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definitely for certain ; it functions only with regard to things that are doubtful. (N. B. I. I. i.). It derives a conclusion from the ascertained fact of the subject possessing a property which is constantly accompanied by another. We ascertain that the hill is on fire from the fact that the hill has smoke and smoke is universally accompanied by fire. Infer. ential reasoning is stated in the form of a syllogism of which the five members are: 1. Proposition (Pratijñā): the hill is on fire; 2. Reason (Hetu) : because it smokes ; 3. Example (Udāharaña) : whatever shows smoke shows fire e. g. a kitchen ; 4. Application (Upanaya): So is this hill, and 5. Conclusion (Nigamana): therefore, the hill is on fire. The first member states the thesis to be established. It is only a suggestion. It contains a subject of what is observed, which is generally an individual or a class, and a predicate, which is to be proved. The subject is the minor term (Pakşa, Dharmin) and the predicate the major (Sādhya, Dharma). The second member of the syllogism states the presence in the minor of the middle term called ground (Hetu). The third takes us to the basis of inference, the major premise. Though Gautama and Vātsyāyana may not have regarded the example as the illustration of a general rule later Nyāya looks upon it as the statement of an invariable concomitance between the mark and the character inferred (Vyāpti-prati-pādakam Vākyam). The conclusion re-states the proposition as grounded. Nāgārjuna is given the credit for dispensing with the last two members of the syllogism as superfluous.
Universal propositions are reached through enumeration, intuition and indirect proof. Uninterrupted agreement (Niyata Sāhacharya) reinforced
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