hāthi-Gumphā is Dhānaghar-Gumphā containing a long cell of low roof, three door ways and a benched verandah, supported by two pillars and two pilasters. The door-ways are decorated with arches resting on side pilasters and pointed at the top. The spaces between the arches are filled in with barrel-vaulted moulding supported by brackets and crowned by a two-barred railing. Near the left pilaster is found a guardian figure holding a long staff in both hands. The brackets are relieved with figures of elephant, lion, honey-suckles and lotuses.
To the left of this cave is a small oblong excavation open in front and devoid of any architectural embellishments.
Cave No. 16. Haridāsa-Gumphā
It is a spacious chamber with a slightly curved ceiling preceded by a benched verandah with two pilasters and door-ways. The entire structure is devoid of any sculptural representation.
The inscription engraved on the facade declares the cave to be the gift of Chulakamma and Kothaji who are also mentioned in the inscription above the doorway of Sarpa-Gumphā.
Cave No. 17. Jagannātha-Gumphā
The Jagannātha-Gumphā cansists of a single chamber, the longest among the Udayagiri caves, with four entrances and a benched verandah supported by three pillars. There are three niches for keeping lamps, two in the walls of the chamber and one in a verandah pillar. The three pillars and side pilasters are relieved with figures of deer, winged hybrid animals, fish, birds, flowers, and plants. The brackets also contain representations of Ganas supporting the superstructure, Vidyadharas holding garlands, in trays, winged kinnara and peacock.
Cave No. 18. Rasui-Gumphā
It is a small dwelling cell with a narrow pillarless verandah devoid of any architectural features. Stones from its front are unevenly quarried out.
6. K.P. Jayswal, JBORS. Vol. III, Pt IV, pp. 427-28.

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An apsidal structure (Fig. 32), perhaps the first of its kind in Orissa, has been exposed by the excavation on the top of Udayagiri hill, just over the Hathi-Gumphā containing the inscription of Khāravela. Archacological Survey of India under the stewardship of Debala Mitra took up the excavation of the site during the year 1958-59, a brief account of which is published in the "Indian Archacology - a review", for the same year.
The ruins consist of an apsidal hall built of laterite slabs, within which, towards the apse end is a circular wall, probably the base of a platform containing the object of worship. Below this are remnants of an earlier oblong structure. Large patches of laterite pavement exist within the structure. Post holes, circular or irregular occur in the bed rock and pavement, indicating that the structure was originally covered by roof resting on posts.
The complex of structure was no doubt a Jaina religious edifice and provided the monks residing in the caves with a place of worship.
The excavation at Udayagiri further revealed an ancient ramp. It is three metres wide, rises from the foot of the hill and reaches the terrace in front of the Hāthi-Gumphā and is supported on either side by retaining walls.
At a certain distance from the bottom of the ramp there are two walls at right angles to support the filling below terrace in front of the Hathi-Gumpha in sandstone and laterites.
Khandagiri
Cave No. 1 Tätowa-Gumphā No. 1 (Fig. 7)
This cave consists of a chamber and a benched verandah in front. The ceiling of the chamber is flat and floor raised at the back. Entry to the cell is maintained through two door openings flanked by side pilasters crowned by a pair of addorsed animals each. From the top of the pilasters spring semicircular arches relieved with lotuses alternating with honey-suckles and creepers with fruits from the mouths of makaras. The crowning elements of these arches are triangular shaped objects flanked by parrots holding flowers in their bills. The spaces between the arches and side walls have patterns of barrel-vaulted roofs supported by brackets crowned by a row of finials against railings.
The roof of the verandah is supported by a pillar and two side pilasters and the side walls have a shelf each. The brackets of the pillars and pilasters are relieved with lotuses, honey-suckles and rosettes. The front of the verandah is guarded by two sentries against the pilasters.

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Rotu
Between the two arches of the door-ways is a short one line inscription indicating the cave to that of Kusuma, the Padamulika. A small scooping is noticed in the
left.
Cave No. 2 Tätowā-Gumphā No. 2. (Fig. 7)
The Tätowa-Gumphā No. 2 located at a higher level is more spacious and its decoration more elaborate. It has only one cell formed by a benched verandah. The ceiling of the cell is convex in shape and floor raised at the back. The back wall of the cell contains random writing of some Brāhmi letters and symbolical representation of the sun and the moon. Entry to the chamber is made through the provision of three doors flanked by side pilasters resting on ghata bases. The crowning animals of these pillars consist of pairs of lions, bulls, and elephants. Each of the door way is surmounted by an arch connecting the side pilasters. The pointed portion of these arches contain the symbols of Nandipada and ribs under side indicating rafters of wooden prototype. The tympana are filled with garlands of lotus flowers, buds and honeysuckles and flanked by pairs of deer, parrots and doves. The facade of the cell is relieved with barrel-shaped roof with pinacles at intervals and flanked, however, by a lion on the left and an elephant at the right.
A bench covers the three sides of the verandah. A major portion of the two pillars in front and the verandah floor are of modern restoration. The inner brackets of the pillar carved with honey-suckles alternating with lotuses in the two outer most ones, a danseuse in the company of a musician and a female devotee holding tray of flowers in the two middle ones.
Cave No. 3 Ananta-Gumpha
The cave comprises of a narrow long room with four door-ways and a verandah in front. The verandah has its roof lower than the ceiling of the chamber. A bench once ran round three sides of the verandah but now the floor has been raised to the level of the benches by cut stones laid on the original rock floor. The verandah roof is supported by three massive pillars and two side pilasters, the brackets of which contain a dwarf supporting an elephant on a full blown lotus, women with folded hands, honey-suckles, pot bellied Ganas supporting the super structure and cavaliers on lotuses. The partition wall between the first and second door-way is destroyed along with a portion of the tympanum and its depiction. The ceiling of the room is slightly arched whereas that of the verandah is flat. The floor of the chamber is raised at the back.
On the back wall of the chamber is carved a nandipada on a stepped pedestal flanked by a set of three symbols, a triangle headed and Srivatsa both on separate pedestals and a svastika. A standing Tirthankara figure along with chauri bearers and flying Vidyadharas in an unfinished stage is also noticed near this group of symbols.
But the most interesting aspect of the cave lies in the relief sculptures and decorative designs within the tympana, the arches over door-ways and the spaces

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between the arches. All the four door-ways were originally flanked by pilasters from the capitals of which spring the arches, the latter crowned by either a Srivatsa or a nandipada symbol. The capitals of the pilasters consist of winged addorsed animals reclining on abaci above inverted bell-shaped lotuses.
The two central arches depict running friezes with boys chasing animals including lions and bulls. The first arch contains rosettes within loops of garlands and the fourth a procession of twelve geese carrying lotus flowers in bills. The crown of the arch is formed by the intertwining of the tails of two serpents, whose bodies encircle the arch and whose triple-headed hoods form two prominent wings on its two sides.
Over the arches and extending along the entire length of the verandah and continuing along the side walls runs a railing interrupted at those places where there are groups of stepped merlons alternating with blue lotuses. The remaining spaces in between the arches are filled with semidivine beings flying in haste with garlands and trays of flowers.
The tympana from the left depict an elephant attended by two she elephants, a person driving a chariot drawn by four horses, Gajalakşmi and worship of a tree within railings.
The inscription of the outerside of the architrave between the left pilaster and the first pillar of the verandah calls the cave that of the monks of Dohada (?)
Another short inscription which has been incised on the rock outside the verandah has been peeled of.
Cave No. 4. Tentuli-Gumphā
This cave consists of a small cell and a benched verandah in front. Its floor has been raised at the back and ceiling designed flat. Entry to the cave is made through two door openings duly flanked by side pilasters resting on ghata based on stepped pedestals. The pilasters are crowned by elephants over bell shaped inverted lotuses on square abaci. The plain arched bands are pointed at the top. The facade is devoid of sculptural representations.
A portion of the verandah is blocked by the living rock. The verandah ceiling is designed flat. The only pillar and the side pilasters are of the usual type. The brackets contain depiction of a lady displaying lotus buds and a trotting elephant.
The roof of the ruined unnamed and unnumbered preceding cave is supported by a modern masonry pillar. The floor of this cave is raised at the back and roof slanting towards the front. The scooping in front of Tentuli-Gumphā has a collapsed roof supported by a modern pillar. The floor of this cave is also raised at the back and the ceiling slanting towards the front. It too, has no number or name.

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This is a plain cave of a two storeyed structure. Its left side is partially broken and so is the right and the roof along with the back wall are cracked. The lower cell has a slanting roof and a raised floor. It has no verandah in front.
The upper storey is reached with much difficulty. Unlike the lower storey it has a curved roof but a raised floor.
To its right are two more dilapidated cells, one above the other, the lower one with a semicircular back wall and the upper one has a small window and a faint representation of a painted figure of Lord Jagannātha on the back wall. Here also the floor is raised at the back and roof slanting towards the front.
Cave No. 6 Dhyānaghar-Gumphā
Originally this cave was consisted of a long cell with a verandah in front supported by two pillars but has now been turned into a spacious chamber with the front side open due to removal of the front wall and the supporting verandah pillars. As per the available indication the floor of cell was raised at the back. The ceiling of the cell and the verandah are designed flat. Lintels have been provided in the living rock.
The so-called shell inscription, seven letters in number occur on the left side wall. The back wall also carry another inscription in a line and a single letter of early character.
Cave No.7 - Navamuni-Gumphā
The cave was originally comprised of two spacious cells and a verandah in front. The partition wall and the front wall including doors have since been destroyed. The ceilings of the cells are designed in convex shape. The original floors of both cells were raised at the back as indicated in the wall and renovated with masonry works.
The verandah floor has also been similarly renovated. Unlike the ceilings of the cells the roof of the verandah is designed flat. Both the verandah walls have been removed. Lintels above pillars were cut in the living rock.
The back wall of the right cell is carved with seven Tirthankaras (Fig.35) Rşabhanātha, Ajitanātha, Sambhabanātha, Abhinandananātha, Vasupujya, Pārsvanātha and Neminātha, all seated in yogāsana within niches rounded at the top. They are identified with the representation of their lanchanas below pedestal and chauri bearers on sides in addition to the Kevala tree and flying Vidyadharas with garlands. Below the Tirthankaras are their respective Sāsanadevis Chakreśvari, Rohini, Prajñyāpti, Vajraśrikhalā, Gāndhāri, Padmavati, and Amra along with attributes in hands and lāñchanas below pedestals. A figure of Ganesa in mahārājalilā pose is carved in the beginning of

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the Sāsanadevi images. On the right wall are carved two figures, one of Pārsvanātha and the other of Rşabhanātha, both seated in yogāsana. On the left wall is carved a small figure of Chandraprabha also in yogasana pose.
There are altogether five inscriptions, one mentioning sravakiruvi below the figure of Pārsvanātha on the right wall of the right cell, three on the remnant of the partition wall and the fifth, the largest and in three lines, on the inner side of the architrave of the verandah. The last is the most important as it records the work of Subhachandra, disciple of Kulachandra, who was the acharya (teacher) of the Desinaga, derived from the Grahakula belonging to the Aryasamgha in the eighteenth regnal year of Udyotakeśarl, who belonged to the Somavamśí dynasty and ruled over Orissa in the eleventh century. Of three inscriptions on the partition wall, one again mentions the same Subhachandra and the other two, the names of two students (chatra) Vijo and Sridhara.
Cave No. 8 – Bārabhuji-Gumphā
The general layout of this cave consists of a large chamber at the back and a pillared verandah in front. The cell had a pillow like floor and a convex ceiling. But the entire floor of the cell has been dug out and replaced with modern masonry works. With this, the front wall including door opening intervening walls and the verandah floor have also been destroyed deliberately. The two concrete piers and the flooring are modern. New pillars have been provided against the missing ones. The left wall of the verandah has a cup-board. The verandah pillars have been connected by lintels excavated in solid rocks.
Twenty-four Tirthankara figures of the Jaina pantheon are carved in twenty-five niches of the back and side walls of which Pārsvanātha has been repeated twice. The left wall contains five such images, the back wall eighteen and the right wall two. Of the two figures of Pārsvanātha one is in its proper position with the series, the standing one, however, occupies the first place on the back wall. They are all in yogāsana with their respective lāñchanas and chauri bearers, keva!a tree, flying figures and heavenly music.
Below the Tirthankaras are carved the Saszadevis in separate niches all seated in ardhapar yankāsana except Mahāmānasi, the Susanadevi of Santinātha who is seated cross legged and Bahurupiņi, the Sasanadevi associated with Munisuvrata who is lying. Twenty of these sit on legged seats and four, the fourth, sixteenth, twenty-second and twenty-third on lotus, below which are carved their animal mounts. The attributes of their hands in many cases are damaged. The left and the right walls of the verandah contain the figures of Chakreśvari and Rohiņi respectively. The details of Jaina Tirthankaras and their Sasanadevis will be discussed, in the chapter dealing with iconography of Jaina images. In front of the Bārabhuji-Gumph, we notice a miniature shrine of Pidha order devoid of any image within. It is of modern construction. A standing figure of Malāvira (Hanuman) is carved on the living rock in the space between cave No.8 and No. 9.

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Cave No.9 - Mahāvīra-Gumphā
In the manner of the preceding caves this was also originally designed for the purpose of a dormitory with an inner chamber and a verandah in fornt. The roof of the cell has been designed flat and floor raised at the back as evident from the markings on the side walls. The floor was dug up subsequently and replaced with masonry works. The original front wall along with the door openings were demolished and now replaced with concrete works. The pilasters are available in their original positions. A wire fencing prevents common visitors entering into the caves. The two side walls of the verandah are provided with a shelf each.
Ranged along the three sides of the chamber are the reliefs of twenty-four robeless Tirthankaras. Pārsvanātha instead of being placed before Mahāvira occupies a rough central place on the back wall. Eight of the Tirtharkaras are carved in standing and the rest in sitting posture. Of the standing ones, Rşabhanātha, the first Tirthankara is the largest in the group. The masonry altar near the back wall of the cell contains three chlorite figures of Rşabhanātha in standing posture of much better workmanship. The head of the smallest of the three has now been mutilated.
On the top of this cave is an oblong masonry structure of later date with its roof and crowning elements fashioned after a temple of the pidha order.
Cave No. 10
Continuing to go round the slope of the hill are traces of several caves in a group which were destroyed in course of ruthless excavation, leaving the remnants visible at great heights.
Three reliefs, two of Rşabhanātha and one of Amra, the Sāsanadevi of Neminātha are carved on the backwall of this cave at a higher level (Fig. 52). Except these carvings and a portion of the partition wall nothing more is visible at present. The two Rşabhanātha figures are standing in kayotsarga pose on double petalled lotus pedestals below which their liñchanas are visible. They are flanked by asțagrahas, chauri bearers, flying figures with garlands and invisible hands playing on cymbals and drums. The trilinear umbrella and the kevala tree are also noticed above the matted locks of hair on their heads. They have eliptical haloes behind their heads. The figure of Amra, standing under the mango tree is partially available. Her Tirthankara, Neminātha is seen seated in yogasana above the tree. Near her right palm stands a boy.
Cave No.11--Lalátendukeśari-Gumphā
The two rooms and the common verandah in front of this cave are all destroyed, leaving portions of the walls above clinging to the rock. The pillars, partition walls and the floor together with the rock beneath have been quarried away. The ceiling of the two chambers are designed flat :

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The back and the left wall of the left cell contain two images of Rşabhanātha and three of Pārsvanātha all in standing posture. Similarly, the right cell has three figures in all, two of Pārsvanātha and one of Rşabhanātha and an empty niche.
On the back wall of the right cell and above the Rşabhanātha image is a damaged inscription in five lines dated in the fifth regnal year of the Somavaṁsi king Udyotakeśarī recording the restoration of a decayed vāpi (step-well) and decayed temples on the Kumāra hill and also setting up of the images of twenty-four Tirthařkara there.
Cave No.12
This cave was originally consisted of two small cells with a partition wall in the middle. The roof, side walls, front wall including door openings as well as the verandah are all damaged and gone. A portion of the partition wall separating the two cells now exists near the back wall. From the available evidences it is found that the ceiling was designed flat and the floor raised at the back as usual.
Cave No.13
The general layout of this cave consists of an inner chamber having two cells and a benched verandah in front. The two cells from their dimension are quite spacious. Their roof, partition wall, front openings including the intervening walls are now lost. Such is the case with the verandah in front. There were altogether four pillars and two side pilasters to support the verandah roof Floor of the cells is raised at the back and ceiling designed flat.
Cave No.14-Ekādasi-Gumphā
It is a long dwelling cell, the front part of which including the pillar is lost except the projecting part of the ceiling. There is no trace of verandah in front. The only pillar supporting the roof is of modern masonry work. From available indications it is found that the ceiling was designed flat and floor raised at the back.
Cave No.15
Circling round the hill for some distance a small cave is available on the west side near the foot of the hill. This cave is open in front. The floor of the cell which faces west has the usual pillow like inclination at the back. The ceiling of this cave is designed flat. This has now become an abode of wild animals.
To the left of Gupta-Ganga are three low natural caverns improved by human hand. The walls of the central one, the best of the three have been made smooth by chiselling. It is open in front and the floor along with the side walls damaged.

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The Jaina Temple (Fig. 34).
The crest of Khandagiri hill is crowned by a modern temple with a porch in front. An image of Rşabhanātha, carved in white marble is now under worship in the sanctum of the temple. Both the structures are built in pidha temple style and plastered with lime. The former (temple) is twenty-seven fect square and twenty-five feet high, the latter (Jagamohana) six feet smaller in both ways. the temple was built by Manju Chandhuri and his nephew Bhavani Dadu of Cuttack, Jaina merchants of Digambara sect.? In the front of the temple there is a fine terrace, about fifty feet square. To the north of the terrace there is a small temple and on either side of the main temple there are also small buildings with pyramidal roofs.
In side the sanctum, on the altar are arranged on both sides of the main, marble image, sixteen small chlorite sculptures and one sand stone image of Rşabhanātha, besides a damaged chaumukha, all much earlier in date than the present temple itself. The chlorite image comprise, three of Rsabhanātha, two of Sāntinātha, one each of Sumatinātha and Amra and three slabs containing groups of Tirthankaras, all robeless. Most of the sculptures are executed with fine taste.
The standing chlorite image of Rşabhanātha in the right niche is of comparatively large size. On its back slab, the whole range of twenty-four Tirthankaras have been carved. In the left niche is a seated couple of Ambikā and Gomedha under the mango tree above whom is their Jina with cognizance, the wheel.
The four old images of Tirtharkaras of which two are Pārsvanātha and one of Rşabhanātha reported to have been kept in the Jagamohana are no more found.8
Five more miniature robeless Tirthankaras, one of them in chlorite may be seen in a small temple within the premises.
All the loose images in chlorite stones have been collected from the hill and its neighbourhood.
The colossal image of Pārsvanātha, in black marble, which is installed in the marble shrine located to the right of the temple is reported to have been of modern origin and installed in the year 1950.
Devasabhā
To the south-west of the temple there is a large, open, smooth piece of ground of terrace devoid of any vegetation, gently sloping towards the west which bears the name Devasabha or the "Assembly of the Gods". On the surface of this terrace, a
7. R.L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, p. 64. 8. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, p. 64.

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number of monolithic miniature shrines most of them having at one of their faces the figure of a Tirthankara, are scattered. Like the votive stupas they were evidently dedicated by pious devotees near the main sanctum. They give a rough idea of the prevailing type of temples at this place.
The areas of Prachi valley in Puri district also contain Jaina relics inside several Brahmanical monuments. A small votive image of Rṣabhanatha carved out in black chlorite stone is found in the Visvamitra matha near Kakatpur. The image is not built with artistic care and appears to be the work of a raw hand. Though not a piece of art it is of considerable importance to us as a piece of temple offering and it reveals the truth and belief in Jainism of sections of people in the Prachi valley.
A slab containing the seated figures of Yakta Gomedha and Yakşisi Ambika has been brought to the notice at a place called Lataharana in the Prachi valley. Both the figures are seated in lalitäsana pose on respective lotus pedestals below which a series of seven devotees also depicted in lalitasana. The figure of Ambika displays a bunch of mangoes in right hand and the left holds a baby. Similarly the image of Gomedha carry another bunch of mangoes in his right hand and rests the left on the thigh. They wore simple loin cloths in the same style and bear on them same types of ornaments, the only exception being in the conical head dress of the Yaksa and the round hair knot of his consort. The mango tree is depicted in the background. From the trunk of the tree a baby is found swinging in between the Yaksa and Yaktigt. At the top, (above their heads) Tirthankara Neminatha is found seated in Yogasana on a lotus pedestal. On both sides of the Tirthankara, the chauri bearers are also depicted with artistic care. The image on the whole reveals a success of the Jaina sculptors who have been able to combine here the decorative beauty with plastic quality. Prof. G.S. Das' terms this pair as Yakta Kuşmanda and Yakṣiņi Kusmandini. The entire slab including the pedestal measures 0.47m* 0.23m.
An exact prototype of this image has been found at the Antarvedi Matha, but this one has no great artistic merit and being of small size (18cm x 10cm) it was probably intended for a votive offering by some Jaina devotee.
A similar type of Jaina Tirthankara image as found in Visvamitra Asrama referred to above, is also lying near the Bharadvaja Arama of the Prachi valley, 10
A Ṛsabhanatha image (Fig. 53) carved seated in Yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal is preserved in the porch of the Gramesvar Siva temple of village Nibharana, some six k.m. on the canal road from Kakatpur. The local people worship this image as Kandarpa. The Prachi Valley report on the other hand wrongly identified this image as Parsvanatha. The pedestal of the image is supported by two spirited lions on the corners. Bull, his conventional lañchana, is lying below the lotus pedestal. Hair
9. G.S. Das, Prachi Valley report, Chapter III. 10. P.K. Ray, Prachi Valley Report, (Ed.) p. 56. 11. Ibid., p. 35.

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on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in jatā, a few strands of which also seen falling on the shoulders. The chauri bearers are standing on both sides. The trilinear umbrella surmounted by Keva!a tree, flying figures with garlands in hands, cymbals and drum played by invisible heavenly figures, champaka marks and a series of devotees in kneeling position and folded hands with heaps of offerings in front are envisaged along with the figure. A irefoiled arch instead of the conventional prabhamandala is carved behind his hcad. The temple priests attribute miraculous phenomenon to this image. They demonstrate the accumulation of water at a place below the navel region of the figure and its eventual leakage. They remove this water from time to time to convince the devotees of the supernatural element involved in it. The figure carved in hard granite is in perfect condition. It measures lm X 0.50m X 0.20m including the pedestal
In the modern Nrusinghnatha temple of village Chadheibar near Balakati on the left bank of river Bhargavi, a figure of Rşabhanātha carved standing in kāyotsarga pose is preserved in a niche of the inner partition wall. The double petalled lotus pedestal is supported by lions on either corners. Bull, as lāñchana of Rşabhanātha and a good number of devotees in kneeling position and folded hands are noticed below the lotus throne. The two chauri bearers, eight planets in yogāsana, and attributes in hands, the Keva! tree, trilinear umbrella, trifoiled decorative arch and flying figures with garlands in hands are all envisaged along with the figure. The top corners of the slab are covered with cement plaster for which we are unable to trace the representation of heavenly music played through hands. The entire figure is conceived in a miniature pidha temple. The image made of hard granite stone is found to be very well polished.
Two images, one of Rşabhanātha (Fig. 54) and another of Pārsvanātha are recently installed in an open mandapa at a place called Baudei located within a mango tope near village Turintira, a site more prominently known for its Ananta Vasudeva figures. Ruins of old structures, an abandoned well and heaps of large sized bricks are noticed at the place. One has to walk a little distance amidst paddy fields to reach the place. Both the figures are prepared in sand stone.
The image of Rşabhanātha of this place is carved standing in Kāyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal supported by lions at each corner. Below the pedestal along with bull are also noticed a number of devotees in kneeling position and folded hands. Heaps of offerings are placed in front of the devotees. The lotus pedestal, on which the Tirthankara stands is designed at the centre of a plain base. The chauri bearers are standing on either sides. On the top of the chauri bearers, figures of vidalas are carved looking opposite directions. The circular halo behind head, cymbals played in hands, flying figures with garlands, kevala tree and the trilinear umbrella are all conceived along with this image. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in jatä a few strands of which seen falling on the broad shoulders. Lower parts of both the hands and face have been mutilated. It has been extensively covered with moss and lichen. Other decorative elements and smoothness of the figure are completely eroded. It measures 1.33m x 0.67m x 0.22m.

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The Parávanatha figure of this place is carved seated in yogasana on a lotus pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake is noticed above the head. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in curled knots with a uşnisa at the centre. The chauri bearers are standing on either sides. Due to continuous exposure to weathering conditions and soft quality of the stone the image seems to be badly affected. It is extensively covered with moss and lichen. Coils of the snake are gathered behind the figure. The elongated ears and trivali on the neck add royal grace and vigour to the Tirthankara. It measures 1.30m x 0.70mx 0.27m in all.
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A small figure of a Jaina Tirthankara was recovered from village Bhainchua of the Prachi Valley by K.N. Mohapatra, former Superintendent of Archaeology, Orissa. Except the standing posture in Kayotsarga, we do not notice any other conventional attribute with this image. It was probably installed in the village in the past in a small temple, the foundation of which could also be noticed by him during the visit.
Several Jaina metal sculptures have come from Kakatpur near Konark, in Puri District. Some of them have been acquired by the Indian Museum, Calcutta and a few by Asutosh Museum of Indian Art. Besides, two of them found their way to the Orissa State Museum and one is still available in the residence of late Narayana Tripathy of village Tulasipur near Chaurasi. The figures, the majority of which represent different Tirthankaras, are of stereotyped order. Mention may be made here of the image of Chandraprabha now in the collection of Asutosh Museum. The Jina stands in Kayotsarga pose on a lotus supported by a square pedestal which bears his emblem, the crescent moon. The inert modelling of the body and heavy drowsiness of the face are symptomatic of the ultimate desiccation of the plastic art. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in curled knots with Unifa at the centre. Both the hands touch the knee region. It is badly affected in the hands, legs, face and abdomen.
The two metal idols of Tirthankara Rṣabhantha and Parsvanatha of Kakatpur preserved in the Orissa State Museum were donated by one G.P. Ray, an Engineer attached to Puri district. The figure of Rsabhanatha (Fig. 55) of this place (Acc. No. 451) is carved standing in Kayetsarga pose on a double petalled lotus supported by a square pedestal with legs. In front of the square pedestal is lying a bull, the lañchana of the Tirthankara. A kneeling devotee in folded hands is found carved in front of the bull. Hairs on the head of Rṣabhanatha are arranged in matted locks, a few rolls of which seen falling on both the shoulders. Trivali is prominently noticed on the neck. Both the hands of the Tirthankara are stretched up to the knee. This image of Rṣabhanatha is an example of fine workmanship, with a beautiful jatäbhara, a serene expression of the face and graceful outline of the body. It bears an inscription, recording that it was the gift of one Srikara. The entire figure including the pedestal measures 0.39m×0.11 m.
The Parsvanatha image (Fig. 56) of Kakatapur in the Orissa State Museum (No. 508) is carved seated in yogasana on a double petalled lotus pedestal. A canopy of
12. A. Ghosh, Jaina art and Architecture, (Ed.) Vol. II, Pl. 162B.

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seven hooded snake is noticed over his head. Another small snake, as the mark of cognizance of the Tirthankara is carved in front of the pedestal. Hairs over the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in dropping locks with a usnisa at the centre. The elongated ears and trivāli on neck add graceful vigour to the figure.
I have no occasion to examine the other metal idol of Kakatpur kept in village Tulasipur. But learnt that it is a figure of Tirthan kara containing a line of inscription.
Two Jaina relics are noticed in the ruined Baga Mahadeva temple premises of village Panchagaon some 15 kms. from Bhubaneswar on the Jatni road. River Gangua is originating from this place. Of the two relics, one is the figure of Tirthankara Rsabhanātha and other is a slab containing as many as 160 Garadhara and Pūrvadhara figures (Fig. 57) carved standing in nine rows. The top most row contains fourteen figures all in standing posture in the centre of whom Rşabhanātha as mulanāyaka is seated in yogāsana pose on a lotus pedestal. His hairs on the head are arranged in matted locks and lāñchana, the bull is faintly carved below the pedestal. The lower row contains only ten Ganadhara figures. Both the slabs are annually worshipped as Savitri and Satyavāna by the local people.
Other relic of the place is the image of Rşabhanātha (Fig. 57) carved standing on a double petalled lotus pedestal below which his lāñchana, the bull is lying. Two devotees, one male and other female, are carved in kneeling position and añjalihasta behind the bull. The two chauri bearers are also seen standing on separate double petalled lotus pedestals on the sides of the Tirthankara above whom are the eight planets in Yogasana pose with conventional aitributes in hands, the flying figures with garlands and cymbals and drum played in hands are envisaged. The hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in matted locks, few rolls of which seen falling on the shoulders. The Prabhamandala behind head is designed in circular form and devoid of decorative art. The umbrella, surmounted by the kevala tree is partially mutilated.
In village Iginia, near Khandagiri, two Jaina relics, one the figure of Rşabhadeva and the other a head of a Tirthankara are kept near the Mangalā shrine. They were very likely collected from the Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills.
During 1971 a number of stolen sculptures were recovered by the Guards of the Archaeological Survey of India from the Chandaka Jungle. In the group, a seated figure of Jaina Tirthankara was found. It measures 37cm x 19cm and depicts the conventional chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella and the Kevala tree along side of the main figure. A group of six devotees in a row are carved below the pedestal. The recovered sculptures were kept in the Chaukidar's shade at Udayagiri and Khandagiri.
A severely damaged but repaired Pārsavanātha image (Fig. 58) was brought to the Orissa State Museum from Village Siśupālgarah located in the close vicinity of Bhubaneswar. It was recovered from the adjoining paddy fields some time during 1975

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and since then kept in the premises of the Dadhivāmana temple of the village. The Tirthankara carved standing in Kāyotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal, supported by lions. The canopy of seven hooded snake is found above head. The coils of the snake are all gathered behind the figure. Among other notable features we find the semi Nāga devotees and devotees in kneeling posture below pedestal, Chauri bearers on the pedestal and kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, flying figures with garlands in hands and music played by hands at the top. The slab including the pedestal measures some 0.87m x 0.47m x 0.20m and damaged at places like the kevala tree, umbrella, legs, head, chauri bearers and flying figures. But the damaged portions are crudely repaired through cement by the local people.
The more Jaina relics were also brought to the Museum from Brahmesvarpatna, located very close to Siśupālgrah. Of the two, the figure of Rşabhanātha was collected through the efforts of N. Senpati, I.C.S. (Retd.) and the other, the figure of Ambikā was recovered from the bushes by the Museum staff. The Ambikā image has for the time being shifted to the Dhenkanal branch Museum for display. It is carved standing on a lotus pedestal with a baby on the left lap and a bunch of mangoes in the right. Another baby is seen attempting to pluck the mangoes held in her right hand. The trunk of the tree (mango tree) is seen to her left, instead of conventional position at the back. Lion, the vehicle of deity is also carved near the tree. She is profusely decked with ornaments but they are all weathered due to the soft quality of the sand stone in which it is excavated. Upper part of the image including its head is damaged and missing. The Tirthankara Neminātha is also not available in the appropriate place as the portion already gone away with. The remaining part of the slab including the pedestal measure 0.60m x 0.35m.
The other piece is the figure of Rşabhanātha carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal below which his lāñchand, the bull is lying. The pedestal also contains supported lions at corners and devotees in kneeling position and folded hands. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in matied locks, a few strands of which falling on the shoulders. Among other attributes we notice the chauri bearer on either sides, the eight planets seated in yogāsana pose, the kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, flying figures with garlands and cymbals and drum played in hands are all envisaged along with the image. Lotus marks are also seen above his shoulders.
The discovery of Jaina relics at Siśupalgarah and Brahmesvarapatna presupposes the election of a shrine in the ancient past in the neighbourhood.
K.C. Panigrahi in his book "Archaeological Remains at Bhubaneswar" includes two figures from Mukteśvar temple bearing Fig. 59 and Fig. 60 with captions like Dhyani Buddha and Jaina Tirthankara, respectively. But as it appears, both the figures may be assigned to Jaina pantheon. We usually notice Jaina Tirthankara images carved seated in yogāsana pose and standing in Kāyotsarga pose. hcre Fig. 59 is carved seated cross-legged keeping the right palm over the left in perfect meditative attitude. The conventional kevala tree spreads its branches on either side at the top. Their conventional attributes are however lacking. The hairs on his head are arranged in curled knots.

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Similarly the other image bearing Fig. 60 is carved standing in Kâyotsarga pose. It has been envisaged within a shrine. Hairs of his head are also arranged in curled knots. His long ears hand up to the shoulders and hands stretch up to the thigh regions. The kevala tree is depicted over the arches of the shrine. Face of the Tirtharkara is badly mutilated. The representation of Jaina Tirthankara figures on the walls of the Siva temples presupposes the patronisation it received even under the hands of rulers having Saiva leanings.
The Sculpture Gallery of the Orissa State Museum preserves three more Jaina Tirthankara images, the find spots of which have not been properly recorded. The first one bearing No. Ay. 50 is carved seated in yogasana pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal supported by lions at the centre and carved pillars at corners. The place depicting the lañchana of the Tirthankara is damaged for which it is difficult to identify the image with any particular Tirthankara. But for the presence of lions below pedestal (one available and other completely defaced) it has often been regarded as the figure of Mahāvīra. One male and one female devotee with heaps of offerings are also carved in the pedestal. The chauri bearers are standing on the sides above whom are depicted seated geese almost near the base of the trefoiled arch. Pillars of the decorative torana are also noticed at the back. Among other attributes we find the trilinear decorated umbrella surmounted by the kevala tree and flanked by flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands and playing on various musical instruments. Lotus and champak flower marks are also noticed on either sides. Made of sand stone, the figure including the pedestal meaures 1.14m x 0.61m x 0.25m and damaged at the palms and face of the pedestal and flying heavenly figures. Musical instruments played in hands of Gandharvas and Kinnaras are noticed on the stele.
The other two Tirthankara images are kept inside the central show case of the second hall of the same gallery. The first one can be identified with Rsabhanātha (No. Ay. 165) in view of the fact of matted locks of hair on his head, a few rolls of which run up to the shoulder. The Tirhtankara is carved standing in Kāyotsarga mārg. His conventional lāñchana has not been depicted in the appropriate place. On the whole the image is left unfinished but spaces for depiction astagrahas, lotus and champak marks, umbrella, kevala tree, flying figures and heavenly music, etc. have been identified.
The second image is of Tirthankara Mahāvīra carved standing in yogāsana pose on a plain pedestal below which his lañchana the lion is depicted flanked by devotees in kneeling position and folded hands. The Prbhāmandala behind the figure left unfinished. Among other features of this image are noticed the kevala tree, trilincar umbrella, music played in hands, flying figures with garlands, lotus and champaka flower marks and the chuari bearers.
Like the above figure, it too, is carved out of chlorite stone.
Another fragmentary sculpture depicting the four grahas of the left side, the chauri bearer, the flying figure with garland and the heavenly music is kept in the

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verandah of the Museum. damaged and missing.
Its right side, pedestal and upper part including head are
Apary
Apart from the Banapur hoard of bronzes, in the Art section of the Orissa State Museum some six more metal Jaina icons brought from different part of Orissa are under display. Of the six, two are from Kakatpur of Puri District and one from Bayree of Cuttack district. The rest three have no provenance recorded in the Museum. We discuss the last three here.
The first image of this group (No.452) can with much difficulty be identified with Pārsvanātha (Fig.59). It is designed standing in kāyotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal supported by a plain circular base. Hands of the Tirthankara touch the knee region. The canopy of seven hooded snake though not available yet the portion of it seen to the right indicate its link with the snake. Other pratiharyas are conspicuous in their absence. It measures 8 cm in height.
The next figure of this group is of Tirthankara Santinātha (No.507) (Fig.60) carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal supported by a square base. Deer, the conventional lañchana of the Tirthankara is depicted below the pedestal with a group of devotees seated all round. Hands of the Tirthankara run up to the lower parts of the thigh. Hairs of the head are arranged in curled knots with uşnisa at the certre. Other attributes are not traced along side of the figure. It measures 13.8 c.m. in height.
The third figure in the series is of Ambika (Fig.61) yakșini (No.458) fashioned seated in lalita pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal supported by an eliptical base. Lion, her conventional vehicle, is not visible in the pedestal. She carries the baby on her left lap whereas her right hand displays a bunch of mangoes from which another standing to the right is attempting to pluck. The mango tree heavily laden with leaves is depicted at the back. Her Tirthankara, Neminātha is found seated in yogāsana over head. She is profusely decorated with ornaments like crown, necklace, earrings girdles, bangles, armlets, and anklets. The image including the pedestal measures 9 c.m. in height.
R.P. Chanda has brought to our notice a remarkable group of Jaina sculptures preserved in the British Museum, London. His observation is quoted below.13
Four remarkable Jaina statues of steatite, two standing images of the Jina Pārsvanatha (No.95, 19x8.7 inches and No. 96, 14.7 x 7.5 inches), a standing woman with two children and a seated Jina on a tree above her head (No.94, 16.5 x 9 inches) and a stele bearing standing images of the Jina Rşabha and Mahavira (No.99, 26.7 x 14.2 inches) probably came from the collections of Jaina images deposited in the Jaina cave temples at Khandagiri near Bhubaneswar in Orissa. Some very similar Jaina images are still to be
13. R.P. Chanda, Medieval Indian sculptures in the British Museum, London, 1936 p. 71.

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seen in one of the caves there. All the standing images of the Jainas are in the posture of yoga known as the kāyotsarga, standing quite erect with feet placed side by side on the same line and both the arms hanging down on sides and the fingers of the hands touching the lower part of the thighs. Rsabha, the first of the twenty-four Jainas, who is also recognised as an incarnation of Vişnu, is known by his crown made of matted locks of hair and his cognizance, a bull and Mahāvīra, the twenty-fourth Jina is known by his congnizance, a lion. The most remarkable thing about the images of Rsabha and Mahāvīra on our stele (Pl. XXII) is the difference in the expression of their faces. The eyes of Rşabha are fixed on the tip of the nose and his face shows absorption in meditation. The eyes of Mahāvira look downward and show a mind worried by unpleasant thoughts. The nakedness of the pair is tiring to the eyes of the observer.
The common slab depicting the figures of Mahāvīra and Rşabha in standing posture and the photograph of which R.P.Chanda published in his book depict, among other usual features, the kevala tree, the trilinear umbrella, their respective lanchanas, chauri bearers, devotees, flying figures with garlands, mounted elephants, Prabhāmandala and cymbals and drum played through hands. The hatoes behind head of both the Tirthankara figures are circular in form and devoid of decorative designs. Both the figures are carved in excellent finish and in very good condition.
In the year, 1963 while excavating the foundation for the Godavarisha Mahāvidyalaya at Achutarajapur sāšana near Banapur, a large hoard of bronze idols, among other articles, were recovered and brought to the Orissa State Museum for preservation and display. All the objects kept within large sized earthen pots were burried under ground. They consisted of ninety five bronze idols, twenty metal stupas, a metal bell, a copper (or bronze) spouted vessel, twenty metal piece (including several fragment of a large ritualistic vessel (?), a Stupa-shaped finial, a Chhatra, pedestals of images, a halo and the limbs of a large image, an iron dagger and a conch-shell (Sarkha) all found in one hoard on the 2nd July, 1963. Of the ninety five bronze idols only ten represent various Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis of Jain pantheon. In addition a small chlorite seated image of Rşabhanatha is now fixed to the exterior wall of Buddhima temple within the enclosure of the Dakşaprajapati temple of Panapur. 14
The locality where the metal objects under report were discovered is known after the temple of Balukeśvara within the village Achutarajapur. It has a picturesque setting with the hill of Ghantasila about a kilometre north of the site. The rivulet Salia flows nearby. The entire area between this stream and the road to the south of the Banapur High School (Godavarish Vidyapitha) was formerly in the form of a mound containing the ancient remains of religious structures, primarily Buddhist. The area witnessed the rule of the Sailodbhavas, the Bhaumakaras, the Somavaṁsis and the Gangas as known from the rich archaeological treasures like copper plate inscriptions, standing monuments and finds of large number of stray sculptures affiliated to almost all the major religious traditions of Orissa. The Jaina bronzes discovered in this area can be placed within the period
14. D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutarajpur, pl. 10.

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of 800 A.D. to 1100 A.D. We have earlier made reference to the Banapur copper plates of Dharmarāja Mānabhita (695-740 A.D.) of the Sailodbhava dynasty which records a grant of lands at the Madhuvātaka village and at Suvarnaralondi situated within the Vişaya of Thorana (which formed part of Kongada) to Probhudha Chandra, a disciple of the arhadhcharya Nāsi-chandra for meeting the expenses of the ceremonial worship of an image, possibly of a Goddess16 (V ali-satra-Charu-Pravartinoya). According to D.C. Sircar Praobhudha Chandra was possibly a Jaina monk who was noted as ekaśaja which has been interpreted by him as one who has taken a vow to wear only one piece of cloth.
The ten Jaina icons found in this collection are interesting on account of the artistic excellence displayed in them. No two images are alike which makes their local casting doubtful. To judge from their robeless feature the Tirtharkaras it may be reasonably presumed that these icons were the donations of the votaries belonging to the Digambara sect. Out of these ten as many as four represent Amra or Ambikā associated with Neminatha.
Three of the images of Tirthaukaras display fine artistic qualities. None of them is represented with the full panoply of prescribed pratihāryas. The heavenly tree, showers of celestial blossoms, heavenly music and drum are not represented in any of the images. An account of these icons is given below.
1. Rşabhanātha
Rşabhanātha (No. 257) is carved seated on yogäsana on a pedestal containing a single row of lotus petals. His hands are in yogamudrā, with his right palm placed on the left. The matted locks are arranged in a fairly high Jatā-Mukuta, some locks being allowed to fall on shoulders. The lotus rests on an oblong pedestal with mouldings at the base and at the top and the middle portion recessed. Against the central part of the front side of the pedestal is a bull, the cognizance of Rşabhanātha looking up towards the Tirthankara. Behind the image is a solid oval halo with a raised rim of three mouldings edged by closely knit tongues of flames. At its crown is a floral motif, above which chhatrāvali made of three gradually diminishing chhatras capped by a conical finial. It measures 11.5 c.m. in height.
2. Chandraprabha (No. 254) (Fig. 62)
Measuring 7.7 c.m. in height the first image is found carved in yogamudrå on the pedestal formed of a single row of lotus petals. His right palm is placed above the left against the abdomen. The hair is gathered on the crown in a conical form. Crescent moon as the cognizance of the Tirthankara is depicted on the central petal of the front side of the lotus seat. The solid oval halo behind head is enclosed by a beaded border edged by tongues of flames at long intervals. It was found inside a spouted metal jar which in its turn had been within one of the earthen pots containing the metal objects.
15.
Ibid.

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3. Chandraprabha (No. 327) (Fig. 63)
The second figure of Chandraprabha of this hoard is carved standing in kāyotsarga pose with long hanging arms and fingers lightly touching the lowest part of the thigh on a lotus with a single row of hanging petals. The hair has been coiled and gathered at the centre of the head. The lotus rests on a high, hollow pedestal with open sides. Posts, rising above the faceted base, support the upper piece of the pedestal. On the front side of the pedestal is the crescent moon, the cognizance of the Tirthankara is also kept on a stylised lotus. The icon 10.2 c.m. high is in the round.
4. Vāsupūjya (?) (No. 265) (Fig. 64)
This image of Vāsupūjya is carved seated in yogāmudrā on the eliptical top of an otherwise oblong hollow pedestal with a khurā shaped moulding at the base where the two armed Yaksa and the Sasanadevi are seated side by side in māharäjalilă posture. The right hand of both rests on their respective right knee while the left palm of the Sasanadevi is placed on her left knee, that of the Yakşa touches the Säsanadevi. No attributes in their hands could be identified. Both the figures are decked with rich apparels consisting of girdle, anklet, bangles, armlets, ear-studs, crowns, etc. The animal immediately below the legs of the Tirthankara appears to be a mahişa (buffalo). In the composition emphasis is given to the Yaksa and the Sasanadevi, whose figures are larger than that of the Tirthankara. Against the front side of the pedestal are seen upper portions of seven male figures in a row seated in yogasana. Another similar figure occurs below the animal in the space between the yaksa and the Sasanadevī. They may be identified with the eight planets despite the absence of their typical attributes. The halo behind the three figures in the form of a beaded arch (open within) edged by leaf shaped flames or branches. At its top is small Chhatra with a cylindrical shoft. It measures 13.3 c.m. in height.
There are two other Tirthankara images found in this hoard whose marks of cognizances are not represented in their pedestals. The absence of cloth precludes the possibility of the icons representing Buddha in the dhyana mudra.
The first Tirthankara figure (No. 295) is considerably rubbed off and eroded. It is carved seated in yogamudrā on a throne. The oblong pedestal of the throne presents a khură shaped base and a semi-circular moulding at the top. The two ends of the horizontal lintel of the solid backrest are in the form of makara heads and are supported by posts. A small oval halo with a raised rim of two plain mouldings is seen behind head. Above it are three projections the central one of which possibly held up an umbrella. The image measures 6.5 c.m. in height. The hairs on the head are arranged in tiny curled knots. The legs are not placed across the thigh nor are the soles displayed, a sitting posture (Paryankasana) not commonly found in the icons of Tirthankaras.
The second Tirthankara image of this group (No. 318) is carved seated in yogamudra on a lotus pedestal the right palm being placed on the left. The hair is arranged in tiny curls. The uşnisa is rendered by two superimposed rows of curled knots

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crowned by a roundel. On either side of the seat of the Tirthankara is a chauri bearer resting one of his hands on the thigh. Behind the head is a roundish halo with raised moulded border having a beaded line in the middle. Around it closely knitted tongues of flames above which is a floral finial.
Triratha in plan, the pedestal has a klurä shaped moulding at the base and a moulded top with a fairly high recess in between. While the pedestal has been left undecorated, the horizontal lintel ard the vertical jambs of the back rest of the throne are elaborately ornamented with beaded lines and a row of flowers between the mouldings. At either end of the lintel is a lotus, while perched above it, are too elaborately conceived makaras. From the bottom side of the lintel hang down two beaded strings ending in a diamond-shaped floral arch. It measures 14.3. c.m. in height.
As reported earlier the hoard contains four Amra or Ambikā figures. The one bearing No. 288 is the best and also the most refreshing icon of the group. She is carved seated in lalitāsana posture on a lotus pedestal displaying a bunch of mangoes in right hand and holding the baby seated on her left thigh. Close to her pendent right leg is a seated child with locks of hair falling on sides and holding a circular object in its right hand. The lotus rests on a footed throne with a moulded base. Her mount, the lion is carved in the central projection of the pedestal. The edges of the lintel and jambs of the back rest are beaded. Near the ends of the lintel is a somewhat amalaka shaped member close to which is a beaded string hanging downwards. Above the lintel are mango twigs laden with fruits. The oval halo behind her head is prominently decorated with a beaded border edged by leaf shaped flames. At the crown of the halo is an ornate floral motif hiding the view of the thick shaft of the umbrella. The latter is a succession of three gradually diminishing chhatras, the top most one being crowned by a conical finial. The figure of Neminātha is absent at the top of the image. The image is elegantly decorated with anklets, bracelets, bangles, necklaces, ear-studs and a crown. Her bun-shaped coiffure is very effectively rendered. Its religious use is noticed from the rubbed off face.
The second figure of Ambika (No. 263) (Fig. 65) bearing almost an analogous treatment in respect of the dress and ornaments with the first is carved seated in lalitāsana pose on a lotus arrayed on a narrow pedestal with a khurā shaped base and two mangoes placed below with the upper member. Against the middle of the front side is the mount lion. In her left hand she holds a child seated in her left thigh and carries a mango with her right palm resting on the knee. The right palm of the child is placed against on the chest. To her right another grown up child is seated with a mango like fruit on his right palm against the chest. The solid oval halo with a raised border of three mouldirga edged by closely knit tongues of flames is fixed to the lotus seat. The mango tree laden with fruits is depicted behind her head. Above the tree is the figure of Tirthankara Neminātha carved seated in yogamudra. His hair is gathered upon the crown in a corical share. Behind him his hale, oval in shape and having a raised border of two mouldings cdged by tongues of flame. At its crown is a floral motif. above which rears up an umbrella with a prominent bud-shaped finial. It measures 14.5 c.m. in height.

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The third icon of Ambikà (No. 289) (Fig. 66) differing from the second in some features is carved seated in lalitāsana posture on a lotus with a single row of petals. She is carrying on her left thigh a child supported by her left forearm and holds with her right palm a mango twig. Close to her right leg is a pot bellied body, seated in Mahārājalilā posture with his right hand extended up to the knee. The object in his left hand is indistinct. The lotus is placed on a footed oblong pedestal with a moulded base and a high recessed middle part. In front of this recessed portion of the front side is the lion, the mount of Ambikā. The branches of the mango tree are spreading over her head above which Neminātha found seated in yogamaıdrā. A small defaced disc is seen against the feet. The hair is arranged in iatish bun on the crown of the head. They do not have separate haloes behind head. But the long halo provided for both, has a trefoil upper part. Its raised border of three mouldings is edged by a series of beads. At the crown of the halo is a half flower capped by an umbrella with a conical finial. The image measures 14.3. c.m. in height. Faces of both the Tirthankara and the Sāsanadevi are rubbed off.
The fourth icon of Ambikā (No. 279) (Fig. 67) of the place broadly agrees with the second figure of the series. She is carved seated in Maharajalila posture on a lotus with a single row of petals. She carries the child against the hip at the left and displays a mango twig in the right hand. The representation of the child is not only flat but rather crude. Close to her leg is a boy seated on haunches. The lotus seat is supported by a footed oblong pedestal on the moulded base of which is carved her vehicle, the lion. Around the back of the Sasanaderi is an oval halo with two overhanging clusters of mangoes near the top. Except for the rod like outline of two mouldings the halo is open. At the top of the halo is found the seated figure of Neminātha in stylised chatrāvali of three gradually receding umbrellas capped by a conical finial. The back portion of the Sāsanadevi is almost flat in shape. It measuren 12.5 cm. in height. She is profusely decorated with ornaments like anklets, bangles, armlets, necklace, ear-studs and a crown set with jewels. Tied by a string the hair is arranged in a bun at the crown.
Sri Ramachandrapur of the Satyabadi P.S. of Puri district preserve a Rşabhanātha image near its Grāmadevati shrine located on the outskirts of the village. It is carved standing in kayotsarga pose with bull as lanchana, chauri bearers, Kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, flying figures with garlands in hands and Gandharvas playing on musical instruments. Four more Tirthankara figures flanked by their respective chauri bearers and lāñchanas below their pedestals are carved along side the mulanāyaka, Rsabhanātha. They are Pārsvanātha and Ajitanātha on the right and Santinātha and Mahāvīra on the left. Hairs on the head of Rşabhanātha are arranged in jaļā a few Strands of which run up to his broad shoulders.
A Jaina Tirtharkara image is fixed to the left wall of the door-way leading to the sanctum of the Jagannātha temple at Puri from its southern side. A glass cover is provided on the image for which it is not generally visible to the common people. The Jainas usually pay respect to this image whenever they visit the temple. It is carved standing on a double petalled lotus pedestal, the lower portion of which including the

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lāñchana is not visible as covered with cement plaster. Two chauri bearers carved standing on separate lotus pedestals are found on either side of the Tirthankara against miniature shrines. The halo behind him is designed in eliptical shape with radiating flames on its outer edges. The torana behind the Tirthankara is supported by tapering pillars and a decorative horizontal bar. The hairs on the head of the Tirtharikara are arranged in curled knots with uşnisa in the centre. The trilinear umbrella over head is surmounted by the branches of the keva!a tree. Flying figures with garlands in hands and invisible heavenly figures (Gandharvas) beating drum and cymbals flank the figure at the top. Champak marks are noticed on either side of the umbrella. The image carved in chlorite stone is very well polished. It roughly measures some 45 c.m. in height. As the lañchanas is not traceable it is difficult to identify this figuie with any particular Tirthankara. However, the Jainas regard this image as Mahavira as understood from the temple priests. Just opposite to it on the right wall is kept a figure of Hanumāna (Mahavira) called by the name "flying Mahāvira" and revered in great esteem by the devotees.
CUTTACK DISTRICT
Like Buddhism, Jaina religion has not established any strong base in Cuttack district for which we do not find concentration of Jaina relics at a particular place. The number of images reported from different parts of the district, however are in no way less than their findings else where. In the early medieval period Buddhist centres like Lalitagiri, Udayagiri and Ratanagiri, had dominated the scene and Jainism seems to have receded to the rural areas, a fact which can be evident from their findings in Baramba, Narasinghpur, Tigiria, Chauduar, Jajpur, Kendrapara, Jagatsinghpur, the Prāchi Valley and Banki areas of the district. There are many Saraka villages in this district and the people living in them practice Jaina customs and traditions in their normal life. In recent years Cuttack town witnessed several Jaina shrines built by the Marwari communities. They preserve in them not only a series of marble and bronze idols of recent make but also several Tirthankara images, chaumuk has, and slabs depicting Ganadharas and Purvadharas of the ancient period. They are all evidently collected from the places rich with Jaina antiquities in Orissa. The people of the Marwari community visit Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves on festive occasions and look after the management of the Jaina temple on the crest of Khandagiri hill. The Jaina establishments at Udayagiri and Khandagiri of Puri district and Padasingidi of Keonjhar district no doubt predominently influenced the Jaina adherents of Cuttack district.
The Jaina temple of Choudhuri Bazar of Cuttack (Fig. 68) town is built in the rekha style with a pidha Jagamohana in front by the Parawar families of Cuttack who are responsible for the revival of Jaina religion in Orissa. Within niches of the Jagamohana and on the central pedestal of the main temple numerous stone images of Rşabhanātha, Santinātha, Padmaprabha, Ajitanātha, Mahāvīra, Pārsvanātha along with Chaumukhas and slabs depicting Jaina adherents are kept. L.N. Sahul has reported some seven items from the entire collection.
16.
L.N. Sahu, Odisare Jainadharma (Oriya) pp. 155-57 (with plates).

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A brief account of the Jaina relics preserved in this temple is given below.
1. Rşabha and Mahāvīra (Fig.69)
The figures of Rsabha and Mahāvīra are carved on a common slab with separate lotus pedestals representing bull and lion as their lāñchanas respectively. They are flanked by chauri bearers on the pedestals and flying figures with garlands on the top. Trilinear umbrellas, kevala trees, circular haloes (prabhāmandalas) and cymbals played in hands are also carved along with the figures. The slab in all, measures 0.45m x 0.19m. Two devotees in kneeling pose and folded hands flank the lañchanas of respective Tīrthankaras.
2.
Pārsvanātha (Fig. 70)
It stands on a lotus pedestal in kāyotsarga pose with a canopy of seven hooded snake above head. Coils of the snake are shown at the back. The pedestal containing the Nāgakanyās in folded hands is supported by lions. Chauri bearers and four Tirthankara images in seated position are represented on either sides. Flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands, palms beating cymbals and drum and lotus and champak flowers are noticed on either side at the top. The snake canopy is partially damaged. It measures 0.48m x 0.1 cm.
3. Padmaprabha (Fig. 71)
This figure is kept along with others in the central niche of the inner wall of the Jagamohana. It has been carved standing on a lotus flanked by chauri bearers displaying chauri in one of their hands and resting the other on the thighs. They are standing cross-legged over separate lotus pedestals and decked with rich costumes and ornaments. Upper part of the figure is flanked by representation of lotus flowers, flying figures with garlands cymbals played in hands. The sacred umbrella over head is surmounted by the kevala tree. The figure, carved in a tapering piece of chlorite stone, remarkably match the artistic finish of the sculptures at Khiching. A faint trace of the decorative halo is visible behind head.
4. Pārsvanātha-(kept in the central niche)-Fig. 72
It is carved standing in kayotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal flanked by chauri bearers and eight planets. A canopy of seven hooded snake is found above head. The trilinear umbrella and the kevala tree are found above the snake hood flanked by cymbals and drum played in hands and flying Gandharvas carrying garlands in hands. Nāga devotees with offerings are seen below the pedestal.
5. Pārsvanātha- (kept in the central niche)
This figure is carved standing in Kayotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal with a canopy of seven hooded snake above head. Chauri bearers stand on

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either side. The lotus pedestal supported by lions contains Naga devotees in folded hands in its front parts. Kevala tree, flying Gandharvas with garlands and cymbals played in hands are all envisaged at the top.
6. Pārsvanatha
The third figure of Parsvanatha is kept in the central niche of the Jagamohana. It is carved standing on a lotus pedestal flanked by chaur bearers and flying Vidya dharas. His lanchana, bull is visible below pedestal. Kevala tree and sacred umbrelia are found behind head. Jaina relics kept on the sanctum of the temple.
7. Chaummukhas (Fig. 73)
Two chaumukhas containing standing figures of Ṛsabha, Santinatha, Mahavira and Parsva within niches are kept on the pedestal of the main temple along with a series of brass and marble idols of the Jaina pantheon. These chaukukhas are designed in the shape of khakhara mundis (miniature pidha temples) of Orissan variety with. crowning amalaka silas at their top. The Tirthankaras are recognised from their lanchanas carved below respective pedestals.
8. Ganadharas and Purvadharas
A stone slab containing 153 standing Ganadharas and Purvadharas in nine rows is kept near the chaumukhas noted above with the figure of seated Ṛṣabhanatha at the top. This Tirthankara is flanked by chauri bearers on either sides. The bull, his lanchana is depicted below the pedestal. These Jaina figures are all in kayotsarga pose. A similar slab is also reported from village Panchagaon of Puri district..
An account of the Tirthankara images kept on the same pedestal are given below commencing from the left side.
9. Rṣabhanatha
It is carved standing on a lotus pedestal with chaur bearers and asṭagrahas on either sides. The bull, as lanchana is found below the pedestal. Among other features we notice flying Gandharvas with garlands, cymbals played in hands, trilinear umbrella, kevala tree and a circular halo depicted along with the Tirthankara.
10. Slab containing Tirthankaras
Two Tirthankara figures carved standing in a common slab is kept near the figure noted above.
11. Sintinätha
A beautiful figure of Santinätha found its way to this Jaina temple. It too, is designed standing in Kayotsarga rose on a lotus pedestal below which its lañchana, the deer is visible. The pedestal is supported by spirited lions. A number of devotees in

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kneeling posture and folded hands with offerings are seen depicted below the pedestal. The chauri bearers on elephants and asṭagrahas in sitting posture flank the Tirthankara on either sides. L.N. Sahu1 wrongly identified this figure with that of Tirthankara Ajitanatha probably on the basis of elephants carved below the chauri bearers.
The hairs on its head are arranged in curled knots. The prabhamandala (halo) in circular form is lavishly decorated. The trilinear umbrella surmounted by the kevala tree is seen behind the head. Flying Gandharvas with garlands and cymbals and drum played in hands flank the figure at the top. Front parts of a torana project near its shoulders. Two lotus buds flank the lotus pedestal of the Tirthankara. In addition, the chauri bearers are provided with separate lotus pedestals on which the elephants are standing. The chauri bearers are profusely decorated.
12. Tirthankara
87
A figure of Tirthankara is found carved standing on a lotus pedestal with kevala tree, umbrella, flying Gandharvas with garlands and cymbals played in hands. Chauri bearers and astagrahas flank the figure on either sides. Its conventional lañchana is not available in the pedestal. A series of devotees in folded hands are noticed in the pedestal.
13. Rṣabhanatha
Found carved standing on a lotus pedestal with chaurt bearers on either sides. Bull as its vehicle is found below the pedestal. In addition flying Gandharvas with garlands, cymbals played in hands, trilinear umbrella and kevala tree are envisaged in appropriate places. Portions of the kevala tree and the umbrella are damaged.
14. Ṛṣabhanatha
The next Rṣabhanatha figure is also found carved standing on a lotus pedestal displaying flying Gandharvas with garlands, cymbals played in hands, trilinear umbrella, kevala tree, chauri bearers and champak flowers. The hairs on its head are arranged in matted locks, a few strands of which fall on the shoulders.
15. Rsabhanatha.
The last Rṣabhanatha figure of the series is also carved in kayotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal below which his lanchana, the bull is visible. A decorative oval halo is seen behind the head. Chaurt bearers and asṭagrahas flank the figure on either sides. Among other features kerala tree, trilinear umbrella, cymbals played in hands and flying Gandharvas are available along with the figure.
17. L.N. Sahu, Odiśāre Jainadharma (Oriya), p. 156.

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16. Pārsvanatha
The last of the series of stone sculptures belonging to the Jaina pantheon is the standing Pārsvanatha image on a lotus pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake is envisaged over head. It is flanked by chauri bearers and astagrahas on either sides. Music produced through cymbals played in hands flying figures with garlands, kevala tree, trilinear umbrella and kneeling devotees with offerings are the other aspects of depiction along with the images.
The marble idols of the temple represent the figures of Sāntinātha, Pārśvanātha, Chandra prabha, etc. Similarly the brass icons consist of images of Rşabhanātha. Ajitanātha, Säntinātha and Pārsvanatha. They are all of recent make and donated to the temple by the Jaina adherents of Cuttack town. The marble figures are mostly collected from Jaipur of Rajasthan province of the ancient Jaina relics preserved in the temple. But from reliable sources it is known that they were
collected from different parts of Orissa especially from Udayagiri-Khandagiri and Podasingidi. A photograph of the figure of Rşabhanātha of Pratapanagari of Cuttack district is also displayed in the temple. This figure is no more found in the site. It is understood, that some miscreants have taken away this image from the site. From the photograph it is evident that the figure was carved standing in käyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal. Below the pedestal, its lañchana, the bull is visible. Twenty-four other Tīrthankaras and the chauri bearers flank the image on either sides. Kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, circular halo, cymbals played in hands and flying figures with garlands are the other features depicted in the same slab.
The Jaina shrines at Jaunliapatti and Kajibazar of Cuttack town also preserve a series of marble and bronze idols of recent make. The Tirthankara figures in either case are found standing or sitting displaying the significant attributes. Jaina adherents of the neighbourhood pay their homages to these shrines on sacred occasions. The most notable object of worship in the Jaunliapatti Jaina shrine is the figure of invisible Rşabhanatha carved in a marble slab. Actually no figure of Rşabhanatha in round is available, but the impression of the Tirthankara is fashioned in the slab in a concave pattern.
The Jagannatha temple at Dolamundei of Cuttack town built on the efforts of one Baba Sagardasa preserves a beautiful Rşabhanātha figure (Fig. 74) in one of its niches. It was recovered from tank at the time of renovation some ten years back as known from the local people. It stands in Kayotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal, below which bull, as lāñchana is visible. Bharata and Bahuvali stand on either sides with flywhisks in their hands. Devotees kneeling in reverence to the Tirtharkara are found below the pedestal. Hairs on the head of the figure are arranged in matted locks, a few strands of which fall on the shoulders. Four miniature figures in yogasana pose are seen depicted on the sides of the Tirtharkara. The prabhamandala (halo) behind head is decorated with floral devices enclosed by beaded borders. An indistinct auspicious mark is noticed on the chest of Rşabhanātha. Trilinear umbrella, kevala tree, flying Gandharvas with garlands and music produced through beating of cymbals and drum are all associated with the figure. In addition, two more Gandharvas holding fly

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whisks in hands and on elephant back appear on the top of the slab. Head of one of the two Gandharvas are missing. It measures 0.65m x 0.35m x 0.14m in all.
At Chauduar, a small shrine built by the mother of late L.N. Sahu, the author of the book in Oriya "Odisāre Jainadharma" contained a number of Tirthankara figures of which, Rşabhanātha appears to be prominent. She converted this figure to that of Siva by providing a tiger skin as under garment and a snake hood. She was an admirer of Siva worship and wherever she found naked Tirthańkara images she tried to collect for her worship. The figure of Rsabha in question stands on a lotus pedestal flanked by chauri bearers on either sides. His lañchana, the bull is visible below the pedestal. His hairs on the head are arranged in jată a few strands of which fall on the shoulders. Other attributes like kevala trec, umbrella, flying figures and cymbals played in hands are depicted in proper places.
One seated Tirthankara figure is reported by Chakradhar Mohapatra to have been kept in the premises of the Rupanatha temple near Banesvaranasi of Narasinghpur area of Cuttack district. Lower part of the figure is badly damaged. It displays astagrahas, flying figures with garlands, kevala tree, trilinear umbrella and a trefoiled decorative arch. Hairs on its heads are arranged in curled knots. The chauri bearers are conspicuous in their absence. L.N. Sahu18 considers it to be the figure of Padmaprabha probably in view of the marking of a full lotus flower at the top left side of the Tirthankara.
A small figure of Padmaprabha was recovered from the tank at village Hatamala in Tigiria block of Cuttack district, during the time of its renovation, some time in 1972. It was subsequently brought to the Orissa State Museum for preservation. The slab depicting the figure is damaged into two pieces. Though small in size it displays all the features of the Tirthankara. It measures 18.5cm X 9.5cm x 5cm and shows excellent polish. This figure of Padmaprabha is carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal supported by lions. Its lañchana, the lotus is found depicted below the pedestal. The two chauri bearers stand on the sides. Kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, decorated halo, mark of champak flowers and drumis played in hands are all envisaged in a reduced scale. A torāna surmounted by lions is carved behind the figure. These discoveries of Jaina relics in Tigiria and Narasimhapur areas strongly support the religious affinity of the Sarāka settlers in the neighbourhood.
I have noticed two Jaina Tirthankara images kept in the Baramba palace some 12 years back. One of them was a figure of Rşabhanātha seated in yogasana pose with the conventional chauri bearers and the astagrahas. These two figures are, however, could not be traced in my subsequent visit. It is understood from the palace authorities that they were taken away by an antique dealer of Benaras. The ex-ruler informed me that he had collected them from his own estate.
K.C. Panigrahi19 reports three Jaina Tirthankara images, two of which are preserved in village Narasimhapur, near Jajpur and one kept in the premises of the
18. 19.
L N. Sahu, Odisāre Jainodharma (Oriya), p. 222. K.C. Panigrahi, Itihäsa O' Kimbadanti, (Oriya), Plates 9, 10 and 11.

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Akhandalesvar temple of Jajpur. Of the two found in Narasimhapur, one is of Tirthankara Pārsvanātha carved standing on a lotus pedestal in Kāyotsarga pose with a canopy of seven hooded snake over head. It is flanked by two chauri bearers standing on separate lotus pedestals. Two flying figures with garlands and cymbals played in hands are depicted on either side of the image at the top. The trilinear umbrella and the kevala tree appear above the Snake hood. The figure is partially damaged on the face snake hoods and fingers in hands. Coils of snake are gathered behind the figure.
The other figure of village Narasimhapur is of Chandraprabha the eighth Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon carved standing on a plain pedestal in Kāyotsarga pose. The chauri bearers are conspicuous in their absence on either side of the figure. The crescent moon, as lāñchana of the Tirthankara is found in front of the pedestal. Hairs on the head of the figure are arranged by curled knots. Umbrella, flanked by flying figures with garlands, is designed in three folds over head. This appears to be one of the early Jaina Tirthankaras in Orissa.
The third figure of K.C. Panigrahi's finding is the standing figure of Neminatha on a lotus pedestal supported by lions. A series of devotees with offerings are also noticed below the pedestal along with his lanchana. Two chauri bearers and eight planets flank the figure on the sides. Kevala tree, sacred umbrella, flying figures with garlands and cymbals in hands are the other features depicted along wit the Tirthankara. The image is completely covered with moss and lichen and damaged at face, umbrella, hands and the chest. Hairs on its head are arranged in curled knots with uşnisa at the centre.
In the premises of the Ganesa temple of Dasyāsamedha Ghāt of Jajpur town a beautiful Sāntinātha image (Fig. 75) is noticed. It is carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal below which his lāñchana, the deer is visible along with other devotees. Chauri bearers stand on either sides. The kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, cymbals played in hands and flying figures with garlands are all envisaged at the top. The most noteworthy feature of this image is that it wears a beaded chain around the neck. The image found to be in good state of preservation. Hairs on its head are arranged in curled knots. The temple priest was in the first instance very much reluctant to allow examination of the image. He also did not provide any information regarding the provenance of the figure. It has a circular halo behind head. All the twenty four Tirthankara figures in standing pose are represented in its sides. The figure is partially damaged in its left hand.
ple priest was not provide anyd. All the twentartially
A Jaina chaumukha (Fig. 76) has recently been collected for the Orissa State Museum from the village Bada Charpoi, located near Mangarajapur of Jajpur SubDivision of Cuttack district. This chaumukha contains in all its four niches figures of Jaina Tirthankaras whose identity is difficult to be ascertained as the lañchanas below them are not traceable. The figure displaying jata, however, may be identified with Rşabhanātha. A line of inscription is noticed in the chaumukha fashioned in the rekha temple design with square base and curvilinear upper parts surmounted by amalaka Sila.

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The Tirthankara figures within niches are each flanked by chaurl bearers. It measures 0.53m in height.
One of the biggest Jaina images of Adinātha is available in village Hatadiha (Panchupur),(Fig. 77) near Kanta Bania of Jajpur Sub-division. It measures 2.0m x 0.92m x 0.46m and carved in chlorite stone. During my first visit to the place, it was kept resting on one banyan tree on the bank of the extinct Benga river. This river was in earlier days known to be a tributary of river Vaitarani. The settlement records give it the name of "Bodhi Maharāja". It is ascertained from elderly local people that the river Benga was navigable some 200 years back. The image in question while transported in a boat dropped near the village Panchupur due to some accident and since then it is available at the place. Local people also cor sider this image as that of a Goddess surrounded by her children. They were very much afraid when I first approached the deity after clearance of debris around the figure. This image has been declared protected by a notification of the Cultural Affairs Department. In my subsequent visit on 28.11.75 I could find the image shifted from its original site to a place on the side of the road. The local people are eager to build a shrine for the deity.
The image is carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal. The lower parts of the pedestal including the lāñchana and the devotees are left unfinished. Chauri bearers, decked with rich costumes and ornaments, are standing on either sides on separate lotus pedestals. An egg-shaped halo is noticed behind head. Its hairs on the head are arranged in curled knots with the usnia at the centre. All the other twentyfour Tirthankara figures are carved standing on either sides displaying the sacred umbrella on their heads. Trivali on the neck are prominently observed. The kevala tree behind the head is studded with leaves. The umbrella in three folds attached to a pole is also noticed above its head. Two Gandharvas with garlands in hands seen hovering in the sky. It is partially disfigured in the nose, lips, fingers and genital organs.
There are also further evidences of the Jaina influence once prevalent in the village Jhadesvarpur in the paragana Kushamandala, 40 KM north-east of Cuttack. Local tradition has it that in the very ancient times a Raja of Jharakhanda founded a Siva Linga named Jhadesvara and built a great temple over it. From the name of the idol, the place came to be known as Jhadesvarpur. The ancient temple of Jhadesvara is now in ruins but recently at the time of excavating the place some very important and valuable relics, evidently belonging to the glorious period of Jainism, were discovered in the locality. They excel all other works of Jaina art found else where. Figures of Tirthankaras and those of many Ganadharas, purvadharas, Srävaka and Srūvika have been discovered under the earth. Among these were found the figures of Jina either absorbed in meditation (dhyāna) in sitting posture or standing naked. The fine sculpturing of these figures produce a striking impression. They are of beautiful chlorite stone. If this place ever systematically explored it is believed that many more figures and even ruins of ancient shrines might be recovered. 20
20. N.N. Vasu, The Archaeological Survey of Mayurbhanja, Vol. I, Pl. 23A,

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Some years back three Jaina images reported to have been recovered from a place near the present Dhākulei Thākurāņi of village Pratapanagari on the Cuttack-Bhubaneswar portion of the National Highway. For the present two of them, the figure of Pārsvanātha and Rşabhanātha (Fig. 78), are kept in a thatched shed of the Ramjimatha under the custody of one Madhavadāsa. The third image of the place i.e. Rşabhanātha is no more available in the site. A photograph of the image is under display in the Jaina temple of Choudhuri Bazar of Cuttack town to which we have made references
earlier.
The image of Pārsvanātha (Fig. 78) of the place is carved standing on a lotus pedestal in kayotsarga pose. The pedestal is supported by lions in its front side along with Näga devotees in añjali hasta and heaps of cfferings. A canopy of seven hooded snake found above head. Coils of the snake are gathered behind the figure. The two chauri bearers are standing on the sides of the Tirtharkara. The image is designed within a torana attached with makara heads from the mouths of which series of jewelled chains are falling. A circular halo (prabhāmandala) is seen behind the head. Trilinear 'umbrella, and the kevala tree over head are flanked by flying figures with garlands in hands and cymbals played in palms. It measures 0.78m x 0.37m.
The figure of Rşabhanātha (Fig. 78) of the place measuring 0.63m x 0.31 m is also carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal below which its lañchana, the bull is visible in front of a kneeling devotee in añjali hasta. The chauri bearers i.e. Bharata and Bahuvali are standing on either sides just above the pedestal over whom all the twenty-four Tirthankara figures are depicted in standing pose in pairs. Hairs on the head of the figure are arranged in jatā, a few strands of which are seen falling on its broad shoulders, an evident characteristic of all the Rşabhanātha images. The trilinear umbrella surmounted by the kevala tree is depicted over-head. The Tirthankara is flanked by flying Gandharvas holding garlands in hands and invisible Vidyadharas playing cymbals in their palms on either sides at the top. These two figures are kept in a very neglected state in the matha. The smoke emerging from the burning charcoal gradually discolours the images. Prof. P. Pradhan once informed me that he too had collected a small Jaina Tirthankara image from the village. But it is not available with him at present for verification.
The Dhakulei Thakurāņi shrine at Pratapanagari also preserves a few Jaina relics within its open Jagamohana and the sanctum of which the first is the figure of Ambikā. It is kept in the sanctum. Ambikā is carved seated in lalita pose on a pedestal below the mango tree. She held the baby on the left lap and displays a mango in the right. Her vehicle the lion is caved below the pedestal. Her Tirthankara Neminātha is found seated on the top of the tree. The second figure of this place is an image of Rşabhanātha kept near the door jamb. It stands in kayotsarga pose on a plain pedestal and damaged into two pieces. The hairs on his head are arranged in jatā, a few strands of which are falling on the shoulders. The two chámaradharis flank the figure on either sides. Other features including the kevala tree, lañchana, umbrella and flying figures are not traceable. It measures 40cm x 20cm. The third Jaina relic depict the figures of Yakşa Gomedha and

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Yakșini. Ambikā seated together on a common pedestal. The mango tree visibe at the back carries on its top the image of Neminātha. Attributes in hands of both the figures are mutilated. The entire slab measuring 33cm. x 16cm. is damaged into two pieces.
Bhanpur, a place near Pratapnagari on the Cuttack Bhubaneswar road was once a centre of Jaina activity. Some ten to fifteen years back, a number of Jaina bronze figures were recovered from a place located on the left bank of river Kuakhai which flows close by the village at the time of excavation of a canal. One Sri Kangali Charan Bhatta collected them with great efforts and preserved in a newly built small shrine near his rice mill on the road side of the same village. On the basis of a news item published in daily "The Prajatantra", a local newspaper, on 8.9.76 it is evident that some five Tirthankara images including four Mahāvīra figures and one Anantavāsudeva (Pārsvanātha) (Fig. 79) were under worship in the said shrine and all except the figure of Ananta Vasudeva have been stolen in the night of 27.8.76. A case has been lodged in the Sadar Thana of Cuttack on this issue.
The available Pārsvanātha image (locally called Ananta Vāsudeva) is carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on a circular pedestal formed by the lotus petals on a square base. The square base on the other hand is supported by four legs. It measures (including the pedestal) some 0.16 mx 0.6m x 0.6 m and is carved in round. The canopy of a seven hooded snake protects the head. An auspicious Śrīvatsa mark, a rare occurrence in Orissan sculptures but popular elsewhere, is noticed on its chest. Male and female figures of Nāga devotees with canopy of three snake hoods are depicted on the pedestal. The hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in curled knots, with the uşnisa at the centre.
The discovery of so much stone and bronze Jaina idols at Bhanapur and Pratapnagari indicates to the fact that there was a Jaina shrine once located somewhere close to these two villages in the past.
The Khandesvar Mahādeva temple built on the ruins of an earlier shrine of village Nasik (Kotian) in Jagatsinghpur P.S. preserves one excellently carved Säntinātha image (Fig. 80) of the Jaina pantheon. Several Buddhist and Brahmanical sculptures also found their way to this temple. The images in question are kept in the thatched mandapa in front of the unfinished Siva temple of recent make. The distance of ten km. from Jagatsinghpur, the Sub-Divisional Headqaurters can be covered by walking or by some locally arranged transport through a narrow road on the canal embankment via-Village Kanakapur.
The image of Sāntinātha, measuring 0.96m X 0.48m x 0.15m is carved standing on a double petalled lotus pedestal below which its lāñchana the deer is visible in front of a kneeling devotee in anjali hasta. The two chcuri bearers standing on elephant backs flank the Tirthankara on the sides above whom are depicted the eight planets (four in each side) in yogāsana, displaying conventional attributes in their hands. The kevala tree and the sacred umbrella, at the top are flanked by flying figures with garlands

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and invisible Gandharvas playing cymbals and drum in their palms. Face of the Tirthankara and heads of the two chauri bearers are partially disfigured. The vacant space below pedestal is filled with lotus stalks. The image, no doubt was collected from a different place like that of the inscribed Buddhist figure found near it. Provision of vehicle to the chauri bearer is a rare phenomenon of Orissan sculptures of the Jaina pantheon.
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A number of Jaina images are found at various places in the Prachi Valley. Images of Jaina Tirthankaras are found at Adasapur where Jainism appears to have flourished side by side with Saivism. A beautiful image of Rṣabha (Fig. 81), artistically chiselled out of black chlorite schist, has been preserved in the Svapneśvar temple of this village. This image 0.48mx0.12mx0.12m in size, depicts Rsabhanatha as mulanayaka, he being surrounded by twenty-three Tirthankaras, twelve on the left and eleven on the right of him standing in kayotsarga pose. The representation of Rsabhanatha as mulanayka indicates that Adinatha was the temple cult of this place and that a temple sanctified by his presence was situated in the locality. Unfortunately no Jaina temples can be traced at present at Adasapur. Its distinctive lañchana, the bull is depicted in the middle of the lotus pedestal supported by spirited lions. Two female devotees in anjali hasta are seen on both sides of the bull. Just above the lion throne have been placed three lotus pedestals in the middle, one of which, the figure of Adinatha stands in kayotsarga pose with solemn and sublime grandeurs. Although he is perfectly naked, his hairs on the head are arranged in jafa set with jewels. A few strands of the jafa fall on the shoulders. The lotus petalled aura (prabhamandala) round his head lends divine dignity to the expression of his face which with half closed eyes shows absorption in meditation. The trilinear umbrella is seen above his head and Nyagrodha the kevala tree, stretches its branches studded with leaves on the umbrella. On the two other lotus pedestals on the throne are standing Bharata and Bahuvali with fly-whisks in the hands, busy in rendering services to the Tirthankara. Divine musicians remaining invisible in the sky are playing with cymbals and drum. Gandharvas with garlands in hands, are also hovering in the sky. The eliptical halo, umbrella, and the genital organ of the Tirthankara are partially damaged.
Another Tirthankara image of the size of 0.42mx0.20m is kept inside the dilapidated sanctum of the Nilakantheśvara Siva temple, located behind the High School at Adasapur. Unfortunately this image is badly damaged and as the lañchana is not at all visible in the pedestal it is difficult to identify it with any Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon. Of the two chauri bearers, the one to the right is missing along with the damaged pedestal and devotees. On both sides of it eight planets have been depic ted in meditative posture seated on lotus pedestals but the Tirthankara found standing in kayotsarga pose and in complete nudity.
An umbrella has been depicted just above his head with curled locks of hairs, while a makara torana as decorative design is visible at the back. The halo behind head is stylised in three bands of scroll work and is oblong in shape. Divine musicians remaining invisible are noticed at the top of the slab on both sides playing with cymbals. Flying Gandharavas with garlands in hands appear on either corners of the slab,

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os
Champak flower marks on either side of the aura seem to be an added feature of the image. The editor of the Prachi Valley Report considers this image to be the representation of the last Tirthankara Mahāvira who with the first Tirthankara, Rşabha commonly appears in the Jaina sculptures of Orissa.21 Very probably these two images had adorned the same shrine built by the Jainas at Adasapur which appears to be one of the strongholds of Jainism in Orissa during the post-Gupta period.
Lower parts of the abdomen, fingers in both the hands, trilinear umbrella and the face of the Tirthankara are partially disfigured.
The sculpture shed at Lalitagiri preserves a seated image of Adinātha bearing No. 28. Exact provenance of the figure is not readily available with the watcher of the Museum. The image is carved seated in yogasana pose placing its right palm over the left on lotus pedestal supported by lions in front. The mark of cognizance is not visible in the pedestal. Hairs on its head are arranged in matted locks and gathered by a chaplet or string. A few strands of the matted locks are seen dangling over the shoulders, a feature common to all Rşabhanātha images of Orissa. Flying Gandharvas holding garlands in hands are depicted on either sides of the slab. An eliptical halo is carved behind head. A few inscribed letters are also traceable on one side of the image. It measures including the slab Im X 0.50m.
The Kanika house located in front of the Museum building at Bhubaneswar preserves a Jaina Tirthankara image. The owner of the image informs that it had been collected from a place in the ex-Kanika estate of Cuttack district. The image in chlorite stone measures 1.28m X 0.66m X 0.33m.
This figure is carved seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by spirited lions at each corners of the front. The conventional lañchana of the Tirthankara is not traced below the pedestal for which it becomes diflicult to identify it with any amount of certainty. The two chauri bearers are noticed standing on both sides over which the eight planets in conventional yogasana pose are carved. Hairs on its head are arranged in curled knots with a bulging at the centre. Celestial music produced through beating cymbals by palms of invisible Gandharvas, and flying Vidyādharas holding garlands are seen depicted on either sides of the trilinear sacred umbrella surmounted by the branches of the kevala tree. Its Sasanadevi depicted below pedestal is not clearly recognisable. Cut-marks as available with the Jaina Tirthankara figures of Charampa of Balasore district are also noticed in this figure. Since the Kanika area is close to Charampa it appears that sculptures of both the places followed the same tradition. Face of the figure is badly disfigured.
Jaina relics are reported to have been found at Baidesvara (Banki), Chatia and Chandol (Salepur area) of Cuttack District.
21. G.S.Das, Prachi-Valley Report, Ch. III.

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A Jaina Rşabhanātha figure of bronze (No. 509) was presented to the Museum by R.K. Tripathy, Zamindar, Bayree being recovered from Village Barunia of Darpani estate of the same district. It is carved seated in yogāsana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by rectangular base with legs. Bull, the conventional lāñchana of the Tirthankara is carved below the pedestal. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in matted locks, a few rolls of which hang over the shoulders. A decorative oval halo, kevala tree and umbrella are all noticed at the top forming parts of the pratiharyas. It measures including the pedestal 12.5 cm in height.
Sri B.K. Ratha, Curator, Orissa State Archaeology has also brought to our notice the recovery of a Jaina chaumukha in village Lendra Bhagawanpur located to the south of river Chitrotpala near Kendupatna. He further informs that a stone slab measuring 0.1 2m x 0.12m containing figures of three Tirthankaras is lying in the compound of the Kanakesvar Mahadeva temple of village Atuda located at the point from where the river Chitrotpala branches off from the Mahanadi. The figures are carved in relief and with difficulty Parsvanātha and Rsabhanātha can be identified from the three.
KEONJHAR DISTRICT
In the forest tracts of Keonjhar district, more specially its Anandapur SubDivision, the ruins of many ancient architectural works are still to be found. They are located in such secluded and isolated places that it is hard to believe that these places had once been centres of learning and culture and there were prosperous habitation there. Places such as Podasingidi, Vaidakhia, Hatadiha, Anandapur, Banchua, Ana, Thunigaon, Sainkul, Panchupalli and Jambhira of Anandapur Sub-Division of the district abound with ruins of Jaina antiquities.
It is mentioned in Abhidhana Rajendra that the people of Anandapur used to celebrate a great festival for eight days in the autumn on prachi nabaha which meets the Sarasvati.
In Ptolemy's map Tosali is marked on the river Vaitarani. From the copper plate grants of Bhauma kings it is learnt that Jajpur and its neighbouring areas formed a part of Toşāli. Furthermore Toşala was sub-divided into northern Toşala and southern Toşala. So it is clear that “Anandapur Tosali” refers to Anandapur on the Vaitarani river in Keonjhar district. Anandapur is very near to Jajpur. The river Vaitarani also taken an easterly course near Anandapur. It joins the Brahmani. The Sarasvati may be another name of the Brāhmaṇi. Sarasvati is referred to as the daughter of Brahma in Puranas. So it is possible to identify the mention of Sarasvati in the Abhidhāna Rajendra with the Brāhmaṇi of the present day. This Anandapur may not be that of Valabhi in which territory we find no such river as flowing towards the Sarasvati in an easterly direction. But with much plausibility this place may be identified with Anandapur in the district of Keonjhar which is situated on the bank of river Vaitarani.22
22. B. Acharya, "Jaina ruins in Keonjhar state", JKHRS. 1950, Vol. II, No. 4, p. 227.

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In Jaina literature the words Anandapur and Chakratirtha find frequent mention. Rşitala i.e. Rişi Tadaga may be the tank which is situated near Yogichata. The heaps of ashes may be remains of the ashes deposited at the time when great festival including feasts Samkhadi of the Jainas used to be annually held there.
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Podasingidi is a small village in Anandapur Sub-Division. It is situated along the road which runs from Anandapur to Soso on the bank of the Salandi via Dhenka. At a distance of about ten miles from Anandapur there is a village named Vaidakhia. A high mound surrounded by Sala and other trees forms the boundary of the village at a distance of about a mile and a half to the south west of Vaidakhia. Close to this mound, at a short distance from each other, there are four silted tanks. B. Acharya23 informs us the "remains of ruined temples and images of Jaina Tīrthankaras are to be found lying about here and there. A few of the images are built of gravel stone while some of them are made of chlorite, some of sand stone and some others of soap-stone. Many of them are in a badly damaged condition. Some of them are as high as five to six feet. A number of them are half buried in the ground. An image of Tirthankara engraved on chlorite stone had been placed on the stump of a Kochila (Nux vomica) tree. The trunk having grown in size, the image has been so firmly fixed that it would be difficult to remove it undamaged unless the greatest care is taken in cutting the tree."
At a place called Ramachandi near village Podasingidi and at the foot of the hill referred to above, a good number of Jaina Tirthankara and Sasanadevi figures are either fixed to the outer walls or kept on the masonry pedestal inside of a modern shrine. Of the five Tirthankara figures fixed to the outer walls three represent Pārsvanatha, one Rṣabhanatha and the other possibly Padmaprabha, one Ṛsabhanatha and the other possibly Padmaprabha. The details of these sculptures are given below.
1. Pārsvanatha (Fig. 82)
It is seated in yagasana pose with a seven hooded snake canopy over head. Hairs on the head are arranged in curled locks with uşnisa at the centre. It measures 1.5mx 0.65m.
2. Padmaprabha
It is standing in kayotsarga pose with hands stretched up to the knees. A lotus mark found to the right of the figure. It measures 1.15mx 0.57m. Hairs on the head are arranged as above.
3. Rṣabhanatha (Fig. 83)
It stands in kayotsarga pose with bull as the conventional läñchana below pedestal. Umbrella, kevala tree and the flying figures with garlands are noticed at the top. measures 0.97mx 0.39m and crudely finished.
23. Ibid, p. 224.

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4. Pārsvanātha (Fig. 84)
The second figure of Pārsavanātha of the group is carved standing on a lotus pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake covers the head and coils of the snake gathered behind the Tirthankara. Kevala tree, umbrella, flying figures with garlands in hands represent the upper part of the slab. Chauri bearers are in standing posture on either sides. A number of female devotees seen below the pedestal with offerings. The figure is in good state of preservation and displays remarkable artistic designs. It measures 0.88m X 0.48m.
5. Pārsvanātha
The third figure of Pārsvanātha is found seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake found above the head of the Tīrthankara with coils gathered at the back. A toraņa attached with heads of makaras is seen behind the figure. Three figures of Amra (Ambikā) are kept on a pedestal within the shrine and worshipped as Ramachandis. Local people considering them to be affiliated with Sākta cult offer animal sacrifices on Dasharā day (during Durgā Pujā festivals). They are :
1. Ambikā
The first figure of Ambikā of the series is seated in lalitāsana pose on a lotus pedestal below which her lanchana the lion is visible. She displays varada mudrā in her right hand and holds a baby cn the left lap. Two female attendants are standing on her sides with flywhisk and noose in hands in addition to the devotees in kneeling posture. An eliptical halo is depicted behind her head. A mango tree studded with leaves seen providing shade to the deity. Above her head is found Tirthankara Neminātha along with the chauri bearers, lañchana (wheel), oval halo, umbrella and kevala tree. On the two top corners of the stone there are to be seen the palms of the hands playing on cymbals (karatāla) and drum (mardala).
2. Ambikā (Fig. 85)
The second figure of Ambika almost corresponds to the figure noted above with the exception that she displays a mango twig instead of the varada mudra in her right hand and flying figures with garlands in hands on either sides at the top.
3. Ambika and Gomedha (Fig 86)
The third sculpture of the group displays the figures of Gomedha Yaksa and Ambika Yaksini seated on a common pedestal with their Tirthankara Neminatha, Ambikā is seated in lalitäsana with right hand in varada mudrā and left holding the baby on the lap. Similarly Gomedha Yaksa represent varada mudra in his right hand and left placed over his folded thigh on the pedestal. The mango tree provides shade to both the figures being laden with leaves. A series of devotees in kneeling posture are found

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depicted below the pedestal. Neminatha carved seated at the top is provided with the chauri bearers, flying Apsarās with garlands in hands, umbrella, and heavenly music played through cymbals.
Outside the premises of this shrine two more figures of Jaina Tirthankaras are still lying within bushes. One of them is Santinātha whose lañchana, deer is visible below the broken pedestal. Two spirited lions support its lotus pedestal and chaurt bearers and female figures in lalita pose are found along side the figure. Of the two female figures, one displays lotus in her left hand and the other behind the tree, holds a baby on the lap.
The other piece is profusely damaged and headless.
Two Rşabhanātha images, one in standing and the other in sitting pose, were brought to the Orissa State Museum earlier for preservation. They are now under display in the Archaeological Gallery of the Muscum bearing No. Ay. 31 and No. Ay. 33. The seated one on lotus pedestal in yogāsana measures 0.75m in height and 0.60m in breadth. Below the pedestal there are figures of women engaged in worship and infront of them, bull, the lāñchana of the Tirthankara is engraved. The composition of the matted locks of hairs with long ears and half closed eyes presents a beautiful meditative facial expression. Unfortunately the nose of the figure is damaged. The texture of the stone in which the figure is carved composed of white and black bands giving an impression of a transparent upper garment. The stele has an oval halo (prabhāmandala) with two flying Gandharvas on either side holding garlands in hands. This image is very valuable from the point of epigraphy for near the right hand of the image an inscription containing fifteen letters in four lines is found which reads as "Ehasya pratibimbi Rşabha Bhattāraka" meaning there by the statue of Rşabha Bhattāraka. The language of the inscription is in Sanskrit and script is in kutila type of the 8th century A.D. Hence palaeographically the image may be placed in the 8th century A.D.24
The other Rşabhanātha image (Fig. 87) designed in standing pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal measures 0.77m x 0.46m. His lañchana, the bull is found carved below the lotus pedestal supported by spirited lions. The chauri bearers, Bharata and Bahuvali are standing on either side. The locks of hair are arranged in jata, a few strands of which seen falling on his broad shoulders. The eliptical halo behind head is flanked by two flying figures, holding garlands in hands. The sacred umbrella is seen over head flanked by cymbals and drum played in hands to produce heavenly music. Due to stiffness of the stone, the image is in good state of preservation.
The part of the Baula range of hills near which this temple and the images are situated is called Yogichata by the local people. There was a flight of stairs made of bricks and stone connecting the temple compound with the top of the mountain. The stairs are now badly damaged, still they are used by the local people to reach the top of
24. A. Joshi, “A unique Rsabha image from Podasingidi”, OHRJ. Vol. X, No. 1, pp. 74-76,

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the mountain. At the top just below a huge stone there is an image of immense size of Tirthankara. Nearby, there is a tank which, it is believed never runs dry throughout the year though it is hardly five or six feet deep.25
Here and there are found heaps of ashes. The villagers think them to be the ashes of Sita's, lying in room. The Baula range, on which Yogichata is situated encloses an area on three sides while on the remaining side there are the ruins of a wall built of bricks and stone. This area extends about a mile in length and an equal distance in breadth. On the side opposite to Yogichata and near a spring lies the image of Pärsvanatha. This place is called Darchandi or Gadachand. People intending to reach the top most region of the mountain have to cover a short distance with the help of overhanging creepers. During the Pooja, animal scrifices are offered here. There is a reservoir of water named Chakratirtha. Many pilgrims visit the place on Raja samkrānti (Mithuna Samkramana) every year. Near Chakratirtha there can be found many Jaina images lying here and there.
The Parsvanatha image of Gadachandt (Fig. 88) is carved standing on a lotus pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake found above his head whose coils are gathered at the back. Twenty-three other Tirthankaras are depicted on both sides of the slab. The chauri bearers are in the usual place engaged in the service of the Tirthankara. Kevala tree umbrella, flying figures with garlands in hands and cymbals played in palms are envisaged in appropriate places. Kneeling figures in deep devotion are found below the pedestal.
As regards the origin of the word "Singidi", B. Acharya considers that it might have been derived from "Sankhadi" which meant a great festival including feasting. The Jaina Bhikhus considered it improper to join this "Sankhadi" and it was prohibited by the order. When Jainism ceased to be a common religion of the people "Sankhadi" also ceased to be held. This place accordingly has earned the epithet "Padasankhadi" i.c. where "Sankhadi" ceased to be held and "Poda Singidi" may be safely presumed to be a corrupted form of Pada Sankadi. The prohibition of the Jaina Bhikhus from joining a "Sankhadi" is referred to in a prakriti Lexi, entitled Abhidhan Rajendra, and severe penances are enjoined on those who violated the practice. In the same Prakriti work the following lines occur.
"Adeso Selapure Adāṇatthahiyā hia ya mahimaye Tosali Visaye Virvana!!ha taha hoti gamanam vä Selapure Isitalagammi hoti aṭṭhahiya mahāmahima Kondalametta payase abbuya päṇa Vahammi".
These lines mean that there is a holy tank named Rişi Tadaga at Sailapur in Toshali province. A great annual festival is held here extending over eight days. We have already discussed the veracity of this tradition.
25. B. Acharya, "Jaina Ruins in Keonjhar State", JKHRS. Vol. II, No. 4, p. 227. 26. Ibid, p. 226,

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In front of the Pancha Bhawan at Anandapur a few Jaina relics originally brought from Podasingidi are kept. Two enterprising Sub-Divisional officers of Anandapur were responsible for their shifting to this place. They have been displayed over cement pillars in front of the hall to remind the local people about the ancient heritage of their district. A. Joshi27 had earlier reported these sculptures. But his identification of the two Mahävira images appears to be actually the figures of Rsabhanatha, and his mention of second Pārsvanātha is not available at the place. Particulars of these relics are furnished below.
1. Pārsvanātha
The image of Pārsvanātha measuring 0.75m x 0.50m X 0.21m is carved seated in yogāsana pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake appears above his head. Chauri bearers are standing on either sides. The umbrella and the flying figures (left side figure available) with garlands in hands are envisaged at the top. To the left of the figure a devotee is standing near a tree.
2. Rşabhanātha
The first figure of Rşabhanātha is carved standing on a pedestal flanked by two chauri bearers. His lāñchana the bull is not visible below the pedestal. But from the matted locks of the hair on the head and strands falling on his shoulders it can well be identified with Tirthankara Rşabhanātha. A circular halo is seen behind the head. The umbrella flanked by flying figures with garlands ncticed on the top of the slab. It measures 0.37m x 0.27m x 0.41m.
3. Rşabhanātha
The second figure of Rşabhanātha, too is carved standing on a pedestal duly served by the chauri bearers on either sides. Like the above his lāñchana, the bull is not available below the pedestal but it can well be ascertained from the matted locks of hair falling on his shoulders that the image be of Tirthankara Rşabhanātha. An eliptical halo seen behind the head. The conventional umbrella over head is flanked by flying Vidyadharis with garlands in hands. The image measures 0.39m x 0.29m X 0.13m.
4. Ambikā
The fourth figure of the series represents Ambikā seated in lalitāsana pose under a mango tree studded with fruits and leaves. Her Tirthankara, Neminātha with sacred umbrella, kevala tree, flying Gandharvas, is observed at the top. She holds the baby on the left thigh. Her right hand damaged. Her vehicle the lion seen depicted below the pedestal along with female devotees in folded hands.
27.
A. Joshi, "Further light on the remains at Podasingidi" OHRJ, Vol. X No. 4. pp. 30-32,

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At Jambhira, some six km. from Hatadiha Block Headquarters one could find a figure of Ambika (Fig. 89) fixed to a Tulasi pedestal in the centre of the village. In description this image tallies with the figure we find at Ramachands temple of Podasingidi. It too, is carved in lalita pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal holding a baby on the left lap and the mango twig in the right. Her vehicle the lion seen below pedestal along with two devotees. She is crowned by her Tirthankara Neminatha having usual attributes of the sacred umbrella, kevala tree, chauri bearers, flying Gandharvas with gar lands, lanchana flanked by lions and cymbals played by hands. He is seated on a double petalled lotus pedestal.
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The Chandi temple of the same village preserves an image of Mahitamardini Durg on the sides of which figures of Pārśvanatha and a chaumukha of the Jaina pantheon are found.
At Ana, a village on the road leading to Anandapur, an image of Pärivanatha (Fig. 90) the twenty-third Tirthankara of the Jainas is found in front of a thatched house. This was originally collected from Vaidakhia as known from the local inhabitants. It measures 0.35mx 0.20m and carved standing on a lotus pedestal in Kayotsarga pose. A canopy of seven hooded snake found over head in addition to kevala tree, umbrella, flying Vidyadharas and cymbals and drum played in hands. The pedestal contain figures of Naga kanyas in folded hands and other devotees.
Near Thunigaon, under a tree two Jaina relics are found. One of them is the figure of Rṣabhanatha (Fig. 91) and the other of Yakşa Gomedha and Yakşini Ambika carved on a common slab. The figure of Rṣabhanatha measures 0.38m x 0.25m and carved standing on a lotus pedestal flanked by chauri bearers and eight planets.
Bull, his conventional lañchana and devotees found below the pedestal. The prabhamandala (halo) in oval shape behind head has been lavishly decorated. The sacred umbrella flanked by flying Vidyadharas with garlands in hands is envisaged at the top.
As indicated earlier the figures of Yakṣa Gomedha and Yakşini Ambika are designed on a common pedestal. Head of Ambika is detached from the body but found nearby. She is seated in lalitasana pose with a baby placed on her left thigh and a mango twig in right hand. Yaksa Gomedha displays varada mudra in his right hand while the attribute in his left hand appears to be indistinct. Both of them served by a series of six devotees carved below the pedestal in a row. As the place is very near to Podasingidi it is just possible that some local people brought them from there for worship.
The village Banchua, located few miles from the main road preserves a large number of antiquities in open mostly belonging to the Brahmanical and Sakta religion. I I have never seen a village with so much of loose sculptures in the neighbouring areas. On close examination, I could trace a headless image of Parsvanatha carved on a lotus pedestal supported by lions and a canopy of seven hooded snake. Chauri bearers are traced on either sides. Lotus and Champak flowers marked on the sides. The pedestal contain number of Naga kanyas in folded hands.

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Prof. P. Mukherji supplied two pieces of Jaina relics to the Orissa State Museum of which one is the figure of Pārśvanatha and the other the head of a Tirthankara. It is understood from him that a friend of his collected them from Vaidkhia of Anandapur Sub-Division of Keonjhar district during the construction of the Salandi dam project. Both of them are in chlorite stone.
This Pärivanatha image (Fig. 92) is carved standing in kayotsarga pese on a double petalled lotus pedestal with a canopy of seven hooded snake over head. Peculiarly enough this figure, in addition to the chauri bearers on separate pedestals, is flanked by standing figures of Santinatha and Mahavira on the left and Rṣabhanatha and Padmaprabha on the right side on lotus pedestals displaying their respective lañchanas, chauri bearers, trilinear umbrellas, and flying Vidyadharts with garlands in hands, a feature very rarely to be found in Orissa. Of the main Parsvanatha figure, his kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, flying figures with garlands and music played by cymbals have all been envisaged in appropriate places. The slab containing the figures measures 0.56m X 0.29mx 0.125m.
The head of the Tirthankara displays the front part of the face with the long ear of its right side. Its hairs on the head are arranged in curled knots befitting the Jaina tradition and eyes half closed. Trivali (foldings) on the neck are distinctly represented.
Two Jaina images of Parsvanatha were recovered some 15 years back from a plot of land in village Sainkul of Anandapur area of Keonjhar district. They are kept for the present in a delapidated thatched shed of the village and worshipped as Ananta. Both the figures are seated in yogasana posture and made of hard chlorite stone. The smaller of the two (Fig. 93) is carved seated on a crudely fashioned lotus pedestal displaying canopy of a seven hooded snake over head. The attendant to the right of the figure though in standing posture yet, the conventional chauri in its hand is not found. But a faint trace of it appears to have been marked near the waist. This attendant is envisaged on a miniature lotus pedestal. The attendant to its left is carved seated in a most crude fashion with both hands clasped together. No other feature is available with this image. It measures including the pedestal some 0.82m x 0.56m.
The other figure (Fig. 94) kept near it measures 0.94m x 0.79m and also designed seated in yogasana pose with a canopy of seven hooded snake over head. Instead of the usual lotus pedestal, a small decorated sheet of cloth appears to have been spread over the plain pedestal. Portions of its fingers in hands, the right leg, the eye lids, and front part of the snake hoods are mutilated. No other pratiharyas of the Jainas seem to be envisaged in this figure.
Hairs on head of both the figures are arranged in several rows of spiral curls with bulging at the top. The rows of curled locks thus reduced the forehead to a narrow strip in front. Trivali too is noticed in the neck of both the Tirthankara images. Palms of right hand are kept on the left a usual feature with Jaina icons. Neither the lanchana nor the suspicious mark are noticed with both the figures. Their youthful body,

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expanded chest and perfect concentration of mind appears to have followed the Jain a tradition of carving icons in stone at Mathura. Body modelling of these figures appear to be disproportionate.
In addition to this, Jaina relics are also noticed at village Panchupalli and Kosalesvar of the same Anandapur Sub-Division of the Keonjhar district. Scholars also attribute the paintings at Rāvanachāyā of Sitābhinjhi in Keonjhar district to have Jain a affiliation in view of the fact that Sarāka villages are found in the neighbourhood and Bhañja rulers patronised Jainism in the earlier phase of their rule.28
BALASORE DISTRICT
Places such as Charampa, Ayodhya, Martasol, Jaleswar, Balasore town, Balighat, Bhimpur, Purdal, Kupari in Balasore district are found with Jaina antiquities. In addition, it is also known that Jaina relics are available at Kaupur, Baulagadia Vardhanapur and Karatasala of the district. As the district of Balasore lay on the main route linking Bihar, Bengal and Orissa in the ancient period it witnessed the activities of all religious sects. The ancient sea port Tamr alipti is very close to this district.
With the advent of Pārsvanātha in Mayurbhanja and Nilgiri border as indicated earlier, some of his disciples known as Jaina Srāvakas came to this area.
One large image of Pārsvanātha has been found in the bed of the river Sona near a place known as Pundal in the ex-Nilgiri State (at present forming a part of the Balasore district).29 This image is a fine specimen of the ancient sculptural art of the Jainas. This was probably thrown to the river by the priests to save it from the hands of the iconoclasts. This image is designed in kāyotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal flanked by chauri bearers. A snake whose coiled form visible behind is spreading its seven hooded canopy over the head of the figure. Series of devotees holding musical instruments and offerings in hands are seen below the lotus pedestal. On the upper part of the figure close by the trilinear umbrella and branches of the Kevala tree are fairies and below them Gandharvas and Kinnaras while below these again are the figures of eight planets represented in the posture of meditation. The measurement of the complete figure is 1.37m x 0.65m. Though the image has lost its nose its artistic beauty has not altogether vanished. N.N. Vasu gives a later date to the figure in comparison to the Pārsvanātha image of Koisali.
The last Tirthankara Mahāvira, otherwise called Vardhamāna Swāmin, was once held in great esteem in this area. At Bhimpur, a village situated at a distance of eight miles to the south-east of the town of Balasore, many old stone images have been discovered.
While excavating a tank at Bhimpur, a very beautiful figure of Mahāyira was found only five cubits below the surface. This figure is 1.52m in height. On each side
28. 29.
Jhankar (Oriya), 23-9, p. 917. N.N. Vasu, The Archaeological Survey of Mayurbhanj, Vol. I pl. 21.

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of the image may be observed dimunitive figures of 24 Tirthankaras arranged in two each in standing posture. The two chauri bearers, a kneeling devotee in folded handsover the pedestal, heaps of offerings, the lāñchana, kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, Avind figures with garlands in hands and eliptical decorative halo are the other items of depiction along with the figure. This has been kept by Raja Vaikunthanatha De in his garden. But the image in question seems to be of the Tirthankara Rşabhanatha in view of the fact that the lāñchana bull, in stead of lion is visible below the pedestal.30
There are many ancient tanks in various parts of the village-one of them was very big: it is now dried up with a part of it under cultivation. Old residents recollect seeing in their youth the remnants of stone walls on two sides of the tank. These are now buried underground. Apart from the statue taken by N.N. De there is another beautiful image of Vardhamana Syamin in the middle of the village and by its sides there are other stone images and also s dhyāni Jina. The figure of Vardhamāna svāmi is 0.76m x 0.41 m. Strange to say that this naked Jina image is up to this day worshipped by the people of the village as Thakurāni. There is no lack of evidence to show that Jainism was at one time predominant here and that its tutelary deity was Vardhamanaswāmī31 The workmanship of the image is very fine. At Bhimpur some more images of Jaina pantheon are found which are wrongly worshipped by local people as figures of Sakta deities i.e. Durga. Local people believe that there are still more such Jaina figures lying under earth.
Traces of Jaina influence are also to be found at Vardhanapur near Bhimpur. The name Vardhanapur is perhaps a contraction of Vardhanmanpur and Vardhaman is another name of Mahāyira svāmin after whom the village was named. At the time of Jaina ascendancy the villages of Bhimpur and Vardhamanpur were known by the latter name.
The newly established Balasore branch Museum preserves three Jaina Tirthankara images which can be identified with Rşabhanatha. The sculptures of this Museum were mostly collected from the place of Sri Nisith Nath Deb, Manikhamb, Balsore and from local temples. Of the three Jaina Tirth ankara images two are in standing pose and one in sitting pose. The common attributes like lāñchana, the bull, the kevala tree, umbrella, devotees, heavenly music through cymbals and drum and flying figures with garlands in hands are depicted in all the three figures. One of the Tirthankaras (SI. No. 11) does not represent chauri bearers on its sides. It measures 0.90m x 0.56m x 0.24m. Figures of eight planets are found on the two sides of the Rsabha image brought from Bateśvara. It measures 1.12m x 0.59m x 0.23m and damaged at the lower parts of the legs.
The standing Rşabha image brought from the collection of N.N. De is damaged in the upper right side. It measures lm X 0.50m X 0.17m.
30. 31.
N.N. Vasu, Ibid, pl. 23. ibid, pp. 103-04.

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In the premises of Kāli temple at Balighat on the bank of river Buddhabalanga at Balasore a figure of Ambika (Amra) the Sasanadevi Neminātha is found fixed to a pillar. The priests of the temple inform that it was originally collected from the paddy fields of Gadiamala village near Shergada in 1972 and is now worshipped as Pārvati. Made of chlorite stone this two-handed image measures 0.85m x 0.35m. It is seated in lalita pose, holding a baby on the left lap while the right hand holds a twig (stalk) containing three mangoes. The original head of the baby is replaced by an elephant head giving appearance of Ganesa. On close scrutinisation it was found that the head is made of cement. Another naked child standing to the right is trying to pluck a mango from the stalk. The lotus pedestal has in it the lion as the vehicle of the deity, series of devotees in knceling posture and heaps of offerings. The mango tree laden with leaves found behind the figure with Tirthankara Neminātha at the top in yogasana pose flanked by chauri bearers. His lāñchana (in lotus petalled form), kevala tree heavenly music, umbrella and flying figures with garlands in hands are all envisaged. The image of Ambikā is decked with rich apparels like girdle, necklace, ear-studs, bracelets, anklets and head ornaments. Her hair-do is of typical variety displaying the bulge to the right.
An image of Sāntinātha (Fig. 95) standing in kāyotsarga pose has recently been collected for the Orissa State Museum from village Martasol in Jalesore area of Balasore district. It measures 0.52m x 0.27m x 0.9m. Designed on a double petalled lotus pedestal this figure displays all the main attributes of a Jaina Tīrthańkara image like the kevala tree, the umbrella, the heavenly music, prabhāmandala, flyihg Gandharvas with garlands and a series of devotees with offerirgs and armed with weapons. His lañchana, the deer is depicted below the pedestal. In addition, his Sāsanadevi, Mahāmānasi is found depicted sitting in padmāsana flanked by two elephants at the top pouring sacred water. She displays Varada mudrā in one hand and lotus on the other.
A makara torana supported by Gajavidālas with chains of pearls falling from their mouths is adding beauty and grace to the whole composition.
Two more Jaina relics have been collected by the Orissa State Museum from a place called Manikchauk of Balasore district. They are one, the figure of Santinātha (Fig. 96) and the other a Chaumukha. The image of Santinātha is a peculiar one. Though it displays deer, the usual Tāñchana of the Tirthankara, it has a canopy of five hooded snake on the top of the head. This snake canopy often confuses, this image with that of the figure of Pārsvanātha in which case we find the canopy consisting of seven hoods, or Supārsvanātha with five hoods of a snake. It stands in kāyotsarga attitude on a lotus pedestal below which are heaps of offerings. Chauri bearers are found on the sides in addition to the seated figures of eight planets displaying their conventional attributes. Heavenly music produced through cymbals and drum also noticed at the top of the figure. It measures 17cm X 10.5cm x 5cm.)
The Chaumukha (Fig.97) measuring 40cm x 10cm x 10cm is designed in a miniature pidha deula style. It has five tiers in gradual receding pattern and supported

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by lions on each corners. Its crowning element consists of amalaka, khapuri and the pinnacle, a lotus bud. On four directions, the chaumukha represents figures of Rşabha, Mahāvīra, Sāntinātha and Chandraprabha, standing in kāyotsarga pose within separate decorative niches.
The villages of Martasol and Manikchauk are closely situated to the river Survarnarekha near Jalesore. On the bark of the river are noticed heaps of ancient ruins and brick structures. Along with the images noted above a basketful of potteries containing votive lamps of different shapes have also been collected by the Orissa State Museum. The site is first vanishing due to the proximity of river Suvarnarekha. The people of the local villages confront with ancient remains at the time of cultivation and other digging operations.
Extensive ruins of Buddhist and Jaina relics have been traced at Ayodhya, a place six miles from Nilgiri, the Sub-Divisional headquarters of Balasore district. The place is surrounded in three sides by rivers like Ghagra, Sona and Sindhu and the remaining one by the Nilgiri range of hills. The ruins of the place were earlier examined by N. N. Vasu, P. Acharya, K.C. Panigrahi, N.K. Sahu and others, but all of the recorded the Buddhist heritage of the place ignoring the high watermark Jainism attained at this place. Ruins of a number of temples, earth mounds, abandoned walls, etc. are noticed all around the area and priceless archaeological objects are occasionally traced while ploughing the fields for agricultural operations, renovation of silted up tanks and digging wells and trenches for house sites. The local people had a brisk trade on such antiquities in the past. Discovery of dilapidated wells and foundation of ancient temples seem to be a matter of frequent cccurrence and the local people for fear of legal complicacies cover them again or destroy them completely for purpose of cultivation and construction of houses. Still a large number of stone slabs, decorative fragments, āmalakas, etc. are lying scattered in a place half a mile west of the village known as Khandāvādi. It may be reasonably believed that this place in the past had most of the ancient shrines. The present Khuntia temples of the village must have utilised the dressed stones of the earlier temples and the stupas. The sixteen sided monolithic dhvojastambha installed in front of the Marichi temple was brought from this place. Peculiarly enough, this dhvajastambha is crowned by a lion, the vehicle of Mahāvīra and the Sasanadevi Ambikā of the Jaina pantheon. In the premises of the modern temples some loose sculptures of Buddhist and Jaina affiliation are kept.
Inside the Maninagesvar temple two pieces of sculptures have been loosely kept near the Siva linga. One of them is the figure of Rşabhanātha and the other of yakşa Gomeda and Yakşini Ambikā. A beautifully carved Pārsvanatha image is resting on the outer wall of this temple.
The two armed Rşabhanātha image (Fig. 98) is carved standing on a double petalled Ictus pedestal in käyotsarga posture. His vehicle, the bull is found below the pedestal. Chauri bearers, eight planets, umbrella, kevala tree, flying figures with garlands in hand, heavenly music as well as a decorative arch are all carved along with the image.

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The figures of Yakşa Gomedha and Yakșini Ambikā (Fig. 99) are carved in a single piece of stone. They are seated on a double petalled lotus pedestal behind the mango tree. A number of kneeling devotees in añjali mudrā seen depicted in front of the pedestal. The female figure carries a baby on her left lap and Neminātha, the twenty-second Tirthankara appears in the yogāsana pose on the top of the tree.
The Pārsvanātha image (Fig. 100) kept outside is carved standing on a double petalled lotus pedestal in kāyotsarga pose. The canopy of a seven hooded snake covers the head of the Tirthankara. Chauri bearers and eight planets (astagrahas) are carved along its sides. The trilinear umbrella, kevala tree, heavenly music played through cymbals by the Gandharvas and flying figures are the other accessories of this deity. Front parts of snake hoods and face of the Tirthankara are partially damaged.
In addition to the above, a few sculptures of the Jaina pantheon are still found in private possession of the local people. Sri Hadibandhu Raj preserves four sculptures in his residence from which two appear to have link with Jaina religion. The one identified as Pārsvanātha (Fig. 101) the 23rd Tirthankara measures 0.70m X 0.40m x 0.10m and carved standing on a double petalled lotus pedestal in kāyotsarga pose. Devotees with offerings, chauri bearers, astagrahas, Nāga kanyās, flying Vidyādharis with garlands in hands, umbrella, canopy of a seven hooded snake and cymbals played in hands are the other features carved along with the figure.
The other statue in his possession may tentatively be identified with Ambikā in view of the fact that it is standing below a tree laden with leaves. It measures 0.60m x 0.30m x 0.10m and is severely damaged in the left hand. Gandharvas with musical instruments in hands, attendant figures, devotees and makara torana with ghata bases are the other notable aspects carved along with the figure.
Sri Bhagavata Behera, another villager, preserves in his residence an image of Mahāvīra, the 24th Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon. He informs that the image was recovered from a tank in village Nuagaon a few years back and since then it is with him. It stands on a double petalled lotus pedestal in kāyotsarga pose. The pedestal is support.ed by two spirited lions. In addition, kneeling devotees with offerings in hands, chauri bearers, elephants, decorative arch, musicians with cymbals and drum in hand and trilinear umbrella are the other attributes carved along side the image.
In the premises of the Ayodhya High School, a number of fragmentary sculptures collected by the school children from time to time are heaped together. Among others they include the lower part of a Pārsvanātha figure and upper part of a Tirthankara.
Charampa, a place, a few miles from Bhadrak in Balasore district, also yielded a large number of Jaina antiquities of which four have been brought to the Orissa State Museum for preservaticn. The original site of discovery of these sculptures is located on the eastern bank of the Rahania tank also known as the Barala Pokhari. It is one of the biggest tanks of the area containing around twenty two acres of lands. The tank is now

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full of weeds. Few families of Sarākas still inhabit in the area. For the present only one Pārsvanātha image is found in the original site under a banyan tree. This image has been severely affected by weathering conditions. Its execution is strikingly similar to the group of sculptures shifted to the Museum carlier. A peculiar feature of these images is that a number of cut-marks are found on the body. These cut-marks are certainly a deviation from the other school of Jaina art if these were purposely effected by the artists. The images remind the believer of the faith of the condition through which a Tirthankara passed to attain salvation and that affords him a strong incentive to follow the noble examples of a Tirathankara's life. All these pieces are carved in chlorite stone.
The figure of Pārsvanātha now available at the site is carved standing in käyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake is found over his head. Flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands, heavenly music played in hands, trilinear umbrella, kevala tree, chauri bearers are the other features available with the image. Its face, snake hood, genital organ, and lotus pedestal are partially damaged.
From among the four Tirthankara images brought to the Museum, the figure of Rşabhanātha (Ay. No. 20) measuring 1.52m x 0.68m is the firest one. It is standing in kāyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal and flanked by Bharata and Bahuvali, the two chauri bearers. The stele has an oval halo with flying Gandharvas on either side holding garlands in hands. On the two vertical sides of the image eight planets have been carved in sitting posture with conventional attributes in hands. His mark of cognizance, the bull is carved below the pedestal. His hairs on the head are arranged in jata, few strands of which fall on the shoulders. The umbrella, the kevala tree and the heavenly music are all envisaged in the proper places. A portion from its left top is detached but available. Besides, the hands from the wrist, lower parts of the legs, genital organ and the jațābhāra over head are partially damaged.
The figure of Ajitanātha (Ay. No. 21) (Fig. 102) of the group is seated in yogasana pose (meditative attitude) on a lotus pedestal prominently displaying the cut-marks on the body. His lañchana the elephant is carved below the pedestal. The two chauri bearers are standing on either sides. Flying figures with garlands in hards, trilinear umbrella, the heavenly music and kevala tree are all noticed on the top of the image. His hairs over head are arranged in curled knots with uşnisa at the centre. Sitting images of Ajitanātha are very rarely found in other parts of the country. His face has severely been damaged.
The third image of this collection (Ay. No. 19) is of Sāntinātha (Fig. 103) seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by lions. Chauri bearers and flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands flank the figure at the bottom and top. His lāñchana the deer is found depicted below the pedestal along with other devotees and heaps of offerings. Like the above, his hairs on the head are also arranged in curled knots, with uşniša at the centre. Kevala tree, trilinear umbrella and heavenly music played through cymbals are also envisaged at the top of the figure. An eliptical halo is found behind his head.

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The last one of the series in the Orissa State Museum is the image of Mahāvīra (Ay. No. 22) standing in kāyotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal. It is flanked by the chauri bearers standing above spirited licns rear the pedestal and flying Gandharvas with wreaths in hands on either side at the top. The face of the figure is badly damaged. The stele has an oval halo. The kevala tree and the trilinear umbrella are visible above the head. As regards hairs on the head, there is close aflirity with the figures of Ajitanātha and śāntinātha referred to above. Unfortunately lion, the conventional lañchana cf Mahāvīra is not traced in the appropriate place. Instead, two lions are seen flanking the image just above the lotus pedestal. For the double petalled lctus pedestal this image is often confused with Padmaprabha, the 6th Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon. Flying figures on either sides are seen offering flower garlands from baskets held in their hands.
In the absence of epigraphical evider.ces, the sculptures of this group may be placed in the 8th-9th century A.D. in consideration of the iconographical features, artistic finish and display of eight planets.32
In addition to the above group of sculptures of Charampa a figure of Ambikā sitting under the mango tree with baby on her lap is still found under worship as Grāmadevati in an open mandapa at the place. This was said to have been recovered from the same Rahania tank.
MAYURBHANJA DISTRICT
Mayurbhanja and the adjacent district of Balasore and Keonjhar in Orissa and Singbhum, Manbhum and Sareikela districts, etc. of Bihar and Medinapur of West Bengal are extremely rich in Jaina antiquities of the medieval period. We have not traced any Jaina Tirthankara image in the Mayurbhanja district so far having characteristics of the early period. Due to saucity of carlier remains it cannot be exactly ascertained as to when Jainism established its stronghlod in this region. But from the stray finds of sculptures at Badasai, Panibandha, Keisali, Khuntapala, Baripada ard Khiching we may reasonably place its ascer darcy durirg the Bharja rule. As discussed earlier the Bhanja kings of Mayurbhanja and Keonjhar region had Jaina affinity and they patronised Jaina establishments and their adherents. Like the districts of Bihar referred to above, the district of Mayurbhanja has several Sarāka settlements. These Sarākas followed Jaina practices in their social customs and religious observances.
The influence of the teaching of Jaina religion by Pārsvanātha, the 23rd Tirthankara spread in Anga, Vanga and Kalinga. We learn from Bhagavata Sūtra, one of the earliest of Jaina works ard also from the life of the 23rd Tirthankara by Blavedeva Suri that after preaching his doctrines Pārsvanātha went to a place of Nagas. On the way four Sarāyakas viz. Siva, Sundara, Saumya ard Jaya became his disciples. It is stated in the Kșctra Samasa and in various cther such works that having left Tamralipti, Pārsvanātha came to a place called Kapokata or Kapakataka where on the second day cf lis iritiation, he broke his fast in the Icuse of Dhar ya. From this incident Kopakata came to be called
32. M.P. Dash "Jaina Antiquities of Charampa", OHRJ, Vol. XI. No. 1 pp. 50-53,

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Dhanyakata and regarded as one of the most sacred places of the Jainas. The Kopakataka or Kopakupari is known as Kupari in the district of Balasore and is situated near the border of Mayurbhanja district. But unfortunately we have no evidence of Jaina relics from Kupari in Balasore district. N.K. Sahu traces Buddhist heritage of the place. But the areas around Kupari like the Anandapur Sub-Division of Keonjhar district and the Bhadrak (Charampa) area of Balasore district are extremely rich in Jaina antiquities. However, the site of the ancient shrine at Kupari needs thorough excavation to provide. a satisfactory explanation in the matter.34
Badasai, a village lccated some thirty kilometres away from Baripada preserves a number of Jaina relics near its Managala shrine. The Mangala shrine on the other hand is situated in one corner of the Bodhipokhari of the village. The first Jaina relic encountered at this place is a chaumukha kept partially buried under earth in the midst of terracotta figurines of horses and elephants. This chaumukha contains within its four side niches the figures of Chandraprabha Rṣabhanatha, Ajitenätha and Pärávanatha, all carved standing in kayotsarga pose along with their respective (añchanas and chaur? bearers. The chaumukha is designed in the shape of a miniature pidha temple of Orissan variety, the types of which are reckoned at several places of Orissa. It has the usual square base with pyramidal roof crowned by amalaka sila. It measures 0.50m x 0.17m in height.
This chaumukha is locally worshipped as "Chandrasena" on Udaparva day (Bailakha purnima) for which I could get no explanation from the villagers. N.N.Vasus wrongly identified this Chaumukha (Chandrasera stone) with that of a miniature Buddhist stupa containing Boddhisa.tva figures of Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitabha and Amoghasidhi within niches and even contemplated to the existence of an ancient Buddhist stupa in greater magnitude in the close vicinity.
The next Jaina relic of this place is a seated four armed image of Ambika, the Sasanader of Neminatha. It is seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal with lion as her vehicle cerved below. A tree is depicted over her head spreading its branches on the sides. The pedestal is supported by a set of carved pillars. Of the attributes in her four hands one is shown in varda mudra, one kept on the left thigh and the objects in two others are indistinct, of which one, with much difficulty can be associated with a bunch of mangoes. She is profusely decorated with ornaments and her hairs on the head are tied in a knct at the middle. It measures 0.30m×0.16m in length and breadth respectively. N.N. Vasu again wrongly identified this deity with Buddhist Geddess Dharma.
The third Jaina relic of the place is a fragment containing a small Tirthankara figure carved seated in yogasana pose. It can also be related to a Ganadhara or Purvadhara figure.
33. N.N. Vasu, Ibid Vol. I, p. XLII.
34. N.K. Sahu, Buddhism in Orissa p. 87.
35. N.N Vasu, The Archaeological Survey of Mayurbhanja, Vol. I, pp. 41-42 and pl. 53. 36. N.N. Vasu, Ibid, (XCVI)

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A beautifully carved chlorite image of Pārsvanātha is kept under a Hiñjala tree behind the residence of one Sri Kailas Chandra Jena of village Koisali located in the close neighbourhood of Badasai 37 It measures some 1.35m x 0.7Cm. The figure is carved standing in kayotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal extending hands up to the knee region. A canopy of seven hooded snake i.e. found above its head. The coils of the snake originating from the bottom are gathered behind the figure. The decoration of the outer part of the coiled snake is extremely noteworthy. Chauri bearers flank the figure on either sides, standing on separate lotus pedestals. Nāga devotees in folded hands are noticed on the lotus pedestal. Flying figures with garlands in hands cymbals and drum played in hands of invisible figures and branches of kevala tree with fruits are also envisaged on either side of the Tirthankara. Hairs on its head are arranged in curled knots with an uşnisa in the centre. A portion of the stele of the right side along with the flying figure is damaged and kept near the image. The figure is mutilated at places like front parts of the snake hoods, upper parts of the chauri bearers of the right side, reproductive organ and face of the Tirthankara. The kevala tree has not been envisaged in the usual place.
A slab containing two small Gandhara figures in kāyotsarga pose is also kept near this Pārsvanātha image.
About one hundred metres away from this place amidst paddy fields is the original site probably from which this Jair a image was excavated and brought to this place. This place is now locally known as the site of Andhāri Kshetrapāla. For the present it contains two fragmentary pieces of Jaina relics. They are half buried under ground. A few pieces of dressed stone slabs are lying in the close vicinity. The larger piece of the two is the torso of a Jaina Tirthankara. It s head is gone so also the other distinguishing features. It stands in kāyotsarga posture. The other fragment depicts two pairs of Ganadhara and Purvadhara figures also in standing posture.
N.N. Vasu38 traced the foundation of an ancient Jaina shrine having the sanctum and its porch at the site.
At Barudi, a place located at about one kilometre away from Badasai, a figure of Ambikā is worshipped in the name of Kutāsuņi Thakurāni under a banyan tree amidst paddy fields. A large number of terracotta figurines of horses and elephants are also lying scattered at this place. Local people offer vali (sacrifices) of goats, cocks and other birds at this place during festive occasions. This image of Ambikā is carved seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal like that of the figure we noticed at Badasai. Her mount, the lion is depicted below the pedestal. A mango tree is carved above her head spreading branches on two sides. In her four hands she displays a bunch of mangoes, varada mudra and conical objects whose identification is difficult at this stage. She is elaborately decorated with costumes and ornaments. The entire slab including the pedestal measures 0.30m in length and 0.16 m in breadth.
37. 38.
Ibid., pl. 20. Ibid., pp. 46-47.

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The villages of Badasai, Koisali and Barudi located in close neighbourhood were once replete with Sarāka settlements for which we come across with large number of tanks in and around them.
An image of Mahāvīra is found under worship at a place called Rāni Bandha, three miles from Badasai.39 The National Museum New Delhi has recently acquired a beautiful Tirthankara image (Fig. 1C4) attributable to the 10th-11th century from Mayurbhanja district. The find sport of this image has not been given by the author.40
The Bada Jagannātha temple built by one Vaidyanātha Bhañja in saka 1497 i.e. 1575 A.D. preserves a few Jaina Tirthankara images. Immediately after entering the premises one will notice two seated figures of Pārsvanātha of the Jaina pantheon worshipped as Ananta on either side of the main entrance. They have been kept within separate niches. One of them has earlier been reported in the Archaeological Survey of Mayurbhanja, a pioneer study and investigation of archaeology of the ex-state of Mayurbhanja by N.N. Vasu. These figures are in seated position and lack most of the prominent features of a Jaina Parśvanātha image (Fig. 105). Instead of the canopy of seven hooded shakes they contain nine and thirteen hooded snake canopies over their heads. They also contain symbols of snakes on their pedestals. One of them is inscribed, the reading of which is extremely defaced. On the inner wall of the Jagamohana are found fixed one image of Pārsvanātha (Fig. 105) and another of a rare variety of Rşabhanatha image. The Rşabhanatha figure (Fig. 106) depicts on its sides the images of all other twenty-three Jaina Tirthankaras with their conventional lañchanas. Similar Rşabhanātha figures are also noticed in one of the Jaina shrines of village Suai in Koraput district and in the Baripada Museum. In other cases seated or standing Jaina Tirthańkaras are noticed in panels without their lāñchanas. This provides in brief the clue to study the iconography of Jaina Tirthankaras.
In Baripada branch Museum two other stone Jaina relics found their place. One of them is the figure of Rşabhanātha and the other one is of a chaumukha (chaitya). The Rşabhanātha figure was recovered from village Badasahi in 1924 and the Chaumukha brought from the collections of one Mr. Bose. The Chaumukha contains the figure of Rşabhanatha, Sārtinātha, Chandraprabha and Mahāvira as evident from the lañchanas carved below their pedestals. It has been partially damaged at the top and the remaining portion measures 0.30 mx 0.10m. The Rşabhanātha figure measuring 0.25m x 0.15m is in standing pose on a lotus pedestal with twenty-three other Tirthařkaras along with their symbols arranged in its sides. His hairs arranged in jatā and run up to the shoulders. Among other attributes we find cymbals and drum played in hands, trilinear umbrella, kerala tree, eliptical prabhamandala (halo) and lotus marks the right hand side being damaged) are carved along with the image. His lanchana, the bull and heaps of offerings with devotees are depicted in the pedestal. Perforated jāli design is seen behind the lower portion of the figure.
39. Ibid., p. XLIV 40. P. Banerji, Jaina Art and Achitecture, A Ghose, (Ed.) Vol. I, p. 163, pl. 88.

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In addition to the above two stone relics there are nine copper Jaina icons preserved in the Baripada Museum. They were recovered in a hoard from village Khuntapal as recorded in the Accession Register some time during the year 1935. Most of them are partially damaged but from the available portions they can be recognised to have contained three figures of Rşabhanātha, three of Pārsvanātha two of Sasanadevi Ambika and one Tirthankara whose identity is difficult to trace. Instead of carving in round, they have been fashioned in flat sheets of copper with decorative arches and prabhämandal.
An account of these figures is given below :
(1) Jaina Tirthařkara-It stands in kāyotsarga pose with a damaged pedestal and
decorative arch. Hairr on the head of the Tirthnkara are arranged in curled knots. It measures 13cm x 6.5cm.
(2) Pārsvanātha-It stands in kāyotsarga pose on a square pedestal with a canopy of
seven hooded snake overhead Coils of the snake are arranged behind the figure. The base of its pedestal is partially damaged. It measures 13cm x 3.5cm.
(3) Pārsvanātha (Fig. 108)- It stards in kāyotsarga pose on a rectangular pedestal
with broken snake hood over head. Its hairs on the head are arranged in curled knots. The eliptical halo behind head and the fingers in hands are partially damaged. It measures 12.5cm X 5.7cm.
(4) Pārsvanātha-The third figure of Pārsvanātha is also in standing pose on a lotus
pedestal. Its hairs on the head are arranged in curled knots with a top knot (uşnisa). The decorative arch in ribbed design is partially damaged. It meaures 13cm x 4cm.
(5) Rşabhanātha (Fig. 109)--Starding in kāyotsarga attitude it displays the hairs of
the head arranged in jatā and falling on the shoulders. This figure is badly mutilated in its fingers, left arm, face and legs. Portions from the body are peeled off and cracks are noticed in the forehead. It measures 14cm. x 5cm.
(6) The second Rşabhanātha figure is also in kāyotsarga pose displaying jaļā falling
on both the shoulders. The decorative arch formed in beaded designs is partially visible on both sides. Fingers in the hands are partially damaged. Both of its legs are broken from the ankle and missing. It measures 10.5cm x 5cm.
(7) The third figure of Rşabhanātha almost displays the same features of the second
figure with the absence of any decorative arch. It measures 15cm x 5.6cm.
(8) Ambikā- The first figure of Ambikā or Amra, the Sasanadevī of the 22nd
Tirthankara Neminātha is carved standing with a baby in hand and the vehicle of lion to the left of the pedestal. It measures 10.5cm X 4.7cm.

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(9) The second image of Ambika is in good condition and envisages the characteristics of the Sasanadevi Amra. It too, stands on a plain pedestal displaying a bunch of mangoes in right hand and the baby on the left lap. A branch of the mango tree is also held in her left hand. She is profusely decked with decorative ornaments and drapery up to the ankles. It measures 13.5cm x 5.2cm.
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The Sarākas settling in Mayurbhanja district are once proficient in smelting copper and the casting of these figures may be attributed to them.
The areas around Khiching were also very rich in Jaina antiquities. The branch museum at Khiching preserves a large number of Jaina Tirthankara images collected from different sites in the past. Unfortunately we do not find their provenances in the records. They comprise figures of the Rṣabhanatha, Santinatha Prsvanatha and few other Tirthankaras whose lanchanas are not traceable on their pedestals.
Benusagara, a village situated seven miles south of Majgaon in the extreme south east of the Kolhan on the the boundary of Simhabhum and Mayurbhanja (now forming parts of Bihar province) was once a stronghold of Jaina activities. This place is quite near to Khiching. The place is so called after a big tank to the north of the village which is now partially silted up and over grown with weeds. There is an island in the middle, which is covered with jungle, and mounds of bricks marking the ruins of several old temples and some well carved images half buried in the ground. J.D. Beglar ascribes the temples to the seventh century A.D. and writes as follows about the sculptures. "The sculptures that exist are entirely Brahmanical with two exceptions. The exceptions are a small naked figure which form its evident resemblance to Jaina figures, I take to be a Jaina and a seated figure, with the hands in the attitude of teaching resembling figures of Buddha and like many of them with his head covered with little curls. That this figure is Buddhist leads me to believe. Still there is nothing impossible in its being Jaina."1
From among the images preserved in the Khiching Museum the one bearing No. 54 and measuring 0.88mx 0.42m is the figure of Pärsvanatha (Fig. 110). It stands in kayotsarga pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal with a canopy of seven hooded snake, six standing Tirthankara figures, music played through cymbals and drum, snake symbol and a number of Naga and Nagi devotees in folded hands. Front part of all the snake hoods are damaged so also the umbrella and the kevala tree. We do not find the coiled snake behind the figure. The chamaradharts or the chauri bearers on either side are conspicuous in their absence.
The figure Rṣabhanatha No. 56 (Fig. 111), is also in standing pose on a double petalled lotus pedestal below which his lañchana, the bull is distinctly visible. The entire composition of the attributes in this figure seem to have been crudely fashioned Chamaradharis are seen on either sides and above them two Tirthankaras are standing in each side. The hairs on the head are arranged in Jata and falling on the broad
41. Bengal District Gazetteer, Singhbhum Sareikala and Kharswan, (Ed). LSSO'Malley, pp. 207-08,

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shoulders. Other conventional features like the halo, keva!a tree, umbrella, flying figures and heavenly music are all faintly traceable around the figure. It measures 0.76m x 0.37m x 0.16m.
The second figure of Rşabhanātha bearing No. 55 measures 0.79m x 0.37m x 0.17m. It also stands on a double petalled lotus pedestal flanked by the chauri bearers. The trilinear umbrella is visible at the top and lanchana, bull below pedestal. The figure appears to be left unfinished.
The image of Sāntinātha in standing pose bears No. 57. It measures 0.82m x 0.41m x 0.15m. The lañchana deer is seen below the pedestal in a mutilated condition. Among other features the chauri bearers, two standing Tirthankaras on either side, flying apsarās with garlands in hands, heavenly music played through drum and cymbals, keval tree, umbrella and the decorative eliptical halo are all found carved along with the figure. A portion of the slab containing the flying figure is damaged at the top but refixed. Head of the Tirthankara, fingers in both his hands, head of the chauri bearer to the right, umbrella, tree and the devotees below pedestal are severely damaged.
The next figure in the series bearing No. 93 is perhaps a seated image of Adinātha the first Jaina Tirthankara. The throne, on which the figure is carved in yogasana, is supported by two spirited lions and the symbol of Dharmachakra (wheel) is distinctly carved in the centre of the pedestal. Hairs on his head are arranged in jata, few strands of which fall on his long shoulders. The chaurī bearer in case of the right side is found in conventional pose. A portion from its left side containing the chauri bearer and the eliptical halo is damaged and missing. This appears to be an earlier image of the place. It measures 0.75m x 0.44m x 0.13m.
The third image of Rşabhanātha bearing No. 155 cf this museum measures 0.52m x 0.27m x 0.11m and damaged in two parts. It is carved in kāyotsarga pose with symbol bull, devotees, chauri bearers, oval halso, musical instruments played in hands and the umbrella. Its pedestal is designed in double petalled lotus form.
The most lavishly decorated Jaina figure of Rşabhanātha bearing No. 176 has recently been acquired for the Khiching Museum from village Begunia Bindha, a place adjacent to Khiching. It measures some 0.73m x 0.37m x 0.11m and carved in yogāsana pose on lotus pedestal supported by spirited lions. Chauri bearers in conventional pose are noticed on either sides. Flying figures with garlands in hands, umbrella decorated with series of beaded chains and the representation of kirttimukha on the top of the umbrella, a rare feature in Jaina sculptures are all found depicted along with the image.
Another damaged bust of a Tirthanakara bearing No. 180 is found kept in the store of the Museum awaiting display in the gallery. This figure along side of it is carved with two other Tirthankara figures and a flying damsel. The circular halo behind head and the umbrella are the two other available features of this much damaged figure.

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L.N. Sahu noticed a slab containing the figures of Rsabha and Mahāvira in Khiching Museum. As the photographs published in his book do not provide the distinct identity it becomes difficult to describe them in detail.
He also refers to a number of Tirthankara images like Rşabhanātha, Neminātha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra in standing posture once fixed to the walls of the Jagannātha temple at Baripada. But except the Pārsvanātha and the Rşabhanātha figures as described earlier it becomes difficult to trace the identity of the Mahāvīra and Neminātha figures of the place.
KORAPUT DISTRICT
The forest clad Koraput district of Orissa is extremely rich in Jaina antiquities and monuments. We notice Jaina temples of the medieval period in places like Suai, Kachela, B. Singhpur of the district. They adorn images of Jaina Tirth ankaras, Sāsanadevis, Yakşa and Yaksinis in both standing and seated positions. In several other Brahmanical temples, Jaina relics are fixed to the walls and in some cases they are worshipped as Hindu Gods and Goddesses. The aboriginal people inhabiting the area are not very much particular for their worship. It is difficult to ascertain exactly the period of Jaina ascendancy in the area.
Prominent centres of Jaina relices in Koraput district are Nandapur, Suai, Kachela, Chatua, B. Singhpur, Borigumma, Yamuda, Kotapata, Charmula, Narigaon, Kamta, Mali Nuagaon, Devata Ganjar, Katharaguda, Pakhanguda, and Palba. Most of the Brahmanical temples at Jeypore are found preserving Jaina relics in their premises. The recently established District Museum at Jeypore also contain a good number of Jaina Tirthankara and Sāsanadevi figures collected from B. Singhpur, Charmula, Kamta, Yamunda, Kotapata and a few other sites by the efforts of S.C. Pani, I.A.S., former Sub-collector of Koraput.
Referring to the Jaina antiquities of the district Kumar Vidhyadhara Singh Deo43 informs that "still the Jaina remains are visible in Jeypore and Nandapur and confirm our idea that once it was a place of Jaina influence. The heaps of Jaina images and the vast ruins of the Jaina temples clearly indicate that in the days past Nandapur was a centre of Jaina religion. Some would make us understand that Kalinga was Jaina as it was long under the anti-Brahmanical Nandas whose Jaina remains probably are found now in Jeypore and Asoka who was a devotee of Siva first and a descendant of one who extensively over threw the Nandas to protect the Brahman and the Veda fought with Kalinga on religious ground.
G. Ramdas led him to inspect several Jaina images which were worshipped by the local people as Hindu Gods and Goddesses.
42. L.N. Sahu, Odisāre Jaina Dharma, (Oriya), p. 152. 43. Ibid., p. 147.

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He found a rude Jaina image in standing posture, which is believed by the villagers to be a murty of Gangamãi and goats and sheep are sacrificed to propitiate it. He felt that some day or other it will be proved that almost all the stone images in Jeypore once belonged to the Jaina pantheon. The village, Jaina nagari, is still in existence near Jeypore.44
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It is known from the Jaina scriptures of Aryanga and Acharanga Sutta that long before the commencement of the Christian era, the Jaina preachers explored the unreclaimed forest tract that extends from the district of Manbhum in Bihar to the Vizagpatam Agency in order to spread their religion among the hill tribes. The Jaina Sravakas or laymen traversed the jungle mahal or Jharakhand in pursuit of mineral wealth.45
It is also evident that Koraput district formed parts of the Kingdom of the Eastern Gangas, the Somavamsis and the Telugu Chodas some of whose rulers allowed Jainism to flourish along with other religions of the land.
An image of Padmavati, the Sasanadevt of the twenty-third Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon, is kept in the open mandapa in front of the Sarvesvara temple of Nandapur. It was originally brought from village Mali Nuagaon located 5 km. away from Nandapur a few years back as known from the local people. She is carved seated in lalita pose on a lotus pedestal below which her vehicle, elephant is visible. A canopy of five hooded snake protects her at the top. She is four handed of which one is damaged. The attributes in other three hands are a branch of a tree, varada mudra, and a paralu. Her tutelary deity, Pärsvanatha is found depicted in yogasana pose at the top with the canopy of a seven hooded snake over head. Chauri bearers and the flying figures with garlands flank the Tirthankara near the pedestal and at the top respectively. The Sasanadevi is lavishly furnished with decorative ornaments like girdle, necklace, armlets, anklets, bangles and earrings. She has been given a coat of lime wash by the people attached to the temple. Loose figures of Padmavati are extremely rare in occurrence in Orissa.
Standing in picturesque isolation in the midst of shrub forest (at the foot of Panagiri hill) in Koraput district is a Jaina monument near the village Suai (Fig. 112) within an oval enclosure with a low wall all around is a series, of some ten small shrines, but the entire site is much damaged and only two of the shrines are still standing. It would appear that each was a triratha structure with a low tower topped with an amalaka. The shrines contain slabs carved with Jaina Tirthankara and Sasanadevi figures with identifying marks immediately below their thrones. Unfortunately all the images are highly weather beaten and outlines are blurred. From the entire hoard two slabs depict the figures of Chakreśvari and Rohini, the Sasanadevis of Rṣabhanatha and
44. O. Malley (Ed.), Bengal District Gazetteer, Singbhum Sareikela and Kharsuan. 1910, p. 25. 45. O. Malley, Bengal District Gazetteer, Singhbhum, Sareikela and Kharsuan, 1910, p. 25,

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Ajitanātha respectively and one, the figure of Tirthankara Mahāvira. Rest nine images belong to Rşabhanātha. From the predominance of Rşabha figures it can well be presumed that the site was dedicated to Rşabhanātha. This Jaina monument was constructed before A.D. 750 as reported by V. Dahejia.46 But from iconographic considerations of the Jaina Tirthankara and Sasanadevi figures available at the site, a later date can be ascribed to these temples. An account of the figures is given below.
1. Rşabhanātha
The first figure we encounter at the place is of Tirthankara Rşabhanātha affixed to the outer wall near the entrance to the premises. It is carved seated in yogāsana pose with all the other twenty-three Tirthankaras on the sides. A four handed image of Chakreśvari, the Sāsanadevi and bull, the lanchana of Rşabhanātha are found below the pedestal. A devotee in añjalihasta depicted to the left. Chauri bearers are not traced near the pedestal. Two figures mounted on elephants, trilinear umbrella surmounted by the kevala tree and the oval halo are envisaged in the upper part of the slab. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in matted locks, a few strands of which are falling on the shoulders. Gandharvas playing with musical instruments and auspicious mark on chest are not available. The slab is damaged into two pieces and extensively covered with moss and lichen. It measures 0.80m x 0.46m in all.
2. Rşabhanātha
The second Rşabhanātha image is kept to the left of the inner wall after we enter the premises. It is carved seated in yogāsana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by lions in each corner. Bull, as the mark of cognizance, and Chakreśvarī as the Sasanadevi are carved below the lion throne. The four handed seated Chakreśvari figure displays disc in upper and varada mudră in the lower two hands. Yakşa Gomukha and a devotee in kneeling posture are also found depicted in the pedestal. The two chauri bearers are noticed in standing posture over the pedestal of which the one on the right is damaged. The circular Prabhāmandala, behind the head is finished with lotus petals enclosed by a beaded bord er. Hairs on the head are arranged in jață. The trilinear umbrella too is decoarted along with its staff and top knob. Branches of the kevala tree are depicted above the sacred umbrella. Flying Gandharvas with garlands are hovering in sky. The representation of elephants on the two top corners is a noteworthy feature of this image. Musical instruments played in palms are conspicuous in their absence, a portion of the slab from the top along with one elephant and one flying figure is damaged and missing. It measures 0.85m x 0.57m.
3. Rşabhanātha
The third figure of Rşabhanātha is kept in a separate broken shrine near the second. It too, is carved seated in yogāsana pose on a plain lion throne below which its
46.
V. Dahejia, Early stone Temples of Orissa, p. 103.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa lāñchana the bull and an eight armed Chakreśvari seated on Garuda as Śäsanadevi are depicted. A series of devotees in kneeling posture and añjalihasta are also noticed in the pedestal. The two chauri bearers, standing over the throne are ready to serve the Tirthankara. Representation of elephants and flying figures with garlands flank the image at the top. Heavenly music produced through beating drum or cymbals is not provided. Major parts of the trilinear umbrella surmounted by the kevala tree are damaged leaving a faint trace at the top. A portion of the slab from the top is also damaged and missing. The whole figure is profusely covered with moss and lichen being kept in the open. It measures 1.20m x 0.72m in all. The hairs on the head are arranged in jała, a few strands of which are falling on the shoulders. 4. Rşabhanātha (Fig. 113)
The fourth figure of Rşabhanātha is kept close to the third in an open shrine. The image carved seated in yogāsana pose on a plain lion throne below which bull as the lañchana is visible. A four armed Chakreśvari, seated on Garuda and displaying discs in upper hands and varada in lower palms is envisaged for the Tirthankara in front of the bull along with Gomukha yakşa and kneeling devotees in añjali hasta. The two chauri bearers are cbserved in the attitude of serving the Tirthankara. The chauri bearer of the right side holds a champak flower. The halo behind head is decorated with lotus petals bordered by beaded chains. Trivāli on the neck is distinctly visible. Flying Gandharvas with garlands and elephants are represented on both sides of the figure at the top. The trilinear umbrella with a well decorated knob at the centre and branches of kevala tree spreading on the sides is depicted over head. A portion of the right knee of the Tirthankara is damaged. It withstood the ravages of nature as it is fashioned in hard chlorite stone. It measures 0.97m x 58m in all. Music is produced through beating a drum above the umbrella.
5. Mahāvīra (Fig. 114)
The fifth image of the series, is the figure of Mahāvira kept next to Rşabhanatha referred urder No. 4. It is carved seated in yogāsana pose on a throne supported by lions. Below the lion throne are notieed the lāñchana (lion), four handed Sasanadevi, Sidhāyika and devotees in kneeling posture and añjali hasta. The Sasanadevi seated cross legged displays varada, a circular object, parasu (battle axe) aud shula (spear) in its four hands. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in curled knots. Chauri bearers are in attendance on the two sides. An auspicious Srivatsa mark is noticed on the chest of this figure. The circular halo behind head is very elegantly decorated with lotus petals enclosed in beaded borders. The sacred umbrella too, over head is shown, with its staff and ribbed top knob surmounted by the branches of the kevala tree. In addition, hands beating a drum, flying Gandharvas with garlands and representation of elephants are all envisaged at the top of the slab. It measures 0.80m x 0.45m in all.
6. Chakreśvarī
The next figure of the series is Chakreśvari found half buried under earth inside a separate shrine. It is carved seated with sixteen hands displaying mace, sword, trident,

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disc, bow, pot, etc. in the right and spear, shield, arrow, dagger a conical object, etc. in the left. Attributes in other hands are damaged and missing. The crown over head is fashioned in conical shape and the decorative Prabhamandala behind designed in circular form. The figure of Tirthankara, Rṣabhanatha and the eight planets seated in yogasana pose in a row, are noticed above. The mark of cognizance could not be traced as the portion still remains under debris.
7. Rṣabhanatha
The seventh figure of the group is again Rṣabhanatha seated in yogasana pose on a plain pedestal supported by lions. Below the pedestal are found bull, the lanchana of the Tirthankara and a four handed figure of Chakrasvari as its Sasanadevi. Seated on Garuda She displays two discs and varada mudra in her hands. Yakṣa Gomukha is seated close to the Sasanadevi in the right and a female devotee in kneeling position and anjali hasta to the left. Chauri bearers are standing on the two sides. The figure to the left holds a champak flower in its left hand. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in jața a few strands of which are running up to the shoulders. The auspicious Śrivatsa mark is noticed on the chest. The circular halo behind head is fashioned in lotus petals. The trilinear umbrella attached to the pole is visible above the head with a ribbed knob at the centre. The drum kept above the kevala tree is played in hands of the invisible Gandharvas. Representation of elephants and flying Vidyadharas with garlands are noticed on both sides of the slab at the top. The front part of the umbrella is broken. The image measures 0.74mx 0.45m.
8. Rṣabhanatha (Fig. 115)
The eighth image of the hoard is also of Tirthankara Rṣabhanatha seated in yogasana pose on a pedestal supported by lions. A figure of six armed Chakreśvari on Garuda is seen near the bull below pedestal. In addition, Yakṣa Gomukha and a female devotee in kneeling posture and anjalimudra are carved in the pedestal. Chauri bearers appear to be in readiness to serve the Tirthankara. Of the six hands of Chakreśvari, two are shown with discs, and the rest four with varada, abhaya, shield and sword. The Prabhāmandala behind head of the Tirthankara is decorated with lotus petals and diamond shap ed designs. Hairs on the head are arranged in jata, a few strands of which fall on the shoulders. Trilinear umbrella attached to a staff with ribbed knob at top is surmounted by the branches of the kevala tree. Flying Vidyadharas with garlands and elephants are noticed on the top corners. The drum placed above the kevala tree is played by hands of invisible Gandharvas. This image for the present is kept inside the temple available in good condition at the site. It measures 0.98mx0.62m in all and is in good state of preservation.
9. Rṣabhanätha
The next Rṣabhanatha image of the group is carved seated in meditative pose on a pedestal supported by lions. Its lanchana, the bull is carved along with the four armed Chakreśvari, the Sasanadevi of the Tirthankara below the pedestal. A set of four devo

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tees in kneeling pose and anjali hasta flank the bull in the pedestal. The Sasanadevi is carved seated on Garuda, her vehicle. She displays discs in two of her hands, varada in one and in the last an object which is not easily recognisable. The chauri bearers are standing straight instead of bending to one side or in cross legged position. Chauris in their hands are not traceable. They put their right hands across their waist regions and allow the left hands to rest on respective thighs. Flying Gandharvas with garlands, elephants, kevala tree, trilinear umbrella and trivali in the neck are shown as in other Rsabhanatha figures of the place. Its hairs are arranged in matted locks. Lotus petals. project around the circular halo. It measures 0.91mx 0.25m in all and partially eroded due to heavy growth of moss and lichen.
10. Bṣabhanatha (Fig. 116)
The next figure in the series is of Rsubhanatha carved seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by lions in the front. His läichana, the bull, and Chakreśsvart as Sasanadevi are found below pedestal along with devotees. She is seated on Garuda. Her four hands display discs in the upper and varada in the lower. The two chauri bearers and twenty-three other Tirthankara figures are carved seated along sides of Rṣabha. The twenty-three Tirthankaras surrounding Bṣabhanatha are provided with their conventional lanchanas below respective pedestals. The auspicious mark(?) is marked over chest. He is provided with the cliptical decorative halo, kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, drum played in hands, fiying figures with garlands and representation of elephants like other Rsabha images of the place. The flying figures with garlands, instead of depicted in the top row, are noticed at his shoulder level. This image measuring 1mx 0.55m is kept for the time being in another half broken shrine. Hairs on his head are arranged in jață, a few locks of which are observed falling on his broad shoulders.
11. Rohini
As noted earlier, the second Sasanadevt of the place is the figure of Rohint carved seated in Padmasana (cross legged) on a lotus pedestal supportedby lions. She is associated with Ajitanatha,the second Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon. Similar Rohini images with differing attributes are noticed in the cave No.8 of Khandagiri hill of Orissa. Her twelve hands display vajra, sword, disc, arrow in the right and vessel, shield, bell, tridandt, bow in the left, one of her right hands is broken and the rest two kept palm over palm, a feature associated with her sitting posture. Her Tirthankara, Ajitanitha in yogasana pose with elephant as lañchana and chaur? bearers, is depicted on the top. The Tirthankara image is also provided with a trilinear umbrella over head flanked by flying figures with garlands. The kevala tree spreads its leaves on both sides of the umbrella. Rohini is profusely decked with rich ornaments and costume like crowning mukula (in conical shape) set with jewels, multi-stranded necklace fitted with lecket, armicts, bangles, (vehichudi), earrings, girdle with central locket and sacred thread (upavita). She is also provided with circular halo lavishly descorated with lotus petals enclosed by beaded borders. A series of devotees in kneeling pose and anjali hasta are seen below her pedestal. The slab including pedestal measures 0.92m x 0.52m.

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12. Rşabhanātha
The last image of the site also represents the Tirthařkara Rşabhanātha seated in meditative pose on a plain pedestal supported by lions. Its lanchana, the bull depicted near the four armed Chakreśvari, ihe Sasanadevi of Rsabhanātha. She displays in her four hands contrary to others of the place a disc, a mace, varda and a pot. She sits on her vehicle, the Garuda and profusely decked with ornaments. The circular halo behind head of the Tirthankara is decorated with lotus petals and beaded borders. The chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella, kerala tree, drum played in hands, devotees in kneeling position, flying Gandharvas with garlands and elephants are all represented in this image as they are available with the other Rşabhanātha figures of the place. Its hairs are arranged in jața a few strands of which noticed on the shoulders. This figure is kept in the open and damaged in the face. It measures 0.88m X 0.52m in all and extensively covered with moss and lichen.
At a short distance from this place is traced another Rşabhanātha image in a badly ruined shrine, the stones of which up to the foundation are removed. One has to walk down the distance through paddy fields and barren land to reach the place. Shrubs have grown round the foundation. The only image of the site is kept in the centre of the broken shrine. From this stray find it is presumed that several such shrines were located in the area in the past and their establishment within the enclosure of the Suai temple may be due to their occurrei.ce in the neighbourhood. It may just can be inferred that the two temples found in dilapidated condition may have been constructed originally in that place and the other miniature shrines preserving Jaina relics in the same premises were later additions. Jain a relics from the neighbourhood were collected and preserved in these shrines in a subsequent date.
The Rşabhanātha image noted above is carved seated in yogasana pose on a plain pedestal supported by a lion in each corner. The Sāsanadevi, Chakreśvari seated on Garuda and bull as lāñchana are noticed below pedestal flanked by devotees in añjali hasta and Yaksa Gomukha. She displays in her four hands discs, varada and a vessel. One of the two chauri bearers on the pedestal holds a champak flower in the left hand. The decorative circular halo, kevala trce, trilincar umbrella, drum played in hands, elephants and flying figures with garlands are the other features available with the Tirthankara. Hairs on the head are arranged in jaļā, a few locks of which are seen falling on the shoulders. The figure is badly damaged at the face. It measures 0.87m x 0.52m in all.
Kachela, a village of the Pattangi Taluk on the southern bank of the river Kolab was once a stronghold of Jaina activity. It is 10 k.m. from Bhaghara water falls and some 15 k.m. from Koraput, the Headquarters of the district of the same name. About a furlong to the south of the village under the foot of the Deo Donger hill are noticed the ruins of a stone temple containing six extremely beautiful Jaina relics within its premises (ästhäna mandapa). The temple while standing measured some 30' X 10' as reported by G.Ramdas.47 In his article on the Kachela copper plate grant of Krishnadeva he makes
47. 6. Ramadas, JAHRS Vol. VI, pp. 8-14.

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a brief reference to the Jaina temple and the images. But his indentifications are doubtful especially in cases of the figures of Gomedha Yaksa and Ambikā carved in a common slab and that of Ambikā in an independent stone piece.
The Paraja tribe of people who reside in the village visit the place on festive occasions and even offer animal sacrifices. Brcken parts of terracotta lamps and plates are lying scattered near the shrine. The four Tirthankara images are kept in open amidst growth of bushes. But the slabs containing Yakşa-Yakşini and Ambikā are found within the dilapidated sanctum of the temple. The temple walls up to a height of five to six feet are noticed on three sides only. A huge tree emerged in the middle of the temple and it is understood from the villagers that they recovered the Ambikā image of the place with great difficulty from the trunk of that tree. Dressed stones and sculptured fragments are found scattered here and there. The area is likely to be submerged in the proposed Kolab Dam project. The villagers further informed that stones for the temple were originally bought from a place located some two k.m. away from this place where also some dressed stones are still lying.
This group of sculptures has artistic and iconographic affinity with the sculptures of Suai, discussed earlier. An account of these sculptures is given below.
1. Rşabhanātha
The first sculpture encountered at this place is the figure of Rşabhanātha carved seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by rampant lions facing opposite directions. The four armed Chakreśvari is found carved along with bull, devotees and Gomukha in the pedestal. She displays in her four hands two discs, a vessel and varada mudrā. The trilinear umbrella above head projects forward with beaded borders in front of the tiers. Chauri bearers are standing on the sides. The thick border of the circular halo is marked with diamond shaped designs with intervening lotus medallions. Flying figures with garlands, representations of elephants and the kevala tree are all envisaged at the top. The slab containing the figure measures 1.10m x 0.56m in all. The chauri bearers and the figure of Chakreśvari are decked with rich apparels. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in jață as usual. 2. Sântinātha (Fig.117)
The second figure of the site is of Sāntinātha, carved standing in kāyotsarga pose with hands kept apart from the thighs instead of touching them through figures. Deer, as symbol of the Tirthankara, is traced with great difficulty as the pedestal with the figures in its lower part is embedded in earth. The two chauri bearers are in the service of the Tirthankara. Eight planets are fourd seated on separate lotus pedestals displaying pot of nectar and rosary in hands except Surya who displays lolus in both hands. Flying figures with garlands, elephants, circular halo designed in lotus petals and enclosed by beaded borders, trilinear umbrella fronted by lotus petals and the Kevala tree spreading its branches are all envisaged with the Tirthankara. Hairs on its head are arranged in curled knots, with uşnisa in the centre. The slab including the figure of Tirthankara above ground level measures 1m x 0.52m in all.

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The third image appears to be of Mahavira seated in rogasana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by rampart lions facing opposite directions. Sidhayika, the Sasanadevi and lion, the vehicle of the Tirthankara are all carved below pedestal along with devotees and the figures of Yakja on elephant back. Sidhāyika displays in her four hands, varada in lower two and noose and sword in the upper two as attributes. She is decked with rich costumes and ornaments like those of the figures of the chauri bearers engaged in the service of the Tirthankara above pedestal. The circular halo behind head is formed by lotus petals enclosed within beaded borders. Trivali (flodings) on the neck are distinctly. visible decorative umbrella, in three tiers, Blying Gendharvas with garlands, kerala tree and elephants are noticed above corresponding to the style of other Tirthankaras of the place. Hairs on the head are arranged in curied knots with uşnisa in the centre. The slab including the pedestal measures 0.90 m x 0.45 m. and partially covered with moss and lichen.
4. Ajitanatha and Mahavira (Fig.118)
The next slab of the place contains the twin standing figures of Ajitanatha and Mahavira on individual lotus pedestals displaying their respective lañchanas of elephant and lion, only two chauri bearers serve both the Tirthankaras. In the space between them is carved with a devotee in kneeling position and anjail hasta. The circular haloes behind the head are identically formed of lotus petals enclosed by beaded borders. Trilinear umbrella in both cases are decorated with lotus petal design and ribbed knobs. Kevala trees of the respective Tirthankaras surmount their umbrellas. Flying figures with garlands are hovering in the sky. Hairs on the head of both the Tirthankaras are arranged in curled knots. The slab containing both the figures measure 0.62m x 0.40m.
5. Ambika (Fig. 119)
The most neteworthy figure of the place is Ambika, the Sasanaderi of Neminatha, carved standing on an inverted lotus pedestal displaying a bunch of mangoes in right hand and holding a baby on the left. Another baby standing to the right is anxiously looking to the mangoes. Lion, the vehicle of the deity and a devotee in ajali hasta are carved in front of the female attendands standing over the pedestal on the left and right sides of Ambika respectively. The tree lavishly studded with mangoes is depicted behind her figure. The circular halo behind head is formed of lotus petals. Pillars of a decorative torana with crowning elements seen on her sides. Her Tirthankara, Neminatha is found seated at the top in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal attached with wheels on either sides. He displays kevale tree, umbrella and prabhamanjala behind the head, and is flanked by flying Gandharvas with garlands and chauri bearers.
Her decorative costumes and ornaments are very artistically finished. The drapery in folds run up to the ankles. It is tied with girdle, the loops of which are dangling in front. The multistranded necklace, bangles, the circular ear studs,

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anklets and head ornaments are the other items to decorate her body. The flying Gandharvas, chauri bearers, and the male and female attendants too, are provided with decorative ornaments. The slab containing the figures and the pedestal measures 1m x 0.53m and preserved in good condition. G. Ramadas identifies this image with Hariti of Buddhist pantheon.
6. Gomedha and Ambikā (Fig. 120)
The last Jaina relic of the place is a stone slab depicting seated figures of Yakşa Gomedha and Yakşiņi Ambikā under a tree on a common decorative pedestal. Both of them are provided with thick cushions. Ambikā displays a fruit (mango) in her right hand and left holds a baby. Gomedha, on the other hand resting his left hand on the left thigh, holds an indistinct object in his right hand. Both of them are decked with rich costumes and ornaments. The decorative halo behind Ambikā is in circular form while that of Gomedha in eliptical design. A baby is noticed swinging in between the two figures. Above the tree their Tirthankara is carved in yogāsana pose with usual attributes of chauri bearers, umbrella, kevala tree and flying figures with garlands. Below the common pedestal is seen a two handed female figure in lalitāsana pose on a pedestal flanked by a series of eight devotees with offerings. The female figures in the centre may be the Sasanadevi of Neminātha. A similar Jaina relic is also available in the temple, on the crest of Khandagiri hill. The slab depicting the figures measures 0.53m x 0.28m and preserved in Good condition.
An image of Mahāvira is found embedded to the wall of the Bhairava temple located at the foot of Bhairava hill near village Boriguma of Koraput district. This is a stray find at the place. Extensive ruins of brick structures and a series of silted ancient tanks are found in the neighbourhood. The image in question measures 0.68m x 0.41m and is in sand stone of yellowish colour. It is seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal supported by rampart lions. Lion, the lāñchana of the Tirthankara is traced below the pedestal along with devotees in kneeling position and añjali hasta. The astagrahas are carved in a row in front of the lotus pedestal, a rare style, under whom Sidhayika, the Śāsanadevi of Mahavira is sitting with lotus in one hand and varada mudrā on the other. Of the two chauri bearers, the one standing to the right displays champak flower in its left hand. The kevala tree, sacred umbrella in folds, circular decorative halo, flying Gandharvas with garlands, elephants an.1 drum played through hands are the other most notable features of the Tirthankara. Hairs on the head are arranged in curled knots. Left arm of the image is partially damaged.
Another fragmentary stone piece depicting the upper parts of Gomedha Yakșa and Ambika Yakșini is also found to have been loosely kept in one of the niches of the southern wall of the shrine. The evidence of the tree is found on the slab.
As reported earlier, the Brahmanical shrines at Jeypore preserve in them relics of the Jaina pantheon. The Bhagavati temple built in the early part of the present century has taken the lead in this aspect. It is a modern shrine built of masonry works

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i27
with tinned roof. In the sanctum of the temple, a beautiful sixteen armed Chakreśvari image (fig. 121) is worshipped as Bhagavatî by the local people ignorant of its Jaina affinity. Even animal sacrifices are made to this deity. A brass made lion, as vehicle of Bhagavati, is placed in front of a pillar. A series of Tirthankara images also preserved within niches of the hall in front of the sanctum of the Bhagavati temple. The local people regard them as naked figures of Mahadeva. B.K. Rath48 identified some of them as Santinätha, Ajitanātha, Vimalanātha, the Tirthakaras of Jaina pantheon.
The figure of Chakreśvari is carved seated in padmasana on a multipetalled inverted lotus pedestal. Supported by two rampart lions in two corners. Her vehicle, Garuda seen below pedestal flanked by devotees, one of which is Yakşa Gomukha. She displays in her sixteen hands, swords, damaru, disc rosary, conch, dagger, crescent moon and varda mudra in the right and a conical object (sula?), shield, mace, disc, trident, noose, Vajra and vessel in the left. She has seen provided with a prabhamandala circular in form bordered by beaded designs. The inner section of the same halo close to her head is however enclosed by champak marks. Her Tirthankara, Rşabhanātha is found seated on meditative attitude on a lotus pedestal with conventional attributes of bull chauri bearers, pairs of flying Gandharvas and Kinnaras with garlands, elephants, music played through blowing of conch and bcating of cymbals, circular halo, keval tree and the trilinear umbrella at the top of the Sasanadevi. Hairs on the head of Tirthankara are arranged in matted locks, a few strands of which fall on his shoulders. She had her hair gathered at the top. The rich costume and ornaments add beauty and grace to the figure. The comprise ornaments on the forehead, vāhichudis on each of her hands. necklaces armlets, girdle and upavita. Sixteen armed Chakreśvari figures are extremely rare elsewhere. We, however, noticed another such figure in the Svined Jaina site of Suai of the same Koraput district. The Chakreśvari image of twelve arms found in the Bārabhuji-Gumphā (Cave No. 8) of Khandagiri is worshipped as Turon by the local people. B.K. Rath considering the artistic finish and iconographic features placed this image in the eleventh century A.D. when the assimilation of Brahmanical, Jaina and Buddhist icons took place.
Among the Tirthankara images preserved in the niches of the temple, Santinatha (Fig. 122) attracts the immediate attention. It is carved standing in kāyotsarga pose on
Intus pedestal flanked by the chauri bearers. Deer, his lāñchana is found lying below the pedestai. A pair of seated devotees with offerirgs are depicted on either sides of the Bedestal. The circular halo behind head is formed of lotus petals enclosed by a beaded Chain Two pairs of flying Gandharvas with garlands are hovering in the sky. Representation of elephants at corners and umbrella surmounted by kevala tree over head are the other features of the image.
The next figure of the place is a Tirilankara whose identification is difficult at this stage as the mark of cognizance is not traceabic in the pedestal. The pedestal is supported by two spirited lions in between which, the Sisanadevi of the Tirthankara is
48. B.K. Rath, "An Unique Image of Chakreśwari", OHRI, Vol. XXXIII No. 1/4 pp. 127-30.

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found in seated position. Two devotees in añjali hasta are also depicted in the pedestal. of the two chauri bearers, the one standing to the left of the figure is badly mutilated. A pair of Tirthankara images in meditative attitude seat on either side of the Tirthankara. Among other attributes, the circular halo, kovala tree, trilinear umbrella, representation of elephants and flying Gandharvas with garlands are all cnvisaged at the upper portion of the slab. The figure is damaged partially on the left thigh and in the fingers of both the hands.
The other seated figure of ti e place can be identified with Mahāvīra with great difficulty. He is carved scated in meditative attitude on a pedestal below which the figure of Sidhāyika as Sasanudri of the Tirtharkara is carved in padmasana displaying lotus flower and varada nudra in her hands. A pair of devotees also in seated position flank the Sasarad vi below the pedestal. Among other attributes, the chauri bearers, the circular lotus petalled halo, kovala tree, umbrella, flying figures with garlands and elephants are all represented along with the figure. His hairs on the head are arranged in curled knots. The lanchana, carved below him found to be indistinct.
The last Jaina rclic of the place is a pair of standing Tirthankara figures on a common slab displaying oval haloes and trilinear umbrellas over head. Their lañchanas are not visible in the pedestal.
The Kali temple of Jeypore also preserves one of the very beautifully carved Rşabhanātha images (Fig. 123) in its front apartment among other Brahmanical figures. Rsabha image in question is carved scaled in meditative pose on a well decorated pedestal supported by rampart lions in two of its corners. His Sāsanadevi, Chakreśvari displaying discs and varada mudrā is found seated cn Garuda in between the lions. Yakşa Gomukha is standing to the right of the pedestal. A pair of devotees in kneeling position and Anjali hasta are also depicted to the left. Bull, as lāñchana of the Tirthankara is placed just above the pedestal. Another set of female devotees in sitting posture and folded hands also seen near the two chauri bearers of the respective sides. Auspicious rivaisa mark is noticed on the centre of the broad chest of this Rşabhanātha image. His hair on the head are arranged in matted locks, a few strands of which are falling on his shoulders. The circular halo behind head is having remarkable artistic finish. The inner part of this halo is formed of lctus petals, with beaded border. The outer framework is however decorated with diamond shaped decorative medallions (auspicious Srivatsa mark ?) with intervening champak buds. The trilineor umbrella, attached to a stall over licad, too is lavishly decorated with lotus petals. The top knob of the umbrella is designed in the shape of a temple āmalaka. Pairs of Gandharvas and Apsarās with garlands, elephants and heavenly figures blowing conch are all envisaged along with the kevala tree on ihe upper portion of the slab. The torana designed near his shoulders is attached with elephant heads. The chauri bearers are lavishly decorated. It measures including the pedestal 0.90m x 0.50m x 0.25m.
One more standing Tirihankara image is kept in a thatched shed amidst a group of fragmentary sculptures. This shrine is locally known as Gangadevi temple located

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few yards south of the Kali temple referred to above at Jeypore. The identifying mark of the image could not be traced as the lower portion of the figure is embedded in earth.
Among other objects, three Jaina relics have been collected from the Jeypore palace in the past for the Orissa State Museum. Two of these relics represent Mahavira and one Ambika. The Mahavira image is carved seated in meditative pose on a pedestal supported by lions. The cognizance mark is badly eroded but in difficulty it can be identified as a lion. The two armed Sasanadevi of the Tirthankara is depicted below the pedestal in padmasana. The attributes in her hands are not visible distinctly but they appear like lotus and a vessel. The pedestal is flanked on either sides by devotees in kneeling position and folded hands. The chauri bearers are noticed on the sides of the Tirthankara as usual. Among other attributes, the circular lotus petalled halo, trilinear umbrella, surmounted by kevala tree, flying Gandharvas and Apsards with garlands, elephants are all depicted along with the figure. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in curled knots. It measures including the pedestal some 0.46m x 0.24m ×0.13m.
The second Tirthankara image of the place can with difficulty be identified as Mahavira. It measures 0.37mx 0.24mx 0.9m and is carved seated in the same yogasana pose on a plain pedestal supported by lions on the corners. Eight planets in a row like that of Mahavira image of Borigumma are found depicted in front of the pedestal. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in curled knots. Lion, the läñchana of the Tirthankara is badly eroded. His Sasanadevi found depicted in the centre of the pedestal along with devotees on either corners. One of the two chauri bearers displays champak flower in hand in addition, contrary to the usual fashion of resting on the thigh. The Tirthankara is represented with a circular lotus petalled halo, trilinear umbrella, surmounted by kevala tree, flying figures with garlands and elephants as the other customary attributes. A portion of the decorative umbrella in front is damaged and missing.
The third figure of the series represents Goddess Ambika, the Sasanadest of Neminatha. It is carved seated in lalitasana on a pedestal supported by her läñichana, the bull. She displays in her right hand a bunch of mangoes and holding a baby on the left. The tree behind her is studded with mangoes. Her Tirthankara is found seated at the top flanked by flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands. Another male baby. is standing to the right of Ambika near the pedestal is covetously looking towards the bunch of mangoes held in her hand. The figure of Ambika is badly damaged at the face.
As reported earlier, the district Muscum at Jeypore preserves some thirty-four pieces of Jaina sculptures. They include, twenty-one from B. Singpur, two from Charmula, two from Korapat, seven from Jamunda and two from Kamta.
The author of the Orissa District Gazetteer, Koraput gives the following observation on the Jaina relics of B. Singpur and its neighbouring sites.
49. R.C.S. Bell, 1945, p. 120.

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The village (B. Singpur) appears to have been once a centre of Jainism. Numerous Jaina Tirthankara images ranging from a foot to five feet in height have been found in its neighbourhood. One such image of a seated Rşabhanātha, which is made of steatite slab, is now worshipped in a thatched temple and is in a well preserved state. Another, which is kept in the Jagannātha temple is used by the villagers for sharpening their axes. A number of Jaina images have been built into the walls of the Siva temple which stands at the foot of the hills. Similar images are to be found in the villages of Charmula and Narigaon within a distance of four or five miles of Singpur.
It is also reported in a news item published in daily "The Hindustan Standard" regarding the Jaina sculptures of Koraput district that the Sarpanch of Jamunda village has kept another five images in an improvised temple with a thatched roof built by local Adivasis.50
Ruins of temples have also been discovered at Pakniguda and Katharaguda villages in the interior of Boriguma Block. “Päkni" in the local language stands for stone and Gudā" means village.
The local Adivasis offer sacrifices before these images and hold a special ceremony once a year on a Friday. Goats are scrificed at the ceremony.
According to the Sarapanch of the Jamunda village there are a number of caves in the nearby hill ranges where much bigger stone images are hidden.
Scholars and archaeologists are intrigued alike about these discoveries as this part of Orissa which was not known to be a seat of Jainism.
Now coming to the Jaina relics of B. Singpur, in the District Museum at Jeypore we notice from among the twenty-one sculptures, six are of Rşabanātha, one each of Pārsvanātha, Ajitanātha and Mahāvīra, five of Tirthankara figures whose indentification is difficult and seven belong to the class of Yaksa and Yaksinis especially of Gomedha and Ambikā carved either jointly seated on a common pedestal or alone standing or seated on a lotus pedestal.
The first figure of Rşabhanātha (Fig. 124) from B. Singpur (D.M. 9) is seated in Yogasana pose on a pedestal supported by lions in the centre of which his Sasanadevi Chakreśvari with four hands is found seated on Garuda, her vehicle. The attributes in her hands are indistinct. Bull, a lañchana of the Tirthankara is found depicted on the pedestal. Ysk$a Gomukha to the right of the figure and female devotees to the left are also found on the pedestal. The chauri bearers are engaged in the service of the Tirthankara. His hairs over head are arranged in Jatās, a few strands of which seen falling on his broad shoulders. The oval shaped multipetalled halo, kevala tree, flying figures with garlands and umbrella in three folds are all envisaged at the top. Various decorative
50. "The Hindustan Standard", dated 26.6.76, Dak Edition.

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motifs fill up the vacant space along side the Tirthankara. The chaur bearers are damaged in their hands. A portion from the right of the slab containing the flying figure and front part of the umbrella are damaged and missing, legs including the fingers of the Tirthankara image appears to be disproportionate in representation of anatomical features. Including the pedestal, it measures 0.60mx 0.32m x 0.15m.
The second image of Rsabhanatha (D.M. 14) (Fig. 125) from this place seated in yogasana pose broadly displays the features of the first described above except, however, in the representation of elephants, music produced through instruments, decorative ornaments on the body of the chauri bearers, flying figures, and attributes in hands of the Sasanadevi, Chakreswari seated on Garuda. Yaksha Gomukha and devotees are carved in the pedestal along with his lachana the bull. The figure is damaged at the face and measures including the pedestal 0.58m x 0.28mx0.10m. The kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, oval halo behind head, lion throne, hairs over head in jață are all available along with the image.
The third figure of Rsabhanatha of B. Singpur (D.M. 25) is also found seated in yogasana pose on a throne supported by spirited lions, the heads of whom are severely damaged. His Sasanadevt, Chakreśvart in four hands found below the lion throne. Bull, as lanchana of the Tirthankara is not traceable in the pedestal nor the figure of Gomukha. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in jata of which few rolls seen over the shoulders. The halo decorated in a series of lotus flowers is carved in circular form. Flying figures with trilinear umbrella, chauri bearers and devotees in folded hands are all envisaged along with the Tirthankara. It measures 0.40m x 0.50m x0.10m and damaged in the face.
The fourth Rsabhanätha image (D.M. 36) carved standing in kayotsarga pose on a lotus pedestal flanked by chauri bearers. His lanchana, bull is not visible in the pedestal but the matted locks of hair running over the shoulders, the other mark of cognizance of all Ṛsabhanatha figures are distinctly visible. On the two sides of the pedestal are depicted male and female devotees. The circular halo behind head of Tirthankara is decorated with lotus petals. The kerala tree, trilinear umbrella, and flying Gandharvas with garlands in hand are badly disfigured. This piece measures 0.57mx 0.30mx 0.9m.
The fifth Rsabhanatha image from B. Singpur (D.M.64) (Fig. 126) is crudely finished and devoid of the significant features of a Jaina Tirthankara. It is carved seated in meditative pose on a pedestal. Bull, its lanchana, is depicted in the pedestal. Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in matted locks, a few strands of which seen falling on the shoulders. The chauri bearers, kevala tree, umbrella, flying figures, devotees, Sasanadevt, etc. are not envisaged in this figure. Face of the image is partially damaged. It measures 0.72m X 0.44m x 0.20m and shows disproportionate anatomical features.
The last one, of the group of six Rṣabhanatha figures, (D.M. 12/47) is available in its upper parts only. The lower part from the knee including the pedestal is damaged

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and missing. But the halo in circular form, the kevala tree and the sacred umbrella are all visible along side the figure at the top. The hairs on his head are arranged in jață of which a few strands seen rolling on the shoulders.
The image of Mahāvira (Fig. 127) from B. Singpur is carved seated in yogāsana pose on a throne supported by lions below which Sidhāyikā, the Sasanadevi seated on lotus pedestal is depicted holding parašu and khadga in her upper and displaying varadamudrā in the lower two hands. Lion, the lañchana of Mahāvīra is carved in the pedestal. The Yaksa to the right is shown with Dharma chakra whereas the female devotee to the left is kneeling with folded hands. The two chauri bearers are noticed on the sides of the Tirthankara. Kevala tree surmounting the trilinear umbrella, halo profusely decorated with lotus petals and beaded borders, flying figures with garlands and elephants are all carved in the upper part of the figure. Hairs on his head are arranged in curled locks. The makara torana motif is faintly traced above the chauri bearers. Face and right hand of the Tirthankara are damaged. A portion from the top containing the representation of elephant and flying figure of the right side is also damaged and missing. It measures 0.54m x 0.32m x 0.12m.
The lower part of the image of Ajitanātha (D.M. 6) carved seated on a pedestal supported by lions is found along the hoard of Jaina sculptures from B. Singpur. Below the pedestal is seen his Sāsanadevi displaying attributes in six of her hands and flanked by a series of devotees seated in cross legs and kneeling position. Chauri bearers on either sides of the Tirthankara are partially visible. The fragment measures some 0.35m x 0.35m x 0.16m.
The image of Pārsvanātha (Fig. 128) of the series (D.M. 10) is carved seated in meditative attitude on a plain pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake is found over his head. The other common attributes of a Tirthankara are also envisaged in this figure. Face of the figure is partially damaged. It measures 0.25 m X 0.15m x 0.10m.
Some five figures from the hoard are named Tirthankaras in view of the fact, that the lanchanas below or above their pedestals are either damaged or not carved at all. In some cases they are found in fragments only.
The first of the set is standing on a lotus pedestal with mutilated hands, legs and face. The conventional lāñchana of the Tīrthankara is missing. Devotees in kneeling pose and folded hands are found in the pedestal. The chauri bearers, three tiered umbrella, kevala tree, flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands, elephants and a decorative oval halo are all envisaged along with the Tirthankara. The other noteworthy feature of this image is the depiction of Gajasimha motifs below which also seated devotees are found at the back. It measures 1.38m x 0.60m X 0.25m.
The next fragment (D.M. 15) of a Jaina image is found depicted the head of the flying figure and an elephant with its rider evidently forming the upper part of Tirthankara. The piece measures 0.17m x 0.12m x 0.10m.

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The other one of the series (D.M. 27) is a headless Tirthankara seated in meditative pose on a pedestal supported by lions. In the centre of the pedestal is carved the Sasanadevi figure seated in padmasana. Other elements at the top along with the chauri bearer of the left side are damaged and missing. Läñchana of the Tirthankara is not traced in the pedestal. It measures in the available portion some 0.32m x 0.24m ×0.10m.
The fourth fragment depicts the upper part of a Tirthankara. Its lower part below the chest is damaged and missing. The circular halo behind head is executed in lotus petals and beaded borders. The umbrella surmounted by kevala tree and flanked by flying figures with garlands is depicted at the top. The chauri bearer of the left side though badly affected is traced only in out line. The decorative staff of the umbrella is visible behind head. The available part of this figure measuring 0.34m x 0.33m x 0.10m appears to be disproportionate in anatomical details.
The last relic of the place (D.M. 55) whose identification somewhat difficult is a seated Tirthankara image with a circular halo behind head. The kevala tree and the umbrella are envisaged at the top. A crack has developed in the halo. In view of the faint trace of matted locks of hair on the head it can be tentatively identified with Rṣabhanatha.
The other seven sculptures from B. Singpur are of Yaksas and Yakṣinīs more possible of Ambika and Gomedha, the two reverently associated with Neminatha. Ambika is either carved independently or in common with Gomedha. But in either case the figure of Neminatha is distinctly visible at the top.
The first sculpture of this group (D.M. 5) is identified with Ambika (Fig. 129). She is carved standing on a lotus pedestal to the left of which her mount, the lion is found along with two other attendant figures. In her two hands she holds the baby on the left and displays a bunch of mar goes on her right to which two more babies on the right are anxiously looking for. The mango tree seen behind her is laden with leaves. Above the tree, Neminatha, her Tirthankara, is found depicted in meditative pose with chaurl bearers, flying figures with garlands. She is lavishly decorated with necklace, girdle, earring, bangles, bracelets and her hairs arranged in plaits. The figure damaged at the hip, legs and fingers, is measured 1.5mx 0.52m x 0.25m.
The second piece (D.M. 7) depicts the figures of Yaksa Gomedha and Yakşini Ambika (Fig. 130) seated on a common slab below which, lion, her lanchana and two seated devotees are found. She holds the baby on her left lap whereas she displays mango in the right. A decorative circular halo is found behind her head. The mango tree laden with leaves and fruits is providing shade to both the Yakşa and Yakşiņi. Neminatha, their tutelary Tirthankara, is seated in yogasana pose on a pedestal above the tree flanked by chauri bearers and flying Gandharvas with garlands. A portion of the slab including the figure of Yakça Gomedha is damaged and missing. The entire piece measures 0.47mx 0.17mx 0.6m.

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The third piece (D.M.16) again depicts the upper parts of the figures of Yakşa Gomedha and Yakşini Ambika seated on a common pedestal below a mango tree. Their Tirthankara is found depicted in yogasana above the tree flanked by flying figures with garlands. This broken piece measures 0.14mx 0.18mx0.8m.
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The fourth slab (D.M. 20) of this group top, depicts images of Yakça Gomedha and Yakşini Ambika (Fig.131) seated on a common pedestal below which a series of devotees in kneeling pose and anjali hasta are found along with offerings. She displays a bunch of mangoes in her right hand and holds the baby on the left lap. Neminatha, their revered Tirthankara is found seated in yagasana pose above the mango tree. He is flanked by flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands. Lion, the vehicle of Ambika, is missing in the damaged part of the pedestal. A circular decorative halo is seen behind. head of each these figures. The entire slab including the pedestal measures 0.32m x 0.21mx0.7m.
The fifth piece of sculpture (D.M.21) of this series is another individual figure of Ambika (Fig.132) carved standing on a pedestal behind a mango tree laden with fruits and leaves. She displays a bunch of mangoes in her right hand and holds the baby on her left. Her lañchana, the lion is found depicted below the pedestal. Two babies standing to the right of Ambika are seen plucking mangoes and a lady on her left looks prominently. Her Tirthankara, Neminatha is seen above with chaur! bearers and flying figures with garlands in their hands. She is profusely decorated with ornaments, like necklace, ear-studs, bangles and armlets and damaged near the chest, the baby on the lap and fingers of the legs.
The sixth slab (D.M.22) depicts again the figures of Yakşa Gomedha and Yakşini Ambika on a common pedestal behind the mango tree. Ambika is holding the baby on her left lap whereas her right hand is damaged. Both the images are badly damaged at their faces. Right hand of Gomedha is also damaged and missing. A series of devotees are depicted below the pedestal from which the male figure is seated in mahirajalila in the centre and the six ladies in kneeling pose, and anjali hasta. Tirthankara Neminatha is visible, seated in yogasana pose above the tree. He is flanked by flying figures with garlands in hands. A female figure standing at the left looks passionately towards the figures. The entire slab including the pedestal and the figure of Neminatha measures 0.30m x 0.20mx 0.10m.
The description of last pair (D.M.23) of Yaksa and Yakşini figures agree almost with the one noted above except that is Ambikä seated to the right holding the baby in her right and an indistinct object in her left hand (very likely mangoes). Left legs of both the figures are raised while right ones are stretched on the pedestal. Gomedha is also found holding a similar object in his left hand. Both the figures are provided with decorative prabhamandalas (haloes) behind their heads. Tirthankara, Neminatha is found seated above the tree planted behind the figures of Yaksa and Yakşiņi. He is flanked by the conventional chauri bearers and flying figures with garlands. Seven devotees including a male are found depicted below the pedestal, the ladies being in kneeling pose and

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añjali mudră. The slab containing the above figures measures 0.21 m X 0.14m x 0.4m and is in comparatively good state of preservation.
The two Jaina relics brought from Charamula consists of the images of Pārsvanātha and Rşabhanātha. The figure of Pārsvanātha (D.M.1) is carved standing on a lotus pedestal in kayotsarga pose. A canopy of seven hoods snake found above head. The coils of the snake are gathered behind the Tirthankara. A series of devotees in añjali mudrā are seen below pedestal. The two chauri bearers and a few other devotees are also carved above the pedestal. The kevala tree, trilinear umbrella and flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands are all envisaged in the upper part of the slab. The figure is partially damaged in its face, legs and hands. The decorative elements and devotees also mutilated to a greater extent. It measures 1.43m x 0.60m x 0.20m.
The figure of Rşabhanātha of Charmula (D.M.54) (Fig.133) is lavishly decorated with various iconographic features of a Jaina Tirthankara. It is carvad seated in Yogasana pose on a plain pedestal supported by lions mounted on elephants. Chakreśvari is carved below the pedestal mounted on Garuda her conventional vehicle. A series of eight devotees including Yakşa Gomukha are noticed on the pedestal. The two chauri bearers though badly damaged are standing on both sides of the Tirthankara. Vacant space around the image is filled with Gandharvas and Kinnaras playing with musical instruments. Bull, as lañchana of the Tirthankara is visible in the pedestal. Hairs on his head are arranged in jata, a few strands of which seen falling on the shoulders. An eliptical halo formed of lotus petals and encircled by beaded borders is provided as prabhāmandala of Rsabhanatha. The kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, Gandharvas and Apsarās with garlands and heavenly figures mounted on elephants are all envisaged at the top of the Tirthankara. The figure is damaged on various parts of the body including the face. It measures including the pedestal some 0.90m x 0.44m X 0.19m.
Two Jaina relics of Tirth ankara Rşabhanātha were brought from a place Kotapat and preserved in this museum. The first Rşabhanātha image (D.M.24) of this place is carved seated in meditative attitude on a pedestal supported by rampart lions. The figure of Chakreśvari is noticed in between the lions supporting the throne. Lanchana, bull is carved over pedestal surrounded by a series of devotees seated in añjali hasta with offerings. Chauri bearers are found in attendance of the Tirthankara. The circular halo behind head is formed of lotus petals and encircled with beaded borders. The kevaļa tree, umbrella in three folds and flying figures with garlands are all carved above the Tirthankara. Hands, legs and face of the Tirthankara and the kevala tree, flying figures and chauri bearers are partially mutilated. The entire piece of sculpture measures 0.75m x 0.40m x 0.18m.
The second Rşabhanātha image from Kotpat (D.M.41) (Fig.134) too is richly carved. It is found carved in yogasana pose on a pedestal supported by lions at each corner. A four handed Chakreśvari mounted on Garuda is placed below the pedestal flanked by devotees. The two chauri bearers standing on the sides are provided with eliptical haloes behind their heads. Elephant motifs are carved on either sides near which devotees in

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kneeling position and folded hands are seen offering ovation to the deity. Hairs on his head are arranged in matted locks, a few rolls of which run up to the shoulders. His lañchana, the bull is carved on the pedestal. The umbrella, surmounted by the kevala tree and flanked by flying figures with garlands and elephants are the other essential attributes of this Tirthankara figure. The halo behind the head is decorated with lotus petals and beaded borders. A series of heavenly figures playing with musical instrument are hovering in the sky. The image is damaged in the legs and hands and measures including the pedestal 0.98m x 0.51m x 0.16m.
From Jamurda seven Jaina sculptures have been collected for the present and it is indicated earlier that a few are still available in the site. From the seven three are Rşabhanātha, two of Pārsvanātha, one of Mahavira and rest one is the figure of a Tirthankara whose identification becomes difficult at this stage.
The first Rşabhanātha figure of this place (D.M.8) is conceived seated in meditative attitude on a plain pedestal with bull as lāñchana, hair arranged in Jala, kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, chaurt bearers, flying figures and the twenty-three other Tirthankaras in yogasana carved around it. The figure of seated Pārsvanātha is shown with a three hooded snake instead of the conventional seven hooded snake. The Sasanadevi of the Tirthankara is noticed below the pedestal. Matted locks of his hair are falling on the shoulders. Three of the seated Tirthankara figures from the top are badly mutilated so also the face of Rşabhanātha, the mulanāyaka. The entire piece measures 0.42m x 0.27m x 0.12m.
The second Rşabhanātha image is also conceived seated in yogāsana pose on a pedestal supported by lions below which Chakreśvari, his Sāsanadevi is found depicted displaying attributes in her four hands of which two discs are only recognizable. She is seated cross legged on (a double petalled lotus pedestal with both male and female devotees. Among other features, bull as lañchana, chauri bearers, decorative circular halo, flying figure with garlands, kevaļa tree, elephants, sacred umbrella and music played by Gandharvas and Kinnaras are all envisaged along with the image. Face and both the legs of the Tirthankara and upper part of the chauri bearer standing to its right are badly mutilated. The halo is decorated with lotus petals and borders by a series of beads. The slab depicting the above aspects measures 0.56m x 0.32m x 0.10m.
The third Rşabhanātha figure of Jamunda (D.M.35) is designed in meditative pose on a plain pedestal supported by two spirited lions looking to opposite directions. Below the pedestal is carved Chakreśvarī, the Sasanadevi of Rşabhanātha seated on a lotus pedestal in lalitasana pose. She displays varada mudra in both of her hands. Yakşa Gomukha and a female devotee in folded hands are standing to her right and left respectively. Bull, the conventional lañchana of the Tirthankara is visible on the pedestal. In addition, the kevala tree, chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella, flying figures with garlands in hands, torana fitted with elephant heads jata-bhara over head and circular halo behind head are the other notable features of this image. The halo is decorated with lotus petals and beaded chains. Several strands of jața are falling on the shoulders. The lions below

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pedestal prominently display their manes. A portion of the slab from the top containing the flying figure with garlands is damaged and missing. It measures 0.48m x 0.30m x 0.9m.
The first image of Pārsvanātha from Jamuda (D.M.11) (Fig.135) though damaged severely in various parts, displays the usual features of the Tirthankara. It is conceived in meditative attitude on a pedestal supported by two lions in fornt. A canopy of seven hooded snake is found above head. Padmavati, his Sāsanadevi is depicted below pedestal in padmasana pose on a separate double petalled lotus pedestal. She has four hands but the attributes displayed in her hands are indistinct. A canopy of three hooded snake is found over her head. Among other features we notice a circular halo behind head, kevala tree, trilinear umbrella, elephants, flying figures with garlands, chauri bearers and devotees in folded hands are all carved around the Tirthankara. A portion from the right containing the leg, the halo and the flying figure is damaged. The entire slab measures 0.60m X 0.32m x 0.15m.
The second Pārsvanātha image from this place is carved standing in käyotsarga pose on a plain pedestal. A canopy of seven hooded snake is found over head, the coils of which are gathered behind the Tirthankara. Among other items we notice the conventional chauri bearers, kevala tree, umbrella, flying figures with garlands and devotees in kneeling position and folded hands are all depicted along with the Tirthankara. Face of the figure is damaged partially. It measures including the pedestal some 0.32mX 0.20m x 0.8m.
The lone figure of Mahāvira from Jamunda (Fig.136) is conceived seated in yogasana pose on a pedestal supported by two spirited lions in front. His lāñchana lion, is depicted in the pedestal below which Sidhāyika, the Sāsanadevi of Mahāyira is found depicted in four hands displaying in her upper two hands the attributes of parašu and a mace like object and varada mudra in the lower ones. She is flanked by a male and a female devotee in the right and left sides respectively. The other features of this Mahāvira image consist of a halo formed of multipetalled lotus designs enclosed by beaded borders, chauri bearers, trefoiled umbrella, kevala tree, torana, attached with elephant heads, flying, figures with garlands and elephants, at top corners. The entire slab measures 0.80m x 0.38m X 0.14m.
Thet last figure of the series is attributed to a Jaina Tirthankara whose identification is difficult at this stage. It is displayed under the caption as Padmaprabha. The Tirtharkara is designed seated in meditative attitude on a pedestal supported by two lions below which his Sasanadevi with four hands is depicted in Padmāsana. A human figure carved lying at the place where the conventional lāñchana is normally to be found, a rare occurrence. The other features available with this image consist of the circular halo formed of lotus petals and beaded chains, kevala tree, chauri bearers, and flying figures with garlands in hands. A series of beads also depicted in a row in front of the lion throne. The slab along with pedestal measures 0.33m x 0.20m x 0.9m.
Two Jaina Tirthańkara images, apart from the upper parts of two pillars containing standing human figures with swords raised in their hands, were collected from Kamta, a place rich in Jaina antiquities of Koraput district.

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The first piece of sculpture from Kamata is the bust of Tirthankara. The lower part of this figure is damaged and missing. Among other features it displays the circular halo, lotus petals enclosed by beaded borders, chauri bearers, kevala tree, umbrella, elephant and flying figures with garlands. Flying figures and elephant of the left side are damaged and missing. The available portion of the image measures 0.32m x 0.34m x 0.8m.
The other sculpture of Kamta is identified with Rşabhanātha (Fig.137). The Tirthankara is conceived scated in yogasana pose on a plain pedestal supported by Gajasivi has in fornt corner. His lanchana, bull, is visible over the pedestal and just below the bull, a series of six devotees are seated in a row. Below the pedestal, Chakreśvari, mounted on Garuda and displaying various attributes in her ten hands is found depicted. The attributes are, however not very much distinct. Yaksa Gomukha and a group of other devotees in kneeling posture and folded hands are found depicted around the pedestal. The eliptical halo behind head is profusely decorated with beads, lotus petals and other floral designs. Decorative trilinear umbrella, kevala tree, flying figures with garlands and mounted elephants are all envisaged at the top. A torana fitted with makara heads, series of Ganaharvas and Kinnaras playing with musical instruments and devotees in folded hands are carved in the vacant space over the two chauri bearers. The face of the Tirthankara is partially damaged. Including the pedestal it measures 0.90m x 0.50m x 0.23m.

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Architecture of Jaina monuments of Orissa is represented through the rock-cut caves and structural edifices. The rock-cut caves having Jaina affinity are mainly available in the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri of Puri district though the tradition of cave dwelling has been reported from elsewhere in Orissa. As regards structural edifices of comparable date we get ample references to them in the Hathi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela. But unfortunately except the ground plan of the apsidal structure on the crest of Udayagiri hill and a relief sculpture on the opening frieze of the facade of the lower storey of Rāņi-Gumphā of the same hill, we do not find their existence in the entire length and breadth of Orissa. In the first instance we should take up the architectural features of the large number of caves excavated on the Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills under the patronage of Khāravela, his chief queen, sons, successors and administrative associates and then proceed on the basis of available evidences to the description of structural shrines in different localities of Orissa attributed to various periods of her history. Apart from these, we also find Jaina relics preserved in a large number of shrines dedicated to other religious cults. They have nothing special to be regarded as Jaina monuments. In the recent years Jaina relics have also been under worship in separate rooms of demestic buildings like the one noticed at Jaunliapapati of Cuttack town and other, located in a building in the heart of Jeypore town in Koraput district. They have not been included in our study of Jaina architecture in Orissa.
CAVE ARCHITECTURE
Cave architecture in India dates back to the period of the Maurya rule when an advanced technique was patronised by the Mauyra court. Lomasha Rși Cave in the Garabara hill, caused to be excavated by Aśoka and the Nagarjuni hill caves attributed to king Dasaratha, the grandson of Asoka inaugurated a new practice in the stone cutting art in India. The cave dwellings eminently served the purpose of monastic abodes for the Ajivikas and not only that artificial caves were excavated but also the mountain hollows which were the dewellings of the wild animals, were dressed and polished to make them suitable residences for the monks, The Mauryan caves were no
abodes fort in India. he grandscavated by

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doubt crudely designed without the verandahs and with no remarkable workmanship inside the chamber, the arched entrance being somewhat clumsy. But this was an admirable and deciding advance of the tradition of Indian cave architecture which developed to a great extent both in artistic and masonry workmanship in the later rock-cut monasteries at Bhājā, Bedesä, Kondane, Kārle, Kānheri, Ellorā, Ajantā, etc. The cave excavations at Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills under the patronage of the Chedi rule marked an important stage of development in between Maurya caves and the later caves belonging to the early centuries of Christian era. The caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills are however, not so elaborate althouh with their pillared verandahs and elegant carvings they mark a definite advancement upon their Mauryan counter
parts.
The large number of caves that have survived in the course of centuries in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills no doubt convey us a fairly good idea about their architectural peculiarities, but we get few references to their structural details from the inscriptions carved on their bodies. The representation of a variety of dwellings ranging from royal palaces to humble huts and religious establishments as are found on the monuments at Sanchi are mostly wanting at this place. In spite of this handicap, the existing caves, even in their ruined state, provide enough details with regard to their various component parts, the technipue of their excavation and the manner of their disposition.
The Hathi-Gumphā inscription or the other inscriptions on the walls of different caves do not provide sufficient knowledge to study various technical terminologies associated with cave architecture at this place. However, a term lenam has been used frequently in those inscriptions to devote the Gumphās or caves.
As to the technical significance of the term 'lena' we are aware that each of the cave dwellings on the Udayagiri hill which is designated 'lena' in the old Brāhmi inscriptions is known as 'Gumpha', a term equivalent to the präkriti Gumphā, the Asokan kubhā and the Sanskrit and Pali Guha. These ancient cave dwellings with their arch entrances represent the ruder form wherefrom the later Buddhist cave temples, with their infinitely superior workmanship and ornamentation in the interior may be said to have developed. And with these, ancient Maurya cave dwellings may be sharply contrasted with the caves excavated on the Kumāri hill by king Kharavela and his coadjutors for the accommodation of the resident Jaina recluses and saints as representing altogether a different architectural design and artmanship.
It is evident that each of the caves on the Kumāri hill was so designed as to make it appear like a regular cottage or residential building with an open or pillared verandah (pāsāda) in front of one or more chambers dug out in the interior in the shape of rooms, the verandah being provided, in some examples, with a pent-roof. These cottage like
1. N. K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, P. 377.

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or palace like cave-dwellings of the Jaina saints and recluses may be judged with their peculiar roofs as Orissan patterns of the Buddhist monasteries at Saranatha and other places.2
As regards to the term 'lena' Barua3 takes it to be a natural cave, cavity or cavern improved by human hand. There can be no objection to apply to it 'lena' as a designation or to applying the designation Gumbh or guha to lena in the sense of such cave. At any rate no other reference can be drawn from Buddhaghosa's definition of a lena as a habitation with an opportunity for sitting and lying made either by excavating house in a mountain or raising a wall there, a pabhara is sufficient (to serve as a dwelling)".
Regarding the technique of the excavation of caves it appears that the excavators followed the same pattern as adopted by present day masons for such works. Some ground plan with specific design and details must have been prepared by the master architects with necessary instructions from their patrons. In order to reproduce the same in stone they were to trace out suitable sites after clearing the debris and examining various technical aspects such as quality of the stone, its compactness, size of the plan, etc., before actual commencement of the work. But such matters were given little consideration at the time of excavating open caves or scoopings which were probably executed on trial basis or left to the amateurs. Iron hammers with wooden or bamboo adjuncts and chisels entirely of iron were possibly used in the preliminary stage to clear away large chunks of stone. The technique is normally to cut grooves around and then strike out the stone from the centre. A clue to this device is still to be noticed on the ruined caves where stones have been removed subsequently or have been abandoned before completion. After this, they are made plain by chiselling out the uneven surface through chisels and hammers of lesser gradation. Then their surface was made smooth by rubbing or polishing the inner parts with stones of much harder variety. This process was probably carried out in hand with occasional addition of water. The sculptures and other decorative motifs on the facades or pillars are then suitably worked out. In any case, human labour backed by adequate royal patronage and knowledge of the craftsmanship played the major role in designing such caves.
As the stone at Udayagiri and Khandagiri is of coarse grained sand stone of soft, porous and incoherating nature, the excavators after tracing suitable sites designed the caves at edges of the hills in different directions and heights. The excavators thus saved both labour and expense by following the configuration of the rock and connecting different caves, wherever necessary, by rock-cut steps, scme of which exist even now. There is a predilection towards excavation near the top of the ledge or boulder, probably to lessen the load over the caves, the rock being of a brittle variety.
In later pericds, some of the dwelling cells at this place were converted into shrines with minor alterations, such as increasing the height of the chamber by the excavation of
2. B. M. Barua, Old Brahmi Inscriptions, p. 299. 3. Ibid, p. 300.

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the floor to a deeper depth and providing greater space by the removal of not only the partition walls between contiguous cells but those dividing the verandah.
Now coming to the architectural details we notice the caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri are designed with one or more cells either on the main wing or along their sides in addition. Some of them are considered double storeyed. A number of small scoopings without any structural embellishment are attempted near leading caves of which some are large enough to accommodate human beings in lying condition, but others are mere hollows excavated at random, either to retain items of daily use or provide sitting accommodation to wandering mendicants. The cells are invariably oblong in plan, as their corresponding walls are not of the same length. The front walls containing door openings are usually larger than the back walls.
Meant for Jaina recluses who are noted for the rigour of their ascetecism and extreme self mortification, the caves provide little amenities. The height of the cells including even the exceptionally large ones like Rāņi-Gumphā does not allow a man to stand erect, the remaining ones are only slightly more than man high. The cells which have curved roof normally provide more standing space than the ones designed in flat or starding roofs. The inner walls of all the caves were originally left plain but in the medieval period inner walls of a few caves of the place were carved with Jaina symbols and divinities. In rare cases small holes or niches have been fashioned on these walls to keep lamps and other articles of daily use. A thin coat of lime has been applied to these walls in most cases.
The floors of all the cells and even the minor scoopings near them were raised at the back. But in some cases they have been destroyed in subsequent periods and in their place fresh masonry works taken up leaving however the mark of their original design on the side walls. This inclination of the floor extends from one end of the back wall to the other evidently to be shared by a number of Jaina recluses at one time. This sloping rise served as pillows for them.
Ceilings of the cells are both designed in curved and flat shape but in respect of the verandah they are entirely flat. Those which are shown in flat are slightly slanting towards the opening. But the arched roofs are normally elevated in the middle. The object of this arching was to prevent leakage in the middle. The whole surface is cut smooth, ard there is nothing like ribs, beams and rafters to be anywhere seen. They appear to serve as supports to the projecting arch over them, and can be taken to be copies of wooden models. Here they have been used as ornaments for the situation in which they occur, carved in solid rock, they can contribute very little to the mechanical strength of the super structure.
The relative number of door openings in both Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves varies from one to four, according to the size of the caves. They are in most cases found in the front wall, and access through the front verandah to the cells is the system, irrespective of the fact that caves are looking to different directions. The door ways are

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invariably small. Even in cells high enough for a man to stand erect one has to crawl to enter. The size of the doors remain within a limited variation in almost all the caves of the place, the height being between 0.91m to 1.40m. In several cases, the front walls have been knocked down and in its place artificial partition walls have been. constructed in subsequent dates. One should not confuse with the door openings of those repaired caves. On the other hand in a number of caves partition walls have not been constructed after the demolition of the original ones for which there are wide openings in front. They also should not be taken as the usual pattern of the original door openings. The Jambs, in some cases, slope inwards, causing the opening slightly wider at the base than at the top, a feature common in many caves of the earlier date including the one at Barabara. The doors have grooves, cut all around their outer frames, probably to receive movable wooden or bamboo shutters. Additional holes for hinges at the threshold and a lintel in a few cases suggest single doors. Unlike most Buddhist caves, the cells of Udayagiri and Khandagiri are adequately lighted which is due not only to their general layout but also to the profusion of door openings.
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Windows are noticed in Khandagiri-Gumphã, Gaṇeśa-Gumpha and upper storey left wing Räni-Gumphã. Such openings for the admission of light and air are rarely met within cave architecture, though they are not absolutely wanting.
The fact is that the mendicants for whom they were excavated passed their time in open travelling from place to place and the caves were occupied only at night, in foul weather and during the rainy season when the ceremony of 'wassa' had to be celebrated by them in their monastery and possibly also in the depth of winter as also by the old and decrepit, who could no longer pass a life of itinerancy and for them and at such times windows were scarcely needed.4
The verandahs are all opened in front. The passage to them is maintained on either side of the pillars as well as the space between the side pilaster and the nearest pillar. The side walls are measured as per the width of the verandah in front of the cells. These walls except in rare cases are devoid of sculptural representations. But the outer face of the backwall of the verandah (to which we also call the front wall of the cell) contain a number of relief panels within the semi-circular arch-bands, tympana pilasters, railings, animals, birds and human figurines.
In some caves long shelves have been fashioned on the side walls of the verandah. They are occasionally fronted with railings. They have been designed in living rock to provide accommodation for scriptures or articles of daily use of the Jaina mendicants. Their presence at this place as an architectural embellishment appears to be an advance in cave architecture.
The verandah ceiling in all cases has been designed flat. They have never been finished smooth like those of the cells. No lime wash has also been given to them. The roofs of the verandah project outward in the form of caves, the inner sides of the latter
4. R. L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, P. 13.

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being curved as in a thatched or tiled hut to break the flow of rain water. In case of the double storeyed caves, the roof of the lower wing usually forms a terrace to the upper wing.
Leaving aside a limited few, like Bāgha-Gumphā and Sarpa-Gumphā all other caves of this place have benches in front of the cells as well as on the two sides of the verandah. These elevated portions served the purpose of sitting of the resident monks. R.L. Mitra while discussing the Rāni-Gumphā corsidered them as raised seat or Plinth." But in either case the purpose remains the same. The benches of all important caves of Khandagiri except cave No. 1, 2, 4 and 13 have been completely destroyed. In some cases, the floor of the verandah is made plain with additional masonry works and all traces of this elevated seat have been removed. The floor of the verandah which was originally lower in Ananta-Gumphā has been raised to the top level of the bench by masonry. The maximum length of the bench in front of the upper main wing of Rāni-Gumphā records 19.20m with 0.39m. as height and 0.71m as its breadth. In the scoopings where no such verandahs have been designed we do not find the benches. The side benches are designed in accordance with the breadth of the verandah. The side benches commencing from each end of the back bench extend up to the base of the side pilasters instead of the edge of the verandah floor. To this aspect Percy Brown observes "Another feature in some of the Orissan viharas is a ledge or podium carved like a continuous bench around certain of the compartments. Here is seen an early appearance of "Asana" a stone seat with a sloping back-rest which in more developed and highly decorated form became prominent in the temples of central and western India in the early medieval period."
The roof of the verandahs wherever available are supported by heavily designed pillars in front and pilasters attached to the side walls. They are of one and the same pattern in a particular cave. Passage to the verandah is maintained through the space between the pillars as well as the pilaster and the nearest pillar. Their number increases with the size of the cave complex. In smaller caves like Jaya-Vijaya-Gumph, and Tātowa-Gumphā No. 1 only one pillar in the centre and two side pilasters serve the purpose. Except the side pilasters and a few pillars in perfect condition most of the pillars in these caves are gone leaving indications to their location on the floors, above which new masonry pillars are provided to protect the roof from further damage. In the absence of those pillars, the side pilaster's guide us to their probable design and shape. Stepped pedestal is common to all the pillars. Though three distinct varieties of pillars are available at this place, the one divided into three sections, the central part octagonal and the lower and upper square, appears to be more profusely used. They have no captial and the upper part of the shaft touches the verandah ceiling. The brackets usually project inward and outward from the top of these pillars. The second variety of pillars are divided into five sections of which the basal, cental and terminal
5. R. L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, p. 13. 6. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Hindu and Buddhist), p. 36.

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ones are square and the intermediate ones are rendered octagonal by chamfering the corners of the squares. The pillars and pilasters alike of this group are having capitals representing different animal figures resting on corbelled abacus above inverted lotus flower. The third variety is represented through the central pillar of the JagannāthaGumphā which passes througch four, eight, sixteen, eight and four sides with the arrises chamfered so as to achieve the effect of half-medallions. The upper part of most of the pillars and pilasters belonging to the three groups are relieved with enigmatic and winged animal and bird figures seated back to back and a few decorative motifs.
A part from the heavily designed verandah pillars and pilasters, the door-ways of the facade are each flanked by side pilasters on ghata bases above stepped pedestals as a common feature. The ghata bases are either plain or decorated. The shafts of these pilasters are plain or flat, fluted or decorated. Abacus is both in stepped or square shape. But the crowning elements in each case are addorsed animals over plain or bellshaped lotuess. In rare case, however, neckings and cables are noticed.
Brackets seemingly to support the superstructure are noticed on the inner and outer sides of the verandah pillars, and in exceptional cases with the side pilasters. They are designed in the solid rock and have little functional value. Their curved outer faces are filled with decorative motifs, animal and human figures in various poses. In one instance of Rāņi-Gumphā, it is evident that the bracket is detachable as the sockets exist on the pillar and the roof.
Lintels, which usually connect the gap between the door jambs, windows and other openings of a superstructure now-a-days are also appeared in some caves of Khandagiri hill. The verandah pillars and pilasters are connected through these lintels. But as they have been designed in the living rock they may be considered as structural embellishments rather than mechanical devices. Where the lintels have not been fashioned, the pillars directly support the verandah roof.
A distinctive element, in all early rock-cut vihāras, is the arcading, which decorates the walls and which in the Orissan examples, is of an exclusive kind. Instead of being of the horse shoe variety, the arches of the arcades are almost invariably semi-circular and their lower ends corresponding to the springer of a true arch are expanded to enable them to be supported on pilasters. These pilasters have capitals formed of pairs of recumbent animals. These outer edges of these arches are surrounded by svastikas, vadhamangalas or by a triangular pointed crest or finial enclosing a floral ornament or a figure. The style of ornamenting the door frame is common to most of the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri with a few exceptions. These decorations being repeated throughout are greatly diversified and scrolls, single flowers, figures of men and animals have been carved at option without any reference to uniformity. Each frame is complete by itself and except in outline and general character bears no relation to the neighbour. The arched bands over the door-ways of Bāgha-Gumpha, Dhanaghara-Gumpha and Tentuli-Gumphā are, however. left undecorated. In case of Tātowa-Gumpha No. 2, the ends of supporting rafters are distinctly visible in the inner parts of these arched band.

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The semi-circular space (tympana) created by the arched bards over the door-ways of Anarta-Gumpiā ard Tatowa-Gumphā No. 2 are relieved with floral devices and religious activities. In other cases they are, however left plain. Where the front wall of the cells are destroyce or damaged and new masonry work done in their places we do not trace this arcading system.
Railings which popularly known as Buddhist rails are extensively used at Sanchistupa ard Bharkut (1 cw in Calcutta Museum) where they have been lavishly embellished with carvings preserted by rich devotees. In earlier times these rails were employed roud the sacred trees and stupas. The simplest form of rail consisting of square pillars set at a little more tha their own breadth apart and joined by three broad bars rounded on the sides and placed near to one another and to the head rail which joins the top of the pillars. So faithfully have the stupas beer copied in the form of Dagobas, that in icarly every case the rail pattern is one of the features on these altars as well as the umbrella which decorated the stupa.
Thesc railings appear promirently rur nirg in continuation with the parapet on the vererdah ard round the trees worslipped in Ananta-Gumphā and Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha ard below the sculptured friczes of Rāni-Gumphā, Ganesa-Gumpha and the MañchapuriGumpiā. Except Rani-Gumplā where they are in three barred pattern in other places they represent significantly two long bars. Thus it is evident that railings have nothing special with Buddhist rclics. They too, appear in Jaina monuments. The most obvious and simple mode of fencing is to have uprights at short intervals with connecting bars whese number is regulated by the peculiar exigency of each individual case. These religs have never been designed free standing at this place. Above the tympana arches ard extending along witi the er tire length of the verandah and continuing along the side walls of Ananta-Gumplā, runs a set of railings interrupted orly at places by groups of stepped mcılons (pyramidal baitlements) each alternating with a blue-lotus, a pattern often repeated on the railings of Bharhut.
Two small rooms which ofter regarded as guard rooms are met with the lower storey of Räni-Gumphā, adjacent to its left and right wings. The roof of those two rooms are seen much below the verandah roof of the respective wings but the door-ways are of the usual size.
Provision of standing armed guards in front of the terminal piers of RāņiGumphs, Ganesh-Gumphā, Mañchapuri-Gumphā, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha and TätowaGumphi No. 2 yet form another early feature of cave architecture in Orissa. In addition to the armed guard figure gainst the right pilaster of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā, a lady hevily weddled with decorative e stumes is standing in front of its left pier. Similarly, though the guards of the lower wings of Rāni-Gumpha are of the usual type, the two on cither side of the main wing of the upper storey of his cave are fashioned mounting or animals. The standing ones are invariably scen cach with long spear and sheathed sword suspended from the shoulders. In rare cases, however, only a sword is held and the other hand rests on the body.

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As indicated earlier the roof of the lower storey of some ambitious caves were designed in the pattern of forming open terraces of the upper storeys of these caves. The upper storeys in such caves are excavated much beluind the lower ones and the are: cut smooth for free movement. We find best examples of this pattern with the RäniGumpha and the Mañchapuri-Gumphā. The terrace in front of the upper storey of Rāņi-Gumphā as evident from the damaged condition was extended up to the edge of the verandah roof like that of tre Mañchapuri cave. A three barred railing alo, gtie whole length forming the projecting fence for the terrace of Manchapuri cave is still available with intervening uprights. R.L. Mitra' conjectures a similar railing in front of the terrace of the Rani-Gumpha. Percy Brown on the other hand infers from the open terrace, sculptured friezes and the courtyard in front of Rāni Gumplā, that a regular drama was performed at this place for the entertainment of cave dwellers on important occasions.
Most of the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri were excavated on the ledge or the sloping edges of the hills for which the ground in front of them is made pain for the purpose of open courtyards. The cells of less ambitious caves are directiy open to the courtyards but in case of full-fledged caves they are open through their pillared verandahs. In case of Mañchapuri-Gumphā, the right wing has been extended corresponding to the left battered wall to give it a look of perfect courtyard. At Rāņi. Gumphā, the two side wings have been extended to a considerable length to form a partially enclosed courtyard. Cave Nos. 6, 7, 8 and 9 of Khandagiri hill have a common courtyard for them. J.D. Beglar' is of opinion that "The arrangement of this excavation shows that from the earliest times Indian civil architecture has adhered to the same broad feature in plan, the merits of the plan have not been prorcrly brought forward, it is evident that the larger the scale on which the work is exccuted the greater will be the effect viewed from the courtyard, not in the simple proportion of size, but in duplicate proportion due, first, to actual increase of size, and second to the increased power of receiving a larger portion of the whole at any instant on the retina, more especially as regards the vertical dimensions in a narrow courtyard, the head has to be tilted up to an inconvenient extent to see the entire height of the inner face de whereas the same height of facade, if seen at a greater distance i.e. with a larger courtyard, would be taken in at one view. Unfortunately few Indian palaces or other buildings having courtyards have been built of such dimensions as to enable the spectator to receive in its entirely a view of any side of the interior facade from any point with the court and as it is the inner facade of such buildings which experience teaches me is more highly ornamented than the exterior, the chief beauty in this arrangement is lost from inability of the spectator to receive an image of the whole as a whole on the retina of his cye."
Leakage of rain water from the top of the caves often causes enormous prob. to the dwellers. But while designing the cells the architects took special cure for eradication. Here, the caves have usually been excavated with a gentle slope away from
7. RL. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, p. 8. 8. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Hindu and Buddhist), p. 36. 9. J. D. Beglar, ASI Report, Vol. XIII, Cunningham (Ed.), p. 91.

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the main rock, thereby ensuring drainage. Weep-holes have been provided in cases where there is a chance of landslip in consequence of the rain water percolating through the surface and collecting in the soil below. Prinsep10 who was much impressed with the drainage system at this place wrote “The ingenious method which had been adopted to drain the chamber, which form the porous nature of the stone, would otherwise have dripped in wet weather, small grooves are cut along the ceiling all verging to one point at the lower corner where a perforation is made to conduct the water without". In cases where the mass of rock above the caves is enormous this system was not adopted but it gave satisfactory result in case of single storeyed verandahs. As indicated earlier the front of the verandah roofs have been rounded off and regular grooves undercut to throw rain water at a distance from the caves.
As most of the caves are designed on the uneven surface of solid rock access to them, is maintained through rock-cut steps. Large number of those steps have gone away with and in their places modern masonry steps have come up. Those which have enough space in front, these steps are cut across the entire length in one or more courses. Through these steps one can conveniently enter to the verandah of a cave. Access to the upper storeys is maintained through uneven surface with occasional narrow rock-cut steps. The minor scoopings excavated at different hieghts have not steps at all. A number of caves of both Udayagiri and Khandagiri have also been deprived off these steps in subsequent periods when massive quarrying operation took place at the site. The upper cells of Sarpa-Gumphā and Khandagiri-Gumphā are difficult to be approached as their front portions do not carry any arnasach.
Mañchapuri-Gumphā, Alakāpuri-Gumph, and Rāņi-Gumphā are often regarded as two-storeyed caves. In Alakāpusi-Gumphā the upper cell is somewhat above the heavily damaged lower cell. But in case of Mañchapuri-Gumpha and Rāņi-Gumphā, the upper storeys are designed much behind the cells of the lower wing. The upper part of Mañchapuri-Gumphā is known as Svargapuri-Gumphā whereas the different wings of the lower and upper storeys of Rāņi-Gumphā comes under one and the same name. R.L. Mitra, 11 while discussing the Rāni-Gumphā, observes, "The caves on the three sides are apparently two storeyed but in reality they are not so as the upper storey is so placed as not be right above the lower, but some way behind it. This arrangement obtains in most of the other two storeyed caves and its object evidently is to secure the greatest strength and stability by placing the caves always on solid rock, instead of perforated hollows. The soft, fragile, incohering texture of the stone rendered this precaution necessary, and we find that whatever it was neglected, the caves have suffered serious injury." In addition this practice of setting back the upper storey may have been introduced here for the very nature of the rock, which did not allow enough space for the upper storey to be built directly over the lower. The pattern of setting back the upper storey, much bchind the lower ones does not however indicate the ignorance of designing multistoreyed buildings by the architects. The representation of such a double
10. Prinsep, JAS, Vol. XII, p. 1079. 11. R. L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, pp. 8-9.

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storeyed building in sculpture in the beginning of the friezes of lower storey of RāņiGumpha gives sufficient knowledge of the fact.
To approach the caves in both Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills several routes have to be followed on the living-rock. Those which are on the living rock are cut in steps at times very steep and inconvenient to pass through. The main route to Udayagiri which was originally in stepped pattern was entirely renovated recently by the Archaeological Survey of India and in its place a continuous pavement with raised sides has been constructed by laterite blocks. This pavement leads to the open space in front of the famous Hathi-Gumphā from which it turns both to the right and left for other caves. Cave Nos. 2 to 9 of Udayagiri are situated on the right of this laterite path.
Similarly another laterite stepped path originating from the main road connects the Khandagiri-Gumph, from which it turns to right and left for other caves of Khandagiri hill. A narrow route commencing from the open space in front of Tātowā-Gumphā No. 1 leads the visitors to Ananta-Gumpha and the Jaina temple at the crest of Khandagiri hill. Quite opposite to it another stepped path leads to the Haridasa group of caves of Udayagiri hill. This group can also be contacted by descending few steps near the Sarpa-Gumphā Rāni-Gumphā the most ambitious excavation of Udayagiri hill remaining slightly away from the main route can be touched upon through the path in front of the Bājāghara-Gumphā.
As there is no major river in the neighbourhood, the cave dwellers depended mainly on a series of rock-cut wells in both Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills. They are, two each in Khandagiri and Udayagiri in addition to the two minor ones, the Syāmākunda and Gupta-Gangā in Khandagiri. These wells are normally filled with rain water, except the minor ones which have probably perennial springs inside to provide facilities for drinking water.
The two wells noticed in Udayagiri are known as Lalitā Kunda and Hāthi-Nisuņi located respectively to the north-east and east of Ganesa-Gumphā.
Hāthi-Nisuni has been abandoned completely. Local people believe that the royal elephant of Lalātendu Keśarī was usually stayed here. There are a series of rockcut steps from the surface till the bottom of this well. It is nothing but a stepped well for storage of rain water. Lalitā Kunda does not appear to be very deeply cut. The top edges of its four sides are cut uncvenly and irregular steps have been provided on the living rock along the entire length of its noith and eastern sides for the convenience of the users.
The Vāpi or well referred to in the damaged inscription in five lines of Somavamsi king Udyotakeśari is probably the Ākāśa Ganga situated close to Lalātendu KeśariGumphā which was connected with it by a flight of steps. Seven of these steps have escaped the hands of stone cutters. Due to quarrying operations the pool is now situated at a much higher level than the foot path and is only approach able from the

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top. It is oblong in plan, cut into the solid rock and said to be fed by a natural spring at the bottom.
Following the main route for a short distance one will encounter, the other rockcut pool of this hill known as Radha-Kunda situated close to Cave No. 12. It too contains rain water which has turned greenish in colour. A flight of steps from the left of Rādha-Kunda leads up to a barren ledge and about fifty metres from this place is lccated a natural cavern locally known as Syāmā Kunda. It has a depression in the centre of the floor containing water. Its front portion is built with masonry works. The water inside appears perfectly clean and can be used for drinking purposes. Behind Deva Sabhā at a lower level is situated Gupta-Ganga a long natural tunnel. At its rear end is a small pool of water. The front of this tunnel is widely open but gradually becomes narrower towards the end. One has to struggle a great deal to reach the water source.
Notwithstanding their being the work of rock-cutters and sculptors and not of masons and engineers required in a true piece of architecture, these rock-cut caves by their emulating structures of timber, bamboo and thatch, have important place in the history of Jaina architecture. Their importance is further increased by the paucity of extant Jaina buildings of this period. The excavators attempted to copy in live rock structural houses with the result that the features peculiar to wooden, tiled and thatched houses were reproduced even if they are irrational and unnecessary for stability. Thus the ceilings of the cells are in some cases arched and convex like that of a hut, the ceilings of the verandahs supported on brackets and architraves perched on pillars, as in a hut with bamboo and wooden posts are mostly lower than those of the cells, the floors of the verandals are at a level lower than those of the cells; the roof of the verandahs project outward in the form of caves the inner sides of the latter being carved as in thatched or wooden huts to break the flow of rain water, the door-jambs incline inwards making the opening slightly wider at the base than at the top, which is inappropriate in masonry or rock.12
N.K. Sahul3 considers the caves of Khandagiri hill except Tāțowā-Gumphā No. 1, Tātowā Gumphā No. 2 and Ananta-Gumphā as belonging to the medieval period as they do not bear Brāhmi inscriptions but on the other hand depict sculptures and inscriptions of the medieval period. But all these rcliefs and inscriptions are of later additions on the faces of the already existing caves, which to judge from the architectural features, originated simultaneously with their corrresponding ories in the Udayagiri hill. All that is indicated is that they continued to be in usc till later times unlike the Udayagiri caves.
STRUCTURAL ARCHITECTURE
Sashikantal4 assumes that Khāravela convened a council of Jaina monks on the Kumari hill (Udayagiri) which had already attained the status of a famous place of
12. D. Mitra, Jaina Art and Architecture, A. Ghosh (Ed.), Vol. I, p. 77. 13. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. II, p. 376. 14. Sashikanta, Häthi-Gumpha Inscription of Khiravela and the Bhähru
Study, p. 62.
Edict af Asoka-A
Critical

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pilgrimage of the Jaina retinues. It appears to have been a well attended assembly in which 3.500 monks from all directions joined. The site of the assembly was the quadrangle near the shrine of the Arhanta on the top of the hill more particularly on the roof of the Hathi-Gumphā on the face of which is the record inscribed. The quadrangle consisted of a stone platform.
Hels further assumes that "in front of the Assembly hall was set up a pale red and quadrilateral pillar inlaid with beryl apparently to serve as a replica of the Mānastambha in accord with the traditional description of Sumavasarana (the preaching hall of the Tirthavkara).
To substantiate this view an apsidal structure (Fig. 32) perhaps the first of its kind in Orissa, has been exposed by the excavation on the top of the Udayagiri hill, just over the Hāthi-Gumphā containing the inscription of Khāravela. The Archaeological survey of India under the leadership of D. Mitra took up the excavation of the site during the years 1958-59 and a brief account of the said excavation has been published in the Indian Archacology- A review for the same year. To facilitate exact information I reproduce the said account extenso.
"The ruins consisted of an apsidal structure with an axial length of 78' 1'' and basal length of 46'. Its outer wall constructed of large laterite blocks, followed the north-west to south-west slope of the hill top, the maximum number of extant courses being eight. Within the structure, towards its apse end, was a circular wall with only one surviving course of laterite slabs. Between the outer edge and the inner edge of the former was a minimum gap of 6'. The space within the apsidal structure save that enclosed by the circular wall was passed with laterite, but towards the northern end, where the sand stone bed-rock was the highest the rock itself was used as the floor after a rough dressing. Post holes, circular or irregular occurred in the rock and in the pavement. From the facts that such post holes existed in the rock around the outer wall at fairly regular intervals and that a few pottery tiles were found in the northern corner of the building, the existence of a tiled roof resting on posts and having projecting caves might be conjectured.
In the northern corner of the apsidal structure was a drain fashioned by cutting a channel into the rock and covered by laterite slabs flush with the floor. It was evidently designed to take off water from the circular structure.
At a later stage the circular wall was converted into an apsidal structure by the addition of an oblong wall towards its north-east, running roughly parallel to and within the framework of the original apsidal wall. The circular wall was however kept undisturbed. The oblong part of the new structure and a wide opening in each of its northwestern, south-western and north-castern walls.
15. Ibid.

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An enigmatic feature, related with the complex, but somewhat later in construction, was a semicircular wall its ends meeting the inner faces of the outer apsidal structure near its base. It was built of three rows of laterite blocks placed on edge and supporting one another, the inner most blocks beings laid obliquely on the old floor.
An earlier oblong structure evidently unconnected with the complex and partly overlaid by the circular walls seemed to have been the first structure on the site. Its wall had been reduced to ore course of laterite when the circular wall was raised.
Belonging to the last phase of the occupation on the site and of a date when the complex described above had fallen into disuse was a square platform with recessed corners shabbily built of laterite and sand stone blocks on the debris over the southeastern face to serve as a step. Inside, was a smaller square, also built of sand stone and laterite blocks the intervening space between it and outer wall being filled with earth.
The pottery found in the filling of the floor was red and ill-baked and rubbed off
easily.
There was no other small find except a dolerite neolithic cell with an oblong section. It was found amidst the laterite soil forming the filling of the floor".
The complex structure was no doubt a Jaina religious edifice as the Udayagiri and the adjacent Khandagiri hills contain monuments of no other faith. Further as the twin hills of Udayagiri and Khandagiri have till now been known to represent only cave dwellings of the Jainas, the present structure may be regarded as having provided the resident monks with a place of worship in perfect accordance with what the HathiGumphā inscription says about the Relic Memorial (Käyānisidiya) excavated by Khāsavela.
The date of the apsidal structure though appears uncertain it can reasonably be guessed from circumstantial evidences and attributed to Khāravela who brought back from Magadha the Jina of Kalinga that had been taken away by the Nandas and built some structures of stone on the Kumari hill (Udayagiri) where he also excavated a number of cave-dwellings for the Jaina heretics.
The excavation at Udayagiri further revealed an ancient ramp built of laterite blocks. It is three metres wide, rises from the foot of the hill and reaches the terrace in front of the Hāthi-Gumphā and is supported on either side by retaining walls. It is wedge-shaped in plan showing greater width near the head, than at the tail. Sashikant16 takes this ramp to represent the quadrilateral pillar mentioned in the inscription.
At a certain distance from the bottom of the ramp there are two walls at right angles to support the filling below terrace in front of Hāthi-Gumph, in sand stone and
16. Ibid, p. 63.

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laterite. The dexter wall is of sand stone and is prominently battered; it is discernible up to the original steps leading to the cave which contains the inscription of the chief queen or Kharavela. Carved stone railings and upper part of a female statue in sand stone have been found near the steps. The railings might have embellished Sindhula's shrine.
The archaeological evidence put together suggests that the shrine over the HathiGumpha, the ramp in front of it and cave to which the dexter wall leads, were the product of a single building activity. It thus confirms the epigraphic evidence about the location of the shrines of Kharavela and Sindhula as well as the site for the assembly of the monks.
In fact, the apsidal structure practically covers the entire top of this particular portion of the hill, the vacant space not being extensive enough to accommodate any assemblage. To make necessary accommodation for the occasional gathering this artificial terrace was raised in front of the Hathi-Gumpha with necessary filling retained by walls. running towards cave 9 and 17 of Udayagiri hill.
An instance of a double storeyed building is available in the opening pannel of the lower main wing of Räni-Gumpha. It represents a barrel-vaulted roof crowned by a row of finials. The upper storey has only one entrance, through which a person is looking out, there is a balustrated open balcony round it, on which a woman is standing. The lower storey has two doors each with a female figure. To the left side of this structure is a thickly grown mango tree. This gives an indirect reference to the structural habitation of the people as well as confirm to the mention of the Mahavijaya palace in the HathiGumpha inscription. But whether this particular building represents the palace of king Kharavela or just a building, out of the many available in the capital is difficult to be ascertained at this stage. To this representation Charles Fabri1 considers-"What may seem at first sight to be a house of two storeys, is actually a representation of two mud huts, one behind the other, lack of knowledge about perspective made the artist carve them one over the other. But there are two mud huts, both with thatched roofs, with doors and windows made of bamboo, and the upper or further one has a delightful indication of a hedge running round of it."
But the subsequent pannels of the same wing represent military exploits of a royal person who may tentatively be identified with Kharavela. On the basis of this analogy, the double storeyed building represented in the opening panel may be identified with the palace of Kharavela from which his campaigns actually commenced. This building gives us a fair idea on the state of civil architecture prevalent during the period.
From the end of the Chedi rule we do not find any architectural complex till the advent of the early medieval period which can be specifically related to the Jaina pantheon though Yuan Chwang indirectly supports their prevalence in the area. The numerous remains of chaumukhas designed in the shape of miniature rekha or pidha style of temples
17. Charles Fabri, History of the Art of Orissa, p. 21.

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containing Jaina Tirthankara figures within their niches give us enough idea to the fact that even Jaina temples or religious shrines were built in subsequent periods taking into consideration of the broad features of Hindu monuments. No remains of stūpa, connected with any Jaina establishment like those of the Buddhists, are however, reported in the entire length and breadth of Orissa so far.
N.N. Vasu reported two ruined Jaina sites containing ancient temples of which one was located at Koisali, close to village Badasai in Mayurbhanja district. His report on the dilapidated temple at Koisali from where a Pärśvanātha image was recovered is given below.
"The place where the Pärávanātha image was set up in ancient times was excavated in April 1907. The western side of this place is 90ft. in length, the eastern side being 102 ft. the northern 55 ft. ard the southern 86ft. respectively. The portion already excavated has revealed the existence of an entire foundation and a portion of the ground floor of an ancient Jaina temple. The temple appears to have had a sanctum (garbha gļha) and a Jagamohana. It faces north. There is no means of ascertaining how long it has been in ruins. People say that earth had accumulated over the ruins of the temple 5 to 6 ft. deep. But it was afterwards removed and the ground levelled for the purposes of cultivation. We have been able to discover stone foundations here two to three feet below the ground. During excavation a large āmalaka was discovered amidst the ruins. The style of sculpture seems to be ancient and very fine. The ceiling of the rooms within the temple has iron work attached. This iron work found during the excavation proves that from very early times the people of Mayurbhanj know how to use that metal for building purposes. Specimens of pottery used in ancient times have also been found”. 18
The other place Pundal, is located at a distance of two miles to the north east of Ayodhya in Balasore district. Here once the image of a Jaina Tīrthankara was recovered from the bed of river Sona. Formerly, a temple stood on what is now the river-bed. The stones which once belonged to that temple are occasionally found in the sands of the river.
At Ayodhya we found extensive ruins of temples at a place near the High School. Dressed stones, āmalaka silas and other fragments of temples are found scattered around. But it is difficult to assign the ruins to either Buddhism or Jainism as the place appears to be extremely rich in antiquities of both these cults.
As indicated earlier, Koraput district of Orissa once dominated the scene of Jaina activity. A group of ruined Jaina shrines are noticed with in a rectangular enclosure at a place called Suai close to the metal road leading to Nandapur. Of the entire series of temples only two are still standing. Others are damaged completely leaving traces of their location only through overcrowding of dressed stones. Each cell has figure of Jaina divinity at its sanctum. They are all constructed of stones of local variety. On close examination of the available two shrines (Fig.112) it would be evident that each was a
18. N.N. Vasu, The Archaeological Survey of Mayurbhanj, pp. 46-47.

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triratha structure with a low tower topped by an amalaka. Their base mouldings indicate to an earlier date. Along the door jambs is evidence of square and circular rosettes enclosed within dotted squares. There is no niche in the central rähas for the Pārsvadevatās nor their outer walls are decorated with motifs. In plan, the other ruined temples appear to have smaller dimensions. No trace of the porch or Jagamohana is visible in front of these extant temples.
At a little distance to this place is another much ruined basement of a shrine containing the figure of a Tirthankara. From its present condition nothing can be made out as regards to its ground plan.
At Kachela, the Jaina temple originally some thirty feet high and ten feet broad as reported by G. Ramdas19 is now only available to an extent of some seven or eight feet high with two Jaina relics within the sanctum. There is no trace of the porch in its front. The lower part of this shrine do not show any projection in the outer walls. In and around the open space in front one can find large number of dressed stones and parts of the āmalaka sila lying scattered. The sanctum of the dilapidated temple is locally known as asthāna mandapa. The whole complex is picturesquely located at the foot of a hillock known as Deo Donger. The temple was built in stone.
The village B. Singpur appears to have been a major centre of Jaina religion. Numerous Jaina images are under worship inside thatched houses and the Jagannātha and Siva temples of the place. The site is located exactly in the type of its counterparts at places like Kachela and Suai of the same district. It can well be presumed that many of the earlier shrines built for the Jaina divinities were subsequently converted to Brahmanical temples.
In Orissa there are several instances of Jaina chaumukhas available, containing within their niches figures of standing Jaina Tirthankaras. The one available at Badasai is having a square base. Its būda (lower part of this miniature shrine) is also shaped in square from. Its superstructure is designed in several tiers as in the pidha temples or khākhară mundis of Orissan temple design. The crowning elements above beki consist of the usual amalaka, khapuri and the kalasa. The two chaumukhas (Fig. 73) found preserved in the Jaina temple at Cuttack also envisage the same style. Two more chaumukhas were also brought to the Orissa State Museum, one from a place known as Manikchak near Jaleswara (Fig. 97) of Balasore district and the other from Badacharpoi (Fig. 76) of Jajpur area of Cuttack district. The one, brought from Manikchak is designed in the shape of a pidha temple. It has five tiers and the base has two mouldings. Dopichha lions seen, supporting the crowning elements being placed on the vişama of the superstructure at each corner. The individual niches meant for the Tirthankaras are in oval shapes with pinnacles at their tops. The mastaka consists of the āmalaka, khapuri and the pinnacle in the pattern of a lotus bud. The chaumukha collected from Badacharpoi is a departure from the conventional pidha order. The superstructure of this chaumukha
19. JAHRAS, Vol. VI, pp. 8-14.

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is in rekha temple style on a square base. The outer faces have their central rahā pagas flanked by the kanikas. Two miniature temples also in rekha order are relieved one above the other at the top of each Tirthankara in fornt of the raha paga. The mastaka is consisted of the usual beki, amalaka, khapuri and the pinnacle, also a lotus bud. But the ghanta or Srt as available in pidha temples of Orissa are not envisaged in these miniature chaumukhas. These chaumukhas indirectly help us to know the pattern adopted by the Jainas in designing their religious edifices. They are all made in solid blocks of stones and from their design they appear to have been once fixed to some structures or on pillars within the precincts of Jaina shrines.
To the south-west of the Jaina temple on the crest of Khandagiri hill there is a large, open smooth piece of ground of terrace devoid of any vegetation, gently sloping towards the west, which bears the name Devasabha or the assembly of Gods. It roughly measures one hundred and fifty feet across and is located within a thin sheet of turf.20 On the surface of this terrace, a number of monolithic miniature shrines most of them having at one of their faces the figure of Tirthankara are scattered. Like the votive stupas they were evidently dedicated by pious devotees near the main sanctum. A good number of them at present have been stored in one corner of the temple compound located near it. Their importance lies in their furnishing a rough idea about the general appearance of the extinct temples of the place which must have been of the rekha type. Sterling who reported on this aspect observes "At the back of these temples a highly remarkable terrace is shown, called Devasabha cr assembly of Gods, which is covered with numberless antique looking stone pillars or temples in miniature, some standing, others lying on the ground, about two or three feet long, having on each of the four sides a figure of the naked Jain deity rudely sculptured. The place is still frequented by the Jaina of Parwar merchants of Cuttack who assemble on festival of their religion."
R.L. Mitra who wrongly described them as the models of chaityas containing Buddha figure indicated that "on the centre of this area is built a small square pillar having on each side figure of Buddha in bas relief and round it are placed a number of model chaityas arranged in four rows making four complete circles. The chaityas are two and a half to three feet in height with a cubic bases and a pyramidal spire having on each side of the base an image of Buddha. The style of these chaityas is similar to that of such structures found in Buddhagaya, but the images are standing and nude and not seated and droped, as is usual in the last named place. Altogether there are between eighty and ninety of these models, some of which are broken and others lying prostrate. Probably there were a hundred of them when originally set up.
All of these miniature shrines are made of sand stone of the variety available in the place and fashioned in rekha temple shape instead of having a pyramidal spire as noted above by R.L. Mitra. Being situated at the top of the hill and overcrowded with
20. R.L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol.II, p. 15.
21. JASB, Vol. VI, p. 1076. 22. Ibid, Vol. II, p. 65.

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such votive temples containing Jaina divinities, people of all religious order are tempted to assign it the name of Devasabhā where according to mythology the Gods assemble to have their own deliberations. It is difficult to ascribe any date to the Devasabha in the present state of our knowledge but on the basis of the features of the Jaina Tirthankara images in some of the caves of Khandagiri and within the miniature shrines themselves, we can roughly take its origin back to the medieval period, prior to it this place might have been used by the Jaina ascetics for their open discussions or occasional get together.
The crest of Khandagiri hill is crowned by a temple dedicated to Rşabhanātha (Fig. 34). The figure of Rşabhanātha made of white marble is of recent installation. R.L. Mitra23 has given an account of its picturesque set up thus "Ascending now the top of the hill we come to a Jaina temple which forms the most picturesque feature of the place. In itself a structure of the recent date being only about eighty years old, in style having nothing to commend it to particular attention being small, insignificant and totally devoid of ornament it is nevertheless the most prominent and attractive object on these hills, perched on the very crest of the hill and commanding a wide view as far as the eye can reach with the low hills of Dimapara on the one side and the great tower of Bhubaneswar on the other and an open country all round, whose sterile ungrateful laterite soil is relieved here and there by topes of mango and bamboo and tolerably large patches of cultivation, the temple enjoys one of the finest and most romantic sites which could be selected in this part of the country for raising the mind of man from its mundane surroundings to an undisturbed contemplation of the author of creation. The Jainas have been particularly fortunate in this respect, and all their more important temples have been placed on especially picturesque sites”. Like the generality of Brahmanical temples in Orissa, this temple comprises two parts, a temple proper and the Jagamohana both built in the pyramidal style and plastered over lime. The temple was most probably built on the site of an earlier shrine a presumption, substantiated not only by Kittoes notice in 1837, of the vestiges of earlier structures at the site, but also by the existence on the terrace near the temple of more than a hundred monolithic miniature shrines, most of them having at one of their faces the figure of a Jaina Tirtharkara. Sterling too, reported to this construction and the large quantities of images of the Nirvānas or naked figures executed in grey chlorite slate rock for worship of the Jainas found all around.
Now coming to the architectural details we find the main temple is built on a high plinth with square bada and pyramidal superstructure. The tiers seven in number are gradually diminishing towards the top. From the front edges of the third and fifth tiers of each side we find lions projecting forward almost in the centre of the tiers. The niches meant for the Pārsvadevatās like that of the Hindu temples are kept empty on the rahāpagas of there sides. The bada has five projections and each projection is set with khākharāmundis in regular intervals. The padukānalā attached with makara head is noticed on the base of the northern wall. The crowning elements of the temple consist
23. Ibid, Vol. II, p. 64.

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of the ghanţa or Sri, amalaka khapuri and kalasa. The beki is envisaged above the pyramidal roof. The temple facing east is opened through the eastern wall to the Jagamohana. No trace of graha panel and the conventional door Jambs containing attendant figures are available at the entrance of the temple. The simhasana in the centre of the garbhagļha preserves the recently installed marble Rşabhanātha figure surrounded by a series of Jaina images of earlier period.
The Jagamohana in front, on the other hand having the same plinth is built with a rectangular bada and pyramidal roof. The roof consists of five tiers, lions are projecting (like the temple) from the centre of the edges of the third tier of each side. Two lions flank the crowning elements at the top of the eastern tier. They are facing to the northern and southern directions. The crowning elements as usual consist of the ghanta, āmalaka, khapuri and kalasa. The main entrance to the temple complex through the Jagamohana is on the east. However two side entrances are noticed on the northern and southern walls of the Jagamohana. The inner walls of both the Jagamohana and the temple are not decorated with any carvings. The simhasana, floors of both the shrines and the outside steps, are all covered with white marble slabs. The Jagamohana also do not contain any attendant vehicle of the divinity.
This temple complex was built by Manju Choudhury and his nephew Bhavani Dadu of Cuttack, Jaina merchants of the Digambari sect.24 In front of the temple there is a fine terrace, about fifty feet square with a raised masonry seat all round. The Jains are very particular about this terrace as an appurtenance to their temples and invariably have it in front of all their places of worship. Their temples being with some notable exceptions small and not fit to accommodate any large number of persons at the same time, these terraces are very useful for the congregation to assemble on. On either sides of the temple are also miniature shrines also in pyramidal design. The one found on the northern side has a pillared mandap added in front in recent date.
The colossal image of Pārsvanātha in black marble which is installed in a marble shrine to the right of the temple and within the same courtyard is commissioned in the year 1950. The basement. corner pillars and crowning sikharas at top are all fashioned in marble. The crowning element above the roof of the shrine is formed of a series of angaśikharas.
On the top of the Mahāvīra-Gumphā is noticed an oblong masonry structure with its roof and crowning elements fashioned after a temple of the pidha order. It was probably built recently when the three images of Rsabhanātha were installed inside the Mahāvira-Gumphā by the Jainas who added a structural pillared verandah to the cave, removed in the first decade of the present century.
Another small shrine having opening on all the four side walls and a pyramidal roof is available in front of the Bārabhuji-Gumphā. It too, is crowned with amalaka Sila and the kalasa.
24. R. L. Mitra, Ibid, p. 64.

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Cuttack town has the distinction of three Jaina shrines of modern origin. They are located in Chaudhury Bazar, Jaunliapati and Alamchand Bazar. The one in Jaunliapati is nothing but a part of the residential building. Architecturally the Jain temple of Chaudhury Bazar (Fig. 68) leaving aside the recent one of Alamchanda Bazar, is best preserved. It displays all the major features of an Orissan temple style. Situated within a spacious compound it has the main temple in rekhā order and Jagamohana in pidha design, a feature common in all the later Orissan temples. A small chamber between the temple and the Jagamohana is serving the purpose of antarāla. It rather links both structures, and the space created thereby helps the pious devotees to pay respectful homage to the deities from a close distance.
The main temple in rekhā order is facing east. It has a raised plinth, square bada slightly curvilinear tower and the crowning elements. The outer walls have five projections cach which are designed with angaśikharus up to the end of the bada. The recesses in between the pagas are filled with female figures, musicians, couples, lions, peacocks, etc. and the pagas have projecting lions at regular intervals. The tower near the vişama shows five mouldings and above the visama are placed at each corner crowning elements of a temple consisting of the beki, ghanta, amalaka, khapuri and kalasa. The crowning element which is otherwise known a mastaka of the Orissan temple is represented here byghanța, āmalaka, khapuri and kalasa, with beki (neck) as the connecting link between the body (tower) and the mastaka (head). To the side of the kalasa is the dhvaja to a pole. The top most kalasa is conical in shape.
The temple has no separate shrines for the pārsvadevatās nor there are niches within the central projections of the outer walls. But the northern and southern walls have just above the base and at the centre of the bada spaces for windows fitted with jālis (screens). Through these windows air and light enter to the sanctum.
The Jagamohana on the other hand though built on the same base is having a square bada and a pyramidal superstructure. The tiers on the superstructure are seven in number and each tier from its outer edge displays projecting lions. The bada has five vertical divisions and mastaka above beki represents the same elements like that of the main shrine. The Jagamohana had originally four openings but the one to the south is closed for preservation of a few Jaina relics. The western opening leads to the sanctum. The other two on the east and north are used for the entry and exist of the devotees. The inner areas of the Jagamohana ceiling are painted with various floral and linear designs. The niches within its inner walls are filled with ancient Jaina relics but no carvings are noticed anywhere in the inner walls of the Jaganiohana and the main shrine. The lintel over the door jambs displays the figure of a seated Pārsvanātha flanked by two female attendants instead of the usual navagraha slab and the Gajalakşmi of the Hindu pantheon. The simhasana (covered with marble) in the centre of the sanctum preserves a large number of Jaina divinities in stone, marble and brass of different dates. The whole complex is plastered and given a coat of lime mixed with red-ochre.
The Jaina temple at Alama chand Bazar was completed during the year 1974. It followed the general feature of the Jaina temples of Rajasthan, situated within a narrow

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courtyard the temple has a very high plinth almost sharing with the front apartment. The lower parts of the main shrine are vertically divided into five projections, the central ones of which contain seated Jaina Tirthankara figures within niches. The superstructure above the bada is formed of miniature towers and the crowning part above the beki is supported by heads of squattish human figures placed on the vişama on each direction. The top most parts of the temple consist of the amalaka, khapuri and kalasa. The dhvajastambha is fixed near by the post meant for the lightening conductor.
The porch in front is having a square bāda and dome shaped roof. It has door openings on all directions and except the one leading to the sanctum others are flanked by windows. The doors in their front have sun-breakers designed in pyramidal roof on well polished marble pillars. The entire courtyard is paved with glazed tiles and mosaic. The inner chamber on a high pedestal preserves the images of Neminātha, Mahāvira and Munisuvrata all in yogasana pose. No trace of Navagraha slab is available on the lintel and in its place a seated figure of a Tirthankara is depicted.
The small Jaina shrine built by the mother of the late L. N. Sahu at Chaudwar is hardly fifty years old. It preserves a number of Jaina Tirthankara images. The Rşabha image of this place is disfigured through paintings. The shrine constructed at the site is a miniature temple of pidha order on a square base and plastered all over.
The other Jaina shrine at village Bhanapur on the Bhubaneswar-Cuttack section of National Highway for preservation of the brass idols of Jaina divinities recovered in the close vicinity was built in the last decade by one Kangali Bhatta. This temple facing west is constructed with a pyramidal roof supported on a square base. The crowning elements do not show any special feature. It too is plastered all over.
A modern shed is constructed at Podasingidi, at the foot of the mountain containing Yogichata in Keonjhar district for enshrining of Jaina Sāsanadevi and Tirthankara figures. This shrine is dedicated to Ramachandi in view of the fact that it contains some Ambikā figures which are locally called Chandi Thakurānı. It is a square structure with a flat roof and an entrance in front. The stone pedestal near the back wall of the chamber is set with three Ambikā figures. The front wall in its outer face also has a stone pedestal intervened by the door steps for installation of Tirthařkara images found nearby. This structure has been recently built by the local people. This has been completely plastered and given a thick coat of lime.

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Jaina art in Orrissa is represented through the relief sculptores of Udaygiri and Khandagiri caves and the large number of figurines in bronze and stone. The early phase of this art in Orissa is concentrated on the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills. These caves as indicated earlier were commissioned during the period of the Chedi rule in the first century B.C. They broadly represent two categories of sculptural representations. The first category relates to the narrative panels on the facades of Rāņi-Gumphā, Ganesa-Gumphā, Mañchapuri-Gumphā, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā of Udayagiri and Ananta-Gumphā of Khandagiri by depicting various aspects of dancing performances, military conquests, popular legends and religious observances. The other category comprised of individual figurines in relief such as guards, bracket figures, Vidyadharis; crowning animals and a series of decorative motifs of both floral and linear within the arch-bands, pilasters, brackets, railings, etc. in almost all the caves of the place.
The narrative panels of Rāņi-Gumphā are represented in the facades of its lower main wing, upper main wing, lower right wing and outer walls of the guard rooms envisaged on the two corners of the lower main wing. They are in fact the most extensive series of sculptured scenes to be found in any rock-cut examples of their age and even in their ruined state, are full of interest to the history of cave art.
There are nine sculptured friezes extending over the facade of the lower main wing and its immediate turn in the eastern end. Except three, all others are defaced and can be seen in outline only. The opening frieze depicts a tree and a double storeyed building with barrel-vaulted roof crowned by a row of finials. The lower storey has two doors each with a straight hypertherion having an arched moulding over it. The upper storey has a door similar in character to the lower one. There is a female figure looking out from each door and one also from the balustrated balcony which is protected by rail of four bars, a similar bar runs in front of the lower storey.
The scenes from second to seventh are badly mutilated. However with difficulty they can be attributed to various aspects of royal conquests or military activities.

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The eighth frieze depicts a royal personage with two followers at the extreme left. One of these followers is holding umbrella, the royal insignia, and other is in folded. hands. Beyond the last one, two women, one carrying a tray and the other in the posture of offering flower from her raised hands and two kneeling figures one of which with flowing fillets round the head, a Greek feature. Of the later group, the front one as a mark of submission to the king is seen approaching the feet of a person who appears to be removing his dress at the command of the authority and the rear one has his hands folded. Both the kneeling figures seem to have alighted from the caparisoned horse standing on the extreme right. By the side of the horse are three more figures with folded hands. Like the two kneeling figures they too do not wear turbans and appear to be the followers of the latter. One more horse with three other figures occupies a portion of the facade of the side cell, but the continuity is well marked through the rope to which the horse is tied.
The last frieze depicts one event in which a victorious king is accorded with a ceremonial welcome at the very return to the capital. On the left the king is standing below an umbrella held aslant, by an attendant. Two of his warrior followers carry long swords over their shoulders. To the right, on the wall adjoining the pilaster are six figures, four women and two turbaned men, the latter with outstretched welcoming. hands. Three of the women carry pitchers on their heads, the fourth in kneeling posture being in the attitude of pouring out the contents of her pitcher.
The two full and two half spandrils on the facade of the lower right wing depict four scenes. Starting from the left, the first half spandril is carved with a dwarfish figure standing under tree, evidently making the beginning of the panel, then comes a lady clad in outstretched undergarment with folded hands wearing heavy earrings, necklaces, anklets and by her side is a female boldly carved also in folded hands wearing dhoti tied on the waist and having earrings and a light turban. The fourth figure, a female (shown in the upper parts only) is carrying offerings, a tray in the left hand and a casket like object on the right and dressed in her upper parts like the first lady of the scene.
The next compartment (Fig. 8.) has three figures, one male and two females with folded hands seated on a bench or cushion and flanked on the right by a lady holding a tray and on the left by another holding a vase like object.
An umbrella is shown over the male figure who is provided with a well designed turban, a set of dangling earrings and three rows of bangles in each hand. The decorative ornaments of the two women consist of equally heavy circular ear-studs, several rows of bangles, in each hand, anklets and necklaces.
The third compartment (Fig. 9) exhibits a girl dancing gracefully under a pillared pavilion and four seated female companions forming the orchestra, the nearest playing on a mydanga, the second on a dhakka, and the third on a harp and the fourth blowing flute. The dancing girl with outstretched hands has her hairs arranged in double plaits (one having a flower) partly covered with a flowing veil. The roof of the pavilion is relieved with stepped merlons and its supporting pillars fittingly carved.

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The fourth scene begins with a female holding a tray, followed by a man in heavy turban advancing with folded hands and a woman carrying a tray and a vase like object. The scene ends with a boyish figure under a tree with his hands crossed over his chest.
The little pavilion behind the danseuse is in every essential respect identical with the nepathya-grha shown in an Ajanta mural painting with surprisingly similar pillars supporting the superstructure being imported from Mesopotamia. As regards to the dancing performance Charles Fabri observes "The movement of the danseuse is well caught, however primitive the work and must be looked upon as the earliest extant representation of Orissi dancing. Clumsy as most of the other figures are there is a certain amount of liveliness attempted once again reminding us much more of the art of Amarāvati than of Bhārhut, the scene is live, crowded and there is a distinct element of nobility in the erect dancing pose of the nartaki. If I am not mistaken, the right hand is in the patakā-hasta, a well known hand gesture of Orissi. She wears enormous earrings, not unlike some of the figures in the earliest murals in Ajanta and in order to suggest a vigorous movement, the ribbon end of her head dress flows in a lively manner behind her ear. Her hair is let down in two thick and separate plaits-a form I have proved many years ago to be the earliest hair style of India.''
In view of the inscriptional evidences of Hāthi-Gumphā, the elaborate display of military exploits depicted in the narrative panels of lower main wing of Rāņi-Gumpha and umbrellas held over the head we may identify the male figure accompanied by two ladies in folded hands of the first full-spandril of the right wing with Khāravela and his two queens. The dancing scene presents a feeling of exhilarating grace and vigour and bespeaks the spirit of Hāthi-Gumphā inscription where Khāravela has been represented as a great lover of dance and music.
The upper storey facade of Rāņi-Gumphā is having seven full and two half spandrils with sculptured bands, but the piers between the doorways being wider, a greater length of the rail has been shown on each pier and its lower edge diversified by brackets formed of crouching Yakşa figures. The two half-spandrils indicating the beginning and end of the entire facade contain figures of Vidyadharas (Fig. 10) hovering in the sky with trays of offerings and lotus stalks. The subject matter of the first three full spandrils are in somewhat preserved, fifth is entirely obliterated and fourth, sixth and seventh partially inferred.
The reliefs apparently depict some legends, the satisfactory explanations of which have been suggested. From the Vidyādharas flying in haste, with offerings of garlands, and flowers, which mark, the beginning and end of the frieze, it appears that they may represent some episodes from Jaina mythology, though there is hardly any thing which savours of the Jaina faith, its mundane character being indeed too pronounced. The scenes seem to be independent of one another.3
1. Charles Fabri, History of the Art of Orissa, p. 20. 2. Ibid, pp. 20-21. 3. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Kha ndagiri, p. 24.

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The first full spandril represents a duel between a herd of elephants and a large crowd consisting of one stout man and ten women (Fig. 11). The scene is laid in a forest as is suggested by the natural cave containing a lion and an elephant a rare combination, a tree having drooping pennate leaves and tufts of flowers somewhat resembling bunches of grapes and the lotus pool in which the three elephants are being attacked. As it appears the three elephants were sporting in the pond and when the group of men and women had arrived at the spot, they were disturbad and apprehending counter attack by the herd of elephants the group became panic and made efforts to dislodge the elephants, from the pond with whatever objects they could procure readily. In the encounter that took place, one of the women showed great courage in taking her stand too resolutely even in front of the man with dishevelled hair and aiming against the elephants a ring like object (anklet). Two such ring like objects (anklets) are seen already sticking on the body of the front elephant. The stout man fighting bravely with a big staff (raised over his head in both hands) but the other women in the group being nervous drag one another and create a great confusion. One of the women is helping another who had dropped down. Three other females in the farthest background are crowding together in fear or sustaining their courage by holding each other by their hands. The whole scene is a representation of certain elephants having taken possession of a sacred cave, the dwelling of some simple people, who with a party of their neighbours are trying their utmost with the very insignificant means at their disposal to dislodge them.
The second full spandril represents a richly decorated woman seated cross-legged in front of an artificial cave with a man resting his head on her thigh (Fig. 12). Beyond this a lady holding the right hand of a warrier armed with sword and shield is seen leading him to the couple in the cave. The lady appears to have disuaded the armed man from any drastic action. The centre of the panel shows the woman, armed with a large shield and a broad sword bravely standing up and fighting a warrior similarly accoutred, and evidently the amazon was defeated in this combat, for we see her being carried away, forcibly, on the right by the victorious warrior in his arms. The scene was laid in forest as evident from the representation of rock shelter, monkeys, snake, tree, a frightened animal and lion cubs.
The panel has some delightful elements of realism, or rather observation, such as the stepping out of the warrior, his right arm raised, holding the sword, almost equally well done is the amazon, with slender legs seen from behind, in a forward bending movement. The composition is the typical ribbon composition, reading from left to right like a book; it is a little muddled space is not handled with the sensitivity we find later, in classical times, and it almost seem as if the sculptor had been anxious to tell all he knew, all he wanted to express.
Like the previous two, the third full-spandril (Fig. 13) is also laid in forest as evident from the two flowering trees, a series of running antelopes and the bushy tailed
4. R.L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, p. 16. 5. Charles Fabri, History of the Art of Orissa, p. 22,

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animal. The panel opens with three male attendants, one holding an umbrella and fan (chauri ?), the second a staff like object (or sword), and the third, a water-pot suspended from a stick carried over his shoulder. The led horse is richly caparisoned with a thick pad, a many strapped bridle and a richly-plumed crest. A boy stands in front of the horse. The royal person, as evident from the state umbrella and richly clad costumes and decorative ornaments like bejewelled head dress, necklace, bangles, earrings, etc. has a sword in scabbard hanging by his left and aiming arrow at an antelope and two fawns. He holds the bow in the true ancient Indian fashion. The scene ends with his bow at rest on the left shoulder and right hand in abhaya in front of a woman, seated on a tree. The lady points through her finger the wounded antelope. Near the crest of the arch is an animal with a long bushy tail trailing on the ground. The lady seated on the tree appears naked and her pundeda prominently emphasised. Her arms and legs are so entwined with the branches and the trunk of the tree that she seems to be truly part of the tree herself, her enormous hair in a vast coil apparently forming shapes almost like the fruits of the tree.
The subject matter of the panel has been variously identified by eminent scholars such as Fergusson with Mrga Jātaka or Deer Jātaka, Moti Chandra? with Sarabhamrga
Tataka (No. 483), T.N. Ramachandran with the abduction of Sita and V.S. Agrawala with Dushyanta-Sakuntala episode. But the identification of V.S. Agrawala appears to be nearer the truth. He is of the opinion that “The whole make up, this very interesting scene unmistakably points to the story of kind Duşyanta visiting the hermitage of sage Kanva and falling in love at first sight with Sakuntalā. The stages in the relief are definite and clear. In the beginning, the king arrives with his soldiers, his own presence indicated by a horse with an empty back followed by an attendant holding fly-whisk and an umbrella, the true signs of royalty. In the next scene the kind is hunting and shoots his arrows at a herd of frightened antelopes. In the third scene the leader of the herd is ushered the king into the presence of a beautiful woman. The king has withdrawn his bow and is in the act of looking at her or conversing with her. The female figure rests on the lower branch of a tree and the antelope crouches at the foot of the tree."
In this scene there is no place for the female friends of Sakuntalā viz. Priyambadā and Anasuyā whom Kalidasa introduces in his drama for the first time and also none of the sophisticate overtures of lover from either side. In pictorial detail all the circumstances which an historian finds it his duty to record, the artist is obliged, from the nature of his art, to seize only the most salient and striking points of history those which are likely to produce the most effective representations and the omission of the attempt at resecure in one version and its insertion in the other according to the taste or fancy of the artist therefore cannot alter the subject. The romantic love story formed part of the common literary and art heritage of ancient India and its reproduction in the
6. James Fergusson, The Cave Temple of India, p. 83. 7. V.S. Agrawala, JISOA, Vol XIV, p. 109, foot note No. 1. 8. T.N. Ramchandran, Jaina Monuments of India, p. II. 9. V.S. Agrawala, Indian Art, pp. 181-82.

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repertoire of carving in the Jaina cave in the extreme east of India is prove of its universal popularity.
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The figures in the next panel are much mutilated and it is difficult to describe them in detail. However from the available evidences it can be inferred that the panel. centres round the performance of a dance sequence accompanied by rich display of an orchestra troupe in the presence of two important personalities. From the series of attendants, representation of umbrella, the insignia of royalty and lavish display of decorative costumes and ornaments on their persons, the two important personalities can be identified with a royal couple enjoining a dance sequence. The subject matter of the next three full spandrils are lost.
M.M. Chakravarty, on the basis of Parivanatha-Charita written by Bhavadeva Suri of the 13th century A.D. connects these representations of this story with Parsvanatha the twenty-third Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon. He argues "the elephant scene introduces Pārsva's future wife with her relatives and attendants, that in the next scene she is abducted by the Kalinga king, that in the fourth scene she is rescued by Pārsvanatha in a forest while hunting, that the following scene depicts the wedding feast, the seventh scene the consummation of marriage and the eighth scene a march with elephants.
But there is no evidence to show that such traditions were prevailing in India during the period to inspire the poets and artists. In the Kalpa Sutra attributed to the th century A.D., the account of Parsva's marriage is not represented as the result of such romantic adventures. Moreover the Pärivänätha Charita differs in various details. from the story depicted by these relief sculptures. According to the former, the Yavana king invaded the town of Kusasthala and forcibly took away his beautiful princess. Prabhābati, who was rescued by Parśvanatha whom she later on married. But the sculptures mentioned above narrate the story of abduction in a different manner making the question of identification of the two accounts inappropriate.11
The two guard rooms in front of the lower main wing of Rāņi-Gumpha contain relief sculptures in their outer faces. The upper parts of both the outer walls represent hills with springs and trees laden with thick growth of leaves and mangoes, wild animals, some in natural rock shelters, birds, monkeys and other denizens of the forest. On their lower portions, are depicted lotus pools in which elephants are merrily sporting. Stella Kramrisch who had made critical study of the Udayagiri and Khandagiri sculptures is of the opinion that they represent the earliest renderings of an extensive "Landscape" scene in Indian art in the following words.
"This pattern effect of plastic forms, surging into light from the darkness of the back-ground is worked out in most intricate manner on the walls of projecting side cell.
10. M.M. Chakravarty, Bengal District Gazeteer, Puri, LSS 'O Malley (Ed.) 1908, p. 256,
11. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, pp. 367-68. 12. Qtd. B.M. Barua, Old Bramhi Inscriptions, p. 312.

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The forms are so densely set that the entire wall is dissolved into a deep and rough texture. Even the figure of a bird which by its smallness might become inconspicuous, is represented as a clearly visible entity by means of a receptacle, so to say carved around it of circular or squarish shape. These very elaborate devices make up one of the earliest pure "landscape" scenes of Indian sculpture.
The forest here is rendered in the same way as the jungle grows. One forms next to the other, densely crowded not allowing any horizon to be seen, any path to be found, an intricate pattern in which the single forms arrange themselves by crowding into every nook and corner. The heavier and more voluminous fall to the ground, the smaller and more slender from rise up. The density of the pattern worked in high relief, pervaded by the contrast of light and shade scarcely gives room for any rhythms except a perchance the rigorous discipline of densely set figures in superimposed rows, it is of the same type as the method of crowding with figures, the reliefs of the Sanchi Gate-way.
Charles Fabri13 associates these relief sculptures with that of Bhaja. "The rest of the carving conjures up reminiscences of the rather involved relieve work at Bhājā, though this Rāni-Gumphā work is even more complicated a fine mess of fantastic shapes, obviously redolent of the world of the jungle, rocks with caves and wild beasts, water falls and trees and spirits and godlings of the untamed primordial wood, elephants bathing in ponds, all conceived in an almost surrealistic juxtaposition.
The long frieze on the facade of Chhota-Hāthi-Gumphā attracts the instant attention of the visitors to the caves of Udayagiri hill. Due to disappearance of the verandah, the frieze is now seen from a distance in its much ruined condition.
This frieze depicts the masterly carving of six vigorous elephants there on either side of the arch, over its only door-way. From the entire group, the front ones are the cubs, the middle ones are the tuskers and the rear ones, the she-elephants. The cubs appear to have been engaged in depositing the bunches of flowers and leaves held in their trunks near the crest of the arch. The she elephant to the right is seen emerging from the mango tope. The two tuskers in the centre of the groups are more shown in vigorous and rhythmic positions. They have been symmetrically represented except the right one lowering its trunk near the arch and the left one placing the same over the arched band. Faint traces of flower are visible above the pinnacle which probably adorned the symbolical representation of the object of veneration. Elephants holding stalks of lotuses, flywhisks and umbrellas also met elsewhere in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.
The sacred tree within railing of the facade of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā is worshipped by a couple on each side (Fig. 14). The male figures are standing with folded hands and their consorts with scarves on, carrying trays of flowers and garlands. The religious sanction behind the tree is revealed from the umbrella placed over it. The details of costumes and decorative elements of the figures are badly eroded. Flying figures holding a tray of flowers and lotus buds are noticed on either side.
13. Charles Fabri, History of the Art of Orissa, p. 20.

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This panel occupying greater space than its counterpart in Ananta-Gumphā is good in perspective but crudely finished. Stella14 Kramrisch who considers the relief on the Jaya-Vijaya Gumphā as a second rate side issue of the work on the Rāņi-Gumphā observes that "the workship of the tree scene, however, deserves notice, in as much as it contains the clearest formulation of the spatial conceptions of early Indian sculpture, widely made use of at the days of Bhārhut, matured into completion in Mahābodhi and in this special example."
The long drawn panel in the space between the second and third doorways of the main wing of Mañchapuri-Gumph, is often ascribed to the reinstalment of the Kalinga Jina by Khāravela15 accompanied by his family members (Fig. 15). In the centre, on a high pedestal rests the objects of worship obliterated beyond recognition. The pedestal is duly flanked on either side by a kneeling figure also blurred. The assemblage on the right is a group of four standing votaries with folded hands, who evidently came there on a majestic elephant carved on to the further right. Above the figures is suggested the aerial region by the symbol of Sun, two flying Gandharvas are seen carrying celestial musical instruments and flying Vidyadhara in the extreme right corner, hastens towards the objects of worship in the attitude of scattering flowers from a tray held in his left hand. D. Mitra16 contemplates, that a similar assemblage must have existed on the left side of the pedestal but it is now thoroughly obliterated, only the feet of the flying Vidyadhara being preserved.
The second figure from the left of the existing panel wears a turreted crown resembling a tiārā on Mauryan heads found at Saranatha. The arrangement of his scarf in the fashion of vttariya passing across his left shoulder is distinct from that of others. All are in long dhoti, scarves and heavy ear-ornaments. The representation of the king is more prominently carved and his dignifying presence is enhanced by the crown and beating of the drum just above his head symbolising royalty.
The opening panel of Ganesa-Gumphā is precisely a repetition of the second full spandril of Rāņi-Gumphā upper storey (Fig. 16). But the decorative constumes and ornaments worn by the figures and the representation of trees and various denizens of forest the Rāņi-Gumphā panel appears to be more elaborate in depiction and vigorus in action. The person at the very entrance of the artificial cave though almost looks like nodding his head on the thigh of the lady seated close to him in Rāņi-Gumphā, he is sleeping comfortably here on being carved in full with his head resting on his right palm. The lady is seated towards his leg contrary to the one available in Rāņi-Gumpha. The figures engaged in battle in the next phase appear to be short and timid but the same figures in Rāni-Gumphā are strong built, tall, robust and full of vitality. Neither the frightened animals in the midst of battle nor the lady holding the shield in her left hand while taken away by the fighter are rendered effectively in this panel. Near the crest of
14. Qtd. B.M. Barua, Old Brahmi Inscriptions, p. 314. 15. T.N. Ramachandra, IHO., Vol. XXVII. No. II, pp. 103-08. 16. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, p. 33.

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the right arched band a Brāhmaṇi goose intstead of two lion cubs seen fleeing. The monkey and the snake running towards them are entirely omitted here.
The last frieze of Gaṇeśa-Gumphâ in the space between the third and fourth arches over door-ways depict a story entirely unrelated to any one of the friezes described above (Fig. 17). It opens with a body of three kilted soldiers in foot armed with swords and shields, pursuing an elephant mounted by three persons. The woman sitting at the front is driving the elephant with the goad and holds a harp. The central figure who is also dressed in kilt is shooting arrows at the persons from the top of the elephant. Another person at the back partially leaning, is distributing coins from a bag held in one of his hands. One of the kilted soldiers is seen collecting the coins fallen on the ground. Between the first episode and the second, which depicts the dismounting of the three persons from the kneeling elephant, is a tree, indicative of the woods where the scene took place. In the next phase the elephant is kneeling and the persons on its back in the earlier part shown standing around it after being dismounted. Next the archer no longer in kilt, leads the other two, the woman carrying a bunch of mangoes in her right hand and with her left hand resting on the shoulders of the archer and the attendant with the money bag placed on his right shoulder. The last scene represents the woman in reclining posture on a bed in pensive mood. The man standing to her side is attempting to console her. The attendant holding the bow of her master and the money bag now shifted to the left shoulder is on the extreme end.
The subject matter of this panel has been variously identified by scholars. Fergusson1 suggests, "It may be a story from some Yavan conquest of Kalinga, or it may be a scene from some popular legend connected with some of the earlier princes of the land or lastly, it may be a Jataka representing some action that took place in one of the earlier births of Sakya Muni."
M. M. Chakravarty's attempts to connect this panel like the panels of RaniGumpha with the activities of Pärávanatha on the basis of the medieval legend that Pārsvanatha rescued that princess from the hands of Yavana king of Kalinga."
But the identification of the subject matter of this panel by V.S. Agrawala with that of the legend Udayana Vasavadatta on the basis of terracotta plaques recovered from the ancient site of Kausambi, the capital of Vatsaraja Udayana and now deposited in Bharatakala Bhavan appears reasonable. According to him "Both in the stone relief and the terracotta plaques the pursuers at the back of the elephant are the soldiers of the king of Ujjaini. They are divided from their main job by Vasantaka who from his scat on the back of the elephant is raining a shower of coins which the soldiers greedily begin to pick up. In the terracotta plaque Udayana is seated on the elephant and holds the lute Chosavati in his right hand. In the sculpture he is shown shooting at the soldiers. The pose of Vasavadatta is identical in both the terracotta and the stone
17. James Fegusson, The Cave Temples of India, pp. 87-88.
18. O. Malley, Bengal District Gazetteer, Puri (Ed), p. 259. 19. V.S. Agrawala, Indian Art, pp. 179-80.

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relief. She is driving her own elephant with a goad in her right hand. Whereas the terracotta plaque depicts only the flight scene the stone relief supplements it by adding a couple of subsidiary related scenes enacted in Udayana's Capital at Kausambi. In the second part of the scene separated from the first by a tree which marks the end of the forest, Udayana and Vasavadatta are out of danger and seem to have reached their capital. They are alighting from their elephant who is kneeling on the ground. In the third part Vasantaka is shown with a bag on his shoulder, evidently the bag of coins, and Udayana is leading Vasavadatta to his palace. The fourth scene shows the disconsolate lady Vasavadatta inside the harem and the king engaged in consoling her".
The story of Udayana as available in Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical literature, is essentially a love romance, and there are no differences based on religion in the main outline of the story. The scene relating to the flight of Udayana and Vasavadatta on elephant from Ujjaini form a common part of all the versions.
The semi circular spaces formed by the arched bands of Ananta-Gumpha depict relief sculptures often having narrative character. The subject matter of the last two, though found intact, they are partially damaged in the earlier two. In the opening tympanum from left it is seen that a four-tusked huge elephant occupies the centre of frieze (Fig. 18). The sculptor has set himself the task of representing in low relief every limb and feature of his great bulk enface. The left hand corner bears a floral representation and a well drawn female elephant in profile trailing a long lotus stalk whose flower she is holding up to the middle elephant. The only bud and the leaf attached to the stalk are rightly provided to fill up the gap. A lotus on the other side is held up similarly but the female elephant is wanting due to the collapse of the mass of rock in between the first and the second door-way. A similar panel with slight variations is also depicted in one of the pillar tops of the verandah of Alakapuri-Gumpha. In this panel the four-tusked elephant at the centre is flanked by the two she-elephants with fly whisk and parasol contrary to the lotus stalks in the Ananta-Gumphã relief. The repetition of the subject in at least two separate places indicate its popularity. Alexander E. Caddy is inclined to connect this episode with Chadanta Jataka while N.K. Sahu21 with that of the white elephant of Vesantara Jataka who averted drought and famine in Kalinga.
The second tympanum depicts the figure of a turbaned royal personage wearing heavy kundalas, a necklace and bangles under one umbrella, with a female figure holding a fly-whisk on either side and driving a chariot drawn by four spirited horses. Above them are the representation of the moon, surrounded by stars and the Sun which symbolises the stellar world. The left hand of the figure is placed on the waist and the right on the chest. The demonish pot bellied dwarf holding a spouted water vase in his left hand and a banner in his right hand, stands at the right of the relief near the wheel of the chariot. Due to damaging condition only faint traces of the hind parts of the horses harnessed to the chariot are found in the composition.
20. A.E. Caddy, JASB, Vol. LXV, Part-II, pp. 272-74. 21. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 385.

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Alexander E. Caddy, D. Mitra, and S. Srivastava identify this relief panel with Sun God driving his chariot. But the four horses instead of the conventional seven ladies on either side lolding flywhisks instead of shooting arrows and symbolical representation of both sun and moon in the composition add to our cnnfusion. N.K. Sahu25 on the other hand relates this event to a royal figure whose identity he is unable to provide at this stage. His contention based on the proto type available in the right top panel of the South gate of Bharhut where king Prasenjit, being accompanied by female attendants is found riding a chariot drawn by four horses.
The composition of the third tympanum often goes for Goddess Laksmi (Fig. 19) by most of the scholars. This tympanum depicts a lady standing in the centre of a lotus lake holding two full blown lotus flowers in her two hands which rests on her loins. She is flanked by two elephants who stand on lotuses by her sides and pour water for her ceremonial bath from pitchers held in their uplifted trunks. She is heavily decked with decorative costumes and ornaments. A pair of birds (parrots) are also seen behind the elephants of respective sides pecking at the seed vessels. Of the two other full blown lotuses one is partially shown. Stalks of lotuses and their buds in various shapes fill up the remaining space.
Gajalaksmi, symbolising prosperity, is as much as a Jaina motif as Buddhist and Brahmanical. It frequently occurs not only on the early reliefs of Bharhut, Boddhagaya and Sanchi, but also as a common symbol on early coins, seals and Jaina Paṭṭāvalis. It continued to be in use till later periods for it occurs at the centre of the lintel of the temples, specially in Orissa, irrespective of their cult affiliation. The Jainas regard this lotus lady as an auspicious one and among the fourteen most excellent, prosperity, foreboding, evil destroying, wealth conferring, fortunate delightsome dreams, which Trisala dreampt on the occasion of when Mahavira was transferred to her womb from that of Devanandi; Mahālakṣmi seated on a lotus with two elephants pouring water on her head, appears as the fourth.
The object of depiction in the last tympanum is the worship of a tree within railing enclosure by a couple being attended by two others. An umbrella covers the tree at the top. The lady seen to the right is holding a heavy garland in her right hand while the other one rests on her thigh. Her undergarment runs parallel to that of the Gajalaksmi figure, but the hairdo differs widely in its setting. The man on the otherside is dressed in equally long scarve held across the shoulders. The superior disposition of their costumes indicate to their higher status. D. Mitra26 takes this tree to be the kevala tree of one of the Tirthankaras. But the sculptors while depicting, were specially prone to adhere to the types sanctified by tradition and it is not surprising, therefore, that one finds so much conventionality than usual in identifying some of the species. But it can be
22. A.E. Caddy, JASB, Vol. LXV, Pt. II, pp. 272-74.
23. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, p. 48.
24. S. Srivastava, Sun Worship in Ancient India, pp. 295-96.
25 N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, pp. 385-86. 26. D. Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, p. 49,

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safely concluded that bo-tree of the Buddhists and the Kalpavşkşya of the Jainas attained a commanding position in their sacred religious performances.
Representation of guard figures are noticed standing or mounted on animals in front of the terminal piers of Rāņi-Gumphā, Ganesa-Gumphā, Dhānaghara-Gumphā, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā, Mañchapuri-Gumpha and Tätowā-Gumphā No. I. Guards mounted on animals are found on either corners of the upper main wing of RāņiGumphā. Of them the one to the right is pot-bellied, wears a dhoti, bangles, necklace and rides a lion. The other animal on the left resembles like a bull. The guard carved against the left pilaster of the upper right wing of the same cave is a kilted foreigner in boots, covering the leg up to the middle of the calf and fillet on the forehead (Fig. 26). His right hand rests on the thigh and a sheathed sword hangs by the left side. The right pilaster of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā is occupied by a sparsely draped female (Fig. 24) tall and slender and wearing heavy ear ornaments, bangles and a garland. With her coiffure decorated with a flower and a leaf, she fondles a parrot perched on her fingers. Except the figures noted above others are generally clad in a long piece of cloth, scarves, heavy ear-ornaments and bangles. They hold a long spear in their right hands and sheathed sword suspended from their left shoulders through a strap. Upper parts of their bodies are mostly bare. Stella Kramrisch27 while discussing the guard figures of Rāņi-Gumphā observes. “The figures from the Rāņi-Gumphā represent most varied types in body and dress. The treatment, however remains one and the same. It is a modelling with naturalistic aim, elaborating the anatomy in a broadly summarising manner. The standing posture, though generally easy except the one figure clad in dhoti only, occupying the outer most panel of the upper storey, left wing, betrays determination (Fig. 26). The faces are damaged beyond recognition but from the minutely variegated physique and costume it appears as if those high reliefs were meant to be portraits".
The outer and inner brackets of the extant verandah pillars and pilasters are often relieved with decorative motifs, human figures, animals, floral devices, winged and enigmatic figures, squattish Gana figures, cavaliers, scenes of lion hunt, elephant catching, etc. (Figs. 27, 28 and 30). The squattish Gana figures are invariably seen in the attitude of supporting the superstructure. Lotus and honey-suckles, the two most popular motifs on the arched bands over door-ways of the place also adorn the inner and outer faces of the brackets with almost the same form and style. The worship of an elephant, the performance of a dance sequence to the tune of a stringed musical instrument under a tree, ladies holding trays filled with garlands, flowers and other offerings, boys playing before birds, hunting of lion through a long spear, winged and enigmatic figures sitting back to back, Vidyādharas displaying floral buds and spouted vessels, women with folded hands and separated by floral band made up of stylised honey suckles and lotuses are very remarkably carved on both faces of these brackets. Since the brackets are all designed in curved fashion, the animals and human figurines on them are blended accordingly. The delineation of the trotting elephant on the outer face of the bracket of Tentuli-Gumphā is strikingly naturalistic.
27. Qtd. B.M. Barua, Old Brhami Inscriptions, pp. 312-13,

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In addition to the bracket decorations the tops of the Verandah pillars as also of a few pilasters of Udayagiri caves are relieved with addorsed makaras, winged animals often with heads of birds and human figures seated back to back, fighting with lions, subduing elephants, etc. Their design and form though crude and in low relief yet indicate variety of subjects which not only throw light on their earlier representation in stone sculptures, but also their masterly execution in the hands of the artists. The various enigmatic figures and winged animals have their affinity with their West-Asian counterparts which dominated the Maurayan and Sunga period.
The door pilasters and in a few caves the verandah pillars and side pilasters are crowned with addorsed animal figures seated back to back. In case a DhānagharaGumpha despite the fact that there are no pilasters flanking the door-way, yet, the capitals in respective places are depicted with a pair of addorsed animals on a corbelled abacus above a bell-shaped lotus. The massive verandah pillars and side pilasters of the right wing of Rāņi-Gumphā are depicted with six and three animals respectively. Of the six animals on each pillar, bulls on the left and lions on the right, two seated back to back on the front and the rear and one each on the other faces. The pilasters consist of horses in the left and elephants in the right resting on a corbelled abacus above a bell-shaped lotus. The door pilasters in other cases are provided with winged figures of animals like bulls, deer, horses, lions, and elephants. They are carved in three quarters and appear naturalistic from artistic point of view. The wings provided at places to these animal figures like their counterparts on the verandah pillar faces of the less evolved caves of Udayagiri are due to West-Asian influence. The adjustment of placing elephants having their broad anatomical features in so short a space and vigorous depiction of maned lions rank them with the finest specimens of early Indian art.
The flattened surfaces of the arch bands over the door-ways of some ambitious caves of both Udayagiri and Khandagiri are carved with scrolls, single flowers, fruits, creepers animals, birds and stout human beings at option without any reference to uniformity, these are connected together by horizontal friezes starting from the springing points where one usually noticed the figures of elephants, lions, deer, and makaras from the mouths of which issue the scroll work, etc. (Fig. 20 and 21). The outer edge of these arches are surmounted by Svastikas. Vadhamangalas or by a triangular pointed crest, or finial enclosing a floral ornament or a figure. Honey-suckles, lotus, lotus-buds and other floral medallions occupy a major portion of the arch-bands with occasional display of animals hotly chased by boys and birds carrying lotus buds in their beaks. These motifs though carved in low relief and adjusted to the limited space, yet, they show variety of animism and floral kingdom with their masterly and forceful execution in living stone. Each frame is complete by itself and except in outline and general character bears no relation to its neighbour.
Vidyādharas or semi divine figures running in haste or hovering in the sky with offerings in hands are noticed on either ends of the facade of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā, Rāņi-Gumphā, over the sculptured panel in Mañchapuri-Gumpha and in close compartments of Ananta-Gumphā. The peculiarity in having them at the beginning and

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end of a sculptured frieze and over some object or panel having religious affinity and the manner of their disposition renders them as a subject of deep study in early Indian art and iconography.
The frieze of the upper main wing of Rāņi-Gumpha commences with a flying Vidyadhara, wearing an elaborate head dress, a dhoti with plaits dangling in front, a floating scarf (chadar), Kundalas, a necklace and bangles and holding in his outstretched left hand, a tray of flowers and a roll of garland and in the right stalks of a lotus and three buds interlaced with each other intended for offering. The modelling of the figure, specially in the lower portion, is supple, and the entire composition is clearly indicative of the warmth of fervour characterising a devotee. The artist's skill is displayed in the garland hanging from the tray, folds of scarf and cloth, the inter-weaving of lotus stalks. The flying figure on the other end, holding a garland in his right hand and a tray of flowers in his left lacks in the lavish display of costumes, and decorative ornaments as well as the modelling of limbs, spirit and vigour as that of its counterpart though visualised in the same fashion and style. The flying figures on either ends of the facade of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphả have not attained so much perfection as that of Rāņi-Gumphā. The Vidyādhara of Mafchapuri-Gumphā hastens towards the object of worship in the attitude of scattering flowers from a tray held in his left hand. The Ananta-Gumphā ones are flying in haste from pillared halls having barrel-vaulted roofs, with garlands and trays of flowers towards arches containing objects of worship. The one on the extreme left almost snatches away in haste a garland from the tray borne on the head of a flerce looking dwarfish Gana with long ears. They too are dressed in dhoti and chadar, the ends of which are fluttering in the air. Their heads are enveloped in large heavy turbans, on their wrists are bangles and massive rings are pendent from their ears.
While discussing the relief sculptures of Rāņi-Gumphā Stell-kramrisch observes.28 "It begins with the frenzied on rush of a youthful male figure, carrying a tray with floral offerings in the left and full blown lotus in the right. Its impetuous movement is a direct descendant of that of the flying Gandharva of Mañchapuri-Gumpha. The hovering of the Ananta-Gumphā has sunk into oblivions. Moreover, the movement which in the first storey amounted to a gliding just above the surface of the earth, now seems to emerge from it, the left foot is still half covered by it, it is no longer a movement from above downward, nor a hovering in mid air, nor a gliding above the surface, but a frenzied gesture of freedom utterred with conviction of one who masters the decorative side of every excellence".
The display of linear design consist of mostly the bead, bead and reel, vertical and horizontal lines within sections, curved lines eaclosing half medallions or enclosing arch-bands and floral devices within them and circles within circles bordering the bracket figures. The shafts of Ananta-Gumphā door pilasters are decorated with vertical rows of the bead and reel, diamond shaped jali, spiral flutings, alternate with vertical line of bead
28. Qtd. B.M. Barua, Old Brahmi Inscriptions, p. 313,

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and reel and flowers between compartments. The abacus and neckings of the door pilasters of Tatowa-Gumpha No. 2 are relieved with one or more rows of beads (Fig. 22 and 23). The brackets of Tentuli-Gumphā are bordered by horizontal and vertical lines in several sections. Zig zag or heavy lines are also shown at intervals along with these bands. The arch-bands of Manchapuri and Svargapuri-Gumphā in several cases are provided with floral devices within interlaced and continuous circles and curved bands. Similarly the arch bands of Ganesa-Gumphā are all enclosed by a row of beads.
Trees representing or symbolising forest are and as an object of worship are noticed on the facades of some of the caves at the place. The sacred representation of these trees are invariably found within railings having close affinity with their counterparts in the sculptures of Sarchi, Bhārhut, Mathurā and Amarāvati.
The trees which frequently occur within relief panels have usually been delineated as laden with fruits, but their branches are not so natural as the trunks. They are invariably depicted as knotty and shaky. The fruits of these trees are most unnaturally depicted and this defect is not only noticeable here but is flagrant in almost all early representations in stone. This has become rather conventional. The lone representation of these trees serve the purpose of separating one aspect of the story of a panel from the other, performance of dance and music and resting place to the cave dwellers.
The creepers represented on the flattened surface of the arch-bands over some of the door heads are often laden with fruits and flowers as a decorative device rather than showing any connected link with them plantain and mango fruits as well as lotuses in multipetalled designs are most numerous in their representation. Creepers of graceful curves with buds or full-blown flowers have been largely shown in the arch-bands surmounting door heads. In the curves of continuous and contrary flextures the principle of gradation and contrast have been skillfully illustrated. In many instances, however, the creepers have conventional representation.
Flowers of numerous varieties in the shape of decorative elements within archbands, space fillers in single patches, garlands in the hands of devotees and within trays, buds attached to stalks and held by bracket figures and birds, container of lotus lakes, adorning hair-dos of human and semi divine figures, trunks of elephants, fixed to the creepers and decorating the outer framework of the ghata bases, etc. are noticed at this place. Of the entire series, lotus attained the predominant position. This floral device of lotus in buds, full-blown, in garlands, rosettes and half discs are largely available with equally early sculptures of Sāñchi, Bhārhut and Amaravati. This pattern had been so abundantly worked out that it had already become conventional as the representation of rows of lotus stalks terminating in full-blown flowers sculptured in arch-bands indicates. Thus the stylised plants and flowers, the artist marvellously adopt could weave them into countless, lovely patterns and put them to almost any shape of surface.
The representation of a large variety of animals, birds and reptiles indicate to the knowledge of the sculptors about the physiognomy of these species. This knowledge was

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based partly on actual and keen observation of nature and partly on convention. But the fabulous and enigmatic creatures must have derived their inspiration from outside the country.
Elephants including she-elephants and their cubs are depicted in couching position, mounted by armed men, standing with uplifted trunks, bathing in lotus pools, resting in caves, attacking a gathering of men and women, entwined by a snake, carrying lotuses, vessels, fly-whisks, branches of trees, umbrellas and surmounting capitals of door pilasters in many of the caves of both Udayagiri and Khandagiri. The elephant figures carved in round with bunches of leaves and flowers in their trunks in front of Ganesa-Gumphā seem to have been copied from nature. The bas relief depicting Udayana-Vāsavadattā episode of the same cave is represented with an elephant in various stages of activity. Elephants including female and their cubs are seen proceeding majestically from the nearby woods towards the crest of the arch in front of the Choța-HathiGumphā. In Ananta-Gumphā two elephants are engaged in pouring sacred water from the pitchers held in their uplifted-trunks over the figure of Laksnii. Similarly a fourtusked elephant being honoured by two others is repeatedly depicted in AlakāpuriGumphā and Ananta-Gumphā. The attendant elephants held lotus flowers and flywhisks in their trunks. The representation of elephants is not an isolated phenomenon in Orissa. They occur in the seals of Indus valley civilisation, in Buddhist and Jaina legends, they are associated with the birth of Buddha and Mahavira and represented profusely in the art of Sāñchi, Bhārhut, Mathurā and Amarāvati.
Bull (humped) has been represented as crowning the door pilasters of AnantaGumphā, Tätowa-Gumphā No. 1 and No. 2, Ganesa-Gumpha and the verandah pillar of the lower right wing of Rāņi-Gumph, as well as within the arch-band of AnantaGumphā hotly chased by stout boys. It is not so numerous in representation as that of the elephants in these rock-shelters. Of all the domesticated animals, the bull was the most formidable, deadly with its horn and quick and undaunted in attack. Man's exciting conflicts with the bull turned it to a symbol of great courage, strength and fighting spirit. Its remarkable virility and intimate association with men in agricultural operations made it a symbol of masculinity and fertility. Based on these virtues, the bull might arise in many lands where it becomes a sacred animal. The bull also became the symbol of Jaina Tirthankara Rşabhanātha. The white bull appeared in the fourteen auspicious dreams of Devananda and queen Trisalā before the conception of Mahā vira. The Indus Valley seals and terracottas depict the bull in numerous designs and the bull also figured very prominently in vedic hymns. It too, appeared in the Maurya art (3rd century B.C.) as at Ramapurwa and Saranatha. Early Indian art is particularly noticeable for the wealth of fauna represented and fine studies of bulls appear at Bharhut, Sāñchi, Mathurā and Amarāvati in different contexts either as bulls drawing a cart, or simply at rest as illustration to some Jataka legend or as the capital on pillars and as decorative motifs on the roundels on the stupa railings and so on. Whatever the situation, there is scarcely an instance where the sculptor fails to evoke the form of this much loved animal.

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Lions have been depicted as crowning elements of some verandah pillars and door pilasters, excitedly chased by athletes as noticed on the arch-bands and stray figures either holding prey in mouth or attacked by a man through long spear. On the pilasters they are designed seated back to back with prominent display of their manes. In Ananta-Gumpha the display of their spirit and vigour appear to be quite naturalistic. Here the hind-legs of the topmost two lions from the mouths of which floral devices coming out are tightly held by stout wrestlers. The lion near the man and opposite to the bull seems to be most vividly rendered taking into consideration the full physiognomy of the animal.
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The horse which already made its appearance in Mauryan sculpture is not omitted at this place. A well caprisoned horse provided with a saddle is noticed faithfully carved in the lower main wing of Räni-Gumpha. This horse is without stirrup. But the horse depicted in the third full spandril of its upper main wing is richly caprisoned with a heavy pad, a many stirruped bridle and thickly plumed crest. Further representation of horses in these caves are available as driving a chariot, mounted by cavaliers and capitals of door and verandah pilasters. In early Buddhist art and Asokan pillars horse has been represented as a crowning partner and connected with various episodes. It has also been associated with driving chariots of the Sun God or the royal personages in the art of Bhaja, Buddhagaya and Lâlā Bhagat.
Apart from elephants, horses, lions and bulls, a number of other animals like deer, monkey, fox, antelope, hare and dog, reptiles like snake, lizard and makara and birds. like parrot, goose, crane and peacock are profusely illustrated in the relief sculptures of the place. The two monkeys near the crest of a door arch of the upper main wing of Rāņi-Gumpha appear to have been frightened by the hissing sourd of the snake in front of the artificial cave. The monkey was a very favourite subject with the Buddhist sculptures of Bharhut. A group of antelopes are depicted in the third full spandril of the same wing. Deer are observed as forming capitals of door-pilasters of GaṇeśaGumpha. A bushy tailed animal or fox is also noticed in one of the panels of RaniGumpha. It turned the face backwards before finally disappearing in the thick forest apprehending probably the ensuing attack. Hares chased by boys are also noticed within the arch bands of this cave and seated back to back with a leaf motif on the top of a pillar in Jagannatha-Gumpha, Makara, the mythological monster commonly noticed in the Buddhist stupas of Bharhut and Amaravati is also noticed in the horizontal portion of the arch-bands of some caves. The only representation of lizard in a depleted condition is traced in Bagha-Gumphã. The snake depicted in front of the artificial cave of a Rāņi-Gumpha panel is very naturalistic. It moves towards the frightened monkeys. But the snakes with canopies of three hoods flanking door arches of AnantaGumpha are very elaborate. They have been provided with necklaces set with tubular beads. In another place (Alakapuri-Gumpha) a large snake entwins an elephant in a tree and is about to strike on its head. This aspect brings us to the idea of "nagapasa", a popular pattern often referred to in puranic accounts. Among the birds, parrots are noticed near the pinnacle of arch-bands, pecking seed vessels in a lotus lake and fondled in the hands of lady attendants. Brahmani geese or ducks, decorate one of the arch

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bands of Ananta-Gumpha with lotus buds held in their beaks. A number of other animals, birds and reptiles including the ones referred to above are also provided as lanchanas of the entire series of Tirthankaras and Śāsanadevis of Jaina pantheon of the medieval
period.
A number of winged and enigmatic figures also form the subject matter of decoration of brackets and pillar heads in some caves of the place. A flying human being with heavy turban, earrings and a pair of outstretched wings is depicted in a bracket of Jagannatha-Gumphã. A running domesticated dog of the same cave is also set with two wings and a flowry tail. A dog like animal is provided with a parrot's beak and a pair of wings. In other cases an animal set with head of a bird is also noticed. Though all of them are with wings and carved in low relief, yet their form denotes some fabulous creatures entirely absent in this part of the country. They comprise animals which we with much difficulty have taken as horse, bull or lion attached with ram, goat, human, parrot or cock's head. These animals are all carved standing back to back and cover the entire space set apart for the purpose. The tails of these animals are either long with hairs at the end like the lions, short containing bushy growth of hairs like that of horses and irregularly shaped without any indication of hairs in them. The whole galaxy of fabulous creatures on which the fish tailed makaras, winged human headed lions, griffins with parrot's beak and other creatures of imagination could be used at will to decorate the brackets and pillar tops had perhaps been derived from the western concept and formed mainly a decorative order without any religious significance attached. to them.
The use of West-Asian motifs like honey-suckles, merlons, and winged animals, which had an all India distribution in this period precludes the possibility of an indeperdent development of these caves. In the patterns there is hardly any thing which is specifically Jaira for the same motifs are used rot only by the early Buddhists, but also by the followers of Brahmanical faith. At Säñchi, the winged lion is also shown in a flying attitude carrying a rider on its back.
Domestic life at this place is depicted through male and female costumes comprising clothes, decorative body ornaments and coiffures. Many objects of indoor and outdoor use have also been found like seats, caskets, trays, bowls, spouted jars, pitchers, money purses, wicker stands, flywhisks, umbrellas, flower garlands, musical instruments of mridanga, flute, harp, cymbal and weapons of war like bow, arrow, shields, clubs, swords, spears, etc. have also been represented in various places of the relief panels.
Contemporary dress and ornaments are faithfully portrayed through the male and female figures carved in differert capacities. The main portion of the male dress is the dhoti or a sheet of cloth passed round the waist and then gathered in front. Occasionally the collected portions passed between the legs and tucked in behind.. This traditional pattern of wearing not only gives effective protection to the loins but also according to its breadth it covers the mid thigh region or the knees and at times

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reaches even the ankles. As there is no appearance of any ornamentation either of flowers or stripes except a few folds in exceptional cases it is most probable that then as now, the dhoti was a plain sheet of cloth. Above the waist, the body is usually represented as quite naked excepting only a tight scarf or sheet of cloth which is generally thrown over the shoulders with the ends hanging down outside the thigh. In some cases it appears to have passed round the body and the end thrown over the left shoulder. Tunics or made dresses in very crude form were also occasionally used. The chief drapery of the ladies consists of a śāri to cover the lower part of the body. It is tied by waist band with folds of the ends dangling in front. In rare cases they use upper garments in shape of a scarf and while dancing cover the face with a veil.
For varieties in the arrangement of coiffure, the men like those of the women wore their hair long and tied in knots with curled locks in front and sides. Male hair dress normally conforms on two top knots bordered by band of hair locks at the base. These two knots are either arranged vertically above the head or one in the centre and the other slightly tilting to the side. In rare instances, however, we find the hairs are tied in three knots over the head. In case of two knots, the main one is larger than the other and in case of three the central knot is more decorated and sumptuously designed than the side ones.
The band of locks at the base covering the forehead in a semicircular fashion is arranged with a series of curled locks. Occasionally they extend up to the ears. Major part of the hair at times are dragged to the left and rolled like a ball at the end. Top knots in most cases are provided with chaplet like bands to retain them in required fashion for a considerable time. These chaplets are usually plain and possibly made of a piece of cloth or rope and used in more than one occasion in a particular type of hair decoration.
Most parts of the hair of the ladies on the head are gathered at the top and tied in a piece of cloth or dragged to a side and fashioned in several designs. In cases where they are gathered at the top a band of curled locks or ringlets of hair decorate the forehead. They often like their male counterparts run up to the top most part of the ears. In another variety the curled locks commencing from the forehead fall on one side or brought to the back. In one case the entire collection of hair at the top is tied in pieces of ropes and then slightly tilted to a side. In some cases the hair, the ringlets of which were pinned to the head were gathered in a knot. Sometimes the hair is entirely arranged in ringlets and held in a chaplet allowing to them fall on either sides. In simple and plain varieties, hairs are just combed behind and the end tied in a knot. In other cases they are just gathered at the top in a bulging shape and a thin veil covers them. The hairs are also plaited in a single pigtail and allowed to fall at the back. The more elaborate ones fixed with flowers, feathers of colourful birds, leaves are shown to a side only
The decorative ornaments on the body of the men and women figures of the period appear to be more crude and unsophisticated. They have a touch of folk style

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in them. The male figures usually tie a piece of cloth round the waist. The girdles worn by the ladies comprise of a series of round beads arranged in separate strings and the number of strings range from one to three. At times they are loosely attached to the waist like a necklace but in other examples they have been tightly fixed like a belt. Necklaces closely attached to the neck are designed in rectangular, circular or petalled beads of metal or precious stones. They are fixed close to each other and a line of border hold them on either sides. The longer ones often run up to the chest and suitably decorated with both flat bands of plain metal or strings set with jewels. They are often attached with lockets at the centre. Ornaments for the ears represented both in studs and round rings and either closely attached to the lower part of the ear or hanging from it by a hook. The simpler designs are circular or square studs with or without a hook attached to it. Ornament for the fore arm is generally a bala, a ring of metal or clay of cylindrical plate ordinarily plain and heavy and ranges in number from one to seven and in cases even up to nine. The ornaments for the legs are the circular anklets either one in each leg or a pair at times.
Garlands within trays carried by the flying Vidyadharas and attendant figures as well as rolled ones are depicted in several places. The trays are usually held in one of the outstretched hands and the other, either holding stalks of lotus buds or loose flowers. It is not possible to identify always the flowers from the garlands or from the trays as they are crudely fashioned and closely knit together. In Tätowā-Gumphā No. 2, we find besides stray lotus flowers, examples of giant garlands decorating the tympana. These rolls frequently occur in the basreliefs of both Sāñchi and Amaravati, but made on a large scale, so as to require the services of many men to carry them.
Thus in brief the figures of these caves are full of animation and liveliness and have been portrayed so as to indicate human activities either in the scene of abduction, elephant hunt, worshipping the sacred symbol or enjoying a dance sequence as represented in the friezes. The female figures are equally muscular lacking in feminine grace as is noticed in later sculptures.
The attribution of almost human feelings to animals is a noteworthy feature of their representation. Rare nobility even in an animal is the trait on which emphasis is given in such panels depicting worship of elephants. Among the figures of animals and birds, elephants, lions, deer, bulls, are carved very carefully, monkeys, hares, antelopes, fox, geese, parrots, though occur are attended with reduced vitality.
Single human figures accompany the curve of bracket capitals and of the bracket supports of the railings. Single and coupled animal figures form the capitals of the door pilasters. Isolated male and female figures, standing as a rule and riding occasionally rendered in a large scale and in a variety of types, guard the entrances.
The trees are, somewhat stiff and so are the fruits and flowers with creepers and lotuses. But plant life on the whole appears to have been depicted with care. The lotus is formed generally of two consecutive rows of petals with the disc in the centre and

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double line border. The petals of the outer row are all well developed and laid side by side and not overlapping each other, as is natural. In some instances, however, the overlapping is well shown. In others the petals instead of issuing in straight lines from the centre, are whirled in a manner which is not natural. Between the points of outer row of petals are shown the tops of other and outer whirls. The petals of the inner row are also laid side by side but they are slender. The disc is distinct in some cases showing the seed-holes, in other it is covered by small petals.
The West-Asian motifs like honey-suckles, merlons, winged and enigmatic figures which had an all India distribution during this period indicates the cultural diffusion through art motifs.
Domestic life is depicted through male and female constumes containing clothes, decorative ornaments, coiffures with extremely varied pattern and distinctly ingeneous character. Many objects of indoor and outdoor life have been depicted whose design and decoration reflect the contemporary art tradition. A number of symbols pertaining to Jaina pantheon have also decorated the crest of the door arches.
The individual sculptures, decorative bands and the broad friezes, that are met with here are not the results of first attempt at this remote place, but formed a part of a regular school of art, crude, though they be, envincing much technical knowledge and sufficient mastery to give shape to life and feeling. The faces are shown in bas relief in every position in full or in three-quarters and half profiles. The poses of the figures are easy and natural, their movement vivacious and elastic and emotions like agony, pleasure, fear, determination, mental tension, etc. tolerably well expressed. Vigorous action, delineated in every limb surpasses the lack of finish and the fineness in chiselling of the sculptures. The composition is fairly coherent and effective, the different figures bear relationship with one another. The reliefs have matured into depth displaying a considerable plasticity of form and naturalism of modelling. Slender figures of men, and women are marked by a suavity of outline. Long ages of neglect and decay have defaced the figures as we now see them but still it is not difficult to perceive that their conception and execution, their grouping and disposition, their drapery ard ornaments were such as only men theoretically and practically familiar with sculptures for a long time could execute.29
A flowing linear rhythm, although hesitating in some instances seem to actuate the majority of the figures at Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills. The lotus creeper meanders along the length in endless waves linking the figures in a continuous pattern within the archbands. Each single figure and composition including the entire pattern became animated, thereby. A rhythmical movement, permeating all through integrates and balances every object and composition into one unified organism. The rectangular reliefs in outline, emphasises closely packed compositions with schematic rows of harsh figures parallel to the lines of the frame. The rarrative reliefs, within rectangular friezes are also freed from
29. R.L. Mitra, The Antiquities of Orissa, Vol. II, p. 81,

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unnecessary details and only the indispensable and essential elements being retained to convey the full import of the legends depicted. The abbreviated form of narration at this place results in less crowded compositions in which the figures move more freely and with greater ease and clarity.
Jaina icons in bronze are fewer in number in comparison to their fashioning in stone. We have earlier noted down their findings at places like Khuntapala in Mayurbhanja district, Bayree and Bhanpur in Cuttack district and Achutarajapur and Kakatapur in Puri district. Except the bronzes of Achutarajapur, others have not been dealt with satisfactorily. D. Mitra in her recent work on the "Bronzes from Achutarajapur" has elaborately discussed on as many as ten Tirthankara and Sasanadevi figures that were found in the locality along with a large hoard of Buddhist icons. The other bronzes found their way to the Baripada branch Museum, Orissa State Museum and the Ashutosh Museum. The lone figure of Pārsvanātha is still available at Bhanapur. The bronzes of recent make that are preserved in the Jaina shrines of Cuttack town are mostly brought from outside the State.
The casting technique of these bronze icons as informed by D. Mitra30 in case of the Achutarajapur hoard is the usual cire perdue or lost wax process. For ready reference it is reproduced here extenso. "Most of these images were first modelled in wax. The wax model was next given a succession of coating of clay, the first coating, a thin one, being a smooth paste or fire clay and closely following the details of the wax object ard the later coatings being thick and rather strong layer of clay mixed with other ingredients. The interior of the seat of the images were also filled with the mixture of clay and ingredients. A tube was provided through the clay coatings to the base of the wax model, usually at the bottom of pedestals (in the centre of the rear side). The entire mass was then allowed to dry slowly in the shade. Next it was heated, so that the wax would melt and entirely ooze out through the tube. The empty space thus left within the core of the clay coating (mould negative) was then fitted in with molten metal poured through the tube. After the entire thing had cooled down, the earth coating was removed to expose the metal object which had taken the form of the wax-model. In some cases a portion of the clay and other filling within the interior of the seat of the images was allowed to remain. The channel of the tube which got filled in with molten metal became solid with metal with the result that a rod like projection was left. In most cases these projections had been filled, so that nothing was left of them. However, in some cases no attention was paid for their complete removal with the result that their remnants still linger in some of the images, particularly with footed pedestals. Many of the metal objects were also retouched, smoothened and finished with fine instruments used by deft hands to bring out subtler nuances. Attempts were also made to enhance the beauty of the images by fine iplay work. Eyes in many cases and ornaments and delicate decorations of cloth in some cases were inlaid with silver. Some of the objects show traces of gilding.
30. D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, p. 36,

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It appears that the haloes and parasols (chhatras) in most cases were moulded separately. In several specimens, the haloes were found to be wielded to the images. In a few cases there are sockets provided in the seats and pedestals of the images to receive legs of the haloes. The stick of the parasols was normally soldered to the haloes. However in some specimens it passed in the back side of the image. Where the haloes are not solid, supporting rods were used to connect them with the back side of the images".
Though the composition of their alloys has not been chemically analysed which is necessary for satisfying them as true bronze (which is an alloy of copper, the basic material and tin to a proportion of about eight to one) or otherwise, these metal objects are being described as bronzes following the common usages.
As indicated earlier the icons in bronze (copper) of Khuntapala comprise of three of Pārsvanātha, three of Rşabhanātha two of Ambika and one Tirthankara whose identity is difficult at this stage. They are in badly damaging condition. In several cases portions of these figures including the lāñchana, fingers in hands, pedestals and decorative arches are mutilated and even missing. The Pārsvanātha figures were provided with a canopy of snake hoods. Similarly the Rşabhanātha figures are identifiable due to the prevalence of jațābhāra, a few strands of which fall on the shoulders. The Ambikā figures are seen holding baby on their laps, lion as lāñchana and bunch of mangoes in hands. The Tirthankaras are fashioned both in standing and seated posture on plain pedestals but in some cases lotus pedestals have been carved on plain footed seats. In standing figures the hands are stretched up to the knee and chest broadened to display youthful vigour. Hairs on the head of these Tirthankaras except Rşabhanātha are arranged in curled knots with occasional display of uşnisa at the centre. In case of Rşabhanatha, they are designed in matted locks and placed one strand above the other. Lower most strands of these locks are spreading over the shoulders, a feature also available with all Rşabhanātha figures fashioned in stone. Haloes in most cases are not visible but at least in one Pasívanātha figure it is in eliptical shape. Decorative arches originating from the pedestal are seen with a pointed top. Their sides are fashioned with rows of beads, petals or radiating flames. In most cases, however, they are in broken condition. The second Ambikā figure of the place is profusely decked with drapery running up to her ankles. Her decorative body ornaments consist of necklace, earrings, girdle, bangles and anklets. The smoothness of body and treatment of facial expression are unfortunately missing due to weathering condition. The Sarakas settling in Mayurbhanja district were once proficient in smelting copper and the casting of these figures may be attributed to them in the early medieval period.
The Pārsvanātha image of Bhanpur (Fig. 79) worshipped at present as Ananta Väsudeva is in good condition. It is designed standing in kāyotsarga pose on a circular lotus pedestal supported by a square base with legs. A canopy of seven hooded snake is seen over his head. The auspicious Srivatsa mark, a rare occurrence in Orissa is noticed on its chest. Hairs on the head are arranged in spiral knots with uşnisa at the centre. The Yakşa figures in its sides are also shown with canopy of a three hooded snake.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa Both the hands of this figure are stretched up to the knees in close parallel to the body. Its youthful appearance is supported by its expanded chest, perfect anatomical treatment, and deep concentration of mind.
Of the three Jaina icons recovered from Kakatpur, two are preserved in the Orissa State Museum and one in Asutosh Museum of Calcutta. The image in Asutosh Museum is the figure of Tirthankara Chandraprabha. It stands in kāyotsarga posture on a lotus supported by a square pedestal which bears the conventional emblem, the crescent moon. The inert modelling of the body and heavy drowsiness of the face are symptomatic of the ultimate desiccation of the plastic art, Hairs on the head of the Tirthankara are arranged in curled knots with uşnisa at the centre. Both the hands are stretched up to the lower parts of the high region. The Rşabhanātha figure from Kakatapur, (now in the Orissa State Museum) (Fig. 55) is also carved in standing posture on a double petalled lotus supported by a footed pedestal in front of which is bull, the lañchana of the Tirthankara. Hairs on his head are arranged in matted locks, a few rolls of which conventionally seen falling on the shoulders. Triväli is distinctly shown on the neck and hands run up to the knees exactly parallel to the body. This image of Rşabhanātha is an example of fine workmanship, with a beautiful jata-bhāra, a serene expression of the face and graceful outline of the body.
The other image is of Pārsvanātha (Fig. 56) carved seated in yogasana in double petalled lotus displaying a canopy of seven hooded snake, trivali in heck, snake as cognizance and dropping locks of hair on the head with uşnisa at the centre.
Three Jaina icons in bronze, that are preserved in the Orissa State Museum have no find spots recorded. They include figures of Pārśvanātha (Fig. 59), Säntinātha (Fig. 60) and Ambikā (Fig. 61). Both the Tirthankara figures are fashioned standing on double petalled lotuses supported by square footed pedestals displaying their conventional iconographical features in a limited extent. Hairs in both cases are arranged in spiral locks with uşnisa at the centre of Santinātha only. The Ambikā image of this group is designed seated on a double petalled lotus supported on eliptical base. She had the usual feature of a baby held in the left lap, a baby plucking mangoes in the right and seated Neminātha, her Tirthankara over head. She is profusely decked with a crown, necklace, earrings, girdle, a set of bangles, armlets and anklets.
of the ninety-five bronze idols from Achutarajapur, only ten represent various Tirthankaras and Sāsanadevis of Jaina pantheon. These ten Jaina icons are interesting on account of the artistic excellence displayed in them. No two images are alike which makes their local casting doubtful. To judge from their robeless features, the Tirthankaras it may be reasonably presumed that these icons were the donations of the votaries belonging to the Digambara sect. From this ten as many as four represent Anra (Ambikā) the Sasanadevă of Neminātha. Three of the images of Tirthankaras display fine artistic qualities. None of them is represented with the full panoply of prescribed pratihāryas. The heavenly tree, showers of celestial blossoms, heavenly music and drum are not represented in any of the images.

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In the images of Ambikā we generally found a small child in her lap and another but somewhat grown up child by her side and bunch of mangoes usually in her right hand, while above, branches, laden with mangoes. While discussing these figures D. Mitra, 31 considers the icon bearing Acc. No. 288, is artistically the best and most refreshing of the group. The soft and tender oval face with more than half closed eyes, full lips and benignly calm and inward looking expression, the warm and mellowed body with softly gliding contours, the dignified pose and the sensitivity of the luminous texture of the surface of this image of compelling beauty are reminiscent of the classical legacy. Bearing the imprint of a master artist with a high aesthetic vision, the image does not appear to be later than the eighth century A.D.
Dressed in a diaphanous śāri held by a girdle with a flower shaped clasp and an uttariya partly covering the chest in an upavita fashion, the icon is elegantly bejewelled in anklets, valayas, a short beaded hāra, armlets with a flower shaped central piece, large ear-studs and a short mukuta. The cloth and simple ornaments are treated in such a way that the beauty of the body has been enhanced effectively. Equally effectively rendered is the artistic bun-shaped coiffure leaving the full view of the charming face.
The lotus on which she is seated in lalitāsana pose rests on a footed throne with a moulded base. The edges of the lintel and jambs of the backrest are beaded. Near the ends of the lintel is a somewhat āmalaka shaped member, close to which is a beaded string hanging down wards. Above the lintel are mango twigs laden with fruits. Around her shoulders and head is a solid oval halo, turncated at base with a prominently beaded border, it is edged by leaf shaped flames. At the crown of the halo is an ornate floral motif hiding the view of the thick shaft of the umbrella. The latter is a succession of three gradually diminishing chatras the topmost one being crowned by a conical finial. Two streamers are seen floating below the lowest chhatra.
The second figure of Amra bearing Acc No. 263 (Fig. 65) through soft and sensitive body modelling and having an analogous treatment in respect of costumes with the earlier one, presents some subtle differences. We can fell in it the tenderness, almost melting texture of the body but despite its rounded plasticity and comparable body features in the full bust, thin waist and gracefully feminine abdomen and thighs. The difference is more palpable in the face which is roundish and with pronouncedly curved eye-brows and open eyes. Though placid, the facial expression is not of intense inwardness. Her lotus seat is arrayed on a narrow hollowed pedestal with khurā shaped base.
The third Amra figure (Acc. No. 289) (Fig. 66) represents a narrow chin. The face with open eyes is lit by the touch of a smile. Her well modelled body is relatively lighter and more supple, which is heightened by somewhat slim bodily features and the thin and high waist region and above all by the subtle flexious with the head turned slightly to her right. The calm dignity of the earlier images has given way to a lighter
31. D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, p. 45.

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and somewhat gay mood. There is a conscious attempt at the sophisticated refinement. Her lotus seat is placed on a footed oblong pedestal with a moulded base and a high recessed middle part which carry the lion, the mount of Amra. Meant for Amra and her Tirthankara Neminātha, the common long halo has a trefoiled upper part. Its raised border of three mouldings is edged by a series of beads. At the crown of the halo is a half flower capped by an umbrella with a conical finial and fluttering streamers.
The last of the series of Amra figures bearing Acc. No. 279 (Fig. 279) presents a folkish charm in the expression of the jocularly smiling face with wide open eyes and heavy lips. The same folkish element is particularly apparent in the rendering of the child which is rudimentary and plaque like. The sitting posture is also not effectively rendered with the result that the legs appear shorter in proportion to the upper straight body. She is seated in mahārājalila posture on a lotus with a single row of petals supported by an oblong pedestal open on three sides. Around the back of this Sāsanadevi is an oval halo with two overhanging clusters of mangoes near the top. Except for the rod like outline of two mouldings, the halo is open. The back side of the Sāsanadevi is almost flat.
The Rşabhanātha image (Acc. No. 257) of Achutarajapur, observes D. Mitra32 is highly interesting in view of its fine artistic qualities which are rather rare in the heiratic icons of the Jainas believing in extreme ascetecism and physical discipline with the result that the icons were more often than not rigid and formal. The artist of this piece, while adhering closely to the canonical prescriptions, admirably succeeded in projecting beautifully the yoga ideology, not only in the samaparyankasana, yogamudrā and motionless pose (indicating the control of the body) but in the treatment of the serene and radiant face, with half closed eyes expressing detachment from worldly matters (vairāgya bhāva), concentration on supreme goal and complete absorption in meditation and high shoulders and somewhat inflated chest due to the controlling of the breath. The well built physiognomical features are disciplined, yet there is a touch of softness and sensitive grace in the youthful frame. The dignity of the form bereft of cloth and ornaments has been heightened by the effectively treated ornamental halo acting as the background.
Displaying an oval face, full lower lip, elongated ear lobes, half closed eyes as if fixed on the tip of the nose and an expanding chest this image of Rşabhanātha is found seated in yogamudrā on a lotus resting on an oblong pedestal. The matted locks are arranged in a fairly high jaļāmukuta, some locks being allowed to fall on shoulders.
The icon of Chandraprabha (Acc No. 254) (Fig. 62) even in the absence of details reveal high quality of the soft plastic treatment of the proportionate and somewhat fleshy physical frame and the articulation of the yoga ideology in the expression of the calm ovoid face. The legs are beautifully modelled. The other figure Chandraprabha, (Acc. No. 327) (Fig. 63) represents a thin aesthetic vision with the full roundish
32. D. Mitra, Ibid., p. 48.

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face, elongated ear lobes, short neck, broad shoulders and expanded chest sharply narrowing down to a relatively thin waist. The sturdy physical frame is presented in rigid frontality, care not being taken to fashion the knee in a naturalistic way. Despite the slightly open full lips intended for a smile, the expression of the face, with prominently arched eye-brows, wide open eyes and eyeballs indicated by circular depressions, is hard.
The figure of Vāsapūjya (?) bearing Acc. No. 265 (Fig. 64) like that of the Sasanadevi Amra (Acc. No. 279) have an unmistakable stamp of the folk, rather tribal art. The icon appears to be the handiwork of an unskilled novice or a simple craftsman engaged in the preparation of clay terracotta or wooden figurines to cater only to the demands of common people. In the facial and physiognomical forms, crude modelling and decorations, the figures in this icon are primitive, hard and rigid. This robeless Tirthařkara, with short protruding lips almost touching the stunted nose, bulging eyes and elongated ears displays the yogamudra. The Tirthankara and the Sasanadevi in the same piece wear anklets, a girdle or waist band, bangles, upavita, a broad necklace with a disc shaped pendent, armlets, ear-studs and a mukuta each. The halo behind these figures is in the form of a beaded arch edged by leaf shaped flames or branches. At its crown is a small chhatra with a thick cylindrical shaft.
The icon (Acc. No. 295) has the oblong pedestal of the throne on a khurā shaped base and a semi-circular mould at the top. The two ends of the horizontal lintel of the solid backrest are in the form of a makata heads supported by posts. Behind the head of the Tirthankara (Acc. No. 318) is a roundish halo with a raised moulded border having a beaded line in the middle. Around it are closely knitted tongues of flames. At its crown is a floral finial. The plastic treatment of the disciplined body of this figure with the high shoulders and expanded chest slowly and steadily attenuating to a relatively narrow waist and placid full face with half closed eyes and meditative expression is effective and appropriate for an icon of a Tirthankara in meditation.
Pieces of Jaina icons in stone belonging to different periods are scattered all over the state and such places with artistic Jaina monuments, images etc. are the living reminders of deities, personages, events and happenings held sacred and memorable. Images attached to a paticular sect normally follow the canonical injunctions. Specific rules are given in art manuals for making an image artistically perfect and the authors of those manuals are well versed in sculptural art.
The distinguishing features of a Jaina Tirthankara image are its long hanging arms, the auspicious frivatsa symbol, the mild form, youthful body and nudity. Other characteristics of such images seem to be the main figure being attended by Yakșa and Yakşnis and the presence of the kevala tree under which he attained the supreme knowledge besides, one or more of the eight pratihāryas which consists of heavenly tree, a throne seat, trilinear umbrella, halo, drum, showers of celestial blossoms, chauries and heavenly music. In a complete image all the eight pratihāryas are noticeable. Sasanadevatās are to be noticed in front of the pedestal but when they appear in individual

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sculpture, the keynote to recognise, is the presence of a small Jina figure on the top of the statue. Each Tirthankara (except their representation in Mathura) is recognisable by cognizance or china usually placed below the image. The figures of Ṛsabhanatha and Pārsvanatha have matted locks of hairs falling on the shoulders and canopy of a seven hooded snake overhead respectively. From the Gupta period onwards not only we find the chaur bearers on either sides but also the lasichana conspicuously present along with the Jaina Tirthankara figure.
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Archaeological remains are abundant to show the popularity of Jaina faith, art and culture in different parts of Orissa during the early and later medieval periods. Podasingidi and Vaidakhia located in the Baula range hills of Keonjhar district yielded a number of Jaina icons in stone belonging to the early phase. The inscribed Rṣabha figure of this place is seated in meditative pose on a lotus pedestal with a bull below. In front of the bull seems to be a lamp and two devotees kneeling with their hands joined in adoration. On the top are flying Gandharvas with garland in hadns and the oval halo behind head. The figure has a well proportioned body, with half closed eyes indicating meditation, curly hair, an uşnila and elongated ears in Gupta tradition. The texture of stone of this image is composed of white and black bands giving an impression of transparent upper garment.
The second Rsabhanatha image from this place as finds place in the Orissa State Museum (Fig. 87) is designed in kayotsarga pose on a lion throne with chaur bearers, flying figures with garlands, heavenly music, trilinear umbrella, halo and lanchana, the bull. It too displays the characteristic features of Gupta tradition, half closed eyes, elongated ears and a beautiful jaṭabhara as head dress with some locks falling on the shoulders. The body is proportionate and graceful. Both the figures are given a date. in the 8th century A.D.
The Tirthankara images of Charampa (Figs. 102 and 103) are distinguished by deep-cut marks on the body. It is difficult to explain the significance of these marks which do not seem to be accidental. It is quite possible that through these marks the artist has tried to indicate the rigours of the austerities which the Tirthankara had to go through to attain knowledge and emancipation.
On the inner walls of Navamuni-Gumphã of Khandagiri are carved in high relief the figures of a number of Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis (Fig. 35). These Tirthankaras have their usual characteristics such as three tiered umbrellas flanked by a pair of hands playing on cymbals and attendants with fly-whisks. But none of them has a halo at the back or the auspicious frivatsa mark on the chest. The treatment of the coiffure is varied. The Sasanadevis decked with elegant ornaments, wore dhotis and transparent scarves cover their bodies and left shoulders.
In the Barabhujt-Gumpha we find altogether twenty-five figures of Tirthankaras, Pärsvanatha being repeated twice covering the three walls of the inner chamber. The Pārsvanatha figure standing at the commencement of the series is larger in size than the

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rest and is stripped of all raiments. It evidently eccupies the position of mulanayaka. The rest of the figures of Tirthankaras are in yogasana on double petalled lotus pedestals supported by lions beneath the trees under which they attained their kevalajñāna. Above their heads are three tiered umbrellas. They are flanked on either side by an attendant holding a flywhisk. All except Parsvanatha halces behind their heads. Celestial music is indicated by cymbals played by hands of invisible Gandharvas and close to them are flying figures with garlands. The general appearance of all these figures is the same except for their distinctive läñchanas carved below their lotus seats.
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Below the Tirthankaras, in separate compartments are their respective Sasanadevis all of whom excepting Mahāmānasi, who is in yogasana and Bahurupiņi who is reclining on a cot are seated in lalitāsana. Twenty of them are on plain pedestals and four on lotus below which are their mounts. All, except Bahurupiņi and Padmavati, the latter with a canopy of snake, have haloes behind their heads. The images of Chakreśvari and Rohini are also relieved on the inner verandah wall of the same cave. These figures appear to be slightly later than the ones relieved in the Navamuni Cave. The twenty-four figures of Tirthankaras and Sasanadevis in respect of this cave maintained a uniform size, body decoration and artistic finish though their coiffure and decorative ornaments greatly differ in variety and details.
The Tirthankara figures both in standing and seated position of Mahavira-Gumpha represent crude workmanship (Fig. 38 to 48). Stylistically they are much later than their counterparts found in other caves of the place. The figure of Rsabhanatha is the largest in the entire series. All of them have fly-whisk bearers, the standing ones further differentiated by the addition of naga devotees. Over most of them trilinear umbrella is represented in the shape of miniature pidhadeul surmounted by creepers, floral devices, inverted birds and semi-divine figures in various attitudes.
Three reliefs, two of Rṣabhanatha and one of Amra, are carved against the back wall of cave No. 10 of Khandagiri (Fig. 52). Both the Rṣabhanätha figures are robeless and stand in kayotsarga pose on double petalled lotus pedestals supported by lions. their sides are eight grahas and two fly-whisk bearers. At the top of their heads are three tiered umbrellas flanked by cymbals and drums played by hands, below which are flying figures holding garlands. Amra, whose left half is partially destroyed, is standing in captivating tribhanga pose under a mango tree above which her Jina flanked by flying figures. Her mount, the lion is carved below the double-petalled lotus pedestal on which she is standing.
The three chlorite images of Rsabhanatha (Figs. 49, 50 and 51) which are installed on the masonry altar at the rear end of the chamber of Mahavira-Gumpha stand robeless in kayotsarga pose on double petalled lotus below which are their lañchana, bull. On either side of their legs is a standing fly-whisk bearer drapped in a dhoti and decked in ornaments and above, are flying figures holding garlands and hands playing on cymbals and drums. The back-slabs in case of two of them are distinguished for the figures of eight planets having conventional attributes. The largest of the three has a trefoiled arch

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behind its head. The facial expression of the figures is highly pleasing so also is the youthful modelling of the body, particularly noteworthy is their coiffure where the artist has lavished all his skill. The śrivasta mark is absent in all cases. The figures to judge from the workmanship are the work of the eleventh-twelfth century,
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The Museum at Khiching has in its collection a number of Jaina icons in stone. They are mostly in damaging condition. From the evidences they can be attributed to the 10th-11th century for they have retained local traits of sculptural details of the period of temple activity at the place.
The village Jhadesvarpur in Cuttack district yielded a large number of relics. evidently belonging to the glorious period of Jainism. They excel all other works of Jaina art found elsewhere in Orissa. Figures of Tirthankaras and those of many Ganadharas, Purvadharas, Sravakas, and Sravikas have been recovered under the earth. Among these were found the figures of Jina either absorbed in meditation in sitting posture or standing naked. The fine sculpturing of those figures produce a striking impression. They are of beautiful chlorite stone.
The Rṣabhanatha image of Adasapur (Fig. 81) stands in kayotsarga pose with solemn and sublime grandeur. Although he is perfectly naked, his hairs on the head are arranged in jafa set with jewels. A few strands of the jata fall on the shoulders. The lotus petalled aura (prabhamandala) round his head lends divine dignity to the expression of his face which with half closed eyes shows absorption in meditation.
The other Tirthankara image of the place is also carved standing in kayotsarga pose and in complete nudity. On both sides of it eigtht planets have been depicted in meditative posture seated on lotus pedestals. An umbrella has been depicted just above his head which had curled locks of hairs. While a makara torana as decorative design is visible at the back. The halo behind head is stylised in three bands of scroll work and is oblong in shape. Divine musicians remaining invisible are noticed at the top of the slab on both sides playing with cymbals. Flying Gandharvas with garlands in hands appear on either corners of the slab. Champak flower marks on either side of the aura seem to be an added feature of the image.
The figures of Yakşa Gomedha and Yakşini Ambika are carved seated in lalitasana pose on respective Ictus pedestals designed in a common slab containing a series of seven devotees. They wore simple loin cloths in the same style and bear on them same types of ornaments, the only exception being in the conical head dress of the Yaksa and the round hair knot of his consort. The mango tree is depicted in the background. From the trunk of the tree a baby is found swinging in between Yakta and Yakşini. At the top, Tirthankara Neminatha is found seated in yogasana, on a lotus pedestal. On both sides of the Tirthankara, the chauri bearers are also depicted with artistic care. The image on the whole reveals a success of the Jaina sculptor who has been able to combine here the decorative beauty with plastic quality.

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On close examination of the Jaina icons in stone of different periods in Orissa it is evident that each of the twenty-four Tirthankaras and Sāsanadevīs has traditionally a sign or mark known as lāñchana specially attributed to him or her. Jaina Tirthankara images being very similar to each other, it was perhaps thought necessary to assign marks to each of them for purposes of distinction. In the absence of lañchanas, inscriptions, hair style and attendants are the only available means for identification of individual Tirthankaras. These marks are usually carved at the centre of the pedestal just below the lotus seat or at times in front of the central lotus petal. These marks usually consist of animals, birds, reptiles, flowers and objects like pitchers, conch-shells, vajra, moon, svastika, nandyāvrata, etc. and convey artistic tradition of the period of their execution.
The Tirthankaras, Sāsanadevis and other Jaina divinities are each provided with some kind of seat whose material contents however cannot be determined in stone. In earlier varieties these seats are left plain. In its developed phase their upper parts were fashioned in one or two rows of petals of lotus flowers. In exceptional cases, decorative covering was spread over the lotus seat, a portion of which even seen falling in front. These lotus seats also on some cases were supported by lions either seated at ease facing to the front or rampart or seated back to back flanking the mark of cognizance carved in the centre of the pedestal. In cases of bronze icons the lotus seat is supported by an oval or rectangular hollowed base supported by legs at each corner. In rare instances instead of the lions we notice Gajasinha motifs or emblems of the Tirthankara like that of Neminatha were also supporting the pedestal.
Besides the mark of cognizance and the supporting animals the stem of the lotus flower at times seen originating from the bottom of the pedestals in highly finished icons. Devotees in kneeling position and folded hands, heaps of offerings at times on separate pedestals, figures of Yakşas and Yakşiņis displaying emblems in hands and mount are also noticed in the lower parts of the pedestals. With all Parsvanatha figures Nāga kanyās or Nāga devotees are a normal feature of representation within the pedestal in addition to the coiled snake.
Chauri bearers are invariably represented in standing fashion with fly-whisks in hands across their shoulders. The chauri is held in one hand and the other rests on the hip. In some cases these figures flank the Tirthankaras standing on the same common pedestal, but in other cases separate lotus pedestals or elephants are provided to them. The chauri bearers of the first Rşabhanātha image of Cave No. 10 of Khandagiri are shown above the graha figures leaving the conventional place. In all cases they are profusely decked with costumes and decorative ornaments, though the Tirthankaras to whom they attend are shown naked. These chauri bearers are not traced with the figure No. 11 of Balasore Museum and Chandraprabha image of Narasimhapur temple in Jajpur area. At least two Rşabhanātha figures from Suai and one Mahāvīra figure in the reserve collection of Orissa State Museum represent their attending divinities with champak flowers in hand instead of the conventional fly-whisk.

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The Tirthankara images in some cases are conceived within decorative toranas, the ends of the horizontal bars of which fitted with makara or elephant heads. In exceptional cases chains of pearls are falling from the mouths of these figures. The horizontal bars on the other hand are relieved with floral medallions, beaded and wavy lines as well as various geometrical patterns. In case of the Chandraprabha image of Hatamala the horizontal bar is supported by tapering shafts with neckings and ghata bases. The two ends of the bar are crowned by lion figures. The makara heads attached to the toraṇa of the Tirthankara image of Martasol display chains of pearls falling from their mouths. (Fig. 95). The Reabhanatha image of Chadheibar is envisaged within a Picha shaped miniature deu!. Similarly a Tirthankara image from B. Singpur displays Gajasimha motif and the figure of Rṣabhanatha from Baudei (near Turintira) (Fig. 54) is flanked by a pair of vidalas looking opposite directions. Besides, the marks of lotus and champak flowers, the Tirthankara image bearing Acc. No. 50 of the Orissa State Museum represent a pair of geese at the base of the trefoiled arch over head. Mark of champak flowers has become a convention with the Rşabhanatha figures of Nibharana (Fig. 53), Panchagaon (Fig. 57), Jagannatha temple Suai and few other places of Koraput district. The Chakreswari image of Suai also displays champak flower on either side of the stele.
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Astagrahas are generally figured vertically on both sides of some Tirthankaras in standing fashion. In the iconographic representation of the grahadevaras, the prevailing custom of the locality was followed. In rare cases they are however placed in a row in front of the lotus pedestal. Each Tirthankara image is associated with a particular tree which normally found depicted symbolically surmounting the sacred umbrella. In case of Tirthankara figures they are shown in the shape of a few leaves spreading on either side of the umbrella. But in case of Amra (Ambikā) this mango tree most lavishly displayed behind the seated or standing figures. The image of Neminatha is uniformly perched in the midst of mango leaves. In rare cases, however, a small child is seen swinging from the trunk of the tree from which place it branches to the sides. In well finished figures the leaves are carved in detail and supplemented with mango fruits. The representation of tree in case of the Ambika figure of Kachela (Fig.119) and that of the Navamunt cave of Khandagiri (Fig.35) are quite noteworthy in view of their delicate carvings and lavish representations. In the Ambikä figure preserved at Dhenkanal branch Museum, the mango tree appears to have been designed at the left side of the figure, near which her mount, the lion is carved, passionately looking towards the deity. The representation of the trees with the Tirthankara figures have become highly conventional and it is not posssible to identify them in stone sculptures even belonging to different periods.
Both the seated and standing Pärsvanatha figures in Orissa are provided with a canopy of seven hooded snake. In case of the seated figures the hoods just cover the head of the Tirthankara. But in cases of standing images the coils of the snake originating from the pedestal are gathered at the back. The Parsvanatha images kept in the Jagannatha temple of Baripada are provided, one with a canopy of nine hoods and the other with thirteen hoods (Fig.105). The snake coils rolled behind the Pärśvanätha figures of Koisali and that of Ayodhya are remarkably fashioned. The figure of Supårsvanatha is

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having a canopy of five hocded snake and the semi Naga and Nagi devotees below pedestal are shown with canopies of three hooded snakes. In exceptional cases the pedestal of Pārsvanātha figures contain miniature representation of a coiled snake.
Trilinear umbrella forms another significant item in the right pratihāryas of the Jainas. This umbrella in three folds is usually shown over the head of the Tirthankaras. In some cases, they are very much decorated and in others they are shown in out line only. In most of the Tirthankara figures of Mahāvīra-Gumpha at Khandagiri, the umbrella is designed in the pattern of pidha deul. In earlier phases neither the staff to which the folds are attached nor the knob over it are traced. In most of the Tirthankara figures of Kachela in Koraput district the staffs are decorated in ribbed designs and the conical knobs shown in sections. The outer face of the umbrella folds in some cases are arranged in lotus petals fronted by rows of beads, in its outer edges. The Rşabhanātha image of Beguniabindha now kept in the Khiching Museum displays a series of beaded chains in looped design over the projected parts of the trilinear umbrella. In case of some bronze figures, streamers are attached to the edge of the lower fold of the trilinear umbrella. The umbrella over the head of Tirthankara image of Beguniabindha referred to above is supplemented by a Kirttimukha from the mouth of which several chains of pearls are falling.
Flying Gandharvas holding garlands in hands, a feature not only envisaged on either top corners of Jaina Tirthankaras but also forms a part of most of the sculptures in Buddhist and Brahmanic pantheon. In Jaina icons in stone they are depicted hovering in the sky either one or in pairs on each side. These figures are entirely absent with the Tirthankara figures of Navamuni-Gumphā in Khandagiri hill (Fig. 35). The garlands in their hands are mostly finished in a rolled fashion without any indication to the details of particular flowers tagged in to it.
In addition to the floral ovation, hands of invisible Gandharvas and Kinnaras also seen beating pairs of cymbals or a drum to produce heavenly music (divyadhuni) on either side of the sacred umbrella. In rare cases however full figures of these heavenly damsels and semi divine figures are depicted playing with various musical instruments including blowing of conch-shells. These Gandharvas are often represented on elephants displaying flywhisks in hands on either side of the Tirthankara at the top. In several Tirthankara image of Koraput district, a tubular drum ribbed in outer sides is usually kept at the centre of slab at the top. Occasionally figures of both the palms are shown distinctly attached to the cymbals or the drum.
Halo or Prabhämandala of beautiful radiance forming one of the items under the eight pratiharyas has also been depicted behind the head of most of the Tirthankaras and Sasanadewi figures of Orissa except however the figures in the Navamuni-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill (Fig. 35). They are normally attached to the Gods, Goddesses and those attained the status of Godhood through their noble and benevolent deeds. In earlier form they were entirely plain and eliptical in shape. Occasionally these plain haloes were given a beaded border. In the next stage they appear to be circular in design either

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entirely plain or with simple decoration in lotus petals and beaded chains. In more elaborate ones the visible surface was very delicately designed with profuse representationof lotus petals, floral medallions, auspicious marks, diamond shaped designs and various linear motifs. In complicated ones, they are designed in two sections, one inner and the other outer and both are equally decorated. The halo behind the figures of Koraput district are very richly decorated, the most noteworthy of the one being available with the Rşabhanātha image of Kachela. Halo behind head of divine figures in a later stage is replaced by trifoiled or pentafolia arch as noticed with the Tirthankara figures of Mahāvīra-Gumphā of Khandagiri, the Tirthankara image bearing Acc. No. 50 of Orissa State Museum and the Rşabhanātha figure of Nibharana. The outer bands of these arches are decorated with beaded chains and floral medallions. In exceptional cases they are surmourted by crccpers, patches of lotus and champak marks and inverted parrots. The top of these arches in some cases are crowned by kirtimukha or with a conical object.
Triväli of three folds in the neck of all Tirthankara images are distinctly shown. The hairs in the head of Tirthankaras except Rşabhanātha are arranged in spiral curls with occasional evidence of Uşnisa at the centre. In case of Rşabhanatha, the hairs are arranged in matted locks and placed conically above the head allowing a few strands falling on the shoulders. The Sasanadcvis have the hair-do modelled in the conventional fashion of the period. They are mostly combed towards the top and tied in a chaplet. In other case the collected hairs on the head are shown tied in a bulging knot tilting to one side. The head of these ladies are set with bejewelled crowns or at times with well decorated fore-head ornaments. They too are provided with crnaments for the neck, ears, waist, arms, wrists and ankles and draped in the lower parts. The Ambikā figures of Podasingidi (Figs. 85 & 86) and Kachela (Fig. 119) and the Sāsanadevi figures of Bärabhuji-Gumphä сf Khandagiri are very elaborately decorated with costumes and ornaments. The necklace ranging from simple beaded chains to multi-stranded ones are mostly set with lockets. The girdles are fitted with fioral medallions and tassels. Occasinally the folds of the drapery are distinctly visible even up to the ankles as in case of the Ambikā figure of Kachela. The Rohiņi image of Suai is provided with a conical shaped mukuta, a multi-stranded necklace, girdle set with a central locket, upavita, earrings and a series of bangles in each hand. An auspicious mark on the chest of Jaina icons in Orissa is very rarely noticed. The bronze Pārsvanātha image of Bhanapur (Fig. 79), the Rsabhanātha images of Dalamundai of Cuttack (Fig. 74), Kachela and Jeypore (Fig.123), are however shown with such a mark on the chest.
Among the great religions of India, certain symbolic postures in hands and legs play prominent parts in spiritual contemplation. They are believed to be aids to mental concentration. We find several such poses like käyotserga, yogāsana, lalitäsana, mahārājalila and tribhanga associated with sitting or standing Tirthankaras and Sāsanadevās of Orissa. The Sāsanadevis display abhaya, varada, anjali, tarjani and vitarka mudrās in their hands in addition to the numerous varieties of emblems ranging from deadly weapons of war to manuscripts, musical instruments, rosary, waterpot, crescent moon, baby on the lap, flowers, fruits and branches of trees. They have their designs corresponding to the type prevalent during the period or conventionalised by art treatises.

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The history of Jainism in Orissa as revealed through sculptural art from early historical times to the late medieval period is fascinating. In the early medieval period one could say that stylistically Gupta idiom lingered and served as the basis for the Jaina sculptures, as for the sculptures of other denominations till the eight-ninth century. During the subsequent period local stylisation set in and this developed into stylistic degeneration after the thirteenth century. In the later phase there ensued brisk artistic activities under the patronage of Jaina migrants from western India. The Jaina communities of western India were and still are mostly of Svetambara persuation. The Svetāmbaras generally prefer to have images carved in white marble for installation in their temples. As marble is not available in this part of the country the Jaina patrons have to import polished images in marble chiefly from Rajasthan which was and is the most reputed centre of marble carving for consecration in the land of their adoption. Jaina sculptures in Orissa of this phase are mostly brought from Rajasthan. Instances can be given from the abundance of marble sculptures preserved in the Jaina temples on the crest of Khandagiri and the shrines located in Jaunlia patti and Alamchandabazar of Cuttack town. The colossal image of Parsvanatha in black marble, which is enshrined in the marble shrine close to the entrance of the Jaina temple of Khandagiri, is modern, being installed in 1950.
"The avowed aim of the Jaina religion is the perfection of man or the transformation of the individual mundane soul (ātman) into the very state of Godhood (Paramātman). It exhorts and helps to bring out the divinity inherent in a person through the realisation of the spiritual self. The path generally is one of severe discipline, self control, renunciation and austerity. But art, too, may be said to be in a way one of the purest means to attain and become one with the Divine and it would perhaps not be an exaggeration to say that nothing more nearly approaches the spirit of true religion than the spirit of true art. It is probably why the Jainas have always patronised and cultivated the different forms and styles of fine arts. They were no doubt to serve primarily as hand-maids to religion but they also helped to soften the rigorous austerity of the path. The emotional, devotional and popular aspects of the creed as well necessitated the creation of various works of art and architecture and in making them really beautiful no pains or money were spared. Nevertheless the spirit of Jaina religion is clearly reflected in its art which though very varied and luxuriant is characterised by a marked absence of the erotic vulgar or common. It is rather sober, sublime and uplifting, inspiring feelings of self abrogation, peace and equanimity, besides giving aesthetic pleasure. A sort of unworldliness that is attached to it is conducive to the attainment of spiritual contemplation and the upper reaches of self realisation". 33
33. J.P. Jain, Jaina Art and Architecture, A. Ghosh, (Ed.), Vol. I, p. 35.

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Literary sources for a study of Jaina iconography, date from the earliest known Jaina texts, namely, the Jaina canonical literature of the Angas and Upāngas. But no definite canon about the iconometry or iconography cf Jaina images is found. Of course we have references to Jaina images and shrines in the stock descriptions of the Siddhayatanas. These descriptions include other items of Jaina worship such as the stūpas, the māna-stambha, etc. The torso and legs of a Tirthankara sculpture, with Mauryan polish on it, obtained from Lohānipur near Pataliputra, shows that at least in the age of Samprati, the grandson of Asoka, worship of Tirthankara images had already come into vogue! Jaina traditions, speak of Samprati being converted to Jainism by Arya Suhasti.? Epigraphic evidence also seems to prove that the practice of image worship was current among the Jainas in eastern India even in the pre-Mauryan times. There is a possible reference in the Hathi-Gumphā inscription to the removal of Kalinga Jina from Kalinga to Pataliputra by the Magadhan king Nanda at the time of his invasion of Kalinga and its subsequent recovery by the Chedi monarch Khāravela, who invaded Magadha in the first century B.C. That the practice was well established in the northern India in the centuries immediately preceding and following the Christian era is fully proved by a number of well carved Jaina images and several Ayagāpatas (votive tablets) with Jaina figures in their centre and astamangalas (eight auspicious marks) on their borders which have been profusely discovered in Mathurā.
But from the scanty evidences, it is clear that Jainism as practised in those days in Orissa did not involve the worship of images, for not a single Jaina Tirthankara appears in the original carvings of Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves, the known earliest Jaina site in Orissa. In the absence of any early Jaina image, it is difficult to identify the Jina of Kalinga mentioned in line thirteen of the Hathi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela with the image of a Tīrthankara. On the other hand, it appears that the worship of symbols was in vogue at that time among the Jainas as among the Buddhists. Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā (Fig. 14) and Ananta-Gumphā of Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills
1. D. Mitra, Jaina Art & Architecture, Vol. I, A. Ghosh, (Ed.), p. 71. 2. U.P. Shah, Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. III, A, Ghosh, (Ed.), p. 465-66.

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respectively depict a tree being worshipped by devotees. Again Mañchapuri-Gumphā of Udayagiri shows an unidentifiable symbol being honoured by a royal family (Fig. 15). On the back wall of Ananta-Gumphā at Khandagiri, appears a nandipada on a pedestal flanked on either side by a set of three symbols, a triangle headed one, śrivatsa and svastika without forming part of a scene, all of which are also represented on the Jaina āyagāpatas of the Kushan period from Mathurā. The Hathi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela is also enclosed between two pairs of such symbols, one to the left of line 1-2, the second to the left of line 3-5, the third at the end of line 3 and the fourth at the end of line 16-17. Besides, some of them are repeated over the pointed archbands of Rāni-Gumphā, Ganesa-Gumphā and Ananta-Gumphā. Carving of the triangle headed symbol as well as the svastika are also found in the Bāgha-Gumpha. These symbols are regarded by the Jainas as good omen and form four of the eight auspicious objects (asamangala).
Three worship has been vividly depicted in the third tympanum of AnantaGumphā and in the back wall of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā being honoured by devotees with floral offerings reverently held in their hands and carried by flying Vidyadharas. These panels are counterparts of the adoration of bo-tree of which so many representations are available in the sculptures of the Buddhist shrines at Sāñchi and Amarāvati.
We have at both Maheñjodāro and Harappa two forms of tree worship represented, one in which the tree itself is worshipped in its natural form, the other in which, the tree spirit is personified and endowed with human shape and human attributes. This is precisely what we find also in the sculptures of Bhārhut and Sāñchi and others of the early Indian school. In such cases as there, it is the tree itself that is personified as a deity and becomes an object of worship and there can be no doubt that such personification is illustrated on our Indus seals. In later Jaina sculptures this tree had to be introduced on sculpture of Tirth ankara by showing its foliage spread over his head, because of the great popular appeal the tree had in ancient India. Tne Sasanadevi like Ambā or Ambikā is also represented in the canonical literature as seated or standing under mango tree.
Along with the conception of trees may be noted the conceptions of the Tree of Life and the wish-fulfilling Tree (Kalpadruma) in Brahmanical and Buddhist texts. Jaina texts also speak of ten Kalpa-drumas. These are described in detail in the Jamvudvipaprajñāpati. Hemachandra describes ten kinds of Kalpa-tree in the Uttarakurus as follows. The ten kinds of wishing trees, madyāngas, etc., always give to people whatever they desire without effort on their part. Among these, madyangas give wine, the brțngas dishes, the turyāngas choice musical instruments. The dipa-śikhās and jyotişkas give wonderful light, the Chitrāngas furnish ornaments, the chitrarasas, in turn, food. The manyāngas furnish ornaments, the gehakāras houses and the anargas various kinds of divine apparel
The Jainas have assigned the spirits connected with the tree worship to the class of Vyantara Gods. The Vyāntaras are sub-divided into eight groups, pisachas, bhutas,

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Yakşas, Rakṣāsas, Kinnaras, Kimpurașas, Mahārāgas (Nägas) and Gandharvas. Each group has on its crest the symbol of a tree) in the following order-the Kadam ba Sulasa, Vata, Khatvānga, Asoka, Champak, Näga and Tumbaru according to the Svetāmbara tradition. The Digambara list substitutes the Badari-tree for the Khatyānga. Khatvānga alone does not seem to be a tree in the Svetāmbara list.
Belief in auspicious dreams is very ancient in India. When a would be Tirthankara descends from heaven into earth his mother sees certain dreams which are regarded as auspicious. According to the Svetāmbara belief the mother sees fourteen different objects in the dream, while according to the Digambara sect the dreams are sixteen in number. The fourteen dreams seen by the mother of Mahāvīra are described in detail in the Kalpa Sutra. (1) a white elephant, large and beautiful with four tusks, (2) a white bull surrounded by diffusion of light, with a charming hump and horns greased at lips, (3) a sportive lion, white and beautiful, with a flapping tail and protruding tongue, (4) the goddess Sri, four armed, adorned with ornaments, carrying the lotuses and lustrated by elephants, (5) a garland of various flowers, (6) the full moon, (7) the red sun, (8) a wondrous beautiful banner fastened to a golden staff, with a lion on top, (9) a full vase, filled with water and lotuses, the abode of fortune, (10) a large lake full of lotuses and acquatic animals, (11) the ocean of milk, with agitated water, full of acquatic animals, (12) the celestial palace (devavimāna) of numerous columns with hanging garlands, decorated with pictures of sculptures, (13) the jewel-heap (ratnarasi) with all sorts of jewels, and (14) smokeless fire with flame in constant motion.
Kalpa Sutra miniatures show representations of these dreams either alone or in a group. Dreams are also represented in stone reliefs of the lives of different Jinas. Representation of sixteen dreams are popular amongst the Digambara Jainas and are often carved on door lintels of shrines, an early specimen of these being available on the door frame of the Sāntinātha temple at Khajuraho.3
K.S. Behera' finds traces of these dreams in the relief sculptures of AnantaGumphā of Khandagiri and Alakāpuri-Gumphā of Udayagiri.
The tympana of Ananta-Gumpha are specially noteworthy for their carvings. Beginning from the left, the first tympanum shows in low relief a four tusked elephant flanked by attending elephants of which the left one alone is preserved. The elephant which is shown in profile, carries a lotus stalk and buds for the noble elephant in the centre. A lotus is held up similarly on the right side but the attending elephant is missing. This suggested that the relief represents a scene from Chhadanta Jätaka where the elephant king is shown with his two wives. N.K. Sahu' refers to this suggestion but he is more inclined to identify the royal elephant of the first tympanum with the rain producing white elephant of the Vessāntara Jātaka which averted drought and famine in
3. U.P. Shah, Ibid, p. 489. 4. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Buddhism & Jainism, Cuttack, 1976. 5. N.K. Sahu, History of Orissa, Vol. I, p. 385

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Kalinga. But in view of the Jaina affiliation of the carves it is to be identified with the elephant which Trisala saw in her first dream. The high status and sanctity of the elephant are brought out by its central position and the lotus worship offered to it. The four tusks of the elephant leave no room for doubt that the artist had in the mind the first dream of Trisala since it was in this form that the elephant appeared in the dream. Again Alakāpuri Gumphā, in its upper cell depicts a four tusked elephant in one of the inner brackets of the verandah. The high status of the elephant is evident from the fact that it is attended upon by two other elephants, one holding a chhatra (umbrella) and the other a chámara (fly-whisk). In this particular case also the elephant distinguished by its four tusks, could be taken for the noble elephant seen by Trisala in her first dream.
The second tympanum of Ananta-Gumphā depicts a royal personage on a chariot drawn by four horses. In the back ground are shown the sun and the moon. Scholars generally identify the figure with the sun God but this interpretation is less certain since the sun God is shown in the disc form in the relief. N.K. Sahu also doubts the identification. Therefore it does not seem justified to associate this royal figure with sun worship. It is possible that the main aim of the artist was to depict a Vimana or an aerial chariot in the relief. The sun and the moon seem to indicate the stellar world. The Jainas use the Vimāna in the sense of celestial abode. However, the word "Vimāna" for chariot is commonly used in the Buddhist literature. In the inscriptions of Asoka, the same word occurs and it is generally translated as "aerial chariot", "cars of the Gods." To take it as a celestial palace only is to limit its meaning.
Thus in the panel we get representations of the sun, the moon and the aerial chariot. In addition, the artist has shown a metal jar and a banner, for in the right hand corner. a pot bellied dwarf holds a spouted water jar in his left hand and seems to carry a banner in the right hand. As already noted these are associated with the dreams of Trisala
The subject matter of the third tympanum is the anointing of the Goddess. Sri and the lotus lake. In the relief Sri is shown standing on the lotus lake anointed with the water from the strong and large trunks of guardian elephants." The lotuses in the lake are licked by gay birds.
The door-way arches of Ananta-Gumpha are relieved with lions and bulls and lions as capitals. Thus it is possible to identify some of the dreams of Trisala in the art of the caves. The simplicity and directness of expression lend further charm to the scenes.
The asta-mangalas, familiar to both the sects, are known to Jaina worship from ancient times. There are a few variations in the Svetāmbara and Digambara Jists of these obiects. According to the Svetambara canonical text Aupapātika Sutra, they are, svastika, Srivatsa, nadyavrata, vandhamānka (powder flask), the full vase, darpana (mirror) and matsya (or matsya-yugma, a pair of fish). These are often referred to in Jaina texts including canonical works, as decorating tops of architraves or ramparts or placed on chaitva trees and platforms, or painted on walls and so on. The asta-mangala symbols are interesting since they are supported by evidence on āyagāpațas of the Kushana age.

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The asta-mangalas are worshipped in Jaina rites. The Achara-dinakāra, a Svetämbara text of the fourteenth century, attempts to explain the conception behind each of these symbols. According to it, the kalasa is worshipped because the Jina is verily like a kalasa in his family. The mirror is for seeing one's true self. The bhadrāsana is worshipped as it is sanctified by the feet of blessed Lord, the vardhamanaka is suggestive of increase of wealth, fame, merit, etc. It is said that the highest knowledge has manifested itself from the heart of the Jira in the form of the Srivatsa mark on his chest. Svastika, according to this text signifies sānti or peace. The nandyāvrata diagram with its nine points stands for the nine nidhis (treasures). The pair of fish, the symbol of cupids banner, is said to come to worship, the Jina has defeated the god of love. Obviously the above explanations are to be regarded as the Jaina conceptions behind the various symbols which seem to be of ancient Indian stock common to all sects.
The Digambara tradition gives the following set of astamangalas : (1) bhrngara, a type of vessel, (2) kalasa, the full vase, (3) darpana, the mirror, (4) chāmara, the fly-whisk, (5) dhvaja the banner, (6) Vyājana, the fan, (7) chhatra, the parasol, and (8) suprastistha, the asupicious seats.
Jaina traditions of both sects refer to Siddha yatanas (shrines of Siddhas) containing images of Tirthařkaras known as Sasvata Jinas. These images are of four Tirthankaras, namely, Chandrānana, Virasena, Rşabha and Vardhamāna. They are called Sasvata Jinas because in every Utsarpini or Avasarpint the names of these four Tirthankaras are always repeated. At the back of these idols of the Jinas are figures of umbrella bearers, gracefully holding white umbrellas, wreaths and garlands of flowers, extremely white and lustrous, like silver, the moon, etc. On each side of the image of the Jina are two figures of the fly-whisk bearers, in front of the Jina is a pair (one on each side) of Nāga figures of Yakşas, Bhutas and of the Kunda-dhāras (same as mangala-kalasas or pots of sandal wood paste), bhrngaras (jars), mirrors, dishes, vessels, seats, boxes of jewels of variegated hues, necks of horses, elephants, men, Kinnaras Kimpurasas, Mahorāgas, Gandharvas, bulls caskets of flowers, garlands, powders, mops of peacock feathers, baskets. (patalika) of flowers, lion thrones, umbrellas, fly-whisks, oil pots, pots containing various cosmetics and eight banners. The above description possibly fits to the standing images.
On comparison with available archaeological evidences, this account does not appear to reflect an age earlier than the early centuries of the Christian era. On the Jaina figures of this period obtained from Mathurā, we do find on each side of a Jina an attendant chauri bearer or a Naga figure with folded hands, and occasionally a mālädhara (garland bearer) on cach side at the top of the sculptures, an umbrella above the head of the Jina.
The above account makes no reference to the lanchanas of Jinas nor of figures of Śāsanadevatas which are also absent in Mathurā during Kushana period. Marks on
6. U.P. Shah, Jaina Art and Architectures, Vol. III, p. 492.

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soles of feet and palms, hands and the Srivatsa mark on chest, etc. taken from traditions of mahapurașa laksana came to be regarded as chief characteristics of a Tirthankara image. The texts do not refer to garments on the figure of the Jina.
Jaina traditions maintained that the Tirthankaras have certain extraordinary qualities (atisayas). But the group of eight mahāpratihāryas, well known as the Parikara of the Jina image, is not separated in the list of the atisayas given in early texts like the Samavdyänga Sūtra. The emphasis on, only eight, atisayas treated as mahāpratihāryas came with the emergence of the full-fledged parikära on images of both the sects. The process was gradual as can be seen by comparison of Tirthankara sculptures of the Kushāna and Gupta periods with those of the post-Gupta and medieval periods. The astamahāpratihāryas as per the text consists of (1) a heavenly tree, (2) a throne seat. (3) trilinear umbrella and lion throne, (4) aura or a beautiful radiance. (5) drum (divyadhuni), (6) showers of celestial blossoms, (7) two chauries, and (8) heavenly music.
The different Tīrtharkaras are identified with the help of lāñchanas carved on or below their seats. Both the sects give lists of these recognising symbols. A comparison of the list of lāñchanas of both sects shows that the points of difference are with regard to the cognizance of (1) the fourteenth Jina Ananta, who has the falcon symbol according to Hema Chandra but the bear according to the Digambaras, (2) of the tenth Jina Sitala, who has Srivatsa (Hemachandra) but the Svastika (Tiloya pannanti), or the Sri-druma (Pratisthāsarodhara) according to the Digambaras, and (3) of Arānātha, the eighteenth Jina who has the fish-symbol according to the Digambaras but the nandyavarata according to the Svētambaras.?
The respective lanchanas of the Tirthankara made very late appearance on the sculptural representations and the different cognizances, specially the different animal symbols signify the influence of a primitive religion and society based on totemism upon Jainism. The Vrsa lañchana pertaining to the first Jina Adinātha or Rşabhanātha speaks about the influence of the bull cult on Jainism and traces of which may be seen manifested on the Indus valley seals of the dim protohistoric past. In the pithikā of the early Jaina sculptures we do not find such a varicd form of lāñchana, instead we find below their seat the dharmachakra like the Budha image.
A noteworthy feature in Jaina inconography is the complete agreement in both the sects about the names of all the twenty-four 'l irthankaras.
Images of Tirthařkaras were made of costly gems, metals, stones, wood and clay. The Acharadinańkura observes U.P. Shah lays down certain injunctions on the selection of any of these materials.
7 U.P. Shah, Ibid, p. 469. 8. D.K. Chakravarti, Chotelal Smriti Grantha, p. 47. 9. U.P. Shah, Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. III, A. Ghosh, (Ed.), p. 471.

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According to this text, one can prepare images of gold, silver or copper, but never of bronze, kansya, lead or tin. Sometimes brass (reti) is used in casting images, though as a general rule mixtures of metals are prohibited. When the material is wood, woor of Sri parni Chandana, Bilva, Kadarba, Rakta-chandana, Piyala, Udumbara and occasionally Sisima is allowed but never of any other tree. When the image is made of stone, the material should be free from various defects and it may be of white, greenish, red, black or green colour. In preparing a terracotta image, cow-dung should be collected without letting it fall on the ground and is to be mixed with clay obtained from pure soil. In the preparation. of lepya (Stucco) images various colours are utilised. It is further enjoined that images of iron, stone, wood, clay, ivory or cow-dung or paintings not be worshipped in private homes by persons desirous of welfare. Defective images, images which are broken and repaired or those which have been highly worn out are not to be installed. Images cast in metal or stucco images deserve to be repaired and continued in worship, but those of wood or stone, once mutilated, should not be repaired for worship. But if they are more than hundred years old or if they are consecrated by the best of men they deserve worship even though mutilated. But they should be placed in public and not in gthachaityas.
202
The Jainas put greater emphasis on the worship of mental attitude rather than physical worship or idol worship. Their worship is not confined to any God-head or a deity but of human being who has reached perfection of the soul freed from all bondage. Their idol therefore serves more the purpose of a symbol of the aggregate of certain quantities than of a mahapuruza. In worshipping the idol, the devotee remembers the qualities or virtues of the Jina and tries to imbibe them in one's own life and being.
U.P. Shah on the basis of Bṛhat Samhita (58, 45) of Varahamihira and Manasara (V. 71-95) gives the following account of the general character of Jaina Tirthankara images
The earliest datable evidence laying down standards for a Tirthankara image, so far known, is supplied in the Brahat Samhita (58-45) of Varahamihira. The God of the followers of the Arhats is to be represented as young and beautiful, having a peaceful countenance and the Srivatsa mark on his chest. With arms reaching his knees (i.e. when standing in meditation) his body is covered by only the quarters of directions (i.e. he is to be shown naked, with no garment on his person).
Obviously this formula refers to Digambara Jaina images. Either the worship of images with a dhoti had not been started by the age of Varahamihira, or at least it had not been very well-known (i.e. perhaps of a relatively recent origin) in that age. It is well known that none of the Tirthankara images of the Kushana age from Mathura and Chausa show any garment on their persons.
10. Ibid, pp. 466-67.

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The Manasara (V. 71-95), a text on architecture, assigned to circa sixth century A.D. supplies some more informations about Jaina iconography. It says about the Jaina image that it should have two arms, two eyes, and the head should be clean shaven and there should be a top knot. And again there should be no ornaments and no clothes on any part of the body of the Jina figure which should be attractive (beautiful). The Srivatsa mark, should be set in gold over the chest.
The Manasara further says that the Jina figure should be into a straight, erect or sitting posture. The legs should be uniformly straight and the two long hands should be in the same posture. In the sitting posture, the two feet are placed on the lotus seat, the whole image being in a stiff attitude and bearing a meditative look on the supreme soul. The right and left hands should be placed with palm upwards.
The image should be placed upon a throne in an erect or sitting posture. At its top (back?) should be a pinnacle and a crocodile arch. Above that should be the Kalpa tree together with the royal elephant and such other images.
According to the same text, the image should further be accompanied by Narada and other sages as well as assembly of Gods and Goddesses in a praying attitude. The Yaksas and Vidyadharas and other demi-Gods and kings except Chakravartini should also be carved in the same attitude. It should also be shown as being worshipped by Nagendra and the Lords of the quarters together with the Yaksas. The Yaksas and Yakşelvara are placed on the side, serving with raised chauries.
The Manasara refers to the Digambara image, but except the nakedness other characteristics are common to both Svetambara and the Digambara images. All the attendant Gods, Narada especially are not represented in the parikara of any Jaina image known hitherto but chauri bearing Yaksas, Nagas, elephant riders, drumbeaters, Gandharvas or Vidyadhara pairs, etc. are well known in the advanced stage of Jina image with a full parikara. The chief characteristics of a Jina image are the same, namely, long arms, a beautiful young figure, eyes centred on nose tip in meditation and the śrivatsa mark on the chest.
Both the Digambara and Svetämbara sects note the complexions of the Tirthankaras in a similar pattern. Sixteen Tirthankaras except the following were golden in complexion. Chandraprabha and Puspadanta were white, Suparśva and Parsva were greenish (harita), Muni Suvrata and Neminatha were dark-blue and Padmaprabha and Vāṣupujya were red like the coral or lotus.
That four of the Tirthankaras were held particularly sacred by the Jaina community of Mathura is proved by the find of several quadruple images called Pratima sarvatobhadrika (known as chaumukha-pratima in later periods) in the dedicatory inscriptions, one being dated in the year 5, presumably of Kaniska. These interesting type of

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images present the figure of a Tirthankara on each of the four sides of a stone block. The figures on two faces in most cases can easily be identified as Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanathā distinguished by locks and serpent hoods respectively. Of the remaining two, one is certainly Mahāvīra and the other might be Neminātha who being the cousin of Krsna and Balasāma, was greatly esteemed at Mathura. Capped by umbrellas, the sarvatobhadrikā pratimas were most probably installed in the open, within the sacred precincts of the main stupa 11 The Grahas (eight in all cases of Jaina icons from Orissa) which decorated the Brahmanical Shrines came to be associated with the Jainas also and we find them generally figured vertically on the prabhāvalaya of the Jaina sculptures personifying the Tirtharkaras. In the iconographic representation of the Grahadevatās, the prevailing custom of the area was followed and there appears to be no deviation from their Hindu counterparts. In Orissa, they are found mostly associated with standing Jaina icons.
The Adipurāņa of Jinasena indicates U.P. Shah12 describes a type of pillars known as the mānastambha in the first rampart of the samvasārana. At the base of these pillars on four sides were placed four golden images of Jainas. Such pillars are also described in the Tiloyapannati which says that the Jina images were placed on the top of a pillar. The Kahaun pillar with an inscription of the Gupta age shows four Jainas on four sides at the top and one at its base. Such figures are usually enshrined in a square pavilion top, open on four sides. This practice remains even today amongst the Digambaras. At Deogarh are certain pillars which show variations in this order tradition of Mānastambha. Some times, besides the four Jina figures on the top, four figures of subordinate deities, Yaksis and Kșetrapalas etc. were shown at the base while on the top some times a Ganadhara or an Acharya replaced one of the four Tirthankara images. An elaboration of the same conception is the famous Jaina stambha at Chitor in Rajasthan.
There is a class of Jaina divinity styled as jyotiși or jyotiska representing the stellar world. In the early Jaina art the stellar world was represented by the symbols as is the case in Mañchapuri cave of Udayagiri where a scene narrating the event of worship of some Jaina religious symbol probably Kalinga Jina has been depicted. The symbol of twenty-four petalled lotus having five stellar symbols in the centre of it, stands for the stellar world or the sun and this lotus symbol we find invariably carved on the hands of the sun-God as his main emblem whenever we notice the sculptural representation of this Brahmanical divinity. 13
Gandharvas, Kinnaras and the Vidyādharas styled as Vyāntara Devatā in the Jaina canonical literature are common heritage to all major religious sects of India. They are
11. D. Mitra, Jaina Art & Architecture, A. Ghosh, (Ed.), Vol. I, p. 66. 12. U.P. Shah, Jaina Art & Architecture, A. Ghosh, (Ed.), Vol. III, p. 484. 13. T.N. Ramchandran, "Manchapuri cave", IHQ, Vol. XXVII, No. 2,

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mostly figured in the Prabhābalayas of these images. In the friezes of Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves and the Jaina idols found in different places of the state we find their elaborate representation. Beautiful evidences of their representation flying in the midair in haste, some times carrying garlands or trays full of flowers and other offerings are noticed in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri.
The Nāga worship and the Nāga emblem from time immemorial have been a popular form of worship among the primitive population, and the Nāgas have been considered as super human in wisdom, yet so close to earthly beings and in course of times they made deep impression upon the ancient indigenous mythological and artistic tradition of our country. In the rock-cut caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri representation of Nāga emblems are to be noticed. Head of a three-hooded snake has been carved on the facade of the narrow verandah of Sarpa-Gumphā while the figures of twin serpents on the door-arches of Ananta-Gumphā encircling a tympanum and depicting a scene of tree worship are perhaps to be associated with the serpent king Dharanendra and his wife who jointly protected the life of the Jaina Tirthankara Pārsvanātha. In the later phase Näga hoods in five or seven came to be associated with the images of Supārsvanātha and Pārsvanātha respectively. Several Nāga devotees also appeared in folded hands on the pedestals of the Pārsvanātha images.
In the Jaina canonical literature, the Yakşas with their female counterparts styled as Yakşinis or Sāsanadevis figure as subsidiary deities and have found to be associated with the principal attendant of the Jina. The Navamuni-Gumpha and BārabhujiGumphā of Khandagiri hill represent separate niches after these Sasanadevi figures below their Tirthankaras. In cases of Jaina Tirthankara images from Kachela, Suai. B. Singpur, etc. of Koraput district they are invariably represented in the centre of the pedestal of the Tirthankara. In another stage separate figures of some prominent Säsanadevis like Chakreśvari, Ambikā, Rohini, etc. were carved and worshipped by the devotees. Representation of Yakşa Gomedha and Sasanadevi Ambikā sitting on a common pedestal under mango tree is a common feature.
The Jaina pantheon, so far as iconography and available remains are concerned observes U.P. Shah14 grew considerably after the Gupta period. Tantric influences developed in Buddhism and Hinduism from the early medieval period. Jainism could not escape this trend and we have texts like the Jvalāmālini-Kalpa of Indranandin, the Bhairava Padmavati-Kalpa of Mallisena and the Ambika-Kalpa of Subhachandra. The Jaina rituals are elaborated with strong influences of Hindu rites as is evident from the Pratistha-Sarodhara of Asadhara (Digambara), the Nirvana-Kālikā of Padalipta and the Achāra dinakara of Vardhmāna-Suri (Svetāmbara). The height of Tantric trends, with non-Jaina influer.ces was reached in the work called Vidyānusasana of Matisagara (circasixteenth century). These works and number of Pratisthā works of both the sects contain a mine of information on later Jaina iconography.
14. U.P. Shah, Jaina Art and Architecture, A. Ghosh, (Ed.), Vol. III, p. 476.

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The Jaina Purānas, in Sanskrit, Prākrit, Apabhrassa, etc. are another rich source for a study of Jaina iconography. Again Strota works, and incidentally some story books also supply further information. Sipa works like the Aparajita procha, the Devatāmurti-Prakaraņa, the Rupamandana and Vastu-sāra of Thakura peru, besides earlier works, like the Mānasāra, are other very important sources for the study of Jaina iconography.
In the light of the above background we now discuss the iconography of the Tirthankaras, Sāsanadevis and other Jaina divinities as found in Orissa.
TIRTHANKARA
1. Rşabhanātha
Of all the Tirthankara images, Rşabhanātha appears to be widely popular in Orissa. Figures of Rşabhanātha are represented with sculptures, found in the Baripada Museum, Khiching Museum, Jeypore Museum, Balasore Museum, Orissa State Museum and places like Bagalpur, Chadheibar, Khandagiri, Nibharana, Brahmesvar patna of Puri district, Suai, Jeypore and Kachela of Koraput district, Dolamundai and Jaina temple of Cuttack Town, Pratapanagari, Adasapur and Jajpur of Cuttack district, Podasingidi of Keonjhar district, and Charampa of Balasore district. The findings of Jaina Tirth ankara images of Rşabhanātha in all these places are mostly represented either standing in käyotsarga pose or sitting in meditative attitude on single or double petalled lotus pedestals. The Rşabha figures of Suai, Kachela and few other places of Koraput district are, however, designed on plain pedestals. The pedestals in most cases are supported by spirited lions facing the front at the corners or seated back to back. Bull as lāñchana of the Tirthankara is invariably represented at the centre of the pedestal in a couching position. The Adinātha image of Hatadiha (Fig. 77) in Jajpur area does not show any lañchana below the pedestal. The other aspect of recognising this Tirthankara is the representation of ja tābhāra above head, a few strands of which invariably seen falling on the broad shoulders. In the earlier phase, when the lāñchanas were not associated with the Tirthankaras, this falling lock of hairs on the shoulders was only evidence of differentiating this Tirthankara from others. The inscribed seated Rşabha image from Podasin gidi (now kept in the Orissa State Museum) is however an exception. In this figure, instead of the jata-bhāra above head and the falling locks on the shoulder, we find the hairs on his head are arranged in spiral locks with a bulging at the centre like all other Tirthankara figures. The pedestals, in addition to the lāñchana, are represented with a series of kneeling devotees in añjali hasta. Large number of offerings in shape of conical objects and kept on separated miniature pedestals are found depicted. In the Rşabha figures of Suai, Kachelā and a few other places of Koraput district, the figures of Yakşini, Chakreśvari seated on Garuda and Yakșa Gomukha seated or standing near by are also envisaged in front of the pedestal. Among the other aspects of the astapratiharyas, representation of the kevala tree (Nyāgrodha) spreading leaves on both the sides, trilinear umbrella, circular or eliptical halo behind head, flying figures with garlands in hands and cymbals or drums played by palms of invisible Gandharvas or conch-shells

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blown by flying heavenly figures flanking the Tirthankara arè normally carved along with the main image. These chauri bearers are at times provided with separate lotus pedestals. In places like Suai, Jeypore and Kachela, the Rşabhanātha figures show the attendants displaying champak flowers instead of holding the fly-whisk or both. Rşabhanātha image bearing Sl. No. 11 of Balasore Museum does not show chauri bearers on the sides. The symbol of dharmachakra is noticed only with the second Rşabhanātha figure of Khiching Museum.
The Rşabhanātha image like all other Tirthankara figures from Charampa is shown with deep cut-marks in various parts of the body, the satisfactory explanation of which is still not available. In view of their uniform shape, it cannot be taken as accidental.
The Rşabha figures of Charampa, Adasapur (Fig. 81) Batesvar, Brahmesvar Patna, Chadheibar, No.11 of Balasore Museum, Cuttack Jaina temple and cave No.10 of Khandagiri (Fig.52) hill are represented with eight planets in the conventional meditative posture. They are carved four on each side, Ketu, the ninth being absent. They are normally depicted just above the chauri bearers but in case of one Rşabhanātha figure of cave No. 10 of Khandagiri hill they are shown below the chauri bearers (Fig. 52).
In the Jaina history, Rşabhanāthas or Vrşabhanātha is regarded as the founder of the religion. To substantiate this aspect his figures at places are represented with either all other twenty three Tirthankaras or some of them on the sides in seated or standing fashion. In that case Rşabhanātha has been regarded as mulanāyaka. The Rsabhanātha image of Dolamundai of Cuttack town (Fig. 74) is shown with four seated Tirthankaras and figure No. 1 of Khiching Museum with two, whereas figures from Pratapanagari (Fig. 78), Hatadiha (Fig. 77), Baripada, (Fig. 106) Adasapur (Fig. 81), Jāmuda, and No. 1 of Suai (Fig. 116) are shown with all the other twenty-three miniature Tirthankaras arranged in the state. These Tirthankaras thus shown are provided with their respective lañchanas in case of their representation with Rşabhanātha images preserved in the Baripada Museum, Badajaganatha temple (Baripada) (Fig. 106) and Suai (No. 10) (Fig. 116).
Auspicious Srivatsa mark on the chest of Rşabhanatha or other Jaina Tirthankaras is not very popular as evident from the large number of images we come across in Orissa. However, the Rşabhanātha image of Kali temple of Jeypore (Fig. 123), serial Nos. 7 and 10 (Fig. 116) of Suai and the Rşabhanātha image of Dolamundai of Cuttack town (Fig. 74) depict such a symbol on the broad chest of the Tirthankara. Trivāli on the neck is a common characteristic feature with all Rşabhanātha figures in Orissa.
In addition, we find representation of lotus and champak marks on either sides, mounted or simple elephants at the top, kirttimukha motif, makara torana at times supported by gajavidalas and trefoiled arch behind head of Rşabhanātha figures in Orissa.
Mounted elephants or simple representation of a pair of standing elephants are noticed with Rşabhanātha images preserved at Dolamundai of Cuttack town (Fig. 74),

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Suai, Kachela, Charmula, Kotapat, (D.M. 41) and Jamunda (D.M. 35). Lotus marks with the image of Kāji temple at Jeypore (Fig. 123), champak flower with the chauri bearers of Rşabhanātha figures of Suai, kirttimukha over the image from Beguniabindha now kept in Khiching Museum. Gajavidala on either sides of the figures from Kämtā and Jāmundā (D.M. 35) and trefoiled arch behind head of figures found at Gramesvar temple of Nibharana (Fig. 53) and Nrusimha temple of Chadheibar. The eliptical and circular haloes in a later phase gave place to the trefoiled arches. In rare occasions we find the representation of both champak and lotus flowers on the stele as in case of the Rsabhanātha images preserved in Village Panchagaon (Fig. 57) of Puri district. In earlier phase the haloes were represented in plain design, with occasional depiction of a beaded border but in subsequent phase they are lavishly decorated with lotus petals bordered by rows of beaded chains and various floral devices. In rare instances diamond shaped designs intervene these floral medallions.
The Rşabhanātha image bearing No. D.M. 64 of B. Singpur does not represent the astapratiharas except however the lañchana, bull below the Tirthankara (Fig. 126). Similarly the Rşabhanātha figure in yogasana from Podasingidi at present preserved in the Orissa State Museum is not provided with the pair of chauri bearers, the kevala tree, the trilinear umbrella and Gandharvas playing with various musical instruments.
Youthful body, long hanging arms, erect body and elongated ears are distinctly evident with all standing Rşabhanātha images. In cases of seated figures, the broad chest, deep concentration of mind and eyes on the tip of the nose are perfectly maintained. The right palm of the Tirthankara is invariably kept over the left in all the seated figures with both soles visible to the top. In few cases the tips of fingers of both the hands touch the lower parts of the thigh regions.
Rşabhanātha figures are invariably noticed on the top of Chkreśvari images found on the right verandah wall of Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri and places like Suai and Jeypore in Koraput district, displaying all or a few of the astapratihāryas. In all such cases they are shown in yogasana posture. The Rşabhanātha figure crowning the head of Chakreśwari of Suai in addition, is depicted with eight planets in meditative attitude, four on each side.
The standing or sitting Rşabhanātha image also form a part of the chaumukhas found in Orissa.
Rsabhanātha images in bronze, too are designed in kāyotsarga or yogasana posture. In either case the hairs on the head are arranged in jatabhara, allowing a few strands falling on the shoulders, the lañchana, bull in front of the lotus pedestal and occasionally with the trilinear umbrella and the prabhämandala (halo).
2. Ajitanātha
Figures of Ajitanātha, the second Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon are carved both in yogāsana and kāyotsarga postures on plain or lotus pedestals. These pedestals in

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cases of the figures found at Charampa (Fig. 102), B. Singpur and Mahāvīra-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill are supported by spirited lions. The Ajitanātha image of Kāchelā is carved along with the figure of Mahāvīra on a common pedestal, having common chauri bearers but displaying respective lāñchanas of elephant and lion (Fig. 118). All the astapratihāryas are found normally represented with Ajitanātha figures of Orissa. Devotees in kneeling position and añjali mudrā are depicted along with lāñchana, the elephant. The Ajitanātha image of B. Singpur displays a six armed seated Rohini figure below its plain pedestal. Hairs on the head of all these figures are arranged in rows of curled knots with a bulging at the centre. This bulging in case of Charampa image appears to be very prominent. Another peculiar feature of the Ajitanātha image of Charampa (Fig. 102) is the deep cut-marks on various parts of its body. The Ajitanātha image of Mahāvīra-Gumphā of Khandagiri is not represented with the cymbals or drums played in the palms of invisible Gandharvas. Representation of the symbols of the sun and moon, the trefoiled arch, Näga devotees in añjali pose and heavenly figures offering sacred water from pitchers held in their hands are some of the additional features of the image of Mahāvīra-Gumphā.
The figures of Rohiņi as found in the left wall of the Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri and of Suai depict Ajitanātha figures in meditative pose on the top of their heads. They represent even in the seated condition, elephant as lāñchana, lotus pedestal, chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella, flying figures with garlands and the kevala tree (Saptaparna). The chaumukha of Badasai also represents Ajitanātha along with its lañchana in one of the side niches.
The origin of his symbolism and his name can be traced to the Jaina books. The Jina's mother saw an elephant in her several dreams. An elephant in India is always connected with kingly power. After his birth, all his father's enemies were conquered (jita) hence his name the invincible one.15
3. Sambhavanatha
Images of Sambhavanātha are represented in the Navamuni (Fig. 35), Bārabhuji and Mahavira caves (Fig. 38) of Khandagiri hill in yogasana posture. Horse, as the conventional lañchana of the Tirthankara is noticed at least in the pedestal of two such figures, the other one being damaged. They are all provided with lotus pedestals one of which is supported by a pair of lions. Sala, the kevala tree, attributed to the Tirthankara is available with the figure of Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Chauri-bearers and trilinear umbrella are common to all these figures whereas cymbals played in palms of invisible Gandharvas are not represented in case of the image in Mahāvīra-Gumphā only. Flying figures holding garlands and oval halo behind head are noticed at least with two of those sculptures of the place. A five folded arch and a pitcher are the two additional features of the figure of Mahāvīra-Gumphā.
15. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 53.

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4. Abhinandananatha (Fig. 38)
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Three images of Abhinandananatha are carved in the caves of Khandagiri hill. They are all seated in meditative attitude with deep concentration of mind. Each of these figures has been provided with an ape as lañchana, two chaurt bearers as attendants and a trilinear umbrella over head. The lotus pedestal in case of two figures are supported by spirited lions. Cymbals played through palms of hands of heavenly figures on either side are only traced in figures of Navamunt and Barabhuji-Gumphās, Oval halo and flying figures with garland in hands are the two additional features of the image of Barabhuji-Gumphâ
The keval tree (Piyala) under the shade of which the Tirthankara attained kevala knowledge is depicted with the figure in Bärabhuji-Gumpha only.
5. Sumatinatha (Fig.39)
Two figures of Sumatinatha in yogasana pose are noticed in the inner walls of Barabhuji-Gumpha and Mahavira-Gumphã of Khandagiri hill. Curlew as lañchana, two flywhisk bearers as attendants, lotus pedestal supported by lions and the trilinear umbrella are the common attributes of the two images. Priyangu, the tree under which Sumatinatha attained kevala knowledge, cymbals played in palms of hands, oval halo and flying figures with garlands are the additional items available with the figure of Barabhuji. Gumphä. Two full-blown lotus flowers are seen near the base of the arch over head of this Tirthankara carved in Mahavira-Gumphã. Miniature figure of the Jaina, chakra or wheel and a pair of elephants pouring showers of water or merely standing at the top of the Tirthankara as available elsewhere are conspicuous in their absence with Sumatinatha. The Jina's lanchana of a goose has clear association with the same symbol of Saraswati, the Goddess of intelligence. It summarily symbolises the central idea of Sumatt or intelligence behind the life of the Tirthankara.
6. Padmaprabha (Fig. 39)
Images of Padmaprabha are reckoned within the Barabhuji and Mahavira Gumpha of Khandagiri hill Charampa (now preserved in the Orissa State Museum) and in the collections of the Jaina temple at Cuttack (Fig. 71). He is found designed in both seated and standing positions. The two figures of Khandagiri hill are seated on lotus pedestals with the emblem of full blown lotuses below. The pedestals are supported by lions. A pitcher is also depicted near the lotus symbol. In case of the standing figures of Cuttack Jaina temple and Charampa, the Tirthankara is shown standing over the lotus and no separate emblem has been depicted in either case. The Padmaprabha image of Charampa is regarded by some as the figure of Tirthankara Mahavira due to the representation of lions on either corner of the pedestal. The two lions should not have been mistaken for the cymbals of Mahavira in the presence of the lotus, the lions being simply the bearers the Sinihasana or lion seat. No trace of the heavenly figures playing with drums or cymbals are noticed on the top of the figures of the Tirthankara found from Charampa

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and Mahavira-Gumpha of Khandagiri. Similarly the Prabhāmandal, flying figures with garlands and kevala tree are not available with the image of Mahāvīra-Gumphā instead a trefoiled-arch flanked by a pair of full blown lotuses is depicted behind him. The conventional chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella, flying Gandharvas with garlands, etc. are represented with figures of this Tirthankara available in other places as noted above. Hairs on the head of this Tirthankara except they are found in Mahāvira-Gumpha are arranged in spiral curls with a bulging at the centre. The bulging in case of Charampa figure is most prominent. The spiral curls in respect of the figure in Mahāvira-Gumpha are gathered at the top in a vertical fashion. His kevala tree is popularly known as Chatrabha. The name of the Tirthankara seems to have been derived from the colour of the red-lotus or the fulfilment of the desires of his mother to sleep upon a bed of red lotuses.
7. Suparávanātha (Fig.40)
Two images of Suparśvanātha, the seventh Tirth ankara are depicted on the inner wallsof Bārabhuji-Gumphā and Mahāvira-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill. Both the figures are found seated in meditative attitude on lotus pedestals supported by lions. The mark of cognizance in respect of the figure in Bārabhuji-Gumphā does not tally with the textual description. In the texts he has been allotted with a svastika, symbol which is only available with his figure in Mahāvira-Gumphā. A six petalled lotus flower is depicted below the pedestal of the Tirthankara as the mark of cognizance in case of Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Two chauri bearers and trilinear umbrella are the common attributes of both the images. Sirisa, the tree associated with his kevala knowledge, cymbols played in hands, oval shaped halo, flying figures with garlands held in both hands are some of the additional features of the image carved in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Similarly the trefoiled arch, emblems flanked by auspicious jars and decorative creeper motif spreading on either sides are some of the special features associated with this Tirtharkara in respect of the figure in Mahāvira-Gumpha.
The Tirthankara image of Manikchak (Fig. 96) of Balasore district though displayed the lañchana deer in the pedestal is provided with canopy of a seven hooded snake over head. As per the text16 he is to be given snake canopy of either one or five or nine hoods for distinguishing it from the usual seven fold serpent hood of Pārsvanātha. Disregard or ignorance of this point has led at times to wrong identifications. He acquired the name of Supāsíva because he was endowed from birth with beautiful sides. This has also evident connection with his emblem of svastika which stands for good and auspiciousness. The seated Tirthankara image having a snake canopy of nine hoods at Bada Jagannatha temple of Baripada may also be considered in the light of the above description. 8. Chandraprabha
Apart from the two bronze Chandraprabha images of Achutarajapur (Figs. 62 & 65), preserved in the Orissa State Museum, four other figures of this Tirthankara are
16. B.C Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 60,

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represented one each in the Navamunt-Gumphã (Fig. 35), Barabhuji-Gumpha and Mahavira-Gumphã (Fig. 40) of Khandagiri hill and village Narasimhapur of Jajpur area of Cuttack district. The image of Narasimhapur in kayotsarga pose on a plain pedestal is represented with his usual emblem, the crescent moon, the trilinear umbrella and flying figures with garlands in hands. The other features forming the astapratiharyas are conspicous in their absence. The three figures depicted in Khandagiri hill are all in yogasana having the crescent moon as the mark of cognizance below their respective pedestals. The image of Navamunt-Gumphã is devoid of other conventional features except perhaps, the lotus pedestal. Two chauri bearers, lotus pedestals supported by lions and the trilinear umbrella are the common attributes associated with the rest two figures of Khandagiri hill. The tree, Nagakefara associated with his kevala knowledge, cymbals played in hands of invisible Gandharvas, oval shaped halo and flying heavenly figures with garlands held in their hands are the other notable features of the image. found in Barabhuji-Gumphã. Similarly a trefoiled arch and decorative creepers running to either sides of the umbrella are added to the figure of Mahavira-Gumpha.
212
Seated in samaparyañkāsana posture with both soles visible on the pericarp of a lotus, with a single row of petals, the robeless Chandraprabha (Acc. No. 254) with the broad chest and elongated ear lobes, exhibits the yogamudra with his right palm placed on the left against the abdomen.
The hair is gathered on the crown in a conical form. Depicted on the central petal of the front side of the lotus seat is the crescent moon, the cognizance of the Tirthankara. The solid oval halo with a beaded border is edged by tongues of flame at long intervals. At its crown is an ornate triangular piece.
The second bronze figure bearing Acc. No. 327 is standing in kayotsarga pose with long hanging arms and fingers lightly touching the lowest part of the thigh, on the pericarp of a lotus with a single row of hanging petals. The hair on his head has been. coiled and gathered on the crown. On the front side of the pedestal is the crescent
moon.
Literally, he was called Chandraprabha because he had the lustre (prabha) of that of the moon, besides, the fact that one of the dreams of his mother is about the moon.17 9. Suvidhinatha or Puspadanta (fig. 44)
The ninth Tirthankara in the series, Suvidhinatha or otherwise called Puspadanta has been carved within the group of Barabhuji-Gumpha and Mahavira-Gumphā (Fig.44), of Ahandagiri hill. In Mahavira-Gumph it occupies the fourteenth place instead of the conventional position of nine. Alligator as vehicle of the Tirthankara, two chartbearers, attendant devotees lotus pedestals suppc rted by lions, trilinear umbrella are the important common attributes found with both the images. Naga (or Malli), the tree
17. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 69.

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associated with his kevala knowledge, cymbals played in palms of invisible Gandharvas, oval halo (prabhāmandala) behind head and flying figures with garlands held in hands are the other notable features of the image in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Similarly symbolical representation of lotus flowers and provision of a semi-circular arch overhead are the two other distinct elements associated with the Tirthankara image of Mahāvīra-Gumphā.
B.C. Bhattacharya18 records two explanations for his two names. The name Suvidhinātha' was given to him because after an internecine warfare fought by his kingly relatives, they gave up fighting and took to performing religious duties. His birth eventually brought "good order" (Suvidhi) to the distracted family. The other name Puşpadanta was derived from the fact that the Jina's teeth resembled the buds of a flower (puspa).
10. Sitalanātha (Fig. 41)
Sitalanātha, the tenth Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon, is found depicted one each in the caves of Bārabhuji-Gumpha and Mahāvira-Gumpha of Khandagiri hill. The figure depicted in Bārabhuji-Gumphā is in meditative attitude while his representation in the Mahāvira-Gumphā is in kāyotsarga pose (Fig.41).
The mark of cognizance in respect of both the figures is not very clear. In Bārabhuji-Gumphä it is completely disfigured and in case of Mahāvīra-Gumphā it is more akin to a vajra rather than the conventional Srīvatsa or the Aśvatha tree. Two chauri-bearers and the lotus pedestal supported by lions in each corner are the common features of both the images. Vilva the tree associated with his keval knowledge, trilinear umbrella, cymbals played through hands of invisible figures, oval halo (prabhāmandala), and flying Vidyadharas with garlands held in their hands, are vividly represented with the image of Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Contrary to the additional features like pitchers flanking the emblem below pedestal, trefoiled arch with makara torana, parrots, Nandipada symbol and Nāga figures depicted along side the Tirthankara of MahaviraGumphā.
The Jina has two different explanations for his name in as much as he could take away men's heat of sorrow. Another version explains the name due to the fact that the tenth Tirthankara had marvellous power of imparting coolness (Sitala) to fevered patients. Similarly the śrivatsā symbol associated with him stands for auspiciousness and blessedness.
11. Sreyāmsanātha (Fig. 48)
Sreyāmsanātha, the eleventh Tirthankara of the Jainas appears in its proper position in Bārabhuji-Gumphā but occupies the twenty-third place in Mahāvīra-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill (Fig. 48). The one in Bārabhuji-Gumphā is seated in meditative pose
18. Ibid, p. 65,

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa whereas the other in Mahavira-Gumphå is standing in kayotsarga posture. Rhinoceros as the conventional lañichana of the Tirthankara is represented below the pedestal in both In addition, chauri bearers, lotus pedestal supported by lions, trilinear umbrella and cymbals in hands of Gandharvas are the other common attributes of both the figures. The flying heavenly figures on the top of the image in Bärabhuji-Gumpha though hold garlands in their hands they pay on cymbals in case of Mahavira-Gumpha. Tumbar or Tindika, the tree associated with his kevala knowledge and the oval shaped halo (prabhamandala) are only represented with the image in Bärabhuji-Gumphä. Similarly pitchers flanking the mount below pedestal, symbolical representation of lotus flowers and the semi-circular arch overhead are the additional features depicted with the Tirthankara in Mahavira-Gumpha.
The turbulence and forwardness on the part of the Tirthankara and his mother have been fittingly symbolised by the sign of a rhinoceros, so known for those. qualities.
12. Vasupujya (Fig. 42)
Three images of Tirthankara Väsupujya are carved in the rock-shelters of Khandagiri hill. The two figures in Navamunt-Gumphã (Fig. 35) and BärabhujiGumphâ are in yogasana while the one in Mahavira-Gumphã (Fig. 42) is in kayotsarga pose. They are all represented with buffalo as the mark of cognizance below the lotus pedestals supported by lions in addition to the trilinear umbrella and chaurt bearers.
Cymbals played in hands of invisible figures appear in case of two figures only. Patalika, the tree associated with his keval knowledge, oval shaped halo behind head and flying figures with garlands in hands are depicted with the Tirthankara image of Bārabhuji-Gumphã only. On the other hand Naga devotees in ajali mudra, pitcher in front of the mount and trefoiled arch having the base of a makara torana are noticed with the image of Mahavira-Gumphã. The vacant space at the top of this figure is represented with tridents, pitchers, creepers and inverted parrots which not only indicate to the iconographic peculiarity but also add to its decorative beauty.
D. Mitra1 has brought to our notice a remarkable pair of Yakṣa Kumāra and Yakşini Gandhari (Acc. No. 265) designed in bronze from the Achutarajapur hoard. This pair is crowned by the image of Tirthankara Vasupujya whose lanchana, the mahisa (bufialo) is placed just below his legs. In the composition emphasis was given to the Yaksa and the Sasanadevi whose figures are larger than that of the Tirthankara himself. Seated cross-legged with both soles visible above the animal, the robeless Tirthankara with short protruding lips almost touching the stunted nose, buldging eyes and elongated cars, displays, yogamudra. Against the front side of the pedestal are seen the defaced upper portions of seven male figures in a row, all summarily treated with two palms touching. Another similar figure occurs below the animal in the space between the Yakşa
19. D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, p. 51.

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and the Sasanadevt. Though it is tempting to identify these eight figures with astavatus, these figures most probably stand for eight grahas despite the absence of their typical attributes. The halo behind the three figures in the form of a beaded arch edged by leaf shaped flames or branches. At its crown is a small Chhatra with a thick sylindrical shaft.
13. Vimalanatha (Fig. 43)
Two figures of Vimalanatha, the thirteenth Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon are represented in the group of sculptures depicted on the inner walls of BarabhujiGumpha and Mahavira-Gumphã (Fig. 43). Of the two the one in Barabhujt-Gumphå is seated in yogasana pose and the other in Mahavira-Gumphã is standing in kayotsarga attitude. Boar, as the mark of cognizance is found in both cases. Besides, two chaurl bearers, lotus pedestals supported by lions, trilinear umbrella and flying figures with garlands in hands are the other common attributes of these two Tirthankara images. Jambu (black-berry), cymbals played through palms of the hands of invisible figures and oval shaped halo are the additional items depicted with the figure in Bārabhuji-Gumphā, Similarly the trefoiled arch flanked by Gandharvas, Naga devotees in aljali pose, spouted jar and pitcher are the other notable representations of the image in Mahavtra-Gumpha,
The sharpness (of intellect) of the Tirthankara has been emblematised by the boar noted specially for its sharpness.
14. Anantanatha (Fig. 40)
Two figures of Anantanatha, the fourteenth Tirthankara in the series have been depicted in meditative posture on lotus pedestals in Bärabhuji-Gumpha and MahaviraGumpha (Fig. 40) of Khandagiri hill. The one in Bārabhujt-Gumpha though occupies the conventional fourteenth place, the other in Mahavira-Gumpha is shown in the ninth position. Further, the image in Barabhujt-Gumpha has the mount of a percupine, but its counterpart in Mahavira-Gumpha represents a bird having more affinity with a peacock, instead of a hawk or falcon as the mark of cognizance. Trilinear umbrella and a set of two fly-whisk bearers are the common features of both the figures. Alvatha, the tree related to his kevala knowledge, cymbals played in hands of invisible Gandharvas oval shaped halo forming parts of the asfapratiharyas are designed with the Tirthankara image of Barabhujt-Gumphâ. On the other hard symbolical representation of full-blown lotus flowers near the base of the trefoiled arch of the figure in Mahavira-Gumphâ adds to its iconographic peculiarity.
He obtained his name of Ananta as his mother had seen an endless necklace of pearls. Jaina tradition asserts that an endless (ananta) thread which lay about powerless in Ayodhya became endowed with power to heal diseases as soon as the Tirthankara took his birth.20
20. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 71.

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15. Dharmanatha (Fig. 44)
Figures of Dahrmanatha, the fifteenth Tirthankara of the Jainas are found depicted one each in Bärabhuji-Gumphâ and Mahavira-Gumpha (Fig. 44) with vajra as the mark of cognizance in front of their lotus pedestals. Lotus pedestals supported by lions, trilinear umbrella, cymbals played in hands of invisible Gandharvas and chauri bearers flanking the Tirthankara are the common features of both the images. Dadhiparṇa, the tree associated with his kevala knowledge, oval shaped halo and flying figures with garlands in hands are the additional representations noticed with the image in BarabhujiGumpha. Similarly a tray containing offerings, a spouted jar and the semi-circular arch over head are the typical iconographic details of the Tirthankara carved in MahaviraGumpha.
Jaina Monuments of Orissa
He obtained the name of Dharmanatha because he saved mankind from miseries. There is tradition also that the Jina's mother performed many acts of religion while bearing him in the womb. Hence the name of the child as Dharmanatha.21
16. Santinatha (Fig. 44)
Images of Santinätha, the sixteenth Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon are reckoned with at places like Martasol (Fig. 95), Manikchak (Fig. 96) and Charampa of Balasore district (Fig. 103), Kachela of Koraput district (Fig. 117), Podasingidi of Keonjhar district, Jajpur and Nasik Kotian of Cuttack district (Fig. 80) and Khandagiri hill of Puri district. Except Khandagiri where the two figures in its Bārabhuji-Gumphā and Mahavira-Gumphã shown seated yogasana, all others are represented standing in kayotsarga pose on double or single petalled lotus pedestals. The pedestals in some cases are found supported by a lion at each corner. The image of Podasingidi is available. with the lower part only. In all cases they are provided with deer as the mark of cognizance in addition to the chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella, flying figures with garlands and, cymbals played in hands. The image of Mahavira-Gumphã however, does not display the flying figures with garlands and cymbals plyed in hands. Nandi Vrkaya, the tree associated with his kevala knowledge is depicted either surmounting the trilinear umbrella or shown in running creepers on the sides of the semicircular arch above head. Prabhamandala (halo) in circular or eliptical design are carved behind. the head of all figures except the two found in Mahavira-Gumpha and Manikchak. The Tirthankara image of Manikchak is provided with a canopy of five hooded snake over head, a very peculiar iconographic feature.
Representation of eight planets seated in meditative posture are noticed with the Santinatha figures of Kachela, Manikchak and Nasik Kotian. The figure of Charampa is shown with cut marks on the body like all other Tirthankaras of the place. A pair of elephants are shown flanking the image of Kachela. Similarly the chauri bearers of the image of Nasik Kotian are carved starding over two such elephants. The Tirthankara figure kept in the Gaṇeśa-temple of Daśvāsamedhaghat of Jajpur town only is carved
21. Ibid, p. 72.

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with all other twenty-three Tirthankaras on the sides. In addition this image is also. seen wearing a beaded chain around the neck, a rare occurrence with Jaina Tirthankaras. Kneeling devotees in anjali pose and heaps of offerings are noticed below the pedestal of these figures except however, in case of Khandagiri hill.
Hairs on the head of all Santinatha figures except in case of Mahavira-Gumphå are arranged in curled knots with a bulging at the centre. This bulging in case of the figure of Charampa appears to be very prominent. In Mahavira-Gumpha the figure is shown. with these spiral locks gathered vertically over head. The Sântinätha image of Martasol is designed with the frame of a makara toraya supported by Gajavīdalas. In addition, armed devotees are noticed below its lotus pedestal. A two armed Sasanaderi Mahāmānasi is found depicted below the pedestal of the Tirthankara image of Martasol only. She is depicted in Padmasana with a pair of elephants offering sacred water from pitchers held in their uplifted trunks. The lower part of the Santinatha image lying in the premises of the Rama Chandi shrine at Podasingidi is flanked by lady. attendants, one with lotus flower and the other under a tree holding a baby on the lap.
In Jaina history of Pontiffs Santinatha occupies a very high place. Not only did he revive Jainism, which was in danger of falling into oblivion, but he so consolidated the faith that it never disappeared again. Another extraordinary fact about him is that he was the first Tirthankara to become a Chakravarti or emperor of the whole of India. The occasion which gave origin to his name is that before Santinatha's birth, his mother was able to stay the course of the pestilence which was raging in the kingdom by sprinkling the sufferers with santi water. Hence the name "Santinatha" or "Lord of Peace".
17. Kunthunatha (Fig. 45)
Two figures of Kunthunatha, the seventeenth Tirthankara of the Jainas, are depicted in the inner walls of Barabhuji-Gumpha and Mahavira-Gumpha (Fig. 45). Both are seated in yogasana on lotus pedestals supported by lions. Goat as the symbol of cognizance, is found in front of the pedestals of both figures. In addition, chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella, Tilak taru, the kevala tree associated with him are also commonly found in these figures. This tree, in case of Mahavira-Gumpha is represented in shape of creepers spreading to both directions of the semi-circular arch over head. Cymbals played through hands of invisible Gandharvas, flying figures displaying garlands. in hands and an oval shaped halo (prabhamandala) behind head are the other notable features of the Tirthankara image of Barabhujt-Gumphå. Hairs on the head of Tirthankara in respect of Barabhuji-Gumpha are arranged spiral curls with ugnia and that of Malvir:-Gumphâ gathered at the top. Mount, the goat has been disfigured in both cases.
Two explanations of the origin of his name are given in the Abhidhana Chintamani. First the Jina stood firmly on earth hence Kunthanatha. Secondly, before his birth, his mother saw a heap (kuntha) of jewels. 22
22. Ibid, p. 75.

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18. Arānatha (Fig. 45)
Figures of Arānatha, the eighteenth Tirthařkara are also represented in the Bārabhuji-Gumpha and Mahāvira-Gumphā (Fig. 45) of Khandagiri hill seated in meditative attitude on sir gle cr double petalled lotus pedestals supported by lions. The mount in case of Bārabhuji Gumphā is an ant-eater contrary to the prescribed symbol of fish as per the text. But in case of Mahāvīra-Gumphā, the fish is depicted below the pedestal corresponding to the reference in the text. Nandyā Vrata (a kind of svastika) has also been associated with him as a mystic symbol.
Chauri-bearers, trilinear umbrella and cymbals played in hands of invisible heavenly figures are the other common attributes of both the images. Chyuta (Mango), the tree associated with his kevala knowledge, oval shaped halo, flying figures with garlands are specially depicted along with the image in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Similarly the symbolical representation of the sun and moon with the Tirthankara of MahāviraGumphā add to its iconographic peculiarity.
He obtained the name of Ara because his mother saw a dream of a wheel (arā) of jewels.23
19. Mallinātha (Fig. 46)
The ninteenth Tirthankara has been represented in the group of sculptures of both Bārabhuji-Gumphā and Mahāvīra-Gumphā (Fig. 46) of Khandagiri hill with pitcher as the mark of cognizance below respective lotus pedestals. The pedestals on the other hand are supported by lions in the front. Chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella, Asoka as kevala tree, flying figures with garlands and oval shaped halo are conventionally represented with the figure in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Similarly chauri bearers and trilinear umbrella flanked by lotus flowers are only available with the image in Mahāvira-Gumphā. Both the figures are represented seated in meditative attitude.
According to the Svetāmbara sect Malinātha was a woman, but sculptures and the name ending with nātha are not in favour of this tradition as they do not show the Tirthankara with any feminine features.
The Jina acquired the name of Malli as his mother longed for fragrant Malli (a kind of jasmine) flowers while bearing him in the womb. The emblem of a water-jar either symbolises the ninth dream of the Jina's mother or one of the astamangalas or eight auspicious things.24 20. Munisuvrata (Fig. 47)
The back walls of Bārabhuji-Gumphã and Mahāvīra-Gumplā (Fig. 47) of Khandagiri hill contain each a figure of Muni-suvrata, the twentieth Tirthankara of the
23. Ibid, p. 76. 24. Ibid, p. 78.

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Jainas carved in bold relief. Both the figures are seated in yogasana pose on lotus pedestals supported by lions. Tortoise, as the mark of cognizance differentiates this Tirthankara from others. Apart from the common attributes of chauri-bearers, cymbals played in hands and trilinear umbrella, we find the kevala tree (champak), oval shaped. halo (prabhamandala), flying figures holding garlands with the image of Barabhujt Gumpha and a trefoiled arch with the figure of Mahavira-Gumphã as additional features. The figure of Munisuvrata occupies the twenty-first place in the group of sculptures, represented in Mahavira-Gumpha contrary to its twentieth position in the Jaina. pantheon.
His name originated from the fact that he kept noble vows (suvrata, goodness) devoutly and he was a Muni or saint. The tortoise as his emblem symbolises the idea of slowness and steadiness, the two requisites for keeping vows.25
21. Naminatha (Fig. 46)
Naminatha, the twenty-first Tirthankara, though occupies the conventional position in Barabhujt-Gumphâ it is given the twentieth position in Mahavira-Gumpha (Fig. 46) of Khandagiri hill. Both of them are carved in yogasana posture on lotus pedestals supported by lions. They also display chauri-bearers, trilinear umbrella and cymbals. played through palms of hands of invisible Gandharvas. Vakul, the tree associated with kevala knowledge, prabhamandala (halo) and flying figures with garlands in hands are the other items available with the figure in Bärabhuji-Gumphã. Blue lotus, as the conventional mark of cogaizance in respect of the figure in Mahavira-Gumphã more looks like at bunch of flowers.
22. Neminatha (Fig. 47)
In addition to the representation of Neminatha, the twenty-second Tirthankara of the Jaina in the group of sculptures carved in bold relief in Navamuni-Gumpha, (Fig. 35), Barabhuji-Gumpha and Mahavira-Gumpha (Fig. 47) of Khandagiri hilll, K.C. Panigrahi brings to our notice another such figure found at present in the Akhandalesvar temple of Jajpur area of Cuttack district. Besides, figures of Neminatha seated in yogasana pose are invariably placed at the top of the mango tree seen behind the twin figures of Yoksa Gomedha and Ambikä or independent images of Ambika, his Sasanadevi, His conventional mark of cognizance, the conch is placed below the lotus pedestal of the image in Mahavira-Gumphã. But in case of Navamuni-Gumpha, two conches support the pedestal in addition to the eight petalled lotus (or dharmachakra) at the centre. Similarly the conch is carved in front of the eight petalled lotus (or dharmachakra) below the pedestal of Barabhuji-Gumphã. The lotus pedestal of the image of MahaviraGumpha though supported by a pair of peacocks it is replaced by lions in case of Barabhujt-Gumpha. Chauri-bearers, trilinear umbrella and cymbals played in hands. are commen to all the three images referred to above. Mahaveņu, the tree associated
25. Ibid, p. 79.

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with his kevala knowledge is represented in cases of figures Bārabhuji-Gumphā and Akhandalesvar temple of Jajpur. Oval shaped halo behind head and flying figures with garlands are also noticed with some of these figures. the three images of Neminātha at Khandagiri and those found placed above its Sāsunadevi are carved invariably seated in yogäsana posture. The figure in Akhandalesvar temple however, is designed standing in käyotsarga posture. It depicts cight planets (four on each side) scated in conventional yogāsana posture on the sides. In addition, kneeling devotees in anjali pose are only represented with the image of Akhandaleśvar. The votive representation of this Tirthankara on the top of the tree behind the Sasanadevi and Yakșa are invariably shown with the eight petalled lotus (or dharmachakra), the chauri bearers, trilinear umbrella and flying figures holding garlands in hands.
His name has been derived in two ways. First his circumference (figuratively) was like that of the dharmachakra. Secondly before his birth his mother saw a wheel of black jewels. Hence his other name is Aristanemi.
23. Pārsvanātha
Next to Rşabhanātha, the figures of Pārsvanātha seem to be extremely popular in Orissa. His images are reckoned with at places like Khiching, Paripada (Fig. 105 and
popular in 107) and Koisali of Mayurbhanja district, Pundal, Ayodhya (Figs. 100 & 101) and Charampa of Balasore district Vaidakhia (Fig. 88) Podasingidi, Sainkul (Fig. 93 & 94) and Ana (Fig. 90) of Keonjhar district; Cuttack Jaina temple (Figs. 70 & 72), Pratapanagari (Fig. 78) and Bhanpur (Fig. 79) of Cuttack district; Khandagiri (Fig. 35). Sisupalgarh (Fig. 58) and Bagalpur district ard Chārmula and Jāmundā of Koraput district. These images are designed both seated in yogasāna or standing in kayotsarga posture on plain, single or double petalled lotus pedestals. At places these pedestals are shown supported by lions. In addition to the snake symbol below pedestals on few occasions, these figures are distinctly separated from other Tirthankaras by the canopy of a seven hooded snake over head. In case of the standing figures, the coils of the snake are gathered behind the Tirthankara, in several folds fashioned symmetrically.
The two Pārsvanātha figures in seated position of the Bada Jagannātha temple at Baripada, are however provided with canopies of nine and thirteen hooded snakes. The figures having nine hooded snake canopy can also be related with the image of Tirthankara Supāsávanātha.
Chauri bearers though, a common feature of all Pārsvanātha figures, they are not shown with some figures available at places like Bada Jagannātha temple (Baripada) Sainkal, Khiching and Podasingidi. These chauri bearers on either side of the image of Vaidakhia, now preserved in the Orissa State Museum arc depicted standing on elephants. Devadāru or Dhālaki, the tree associated with his kevala knowledge is not traceable in the figures of Bada Jagannātha temple, one image of Cuttack Jaina temple, one of Podasingidi, two of Sainkul and in case of all, in Khandagiri hill. Umbrella in three folds either fitted to a staff or spread over the head are noticed with some images. But

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it is significantly omitted in a few figures preserved at Cuttack Jaina temple, the two in Bada Jagannātha temple, the two in village Sainkul, two in Podasingidi, and the one represented in Mahāvīra-Gumphā. Representation of other Tirthankaras in miniature size both seated and standing on either side of the Tirthankara are noticed in rare cases. The Parsvanatha image of Gadachandi ncar Podasingidi has all the twenty-three other Tirthankaras depicted on its sides. Six such figures are shown with an image of Khiching Museum and four in case of the second Pārsvanātha image of Cuttack Jaina temple. The Pārsvanātha image of Vaidakhia is depicted with figures of Rşabhanātha, Sāntinātha, Mahāvīra and Chandraprabha along with their respective mark of cognizance along side of it.
Similarly astagrahas seated in yogāsana posture displaying conventional attributes are available with two figures of Cuttack Jaina temple, the one each at Pundal and Ayodhya. Cymbals played in hands of invisible Gandharvas, though a normal feature in large number of Pārsvanātha images yet they are not envisaged in the figures of Sainkul, Bada Jagannātha, Charamula (D.M.I), Jamunda (D.M.I]) and Fodasingidi. Halo (Prabhämandala) is only shown with the figure of Pratapanagari. Two Pārsvanātha images one at Podasingidi and the other of Pratapanagari are fashioned within toranas fitted with makara heads. Semi Nāga and Nāgi devotees in añjali hasta are found in most cases except, however with the images of Sainkul and Bada Jagannātha temple.
Deep cut-marks noticed in various parts of the body of the Tirthankara of Charampa maintaining uniformity with other Tirthankaras of the place. Lotus and champak marks are noticed with the image of Cuttack Jaina temple. Hairs on the head in most cases are arranged in spiral locks with a bulging at the centre. This bulging in case of the image of Charampa appears to be very prominent. Padmāvati, the Sāsanadevi of the Tirthankara is shown depicted at the centere of the pedestal of the image of Jāmundā (D.M.II) in Koraput district. She is seated in Padmāsana with a canopy of three hooded snake over head. The attributes in her hands are almost disfigured. The two seated Pārsvanātha images of Navamuni-Gumphā of Khandagiri represent, one a pitcher (kumbha) and the other an eight petalled lotus (or dharmachakra) below their pedestals. Flying figures with garlands, seem to be another notable feature depicted on either side of the Tirthankara. They are however not traced with the figures kept at Sainkul, Bada Jagannātha temple and Podasingidi.
The two bronze idols of Pārsvanātha, one at Bhanpur and the other preserved in the Orissa State Museum also represent the Tirthankara, both in seated and standing order. In cither case he is provided with a lotus pedestal, and canopy of seven hooded snake over head.
The name of Parśva has been explained in Jaina literature differently. (a) He touches all ideas by knowledge, (b) his mother before his birth while lying on her couch, saw a black serpent crawling about, and (c) he is Lord (Natha) of his Yaksa named Pārsva. In sculpture informs B.C. Bhattacharya26, he is shown with three, seven or eleven,
26. Ibid, p. 82.

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Jaina Monuments of Orissa hoods. The Ganaddhara Saraddha Sataka further speaks of Pâráva wearing nine serpent hoods. Thus the canon of the numbers of hoods cited above is not always regular.27
The bronze figure of Pārsvanātha of Bhanapur only shows the auspicious śrīvatsa mark on the chest. Pārsvanātha instead of being placed before Mahāvira, the twentyfourth Tirthankara, occupies a roughly central place on the back wall of MahāviraGumphā of Khandagiri hill.
24. Mahāvīra
The figures of Mahāvira, the traditional founder of Jaina religion, are not very popular like the images of Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanātha. He is found represented in sculpture at places like Suai (Fig. 114), Kachela (Fig. 118), Boriguma, Jeypore and B. Singhpur of Koraput district. Ayodhya in Balasore district and Khandagiri hill of Puri district (Fig. 48). Few other images of Mahāvīra are also found preserved in the Orissa State Museum. These figures are shown invariably carved seated in meditative attitude or standing in kāyotsarga pose on plian, single or double petalled lotus pedestals at times supported by lions. Lion as the conventional mark of cognizance appears carved in the centre of these pedestals except in case of the figure bearing Acc. No. Ay. 50 of Orissa State Museum where it seems to be disfigured. Chauri bearers flanking the Tīriharkara are seen in conventional posture just above the pedestal in all cases. Trilinear umbrella and Sāla the tree associated with his kevala knowledge also form the common feature of all these images. Figures of eight planets seated in a row in yogasana posture displaying the conventional attributes are only noticed on the top edge of the lotus pedestal of the Mahāvira figure preserved in a niche of the Bhairava temple of Borigumma. Cymbals or drum played in hands or invisible Gandharvas and halo (prabhāmandala) are depicted with most of these figures, the exception being the image of Mahāvira-Gumphā of Khandagiri. Two elephants flanking the Tirthankara are not shown in cases of the images found in the caves of MahaviraGumphā of Khandagiri. Two eleplants flanking the Tirthankara are not shown in case of the images found in the caves of Khandagiri and the one bearing Acc. No.Ay. 50 of the Orissa State Museum. The figure cf Mahāvīra of B. Singpur displays the dharmachakra below the pedestal and a makara torana at the back. The Mahāvira image (Ay.50) of Orissa State Museum on the other hand represents pair of goose, Gandharvas and Kinnaras beating cymbals and blowing conchsells; champak and lotus medallions as well as a decorative torana fitted with makara leads. Trefoiled arch instead of the halo seem to have been designed at the top of this image and the one in Mahāvīra-Gumphā of Khandagiri hills. Devotees seated with cñjali hasta, pitchers, Näga figures, flying figures with garlands are also at times represented with these figures of Mahāvīra.
The auspicious śrivatsa mark is depicted on the chest of the Tirthankara of Suai in Koraput district only. Matanga, the Yakşa, is depicted on an elephant and starding
27. Ibid, p. 85.

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near the dharmachakra symbol of the figures of Kachela and B. Singpur respectively. Similarly Sidhyika, the Sasanadert of the Tirthankara is noticed below the pedestal of the figures of Suai, Kachela, Bhagavati temple of Jeypore, two images in the Orissa State Museum, B. Singpur and Boriguma, all from Keraput district.
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The two principal names by which he was known were Vardhamana and Mahavira. The first name is explained as, since the prince was placed in the womb of the Ksatriyani Trisala this family's (treasure) cf gold, silver, riches, corn, jewels, pearls, shells, precious stones and corals increased, therefore, the prince shall be called Vardhamana (i.e. increasing). He was called Vira or Mahavira in as much as he specially sent away the deeds (Karmas). His symbol of the lion is the most befitting mark of his spiritual heroism. His forbearance, his austerities, his strenuous work in the path of destroying work are all unmistakable proofs of his lion-like. personality. His Sasanadevi, Siddhayika has also the symbol of lion as her vehicle. His Yakta Matanga riding an elephant personifies the royal power, which was associated with Vardhamana in his worldly as well as in his spiritual life, informs, B.C. Bhattacharya.
There is a regular order based on chronology in the arrangement of the Tirthankaras having characteristic symbols. This order has been reversed in some cases of Mahavira-Gumphã of Khandagiri where we find all the Tirthankaras are depicted in the walls of its inner chamber. The reversal order in these cases is probably due to the ignorance and inadvertence of the sculptors. Their ignorance is evidenced by the introduction of imaginary symbols not mentioned in the Jaina scriptures i.e. with the ninth and the eighteenth figures.
1. Chakreśvari
SASANADEVIS
Independent figures of Chakresvari, the Sasanadevi of Rabhanatha, the first Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon are noticed at Suai and Jeypore (Fig.121), of Koraput district, and Navamunt-Gumphá (Fig.35) and Bärabhuji-Gumpha (Fig.37) of Khandagiri hill in Puri district. In addition her figures are also shown below the pedestal of a number of Rsabhanatha figures found at places like Suai (Figs. 113, 115 &116), Kachela, Jeypore (Kali temple) (Fig.123), B. Singpur, Charmula, Kotapata, Jamunda and Kamata of Koraput district. In all such cases she is depicted scated either in lalitäsana or padmasana pose on Garuda carved below her lotus pedestal. She has been represented in two, four, six, ten, twelve and sixteen arms with attributes displayed in each of them. In independent figures, her Tirthankara, Rṣabhanatha is invariably shown seated in meditative attitude at the top with attributes like lanchana the bull, chauri bearers, halo, flying figures with garlands in hands, trilinear umbrella, the kevala tree and at times cymbals. played in hands of invisible Gandharvas. Apart from Garuda, the traditional mount, we notice a crane (or peacock) and a pitcher in the pedestal of her image in the verandah wall of Barabhuji-Gumphā.
28. Ibid, p. 90.

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The only two armed Chakreśvari image depicted below the Rşabhanāth a figure of Jamunda (D.M. 35) in Jeypore branch museum is shown seated in lalitasana pose on
lotus pedestal displaying V arada mudrü in both hands. Four armed figures of Chakresvari seem to be extremely popular with the Rşabhanātha figures of Suai, Kächela, Jeypore. B. Singpur, Chārumulā, Kotapāta, Kamta and Jämundā of Koraput district. In all these cases she is shown mounted on Garuda, except however of the figure of Jamunda (D.M. 8) where she is seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal. Attributes like discs are only visible in two of her hands from the four. The four armed Chakreśvarī images included within the pedestal of the Rşabharatha figures bearing Nos. two, four, seven, nine and ten of Suai and the one of Kali temple, Jeypore are provided with attributes like discs, in two hands and varada mudrā on the others. The other four armed figures under the Rşabhanatha image bearing serial numbers twelve and thirteen of Suai and that of the Kāli temple represent two discs, vessel and varada mudră in her hands. In respect of other Chakreśvari images of this category the aitributes in hands are either damaged or become indistinct due to weathering effects.
The only representation of a six armed Chakreśvari image below the pedestal of the Rsabhanātha figure bearing serial No. 8 of Suai shows two discs, abhaya, varada, sword and shield. She is also mounted on Garuda.
The Chakreśvari image of Namamuni-Gumphā is ten arnied, six with flower-like chakras (discs) perched on the fingers of six hands, the seventh hand holding a perforated disc, eighth a shield, ninth a rosary held against her chest in vitarka mudrā and the tenth placed on the lap in yogamudrā.
The figure of Chakreśvari carved along with the group of Sasanadevis of BārabhujiGumphā is of twelve-armed. Of her six right hands one is in varada and the rest hold, a thunder bolt (vajra), two discs (chakra), rosary and sword; three of her left hands hold shield, disc and the stalk of flower, the attributes of the three others, one resting on her knee and the second placed on chest, are badly mutilated.
The twelve-armed Chakreśvari figure on the left wall of the verandah of BārabhujiGumphā is popularly worshipped as a Bārabhuji image of Durgā. One of her right hands is in Varada, the second holds a sword, the third a disc. Of her left hands one is held against her chest and three carry shield, ghanta (bell) and disc. Attributes in rest of the hands are beyond recognition due to severe damage caused to them.
All these figures are provided with a garment covering the lower parts of the body. Their other decorative ornaments consist of girdle, bracelets, armlets, necklace upavita (sacred thread), anklets, carrings or studs and head ornaments. The available text in case of the twelve armed Chakreśvari images of the Digambara sect prescribe eight discs, citorn, varada and two vajras. The four handed figure holds two discs.
The sixteen armed Chakreśvari images are also available in Orissa, one of which is worshipped as Bhagavatī at Jeypore and, the other kept half buried under earth

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in a temple at Suai of Koraput district. The figure of Jeypore is carved seated in Padamasna (yogasana) on a double petalled lotus pedestal supported by lions. The pedestal in its lower part depicts the figure of Garuda, the mount of Chakresvari a female attendant and Gomukha the Yaksa traditionally associated with Ṛsabhanatha. Above the figure of Chakreśvarl is found her Jina, Rṣabhanatha in Yogasana pose along with the asṭapratiharyas carved around him. In addition two elephants flank the Tirthankara at the top. The plain halo (prabhamandala) behind head of this Sasanadevi is designed in two sections with beaded borders.
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Of her sixteen hands, the eight in the right represent attributes like sword, conical object (?), crescent moon, chakra (disc), samkha (conch), vajra (thunder bolt), japāmāla (rosary) and varada mudra and the remaining eight of the left side display conical object (?) shield, gada (mace), chakra (disc), trident, vajra, Kalasa (pot) and an indistinct object. The third eye on her forehead is distinctly visible.
The other Chakreśvari image of this category found at Suai is also seated in padmasana pose. The pedestal, depicting the mount and other figures is strongly embedded in earth. From her sixteen hands the available ones of the right side contain mace, sword, trident, disc, bow and pot and the left side displays spear, shield, arrow, dagger and a conical object. The attributes of the remaining hands are damaged and missing. The prabhamandala (halo) behind head and the conical crown over head are sumptuously decorated with artistic finish. Her Jina, Rṣabhnatha is shown seated in yogasana pose on a lotus pedestal displaying the asṭapratihayas and eight planets along her sides.
Both the figures are richly clad with undergarments and well finished decorative ornaments. Figures of sixteen armed Chakreśvar! images are extremely rare in the country.
By her name, symbol of disc and Garuda as mount, she had much affinity with that of Vaisnavi, the Sakti of Vinu.
2. Rohini
Rohini, the Sasanadevi of Ajitanatha, the second Tirthankara of the Jainas has been carved in high relief in three different places of Khandagiri hill and one at Suai of Koraput district. Of the two in Barabhuji-Gumpha, one is within the group of Sasanadevis and the other on its left verandah wall (Fig. 37). The third Rohini figure in Khandagiri is depicted on the back wall of the cell of Navamuni-Gumphâ. Bull, as mount is represented with her images in Barabhuji-Gumpha, but, elephant the conventional lanchana of her Tirthankara appears below the pedestal in case of NavamuniGumpha. The mark of cognizance of the Rohini figure of Suai is not clearly visible. The three figures of Khandagiri are seated in lalitasana pose on plain or lotus pedestals but the one in Suai in padmasana on a lotus pedestal supported by lions. The text provides. an iron seat for the Sasanadevt. Depiction of the third eye is distinctly shown on the

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forehead of the figure of Navamuni-Gumphā. Flying figures with garlands and oval or circular shaped haloes are also appearing in some cases. The attributes in her respective hands are given below. The one at Suai and the other on the verandah wall of Bārabhuji Gumphā depict Ajitanātha in yogāsana posture on the top of the Sāsanadevi. These votive figures of Ajitanātha also with the mark of cognizance (elephant), the kevala tree, chauri bearers and flying Gandharvas holding garlands in hands are also provided.
The four armed figure of Navamuni-Gumphã is shown in the right with abhayamudrā and vajra and the left a goad and a three-pronged object.
The twelve armed image of the verandah wall of Bārabhuji-Gumphā does not agree with textual descriptions. It is locally worshipped as Bārabhuji (Durga) image along with the Chakreśvarī image carved in its front wall.
Among the attributes, the vara, a banner, ankuša (goad) and disc in right-hands and a samkha (?) water-pot twig or tridandi and a disc in left are recognizable.
The second twelve-armed Rohini figure within the group of Sasanadevis of the same cave like the first also remarkably differ from textual descriptions, in respect of attributes held in hands. One of her right hands is in Varada mudrā, among other attributes only spear or arrow and a sword are recognizable. Her left hands hold a noose (?), bow, hala shield, stalk of a lotus and ghanta (?), the last being held against her chest.
The third twelve-armed Rohini of Suai is shown seated in padmāsana pose with palms of lower two hands kept one over the other. Of the other five hands of the right side one is broken and the rest represent vajra, sword, disc and arrow and the five left hands are provided with vessel, shield, bell, tridandi and bow.
All the four Rohini figures are elaborately decorated with lower garment, śāri, girdle, anklets, necklace, earrings, bangles and ornaments for the head.
The attributes in hands of the four-armed Rohiņi of Navamuni-Gumphā and also of her mount, the elephant also connects her with the mātrika, Indrani, the sākti of Indra. The third eye placed horizontally over her forehead strengthens this supposition.
3. Prajwapti
Prajfāpti, the Saasan adevī of the third Tirthankara, Sambhavanātha is repeated in two caves i.e. Navamuni Gumphā ad Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill.
The mount in case of both the figures is badly damaged. The available portions of the mount in Bārabhuji-Gumphā have more similarity with an animal rather than a bird prescribed in the text. The pedestals on which the figure is seated are either designed plain or with a double petalled lotus flower. The image in Navamuni-Gumphā

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is two-armed holding in the left the stalk of a blue lotus, right being in abhaya. Seated in lalitāsana she wears a necklace, bangles, anklets, and a plain jațāmkuța. The avilable texts are silent about a two-armed image.
Prajñāpti of Bārabhuji-Gumphā is four-armed with the lower right in varada and the upper right holding a rosary. The attributes in the left hands are damaged. The representations of this figure tally more with the textual description of the four-armed Svetāmbara Duritāri than with the Digambara Prajñāpti who is described six-armed, An oval shaped halo is visible behind the head of this image.29
4. Vajrasrinkhalā
Two figures of Vajrasrinkhaļā, the Sāsanadevī of the fourth Tirthankara, Abhinandananātha are also reckoned, one each in the Navamuni-Gumphā and BārabhujiGumphā of Khandagiri hill. In Navamuni-Gumphā, she is seated in lalitäsana pose on a plain pedestal, below, which her mark of cognizance also a monkey shown in folded hands contrary to the swan prescribed in the text. In Bārabhuji-Gumphā though she is depicted seated in lalitāsana pose on double petalled lotus pedestal, her vehicle is badly disfigured. The oval shaped halo (prabhāmandala) behind head is prominently shown in this figure.
The four-armed figure of Navamuni-Gumphā is decked in bangles, necklaces, earstuds, mukuta and anklets. She carries in her lower left a child, in upper left, a conch and in upper right a chakra, the lower right being in abhaya. With the above attributes, she is having more affinity with the mātrika, Vaişnavi, than Vajrasinkhalā, who is described as riding on a swan and holding in her four hands snake, noose, rosary and fruit.30
The other image of Bārabhuji-Gumphā is eight-armed with two hands playing on a harp, one of her right hands is in varada mudrā. Among other attributes only vajra in one of her left hands is somewhat clear. She has been provided with a lotus pedestal.
5. Puruşadattā
The only representation of Puruşadattā, the Sāsanadevi of the fifth Tirthankara Sumatinātha is found seated in lalitäsana pose on a plain pedestal on the left wall of the inner chamber of Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Her mount, crocodile, contrary to elephant is noticed below the pedestal. Puruşadattā as Vidyādevi is described as riding a cuckoo.31 An oval shaped halo is noticed behind her head.
The image of ten-armed Puruşadattā is a departure from the scriptural description. Among the attributes in her right hands, varada, a perforated disc, long spear and sword are clear; in her left hands are found a noose, shield, hala, hammer and blue-lotus,
29. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 124, 30. Ibid, p. 124. 31. Ibid, p.126.

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6. Manovega
Manovegā, as the Sāsanadevi of the sixth Tirthankara, Padmaprabha has been depicted with her mount swan in Bārabhuji-Gumphā only. She is seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal and provided with an oval halo behind head. Though four handed, she does not confirm to the textual description of the attributes of sword, lance, fruit and vara mudrā and the mount horse. Here she holds in her left hands a conch (?) and banner and in the upper right a three-pronged object (vajra), lower right being as usual in varada.32
7. Kāli
The only figure of Kāli, the Sāsanadevi of Suparśvanātha, the seventh Tirthankara is depicted in Bārabhuji-Gumphā seated in lalitasana pose on a plain pedestal displaying peacock as her mark of cognizance. She has an oval shaped halo behind head. In her eight hands, she is shown with varada niudrā, a bowl of fruits, lance (?) and sword in the right, conch, hammer (?) and spear in the left contrary to the description in the texts in which case she is four-armed displaying a trident, fruit, varada mudrā and bell. Her mount should also be a bull. Manovegā or "Swift as mind” is aptly symbolised by the vehicle of a horse known for its swiftness.33
8. Jvalāmālini
Jvalāmālini representing as Sāsanadevi of the eighth Tirthankara, Chandraprabha is also noticed within the group of figures in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. She is found here seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal below which her mount, the lion depicted instead of the conventional buffalo. An oval shaped halo behind head is shown as usual. Here she is twelve-armed with the representation of varada mudrā dagger, disc, arrow, club (?) and sword in her right hands and again varada shield, bow, conch, noose and bell in the left, the last being held against the chest.
The textual description of the eight handed Jvalāmālini having buffalo as the mark of cognizance has little affinity except a few attributes with this figure.34
9. Mahākāji
Mahākāli, the Sasanadevī of Puşpadanta, the ninth Tirthankara of BārabhujiGumphā is available seated in lalitäsana pose on a pedestal. Her mount, the bull, contrary to tortoise appears below the pedestal. Suttāra, her counterpart in the Svetāmbara sect rides a bull. In the text, besides, the mount tortoise, she is represented with vajra, club, fruit and varada mudrā, disc (?) bird, bowl of fruits (?), and disc in the
32. Ibid, p. 126-27. 33. Ibid, p. 128. 34. Ibid, p. 129.

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right and a crescent, tarjani mudrā, snake, flower (?) and branch of a tree (or feather of peacock) in the left. An oval shaped halo is depicted behind her head.35
10. Mānavi
Mānavi, the Sāsanadevī of Sitalanātha is found depicted in lalita pose on a plain pedestal of the above mentioned cave. Her mount, most probably an animal, is disfigured. Similar is also the case with the attributes in her four-hands. She holds in her lower left, a danda, the lower right being in varada pose. The attributes in the upper hands are indistinct, that in the upper right looks like a disc, while the object, in the left may either be a conch or fruit. In the texts she is described as riding a hog and displaying a fruit, varada mudrā, bow, etc. in hands. The oval shaped halo in conformity with other Sāsanadevi figures of Bārabhuji-Gumphā appears behind her head.36
11. Gauri
Like the previous one, Gauri, the Sāsanadevi associated with Sreyānsanātha, the eleventh Tirthankara of the Jaina pantheon is seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Her mount is greatly damaged. Being heavily built, it cannot be taken as the antelope prescribed in the text. Though she has four hands corresponding to the authority, the attributes shown in those hands widely disagree with the description. They are in this example, water pot and manuscript in the left hands and varada mudrā and rosary in the right contrary to the provision of club, lotus, urn, and varada. She has the oval shaped halo behind head as usual. The attributes connect her with Brāhmaṇī,37
12. Gāndhāri
Gāndhārī, the Sāsanadevī of Vāsupūjya has been represented in both NavamuniGumph, and Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill. In either case, she is seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal below which her mount, the peacock is shown. The text, however, prescribes for her a crocodile to ride. Oval shaped halo as found in case of the figure in Bārabhuji-Gumphā is conspicuous in its absence behind the head of the image of Navamuni-Gumphā.
Wearing bangles, necklace, ear-studs, anklets and jațā-mukuta, the four-armed figure in Navamuni-Gumphā holds in her lower left hand, a child, in upper left a sakti and in upper right a mutulunga, the lower right being in abhaya mudrā. The eightarmed figure in Bārabhuji-Gumphā, represents the varada mudrā, a mutulunga (?), rosary and blue lotus in right hands and a water pot conch, twig (or bunch of flowers), and the stalk of a full-blown lotus in left hands.
35. Ibid, p. 129. 36. Ibid, p. 130. 37. Ibid, p. 131.

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Neither the attributes, nor the mount tally with scriptural description. The four armed one has rather more resemblance with the Brahmanical Kaumāri. The Digambara from of this deity as per the text is represented as riding on a crocodile and having the hands equipped with a club, two lotuses and Varada nudrā.
The bronze idol of Gāndhärı fashioned along with figures of her Yakşa Kumāra and Tirthankara Vasupujya of Achutarajapur bearing Acc. No. 265 in the Orissa State Museum is seated in mahārājalilā pose wearing anklets, girdle, bangles, sacred thread, necklace, armlets, ear-studs and mukula. The right hand of this Sāsanadevi, rests on her right knee and the left hand placed on the left thigh.
13. Vairoti
The only image of Vairoti appears in lalita pose on a plain pedestal in BārabhujiGumphā. She, as Sāsanadevi is associated with Vimalanātha, the thirteenth Tirthankara of the Jainas. Her conventional mark of cognizance, the snake is here replaced with a crane below the pedestal. Contrary to the four hands in the text she is represented here with eight hand having varada mudra, arrow, sword and Parafu in her right hands and vajra, bow, spear and shield in her left hands. Except the bow and arrow, the other two attributes of snake as per the textual description have been ignored in this case. An oval shaped halo has been designed behind her head as usual. 38
14. Anantamati
A ten-armed figure of Anantamati, the Sasanadevi of Anantanātha, the fourteenth Tirthankara is carved in the back wall of Bārabhuji-Gumphā. She is shown here seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal below which her lanchana, the horse (?), with head damaged is depicted.39 In the text Anantamati as carried by a swan and displaying a bow, arrow, fruit and varada mudra as attributes in four of her hands. But the figure represented in Bārabhuji-Gumphā is provided with a staff like object, vajra, stalks of fullblown lotus, shield and hammer in the left-hands and the varada mudrā, a dagger, spear, sword and the remaining one being damaged. An oval shaped halo is shown behind her head. D. Mitra described her as an eight armed figure. 40
15. Mānasi . The single icon of Mānasi, the Sāsanadevi of Dharmanātha seated in lalita pose
on a plain pedestal in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. Her mark of cognizance, the horse (?) is badly disfigured. She is here provided with Varada mudra, pellet, three pronged object in left hands and bell, banner and conch in the right. The oval shaped halo appears behind her head as usual. The text besides, the mount tiger, prescribed for her six hands with different attributes like Varada mudrā, two lotuses, arrow, goad and bow.41
38. Ibid, p. 133. 39. Ibid, p. 134. 40. D. Mitra, JAS, Vol. I, 1969, No. 2, p. 131. 41. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 135.

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16. Mahāmānasi
Mahāmānasi as the Sāsanadevi of Santinātha, the sixteenth Tirthankara of the Jainas is carved seated in Yogāsana pose (padmāsana) on a double petalled lotus pedestal in Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill. Her conventional mark of cognizance, the peacock is significantly omitted here. In her two hands she holds stalks of full-blown lotus flowers. Two elephants, perched on the lotuses are seen flanking the image at the top in order to pour sacred water from the pitchers held in their trunks. The oval shaped halo is depicted behind her head as usual. 42
The representation agrees more to the conception of the abhişeka form of Lakşmi than the canonical description of the Sāsanadevi of Santinatha in which case she must have disc, fruit, sword (?) and Varada mudra in four hands.
17. Vijaya
Vijayā has been associated with the seventeenth Tirthankara, Kunthunātha as Sāsanadevi. Her only representation in Bārabhuji-Gumphā is found seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal. Her vehicle, the buffalo in this case is partially damaged. The text, however, provides a black boar as the riding animal for the Sasanadevi.
In her ten hands she displays in the right varada mudra, a staff like object, hook (ankuša), disc and rosary (?) and in the left a three pronged object, perforated disc, conch (?), stalk of full blown lotus and water pot. The avilable text refers the figure as fourarmed with conch, sword, disc and Varada mudrā as attributes in respective hands.43
18. Tårā
Aranātha's Sāsanadevi, has been represented in lalita pose on a plain pedestal in Bārabhuji-Gumphā only. In her two hands she is shown with Varada mudrà in the right and the stalk of a full-blown lotus in the left contrary to the four hands mentioned in the text. Her present mount the animal resembling a boar (or elephant) with head broken is also a departure from the conventional vehicle, the swan. The oval shaped halo is shown behind the head as usual.44
This two armed figure with the attributes in hands is a wholesale adoption from the Buddhist-Goddess Tärā.
19. Aparajitā
The only figure of Aparajita, Sāsanadevi of Mallinātha is found seated in lalitasana pose on a plain pedestal within the group of Sasanadevis of Barabhuji-Gumpha. Her vehi
42. Ibid, p. 136. 43. Ibid, p. 137. 44. Ibid, p. 138.

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cle, a short tailed animal (ram) is shown below the pedestal. She has the oval shaped halo behind head, in her eight hands, she is represented with varada mudrā, a long spear (sakti), arrow and a sword in the right and a cone-shaped object (conch) bow, shield and banner in the left. Neighther the mount nor the attributes in her hands tally with the textual description. The Digambara version in the image provides lion as the riding animal and citrus, sword, shield and varada-mudrā as conventional attributes in four hands. Her original name seems to have been derived from that of Durgā, who bears the same name in Brahmanism.45
20. Bahurupiņi
Bahurupini, associated with Tirthankara Munisuvrata with the exception of all the Sāsanadevis in Bārabhuji-Gumphā is carved in a reclining pose on a plain bed (cot). She is attended by three other figures one of which shown fanning her. Below her bed is placed a water pot. Of the two hands, the left one is traced below the head and the right one is traced over the body. The halo behind head is not shown here.
The text, however, provides for her a shield, fruit, sword and varada mudrà as attributes in four hands and a black snake to ride. 46
21. Chamunda
Chamundā, sāasnadeyi of Naminātha, is depicted with multiple heads and an oval shaped halo in Bārabhuji-Gumphā. She is seated in lalita pose on a plain pedestal below which her mount, or the mark of cognizance, the swan is shown. In her four hands, she is represented with varada mudrā and rosary in the right and water-pot and trident in the left. The oval shaped halo is found as usual behind the head.
The Chamundā image as per the text rides on a doliphin and carries a rosary, staff, shield and sword. The image in this case has more resemblance with Brāhmaṇi of the Hindu pantheon.47
22. Amra (Ambikā)
Figures of Amra or Ambikā, the sāsanadevi of Neminātha, the twenty-second Tirthankara of the Jainas are confronted with at places like Khandagiri (Fig. 35 & 52), Podasingidi (Fig. 85 & 86), Jambhira (Fig. 89), Barudi, Badasai, Balighat (Balasore), Kachela (Fig. 119), B. Singpur (Figs. 129, 130, 131 and 132), Brahmesvarpatna and Achutarajapur of Orissa (Figs. 65, 66 & 67). She appears to be extremely popular of all Sasanadevi figures in Orissa. Her images are designed either seated with her Yakşa Gomedha on a common pedestal or carved independently. When carved alone she was
45. Ibid, p. 139. 46. Ibid, p. 140. 47. Ibid, p. 141.

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given more prominence. In all her seated figures either alone or with the Yakşa, she is shown in lalita pose but the standing ones invariably display a tribhanga pose. The pedestals on which she is seated or standing are either plain or arranged with lotus petals. Her mount the lion is usually placed below the pedestal. In exceptional case like the Ambikā image of Brahmeśvara pacana (now preserved in the Dhenkanal branch Museum) the lion is found to the left of the pedestal. The mango tree, the other conventional feature of this Sasanadevi is shown in the background in all cases. Her Tirthankara is placed over this tree in yogásana pose in most cases. The two Ambikā figures of Badasai, however, do not contain the Tirthankara at the top. The two Sāsanadevī images bearing No. D.M. 5 and D.M. 20 of B. Singpur, the one of Kachela, Brahmesvarpatana and cave No. 10 of Khandagiri hill are shown standing in captivating tribhanga pose over pedestals.
The Tīrthankara figures on the top are depicted with the mark of cognizance, chauri bearers, flying figures with garlands, halo and the kevala tree. The mark of cognizance in most cases is an eight petalled lotus or a disc. The Ambikā figures of BārabhujiGumphā, Podasingidi and Kachela display prominent prabhāmandalas behind head in addition. The pedestal of one of the seated images of Badasai is supported by tapering pillars. The well designed torana behind the figure of Kachela is also supported by decorative pillars. Devotees seated in folded hands and various types of offerings are noticed below the pedestal of the figures of Balighat, Jambhira, Podasingidi and Kachela. At times attendant figures are carved along side this Sāsanadevi. The two female attendants in case of one of the figures of Podasingidi are shown displaying fly-whisks in their hands.
The two handed figures of this Sāsanadevī are invariably shown with a baby on the left lap and a bunch of mangoes or a mango twig in the right. One of her figures of Podasingidi is however, depicted with varada mudrā in right hand. At times one or two small babies are shown plucking mangoes held in her right hand.
The four armed image of Badasai is depicted with hands showing Varada mudra, bunch of mangoes or its twig and one kept on the thigh. Similarly the other four armed figure of Barudi is found displaying a bunch of mangoes, varada mudrā and conical objects.
Ambikā figures seated with Yaksa Gomedha on a common slab are also found in places like Podasingidi, Thunigaon, Ayodhya, Lataharana, B. Singpur, and Khandagiri hill. Except in one case of B. Singpur, the Sāsanadevi is invariably shown seated to the left of Gomedha in lalitäsana pose. She displays the bunch of mangoes or the mango twig in right hand and holds the baby on the left. The mango tree is depicted behind the two figures. At times they represent the votive figure of Neminātha seated in yogasana pose at the top of the tree. A peculiar feature of some of these representations is that a baby is shown swinging on the tree from which it branches off. Some of the prominent pratihāryas along side of the Tirthankara Neminātha and devotees in kneeling position are also depicted with these figures. The Ambika figure on the common

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slab of B. Singpur bearing No. D.M. 23 is seated to the right of Gomedha displaying attributes in opposite hands. Like Gomedha she is found seated in mahārājalilā pose.
In addition to the Ambikā figures in stone D. Mitra48 brought to our notice four bronze idols of this Sāsanadevi. They were all recovered from village Achutarajpur and preserved for the present in the Art Section of the Orissa State Museum.
The first figure of this group (Acc. No. 288) is seated elegantly in the lalitāsana posture on the pericarp of a visvapadma her right foot being pendent. With her left fore arm supporting the back of a child seated on her left thigh. She holds with the artistic fingers of her right palm a twig with a bunch of mangoes. Close to her pendent leg is a seated bejewelled boyish figure with locks of hair falling on sides and holding a circular object in its right hand. The central projection of her lotus pedestal, accommodates the lion, her conventional mount. The edges of the lintel and jambs of the back-rest are decorated with beads. Near the ends of the lintel is a somewhat amalaka shaped member, close to which is a beaded string hanging downwards. Above the lintel are mango-twigs laden with fruits. Around her shoulders and head and mounted on the lintel is a solid oval halo whose beaded border is edged by leaf shaped flames. At the crown of the halo is an ornate floral device hiding the view of the thick shaft of the umbrella in three gradually diminishing chhatras the topmost one being crowned by a conical finial.
The second figure (Acc. No. 263) also seated in lalitāsana pose on a lotus arrayed on a narrow pedestal with footed base and two mangoes placed below. Against the middle of the front side is the lion. She supports a child seated in her left folded leg through the left fore arm. She carries a mango twig with her right palm resting on the knee. The right palm of the child is placed against his chest. By the side of her right thigh is a grown up child seated in the paryankāsana posture with a mango like fruit in his right palm against the chest. The solid oval halo edged by tongues of flames is tightly fixed to the pedestal. Above her head are the spreading branches of the mango tree perched above the mango branches is Neminātha. Seated in yogasana pose displaying the individual halo in oval shape. At its crown is a floral motif, above which rears up an umbrella with a prominent bud-shaped finial.
The third figure (Acc. No. 289) though represents the broad features of the previous one yet close to her right leg is a pot bellied boy, seated in the mahārājalila posture with his right hand extended up to the knee. A small defaced disc is also seen against the feet of Neminātha seated in yogamudrā at the top. Unlike the preceding image the long halo (attached to the pedestal) has a trefoil upper part.
The last figure of Ambikā (Acc. 289) also corresponds to the second image in many of the iconographic details. Here she is seated in the mahārājalilā posture. Around the back of the Sasanadevi is an oval halo with two over-hanging clusters of mangoes
48. D. Mitra, Bronzes from Achutarajapur, pp. 45-48.

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near the top. At the crown of the halo is the robeless Neminātha in the yogamudrā, Above Neminātha is a chhairāvali of three gradually diminishing umbrellas capped by a conical finial.
All these figures are heavily decked in ornaments like girdle, necklace, anklets, bangles, armlets, sacred thread and head ornaments in addition to the under garment and scarf.
Dr. Mitra 49 further observes "The name Ambikā and the mount lion are clear indications of her borrowal by the Jainas from the Brahmanical pantheon. Her holding of a child also points to the conception of the Mātrikās. At the same time, the figures of Hāriti, the yakși of Rajgrha converted by Buddha, have a close iconographical resemblance with the icons of Amra. The Jaina conception of this divinity, is thus an amalgam of different ideas. Among the Sasanadevis she was particularly popular in eastern India as may be assessed from the comparatively large number of her images found in this region. She came to be venerated as an independent Goddess, as in some of her images, the figure of Neminātha is conspicuous by its absence. In her images we generally find a small child in her lap and another but somewhat grown up child by her side, and a bunch of mangoes usually in her right hand while above or near her sides are represented branches laden with mangoes. Her popularity was, no doubt due to her symbolising fertility as people resorted to her for having children".
The Digambara version of this image of the Sāsanadevi is described as riding up on a lion and bearing two hands with a bunch of mangoes and a child. 50
23. Padmāvati
Figures of Padmāvati, ths Sasanadevi of Pärsvanātha are traceable in the Navamuni-Gumphā (Fig. 35) and Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill and at Nandapur in Koraput district. All the images are carved seated in lalitāsana pose on double petalled lotus below which in case of Navamuni-Gumphā, a lotus and Nandapur an elephant are depicted as mark of cognizance. The symbol with the figure in BārabhujiGumphā is not traceable. A canopy of five hooded snake appears over head of the figures of Bārabhuji-Gumphā and Nandapur. A votive figure of Pārsvanātha flanked by chauri-bearers and flying figures with garlands and having canopy of a seven hooded snake is found depicted on the top of Padmăvati figure of Nandapur. The third-eye on the forehead is noticed with the figure of Navamuni-Gumphā only.
The two hands of this image in Navamuni-Gumphā are shown with abhaya mudra in the right and lotus in the left. The four armed figure of Nandapur represents a twig, varada mudra and parasu in three hands the fourth being damaged. The eight armed figure of Bārabhuji-Gumphä on the other hand displays varada mudra, arrow,
49. Ioid, p. 44. 50. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, p. 143,

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sword and disc (?) in the right and bow, shield, stalks of lotuses in the left. Neither the mount nor the attributes in hands confirm to the textual description in which she should have a snake or peacock as her vehicle and represent goad, rosary and lotuses in case of a four armed figure. It is most likely that connection between the Jaina Padmā. vati and the Brahmanical Manasā originates from the Jaina legends. Jaratkāru an ascetic, stands for Katha in the Jaina legend and it is, he who latterly, became one with Sesa, the king of Påtala.51
24. Sidhāyikā
A twenty armed figure of Sidhyāikā, the Śāsanadevi of Mahāvira, the last of the Tirthankaras of the Jainas is carved seated in lalitāsana pose on a plain pedestal in the Bārabhuji-Gumphā of Khandagiri hill. Her mount, the elephant and the attributes in respective hands thoroughly ignore the canonical injunctions. In the twenty hands she represents in the right varada mudrā, spear, rosary, arrow, small staff (?) hammer, hala,, vajra, disc and sword; of the attributes in her left hands a water pot, book, matulunga (?) lotus, bell (?), bow, nāgapāsa and shield are only recognizable.
The Digambara version of this Šāsanadevī should represent a lion as riding animal and varada mudrā and book as attributes in hands.52
A two-armed lady with a pot in front is carved standing within a triangular shaped arch at a little distance from this Sidhāyikā image of Bārbhuji-Gumpha.
The Tirthankara images though appear more or less in conventional posture having much similarity with the fundamental features of the Jainas, the Säsanadevis with the exception of Amra do not as a rule follow canons of Jaina iconography as laid down in the available scriptures. This indicates either to the existence in this region of a different text which the artist followed in carving the figures of Sāsanadevīs or the germinal state in which iconographic concepts still existed without being crystallised into rigid forms. The latter alternative is suggested by the difference in the attributes of the same Sāsanadevi figure carved not only in separate caves but also in the same cave of Khandagiri hill.
The seven Sāsanadevās preceded by the figure of Gaņeśa seated in mahārājalilā posture in the Navamuni-Gumphā of Khandagiri appear to be the reminiscent of the Brahmanical Sapta mātrukās. The grouping may not be accidental as most of them evince characteristics which are not available in the Jaina texts but which in the Brahmanical prototypes, with their attributes and mounts they disclose unmistakably the assimilation of the Brahmanical deities in to the Jaina pantheon.
Similarly in the Bārabhuji-Gumphā we find altogether twenty-five figures of Tirthankaras, Pārsvanātha beirg repeated twice covering the three walls of the inner
51. Ibid, p. 145. 52. Ibid, p. 146.

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chamber. The Pārsvanātha figure at the commencement of the images of the back wall is larger in size than the rest and is shown stripped of all raiments. It evidently occupies the position of mulanāyaka in this cave.
Thus all items belonging to the astapratihäryas of the Jainas appeared in the sculptures of Orissa in different periods. In addition pairs of elephants, cymbals played in the palms of invisible Gandharvas and conches blown by heavenly figures, lotus and champak marks, representation of moon and sun, pitchers, fishes, mirrors offerings, devotees in añjali pose, Nāga figures, various types of lanchanas, simhasanas, astagrahas, miniature Tirtharkara figures along side the mulanayaka and figures of Yakşas and Yakșinis appear with the Tirthankara images in Orissa. In comparison to the earlier phase they are more elaborate in the later period. Srivatsa mark on the chest and dharmachakra symbol below pedestal are very rarely traced. The Tirthankaras though found naked their subsidiary divinities including the Yakşas and Sasanadevīs are depicted with extremely varied costumes and ornaments.
The Tirthankara figures of Rşabhanātha and Parsvanatha are recognised in addition by the depiction of matted locks of falling hairs and canopy of a seven hooded snake respectively. Chauri-bearers flanking the Tirthankaras, though invariably shown with fly-whisks held in one of their hands, in rare cases however, they display champak flowers. Astagrahas wherever available are depicted seated in meditative pose holding pot of nectar and rosary in hands. The figure of Surya from this group is however, represented with two full-blown lotuses. This typically confirms to their Brahmanical counterparts in Orissa. The Tirthankaras both in stone or metal represent two distinct postures. While carved standing they are shown with kāyotsarga pose with both the hands stretching up to the knees and when in sitting position they display yogasana pose concentrating the eyes on the tip of the nose. The right palm in this position is invariably placed over the left and both soles distinctly visible to the observer. The two Ganesa figures, one preceding the Sasanadevis of Navamuni-Gumphā and the other in the Ganesa-Gumphā are however represented seated in māhārajalilā postures.
The Sāsanadevis on the other hand are carved below the pedestals of their respective Tirthankaras or independently. In few other cases they are also found seated along with their Yakşas in common slab. While fashioned in standing they display the captivating tribhanga posture but in other cases padmāsana and ardhaparyanksan appears to be extremely popular with them. The figure of Bahurupiņi in Bārabhuji-Gumphā is however shown in reclining pose. They represent the particular lañchana below their respective pedestals. Mudräs or gestures in their hands are mainly confined to abhaya, varada, tarjani and vitarka. They hold in other hands various types of attributes which helps us in distinguishing the one from the other. These emblems in hands normally based on the prescription of a particular text current during the period in this part of the country. As indicated earlier most of these emblems in hands do not confirm to the prescriptions in the available texts. Again many of these items are very often repeated with the figure not only of other caves but also in one cave. They range from various types of deadly weapons of war to manuscripts, musical instruments, baby on the lap, flowers and bran

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ches of trees. The weapons of war mainly consist of sword, shield, bow, arrow, dagger, noose, mace, hammer battle-axe, spear, plough, trident, goad and a short staff. Similarly vina, conch and bell (ghanta) formed the musical instruments.
Representation of third-eye, a typical feature very rarely found elsewhere with the Sasanadevi images is definitely an idea borrowed from their Brahmanical counterparts. This third-eye has been represented in both vertical and horizontal shapes on the foreheads of some Chakreśvari and Rohiņi figures of Khandagiri and elsewhere. Figures of Yaksa Gomukha are noticed with some Rşabhanātha figures of Koraput district. He is either depicted standing or seated with the bull's face. Yakşa Gomedha is invariably found seated in the same fashion as the Sasanadevi, Ambikā on a common slab with the mango tree in the background.
Miniature figures of Ganadharas and Purvadharas depicted along with the image of Adinātha in a single piece of stone are also noticed in Orissa. One of such slabs is kept on the central pedestal of the Jaina temple at Cuttack and another amidst the ruins of the Siva temple of village Panchagaon. In all such cases the figures of Ganadharas and Purvadharas are carved standing in kāyotsarga posture. The Tirthankara Rşabhanātha at the top of the slab however represented seated in yogasana pose.
In place of the Brahmanic Trimurti there is the Jaina quadruple known as "Chaumukha”. It has the further name of “Sarvatobhadra pratima", i.e. auspicious from all sides. It represents the figure of a Tirthankara on each of the four sides. There seems to be no regularity as to the particular Jaina to be sculptured there. But the most important of them have, as a rule, been selected for representation in a "Chaumukha”. We notice such "Chaumukhas" at Badasai, Baripada, Martasol, Badacharpoi, Khandagiri and Jaina temple of Cuttack town. In all such cases four standing Tirthankaras with their respective lāñchanas are represented in its niches. These lañchanas in many cases are disfigured. But from the available portions it can be known that four from the six popular figures of Rşabhanātha, Ajitanātha, Sāntinātha, Pārsvanātha, Chandraprabha and Mahāvīra are invariably represented in them.
Only two pillars, popularly known as Mānastambha of the Jainas are known so far from Kanta, a place in Koraput district. They represent under the spreading branches of the tree seated figures of Tirthankaras and in the lower secction Khetrapāla images displaying broad swords.

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Page #273

Index
Abacus, 145 Abhidhāna Rajendra, 37-38, 96, 100 Acharya, B., 26, 100 Achāranga Sutta, 118 Adipurāņa, 204 Agrawala, V.S., 169 Aitareya Brähman, 17 Ajivikas, 7, 18 Akhandalesvar temple, 90 Alakāpuri-Gumphā, 58 Alexander, E. Caddy, 170-71 Altekar, A S., 25 Ana, 102 Ananta-Gumphā, 65 Apsidal Structure, 151, 153 Aranātha, 15 Arcading, 145-46 Architecture, Structural, 150 Archaeological Survey of India, 52-53, 64, 75, 113,
146, 149, 151 Arishtanemi, 2 Aryanga, 118 Asanpata inscriptions, 26 Asutosh Museum, Calcutta, 176 Asvasena, 15 Aupapātika Sūtra, 199 Avaśyaka Nirukti, 14, 17 Avaśyaka Sūtra, 17 Ayodhya, 107 Ayodhya High School, 108
Bălukeśvara temple, 79 Bamanghati copper plates, 45 Banapur copper plates, 80 Banchua, 102 Basham, A.L., 34 Bārabhuja-Gumpha, 51, 68 Baramba palace, 89 Baripada Branch Museum, 113 Barua, B.M., 141 Barudi, 112 Baudei, 73 Baudhayāna Dharma Sutra, 24 Beglar, J.D., 147 Behera, Bhagavata, 108 Behera, K.S., 198 Benches, 144 Benusagar, 115 Bhāgavata, 2 Bhagavata Sūtra, 110 Bhagavati Sūtra, 18 Bhagavati temple, 126 Bhagvanlal Indraji, 35 Bhainchua, 74 Bhairava temple, 126 Bhanpur, 93 Bhattacharya, B.C., 12, 213, 221 Bhima Bhoi, 46 Bhimpur, 104 Borigumma, 129 Brackets, 145 Brahmesvarpura, 76 Brhat samhita, 202 British Museum, London, 78
B. Singpur, 130-31 Bada Jagannāiha temple, 13 Bada Charpoi, 90 Badasui, , 111, 113 Baga Mahadeva temple, 75 Bāgha-Gumphā, 62 Bājăghara Gumpha, 57 Balasor Branch Museum, 105
Casting technique, 182 Cave architecture, 139 Ceilings, 142 Cells, 142 Chanda, R.P., 78-79

Page #274

252
Charampa, 135 Chauduar, 89
Chedi rule, 24 Chakravarty, M, M., 15, 166, 169 Chhota-Hathi Gumphã, 57 Choudhuri Bazar temple, 84, 92 Complexion of Tirthankaras, 203 Costumes and ornaments, 166, 168 Courtyard, 147
Council of Pataliputra, 11
Dadhivāhana Jātaka, 16 Daheja, V. 119
Dancing, Orissi, 163
Dash Nilakantha, 33 Daton, Colonel, 44 Dathavaṁśa, 25 De, N.N., 105 Devasabha, 71
Dhakulei Thakurāṇī, 92 Dhinaghar Gumpha, 63
Dhenkanal Branch Museum, 76
Dhyanaghar-Gumpha, 67
Digambara, 2, 7, 11-12, 22-23, 26 Dinakära Achara, 200
Domestic life, 178, 181
Door-openings, 142-43
Door-ways, 145
Drainage System, 148
Dress and Ornaments, contemporary, 173
Ekadasi-Gumphã, 70 Elephant, Status of, 199 Excavation, technique of, 141
Fabri, Charles, 153, 163, 167 Floors, 142
Gandharas, 7
Gandharvas, flying, 193 Ganela-Gumphá, 61
Gaṇeśa temple, 90
Gangadevi temple, 128 Garlands, 180
Ghata bases, 145
Godavarisha Mahavidyalaya, 79
Gosala Makhaliputta. 7
Gosala, Acharya, 18 Guard figures, 172
Habitation, structural, 153 Hadi bandhu Raj, 108 Hair Style, 163, 171, 179, 185.
Jaina Monuments of Orissa
Halo (prabhamandala), 193 Haridasa-Gumphā, 63 Harivamsa Puräṇa, 17 Harisyana festival, 38 Hatadiha, 91
Hatamala, 81
Hathi-Gumpha, 56, 62 Hemachandra, 197, 201 Heră ceremony, 38 Hiralal Jaina, 2
Iconography of Sasadevis, 223 Amra (Ambikā), 232 Anantamati, 230
Aparajitä, 231
Bahurupiņi, 232 Chakreśvari, 223
Chamunḍā, 232
Gāndhäri, 229
Gauri, 229 Jvalāmālini, 228 Kāli, 228
Maha Kali, 228 Mahāmānasi, 231 Mānasi, 230
Manavi, 229
Manovega, 228
Padmavati, 235
Prajñāpti, 226
Purusa datta, 227 Rohini 229
Sindhāyikā, 236
Tārā, 231
Vajrasrinkhala, 227
Vairoti, 230
Vijaya, 231
Iconography of Tirthankaras, 206
Abinandananatha, 210
Ajitanatha, 208
Anantanatha, 215
Arānātha, 218
Chandraprabha, 211
Dharmanatha, 216
Kunthunatha, 217
Mahavira, 222
Mallinatha, 218
Munisuvrata, 218
Naminatha, 219
Neminatha, 219
Padmaprabha, 210
Parsvanatha, 220
Rṣabhanatha, 206 Sambhavanatha, 209

Page #275

Index
Santinatha, 216 Sitalanstha, 213 Sreyamsanatha, 213 Sumätinatha, 210 Suparśvanatha, 211
Suvidhinatha,/Puspadanta, 212
Väsupūjya, 214
Vimalanatha, 215
Iginia, 75
Image making, material used in, 201
Image, standards of, 202
Image worship, 196
Individual sculptures, 181
Jagannatha cult, 37 Jagannatha-Gumphā, 63 Jagannatha temple, 88 Jainism, beginning of, 14 Jainism, cult of, 37 Jainism, origin of, 1 Jaina temple, 71 Jambesvara-Gumphä, 62
Jambhira, 102
Jamunda, 136-37
Jaunliapatti, 88
Jaya-Vijaya-Gumpha, 58 Jeypore, 117-118 Jhadesrarpur, 91
Kachela, 123
Kakatpur, 74
Kalasa worship, 200 Kalinga, 14
Kalinga Jina, 20, 33-36
Kalinga war, 20
Kali temple, 106, 126
Kalpa sutra, 1-2, 6, 16-17, 166, 198
Kamata, 137-38
Karaakodu, 16
Karakandu Charita, 16
Khandagiri, 52
Khandagiri Gumpha, 67
Khandāvādi, 107
Khandesvar Mahadeva temple, 93
Kharavela, 21-23, 33,35-36
Khiching Muscum, 115-16 Khuntapal, 114
Kittoes, 157
Koisali, 112
Kotapat, 135
Karamrisch, Stella, 166, 168, 172
Kṣetra Samasa, 16
Kumbhakāra Jataka, 16
Kushana coins, 25,
Lalatendu Keśari-Gumphā, 69
Lalitadiri, 95
Law, B.C., 6 Lenam, 140
Lintels, 145
Mahabharata, 24, 36
Mahavira, 1, 3-9, 11, 15 17-18 Mahavira-Gumphā, 69
Mahima Dharma and Jainism, 39
Mahima Gosain, 39
Majumdar, B.C., 41 Manasara, 202-03
Manchapuri-Svargapuri-Gumpha, 60
Manikchauk, 106
Mahinagesvar temple, 107
Mansinha, M., 36
Martasol, 106
Mauryan caves, 139
Mental attitude, worship of, 202
Mitra, D., 52, 64, 151, 171, 182, 214, 235 Mitra, R. L., 51, 144, 147-48, 156-57
Mittal, A. C., 15
Mohapatra, K. N., 74
Motifs, 172
Motifs, West-Asian, 178, 181
Mukherji, P., 103
Mukteśvar temple, 76
Mural paintings, Ajanta, 163 Murundas, 25-26
Naga worship, 205
Nanda King, 36
Nandapur, 117-18
Nätha cult and Jainism, 38
National Museum, New Delhi, 113
Narsimhapur, 89
Navamuni-Gumpha, 67
Nigrañthas, 18, 25-26 Nrusinghnatha Temple, 73
O'Malley, 43
Ornaments, decorative, 179,
Orissa State Museum, 45, 74, 77-79, 89-90, 99, 106, 110, 129, 155, 184
Panel, subject matter of, 165
Pani, S.C., 117
Pārsvanatha Charita, 166 pent-roof
253
Pidha style temples, 153 156, Pillars and pilasters, 145

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254
Jaina Monuments of Orissa
Plastic art, 184 Prinsep, 148 Pyramidal Style, 157-58
Srivatsava, S., 71 Sterling, A., 49, 156-57 Sui, 118, 124 Sui temple, 123 Svetāmbara, 2, 7, 11-12, 22-23, 26 Symbolic postures, 196
Railings, 146, 153 Ramachandi, 97 Ramdas, G., 19, 123, 126, 155 Ramchandran, T.N., 34-35 Rāni-Gumpha, 53 Rasui, Gumphã, 63 Rathajátra, 37 Rath, B.K., 96, 177 Ray, G.P., 74 Rekha style temples, 153, 156, 159 Rislay, H.H., 43 Rock-cut caves, 139 Rock Edict of Asoka, 21 Rupanatha temple, 89
Tantric trends, 205 Tätowa-Gumpha, No. 1, 64 Tāțowā-Gumphā, No. 2, 65 Temple worship, 12 Tentuli-Gumphä, 66 Thākurani-Gumphā, 59 Thuniagaon, 102 Tickell, Major, 44 Tree worship, 197 Trilinear umbrella, 193 Tripathy, R.K., 96 Triratna, 10 Trivāli, 194 Tunics, 179
Udayagiri, 52 Udāparva and Jainism, 41 Uttarādhyāna-sutra, 1, 2, 16-17, 24
Sahu, L.N., 84, 87, 89 Sahu, N.K., 14, 16, 22, 33-34, 150, 170, 198 Sahu, N.N., 117 Sainkul, 103 Sanctum, 154 Sarakas, 42 Sarpa-Gumphā, 62 Sashikanta, 23, 36, 150, 152 Šātavā hanas, 25 Schism, 7 Sculptural art, 195 Senapāti, N., 76 Shah, U.P., 202, 204-05 Shaha, C.J., 33 Sircar, D.C., 46, 80 Sisupälgarah, 75 Skanda Purana, 36 Society and literature, Jaina impact on, 46 Sreyānsanātha, 14 Sri Ramchandrapur, 83
Vahudājātrā, 37 Vardhanapur, 105 Vasu, N.N. 41, 104, 112-13, 154 Verandah, 143 Verandah ceiling, 143 Verandah, pillared, 140 Verandah roof, 144 Vyavahāra Bhāşya, 17, 19
Wells, rock-cut, 149 Windows, 143 Winged and enigmatic figures, 178

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Page #278


Page #279

Illustrations

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Page #281

1. General view, Udayagiri hill.

Page #282

2. General view, Khandagiri hill

Page #283

WHO
3. General view, Rāni-Gumpha, Udayagiri.

Page #284

4. General view, Gaṇeśa-Gumpha, Udayagiri.
5. General view, Bagha-Gumpha, Udayagiri.

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6. General view, Sarpa-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

Page #286

7. General view, Tāçowā-Gumpha No. 1 & Tātowā-Gumphā No. 2, Khandagiri.

Page #287

8. Second Frieze, Lower right wing, Rāņi-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

Page #288

9. Third Frieze, Lower right Wing, Rāņi-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

Page #289

10 Vidyadhara, Upper story, main wing, Räni-Gumpha, Udayagiri.

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11. Details of first frieze, upper main wing, Rāni-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

Page #291


Page #292

12. Second frieze, upper main wing, Rāni-Gumpha, Udayagiri,
13. Third frieze, upper main wing, Rāņi Gumphā, Udayagiri.

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LG
14. Tree worship, Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

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18. Worship of Elephant, Ananta-Gumphā, Khandagiri.

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NOW
19. Gajalakṣmi, Ananta-Gumpha, Khandagiri.

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2000円
20. Decorative arch and tympanum, Tätowa-Gumphã No. 2, Khandagiri.

Page #297

21. Decorative arch and tympanum, Tätowa-Gumph, No. 2, Khandagiri.

Page #298

15. Worship of sacred symbol, Mañchapuri-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

Page #299


Page #300

22. Decorative door pilasters with crowning animals, Tātowā-Gumph, No. 2, Khandagiri.

Page #301

<24. Lady at the entrance of Jaya-Vijaya-Gumphā,
Udayagiri
23. Decorative door pilasters with crowing animals and
ghata bases, Ananta-Gumphā, Khandagiri.
.
2.7

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25. Guard in Greek Costume, upper right wing, Räni-gumphä, Udayagiri.

Page #303

26. Guard in Indian Costume, upper right wing.
Rāņi-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

Page #304

27. Bracket figure, Mañchāpuri-Gumphā,
Udayagiri.
28. Bracket figure, Ganesa-Gumphā,
Udayagiri.

Page #305

29. Bracket figure, Gaņeśa Gumphā, Udayagiri.
30. Bracket figure, Tātowā-Gumphā No. 2, Khandagiri.

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16. First Frieze, Ganesa-Gumphā, Udayagiri.

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Page #308

DIE
S
ER
31, Hāthi-Gumphā inscription of Khāravela, Cave No. 14, Udayagiri,

Page #309

32. The apsidal structure, Udayagiri.

Page #310

33. Akāśa-Ganga tank, Khandagiri.

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34 General view, Jaina temple, Khandagiri.

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健食物食品食物
DP
35. Rsabhanatha, Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha, Abhinandananatha, Vasupujya, Parśvanatha and
Neminatha with their respective Sasanadevis and Ganesa, Navamuni-Gumpha.Khandagiri.

Page #313

36. Chakreśvari, Bārabhuji-Gumphā, Khandagiri.
37. Rohini, Bārabhuji-Gumphā, Khandagiri.

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17. Third frieze-Gaņeśa Gumphā, Udayagiri.

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Page #316

38. Sambhavanātha and Abhinandanarātha, Mahāvīra-Gumphā, Khandagiri
39. Sumatinātha and Padmaprabha, Mahāvīra-Gumpha, Khandagiri.

Page #317

40. Suparsvanātha, Chandraprabha and Anantanätha (14th as 9th
Tirthankara) Mahāvīra-Gumphā, Khandagiri.
41. Sitalanātha, Mahāvīra-Gumpha, Khandagiri.

Page #318

42. Väsupūjya, Mahāvīra-Gumphā, Khandagiri,

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43. Vimalanātha, Mahavira-Gumphā, Khandagiri,
DYYYYYYY
44. Survidhinātha, (9th as 14th Tirthankara) Dharmanātha & śāntinātha,
Mahā īra-Gumphā, Khandagiri.

Page #320

45. Kunthunātha and Arānātha, Mahāvīra-Gumphā, Khandagiri.

Page #321

Tomake
46. Mallinatha and Naminatha (21st as 20th Tirthankara), Mahavira-Gumpha, Khandagiri.

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KOKONAL TOT MOOC
47. Mūnīsuvrata and Neminātha,
Mahāvīra-Gumphā, Khandagiri.
48. Sreyansanātha (1lth as 23rd Tirtha
nkara) and Mahāvīra, Mahāvīra. Gumpha, Khandagiri.

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49. First Chlorite image of Rsabhanatha, Mahavira
Gumphā, Khandagiri

Page #324

50. Second Chlorite image of Rşabhanātha,
Mahāvira-Gumphā, Khandagiri,
51. Third Chlorite image of Rşabhanātha,
Mahāvīra-Gumphā, Khandagiri.

Page #325

52. Rşabhanātha images and Amra, Cave No. 10, Khandagiri.

Page #326

53. Rşabhanātha, Gramesvar temple,
Nibharana, Dist. Puri.
54. Rşabhanātha, Baudei near Bagalpur,
Dist. Puri.

Page #327

55. Rsabhanātha, Kakatapur, Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar.

Page #328

D
56. Parśvantäha, Kakatapur, Orissa State Museum.
57. Ganadharas and Purvadharas and Rabhanitha, Panchagaon, Dist, Puri,

Page #329

58. Pārsvanātha, Sisupalagarh, Dist. Puri,
Orissa State Museum.
59.
Pārsvanātha, Orissa State Museum.

Page #330

60. Sāntinātha, Orissa State Museum.
61. Ambikā, Orissa State Museum.

Page #331

62. "Chandraprabha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum.

Page #332

63. Chandraprabha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum.

Page #333

64. Vāsupujya with Yaksa & Yakşini,
Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum.
65. Ambikā with Neminātha, Achutarajapur,
Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum.

Page #334

66. Ambikā with Neminātha, Achutarajapur,
Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum.
68. Jaina Temple Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack.

Page #335

67. Ambikā with Neminātha, Achutarajapur, Dist. Puri, Orissa State Museum.

Page #336

69. Rşabhanātha and Mahāvīra in a common slab, Jaina temple,
Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack.

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70. Pārsvanātha, Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack.

Page #338

72, Pärsvanatha, Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack.
9
71. Padmaprabha, Jaina temple, Chaudhury Bazar, Cuttack.

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73. Chaitya Yugal (Chaumukhas), Jaina temple, Chaudhury
Bazar, Cuttack

Page #340

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OG009
74. R sabhanātha. Jagannatha temple. Dolamundai. Cuttack,

Page #341

75. Sāntinātha, Dasvasamedha ghata:
Jajpur, Dist. Cuttack,
76. Chaumukha, Badacharpoi near
Mangarajpur, Dist. Cuttack, Orissa State Museum.

Page #342

SIELTS
77. Adinātha, Hatadiha, (Jajpur) Dist. Cuttack.

Page #343

78. Rşabhanātha, and Pārsvanātha, Pratapanagari,
Dist. Cuttack
79. Párávanātha, Bhanpur, Dist. Cuttack,

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80. Santinātha, Nasik Kotian, Jagatsingpur, Dist. Cuttack.

Page #345

81. Rşabhanátha, Adasapur, Dist. Cuttack.

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82. Pārśvanátha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar.

Page #347

83. Rşabhanātha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar.
84. Pārsvanátha, Podasingidi, Dist, Keonjhar.

Page #348

தார்
85. Ambika with Neminátha, Podasingidi, Dist, Keonjhar.
86. Ambika and Gomedha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar,

Page #349

87. Rşabhanātha, Podasingidi, Dist. Keonjhar.

Page #350

88. Pārsvanātha, Gadachandi, Vaidakhia
Dist. Keonjhar.
90. Pārsvanātha, Ana, Dist. Keonjhar.

Page #351

89. Ambikä with Neminātha, Jambhira, Dist. Keonjhar.

Page #352

91. Rşabhanātha, Thunigaon, Dist. Keonjhar.
92. Pārsvanātha, Vaidakhia, Dist. Keonjhar,
Orissa State Museum.

Page #353

93. Pārsvanatha, Sainkul, Dist. Keonjhar.

Page #354

94. Pārsvanātha, Sainkul, Dist. Keonjhar.

Page #355

96. Sāntinātha (?), Manikchauk, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum,

Page #356

95. Sāntinātha, Martasol, Dist. Balasore,
Orissa State Museum,
97. Chaumukha, Manikchauk, Dist. Balasore,
Orissa State Museum.

Page #357

98. Rşabhanātha, Ayodhya, Dist. Balasore.
99. Gomedha and Ambikā, Ayodhya,
Dist. Balasore.

Page #358

100. Pārsvanātha, Ayodhya, Dist. Balasore,

Page #359

VETER
101. Parsvanatha, Ayodhya, Dist. Balasore.

Page #360

Fals
102. Ajitanatha Charampa, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum.
103. Santinatha, Charampa, Dist. Balasore, Orissa State Museum.

Page #361

104. Rṣabhanatha, Dist. Mayurbhanja, National Museum, New Delhi.

Page #362

105. Pārsvanatha, Bada Jagannatha temple, Baripada, Dist. Mayurbhanja.

Page #363

106. Rabhanátha, Badal
Jagannatha temple, Baripada, Dist. Mayurbhanja.
107. Pārsvanatha, Bada Jagannatha
temple, Baripada, Dist. Mayurbhanja,

Page #364

108. Pārsvanātha, Khuntapal, Dist. Mayurbhanja,
Baripada Museum.
109. Rşabhanātha, Khuntapal, Dist. Mayurbhanja,
Baripada Museum.

Page #365

110. Pärśvanatha, Khiching Museum, Dist. Mayurbhanja.
111. Rṣabhanatha, Khiching Museum, Dist. Mayurbhanja.

Page #366

112. General view, Jaina temple, Suai, Dist. Koraput.

Page #367

113. Rṣabhanatha, Suai, Dist. Koraput.
34
114. Mahavira, Suai, Dist. Koraput,

Page #368

115. Rsabhanātha, Suai, Dist. Koraput.

Page #369

116. Rsabhanātha, Suai, Dist. Koraput.

Page #370

117. Säntinätha, Kachela, Dist. Koraput.
118. Ajitanatha & Mahavira, Kachela, Dist. Koraput.

Page #371

119. Ambikā, Kachela, Dist. Koraput.

Page #372

120. Gomedha and Ambikā, Kachela, Dist. Koraput.
122. Säntinātha, Bhagavati temple, Jeypore, Dist. Koraput,

Page #373

121. Chakreśvarī Bhagavati temple, Jeypore, Dist. Koraput.

Page #374

123. Rşabhanāthā, Kali temple, Jeypore, Dist. Koraput.

Page #375

124. Rṣabhänátha, B. Singpur,
Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.
2agge
125. Rṣabhanatha B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum,
EN.64
126. Rṣabhanatha, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.

Page #376

127. Mahāvīra, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum,
128. Pārsvanātha, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput,
129. Ambikā, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput,

Page #377

130. Gomedha & Ambikā, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.
20
0
Day
131. Gomedha and Ambika, B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.

Page #378

Ogge
132. Ambikā B. Singpur, Dist. Koraput,
Jeypore Museum
133. Rşabhānātha, Charmula, Dist. Koraput,
Jeypore Museum

Page #379

jay
[7]
134. Rsabhanatha, Kotpat, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.

Page #380

135. Pārsvanātha, Jamunda, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.

Page #381

136. Mahāvīra, Jamunda, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum.

Page #382

137. Rşabhanātha, Kamta, Dist. Koraput, Jeypore Museum,

Page #383

Dr. R.P. Mohapatra M.A. Ph.D., a museologist of long standing is also a reputed archaeologist, holding a diploma from the Archaeological Survey of India.
For some years he has been involved in archaeological studies, more specifically on the caves of Orissa. His earlier book entitled Udayagiri & Khandagiri caves was based on his doctoral thesis. Currently he is engaged in works on A Military History of Orissa and Rock-cut Caves and Paintings in Orissa.
At present working as Curator of Archaeology at the Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar, he is the author of several research papers which have been published in India and abroad.
Jacket Printed at:
D.K. FINE ART PRESS, DELHI-110052.

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d. k. publications