Atonements In Ancient Ritual Of Jaina Monks

Author(s): Collete Caillat
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011039/1

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*ATONEMENTS IN THE ANCIENT RITUAL OF THE JAINA MONKS L. D. SERIES 49 BY . GENERAL EDITOR DR. COLETTE CAILLAT PROFESSOR OF SANSKRIT UNIVERSITY OF PARIS DALSUKH MALVANIA L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD 9

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Printed by Swami Tribbuvandas Shastri, Shree Ramananda Printing Press, Kankaria Road, Ahmedabad 22. and published by Dalsukh Malvania Director L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad 9. FIRST EDITION May, 1975 TRIER RUPEES 30 LOIN;i. Reviso3 line Rs.50

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ATONEMENTS IN THE ANCIENT RITUAL OF THE JAINA MONKS

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PREFACE . I have great pleasure in publishing Atonements in the Ancient Ritual of the Jaina Monks' by Prof. Dr. Colette Caillat. This was first published in French by The Institute of Indian Civilisation, Paris. We are grateful to the Institute for allowing us to publish the English translation of the same. In this translation Dr. Caillat has added here and there some new information. We are thankful to Dr. Caillat for getting the book translated under her own supervision and also to the translators Mr. Jones, Mr. and Mrs. Mc. Kenna, and Mr. Whitehouse. The subject of atonements is for the first time exhaustively dealt with in modern times by Dr. Caillat and she is very faithful in interpreting the subject. Her critical insight is evidenced in the way she has utilized the uncritical edition of the Vyavaharabhasya. Theory and practice of atonements in the Jaina church have a long history. And this book throws much useful light on the subject. Problem of atonements is universal and concerns all religions. Dr. Caillat has ably compared the theory and practice of the Jaina atonements with those of the Hindu, Buddhist and others. We thank Dr. Caillat for allowing us to publish this book in our L. D. Series. It is hoped that the publication of this important work will be of immense value to the keen students of the subject. L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380009. 15 May 1975 Dalsukh -Malvania Director

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CONTENTS 3 13 27 FOREWORD...... INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1. GENERAL REMARKS. THE LIMITS OF THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF JINISM Northern India from the 7th to 5th Century B.C. Jinism and Buddhism. Heretical movements and Brahmanic movements : their link with Vedism. The influence on the heretical move. ments of political, social and cultural conditions. CHAPTER II. THE TEXTS . ... ... Kappa and Vayahara-sutta ; Nisiha-sutta ; Jiya-kappa, The commentaries, their authenticity and importance for the understanding of the canonical texts. Some of their pedagogical methods. FIRST PART ORGANISATION OF THE MONASTIC LIFE THE SUBDIVISIONS OF THE MONASTIC COMMUNITY. ... samgha, gana (or gaccha), kula, parivara, sambhoga. THE JAINA RELIGIOUS ; THEIR TITLES. ... ... niggantha, bhikkhu, samana niggantha, sahammiya. The savekkha. The giyattha and agiyatthiz (Cadept and and ); parinamaka, etc., vikovida, etc.; bahussuya babbhagama EURwell versed in the text and its interpretations, instructed and learned. The niravekkha (iinakappiya, parihariya, ahalandiya). The Bodbisatta triumphs over the anguish experienced when living alone in the jungle. The lax religious (pasattha, etc.) THE HIERARCHY nava, daharaga, taruna, majjhima, thera; senior> rainiya; the dignitaries : Uyariya, uvajjhaya, ayariya-uvajjhaya, pavatti and pavattini, ganavaccheiya and ganavaccheini, thera ; the lowest ranks : seha, antevusi, padicchaya. THE TEACHERS ... Negative choice. Their role. Positive choice : pariksa (sexami. nations, "marks of the acarya". Advantages of the teacher : honours and the elimination of his karman. The ideal life : that of the ayariya or that of the jinakappiya ? 33 . ... 47 55

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.. 61 THE CHANGE OF GANA Tenth point of perfect religious conduct. Obligation to confess on arrival in a new gana. Interrogation on the circumstances of departure; the end pursued (nana, damsana ; caritta): practical test ; possible expulsion. SECOND PART THE ATONEMENTS 69 CHAPTER 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES ... . .. Classification of faults; interaction of the religious tribunal and civil authorities ; basis of judicial procedures among the Jainas and the comparable basis in the brahmanic Dharmasutra and smrti, Buddhist Vinaya, and in the Arthasastra. A Jaina peculiarity. The principle of relativity. The individual value of the atonement, CHAPTER II. DISPENSATIONS. EXCEPTIONS TO THE SECOND AND FOURTH "GREAT VOWS" The influence of secular considerations on the life of religious. Dispensations irom the second and fourth great vows. Comparable provisions among the Buddhists. CHAPTER III. THE ATONEMENTS. ... 79 . p. 237 103 THE ATONEMENTS (payacchitta, pacchitta; prayascitta); AND MORTIFICATION (tava, tavo ; tapas). ... Mortifications : fasts. THEORETICAL PROBLEMS List of penances, Relationship between the atonements and the status of the religious. Evolution of the sixth atonement (pari hara and tava, tavo). Its exceptional importance. THE OFFENCES (padisevana ; pratisevana). ... ... ... Classification of offences by references to the atonements. Examples. TRANSGRESSIONS AND MERITS. FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY ... Classifications of offences by reference to the principles infringed. Expiation of sinful intention. Problem of responsi bllity. COMPLEMENTARY OBSERVANCE : THE SERVICE >> (veyavacca; vaiyavstya) ... ... ... ... ... ... 107 112

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. P. 238 It permits the speedier removal of karman. Importance. Examples, Dangers. The necessary complement of mortification. Comparable obligations in the Buddhist and Brahmanic communities. CHAPTER IV. FIRST ATONEMENT: CONFESSION (aloyana; alocana) ... Antiquity of this practice. Its necessity. Related observances. Suttas of the Vavahara concerning confession, General points and BrahmanicBuddhist parallels; virtues of the observance, qualities of the confessor and of the penitent; various rules. The three types of Jaina confession : vihar'aloyana, uvasampayaloyana; avarah'aloyana. Precedence. CHAPTER V. SECOND ATONEMENT: REPENTANCE : padikkamana, pratikramana). Complement of confession, or twice daily observance ? Global padikkamana-sutta. Virtues of the repentance. Ceremonial of the fortnightly repentance. The five requests for pardon. Ceremonial of the daily repentance, aloyana and padikkamana. THIRD ATONEMENT: MIXED (misa; misra; or (tad)ubhaya. CHAPTER VI. FOURTH ATONEMENT: RESTITUTION (vivega; viveka). FIFTH ATONEMENT: THE UNDISTURBED ABANDONMENT OF THE BODY (viussagga, kaussagga; vyutsarga). 143 The kaussagga, a psycho-somatic exercise. Its virtues. Circumstances appropriate to its practice; duration. ... ... ... ... CHAPTER VII. SIXTH ATONEMENT: ISOLATION (parihara) afterwards replaced by the mortification (tava, tavo; tapas). Definition, substitution and measures of clemency. Varieties (. Impartiality of the teacher. 116 The two specific provisions for the parihara, expulsion and :thavantjjam thavaijja, karanijjam veyavadiyam. Performance of the parihara: Interrogation and preliminary kaussagga; proclamation of the parihara and definition of the 133 141 149

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to whom I feel indebted. It will however, be obvious to readers of the text, that many pages of the book have been discussed by me with the Late Prof. Walther Schubring, whose witty discussions and letters I remember with affectionate gratitude. The present translation was begun as far back as 1965 at the request of Pandit Dalsukh Malvania, Director of the L. D. lastitute of Indology, AHMEDABAD, and with the kind permission of Professor Louis Renou, the then Director of the lostitute de Civilisation Indienne de l'Universite de Paris. To all, and to the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, I express my sincere thanks for their help and generosity. I also wish to mention the keen interest the tranlators took in their task, the constant pleasure it has been to me to work with them though we sometimes had to face unexpected and awkward circumstances. As it proved difficult to get the text translated in Ahmedabad, I approched a young English tutor in the Faculte des Lettres et Sciences Humaines at the Universite de Lyon, Mr. Jones, if he could suggest any solution of my problem. He readily agreed to undertake the task but at the same time recommended that the second half be entrusted to a colleague of his and his wife, Mr. and Mrs. Mc. Kenda, who indeed brilliantly finished fheir part in a very short time. As for Mr. Jones, though pale and frail looking, he was an avid follower of football matches and spent all his spare time at matches being played in the Lyonnais and Beaujolais districts. This was certainly a shrewd way to learn about France. In fact, Mr. Jones was so successful that he was invited to be an interpreter for the World Cup Football matches which were being played during the next Summer A well deserved distinction, which did not help with translation of my piayascittas. In the meantime, though, I had been elected to succeed Prof. Louis Renou at the Sorbonne. Thus my contact with Mr. Jones lapsed, and I was fortunate to meet Mr Whitehouse, another English tutor. this time at the Sorbonne, who greed to resume the translation of the 'first part and harmonise the whole. The work was in progress in May 2:1968 when Mr Whitehouse deemed it advisable to leave Paris to save his : car from the French Barricades. Luckily for me, after six months lapse, Mr Whitehead and I met up again, he having meanwhile completed the translation of the Expiations - All is well that ends well ! As several years had passed since the treatise was first published in French, Pandit Malvania agreed to sobie additions being made to the French Text (these additions and new references being mainly to the foot. notes). In this connection, it is my pleasant duty to acknowledge the ready help of the Ramananda Printing Press and the generosity of the editor,

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Finally it is with great pleasure that I see completion of the present work in 1975, the very year when the 2500th celebration of Lord Mabavira's Nirvana is taking place, and although resident in the West, I feel able, to a certain extent, to participate with the Jaina Community and many Jaina friends, in the commemoration of this important and solemn event. Colette Caillat Sevres, May 1975.

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p. 239 C status of the religious present. The ten characteristic prohibitions; importance of the prohibition of commensality; unavoidable circumstances, parihara and the eremitical life. Service of the ayariya and of the anuparihariya; the latter helps exclusively in obtaining correct conduct, the former .in perfecting knowledge and faith. Unresolved points. Comparison with various Buddhist and Brahmanic penances.." 10 CHAPTER VIII. SEVENTH AND EIGHTH ATONEMENTS: PARTIAL AND RADICAL SUPPRESSION OF RELIGIOUS SENIORITY (cheya, cheda, mula). Comparison with the ninth and tenth atonements. Repercussions on the religious life of the individual and of the community. Examples of cheya; incertitude of the tradition. Comparison with the Buddhist paticchannaparivasa. Example of mula. CHAPTER IX. NINTH AND TENTH ATONEMENTS: DEMOTION AND EXCLUSION ... ..: ... penances. (anayatthaya, anavasthaya, paranciya, parancita). Circumstances. Resemblances between the two Effective banishment of the penitent; service of the ayariya and of the ganavaccheiya, reinstatement ceremonial; dispensations. Comparison with the last two atonements recognised by the Digambaras. Connections between the sixth, ninth and tenth atonements; comparison with the life lived according to the jinakappiya way. INDEX *** CONCLUSION Coherence, unresolved points and contradictions in the disciplinary system of the Jainas. Humanity and moderation of the teachers. Benefits of community life. Individual perfection and unselfish ahnegation. BIBLIOGRAPHY :: 173 179 186 189 204

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p. 1 FOREWORD The majority of the communities in India encouraged their members to "purify themselves", to "purge themselves" of their transgressions. Whether Brahmanic, Buddhist or Jaina, scholars and books proclaim the need for periodic "atonements", which on the whole present striking ana+ logies from one group to another. In fact, these prayascittas, or rather the elements of which they are composed, were related in origin and underwent similar influences. These atonements were complex, and elaborated in harmony with the customs and beliefs peculiar to each society. ; The Jaina monks class them in the first rank of the six "inner asceses" to these are added the six "outer asceses". The aim of all these penances is to effect a more rapid elimination of the karman which the being may have stored up; whereas, conversely, practice of samvara "stops" all new "influx" of deeds. As a result of these efforts, the believer manages to free himself. Yet the monk does not undergo atonement indiscriminately; he goes to the appropriate superior, who will decide upon the penance most suitable, bearing in mind the age and religious status of the wrongdoer, his physical, intellectual and moral capacities, his zeal and his responsibility; in short, all the circumstances of the offence. Before studying the prayascittas, therefore, it will be appropriate to review in some detail how the monastic society is organised. It has often been described. It has a very strong hierarchical system, and is directed by a number of ministers of whom the principal ones are well-known. The precise role of the others is not altogether clear. All are obeyed; and venerated; their mission is to help their flock along the path of deliverance. As for the ordinary monks, the commentaries distinguish numerous types, dividing them into many categories. Several of them will undoubte dly appear to be purely scholastic. Neverthel. ss (and in spite of the gaps in our sources and the confused picture they consequently provide), it has seemed useful to mention them and to define them; on more than one p. 8 occasion, it is true, they seem to have been conceived in relation to the prayascittas, the arrangement of which can consequently be recognised and understood more easily. Naturally, I owe a great deal to my predecessors and teachers; I regret that it is impossible, here, to mention, by name personally, all those

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INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION p. 11. 1. GENERAL REMARKS : LIMITS OF THE DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER OF THE JAINA RELIGION From the 7th to the 5th centuries B.C., important changes had occurred in Northern India. Some, of a political nature, following the "eastward march of Brahmanic civilisation", were perhaps favoured by Indian contacts with the Achaemenides'. More or less centralised kingdoms gradually supplanted various oligarchies, although, here and there, and for a long while to come, ancient clans (such as the Licchavi) continued to wield power. Their organisation has been described as "republican", and even "democratic". It is said to have inspired that of the Bauddha and Jaina communities, which were in fact founded or renewed by oriental princes of the time, Gotama the Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira. The expansion of Iran and the discovery of iron in Southern Bihar modified economic condition; trade began to flourish, and the use of money spread fairly quickly.3 Social upheaval was the natural consequence, but our information on this subject is scarce. Stress has been laid on the disintegration of tribal organisation and the resulting instability and unease. These are hypotheses, albeit plausible ones, but they cannot be given as established facts, as A. L. Basham very rightly emphasises. (Sources of Indian Tradition, 39ff.) 1. LA VALLEE POUSSIN, Indo-Europeens et Indo-Iraniens, 207 ff.; A. L. BASHAM, The Wonder that was India, 47. 2. RHYS DAVIDS, Buddhist India, 60; OLDENBERG, Ancient India ch. III, 1; LA VALLEE POUSSIN, Indo-Europeens 226 ff. ; Inde classique &$ 371; 390; BASHAM, Wonder 96 f.; S. DUTT, Early Buddhist Monachism 114 f. quoting K. P. JAYASWAL; R. K. MOOKERJI, Hindu Civilization 200; 204; 209. A. K. WARDER, On the relationships between Early Buddhism and other contemporary systems, BSOAS, 18, 1956, 43-63; LAMOTTE, Histoire I, 10 f.; cf. MAX WEBER, The Religion of India 90; Ch. DRECKMEIER, Kingship and Community in Early India 94 f. ; 112 f. ; see infra 19; NAND KISHORE PRASAD, The democratic attitude of the Buddha, JOIB 12, 3, 1963, 299-310. M, Wonder, 47; 220 ff. ; 225; Ch. DRECKMEIER, ibid. ; 35; B. R. SUBRAHMA NYAN, Appearance and Spread of Iron in India, JOIB 13, 4, 1964, 349-357. 4. A. K. WARDER, ibid. ; Ch. DRECKMEIER, ibid. ; 95; 283; cf. Gordon CHILDE, What happened in History (1942), 187 ff.

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p. 12 There were at that time in India, and bad been for many years perhaps, forest hermits, 1 wandering ascetics, and also thinkers and reformers, whose names have occasionally come down to posterity; these include the six masters whom the Buddhists quote to denounce their errors, and amongst whom are Mahavira himself and the leader of the Ajivika group, Makkhali Gosala." Among the Brahmanic scholars, Yajnavalkya is one of the most famous. During the 6th-7th centuries B. C., a period of intellectual ferment, there is also a tendency both to organise religious movements, and to give order to philosophical speculation. The strong personalities of the day tended to attract a following of disciples and emulators. Of these gatherings, at least two were to become communities : that of the Buddhists, with its seemingly looser structure, and that of the Jainas which, theoretically at least, is strictly hierarchical, Today, after centuries of existence, they may well be very different from one another, but everything leads us to believe that, at the time they were being formed, they had many common features. Their promotors, near comtemporaries, and both born in Northern Bihar, belonged to the same society, being sons of Chlefs of Ksatriya clans, Imbued with the same fundamental ideas, they were to address their preaching to their equals. Thus, in many respects, their positions were identical. In all probability, it is true that their families were not of the same belief, and that their upbringing and personal experience seem to have carried them away from each other rather than to have brought them closer. Gotama p. 13 left his palace as a young man to study with two masters who were at the time in great renown; disappointed by their teaching, he was to continue his spiritual quest alone, and finally awaken to the truth. The parents of Vardhamana, on the other hand, are thought to have been followers of Parsva, the twenty-third Saviour of the Jainas, the same Parsva whose teaching Mahavira was later to reform, after renouncing the world and living the life of an ascetic for a long time, Moreover, the Buddha is said to have been affable by nature, whereas his rival is believed to have been taciturn 1. GONDA, Religionen, 1, 199; 283 ff. ; Inde classique, &$ 2237 ff.; L. RENOU, Hinduism 47 f. ; LAMOTTE, Histoire 1, 58, ubi alia; B. C. LAW, Early Indian Monasteries, 2. Majjhima Nikaya, 1, 47 ff. ; A. L. BASHAM, History and doctrines of the Ajivikas, ch. 1; 11; MALALASEKERA 1, p. 238 s. v. Ajivaka; 11, p. 398, s. v. Makkhali-Gosala; GONDA, Religionen I, 286, ubi alia. 3. GONDA, ibid., 262; A. K. WARDER, ibid. 4. Cf. L. RENOU, Religions of Ancient India, 126; A. N. UPADHYE, Mahavira and his philosophy of life. 5. JACOBI, SBE, 22, xxx f. ; Lchre SS 19; GLASENAPP, Nachwort ad OLDENBERG, Buddhais 470.

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5 and reserved. But the two heterodox sages are, for all this, very much Isons of their time," Hence when scholars have interested themselves in Buddhism and Jinism, not only have they studied the specific features of each of the two systems, but also have very often attempted to analyse the extent to which they are similar. Indeed, the likenesses between the two doctrines are many and striking, but it is rather rare to come across points of identification which can be followed up in any detail. Even when the notions and preoccupations are adjacent or parallel, their expression or their outward form are very often divergent. Yet the similarities were at first sight so striking, that the initial independence of the two movements, (which Jacobi was to demonstrate so brilliantly) was denied. This does not mean that comparisons are not acceptable, but it has to be recognised that they have their limitations, which, moreover, differ from one point to another. Some of the facts to which authors have drawn our attention may be recalled here for memory's sake. Warder has drawn up a list of thirty-five Pali terms whose Ardhamagadhi equivalents have a very similar technical sense amongst the Jainas (and, he claims, amongest the Ajivikas). If it is true that they are more abstract for the Buddhists, and for the others more material, their values are not exactly equivalent (BSOAS, 18, 1956, 49, n. 2); but close comparison of the two should enable us to reconstruct the "proto-Ajivaka terminology." Jacobi pointed out at an early date that the common epithets and titles jina, arhat, sarvajna...buddha etc., have different uses (SBE, 22, Intr. p. 14 XIX). Conversely, A. N. Upadhye has shown that, taking into account certain peculiarities, different terms, though still comparable, can express very similar notions: thus he draws a parallel between the Jaina anupreksas, "reflections", and the Buddhist anussatis (anusmrti).5 In his study of the concept of morality in Buddism and Jinism, B. C. Law emphasised that the two doctrines considered true knowledge and pure conduct as essential; and yet that the Buddhists lay more stress on the positive aspect of virtues, whereas the Jainas more commonly encourage abstinence from evil. Further, 1. E. LEUMANN, Buddha und Mahavira, 28; also GLASENAPP, Der Jainismus, 26, and Lehre, 20, note 2, p. 31. 2. GLASENAPP, Von Buddha zu Gandhi, 16; BASAK, Buddha and Buddhism, p.104. 3. RENOU, Religions 111 ff.; cf. Lehre SSSS 6; 10; but CHARPENTIER, CHI 1, 161. 4. Kalpasutra, Intr. 1 ff.; SBE 22, Intr. xix ff.; cf. Lehre SS 3. 5. Some parallel thoughts of Jaina Anupreksas, JOIB 9, 1960, 419-21, Svami-Kumara's Karttikeyanupreksa (Kattigeyanupekkha), p. 40 ff.; 6. The concept of morality in Buddhism and Jainism, JASB 34-35, 1959-60, p. 1-21.The same themes are discussed, but with variants and the necessary adaptations.; cf.

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6 over the centuries, exchanges have inevitably taken place between the two movements (Cf. R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, XXIII): Luders notes cross-usage in the application of titles (Mathura Inscriptions, p. 50). D. B. Diskalkar points out the borrowing of a Buddhist dharani by the Jainas.1 The ethics of the two ideologies are expressed in the rules of discipline imposed upon the monks of each group. Here too, it has been possible to compare the name and manners of application of certain of the penances prescribed to transgressors: yet neither the former nor the latter are absolutely identical.2 The practice of confession is of prime importance, and follows strict rules in both communities; but this action is referred to by the verb patideseti, pratidesayati in Pa. and BHS; by aloei, alocayate in Amg. and Jaina Skr. The name of the transgression denounced by the Buddhist by "turning away from it" (patidesaniya) has, it is true, been compared to that of the ceremony in which the Jaina publicly owns his misdeeds. before continuing along the straight path (padikkamana, pratikramana, cf. Renou, Religions, 128): but this time it is the ritual which is different. The existence of so many clear analogies between Jinism and Buddhism is obviously extremely valuable, for our knowledge is often fragmentary; the p. 15 traditions to which we refer frequently proceed by allusion, and presuppose a knowledge of facts which escape us. When our information on one of the heterodox communities is incomplete, therefore, we may justifiably rely on facts observed in the other, in order to attempt a comprehensive reconstitution of their past.3 For instance, the fact that Mahavira taught a metaphysical system seems to Glasenapp an important argument among those which lead him to accept that the doctrine of the Buddha too was based on explicit metaphysics (Hat Buddha ein metaphysisches System gelehrt)+. One must nevertheless be extremely cautious; for, even when the Buddhist and Jaina practices and conceptions do probably have the same origins, Seiren MATSUNAMI, Buddhistic Variants of two Portions of the Isibhasiyaim, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies IX, 2, 1961, 16-23. 1. Studies in Jain inscriptions, JOIB 9, 1959 (23-31), 30. Compare P. S. JAINI, Vasudhara-dharani: A Buddhist work in use among the Jainas of Gujarat, Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, 1968, I p. 30-45. 2. Cf. W. SCHUBRING, K., Intr., p. 12 f.; S. LEVI, Observations sur une langue precanonique du bouddhisme, JA X 20, 1912 (495-514), 505 f. E. J. THOMAS, Prepali terms in the Patimokkha, Fest. Winternitz 161-166; on the subject of this ceremony, compare, I. B. HORNER, SBB XIV, 131, n. 2, referring to RHYS DAVIDS, ERE, s. v. Patimokkha. Cf., On Samlekhana or Suspension of Aliment, N. TATIA, Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, I 139-142. 3. GLASENAPP, Jaina-Buddhist parallels as an auxilliary to the elucidation of early Buddhism, Belvalkar Felicitation Volume 196-201; Von Buddha zu Gandhi, 103-110. 4. Festgabe fur Herman Lommel 235-240; Von Buddha zu Gandhi 38-46.

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... it is very often difficult to discover the precise relationship which links them (cf. H. Zimmer, Philosophies of India, 205-208). And yet, other evidence leads us in a different direction. Some customs to be found with slight variations among the Buddhists and the Jainas are also observed by Brahmanic ascetics. Continuing the studies begun by Weber and Windisch, Jacobi examined the vows pronounced respectively by one and the other as follows. Let us restrict ourselves to the five principal ones : the fifth great vow of the Jainas is more comprehensive than its Buddhist counterpart; and each of the two heterodox communities states the first four in a different order, the order of the Jainas conforming to that of the Brahmanic ascetics (SBE, 22, p. XXII ff.). In order to explain the fact that there is conjointly such a strong overall resemblance and a few differences in detail, one is led to admit that, prior to the 6th century, there existed a pan-Indian code of ascetism, which both samnyasins and bhikkus fashioned and adapted to their views.1 Conforming to practices which are well-established in Brahmanic society, they honoured their masters . 16 and spiritual preceptors : the Buddhists conferred upon the upadhyaya the superiority that the Brahmanists, and the Jainas, following their example, reserved for the acarya (Oldenberg, Vinaya Texts, I, note 2 for page 178). On the whole, both Buddhism and Jinism reflect the customs, preoccupations and methods of the milieu in which they flourished.2 ... Probi. The documents that have come down to us lead us to believe that the problem of deliverance dominated all speculations, and that the doctrines generally received in Bihar were of a pluralist tendency,3 Like the Upanisads. the heterodox communities sought salvation by way of gnosis. In differing * degrees. they admit the necessity of ascesis, and practise yoga. They hold 1. Lehre, SS 172; RENOU, Religions 126; cf. Adris BANERJI, Origins of Jain Practices. JOIB 1, 1952, 308-316; SBB X, Intr. xxvii. 2. CHARPENTIER, CHI 1, 161; RENOU, ibid., 132; Lehre & 8; with reference to JACOBI. SBE 45, xxxii. But see K. C. SOGANI, Ethical Doctrines in Jainism 11-13, ubi alia. 3. STCHERBATSKY, The Doctrine of the Buddha, BSOAS VI, 1930-32, (867-96). 871. GLASENAPP, Nachwort ad OLDENBERG, Buddhals 497; Von Buddha zu Gandhi 106. 4. Lehre $ 6; STCHERBATSKY, ibid, 884 f. ; BASHAM, Sources of Indian Tradition 41. Concerning contacts between the Upanisads and, for instance, the tenets of later * works, such as, Sri Yogindudeva's Paramatmaprakasa, cf. A. N. UPADHYE's edition of this treatise, and its review by L. RENOU, JA 249, I, 1961, p. 92. 5. GONDA, Religionen I, 212; Lehre & 18. 6. GROUSSET, Les philosophies indiennes I, 40; FRAUWALLNER, Geschichte der indischen Philosophie I 170 f.; RENOU, Religions 125; GONDA, Religionen I, 204; FILLIOZAT. Les origines d'une technique mystique indienne, Revue Philosophique, 1946, 208-220 ELIADE, Le yoga; J. W. HAUER, Der Yoga 161 ff. ; 165 f. ; 182; I. H. JHAVERI.

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that passion, ignorance etc.; are sorts of substances having material reality, a theory which will be elaborated later1 ; in that case, sin would leave an actual stain, which must be washed away", "cleaned". To this effect, all Indians make use of "atonements", which are classified in minute detail (prayascitti, then -citta). Moreover, the notions of transgression and atone. ment are known to have been extensively revised after the Vedic period 8; the accepted expressions for describing these operations have persisted however, and where necessary, have been used metaphorically (infra, p. 30). The importance of the prayascitias is such that this subject constitutes one of which are the main themes of the Hindu Dharmasastras. In a more general way, attention has been drawn to the influence of expiatory theories on the legislation and the norms of Indian society. 4 The Buddhists, for their part, at a very early stage drew up the regulations of pratimoksa, the solemn recitation of which constantly played a considerable role, and which was further reinforced by "disciplinary acts". We shall see that the infractions of the Jaina monk called for comparable remedies, which were similarly listed and classified, p. 17 the the Thus, scholars could not confine themselves to comparing the conceptions of the Buddhists and the Jainas. They were also struck by the many similarities between these conceptions and the primitive beliefs and the Samkhya: by the constant analogies with Hinduism7; and by the connections with Krsnaism There were also many links with Vedism : Mahavira bears the Vedic epithet of Vardhamana9. Sylvain Levi noted that both the Buddha and the The Jain concept of samvara and the Patanjala concept of yoga, JOIB 10, 1961, 297- 300; CONZE, Buddhist Thought in India 17, and its review by M. SCALIGERO, in East and West 13, 1962, 392. 1. GLASENAPP, Von Buddha zu Gandhi 106. 2. On the formation of the noun, A. MINARD, Trois Enigmes II SS 750-756, with bibliography; more recently, L. RENOU, JA 253, 2, 1965 p. 281 n. 1, (quoting GAMPERT, Suhnezeremonien, 28, GONDA, Religionen, I 293), but prefering "thought (directed towards the sign) plus". 3. STENZLER, On the Hindu Doctrine of Expiation, OC, 1874, (205-212). 206 ff.; GAMPERT, Suhnezeremonien, 200 ff. ; RENOU, Inde classique $ 1246; ROHDE, Deliver us from Evil, 161 ff.; H. Daniel SMITH, Prayascitta in the Canonical Works of the Pancaratragama, Brahmavidya, The Adyar Libr. Bull. 30, 1-4, 1966, 23-43. 4. RENOU, Inde classique $ 1243; Civilisation SS 38; A. MINARD, Trois Enigmes II $ 750. 5. LAMOTTE, Histoire I, 60; Inde classique $8 2376-2377. 6. Lehre $ 6. 7 Doctrine SS 11; R. WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga xxxii ff.; compare DUBOIS, Inde II, 516. 8. JACOBI, SBE 22.xxxi n. 2; Leltre SS 16; 13; 17; RENOU, Religions 112 f. : 114 f.: Further compare D. S. RUEGG, Sur les rapports entre le bouddhisme et le "substrat. religieux" indien et tibetain, JA 252, 1, 1964, 77-95, ubi alia (especially n. 9 ff.). 9. L. RENOU, ibid, 115; Amg. Vaddhamana, for which see Lehre $.17.

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Jina had as their immediate precursor "the Vedic 'seer' who merely by his outstanding intellect discovers the rite or the formula which guarantees success"; that conversely, similar ideas were expressed by the same set expressions (buddha, arhat) in the language of the Brahmanas and among the heterodox communities?, A. K, Coomaraswamy drew many parallels and stressed that in many cases, the Vedic and Buddhist Scriptures presented different aspects of the same thought2, Better still, E. Frauwallner was able to show that it was Vedic models that determined the form of the oldest p. 18 extracts of the Buddhists' Vinayas: W. Schubring asks if the name of angu given by the Jaina to the teaching of Mahavira might not have been suggested by that of the vedanga (Lehre SS 37); and, recently, studying "the genre of the Sutra in Sanskrit literature", L. Renou showed the links between the Bauddha and Jaina sutras and "the ancient hieratic literature", and also their links with the tradition of the Brahmanas and the Upanisads4. The customs and conceptions bequeathed by a very complex past were therefore adapted to the specific conditions of new groups and new times. This could obviously be proved, for the concepts of 'connection' in Vedic, 'cause' in Buddhic"6; and again by the practice of the upavasatha, in Vedic initially "vigil", and later "fast", especially during the syzygies, which becomes one of the very great ceremonies celebrated by the heterodox communities (Pa. (u)posatha, BHS (u)posadha, Amg. posaha). It continues to be held 1. Doctrine du sacrifice, Intr. 11. 2. Hinduism and Buddhism, 56 and n. 186; 67 f. 3. The Earliest Vinaya, 64; referring to S. LEVI, Sur la recitation primitive des textes bouddhiques, JA XI 5, 1915 (401-447), p. 441. In 1913, M. WINTERNITZ'S Geschichte der indischen Literatur had drawn attention to the links between the Brahmanas and Vinaya-texts II, 1, 26.- Cf. also LAMOTTE' Histoire I, 627, referring to L. RENOU, Inde classique, I, p. 76-77. 4. Sur le genre du satra dans la litterature sanskrite, JA 251, 1963 (165-216), p. 173 f.; as well as notes 44 to 48 (with addenda) and 176. 5. CF RENOU, Religions, 46. On the subject of all these facts, one can compare what La ValleePoussin says about the philosophy of canonical Buddhism (Abhidharmakosa, Introduction p. XII f.): "It would be quite inaccurate to say that we do not know the phil. osophy of canonical Buddhism; we know the essentials, the principles and the general themes, and many details. The history of this philosophy (.........) is less clear". "It may be thought (.........) that we know no part of it completely, because we have such imperfect knowledge of the scholasticism which must have enriched it (........); this, morever, must, by its methods and its tendencies, be very similar to the early speculation from which canonical philosophy itself has developed. This philosophy is composed of the ancient layers of a speculation which has continued in scholasticism proper-both Pali and Sanskrit. . 6. L. RENOU, K. C. Kunham Raja Presentation Volume, 55-60.- On the contrary, other ::.. scholars stress the differences between brahmanism and shramanism; cf. K. C. SOGANI, Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, 12-13, ubi alia. J. A. 2

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10 more especially on days when the moon is full or new; the same discussions concerning the choice between the fourteenth and fifteenth day continue amongst them all; but its object and its procedure are totally renewed (Renou, Religions 127; Le jeune du creancier dans 1 'Inde ancienne. Additional note JA 234, 1943-45, 124-130; infra 158). Again, given the same general conditions and the same facts, as a consequence the same rules were likely to appear. In order to perfect their knowledge and their conduct, both Jaina and Brahmanic students could be p. 19 temporarily admitted to a group or school to which they were alien, Lack of scruples was a common occurrence: in both societies, therefore, those who change their company too often (Amg. ganamganiya), those who are motivated by greed, laziness etc., are fustigated (V. S. Agrawala, India as known to Panini, 248 ff.; cf. Vav T, II 22a-24a). On the whole, it is natural and frequent for rules of religious communities or of any closed community at all to reflect the general conditions of the society in which they have developed (cf. V. S. Agrawala, India, 428). The spiritual bond (vidya-sambandha) which exists between the Brahmanic student and his master is considered no less real than the bond of parentage (yoni-s.): the disciple derives his name from that of the acarya, etc., (id., ibid., 282 ff., referring to Panini IV, 3, 77; VI, 2, 36; 104; AV XI, 5, 3). Similarly, the Jaina monk is represented as a "son" in relation to the master whose orders he obeys; a "grandson" in relation to the mul'acarya; he is surrounded by a group whose members constitute his family relations infra 37). The nun is the "sister" of the man who takes his orders from the same guru, etc. And so certain transgressions are compared to incest - a comparison which is also encountered among the Hindus. (Vav T IV, 52653 a; Renou, Civilisation SS 35). The status of the nun reflects the social condition of woman, who is always dependent (Manu V, 147 ff., IX, 3 ff.). This principle is constantly reaffirmed by the smrti, and is adopted unconditionally by the Jainas and the Buddhists; the result is that, whatever her seniority, the nun is always inferior in rank to the monk. (cf. Vav. 3, 12; T IV' 49b-50a; Vin II, 255; 257; 268; cf. IV, 52; Lamotte I, 63). It has often been stressed that the organisation of the Buddhist and Jaina communities is apparently parallel with that of the political societies with which they were contemporary; at any rate, they are made up of units which bear exactly the same names; kula "family", gana "flock", samgha "community" (Renou, Civilisation SS 48; Agrawala, ibid, 426 ff.) It will also be apparent that the choice of a religious superior among the

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Jainas is carried out in precisely the same way as that of a kingi. The saine virtues are required from both, and their effects, both soteriological and political, are exactly comparable (Vav T IV 18 a; 44a). Before dying or resigning, both are theoretically obliged to make provision for their succe ssion (Vav T ad 2, 26); in each case, their death is not mentioned as far p. 20 as possible until their successor has been installed (Vav Bh 3, 223 ff). Even today, the title of maharaj is given to Jaina acaryas. In the same way, U. N. Ghoshal has been able to draw parallels between the principles of government accepted by various Buddhist Jatakas and by the Arthasastra (History of Indian Political Ideas 73 ff). In these conditions, it is not at all surprising that the Law Tribunal among the Jaina should, on the whole, operate according to the same rules as that of the king. The sentences of the religious teachers and those of the civil magistrates are often given as symmetrical, and the commentaries constantly stress the analogies between the two : one might say that they were two facets of the same reality. There is no point in expatiating at this point on the similarity or the common roots of artistic inspiration, whose monuments are of relatively recent date. Several scholars have pointed out, and in some cases studied, the recurrence of the same themes and the same stories, for example in the fairly ancient ballads of the Jaina Ullarajjhaya, in the Buddhist Jalakas, and again in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Later, the epic poems of the Jainas were to a very great extent to take their inspiration from the Ramayana3. Better still : in the field of the plastic arts, scholars have been unani. mous in showing that the art of ancient India was not sectarian, Archite . 1. Compare BHAMVARLAL NAHTA'S remarks in Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, I (Hindi p. 49). 2. WINTERNITZ, History of Indian Literature, II 466-470; The Jaina in the History of .. Indian Literature, 4-9; J. C. JAIN, Life in Ancient India...34-35 and n. 12 (ubi alia) * and 13; Ernst LEUMANN, Beziehungen der Jaina-Literatur zu andern Literaturkreisen Indiens, OC 6, 469-564; CHARPENTIER, Studien uber die indische Erzahlungsliteratur, ZDMG 63, 1909, 171-188; ALSDORF, Vantam apatum, Chatterji Jubilee Volume - Indian Linguistics 16, 21-28; The Story of Citta and Sambhata, Dr. S. K. Belvalkar Felicitation Volume, 201-208; Namipavvajja : Contributions to the study of a Jain canonical legend, Indological Studies in honor of W. Norman Brown, 8-17; compare U. I. SANDESARA, Some parallels between the Mbl, and the Uttaradliyayana Sitra, ABORI 36, 1955, 167-171. 3. V. M. KULKARNI, Ramayana' in Jaina Literature; The origin and development of the Rama story in Jaina Literature, JOIB 9. 1959, 189-204.-- Further, see L. ALSDORF Harivamsapurana ... von Pulspadanta, particularly Abhandlung, 2.; Klaus BRUHN'S Introduction (II) (with a "bibliographical survey of comparative studies in the Universal History of the Jaina", p. 26-27), in Canppannamahapurisacariam by Sri silanka (ed. A. M. BHOJAK, Prakrit Text Society, 3).

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12 cture (with the stupa), statuary (such as that of the jaksas), symbolism (for example, the triratna) are similar particularly amongst the Buddhists and the Jainas. They undoubtedly conformed to the models most commonly in vogue, and they could have been produced by the same artists: their prototypes probably date back to distant origins1. Thus, despite their distinctive p. 21 character, the Jainas did not lose contact with the life of their time, any more than did the Buddhists. They are even very much aware of these links: scholasticism generally - and in our opinion sometimes erroneously - distinguishes between the "worldly" causes and the "religious" causes of such and such a phenomenon (cf. ad Vav 2, 9 ff.). The comparisons advanced by the Jaina masters, to prove to their flock that the customs which held sway in the community were well founded, constantly refer to the practices and legislation of the world outside2. B. J. Sandesara has rightly stressed that there was a constant osmosis taking place between Jinism and the surrounding milieus. How could this fail to happen? All the communities, living in the same period and in the same country, underwent the same influences. The reformers could hardly prevent it; they therefore tolerated it, provided that it did not interfere with their action, and were even willing to recommend the application to the Law, of any rule borrowed from secular life (Uttarajjhaya 7, 14 ff.): vavahare uvama esa evam dhamme viyanaha (ibid 15) Under the circumstances, it seems useful, of course, to point out on occasion the analogies, the coincidences or the divergencies which may be noticed between the ways and customs of the Jainas and those of the Buddhists or the Brahmanic circles, when they are clear. But it would be erroneous to lay too much stress upon them, and to be obliged to make systematic and exhaustive comparisons. In the present state of our knowledge, priority should be given to the investigation of facts. That is why, when, in the second part, I study the principles of Jaina procedure as revealed by the Vavahara and its commentaries, I limit my references to a few works; moreover, any concordances which may be required can be found without much difficulty. The works to which I shall refer are: the Pali Vinaya (almost all monastic rules are common to the different 1. Cf J. E. VAN LOHUIZEN DE LEEUW, The 'Scythian' Period, 150 ff.; who quotes, among others BUHLER, EI 2, 1894, 311-323; A. K. COOMARASWAMY, Elements of Buddhist Iconography, 13, and the review by W. N. BROWN, in JAOS 57, 1937, 115-117; Willibald KIRFEL, Symbolik des Buddhismus, 7; also H. ZIMMER, Philosophics of India, 208; Mythen und Symbole indischer Kunst und Kultur, p. 73; RENOU, Religions, 113. 2. Similarly Asoka had called the attention of his subjects to both this world and the next. 3. Progress of Prakrit and Jaina Studies, JOIB, 9, 1959, (152-187), 186 f.

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13 p. 22 Buddhist sects?; the Manavadharmasastra; the Arthasastra. As for more recent studies and works, Gampert's Suhnezeremonien and, naturally, P. V. Kane's monumental History of Dharmasasira will be those most often quoted, 2--THE TEXTS The Jaina svetambaras, while in theory founding the religious procedure on five principles, in effect keep as the bases of their codes the second, su(y)a (sruta) and the fifth, ji(y)a (juta), in other words religious Tradition and custom. From the latter comes the Jiyakappa, from the former come the Kappa, Vavahara, and Nisiha-sutta (cf. Leumann, Jita 1196, with reference to Vavahara Bhasa 10, 690 ff.). They belong to the group of the cheya-sultas, which, perhaps, are specially studied by monks having incurred the "(partial) forfeiture" of their religious seniority, che( y)a (Lehre SS 51; 52; IA 39, 260; infra 200). The present analysis will deal with the atonements which are connected with the Tradition. Their principles are, for the most part, expounded in the first three lessons of the Vavahara-sulta (which form the first section," khanda, of this treatise) and in the commentaries relating to them. Two of the latter, the bhasa (Bh), and the tika of Malayagiri (T), have survived (infra). In the absence of ?, it would often be very difficult to understand the sutta and the bhasa, and virtually impossible to give any real interpretation to the words. We shall see later that the tradition described by the commentaries may be considered to be, on the whole, authentic. The least study must, therefore, involve constant reference to it, and on occasion an account of the explanations provided by ?, which obviously follows school courses. For this reason, it has seemed advisable not to confine the present chapter to a mere catalogue of the texts dealing with atonements : some of the procedures which are most favoured by the commentaries will be exa. mined briefly; at any rate, they play an important part in the arguments of the Jainas. The other communities in India use comparable pedagogic devi. ces, inspired by almost identical circumstances. The objects of the Kappa and Varaltara-sutta are not very different : both D. 23 lay down the rules of monastic life; K is more interested in general arran gements; Vav goes into a greater number of details (Schubring, Vay p. 5 ff.. Lehre S 51). The introduction (pathika) to the commentaries of the Vav foresees the risk of the pupil's being shocked because the two treatises resemble each other so closely : kappammi vi pacchitlam vavaharammi vi tah' eva pacchittam kappa-vvavaharanam ko nu viseso tli coci (Vav Pith Bh 152) : 1. FRAUWALLNER, The Earliest Vinaya, 2; cf, LAMOTTE, Histoire I, 181,

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14 Any monk who, as a result of a transgression, comes under the jurisdiction of the Vavahara, comes at the same time under the jurisdiction of the Kappa: jo avitaha vavahari so nizama valtac u kappammi iya bahu natthi viseso ajjhayananam duvenham pi (ibid 153). But after this concession to an imaginary opponent, the master states that each code is specialised: the kappa is said to be theoretical, the Vavahara practical: avisesiyam ca kappe ihaim tu visesiyam imam cauha padisevana samjoyana arovana kunciyam ceva (ibid 155). The Kappa-sutta confines itself to dictating, to some extent in abstract terms, the obligation to submit oneself, where necessary, to a payacchitta. The Vavahara considers the application of this principal, in other words the actual "granting" of the atonement (dana). Bh T distinguish four varieties of atonement, according to the circumstances of the offence: sometimes, it is isolated (pratisevana-prayascitta); sometimes it is "combined" with others (samyojana), when it is felt advisable to propose a "supplementary" penance (aropana); finally, it was sometimes dissimulated in various ways (pratikuncana). Further, the Vav is concerned with adapting the atonement to the capacities and rank of the individual who is to undergo it: tatha kalpadhyayane prayascittarha purusa-jata na bhanita iha tu bhanita iti mahan visesah (Vav Pith T 50b 6 ff.; cf. Bh 159ff.). The result is that offences of equal gravity are expiated in varying degrees: tulye py abhavati prayascille prthak...prayascilladanam (T ibid 59a 6). Indeed, it seems that, in India, judges always gave great consideration to the circumstances of the transgression (infra 92). p. 24 In the form that we know them - which is not the original one - the K and Vav are two of the oldest books of the svetambara canon. They are, in fact, compilations of sultas, often linked by rather loose associations of ideas (cf. Vav p. 5 ff.). The Kappa is earlier than the Vavahara; but the items of which it is composed do not all go back to the same period. An important criterion concerning their age and origin is provided, amongst other things, by the name given in them to the monk; first niggantha; later bhikkhu; the name of samana niggantha seems to be current at first in the extracts which do not deal with discipline. The Nistha-sutta is very much later, and also subsequent to the "regulation for the rainy season", the Pajjosavana-kappa (ibid). The first twenty 1. Glossed maya, Vav Pith T 47a 7. Kalpadhyayane abhavat prayascittam uktam na tu danam, iha tu danam bhanitam iti visesah... (ibid 50b 5 ff.). Vyavaharadhyayane punar idam prayascittam...caturbhih prakarair visesitam. tan eva prakaran aha: pratisevanam samyojanam aropanam kuncanam iti... (ibid 51b 6 f.)

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15 sutlas of the Vavahara (ed. Schubring) are to be found in the last lesson of the Nisiha (20, 1-20). Traditionally this treatise is considered to examine three objects : "The dejection", "the absence of dejection" and "the increase" which contribute to modifying the amount of the atonement called parihara (ugghaya, anugghaya, arovana; cf Vav p. 10). In fact, the major part of the work is a review of the transgressions which justify the prayascitta (1952 cases), which it briefly describes (cf. Vav T II 806-81a). They last between one to four months, with or without "dejection" : lesson 1: cases of parihara expiated by one month without dejections; lessons 2-5: cases of parihara expiated by one month with dejection; lessons 6-11 : cases of parihara expiated by four months without dejection; lessons 12-19 : cases of parihara expiated by four months with dejection, It can be seen that the offences are classified according to the atonements that they entail. The same type of classification is adopted in the Buddhist pratimoksa: Deo considers it unwieldy (Jurisprudence 54). Nevertheless, presented in this way, the Nisiha has a less disconnected appearance than the two treatises mentioned above. The Jiyakappa is arranged according to the same principle : it claims to be a "summary" (samkheva, 1); it consists of a list of the ten atonements, and the transgressions from which they arise, in ascending order of gravity. It may be noted that it is the work of Jinabhadra alone (Leumann, 1195). . As they stand, these canonical texts, written in Ardha-magadhi, would remain largely incomprehensible to us : for they use numerous technical words and expressions, and many allusive turns of phrase. They have been explained by a series of commentaries, at first in Prakrit and later in Sanskrit p. 25 (Lehre $ 43; H. R. Kapadia, The Jain? Commentaries, ABORI, 16, 1934-35, p. 292-312). The most ancient are the nijjutti (*nirvvukti) "analyses" explained by their versified "commentaries" the bhasas (bhasyas): that of K is due to Samghadasa (Lehre S 51): moreover, the teaching is pulverised" in the cunnis (curnis), that of the K being the work of Pralamba Suri, that of the Fova the work of Siddhasena Ganin. The stanzas of the bhasas (like those of the nijjuttis) are very often cryptic : words are often merely juxtaposed, each singnifying a particular commonplace, or a particular comparison which it is appropriate to develop at this stage in the exposition. The meaning would be lost to us but for the Prakrit cunnis and the Sanskrit exegeses (tikas, etc.), generally compiled well after the 8th century : those of the K and Vay were compiled by Malayagiri, in the 13th century (Lehre SS 51; 43). These works are not, naturally, concerned with being original, with the result that analogous developments are to be found in one and the other. The Sanskrit commentaries will, of course, be accused of being diffuse. repetitive, of lacking in critical spirit, or of being sometimes incomplete

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16: . by our own standards, as may be expected moreover from works intended for readers who were perfectly conversant with points of which we have no knowledge. Undoubtedly, the original value of certain Amg. terms, for which they propose dubious Sanskrit transpositions, has escaped them (Lehre SS 43; cf. rainiya, infra 60 and note 2; JA 248, 1, 1960, 41 ff.; 249, 4, 1961, 497 ff.). However, allowing for this, they faithfully reported customs which were probably obsolete in their own time, and which tradition had Do less faithfully transmitted to them. Held suspect by Barth, the Jaina tradition was, as we know, defended by 'Jacobi, and its authenticity was soon brilliantly proved by the archaeological discoveries in Mathural. Better still, E. Leumann demonstrated that the oldest Prakrit cominentaries, nijjuttis, bhasas, are pure mnemonic plans which "sublimate" a Prakrit prose whose tenor was without doubt scarcely any different from that which the cunnis have preserved for us (Dasavaikalika-sutra und-niryukti..., ZDMG 46, 1892, 581-663, particularly 592; cf. Lehre SS 43). His study, which long remained unrivalled, has been continued and completed by W. Schubring : 150 Strophen Niryukti. Ein Blick in die Jaina - Scholastik (Fest. Kirfel, 297-319); also, recently, by L. Alsdorf (oc 28, 1971). p. 26 The Sanskrit commentaries which are of later date than the cikas (dipika, "elucidation") and the commentaries in modern languages - for example the Hindi commentary of the Vay compiled at Hyderabad in the 19th century - provide no information which is important for our purpose. It is therefore quite legitimate to look for an understanding of the most ancient canonical treatises in medieval commentaries. The Skr. of the Tikas, which is also strewn with techical terms and acceptations, offers in addition certain peculiarities. Their language presents recent, dialectal features (B. J. Sandesara and J. P. Thaker, Lexicographical Studies in Jaina Sanskrit 1). It abounds. in metaphorical and proverbial phrases. The same sincerity, it would seem, is detectable in the documents which they furnish concerning the monastic and secular life of their time. Without the assistance of the Vav T, it was futile to try to discover the theory of atonements in the ancient Jaina ritual. In it are exposed the details of the atonement which is held to be the first : the aloyana, "confession", to which are closely linked "repeatance" (padikkamana) and the "mixed" atonement (misa). The same s provides information on the peculiar features of the parihara, a singular atonement which is related, on the one hand, to the two most severe atonements, "destitution" and "exclusion", and also to observances which are certainly of archaic character, in parti. cular life "according to the rule of the Jina" (jina-kappa). - 1. G. BUHLER, On the authenticity of the Jaina tradition, WZKM 1, 1887, 165-180; Further proofs for the authenticity of the Jaina tradition, ibid 3, 1889, 233-240; etc.; cf. Lehre p. 37. ubi alia. . 2. See also A. M. GHATAGE, The Dasayaikalika Niryukti, IHQ 11, 1935, 627-639.

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Thus, a great part of the information used in the present study is drawn from sections (vibhaga) II, III, IV, IV' of Vav T (on this subject, see page 221); they do not always agree with those summarily grouped together in the Pithika (vibh. I) which introduces them, the divergencies concerning the sixth atonement. Further, on the subject of repentance they had to be completed by the indications of the Pakkhiya-sutla (Paksika-sutra), one of the ancient texts belonging to the Avassayanijjutti (Lehre 8 55). * * P. 27 To enable us to appreciate more correctly the value of the documents at our disposal, it seems helpful at this point to list some of the methods of exposition used in the commentaries; they undoubtedly conform to the pedagogic procedure of the Jaina masters, Some, many in fact, are purely scholastic and formal : they can be indicated briefly. Jaina scholars, like the Indians in general, are reputed for their propensity for minute classification. It is very common for commentaries to analyse each fact or notion into what they consider to be constituent elements, to give these elements either a positive or negative sign, and to examine the result of the combinations achieved on this new basis. This procedure is encountered from the earliest canonical treatises onwards, for example in the course of the 10th lesson of the Vav (3-13). It is remarkable that the degree zero of these combinations is always stated and envisaged even if declared "void" or "vain" (sunya): for instance, when the distinction is made among scholars of canonical texts between the holder of the letter, sutra-dhara, and the holder of the spirit, artha-dhara, four combinations result, the last of which (with its two negative elements) is obviously pointless : 1. On the other Jaina works to which I may have occasion to refer, see Lehre $$ 45-46; R. WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga, pp. 1-31. The texts and terms quoted in the present study will therefore be sometimes in Prakrit (Ardha-magadhi and Jaina Maharastri), sometimes in Sanskrit (in which case, I have followed the edition of T, which does not make a strict rule of systematically respecting the rules of external samdhi.) The stanzas of the bhasya are generally composed in the arya metre of recent type, One does meet a few gitis, and occasionally some slokas. On the arya, sec TACOBI, Ueber die Entwicklung der indischen Metrik in nachvedischer Zeit, ZDMG. 38. 1884. (590-619), 595 ff.; Zur Kenntnis der Arya, 40, 1886, 336-342; SCHUBRING Icaranga-satra, p. 60; E. LEUMANN, ZII 7, 1929, 160-162; and, more recently. among others, VELANKAR, Chando'nusasana of Hemacandrastiri, ALSDORF, Ichinarinna. A Chapter of Jain monastic Poetry, edited as a Contribution to Indian Prosody TIJ. 2. 1958, 149-253; Les etudes Jaina, p. 54 ff.; The Arya Stanzas of the Ultarauhaya..., Abh. der Geistes-und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Akad, der Wiss, u. der Lit, in Main 1966, 2 p. 155-220. J. A. 3

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p. 28 18 1. sutra-dharo 'rtha-dharah; 2. no sutra-dharo 'rtha-dharah; 3. sutra-dharo no 'rtha dharo; 4. no sutra-dharo napy artha-dharah (T IV' 35b-36a). The commentators are, it seems, reluctant to admit that the sulta merely recapitulates by a general rule particular rules which have been previously stated (cf. Vau 1, 13 ff.): they then claim that a "combination" (samyoga) of sulta is implied. So, if we accept that the initial suttas examined five cases, the combinations of sultas exhaust the groupings of two, three, four or five of the said possibilities; and bring together successively 1+2, 1+3, 1+4, 1+5, then 1+2+3 and so on. In this way, and taking into account all the accompanying circumstances which may be introduced into the wording, the first sixteen sutlas of the Vau (ed. Schubring) finally imply "in brief", 8432 possibilities (T II 536-56a).1 The taste of the Jainas for mathematics has, in fact, been noted (Lehre SS 21). Other developments are, for us at least, more pleasurable and more instructive. Certain of the rules formulated by the suttas apparently need justifying. The objections that were no doubt held to be the most common were scrupulously recorded and refuted. They are put into the mouth of an imaginary contradictor (codaka), following a commonplace procedure in Indian argumentation, which makes the demonstration more lively (cf. Renou, Terminologie, s. v. cud -)2. This dissident element protests in particular against all appearances of injustice, even accuses the judges of partiality, and consequently rejects them (ranu yuyam na madhyastha raga-dvesakaranat...na ca raga-dvesavantah paresam sodhim ut padayitum ksamah, TII 47b-48a). To which the master (suri) generally replies that atonements, like medicines, are adapted to the temperament of the patient: a malleable comparison, which permits the avoidance of contradictions: in fact, theoretically, the atonements grow in proportion to the merits and honours of the defaulter; it is only for robust temperaments that the prescription of energetic treatment is appropriate (cf. T III 7b-8a); but elsewhere it is admitted that the weak need remedies even more than the strong (T II 48a, ad 1, 7-12). Ultimately when the master has run out of arguments, he invokes the authority of the suttas and the infallibility of their authors (II 48b-49a). He threatens his recalcitrant opponent with an increase of punishments in this world, and innumerable deaths in the course of transmigration. (ibid 52a-b). The discussions between the master and pupil are not the only subjects that the commentaries recount for us. Sometimes they relate a public con 1. See CAILLAT; in SCHUBRING, Drei Chedasitras, p. 49 ff. See also the "permutations," LEUMANN, Ubersicht 41 b. 2. Cf. RENOU, JA 248, 2, 1960, 275-6, stressing that Ancient India's didactic literature is throughout engaged, so to say, in polemics and "tilt" Compare the scheme of refutation, etc, summed up by Helmer SMITH, Saddaniti p. 1129 (SS 5. 3, 2. 3).

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19 troversy. Everything is indicated: the circumstances, the preparation for the debate, the general direction that it is fitting for it to take, the captatio benevolentiae. The commentaries give a detailed acccount of the attacks, withdrawals, counter-attacks, stratagems, jokes, commonplaces, even the proverbs and the formulae which are often metaphorical, that win over the p. 29 audience and confuse the opponent (cf. Bh 3, 295 ff., ad 3, 23-29). Real happenings very probably served as models for these plans (compare Schubring, Studien 6, p. 65 f.): we know of these challenges, and public confrontations of, renowned sages, which were favoured by the Indian princes, whether it be Janaka, Harsa, Jayasimha Siddharaja or Akbar. Moreover, allegedly historical facts are sometimes evoked, sometimes related with a few details: they reinforce the argument and are advanced as matter for reflection (cf. the Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen, edited by Jacobi). conver They are sometimes borrowed from religious chronicles; for instance the consolation addressed to the monk who was the brother of the former king Jitasatru (who had been his superior in religion), on the death of the latter (ad Vav 2, 9, T IV, 28a-29a); or the difficulties of a contender at the sixth schism (T II 38a; cf. Leumann ISt. 17, 116-121; the sion of "King Murunda" (Murunda -rayassa) by the "milky" eloquence of the ayariya Khullagani, (T IV 326-33a, ad 3, 3 ff.). The commentaries recall the royal displeasure unfortunately incurred by Vajrabhuti, a pastor who was not surrounded by disciples. The scene is at Bharukaccha, under Nahapana. The litanies of the master have won the heart of Queen Padmavati, and she wishes to visit him. On her arrival he goes out to fetch something to sit on. "Where is the acarya Vajrabhuti?" she asks. "He has gone out," he replies; but her servant had recognised him. And the queen thinks: "Your reputation is worth more than the sight of you. Like the river Kaseru its name is better than its water" (T IV' 74b-15a, ad Vav 3, 1),3 1. Any scholar passing through, when a verdict is contested, must fly to the assistance of the Law, without even taking time to clean himself up (gantavya dhili-janghena, Vav Bh 3, 302 a). He will speak thus: "The samgha is most venerable, and I am merely a poor stranger here. I do not know the ways of the venerable samgha. And so the blessed will be kind enough to excuse my remarks. I am going to speak according to the teaching of the sutra" : samgho mahanubhago aham ca vedesio iham bhayavam; sangha-samitim na jane, tam bhe savvam khamavemi Vav Bh 3, 312) 2. Thus, when one challenges the sentence given by a judge suspected of appropriation of funds, one adds, as the case may be, that it smells of cooking-fat, sugar or a wellcovered shelter : niddha-mahuram nivayam, aho snigdho vyavaharah ... taila-ghyt'adi-samgrhita evam ete anyatha vyavaharantiti (Bh 3, 305 a; T IV' 65 a). 3. Cf. S. LEVI, Kaniska et Satavahana, JA 228, 1936, (67-121), 71 f.

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Other facts are borrowed from political history. For instance, the conquest of the two Mathuras by the armies of satavahana of Pratistbana. At the same time as he hears this news, the king learns that a son is born to him, and that in addition he has become the owner of a treasure. The result is a fit of exaltation, of which he would not have been cured but for the wisdom, self-control and devotion of his minister Kharaka (T IV 369-376, ad Vay 2, 10;cf. Lamotte, Histoire 1, 530). The best-known episode is undoubtedly the capture of Ujjaini by the Sakas at the instigation of Kalak'acarya: the story is often mentioned by the Jainas, and is in turn exploited and contested by modern historians, 1 1. 30 The Jaina scholars not only invited one to meditate upon the lessons of history. They were sensitive to the spectacle of the world, and sought to make the religious life understandable by means of various metaphors (drstanta). Moreover, we know that no Indian literary genre hesitated to use the multiple resources of the comparison (cf. Gonda, Remarks on Similes in Sanskrit Literature). Many of those used by the Jainas are banal. Entry into the religion, the observances, are often compared to medical or surgical treatment to which docile and complete submission is fitting. Penances are on many occasions presented as remedies; and also as more or less thorough cleaning ((vi)suddhi ) of abodes or clothes, Gampert also points out, in the Dharmasulras and the smrti, the use of bhiesaja and of pavitra, (vi)suddhi, etc., as synonyms of prayascitta (28f.). Of the monk who is actually undergoing an atonement, the Jainas say that he is "redeeming" (cf. nivvisamana Vav 1, 17 ff.; Lehre S$136; 162; compare nirvesa etc., Gampert, ibid.): The assessment of atonements offers convenient analogies with commercial transactions (T II 496-50a, ad 1, 7-12). Stockbreeding, agriculture, fishing, hunting, lent themselves to many comparisons, Political life, court etiquette, administrative and judiciary customs also provide abundant illustrations. In seeking to simplify and embellish their teaching by means of metaphors, the scholars were following the example of Mabavira,3 1. Cf. Lclire & 24, ubi alia; W. NARMAN BROWN, The Story of Kalaka...the Kalaka caryakatha, Washington, 1933; LAMOTTE, Histoire I, 502; LOHUIZEN-DE LEEUW, The (Scythian) Period 330 f.; contested by BASHAM, in the detailed review he has made of this book (A new study of the Saka-Kusana Period), BSOAS 15, 1953 (8097), 83. Studies in Indian History and Culture, 99-124, ; U. P. SHAH, Jain monk Kalakucarya in Swarnabhimi, JOIB 5, 1956, 281-290, 2. Cr. GONDA, Gods and Powers, 81, 3. AMULYACHANDRA SEN, Mahavira as the ideal Teacher of the Jainas, Bharatiya Vidya, 3, 1911-42, 87-89, referring to SCHUBRING, Worte 21; Lehre 183=$ 166; see also G 20).

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3. Finally, the commentators did not miss the opportunity to enliven their material by introducing lions, jackals and other animals into it." Sharing the general predilection of the Indians for apologues," they readily inserted them into their developments. Several serve to show whom to choose as Superior of a group, or whom to avoid. Beware of the ganadhara who, * both spiritually and materially, is likely to be ill-prepared. He is said to be like the jackal who considers itself capable of the prowess of the * lion and brings about the downfall of all his companions as well as his i 31 own (T IV 6a ff., ad 3, 1). These are undoubtedly more than mere fables, It will be seen that in certain circumstances, the novice is compared to a jackal, or again to a wild animal ( mga), the master to a lion; that the advanced monk is often called vssabha "bull" (cf. infra 47 and note ). Without any doubt, all these methods help the catechumen to penetrate the meaning of the Doctrine (artha). The essential, however, is to know the sutra, the letter (Pith Bl 131, T 45a-b). It is important that they should be saved from oblivion. One can understand this preoccupation. The svetambara Jainas make no secret of the fact that their canon is relatively recent: the knowledge of the "primitive' (puvva) books had gradually been lost (Lehre SS 37; compare Malianisiha III SS25; 46; Isibhasiyaim 1942, p. 500). So when, due to unfor. tunate circumstances, there is a risk that sultas and their exegesis may disappear, the ignorant monks must take instruction from colleagues even if the latter are in religious terms unworthy, or even from laymen wellversed in the Law; a fortiori their prerogatives will be restored forthwith to honourable monks, who, for personal reasons, have provisionally given up the habit, and thus have lost their seniority (Vav 3, 10, ? IV 39a 426). It is also known that four periods in the day were compulsorily devoted to study (Lehre SS 148); that the methods of teaching were duly catalogued (Uvav 30, IV; Uttar 30, 34; cf. Mahanistha III 37, 4; Jiya 22; Vav Puh Bh 115 f.). Finally, in order to check more easily the knowledge of a possible candidate for various posts, the canonical suttas are taught according to three methods (paripati): suja-parayanam padhamam, biie pad'ubbliediyam taiyam ca niravasesam (Vav Bh 3, 354) The first (sucaka-parayana) consists of reciting the sultas with breaks depending on the sense (artha-parisamaptya pada-cchedena sutr@ccaranam samhiteti); the second, analytical and critical, considers the words one by

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one, glossing them, (padarlha-malra-kathana-pada-vigraha-phala dviltya paripalr); the third is simple continuous recitation (niravasesam calana, T IV' 71a). It will be recalled that the two principal types of Vedic recitations are the padapatha and the samhitapatha. Panini also points out the recitation of the complete text or parayana (V. S. Agrawala, India 293ff.). It can be seen from the above that all means were adopted to avoid any further loss to the Jaina tradition.

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PART ONE ORGANISATION OF THE MONASTIC LIFE

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p. 35 The atonements which it was possible for the Jaina religious to incur are in theory directly related to the status and to the physical, intellectual and moral aptitudes of the transgressor (cf. Vav Bh 1, 422 ff, = Nis Bh 6655; 6657). They are most often practised within the group of which he is a member. Before studying the atonements, therefore, it seems advisable to sum up the main divisions of the Jaina community and in particular the minutely classified hierarchical system within which the defaulter holds a very strictly defined rank (Lehre 138 ff.; Deo, History 143 ff., 216 ff.). In order to understand how justice was carried out, it will be necessary to bear in mind certain distinctions and classifications which appear in the commentaries although not necessarily in the canon. The opposition between the giyatthas and the agiyatthas, for example, plays an important role, although it does not feature in the suttas. (infra 46).

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THE SUBDIVISIONS OF THE COMMUNITY p. 37 Taken as a whole, the Jaina community, like that of the Buddbists. is called samgha, "gathering". This term sometimes refers to more restricted companies of monks, The samgha is described figuratively as the streasure of hundreds of qualities", guna-sayagaro samgho (Bh 2, 244o; cf. samgho gunasamghato, (Bh 3, 322a). It is compared to a cool house which affords comforts during very hot weather both to those who live there and to those who come from outside. It is formed when a number of men come together who, having relinquished all worldly ties (mother, father, etc.), and undertaken to acquire the controls (samyamas), combine knowledge and good conduct: gihi-sumghayam jahium samjama-samghayagam uvagaenam nana-carana--samghayam samghaya tato havai samgho (Bh 3, 332). This figurative meaning is used as an argument in a public debate (T IV 66a 6 ff:). It is thus probable that it met with general acceptance. The Mahanisiha says that the samgha, the embodiment of the Doctrine. is based on the gacchas, which themselves are based on correct faith, knowledge and conduct: titthe puna cauvanne samana-samghe. se nam gacchesum paitthie, gacchesum pi nam sammad-damsana-nana-caritte paitthie (V 94). The ancient parts of the canon speak of gana instead of gaccha. This concept dates back to the beginnings of the Jaina movement. Both the word and the idea are attested amongst the Buddhists. There were also smaller groups - in particular spiritual families", i. e. the schools which were formed around individual outstanding pbilosophers and their followers (kula). Some of them are so highly esteemed that for the common good their members may benefit from Occasional - exemptions (Vav 3, 9; Guerinot, Religion 44; Lehre $141 and n. 4) The entourage (parivara) of an instructor (compared to the father) includes on the one hand his "descendants" (pupil, pupil's pupil, and also pupil of the pupil's pupils), and on the other his ancestors" (in-other-words. the monk who made up the followings of his own "father", "grandfather" and "great grandfather") A "lineage" is thus constituted by seven generations - reminiscent of the number of the sapindal : .. .... purisa jugam sattaha hoi (Bh 3, 1126) 1. Cf. Manu V, 60; but IX, 186f. 29 i

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28 The monks who have been brought up in the same families" and the same "flocks"-and consequently in the same religious customs (pravrajya), and those who have received the same teaching (sruta) from the same teacher are "members of the same party" (egapakkhiya Vav 2, 26; Bh 2, 325). An educational community produces the strongest affinities. It is admitted that the religious, although reasonably tolerant in matters of instruction, obstinately cling to their habits. As a result, in order to avoid the "splintering of a flock" (ganasya bheda) it is thought advisable to choose a superior who has received the same education and the same instruction as his subordinates; failing this, a superior who has received the same education, (Vav 2, 26; cf. T IV 74b-75a), unless the flock wishes otherwise (Vav, ibid). The attitude of the Jaina provides no cause for surprise: in a general manner, all observers have noted the tolerance of Indians in matters of dogma and have called attention, for example, to the fact that Hinduism is less a faith than a practice.2 P. 39 The sambhoga could be a subdivision of the gana (Lehre SS 139, referring to K 4, 18-20; Deo, History 230 and n. 88). Its members are called sambhoiya (sambhogika) "commensal" or "companion", if such conventional translations are acceptable; the ties which join these religious together are not only alimentary (infra). Bh T often render the derivative by samanunna, samonojna-"one who has the same tastes." (Vav T Il 17a 4; 176 3, etc.; cf. sambhogika samasukha-duhkha T IV' 45a 3). The role of the sambhoga, which is not altogether clear to us, seems to have been important. Buhler and Leumann took it to be a community of a geographical and political nature, comparable to the mandala, "district", of the Digambaras (cf. Lelire, ibid; Guerinot, Religion 44). Deo retains this explanation, which could be supported by the evidence of certain inscriptions, although of a relatively late date (History 151 n. 58); bhoga refers to a territorial unit, and bhogika to its supervisor. W. Schubring, however, following Than T, considers the sambhoga rather as a group of religious bound to the same observances during the quest and utilisation of alms (cf. Vav T IV' 336 8; 34a 12 ad Bh 3, 157 ); they are also bound to the same disciplinary rules, as is evident from the Vay. The Vav Bh T 1. Among the Buddhists also, a sajigha-bheda is sometimes the result of dissensions concerning "discipline" (vinaya) (cf. H. BECHERT, Asokas "Schismenedikt" und der Begriff Sanglableda, Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Siid- und Ostasiens 5, 1961, 18-52); cf. Lamotte, Histoire, I, 260. 2. DUBOIS, Inde I 278. Max WEBER, The Religion of India 21; 117; 189; GONDA, Rcligionen I 351; cf. A. K. COOMARASWAMY, Hindouisme et bouddhisme, trad. fr. 59; Ch. VAUDEVILLE, La conception de l'amour divin chez Muhammad Jayasi. JA 250, 1962, (350-367) 351; O. LACOMBE, Gandhi 57.

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emphasise the fact that the commensals" follow an identical course of conduct, whereas theoretical differences may separate them; hence a commensal who seeks admission to a gana different from his own, may be received if he comes to improve his faith and knowledge, but not if he comes to improve his conduct : samanunna duga-nimittam uyasampajje..... samanojnasya samipe samanojna upasampadyamano dvika-nimittam upasampadyate, tad yatla jnanartham darsanartham ca, na caritrartham yena caranam prati sadsa eva (Bh 1, 64a=Nis Bh 6324). The Samavaya glosses sambhoga, and then defines the twelve varieties of this type of association. By s., he understands "the fact that the religious of the same discipline eat together" sam ekibhuya samana-samacaranam sadhunam bhojanam sambhogah (226 7; compare the commentary of Uttar 25, 33, quoted in K p. 43, ad 4, 18). Samav distinguishes from the sambhogikas on the one hand the religious who belong to another commensality and are "zealous" (anyasambhogika samvigna, Samay 23a 4; cf. infra 55f) and, on the other hand, the religious who have cut off from the commensality (because they lack zeal, for example: cf, bhinnasambhogika amanojna asamvigna, Vav T II 21a 6); and also the visambhogika, who are excluded from all commensalities, as are the parsvasthas, and, on principle, nuns (samyati, Samay 226 10 ff.). More or less severe restrictions limit the connections between the sambhogikas and the visambhogikas on the twelve points considered characteristic of the sambhoga, namely: 1. gathering and using objects of every day use (clothing, bowl); 2. studying; 3. eating, drinking, giving food; 4. greeting; 5. transferring a group of students to another master; 6. speaking; 7. standing up as a mark of politeness; expressing respect; 9. giving "service"; 10. gathering together to attend a religious ceremony; 11. meeting formally on certain occasions (a rule which concerns the ayariyas); 12, giving certain speeches : p. 40 uvahi suya bhatta pane anjali-paggahe tti ya 1 dayane ya nikae ya abbhufthane ti avare /111/ kiikammassa ya karane veyavacca-karane i ya/ . samosaranam samnisijja ya kahae ya pabandhane (12|| Samav 21b-24a quoted Abhidhana 7, 207, a-b=Nis Bh 2071 f.).

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30 If a sambhogika tresspasses on.more than three occasions, despite the atonements which redeem the transgression itself, he is often liable to be rejected from the commensality (visambhogarha, Samav 226 9; visambhogya, ibid 23a 1-2; 6). Vav 7, 2 and 3 teach how to denounce correctly the bond of sambloga. The verb sambhunjittae appears, in conjunction with samvasittae, "to live together," in the formula which denotes the admission of a monk into a specific religious group (Vav 6 10f.; 7, 1; 4f.; cf. K 4, 4; 1, 35). It seems in fact that commensality and living together often go together (T IV 33b 10). However, is sometimes forbidden to monks who are, on the other hand, authorised to live together and to study together (Vav 2,.. 27; 1, 21). Like the commentaries of Ullar and Samav the Hindi commentary of Hyderabad accept that the sambliogikas are those who eat together in the same circle: ek hi mandal par ahar bhogavane vala (p. 25; ad'1, 35). It may be noted that, in certain circumstances at least, the communal meal served to manifest the bond of sambhoga; the ritual of the vihar'aloyana confession - i.e. that of a "commensal", makes provision for the religious who comes to confession to take his collation with the other members of the group - after confession, if the transgression is a small one, before, if the transgression is serious enough to entail a form of excommunication (T II 17 b). All eat in the circle" mandalyam bhunjate (ibid). What does this mean? It can be p. 41 seen elsewhere that out of compassion for the weak and inexperienced, whose alms are liable to be insufficient, the religious normally eat : sarvais tapo-visesa-prati panna-varjitaih sadhubhih ekalra mandalyam blioktavyam (IV 826-83a). Was this 'circle' (mandali) physical or symbolical ? It was undoubtedly both. We learn from Jiya 26u that it was felt advisable to remove the dust from the ground before going inside it. The cunni of Siddhasena adds that "circles' are known of for three occasions - studying the text, studying the interpretation, and eating (cf. Leumann 1204). . The Vay Bh T in fact mention of study, sutra-mandali, arthamandali, towards which are sometimes directed those monks whose aptitudes one wishes to test, or who need to be distracted from their passions (IV 18a 4; 16b 5ff.; 52a 7; infra). It is also from the , from the ground on which their companions meet, that monks "worthy of dismissal" or "excluded monks" are cut off (mandalya vyavacchina; bahih ksetrad avatisthate IV 26a 9; 536 4 f.).1 To sum up, it is highly probable that the main activities of the sambhoga were formerly carried out on a specific piece of ground. Its qualities scem much more specialised than those of the gana; apparently consisting in 1. On the symbolisen and virtues of the mandala, cf. G. TUCCI, Teoria e pratica del Mandala 29 fr.

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determining various points of creligious conduct> (acara) which is one of the three jewels" recognised by Jinism (infra 78). The Buddhists, too, had grouped themselves into sambhogas and samvasas. But the definitions they give of these groups, although not invalidating what has just been said, do not correspond. The definition which they offer of the sambhoga, although apparently rigid, is by no means precise. It insists most of all on the idea of exchange in connection with both spiritual and material foods. With the Buddhists, contrary to the practices of their rivals, it does not seem that this company" needed to know anything more particular of the conduct of its members. 1 1. The idea of the sambhoga is still extant amongst the Buddhists, who by gradual degrees have elaborated it considerably (cf. Paul Mus, Barabudur * 264). In the Pali Vinaya, the term is sometimes coupled with samvasa, which is no less important (SBB X, 58 n. 3) There is a third type of society - consisting in sleeping under the same roof: saha va seyyam kappeyya (glossed eka-cchanne ni pajjati, cf. Vin IV, 137, 16 **: 138, 3' f.). This formula has no other accepted meaning. On the other hand, according to the commentaries, sambhoga is taken sometimes to have its literal meaning and sometimes, apparently, it is more readily given a figurative meaning. There would thus be a "commensality of meats" consisting in offering or accepting food, and a "commensality of the Law", consisting in reciting and listening to recitation : sambhogo nama dve sambhoga amisa-sambhogo ca dhamma-sambhogo ca. amisa-sambhogo nama amisam deti va paliganhati ya dhamma-sambhogo nama addisati va uddisapeti va (Vin IV, 137, 29' ff.). For samvasa, the textual commentary accepts only the figurative meaning: it is the unit of practical conduct and teaching, the sharing of like instruction : samvaso nama eka-kammam ek'uddeso sama-sikkhata (ibid III, 47, 24'). Elsewhere this community is said to consist in observing together the ceremonies of confession at the end of the fortnight and at the end of the monsoon, and the official acts of the samgha (uposatham va payaranam va samgha-kammam va karoti, ibid IV, 138, 1' f.). It appears from the Mahavagga that belonging to the same residence eventually results from a decision of the person involved or of his group (ibid I, 340). For Buddhaghosa it is equivalent to associating oneself with those who confess the dhamma (cf. SBB XIV. 487. n. 1). Oldenberg, however, noticed that "co-residents" usually came from the same parish (Vin. Texts II, 269, n. 3). Apparently, the precise meaning of the term has become blurred. It is thus very possible that, originally at least, this last type of association consisted in sharing a material object, or, more precisely, the ground used as a place of residence, to which the teaching, conceived as a refuge, was compared. This hypothesis is plausible considering the use and meaning of samvasa and sambhoga amongst the Jainas. The presumption is further strengthened by examining the measures envisaged, according to the Abhidharmakosa, to be taken against the pataniya religious : "The Master cuts off the man guilty of pataniya from all intercourse (sambhoga) with the Bhiksus, he forbids him to partake of a mouthful of food and does not allow him a single foot of the monastery. (IV, 96, in the translation LA VALLEE POUSSIN). In a somewhat similar manner, Brahmanic society closes its doors to those who have fallen (patita) from their caste (cf. infra 195).

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32 P. 42 Everything leads us to believe that the memory of ancient institutions had continued to survive, more or less intact at a time when the Bauddhas and Jainas had already revised the prerogatives of the sambhogas and samvasas in order to adapt them to the particular characteristics of their doctrine and discipline. In addition, whatever the precise meaning of the term, it seems that the severest forms of atonement with both the Jainas and the Buddhists were characterised by a strict refusal of admission to one or the other or to several of these types of association or communion.

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THE JAINA RELIGIOUS: THEIR TITLES p. 43 The monks who formed the samgha bear different names, depending on the text and period; these names, despite widely different etymologies, have come to acquire the same value. p. 44 W. Schubring has shown that in the Amg. disciplinary texts, the Jaina religious has been variously referred to as niggantha (fem. -7), bikkhu (formerly nigganthi, and later bikkhuni were used as feminine forms), samana niggantha, and sahu (fem, sahuni); anagara ("without home") is rare in treatises on discipline. These last two terms, which do not appear in K, are found in passages of the Vav although these passages tend to be of relatively late date (2, 24f; 9, 35; 10, 1. cf. Lehre SS 137; IA 39, 259; Vav pp. 6-8) - The name which appears to apply specifically to the Jaina monk is niggantha. An alternative form, niyantha, is also known (Lehre ibid; Vav p. 8). The one has its counterpart in the Skr. nirgrantha, the other in the Pali nigantha1. It is the most common term in the Kappa, implying the end of bondage i. e. the bonds attaching one to the world (grantha, granthi, cf. Lehre SS6 n. 3 of page 11-12) and perhaps also the bonds, resulting from the karman, which bind the soul, the two ideas being complementary, as seen in Uttar 29, 31: vivitta-sayanasanayae nam bhante jive kim janayai...atthavihakamma-ganthim nijjarei "sleeping and sitting in solitude, what does the being achieve ?...He destroys the eightfold bond of deeds". Originally, then niggantha must have meant "the unattached".2 In the Vavahara the more common bikkhu is used in discussions of varying content. In this case, unlike niggantha, it is not distinctive term: it has been pointed out that in Skr. bhiksu was found in the Dharmasutras, though not invariably, as a name for the Brahmanic ascetic (Buhler, SBE 1. The form niyantha is also attested in Amg., (Suya, Viyah), similar to the Pa. nigantha, BHS nigrantha (concurrently with nirgrantha). Asoka, pillar 7 nigantha, On these forms, see JACOBI, IA 9, 1880, 158 f; and, more recently, K. R. NORMAN Middle Indo-Aryan Studies II, JOIB 10, 1961 (348-352) 349 f. 2. Cf. T IV' 27 b 6: nirgato granthad dravyatah suvary'adi-rupat, bhavato mithyaty' adi-laksanad iti nirgranthah. Compare Katha Upanisad 6, 15: Yada sarve prabhidyante hydayasya granthayah atha martyo 'mrto bhavati, "When the bonds of the heart (scil, the bonds of ignorance and doubt) split asunder,..."; cp. Mundaka Up 2, 2, 9; bhidyate hydaya-granthih...ksiyante casya karmani...; Chandogya Up 7, 26, 2. Moreover, F. Edgerton, The Beginnings of Indian philosophy, 138, n. 1 (ad BAU 3, 2; with reference to Deussen). Compare A. K. COOMARASWAMY, JAOS 62, 1942, 341; ELIADE, Le dieu lieur et le symbolisme des noeuds, RHR 134, 1947-48; 5-36; Religions 386. On symbolism of the knots A. MINARD, Trois Enigmes II, 68 a, ubi alia. On nudity ibid., 766 a, J. A...5

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34 2 Intr. LV); and the Buddhists who reserve nirgrantha (Pa. nigantha) for Nataputta - i. e. Mahavira - use bhiksu to refer to the monk of their own community. It is accepted that the term first alluded to "one who lives of charity", the "beggar"i. But, as it is used in the K or the Vav, the term does not seem to allow of this interpretation. It is expressly contested by Malayagiri; whatever the etymology may be, he says, usage dictates that we call bhikkhu not one who lives of charity etc., but one who correctly devotes all his efforts towards his salvation, and who knows how to control him. self.2 The definition of the bhikkhus and bhikkhunis in the Pali Vinaya bears p. 45 witness to the same semantic development (11I 24, 3-12'; IV 214; 4-13'). The religious can also be called samana niggantha, etymologically "un. attached ascetic"; a compound word current in title which both Mahavira and the Buddha apparently assumed (Lehre SS 17; Burnouf, Introductiona 245 and n, 2)3 1. BURNOUF, Introduction2 245; Inde Classique $ 2369; AGRAWALA, India 382, referring to Panini 3, 2, 168. W. SCHUBRING, IA 39, 259, notes that in discussions dealing with questions of food, the use of blikkhu is preferred. The summary of Vav p. 5-6 goes counter to this hypothesis, 2. Cf. MEILLET: "Un mot n'est pas lie par ses origines etymologiques" Linguistique historique et linguistique generale 1, 276). A distinction is commonly made by Indian grammarians between a word of traditional" (or "conventional") meaning (rudhi), and a word whose meaning is obtained by derivation or etymology (yoga) (RENOU, Terminologie, s. vv.) For bhikhhu, bhiksu, Malayagiri proposes two explanations (7 II 1b-4b) :if connected with the notion of "begging" (bhik si yaciayam, 1b 11), it is to be taken figuratively, in the sense of applying oneself to deliverance by following the rules and precepts, whether in fact one is begging or not. Malayagiri prefers to connect it with bhid-!, in which case the bhiksul is one who "cuts" the eightfold hunger for deeds (ksudha-bubhuksayam) through his knowledge, faith, religious conduct and ascesis. Just as the wheelwright splits the wood with his axe, so the bhiksu, through his knowledge, breaks the being, (bhavasya bhedako bhiksur, bhavasya bhedanani jnan'adini bhava-bhettavyan karma II 5b-6a, cf Bh 1, 11; compare infra, Abhidharmakosa). On the translation of the Pa, bhikkhu, SBB X, XL f. Jaina scholasticism teaches four principal sorts of bh. sometimes with their variations : namam thavana-bhikkhu davve bhikkhu ya blava-bhikkhu ya (Bh 1, 5a=Nis 6 274); of the bh., the first has the name, the second the appearance, the third the substance (i, e, sacred knowledge which remains a dead letter; or the body), and the fourth has the nature : he is three times master of himself in the three fields (samyata samyak trividham trividhena 3b-4a). The Abhidharmakoga informs us likewise that "there are four bhiksus: the samjnabhiksu, Bhiksu in name, a man called Bhiksu although not ordained; the pratijnabhik su, self-styled Bhiksu, immoral, incontinent etc; a man called Bhiksu, because he begs (bhik sata iti bhik suh), a beggar and nothing more; a man called Bhiksu because he has overcome the passions bhinnaklegatyat, i.e. the Arhat" (IV, p. 96 f. of the translation La Vallee Poussin). 3. Cf. Vav T IV 27 6 6: sramyati tapasyarsti sramanah, sa ca saky'adir api bhavati, Compare BURNOUF, Introduction2 245 and n. 5,

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35 . Finally, sahu may at first have been he "who achieves"-who attains deliverance as it appears in the Mahanisiha (III, 9, 20). There is no evidence to suggest that there were in the Jaina community ascetics of a lower order to whom the term might have been applied specifically, as in Skr. sadhu (Inde classique SS 1237).1 The Vay Bh ? distinguish twelve sahammiyas (sadharmikas) depending on that which they have in common name, occupation, object, country, age, designation, insignia, beliefs, instruction, observances, vows, thoughts and feelings. The term is thus valid for all brethren', whatever flock or sambhoga they belong to (cf. supra 39)2 The term, and its feminine form sahammini, are well attested in K and Vav (K 4, 3; Vav 2, iff., 5, 11). The etymological value of all these titles had become blurred; their usage was dictated by a complex tradition now unknown to us: it will there. fore be preferable to refer to these various titles by a neutral and more general term such as "religious". p. 46 Considering atonements and penances, the commentaries are led to . establish inportant distinctions between the religious. Some, being indifferent (towards the flock and towards their own person) are called niravekkha (nirapeksa.) These are the jinakappijas etc. -- three types of penitent (infra). Those who on the other hand care for the flock, (savekkha, sapeksa), are likewise three in number: ayariya, uvajjhaya, bhikkhu (T III 486).3 The religious of the first category are, moreover, outside the fiock (gaccha-niggaya) as opposed to the various superiors, who reside within it (gaccha-vasi) (IV 76). This distribution alone shows that certain observances entailed the loosening of those bonds which united the monks and their group. The jinakalpikas have necessarily "accomplished the religious) act (kytakarana): in other words, they have succeeded in observing the fasts of 1. accanta-katha-ugg'uggayara-ghora-tava-caran'ai-anega-vaya-niyamovavasaitana'bhi ggaha-visesa-samjama-parivalana-sammam-parisalovasaggahiyasanenam savva-dukkhavimokkham mokkham sahayanti tti (Mahanisiha III 9, 20). On the (etymological) meaning of ved. Sadlui, L. RENOU, Indo-Iranica Melanges... Georg Morgenstierne, 164. 2. namam thavana davie khette kale ya pavayane linge damsana nana caritte abhiggahe blavanae ya (Vay Bh 2, 10). .. As is to be expected these elements may be combined. Vav T IV 26 b 8: sadharmikan svagaccha-vartinah paragaccha-vartino va. Vay T III 69 b 12 f. : sadharmikali linga-sadharmikah pravacana-sadharmika va samvigna-sambhogik'adayah. . 3. T III 48 b 1: tatra ye gacclam sariram va'pek sante te sapek sa, ye punar gaccham sariram va napek gante te nirapek san, tatra nirapek sa jin'adayo jinakalpika adisabdat suddha parinarika yathalandikah pratima-prati panna's ca, ete ni yamatak kytakaranah. sapek sah trividha acary'adayali, acaryopadliyaya bhik savas cely arthal. IV 62 a 4 f. : nirapekso bal'adi su cinta-rahitah.

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36 three and a half days or more. Those who form an integral part of the gana have in some cases successfully observed the fasts, in others not. (akrtakarana) (T III 48a-49a). A distinction is also made between the "strong" (sthira) and "the weak" (asthira) bhiksu, the later lacking in firmness and resolution (asthire dhrty-avastambha-rahite III 11b 7). kayakarana iyare ya savekhha khalu tah' eva niravekkha niravekkha jina-m-at savekkha ayariya-m-adi ahava savekkh' iyare niravekkha niyamasa u kayakarana iyare kayakaya vi ya thirathira honti giyattha (Bh 1, 418; 420 Nis Bh 6 649; 6 651; cf. Vav Pith Bh 160). The old canonic texts do not account for the opposition between giyattha and agiyattha ((a)gitartha) which plays a leading role in the Maha. nistha and in the commentaries (Lehre SS 151). According to Vav Bh T, the title of giyattha was once reserved for the monk instructed in the fourteen Puvvas; nowadays, it is applied to the monk who is familiar with at least the Pakappa (i. e. the Nistha): p. 47 puvvam caudasa-puvvt, inham jahanno Pakappa-dhari u (Vav Bh 3, 173a) The Jiyakappa employs its synonym kadajogi; and its cunni accepts that he knows both the text and meaning of the treatises on the quest for food, the quest for clothes and bowls, as well as the cheya suttas; kadajogi giyattho bhannai. Pind'esana Valiha-Pa'esana Cheya-suy' aiyam sutt'atthao ahiyani jena so giyattho (ad Jiya 16 a; Vav Pith Bh 109; T 38 a 10). Whatever the case may be, this is clearly a well-educated religious especially in the treatises on discipline. This term may be tentatively translated by "adept" and agiyattha by "postulant". The former is sometimes compared to a "bull" (vasaha; vrsabha) cf. Deo, History, 226; Jurisprudence 26); the latter to "game", to a "deer" (miga, mrga Vav Bh 3, 264; 272; T IV 49a 12; 58a 9; cf. III 42a).1 This symbolism, the equivalent of which appears to have existed in Buddhist writings, seems to have remained extant with the Jainas - at least at the time of the confession.2 1. Vav T IV 49 a 12 myga agitartha ksullak'adayah; IV' 57 a 7 myga...bala-saiksyak'adi. Cf. the assimilation of divine justice to the bull, vrsa, MANU VIII, 16. 2. The acarya is thus "in the image of the lion" (simhanuga), and an inferior religious "in the image of the jackal (kro stukanuga III 42a)-a comparison which may have its counterpart with the Buddhists. The arhats who sat on the council of Rajagrha were lions. One of the arhats, upon hearing of his convocation and the death of the Buddha, had prepared to enter the nirvana immediately. His name was Gavampati, "the Bull"; he wore ox hooves and ruminated unceasingly (PRZYLUSKI, Concile, 115; 239 ff.). According to the Kia-ye Kie King, he feared the influence upon the Law of "the perverse multitude of heretics. The heretics are animals. They are like a herd of frightened deer" (quoted by PRZYLUSKI, Concile 8; cf. 239 f. cf. Inde Classique SS 2215). In the account of the Mahasamghika Vinaya, the Great Kasyapa opposed the invitation of Ananda in these terms: "No! If a man, while still studying, came into the assembly of those who have completed their studies, who have acquired powers, strength

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P. 48 Along with the giyattha and the agiyattha are classed those who rely upon them" ( (agitartha-nisrila), who listen to their advice and imitate their conduct (ibid IV 7b f.) So that the atonements might be properly adjusted to the personality of the monk who incurred them, it was felt necessary to extend these classifications still further The "incompetent" monk (akovida) is opposed to the monk whom experience has made "(very) competent" (vikovida): the latter being an 'adept and mastery, it would be as though a mangy jackal had come into a band of lions." And Ananda, who had been informed of these words, "made the following remark: (.....) The Great Kasyapa is well aware of my lineage and reputation. It is because my bonds are not yet destroyed that he has spoken thus. > ID., ibid, 208). The Account of the compilation of the Tripitaka tells that after Ananda liad in fact rejected these bonds he went to the Grand Assembly (like) a fearless lion (.....) Kasyapa addressed him in these terms: (.....) Kasyapa said to Ananda, The moment has come to recite the sacred Words (.....).> Ananda gave a long smile. Like a lion he shook himself and panted. In all four directions, he surveyed the seated multitude. He said, "Thus have I heard...'" (ibid, 98-104) (My friend Andre Bareau has been kind enough to chek that the names of animals have been translated literally). According to the Sravakabhtimi it is in their heroism that the lion and the bhik su are compared (cf. WAYMAN, The Sravakabhumi Manuscript 72). Amongst the animals which the Jainas give as emblems to several Tirthamkaras, the bull belongs to the first, and the lion to the last. Although not mentioned in the canonical documents, this symbolism could nevertheless date from a very remote period. The fact that the first of them bears the very name of Isabha, Rsabha, would suggest this conclusion, As for Mahavira, at the very moment he falls into the bosom of Devananda, the wife of the Brahman Usabhadatta (Rsabhadatta !) he is said to be of leonine ancestry" : sih'ubbhava-bhnienam appaneNGam (this in Ayar 2, 121, 22- thus in a relatively ancient canonical book). W. Schubring refers us to Lalitavistara VII, where the young Buddha is called simhavalokita (Lehre & 14; Doctrine and n. 3 for p. 24). On the points of similarity beween Usabha and Mahavira, Lehre & 16. On the symbolism of the lion and the bull, W. KIRFEL, Symbolik des Hinduismus und des Jinismus, passim and 87, 182 f.; Symbolik des Buddhismus, passim; on the bull in particular, Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie 78, 1953, 83 ff. The lion, the bull and the jackal feature in the first book of the Pascatantra, called "Disunion of friends" (the lion and the bull). The lion here does not appear to enjoy unqualified esteem: his valour makes him formidable, it is true; but he is tiresomely naive; the bull is learned and intelligent; the jacal is lowly. It was the bull Samjivaka who educated Pingalaka the lion: anekaSastrartha-pranihita-buddhitvac ca Samjivakengnabhijno 'pi vanyatvat Pingalako' Ipenaiva kalena dhiman krtah, Tantrakhyayika recension, cd. HERTEL 13, 23: cf. Parcakhyanaka, ed. HERTEL 24, 25 ff.);

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38 p. 49 or bhiksu who has already carried out a prayascitla (i. e. probably a parihara infra 119), or who corrects himself at the slightest remonstrance. A further distinction is made between postulants" who satisfactorily "digest", assimilate, the teaching and regulations (parinamaka), and those who do not assimilate" them (aparinamaka) (through lack of spiritual maturity), and who consequently will be afraid of not being totally purified when the atonement actually imposed is inferior to that thcoretically deserved. Finally, those who carry the "assimilation' too far and fail to understand the eventual meekness of the verdict, become prone to exessive indulgence (ati parinamaka) towards themselves. When the master notifies a prayascitta he must take into consideration the capacity of the subject for understading its full significance, and modify the terms accordingly.2 The distinctions which we have just listed are summed up in the following table: niravekkha savekklia they are gaccha-niggaya (cf. the superiors, who are gaccha-vasi ) 3: jinakappiya parihariya ahalandiya 3: ayariya uvajjhaya blilckhu necessarily kayakarana either kayakarana or akayakarana either thira or a(t)thira or agiyattha either giyattha =kadajogi ==yasaha = miga is normally sometimes parinamaka sometimes aparinamaka sometimes atiparinamaka parinamaka is vikovida . . sometimes vikovida sometimes akovida 1. gito vikovido klalu kaya-pacchitto siya agito vi (Vay Bh 1, 280a); sito gitarthah khalu krta-prayascitto vikovidan, yo'py ukto yatha carya yadidam bhayah sevisyase, tatah chedam malam va dasyamah>, so 'pi vikovidah. tad-viparito 'gitarthah. yas ca prathamalaya prayascittam pratipad yate, ya's cokto 'pi tatha na samyak parinamayati, sa syad bhaved akovidah (Vay T II 97 6 5 ff.). 2. Cr. Vav T II 58 b 6 f.: parinamo yaduktartha-parinamanan yasya sa, tatha istam agitar thah...atiparinama) ativyapt ya parinamo yatlokta-svarapo yasyasay atiparinamah.. On the consequences of a false interpretation of the pruyascitta, ibid., 59 a.b.

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The division of the religious into "postulants" and "adepts" entails p. 50 important practical considerations: it is one of the criteria which make it possible to adjust correctly the penance to the individual, and to make a judicious choice of masters. Nevertheless, other considerations sometimes prevail. Although theoretically no responsibility is entrusted to a postulant", the commentaries point out exceptions to this rule: for example, in cases of emergency and, readily, in favour of well born or good-looking men (cf. agitartho 'pi akstiman, ad Bh 3, 97). Generally, however, superiors are chosen from among the adepts, according to the needs of the flock, On the other hand, a giyattha may deputize for a superior who is unable to be present at the time of the confession (II 38a 6; 17a). This title was reserved for the niggantha, well versed in the treatises on discipline : its meaning was more precise than the expression bahussuya babbhagama (bahusruta bahvagama), which is found commonly in the Vay (1. 35 and passim; cf K 4, 25). The qualifications implied in this expression are required of the future dignitary for example, from the uvajjhaya to the ayariya (V av 3. 3-8). But, in these suttas, the knowledge required of the masters varies with the responsibility which they are allowed to solicit (cf. 10, 20-33) : the use made of the expression does not therefore imply a knowledge of speific texts, less still that of lost texts (the primitive canon, sometimes styled agama). but simply, as the commentaries occasionally point out, a knowledge of the letter and the spirit: bohusuya bahuaganiya, sutt'attha-visaraya dhira (Bh 3, 122b; cf bahvagamah bahuh prabhuta agamo 'vagamo yesam te T IV 286 8f.) The expression thus applies to a religious instructed in the text and its interpretation", "well instructed and well aware."'1 * * When his status does not result automatically from circumstances, the adept can choose to maintain more or less close relations with the gana: he follows the rule of the theras" (thera-kappa) or that of the Jina (jina-kappa) (cf. K 6, 14 and Lehre SS 26). He usually complies with that of the theras (Lehre, ibid). In this case, the monk is dependent upon a specific cflock". whose members are allowed to be neither alone nor, unless they be dignitaries, in twos (cf. Vay 4, 1 ff.; 5, 1ff.; Vav Bh T ad 2, 1ff.). There may in fact have been some minor infractions, as some monks confess to being exasperated by the constant supervision to which they were subiected in their original flock - even when attending to the calls of nature - and wish to change their gana in order to escape it (T II, 236). Living with one companion exposes the monk to various temptations 1. and errors, so much so that it is forbidden to ordinary monks: P, 51 1. Concerning the bahusrutas among the Buddhists, see LAMOTTE, Histoire I. P. 81.

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40 jamha ete dosa tamha donham na kappati viharo (Bh 2, 49a) : this stems from the fear that their many failings might bring dishonour upon their own or another religious community, or upon a layman, as the case may be. The most common of these failings concern the place of residence, the care one should give to a man whose strength fails him, and who remains in the shelter: there is the possibility that he might be alone when he dies, and might not have confessed his errors : donha vi viharantanam sa-linga giha-linga anna-linge ya hoi bahu dosa vasahi gilana marame ya salle ya (Bh 2. 34) The risks would be even more serious if a religious who lacked the necessary maturity were left to himself or to an equally inexperienced companion. They would commit one infraction after another in the course of their wanderings and studies: they would fall into error, make mistakes while begging charity, fail to observe the necessary caution when travelling through difficult country, etc; it is even feared that they would go so far as to rob : magge seha vihare micchatte esanadi visame ya sohi gilanam adi tena.... (Bh 2, 24). At times, however, it is in the monks' own interests to retire in twos from community life. In the case of a disaster, at time of scarcity (avamaudarya), when threatened by a prince or on the order of a superior, retreat would enable the monk to devote his time to perfecting his instruction or his faith (yatamana). The difficult treatises, those just learned, those w strengthen belief, have constantly to be restudied, and the demand of community life would only be a distraction - so much so that permission to go retreat is actually asked for. On the other hand, a guru who goes from one place to another must have a companion. It is thought good to send a companion to someone who wishes to withdraw from the world, so as to strengthen his purpose. A monk is accompanied when he goes to greet a member of his family, as this is thought to be a dangerous step to take (cf. Vav 6, 1; K 4,9): asive omoyarie raya samdesane jayanta va: ajjana guru-niyoga pavvajja nati-vagga duve (Bh 2, 51). p. 52 These two monks never leave each other; they beg and carry out all their instruction jointly (samayam, Bh; yugavat, ?): for it is not so easy to sin in twos as alone (Bh 2, 52b). . A monk who has the necessary wisdom may be allowed by the superior to lead a "solitary" life (egalla-vihari, Lehre SS 157; Vav Bh 1, 1508., ad Vav 1, 25).

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p. 53 41 The religious who are "apart from the flock" and who are indifferent towards it (gaccha-niggaya, niravekkha), are classed under three headings. We give them in the order constantly respeated by T: the jinakalpika (jinakappiya), the pariharavisuddhika or suddhapariharika (cf. Amg. pariharakappa-tthi(y)a, or parihuriya), the yathalanda-(pratima)kalpika (ahalandiya). A study of the atonement known as parihara will show the provisions which determine the status of the second. The jinakappiya is "of the rule of the Jina". He goes about alone, naked, carrying no belongings, enduring inconvenience and discomfort, and making his quest comply with various restrictions concerning time, food, and place1. In all these mortifications, he imitates the conduct of Mahavira after his enlightenment, during the twelve years he lived as a wandering ascetic (Ayar 1, 29f.; 40 ff.; Worte p. 115ff.) The solitude. to which the niggantha is bound is thus in direct contradiction to the express injunction generally incumbent on the. Jaina monk never to be alone (supra). Thus compared with the norm of the elders, the rule of the Jina can justifiably be considered as archaic.2 The observance called yathalanda-pratima is so obsolete that the Pravacanasara is non-commital when relating the details of its provisions (gatha 611- 628; p. 172b-176a; cf. ittham tavad asmahhir vyakhyatam, 174a 4). Its name derives from the fact that the religious who follow this practice, impose upon themselves amongst other things a time limit : landam tu hoi kalo (ibid 611)3 their quest in one particular area must not exceed five days : ettha puna panca-rattam ukkosam hoi ahalandam jamha u panca-rattam caranti tamha u hunti 'halandi (612f.) The area may be a village, in which case they visit six a month. If the town is of some size, the area will be one of six districts or streets (vithi) - an imaginary division made for their own religious purposes. They will cover this area completely within the allotted time. During the course of the year, they change their place of shelter at the same time as they change donor but during the monsoon their place of residence remains fixed, and they are obliged to make the second type of round (1736). Their status is midway between that of the jinakappiya and that of the therakappiya; moreover, it is not uniform. They do not live alone, but in groups of five : 1 Cf. K p. 47 quoting Abhayadeva; JACOBI, SBE 22, 57 n. 2; Worte, 100. 2 It would appear in fact that the earliest religious in India lived in solitude. 3 Cf. K Bh 4 743, ad K 3, 25; compare JACOBI, Kalpa, p. 121, n. ad Pajjos 9. 4 Mahavira had stayed one day in villages, and five days in towns (Lehre SS 18). J. A...6

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panc'eva hoi gaccho tesim ukkosa-parimanam (613; cf. 173a) Certain of the ahalandiyas still need a master to help them complete their knowledge; they remain "attached to the central) flock", and conse. quently outside the "rule of the Jina"; the remainder have no longer any connection with the gana (gacche pratibaddha apratibaddhas ca, ibid 173a 14). Despite the features shared by those two types with the jinakappiyas, they remain distinct from the latter on three specific points : knowledge, the manner of begging, and the length of time they are allowed to remain in the same place (cf. supra). It is apparently the latitude shown concerning the length of stay in one place that distinguishes all the ahalandiyas, without exception, from the jinakappiyas : ahalandiyana gacche appadibaddhana jaha jinanam tu navaram kala-viseso uuvase panaga cauraso (615; cf. 1736). The territory which is allotted to them (oggaha) is the same as is granted to their ayariya; it has five krosas : oggaha jo tesim tu so ayariyana abhavai (616) Those who remain attached to the central flock are obliged to do so by the gaps in their knowledge. They know the text, but not the meaning of certain passages : atthassa u desammni ya asamatte tesi padibandho p. 54 (cf. arthasyaiva na sutrasya 618; cf. 174a). They thus consult the guru, but being henceforth apart from the flock, they are not bound by the common rules. Their own place of sojourn is situated outside and even well away from the ordinary domain of the master (174a 11 f.). He meets them there and there gives them necessary instruction. If his journey is a difficult one he is met half-way by one of the ahalandiyas, chosen for his excellent memory; the master is, however, accompanied by an ordinary monk, bearing food and drink for him from the main residence. In the evening, this latter goes back to his own monastery. If need be, the distance is halved or else the lesson is given in a lonely spot on the edge of the principal area. A further possibility is for the monk to be given shelter in a subsidiary building of the domain, or even secretly in the principal place of residence (1749-b). These precautions are dictated by the wish to avoid scandalising the world and disturbing the novices. For the religious ahalandiya greets 00-onc except the ayariya while he himself is greeted even by religious of importance (1746 l f). In addition, the two types noted in this category are distinguished by certain other features : help is not refused those who are close to the rulc of the elders, in the event of their strength failing them; those who imitate the Jina arc evidently left to themselves to a greater extent, and are also bound to observances of a much more rigorous nature (1756).

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43 The most important thing to note is that this penance soon fell into disuse. Like a life lived according to the Jina, it represented a great stride towards deliverance: abhyudyataram ekataram viharam: jinakalpikam yathalandakalpa-viharam va pratipattu-kamah (Vav T IV' 416 7). It appears that both elders and superiors sometimes abandoned their responsibilities in order to devote all their energies to this discipline (IV' 416 7). The atonement observed by the suddhapariharika, being associated with these two clearly harsh and old-fashioned ways of life, might likewise have very ancient origins; it would be possible that it falls outside the later norm. It will be seen that its aim is to procure the benefits of the solitary life for a religious who continues to live within his flock, and who is even the object of real attention. Thus, although monastic communities were already organised, it seems that their members still clung to the ideals of the solitary life. p. 55 The Buddhists apparently shared these views. They emulously show the Buddha going away to abandon himself to meditation. A person who isolates himself, in fact, can hope to change himself radically. Channa attained Knowledge when he had fled his colleagues (Vin II 292). The Great Kasyapa hastened the deliverance of Ananda by driving him away from the samgha (infra 215). But once out on his own, in the wilds, the religious often seems to have been seized with anguish. He who is still the Bodhisattva tells of the trials suffered by the bhikkhu, alone in the jungle, trying to maintain his composure and calm, when not yet trained in concentration: haranti manne mano vanani samadhim alabhamanassa bhikkhuno ti MN I, 17, 9 f. As for himself, before successfully overcoming his fear, he had to think back over his earlier spiritual victories: his gestures, his words and his life are pure (parisuddha-kayakammanta, parisuddha-vacikammanta, parisuddhajivakammanta); he covets nothing (anabhijjhalu); his thoughts are benevolent (metta-citta); he has warded off idleness and torpor (vigata-thina-middha); his mind is at rest (vupasanta-citta); he has overcome doubt (tinna-vicikiccha); he does not boast and does not disparage others (anatt'ukkamsaka aparavambhi); he no longer shudders with horror (vigata-lomahamsa); he has no more desires (appiccha); he has become a hero (araddha-viriya); he has fixed his attention (upatthita-sati); he has conquered the samadhi and conquered wisdom (samadhi-sampanna, panna-sampanna) (MN I 17 ff.; cf. A. Bareau: Recherches sur la biographie du Buddha dans les Sutrapitaka et les Vinayapitaka anciens, p. 33 ff.). *

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44 Members of the same sambhoga are bound to mutual displays of courtesy. (cf. Samav, supra 39 f.). The monks naturally owe respect to the dignitaries, but not to the layman (glhastha), nor to those of the community who fail in their duty and show no concern (avasanna, parsvastha, kusila, Vav Pith Bh 67; 97). The pusatthas etc. are classed among the "proud", parihavanta (paribhavantah parsvasth'adayah, Vav T II 28 a 2); they make no effort (parsvasth' adau ayatamane, Abhidhana 5, 6596, s. v. parihavanta); they have abandoned the dharma (dharmac cyuta, Samav 23a 12). Consequently, they are some times contrasted to the "anxious", samvigga (samvigna), or "zalous" jayainana p. 56 (valamana) (Vav T II 28a 1). The latter "aspire to deliverance", (samvigna moksabhilasin, ibid IV' 73a 11); they "wish to lead the religious life" (viharam icchanti, ibid II 26a 12); they fear the samsara and are for ever asking themselves "What have I done ? What have I yet. to do? What am I capable of doing and do not do ?" (kim me kadam, kim va me sesam; kim sakkanijjam na samayarami ily udi, Abhidhana 7, 239a). The parsvasthas and similar figures are compared to those religious excluded from the sambhoga (bhinnasambhogikah amanojno 'samvignah, Vav T II 21a 6). These few indications all tend in the same direction; others will corroborate them, as we shall see. The "proud" were apparently .guilty of slips of behaviour. It is difficult to be more precise, Tradition has preserved the names of six types of these poor disciplinarians,1 but has apparently forgotten precisely what constituted their respective failings. The commentaries vary, or are not consistent. Etymology does not help to define further the particular nature of each. In the texts, they often go in groups. They are "those who are on the fringe" (pasattha) "those who do as they please", ahachanda (yathachanda); "those who have bad habits", kusila (kusila); the "negligent", osanna (avasanna); those who have not renounced the benefits of this world", nitiya or nicca; and the "defaulters". samsalla (samsakta) (cf. Vay T IV 356; Nis Bh 4 352; and infra). The gatha' 3, 165 of the Vav Bh does not mention the ahachanda and nitiya religious, but proposes synonyms for the other terms: osanna khuyavaro sabatayaro va hoi basalthp bhinn'ayara kusilo samsallo samkilifthou. It follows from the relating T that their wrong stems from a failure to comply with the "rules of begging" or the daily "obligations" of a monk (avassaya, Lehre SS 149). It would appear that the latter were avoided by thc osanna (avasyak'adisu anudyamah ksat'acarah); the pasaliha (sabalacara) is thought to have accepted alms brought from another village (anyodgam' 1 Vay 1, 28-32; cf. Nisiha 4, 28-37; Mahanisiha III; Lehrc & 139 and 1. 1 for p. 161; DELEU, Studien, ad III, 11-13.

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45 adi-bhojin); the kusila to have accepted provisions, etc., procured for him by his family (jaly=ajivan'adi-para); * while the samsatta is alleged to have taken objects which were deposited in a precise place, for himself or for other monks (sthapitadi-bhojin). Other passages seem to make it clear that p. 57 the latter owes his name to the fact that he keeps the company of the former, or that he has something of all their faults.? In IV 65b 3, the Vay Tika presents the avasanna in more general terms : as a poor disciplinarian who has no regard for the vows and Law of the samana, the purity of the alms, the samitis etc. : avasanne sithilatam gale carana-karane vrata-sramana-dharm'adi-pinda-visodhi-samity-adi-rupe yasya so'rasanna-carana-karanah. As for the kusila, the Mahanisiha attributes him with so many characteristics - and, what is more, in the three fields of knowledge, faith and disciplinethat it lists nearly two hundred sorts (III). This semantic extension is clearly of a later date. These remarks, and the commentary of Nis 13, 42ff., show that the conduct of the "proud" presented a threat to good religious morals (ayara, acara). If we accept broadly the equivalent values drawn up by Vay Bh 3, 165, it is clear that the vices of these pasatthas are incompatible with the cursus honorum (cf. Vav 3, 3 ff.). Their knowledge and faith, however, should not be looked down upon. The commentaries allow for the possibility, in exceptional circumstances, of the bhikkhu requesting their teaching or assistance. . Thus it is that when the Doctrine is in danger of being lost, for want of religious learned enough, the monk studies under their guidance (Vav Bh 3. 213 f. ad Vav 3, 10). Malayagiri also admits that, in case there is no qualified religious at hand, the bhikku should confess to a pasattha (ad Vay 1 35; cf. Abhidhana 2, 425a) In between the good religious and the layman there are other stages. The saruviya (sarupika) is in a way a religious "in (outward) appearance". He has the outward appearance, but lacks the feelings: sarupika samyatarupadharin (Vav T IV' 45a 5)2. The information concerning this figure is not always consistent. It seems he was clean shaven. Some passages lead us to believe he had a whisk (not of the prescribed type), a stick, a bowl. Elsewhere, he is described as a layman - having no whisk, begging, without a wife, but not vowing himself to chastity (abharya, abrahmacarya) (cf. Bh 134. ad Vau 4). The Bhasa and Tika of Vav 1, 35 next make mention of the bacchakada, pascatksta (cf. T IV' ad Bh 3, 214). This term seems to apply 1 Communication from Pr. Schubring, who has also pointed out to me the definitions of the nitiya. 2 Compare samyatarupin, applied to a religious when observing the ninth or tenth atonement (infra), D. 58

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to one who has remained behind", momentarily at least (cf. Bh. 134 ad Vau 4). According to PSM, this is a layman who has been a monk : this meaning is confirmed by the expression samanovasaga pacchakada (which appears for example in the lesson of Vav 1, 35 given by the Hindi commentary). It can be seen moreover that necessity makes law (cf. infra 97 ff.). The Hindus likewise yielded to adverse conditions. In exceptional circumstances, the Brahmanic student (brahmacarin) becomes the pupil of a teacher who does not belong to the Brahman class, and he serves him with respect for the whole duration of his studies (Manu II 241).

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THE HIERARCHY p. 59 However organised the community may appear to us, and whatever the constraint and vigilance which classing the religious into different categories favoured, it seemed on the whole necessary to subject them to the overall "direction" (disa, dis) of an ayariya (acarya) and an uvajjhaya (upadhyaya), and to the "secondary direction" of an ayariya-uvajjhaya (anudisa, anudis, Vav 2, 26 and T IV 72a 11; also Lehre SS 140, ubi alia). These can be either permanent or temporary (Vav, ibid). A religious who has been less than three years with the community is called nava, "new comer", "novice" (pravrajya-paryayena yasya trini varsani... esa...bhavati navah (Vav T IV' 47a 2). Whatever his actual age, he is under the supervision of an ayariya and an uvajjhaya (Bh 3, 2216). Once the three years are over, he is classed according to his age amongst either the dahara(ga)s "children" (between four and fifteen), the tarunas "young peo. ple" (between sixteen and forty)', the majjhimas (madhyamas) "middle aged" or "adults" (between forty and sixty-nine, or the theras (sthaviras) "seniors" (over seventy): te-variso hoi navo o solasagam tu daharagam benti taruno catta satar'una majjhimo thera to seso (Vav Bh 3, 220; cf. janma-paryayena catvari varsani arabhya.....?, ad loc.) The adolescent (daharaga-tarunaga) must come under the authority of an ayariya and an uvajjhaya (Vav 3, 11). In the same conditions, a nun is moreover under the supervision of a pavattini (ibid 12): anavassa vi daharaga-tarunagassa niyamena samgaham binti em eva taruna majjhe therammi ya samgaho navae (Bh 3, 221). Similarly, the Buddhist religious were called nava(ka)s until they had spent four years in the order; majjhimas after five years; theras after ten years (cf. SBB, XIV, 141, 1. 2). After twenty years in the order, the Buddhist religious enjoyed relative independence and is no longer answerable 1. At least if one can rely on the commentaries. Pr. Schubring tells me however that nava, daharaga, taruna are no doubt only synonyms, collected together as so often happens in Jaina writings (cf. SCHUBRING, Drei Chedasutras, 69-70. Other titles, and a different but parallel hierarchy have been noted by S. LEVI and Ed. CHAVANNES: "From the beginning of ordination until the ninth year, one is hia tso, 'low seat'; from the tenth year to the nineteenth year, one is tchong tso. 'middle seat'; from the twentieth year to the fortieth year, one is chang tso, 'high seat': Over fifty years of age), one is respected by all monks and receives the name of Elderly'. Quelques titres enigmatiques dans la hierarchie ecclesiastique du boudd. hisme indien, J4 XI 5, 1915 (193-223), p. 211, D. 60

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to his master (Eggermont, Chronology of the Reign of Asoka Moriya, 16, quoting Hofinger, Etude sur le Concile de Vaisali, 88). Theoretically, the Jaina monks live in complete and constant subordination one to another (Vav 4, 26, ff.; 24-25). The younger in the order naturally are submitted to the "older" or rainiya (Skr. ratniya!)". The suttas K 3, 19-21, Vay 4, 26, confirm this precedence. 'The Buddhists likewise recommend respect to those who are older (S. Dutt, Early Buddhist Monachism, 144 f. and n. 4). The rainiya seems to me to have an equivalent with the Buddhists, with the similar title of rattanno, rattannu. He, too, is an object of veneration: the Mahaparinibbunasutta says (1, 6 - DN II, 77, 6. ff.)2 that the Law will grow in stature so long as the monks. continue to revere the older theras long since ordained, 1. In Jaina Skr., ratniya, derivative of ratra, jewel", compare SnA (notc infra p. 61). In fact, derivative of rayani, "night",.i. c. English "day", unit of time; cf. Lehres 138 and p: 159 n. 3. On the same use of ratri by Patanjali, and on the expressions naktamdivam, ratrimdivam and ahoratra in Panini, see V. S. AGRAWALA, India, 171 and n. 1 ubi alia. Compare var sa-ratri, synonym of 'kala; Pkr. varisa-ratta; perhaps Nepalese barsat (TURNER, Nep. Dict., s. v.; CDIAL 11398). Same usage amongst the Buddhists, cf. PED, s. y. ratti; SBB, XX, 48' n. 4, on the subject of the compound ratti-ccheda. Pa. cira-ratta, "a long time", corresponds exactly to Amg. cira-raya (Ayar 1, 29, 27; Suya 1, 2, 3, 9; cf. Ayar 1, gl., s. v.; JACOBI, SBE, 22, 57 n. 3, who compares dirgha-ratra, attested amongst both Bauddhas and Jainas. The habit of counting in nights is Indo-European (cf. A. MINARD, Trois Enigmes, II, 924a, ubi alia; compare VENDRYES, MSL 20, 280, referring to LOTH, Revue Celtique; 25, 117; ERNOUT-MEILLET, Dict., s. v. nox). Cp. RS, 1,50, f: aha mimano aktubhik."measuring the days with (that measure) the nights", according to RENOU, EVP 15, 3 (ubi alia). During the ceremony of "repentence", the third plea for reprieve mentions "those whose religious age numbers many days", je kei bahudevasiya sahuno (glossed bahu divasa-paryayah) (infra 160). 2. To refer to one who has been in the religious order a long time, Pali uses rattannu. - traditionally interpreted as a compound; sometimes of ratta, ratna, "jewel" : "he knows the jewel, i. e, the nirvana" (cf. Sna, quoted PED, s. v. : cf. Jaina Skr. ratniya, Vedic ratnin); sometimes of ratta, doublet of ratti "night": pabbajjato patthaya atikkanta baha rattiyo janati ti (DX quoted PED, ibid). In fact, the adjective might well be a derivative of this ratta or ratti. Canonic Pa, had developed an adjective ending -anna (Skr. -an(i)ya-, and -inya-): Paakammajina (akarmanya), agganna (cf. the Skr. acc. agranyam): whence vamsaina.(cf. CPD, s.v. agganna), and, possibly, rattanna (in addition. abhinnata-kolansa Skr. kaulinya; rohania, cf. Skr, rohinya)).. . Further, from JNA- "to know", it had two agent nouns: -nna, and, more often, inn (Skr. -jna-, "who knows"; cf. Saddaniti, V, s. V.; Ai II, 2, SS 23a: 287 e note); this last scems to be western (cf. Pkrmaharastri --nnu, -nnua, PISCHEL $ 105, whereas Ardha-magadhi seems to prefer -nna, Ayar 1, gl., s. v. na). The existence of these doublets -ina, -fit, (like -ga, gu from GA--khu from KHA-) was followed by the creation, opposite -affia, of an ending -annu, attested as early

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49 When an older religious is alone with a junior, it is taken as a rule that he supervises, He appears at time, however, to have made himself unbearable by his vanity, unwarrented public warnings and groundless reprimands. Sometimes the junior would have recourse to slander in an attempt to have his mentor demoted (cf.Vav 2, 24; Vav T IV 59a-b). The dignitaries of the Jaina community are numbered in a formalised list: ayariya, uvajjhaya, pavatti, thera, gani, ganahara, ganavaccheiya (K 3, 14; 4, 15-23; Lehre SS 140). It is worthy of note that the ayariya-uvajjhaya, who has a definite role according to the Vavahara, is not mentioned in this list (cf. Vay 4, 1 ff; SS 141). Some of the terms mentioned above lend themselves to different uses. Thera is often an honorary title, applied to the ayariya (cf. Vav 2, 28 ff. p. 62 and the corresponding commentaries); ayariya sometimes seems to have a generic meaning and to refer to any superior (infra); this could also be the case with ganahara (Vav 3, 1 f.), a term which in the commentaries is interchangcable with ayariya (infra). Gant is the name given to "one who has a gana" - in other words, a circle of monk: gano 'syastiti gani sadhuparivaravan yo vartate (T IV' 22a 4), a rather loose definition! Elsewhere, the term is synoymous with uvajjhaya (infra). Moreover, the functions of these monks sometimes have overlapped (cf. Deo, Jurisprudence, 35; compare Oldenberg, Vinaya Texts, I, 178, n. 2). Their main role is defined by means of an etymological exercise and a metaphor: taking five of them (panca: acarya, upadhyaya, pravartaka, sthavira, ganavacchedaka), they can be compared to the "cage" (panjara) which serves as refuge to bird the bars (i, e. the encouragements, the warnings which accompany the granting of an atonement, the prohibitions) prevent the religious from going astray: panag'ai-samgaho hoi panjaro, ja ya sarana 'nnonnam pacchilla camadhannahim nivaranam, sauni-ditthanto (Bh 1, 90) Referring to a monk who has left his flock of "zealous" companions, the cage is said to be broken (panjara-bhagna); a monk who leaves a as Sn; avadannu (doublet of avadaniya, ibid; cf. CPD s. v.); hence, rattanni: rattajina). The rules of precedence amongst the Jaina monks are those of Indian society in general; cf. Kumarasambhava, VI, 49; Milindapanha 24, 4-10). Young Buddhist monks learn to calculate immediately their religious age by measuring the shadow thrown (Vin I, 95, 36; cf SBB XIV, 124, n. 1; compare M-L. DAVIDIAN, Al Biruni on the time of day from shadow lengths, JAOS 80, 1960, 330-335). See Arth 1, 19, 5 nalikabhir ahar astadha ratrim ca vibhajet, chaya-pramanena va, 7

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. p. 63 50 "proud" group and joins another flock so as to improve his conduct, is said to "aspire to a cage" panjarabhimukha, T II 28a 5; 7 ff.). As a general rule, the religious are taken in hand towfold by the . ayariya and the uvajjhaya"; the nuns threefold, by the ayariya, the uvajjhaya and the pavattini" (Vay 3, 11 f.). All three exist in the Buddhist system; and the Brahmanic student likewise is subordinate to an acarya who teaches him the Veda, and ordains him, and to an upadhyaya who instructs him in the angas (Inde Classique, $1240; Manu, II, 140 f.). Amongst the Jainas, the first is of a higher rank than the second, as shown by the seniority and knowledge required of the candidates (Vav 3, 3-8) - a type of hierarchy which conforms with that recognised by the Brahmanic Dharmasutras, but which is opposed to that favoured by the Bhuddists (Lamotte, Histoire, I, 61; Oldenberg, Vin. Texts I, 178 n. 2). The latter require the acariya to have been six years in the order, and the upajjhaya ten years (Buddhaghosa, ad Mahavagga V, 4, 2). A Jaina religious who is otherwise duly qualified can claim the responsibility of an uvajjhaya after three years, and that of an ayariya after eight years (Vay 3, 3 ff.). - The ultimate responsibility for the religious life as a whole falls to the ayariya. He is the superior" or the minister", (cf. Guerinot, Religion, 307). In the field of instruction, he teaches the "spirit" while the uvajjhaya or "tutor" teaches the "letter" (Lehre SS 141; Vay 10, 11 f.). The former, as a teacher of morals, dispenses praise, admonishment, criticism or help to his flock: anusitthi uvalambhe uvaggalie c eva (Vav Bh 1, 374b; cf. 380). The latter may be of a material nature : when for instance he distributes wooden bowls, food and clothing. Were there specialised ayariyas ? Vay 10, 11 f. seems to divide the tasks between either initiating or ordaining, or both; Vay 10, 12 distinguishes between masters of interpretation and of recitation, or masters of both (uddesanayariya vayanayariya). Anyone who is neither one nor the other is a "minister of the Law" (dhamm'a.). But there are also the ignorant who have no authority (T II 24 a-b). It is known that the Buddhists acknowledge several types of acariya (Vin I, 187; cf. SBB XIV, 249 n. 3). According to Vav T (III 42a 5), the a. who is installed on his high seat of honour and teaches the letter and the spirit is in the likeness of a lion (yo mahalyam nisad yayam sthitah san sutram artham vacayate tisthati va sa simhanugah). 1. Whence the quadruple scholastic distinction between the a, (1) useful for the here and now but not for the hereafter, (2) useful for the hereafter, but not for the here and now, etc. (T III 36a 1 f) 2. The others sit on an article of clothing or a picce of sacking, and resemble the bull or thc jackal (supra).

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As a professor of dogma, the uvajjhaya "dispeoses the sutras" (sutra-pradayi, T II 13a 2; sulradata, Than ] 2446). He provides a training for the religious in the subjects taught by the ayariya, "service", etc. (pravartayati sadhun acaryopadistesu vairavrlig'adisu iti, Than ?, ibid). When the latter is detained, he deputizes for him, in his duties towards the penitents for example (Bh 2, 241 f. ad Vay 2, 7 f.). Thc "direction" exercised by the ayariya-uvajjhaya appears to be considered as secondary (anudisa, Vav 2, 26 and Vav T IV 72a 11). However, one might be tempted to think (despite the Bh ?, it is true) that Vav 3, 5-6 is defining the qualifications required of this dignitary; in which case, he would occupy an intermediary position between the ayariya and the uvajjliaya. The pavalti (pravartin) the "promotor" or "instigator", the official in charge of discipline, is rarely mentioned in the texts. K does not mention him, except in the formalised list of masters; Vav never mentions him. The role of the pavatlini, however, is indicated (K 1, 41 f.; 3, 13 f.; Vav 3, 12; 5, 1 ff.): she is a "supervisor" whose status in fact appears to be rather poorly defined, being parallel sometimes to that of the ayariya, (K), sometimes to that of the ayariya-uvajjhaya, and sometimes perhaps to that of the uvajjhaya2 (compare Vav, uddesa 4 and 5, 1-2; 5-6; Lehre SS 141). In short, she is thought to have embodied authority for the nuns. The mission of the We may think of the "lion's throne", occupied by Ananda in order to preach the dharma at the council of Rajagpha - "like the king of the lions living amongst the assembled lions" (cf. the texts collected by PRZYLUSKI, Concile 18; 34; 71). The Indian habit of adjusting the skin used to sit upon to the status of a particular person and to the different situations he finds himself in, is well known : lion-skin in theory, in practice, generally a tiger-skin for the king. The man thus shares the virtues of the animal upon whose skin lie is sitting AV IV 8, 4; DUBOIS, Inde 1, 170 and n. 1; 220; 248 f; J. J. MEYER, Zusatze zur "Trilogie......" WZKM 46, 1939 (47-140) 88; J. AUBOYER, Lc symbolisme du trine 35; 177 ff; 181 ff; GONDA, Religions I, 200; J. C. HEESTERMAN, The ancient Indian royal Consecration 106; 108 f.). We are reminded for instance of the wearing of a black antelope skin, incarnating the Brahman, by the bralmacarin of the Brahmanic caste (MANU II, 41; GONDA ibid, 147). Concerning the Brahmanic acarya, "the man who knows, adheres to and (or) practices the traditional good behaviour......", see GONDA, Change and Continuity, p. 235. 1. Vav T IV 72a 11 : disam (scil, udde stum) acaryatvam upadhyayalvam va anudi'sam va acaryopadhyaya-pada-dvitiya-sthana-vartitvam... 2.Vay. T IV 50a 4 would lead us to take the pravartini as a homologue of the upadhyaya : evam aryikam api gurur acaryo gani upadhyayah ganini pravartini rak santi. In the Pali Vinaya, the pavattini proposes nuns for ordination (upasampada) and guides their religious life (II, 273, 24 ff.). The title is attested from the Patimokkha onwards (IV, 326, 1**), remained as accepted usage, though not very common (cf. 325, 24); in the old commentary, it is glossed by upajjha (sic; IV 326, 4').

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pavatti, such as the commentaries define it, consists in stimulating those who stumble in trying to follow the Law.2 Next come the ganavaccheiyas, ganavaccheinis (Vav, udd 4 and 5, su 3-4; 7-8). These are in a way "censors" or "coadjutors". In Vav 2, 6-23, the g. is responsible for coming to the help of penitents and monks, who suffer from some illness or weakness; he is responsible for expelling and, should the case arise, for rehabilitating the guilty religious. It was thought that he was "at the head of a section of the flock" (Lehre $ 140; Deo, History 221). According to the commentaries, his prime function seems to have been that of providing the gana with material resources most needed (lodging, implements); he watches over it, and sees to it that itattains the other world - a task which is, in fact, incumbent on all the masters (ganavacchedako gana-tapti-kari, esa lokotlariko lokoltara-blavi, Vav T II 13a 3)2. p. 65 The office of ganahara, "bearing responsibility for a flock," does not feature in K, except in the formalised list of dignitaries (supra 62). He is not specifically mentioned in the Vavahara, but there is reason to that the verbal expression ganam dharellae (3,1 f.) alludes to him. His function is not defined. His intervention, however, permits the spread of groups of monks, and this role is perhaps his also in other texts (cf. Lelre, p. 161 n. 2). As is known, this title was that borne by the eleven disciples to whom Mahavira entrusted the responsibility of the flocks (Lehre S22). Than T reminds us of this fact, and adds that the ganahara is the official in charge of educating the nuns, that he is well versed in the Doctrine, and that he is responsible for a section of the gang.3 The commentaries relating to Vav 3, 1 f. lead us to understand that the term may have a generic value; in fact, they give the name gana(d)hara to the religious who assumes responsibility for a monk's early iostruction; but this title is often exchanged with that of a yariya, acarya. The ganahara is thus thought to be a "master". His role as deputy appears to be confirmed by the wording of Vav 3, 1 f., for, curiously cnough, in the sulla, the person for whom he deputizes is not given any of the above mentioned titles. He is called bhagavam, "Blissful", the name which seems to be applied above all to Mahavira (as also the Buddha, cf. Lehre & 17 f.). This association of words could thus have very distant origins. It is true that bhagavom and bhanle are the honorary titles bubring points 1. pravartayatity evam-silah pravarta pravartakah, dharme visidatam protsahakal (T II 13a 2; cf. Than 7 2446). Pr, Schubring points out to me that to-day there are pravartakas, masc: 2. Cr. Than T, ibid : yo hi tam srhitva gacchava stambhavaivopadli-margan'adinimittam viharati; Abhidhanu, s. y.; Lehre p. 161, n. 2 gaccha-karya-cintaka. 3. Jina-sisya-visesan, oryika-pratijagarako ya sad!u-viscsak samaya-prasiddha), ganas ya racchedo de'o 'syastiti, Than T, ibid. hitam grhu 161, n. 2 gace

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used to refer to the Master (sthaviro nama acaryah, asav eva puja-vacanena ni bhagavani sabdenocyate, Vay T IV 7 6 10)'. Bhante features in the later phrase se kim ahu bhante, - "Why does the Master say that ?" or, "What does the Master mean?" Age, knowledge and religious seniority are qualities of the thera (stha. : vira) "elder" (Vav 10, 14). The title is normally used in the plural. It is p. 66 well known to the Buddhists. For the Jainas, it can be applied to a reli. gious who is at least seventy years old (ibid; cf. Vav. Bh 3, 2206; 105a; 237a); to one who has spent twenty years in the order (Vav, ibid); to one who has precise scriptural knowledge (that of the Samavaya, etc.). It is thus given quite naturally to the ayariya, who fulfils this requirement (Vav 3, 7; cf. Vav T IV 1b; supra). This distinction seems to be conferred with a certain solemnity; there are in a way confirmed elders, "endowed with the rank of elder", thera thera-bhumi-patta (Lehre SS 141; Vay 5, 17 f; 8, 5). It is apparently one of their privileges to grant dispensations to the penitent (Vav 1, 21; 2, 28; 29 f.), along with other special rights including the power to create a new flock (idid, 4, 19; 6, 1; 3, 2). Their jurisdiction extends over a gana (gano asya stili, Than T, 244b); and within it they are the highest authority (gacchia-mahattara-rupa, Vav T IV 26a 12; cf. Deo, Jurisprudence, 23). In the lowest ranks of the community, the student, seha, and the "pupil." antevasi appear to be opposed to the thera and the ayariya respectively (Vay 10, 14 f.; 11-13). These two ranks also exist in the Buddhist communities; and the Brahmanic Dharmasulras oblige the antevasin to live in the Master's home2. Finally, the commentaries give the name padicchaya (pralicchaka), "disciple"3, to the monk who comes to another gana in order to study at a higher level. Before being admitted, he undergoes a form of examination, and makes confession to his new master (infra 77 fl). It will be seen that the Jaina community seems to have included a great number of dignitaries. The names given to the principal of these are known to us also through Buddhist and even Brahmanic institutions (V. S. Agrawala, India, 283 f.; 292). By and large, their roles are more 1. bhadamte ti gurv-amantrane rudhatvat, Vav T II 336 4 f. 2. Concerning the antevasin, "resident pupil", GONDA, Change and Continuity, 231, and n. 9. 3. sisyal sva-dik sitan, praticchakah paragama-varti sutrurtha-tadubhaya-grahakan, ? IV 67a 7; gacchantarad adhyayanartham adhikyta-gacchopasampadam prapama), ibid IV 75b 8.

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54 The p. 67 or less comparable. But the Jaina religious seems to have been by far the most strictly bound to a set framework and to supervision, The speciality of his masters, however, is not always precisely defined - far from it. It seems that relatively little trouble was taken in allotting tasks, which no doubt, moreover, varied with the importance of the gana; that one wished rather to provide the religious with supervisors whose presence alone would remind them of their duties, with helpers who would give them material assistance, with guides who would direct their studies, strengthen them in their beliefs, encourage them to put them into practice, and provide them with necessary help and comfort during penances and atonements.

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.69 THE MASTERS According to the commentaries, the role of religious superiors is exactly comparable to that of princes who govern the State. Equivalent virtues and aptitudes are thus demanded of them. These are specified, negative and positive alike, in the third lesson of the Vavahara (and the Bh 3, T IV'). We may assume that the most important concern ways of life, for it is not the scholars who show the way to deliverance, but those who strictly control all their activity : siso padicchao va ayariyo va na soggaim neti je sacca-karana-joga te samsara vimoenti (Bh 3, 327; ye satya-karana-yogah samyamanugata-vyaparas te ...). It devolves upon the masters to look after the material and spiritual safety of their flock, more especially when they are distressed or seek to mend their ways by observing atonements (cf. Vav 2, 6 ff.). Their devotion brings them personal benefits; they hasten the elimination of their own karman; in addition, numerous honours fall to them - a secondary benefit, but one which seems to have been nonetheless much appreciated. (infra). Naturally, low extraction, the exercise of certain arts or trades, or physical defects disqualify anyone from holding responsibilities, or even from being ordained (Vav T IV' 21a; Lehre SS 137). The same restrictions are ratified by the Buddhists and by Indian society in general (Inde p. 70 Classique SS 2369; Arth 3, 5, 30; 3, 11, 28 f.). 1 Certain feelings, attitudes and 1. And outside India, In the Judeo-Christain tradition: Leviticus 21, 16-23. -16 And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, -17 Speak unto Aaron, saying, Whosoever he be of thy seed in their generations that hath any blemish, let him not approach to offer the bread of his God. -18 For whatsoever man he be that hath a blemish, he shall not approach: a blind man, or a lame, or he that hath a flat nose, or any thing superfluous, -19 Or a man that is broken-footed, or broken-handed. -20 Or crookbackt, or a dwarf, or that hath a blemish in his eye, or be scurvey, or scabbed, or hath his stones broken; -21 No man that hath a blemish of the seed of Aaron the priest shall come nigh to offer the offerings of the Lord made by fire he hath a blemish; he shall not come nigh to offer the bread of his God. -22 He shall eat the bread of his God, both of the most holy, and of the holy. -23 Only he shall not go in unto the vail, nor come nigh unto the altar, because

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56 .. bim . manners, and also certain vices, are considered to be eliminatory (Bh 3, 99 ff.; cf. Bh 289). An ayariya who becomes infirm or crippled has to be removed from his office (Bh 3, 96). He withdraws and is made to live outside the main group in a cave or a thicket, like the blind buffallo which has been stolen and must be hidden from view. He is seen as an insult to the Doctrine and could give the king a pretext for annoying the samgha (pravacanahilana prasakte rajnudi-dosa-prasangas ca). However, even after he has been dismissed, the whole community, with the elder at the head, provide him with care and attention (Bh 3, 96 f.) Spiritual incompetence is naturally incompatible with the tenure of an office (T IV' 1 64). Superiors who transgress their monastic vows are demoted - temporarily if they are able to observe some discretion, as is often the case apparently with those who do not manage to respect the vow of chastity (Vav 3, 15; 17); and permanently, if they deliberately violate it or if they are disho. nest (idid, 14; 16; 19 ff.). The future master must have proved himself in the fields of faith (damsana), knowledge (nana), good religious conduct (caritla), and asceses (fasting, etc., taya). For he has to guide his flock towards salvation (cf. Mahanisha y 19). The necessary qualities are carefully class are demanded of the gant by the Dasao EThan, Lehre SS 140); five are demanded of the ganahara by the commentaries of the Vav 3, 1: they are described in terms of imagery : he hath a blemish; that he profane not my sanctuaries for I the Lord do sanctify them. Cr. Note a (Jerusalem Bible) : God is the creator of the physical world in its entirety. The infirmity of the priest, called to draw nearer to God and to take part more closely in His holiness, would prevent him. A similar act of exclusion is pronounced in the Code of canonical Law (Canon 984 f.). And recently in the Apostolic Letter "Summi Dei Verbum" from H. H. Pope Paul VI to the episcopate of the whole world (4-5 November 1963) it was said : "It is well to note that for the vocation to the priesthood it is not only spiritual gifts, in other words gifts appertaining to the intelligence and free will of the candidate, which come into play, but also those appertaining to the faculties of sense and to the body itself. It must be the whole man who is fitted to assume the severe dutics of a holy charge. These duties are generally linked with harsh difficulties, which sometimes, following the example of Jesus Christ, the Good Shepherd, demand the sacrifice of one's own life. We must therefore never think that God calls to the prics hood children or adolescents who would not have the necessary qualitics of intelligence or will, or who from birth have psychical defects or physical deficicncies which would make them be considered unfit to exercise worthily many duties of their charge and to fulfil the obligations of the ecclesiastical estate. On the other hand, there is an encouraging sentence of the Angelic Doctor. It reaffirms that what St. Paul says of the first preachers of the Gospel be applied to cach priest : "Those whom God chooses for a task, are prepared and directed by Him in such a way that they be fitted for the task for which they were chosen,"

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57 p.72 padibohaga desiya sirighare ya nijjamage ya bodhavve talto ya maha-govo eya padivattio panca (Bh 3, 17) : he awakens those who are asleep in the house of samsara, when it is on fire (or: he takes good care to appoint everybody to their appropriate post and to watch that they remain diligent, pratibodhaka-drslanta); being a good guide, his conduct is faultless for the greater benefit of the flock (desaka-d.); he is an expert in "jewels" (knowledge etc; cf. infra 78); as a result, he increases the treasure which is entrusted to him (sriglhaka-d.); he brings his flock safely into harbour after crossing the ocean of rebirths (niryamaka-d.); he is able to protect his flock in times of difficulty (mahagopa-d., Vav T IV 46-5b). The same qualities which go to make a good prince and heir to the throne also go to make a good acarya (kumara-drstanta, ibid IV: 5b ff.); both are honest, heroic, magnanimous, resolute, energetic, morally and physically strong, generous, intelligent ( buddhi), well bred, and able to bring a task to a successful issue (karame ): sure vire sattie vavasaya thire ciyaya dhitimanle buddhi viniya karane .. (Bh 3, 78). In short, they resemble the lion, not the jackal (T IV 6a-8a). Under the guidance of a master who has these qualifications and who devotes himself to his task (vyapara-yukta), the flock prospers at the same time as the karman of the minister is eliminated : taha taha gana-parivaddhi nijjara-vaddhi vi em eva (Bh 3, 56b). He allots suitable tasks to everyone : collecting alms, teaching the sultas, answering contradictors, preaching the Law and caring for the weak. On the other hand, the flock suffers in the hands of someone who does not bother about it. It is the same in the world beyond as it is in this world on earth. Imagine two brothers, each having his own estate : the energetic brother increases the prosperity of his land and his reputation, whereas the unenergetic brother jeopardizes both (Bh 53 f.). It is important that the text, and if possible the interpretation of the Doctrine, be transmitted correctly to the disciples. The dignitary is thus expected to have scriptural knowledge which increases as his responsibilities become greater (Vav 3, 3 ff.). It will be remembered that in order to make it easier to examine this knowledge, it is recited following a threefold pattern (supra 31). In addition, the provisions of the canonic treatises are supplemented by precepts which are handed down orally, from master to master, and which are also considered as indispensable : they are known as the 8

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38 73 "superior's companions" (acaryadvitiyaka) (Bh 3, 76)2. They stipulate that the theoretical examination of a candidate for the honours must be followed by a complementary practical examination (pariksa). The dignitary is given the task of educating a "little one" (ksullaka), an "elder", an "adolescent" or a "waster2: suddhassa ja pariccha khuddaya there ya taruna khaggude (ibid, Bh 66a). If he proves his dedication and instructs and reforms them, the priocipal ayariya (mul'ayariya) puts him in charge of a "circle" where he teaches the interpretation, and a "circle" where he teaches the text of the Law. He is finally put in charge of a flock, if he has borne this double burden without failing : iya suddha sutta-mandali davijjai altha-mandali ceva dohlm pi asiyante, dei ganam...(Bh 3, 73). In this way the aptitude of the canditate will have been tested, as gold is tested by heat or by touchstone : he may now be considered as a "chosen vessel" and endowed with a gana3. However, add the commentaries, men of experience recommend that any religious chosen as a future superior be endowed with the "signs of the acarya", (acarya-laksana) : auspicious signs (laksana) are also characteristic of an heir to the throne. These "marks", in a way, guarantee the future pro-, sperity of the gana or the kingdom (Bh 3, 205 f.). Consequently, Bh T not only require of a prospective superior the absence of all physical deformity, which is a Degative condition, but also they tend to stipulate the contrary positive condition, for alms fall naturally to someone who is physically gifted 4. So much so that in the absence of an "adept" (sometimes even in preference to an adept), a "postulant" is chosen who is "as beautiful as Love"5 : The esteem which a person enjoyed in secular life as a result of his extraction, his wealth or his power, follows him into the religious life and is a benefit to the whole community. His presence not only strengthens his discouraged companions and prompts laymco to be generous, but also apparently forestalls many awkward situations. A doctor, when consulted, will take good care to prescribe appropriate treatment. If a king abducts a nun, he will return her discreetly. The 1, But as it is said sicakat satram, any proposition may be authenticated ! 2. klagsuda...vakr'acara (T IV' 166 6). But sce PSM (s. v.) 3. iasmin pariksite patrc gano diyate, T IV 20a 2. 4. tasya mulam akytih, T IV 15a ft. 5. yo capy agilartho 'pi akytiman rupena Makaradhaja-tulyah sa ganardharapade nive's. pare, T IV 22a 5.

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59. p. 74 reputation of the minister ensures that in a discussion his sadhus preva ... and that his enemies are rendered powerless, for everyone is automatical .. . on his side : salsu visiyamano ajja gelanna bhikkha ragarana vavahara ilthiyae vae ya akincana-kare ya (Bh 3, 198). The monks were evidently subject to trials and tribulations. The needed material protection as well as moral encouragement, Whatever the master's extraction, considerable honours are owing to hin To render these honours is to fulfil the order of the "Blessed".1 T listed in a gatha: ganadhariss' aharo uvagaranam samthavo ya ukkoso sakkaro sisa-padicchaehi gihi-annatitthihim (Bh 3, 46). "food, implements, praise, deference to one who is in charg of a flock, from his disciples, lay believers, and followers of other masters' Hymns are sung in praise of his superior knowlege of the letter and th spirit, his care and attention in penetrating the hidden secrets of th treatises, his birth, the purity of his thoughts which aspire to nothing els but to traverse the samsara and to bring others safely through it (BH 3,47). These honours, however, are accessory. If one solicits an office, it i in order the more quickly to eliminate former deeds, and to expedite th hour of deliverance (taltvatah karma-nirjarana-nimittam gano dhriyate, tath 'pi pujam esa prapnuyat, T IV' 12a 11: cf. Bh 3, 13). The presence of a circle of disciples constitutes both an honour and a opportunity for dedication. The disciples will be at least three in numbe 7 ibid 13b 3, 105 13). One remains with the master, accompanies hin when he goes to the lavatory (samjna) and acts as an interlocutor (alaptal The two others help him during his begging, accompany him to the place of study, and through discussion enable him to reach certainty : ego citthai pase sanna-alatia-m-udi kajjattha blikkhadi viyarn duve paccaya-heum ca do hontu (Bh 3, 51). Thus the extremely hierarchical structure of the Jaina community favoured eschanges of service and the progress of everyone (cf. Lehre $ 148). The importance of the "service" (veyavadiya) will also be seen. It is often the complementary observance to the "rejection of the karman" (nijjara). By involving himself in the material and spiritual well-being of his flock, the minister simultaneously increased his own gains in these two spheres. p. 75 1. Bhagavatam hi Tirthakrtam iyam ajna yad uta guroh sada puja kartavya, T IV' 13a 1.

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60 Basically, he followed an identical aim to that of the jinakappiya, but in the opposite way. Consequently, the ideals which they embody have appeared contradictory. Whereas the master devotes himself to his flock, the religious who follows the "rule of the Jaina" belongs to those who "think only of themselves" (attacinta, atmacintaka)1. The ethics of the atmacintakas are in no way criticised; their conduct, however, renders them "unworthy" of promotion to the rank of master (dvav api atmacintakav anarhau). They are denied responsibilities in exactly the same way as the religious who are suffering and in need of help, those who are unable to be useful, those who, through laziness, refuse responsibilities (necchai, samartho 'py alasyena ganam dharayitum necchati), or those who, through egoism, prefer to remain alone - so much so that they are compared to a mother who brings still-born children into the world (nindu), to a crow who only gives birth once (kaki) or to a barren woman (vandhya, Vav Bh 3, 99 ff.). p. 76 These comparisons do not appear very flattering for the atmacintakas, and particularly for those of them who follow the "rule of the Jina". But they have been suggested quite naturally by reality and the facts. The spread of the way of life according to the "rule of the Jina" was clearly incompatible with the existence of an organised community. The "rule of the elders", on the other hand, gave it a chance to exist, and even made its spreading more easy. It can be seen how, when faced with new circumstances, one type of institution (thera-kappa) came to be widespread at the expense of another (jina-kappa). The growth of ideas which resulted from this in some ways recalls that undergone by Buddhism. Here and there, altruistic concerns made themselves felt more and more urgently in the present case, we see them expressed within the monastic community. 1. Amongst the attacinta, atmacintaka, are classed, on the one hand the jinakalpikas and yathalandiyas, and on the other hand the religious who, although living within the flock, do not concern themselves for their brethren. The category thus more or less coincided with that of the nirapeksas (supra 46) ya atmanam eva kevalam cintayan manyate yatha: 'ham abhyudyatam jinakalpa-yathalandakalpanam ekataram viharam pratipatsye iti atmacintakah, yo 'pi gane 'pi vasan...na vahati...taptim anyesam sadhunam so 'py atmacintakah. etau dvav apy atmacintakav anarhau (Vav T IV 22 b 6 ff.; cf. Bh 3, 101), atmacintako yo Compare T IV' 62a 4 ff. 'bhyudyata-maranam va pratipattum niscitah..., nirapek so bal'adisu cinta-rahitah...ete 'pi...bhik savo atyantam acaryaty'adi-padanam anarhah...

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CHANGES OF GANA p.17 In ancient India, it was not uncommon to see masters and pupils travelling all over the country. It was also permitted that a student, in order to improve his knowledge, could be transferred to a new school, and benefit from the knowledge of a professor specialising in a particular field (cf. V. S. Agrawala, India, 305). The Jainas also practised this custom, calling it uyasampaya (u pasam. pad), and classing it as the tenth and last of those customs which, in their opinion, constitute perfect conduct (samayart; Lehre SS 136, with references particularly to Uttar, 26, 1-7.) But with the Jainas, as in Brahmanic society, it could lend itself to abuses. There were unstable religious who changed gonas too often and who were consequently known as ganamganiyas (Lehre SS 139). Panini quoted the tirtha-dhvanksas or -kakas (V. S. Agrawala, ibid, 284). Some were only yielding to their own leanings toward wrong. This explains the fact that admission to a different gana was granted only after a double examination. The commentaries set out the conditions of this examination when dealing with the "confession of uvasampara" (uvasampayaloyana), as it directly precedes it (infra). An initial examination makes it possible to discover the motives which caused the religious to leave his former flock (Vav T II 206-25b). If he passes this, he then undergoes another examination : for three days his behaviour is closely observed, to check that he conforms with the Doctrine. This enquiry is not necessary if the monk is already known (inata. T II 206 5). The formalities differ, moreover, depending on whether or not the bhikkhu belongs to the same "commensality" (sambhoga) as the monks of the flock he wishes to join. After consideration of the avowed aims of the candidate, those who do not offer sufficent guarantees - religious, intellectual, social or even physical - are eliminated (infra). The three fields in which it is thought advisable to approach the level of perfection are "knowledge" and "faith" (which go together), and "conduct". These are the "three jewels" ratna-traya (R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, 32 ff.)'. * p. 78 1. They take the following form: Helen M. Johnson notes that at the end of the rohini penance, a solemn ceremony takes place. He who is performing the sacrifice procures the objects necessary for the three ,ends : books, in connection with the jnana; dish, fabrics, fly-swatter, cakra,

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So puna uyasampaje man'attha damsane caritte ya . Vav Bh 1, 101 a; cf. T II 21 a 6 f.). Newcomers have sometimes left flocks of "rzealous" monk, sometimes groups of "proud" monks (lasyopasampadyamanasya gamanam dvabhyam sthanabliyam bhavet, tad palla : yalamanebhyah paribhavadbhyas ca... (T ibid, 28a 1 ff.). The zealous", by definition, conduct themselves correctly. It is therefore on the other two points - namely, knowledge and faith - that they seek to improve themselves. On the other hand, the above mentioned "proud" wish to in, prove their conduct. Damsana (darsana) can be taken to mean the sultas relating to the purification by penance; nana (jnana) can be understood as all the others (darsana-visodhikani yani sulrani sastrani va tani darsanam, sesani sulrani sastrani va jnanam, T II 326 7 f.; cf. III 19a 15 f.; IV' 146 6). The religious seeks to master them in three respects : the text, the meaning and both Three possibilities present themselves : the monk revises what he knows (vartana); he rememorises what he has forgotten (samdhana); he learns something new (grahana) (II 32a-6). . As for the religious who come to conduct themselves well, they have one or other of two motives : to "serve" (vaiyavsttya-nimittan) or to "fast" (ksapana-nimittam) : damsana-nane sutt'attha-tadubhae vattana ya ekk'ekke uvasampaya caritte vcyavacce ya khamane ya p. 79 (Vav Bh 1, 103 = Nis Bh 6362; cf. Vay Bh 1, 102 = Nis Bh 6361). This may be for only a while (kale, kalato; itvara), or permanently (avakahae, yaval-kathika; yavajjeram; ibid). Serving and fasting are, in fact, two complementary aspects of the same conduct, which, taken as a whole, is aimed at shaking off the burden of the karman (cf. infra). The roles of the monks involved are exactly similar to those of the superiors and subordinates of a flock - roles involving mutual demands and help. For in "serving" a religious who devotes all his energies to ascesis, or a superior absorbed in other tasks, the servant, for bis part (like the acarya, for example), succeeds in breaking the sequence of his deeds. . kalasa and what is needed in the temples, in connection with the darsana; various articles of use to the religious, covers, clothing..in connection with the caritra (Rohini-Asokacandrakatha, JAOS 68, 1918 (168-175), 168). Przyluski has examined the opposition which occurs in Buddhism between the reli- gious "who maintains the defence" (sic; sila-dhara), and the religious who has "hcard inuch" (bahu'sruta). He has shown how the varying popularity of Ananda, the first of the bahu-'srutas, reflects this rivalry (La legende de l'Empereur Acoka 21 f.; 43; cf. Lc Parinirvara et les funerailles du Buddha, JA XI 12, 1918 (101-456), 452454).

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:: Should the newcomer wish to improve his conduct, specific questions are asked, of both a theoretical and a practical nature. The presence of this religious might be prejudicial to those already resident : he may suppress opportunities of service" for others, he may himself demand service to such an extent that those serving would have no strength left for their studies. 1 The acarya receives a monk who has come to learn good conduct only after consulting those under his administration, and after gaining their assent (T II 34a; 36b). This is not all. The examination is taken further, and he ascertains that the presence of these new members will not make the material tasks of his flock too burdensome. He compares the alms received by the outsider who is seeking to serve, and those of the resident who already provides service. He refuses entry to the gana to anyone wishing to obserye fasts notwithstanding his weakness (Bh 1, 111=Nis Bh 6368). Despite these reservations, changing flock is lawful and praiseworthy if it stems from a wish to better oneself. The superior ascertains that such is in fact the motive of the religious by a first examination; he asks why and how the bhikkhu has left his previous masters and companions. It appears from the commentaries that his reasons were sometimes far from edifying 2 1.80 Occasionally, his main desire is to gratify his vices (gluttony, sloth. selfishness...). But even if innocent of these undesirable tendencies, he may . 1. E, LAMOTTE notes that the tasks entrusted to a Buddhist monk, nevertheless leave him leisure enough in which to meditate, etc. Histoire I, 67. 2. One of them has made a mistake in the company of layman or religious. Another complains of wasting away in body, soul and memory, because he is deprived of milk and foods obtained from it, as well as of other fortifying delicacies (vikrti): in the same way, young sugar cane dries up when deprived of water. Another bemoans the fact that onc day only comes between the fast or the meal of gruel (acamla) and the yoga exercises: that the latter, even when successful do not give one the right to the vikytis, and that they are too severe. Another has an enemy who is on the look-out for his least failings, reprimands him sharply, gives pitiless reports of his mistakes to the guru, who consequently reprimands him. Another, who does not like being disturbed, depends on a master who is forever supervising : every time he walks past, the monk must stand up, thus contracting lumbago and forgetting what he has learned. Another, deprived of milk, cream and cakes, cannot bear to see the superior eating them, or keeping them for the very young, the old, the infirm or the newcomers. Another sears a master who is very strict in punishing all failings (forgetting formulas etc.). Another is suffering from the length and hardship of a round of alms-begging in a flock overloaded with children and old men, and in too small a territory: he is unhappy at being reprimanded when alms are insufficient and having, as a result, to begin his begging again. Another cannot stand the sight of religious who conduct themselves badly; who argue amongst themselves and then eat together. Finally, another of an independent frame of mind, protests that he always has someone on his heels, even when he goes to the lavatory (T II 22a- 236)

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p. 81 64 have failed; for example, by abandoning a superior, an elder or a sick person in great need of his help (ibid, 74). Religious who have left their former flock without good reason are generally refused entry to another gana; by receiving them the acarya would incur an expiation of the parihara type, whose length would depend upon the fault attributed to the candidate (T II 23b; 24a; 25a). A monk who is deemed fit for admission undergoes a. practical test: the examination of his religious conduct. In this way it is seen whether or not he has the faith, kim esa dharma-sraddhavan kim va neti. (ibid 25b-26a). This examination lasts three days, and deals with the following subjects: daily obligations (viussagga. infra), inspection of articles of everyday use, study, food, manner of speech, bearing (outside the shelter), care shown to invalids and manner of accepting alms: w... avassaya padilehana sajjhae bhunjana ya bhasa ya viyare gelanne bhikkha-gahane paricchanti (Bh 1, 83). Correct conduct neither exceeds nor falls short of what is required; and must observe the correct order (hinahiya-vivarte, ibid 85) In actual fact, the examination is reciprocal, the master observing the monk and vice versa,1 The outsider mingles with the other monks. His possible failings are not pointed out by the acarya, who does, however, reprimand those of his own flock who do wrong. But let him harbour no illusions on this score: a monk who rejoices is eliminated.2 The religious must profit by the reprimands addressed to his companions, fall at the feet of the superior and, overcome with grief, stammering and shedding necklaces of tears, beseech him: "I have sought refuge with you. Now, through your anger, I am deprived of your teaching; this ill befits the lord who is all-merciful; grant me your pardon and teach me despite my failings" (T II 26a-27a). In this case, the religious is received (pratigrahyah). When the person seeking admission is an acarya, he observes the conduct of his colleague. If the latter tolerates negligence on the part of those under his administration, he points it out to him. The defaulter may correct himself, but occasionally he answers back, "what concern is it of yours?" The outsider will flee such a bad company (ibid 28a). What benefits does the newcomer gain from being admitted to a new flock? He is closely observed and assisted in his spiritual quest. He must be brought to order with an especial politeness and kindness; even though 1. paraspram acarya-iisyau pariksete T 11 26a 5. 2. sukham tha vasitum iti sa itthar-bhitah... na praticchaniyah (sic), ibid 26b 11.

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p. 82. 65 he is a pupil, he is given the title bhante, theoretically reserved for the ayariya: "Lord, do that for which you were admitted": sareyavvo niyama: "uvasampanno si jam-nimittam tu tam kunasu tumam bhante": akaremane vivego u (Bh 1, 105). He may be admonished in this way three times. If he then fails to correct himself, he is expelled (T II 33 b 1-6). In order to drive him away (nastavyam), as when eliminating someone who has been politely shown to the door after the first examination but seeks to assert himself even so, they act clandestinely (channena). They take advantage of the moment when he is away begging alms, or the moment he is in a deep sleep at night, to abandon him (tyaktva); and not a word is said, for one must not disturb inexperienced novices (30 a 4-8).1 This review of the provisions governing admission to a new flock shows that the Jaina sages are not lacking in humanity. They take care not to maltreat their flock, not to saddle them with excessively demanding tasks which would mean they had to neglect their spiritual tasks. Towards all those who wish to improve themselves, they show great kindness and much concern. 1. In a desire to be tactful with people's sensitivity, and to avoid incurring a bad reputation in the world, the Jainas recommend not dismissing the undesirable in too brutal a manner (T II 316 ff). A man who has done wrong in leaving his master when he was in need, if he has done this out of good motives, is reprimanded, "Your departure, my friend, is contrary to the rule. How were you, a treasure of virtues, able to do this? You must immediately make atonement, and go back." To the others, the objection is made that they will find in the flock to which they are asking admission, just the opposite of what they are looking for; little knowledge, little gentleness, constant and niggling supervision, strict discipline, etc: "So go elsewhere," (ibid 29b). Even so, one may sometimes be led to be indulgent to those whose departure was not provoked by a vice such as gluttony. by those who left after making a mistake, or in a fit of pique, complaining that they have an enemy (they still must go and present their apologies), or leaving their masters alone. They are accepted if duly repentant, and if they promise not to do it again and to scrupulously obey the superior's orders (ibid 31b-32a), 9

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PART TWO ATONEMENTS

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CHAPTER 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES All religious communities in India have made it their concern to encourage anyone who has committed a fault to atone for it by a penance which might reduce or, if possible, cancel out its consequences. In general, the principles which govern the imposition of penances vary little from one group to the next. They are very often comparable to those which are enumerated in the Arthasastra. The most important of them will be reviewed in this chapter, and the parallels between them will be briefly evoked. Lists of the most diverse transgressions have been drawn up by the Jainas, The Nisiha-sutta, (which, as commentaries emphasise, is not exhaustive) has recorded, one after the other, almost two thousand transgressions that the monk is in danger of committing (Vad T II 81a). Similarly, the Buddhists have drawn up a list of some 250 faults, arranging them - from the heaviest to the lightest - according to the penalties incurred. This is the pratimoksa. which is recited at the bi-monthly ceremonies of confession, and is one of the most ancient nuclei of the Vinaya. In Brahmapic society, the classifications have varied, as is well known. and discrepancies have been noted between different cpochs and texts. Gampert emphasises that, on the whole, there is a clear distinction between faults which involve loss of caste (pataniya, mahapataka, etc.), and other errors; that many points nevertheless remain indefinite (31 ff.); and that in the final analysis, the descriptions seem to be orderly, more than they are (46). He recalls that the faults, firstly concerning ritual, that are mentioned in the works on dharma, take on a more and more markedly moral character. and that they fall increasingly within the realm of law (2; cf. L. Renou. Inde cl.. 8 1243). In fact, in the opinion of most experts, the Indians of antiquity never established the excrcise of justice (vyavahara) and the theory of expiation (brayascitta), on absolutely independent bases. Although difficult to pinpoint, the cases of overlapping have without doubt not been tar any case, the interdependence of the two jurisdictions is generally admitted 9 Together with the rules concerning good conduct (acaral these are the subjects which form the essential part of the treatises of doc. p. 86 1. Inde classique &$ 2376ff.; LAMOTTE, Histoire I 181 f.; cf. 591.; 65. 2. But see GAMPERT 251 ff. 3. MANU VIII, 14 ff.; HOPKINS, Priestly penance and legal penalty', JAOS 44. 1924. 243-257. particularly 251; KANE IV, 69; 70; 75; L. RENOU, Inde classique & 1243: Civilisation & 38. Cf. concerning the cooperation of the religious and secular authorities, Max WEBER, The Religion of India 48. 4. STENZLER, On the Hindu Doctrine of Expiation, OC 1874, (205-212), 205: L. RENOU, Inde classique & 1243; KANE IV, 77.

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10 Often, we cannot discern the dividing line between civil and religious law, if indeed these two do not overlap. It is often stipulated that the second should conform to the first (Kane IV, 75): a point to which the Jainas often return. Thus in studying the problem of responsibility, they insist upon the fact that it is linked to liberty, in religion as in the world in general (Bh 2, 141; cf. infra 129). When the opposite is the case, it becomes on occasion the object of detailed commentary It is an accepted adage in secular life that where a fault is committed by several individuals, a hundred are to be spared the penalty of death, and a thousand the penalty even of chastisement; but this does not hold good for the tribunal of the Law which sets itself the task of checking the evil inclinations of every individual : logammi sayam avajjham hoi, adandam sahassa; ma eyam hohiti uttariyammi vi ... (Bh 3, 284). It is known that, generally speaking the civil authority took into consideration the region, caste, family, community or group to which its subjects belonged (desa, jati, samgha, grama). In what is in a way the opposite of this, it seems that, in certain circumstances, rulers were able to influence the verdict of the parisad?. The Jainas admitted, if need be, that it is open to the king to pardon a guilty religious, and to intercede for him before the samgha (T IV 56a-b). In general, in India, sentences seem to be passed and executed, in a parallel and complementary way, by the royal power and by the learned Brahmins gathered in a council (parisad), which had the prerogative of imposing the suitable penance and of deciding on the subject's possible reintegration into society. For the prince, it was a strict duty to punish infractions of the law correctly. If he neglected this, he would compromise the orderly functioning of the universe and the prosperity of the realm (Arth 3, 1, 38 ff.*; Manu VII, 20 ff.). Furthermore, the fault, at least in part, would have devolved upon him (Manu VIII, 18; 316)4. The Jaina superior has the same obligatio. : not only would he be guilty in disregarding the fault, but he would also be held responsible for the subsequent errors into which his negligence might lead his subordinate, (cf. Vav T IV' 26 a 14; compare Mahanisiha V, 14). Atonements were intended to mitigate, if not to prevent, the barmful consequences of the fault. On the spiritual plane, the Dliarmia-sutra do not 1. Arth III, 7, 40* ; MANU VIII, 41; 46; GAMPERT 225. refering to BUHLER, SBE 14, 4, n.; cf. L. RENOU, Civilisation $ 40. KANE IV, 82. 2. Cf. GAMPERT 219 ff, with restrictions. 3. GAMPERT 215 ff.; KANE IV, 63; L. RENOU, Civilisation $ 40. 4. Cr, L, RENOU, Civilisation $$ 36; 39: BASHAM, Wonder 114 f. and the discussion of GAMPERT 122 ff.

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I p. 88 always agree in recognising their absolute efficacy in all cases. On the social level, at least, they normally allowed the individual who submitted himself to them to escape rejection by his fellows?. In religious communities of Buddhists and Jainas, the monk is naturally accountable for every moment of his life. It can be seen that he would have to atone for his slightest transgression by an adequate penance : the least violation of a mi involves, sooner or later, almost inevitably the violation of all the others : ekavrata-lope sarva-vrata-lopa iti (Vav T IV' 73 6 7f.; cf. II, 99a). The atonement was imposed by the religious tribunal in the shape of assemblies of monks - or rather, at least among the Jainas, by the superior of the group to which each individual is responsible (Deo, History 238). They could, if necessary, excommunicate and rehabilitate. The method of assigning penances is regulated by the vavahara, vyavahara, or procedure"- that is the manner "in which, as it is being imposed, the atonement to which the offence has given rise is designated": vyavahriyate 'paradha-jalam prayascittam pradanato yena sa vyavaharah agam'adi-rupa-panca-prakarah (III 18 a 10 f.). This sense of "judicial procedure" is very ancient and can also be found. as well, in the writings of the Bauddhas, and in inscriptions, etc. 3. It is met with in the Arthasastra (3, 1, 39 ff. *). In Sanskrit, the term can have a more general connotation, and signify an "affair" ('transaction or dealing'. Kane III, 245). Among the Jainas, Vay Bhs teach that it connotes confession. purification and atonement : ... vavaharo aloyana sohi pacchittam eya eg' aftha (Vav Bh 2, 90 a). This procedure" is said to be sometimes of five, sometimes of three kinds It is of five kinds according to Vay 10, 2 (cf. ?, supra): pancavihe vauahare pannatte, tam-jaha : Ogame sue ana dharana jie : it is based on the sacred Texts, religious Tradition, a commandment, the rule, and custom Zeama and suya (sruta) can be regarded as two aspects of the same institution (cf. T II 43 a 8 f.; compare Lehre SS 160). The present five fundamentals recall the four "feet" or four "bases" of justice which the Arthasastra and the Dharmasastras recognise : "trial by ordea!" sayowal" (testimonies", "written documents", "the decree of the king" dharma, vyavahara, caritra, raja-sasana (Arth 3, 1, 39 *). Kautilya emphasises on this occasion that the royal edict must be logical : nyayas tatra promanam syat (ibid, 45 *). I TOLLY, Recht und Sitte SS 38; GAMPERT 204; 228 and n. 3; KANE IV, 63; U. C. SARKAR, Sociological importance of prayascitta, Vishveshwaranand indological Jour nal 1963, I, 91-101. 2. Compare Abhidharmakosa IV, 97. 3. KANE III, 245-247; V. S. AGRAWALA, India 414; cf. R. LINGAT, JA 1962. 489 On this subject, sec R. LINGAT. Les quatre pieds du proces, JA 250, 1962. 489-503.

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72 And the Dharmasastras themselves express the desire that, for the greatest good of the Law, the verdicts should be dictated by reason and good sense, quite as much as - and indeed more than -- by the letter of the treatises. p 89 From another point of view, and at a later date, the Jaina procedure is said to be of three sorts : according to the gravity of the penance, it is said to be "heavy", "light", or "very light" (guruo, lohuo, lahusao), and each of these degrees is itself divided into three parts - at least if one follows the commentaries (guruo, guruzayarao, ahaguruo : lahuo ...)2. In any case, K 5, 53, Vav 2, 6-17 prescribe "the lightest possible form of the procedure", ahalahusae namam vayahare. As for the judges, the scholastics distinguish two types, which are said to be equal : those who proceed according to the agama, the agama-vyavaharin, and those who follow Tradition, the sruta-vyavaharin. The first type are the kevala, manah-paryaya-jnanin, avadhi-jnanin, experts in the fourteen, ten, and nine purvas, and therefore more or less legendary monks whose knowledge was intuitive and concerned moreover with precanonical texts which had disappeared at an early date (Vav Bh 1, 135 = Nis Bh 6 393). The second type base themselves on the Kappa (that is the Dasasuyakkhandha, Kappa and Vavahara, and the Pakap pa (that is the Nisiha) (Vav Bh 1, 137 a = Nis Bh 6 395 a). The Arthasastra asks of magistrates that they be upright, even-tempered, affable, and that they practise the greatest circumspection (3, 20, 24*; cf. 4, 8). Among the Jainas, the confessor (who, when the time comes, also passes sentence) must be skilful, discreet, benevolent and useful (Vav Bh 1, 337 : cf. Deo, History, 152; infra 141). The judge must preserve himself from pity, as from feelings of aversion (T III, 32 6-33 b). He will remain impartial (IL 47 b - 48 a). In the eyes of Kautilya, the depositions of the parties in a trial are subject to caution (3, 1, 47*). From the religious point of view, confession of a fault (Amg. aloyana, Skr. alocana; cf..Pa, patidesaniya, patimokkhuddesa) takes a capital importance, which would have come to it originally from the magical powers which it was thought to possess,3 Confession, in itself, 1. KANE III, 259; cf. U. N. GHOSHAL, History of Indian Political Ideas 48. 2. Cr. Vav Bh 2, 91 f. and K. p. 14 n. 1; gl., s. v. aha-lahusaga; Lehre p. 177, n. 4. It will be seen that the procedure ahalahus(s)age is very ancient. It might be thought that it served as a base for the whole edifice communication from Professor Schubring). 3. GAMPERT 233, PETTAZZONI, La confessione dei peccati I, 233.

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73 p. 90 Spiri .-- .- .... p. 91 . constitutes an atonement and a purification?. It is a step along the road to spiritual attainment (infra 136 ff.). Scholars have often quoted this statement of the Salapatha Brahmana : that a sin which has been confessed is reduced in gravity "since it becomes truth" (II, 5, 2, 20). It is therefore essential that the confession should take place as quickly as possibles, even if the atonement is not carried out immediately. It is necessary also, that the confession should be full, sincere and perfectly honest (apaliunciya, Vav 1, 1 ff.; cf, Gampert, 236). The Jainas make sure of this by having it repeated three times (Vav Bh I, 137 = Nis Bh 6 395; cf, infra 143). They regard the confession as truthful if the three versions are identical. In the same way, Vav Bh I say, at the tribunal of the king the depositions are made three times over : tinni u vara jaha dandiyassa (Bh 138 a =Nis Bh 6 396). Similarly, among the Buddhists, the invitation to confess is repeated three times (Vin 1, 103, 35; 159, 34 - 160, 1)5. Moreover, Manu, as is well known condemns the plaintiff who contradicts himself (VIII, 54). A person who is investigating an affair takes note of the behaviour of the accused. It seems 1. Cf. Vay Bh 134; infra 139; MANU XI, 288; KANE IV, 40, with quotations from Taittiriya Brahmana, S Br; LAMOTTE, Histoire I, 78 2. Vay Bh, ibid,; 50; Vin I, 103 f.; II, 126, etc. 3. KANE IV, 85; II, 970; Vay Bh 1, 49. 4. GAMPERT 237; cf. infra the "light" (lagh) atonements of the Jainas. 5. A particular importance seems to have been attributed to the number three". Malayagiri notes elsewhere that a condemnation by the king is only to be executed when it has been repeated three times : ... loe vi pucchanti u tinni vare (Vav Bh 3, 243 b ad Vay 3, 13). Among the Jainas, each true penance has three degrees, except the last, which has only one (infra 116). It is necessary to wait three full years before a religious who has left off his habit in order to break the vow of chastity can be authorised to undertake the least charge (j'ay 3, 13-22). We have seen a distinction made between two triads of religious : the nirapek sas (jinakalpika, suddha-pariharika, yathalanda-(pratima--)kalpika) and the sapek sas (aca. rya, upadhyaya, bhiksu); or again the three gaccha-nirgatas and three gaccha-yasins. When the religious pronounces his vows, he does it "triply, under three headings" tiviham tivihenam (Lehre & 171), since he keeps three "whatches" (gutti) over his mind, his words and his body (ibid). This triad is very ancient and common in India (GAMPERT 204); it offers, moreover, variations, to which attention has been drawn by PRZYLUSKI (Legende de l'Empereur Acoka, 948 f.). Z. FEER had found it also in Iran (OC VI 3, 2, p. 70; cf. PRZYLUSKI ibid. 150 f.) We have already seen that the commentaries do not hesitate to formulate triple subdivisions of triple divisions (supra 89 and n. 7) Among the Buddhists, the triple repetition of an apostrophe, a question, an invitation or a prayer seems to have been required by etiquette (cf. Vin II, 156; 155; 181; 188: 253; 254). In the assemblies, certain motions are proclaimed three times before being adopted (111, 24); they are then irreversible (cf. SBB XIV, p.XVIII f.). The solemn formulae at the ordination of the patimokkha, .....,are pronounced three times running (Vin I 22; 56; 103 f.; II 273 ...) The Abhidharmakosa recalls that the upasaka "obtains discipline by taking once. twice, three times the triple refuge" (IV, 72, cf, transl, La VALLEE POUSSIN) 10 . . 25. prayer" Buddhiste division

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that this forms part of the evidence at the trial (Vay Bh 1, 140:7 III 15 b 10 fl.; infra 143). This is an established practice in India and is recommended as well in the Arthasastra (4, 6, 2, but 4, 8, 111.), and in the Laws of Manu (VIII, 25.1.). Jaina religious collect testimonies diligently (cf. ad Vav 2, 25). They could make their own the maxim of thc Arthasastra : tatra salye sthito dharmo vyavaharas til sak sis (3, 1, 40*; cf. 47*; 12, 53*; 11, 27; comparc 4, 8, 13; Renoy, Civilisation SS 41) Trickcry and spying which for Kaulilya remain the surest ways of getting at the truth arc practised by Jaina monks, but these last give great wcight to the word of the accused (Vay 2, 24 f.). It is well known that the Buddhists were anxious to guarantee the rights of the defence (Vin II, 73; 83)3. p. 92 The investigation of these. various clements allows the passing of a just sentence. The atonement is proportional to the fault, and cspecially to its duration, which is translated by the commonly-used expression : se s'antara chec va parilare vu, "the corresponding" ch. or p. 4. The Arthasastra made identical provisions : patha' paradham iti Kautilyal (2, 7, 15; cf. 2, 9, 18; passim). In the case of a false deposition, the penance of the Jaina or Buddhist monk is increased, as the first Sullas of the Vavahara tcach (cf. T 11, 54 a, 2 ff.). Thus one proceeds as in the royal tribunal, which punishes, first the lie, and then the misdeed itself: attl'uppatti asarisa-niveyane danda paccha vavaliuro iya lo' ullariyammi vi kunciya-bhavam tu dandanti According to SBr. the triad is an attributc of the gods (5, 1, 4, 11, quoted in GONDA, Rcligionen I, 155; cf. 303 n. 4). . On the triod in India, Langlois liad already read a memoir to the Academie des Inscriptions.ct Belles lettres, at the annual public mecting of 25th November, 1853. Its importance had been noted by DUBOIS (Inde I, 218 n. 2) and has often bccn pointed out since. For instance, sec BERGAIGNE, La rcligion Yedique 1, 2, ff.; III, index II, s. v. "nombres" RENOU, Inde classique & 648, For a study of the number "thrce", see G. DUMEZII, for instance Mythc et Epopec I p. 615 and n. 5, referring to W. DLONNA, "Trois superlatif absolu...." Antignite' classique xxiji 1954,.., 403-428. Moreover, the part played by numbers in the literature and religions of India is well known, On Jaina tetrads and pentads sec R. WILLIAMS' remarks, JRAS 1966 p. 2 fr.. On a sort of "ontologic arithmetique" in Indinn speculations, MUS, Barabudur, p 159,n. Compare Chandogya Upanisad 4, 4, 3 ff. cf. Ludo ROCHER, Candesvara's Vyavahararatnakara, JOIB 5, 3, 1956, 254; J. D. M. DERRETT, Vyavahara : Light on a vanished controversy from an unpublished fragment, BSOAS, XV, 3, 1953, 601. Compare B, BRELOER, Drei umbenanntc Megasthenesfragmente iber dic pravrajya, ZDMG 93, 1939, (251-293) 256; L. RENOU, Civilisation, S 41. 2. Vav T IV 61 a-b; Arth 2, 9, 12; passim; cf. L. RENOU, Civilisation & 55. 3. Cf. SBB X, 280, n. 3. 4. K. 2, 4-7; Vay 1, 21; 22-24; 4, 11 ; 15 f.; 19; 5, 11 f.; cf. K. p. 13, n. 1; Lehre 162 s'antara=sya-kytad antarat).

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75 P. 93 (Bh 1, 139 = Nis Bh 6 397; cf. Vin. II, 40 ff.; III, 1861. It is recognised that fraud takes different forms (cf. Vav 1, 17 ff.). This is mentioned also in the Vinaya, which reproves and punishes lies by omission; (I, 103,9 f.; 104, 2 f.; II, 40-42) and' in the Arthasastra which, for example, likens ante- or post-dated entries to misappropriation of funds (compare Vav, ibid). The judges take into account possible extenuating or aggravating circumstances3 : indulgence is required for the old, the sick, children, the ignorant the weak and the afllicted; the Arthasastra stipulates : purusaparadha-visesena danda-viscsah karyah. The punishment is increased according to the religious or social rank of the offenders, it must be admitted that the application does not always seem to have conformed with the theory. On this point the Jainas are categoric; Deo, consequently, has insisted on their democratic character (cf. Monastic Jurisprudence 52). However, their practice also seems to have been more flexible - to such an extent that the commentaries sometimes experience some embarrassment in trying to justify it. Finally, religious magistrates will naturally take into account the intentions of the culprit (1, 17 ff.; infra 126 f.)? It is well known that the Arthasastra pupishes negligence in the exercise of a charge (2, 30, 47 f.; 2, 36, 42). Hindu doctors have discussed at length. and sometimes obscurely, the expiability of a deliberate infractions. It is expiated doubly'. The Pali Cullavagga prescribes as many days of "probation" (barivasa) as there have been days during which an offence has been knowingly concealed (Vav II 40 ff.). Finally the Jainas, while taking note of the 1. Foreigners had pointed out the Indians' aversion to lying. Compare BERGAIGNE. Religion vedique I, P: XXIII stressing that sincerity is the vedic virtue par excellence, Cf. MEGESTHENES (ed. SCHWANBECK. fragment XXXIII, p. 124). ARRHIANOS, Indik e, 12, 5: The sixth class is formed by those called 'inspectors' - They are forbidden to make an untrue report; and no Indian was ever accused of lying: (...) Compare the absolute condemnation of lying, Abhidharmakosa IV, 82. However, infra 98 f.; 143 and n. 1, 2. In the belief of the Indians, errors concerning time were considered very serious, as is well known; KANE V, I, 73; cf. GONDA, Religionen 1, 116; ff. compare SBB XI, 336, n. 2. S. KANE IV, 75 ff., ubi alia; 81; 85; Inde classique S. 2377; RENOU, Civilisation & 41. 4. Arth 3, 20, 20.ff.; cf. 4, 8. 14 ff.; 17; compare 2, 28, 18; KANE IV, 79 f.;.86; Vav 2. 6-17; Vin III 33; 100; 213; 215; 217; 248 5. Cf. K, p. 12; Vav Bh 1, 422 f. = Nis Bh 6 55; 6 657; T III 49' a ff.; Arth. 3, 10, 43; MANU VIII, 337 f. but GONDA, Religionen I, 295; see the subtle exposition of BASHAM, Wonder 120-121. 6. ALTEKAR, State and Government in Ancient India 251 f.; GAMPERT 214. 7. Cf. KANE IV, 64; 75; 83; Vin. III, 33, 32 f.; cf. III, 35 f.. 100. 8. GAMPERT 228 f. 9. KANE IV, 64; 80; 83.

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76 premeditation, the pride (dar pa), the carelessness (pramada) of the offender, cause them to be expiated by a "repentance" only (pratikramana) - at least when he is under the "rule of the theras". Real penances atone for grave errors of conduct (anacara), in so far as they have been committed in complete freedom and not under any constraint (cf. infra 128). After these must be considered the additional faults which can vitiate the confession (Vay 1, 17 ff.) and the sentiments that the wrongdoer exhibits (raga-dvesavsddhi-vasatah prayascitta-uddhir upalabdha, T III 14, a 1; cf, II 50 a l; Manu XI 230 f.). It seems to be generally admitted in India that the penalty is increased in the case of relapsel. On this point the Jaina differ from the others : the Vavahara-sutta expressly prescribes the same penances when the fault is repeated (bahuso vi 1, 7-12; 14; 16; 18; 20)2. In spite of their ingeniosity, the commentators have great difficulty in justifying this provision which ran the risk of encouraging abuses. When finally bereft of the arguments, they invoke the authority and the infallibity of the sutta (V av Bh 1, 145), Munimaharaj Punyavijayaji, when consulted on this point, replied without hesitation that the essential thing is to have confessed, and to have made atonement. In other words, the Jainas are concerned before all else to rectify the sentiments and the conduct of their adherents. . Notwithstanding this peculiarity, it can be seen that most of the principles which guide a Jaina in the exercise of religious justice are very close to those to which the codes of other communities conform. It will have been p. 94 noted especially that the magistrate's investigation is supposed to bring to light the specific circumstances of the offence, subjective as well as objective, This very vivid sense of relativity is one of the constant characteristics of Indian law, which admits in particular many exceptions in the case of difficult circumstances (a pad-dharmo, cf. Manu X 101 ff., etc.). The Kappa and V avahura give the necessary exceptions to the rule (cf. Vav 2, 6-17; 2830; 3, 9-10). Justice is never administered mechanically or blindly. Magistrates, whether religious or civil, must take pains to facilitate the triumph of truth, salya, - a concept whose importance is well known, and which is the very foundation of the judicial procedure : sacca-painna vavahara (Vav 2, 24 f.)<<. By the imposition of a pegance, they propose to purify the guilty one (cf. prayascilla-danena me sodhih krta, T III 4 a 2). 1. Arth 2, 27, 18 and KANGLE, note ad loc.; 4, 10, 1; MANU IX, 277; KANE IV. 17; 62, 2. Once or twice, three times and more; - tri-prabliyti-varan astam ekam drau va verav ily api labdartham, T II 47 a 13. 3. GHOSILAL 160; Arth, supra, 4. Compare Arth, supra. 5. CI. MAXU VIII, 316; KANE IV, 63 f., etc.

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77 I will not investigate here the extent to which this legislation, aims at preserving society as a whole from contamination. This preoccupation is not expressed even when as a consequence of the penance which is inflicted on him, the religious is banished to a greater or lesser extent from his group (compare Gampert, 125). The important thing is the personal atonement of the offender. Nor will I try to detect the modifications introduced in the course of time by the Jainas in their procedure. Their legislation certainly changed, as did that of other Indians? We know that in Brahmanic society, the inevitable evolution of custom had caused justice to alter in conformity with it and had consequently brought about the gradual reshaping of the code - although these changes were apparently neither arbitrary nor abrupta. We see that the Buddhists recognise, more or less explicitly, that the 95 execution of certain penances varies. The compilers of the Pali Vinaya seem scarcely any longer to pronounce the brahmadanda3. More generally one could ask with Przyluski : "what is the Vinaya, finally, if not a collection of rules intended to legitimise the abandonment of the primitive dhutangas ?" (La legende de l'Empereur Acoka, 182). As for the Jainas, their commentaries point out that the prayascittas in the course of the ages have lost their severity, just as men lose their strength, By virtue of the principle which suits the penance to the penitent, they nevertheless keep their initial efficacy (Bh 3, 180, ad Vay 3,9; cf. Gampert, 44: Kane IV, 126 ff.). The history of this evolution is nowhere outlined for us; but it would seem indeed that justice was 110 longer entirely based on religious Tradition (sruta) as the Kappa -, Vavassara - and Nisihasutta had recorded it. A summary of the law "of custom", the fiyakappa was, it will be recalled, compiled by Jinabhadras, and it makes a brief allusion to the mitigation of the heaviest penances which would have been permitted in the time of Bhadrabahu. It must have been followed by a revival of severity. Indeed the excommunication which in the oldest period 1. Compare R. WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga XIX : "The changelessness of Jainism is no more than a myth." 2. ALTEKAR, State and Government in Ancient India 255; R. M. DAS, Women in Manu and his seven Commentaries 55; 103; 105.; and its review by Ludwig STERN. BACH JAOS 83, 1963, 256-258. 3. Cf. Vin II, 290; 292; compare T. W, RHYS DAVIDS, ERE 9, 675 ff., s.v. patia mokkha. 4. Cf., referring to vedic and brahmanic rites, Sylvain LEVI, La doctrine du sacrifice 138; HILLEBRANDT, Ritualliteratur 77. 5. Cf. LEUMANN, Jita p. 1195 f., referring to Vay Bh 10, 690 f.

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7811 characterised the two last payacchittas must have fallen into disuse, and then came once more into force. The same Jiyakappa confirms the substitution of the tava "mortification, fasting" for parihara "isolation". Thus, changes came about which were doubtless fairly important. The documents nevertheless remaini fragmentary and allusive. It would hardly be possible to present a history of Jaina atonements.

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CHAPTER II p. 97 DISPENSATIONS DISPENSATIONS FROM THE SECOND AND FOURTH "GREAT VOWS" Scholars lave drawn attention to the dispensations permitted by Brahmanic law in the case of calamity (apad-dharma). Heterodox communities permitted the monastic rule to be bent in favour of religious who found themselves in abnormal circumstances. The mitigations of Buddhist discipline from which the small communities of Avanti benefited are often quoted (Lamotte, Histoire I, 22). The Jainas have likewise taken into account regional peculiarities (Deo, Jurisprudence 54; cf. 14); they have bowed before the necessities of the moment (R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, XIX). Religious life was constantly influenced by secular life (cf. Vav, ed. Schubring, note p. 21) and considerations which would have seemed of a.purely temporal nature eventually played a great role, as has already appeared from the preceding chapters. The desire to collect copious alms - which one has.often seen expressed - contradicts in certain respects the fifth great vow, the vow to possess nothing. On this point, several of the instructions formulated by the commentaries will be recalled. It will be remembered that a religious sometimes asks to be admitted into a group to which he is normally a stranger but where he proposes to serve the teacher and his flock. Before giving his decision, the superior questions the candidate and carefully compares the jalms that the newcomer can collect (his "earnings", labha) with those of the actual holder of the office.of."servant". The "service" is given to the one who can earn most" (salabdhika, labdhimant, cf. Vav Bh 1, 108). . Among the "sigas" which distinguish the good superior (acarya-laksana). worldly success, physical ibeauty, prestige, influence - which all stimulate 99 lay people to be generous - count as much as intellectual and religious success. This, at least, is what is taught by the extra-canonical precepts called "companions of the acarya". (T IV' 436; cf. supra). :. In fact, although the Jainas emphasise the importance of the five major . yows and the necessity of keeping them all with equal care, they admit

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: that they can be infringed in case of need. They even go so far as to make provision for their violation (infra). In fact, they follow the higher interests of the community; they recognise the frailty of human nature and prefer to guide it rather than use it roughly. The most striking example of tolerance concerns the second and fourth great monastic vows : the prohibition against lying (aliya-vayana) and against faults concerning chastity (abambha). The same indulgence can be found in other Indian communities. Thus it is that the Brahmanic treatises do not exact a heavy penance for lying, and they tolerate it in case of circumstances beyond one's control (Gampert, 157; cf. Dubois, Inde 1, 242)1. The Buddhists allow a monk to renounce his vows (infra). In a number of circumstances, the commentaries suggest strategems to avoid scandalising the world, troubling the conscience of novices, sending a monk back to secular life, or even to avoid repaying a layman who considers that his financial interests have been thwarted. The teacher foresees the accusation of lying, hypocrisy, duplicity and lack of frankness, and refutes it. A person is innocent of these vices when he keeps a close watch on his speech, when he avoids the gossip of envious ill-wishers, when he harms no-one, when he is ultimately successful, and in addition, when he is of use to all interested parties 2. Once this axiom is admitted, several cxpedients are given to rid oneself of the monk who wishes at all costs to impose himself, when his presence is judged undesirable (T II 316; cf. supra). There are many subterfuges which allow one to put an end to the possible claims of laymen, Concerning the Vav 2, 17, the commentaries deal with the case of the monk over whom a courtesan or a master claims rights3. p. 99 The woman comes to demand that her former lover (who has become a religious), or the money he owed her, be returned to her. On the advice of the elder, he takes a pill which changes his voice and his complexion. takes emetics which cover, him with vomit and make him repulsive or sedatives which give him a cadaverous appearance - unless, indeed, he can simulate death. And if it is impossible to use these ruses, the sthavira would 1. However supra p. 92 and n, 1 of the same. 2. Cr. Bh 1, 97=Nis Bh 6 357 : Vav T II 31a; 31b. Compare R. WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga 71; 77 f. 3. Comparc, mutatis mutandis, Robert LINGAT, Vinaya et droit laique. Etudes sur les conflits de la loi religieuse et de la loi laique dans l'Indochine hinayaniste, BEFEO 37, 1937 415-477. ....

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have the relatives and friends of the courtesan intervene to persuade her to renounce her prey (T IV 46 6-4 76)?. Although it is forbidden to ordain individuals who are not free agents, it seems that certain individuals moved to another region, concealed their tutelary status and entered the community. Chance could bring together a master and his former servant. Now "even in foreign countries merchants take what belongs to them". Fortified by this adage, the merchant would declare : <Page #98
:: 82 more seriously affected : he shall leave his group and take off bis habit (bhiksur-avadhavana-sutra). Departure with the intention of abandoning the ,paraphernalia of a religious mendicant is called avadhavana (etad eva ca 1. avadhavanam yad linga-viveka-buddhya gamanam, T IV' 56 a 8 f.).:"One leaves si : the paraphernalia, the broom etc., so as not to harm the Doctrine" (tad eya avadhavanam yad dravya-lingam rajoharan'adikam ujjhati ma pravacanasyoddaho bhud iti krtva, ibid 8 f.; cf. :Bh 3, 260). Rela . Before giving in to his desires, the religious will have engaged in seve.: , ral struggles (infra). If however, unable to control bimself, he finishes by tje soliciting a woman's favours, it is important that he should choose her ...... correctly, He will not approach any woman indiscriminately. The rules ... relating to love affairs take into account the characteristics of the two part ners and especially the external signs of their state - whether religious or lay. To make legislation easier, the commentaries give four "combinations" apps which are partly, specious :: 1)wearing his own insignia, the monk approa: ches a woman who wears the same insignia. (that is, a nun); 2), or he approaches a woman of different insignia (that is, a lay woman); 3) or he wears insignia that is not his own and has relations with a woman of his own state; 4) or he has relations with a woman of a different one (sic!). Relationships of the first' type, which are formally forbidden, are to be atoned for by the final, supreme expiations. Those which take place p. '101' between a monk wearing insignia other than his own, with a woman like wise provided with a different insignia, are punished by the radical suppression of seniority (type 4). Varieties 2 and 3 lend themselves to making of distinctions : lingammi u cau-bhango; padhame bhangammi hoi caruma-payam .. mulam cauttha-bhange bitie tatie ya bhayana u (Bh 3, 248). Type 2: the penance depends on the rank of the woman : exclusion, if she is a royal wife, or' a 'young woman of family; dismissal, i-if she is the wife .:: of a minister, otherwisemula and reinstatement. Type 3: a monk has I changed his regalia (cf. infra), but the insignia of his normal religious life is in fact the same as the woman's. The fault is expiated according to their *7. degree of relatedness i exclusion, if he has received the favours of a "daughter" or "sister", in short of a woman of the same "house". (kula): S; dismissal, if the woman belongs to the same group (gana); a radical sup* 1. In the whole of this section, I uses veda in the sense of moha :. udirnodayaprapte mohe udite vedety arthah (T IV' 5lb 1; cf.SBE 45, p. 162, n. 4). Compare R. WILLI, .,AMS, Jaina Yoga 33. 2. I IV' 53a 3 : 1. sva-lingena sva-linge vartamanam sevate, 2. sva-lingeria anya-linge, 3. anya-lingena sva-linge, 4. anya-lingena anya-linge.. .. . 3. For all of these penances, see the second part.

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83.. pression of seniority. if she belongs to the same community (samgha) (? IV' 53 a-b). The monk who has had relations with a woman whom he should at all costs avoid, or with a courtesan, will be classed among the nirapeksas who have no care or respect for decency. They are considered together with those who depart without taking leave of the teacher and those who do not keep a watch on their actions. On the contrary, the sapeksas show the guru all the consideration that could be wished : duviho savikkhiyaro : nirayekkhoudinne jai 'napuccha : jogam ca akaunam java sa ves'adi sevejja (Bh 3, 240). . The person who is scrupulous will have asked permission to depart. This request is a sort of confession and, like a confession, is repeated three times (infra). The monk who shirks this duty, or who carries it out negligentlyor the teacher who does not return the monk's salutation - incurs four months of the sixth atonement, : Once this sort of confession has been made, the superior undertakes to care for the bhikkhu in accordance with the rule : aloiyammi guruna tassa cikissa vihic kayayva nivvittiga-m-adiya nayarva kamen imenam tu (Bh 3, 244). First of all it is necessary to distract the religious from his lust : and, if this last is irresistable, it is important at least that he should not compp. 102: romise the results of his previous spiritual efforts. He is helped unremittingly *}: ; in such a way that he continues to keep a firm 'check on his conduct. He is first forbidden certain dishes : the vikstis (dairy products, honey, butter ........ infra 109). Then he is forbidden three meals' out of four. Next he is forced to do "service" (vaiyavstya), which, as we bave seen, can be 'exhausting. He is ordered to adopt various mortifiying postures, to accompany those going about the country trying to recruit brethren. If the temptation persists, and if he has the necessary knowledge, he is given the charge of directing "study circles". nivviya oma tave veyavacce tah' eve thane ya .. ahindane ya mandali .... (ibid 245)... . .... . .. A wise: distraction : it is the same for the monk as for the young woman who remains alone in the home. Secretly warned of her misconduct, her father-in-law cleverly defends her virtue by overloading her with domestic duties. When; in the eveninig, the arrival is announced of the lover for .

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84 whom she had sent, she remarks : "I haven't even time to die. How would I have time for a man ?" If these measures are not sufficient to appease the monk's desires, he gives in to them, He moves into special quarters in company with the elders who have enjoyed the pleasures of this worldi. It is hoped that in this way, at one time or another, he will succeed in taking hold of himself 2. It will not have been forgotten that this cure is prescribed for the monk who has never abandoned his zeal (yatana). Thus his vagaries are regulated. He avoids women who, in religion, could be taken for his rela. tives : his pupils; those he has ordained; those who are as it were of the same region and of the same birth (sa-desa samana-dosa-jati-sispini svahastadiksita); those who are in some sense his sisters (that is to say, widows or young women of an ordinary family who belong to the same religious group (kula, gana, samglia, Bh 3, 247) (supra 101). During the first cure, the bhikkhu does not leave his companions and keeps wearing bis (religious) paraphernalia (sya-lingena). Since love affairs of the first of the types described earlier are categorically forbidden, there remain only those which in the second type are considered tolerable, He conceals these affairs in a deserted house or temple (T IV' 54a 2f.). If he returns to his senses and promises not to repeat his sin, he is subjected to four "heavy" months of the sixth atonements. p. 103 If his lust is not assuaged, he recommences the cycle described earlier, of fasts, service, etc.; and if this is of no avail, he goes to find a woman once more, but this time in accordance with the fourth of the categories we have discussedd. Thus he will go into another "country" in order to spare his own the shames. There he takes off his habit - and therefore his religious paraphernalia - abandons his baggage and presents himself as a laymans. However, 1. asthanc vesya-palake sthaviraih salia vasatim grhnati ...; upabhukta-bhogasthavirais faik sahitah .... ? IV' 526 5; 53b 11. 2. dusya-palasa-patrantaritam ekam dyali trin varan hastakarma karoti, T IV' 526 8. krtrimaya(m) tiryag-yonay acittayam maithuna-karma ekam dvan frin varan karoti tarha 'py anupasantau ketrimayam nianusya-yonan ... ? ibid. 54a 1 ff. manusya-yonav acittayam tatha py atishati sacitte ... ibid 526 8. 3. suddhasyopasanta-vedasyakaranaya upasthitas yabhyutthitasya .., ibid, 54a 4. 4. parvoktena vidhina, dvitiya-varam api stri-seva'nantaram bluyo nirvikrtik'adike vidhau kyte yadi nopasamyati vedas, tatra para-desam gantayyam (ad Bh 3, 262). 5. sa sapek sal svadesa-pariharanartham para-desam vrajati, T IV 56a 7. . 6. galva anya-desam ... linga-vivekam kylva atmiyam acara-blandam samastam api kva cin niksipanya-ligam va grla-lingam va htva ... T IV 57b 4 8. : .

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. 85 P. 104 not for an instant has the religious abandoned his zeal. . In particular, at the moment of his departure he is careful to put on the wrong scent those of the flock whom he must not scandalise - the very young, the pupils...... those called "miga", "mega" (Bh 3, 264 a; cf. T IV' 57 a 7, etc.). He speaks incoherently, walks around like someone out of his mind, until the novices are convinced that he is mad ("satyam ayam unmattaka cva", ibid 4). The "bulls" (that is to say the "adepts"') cause him to be bound - rather loosely however - and let it be heard that he could escape never to be seen again, And so it happens. By night, at an hour when the novices are sound asleep?, the monk takes leave of the teacher (guru, that is acarya) : "I am going to such and such a country." In the morning there is great commotion. The sbulls" conclude : "He is lost. The pisaca is nowhere to be seen" and they abandon the sea The monk, however, avoids the places that his presence at that moment would profain in some way: the places where he has led the religious life or received the Doctrine, or fasted; the companies in which he has served, the places where many superiors meet, etc. . . . . Having taken these precautions, he looks for a woman, always keeping clear of pupils and of all those who are too closely related to him, keeping also a strict watch over his expenditure : prathamalo bhasim vina tad-abhave bhaly apity arthah (T IV' 58a 2). He tries therefore to find one of the falthful - because, through shame, she will make no demands on him - and he takes her off into a deserted place. He does not always meet with these ideal conditions. In that case he tries to persuade his partner to be satisfied with clothes; but when she is intractable, he resigns himself to having to pay her ! If the assignation cannot take place outside the village, it takes place inside. All these circumstances are taken into account when the calculation of the suitable atonement is made (Bh 3, 267 f.). Throughout the treatment, he takes care to spare living beings, watches over the purity of his food and, moreover, does not make love continually: .....na ya abhikkha-niseva ...... (Bh 3, 269a). Once cured (eyam moha-cikitsam'kstva), he picks up his baggage and goes off to purify himself in a company other than his own, where he confesses and does penance as he is commanded : agantum anna-gane, sohim kauna, vudha-pacchitto (ibid 270a). Then he manages to meet religious of his former gana in the course of their 1. mygesy ajne su bala-saik syak'adisu prasupte sii, ibid., 57a 7. 2. Cf Bh 3, 266b. TIV' 576 : saddhi tti avirata-samyagdr slika ... sa hi lajjato na kin cid api yacate... kidahi tti ky syate (sic) sambhogo yah pratirikte sthane niyate.

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2 begging. They are careful not to insult bim. They must inform the superior of their encounter and report the monk's words to him: "Shame prevents me from appearing before the guru. I don't remember what I could have done inside the shelter. The only thing that I remember is that I left": .5 17 beti ya lajjae aham gantum na tarami guru-samivam tu ria ya tattha jam kayam me, niggamanam c'eva sumarami (Bh. 3, 271). : Upon which, the superior sends the "bulls" to find him. He reprimands him in front of the lesser members of the flock with feigned severity (kaitavena). The "bulls" warn him: "My friend, don't do it again" and ask him how it could all have happened. "Where have you been, without permissp. 105 ion? The monks have worn themselves out looking, for you!" He, for his 11 2 part, pretends to know nothing about it. The acarya forbids him to be greeted for three years. This is his punishment : kattha gato anapuccha, sahu kilittha tumam vimagganta, nam ajjo vandaha tinni u varisani dando se. (Bh 3, ma On condition that he does not fall again, access to honours can be reopened to him once the three years have elapsed1. 273). The commentaries summarise the cases of definite disqualification (Bh 3, 275 f.) when the religious has not handed over his charge (cf. the sutta); in addition, if he has been lacking in zeal, if he has transgressed in his native region or in a place where he is leading his religious life, or if, though he is innocent in respect of points 1 and 2, the transgression has occurred in his own fatherland2. In short, the community always remains unperturbed. It condems deviations with severity, to the extent that it hopes to be able to limit them. It deplores the aberrations of the monk and on all occasions is appreciative of his good intentions and his efforts. The community is strict, doubtless, but it is also humane. The Buddhists exhibit almost the same toleration. They foresee that the monk, who has been seduced by the deceitful pleasures of the world, might want to abandon the religious life, and they give the rules which it 1. tisrnam samanam... puratah punar yadi nirvikarah cf. Bh 3, 274a. 2. 1) anik sipta-ganah; 2) yatana-yogam akytavan; 3) junmadhikrtya svadese 'krtyasevi; 4) sva-vihara-bhumay akarya-sev;; 5) niksipta-ganah krtayatana-yogo 'pi san sva-dese bhavaty akarya-sevi, T IV' 59a. ***

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87 P. 106 behaves him to respect. The bhikkhu must at the same time "declare his weakness" and "solemnly renounce the Instruction", that is to say the Law, the Community, etc. : dubbaly' avikammam c'eva hoti sikkha ca paccakhata (Vin III, 26, 32 ff.). If he does not observe the procedure, he is "excluded" (yo pana bhikkhu bhikkhunam sikkha-sajiva-samapanno sikkham apaccakkhaya dubbalyam anayikatva methunam dhammam pafiseveyya antamaso tiracchanagataya pi, parajiko hoti asamuaso 'ti, Vin III, 23, 33-36 * *). Thus the Buddhist monk, also, must continue in these circumstances to control and master himself, but he either is not bound permanently by his vows (cf. I. B. Horner, SBB, X, p. XLVII)?. Also, when he takes leave of his companions to return to secular life, he as it were breaks down his departure into two periods. The general provisions and rules to be applied recall those in force among the Jainas. 1. Cf. Robert LINGAT, Vinaya et droit laique, BEFEO 37, 1937, p. 416; O. LACOMBE. Gandhi 89 f.; 91 f. Thy

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P. 107 CHAPTER III ATONEMENTS THE ATONEMENTS (payacchitta, pacchitta; prayascitta); AND MORTIFICATION (tava, tavo; tapas). 1:. In submitting himself to penances, the religious observes the first of the six "interior mortifications" (infra). The payacchittas purify the offender from the stains which he has contracted by sinning. Correctly applied, they wash away the fault, just as water judiciously used cleanses spots from a garment and dirt from a dwelling (Vav Bh 1, 322 ff.). They permit the attainment of "sinlessness; the person who carries them out correctly cleanses the way and the fruit of the way (which is true knowledge), attains correctness of behaviour and (the deliverance which is) the fruit of correct behaviour": payacchitta-karanenam bhante jive kim janayai? payachitta-karanenam pava-visohim janayai niraiyare yavi bhavai. sammam ca nam payacchittam padivajjamane maggam ca magga-phalam ca visohei ayaram ca ayara-phalam ca arahei (Uttar 29, 16; cf. SBE 45, 164 and n. 4). Or again, expiation "extracts the darts", the symbols of the offences which are piercing the sinner (Vav Bh 2, 47; cf. 1, 46 f.). The image is so commonplace that it has given its name to the first chapter of the Mahanisiha: sall'uddharana. It is likewise said of the Doctrine that it "withdraws the arrows" (salla-kattana, Uvav 56; cf. Condavejjhaya 152-173.)1. These metaphors, which are scattered throughout the Jaina teachings are met also in the Brahmanic Dharmasutras (cf. Gampert 28 f.). Their equivalents could easily be found in the Christian scriptures. It is certain that elsewhere the Jainas define sin theoretically as a material substance. Scholars have sometimes drawn arguments from this fact to oppose the Jaina ideas to those of the Buddhists. The Jainas have not been credited with true sense of morality as readily as have the Buddhists2. 1. Compare the title of Ch. 4 of the Artha'sastra: Kantaka-sodhanam. 2. Cf. H. ZIMMER, Philosophies of India 254 f; PETTAZZONI, La confessione dei peccati I, 273. Max Weber however applies to Buddhism the same sort of reasoning. He recalls that, for the Bauddhas, the real evil is not sin, but impermanence. Essentially, then, moral preoccupations are foreign to the doctrine (The Religion of India 208, cf. 249). With this theoretical view, compare sensitive remarks of BERGAIGNE, who observes the "undisputable manifestations of a moral sense" in the oldest Indian literature (Religion vedique I, XXII ff.). (Further, one could compare FESTUGIERE, Hermes Trismegiste, IV 255, underlining the concrete reality of divine grace). 12

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P, 108 But words should not deceive us; salla, salya is generally understood in a figurative sense and at the very most symbolises the offence (salyam aticara-rupam, Vav T II 16 a 6; salyam aparadha-laksanam, ibid IV 13 b 13). Its dart pierces the guilty one particularly when he is concealing his fault1. No sinner could neglect to extract them without exposing himself to the direst consequences. On the contrary, their removal brings happiness: suhi bhave, says Malanisiha (II 196*). : 90 Moreover, an atonement is never performed in vain. When it Is observed because it has been prescribed and no fault has been committed, it helps to shake off the karman which has not yet matured (kamma-nijjard). This is the benefit that the innocent religious, for example, receives on occasions from the compulsory twice-daily ceremony of "repentance" (padikkamana; cf. Abhidhana 5, 264a). P. 109 The various observances which, with the payacchittas, are grouped under the name of "mortification", tavo, tapas contribute to the same result: "When one prevents water from reaching it, a great well dries up as people draw on it and as the water evaporates. The religious who has Inter-rupted the inflow of evil deeds will shake off, by his ascetic fervour, the karman accumulated during tens of millions of existences" : jaha maha-talayassa samniruddhe jal'agame ussimcanae tavanae kamenam sosana bhave evam tu samjayassavi pava-kamma-nirasave bhava-kodi-samciyam kammam tavasa nijjarijjai (Uttar 30, 5-6; cf. 29, 27)2. Two types of mortification are recognised: external (bahira( y )a), and internal (abbhantara(y)a, or abbhintara( y )a). Both have six subdivisions. The external mortifications consist in omitting meals (for a limited perlod, or for a whole life-time); in retrenching (on food, personal possessions and emotional attachments); in begging alms (while imposing many res 1. Cf. CHARPENTIER, Uttar p. 383, ad 30, 3: pain, trouble, sin, rectifying Jacobi's translation by "delusions" SBE 174. See also R. WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga 213, evil; and the re-statement of DELEU, Studien, p. 149 ad Mahanisiha I 4. 2. Conversely, the Jaina religious takes care to prevent the accretion of any new karman. An important group of precautions permits him to be armed against its assaults (samvara). By practising jointly nirjara and samvara, one attains deliverance (cf. Inde classique & 2487). See the critical study of Uttar 30 (called tavomaggagai) by L. ALS. DORF, The Arya stanzas of the Uttarajjhaya. 57-62 (Abh. der Geistes- und Sozialwiss. Kl., Akademie der Wiss. und der Literatur in Mainz, 1966. 2, p. 155-220).

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91 traints on oneself ); in renouncing tasty food; in mortifying the body (by taking up various ascetic postures); in withdrawing into oneself (in such a way as to remain indifferent to the allurements of the outside world); and in withdrawing into solitude : se kim tam bahirac ? chavvihe pannatte, cam jaha : I anasane, II onoyariyat III bhikkhayariya, IV rasa-paricce, V kaya-kilese, VI padisamlinaya. "The internal mortifications consist in confessing and) expiating; in being polite; in serving; studying; meditating; and abandoning (one's body etc.) se kim tam abbhintarae tave ? chavvihe pannatte, tam jaha : l' payacchittam, Il' vinae, IIl' veyavaccam, IV sajjhao? V jhanam, Vl viosaggo (Uvav SS 30, and W. Schubring, Die Jainas, 23; Lehre ss 178 ff.; Mahanisiha III S 44, 17 ff.; cf. R. Williams, Jaina roga, 238 f.). It will have been noted that, among the external mortifications, the majority consist of various restrictions on food. R. Williams points out that in fact bahya lapas is 'virtually synonymous with fasting" (Ibid.) It can be understood then why tavo, tapas is not employed solely in the generic sense of which we have just spoken. Outside the most ancient treatises of discipline, it can designate the sixth atonement - the one occunving the position which initially belonged to the parihara (infral, and in which fasts and restrictions on food occupy a preponderant place (ZDMG 60, 1906, 538; Lehre SS 161). The simplest fast is that of the nivvziya (nirvikstika), who deprives himself of the ten vigai (viksti) : milk, curds, fresh butter, ghee, oil, molasses, alcohol, honey, meat, and avagahimas. It has been noted that in P. 110 Brabmanism "a fasting diet is based on milk" (cf. A. Minard. Trois Enigmes, II 254 a). Nevertheless we occasionally see the Apastamba Dharma Sutra forbidding foods containing milk, spices and salt to one who is doing penance (I, 10, 28, 11; I, 9, 26, 3; aksiraksaralavana). 1. Vav 8, 26 defines omoyariya: "the taking of 24 mouthfuls (the size of the egg of a hen) a day," cauvisam kukkudi-anda-ppamana-mette kavale aharam aharemane nigganthe onoyariya, while a man's norm is 32 mouthfuls, ibid (see SCHUBRING. Drei Chedasutras p. 82, referring to Uvay 30 II, Viyah; the latter analysed by DELEU. VII 17 b); cp. Tandulaveyaliya, ed. SCHUBRING p. 12, 20; Vasistha Dharmasastra, ed. FUHRER 6, 20; SBE 14, 37, note. 2. On sajjhaya, Pravacanasara, 3, 32 ff. 3 Cf. Lehre & 156; WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga 39 and 40. The vikytis are products of a "transformation", particularly of milk and of sugars. On this specialisation of sense. R. WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga 40 : compare gavyena payasa tad-vikarair va, Visnu 80. 12. quoted in L. ALSDORF, Beitrage zur Geschichte von Vegetarismus und Rinderverehrung in Indien, Abh. der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, Mainz, 1961, no 6, p. 614,

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2 Ai Another restriction on food which was practised by the Jainas and which was relatively benign consisted in feeding oneself on a sour gruel cooked in water without adding any fat at all. It was called ayambila in Amg., acamla in Skr.1 Penitents could in addition renounce one or several meals. Fasts were ordered according to arrangements of varying complexity.2 In Brahmanic circles, it was established that the tapas reduces the consequences of transgressions (Kane IV, 43; Gampert, 255) and that, in addition, fasts and restrictions on food are among the commonest and most important observances practised in the course of the 'prayascillas (Kane IV 84; 124; Gampert, 255 f.). It is known that they were practised very generally throughout India from the very earliest times (Lamotte, Histoire I, 77). Buddhist texts give fairly precise information about the fasts practised by the Buddha. When he undertakes to deliver himself up to these austerities, he reduces his food and prepares himself to take one handful after the other of a mash of beans, vetches, chick peas or peas". When subsequently he decides to break his fast (of which he has gauged the futility) he remarks: "I must now take some substantial food - boiled rice or sour gruel" (odana-kunimasa). However, after the fast on the days which preceded the Awakening, the Buddha accepts the 'hommage of the two merchants, in the form, according to the Theravadins, of "a churned beverage" (mantha) and a "ball of honey" (texts collected and translated into French by A. Bareau, Recherches, 45 ff., 55. ff., 106; cf. also 127)3. 1. Lehre $ 156; R, WILLIAMS, ibid 40; SANDESARA, and THAKER Lexicographical studies in Jaina Sanskrit> 9; 44; 108; cf. infra. 2. Urtar 30, 10-11; cf. SBE 45, 175, n. 4; Antagadadasao ch. 8, and the notes of the u.. BARNET translations: Lehre & 156; DEO, History, 190-198; etc. 3. The Abhidharmako'sa cxpatiates rather lengthily on the discipline of fasting (cf. IV 44 ff.; 63 ff.; and n. 1, p. 64, concerning the uposadha of half a month observed by Bhavagat, Malavastu III, 97:"prolonged abstinence, in the manner of the Jainas"). The etyinological speculations reproduced by the Abhidharmakosa reveal the virtucs with which the Buddhists credited fasting : "i. The fast is called upavasa bccausc, since it entails a manner of living which conforms to that of the Arhat [...] it places one close to (upa) the Arhiats. According to another view, it is called this because it places one close to discipline for 2 whole lifetime [...]." ii. The purpose of fasting is to obtain (dha) the growth posa) of the roots-of-goodness (kusala-mula) for men whose roots-of-goodness are only small. Since it sccures the growth of goodness, Bhavagat said: 'It is called posadha'." (IV 66)."

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in THEORETICAL PROBLEMS Traditionally, ten atonements are enumerated : payacchittam tu dasaviham (Uttar 30, 31). They are given in a famous gatha' which figures in Vav Pith. Bh 53: aloyana 1 padikamane 2 misa 3 vivege 4 taha viussagge 5 tava 6 cheya 7 mula 8 anavatthaya 9 ya parancie 10 c'eva (cf. the introductions to K, p. 12; Jiya, p. 1196, n. 1, ubi alia). The list is found again with a slight variation ((tad)ubhaya instead of misa), in Uvav '(30, I'), Jiya (4). They are called "confession, repentance, mixed, restitution, undisturbed abandonment (of the body), mortification, (partial) or radical (suppression) (of religious seniority), demotion, and exclusion". P. 112 Some of these, it is true, seem more theoretical than real (K p. 15; Lehre SS 161). This does not prevent the Digambaras, also, from counting, with some variations, ten expiations - which for the most part correspond to those of the Svetambaras. payacchillam ti tavo jena visujjhadi hu puvva-kaya-pavam payacchillam patto ti tena vuttam dasaviham tu aloyana padikamanam ubhaya vivego taha viussaggo tava chedo mulam vi ya pariharo c'eva saddahana (Mulacara 5, 164 f.). Confusions and re-arrangements probably occurred fairly soon. They led, for example, to a list like that of the Tattvartha : alocana-pratikramanatadubhaya-viveka-vyutsarga-tapas-cheda-pariharopasthapanani (9 articles, cf. ZDMG 60, 538). It will be sufficient here to confine ourselves to the more ancient list of ten expiations, as it is given by the Jiya, Uvav (cf. Deo, Jurisprudence 40). The first two are quoted often and everywhere. The last four (which however are not mentioned in the non-disciplinary texts, even the canonical ones) are occasionally given in the most ancient disciplinary treatises (Kappa-, Vavahara-, Nisiha-sutta, cf. Lehre SS 161). They give some indications about the fifth (cf. K), but ignore the third and fourth. As for the sixth (tava), it seems to have been substituted at a fairly early date for a more ancient one called parihara (infra). The link uniting all these atonements is sometimes very loose and sometimes very close. Some authorities dispute their total number and hold that the last two demotion" and "exclusion"-form a single atonement (Vav Pith T 36

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a 12). They eliminate the first two and keep the third, which is formed by uniting the first two practices which are in fact closely linked (ubhaya or misra), calling it moreover "external" (bahya) to the six others (Vay Path Bh 100 b; 108 b)2. We know that the practice of confession, or rather of repentance, is one which Mahavira Introduced into the community of Parsva (Lehre SS 16). The heterogeneity of the observances in the traditional list did not escape the ancient doctors. Doubtless, it is the last five wbich are the atonements properly speaking. Nevertheless it was as a kind of atonement and even a very difficult one, that they regarded confession - wbich is inseparable from the padikkamana and misa, as we have just seen. Besides it is the necessary prelude to the success of all the others. We sball study, then, its principles, and the ways in which it is put into practice. The "restitution", which consists in renouncing an object received improperly but in all good faith, does not call for comment. As for undisturbed abandonment, it is a practice wbich accompanies many acts of the religious life and is met with occasionally when penances are being performed. Thus there is nothing surprising about the grouping together of all these terms. But it is not surprising either in these conditions, that the commentaries on the first lesson of the Vayahara link the second group of penances (6-10), not to confession etc., but to atonements which can spread over 25, 20, 15, 10, and 5 days, and also link these last to fasts of between four and a half and one and a half days, and finally to certain restrictions concerning food infra). In the same way (but in the reverse order), Vay Pith Bh T teach that the atonements which precede the sixth consist first of all in depriving oneself of the vigais, in fasting during the first of the second half of the day, in eating nothing but sour gruel (ambila, acamla), and then in doing penance for five (or a multiple of five) days : . nivviie purimaddhe ekkasana ambile caulthe ya panagam dasa pannarasa visa taha pannavisa ya maso lahuo gurugo ... (Bh 164 f.). p. 113 In the study of the prayascittas proper (6-10), several difficulties and contradictions will be encountered. Some of these disappear if it is admi. tted that the commentaries described, according to the passage concerned. 1 navaha jassa visohi, tass' uvarim chanha bajjham tu (Vay Pith Bh 108 b).. yasy' acaryasya mate 'navasthita-paraficitayor aikya-vivak sanan navadha (nava-prakara) visodhik (prayascillam), tasya daya-prayascitta-dyayasyopari yad vartate praya'scittam tal sannam uparitananam bohyam era ciu>-sabdasyairakararthalvat, tatah chanham harara bajjham tu ili tad-ubhayam prayascitiam pratipattavyam iti (ibid, T 38 a 5-7).

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95 sometimes theory and sometimes practice. Other contradictions cannot be easily resolved. We have already seen several times that the prayascitta actually prescribed . depends on the capacities of the penitent. Consequently, the weakest monks are excused the more rigorous atonements. The only ones who are required to atone for their offence in full are the nirapekkhas, who, slace they have no concern for the company, devote all thelr efforts to their own spiritual progress (Bh 1, 422 f, = Nis Bh 655; 6 657). These are the religious, it will be recalled, who imitate the Jina, those who impose upon themselves the rule ahalanda, and those who observe the atonement called parihara. For the savekkha, no provision is made for an atonement more severe than the eighth (mula), no matter how capable they are of fasting successfully (kayakarana). And this complete reduction in rank itself is inflicted only on the most qualified religious, the ayariya kayakarana. As for the others, their sentence is reduced in accordance with their lesser capacities. A theoretical system of equivalents, in which the atonements are exactly proportional to monastic status, has thus been established: It is reproduced in the table below:

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bhik $ 11 p. 114 Incurred acarya upadhyaya atonement sitartha agitartha kyta- akyta- karana karana kyta- akyta. karana karana sthira asthira sthira asthira kytak. akytak. kytak. akytak. kylak. akytak. kytak. akylak. 16 guru 6 lagu laghu 6 laghu lagi cheda 4 guru laghu 1 months guru cheda 6 guru mula mula or 4 guru cheda 6 months guru guru lagim guru laghu 1 bhinna guru laghu 20 days guru laghu gurni laghu guru loghu guru laghu fast dasama asama I bhinna guru laghu 20 days guru laghu guru laghu guru laghu guru laghu futdama asama fasha caturtha acamla ekasana purrardha nirviklika

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97 20: p. 115. One constant fact will have been noticed from the time of the K and Vav: the severity of the parihara may, or may not, be "lightened" by a ... "remission" of several days (laghu, guru; or else udghatika, anudghatika; cf. Lehre SS 162; infra 174 f.). In appearance this table shows bow the, penance can be adapted to the penitent, and could then be accepted as having a practical value, regulating details of the imposition of penances. In fact, its bearing seems, rather, to be theoretical. Be that as it may, discrepancies concerning the sixth expiation are tiger sionally prescribed for the "immature" (agilartha). Now in the same way as the ninth and tenth atonements were reserved for the nirapeksas alone, the parihara is legitimately imposed only on the "adepts" (gitartha) because it would be of no profit to others at least, this is what is expressly taught elsewhere (infra). In passing, the symetry between the sixth and the last two prayascittas will be noticed. It seems that their histories also were parallel, at least for a time. ww. ... Unfortunately we know almost nothing about the evolution of the sixth atonement. If we did know about it, many difficulties would probably - disappear. But the following point is clear. 3. B 44 2. The atonement called tava in Uvau, Jiya (cf. Vav Pith), etc., occupies in relation to the cheya, exactly the position that the first chapters of the Vay Bh and T reserve for the atonement which they indeed usually call ava (or tavo), tapas, but also, at the same time, parihara-tava. -tapas, emphasising by the compound that they mean the atonement called parihara in the Vavahara-sutta1. In both of these penances, which are certainly different, fasting plays a very great part, while the manner of relegation, which in other respects characterises the penance of very early periods, has been abandoned, The Jiya makes no mystery of this substitution of the tava for the parihara (cf. 61 and Leumann p. 1205). The Vav Bh T make incidental allusion to it: MIF # 1. Cf. pariharatapasi uhyamane .., III 26 a 4 (ad Vav 1, 17), etc. Examples of interchangeability between the two terms parihara and tapas are not rare; cf. IV 26 a 6 ff.: praktana-sutresu pariharika uktah ... prak tapo'rham praya'scittam pratipannasya sutram uktam. The commentaries say again apannaparihara, "p. incurred", in contradistinction to the suddhaparihara invented by the scholastics (cf. ad 1, 1 ff.; infra- 172). The expression apanna-prayascittam caret has been studied by GAMPERT, Suhnezeremon .ien 200. 13 puvvim chammasehim pariharenam ca asi sodhi tu suddhatavenam nivvittiy'adiehim visodhi tu --

Page #114
98 p. 116 (Bh 3, 180: idanim nirvikstik'adibhir api ca sodhih) previously purification: used to be obtained by a parihara of six months; today through the suddhatava, that is to say through depriving oneself of vigai, etc.". The Jiya and its cunni note in addition that at the time of Bhadrabahu at least, fasting was regarded as an acceptable substitute for the final two atonements; which since then however "entail, as originally, the effective expulsion of the monk (Jiya 91; 100; 102; and Leumann p. 1196). The confusions and re-arrangements date no doubt from a fairly early period; the Digambaras also traditionally call the sixth, tava, and the tentb, either parancika (Asadhara) or saddahana (Mulacara); for the ninth they reserve, in point of fact, the name of parihara (cf. Taltvartha, supra; compare Jiya 93). It is hazardous to try to reconstruct the history. Should we attempt it? One point seems beyond doubt : the parihara was first conceived as an atonement lower in grade than partial and complete suppression of religious seniority (cf. infra 118); and indeed Bh I usually distinguish the religious "who find themselves" isolated (vastanta from those who, having "emer. ged" from this penance (niggaya) have to undertake a theoretically more onerous penance (cheya, mula, anavatthaya, paranciya). One goes about it as for the washing of a garment - in the house, if it is not too soiled, and outside in the river, if it is excessively dirty (Bh 1, 291; T III 15 a 3; 12 b ff.). . :When, ther, a monk intially engaged in the sixth atonement falls into new errors, the total penance imposed increases accordingly. From the sixth to the tenth, the commentaries give eleven or thirteep stages. The sixth indeed counts three of these (one, four, six months, heavy or light, cf. supra and T III 2 b 3). This is when it is not "cumulated" (asamcavita. sic!)--that is to say when it counts for as many months as were originally incurred; but it has only one degree in the contrary case. There would be in the same way a triple partial suppression of seniority, a triple radical suppression of seniority and a triple demotion, but a single proclamation of exclusion : tava-liya cheya-liyam va mula-tiyam anavathavana-tiyam ca caramam ca ekka-sarayam ... (Bh1, 295). o uz Clearly, however the most feared atonement is not the mula but the barihara. This last is not prescribed without many precautions and restrictions. The commentaries have even invented a substitute penance, the fuddhaparihara, for those who are insufficiently prepared, for example the "immature". As for the mula, it is most often presented as a substitute, for

Page #115
99 the parihara especially (cf. Bh 1, 320 b; infra). Bh I speak without equivocation of the fear which this last penance inspires, and they specify what it is that the excommunicated monk fears: the moral isolation into which he will be plunged. In certain cases this causes attacks of nervous depre ssion : katham aham alapan'adi-paritarjitah sann ugicm tapah karisyamiti, l '. III, 29 b. 10, ad Vav 1, 17 (cf. infra 189). It can be understood then that these last two penances, which involve the exile of the offender, have been reserved for monks who have already proved their ability to withstand solitude. ... In addition, we can see the explanation for on the one hand, certain .. of the contradictions mentioned above, and on the other, the change of ' name of the sixth atonement. Everything leads one to believe that in antiquity many monks lived in solitude, as in fact did Mahavira. Solitude, however, became more and more terrifying for monks whom their very rule obliged to be constantly in the company of others (cf. supra 50). From that time, the sixth atonement (parihara), from being a penance of medium severity as it originally was, became in their eyes more feared than any loss of seniority whatever. The sort of quarantine which characterised it became all the more intoler* able as, in fact, exile was no longer ever inflicted. In the same way that the ninth and tenth atonenients had been reduced to fasts, the sixth had become tava "mortification" - in other words, above all, "restrictions on i food" (supra). When however the Jainas reacted against this laxity, they could well decide to banish once more from the religious precincts the offender who was undergoing the two penances recognised as the most painful. But it was impossible to revive the ancient parihara, with its moral exile: and nevertheless to maintain the traditional classification, with its many disciplinary implications.. 1: ... 'When forced to choose, the Jainas kept to the hierarchy of atonements ';. cheva, mula immediately before anavaffhaya and paranciya). It remained that the sixth atonement consisted of fasts. It lost the name of parihara, which He then became available, and took permanently the name of taya "austerity "mortification". The verbal substitution thus shows, in fact, a revolution in beliefs and customs. .:'' ** 1. Cf. supra, p. 55. Compare eko care klag gavisana-kappo (refrain of the famous : Pali Khaggavisana-sutta, Sn 35-75; cf. Mun I 357, 21-359, 15). :

Page #116
100 occupy a dominant Among all the atonements, the sixth sccms to position. It commands those which follow, since a distinction is inade between the religious "who is engaged in performing the penance". (vaflanta) and the religious who has come out of it" and who has fallen under a hcavier penance (supra). It is this atoncmcnt, it scams, which is inflicted at first, and rarely the seventh or cighth. It is increased in the case of a new transgression. When he relapses, the qualificd" monk (vikovida) is submitted to the seventh, which seems morcover to be calculated in relation to the first infra 198). In all respects, the commentators' thus present the partial "suppression" of religious scniority as bcing closely linked to the sixth atonement. In doing this, they are very probably conforming to an ancient practice; for the two are associated in the ancient canonical formula se s'antara chee va pariliarc va, where the order of words 'follows" rhythmic laws, in any case (cf. infra 198). On coming out of the cheya, thc religious risks tlic sradical" cancellation of his religious scniority (mula). It will be remembered that this atonement is occasionally substituted for the sixth and seventh, and it is the severest imposed on the monk living in the midst of his company. However, those who are not concerned with the company", yho live apart (the jinakappiya, parihariya, ahalandiya), arc then liable to demotion and exclusion. For two of them, the jinakappiya and the ahalandiya, whose isolation is lasting, this can casily be understood. But the isolation of the parihariya, and consequently his status of niravekkha, more or less ccase with his penance. Nevertheless this provision does not annu coding rule. It will be noted that passing from the sixth atonement to, a triple cheya, and to a triple mula, then to a triple demotion and to a single exclusion is more theorctical than real; it was indeed necessary to establish a theoretical scale, but the sentence must afterwards be adapted, taking into account a particular situation probably cyen more complex than those p. 119 described in the commentaries ! So as to act completely in accordance with justice, they began by establishing the principles on which are based the many calculations which lead to the fixing or the nct amount of the penance finally prescribed (comparc infra 175). * * . In certain respects, the sixth sccins to be the atonement par, cxcellence. . We have just seen that, without it, the seventh and cighth hardly cxisted and morcover that the ninth and tenth which are not imposed

Page #117
101 :: on a religious who dormally lives within his company (according to the rule of the theras) - 'can' on the contrary be prescribed for the parihariya. Moreover, it so happens that the commentaries present the sixth as if it were the only atonement. The pupil asks how many pragascitias there are. Answer: an infinite number, if one considers the spirit, but a limited number, if one confines oneself to the sulia (that is to say to the Nisiha). Now this last enumerates, as the Bh T recall : 584 cases of parihara of one month (alleviated or not); 1,368 cases of parihara of four months. In all, then, there are 1,952 cases, all demanding exclusively the afore-mentioned penance (kiyanti khalu prajasciitani ? ... arthato a parimitani, sutratah punar idam parimanam, Vav T II 80 b - 81 a; cf. Bh 1, 223-2261. When he submits himself to the sixth atonement, the religious is following, in several respects, the example of Mahavira : first in being "isolated" (although still among his companions, infra 171), and then - and the 120 commentaries often insist upon this - in not being bound for more than six months to this sort of retreat. The maximum duration of the parihara does not indeed exceed that of the longest pedances which the Teacher has performed. Now Vardhamana had performed penances for six months at the most (Rsabha for twelve months, the intermediate Tirtbamkara for eight months). This is the theoretical explanation of all the various kinds of abatements, reductions, indulgences and remissions allowed to the offender. It will be seen in addition that the monk parihariya should carry to the second degree, if one can express it thus, respect for purity (infra 188). 1 Compare, in the following formulae, which mean practically the same, the use of parihara, tapas, prayascitta : tatah param ... parasinin sanmasika-parihira sthane pratisevite .. ta eva sthita) san masa). tata urdhyam asmin firthe aropanayak asambhavat (T II 53 a II f.) yato 'smakam et hvad eva Bhagavata Vardhamana-svamina tapo'rham prayascitiam vyavasthapitam ... (ibid II 97 a 1). san-masat parasya Bhagavad-Vardhamana-svami-tirthe tapo-danasyasambhavat (ibid III 16 6 5.) prayascitta-manam Jinais Tirthakydbhis frividham sodhikaram bhanitam, tad yatha: prathama-tarthakarasya dvadasa masah, madhyama-tirthakytam asau masak, Vardha. mana-svaminah sakam san masa: ito 'dhikam na diyate (ibid, II 79 a 11 ff.; compare I III 1 69). 2 Cf. the preceding note. In addition, Pith 48 bl: uktam ca curngu : cham-masana param jam avajjai tam chandijjai; Bh 1, 220; 278. The penances of the Saviour are given as a model of the sixth atonement when this is the parihara (supra), and also when it is reduced to the tapas, as in the Jitakalpa : uczate, ila jitakalpo 'yam, yasya Tirthakarasya yarat-pramaram utkrslam tapal-karanan, rasya tirthe tavad eva sega-s dhunam utky siatn prajascitta-danan. carama-tirthakarasya tu Bhagavato Vardhamana-svamina utkrs, -lapah sanmasikam, tato 'sya tirthe sarvotky sam api prayascitta-danam san masa eveti ... (ibid, II 47 a 7 ff.).

Page #118
102 All these characteristics converge, leading one to think that the parihara was, at one uime, the atonement par excellence. The same importance is accorded to its later substitute - the tava - to which the Jiyakappa devotes 57 stanzas (23-79) out of the 103 of which it is composed.

Page #119
p. 121 SAV. 4. THE OFFENCES (padisevana; pratisevana, fem., nt.). The order adopted by the Jainas in describing the offences to be confessed and expiated varies according to the text. In certain circumstances (for example in confession), it is fixed and obligatory (infra). In the Mahanistha, the seventh lesson considers the faults which are likely to occur in conjunction with the various "obligations" (avassaya) which must be observed as the day progresses, 14 21; .. P. 122 The treatises on discipline generally classify the transgressions according to the penances which they demand (supra), for the latter conform to the former and are closely linked to them: padisevana vviya payacchittam. (prayascittam pratisevana-rupam, Vav Pith Bh 52 b; T 20 a 10). It will be remembered that the penalty is, however, adapted to suit the offender (Vav Pith T 60 a 13; cf. supra 92). The relative character of the sentence is commonly and variously expressed in the K, Vav. Sometimes the atonement is said to be "appropriate" aha'riham payacchittam (K 4, 25; Vav 6, 10 f.; 7, 1); sometimes the sterectype formulae insist on the cause-and-effect relationship: "in consequence, supression of seniority, or isolation", tap-pattiyam chee va parihare va (Vav 4, 13; 14; 6, 5); and again : "suppression of seniority, or the isolation, which result from it" (that is to say, they are proportional to the duration of the offence), se' s'antara chee va parihare va, expressed in skr. by svakrtad antarat ...... (K 2, 4-7; Vav 1, 21: 22 f.; 4, 11; 12; 15 f.; 5, 11; 12; var. se s'antara cheo va pariharo va, Vau 3, 2). 4 However, even in the treatises which are based on religious Tradition (suya), the total amount of the prescribed penance is occasionally stipulated in more positive form - K, Vau enjoin one month of parihara without mitigation (Vav, 6, 8); four months with mitigation (K 4, 11; 12); four heavy months (K 1, 38; 3, 34; 2, 18; 4, 9-10; 5, 1-4; 6-10; Vav 6, 9). As for the Nistha - which, although it is later, itself follows the suya - it devotes nineteen of its twenty lessons to the enumeration of transgressions according to the various degrees of parihara which they entail. To review them would be tantamount to translating the treatise almost in its entirety. Finally, the Vav Bh T constantly indicate, in connection with each infraction, the parihara which it necessitates (most often four heavy or light months). Thus everything proceeds as if there existed a sort of scale of atonements,

Page #120
104 The scale which "custom" has ratified constitutes the Jiyakappa, where the penalty is, very approximately, the same as in the Vav Puthika. This last thus allows one to get a general view of the relationship between transgressions and penances, as they were commonly admitted in relatively recent times. Here are some of the provisions which it has recorded. In general, the most vecjal infraction must be confessed. The Puth occasionally exempts from the alojana wben ibe fault is sligbt, and on some occasions (7 21 b). Evidently confession is credited with a primary educative value (cf. Mahanisiha 1, 63 f. *). It purified the imperfect religious (chaunalihassa [=chadmasthikasya] visohi, Jiya 5) and guided him. In the course of the repentance, sorrow is expressed for faults against the three guptis and the five samitis - on conditon that they are simple (that is to say, that they have been con mitted thoughtlessly (sahasa-karatah) and heedlessly (anabhogo vismslih, Vav Pith T 24 a 6; 7)) and that they have caused no harm to any creature. In addition, ope must confess bad bebaviour (pratitupa-yoga), indifference to good manners, and transgressions ich have unintentionally offended against the additional virtues (uttaraguna, infra) : guttisu ya samitisu ja padiruvi-joge taha "pasatihe ya .'.: vaikkame anabhoge payacchitlam padikkamanam (Vav Pith. Bh 60). The "mixed" penance is imposed : if there is any doubt, when one bas acted thoughlessly, under the influence of fear or of a pbysical weakness, in time of calamity and, finally, when through simple heedlessness, one has offended against the fundamental vows : sankie sahasagare bhay'aure avalisu ja; mahayvayaticare ya ... (ibid 100). "Restitution" consists in giving back an alms which had been accepted in complete good faith, but which was impure (ibid 109 f.). Kausagga, the undisturbed abandonment of the body, must be practised before, during and after the principal acts of the religious life, and in p. 123 various circumstances which might be considered perilous (ibid 111; infra 169). Its duration varies according to the case. , According to the Vav Pishika, the sixth atonernent (lava, lapas) can last 5, 10, 15, 20 or 25 days; or 1, 4 or 6 months, mitigated, or not. . The acts of the niggantha are analysed in their constituent elements and it is determined thus to what extent he has sinned or not. The typical example is that of the monk who picks up, or puts down, a stick, He is totally innocent if, for example, in taking hold of it or in laying it down,

Page #121
105 he acts with attention and cleans it (the : 4th case studied). He deserves five days of tapas if he is guilty of negligence on the first or second point (cases 2, 3), or on both (1st case). It is still necessary that no creature should have been injured. It is the same for a person who takes a boat, who spits, who scratches himself, who carries a garment out of the sun into the shade or vice versa, who passes from one type of ground to another - or from a road to a village, etc. It is the same again when one omits the customary formulae on departure or arrival, or when one does not show to the guru the respect due to him (T 1 42 6 - 436; ad Bh 126 f.). It is no longer days but months of tapas which must be observed to atone for the harm caused to a living creature when one spits, etc. (cf. ? ...I 436-469). Consequently a month - with or without mitigation according to the case - is imposed on the religious who receives alms in a wet bowl; a month on the religious who omits a period of study, whether it is of the text or of its interpretation; the same period on the religious who does not surrender himself as he should as he carries out his daily "obligations", who neglects to inspect the utensils of lesser usefulness, who neglects the fasts of the 8th, and 15th days, or who does not salute statues and shrines. A graver fault would incur a penance of four months: if one were to neglect the inspection of the objects of primary usefulness, and the fasts considered the most important : sajjhayassa akarane kaussagge taha apadilena posahiya taye ya taha avandana ceiyanam ca (Vav Pith Bh 130). The seventh atonement is intimately linked to the sixth; the Pithika is explicit on this point. It is imposed when the same fault has been repeated three times running by a religious who is, moreover, in perfect and bereft of any excuse. It consists (according to whether the on of the tava was calculated in days or in months) sometimes of five days etc., and sometimes of one, four or six months : eesim annayaram nirantaram aticarejja tikkhutto nikkaranam agilane panca u raimdiya chedo (ibid 128; cf. 135). The death of a living creature entails complete loss of seniority (ibid. 136). i P. 124 This last, it will be remembered, is the heaviest penance exacted of any religious living within the community. In the Vay Pithika, information concerning the cheya and mula remains rather sketchy. The Jiya gives in addition the following information, 14

Page #122
Ivo The cheya or the mula are, it seems, the penalties 'which can be imposed upon the religious who boast of performing without difficulty the sixth atonement, who would not be able to bear it, who do not believe in its efficacy, whose passions are not restrained by it, who might be led to judge their failings with excessive indulgence, who might be too strongly inclined towards evil (80; 84). In addition, the cheya is prescribed for whcever constantly fails in respect of the sadditional merits" (uttara-guna), who persists in committing faults which demand the cheya (chey'ayattisu pasajjamano). It is also prescribed for the religious whose transgressions should be expiated by atone. ments of a rank bigher than the tara, on condition that he still has the necessary seniority (Jiya 81-82; cf. Abhidhana 3, 1362 a). As for the mila, it is prescribed for the monk who injures or kills a creature with five senses, who deliberately (dappena) offends against chastity (infra 127), who fails several times into the three other capital sins. Or, again, it is prescribed for anyone who rejects faith or good conduct, or who abandons his duties, for the novice, for the person who fails totally in respect of his religious engagements (accant'osannesu), who assumes the insignia either of a layman or of a religious of another sect, who commits an act necessitating the mula (!), or who, being a simple bhikkhu, has deserved the ninth and tenth atonements. It is also prescribed when schiority has been reduced by repeated cheya. Thus the "complete (suppression)" of religious seniority would intervene, sometime as a consequcncc of specific transgressions and sometimes when the monk is obstinate in crror and relapses (Jiya 83-86). The foregoing details have been reproduced merely as an indication, and only because, as we shall scc, the Vav Bh T provide incomplete and fairly discordant information about the seventh and cighth atonements. But the provisions laid down in thc Jiyakappa arc valid, it will be remem. bercd, only for a relatively latc period. It could not be said that they hind a similar force of law in the more remote times of the kappa-V'avahara and Vista-sulta - texts which say very little about the cheya and still less about the mula.

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p. 125 ... TRANSGRESSIONS AND MERITS. LIBERTY AND RESPONSIBILITY. ' ; Transgression may be considered in relation to the "merits" or "princi ples": against which they offend. In the case of a monk, these are the five "fundamental merits" (mula-guna), and the ten "additional merits" (uttara-guna) (cf. Lehre $$ 170 ff.; R. Williams, Jaina Yoga 50 ff.). In a nega.. tive form, they are enumerated in a fixed order, which is scrupulously respected when making the confession : mul'uttara-padiseva, mule pancavihe, uttare dasaha (Vav Bh 1, 38 a). The "fundamental merits"2 consist in : 1) not injuring living creatures; 2) not lying; 3) not appropriating what has not been freely given; 4) not offending against chastity; 5) not possessing anything. To this list of guna, a sixth was soon added; one must refrain from eating at night. The uttara-gunas oblige the religious to respect : 1) the three guptis; 2) to 6) the five samitis; 7) the six external mortification (tapas); 8) the six internal mortifications; 9) the twelve observances of the monks (bhiksupratima); 10) the rules concerning the substance, place and time of almsgiving and the sentiments which inspire the donor (abhigraha) (ad Vav Bh 1, 38). Those religious who imitate the Jina (jinakal pika) make atonement for the least departure from good conduct. They are, however, sufficiently advanced spiritually not to permit any transgression (Vav T II 88 b 3). . As for those who follow the rule of the elders (sthavirakalpika) the commentaries of the Vavahara recognise that the Nisiha-sutta does not mention the venial offences wbich they are likely to commit (atikrama, vyalikrama, aticara, cf. infra). It is concerned solely with their grave transgressions against religious conduct (anacara) : sauve vi ya pacchitta je sutte te paducca 'nayaram therana bhave kappe : jinakappe causu vi paesu (Vav Bh 1, 253) 196 The Vav Bhasa and the Tika bave done the less analysed the three stages which precede the committing of the anacara. The monk indeed is regarded as guilty when he allows himself to be seduced (atikrama), and 1 This type of statement has nothing specifically Jaina about it, as R. WILLIAMS pertinently emphasises, referring to the Decalogue (Jaina Yoga, XIX). Compare the remarks of GONDA, Four Studies in the Language of the Veda 110 ff. 2. Compare the five yamas, constituent of the first anga of Yoga (ahimsa, satya. asteya, brahmacarya, aparigraha). 3 The Mahanisiha imposes the obligation of expiating certain serious offences even if they are committed in thought only (I, 214, 215deg; II & 23: 188).

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108 led astray (vyatikrama), and when he breaks the rule (aticara) - for example if he listens to the offer of an impure alms, if he goes out of bis way to receive it, if he accepts it: sthavirakal pikanam trisv atikram'adisu padesu prayascittam bhayati (Vav T II 88 a, cf. Vay Pith Bh 107 f.). But up to this point his transgressions are considered minor; and so long as he has not gone as far as a grave infraction (for example using the forbidden alms), it is sufficient for the sthavirakalpika, to expiate the tbree types of offences just defined, to express his full and sincere repentance : mithya duskita-matra-pradanenapi sudlyati (T II 88 b 1 f.). Should he persist in his error to the extent of violating the code of religious conduct, he expiates, at the same time as the anacara, the three moments of sinfulness above-mentioned which have led bim into "misconduct", for the anacara is inevitably conditioned by the moments which preceed it, in such a way that they are naturally taken into account in the calculation of the parihara. Thus without being explicitly mentioned in the Nisiha, in effect they do figure in it, by implication (cf. T II 88 a-6). The apalysis and discussion just undertaken show the Jaina teachers as being anxious to correct more than just the comportment of the monks. They try to redeem and reform even the very impulses and intentions of their flock. The pastors take trouble to divine these intentions correctly and to appreciate exactly the responsibility of the offender. It will be recalled that the Jainas, like other ladiacs, distinguish between what is done in act, in word, and in thought (supra 90 and n. 3); and that they distinguish even further in differenciating the actions that the agent does personally, those which he causes someone else to do, and those in whose execution he helps. One cannot then take the accusations of the Buddhists literally when they accuse the nirgrontha of not according any value to the intentions which motivate the individuall. P, 127 Let us refer rather to the Vavahara Bhasa and the Tika. 1 The Abhidharmakosa says: "According to the Nirgranthas, from murder-even when committed unwittingly and unwillingly (abuddhi-parvat)- there results, for the person who committed it, sin, just as a burn results from contact with fire. On this score, a person is guilty (papa-prasanga) when he sees or touches involuntarily someone else's wife. [....] On the other hand, whoever causes the murder to be committed by someone else is not guilty, because one is not burnt when one causes someone else to touch the fire. Since no account is taken of the intention (buddhi-visesa), the wood and the other materials, although bercft of consciousness are capable of murder when a house collapses and living beings perish." The passages of Uttar and Suja adduced by La Vallee Poussin (IV 155 p. 2 n 3, are not conclusive. 5

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109 When there is a question of "fundamental merits" or of "additional merits", they distinguish two types of transgressions : some are caused by the presumption of the subject (darpa) and others arise in the exercise of the Rule (kalpa) : ekk ekka vi ya duviha dappe koppe ya nayavva (Bh 1, 38 b). It is specified that these last (kal pika) bave a cause (infra): the resurgence of the karman previously accumulated (karmodaya, cf. Bh 1, 41 f.) One might perhaps wonder how a zealous monk could transgress. It could happen that he stumbles on a rough road, that he slips in the mud etc. (Bh 1, 39 f.). The fault arises then on the very path of virtue: from this comes its name of kal pika "a sinPage #126
110 guilty of faults committed under constraint. In such a case, it is of little importance whether or not he is conscious of his actions: ceyanam aceyanam va paratantattena do vi tullaim (Vav Bh 2, 139 a) If he is physically deficient, or if he is possessed by a yaksa, or if he is manipulated by his family, he is considered to be under the control of others and his actions are considered to be independent of his own will. Thus he is obviously innocent, and will be just as innocent from a reli gious point of view: loko yo yatranatmavasataya pravartate tam tatra nirdosam abhimanyate, tato loke tatha-darsanatas tam api kaya-vyasana-hetum nirdosani abhimanyatam (T IV 35 a; Bh 2, 141), Actions done under constraint do not produce any karman (aphala), on condition, naturally, that one bas pot actively consented to them (asaijjamane) (Bh 2, 322). This question is debated at lepgth in the commentaries. The teacher as that if a religious is, for example. suffering from a mental illness, his conduct is predetermined. He does not accumulate any karman and has therefore not bing to expiate: (ksi pta-citte caritram avasthitani ato nasau prayascitta-bhag ili, T IV, 33 6 13; ksipta-cillasya raga-dvesabhavatah karmapacajabhavah, ibid, 34 a 12). To illustrate his arguments, the teacher gives the example of the marionettel whose many actions are in fact caused by someone else and bring it no benefit: kunamani vi ya cittha paralanta nattiya bahuvihao kiriya-phalena jujjai na jaha, em eva evam pi (yatha nartaki yantra-kasthamazi paratantra...) (Bh 2, 137). " P. 129 Tbis is the point of view maintained by the teacher against the codaka and, naturally, he wins the argument (IV 33 b ff.). Consequently, on the one hand, the companions of a religious who has lost his reason are required to guard him or to watch him closely, since there would be added to any penance which their negligence might earn them, the penances necessary to atone for the transgressions and crimes committed by the sick man (murders, arson, theft...) (T IV 30 b - 33 a), Moreover, they take extreme care, whatever their "commensality" (sambhoga), to avoid all possible faults when they receive or procure for bim food, ordinary objects, a bed, etc. (Bh 2, 130). . On the other hand - and in spite of what some authorities say-when the unfortunate monk has regained the liberty of action which he had momentarily lost, ope must remember that he has sinned without either 1 Cliche ? Draupadi also uses the image of the marionette when she denounces "the tyranny of the divinity" and deplores the creature's lack of liberty, Moh.3, 31, 22; cf. 36.

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: 111 desire or repugnance, like an automaton. Thus he will not be submitted either to the "heavy" procedure, nor even to the "light" procedure, but for the sake of form-to the "lightest possible" procedure (ahalahusae... vavahare): "solely that he might be pure" (suddhi-matra-nimittam), "in conformity with the teachings of the sutra (sutropadistatvat, T IV 33 a 13-b 5; referring to Vav 2, 9 ff.). The procedure consists in the prohibition of all vikrtis for five days (nirvikrtika IV, 25 b). It can be seen that the provisions - certainly ancient-of the Jaina canon incontestably linked the notions of sin, intention, freedom and responsibility (cf. for Buddhism, Pettazzoni, La confessione dei peccati, I, p. 322; 332). The commentators have never denied this doctrine1 which conforms moreover to the ways and customs of the world, as they are careful to emphasise (loke tatha darsanatah) 1 Compare Pravacanasara, 3, 17: payadassa n'atthi bandho himsa-mettena samidassa, "there is no bondage for him, who is mindful in the items of carefulness, by mere (physical) harm.". (transl. A. N. Upadhye, p. 407; with moreover, ib. n. 2, reference to Tattvartha 7, 13). 14. C

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p. 130 COMPLEMENTARY OBSERVANCE : THE SERVICE (vezavacca; vaiyavriya). If it is adequate, the alonement washes away the stain which the sin has made. It is necessary also to eliminate the karman accumuleted in the course of the various existences (kamma-nijiara, karma-nirjara). This can be done by devoting oneself to the service of one's brethren, as is indicated in Vav 10, 35: Dejavaccam karemane samane nigganthe maha-nijjare maha. pajjavasane bhavai, "the religious...succeeds perfectly in shaking off , and attaios in all its fullness." Uttar says, more precisely, that he then assures himself of a karman which will provide him with the name and the goira of a Saviour : veyavaccenam bhante jive kim janayai ? veyavaccenam tilthaj ara-nama-gollam kammam nibandhai (29, 43). The purpose of the atonement is more particular, while the preoccupations of the person who performs the service" are more general. The two of them are occasionally performed together: ekam tajan me prajascilladanena sodhih ksla, dviliyam vaijavsiye niyuktasya mahali me nirjara bhavisyati (Vay T III 4 a 2 f.). But not all religious are strong enough to carry out the two observances jointly. The scholastics thus distinguish four types of religious: pacchittassa u ariha ime u purisa caudviha honti ubhaya-tara aya-taraga para-taraga anna-taraga ya (Bh 1, 298; not in Nisiha). The monk who is "doubly helpful" (ubhayatara) is useful to himself at the same time, in observing a tapas wbich could possibly last six months, as he is useful to the teachers, in serving them. The monk who, while specially gifted for mortification, is unsuited to service, is helpful only to himself" (alma-t.). The monk whose aptitudes are the reverse is "helpful to others" (para-t.). Finally, the monk who cannot perform the two observances at the same time is "helpful to cach one in turn" (anya-t.) (T III 3 0 7 ff.) He is compared to the man who does not have the strength to carry two pigeons on the same shoulder (Bh 1, 319 a; cf. 313 b). In a certain way, this fourth type includes the second and third (anya-taro nama dvidha alma-tarah para taras ca, T III 9 a 14). No matter who benefits from the service, the one who carries it out always draws great merit from it ( II 35 a). P.130 The following arrangement shows the value placed on the vaiyadrlya : in a company where there is nobody to perform the service" of the 1. f. Praracanasara, 3, 49 ff.

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113 acarya, a religious anya-taraka happens to deserve a penance. The penance will be deferred (niksiptam kriyate) and he will be charged with the service. Once this is finished, he will undertake his atonement. Now, if he commits a new offence while he is "serving", it is cancelled (jhosyate) (T III, 8 6); if, on the contrary, the fault is committed, not during the vaiyavrtya, but during the atonement, the total amount of this last is increased (cf. ibid, 10 b-11 a, the same measure in favour of the para-tara). The Kappa and Vavahara-sutta allow us to imagine, more or less, what these benefits - sometimes spiritual but generally material (cf. bhakt adibhir upastambhah, Uvav gl., s. v. v.) were. They naturally vary according to the abilities of the "servant" and the needs of those whom he serves. The Vav defines ten kinds of service (10, 35): to the superior, to the preceptor, to the elder, to the pupil, to a sickman, to a penitent, to a religious, to the spiritual family, to the company and to the community (cf. Uttar 30, 33). Except in cases of circumstances beyond their control, ordinary monks and nups "of the same commensality" (sambhoiya) do not serve each other (Vav 5, 20). It will be seen that, in the course of certain atonements, the monk of necessity benefits from the help of particularly experienced companions. Perhaps the removal of the corpse of a brother in religion would be placed among the vaiyavstyas rendered to the company or to the religious community (K 4, 24). Certain individual services are related in some detail. The service which the "isolated" religious (parihariya) owes, on occasions, to the teacher is defined in K 4, 26: helping him to rise, to commence his journey, to sit down, to lie down, to remove or clean up his various excretions. . From Vay 1, 22 ff., it emerges that the religious observing the atonement called parihara sometimes left his company to place himself at the disposal of an Elder outside it; and from Vav 2, 29 f. (and Bh ?), it appears that he occasionally went begging alms in the Elder's place (cf. K 5, 53). The service rendered to a sick person, or to a penitent who offers no resistance to the mortification undertaken, is of the same sort, despite slight variations. One helps the person who is sick at the end of a fast (ksapana): " < he is helped to > examine < his belongings >,< one obtains for him > drink, < food, medecine > , < one removes and supplies > three pots for excrement : padilehana samtharae panaga taha mattaga-tigam ca (Vav Bh 1, 112 b) :: . 15

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114 p. 132. The religious who has undertaken the sixth, Dipth or tenth atonement is not neglected if his strength abandons him (110 kappai ... nijjuhittae); on the contrary, the "coadjutor" (ganavaccheiya) looks after him zealously until he is completely well again (Vay 2, 6 ff.). Better still, if the religious in difficulty is a stranger to the company and asks to be admitted, his request is examined; and he will be received if his disease is not contagious. Precautions must be taken when an epidemic breaks out; the patient is received and accommodated apart from the rest; he is looked after even at the risk of offending the lay host, and if necessary by means of many strategems (Bh 2, 87-89). The service performed for the religious parihariya is the concern of the teacher and the 'second' It has two aspects - one largely material and the other largely spiritual (compare Viyah V, 4, quoted in vav s. v. o.). Material help is given, in silence and at the express request of the penitent, by the one seconding him, or occasionally by the ganadaccheija (V av 2, 5 f.). They help him to rise, to sit, to beg, to inspect his belongings. ufthijja niszijja bhikkham hindejja bhandayam pehe Vay Bh 1, 368 a = Nis Bh 2 885; cf. Vao Bh 2, 75). However as it is defined by the commentaries of Vav 1, 17, the service of the parihariya could be considered in many respects spiritual (bhave). It is then dispensed by the teacher and consists in praising or exhorting, criticising and helping: anusitthi, uvalambhe, uvaggahe ceva (Bh 1, 374 b; cf. infra 190) The "demoted" monk and the "excluded" monk receive a visit from the ayariya every day- or, if he is prevented, from someone sent by him, since enquiries are to be made every day about his health; and he is helped, if necessary. Care must be taken, naturally, that all these services do not unduly exhaust the members of the company - in particular the novices -- and do not prevent them from studying (T II 36 a 10). This is why the ayariya must not accept lightly, and against the will of his subjects, a monk who is a stranger to the gana and who wishes to enter it in order to devote himself to fasting (ibid 36 b. * It will have been noticed that as a general rule the observance of any ascetical practice is greatly facilitated by the solicitude of brothers in religion. This solicitude is unfailing - even during the sixth, ninth and p. 133 tenth atonements, which, however, banish the religious morally or in fact. One could see here one of those cases of complementarity to which Louis Dumont has drawn attention (Le renoncement dans les religions de l'Inde, Archives de sociologie des religions, 7, 1959, p. 49-50)

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P. 134 115 Not only do the mortifications of some call for the services of others, but one service begets another. During certain penances, the religious tries to serve the teacher, who, however, is engaged in assisting him. Ia addition, pastors devote the greater part of their activities to ensuring the well-being of their flock, who in return serve and venerate them. Thus the structure of the community and the division of tasks between superiors and ordinary religious by the institution of the service - which often appears as the necessary complement of mortification establish an uninterrupted cycle of mutual help, both material and spiritual. The result is that everybody attains deliverance sooner (compare R. Williams, Jaina Yoga xx f.). Service was likewise practiced by the Buddhists (Pa. veyyavacca, veyyavatika). According to the article vaiyapatya in the BHS Dictionary, the beneficiary is generally the Buddha, but it could also be the community or any individual monk. It is also said that the Bodhisattva served living beings. Those who serve increase their merits, as do the Licchavis by serving the Buddha and thanking him for his sermon (Muu 1, 298, 19*). According to the Divyavadana, in this way one prepares oneself to be reborn into a rich family (54, 16-55, 6; 347, 27 ff.; compare supra, Uttar 29, 43). For the religious, "service" is obligatory. The Pali Suttavibhanga condemns to an atonement any nun who has not personally served her superior for two years: ya pana bhikkhuni vutthapitam pavattinim dve vassani nanuband heyya, pacittijam ti (Vin IV 326, 1 f.** cf. CPD, s. v, anu-bandhati) The commentary specifies that she obtains for her soap-powder, tooth-picks and water to rinse her mouth, and does whatever there is to do (quoted by SBB, XIII, 378, n. 1). The Mahavagga analyses the task of the pupil who ministers to the needs and desires of the superior with whom he lives (saddhiviharika). His task was clearly very demanding, requiring as it did continual vigilance and devotion. (I, 46-49). The Brahmanic student is also required to serve his master: he helps him with his toilet (Baudh Dh S 1, 2, 3, 35). Manu enumerates his obligations to bring him a jug full of water, flowers, dung, earth, the herb kusa and alms (II, 182). Ap Dh S I, 1, 4, 25 f. adds a spiritual service : the student on occasions recalls the acarya to the path of duty with all due discretion; and he can even atone in his place : 1 pramadad acaryasya buddhi-purvam va niyamatikramam rahasi bodhayet anivrttau svayam karmany arabheta.

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p. 135 CHAPTER IV THE FIRST ATONEMENT : CONFESSION (aloyana; alocana)1 The practice of confession was established in India at the time when the communities of Buddha and Mahavira were taking shape. The latter must have introduced it among the adherents of Parsva (Lehre SS 16). The former seems to have instituted it to quench criticism, and following the example of other religious sects (Vin I 101 ff.; SBB XIV, p. 131 9. 2). The existence of confession is, indeed, attested in the Bralimanas (cf. Kane IV, 40). The qualities which are attributed to it in these texts seem Dot to have been contested subsequently. The offence which has been confessed is attenuated (SBr II, 5, 2, 20).2 The offender is purified, and worthy to undertake penance (Taitt Br I, 6, 5, 2). But confession is as yet concerned only with faults of a sexual nature (Pettazzoni, La con fessione dei peccati I, 233 f.). Subsequently, the Dharmasutras prescribe it for all grave faults (Kane IV, 41; Inde classique SS 1248). The smoti, finally, makes its use widespread and command the sianer to go as soon as possible before the assembly (parisad) to ask it to inflict a suitable penance (Kane IV, 84 f.). It is admitted still that a fault confessed is a fault at least partially expiated (cf. Madu XI, 228). Gampert insists upon the capital role of confession in Brahmanic ideas and customs. According to him, the place accorded to it by Buddhists is no greater (Suhnezeremonien, 233). It seems, at least, that among the latter (as among the Jainas) the observance is more systematic. The Buddists, we know, hold on fixed dates ceremonies traditionally called confession ceremonies. Some take place every fortnight (patimokkhuddesa, pralimoksoddesa) and others at the end of the monsoon (pavarana, pravarana). But the presence of an offender who has not confessed would prevent the proclamation of the "total purity" (parisuddhi) of the assembly of patimokkha, would invalidate the meeting (Vin II 236), and would for bid the issuing of the invitation" at the end of the rainy season (ibid I p. 136 170; cf. 164). The actual confession precedes the ceremony. It has then a very pronounced lustral character. But it is also of positive use : "whoever admits his sin, confesses it and promises not to 1. Cl. Pravacarasera 3, 12, 2. Sec GONDA, Change and Continuity, f. 399 and n. 409.

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117 do it again is a gain for the Law" (Vin II 126 = 192; cf. IV 18-19; quoted by Lamotte). This is because it develops self-control (Dhammapada 185 = DN II 49, 28*) and sincerity (Vin II 240, 24 f.* = Udana V 5*; cf. SBB XX, 336 n. 1). Consequently, confession allows the attainment of various emancipations and deliverance (Vin I 103). Thus it is recommended to the lay person, as well as to the religious (cf. Vin II 126). The Jainas recognise in confession, as we shall see, virtues comparable to those just mentioned. There is no need to dwell upon these similarities. The consequences of the slightest transgression are, in their eyes, so dire that it is important to mitigate them as effectively and as quickly as possible. Expiation could not proceed, however, without a correct diagnosis - which confession alone would allow one to make. Atonement and confession are thus closely linked. The monk must practise them both with the same assiduity. It emerges from the Vav Bh ? that the good religious expresses his regret at the same time as he proclaims his short-comings (11 57 6 1; 59 a 4 f.). It is the aloyana, nevertheless, which makes it possible for all other observances to become fruitful on condition that this confession is sincere and complete. It would otherwise be in vain, or in. deed harmful, because it would add new errors to the account of the offender. We can, though, understand his hesitation : we will see that all the texts insist that confeseion is a difficult exercise demanding courage and abnegation from the sioner. It is a heroic act (cf. Lehre $ 158; Mahanisiha I 179*; infra 140). From the time even of their most ancient treatises, the Jainas had analysed the seven moments of the process which leads the singer from confession to the expiation of his fault, The first six go in pairs (cf. Lehre $ 160). Their enumeration constitutes a stereotyped formula which appears In K (4, 25), Vav (1, 35; cf. 6, 10 f.; 7, 1). They are : the confession or the declaration of the fault (K : aloettae, Vay : aloejja); the repentance (padikkamillae, -ejja) by which the penitent expresses his regret for having done evil : "mithya duskstam''; the guilt which he feels in his own cons-37 cience (nindittae : alma-saksikam); his self-reproach in the presence of the guru (garahittae : guru-saksikam); the repudiation of the sin, by which he turas away from it (viuftiltae : vyavarteta, nirvarteta); the total purification, by which he delivers himself from the sin (mucyate), at the cost of a

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118 scarifying purgation (visohittae: papa-mala-sphotanato nirmalikuryat); his firm purpose of amendment (akaranayae obbhutthittae); and finally his performance of the appropriate atonement. Vav 4, 20 f. associate aloyana and padikkamana only.1 As can be seen, it is not merely expected of the offender that he takes steps to be delivered from evil. It is required that he completes this catharsis by a sort of conversion. The Mahanistha does not hesitate to say that, having removed the darts (salya) which were piercing him, he acquires correct faith, knowledge, conduct, and superior knowledge (kevala-jnana), and that he attains deliverance (moksa) (I, 16*; 31 f.*; SS13; cf. Uvav, infra 139). The Uttarajjhaya has attempted to define the benefits which accrue at some of the stages just analysed. It is confession, here again, which allows one to pluck out the arrows preventing one from following the road to deliverance and condemning one to endless transmigration. Confession engenders rectitude, and consequently sincerity. One does not allow oneself to be led astray by desire for women or for eunuchs (sic!). One throws off previous bonds (29, 5; cf. infra). P. 138 Self reproach makes one feel remorse (pacchanutavam). One divests oneself of all worldly attachments and one reforms oneself little by little (ibid 6). As a result of the self-reproach, one experiences a feeling of humility. One turns away from blameworthy actions to praiseworthy ones, in such a way as to break the infinite chain of obstacles to salvation (ibid 7). The repentance fills in the breaches which have been made in the vows...one behaves impeccably...(ibid 11; cf. infra 157). According to Uttar 26 (41-42; cf. 49-50), the monks who apply themselves to the pursuit of perfect conduct (samayari) address their confession to the guru, at the end of each day and each night. It is preceded by kaussagga and by the greeting of the teacher, and is intimately associated with the subsequent repentance - which itself is followed, in the reverse order, by a salutation and kaussagga : pariya-kaussaggo vandittana tao gurum desiyam (49 raiyam) tu aiyaram aloejja jahakkamam padikkamittu nissallo vandittana tao gurum kaussaggam tao kujja savva-dukkha-vimokkhanam These famous stanzas show that the step from confession to repen. tance is not a great one; but it will be noticed that this text is not very 1. Compare GAMPERT 233-237.

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119 ancient (the nom. sing. is in-o). Neither K nor Vav mention the twicedaily confession. It is to confession that, according to Malayagiri, the Vavaharasutta devotes the first sultas of the first lesson, those which are sometimes numbered from 1 to 10 corresponding to the su. 1-20 of the Schubring edition : iha (...) saryany apy alocana-sutrani kila sarva-samkhyaya dasa bhavanti (T III 20 a 9). There it is seen indeed that the sentence varies according to the frapkness and truthfulness of the confession. The ceremonial is described in the su. 1, 35; 4, 21 lay down that the religious who has set out on his peregrinations for more than four to five days must confess and repent as soon as he sees his thera; 5, 19, says that, theoretically, confession should not be made between ordinary monks and nuns "of the same commensality" (sambhoiya). The Vav Bh 7 define three sorts of confession : alocana tri-vidhety uktam (II 16 6 13). They are called : 1. vihar'aloyana; 2. uvasampayaloyana (upasampad-alocana); 3. avarah'aloyana (aparadh'alocana). The first is the confession of the religious lise, which is exposed to the scrutiny of all : viharam ... prakatayanti (T II 17 a 6). According to the commentaries, it is this confession which the monks address to the superior of their "commensality" at definite times in their itinerant iife (T II 17 a-b; cf. 38 6 9; infra 146 f.). This first sort of confession could, then, be consi. dered normal. The two others occur in particular cases, The second confession is that which the religious makes in order to creioin" a company to which he is a stranger. The third is confession of an "offence" by a religious who has come from another company espe. cially for this purpose. I will discuss later the way in which each of these three types of 39 confession is made. I preface this with some general observations : about the specific virtues of the observance (compare supra 136), the qualities of the confessor and the penitent, and the various rules common to the three varieties. Some similarities will be noted in passing between the beliefs and customs of the Jainas, those of the Hindus and especially those of the Buddhists. All three proclaim the vital importance of confession. This person is a true believer who, like a docile horse, is not led astray by any temptation, who conquers himself and runs straight to the feet of his teacher to confess as soon as possible (Bh 1, 48 f.). In this way he removes the darts of his unconfessed faults (salya). Should he so 1.. Vihara signifies, indeed, the life in religion; the monks must not settle anywhere, except during the monsoon.

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120 much as hesitate out of fear of the operation - and the darts penetrate deeper into his flesh - he falls deeper into sin, and his karman is increased (Suya 2, 2, 20; cf. Mahanisiha p. 11). Confession brings relief and gladness, puts an end to the crimes of the sinner and of others, puts one on the right path again, and purifies one. It constitutes an heroic deed, an example of excellence in conduct; and no arrows remain : lahuya' lhadi-jananam appa-para-niyatli ajjavam sohi dukkara-karanam vinao nissallaltam va sohi-guna (Vav Bh 1, 134= Nis Bh 6 391). It will have been noticed that among the eight virtues here recognised in the aloyana, there are positive virtues as well as negative ones.1 Confession is an essential stage on the road to deliverance, and one which makes possible all later efforts and progress. Whoever dies without having confessed is exposed to long periods of rebirth (analocite ca yadi mriyate, tato dirgha-samsari bhavati, Vay T II 16 a 2). He wanders endlessly in the thick, impassable jungle of transmigration (Bh 2, 47-48; compare Uvav &$ 88; 100; Candavejj haya 131-156; etc.). . The Brahmanic codes invite the sinner to appear before a council (parisad), and, in exceptional cases, before a person who is allowed to sit alone (cf. Kane II 2, 967 ff.). The Buddhist can address himself either to the community, to the p. 140 group to which he belongs, or to an individual : so pakaseyya samgha majjhe va gana-majjhe va eka-puggale va (Vin I 103, 26 f.). In practice, it seems that he seeks out a.monk (MN II 248, 21 ff.; infra). It is also to an individual that the confession of a Jaina monk seems most often to be made. Vav 1, 35 recommends, in preference confession to religious teachers, the superior and the preceptor : jatth' eva appano ayariya-upajjhae pasejja, tes' antiyam aloejja... But if none of these is available, the sulta allows them to address themselves to ordinary monks, or even to lay people. As far as possible, learned people must be chosen (bahussuyam babbhagamam). The sutta gives, in order of preference : 1) a religious "of the same commensality" (jaith' eva sambhoiyam sahammiyam pasejja...); 2) or a religious "of another commensality" (annasombhoiyam sahammiyam)2. 3) or even a layman "who has the appearance" of a bhikkhu - that is. 1. PETTAZZONI has noted mainly the negative aspect of Jaina confession, adding that it conforms to the archaic character of the doctrine considered as a whole La Confessione dei peccati I 273). 2. Failing this, a parsvastha, according to ?, H, but not according to Vav. Cf. Abhldhana 2, 425 a

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121 who wears the robe and carries the broom (sariviyam)"; 4) or else finally, the holy sanctuaries (sammam-bhaviyaim). Lacking all of these, one makes the confession in solitude addressing it to the "Perfect Saints" (arahantanam siddhanam antie). According to this text, it would seem that the identity of the confessor is of relatively small consequence. In the commentaries, it is normally the superior (acarya) who receives the confession. If he is not available, he is replaced by the preceptor (upadhyaya), or even, if necessary, by an adept (gitartha) (cf. infra 148). Th Confession being a difficult undertaking, the teacher should take care to welcome amiably the religious who has come to confess - for example by the use of encouragements such as you are fortunate; you are perfect; it is not hard to sin - the difficult thing is to confess correctly" * (dhanno si tumam, sampunno si tumam, na dukkaram jam padisevijjai, tam dukkaram jam sammam aloijjai, cf. T III 39 b 12 ff.; cf. 40 b 2). These words bring to mind Asoka's warnings in his fifth Rock-edict: "A good action is a difficult thing. Whoever gives rise to a good action bas done a difficult thing...It is easy to sin" (Dhauli : pape hi nama supa dalaye); and again in the tbird Pillar-edict : "One considers only 21 the good : 'I have done something good', one says to oneself. On the other hand, one does not consider the evil; one does not say : 'I have done something bad', or : That is what is called a sin'. To tell the truth. it is a difficult examination" (du(e) pative(k)khe ca kho esa, ibid 163). * The teacher remains affable during the confession, under pain of himself incurring four months, without abatement, of the sixth atonement (Vav T IV 18 b 5 ff.). The confessor's role is to help the offender to confess well, and to atone well. Various qualities are expected of him (cf. Lehre SS 159, referring to Than.). Vav Bh ? pick out the following nine : to be discreet ( nirapa. lapin ); to possess the knowledge and the conduct etc., required of a religious (acaravant); to be able to retain what is confessed (adharavant): to know the procedure and apply it to the best of his knowledge (vyavaharavant); by being affable, to remove all false shame from the offen. der so that he will confess without reticence (apavridaka); to reform the offender by a judicious choice of penance (prakurvin); to find out the penance which suits him best and will thus allow him to liberate himself (niryapaka); to have the ability to represent to those who are recalcitrant the miseries to which they expose themselves both here and here-after (apaya-darsin); finally not to repeat what has been confessed (aparisravin) (cf. Bh 1, 337-338). 1. Failing this, say Bh ? (but not l'av), a pascatkyta, that is, a layman who was once a monk (Abhidhana, ibid) . .. 16.

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P. 142 122 On the other hand, there are some religious who have every chance of being able to confess well. Bh recognises ten qualities in them: jai-kula-vinaya-nane damsana-caranehi sampanno khante dante amar apacchatavi ya hoti bodhavve (Bh 1, 339 b-340 a) They are of good birth on the mother's side (jati) and of good family on the father's (kula). They possess education, knowledge of the doctrine (which permits them to confess correctly), faith in the purifying powers of confession, and good conduct (which will enable them to avoid relapsing into error). They tolerate remonstrances, control their senses, and are upright; and, instead of regretting having confessed, they rejoice at the thought that they have acquired merit (cf. Deo, History, p. 152). One is recommended to make the confession in a straight-forward manner, like the child who entrusts himself to his parents : Jaha balo jampanto kajja-m-akajjam ca ujjuyam bhanai tam taha aloejja maya-maya-vippamukko u (quoted ad Vav Bh 1, 133-Nis Bh 6392-Ohanijj 801; nearly identical with Aurapaccakkhana 32 and Mahapaccakkhana 22 (cf Bhattapaccakkhana 22); to which can be compared Mahanisiha I, 199 a* : bhune muddhadage bale jaha palave ujju-paddharam).1 Monks however sometimes have recourse to various strategems. The commentaries catalogue ten of these, which are also recognised by Than., Viyah (cf. Lehre SS 158; Deo, History 153). They consist in ingratiating oneself with the confessor; choosing a confessor who is indulgent; confessing only the misdeeds committed in the guru's sight; confining oneself to grave offences, or to light offences; speaking in an inaudible voice; or speaking so loudly that one can be heard by inexperienced religious; confessing to several teachers in succession; confessing to an inexperienced teacher; or confessing to a teacher who, since he is guilty of the same offence, is led to punish it less severely : anukampiya anumaniya jam-dittham bayaram ca suhumam va chanham saddaulayam bahu-jana avvatta tas-sevi (VavBh 1, 341 = Nis IV, p. 363). The Mahanistha gives many other examples of bad confessions I, SS12*; 144 ff.*; 154 ff.*.). Faults committed during the confession must be expiated in their tura (Paz 1, 17 M.). The dishonesty (called "the second folly of the sinner") 1. On the "Child Behaviour," cf. H. NAKAMURA, The Adyar Library Bull. (Dr. V. Raghavan Felicit. Vol) 31-32, 1937-68, P. 219 (and n. 4)-220 The edition gives hampaitte arumeraitta, which does not fit into the arya. Professor Schubring has given me the variants here adopted, which appear in a quotation of the Anariradharmamita, and which are satisfactory from a prosodic point of view.

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123 seems one of those most severely condemned by the Jaina (cf. Suya 2, 2, 20). It must be expiated - before the offence itself by an additional month (cf. paliunciya, Vav 1, 1-16). It is also reproved by the Buddhists (Vin II 40-58) since it is a deliberate lie, intentional deceit is barely expiable (Vin I 103-4; compare Kane IV, 75; 63; Gampert, 236). Among the various faults that one risks commiting during the cere. mony, the commentaries pick out offences against precedence which is here complicated by the fact that it is neccesary at the same time to mark the superiority of the confessor over the one confessing, and to show the hierarchical relationship normally existing between two individuals present (T III 43 ff.; cf. infra 151 ff.). It will be recalled that confessors fall into two categories, agamavyavaharin, sruta-vyavaharin (supra 89). The first, who possess in some ways superhuman knowledge, can immediately detect any lapses of memory which disfigure the confession. If they judge it beneficial, they jog p. 143 the memory of the offender; and if they know him to be capable of reforming, they prescribe a penance for him. If not, they do not waste their time on him, since they never undertake anything which would be a mistake (TII 43 a-b; cf. Bh 1, 136). The technique of the second sort of confessor is well established. To satisfy themselves that the confession is sincere and truthful, the confessors cause it to be repeated three times. The first time, they pretend to be asleep1: "I dropped off to sleep. I heard nothing. Begin your confession again". The second time they say: "I was not paying attention and I did not understand you very well. Start again." If the third version is identical with the other two, one concludes that the religous has not lied (apratikunco amayavi) : ...aloyaventi te u tikkhutto saris'attham apaliunci visarisa parinamato kunci (Bh 1, 137 Nis Bh:6 395). It is in this fashion, apparently, that the secular judge proceeds (dandaka, karana-pati) when he questions himself about the good faith of those who appear before him. He causes the event to be related three times running : tinni u vara jaha dandiyassa... (Bh 1, 138 a = Nis Bh 6 396; cf. Nis cunni IV, 304). The doctor sruta-vyavaharin does his best, besides, to interpret the behaviour of the penitent. He recognises the rascal by his uneasy air, the 1. Note this untruth-But it is pure (cf. supra 98).

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124 on is liar by his anxiety, the honest religious by the precision and clarity of his articulation, by his serenity and by the coherence of his discourse (T II 45 a 7 ff.); civil magistrates also make use of this procedure (supra 91). After this review of the general conditions of confession, the three types recognised by the Vav Bh T (supra 138) remain to be examined. The explanations which they provide do not entirely dissipate all the obscurities, Several times, Malayagiri justifies the account which he gives of the rules of confession by referring to a tradition, an ancient teaching (cf. veddha-sampradaya, that is, the Nisiha-cunni T Il 17 a 6). Theoretically, each of the three confessions can be made "en bloc" (all together) or "in detail" (point by point) (cf. Deo, History 310, quoting p. 144 Ohanijjutti 519). This is what is specified - apart, for the first (oha-vibhage iti...oghena vibhagena ca, oghah samanyam, vibhago vistarah Vav T II 17 b; cf. Bh 1, 52), and jointly, for the two others : ohe ya paya-vibhage ya, ilvasambaya'varahe... (pratyekam dvidha...oghena pada-vibhagena ca, Bh 1, 62). In effect confession "en bloc" seems hardly to be permitted except in the confession of the religious life (vihar'al.), and only when the penance deserved does not exceed 25 days (ibid 1, 52 a). Beyond that, it is tolerated only in unavoidable circumstances (ibid b; cf. infra 146). The same rules apply to the confession uvasampayal. if it is made by a religious who asks to be received back among his fellows, for the con. fession then constitutes only a particular case of the preceding form (samanojno dvika-nimittam upasampadyamana alocanam vihar'alocanan iva oghena dadati pada-vibhagena ca T II 21 a 4 f.). But when this confession of the second type is made by a religious who is a stranger to the com. pany, it is normally made in detail. Confessions of the third type are in general also detailed, (avarah'al.). They are global only in an emergency (tasyanyasyasamanojnasya va alocana utsargato vibhagatah... tata eva karane oghen'alocaneti, ibid 21 a 9 f.; aparadh'alocanayam apy utsargata eya vibhagena datavya. apavada-karane punah...oghenapiti, ibid 11 f.). Definite examples of global confession are scarce. The commentaries mention it, at the same time as detailed confession, in the case of faults against the rules of precedence committed during the ceremony itself (T : III 45 a 12 f). For the person who confesses in detail, there exist, then. .. 81 possible varieties of transgression. For those who confess en bloc, there are 9 varieties. It seems that, in the last case, the atonement of the .

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125 : fault confessed en bloc is severer than that of the same fault confessed. in detail (infra 152 f.). ... These provisions recall those made by the Buddhists : the patimokkha can be recited in five ways. In cases of danger, and then only, the Buddha permits its recitation in summary (Vin I 112 f.; compare 168). - 145 The duration and the time of the confession vary according to whe. ther it is global or detailed, and according to the type of confession in question. If it is global, it takes place in a single day (which is obvious from its very nature - either there is little to confess or there is little time in which to confess). It takes place towards mealtime, and therefore by day only, since the religious do not eat at night. . If it is detailed, it can possibly be finished in one day, or it can spread over several days. It can even be made at night, because some. times the faults are numerous, and sometimes the confessor or the one ...confessing, fully occupied by his duties in the company, has little time at bis disposal : ohe egadivasiya, vibhagato nega egadivasa u rattim pi divasato va vibhagato, ohato divasam ...(Bh 1, 53 = Nis Bh 6 315). In general, no account is taken of the propitious or uopropiti; us nature of the day (cf. Bh 1, 54). This is never considered when the con. : fession is made en bloc, in view of the special circumstances which have made it necessary and the essential proximity of the meal (bhayan na prasastuprasasta-dina-cinta, vibhagatah punar asti, T Il 18 a 12). The first two confessions (vihar'al., uvasampayal.) can also be made on an unpropitious day or night, without the least irregularity or disadvantage (dosabhavat) - as the ancient teachers permitted, On the contrary, the "confession of offences" in detail, "on the order of the Jina",2 is carefully surrounded with auspicious circumstances (T II : 18 b 2 ff.). Thus it must take place only on a propitious day or night.3 Whatever the type of confession, the religious recites his offences in an invariable order (Vay Bh 1, 55; 57; 119 = Nis Bh 6 316; 6 318; 6 376): * first, those contrary to the fundamental merits (mula-guna), then those against the additional merits (uttara-guna), and then, the case being, his relations with lax religious and failures in his attempts to master himself. 1. tatha purva-suribhir anujnatatvat, 7 11 18 6 1, repeated in 20 b 9. . . 2. esa jin'ajna ? 11 20 b 11... . 3. aparadh' alocana vibhagato diyamana ... prasasta eva divase ratrau va bhavati, ibid 3-4, ad Bh 1, 54 b; and cf, infra 150.. ... .. .. ...... .

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P. 146 126 The Buddhists also recite the patimokkha in a certain fixed order : the introduction; then, successively, transgressions "involving defeat", "entailing a formal meeting of the order" doubtful faults...(Vin I 112). In what ways do the three types of confessions distinguished by the commentaries differ ? In the bonds which unite the assembled religious (these being some. times "commensals" and sometimes not); in the reason for which it is made (as a normal observance, at fixed intervals, for monks who, since they do not live on the spot, must make a special journey for that purpose: praghurnaka1; or as an exceptional observance, either with the purpose of entering a gana or of freeing oneself from faults.2 The confession vihar'aloyana is made between commensals (T II 17 a-b cf. 38 b 9). The religious desiring to confess arrive soon after the resident monks have begun their meal (dara-bhutte isad-bhukte vastavyasadhubhih...,17 b 2 ff. ad Bh 1, 52 Nis Bh 6 314). The commensality is clearly marked by the fact that they all eat together after the confession, if it is global and bcars normally on offences expiated by 25 days of penance at the most; before the detailed confession, on the contrary, since this contains faults serious enough to incur the parihara (oghen' alocayanti...cram alocya mandalyam bhunjate.. tad alocanaya alocya sadhubhih sahaikatra samuddisanti, T II 17 b 4 ff, cf. 18 b 9; visvak samuddi'santi pascad vibhagen' alocayanti, 17 b 7 f.). However, religious who deserve the parihara are permitted to share the common meal in case of circumstances beyond their control (a disaster, an epidemic in the village or the departure of the caravan with which they came). The same toleration is extended to those who have no personal bowls. They confess en bloc and eat with the community; but as soon as cach has his own bowl, they share the common meal, and p 147 finally confess in detail (Bh 1, 52 b = Nis Bh 6 374 b and the relevant C T). The confession is made to the most senior person present (rainiya) - or to the second in seniority, or to an adept. In principle, it is made at 1. Utually meaning, "a punt" 2. Perlag: ne might compare the three varieties of feasts with procession (utsava) of Vipo. 11e on one takes place on a fixed date; the second serves a display of faith 1 er en to the gol (iraddha); the third is decided as a result of evil patents (remita) with a view to conjuring misfortune (cf. GONDA, Aspects of Early Vaytim. 211 1,, fullesing the Kipapa-Sarhite).

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127 the end of each fortnight, or - in the absence of qualified religious, at the end of four months, or of a year, or of twelve years (a period which must not be exceeded under any circumstances; one must com it means a long journey). The chief of the little group of religious who are making the journey (phaddaga-pati, spardhaka-pali)1 must also be present : pakkhiya cau samvacchara ukkosam barasanha varisanam samanunna ayariya phaddaga-patiya ya vijadenti (Bh 1, 51; cf, Nis C IV 284, ad Nis Bh 6 313). Cuncerning "global" confession, it is said only that it is followed by a meal "in the circle" (supra). If it is made in detail, it takes place when the religious have gone off to beg alms or to find a place for meditation. How should one proceed ? Already Bh speaks of two traditions ; either the head of the group confesses to the teacher thus left on his own, in secret; or he does this in the presence of the religious who have come with him, who recall anything he might have forgotten : bhikkhadi-niggaesum rahite viyadanti phaddaga -pat u savva-samakkham kei te visariyam nusarenti (Bh 1, 56 = N:s Bh 6 317). The uvasampayaloyana is a very complex ceremony. The formalities which seem to be the necessary introduction to the confession proper give rise to a rather long exposition in the Vav Bh T (Bh 1, 61-119 = Nis Bh 6 322-6 376). : The ceremony is, in some ways, the exa nination either 1) for readmission or 2) for the admission of a religious into the company in : which he desires to perfect his knowledge, his faith, and (in the second case) his conduct, .: Before admitting him, a check is made to ascertain whether his motives are pure. He is asked how and why he came. Then the correct. ...ness of his manner of acting on essential points is checked (Bh 1, 62 p. 148 b = Nis Bh 6 323 b). On the motives of the religious, the commentaries give many details - providing as many pictures of contemporary customs - which have been summarised previously (79 n. 2). . The interrogation, conducted by the ayariya of the company which the monk wishes to join, takes place, theoretically, on the day of his 1. 1. For phadda(ga), see Lehre 8 139: the technical name of a small subdivision of the .. . community of monks (cf. Gujrati phad).

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128 arrival : "Where do you come from? Where do you want to go ? Why . do you want to join us ?" (T II 21 6 2-3). However, if he is clearly tired, the superior can put off these questions until the next day. Whether he has been questioned or not, the monk is required to explain his reasons on the first day. Each day of delay must be expiated; the longer he waits, the greater the penance (ibid, ad Bh 1, 65 = Nis Bh 6 326). An exception is given, as an appendix to the reception of a monk who has come in order to fast : kajje bhatia-parinna gilana raya ya dhammakaha vadi chammasa ukkosa tesim lu vaikkame guruga (Bh 1, 116). When the ayariya is engaged in the performance of his duties (serving a dying or a sick monk, teaching the king, preaching in public, debating with a formidable adversary) T allows that the confession be postponed - by one, two, three days and so on up to six months. If necessary, the superior can be validly replaced by an adept (giyaltha) who is worthy of receiving the confession; or again he can hear the confession at night. The ayariya is forbidden to exceed a period of six months under pain of incurring a parihara (of a duration which varies, however, according to the school). In any case, another exceptional extension of two or three days is permitted, if by chance the teacher's work is coming to an end. If this is not the case, he asks for permission to leave it and hears the confession of the religious. Is the religious pure" (that is, beyond reproach) or "impure" " (suddha-m-asuddho) ? One takes into consideration how the bhikkhu left : his former. gana and how he joined the new one (1. impure departure and arrival; 2. impure departure, pure arrival; 3 pure departure, impure arrival; 4. departure and arrival both pure). Reprehensible departures scem to have been rather frequent (Bh 1, 66-80 = Nis Bh 6 327-6 340). In this case, the superior must refuse the candidate (cases 1 and 2; cf. T II 24 6 12; 29 a 9) and in order to do this - which considerations of the greatest good of the company also require - all arguments were good. Any infraction will have to be expiated by the superior, and by the m! religious. Nevertheless, the rule permits some compromise, particularly .. when the monk repents (Bh 1, 99.- Nis Bh 6 359; supra). .... Naturally, the monk must atone for the faults which he may have p. 149 committed in the course of his journey (if, for example, he dallied in a ; .. district of abundant alms). But these faults are not of such a nature as :: * to disqualify him (T II 25 b; Bh 1, 81 b). noi ...:If the newcomer is totally innocent, he is accepted, and for three days an examination is made of how he carries out his "obligations"

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129 (avassaya; Bh 1, 83). He, for his part, observes the ayariya. If the results of the examination are satisfactory to both parties, the candidate remains in the company, on condition that he is zealous. .. - Once admitted, the religious confesses his offences against the funda. mental merits and the other merits, in the order . laid down :(Bh"1, 119 = Nis Bh 6 376). Then, the one being admitted, bows to the teacher and says: . aloyana me dinna, icchami sarana varana coyanam ti "Here is my confession. I desire you to advise , preserve si me from evil > and stimulate >". To this the superior replies : ajjo amhe sarejja varejja coijja iti "Friend, let us tryi to advise < you >, preserve < you from evil > and-stimulate you > !" (T 38 b 11 ff.). . ? The avarah'aloyana is the confession of the religious who has come from a foreign company in order to confess specific offences (Bh 1, 120133=Nis Bh 6 377-6 390). He announces this from the beginning, whether he is questioned or not (T IL 39 a 5). As in the confession uvasampaya loyana, the superior shows concern about the circumstances of his departure; why did he not confess on the spot? He is received or sent away according to his reply (ibid). It will be recalled that this confession is normally made in detail and carefully surrounded with auspicious circumstances (supra) - objects. places, times and conditions. The commentaries insist upon the choices to be made (Bh 1, 122 = Nis Bh 6 379). One should avoid ruins, heaps of unpleasant grain (sesamum, beans, millet seed), thorny trees, those without leaves, bitter plants, places 'burnt by fire or struck by lightning and the proximity of certain metals (iron; tin, copper and lead) (Bh 1, 150 123-125 = Nis Bh 6 380-82). Certain days are considered inauspicious (padikutthellaga-divase vajjejja, the 8th, 9th, 6th, 4th and 12th of the two fortnights). Dawn or dusk, according to the school, is also unpropitious, as is the conjunction of the planets with the moon - which gives rise to various plagues (Bh 1, 126 ff. = Nis Bh 6 383 tf.). One should choose verdant and charming places (Bh 1, 130 = Nis Bh 6 387) - with leaves. flowers and fruit, rice fields or lotus pools; and one should choose auspicious conditions - when the constellations are at their apogee (Bh 1, 131 a = Nis Bh 6 388 a). :: 1. Singular, 17

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1:30 Finally one orientates oneself in a favourable direction (Bh 1, 131 b = Nis Bh 6 388 b): either towards the East or towards the North; or again towards the land which could be called the Land "of wandering", where the religious life has been led by the Blessed One, or by any other teacher whose knowledge is exceptional (kevalin, etc.), or again, according to Malayagiri, by any yuga-pradhana (caranti nama yasyam (disi) Bhagavan arhan viharati, samanyatah kevala-jnani...yavan navapurvi yadi va yo yasmin yuge pradhana acaryah sa va yaya viharati, T II 42 a 1 f.). The culprit prepares a seat for the confessor with material of his own which has never been used, or failing this, with material belonging to another which it is permissable to carry (42 a 4 f.). The respective positions of the two individuals are as follows: the acarya sits facing East and the one confessing stands to his right (to the South) and faces North; or the acarya sits facing North and the penitent places himself on his left, facing East or towards the Land of wandering (caranti).1 The penitent bows, makes the anjali, squats, usually on his heels, in the position called utkutuka (cf. Lehre SS 157) and makes his confession, However if his faults are so numerous that the confession lasts a long time, or if he suffers from haemorrhoids, he seeks permission to use a seat, a mat or anything else, as is convenient (cf. Bh 1, 132 Nis Bh 6 389; cf. infra). His confession bears upon four points: objects, places, times and feelings; and it specifies whether the faults have been committed deliberately, or in spite of the attention paid to the Rule (1, 133 = Nis Bh 6 390). The ceremony recalls somewhat that practised among the Hindus and, even more closely, that of the Buddhists. Among the former, the offender bathes himself and prostrates himself as soon as possible before the assembly (parisad) to which he makes his confession (Kane IV, 85). Among the latter, the monk goes to an Elder, with his robe arranged over one p. 151 shoulder, and prostrates himself at his feet squatting precisely in the position utkutuka; he makes the anjali and confesses MN II 248, 23 ff.; cf. Vin I 125-126)2. Offences against the rules of precedence occupy the attention of the commentaries to a considerable extent (Bh 1, 400-410). It is in fact 1. Cf. GONDA, Change and Continuity p. 395 (ubi alia). 2. bhikkhuna baddhataro bhikkhu upasamkamitva ekamsam civaram katva pade vanditva ukkulikam nisiditva anjalim paggahetva evam assa vacantyo...,MN, loc.cit. "Squatting" (utkutuka) or kneeling, the monk shows his humility (cf. Abhidharmakosa IV, 65).

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1. important to emphasise the superiority of the confessor over the one 01. confessing, all the time taking into account the religious rank of the two individuals concerned. Through their persons, it is the Law which is involved. : 152 The scholastics, who delight in subdivisions, count three varieties of acarya (cf. T III 42 a 4 ff.), according as they deserve to be compared to the lion, the bull or the jackal (acaryas trividhah simhanugo vrsabhanugah krostukanugas ca). They are distinguished according to the seat on which they sit and from which they preach: the lion-like acarya sits on a high seat, the bull-like one on a piece of cloth (ekasmin kalpe), and the third on sacking or on a mat (rajoharana-nisadyayam aupagrahika-pada pronchane va, ibid 5 ff.). If there is no acarya to be found, one approaches a "bull" (vrsabha) or, failing that, a monk. These also can be likened to the same three animals (42 a 8). For their part, the penitents are similarly of three kinds : acaryas, "bulls", or simple religious (acarya vrsabha bhiksavas ca); and each of these categories in turn has its lions, bulls and jackals. Among these last, a distinction can be made between those who sit on a sack and those who confess squatting, in the position utkutuka (ibid 10); a seat is allowed them if they are ill, in the same way as provision is made for a seat for the superiors and the "bulls"(11). But squatting is the pure position: (yady utkutukah sann alocayati, tatah suddhih (T III, 42 a 10). As is well known, this is the position, of the Buddhist monk while confessing (supra). 12 Normally the elevated seat is the one proper to the acarya (sva-sthana, 42 b 10 ff.), in contrast to the cloth and the sacking (para-sthana). The commentaries thus examine successively confession to all types of confessors by all the types of penitents: Confessor acarya : va sabha : krostuka: lion bull jackal lion bull jackal lion bull jackal 131 13 the 3 types of ac. "" "1 13 Penitent "" dr the 3 types of ac. of bull of jackal of bull of jackal the 3 types o ac. "" of bull of jackal 11 # [ 666 || n aaa a66 9 9 9 = 9 Thus : 9 cases cases cases cases cases cases cases cases 9 cases 27 cases 27 cases 27 cases In all, then, there are 81 cases (45 a 13). It will be noted that the confession of same to same is expiated by a parihara of one light month (ibid 11), and that, in general, no fault is to be imputed to the penitent who abandons the seat proper to his status to occupy a lower one (ibid 12).

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132 It does not seem useful to recall all the details of the condemnations laid down by the commentaries. One example might suffice, chosen from the intermediate category (T III 44 a 5): the confessor is a bull; he can sit as a lion, a bull or a jackal; the one confessing is an acarya : confessor = bull penitent: acarya atonement assimilated to a lion assimilated to a bull assimilated to a lion to a bull to a jackal assimilated to a lion to a bull to a jackal assimilated to a lion to a bull to a jackal 4 light months 1 light month pure 4 heavy months 1 light month pure 6 light months 4 light months 1 light month assimilated to a jackal It will be seen later in what the atonement consisted. The factors which make it heavier vary with the rank of the offender. For the teacher, these factors are the mortification and the length of time (prayascittani dyabhyam gurukani prati pattayyani, tad-yatha tapasa kalena ca). The penances of the bull' are heavy as regards mortification, light as regards duration; and those of the religious are heavy as rogards duration, light as regards mortification (Bh 1, 405). The commentaries also lay down the penances incurred by faults against the rules of precedence when the confession is "global" (oghato, ? III 45 a-b; cf. supra 143 f.). * The real rank of the penitent no longer counts, but only the status (of a lion, etc.) that he assumes for the moment. The 81 cases just enumerated are thus reduced to nine. Under these circumstances, offences seem to have required more costly expiation than after a detailed confession. P. 153 .: Confession to a person of equal rank is punished by 4 heavy months; confession made from a higher seat receives 6 months, light or heavy. Even confession made from a lower seat is punished by a light month, unless there is a reason (karane) which dispenses (T III 45 6-46 a). Only squa. tting in the position utkutuka is considered pure (suddha).

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CHAPTER V 155' THE SECOND ATONEMENT : REPENTANCE (padikkamana; pratikramana) The padikkamana (pratikramana) "repentance" is a religious act whose purpose is expressed by the formula tassa miccha me dukkadam "my fault < has been due > to error" (Lehre $ 159; cf. pratikramen mithya. duskstam is tad-visaye dadyat, Vav T III 126 6 3), * It is the freturn" to right conduct of the believer - monk or layman - who renounces his evil deeds committed through negligence (...pratipam kramanam yad aha : "sva-sthanad yat param sthanam pramadasya vasad gatah. tatraiva kramanam bhuyah pratikramanim ucyate", Pravacana 39 a). This is the common acceptation of the term (asubha -yoga-vinivitti-matrarthah sananya. sabdah parigrhyate, Abhidhana, 5, 262 a). It is thus defined as a sort of "conversion." Sometimes this "repentance' seems closely linked with confession, of which it would seem to be the complement. It will be remembered, moreover, that some dispute the dichotomy established between the aloyana and padikkamana, and that they remove from the list ...of atonements these two headings, and admit only the "mixed" observance which combines the two (misa, ubhaya) (cf. supra 112). Sometimes, the repentance is the fourth of the ten "daily duties" avassaya; cf. Lehre SS 151). It follows the vow samaiya, the hymn to the twenty four Jinas and the homage to the teacher; and it precedes the ... kaussagga and the "refusals" of food and drink (paccakkhana). The padikka mana is seen, then, as part of a complex whole. .: . In fact, neither K (4, 25) nor Vav (1, 35) make mention of a "repen. 1 tance" as an independent ceremony. The commentaries of Vav recommend that, during the confession, the teacher should observe carefully the sentip. 156 ments displayed by the religious as he proclaims his faults. This is taken into account in calculating the appropriate penance. It is increased when the offender shows obstinacy, and reduced when he is seen to experience sincere regret. It seems desirable that he should reproach himself explicitly 1. "May (all) that evil have been done in vain" (R. WILLIAMS, Jaina Yoga 204). Further, mithya, "null and void in effect", English Introduction (p.5) of Padmanandi's Paficavimsari (ed. Jivaraja Jaina Granthamala, 10, Sholapur, 1962). But, as a general rule, miccha (mithya) means "falsely" and is applied in particular to'la false outlook". ::: miccha-ditthi (as opposed to samma-dithi); hence the present translation. Cf. Pali miccha (PED, S. v.) 2. Vav T II 50 a 11 f.: agitartho' pi yo mandenadhyavasayena baliuni masikasthanani pratiscyya ffyrena va' 'dhyavasayena pratisevya "ha maya duslu krtam ity" evamadibuir nindanair alocitaran so'py ekena masena sudhyati; cf. ibid 50 6 12. 1 twenty

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134 (nindana), and be smitten with remorse (anutapa). The formula used in the circumstances commences "Oh ! I have done evil...", ha maya dusthu krtam (T II 50 a 11; 59 a 4 f.; III 37 b 3); ha dutthu kayam ha dutthu kariyam dutthu anumayam cety anutapa-karanato, ibid II 57 b 1). This at least is what Malayagiri relates. The corresponding Bh confines itself to saying on occasions that the teacher has heard the confession : aloyanam sunelta (1, 387 b = Nis Bh 6 618). Now, this expression of regret recalls the one given as characteristic of the padikkamana. It is so characteristic, in fact, that it comes to designate the second atonement itself. It is with the formula tassa miccha mi dukkadam (sloka pada ?) that the sutta of the repentance ends (Lehre SS 159 and n. 2 p. 177; Doctrine, p. 280 n. 1). There are suttas for each category of faults (Abhidhana, 5, 271 b ff.; Weber, Verzeichnis der Sanskrit und Prakrit-Handschriften, II, 2, 2, 269 ff.). There also exists a global sutta which covers all the various transgressions (Abhidhana, 270 b; Weber, ibid). After having paid "homage to the Saints, the Perfect and the Teachers" (namo arihantanam...), one recites : "I wish to repent of any transgression commited during the day in act, word or thought, which has drawn me away from the sutta and from the Page #151
135 It would be the recitation of the padikkamana-sutta, morning and evening, that the Uttar 26, 42; 50 recommends (cf. SBE 45, p. 148 n. 131 : Chapter 29 (11) describes the benefit which might be drawn from it : "he plugs the breaches < which have been made in the :> vows, and thus arrests ..the inflow < of impurities >, behaves impeccably, devotes himself to the eight rovessels" of the Doctrine (gutti and samii), does not allow himself to be distracted, and keeps perfect control over his senses" : padikkamanenam bhante jave kim janayai ? padikkamanenam vaya-cchiddani pihei, pihiya-vaya-chidde puna jive niruddh'asave asabala-caritte atthasu pavayanamayasu uvautte a puhatte suppanihindie viharai. * As far as the time is concerned, the repentance is said to be five-fold (ibid), because it takes place on five fixed occasions: the faults of the day are deplored in the evening, and those of the night on the following morning: at the end of a fortnight, or of four months, or of a vear the 's morning at the end of i faults which might have been forgotten in the course of the preceding I padikkamana are deplored (Lehre: ibid; ISt. XV 433; Jacobi, Kalpa p. 117). 11 . All Indian communities paid great attention to these occasions. The p. 158 members of Brahmanic society celebrate important sacrifices then : the -2 sacrifice of agnihotra (Vedic); and, more recently, of samdhya, at dawn and -?:":dusk; the sacrifices at the new and the full moon (darsa purna-masa); and !. the sacrifices which terminate the cycles of four months or a year. More. L o ver, as is well known, the subjects of Asoka were invited to spare animals in various ways "at the three full moons every four months, at the full moon of Tisya for three days : the 14th, the 15th and the 1st and constantly on days of fast" (Pillar 5) I . The Buddhists hold their solemn confessions each fourteenth or fifteenth day on the one hand, and on the other at the end of the rainy season (which lasts for four months). Like the Vedic and Buddhist doctors who discussed whether the fortnight fell on the fourteenth, or the fifteenth day. . ''the Jainas discuss the date of the pakkhiya-padikkamana. The sutra allows either of these two days. Other authorities show a clear preference for the fourteenth" (Abhidhane 5, 281 a, stanza 1-3; 282 b, st. 4). ... It is recorded that the intermediate Tirthamkaras (the second to the 23rd inclusive) require a "repentance" only after an actual transgression. -.. But the first and 24th teach that it is obligatory on the dates prescribed -1.8 41. The Brahmanic doctors also recommend the recitation of prayers, morning and eve. .... .. ning, as a help towards salvation (Manu II, 101 ff.; compare GAMPERT, 191, ubi alia.) 2. Considered in relation to the "ipflow" of passions, false doctrines, etc., the repentance :.. is also "five-fold" (Lehre 152, who follows Than). . ..3. Inde classique & $ 713; 1200 f.; 714; 715; 718 ff.; GONDA, Religions I 154; 176 PS.; 183. HOWS Than. ... .

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p. 161 138 The acarya replies: "I also salute them". IV. "Your Grace, here I am, ready. I wish to denounce myself >. As to what belongs to you according to the Rule (garments, bowl, blanket, mat, speech, hemistich, stanza, sloka, interpretation, reason, question, explanation) which you have given to me with friendliness and which I have received with rudeness my fault has been due to error !" - The acarya replies: "All of these things belonged to the acarya, < my teacher >". V. "Your Grace, I want to pay you the respects that I have not paid < you previously, since I lacked good breeding and manners. You have instructed me, have caused me to be instructed, have taken charge of me, equipped, advised, protected, stimulated me and spurred me on; and this spur has been a friendly one. I have sprung forward; thanks to your mortification, your brilliance and your splendour, I am going to tear myself away from this jungle of the four-fold samsara and pass beyond it. This is why I salute you with my head, my heart and my forehead." The acarya replies: "Cross over, pass on." No purpose will be served by lingering on the ceremonial of the daily repentance which, though less grandiose, is quite as complex, and makes use of the same gestures and practices. According to the Pravacanasara, the evening repentance comprised the greeting of the statues, kaussagga in order to think over one's transgression, the inspection of the handkerchief covering the mouth, the homage, the confession to the guru of the faults recapitulated during the period of kaussagga, the recitation of the samayika-sutra, the homage to the twenty four Jinas, the begging pardon from the guru and the other religious present, the general homage, and kaussagga with a view to purifying one's conduct. There follows kaussagga for the purification of belief and of knowledge; kaussagga in honour of the divinity of the religious Tradition, for the fulfilment of this last and in honour of the divinities of the place, so as to remove all obstacles. After all this, one sits down. There follows a new inspection of the cloth covering the mouth and an auspicious homage. The religious then declares : "I desire instruction". A triple canticle follows, a praise of Sakra, a hymn and kaussagga to purge the faults of the day: cii-vandana ussaggo pottiya-padileha vandan' aloe sullam vandana khamana vandana ya caritta-ussaggo (175) damsana-nan'ussaggo suya-devaya-khetta-devayanam ca putti ya vandana thui-tiya sakka-thaya thotta devasiyam (176; p. 39 a 8-40 b 7 );

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139 The morning repentance is similar, except that several actions are transposed (because the religious runs the risk of being still sleepy) and that there is a reduction in the number of kaussaggas ( 40 a-41 b ). repentance should take place absence, the religious should guru-virahe kunai ekko vi (p. The Pravacanasara lays down that the in the presence of the guru, but that in his perform it alone: padikkamanam saha guruna, 162 39 b 10). According to the above description, it seems that the ceremony is public. It will be recalled that in the case where the bhikkhu met nobody to whom he could make his confession in accordance with the Rule, he was authorised to make it alone, thinking all the while of the perfect saints (Vav 1, 35) It will of course have been noticed that unlike the ritual of the aloyana, which is relatively simple, the liturgy of the padikkamana seems extremely complex. This contrast has, in some ways, its counterpart among the Buddhists. When they commit a fault, they make an auricular confession of it. Moreover, on the fixed date, the religious, who must be washed free of all sins, gather in a solemn assembly, of which the purity is proclaimed. It has been thought that, among the Buddhists, private confession was the more recently instituted of the two ceremonies (Pettazzoni, La confessione dei peccati I 312; 317; 324). As for the Jainas, the most ancient sources give us no information about the existence of an independent "repentance". On the contrary, they devote several suttas to the rules concerning confession (supra 138 ). It is not certain that chance alone could explain this singular fact. To a certain extent, it recalls the following peculiarity of Brahmanic society mentioned by Gampert: there, confession is widespread and important from the very earlier times; the expression of remorse, on the contrary, is recent (Suhnezeremonien 234 f ).

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136 in all cases. It is not in vain, even though the religious might be innocent of any sip; in that case, it contributes to the amendment of his conduct and to shaking off the karman : yady aticara-dosah santi tatas tan sodhayali, yadi na santi tatas caritram suddhataram karoliti. tatah sthitam idam : aticaro bhavalu va ma va tatha 'pi prathama-carama-tirthesu paksant'adisu pratikramanam kartavyam eveti (Pakkhiya I b 14-2 a l; cf. Pravacana 39 b 8 f.; Abhidhana 5, 263 b). The ceremonial of the fortnightly repentance is known to us through an ancient text, the Pakkhiya-sutta (palcsika-sulra), on which Yasodeva has written a commentary (Lehre s8 159; 55). Here are its principal phases, according to the pakkhiyn-cunni, which he quotes (2 a-b). The monks first of all finish all their tasks. At sunset, they recite the sanaiya-sutta (cf. Lehre SS 151). Then they perform the kauassagga so as p. 159 to recall the faults of the day. After the chomage" (namokkara), they recite the hymn to the twenty four < Jinas >, clean themselves and pay their respects (kiikamma). After having prostrated themselves and then risen again, they confess in order of precedence and in all frankness, the sins that they have just recalled. The guru prescribes the penance. Having accepted it, and finding themselves in the appropriate spiritual state of mind, they recite the whole of the padikkamana-sutta, The guru recites his part standing, and then sits down. . The monks prostrate themselves and say: "Your Grace, 'I am ready. I wish to beg pardon for the faults > that I have committed during .the fortnight" : icchami khama-samano uvatthio mi abbhintara-pakkhiyam khameum. The guru replies: "I also ask your pardon"; aham avi khamemi tubbhe ti." The religious enumerates everything reprehensible done during this period. He does this three or five times (seven times at the four monthly or the annual repentance). It is emphasised that it is the oldest who must begin and that it is of the youngest that he first begs pardon for his various transgressions, of which he gives details (ittho kanitthena jettho khameyavdo tli yuttain bhayai, Pakkhiya 2 b 3). The latter, prostrate on the ground, makes the anjali and answers : "O Blessed One, I also beg pardon of you for (the faults of the fortnight". The teacher pays his respects, stands up and begs pardon of each member present. When he has finished, the others, in order of precedence, follow his example. The ritual is thus orgapised in a way which inspires humility. Finally everybody, having paid their respects, proclaims that after confessing and repenting of the faults of the day, they

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p. 100 P. 10 137 : : have repented of those of the fortnight. The teacher concludes : "Repent correctly", sammam padikkamaha. There follows: the undisturbed abandonment of the body, a meditation on the Law and the recitation of sutra, of the five, or rather of the six great vows which one has sworn to observe (6 6 - 57 a); the praise of Mahavira (58) and of the religious Tradition (59a - 71 a); the hommage to its doctors, its guardians and its divinity (71 a-b). Finally, prostrated (with knees and hands on the ground), they formulate five requests for pardon (khamei, Lehre SS 159). I. "Your Grace, here I am, ready. I wish to beg pardon for the faults committed during the fortnight. During these fifteen days and fifteen nights .whatever regrettable and detestable things I have done (whether they concern eating, drinking, good manners, service, a word, an exchange of words, being on an elevated seat, being in company, taking part in a conversation, holding a superfluous conversation) - whatever offence, trivial or serious, that I have committed against good manners which you know and I do not know - my fault < has been due to error !" The acarya replies : "I also ask your pardon". II. "Your Grace, I would like - and this is a matter wbich is dear to me-to share what you have, you who are happy, contented, without suffering or defects, who respect virtue, respect the vows, you who also have a superior and a preceptor, who by knowledge, faith, right conduct and mortification seek to form yourself. It is in happiness, my Lord, that this day of transition, of the fortnight, has elapsed; and it is under favourable auspices that another day has come to meet you, I salute you with my head, my heart and my forehead". The acarya replies : "You share these < advantages >'". III. < I have previously saluted and revered, in your sight, the statues < of the Jina > All the monks grown old < in religion > whom I have seen during my errands - those living in the shelters >, or < according to the rule >, or going from village to village; all thc Elders who ask for news of you: all the younger members and ordinary religious of both sexes; the faithful men and women who greet you - all of these I also salute three times with my head, heart and forehead, I whom no dart of < evil conscience > afflicts, who am without passion. I also cause the statues of the Jinas to be saluted." 1. PETTAZZONI reports that in Ceylon the bonzes assembled for the fortnightly meeting ask each other's pardon for their offences before commencing the recitation of the patimokkha (La Confession dei peccati I 293 f.) 18

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P. 163 THE THIRD ATONEMENT : MIXED ( misa; misra or (tad)ubhaya ) . It is not necessary to dwell on the combination of confession and repentance (cf. supra 112 ). One confesses to the guru, and, following his directions, expresses regret for having acted badly (Vav Pith T 36 6-37 a). The originality of the mixed atonement seems to reside in two characteristics : 1) the expression of repentance is necessarily preceded by the confession, which is, on this occasion, addressed compulsorily to the teacher (compare on the contrary supra 140; 162); 2) the padikkamana is carried out immediately after the aloyana, and is pronounced according to the express prescriptions of the pastora, 1. Cf. Vav Pith 7 20 6 6 ff. : yasmin punah pratisevite prayascitte yadi guru-samaksam alocayati, alocya yo guru-samdislah pratikramati pascac ca mithya-duskytam iti brute, tada sudhyati, tat ... misram. Ibid 37 a 2: parvam gurunam purata alocana tad-anantaram tad-ade'sate mitkyaduskyta-danam ity evam-rupam tad-ubhayam.

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CHAPTER VI P. 165 THE FOURTH ATONEMENT : RESTITUTION (vivega; viveka ) THE FIFTH ATONEMENT : UNDISTURBED ABANDONMENT OF THE BODY (viussagga, kaussagga; vyutsarga ) The "restitution" does not call for any comment. It consits in giving back an alms which after the event, is learnt to be impure, and is conse quently unacceptable. The good faith of an "adept" (who is familliar with the rules of study and who knows the cheya-suttas) could have been taken by surprise. To become pure again, it is sufficient for him to give back the alms in the correct manner : kada-jogina u gahiyam sejja-samthara-bhatta-panam va apphasu esanijjam nali, vivego u pacchittam (Vav Puth Bh 109, ? 38 (a-b). 1. I follow R. WILLIAMS'S translation of viussagga, kaussagga (Jaing Yoga)

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145 : P167 The "undisturbed abandonment (of the body)" appears to be a psycho physiological exercise which. punctuates the religious life of the Jainas'. They translate viussagga in skr. by yyutsarga - wrongly, as it happens. The zl... Buddhists in BHS use vyavasarga (pa, vavassagga) correctly, with the general sense of "abandon" (Edgerton, BHS Dict, s.' v.; cf. Leumann, Uvav gl. s.v., who relies in particular on the form of the corresponding amg. verb, vosir-). The Jainas generally use kaussagga "rejection, abandonment of the body"! ; (cf, K. 1, 19; 3, 1 f.; 3, 22). The exercise consists in detaching oneself, and in a total stripping away of the self. Various positions of the body , held in this particularly the one immortalised by the colossal statue of : Babubali in Sravana Belgola : standing, erect; with the arms by the side and slightly out from the body, with the eyes fixed on the tip of the nose (cf. Guerinot, plate XIX; Williams, Jaina Yoga 214). At the end of the kayotsarga-sutra, the religious announces : "I strip my body by remaining motionless, and my Self by remaining silent and tating" : kayam thanenam monenam jhanenam appanam vosirami (Williams, . On this occasion, jhana (dhyana) sigaifies that the subject takes care to cease all movement - of body, speech and mind : atha dhyanam yoga-nirodh'atmakam; tatra kayotsarge kim dhyanam ? ucyate : dhyeyo yoganirodha iti purva-maharsi-vacanat, tac ca yoga-nirodh'atmakam dhyanam tridha: tad-yatha kayayoga-nirodh'almakam, vagyoga-nirodh'atmakam, manoyoga. nirodh' atmakam... (Vav Pith T 42 a 1 ff.; cf. Abhidhana 3, 407.6); i As with so many other observances, the kaussagga has negative and . positive virtues. The kayotsarga-sutra insists on its powers of elimination : p. 168 in practising it, the faithful follower sets himself to destroy his sinful deeds: ; (pavanam kammanam nigghayan'atthae (Williams, ibid). According to the Vay Puh, the exercise allows one to concentrate one's thoughts, to banish phy. sical torpor and thus attain equanimity : ***. manaso egoggattam janayai dehassa vihanai jadatlam . .s kaussagga-guna khalu suha-duha-majjhatthaya ceva (Bh 125; cf. Abhidhana 3, 407 a SS 7). ei - 14 . 1. As is well known, the Indians were past-masters of this technique, which plays a considerable part in the yoga. One would immediately think of the third, fourth and fifth "articles" (anga) of this discipline : 3. asana, "helpful positions of the body''; .. 4. pranayama "control of breathing..."; . 5. pratyalara "retraction of the powers of sensation and action, of the indriyas..." (cf. J. FILLIOZAT, L'arriere plan doctrinal du yoga 16; also La nature du yoga dans sa tradition VI, X f.; and on the antiquity of the ideas upon which the control of breathing is based, La doctrine classique de la medecine indienne 152; 160). 19 - Hm... ...

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146 Utlar says, with a greater display of fervour, that kaussagga totally purifies one of the transgressions, past and present, which require expiation. "The person feels relieved, like a porter who has put dowa bis burden, He commences a praise-worthy meditation and leads his religious life with a feeling of perfect well-being" (29, 12).. :: The kaussagga will sometimes be observed as a means of assisting some specific enterprise and sometimes when one is training oneself in self-control (Williams, ibid, 214). The duration of the observance is measured in "breaths" (ucchoasa) a unit defined by the time necessary for the mental recitation of a pada of bloka, or, according to others, of a "homage', namaskara (Lehre SS 161; Williams, ibid 215)' : paya-sama usasa kala-pamanena honti nayayva evam kala-pamanam kaussagge muneyavvam (Vav. Pith Bh 122; Jiya 22). The length of the kaussaggas to be observed in the course of each ceremony, or in some given circumstance, is fixed (Williams, ibid). It increases with the solemnity or the gravity of the occasion. When, for 'example, the religious who is about to begin his journey 'potices a bad omen for the second time, he makes a k. of 16 "breaths"; the third time the ki is of 32 "breaths"; on the fourth occasion, he gives up the idea of going at all (Vav Pith Bh 119). .. . The pumber of kaussaggas proper to each circumstance, finally, is : .. determined (Williams, ibid). ....... During the ceremonies of "repentance", we have seen the kaussagga *.used for two purposes - either to help the religious to reflect calmly, to practise the difficult examination of conscience 'which is exacted of him, or to secure the favour of the divinity in the removal of all obstacles. That is, it is used as a propitiation and as a conjuration. The same sort of preoccupation has caused it to be prescribed normally : when the religious leaves the shelter and, as a result of certain circumstances, .....commits any transgression in the course of his rounds. He "abandons (his 169 body)", if possible, in the middle of the journey, or when he returns (even before resting) if it was not possible to interrupt his business between his departure and his return. He must likewise practise k. if he is going to relieve himself more than a hundred hastas away. Again, he addicts himself to kaussagga to charm away sometimes the unpleasant presages 1. Compare the perfect correspondance established between constituent elements of the Vedic texts and astronomical times, J. FILLIOZAT, Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences, 82-83, 1963, p. 92 and n. 9.

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. 147 noticed when he commences his journey, and sometimes bad dreams (those in which one sees the five fundamental vows violated); to put himself in the right mood for a period of study conducted in accordance with all the rules; and, finally, when he takes a boat to cross a river: gaman'agamana viyare sulle va sumina-damsane rato nava nai-samtare payacchittam viussaggo (Vav Pith Bh 111; T 38 b - 41 b; cf. Jiya 18 - 22). . It will be seen also that a kaussagga precedes the performance of the atonement called parihara. Thus, say the commentaries, the other religious are warned, and the success of the penance is made more likely. * It seems that, in general, there is a tendency to practise kaussagga before any enterprise - aad, much more so, before an enterprise which is considered more difficult.

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CHAPTER VII p. 171 . .. THE SIXTH ATONEMENT : ISOLATION (parihara) afterwards replaced by mortification (tava, tavo; lapas) The atonement called parihara consists in separating the offender from religious whose conduct is pure until he has finished expiating his transgression : pariharo varjanam sadhor iti gamyate apannapariharah tatha hi : sa prayascitti avisuddhalvad visuddha-caranaih sadhubhir yavat prayasciltapratipallya na vifuddho bhavati, taval parihriyale (Vav T II, 11 a 9 ff.). This is the gloss which Malayagiri puts on the term when commenting upon Von 1 . Subsequently, he often replaces it by tapas (Bh : tava, lavo), but it is the same penance which is signified, at least in Vav Bh T II, III, IV. With the description just given as a basis, I shall render parihara by isolation" - a loose translation, doubtless, but one which has the advantage of not being tainted with foreign values, as would excommunication", for example.. : : The religious subjected to this atonement has a special status, duly P laid down in K 6, 14 - that of the religious "who is doing penance", :: nivvisamana-kappatthir (cf. Lehre SS 162, with references to Than). . * As a consequence of this sort of eviction, the religious is hence forward "outside the company" and "without concern for it" (gaccha. niggaya, niravekkha). Theoretically he is classed with the jinakappiva and the .. . ahalandiya (Vay T III 48 6 2; IV 7 62). .: Henceforward'he considers only himself (att'altha-cintaga, Bh 1, 363). . In other words, according to two 'interpretations which complete rather than exclude one another; (1) he concerns himself oply with his own affairs .. and takes no notice of the novices, the sick, the old, etc. (atmana eva kevalasyartham bhakt'adi-laksanam cintayati na baladinam, T III, 30 b, cf. ..i IV 22 6:6 6:; supra 75); (2) he directs his attention to his own spiritual 2 . Wana welfare and to attain this, makes his conduct conform scrupulously to the - rule (kalpa-samacarad ity atmartha-cintakah T III, ibid). . .. .. . The semantic specialisation of the word parihara is admitted without dispute by the commentaries. Nevertheless they profess to recognise, in p. 172 opposition to this "incurred parihara" (apanna parihara), a "parihara of the E pure", or perhaps a "pure parihara"(suddhaparihara) (cf. ? Il 11 a). It would consist in practising the rule, either while one was comple:.tely pure, or in all the purity of the rule. Parihara would then sigoify ..: paribhoga "perfomance, exec'ition" (ibid). Instead of the compound which

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150 indicates action, the commentaries sometime employ only sodhi "purifica. tion", which places the emphasis on the result (T IV 16 a 3; 5). But this distinction is quite scholastic ; there is not the least trace of it in the K, Vav'or Nisiha. It. provides the cominentaries with an occasional substitute for the parihara proper - which, it will be seen, is a difficult and dreaded atonement. All those wbo are unable to bear it, or who would not profit from it are, therefore, spared this atonement. It is thus that Bh s prescribes "naturally" (niyamatah) in its place the suddhaparihara, for female religious, (aryikanam) because they do not possess the requisite moral and physical powers of resistance. They are, moreover, normally dispensed from most of the peoitential exercises, just as Buddhist nuns are dispensed from the penances called dhutanga. The ancient Brahmanic treatises, for their part, do not provide for penances for women (Lehre SS 157; Inde classique SS 2379; Gampert, 211). The same suddhap. would be prescribed for the three types of religious : 1) the "immature", because their immaturity is incompatible with isolation (agilarthatvena pariharata po yogyataya abhavat, Vav T IV 16 a 5; cf, 17 6 3; passim); however this restriction seems not to have been taken into consideration (cf. supra 114); 2) those who lack steadfastness, or whose physical strength has been undermined by illness, etc.; 3) those who have not a robust constitution : suddhatavo ajjanam 'agiyatthe dubbale asamghayane (Vav Bh 1; 359 a). Elsewhere, however, it is the radical " of religious sepiority which is substituted for the parihara if the religious who deserved it is not sufficiently strong, either physically or morally, (dhrti-samhananabhyam durbalatvat tapah kartum. asamarthas tasmin durbale mulam), or if he is not steadfast enough, and if he lacks endurance and perseverance (... asthire dhtly-avastambha-rahite mulam, T III 11 b. 5 ff.; Bh. 1. 320 b). :. This substitution of the mula for the parihara is then' undoubtedly a p: 173' measure of clemency. In' a way, it is surprising, since of the two, the more severe is the radical" retrogradation (ibid. III 49 b; supra 116; 118), and . since in general neither the eighth (mula) nor even the seventh (cheya). atonement is usually imposed directly (supra 1:18; infra. 200). .. The present provision shows nevertheless that the "radical" suppression : of religious seniority could occasionally appear less drastic than isolation, .. Its difficulty is such that the teacher does not inflict it without having ... checked on the aptitudes of the penitent, whom he might not know. In

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151 .. an particular, he makes sure that the penitent has completed his 29th year and has spent at least 20 years in religion (igulisa visa ya jahanna ukkosa, Bh 1, 353 b, T III 28 a 2 fr.). Some measures of clemency are prescribed. The commentaries provide that this payacchitla should be carried out exclusively during the monsoon, even though it might have been incurred during the summer : ginhanam avanno, causu vi vasasu denti ayariya (Bh 2, 364 a). During the rainy season, explains Malayagiri, there are fewer occasions for sinning : since the monk travels less, and does not go so far when begging alms, the period during which he must pay attention to sparing the various living creatures on the ground is shorter. Since he does not change his place of residence, he avoids, by this fact alone, the transgressions so easily committed on moving into a shelter and leaving it. . For all believers, moreover, the monsoon is the season in which they strengthen themselves by mortification, the season when their passions disappear and when, consequently, merit can be acquired (T IV 81 a 4 ff.). From the gatha 2, 364, just quoted, the result would seem to be that the effective duration of the parihara does not exceed four months. And indeed, K, Vav, Nis, never prescribe more, although Vav (1, 1-20 = Nis 20, 1-20) mentions parihara of five and six months. In the Vav Bh T, the situation is almost comparable : although in its third stage the barihara lasts for six months, the most commonly imposed duration is four monthsi. * This indulgence, nevertheless, seems to have been not universally : p. 174. admitted. It is not admitted in the commentaries on Viyah, Than, recorded by Deo. But they note that the length of the fasts observed varies with the season. The minimum periods, then, are : 23 days in winter, 11 days in summer, 33 days during the rainy season. The maximum periods are, respectively : 44, 34 and 57 days (History 155). Finally the atmosphere in which the penitent finds himself should be helpful to his undertaking. Even an "adept" does not normally undertake the parihara when, as a consequence of some tragedy, he finds himself alone. In that case he could not succeed : ekakinas ca satah pariharatapo na nirvahati (T IV 22 6 7). If there is no other adept in the company in which he lives (the acarya being himself pariharija), he goes elsewhere (ibid 17 a 13). It will be seen that even though he is isolated much solicitude is shown for him. Various measures moderate the theoretical severity of the penance, .. . 1. There is not, then, properly speaking, any contradiction between the texts (compare Lehre $ 162).

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152 . However some monks fear the moral solitude into which parihara plunges them so much that, before or during it, they fall into fits of grave depression. In such a case the ganavaccheiya comforts them (Vav 2, 15; Bh 2, 193, ?). The parihara can be of the "cumulative" ( samcayita, sic!) or the 'non-cumulative" (asamcayita) kind. Generally, provided that there are some subsequent "alleviations" (infra), the parihara wbich is not cumulative counts as many months as the faults of the penitent demand. Three stages are envisaged: one month, two to four months, and six months: (cf. tava-riya, Vav Bh 1, 295; 412; supra 116). The parihara is "cumulative" when the religious - has in reality incurred more than six nonths - from seven months at the least to 180 months at the most. The total must be reduced to six months, which constitutes the maximum length of the parihara ever to be expiated, in the Doctrine of Mahavira : yesam sannam masanam paratah sapta-mas'adikam yavad utkarsato silam satam masanam prayascittam praptam, te samcayitah (III 16 9).2 Each of the two types has two varieties, - sometimes "subject to abatement", and sometimes not (amg. ugghaiya, skr. udghalika; anugghaiya, later anugghaima, skr. anudghatika). The commentaries generally prefer to p. 175 say "light" (la(g)hu) and "heavy" (guru) (Lehre $ 162). The "weight" of the penance is related to two independent factors; the length of time (kala): and the kind of mortification (tapas) - that is to say, fasting and restrictions on food, etc. (cf. tapo 'nasan'adi, T IV 14 b 6; cf. Uvay 30 I, supra 109). These two factors contribute to the definition of the penance : atha kam vyavaharam kena tapasa purayatiti...gurukam vyavoharam masa-parimanam astamam kurvan purayati ... (IV 25 b 2 ff.). Thus, the "heavy" procedure lasts a month and requires fasts of three and a half days; the "heavier" "lasts four months, with fasts of four and a half days, the procedure "as beavy as possible" lasts six months, the fasts being of five and a half ' days. The details are given in the table on page 14 (, 1) of K. In contrast with the "heavy" penance, which takes effect as soon as the verdict is pronounced, the "light" penance begins only after some time (infra 179). 1. Infra (and compare, concerning impurity, Vasistha Dharmasastra; 4. 23-25; GautamaDharma Sastra 14, 6-8; VisnuSmyti, 22, 35-37). 2. On these provisions, sce SCHUBRING, Drei Chedasutras, 94 fr .

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** : 153 The accumulative" parihara expiates several transgressions. The total duration is the result of two operations which it is moreover useless to break down if the offender is an adept" (gitartha); or a "competentos (vikovida) monk, or even if, though "immature", he correctly assimilates what is told to him (parinamaka) : he then entertains 'no doubt as to the justifiability and efficacy of the parihara, suggested (T II 58 6 - 59 a; cf. supra 48-49). The first operation consists in putting off", "postponing" till later the penance incurred. The months and days of the atonement are matched . . to the faults committed and whatever is reducible is put to one side : .: javanto masa divasa va pratisevitas tayantah sarve ekatra sthapyante, sthapa. - yitva cayat samkse parham vimsik'adikam pratisevitam tat sthapyate, esa :..... sthapana, This first operation, called thavana (sic) sthapana, amounts to a deferment (cf. infra 1.77). The second operation, called arovana, aro pana "addition", is defined thus : "Other months incurred afterwards must also be taken into account. 'This is why one takes (in proportion to the fault) the days, whether their number is even or odd (5, 10, 15...) below one month, and adds them all together : that is the addition. This operation must be continued until one reaches - with the "deferment", a total of six months and no more'i p. 176. It is these two operations (sthapana, plus aropana) which bear the name of samcaya (Vav T II 58 6). It will be seen that several sorts of aropana exist. ,' ' all together : Moreover, the commentaries mention several stages of sthapana and aropana - subject, naturally, to "combinations" (samyoga). 1. tad-anantaram ye 'nye masah pratisevitas te saphali-kartavya it y ekaikasmat masat pratisevana-parimananurupam stokan stokataran saman visaman va divasan gyhitya ekatro aropayati 'esa aropana, esa cotkarsatas tavat kartavya yavarya sthapanaya saha samkalayyamana (sic!) san masah puryante nadhikah. tatak sthapanaropanayor yad ekatra samkalanam esa samcayah. 2. It permits the accumulation (up to six months) of the months of penance incurred. This is what emerges from the commentary of Nis Bh 6 427 (Vav Bh 1. 168). ' samcaya tri thavandrovana-pagarehin annonra-masehimto dirnam samcininto jamha cham masa. dijjanti tamha chanham masanam samcaya tti sanna. adhava : samcaya ni. thavanayovanahim je samcaya-masa laddlia te thavandrovana-ppagarena cham' masa karim dayavva: Communicated to me by Professor Schubring. 3. The stages of sthapana are of 20, 15, 5 days, 1 day; the stages of aropana are of 15. 5, 5 days and 1 day. Each of these stages increases in periods of five days, goin for the sthapana of 20 days, to 165; of 15 days, to 175; of 5 days, to 175; and for ... the aropana of 15 days, to 160; of 5 days, to 165; of 5 days, to 175, The last s increases in periods of one day (from 1 to 17"). Thus 30, 33, 35 and 179 st . 20

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-154 When the parihara has thus been reduced to six months - or when Its duration is shorter - it is ordered "to start" (pafthavana, prasthapana cf. Vay 1, 17). Malayagiri quotes the Nisiha-cunni, which glosses patthavana by dana, "girt" : uktam ca Nisiha-curnau paffhavana nama danam ti (Vav T III 2 a 10; cf. Bh 1, 294 a). The commentaries distinguish two types of pafthavana : duviha patthayana khalu : ega-m-anega ya....(Bh 1, 412 a = Nis Bh 6 642 a). One, whose duration is measured in complete months, is called "simple" (eka) : this is necessarily the case with that of the "cumulative" (samcayita) parihara which is of six months. The "composite" (aneka) patthayana, on the other hand, contains fractions of months -- five, ten, fifteen, twenty, or twenty five days, this last number of days forming a "shortened month" (bhinna-masa). These fractions of a month seem intended to expiate minor transgressions, committed in the course of the penance (T III 46 a; cf. Vav 1, 15-16 : sairega-caummasiyam). However, the parihara 177 proper counts exclusively for complete months, and not for periods of five days : pancak'adisu bhinna-masantesu parihara-lapo na bhavati kim tu mas'adisu (T III 46 a 12 f.). There is no doubt about this when the penance is of less than a month. This explains, in the confession of the type vihar'aloyana, the provision by virtue of which the religious who has just arrived confesses before or after the meal according as the fault is expiable by a penance of more or less than a month (supra 146). As for the "additions" (arovana), they are of five kinds : paffhaviya thaviya ya kasina'kasina tah' eva hadahada arovana pancaviha (Vah Bh 1, 413 = Nis Bh 6 643) prasthapanika (?) applies to the penance calready begun" (that is, the penance incurred in the first place, which the religious has begun to perform). sthapita is the atonement (newly) incurred and "postponed" till later, since the religious is, for example, occupied in the service" of the acarya and is unable to perform this at the same time as the penance. (sthana) of sthapana are defined. The number of stages of aropana is sometimes equal to this, and sometimes less (Vav T II 59 b 10 ff: 61 a 12-63 b). It would be useless to go into detail about these very complex processes, which are largely formal and which moreover are beyond us, in many respects. In addition, they give hardly any information about the actual functioning of the penances, !, Properly speaking, this would not then be an "addition":

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155 hadahada is the name of the penance pronounced on the spot; this fifth variety leads itself in turn to three sub-divisions, according to the moment when it is performedi. The two most important, it seems, of the five arovanas are the third and fourth, the one "complete", kasina (krisna, cf. Vav 1, 17 ff. and the other "incomplete", akasina. The total amount of tbis last is subject, regularly, to a " cancellation" according to what is necessary and sufficient to purify the offender (T II 86 10 ff.) ( jhosa; jhosa, jhosayali) occaslonally glossed parityaga, parityajati, T III 11 a 4 f.; 6 a 14-6 6. The part of the pe nance which would exceed six months is cancelled. p. 178 Its opposite, which is called "complete", is certainly exempt from ncellation, but not from fixed ; fifteen days are struck off at the beginning of each month, and five at the end (86 b 9 f.): : kasina-aruranae sama-gahanam honti tesu masesu aruvana kasinae visamiam jhoso jaha sujjhe (Vay Bh 1, 247). It is the third type of arovana which is proposed, if one is to believe the commentaries, in the group constituted by the six introductory suttas of the Vavahara (ed. Schubring), a group that the commentaries tend to consider together as the first sulta: kasinaruvana padhame (Bh 1, 161 a). It is still the kasinarovana which is inflicted - formally this time - when, after the parihara has been pronounced, the penitent comits a new fault. It is imposed also, in general, to atone for all the faults committed by the same individual from his first transgression until the end of his parihara (se vi kasine talth'eva druheyavve siya, Vay 1, 17 ff.). Nis 20, 21-53 tells us to what the increase amounts. It is of twenty days if the additional offence normally requires two months, of fifteen days if it is normally, 'expiated by a month. According to the Nistha. cunni, the increase is of 25, 30, 35 or 40 days if the new transgression is in general expiable by three, four, five or six months (cf. Schubring, Drei Chedasutras, 95; Lehre SS 162). Several sorts of kasina are distinguished - six, according to the commentaries of the Vavahora and of the Nisiha; for even though it was "complete", this "addition" was not necessarily definitive: 1. Cf. Nis cunni ad Nis Bh 6643 (cf. Than T 325 b) : jam (ca) vahati pacchittam sa patchavitika (arovana) bhannati thaviya nama jam avanno tam se thaviyam kajiati. kim-nimittam ? ucyate : so veyavaccakarana-laddhi-sampanno java a yariyadinam veyavaccam kareti tava se tam haviyam kajjati, do joge kaum asamattho so veyavacce samatte tam kahitinti, evam haviya (cf. Vav T III 47 b). L'arovana hadahada is explained ibid, ad Nis Bh 6 645; Than ? 326 a says: hadahade ti yat laghu-guru-mas' adikam apannas tat sadya eva yasyam dijate sa hadahadokteti. Communication from pr. Schubring. He compares Gujarati hadohad, Drei Chedasutras. 94. - 2. Obviously, in the case in which the original offence is subsequently complicated by fraud (paliunciya aloettae). (cf. That nama ja sampanno

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156 . padisevana ya samcaya aruvana anuggahe ya bodhavde anughaya niravasesam kasinam puna cha-vviham hoi (vah Bh 1, 385=Nis BK 6-616); the first is when there is no call for punishing an offence other than the initial one; the second is for 180 months; the third is for six months, the fourth is complete with remis. sion" (anugraha-krisna); the fifth is "complete without abatement" (anud ghata-k.); the sixth is."as it stands". Among all these varieties, only the last counts exactly the duration incurred, neither more nor less, (T. 179 III 37 a). The commentaries give details of the fifth, and especially of the fourth. The refusal of abatement bears normally on the time (duration): the "heavy" months take effect immediately after the sentence; the "light" ones, shortly afterwards (ibid 37 a 10) Other authorities distinguish three "heavy" varieties. "They would refuse the abatement to bear on the time (season), on the mortification, or on both of these factors together. Then the period chosen is a difficult season (the summer, etc.) - an aggravation of the penance that the Vah Bh seems to repudiate (cf. T IV 80 b supra 173). Heavy mortification would consist in fasting for three and a half days or from the announcement of the verdict.' The "complete" "total" of the penance is doubly heavy if the religious is made to bear the weight of both time and mortification. The commentaries explain how, in the fourth type of arovana the complete amount of the penancc is reduced through indulgence (Vav Bh 1, 311=Nis Bh 6,549, Vah Bh 1, 387=Nis Bh 6 618). They study the case of the religious who is .equally gifted for mortification and 'for "service" (ubhaya-tara). A - remission is granted, when the offender, in-bis confession, .condemos. bis fault "ha.dusthu ketam" ity, adi; or when he is known to be morally or physically weak. (dhrti-samhananabhyam durbalam vijnaya), If he persists in his fault, if his confession is vitiated by passion of hatred, or. if he is robust, no clemency is shown (T III 37 b). Remission works in the following way: a religious has incurred two consecutive six monthly "isolations". If he is granted clemency, he will In reality carry out only six months. Two cases present themselves. - First case: out of the first six montbs, six days have already been observed when the religious commits an offence which necessitates a penance of six months. The five months 24 days which remain on account of the initial penance are cancelled : purvam prasthapita-sanmasanam panca masas catur-vimsatir dinas ca jhosyante, T III 7 a 1). It is indeed admitted that the six months initially incurred are contained in the first 1. To mention it implies likewise the "complete" "addition", "without remission" niranugraha-krisna (cf. infra).

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six days (purva-prasthapitas ca san masas lesu eva satsu divasesu gatesu vyudhesu parisamaptah kriyante, ibid 7 b 4 ff,). The six months made necessary by the second offence are imposed but with the effective suppression of six days, because the total time of a penance is limited to six months. Second case: out of the first six months, there are still six days to run. A new offence which deserves six months is committed. These months are then imposed, always in such a way as not to exceed six P. 180 months in all; they are thus in fact reduced to six days (with cancellation of five months 24 days of the second penance and six days of the first: tesam sannam masanam sat divasah prayascittam, sesam samastam api jhositam. purva-prasthapita sanmasam api sat divasah jhosilah T III 7 a 7 f) If there is no remission, the procedure is as follows (cf. Bh 1, 312= Nis Bh 6 552). 1 157 - First case (T III 7 a 10 ff.): the first penance should count six months. After six days, a new offence deserving six months is committed. The five months 24 days remaining are cancelled (jhositah) and the six following months are imposed in full. Total: six months six days. - Second case: (7.6) after five months 24 days of a first penance, there is a relapse necessitating a further six months. These last are maintained in full, while the six remaining days from the first offence lapse. Total: twelve months, less six days. It is the highest penance imposed - there is none more severe (natah para tapo' rhe prayascitta utkrstatara prasthapana'sti). As with the preceding penance, this atonement is imposed only on robust religious The commentaries foresee the accusation of favouritism, and refute it > (Bh 1, 313-Nis Bh 6 553, T III 7 b-8 a). The fictitious opponent accuses the teacher of favouring the first penitent because he sees that he is still strong enough to be able to serve him agreeably; and he accuses the teacher of being severe on the second, who is too weakened. by his penances to be useful to him. "Thus, you close one eye and open the other;...you raise up the one and you kill the other." The teacher replies that he does nothing of the kind. He compares the penitents to two fires-the weak one to a fire which is scarcely alight and cannot burn large logs, the strong religious to a fire which is well alight. Or, again, he compares them to two servants: to one is given, in one month, enough food for four, and to the other, for four months, enough food for a single month. One dies of indigestion and the other of hunger. In the same way, the first penitent would succumb under a penance which was too heavy, while the penance which was too light would not be sufficient to rurify the second. The teacher concludes: in distributing the penance in each case as has been described, we remain

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158 impartial (latha durbale balisthe ca rathoklarupam prayascittam dadana na vayam raga dvesavantah ? III 8 a 12). 181 The two provisions which characterise the parihara are apparently. indicated by the two formulae thavanijjam ghavaitta and karanijjam veyavadiyam, which both appear in Vay 1, 17-20. The practices to which they refer, and the rites preliminary to the atonement, are dealt with in the commentaries concerning the su, 1, 17. They are completed in 2, 27 and 2, 1 ff. Several examples of tolerance are discussed in 2, 28-30. However, the penitent undertakes varicus rigorous, but commonplace observances. He carries out the "services" of the teacher; as far as possible, that is to say when he is of the number of those monks who are "helpful to two" people at once (supira 130). The custom is confirmed by K 4, 26; 5,53; Vay 1, 22-24; 2, 29 f. He gives himself up to meditation and study - which last is sometimes presented as a severe penance (T II 35 b 4). It can cven happen that he does this, in the company of "pure" religious (Vav 1, 21: cf. 2, 27). In addition, and cspecially, he observes fasts and numerous restrictions on food. The former played such an important part in the penance that they contributed to its definition (supra 175; Lehre SS 162). Added to the other mortifications, they ran the risk of putting the religious to too severe a test. This is why, before proposing the parihara for a stranger, the teacher has to ask him what fasts he has already undertaken and with what result (infra). The quality and the quantity of the food are reduced; one is limited to one meal a day; vikrli is totally eliminated (Lehre $ 162), begging is confined to one household per day (K 4, 26). All these observances, however, have nothing especially characteristic about thcm. Essentially, the parihara consists in removing from the society of his brethern the religious who is doing penance. This cxpulsion is not, bowcvcr, total : the monk continues to live with the others and is helped in his tribulations by two duly qualified rcligious, Malayagiri summarises the parihara as follows (T III 25 6 ff.): the rcligious practises kaussagga. The teacher announces, in front of the company, the rank of the two nigganthas who are going to assist him, 1. On the importance attached to the study of the ugamas, Pravacanasara, 3, 32; compare the importance of nana, Dasavcyaliya, ch, 4 (and stanza 10), etc. Cf. Apastamba DharmaSutra, 1, 4, 12, 1.

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159 He specifies publicly the arrangements that must be made (sthapaniyam sthapayitva, ibid 26 a 1). Finally, the commentaries indicate what "services" the penitent will receive from his tutor and helper vaiyavrtyam karaniyam, : ibid 2). This summary is then explained in great detail. If there is call for it, one begins by checking whether the oftender is * adapted to being "isolated". The teacher therefore asks him who he is. P. 182 how old he is, what bis instruction has been, how he accepts alms, what fasts he is capable of, and if he can bear a severe one : ko, bhante, pariyao, sutt'atthabhiggaho tayo-kammam kakkhada-m-akakkhade va...(Vav Bh 1, 350=Nis Bh 6 584) Only the monk who, on all these counts, satisfies all requirements can undertake this penance (...guna-samuha-yuktasya parihara-tapo diyale). For others, the commentaries advise the suddha parihara (T III 28 b). Before the parihara is announced, the penitent recollects himself in public (kayotsargah kriyate, ibid 29 b 4, Bh 360 a). Like the guru, he is facing East or North or is opposite the: superior (caranti dik, supra 150) or the shrines (caitya) and he stands to the left of the teacher or slightly behind him (T III 29 b 4 f.). Both then pronounce the following formula : I am addicting myself to kaussagga because I want to begin the penance of parihara. In faith, wisdom. steadfastness and preservance which accompany indifference to the attacks Page #176
... 160 kappa-fthito aham te, anuparihari ya esa te gito 183 (Bh 1, 362 a=Nis Bh 6 594 a). In other words, the penitent does not have to separate himself from the guru as he does from all the other monks. The teacher and the "second" are the two men who are going to devote themselves to his "service" (karanijjam veyavadiyam). The second", who follows the penitent's every step?, is, if possible, a former parihariya, who will thus know how to help him should the need arise; failing this, another religious is chosen who will at least be of robust constitution. puvvam kaya-pariharo, tass 'asat 'iyaro vi dadha-deho (Bh 3626=Nis Bh 6 6594 b). The "second" has a particular status: that of the religious "who. has atoned": nivvitthakaiya-kappatthir (K 6, 14 and p. 47; Lehre SS 162, referring to Than 167 b; 371 a). The suttas Vav 1, 17-20 say nothing about the "servants" of the person who is subjected to "isolation"; but 2, 5 and 2, 6 specify the help wbich his "second" and the "coadjutor" (ganavaccheiya) respectively will give him, if bis strength begins to fail. Moreover, whatever the circumstances, the "isolated monk" is always subject to, and the responsiiblity of, a monk who is following the * Rule. Consequently, when in a group of two or more religious who live together, they are all offenders, one of them must be fictitiously "established" "regular" by his companions for the whole length, of their penance (kappagam thavailla, kal pasthitam sthapayitva...), after which he, in turn. performs bis (Vav. 2, 2, 4; T IV 15 b-17 b; cf. Lehre SS 162, referring to SBE 45, p. 157, n. 3). The services performed for the penitent will be examined later. They will take on their full significance after his position has been defined. This position is evoked in the formula thavanijjam ghavaitta (Vav 1, which is. it must be admitted, ambiguous. Thesitates between two interpretations : "having made arrangements for appointed) the men"? (that is the guru and the "second'', III. 30 b 3; compare Bh 1 360 u 29 8 f.; Bh 1, 373, T ibid 33 b 12); or "having instituted the arrangements", "haviog taken the necessary steps" (III 30 6deg3: 31 6 10. evam sthapanayam stha pilayam). Although the first interpretation would be admitted-and though soon it may have been the only one (it . 184 seem to be admitted-and though som is the one recognised by the Hindi commentary), there seems no doubt that we must adopt the second which has been recorded by Malayagiri I kalpasthitenanuparihayikena ca yatha-yogam..vak syamana-vaiyavytyam karani vam Vav T III 28 a 1 f.; cf. 33 b 13. 2. anu pascat prsthato lagnah san gacchatity anugaccharity anuparthart (ibid 300

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161 . and which is given in his textual gloss, in 1, 17: sthapaniyam vaksyamanam alapana-parivartan'adi...sthapayilva (T III 26 a 1; cf. Bh 1, 364, infra). It is also Malayagiri who says, elsewhere, more explicitly "it is necessary to i set down the things which it is forbidden to do with the penitent" .(thavanijjam thavaitta yat tena saha n' acaraniyam tat sthapaniyam ucyate tat...sthapayitva, T III 29 b 1). And indeed the installation of the two "servants" - which is implied by the formula karanijjam veyavadiyam- is not normally hindered by any difficulty. It would thus scem superfluous that it should be specifically mentioned elsewhere. However, it is quite a different matter with the sutla 2, 2 and 4, which formally enjoin the installation of a religious in the function of "regular", cgam tattha kappagam thavaitta. In the event, the bhikkhu is in actual fact an offender. The details provided by the formula are therefore necessary, to modify by means of a solemn act a situation which is intrinsically one of deadlock. Moreover, it is possible that the expression employed in this last case has contributed to changing the sense of thavanijjom thavaitta- and this all the more casily since the services done for the penitcnt were considered more necessary. As so often, they help in attaining the complete success of the penance. It is natural that the teacher should "lay down" from the beginning the principal. "arrangements". After baving specified the status of the two individuals who are going to assist with the parihara, he enjoins the whole religious community not to disturb the concentration of the person being "isolated"; "This monk is undertaking a penance. .. He will speak to nobody. Let nobody speak to him. He is concerning himself with his own good. He must not, my friends, meet any obstacle": esa tavam podivajjai na kim ci, alavati ma ya alavaha att'alpha-cintagassa vaghato bhe na kayavvo (Vav Bh 1, 363=Nis Bh 6 595). How could these obstacles be created ? By disregarding the ten prohibitions which cut him off from the society of his fellows: etaih padair vyaghato na kartauyah (cf. T III 30 b 10). The Bh enumerates them in the stanza 364 (= Nis Bh 2,881 and 6 596). It will be noted - and it is a "provision of capital importance - 'that these probibitions are reciprocal; and the resume of the relevant Tika, which follows, is to be completed in this sense (III 30 h 13-31 a 9). . alavana padipucchana pariyatt' utthana vandanaga matte padilehann samghadaga bhatla-ddanam sabhunjana c'era p. 185. This stanza enjoins the severin: of all relations ;

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162 (1) The monk in isolation does not speak to his fellows, and no ; monk of his company speaks to him (ala pana)... : : (2) He asks for no information concerning the text or the interpre. . tation of the Doctrine (pratipracchana - read pratipiccha).... (3) He does not explore the Doctrine with others (parivartana). (4) He does not rise (as a sign of respect) at the usual times, and in the usual circumstances (utthana).. : (5) He does not bow in greeting (vandana) . . " (6) He does not offer pots (for faeces, urine or phlegm (uccara prasrayana-khela-matrakanayana).. (7) He does not inspect the baggage with the others (pratilekhana). (8) He does not attend' meetirigs with the others (samghalaka). : (9) He does not offer them either food or drink (bhakta-dana). (10) He does not eat with them (sambhojana; cf, nayam yusmabhih wanap saha bhoksyate napi yusmabhir elena saha bhoktavyam, ? :31 a 6 f.) i n : -Every infraction, on one side. or, the other, is punished, although in differently according to the prohibition infringed and to whether the offender is the isolated. religious or, a monk who is in other: respects innocent (III 31 a 9 ff.); or a monk wbo is himself guilty but whose L isolation has been postponed (IV 17:6 I ff.), . Transgression by an aparihariya by a parihariya . who is who approaches a; monk .: .. .. of point ..number innocent n cent likewise guilty, but who will engage in, or has just finished the parihara 1. likewise guilty, but who will engage in, or has just finished the parihara , 1 to 8 I lighi 1 month. 4 light months . 1 heavy month 9 ( gift of food) 4 light. T months he gives '4 heavy months . hc'acccepts it : : 4 light months 4 heavy months 4 heavy months 10 (commensality) | 4 heavy months (unspecified) it will be seen that the strictest prohibition concerns commensality. This is the taboo which is protected by-the heaviest penalties, and the p. 126 otherwise innocent religious who violates it must expiate his offence as

Page #179
163 dearly as the parihariya who commits the same crime - contrary to what happens in other cases. We can be sure that this scale of atonements is not imagioary. Other measures - such as that laid down by the su. 2, 27.(T IV 80 b 4 ff) corroborate it. At the end of the isolation", con,' versation etc. can be resumed; but for a period which varies from five days to a month, all commensality is forbidden; alapan'adini sarvani kriyante, navaram ekam bhojanam ekatra varjyate (80 b 11). It is the month of the refusal of food", or the month "of rejoicing". In the same way, Malayagiri says that a vessel whose nauseous contents have left behind a stench must be allowed time to lose this odour before further use. In the . same way also, when one leaves the tribunal after being acquitted, one . ..begins by receiving the congratulations of parents and friends before going :: off to celeberate the event with them. These comparisons explain the names given to this extra nionth : puti-nivvalana-masa, pamoya-masa (Bh 2, 367). 1. However the commentaries add another justification: because when he comes out of his retreat the religious "does not eat in the "circle'" (na mandalyam bhunkte), his co-religious notice his emaciation, ply him with attentions and offer him the food best suited to restoring his strength (ibid 368). :. :.. An examination of the indulgences from which the Vavahara-sutta : .would have the parihari ya 'benefit shows likewise that the prohibition of commensality was the most important one: 1, 21 considers Jawful - on 4", condition that the elder has approved - discussions and study periods "!: between pure and isolated" religious; 2, 27 allows their co-habitation, ." if they are moved by a common desire to study thoroughly the instruction it of the Prophet (tirtakaropadesecchaya na svachhandecchaya iccheyuh... ...ekatra sthane eka-masam va...vastum, ad 2, 27, T IV 80 a 3 f.). But they must take their meals apart (cf. supra). 1.'." The prohibitions of commensality seem to have been lifted only in exceptional circumstances (2, 28, cf. K 4, 26; Vav 2, 29 f.). ! **** $ 35. According to 2, 28, the parihariya can be invited by the elder 'to give out the food. .Bh specify that he is asked to divide the choice dishes yikrti), because of the needs of the moment, the confidence that the circle of the commensals" might have in a distribution by, one, whose body is dessicated by mortification, or bis natural aptitude for apportio:,: ning food (Bh 2, 371f). For his part, the parihariya has the right - but he must seek express authorisation - to eat' what food remains on his . ..fingers (Bh 2, 374)... . it 'The commentaries' add that this is, in fact, a measure of clemency. Indeed, not only does he lick his fingers, but whatever is left over after P.187. distribution is his:- just, as, legally, the left-overs go to the cook (sesa V supassa;: Bh 2; 374). By this strategem then the teacher, if he sees that the 1. Cr. (on karpara odana) Om PRAKASH, Foods and Drinks in Ancient India, P, 56 and n. 3; Ch. MALAMOUD, WZKOSA, 16 (1972), p. 7-8 and n, 12; (ubi alia).

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164 penitent is wasting away excessively, permits him to sustain himself, and to complete his penance without hindrance (ibid). The suttas 2, 29-30 operate when an "isolated" religious and an elder remain alone together - for example as a result of a famine, or some other calamity. The teacher sick and confined to his shelter, may allow the parihariya who happens to be serving him to make a single round begging alms, with a single bowl (that of the parihariya, 2, 29, or that of the thera, 2,20). But at meal-times, the Rule prescribes that the thera (29) or the parilariya (30) should take out his own portion and put it into his owa bowl before cating it. The thera eats first. The alms is carefully divided; the top, or one side for the elder; the bottom, or the other side, for the "isolated monk" (T IV 86 b 10). Bh T permit the two men to cat simultaneously, if time is short. In this case, the parihariya eats his share as if with distaste, like a sick man who, to cure himself, eats dog's jesh - an unclean food, to be taken with tongs (Bh 2, 378; ? TV 85 b; 87 a 4 f.). : From the Nistha-sutta, it emerges that it is forbidden for the isolated monk" to associate with a pure njonk and vice versa. Infractions of this rule are to be expiated by one month, with possibility of abatement. The text does not waste time by studing them in detail. It is noteworthy, however, that on this occassion it mentions the various transgressions of the penitent, but those of the ordinary monk only when they concern food. Thus the su 4, 112 punishes the bhikkhu who invites a parihariya to stare the four different kinds of food (or who encourages this offence). The power that can here be scen to be attributed to food is not surprising : it has been constantly extolled by Vedism and. Brahmanism. 1 It was so decisive that the consumption of the smallest amount of food ... 1. Cf. Chandog ya Upanisad 6, 6 and 7; in addition, the Vedic and Brahmanic texts assem bled by Ch. DRECKMEIER, Kingship 50; JOLLY, Recht und Sitte $59; Om PRAKASH, Food and Drinks in Ancient India, Introduction; compare L RENOU, IIJ 4, 1960, 106: A. MINARD, Trois Enigmes II, 403 e, ubi alia; A. K, COOMARASWAMY, Hinduism and Buddhism. See also the reflections of Walter RUBEN, Die Philosophen der Upanishaden, 162 and passim; the remarks of O. LACOMBE, Gandhi 16, and his reflections on fasting, ibid 93 ff. Among the Buddhists, the Abhidharmakosa states that the world continues, because of food" (III, 119, of LA VALLEE POUSSIN'S trans alara-sthitam jagat); and, like other treatises, it distinguishes four kinds of food, on which it makes some speculations (ibid) 119-128; "compare 'the texts assembled by Alex WAYMAN, Analysis of the Sravakablumi Manuscript, p. 136). Faithful to the middle way", the Buddhists enjoin moderation, for example when they discuss the "knowledge of the appropriate) quantity of food", bhojane marajnata, WAYMAN, ibid 139-162.

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165 : 108 was normally surrounded by many precautions. The regulations Con. cerning thc parihara show that food could pass as being, in the eyes of the Jainas, charged with more active power than speech,? As for the scope of the sixth prayascista, one of the measures laid down by the Nisiha-sutla, helps us to form an idea of it. The su, 2, 40-42 deal with the parihariya who has irregular relations with a bhikkhu. They provide that he must make atoncment in the following cases : if he is in the company of a pure monk 1) when he enters or leaves a dwelling to receive an alins, 2 when he goes to the places of study or to relieve himself, or when he leaves them', 3) when he goes from village to village (cf. Ayar 2, 1, 1, 7-9) in these three suuttas the transgressions of the isolated' monk are mentioned at the sainc time as those of the blikkim who committed exactly the same faults in the company or a religious of another sect, or of a Jay person. The transgressions of the pariliuriya and those of the bhikkini are represented as being on the same planc: the parihariya must then, in a certain way, be purer than the pure. In this repect, as in scveral others, his penance imitates those of Mabavira, and tends towards the ideal penance (supra 119). : The total segregation to which the isolated monk was theoretically condemned was considered one of the severest tests. It is the one which the weak arc spared; for them thc parihara is commuted to the mula, or into that rather scholastic atonement that the commentaries call suddhap. 189 parihara (yasmal suddhata pasi dasapy alapan'adini padani santi tena karanena tat tapah karkasam na bhavati, Vat T III 33 b 8). As they assist at the preliminary kaussagga, the religious think : "He has comunitted this fault. The dreadful penance of "isolation" is going to be imposed on him. This sin must not be committed. It must be avoided with all one's strength", asmai mala-ghoram parihara-tapo dasyate... (ibid 30 a 7). For his part, tbe penitent--thinking of the impending ordeal can casily sink into a fit of depression : 1. Inde classique S 1204; Om PRAKASH, Food and Drinks in Ancient India, p. XXIII . and the passages devoted to this subject in cach chapter; DUBOIS, Inde I, 258 ff.; compare I, 43 f. 2. With regard to silence, sce A, MINARD, Trois Enigmes, II, 61 a, ubi alia. 3. vihara-bhumim va viyara-bhumim va nikkhamai va pavisai ra (2, 11). The Nis cumni. gives : sanna-vosiranam viyara-bliimi, asujjhae sajjhaya-bhumi ja sa viharabhumi (2, p. 120). Compare K 1, 40-42, etc. The commentary of Pajjosavana (reported by Jacobi, Kalpa p. 124) says : vihara. .... blumi's caitya-gamaram vicara-bhumih sarira-cintady-artham gamanam. Jacobi translates ; for easing nature (SBE 22, 306). Ported mi se BE 22

Page #182
gliorammi tave dinne, bhaena sahasa bhayejja khitto u (Bh 2, 102 a; ghore raudre pariharik'adi-rupe tapasi datte...,? IV 27 t;. cf. supra 117). In this case, the ganavaccheiya must comfort him, just as one would help and encourage anyone unfortunate enough to fall into an abyss or a river, or who is the victim of the ill-will of the prioce. When he has recovered bis composure, the parihara commences. The presence of two religious - one a "regular" (kalpa-sthita, cf. kappaga), and the other the "second" (anuparihariya, anupariharika) - somewhat mitigates the severity of his "isolation". It falls to them to perform his "service" (karanijjam veyavadiyam: karyam vaijaurtyam tabhyam kartaryam, Vav 1, 17 ff.; T Ill 34 a lf.). It consists in praising or cxalting, criticising, helping. According to the commentaries, each of these acts takes on three aspects according as it is addressed to oneself, to someone else or to both at the same time: veyavacce tivile appanamii ya pare tad-ubhae ya anusitthi walambhe uvaggahe c'eva tivihammi (Vav Bh 1, 374 = Nis Bh 6 605). Thus this service is especially of a moral order. The "support" is called material wben it consists in offering food and drink, and spiritual when it helps the isolated religious to amend his conduct. davvena ya bhavena ya uvaggaho : dauva anna-panaim bhave padipucchaim karoti jam va gilanassa (Bh 1, 378 = Nis Bh 6 610). The tasks are apportioned and performed as follows, The pariharija is not cut off from his teacher as he is from his brethren: the guru has proclaimed this from the beginning (aham taya 'kal pasthitah yardana-vacan'adisu kol pa-blare sthitah, na tu pariharyah, sesah punah sadhavah pariharyah, ? III 30 a 11 f.). The teacher allows the penitent to bow to him, to make his confession to him; to rise respectfully when he approaches, and to give him - when asked - DCWS about his health. He tells him the abstinences to be observed in the morning and the afternoon. He answers the questions of the isolated" religious concerning the text and the interpretation of the Doctrine : kiti-kaninam ca padicchai parinna padi pucchiyam pi se dei so ciya gurum usacitthai udantam avi bucchito kahai (Bh 1, 367 = Nis Bh 2 884; 6 599). These indulgences almost remove the first five prohibitions and the cighth prohibition specified before (supra 184 f.), but not the last two, p. 190 -8871

Page #183
167 those concerning commensality, which seem to have long retained great importance. It has been seen, however, that in case of circumstances beyond one's control, the two men resign themselves to eating together but display their repugnance at doing this (187); and that, on the other hand, the teacher, in his role of support" can allow food to a faltering religious. In short, according to this stanza, the role of the "regular" consists pove all in helping his ward to make progress in the study of the texts and of their interpretation. The penitent shows his respect, as a disciple would show respect to his master. In dispensing his teaching, the kalpasthita fulfils the third of the functions which fall to him - that of support", and particularly of spiritual support (supra). The function of material support is not otherwise defined by the commentaries: it results naturally from the general duties of the acarya, who watches over the general wellbeing of his whole company. It might be thought that he delegates this function, partially, to his "second" (infra). The teacher likewise performed the first two charges of the "service": praise or exhortation (anusistih stuti-karanam va), and criticism - though this is always characterised by good will (yat sanunayopadesa-danam esa upalanbhah, T 11 34 a 6; 9). They are presented in general form (cf. supra Bh 1, 374). . The guru is supposed to exhort etc. "the religious who is isolated, his second, and the whole company" (sa pariharikasyanupariharikasya samastasyapi gaccha syamusisty-adini karoti, ? III 34 b 9 f.). ... He invites the penitent to reflect upon chastisement which, in reality, p. 191 is all that cxistence is. By purifying the soul, the atonement helps to ward ... off this chastisement. The atonement must not then be regarded as a . punishment, but as a precious assistance offered by the merciful acarya ... (Bh 1, 375 f. = Nis Bh. 6 607 f.). To criticise an individual is to remind him that he is the only one responsilbe for his offence, that he could not escape punishment even on this earth (and still less here-after), and that he must consequently perform the penance which he has deserved (T III 35 a; Bh 1,377=Nis Bh 6 608). "It is thus that the teacher called "regular" encourages, reprimands and ... instructs the parihariya. 2 885; . : : The role of the "second" is defined in the gatha 368 (=Nis Bh 2 885; 6 600); utthijja nisiijja bhikkham hindejja bhandayam pehe kuviya piya band havassa va karei iyaro vi tusinio The penitent who cannot rise says : "I am trying to get up, to sit down etc." Then the other must raise him, sit him down, go, begging i

Page #184
168 alms, etc., and help him to inspect his baggage (cf. Bh 2, 75). But he performs his task without a word, just as one would for a near relation whom one loves but with whom one is angry (cf. T IV 26 a 11). This is how, according to the Bhasa and Tika of the Vavahara-sutta (1, 17 and 2,5), the "second"-or, occasionally, the ganavaccheiya-supports" the one who is "isolated" (cf. T III 35 b 1 f.). But it is not said that the superior must observe the same silence when by chance he offers food to his ward (ibid). Even when, as in the case just discussed, the "service" is material, its most precious effects are evidently of a spiritual nature (compare supra 133): it is always salutary to act in accordance with the Rule. It is to attain this (and by virtue of the sn, Vav 2, 5 f.) that the anuparihariya and the ganavaccheiya help the penitent who has been forsaken by his strength. But it is the spiritual character of the services done for the isolated : . religious to which attention is very graphically drawn in the commentaries of Vav 1, 17. It seems that the parihara is arranged in such a way that the superior can devote himself to the moral reformation of penitent. This can be seen p. 192 from a comparative examination of the assistance afforded to the one being demoted and to the one being excluded, by a single helper - who is, generally, the ayariya. He visits them once a day, and on this occasion performs almost all the tasks which, as we have just seen, were divided between himself and the anuparihariya. When he is prevented, he appoints the "preceptor" or an "adept" to go in his place. After giving the reason for his coming, the substitute carries out the orders received from the teacher, in silence. He behaves, then, rather as does the "second" of the isolated monk; and the second", considered in this light, appears as a messenger of the ayariya. It can be understood, then, that the service of the parilariya had to be divided. If it is true that the latter could count upon a perpetual physical assistance, the task must have been very demanding. How could the acarya, whose duties were very numerous, have attended to it alonc? As far as conduct (curitra) is concerned, any "adept" at all is capable of giving good cxample, since by definition he kaows and applies the rules governing bogging (supra 47). There was thus no difficulty in entrusting bim with responsibilitics of this kind; so the superior was relieved : of them. He had, consequently, the necessary leisure to instruct his flock - .. including the one who is isolated - to dispense to thorn his wisdom and 1. On the apotropic virtucs of knowledge according to the Hindus, sec GAMPERT, 199, and 1. 1, where the, in some ways, tinstainable nature of the "hrahmin' Gora is recalled (TAGORE, Gora, fr. transl, Gotz-Fallon 493)

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P 1. .. # 64 169 to cause them to make progress in the realms of knowledge and faith, where his competence was unequalled. Thus it is that the parihariya-even though classified with the religious "who have left the company"-cnjoys, by reason of his very status, the material and moral support of his confreres, who are chosen from among the best qualified. The duration of his penance is limited, no matter what the gravity of his initial offence and of those committed between his confession and the end of his atonement. Various dispensations temper the harshness of his lot; it seems that very often the Elder authorises him to continue his studies in the company of his fellow-disciples, and that A restrictions on food, though more stringent, are also more or less lifted when circumstances require. 15. As can be seen, the severity of the principles upon which the parihara is based is, in practice, tempered in various ways. 5:5 1. However these indulgences, which are contained in the sutta, seem to have been insufficient to make isolation beneficial for all religious without 193 exception. According to the commentaries, it was imposed exclusively on those who had the status of an adept, and then only to the extent that they had the requisite strength and steadfastness. But were there any uncertainties ? It seems to have been sometimes admitted that, at least in effect, the immature religious could be subjected to some parihara (cf. Vav T III 49 b, recapitulated in the table supra 114). No doubt the commentaries took little interest in these waverings, because the parihara proper, had no longer any existence or any interest except theoretical. Other atonements had been substituted for it... - Its replacement by the "radical " of religious seniority, which is often recommended, perhaps raised difficulties of principle, since the mula was a heavier penance objectively speaking than the parihara. The doctors thus invented the suddha parihara which they define first of all in terms of fasts, and by the absence of any excommunication. It seems that it was not much different from the tava, tapas, which is the atonement practised at the time of the Jiyakappa. 9, In one form or another, the observances concerning food, have constantly played a preponderant role in the sixth atonement. The importance so clearly accorded them is in no way typical of the Jainas, as we have seen. Considered separately, the beliefs and principles upon which the isolation is founded were no more characteristic, This is 221

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170 not to say that other Indian communities practised the same penaoce. To be convinced of this, it will suffice: to review briefly, those which; in some respect, resemble the parihara, it is....The patichanna-parivasa; probation?, of the Buddhist has been pic.compared, nto.it (Kip: 12). The Buddhist : penitent, is indeed morally di banished fron, the company of his brethren. He must not share: a roof cuid in:with an innocent person : na...eka-cchanne :avase vatthabbam, na eka-cchanne anavase yatthubbam; na eka-ichanne avase va anavase :va valt habbam (Vin II 33,-. 194 12-15). But he must not install himself in a solitary: residence, either (ibid -32, 22 ff.). This mitigated form of exclusion recalls that imposed on the ac parihariya. On the other hand, the monk undergoing "probation", must not be saluted; he is relegated to the last and lowliest places and no notice, is . taken of dicisions which he might attempt to make concerning the company. But he does rise before a regular monk, and offers him a seat (ibid 31 ff). www.. The same prohibtions characterise the atonement manatla (cf. SBB, X, 196 p. 5), but the excommunication is again tempered, at least in the ita case of a nun. Indeed it is said that a nun upon whom it had been im posed would have remarked that two contradictory prohibitions bad been. placed on her the pebitent is forbiddenitto live alones aad any other 2 . teligious is theoretically forbidden to live in her company The Buddha would then have commanded their community to assiga her a companion ir.(Vin: I1,279 19. ff:)....... . .! ! ! What ther' happens to the "suspendediuifeligiaus (ukshitta) = ? He shows il 'deference to the innocents by rising when ithey approacb, but be isicotbidden o aiialli co'mmerisality with the samjha, asambhogam sargherita (lvin IF 21 f.) 31552 Woras':which recall the nidhana tenth provision of the patihara! Was the doiros: plishment then illi defined ? The-Culla-vagga fulbidsfonly the sambhoga, while the Viblianga pronounces" jointly three prohibitions or sambhnga, 14. shithyasa's and's ceping under the same roof: (IV 137, 19' f**) Regular. religious must respect the proliibition, under "pain of 'liavihg, (herselves, . 10 do: penance (pacitliya, ibid). ""; ..::::: : MT . HT, ''As for the severest: of: - all :(parajika), its proclamation is of necessity 3:12 accompanied by an express'prohibition of cohabitation" (samvasa)'parajiko ... hori asamvaso'li (Vin III 21, 25**; 22, 34**; etc.; cf. SBB X, xxvi

Page #187
f.). The other communions" are not mentioned. Were they automatically suppressed ? The atonement is so complete that the parajika's status as a religious has ever been contested - though wrongly, it would seem (Abhi. dharma IV, 98 f., and notes). It is known that Brahmanic society cuts off from the community who. ever has sinned grievously. The extent of bis exclusion varies according to the gravity of the fault committed. In spite of the variations met with from one text to the next; it seems that in its main provisions the graduation is comparable to that laid down by the Jainas (cf supra 42). Also, the prohibitions mentioned in both p. 195 cases are of the same pature, no matter how they are applied, When an offender does not perform the penance imposed on him, he is dismissed from his caste (patita). He has no further dealings with his relatives, does not speak to them and does not sit in their company. Should they meet him by chance, they fall at his feet and continue on their way without speaking to him. Nevertheless before their expulsion, an edifying discourse should be addressed to a wife, son or pupil to exhort them to a better state of mind. No food is offered to them, except to a * mother, and even then, silently (Gampert, 204 ff.). .: When an individual refuses to undertake a particularly important penance, he must live outside the village and make known by a sign that he is taboo (ibid 205, n. 3). The prohibitions incurred by a mahapatakin are aggravated again if he does not perform the prescribed penances. He. is met with increasing contempt, and the probibitions concerning food become stricter and stricter. This progression recalls that elaborated by Jainas between the sixth and the last two atonements.

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144 each monk is under the tutelage of someone older in religion, and to be promoted to an office he required not only merit, but also a religious seniority of three, five or cight years according to the office (cf. Vav.3). It is rare for the most ancient treatises. to prescribe a cheya purely and simply. K 5, 5 however enjoias a "suppression" of five days in the religious seniority of the religious who has committed an offence, has not "expiated it," has joined another company and who finally wishes to be received back into his original company. :" >,!.!. !:* " Generally K and var order a "proportional cheya of parihara", se s'antara chee va parihare va" (162, 4-7, "nigganthia-sutta;" Vajal; 21; 2224; cf. 3, 2, all five bhikkhu-sultas"; 4, 11 f.; 13 f.; cf, 19, etc.). The order of the two words. in the canonical formula is diclated by the rhythm, which requires that the shortest word. should come first.? But this is contrary to the bierarchy of the penances, aboutwhich there can be no doubt (cf. . ,,supra, 114; 1 )...; ; ii . . . . . 3 Almost everywhere, the commentaries present the cheda as a sort of *** a'pperdix.ro, complement of or substitute for the parihara, and thcy often calculate its amount by reference to the parihara, This fact emerges clearly * -- from the Yao: T: III 11 2 5 f. : baving, exhausted considerations about the tapas : (that is to say about the parihara), I imagines the case when a cheda bas been incurred: In that case, there , ;will be substracted from religious seniority a number of days..cqual to that which would have 9, characterised the sixth atonement (in other words, sometimes months, ... sometimes, periods of five days): tad evam. tapo bhanitam jani yalra bhinna mas'adini-va tapah-sthanani sat-pancety-adi-laksanani tayanti dinani cchedaprapte ... chedah kartavyah (cf. infra, Vav. Path Bh ?.). The connection between the cheda and the parihara is confirmed by other passages, but as we shall ... see, the rules for detailed application present some unresolved points. do' In: the long commentary which deals with Vav''1, 15; Malayagiri gives -:ithose, penances by.' 'which a "."competent". Teligious! (vikovida): expiates the ,faults which generally require" penances. lasting longer than six months, In the hypothesis postulated, he has incurred a parihara of the 'cumulative" type (samcayita). First a parihara : of six monihs; fi with: abatement is imposed, and in case of relapse, six months. "without abatement". If he falls agaio, a cheda or mula is imposed (vikovidasya sannam masanam upari POBEHAGEL, Beziehungen zwischen Umfang und Reihenfolge von 'Saizgliedern. If 1909-1910, P: 110-142; Ai, II, 1, p. 166;- A. MINARD, Trois Enigmes; II, 114 a: DD I, 35*, the rule of wax(ing) components), ubi alia; Saddangti IV; p. l-127, $5.3.1. 25, 1909-1910... ::;; CPD 1,356, the t

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175 %, hahusi ani pratisevitesu nasesi prathama-velayam udghatitah san masa diyante, 13 dviriya-velayain anudghatirah, trilya-velayam. chedo milam va, T II 9710 2 f.). The same passage adds that one must avoid imposing a cheda or mula on *. , an inexperienced monk (akovida). Nevertheless, he would eventually be 7, ili submiited to it, if he kills a creature with five senses, or, if he deliberately offends against chastity. In III, 2 a-b the procedure is different, but only slightly : the cheda is prescribed, after three pariharas of the non-cumulative type (asam cayita), or one parihara of the samcayita type. If the need arises, it is W e imposed three times, each one cancelling three days of religious seniority: sarvatra trini trini dinani cchedah (III 2 b 4). This length of time is unusual - ... it seems that generally the demotion is one of five days (supra, "K 5. 5: infra; cheyam panag'aiyam pavai, Jiya 82 b), and in fact this figure recalls the periods of five days by which the parihara is sometimes completed. . p. 200. The meausures laid down in T IV' 59. a (ad, Bh 3, 277)..are similar og overall, but some are different in detail. They enumerate the penances envisaged is when a religious. retains the charge of a company (gana) though he should I pot : if the offence. Jasts-seven days, a "penance" (prayascitta), of four months without mitigation; if it continues for another seven days, six months without de mitigation; after a further seven days, "suppression" of six heavy months (sat: guruka-ceheda); at the end of this time (that is, on the 43rd day) if . , there is still some seniority left, a "penance" (prayascitta, that is mula): on .the 441h day, demolion'; on the 45th, "exclusion". It seems that six stages are here recognised, and not eleven or thirteen, as Bh 1, 294 f, would have led one to expect (supra 116) Hot . !! !! ! $:.!!437 :15 . . : ,:!!!?). "The Vav Pidhi' fically, is: explicit (Bh 128; 135; 'supra), and suggests a procedure different from the preceding ones. It retains two types of taya : those which number five, or a multiple of five, days; and those which last from one to 'six months, It determines the scale of "suppressions as a function of the unit defined by the sixth atonement - months in the second 1. It is said that he will be awarded a parihara of six months according to the method described above, of sthapanaropana (cf. 175 f.). yo namagitartho 'parinamako 'tipari. namako va yo va sched'adikam na sraddadhati tasya evam avasatavyam, san masanam upari subahubhir api masaih pratisevitai) chedo milam va nu datayyam aparinam'adi2. to svablravata ya tasya: ccheda-imilanarliavar, kim til sthapanaropana-prakarena sa; diyante Vay TTI 97a 10-13). ti * , , , , , , , , ,{i !!!! :: : : ::.. . 10 This presents some difficulties since it is admitted elsewhere that the agitartha is of necessity dispensed from the.parihara:(supra 172). This does not prevent the present passage from being (quite explicit : avikovida ukta-svarupa.is, yadi....katham api ccheda.. mulladikam praptas tatha 'pi tesam chedo: mulam vana deyam,Ikin tasanmasikam tapah. yadi punar akovido 'py upetya pancendriya-ghatam karoti, dar pena ya maithunam pratisevate, tada tapah chedo milam va diyale (ibid 97 a 13 61). . Hit

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Page #191
(16 P. 197 41 da 21: #V 2 A 4622 CHAPTER VIII THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH ATONEMENTS: PARTIAL AND RADICAL SUPPRESSION OF RELIGIOUS SENIORITY (cheya; cheda. mula) While the commentaries analyse the parihara minutely and at great length, they give very little information about the seventh and eighth atonements (cf. Abhidhana 3, 1360 b, s. v. cheda; 1361 b-1362 a, s. v. cheyariha; 6, 336 a-337 a, s. v. mula; 377 a-b, s. v. mulariha). The information is not only meagre but as will be seen sometimes contradictory, at least if one examines certain details of the seventh. !! These two payachhittas consist of a partial and a total suppression of religious seniority - from which comes their name, cheya (cheda) "cutting off", and mula "root". In the disciplinary texts, cheya has become specialised in this sense. The commentaries recall that another "suppression" exists: that which cuts the religious off from the religious circle; but this measure is characteristic of the "demotion" (chedas ca dvidha: paryaya-vyavacchedo mandali-vyavacchedas ca..., Vav T IV, 26 a 8). It might be thought that T is here suggesting the existence of a sort of parallel between the seventh and eighth atonements on the one hand, and the ninth and tenth on the other. And, indeed, beyond the sixth, the payacchittas imposed on the offender amount, in the last analysis, to his exclusion from the monastic life fictitiously, in a certain way, and retrospectively, when a part or the whole of his religious seniority is cancelled (7, cheya; 8, mula); and effectively and immediately when he is forbidden to enter the shelter or wear the religious paraphernalia (9, anavatthappa; 10, paranciya). The Vav Pith compares the cheya, the partial removal of seniority, to the removal of a member this action aims at preserving from evil the parts which are still healthy: yasmin punar apatite prayascitte samdusita-purvaparyaya-desa-cchedanam iva sesa-sariravayava-paripalanaya kriyate, tat chedarP198 hatvat chedah (Vav Pith T 20.6 11; quoted in Abhidhana, 3, 1360 b). This all helps one to understand better why the cheya and mula could be considered more severe than the parihara. This last did not permanently affect the status of the religious, who resumed his rank in the company once he had completed the sixth atonement. But the seventh and eighth altered his whole career - and, as a consequence, ran the risk of upsetting the entire organisation of the community. For it will be remembered that

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176 I . ... case, five days in the first. (which would increase to ten for the uvajjhaya and fifteen for the ayariya, :of K p. 12). The maximum duration is of six months (ibid). 1. The cheya prescribed for the monk who, while performing a tava *comimits the same fault 'three times running - when he is, moreover; full of vigour and without any excuse : eesim annayaram nirantaram aticarejja tikkhutto nikkaranam'agilane panca u raimdiya chedo (Bh 128; cf. 135), : * ? '46 a '7 f. specify that the cheya is light or heavy according to the kind of mortification which it follows. It counts the same number of months as the latter. . All these passages confine themselves to giving theoretical Information about the cheya. It is possible that there is hardly anything to add to it. However, it seems that the effects of the penance were consolidated by :study - in particular; perhaps, by study of the Cheya-suttas. These are the Ayaradasao (amoug which is to be found the Pajjosavanakappa), the Kappa-, Vavahara-, Nisiha-sutta, the Mahanistha-sutta, ihe Pancakappa, and finally the Jiyakappa - that is, collections which deal principally with discipline (cf. Lehre $ $ 51 f.). 201 . It does not appear that the Jaina cheya had exact equivalents in the other religious communities of India. It has been compared to the paticchanna parivasa of the Buddhists. We know that this probation" is observed, if necessary, by a monk who has concealed his fault. It lasts as long as did his life by omission, after which the bhikkhu resumes bis previous status. Or again, it is imposed on a religious from another sect who remains, in this way, four months in the rank of novice. The permanent loss of a part of one's - religious seniority is not the most characteristic trait of this observance.? : ... 1. On this name, "SCC H. R, KAPADIA, A History of the canonical Literature of the Jainas, p. 35 ff.; SCHUBRING, Drei Chedasutras des Jaina-Kanons, p. 2. " 2. But Vin prescribes the chedanaka pacittiya (IV 168, 26,** etc.), "offence of expiation .. involving cutting down" (Horner, SBB XIII, p. 90 and n. 5. etc.; cf. index 1, s. v. :: "cutting down"): cp. the chejja (-vaishu), "maiming", "punishment" (Vin III 109, 24; 47, 7; SBB X.191 and n. 1; PED, S. v. cheda, chedaka, chedana, chedanaka: -Compare maiming as punishment (karna - nasi-)cchedana, Arth 4, 12, 33; also 4, 11, 24 (and the mitigation, ib 26).

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: p. 203 - The cradical " of religious seniority (mala), which : constitutes the eigih and last of the penances prescribed, if necessary, for a Jaina religious living within the company is - as we have seen - closely linked to the seventh and beyond that to the sixth. Among those under the rule of the theras, the superior is the only one on whom it can normally be imposed (supra 113 f.). He is completely demoted. He must begin all over again his religious career, starting from the taking of vows : punar-vrat'aropanam prayascittam (V av T IV' 53 a 13). But he does not practise any mortification (tapas, cf. the commentary ad K 4, 2-3; Than). Moreover, it has been thought that he should study certain texts.1 Vav Bh 1. 320, enumerates those for whom the imposition of the mula would be appropriate : tay'atiya-m-asaddahae taya-balie c'eya hoi pariyage dubbala appariname atthira abahussue mulam the one who deserves more than the sixth (and seventh) atonements, the one who has no faith in the purifying virtues of the sixth, or who can bear it so well that he is inclined to sin with gay abondon; the one who is not "senior' enough to be affected by a partial "suppression", or who on the contrary is so "senior" that he is likewise unaffected by it. The one who is not strong enough to bear the (parihara-)ta pas, or who is not mature" enough to see that this penance is the right one for his fault; the one who is physically and morally too weak to avoid sin; finally, the immature religious who might theoretically have descrved demotion or exclusion, which however he is incapable of undergoing successfully (cf. T III 11 a-6). The last clause is surprising, since among those who follow the rule of the elders, the superior (acarya) is theoretically the only one on whom 1. The mula-suttas, which - like the cheya-suttas - form part of the Jajna-svetambara canon (cf. Lchre &$54 ff.). They deal with more varied subjects than the cheyas, and are less ancient; they summarise, in a certain way, the Jaina tradition - of which the Dasave. yaliya, in particular, offers a kind of anthology (SCHUBRING, The Dasaveyaliya sutta, Intr. III f.). But the name of this collection may be drawing attentio i to the fact that it groups basic" texts which must be known before all else (cf. Lelire $40). But contra, J.C. WRIGHT, BSOAS, 30, 2, 1967, p. 419 a. 2. Moreover, see Vay 1, 33 : bhikkhu ya ganao awakamma ohavejja, se ya icchejja doccam pi tam eva ganam uvasampajjitranam vihariltae, 1'atthi nam tassa kei chee va parihare va n' annattha egae schova!thavaniyac. 23

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178 p. 204 this prayscitta can be imposed. It will be noticed at least that the mula is presented as being in some ways a substitute pedance. It is substituted sometimes for the ninth and the tenth (from which the sapeksas are dispensed), so'netimes for the sixth and seventh when they are insufficient, and "sonelines for the sixtn when, on the contrary, this would be too much for"the strength or the maturity of the penitent:""; ".

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CHAPTER IX : 29 NINTH AND IN ENTH ATON 4.11 Tr DEMOTION AND EXCLUSION p. 205 (aniyafthaya; anavasthaya. paranciya; parancita) wy: The ninth and tenth atonements are the demotion" (anavasthaya for anayafthavaya), and the expulsion". No, substantive exists to denote the tenih - the commentaries often speak of it as the last; (carama); another way consists in naming the penitents instead of the penances (cf. infra). They are so closely linked that certain authorities consider them together (supra 112). . They are imposed exclusively on religious "who have no concern for the company" (niraveskha) - that is, the jinakappiya, parihariya or ahalandiya, 'wifio have all proved already that they are adapted to living correctly more or less completely alone, for a limited or an indefinite period. ? The demotion" is pronounced against a religious, who commits a theft (or practises a deception or pilfers) to the detriment of his brethren or other * religious; and against the monk who deals a blow (K 4, 3 and Bh ad loc.). ... A Foldicus is o excluded's if he harbours ill-will of evil thoughts, if he is laly, if he is guilty of Homosexuality' (K 4; 2). According to shan, the religious are to be excluded 1) who break up a spititual family or i2) a mpany; 3) who are always looking for an opportunity to commit violence 45' whose' defects, encourage violence or forgetfulness of the Doctrine (apabhrajana); 5) who are curious of who ask unbecoming questions 7300 azi It has been emphasised that these are not the actual faults with which the excluded monk is reproached; they indicate rather bis disposition and p. 206 temperament, which would indeed seem incompatible with the feligious life (Lehre 8:162): 'His banishment must, ther, be permanent; The Vavaharasutta bowever makes provision for his rehabilitation (2; 21 and 23) - it is exactly similar to that of the demoted monk (2, 19 and 22). It is pro1. With the technical term paraficiya, parancita, compare the name of the Brahmanic venance, paraka "beyond" (all guilts), parako nama kicchro 'yam sarva-papapanodarah, MANU XI-216; cf. 259; etc. See also Arth..3, 19, 13, which consider the crime of . (hasta pada-)parajcika, dislocation (of band and foot)"; so, KANGLE Arth II p. 289 and n. ad locum ; cf., on Arth parascika, Jaina para ciya, Buddhist parejika, Gustav ROTH, ZDMG 118 (1968), p. 342 f.

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180 nounced by the ganavaccheiya, taking into account the behaviour of the penitents and the wishes of their company. The only difference, apparently, concerns the time when the one and the other carry out the tava (fast ?): the demoted monk performs it after he is re-ordained, and the excluded monk before (Ctt, ad K 4, 2-3; Than). Moreover, the status of the two men seems almost identical, and is clearly defined in the commentaries in the Vay 2, 18-23, which occasionally treat the two together (T IV 52 am 58 a). The Digambaras by and large cause the same faults to be expiated by atonements whose basic provisions recall those which we will see prescribed by the Svetambaras. The "demoted monk" (anavafthappa) is temporarily but completely cut off from the "circle" where, it will be recalled, the religious study the texts and their interpretation and normally take their meals in common (mandalya vyavacchinna anavasthapya..., ibid IV 26 a 9). More generally he is, like the s'excluded monk" (paranciya), expelled from the area where... the community to which he belongs is established (yavad anavasthapyam parancitam va vahati tavad bahih ksetrad avalisthate, ibid 53 b 4 f.). This provision seems most important : in the same way as does his guilt, it makes the penitent not a "real" ascetic, but only a "sham ascetic" (samyatarupin, ibid 55 b 1). This is what one of them explains to the king whom he tries to compel to listen to him (cf. infra) : yatha sramana bhaga. vanto niraticara na tatha 'ham tesam> sramananam pratirupi na tu saksat sramana iti... visodhim karomi, tam ca kurvan nirvyudho 'smi niskasito 'smi tata .astam anyat ksetre'pi yalinam aham sthatum na labhe, tatah sramana-pratirupyam (ibid IV 56 a 1 ff.; cf. Bh 2, 249.f.) : "I am not innocent like the blessed samanas... I am purifying myself, and during this time, I am exiled In addition, I have no right to install myself in the area where the religious are gathered. Consequently I am a sham ascetic". In addition, the "excluded monk", says Thaa , has had to take off * his religious parapheranalia (a pahata-ling'adika, 300 6). Neither he nor the demoted monk" are, however, regarded as simple laymen. They undergo - 207 severe mortifications during the whole period of their expulsion. In particular they observe, while seeking food, restrictions and constraints similar to those which a jinakappiya would impose upon himself (bahis cayatisthamanah sa jinakal pika iva bhiksacaryam alepa-krd-bhaktadigrahan'atmikam karoti, T IV 53 6 6). At the end of the period of banishment, they present themselves to the teacher as faithful laymen (sa ca bahir yavat tisthati tavan na grhasthah kriyate kim to ugatah karisyale, ibid 5).

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181 A certain number of measures contribute to the tempering of the severity of these penances, and especially to making them profitable. They recall the services done for the "isolated" religious. Each day, the acarya visits the demoted monk, satisfies himself as to his well-being, helps him if he is weak (personally bringing him food and drink), and massages him : aharati bhatta-panam uvvattana-m-adiyam ti se kunati sayam eva ganahivati agilano so sayam kunati (Vav Bh 2, 239). In addition, he helps him with his instruction, receives news of his health and comforts him if the penance is wearing him out. Then he returns to the site where the gana of which he is the head is established: ubhayam pi dauna sapadipuccham, vodhum sarirassa ya vattamanim asasaittana tavo-kilantam tam eva khettam samuventi thera (ibid 240). If the superior is prevented (by sickness, exhaustion, the ill-will of the king), he appoints in his place the preceptor or any other qualified adept to replace him in this task. Whether asked about it or not, these substitutes tell the penitent of the circumstances obliging them to replace the ayariya. Then with everyone remaining silent, they carry out the orders of the teacher. very scrupulously (T IV 54 b). In spite of these precautions, it apparently happens that these exiles lose their strength completely (gilayamina, Vav 2, 7-8). They are succoured, in that case, as is the parihariya. The "service" here prescribed falls upon the ganavacckeiya to whom the demoted or excluded monk addressed himself, and upon the ayariya. The "coadjutor" inspects the belongings of the religious, helps him to rise and to sit down, goes begging in his stead (cf. T IV 22 a 10 f.). This is not to say that he approves of the conduct of the offender. But he knows that such is the order of the Omniscient and that in performing this service, he eliminates his own karman (ibid 26 a 11 f.). As for the superior, he goes in person to the penitent, hears his p. 208 news, watches over his health and well-being: glanasya sato ganavacchedina acaryena ca yathasutram vaiyavrtyam kartavyam, Vav T IV 26 b 13; cf. 26 a 11). The teachers never relax their diligence (ibid 27 a 4 f.; Bh 2, 100; cf. Vav 2, 7-8, agilae). Those who evade this obligation must, for their penance, observe four heavy months of the sixth atonement (Bh 2, 99). The ceremonial for the acceptance back into the community of the demoted religious and the excluded religious is summarised in the suttas 2, 18-23 of the Vavahara. In the last analysis, the company can impose it, no matter what the conduct of the penitent. On the contrary, the "coadjutor" to whom he presents himself has no right to re-ordain the demoted monk who does not approach him as a "faithful layman" (giht):

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1.Z - ka pale yasya samipe 'valisthat TK: 2-).- . .. 11:! ."... 11 .11. 11. 11 ....3 1.. . ! * -.id . antavasthapyam bhiksum...agrhasthikylam. tosya ganacacchedino gano-svamina (sic!) upastha payilum (I iv 52 a-6). ".. " To attain this condition, the culprit first of all takes care not to commit the fault again. He obseryes the rule very strictly. The other sadhus - it is added '- are so terrified that they take good care not io commit the same crimc (Bh 2, 234) When he presents himself for rchabilitation, he does not take a bath. He adorns himself in bis most splendid finery (nepathya) - at Jeasi, sccording to some commentators" (ege); others (avarej would have him .put.on only two garmentsi. He goes to the assembly, presents himself to the superior and says : "My Lord, I wish to hear the Law". The tcacher recites it. The other then declares before the whole audience : "I have faith in this just Law. Make me leave the world" : sraddhami samyagdhorniam enani ili mam praviajayala. He is presented with the religious paraphernalia and this action consecrates bim diksa-linga). He is immeditely teinstated" : 1... ... . . . * 117 1.. . 1 1 . 1 1 . 11 * I . - 2. 9 .11., :10 12 : 1 7 ! 16..:: UYU17 vara-nevalt ge nhan: avare jugala-mettam parisa-majjhe dhammam sunejja taito kahana dikkha (Vau Bh 2,233). Bh s point out the four cases, in which the penitent is dispensed from presenting himself as a faithful layman. First case : out of respect for the king and consideration for the services rendered by the person concerned. Allusion is probably made to - 209 historical events (Bh 2, 243-254). The sovereign was hostile to the monks. Duiy authorised by his teacher, the penitent succeeds in having himself introduced, thanks to his resourcefulness. He puts his case, taking advantage of the opportunity to allow the splendor of the Doctrine to shine forth and to convert the king. The latter takes an interest in this "sham ascetic" (samyata-rupin, supra) and acquits the samgha. The other, far from becoming proud, begs the king to address himself directly to the samglia and to pay his respects to it. Whether the prince does this or not, the community is well satisficd, pardons the penitent and re-ordaids him on the spot. Second case : rchabilitation of an acarya who is the victim of an intriguc in his own company (Bh 2; 255). Dismissed from it. he takes refuge in another gana, where hc' makes koonn the true' facts of the situation. While his cncmies claim that he sbould do all that is necessary to become an ordinary member of the faithful", his other subjects - who have moi ben deceived - invcnt a strategem, Icavc the territory of the coinpany, join him ocsiring that the dark designs of the wicked should fail". The narja is icinsia:cd without the formality of the "faithful layman". 1. T understands : apare dikzinelyok (IV 52 b 12); thus it considers this last tradition "10'sthern".

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* 183 Third case: the pupils of the superior (who are immatyre) show their attachment to their teacher and threaten to expel whoever: gproses hisis immediate reinstatement (para-mocapana, cf. Bh 2, 258 f.). . Den . . S.. ce which leads th ... ott 111 ** *6.1. 1 7 :14 Fourth case (Bh 2, 260. ff.; ? IV 58 a) : in the event of a debate between two companies. They are composed of immature religious. Their superiors (or at least one of them, if the other has finished it) perform em to t of "faithful laymen".. T companies agree to consider mutually, without further delay, that the two teachers for reinstatement, 'Although unfaithful, they are faithful. No matter what the personal wishes of the two teachers concerned are, the elder does what the company desires (tesui tatha anicchatsu api gana.. priti-karakairi mahadbhih sthaviraih...tesam dvayanam api gana-sadhunam iccha Thiryale; IY, 5810 i; cf: Bh' 2,262). 11 . are lot i l..11, 115. . .. - . . It will be seen that the opinion of the company easily prevails even when its members are unqualified. Care is taken not to thwart them. Among the Svetambaras, demotion (and exclusion) were characterised by a relaxation of the bonds which normally unite the religious and the community. The status of penitent is not exactly that of a layman. This is what is conveyed by the leaving, off or the wearing of the insignia D: 210 proper to either of these conditions, and especially by the installation of the religious concerned outside the territory, peserved for his forme companions. .: wit fen. It is the same banishment that the Digambaras signify in sometimes calling the ninth atonement parihara "isolation". After it comes belief sifaith? "saddahanai (Mulacara 5, 165), sraddhana (Asadbara, Anagaradha mampla 7;"56). The information about the ninth given by the Malacara on one hand and the Anagaradharmamsia on the other does not agree on detail. Nivethless, it allows us to get an idea of the general provisions, Without corroborating in detail the measures prescribed by the Svetambaras, they evidently fest upon the same fundamental principles. The Mulacara teaches ihat two types of parihara exist - according to whether the peniteni remains attached to bis company or not : api ca*"pariharo dvi-prakarah gana-piatibaddho pratibaddho va.1 Asadbara admits this double" possibility and relates it to the penance which be calls (an)upasthana (that is,-sthapana). Moreover, he adds to this "demotion' the penance of the parancika (sic). It is the union of this last, with the one before, which, according to him, 1. Compare the two categories of ghalandiya (supra 53), irer 137

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184 forms the parihara,? It can be seen that it includes the ninth and tenth prayascittas of the Svetambaras. It can be summarised as follows : -First variety : a) sometimes the parihara expiates a transgression committed through negligence (pramada) : nija-gananupasthana (that is, -anupasthapana). After the offence is announced, the religious undergoing "demotion" does penance io bis own gana. He bows even to his judiors, receives no salutations whatever, confesses to the guru amid general silence, turns (?) his fly-whisk (piccha). His penance is one of five upavasas, up to as much as six months. (b) sometimes the parihara expiates a fault committed deliberately through pride (darpa) : sa-para-gano pasthana (that is, -gonanupasthapana). The announcement of the offence and the general arrangements are the same as for the preceding example. This time, however, the "demotion" is borne with the help (sa-) of gana other than his own. The offender is sent' from p. 211 one acarya to another, until he reaches the seventb, who sends him back to the first, who in turn pronounces sentence. i. -Second variety of parihara : that wbich is inflicted on the parancika. After the offence is announced, the offender is solemnly cast aside, in the presence of the assembled samgha. The atonement' imposed upon him is - the anupasthana ! The acarya banishes the religious, who goes to perform his penance in ganas where the rules in 'force are not those which he normally follows. While the status of the paraficika is attached to the upasthapana, the tenth place in the list of expiations is occupied by the sradd hana, to which, beside, the name upasthapana is sometimes given ! It is said to have con. sisted in leaving the world once more.(pradrajya). The engagement was ***" entered into before a religious who had previously fallen into error, or (according to another tradition) before a religious who in the past has seriously violated the great vows (mahavrata). The sraddhana is not, then, .. properly speaking, a penance. . .... .. ** The Alulacara, which calls it saddahana, gives its other names : porana-kanna-kharanam khitanam nijjarana sodhanam dhuvanam pumchanam uchirana chidanam ti payachittassa namaim (166) :.. .; "the destruction of past deeds (lisa panam zinasah), their rejection, elimina tion, cleansing, scattering and purification (pucchanam nirakaranam), their expulsion and annihilation". It appears to consist in re-acquiring a taste for .... T. widbara call: it tripir: In scality, it can be seen to bi: double, with a subdivision of the first variety. 2. Communicated by professor Schubring.

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185 truth, in abandoning the passions. In short, it is the end - instead of the means - which is presented here. It is the same among the Digambaras and the Svetambaras. The latter, it will be remembered, emphasise that the last two penances are excessively . .. rigorous - so rigorous, indeed, that the companions of the penitent are... terrified of them. Thus they demand of the penitent a perfectly firm and solid faith which is, it seems, symbolised by the rites of a solemn reordination. . From the commentaries of the Vavahara-sutta, we can see that demo tion and exclusion are closely associated and that they have links with "isolation" (parihara). They can be regarded as kinds of excommunication in various degrees. All three are temporary - that is, the Jainas never despaired of the sinner (compare Gampert, Suhnezeremonien, 33 n. 1). p. 212 . They place him in a situation which helps him to get a grip on himself. Concern for the removal of the rest of the company from the physical contagion of evil is expres ed by the suttas no more than it is by the commentaries. Naturally, they separate the religious who has yet to perform his penance and is consequently impure) from the pure monks They admit, in addition, that the sight alone of the penance inspires in these latter a salutary fear and the desire to act correctly. These are not. nevertheless, their overriding concern On the contrary, everything scems to have been arranged so as to assist in reforming the offender. Theoretically alone, and in any case relieved of his obligations towards his fellow religious, he has henceforward the leisure to perfect his instruction and his faith, and to attend to his conduct. Mortification helps him in this enterprise. His amendment is helped also by the scrupulous way in which bis former colleagues keep away from him (cf. Vay Bh 1, 363; subra 184), and even more by the help afforded liim by the superior ".. and, if necessary, another teacher or competent monk. Far from the distractions" inherent in community life, the "isolated", the. demoted or excluded religious tries to imitate, as far as his experience, wisdom and strength allow, the religious life par excellence - after the example of the Jina. This is the life which the most advanced religious sometimes adopt in their energetic leaps towards Deliverance, 24

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188 . took off his leather sandals and confessed his six kinds of faults dusktla. The Great Kasyapa, with his own hand, led Ananda out of the Samgha and said to him : 'Stanch the flow of impurities in you and you will then return. Do not return so long as your uncleanness and your ties remain.' Having spoken thus, be closed the door himself. [...] Ananda reflected [...] During the night be sat down in the dhyana position (...) He obtained the three knowledges, the six.super. natural penetrations, and total Deliverance ; and he became an Arhat of very great power (...) He came to the door of the room where the Samgha was assembled and entered through the keyhole. He said : 'Oh Great Kasyapa ! Do not blame me any more !' The Great Kasyapa touched Ananda's head with his hand and said: 'I did it on purpose, for your own good, so that you would find the way. Do not feel bitter towards me. In this way I have led you to fulbll yourself.' " (quoted by Przy-. luski, Goncile 62-68). It appears in this account that the victory goes to the arhat, that is, to the advocate of individual salvation. Is this characteristic recent - or, rather, archaic ?: Certain provisions seem to show that the . Jaipas progressively recognised more of the virtues necessary for salvation in a monk's unselfishness than in his penances.. . It has seemed useful to reproduce these long extracts. They allow as to see that Buddhists and Jainas practised comparable observances founded upon similar beliefs - and that they experienced the same contradictory aspirations. In organising their community, the Jainas were led to adapt ancient practices to new ends. They had to revise, if only implicitly, the concepts' transmitted to them by their predecessors, and by their environment. In doing their best not to disown the past, they finally opened up an original way to Deliverance. This, iq short, is what Buddhism attempted, with comparable means but with different success.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY p. 217 : As a general rule, the works cited below are those which bave been quoted more than once in the text, The asterisk after a reference (other than Bh) indicates that the passage referred to i, in verse. lo confirmity, with the usage of CPD, two asterisks after a reference to the Vinaya indicate a text of the sikkhapada ; and the acute accent denotes a text of the "ancient commentary': DICTIONARIES Abhidhana = Abhidhana-Rajendra. 7 vol., Ratlam, 1913-1925. Ardha-Magadhi Dictionary. 5 vol, 1923-1938. BHS, Dict.=Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary. New Haven, Yale Uni versity Press, 1953. CPD=A Critical Pali Dictionary. Copenhagen, 1924. EM=ERNOUT-MEILLET, Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue latine. Histoire des Mots. Paris, 19594. G: P. MALALASEKERA-Disctionary of Pali Proper Names. 2 Vol., London, 1960, Nep. Dict =A comparative and etymological Dictionary of the Nepali 'Language by Ralph Lilley TURNER, London 1931. PED=The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary. London, 1921-25. PSM=Hargovind Das .T. SHETH. Paia-Sadda-Mahannayo. Varanasi, 1963a : (Prakrit Text Society VII). B. J. SANDESARA and J, P. THAKER - Lexicographical Studies in Jaina Sanskrit. Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1962, 241 p. (The M. S. Uni. versity Oriental Series, No. 5). (Reprinted from the Journal of the Oriental Institute). . ERE=Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, ed. by HASTINGS J., 12 vol., Edinburg, 1908-1921. COLLECTIONS AKM=Abhandlugen fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes. *Leipzig: Alt-und Neu-Indische Studien herausgegeben vom Seminar fur Kultur und Geschichte Indiens an der Hamburgischen Universitat. Hamburg. ... AOS=-American Oriental Series. New Haven, Connecticut. . EFEO=Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient. Hanoi, Paris. Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, begrundet von

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.11. CONCLUSION In keeping with their taste for order and methods, the Jainas constructed a disciplinary system which is rigorously coherent - at least in : appearance. In reality, the classifications which they adopt seem sometimes rather superficial. They leave some points unresolved, and there are contradictions in matters of detail. This is because, inspite of the temptation of scholastic, tradition respected the facts of a situation instead of sacrificing them to the requirements of pure form. The atonements occupy a clearly defined place the front rank of "interior mortifications". But the doctors discuss their number and wonder whether it is legitimate to include confession and repentance among them. They seem inclined to attach the parihara, not to the first five prayascittas on the theoretical list, but to various restrictions on food arranged in ascending order of severity. 213: In spite of the dryness and the length of the exegesis, a study of the atonements allows one to form an idea of the effort made by the Jainas to organise their religious life dynamically, starting from practices certainly ordinary enough at the time of Mahavira, which reappear (but in different forms) in other communities in India. The most commonlypractised observances seem to have been those of the solitary life, fasting, abstinence and restrictions of all sorts, the vow of silence, psycho-somatic exercises, study, total submission to the spritual teacher. Combined in various ways they make up the parihara, which seems to have been for the earliest Jaina cenobites the atonement par excellence, by virtue of which the parihariya, while remaining within the community, did his best to imitate the ideal of the religious life as it has been led by the twenty-fourth Tirthamkara. The study of the prayascittas also allows one to get a truer picture of the monks' personalities, and of their virtues and failings. It throws into relief the humanity of the teachers, their devotion to their cause and to their brethern, their anxiety to make rational use of the practices to p. 214 which other religious seem to have abondoned themselves with less judgment. Without, like the Buddhists, going so far as to delineate a 'middle. way' towards Deliverance, they are conscious that each observance has its limits and that it is necessary to counterbalance the excesses of each observance by encouraging the opposite, To allow the majority of people to reach salvation, it was necessary to watch over and guide the faithful. Community life facilitates this 1

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187 ... task, discouraging some from relaxing their zeal and others from under taking excessive mortification which surpassed their physical and moral strength. Once the rigorously hierarchic nature of monastic society was well established, the doctors could propose clear and firm references, so as to make thc penance proportional to the offence. If some uncertainty persists, it is because there often remains a margin between theory and application and also because, beliefs and customs having evolved, it was not always easy to adapt the institutions. It is generally possible in a community to remedy speedily the occasional faults of offenders. The penances and different kinds of mortification were quite naturally complemented by the reciprocal devotion of the members of the group who were called upon to render .." one another many "services". Tbis, however, was not without its disadvantages. Altruistic pre. occupations were in danger of absorbing the time and energy of the ... monks. It was the superiors' duty to ward off this danger by securing a balance in the exercises of their filocks. Besides, the doctors had guaran. teed to the religious the possibility - which varied according to capabilityof removing themselves from the communal life to devote themselves completely to their personal salvation. The old ideal of the solitary had not been repudiated by the Jainas, but simply adapted and moderated. The conflict between the two ways of life - eremitical and cenobitical does not show itself in their ancient disciplinary treatises. Among the Buddhists, it could be seen in someway dramatically symbolised by the struggle between the great Kasyapa and Ananda. If one were to re-read the account of the council of Rajagrha as it is reported by the Ta tche tou louen, one would notice the role of observances which are likewise favoured by the Jainas - and particularly the capital importance accorded to confession. Ananda is considered undesirable at the council because he has not broken his bonds. "He said to the great Kasyapa : "I have the power and the p. 215 strength, and in the long run I would have been able to find the way, but the Arhat, in the law of Buddha, can serve nobody, be at nobody's .. disposal, carry out no order. This is why I have remained in an inferior position, and why my ties have not been entirely broken'. [...] The Great Kasyapa said, You have committed six kinds of faults duskrta. You must make a full confession of these faults in the Samgha'. Ananda said that he agreed with this and would follow the instructions of the ayusmat Mahakasya pa and of the Samgba. Then Ananda fell on his knees, joined his hands, uncovered his right shoulder.

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190 Georg BUHLER. Fortgesetzt von Franz KIELHORN. Herausgegeben von Heinrich LUDERS und JACOB WACKERNAGEL. Strasburg; Berlin, HOS=The Harvard Oriental Series, Cambridge, Massachusetts. : IS1.=Indische Studien - Zeitschrift (Beitrage) fur die Kunde des indischen Altertums. Im Vereine mit mehreren Gelehrten herausgegeben von Dr. . Albrecht WEBER. 17 vol., Berlin, Leipzig. 1850-1885. PTS= Pali Text Society Publications. London. Records of Civilization. Sources and Studies, Edited under the auspices of the Department of History, Columbia University. SBB=Sacred Books of the Buddhists.- London 1895 - (PTS)... . SBE-Sacred Books of the East. Translated by various Oriental Scholars and edited by F. Max MULLER. 50 Vol., Oxford, 1879-1900. PERIODICALS ABORI = Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. Archives de Sociologie des Religions. Paris. BEFEO=Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient, Hanoi, Paris, Bharaliya Vidya. Bombay. BSOAS=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. BSOS=Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. London. East and West. Rome. EI=Epigraphia Indica. Calcutta. TA=Indian Antiquary. Bombay. IF-I ndogermanische Forschungen. Zeitschrift fur indogermanische Sprach und Altertumskunde. Strasburg; Berlin aod Leipzig; -Berlin. . IHQ=The Indian Historical Quarterly. Calcutta. IlJ=Indo-Iranian Journal, The Hague. - Indian Linguistics. Calcutta. JA=Journal Asiatique. Paris. JAOS=Journal of the American Oriental Society, Baltimore; Maryland. * JASB=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay (New Series). Bombay. JBBRAS=Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Bombay. Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, Tokyo. JOIB=Journal of the Oriental Institute M.S. University of Baroda. Baroda. MSL=Memoires de la Societe de Linguistique de Paris. Paris. OC-Actes du Congres international des Orientalistes. OLZ=Orientalische Literatur Zeitung. . RHR=Revue de l'Histoire des Religions. Paris (Annales du Musee Guimet). Revile Philosophique. Paris.

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191 Vishveshvaranand Indological Journal Hoshiarpur. WZKM=Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes Vienna. Wiener, Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Sud-und Ostasiens und Archiv fur indische Philosophie. Vienna. 2D MG-Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft. Leipzig, Wiesbaden, . Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie. Berlin, TEXTS AND TRANSLATIONS JAINA Bh=bhasa C=cunni T=fika BH T; without any text-title, refer to Vayahara Bhasa and Vavahara Tika. Pith=pithika ASADHARA sagaradharmamsta. Bombay, 1917, 692735 p. (Masikacandra Digam bara Jaina Granthamala, No. 2). Aurapaccakkhana, one of the Painnas, see Catuhsaran'adi. Avar. 1=Acaranga-sutra. Erster srutaskandha. Text, Analyse und Glossar von Walther SCHUBRING. Leipzig, 1910, IX+109 p..(AKM XII, 4). Translation of Ayar, 1 by W. SCHUBRING, in Worte Mahaviras, pp. 66-121.. Avar 2=The ayaramga Sutta of the Cvetambara Jains. Edited by Hermann JACOBI. London, 1882, xvi+139 p. (PTS). Translation of Ajaranga-sutta, by Hermann JACOBI, in SBE XXU (1884), pp. 1-214. Bhatta parinna, one of the Painnas, see Catuhsaran'adi. Catuhsaran'adi - Maranasamadhy'antam Praktrnaka-dasakam, Bombay, Sam vat 1983 (=1927), (AgS). Chedasutras, Cheyasutta, see SCHUBRING Walther - Drei Chedasutras. The Dasaveyaliya Sutta. Edited by Dr. Ernst LEUMANN and translated, with Introduction and Notes, by Dr. Walther SCHUBRING. Ahmedabad, 1932, x+130 D. H see Vavahara, I sibhasiyaim=1 sibhasiyaim. Aus spruche der Weisen - Aus dem Prakrit der ; Jainas ubersetzt von Walther SCHUBRING. Nebst dem revidierten Text: Hamburg, 1969. Pages 1-51+502-551 (ANISH 14). * Jiya=Jinabhadra's Jitakalpa, mit Auszugen aus Siddhasena's Curni, von Ernst LEUMANN. - (Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, (1892, pp. 1195-210,

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192 * K.=Dos Kalpasutra. Die alte Sammlung jinistischer Monchsvorschriften. Einleitung, Text, Annerkungen, Ubersetzung, Glossar von Walther. 'SCHUBRING. Leipzig, 1905, 71 p. The Kalpa-sutra. An old Collection of Disciplinary Rules for Jaina Monks. By Dr. Walther SCHUBRING, Berlin. (Translated from the German by May S. BURGESS). IA, 39, 1910, pp. 257-267. Kalpa(-sutra)=The Kal pasutra of Bhadrabahu. Edited with an Introduction, Notes and a Praksit-Samsktit Glossary by Hermann JACOBI. Leipzig, 1879, 176 p. (AKM VII, 1) (Groups Jinacaritra, Sthaviravali, Samacari, that is Pajjosavana-kappa). . Translation Hermann JACOBI, in SBE XXII (1884), pp. 217-311. Ernst LEUMANN-Ubersicht uber die Avasyaka Literatur. Aus dem Nach lass herausgegeben von Walther SCHUBRING. Hamburg, 1934, D+IV+56 p. (Alt und Neu-Indische Studien herausgegeben vom Seminar fur Kultur und Geschichte Indiens an der Hamburgischen Universitat, 4). Mahapaccakkhana, one of the Painnas, sec Catuhsaranadi. .. :. ::: Mahnisiha=Das Mahanisiha-sutta. Von Dr. Walther SCHUBRING. Berlin, 1918, 102 p. +1 plate. (Abh. der Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1918, Philosophisch. Historische Klasse No. 5). Moreover: Studien=Studien zum M. : Studien zum Mahaniszha. Kapitel 1-5. von Jozef DELEU und Walther SCHUBRING.. . Kapital 6-8 von Frank-Richard HAMM and Walther SCHUBRING. Hambuig, 1963, x+240 P; 1951, 116 p. Alt - und Neu-Indische Studien herausgegehen vom Seminar fur Kultur und Geschichte. Indiens on der Universitat Hamburg, 10;6) . . man numerals refer to the chapters of Mahanisiha. Mulacara =VATTAKERA, Mulacara, Bh. 1-2. Bombay, 1921-24. Manikacandra. Digambara-Jaina-Grantha-Mala 19;23). NEMICANDRA - See Prayacana(sara). Nis.=Nisiha-sutta, see Vavahara - und Nisiha-sutta. Nisitha-sutram. . Edited with Bhasya and Curni, 4 Vol. Agra 1957-1960. Paksika-sutram. Edited with the commentary of YASODEVA, Bombay, 1911, (Devcand Lalbhai-Taina Pustakoddhara.) Pavayanasara, Prayacanasara =sri Kundakundacarya's Pravacanasara (Pavaya nasara..., ed. A. N. UPADHYE, Agas, 1964, 28*+130+436 p.. Pravacana(sara)

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193 =NEMICANDRA, Pravacanasuroddhara, 2 vol., Bombay, 1922-1926. 1-221; 225-519 p. (Devarandra Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhara, 58 ; 64). Saniav.=Samarayanga (=Samvayanga). Edited with the Vstti of Abhayadeva. Bombay, 1918. (Agamodaya Samiti.) Siya=Suyagadaiga (=Sutrakstanga). Edited with the Tika of silanka, Bombay, 1917, (Agamodaya Samiti), (Translation by Hermann JACOBI, In SEE XLV, pp. 235-435). Tattvartha =Line Jaina-Dogmatik, Umasvati's Tattvarthadhigama Sutra ubersetzt und crlautert von Hermann JACOBI. (ZDMG 60, 1906, rp. 287-325; 512-551). Than=Thananga (Sihananga) Edited with the Vitli of Abbayadeva. Bombay, 1918-20. Agamodaya Samiti 1,2). UMASVATI-Sec Tattoartha. Uttar.=Uttarajjhaya=The Uttaradhyayanasutra. Edited by Jarl CHARPENTIER, 2 Vol., Upsala, 1921-22, 409 p. (Archives d'Etudes Orientales 18; 1 et 2). Translation Herman JACOBI, in SBE XLV (1825), pp. 1-232. Uvav. (that is Uravaiya) =Das Aupa palika Sitra. Erstes Upanga der Jaina. I Theil, Einleitung, Text und Glossar. Von Dr. Ernst LEUMANN. Leipzig, 1883. 166 p. (AKM VIII, 2). Var.; Nis.-Vayahara - und Nisiha-suutta. Herausgegeben von Walther SCHUBRING. Leipzig. 1918, 72 p. AKM Xy, 1). In the present book, the Suttas are numberd following SCHUBRING Drei Chedasutras. Viy=Deleu, Vivala pannati. V yavaharasutra. Edited with the Bbasa and the Tika of Malayagiri. Bhavnagar, 1926, (1927), 1928, Note the following concordances between text and commentaries : Pedhiya :? vibhaga 1 Vay, uddesa 1:1-14 : Bh 1 stanzas 1-288 II 15-35 289_429 III 1-334 udd. 2: 2 . . 3:. . 3 (by mistake ? Here IV) 4-10: no vibhaga, IV. IV

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194 H=(Hindi Commentary ): Dasasrutaskandha Sutra. Sikandarabad, Vira 2445, 148 p. Studien - see Mahanisiha, Viy=Delue, Viyaha pannatti. Vivah.=Viyahapannatti (Vyakhyaprajnapti). Bombay, 1918-21. (Agamodaya Samiti). Moreover : A. WEBER, Uber ein Fragment der Bhagavatt (Abhandlungen der Preus sischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1865, pp. 367-444;. 1866, pp. 155-352). Berlin, 1866-1867. BUDDHIST (Sanskrit and Pali). (abbreviations as in CPD or in PED). L'Abhidharma de VASUBANDHU. Traduit et annote par Louis de LA VALLEE POUSSIN. 6 vol., Paris, Louvain, 1923-1931. AGGAVAMSA - See Saddaniti. D =The Digha-Nikaya. Edited by T.W. RHYS DAVIDS and J. ESTLIN CARPENTER. 3 vol., London, 1890-1911, (PTS). Le Mahavastu. Texte sanscrit publies...) par E. SENART, 3 vol., Paris, 1882; 1890; 1897. LXII+635; XLIII+578; XLI+588 p. Societe Asiatique, Collection d'ouvrages orientaux, Seconde serie). English translation by J.J. JONES (SBB XVI, XVIII, XIX,1949-1956). M =The Majjhima Nikaya. Edited by V. TRENCKNER, Robert CHALMERS. 4 vol. London, * 1888-1925. (PTS). The Milinda panho. Being Dialogues between King Milinda and the Buddhist Sage Nagasena. The Pali Text edited by V, TRENCKNER. London. Ediobourgb, 1880, vili + 431 p. English trsl. by T. W. RHYS DAVIDS (SBE XXV-XXVI, 1890-1894); by I. B. HORNER 1: (XXII; XXIII, 1963-64). . French trsl. of pp. 1-89 by Louis Finot, Les Questions de Milinda: Paris, 1923, 166 p. (Les Classiques de l'Orient). Saddaniti. La grammaire palie d'AGGAVAMSA. Texte etabli par Helmer SMITH. 5 Vol., Lund, 1928-1954. xi +1460p. (Acta reg. Societatis humaniorum litterarum Lundensis. XII: 1 a 5). Sn.=Sutta-Ni pata. New Edition by Dines ANDERSEN apd Helmer SMITH. London, 1949, xiii+226 p. (PTS), . .

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195 VASUBANDHU See Abhidharmakosa. Vinaya=The Vinaya Pitakam : one of the principal Buddhist holy scriptures in the Pali Language. Edited by Hermann OLDENBERG. 5 vol., London, 1879-1883. (Mahavagga=Vinaya I. Cullayagga Vinaya II). * English trsl. by T. W. RHYS DAVIDS and H. OLDENBERG. (Vinaya Texts 1.111, Oxford 1881-1885 = SBE XII, XVII, XX).. English translation by I. B. HORNER (The Book of Discipline, London, 1940-1952 = SBB X, XI, XIII, XIV, XX). OTHERS Ap Dh S - Apastambiya dharmasutram. Aphorisms on the Sacred Law of the Hindus; by APASTAMBA, edited (...) by Georg BUHLER, 2 vol., Bombay, 1868, 8+118+154 p. English translation by Georg.BUHLER in SBE II (1879), p. 1-170, Arth. = Arthasastra. R. P. KANGLE - The Kauciliya Arthasastra. University of Bombay, 1960, 1963, 1965 (University of Bombay Studies. Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali, Nos. 1, 2, 3). Part I: A critical edition with a glossary 2+4+87.284+80+2p. (=Arth). Part II : An English translation with critical and explanatory notes, 14 + 608 +2 p. ( =Kangle, Arth) ASHOKA: The Inscriptions of Asoka, New Edition by E. HULTZSCH, Oxford, 1925. (CII 1), reprint 1969. Les Inscriptions d'ASOKA. Traduites et commentees par Jules BLOCH. Paris. 1950, 220p. (Collection Emile Senart). Atharva Veda Sanhita Herausgegeben von R. ROTH und W. D. WHITNEY. Zweite verbesserte Auflage besorgt von Dr. Max LINDENAU. Berlin, 19242, 2 xx +390 P. with a critical and exegetical commentary by William Dwight WHITNEY, revised by Charles Rockwell LANMAN, (Cambridge. "Tass. 1905, CLXII+1016 p. (HOS 7-8). BAU=BIha-Adranyaka-Upanisad.: Traduite et annotee par Emile SENART, Paris; 1934, XIX+137 p. (Collection Emile Senart). . . Das Baudhayana-Dharmasutra. ... Von E. HULTZSCH. Leipzig 1922, XI+168 p. (AKM Chandogya Upanisad. Traduite et annotee par Emile SENART. Paris, 1930, xxxiii +-142 p. (Collection Emile Senart).

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196 Gautama Dharma sastra. The Institutes of Gautama edited with an index of words by Adolf Friedrich STENZLER, London, 1876, 78 p. (Sanskrit Text Society). English trsl. by Georg BUHLER in SBE II (1879), 173-307... KALIDASA - Kumarasambhava. KAUTILYA - See Arthasastra. Manava-Dharma_sastra (Institutes of Manu) With the commentaries of MEDHATITHI (...) and an appendix by (...) Vishvanath Narayan MANDLIK. 2 vol., Bombay, 1886, 4+1589 p. (+) English translation by Georg BUHLER, The Laws of Manu. Oxford, 1886 (SBE XXV). Pancatantra The Panchatantra - A collection of ancient Hindu tales in its older recension, the Kasbmirian, entitled Tantrakhyayika. The original Saoskrit text, editio minor, reprinted from the critical edition major which was made for the Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gott iogeo. Cambridge, Mass., 1915, xv +143 p. (HOS 14). The Panchatantra - A collection of ancient Hindu tales. In the recension (...) of the Jaina mon's Purnabhadra, critically edited in the original sanskrit by Dr. Johaones HERTEL. Cambridge Mass., 1908, XLVIII + 296 p. (HOS 11). S Br. The Catapatha-Brahmana, . edited by Dr. Albrecht WEBER. Berlin, London, 1855, XIII +1194 p. The White Yajurveda edited by Dr. Albrecht WEBER in three Parts, Part II). English translation by Julius 'EGGELING (SBE XII, XXVI, XLI, XLIII, XLIV). ARRIEN - Indike Texte etabli et traduit par Pierre CHANTRAINE, Paris, 1927, 93 p. (Collection des Universites de France). MEGASTHENES Megasthenis Indica Fragmenta collegit (...) E.A. SCHWANBECK. Bonn, 1846, xii + 196 p. STUDIES AGRAWALA' V.S. - India as known to Panini (A study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayr). Second edition, revised and enlarged. Varanasl 1963, xxiv-612 p. Ai.= Altindische Grammatik, von Jacob (Jakob) WACKERNAGEL. 4 vol. Gottingen, 1896-1957.

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197 'ALSDORF Ludwig, Les etudes Jaina. Etat present et taches futures (Paris] 1965, 97 p. ALTEKAR A. S. - State and Government in Ancient India. Varanasi, 1955%, x + 386 p. AUBOYER Jeannine - Le Trone et son symbolisme dans l'Inde ancienne. Paris, 1949, 228 p. (Annales du Musee Guimet, Bibliotheque d'Etudes, 55). BAREAU Andre - Recherches sur la biographie du Buddha dans les Sutrupi. taka et les Vinaya pitaka anciens ; De la quete de l'eveil a la conversion de Sari putra et de Maudgalyayana Paris, 1963, 405 p. (EFEO, 58). BASAK Radbagovinda - Lectures on Buddha and Buddhism. Calcutta, 1961, vi + 130 p. BASHAM A. L. - History and Doctrines of the Ajivakas. London, 1951, xxii + 304 p. BASHAM, Sources of Indian Tradition=Sources of Indian Tradition, part two : Jainism and Buddhism (p. 37-202). (Sources of Indian Tradition, compiled by Wm. Theodore DE BARY (etc.), New York, 19592, xxviii + 962 p. Introduction to Oriental Civilia zations, Wm. Theodore DE BARY editor, LVI. Records of Civilization. Sources and Studies. Edited under the auspices of the Department of History, Columbia University). BASHAM A. L. - The Wonder that was India, A survey of the culture of the Indian Sub-Continent before the Coming of the Muslims. London, 1961, xxii + 568 p. Felicitation Volume presented to Professor Sripad Krishna BELVALKAR Varanasi, 1957, xxxiii +321 p., edited by S. RADHAKRISHNAN, V.V. MIRASHI, R. N. DANDEKAR, (...) A. S. ALTEKAR (Managing Editor). BERGAIGNE Abel, La religion vedique d'apres les hymnes du Rg-Veda . 4 YolParis, reprint 1963. BLOCH Jules - La formation de la langue. marathe. Paris, 1914, 284 p. (These pour le doctorat es lettres). BLOCH Jules - L'Indo-aryen du Veda aux temps modernes, Paris, 1934, 335p. BROWN Indological Studies in honour of W. Norman BROWN, edited by Ernest BENDER. New Haven, Connecticut, 1962, XX + 253 p. (AOS), 47). BURNOUF Eugene - Introduction a l'histoire du Buddhisme indien. Paris. 18763, xxxviil+587 p. CASA Carlo DELLA. - Il Giainismo Torino, 1962, 136 p. (Biblioteca di cultura etnologica e religiosa, 39). The Cambridge History of India, Volunie I, Ancient India. Edited by E. J. RAPSON, Cambridge, 1922 (=CHI). CHATTERJI Jubilee Volume=Indian Linguistics, 16. Madras, 1955, xx+344p.

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200 HEESTERMAN J. C. - The ancient Indian Royal Consecration. The Raja suya described according to the yajus texts and annoted. The Hague, 1957, viii + 235 p. Disputationes Rheno-Trajectinae, Il). HILLEBRANDT Alfred - Ritualliteratur. Vedische Opfer und Zauber. Strassburg, 1897, 199 p. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, III, 2). Inde classique - See Louis RENOU and Jean FILLIOZAT. JACOBI Hermann, Kleine Schriften. Herausgegeben von Berhard KOLVER. 2 Vol., Wiesbaden, 1970. JAIN Jagdish Chandra - Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canons (with Commentaries). An administrative, economic, social and geographical survey of Ancient India based on the Jain Canons. Bombay 1947, 420 p. JOLLY Julius - Recht und Sitle (einschliesslich der einheimischen Litter. ratur). Strassburg, 1896. 166 p. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, II, 8). KANE P. V. - History of Dharmasastra. 5 tomes in 7 vol. Pozna, 1930 - 1962, (Government Oriental Series, Class B. No. 6). KIRFEL Willibald - Symholik der Buddhismus. Stuttgart, 1959, 128 p. (Symbolik, der Religionen, V). KIRFEL Willibald - Symbolik des Hinduismus und des Jinismus Stuttgart, 1959, 167 p. (Symbolik der Religionen, IV). KIRFEL Festschrift - Studia Indologico. Festschrift fur Willibald KIRFEL * Herausgegeben von Otto SPIES. Universitat Bono, 1955, 375 p. (Bonner Orientalische Studien, Neue Serie, 3). KUNHAN RAJA C. Presentation Volume. A volume of Indological Stu dies. Madras, 1946, xxviii + 522 p. LACOMBE Olivier - Gandhi ou la force de l'ame. Paris, 1964, 187 p. LAMOTTE Etienne - Histoire du Bouddhisme indien. Des origines a l'ere Saka. Louvain, 1958, xii + 862 p. + 5 maps. (Biblotheque du Museon, vol. 43). (=Lamotte, Histoire I). LAW B. C. - Early Indian Monasteries. Bangalore. 1958, 24 p. (The Indian Institute of World Culture, Transaction No. 29 January, 1958). Lehre - See SCHUBRING. LEVI Sylvain - La doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmanas. Paris, 1898, 184 . p. (Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, Sciences Religieuses, XI). LOHUIZEN - DE LEEUWJ. E. VAN- The Scythian > Period. Leiden * 1949, xiii + 435 p. + XL pl. LUDERS Heidrich - Matliura Inscription. Unpublished papers edited by Klaus L. JANERT. Gottingen, 1961, 320 :p; 3 maps,

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201 . MEILLET Antoine - Linguistique historique et linguistique generale. 2. vol., Paris, 1948, viil + 335 p; 1936, xlli + 235 p. (Collection Linguistique publiee par la Societe de Linguistique de Paris, VIII; XL). MINARD Armand - Trois Enigmes sur les Cent Chemins. Recherches sur le Sata patha-Brahmann. Tome I : Paris, 1949, 250 p. (Annales de l'Universite de Lyon, 3e serie, Lettres, fasc. 17). Tome II : Paris, 1956, 422 p. . (Publications de l'Institut de Civilisation indienne, serie in-80 fasc. 3). MOOKERJI Radha Kumud - Hindu. Civilization Bombay, 1950. xii-+ 359p. MUS Paul - Barabudur. Esquisse d'une histoire du houddhisme fondee sur la critique archeologique des textes. Hanoi, 1935, *302 + 802 p. (BEFEO). OLDENBERGH, . Ancient Indin. Its Language and Religions, Calcutta, 1962", 113 + 4.p. OLDENBERG Hermann - Buddha. Sein Leben. Seine Lehre. Seine Gemeinde. Herausgegeben bei Helmuth VON GLASENAPP. Nachwort von Helmuth VON GLASENAPP Stuttgart, 195913, xij + 535 p. PETTAZONI Raffaele - La confessione dei peccati, 3 vol., Bologne (1929), 1935, 1936. xiv + 355 + xvi + 365 + x + 294 p. (Storia delle Reli. gioni; 8; 11; 12). PISCHEL Ri - Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen, Strassbourg, 1900, 430 p. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, I, 8), (= Pischel; references to paragraphs). PRAKASH Om - Food and Drinks in Ancient India (from earliest times to c. 1200 A. D.). Delhi, 1961, xxiv. +. 341 p. PRZYLUSKI Jean -La Legende de l'Empereur Acoka (Acoka-avadana) dans : les textes indiens et chinois. Paris, 1923, xvi + 223 p. (These pour le dociorat es lettres). PRZYLUSKI Jean - Le Concile de Rajagrha. Introduction a l'Histoire des Canons et des Sectes bouddhiques. Paris, 1926-1928, vi + 434 p. Przyluski, Concile). . RENOU-Louis - La Civilisation de l'Inde ancienne. Paris, 1950; 265 p. - (Bibliotheque de Philosophie scientifique). (=Rebou, Civilisation). RENOU Louis - Etudes vediques et panineennes. 17 vol., Paris, 1955-1969 (Institut de Civilisation Indienne). i . RENOU Louis - Grammaire sanscrite. Paris, 1961, 568 p. + 20 p.. RENOU Louis - Hinduism. New York, 1961, 255 p. RENOU Louis - Religions of Ancient India. University of London, 1953, ix + 139 p. (jordan Lectures, 1951. (=Renju, Religions). RENOU Louis - Terminologie grammaticale du Sanskrii, Paris, 1957, xi+541 D. (Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, fascicules 280, 281, 282.) RENOU Louis et FILLIOZAT Jean - L'Inde Classique. Manuel des Etudes indiennes. I : Paris, 1947, 669. p. (Bibliotheque Scientifique). II : Paris, Hanoi, 1953, Xx + 758. p. Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient III), (=Inde classique). 26 .

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198 CHILDE Gordon - De la prehistoire a l'histoire (Ilhat happened in History). French translation by Andre MANSAT et Jean BARTHA LAN. Paris, 1963, 379 p. (Collection Idees, 39). COOMARASWAMY Ananda K. - Elements of Buddhist Inconography. Cambridge, Mass., 1935, 95. p. + XV p). COOMARASWAMY Ananda K, - Hinduism and Buddhism. New York, s. d., 86 p. French translation by Rene ALLAR and Pierre PONSOYE: Hindouisme et bouddhisme. Paris, 1963, 189 p. DAS R. M. - Women in Manu and his seven Commentators, Varanasi, 1962, xxii + 288 p. DELEU Jozef Viraha pannatti (Bhagavat) The fifth Anga of the Jaina Canon. Introduction, Critical Analysis, Commentary and Indexes, Brugge, 1970, 353 p. (Rijksuniversiteit te Gent, fac. Lett., 151). (= DELEU, Viy). DEO Sbantaram Bhalchandra - History of Jaina Monachism. From Inscrip tions and Literature, Poona, 1956, Xiv+655, p. (Deccan College Dissertation Series, 17) (=Deo, History). DEO Sbantaram Bhalcbandra - Jaina Monastic Jurisprudence. Poona, 1960, 87 p. (Deo, Jurisprudence). Doctrine - See SCHUBRING. DRECKMEIER Charles - Kingship and Community in Early India. Stan. ford, California, 1962. xiv + 369 p. DUBOIS J. A. (Abbe) Institutions et ceremonies des Peuples de l'Inde. 2 vol., Paris, 1825, xxxii+491+559 p. DUTT Sukumar - Early Buddhist Monachism. 600 B.C. - 100 B. C. London, 1924, xii + 196 p. . EGGERMONT P. H. L. - The Chronology of the reign of Asoka Moriya, A comparison of the data of the Asoka inscriptions and the data of the tradition. Leided, 1956, xii + 222 p. ELIADE Mircea - Traite d'histoire des religions. Paris, 1959, 405 p. (Bibliotheque scientifique). ELIADE Mircea - Le Yoga. Immortalite et Liberte. Paris, 1960, 428 p. (Bibliotheque scientifique). . FILLIOZAT Jean - L'arriere-plan doctrinal du yoga, in J. MONCHANIN J. FILLIOZAT, A. BAREAU, Entretiens 1955, Pondichery, 1956, 43 P. (pp. 13-20). FILLIOZAT Jean - La doctrine classique de la medecine indienne. 'Ses origines et ses paralleles grecs. Paris, 1949, viii + 230 p. (These pour le doctoral es lettres). FILLIOZAT Jean - La nature du yoga dans sa tradition, in Therese BROSSE, Etudes instrumentales des techniques du yoga, Experimentation * psychosomatique, Paris, 1963, xviii + 130 p. (EFEO, 52).

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199 FRAUWALLNER Erich - The Earliest Vinaya and the beginnings of Bud. ..dhisi literature. Roma, IsMEO, 1956, xi + 217 p. (Serie Orientale, Roma, viii). FRAUWALLNER Erich - Geschichte der indischen Philosophie. 2 vol.. : Salzburg, 1953, xlix to 496 + 349 p. (Reihe Wort und Antwort, 6/1. - II). GAMPERT Wilhelm - Die Suhnezeremonien in der Altindischen Rechts literatur, Praha, 1939, x + 279 p. Studies, Texts and Translations, issued by the Oriental Institute, Praha, Vol. VI). (=Gampert). GEIGER Wilhelm - Pali Literatur und Sprache. Strasburg, 1916, iv +183 (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, 1,7). (Geiger, references to paragraphs). GHOSHAL U. N. A History of Indian Political Ideas. Oxford, 1959, . xxiij + 589 p: GLASENAPP Helmuth von - Der Jainismus. Eine Indische Erlosungsreligion. Nach den Quellen dargestellt, Berlin, 1925, xvi + 506 p. + 29 pl. (reprint 1964). GLASENAPP Helmuth von - Von Buddha zu Gandhi. Aufsatze zur Geschi chte der Religionen Indiens. Zu seinem siebzigsten Geburtstag am 8 September 1961 in Namen seiner Scbuler herausgegeben von Volker * MOELLER, Wilfried NOLLE, Joachim-Friedrich SPROCKHOFF, Wiesabaden 1962, 289 p. GONDA J. - Aspects of Early Visnuism. Utrecht, 1954, ix + 270 p. GONDA J. - Change and Continuity. GONDA J. - Four Studies in the Language of the Veda. The Hague, 1959, 194 p. (Disputationes Rheno-Trajectinae, III). GONDA Jan - Die Religionen Indiens. I : Veda und alterer Hinduismus. II : Der jungere Hinduismus. Stuttgart, 1960, xv + 370 P.; 1963, 379 p. (Die Religionen der Menschheit. Herausgegeben von Christel Matthias SCHRODER 11; 12). (Gonda, Religionen). French Translation, GONDA Jan - Les Religions de l'Inde. I ::Vedisnie et Hindouisme ancien. Traduit de l'allemand par L. JOSPIN, Paris, 1962, 437 p. (Bibliotheque historique, collection : Les Religions de l'Humanite). GONDA Jan - Remarks on Similes in Sanskrit literature. Leiden, 1949. vii + 121 p. (Orientalia Rheno-Traiectina, I). GROUSSET Rene - Les philosophies indiennes 2 vol., Paris, 1931, xix+344 . +416 p. . . . GUERINOT A. - La religion djaina, Histoire. Doctrine. Culte, Coutumes, :: Institutions. Paris, 1926, viii + 353 p. HAUER J, W. - Der Voga. Ein indischer Weg zum Selbst. Stuttgart, 1958, 487 p.

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: 202 ROHDE Sten - Deliver us from Evil. Studies on the Vedic Ideas of Salva. tion. Lund, Copenhagen, 1916, 208 p. (Publications by the Swedish Society for Missionary Research, 2). SCHUBRING Waltber-Drei Chedosutras des Jaina Kanons. Ayaradasao, Vaya: hara, Nisiha. Bearbeitet von Walther SCHUBRING. Mit einem Beitrag von Colette CAILLAT. Hamburg, 1966, 106 p. (ANISH, 11). (=SCHUBRING, Drei .Chedasutras). SCHUBRING Walther - The Doctrine of the Jainas. Described after the: Old .: Sources. Translated from the revised German:edition by ::Wolfgang BEURLEN, Delhi; Varanasi, Patna, 1962, viii.+ 335 p. (=Doctrine). SCHUBRING Walther - Die Jainas, in Religionsgeschichtliches "Lesebuch: 7...) herausgegeben von Alfred BERTHOLET. Tubingen, 1927, 'iv 7.33. p. SCHUBRING Walther - Der Jinismus; in Andre BAREAU, Walther SCHU. BRING, Christoph von FURER-HAIMENDORF Buddhismus, Jainismus, - Primitiv-volker, p. 217-242, Stuttgart, 1964. (Die Religionen der Men " "schheit. Herausgegeben von Christel Matthias SCHRODER, -13). : : SCHUBRING Walther - Die Lehre der Jainas. Nach den alten Quellen "'dargestellt. Berlin und Leipzig, 1935, 251 p. (Grundriss der Indo-Aris.. chen' Philologie und Altertumskunde, III, 7); (=Lehre). ..... ... SCHUBRING Walther - Worte Mahaviras. Kritische Ubersetzungen aus dem Kanon der Jaina. Gottingen, Leipzig, 1926, x + 152 p. (Quellen der Religionsgeschichte, 14; 17) (=Worte). . Shri Mahavir Jaina Vidyalaya "Golden Jubilee Volume, 2 vol., Bombay, 1969, TUCCI Giuseppe - Teoria e practica del mandala, Roma, 1949, 142 p. (Psiche e coscienza, 13)... .. UPADHYE A. N. - Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life: Bangalore, 1956, 12 p. (The Indian Institute of Culture, Transaction No. 25, July 1956). LA VALLEE-POUSSIN Louis DE - Indo Europeens et Indo-Iraniens. L'Inde jusqire vers 300 av. J.-C. Paris, 192.1, 345 p (Histoire du Monde publiee sous la directions de M. E. CAVAIGNAC. III). - WAYMAN Alex - Analysis of the Sravakabhumi Manuscript. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1961, 185 p: (University of California Publications : in Classical Philology, Volume 17). WEBER Albrecht - Verzeichnis der Sanskrit und Prakrit Handschriften, II, ... 2. Berlin, 1388, X, p: 355-827 of tome II. (Die Handschriften-Verzeich nisse der Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, v). . . weber Max - The Religion of India. "The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism. Translated and edited by Hans H. GERTH and Don MARTINDALE 'Glencoe, Illinois, (1958), viii + 392 p.

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203 WILLIAMS R. - Jaina Yoga. A survey. of the Medieval Sravakacaras. London, Oxford, New York, Toronto, 1963, XXX + 296 p. (School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, London: Oriental Series, 14). . WINTERNITZ Maurice - The Jainas in the History of Indian Literature. Edited by JINAVIJAYA Muni. Ahmedabad, 1946, vii + 162 p (Juina Sahitya Samsodhaka-Studies, 2). WINTERNITZ Maurice - Geschichte der indischen Literatur, 3 tomes in 4 volumes, Leipzig, 1909-1920. (Die Litteraturen des Ostens in Einzeldar: stellungen, IX). WINTER NITZ Festschrift - Herausgegeben von Otto STEIN und Wilhelm GAMPERT. Leipzig. 1933, xiv + 357 p. ZIMMER Heinrich - Mythes et symboles dans l'art et la civilisation de l'Inde. Edited by Joseph CAMPBELL. Trsl. by M.-S. RENOU. Paris, 1951, - 216 p.; 71 gravures (Bibliotheque Historique). ZIMMER Henrich - Philosophies of India, Edited by Joseph CAMPBELL." London, 1951-2, xvii + 687 p. French trsl. by Marie-Simone RENOU: Les Philosophies de l'Inde. Paris, 1953, 495 p. (Bibliotheque Scientifique).

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205 apara 57 aropana 23; 175 ff. arovana 24; 175 ff. arya 26 f. aloei etc. 14: 136. alocana 89; 135 if. alocayati 14 (aloyana), aloyana 26; 88 f,;!11: 122; 135 ff; 155; 162; 163 ayat 128 avassaya 56; 149; 155; pa. ukkhitta 194 ugghaiya 174 f. ugghaya 24 ucchvasa 168 utkutuka 150 f., 153 uttara-guna; uttara-guna 122, 124; 125; 145; * udghatika 125; 174 f pa, upajjha 64; upajjhaya 62; 162 upavasatha 18 upasanpad 77 upasampad-alocada 138 upasthapana 211 upadhyaya 16; 59; 62; 114; 140 (tad)ubhaya 111 f., 163, ubhaya-tara 130; 179 uvajjhaya 46; 49. f.; 59, 61 ff.; 200 uyasampaya 77 uvasampayaloyana 77; 138; 144, f.; 147 ff. egapakkhiya 38 oggaha 53 osanna 56 f. kadajogi 47; 49 kappaga 189 kappagam thayaitta 183 kayakarana 46; 49; 113. karana-pati 143 karanijjam veyavadiyam 181;183 kalpa 127 kalpa-sthita 189 kalpika 127 kasina 177 f. kaussagga 165 ff. kayotsarga-Sutra 167 kiikamma 159 kula; kula 19; 37; 101 f. kusila; kusila 55 f. krtakarana 46; i 1:4 krtsna 177 f. kevala-jnana 137 krostuka 152; krostukanuga 47;151 ksapana 78; 131 gaccha; gaccha 37 gaccha-niggaya 46; 49; 171 gaccha-vasi 46;. 49 gana; gana 19; 37 f; 41; 50 f.;. 53; 64 ff.; 73; 77 ff;101 f.; 104; 132; 146; 148; 200; 211 ganadhara 30; 65 gana-pratibaddha 210 ganahara 61 f. 65; 71 f. ganapratibaddha 120 ganavaccheint 64 ganavaccheiya 61; 64; 99; 132; 174; 183; 189; 191; 206 f. . ganavacchedaka 62 ganin 64 ganini 64 gani 61 f; 71 garahittae 137 ganamganiya 19; 77 gilayaniina 207 . gitartha 46; 114 f.; 140; 175 -nisrita 48 . giti 26 glyattha 35; 46 ff.; 148; cf. 192; 207 eadepte> gutti 156 f; gupti 122; 125 guru; guru 114 f.; 175 . guruya; guruyayaraya 89 grantha; granthi 43

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grahana 78 caranti 150; 182 carama 205 caritta 71 caritra 78; 192. caritra 88 cunni; curni, 25 codaka 28; 129. cheda 114; 197 ff.. cheya 22; 111; 115 ff; 124; 173; 197 ff. cheya-sutta 22; 165; 200 jayamana 55 f. jina-kappa 26; 50; 76 jinakappiya 46; 49; 52 f.; 75; 118; 171; 205 jina 13;. -kalpika 46; 52; 125 jita; jiya 22 jnana 78 jhana 167 jhosa; jhosa 177 jhosayati 177; jhosita 180; jhosyate 131 tika 25 f. thavana 175 thavanijjam thavaitta 181; 183 ff. daharaga 59 tapas 109 f. 123; 125; 130; 171; 175; 198 taruna; taruna 59 tava; tavo 71; 95; 107 ff. 111 f. 115-118; 120;123; 171; 193; 200; 206 thera 50, 59 ff.; 65 f.; 119; 138; 187 : 2: : V 206 thera-kappa 50; 76 kappiya 53 damsana 71; 78 dandaka 143 (dappa) darpa 93; 127; 210 darpika 127 darsana 78 darsa-purna-masa 158 dana 176 dana 23 dis; disa 59. dipika 26 drstanta 30 pa. dhutanga: dhutanga 95; 172 dhyana 167 namaskara 168; namokkara 159 nana 71; 78 pa, nigantha 43 niggantha 24; 43 f. nigganthi 43 niggaya 116. BHS nigrantha 43 nijjara 75; kamma-108; 130 nijjutti 25 nitiya (nicca) 56 nindana 156 nindittae 137 niyantha 43 niranugraha-krtsna 178; cf. nirapeksa 46; 101; 115 niravekkha 46;49;52 ff.;113;118; 171; 205 nirgrantha 43 nirjara 130 nirvikrtika 114; 129 nirvesa 30 nivvittha-kaiya-kappatthir 183 -nivvisamana 30;-kappatthir 171 nivoriya 109 pakkhiyu-padikkamana 158 pakkhiya-sutta 26; 158 paccakkhana 155 pacchakada 57 pacchanutava 137 pacchitta 107 panjara 62 180 pa, paticchanna-parivasa 193; 201 Pa. patideseti 14 patthavana 174 (padikamana), padikkamana 14;26; 108;111 f.; 137; 155 ff; 163

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padikkamana-sutta 157; 159 padikkamitiae 136 padicchaya 66 padisevana 121 pataniya 85 patita 195 pamoya-masa 186 para-tara 130 f. parinamaka 49; 175 paripati 31 pribhavant 55 ff; 62 parivara 32 pa. parivasa 93 parisad 83; 135; 139; 150 pa. parisuddhi 135 parihavant 55 ff. parihara; parihara 24;26;48;52; 80;95;111 ff.; 115 ff.; 121 f.; 126; 131; 148; 152;169;171 ff.; 198; 210 f. pariharakap patthiya 52 parihara-tapas 115; 203; tava 115 paribaravisuddhika 52 parihariya 49;52; 118 ff; 131 f. 174; 183; 185 ff.; 205; 207; 213 paliunciya 142 pavattini 64; pa, pavatting 64 pavatti 64 pa. pavarana 135 pascatkrta 57 Pa, pacittiya 194 pa. patidesaniya 14;89 Pa. patimokkhuddesa, pati- 89;135 pa, patimokkha 135; 144 payacchitta 107 ff., 173; 197 parancika 116; 210 f. paranciya 111; 116 f.; 205, ff. pa. parajika 194 parancita 205 ff. parayana 31. parsvastha 39;55 f. pasattha 55 ff. pithika 26 207 puvva 31 puti-nivvalana-masa 186 posaha 18 pratikuncana 23 pratikramana 14;93; 155 ff. pratidesayati 11 pratisevana 121 praticchaka 66 pramada 93; 210 pravartaka 64; - in 64; pravartini 64 pravarana 135 pravrajya 38; 214 prasthapana 176; -anika 177 praghurnaka 146 pratimoksa 27; 24; 85 prayascitta 7 f.;30;48;86;95; 107 ff., 113;119;188;204;213 guj. phad 147 phaddaga-patiya 147 bahussuya babbhagama; bahusruta bahvagama 50; 140 brahma-danda 95 bhagavam 65; bhante 65;81 bhasya; bhasa 22;25 bhikkhu 15;24:43 ff.; 46;49; 187 f.; 201 bhikkhuni 43; pa. bhikkhunt 45 bhiksu 44:48;114; 151 bhinna 114 bhinna-masa 176 bhoga 39; -ika 39 majjhima 59 hi. mandal 40; mandala 39 mandali 41; 186 madhyama 59 3 mahapataka 85; -in 195 pa. manatta 194 maya 23 note miga 47;49; 103 miccha mi (me) dukkadam 155 f; misra 112; 163 misa 26;111 f.; 155; 163

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208 mula; mala 101;111;113 f.; 116 ff.; 124; 172 f.; 188; 193; 197 ff. mula-guna; mula-guna 125; 145 mula-sutta 203 mulacarya 19 mul'ayariya 73 mtga 31:47; 103 moksa 137 yatapa 102 yatamana 51:55 yathachanda 56 yathalanda-pratima 52 ff. ratna-traya 78 ratniya 60 pa. rattanna,-hihu 60 f. ra iniya 25; f.; 60; 147 laksana 73 laghu 114 f., 175 landa 52 labdhimant (salabdhika) 97 lahu 175: lahuya 89 labha 97 linga 100 vatjanta 116: 118 vartana 78 pa. vavassagga 167 vavahara 87 f. vasaha 47; 49 viuttittae 137 viussagga 111; 165 ff. viksti 102; 109; 129; 181; 186 vikovida 48 fq.: 118; 175, 199 vigai 109; 113; 116 vinaya 38 viveka; vivega 111; 165 visambhogatha 40 visambhogika 39 f. visambhogya 40 visohittae 137 viharaloyana 40;138;144 ff.; 1771 Vrgabha 31;47; 151 f.. veda 100 veyavacca, veyavadiya 75;130 ff. pa. veyyavacca, veyyavatika 133 BHS vaiya patya, 133 vaiyavrtya 78;102;130 ff.; cf. 189 ff., vj atikrama 125 f. BHS vyavasarga 167 vyavabara 86 if. vyutsarga 165 ff. salya 108; 137; 139 suddha 153 suddhaparihara suddhi 30 Sunya 27 sruta 22; 88; 95; compare 50; -Vyavabario 89; 142 f.: sloka 26; 160 samyatarupin 57; 206; 209 samyati 39 samyama 37; 157 samyoga 27; 176 samyojana 23 samvara 7 samvasittae 40 samvasa 41 f.; 194 samvigga 55 f. . samvigna 39; 55 . samsatta 56 f. samgha; samgha 19; 37; 43; 86; 102; 194; 209; 211 samcaya 176 samcayita 174 ff.; 199 saddahana 116; 210 f. pa. saddhiviharika 133 samdhana 78 samdhya 158 samana 45 samana niggantha 24; 43; 45 . samanunna; samanojna 38 samanovasaga pacchakada 58 .. samii 157; samiti 122; 125 . sambhunfittae 40 sambhoiya 38; ff.: 131; 138; 140 .

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209 sambhoga 38 ff.; 45; 55 f.; 77; : 129; 194. sambhogika 38 ff. salla 108; -kattana 107; sall'uddha:: rana 107 sadharmika 45 sadhu 45 sapeksa 46; 101; 204. samaiya 155; -sutta 158; samayika | sutra 161 samayari 77; 137 sarupika; saruviya 57; 140 savekkha 46; 49; 113. sahanmini 45; saliammiya 45; 140 sahu 43; 45 sahunt 43 simbapuga 47; 151 suddhataya 116 suddha parihara 193 suya 22; 88; 121; compare 50 satra 31; omandali 41 scha 66 sthavira .62; 65; 99;-kalpika 125 f. sthapana 175 f. sthapaniyam sthapayltva 181 sthapita 177 spardbaka-pati 147 hadahada 177 English equivalents of some current terms: adept : gitartha, giyattha coadjutor : ganavacchedaka, gana. yaccheiya commensal : sambhogika, sambhoiya commensality : sambhoga confession : alocana, aloyana demoted apavasthapya, anavasthappa excluded : parancita, paraficiya isolation : pariharika, parihariya isolation : paribara, parihara preceptor : upadhyaya, uvajjhaya recollection: vyutsarga, kaussaga repentance : pratikramana, padikka. mana second : anuparlharlka, anuparihariya superior : acarya, ayariya troup; flock; : gana, gana tutor : upadhyaya, uvajj haya

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ERRATA [Figures before the point refer to pages and figures after the polnt refer to lines] 4.8 yad 7.37 283 75.37 81.27 82.3 83.36 90.37 91.5 91.33 91.41 92.28 95.9 95.19 99.34 108.39 64 IV 112.4 119.20 133.21 134.17 135.2 135.40 Incorrect Correct 6th-7th 6th-5th 4.35 KERA,1 'KERA, DPPN, 4.37 262 218 212 9.27 627 626 14.35 very much definitely 15.3,8-12 dejection abatement 17.41 Main Mainz 19.43 65 20.32 NARMAN Norman 21.26 IV 27.18 Caritte caritte 28.38 trad. fr. Fr. transl. 29.41 207 208 30.10,25, < > 31,34 31,1 > 33 32 hydyasya hydayasyeha 34.12 current in title current in texts not dealing with discipline. The very general term samana is the title 36.4 later latter 37.20 chek check 39.2 consideration consequences 41.26 hunti honti 46,4 lesson wording 48,27 1,50, f . 1,50,7 49.39 1,19,5 1,19,6 51.31 Religions I, 200 Religionen I 165 56.4 buffallo buffalo 57,3 when it which 64.14 bhunjana bhufijana 64.38 paraspram parasparam 64,38 sisyau sisyau 70.35 -sura -Sutras 71.18 judicial juridical 73,32 whatches watches 73.35 949.) z. 148.) L. 73.38 n.7 0.1 74.30 DUMEZII DUMEZIL 74.37 Oratnakara Oratnakora 75.27 MEGEST- MEGASTHENES HENES Incorrect Correct 6 55 6655 incontinece incontinence yal evenining evening 57-62 209-14 fam tam VII I 7b VII 176 1961,no 6, 1961.2,p.614 BARNET BARNETT 655; 6655 below next page shows seems to show perish." perish." (cf. La Vallce Poussin IV 155.) accumuleted accumulated iife life 151). It 151) : it Perfect Perfect ones 26,42;50 26(42;50) Religions I 154; Religionen 176 f. ; 183 I 125f. ; 144;150 kausagga kaussagga On this In this case occasion 155). 155; Lehre $ 156). comits commits The $armasam sanmasanam jhositah jho sitah para para in 2, in the comment aries 'of 2 preservance perseverance appanam appanam gacchatity gacchality anug acchatity anugacchatity svachhao svacchao -sutta surtas cheya cheya is life lie Cvetambara Svetambara 28*+130+436 32* +130+433 136.13 145.17 151.28 135.22 155,39 157.11 157.11 157.22 158.8 159.21 159.41 160.41 160.41 163.25 174.10 176.4 176.24 191.23 192.40

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LALBHAI DALPATBHAI BHARATIYA SANSKRITI VIDYA MANDIR L.D. SERIES Name of Publications S. NO. *1. Sivaditya's Saptapadarthi, with a Commentary by Jinavardhana Suri, Editor: Dr. J.S. Jetly. (Publication year 1963) 2. Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts : Muniraja Shri Punyavijayaji's Collection. Pt. I. Compiler: Muniraja Shri Punyavijayaji. Editor: Pt. Ambalal P. Shah. (1963), 3. Vinayacandra's Kavyasiksa, Editor: Dr. H.G. Shastri (1964) 4. Haribhadrasuri's Yogasataka, with auto-commentary, along with his Brahmasiddhautasamuccaya, Editor: Muniraja Shri Punyavijayaji. (1965) 5. Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts, Muniraja Shri Punyavijayaji's Collection, pt. II.:Compiler: Muniraja Shri Punyavijayaji. Editor : Pt. A.P. Shah. (1965) 6. Ratnaprabhasuri's Ratnakaravatarika, part I. Editor: Pt. Dalsukh Malvania. (1965) *7. Jayadeva's Gitagovinda, with king Mananka's Commentary Editor: Dr. V. M. Kulkarni. (1965) 8. Kavl Lavanyasamaya's Nemirangaratnakarachanda. Editor : Dr. S. Jesalpura. (1965) 9. The Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra: A Critical study: By Dr. K.H. Trivedi, (1966) *10. Acarya Jinabhadra's Visesavasyakabhasya, with Auto-commentary, pt. I. Editor: Pt. Dalsukh Malvania. (1966) 11. Akalanka's Criticism of Dharmakirti's Philosophy: A study by Dr. Nagin J. Shah. (1966) 12. Jinamanikyagani's Ratnakaravatarikadyaslokasatarthi, Editor : Pt. Bechardas J. Doshi. (1967) 13. Acarya Malayagiri's Sabdanusasana. Editor : Pt. Bechardas J. Doshi (1967) 14. Acarya Jinabhadra's Visesavasyakabhasya, with Auto-commentary. Pt. II. Editor Pt. Dalsukh Malvania. (1968) 15. Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts: Muniraja Shri Punyavijayaji's Collection. Pt. III. Compiler: Muniraja Shri Punyavijayaji. Editor: Pt. A.P. Shah. (1968) * out of print Price Rs. 4/ 50/ 10/ 51 40/ 81 8/ 6/ 30/ 15/ 30/ 8/ 30/ 20/ 30/

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10 32/ 30/ 10/ 40/ 21/ 201 - 12/ 81 16. Ratnaprabhasuri's Ratnakaravatarika, pt. II, Editor : Pt. Dalsukh Malvania. (1968) 17. Kalpalataviveka (by an anonymous writer). Editor : Dr. Murari Lal Nagar and Pt. Harishankar Shastry. (1968) 18. Ac. Hemacandra's Nigbantuscsa, with a commentary of Sri. vallabhagani. Editor : Muniraja Shri Punyavijayji. (1968) 19. The Yogabindu of Acarya Haribhadrasuri with an English Translation, Notes and Introduction by Dr. K.K. Dixit, (1968) Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts : Shri Ac. Devasuri's Collection and Ac. Ksantisuri's Collection : Part IV. Compiler : Muniraja Shri Punyavijayji, Editor : Pt. A.P. Shah. (1968) 21. Acarya Jinabhadra's Visesavasyakabhasya, with Commen- tary, pt. III. Editor : Pt. Dalsukh Malvania and Pt. Bechardas Doshi (1968) The Sastravartasamuccaya of Acarya Haribhadrasuri with Hindi Translation, Notes and Introduction by Dr. K.K. Dixit. (1969) 23. Pallipala Dhanapala's Tilakmanjarisara, Editor : Prof. N. M. Kansara. (1969) . 24. Ratnaprabhasuri's Ratnakaravatarika pt. III, Editor : Pt. Dalsukh Malvasia. (1969) 25. Ac, Haribhadra's Neminabacariu Pt. 1 : Editors : M. C. Modi and Dr. H. C. Bhayani, (1970) 26. A Critical Study of Mahapurana of Puspadanta, (A Critical Study of the Desya and Rare words from Puspadanta's Mahapurana and His other Apabhramsa works). By Dr. Smt. Ratoa Shriyan. (1970) .27. Haribhadra's Yogadestisamuccaya with English translation, Notes, Introduction by Dr. K. K. Dixit. (1970). 28. Dictionary of Prakrit Proper Names, Part I by Dr. M. L. Mehta and Dr. K. R. Chandra, (1970) 29. Pramanavartikabhasya Karikardhapadasuci. Compiled by Pt. Rupendrakumar. (1970) 30. Prakrit Jaina Katha Sahitya by Dr. J.C. Jaina, (1971) 31. Jaina Ontology, By Dr. K. K. Dixit (1971) 32. The Philosophy of Sri Svaminarayana by Dr. J. A. Yajdik, 33. Ac. Haribhadra's Neminabacariu Pt. II : Editors : Shri M. C. Modi and Dr. H. C. Bhayani. Up. Harsavardhana's Adhyatmabiadu : Editors : Muni Shri Mitrapandavijayaji and Dr. Nagin J. Shah. Cakradhara's Nyayamanjarigranthibhanga : Editor Dr. Nagin J. Shah, 40/ 30/ Batna 10/ 30/ 30/40/ 34. 6/ 36

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40/ 35/ 16/ 81 36. Catalogue of Mss. Jesalmer collection : Compiler : Munlraja Sbri Punyavijayaji. 37. Dictionary of Prakrit Proper Names Pt. II. by Dr. M. L. Mehta and Dr, K R, Chandra. 38. Karma and Rebirth by Dr. T. G. Kalghatagi. 39. Jinabhadrasuri's Madanarekha Akhyayika : Editor Pt. Bechardasji Doshi. 40. Pracina Gurjara Kavya Sancaya : Editor : Dr. H. C. Bhayani and Shri Agarchand Nahata. 41. 'Jaina Philosophical Tracts : Editor Dr. Nagin J. Shah. 42. . Sanatukumatacariya Editors : Prof. H. C, Bhayadi and Prof. M. C, Modi 43. The Jaina Concept of Omniscience by Dr. Ram Jee Singh 44. Pt. Sukhalalji's Commentary on the Tattvarthasutra, Translated into English by Dr. K. K. Dixit. 45. Isibbasiyaim. Editor : Dr. Schubring 46. Jinadevasuri's Hajmanamamalasiloncha, with a Commentary by Srivallabha. Editor : Mahopadhyaya Vinayasagara. A modern understanding of Advaita Vedanta by Dr. Kalidas Bhattacharyva Nyayamanjari with Gujarati translation Pt. I. by Nagin J. Shah 49. Atonements in the Ancient Ritual of the Jaina Monks by Dr. Colette Caillat 30/ 32 16/ 48. 30/ In Press 2. Risidattarasa 3. Nyayasiddhantadipa 4. Bhuvanabhanukevalicarita . 5. Laghutattvasphota 6. The Upabrmbana and the aegveda Interpretation,