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tradition and undertook rigorous ascetic practices such as pulling one's hair and fasting; these practices are similar to those of the disciples of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirthankara of the Jains. Both Dhamananda Kosambi and Pandit Sukhlal claim that the Buddha did adopt the practices of Parsva tradition, the fourfold practices of conduct, before he developed his system. According to the historian Radhakumuda Mukharjee, the Buddha developed his way of life after attempting the Jain and Vedic practices; this has been confirmed by Mrs. Rhys Davids in her book 'Gautam, the Man' (1928: pp. 22-25).
Much scholarly work has been devoted to tracing the early history of Jainism, though the origins of the religion lie far back in prehistory and the beyond scholarly reconstruction. Jain writings have preserved an extensive and consistent legendary history. In contrast to this traditional account, modern scholarship has reached widely varying conclusions, though confirming in some parts the traditional view.
The study of history never had the importance in India, which it has had in the West or in China and much of the early history of India, and not only of Jainism, is still obscure. Research in the last century or so has increased our knowledge of India before the time of Alexander the Great.
It is possible to look at the early history of Jainism through sources of four kinds: (i) Literary, (ii) Archaeological, (iii) Scientific-Geological and (iv) Philosophical. These have been studied by, among others, J.P. Jain in Jainism, the Oldest Living Religion (1988). The main characteristics of Jainism do exhibit a primitive and prehistoric substrata, though dynamic in its development.
(i) Literary Sources: It must be emphasised that many of the conclusions regarding early Jainism drawn from early literary sources are highly speculative, depending often on the individual interpretations of particular scholars regarding chance references in the sources studied, the Vedas, Puraanas, and other historical records. Thus it is said that Jainism was in existence in the period of the Mahabharata, the great Indian epic.
A copper plate inscription discovered in Kathiawar (Gujarat) in 1935 recording a grant to a king of the Sumera tribe who built a temple to Neminatha, the twenty-second Jain tirthankara, at Rasvataka (Girnar), is adduced as confirmation. The Rigveda, said to be the earliest book still extant and reputed to date in part from as early as 4,500 BCE, though reaching its final form around 1,500 BCE, includes hymns referring to the first tirthankara Risabhdeva. It describes him as a great man from the sramana (that is, Jain) tradition and refers also to the twenty-second tirthankara Neminatha (Jain J.P.1951 pp. 20-24). The ancient writings known as Puranas follow the Rigveda and even gave Risabhdeva the status of one of the incarnations (avataaras) of the god Vishnu (Chatterjee A.1978: p.7). Later Indian literature contains references to the same effect. It is said that the traditional name for India, Bharat, has been derived from that of Risabhdeva's son, Bharat (Kalghatgi 1988: p.28). The historicity of the twenty-fourth tirthankara, Mahavira, and his predecessor Parsvanatha, some 250 years earlier, has been proved beyond doubt.
(ii) Archaeological: The epoch making discovery of the prehistoric Indus Valley Civilisation (c.4,500 to 1,500 BCE) at Mohenjodaro and Harappa (now in Pakistan) has provided material on the basis of which some have concluded that Jainism existed already during this ancient civilisation (Moh. Ind, plate xii, Fig. 13, 14, 15, 19, 22). The evidence is capable of many interpretations: here, for what they are worth, are the main
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