Words For Violence In Seniors Of Jaina Canon

Author(s): Colette Caillat
Publisher: Colette Caillat
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269729/1

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Jain Studies in Honour of Jozef Deleu Edited by Rudy Smet and Kenji Watanabe HON-NO-TOMOSHA, Tokyo 1993 Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon* Colette Caillat In the opening sloka of the Dasaveyaliya (one of the "seniors" of the Jaina canon), homage is auspiciously paid to the Law -- which is said to be the best word to begin with -- and to three of the fundamental elements of the right conduct, viz. non-violence, self-control, austerity: dhammo mangalam ukkattham, ahimsa samjamo tavo." As a matter of fact, while tracing the way to Perfection or total emancipation, Jainism strives to free the individual souls and the world from misery and from cruelty. Violence, therefore, is condemned, and all the more so as it is prone to pervade almost all human activities. It is referred to by means of several recurring expressions or words, some of which, though quasisynonyms, can be shown to be used with slightly different shades of meaning, or to be preferred in specific contexts or phrases. It is proposed, here, to review some of these expressions, verbs and verbal nouns, especially danda (aya-danda, dandam (sam)arambhai, etc.), and pandivaya (pane aivaei, aivaya); moreover the verbal and some nominal forms from the roots HAN and HIMS. Concerning the two latter, it will be seen that the two verbs are sometimes exchanged, and that himsai, himsa never have a desiderative meaning 2 It will appear that any (violent) enterprise can more or less be summarized as starting with dandam (sam)arambhai and ending with himsa; a chronological order which will be followed here. The present survey will be limited to the "seniors" of the Svetambara canon, i.e. to the Ayaranga, Suyagada, Uttarajjhaya, Dasaveyaliya. It is submitted as a tribute to a scholar who made himself known thanks to his "Lexical addenda from Rajasekhara's Prabandhakosa", and who, in his study

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208 Colette Caillat of the Viyahapannatti inserted many remarks which add much to our knowledge of the Jaina vocabulary. 1. danda Danda, the compounds danda-samayana and aya-danda, and the expression dandam (sambarambhai will be considered first. 1.1. As far as danda is concerned, it is a designation of the "stick", "club" or "staff", in MIA as well as in OIA.3 The danda(ga) even features as one of the items in the Jaina monk's paraphernalia. It is also seen to be an offensive "weapon", and one of the insignia of power. Hence it can mean the "blow", physical, moral or spiritual, and the punishment (fine...). More generally it refers to any act of violence. Further, thanks to the various implications derived from its primary meaning, the word lends itself to puns. There can be no doubt that in many Jaina contexts, danda, the "stick", is a weapon used to hit or "strike" (HAN). It is associated with arms (sattha, sastra), with fights and matches, with various means and instruments which serve to attack, e.g. Mahavira or the Jaina monks during their peregrinations. The word can initiate (more or less standard) lists, as it does in the ballad relating Mahavira's life, at the end of Ayar 1: haya-puvvo tattha dandenam adu va mutthina adu phalenam adu leluna kavalenam, "he was struck with a stick, the fist, (a lance, hit with) a fruit, a clod, a potsherd". 10 Thus, even when danda alone is used, the word can be pregnant with all the kinds of objects and means with which to deal fierce blows. Hence danda, an instrument of violence, will also, more widely, denote "violence" or "cruelty", especially when modifying verbs which mean "to seize, resort to", 11 or, conversely, "to throw away, leave". For the transition is easy from "he has laid down the rod" to "he has foresworn violence", "he abstains from

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 209 cruelty", as can be seen from such compounds or expressions as nikkhittadanda, "having thrown away the d.,12 or again, savvehi panehr nihaya dandam,13 nihaya dandam panehim,14 "having laid aside (all) weapon (i.e. violence / cruelty) against (all) living beings". 15 As a matter of fact, a series of more or less violent activities, listed in Suy 2.2.4 ff. (JAS 694 ff.) can be assimilated to the taking up of as many dandas (danda-samayana, d.-samadana). They amount to the blow of "a stick hitting one's own (people) or others" (sva-paropaghata-rupam dandam). According to the commentator, "one thrusts the danda" (dandam 1. I nisirati), 16 throws the blow down like a stick and crushes living being(s)", dandam iva dandam upari patayati, prany-upamarda-karinim kriyam karoti.17 1.2. The five aggressive undertakings, danda-samayanas, are alleged to be 1) attha-danda, "prompted by (personal) interest", 2) anattha-d., not prompted by (personal) interest", 3) himsa-d., "in response to an (alleged) injury, 18 4) akamha-d., "accidental", 5) ditthi-vipariyasiya-d., 'prompted by an error of sight". 19 * Whatever the variety of danda-samayana, it is clear, in the light of the Suy sutta and T developments, that danda implies grave, sometimes mortal injury.20 Those who are guilty of such aggressions are here and there quoted as: "se hanta chetta bhetta lumpaitta vilumpaitta uddavaitta" (Suy 2.2.6 = JAS 696), "he knocks down, cuts, pierces, breaks, plunders, puts to death". 21 1.3. Such being the implications of danda, anyone who is said to aya-danda, i.e., according to the Jaina tradition, atma-danda,22 is to be seen as inflicting fatal blows upon himself. Suy? explains: "because he punishes / strikes himself, he is a.: for, in reality, though he hits other people, he hits no other than himself" (atmanam dandayatity atma-dandah sa hi paramarthatah paropaghatenatmanam evopahanti 105, ad Suy 1.7.9 = JAS 389). The above interpretation might seem defendable considering the Amg phonology and the Jaina general doctrinal teachings. For aya (aya - atta) is not rarely the Amg counterpart of Sk atman-23; and the boomerang effect of any aggression is often emphasised, for instance in the Suy.24 To support this analysis it might also be possible to refer to the parallellism of the two even clausulas in Suy 1.7.9. (JAS 389): aya-dande (b) "who harms his

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210 Colette Caillat own soul" (cf. Jacobi) / aya-sae (d), "for the sake of their own pleasure" (Jacobi). But if the immediate context of the aya-danda occurrences is considered, the meaning "self-destructive" is seen to be unsatisfactory (infra). On the contrary, the etymology recently proposed by W.B. Bollee fits perfectly,25 and can be further corroborated. He notes that the word is restricted to Suy, where it occurs mostly in tristubhs (6 occurrences); that Jacobi differs in its rendering: sometimes "wicked", but generally, "who does harm to his own soul" or an equivalent periphrase. The first translation seems to have been suggested by the context, the second is obviously based on the traditional exegesis as handed down by the commentaries, in which the explanations are mostly similar to that of Suy? 105 (supra); once, nevertheless, the Sk equivalent is quoted as being ayata-d..26 The solution is arrived at thanks to a comparison with Pa atta-danda, evidently the counterpart of the Amg aya-danda. For atta-d., the Pa commentaries record two different etymons (cf. CPD I 976): 1) atta-danda, mfn. (= gahita-d.) = Sk atta-d. (cf. Uv infra), "with uplifted staves", 2) atta-d., m./n. (= attano duccarita-) = Sk atma-d., "(due to) one's own violent acts". In fact, there can be little doubt that both Pa words reflect the same Sk atta-d. 27 It will be borne in mind that the phonetic evolution here assumed for Sk atta- (*ata, ada, aya) is comparable with that of atman (*a(t)ta(n), a(t)ta, aya, Perhaps, even, the wording of Suy 1.7.9 (supra) is the result of a pun based on the existence of these (possible) Amg homonyms. This nicety would have been forgotten later. As far as the Amg material is concerned, Bollee concludes his survey by stating that an interpretation aya-(d.) = atma-(d.) "though nowhere semantically impossible is not cogent anywhere and therefore not completely satisfactory". As a matter of fact, from a detailed analysis of the Suy occurrences it results that, in more than one passage, the meaning "self-destructive" is not in line with the context whereas "brutal, violent" tallies perfectly. To wit, the three following stanzas (from Suy):

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 211 je iha arambha-nissiya aya-danda eganta-lusaga ganta te pava-logayam (1.2.3.9 = JAS 151). translated by Jacobi as: "Those who engage in undertakings, who work the perdition of their souls, and who kill (living beings), will go to the world of the wicked": but by Bollee, more convincingly: "rucksichtslos, aggressiv und grobschadigend". The three adjectives, though not strictly synonyms evidently consider similar behaviours, in a sort of ascending progression: 1) being immersed in activities, 2) having an aggressive, a brutal demeanour, 3) utterly destroying the environment.28 Suy 1.7.9 (JAS 389) will be examined next: ... vinasayante biyai, assamjaya aya-dandeahahu: se loe anajja-dhamme biyai je himsai aya-sae, thus translated by Jacobi: "By destroying seeds ... a careless man does harm to his own soul. (The prophet) says: 'People are wicked who destroy seeds for the sake of their own pleasure"". But, given the structure of the stanza, it is obvious that the statement is aimed not at the personal (future) fate of the culprit, but at his present violent conduct and lack of self-control which cause damage to the surroundings: "destroying the seeds (vinasayan bijani), unrestrained (a-samyatah), violent (atta-d.), -". The three qualifications assamjaya, aya-danda, anajja-dhamma translate into other terms the actions definitely expressed by the present participle vinasayante and the finite verbal form himsai. In such a context, the meaning "self-destructive" for aya-danda would disrupt the semantic chain, and make the general meaning clumsy, whereas "violent, cruel" fits perfectly in the context. Finally, the tristubh 2.6.25 (JAS 811), notes how absurd it would be to bring together or equal two opposite characters, on the one hand (25a-b), him who is "innocuous" (ahinsaka), "compassionate towards all creatures" (sarvaprajanukampin), "well grounded in the Law" (dharma-sthita), on the other (25c) the aya-dandas. Here again the stanza evidently requires that the

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212 Colette Caillat alleged behaviours can be parallelled: just as the first part refers to the attitude shown towards living beings, in the same way aya-d. will mean "who has seized the weapon (against), attacked, (others)"; the sense then appears to rejoin that of himsaya: ahimsayam savva-payanukampi dhamme thiyam... tam aya-dandehi samayaranta abohie te padiruvam eyam, "Him who kills no (living beings), who has compassion on all creatures, who is well grounded in the Law ..., him you would equal to these wicked men! This is the outcome of your folly" (Jacobi).29 1.4. The expression dandam (sam)arambhai, "to undertake, to engage into, acts of violence", will now be considered. The inherited verbal noun arambha, "undertaking, exertion", occurs frequently in the Amg texts. In Suy it is often coupled with pariggaha (parigraha, "property"), and the pair refers to the activity or enterprise on the one hand, and its result, acquisition(s), on the other.30 As far as arambha is concerned, it is almost from necessity bad.31 For it is directed towards the objects of the senses and satisfaction of desires,32 it diverts from self-control and from the Law.33 In fact, arambha as well as parig gaha characterize the householder's unrestrained way of life.34 When danda is the object of the verbs arambhai, samarambhai, the phrase amounts to "to set in motion, to hurl, a danda in the form of strokes, torture, etc.", dandam' samghattana-paritapanadi-laksanam 'samarabheta' pravartayet,35 i.e. "to engage into, to busy oneself with, acts of violence". The aggressive activities thus implied are to be viewed as damageable for both the patient and the agent: knowing this, a wise man (mehavi), "fearing violence, will not undertake acts of violence", no danda-bhi dandam samarabhejjasi.36 The phrase no dandam samara(m)bhe(jja) occurs especially when it comes to the solemn renunciation of violence against the six classes of jiva-nikayas and in similar contexts. The renunciation is currently said to be threefold, ti-danda-virao, 37 in that the speaker pledges not to engage into

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 213 aggressive actions himself, not to cause others to do so, nor to let them do so: n'eva sayam eehim kaehim dandam samarabhejja, n'ev' annehim eehim kaehim dandam samarambhavejja, n'ev' anne eehim kaehim dandam samarabhante vi samanujanejja.38 It is also threefold in that it involves thought, speech and deed: no tesim arabhe dandam manasa vayasa kayasa c'eva.39 2. (-)atipata In Dasav IV the aforesaid pledge is presented, on the one hand, as the consequence of the teachings concerning the (six classes of) jiva-nikayas,40 on the other, as the general introduction to the extant text of the five "great vows". More precisely, though n'eva ... dandam samarambheija can have a general bearing, the phrase seems to introduce more specifically the first mahavrata, viz. "the abstention from injuring any (living) being", padhame, bhante, mahavvae: panaivayao veramanam.41 In Dasav, the vow further runs thus: "O my master, I renounce all injury against any being 1.7. I (shall myself] not injure any living being, nor cause it to be injured by others, nor allow others who injure it, to do so".42 Whatever the expanded formula, the initial sentence of the Jaina mahavvaya is very similar to the wording of the first "training precept" taught in the Buddhist Pa canon: panatipata veramani-sikkhapadam samadiyami (Khp II 1), "I undertake the training precept of abstinence" from "killing breathing things":43 The Pa - Amg parallellism would tend to show that the association of MIA pana, "a breathing, living being", with the action noun Pa atipata, Amg aivaya is usual, and probably old, although in Sk pranatipata appears not to be frequent.44 The corresponding verbal phrase is not rare in Amg. It occurs, for instance, in the prohibition expressed in Utt 8.9 = JAS 217,

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214 Colette Caillat pane ya naivaejja, which (curiously) does not precede, but follows the recommendation not to permit the killing of living beings, na hu pana-vaham anujane (ib. 8.8 JAS 216). In Suy the phrase is clearly recognizable (in spite of the apocope affecting the preverb), e.g. in 1.1.1.3a (JAS 3a), where it refers to the first part of the threefold mahavvaya, whereas forms of HAN (or of a cognate word), "to strike", are used for the complementary second and third parts of the prohibition: sayam tivayae pane aduva annehi ghayae hanantam vanujanai... "if a man kills living beings, or causes other men to kill them, or consents to their killing them..." (Jacobi). It is seldom that the verb occurs without the modifier pane. According to the JAS reading, it is so used in Suy 1.5.1.22d (JAS 321d): ...tikkhahi sulahi tivayayanti, "they destroy with sharp pikes 45; but the usual reading 'bhitavayanti would here seem preferable (= 1.5.2.10a= JAS 336). Because of the apocope the commentators are prompted to propose two etymologies: they admit that ti- can be the MIA counterpart either of OIA tri-, "three", or of the OIA preverb ati-.46 In fact, in spite of this ambivalent gloss, and even though the preverb ati- is of limited and comparatively archaic use in OIA,47 they certainly equate Amg (a)tivaei with the Sk causative atipatayati (cf. PW 4.396, s.v. PAT [ati-, caus. 3 "hinraffen"]). But perhaps they were taking it in a more or less specialized (technical ?) sense, "to make fall beyond (recovery)", "to utterly destroy, kill".48 On the other hand, perhaps at one stage, it was felt desirable to disjoin the two meanings: 1) "to let fly beyond", "to shoot (an arrow) through", and 2) "to destroy, injure"; hence the canonical Pa tendency to specialize atipateti in the first

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 215 sense, while preferring (panam) atimapeti for the second.49 Even then, atipateti is a common Pa v.l., as it is naturally supported by the corresponding nominal compound panatipata.So As for Amg aivaya, Pa atipata ("injury"), it is seldom encountered outside the above compound; and the nominal construction is exceptional. Only a few clear instances can be quoted, mostly from Suy 1: sattham ege susikkhanti aivayaya paninam (1.8.4 = JAS 414), "some learn the teachings thoroughly, up to the destruction of living beings". As for the absolute use of the noun, when it occurs, it is soon followed by the compound: (alivayao kirai pavakammam pandivaya virae thiy'appa (10.5c-6d = JAS 4778.), "killing generates bad karman /./ (one should have) ceased killing living beings, (should be) of settled mind". Again, in 1.16 (JAS 635), pana is easily supplied in the list of the catchwords referring to the mahavvayas, and in any case the compound occurs soon afterwards: adanam ca aivayam ca musa-vayam cal. I virae panaivayao.52 Further, in Suy 1.5.1.5a (JAS 304) = 1.7.8d (JAS 388), the adjective aivas also appears to have the verbal construction, as it is accompanied by the plur. acc.: pagabbhi pane bahu nam tivai,53 "the impudent sinner, who injures many beings" (Jacobi). Concerning the meaning of pandivaya there is no special discussion. Having accepted atipatayet pranan as the Sk rendering of Amg (a)ivayae pane, ? adds that the pranas have been taught to be ten; that to suppress them amounts to himsa.54 Another equivalent would be vyapadayati, "to cause to perish, destroy".55 Yet another gloss is given ad Suy 1.10.5 (supra):

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216 Colette Caillat prana-vyaparopana, "to tear breath, life, out"56; and there is every reason to regard as a synonym pana-vaha, used in Suy 2.6.26(d) f. (JAS 812 f.). Moreover, it will be remembered how, in the third stanza of Suy (a)ivayae pane is seen to be in complementary distribution with various forms of HAN. Thus both the verbal phrase and nominal compound denote the utter destruction of beings, and emphasise the violent process which results in the final suppression of breath and lives. 3. HAN Turning to HAN, attention will be called 1) to the vitality of this root, and 2) to some stereotyped phrases showing the meaning of the verb. 3.1. Several verbal forms of this root have already been met with. More can be added (whether without, or with, preverbs). The present stem has been remoulded generally following the normal MIA pattern. Most forms are listed in Pi 499, are comparatively common and easily accounted for. Only a few will need some comment. In Ayar, Suy, Uut, Dasav, the following occur. In the ind. pr., the 3 pl. is currently of the "thematic" type: hananti. The tradition also hands down vi-ni-hanti (manda), Suy 1.7.16 (JAS 396), which is accepted in all editions and Pi 499 (im Verse"!), without explanation; ? renders it as 'vinighnanti' vyapadayanti (107); only the Cu apparently had some misgiving, as it writes vihedhantil; this vinihanti probably results from a blend of the old (Sk) 3 sg. hanti with the usual MIA 3 pl. ending. 58 In the 3 sg. hanai (Utt 20.44 = JAS 747) is influenced by the "9th" present class, in the same way as bhanai is seen to be (Pi 514), whether in Amg or in Pa.59 Further, in a somewhat confused passage of Ayar, hammai appears to be taken as an active 3 sg. 60: na hammai kamcanam savva-loe. The imper.2 sg. / pl. hana, hanaha are frequent. So are, in the optative, hane, hanejja (passim). According to the cit, in Utt 18.49 (JAS 599), pahane is to be understood as a preterite (= prahan, prahatavan).61 One instance of the old "athematic" type (Sk hanyat) is

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 217 quoted from Ayar p. 15.10* (= 1.3.2.4, cf. Pi 464): haniya. A third type (a blend of the "thematic" and the "athematic" opt.) appears to have been in use: in Uut 2.27b (JAS 77) most editions (Ee JAS Gurgaon) write: samanam ... hanejja koi ..., "should any one hit a samana"; . but the AgS ed. (168) has hannijja, quoted as patha in JAS. Though not very frequent, this "double optative suffix" did certainly exist in (early) MIA. Several examples occur. As a matter of fact, several, whether in Pa or in BHS and in the Asokan Pk., are from HAN. CPDI (s.v. asnati) quotes hanne (A IV 254.17*, v.1. hane [both--); cf. vi-hane, Sn 348). The Subasi Uv 5.18 (ed H. Nakatani) also seems to write (han)ny(e). Further there is little doubt that in Asoka's Major Rock Edict XIII (N) Erragudi na hamnesu, Shahbazgarhi na hamneyasu are to be taken as opt. active, "let them not kill". 62 For the present participle the base hana-nta is generalized (despite the nom. sg. han-am, Suy 2.1.24 = JAS 657, or the acc. pl. han-ao (Ayar p. 31.3 = 1.6.4.2). * Also in the active, Ayar has the 3. pl. "aorist" nihaaimsu, in the series lusim.su ... kandimsu... luncimsu... uvakarimsu... nihanimsu ... khalaimsu ..., "they attacked... howled at ... struck..." (p.43.12* ff. = 1.8.3.9.; cf. Pi 516). The passive is not rare, with many instances of the present indic. and participle, normally hamma(nt); 63: uva-hammai (Dasav VII. 13), vinihammanti (Utt 3.6 = 102), and hammamana (cf. Pi 540). For Utt 22.19 (JAS 806), the patha hammihinti (future 3 pl., cf. Pi 549) is recorded in one ms. and the ctt. On the other hand Suy 1.11.37 (JAS 533) has the opt. vinihannejja, 64 possibly from a rival passive stem. Though perhaps comparatively late, a passive hanna- base, albeit ignored by Hc 4.244, seems to be generally accepted.65 It can be compared with khanna- (Erz; quoted Pi 420) and could be a reflex of the OIA passive. If these forms have any authenticity, then the pattern taught by Hc (cf. n. 63) will have to be supplemented: hammai hanijjai hannai, khammai khanijjai khannai. The caus. is also well exemplified, whether in verbal forms, ghayae, Suy

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218 Colette Caillat 1.1.1.3 (JAS 3),66 or in nominal forms, pres. participle or absolutive: ghayamine (Ayar p. 31.3 1.6.4.2), ghayaitta (Suy 2.1.24 = ghayamane JAS 657). Verbal nouns are derived from the root: ahantum (Ayar p. 43.2* = 1.8.3.4); moreover the frequent krtya (na) hantavva, the agent noun hanta. Whatever its original derivation67 the action noun ghaya (ghata) is also common, especially in such phrases as ghayam enti (Suy 1.1.3.3 = JAS 62), or ghayam uvei (1.5.1.5 = JAS 304), further vinighayam ei (1.7.3 = JAS 383); the word is generally glossed vinasa. ~ To the above list can be added various more or less technical terms, e.g. the name of the "destructive" ("ghai) categories of karman, (Utt 29.7 = JAS 1109), or words denoting the final "destruction", desintegration of the body at the hour of death, sammugghaya, sometimes aghaya (Utt 5.32 = JAS 161),68 etc., which need not be examined here. As for *ghannu (used in the instr. sg., Utt 18.7d=JAS 557) and (a-vi-)hannu (used in the nom. sg. -hannu, Suy 1.2.2.5d = JAS 115), they will be examined elsewhere.69 3.2. Several of the above forms occur in stock-phrases built with verbs endowed with closely related meanings: the ctt try to define the different shades separating them. According to their explanations, the specific meaning of HAN is "to strike" (with a club, a whip, etc.), "to hit violently".70 The verb is more than once mentioned at the start or towards the beginning of a chain of words expressing acts of violence which end in killing. Several of the cliches are met with in prose developments, in Ayar 1, and in Suy 2. E.g.: savve pana savve bhuya savve jiva savve salta na hantavva na ajjaveyavva na parighettavva na pariyaveyavva na uddaveyavva,71 "all breathing, existing, living, sentient beings should not be struck, nor be commanded, nor crushed, nor tormented, nor slain".72 Slight lexicographical variations, and amplifications can be introduced: mama I. I dandena va 1. I audijjamanassa va hammamanassa va tajjijjamanassa

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 219 va tadijjamanassava paritavijjamanassa va kilamijjamanassa va uddavijjamanassa va l.I evam I. I savve pana 1.1audijjamana ...," "as is my pain when I am) knocked or struck with a stick, I. / or menaced, beaten, burned, tormented ..." (Jacobi). Elsewhere, HAN is associated with several other roots, especially CHID, BHID, DAH, e.g., in the stanza Suy 1.5.1.6 (JAS 305): "hana chindana bhindana nam dahaha'.74 "beat, cut, split, burn him" (Jacobi).75 Blending two formulas, Ayar 1 writes (p. 15.29*-16.1* = 1.3.3.2): se na chijjai na bhijjai na dajjhai na hammai kamcanam savva-loe, "one is not cut, nor slit, nor burnt, world". 76 one does not strike any one in the whole Again, with the verbal nouns, Ayar p. 7.1 (= 1.2.1.3; cf. 11.19 = 1.2.5.6) writes: se hanta chetla bhetta lumpitta vilumpitta uddavetla uttasaitta." In spite of the various distinctions alleged by the commentators the root HAN appears to have had a general meaning: it is liable to express any form of aggression, of violence, torture (as in the Naraga-chapter, Suy 1.5), etc., including those which result in death. In fact the above lists could probably be further developed, for they only detail the possible implications of HAN - which, so to say, is the key-word for this semantic field. As a matter of fact, when HAN occurs outside stock-phrases, the ctt do not hesitate to define it as meaning "to harass, destroy ...". One of the most frequent synonyms is the caus. of vyaPAD, e.g., when explaining Suy 1.2.1.12c (JAS 100): pane na hananti savvaso,

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220 Colette Caillat T (38) writes: 'na ghnanti' na vyapadayanti; cf. 'hanyante' vyapadyante, 135 ad 1.11.18 (JAS 514); similarly hanta (Suy 2.1.17 = 651) is glossed vyapadako bhavati (T 186). It is also noteworthy that, in the gloss of 1.2.3.21a (JAS 163): tivihena vi pani (v.l. a) ma hane, T refers to the first mahavvaya, prohibiting "pandivaya", (+ 51).78 For the passive, equivalents in SuyT are pidyante, "are oppressed, harassed" (93 ad 1.5.2.17 = 343; pidyamanah, 110 ad 1.7.30 = 410); or tadyamanah, nastah, "wounded, destroyed, perished" (88 ad 5.1.20 = 319). Further it will be remembered how parallel Jaina and Buddhist canonical passages seem to waver between HAN and HIMS.79 Suy? admits the synonymy, e.g. in the gloss of 2.1.24 (= 657): according to the canonical text the nastikas maintain that there is nothing reprehensible if one "buys and causes to buy, kills and causes to kill, cooks and causes to cook" (Jacobi), se kinam kinavemane, hanam ghayamane, payam payavemane--for which T (189) adduces the following equivalents: 'ghnan' himsan, 'ghatayan' vyapadayan.80 Such glosses actually confirm the wide semantic extension of HAN. 4. HIMS 4.1. It has just been seen how, in the cit, various forms of HAN have sometimes been glossed by the corresponding forms from HIMS81; moreover, how, in several canonical padas, HIMS and HAN have been exchanged.82 Further the Cu also replaces HAN by HIMS when quoting Utt 6.6c (= 167), the vulgate text of which is na hane panino pane, "do not strike (out) the breaths of the breathing", i.e. "do not deprive the living being(s) of life", "do not kill". The related Cu changes to the (unmetrical)

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 221 no himsejja paninam pane,83 though the mula text was probably well established, to judge from the later rendering by Bhavavijaya, na hanyat praninah pranan(= indriyadin) (p. 118). Conversely, the adjective himsa (himsra), 84 is explained as sva-bhavata eva pranighataka, "destroying living beings, due to precisely one's own disposition". Further the ctt do not hesitate to gloss himsai, etc., with the same vyapadayati, which they give as a synonym of 'hanti'85; or with paritapayati, "to torment", which occurs in one of the cliches headed by forms of HAN. 86 But himsa is also regarded as one of the possible equivalents of panaivaya: commenting upon Suy 1.1.1.3 (= 3) sayam tivayae pane, T states that to deprive of the ten breaths, i.e. life, is hinsa: prana dasaite bhagavadbhir ukatas, tesam viyoji-karanam tu himsa.87 Canonical padas already admit this equivalence, which is clear in various enumerations of Utt, e.g. 35.3 (= 1434): tah'eva 1) himsam 2) aliyam 3) cojjam 4) abbambha-sevanam, 5) iccha-kamam... samjao parivajjae, "a restrained monk should abstain from killing, lying, stealing, carnal intercourse, from desire..." (Jacobi); or again, 21.12 (= 775): 1+2) ahimsa saccam ca 3) atenayam ca lallo ya 4) bambham 5) apariggaham ca.88 The corresponding adjective Amg himsa (himsra) also can imply a reference to the initial mahavvaya, as in Utt 5.9a (= 138) = 7.5a (= 183): himse bale musa-vai... ...... 'seyam eyam' ti mannai, "killing, lying, an ignoramus /. / considers this the best thing to do)".

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222 Colette Caillat Evidently musa-vai refers to the second great vow (not to lie), and hisse (himsrah) to the first. 4.2. Can the above lexical choices be accounted for? As far as aivaya is concerned, it has been seen to be of limited use: it occurs mostly in the compound pandivaya, is certainly felt to be archaic and technical; moreover it does not seem to be possessed of a regular privative counterpart, whereas the pairs himsa: ahimsa, or vihinsa: a-vihinsa are well established. As for HAN, though the nominal derivation does not seem to have been extremely productive in the seniors of the Jaina canon, the verbal forms are conspicuous for their great number and variety. By contrast the paradigm of HIMS is relatively poor, as the following examples show. Apart from the usual pr. ind. 3 sg. (vi)himsar - (-himsae) (Ayar, Suy, Utt, Dasav), the opt. (vi)himsejja is commonly met with (ib.); Ayar 1 also has three occurrences of the 3. aor. himsi(m)su. Moreover, Dasav uses the part. pr. vihimsanto, and Ayar 1 the (exceptional) ahimsamand (p. 44.13* =1.8.4.13). Leaving apart these forms, a noteworthy sequence associates, in the 3. person (sg. / pl.), the aor., pres., and future. Similar phrases, whether positive or negative recur: app-ege "himsimsu me iti va vahanti, app-ege 'himsanti me' tti va vahanti, app-ege 'himsissanti me' tti va vahanti (Ayar p.5.16 = 1.1.6.5),89 "some people kill (animals) thinking 'they have injured me, injure me, will injure me'". The negative counterpart occurs Suy 2.2.6 (= 696.1): 'no himsimsu me' tti, 'no himsanti me' tti, 'no himsissanti me' ti. Is it because HIMS is associated with the first of the great vows prohibiting all injury? It is remarkable that the verbal forms of this root are often used in negative sentences, as can be seen in the padas where HAN and HIMS are exchangedoo; similarly the nominal forms derived from the same root are

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 223 commonly privative compounds a characteristic underlined, consciously or not, in the above sophisticated sequence ahimsa saccam... just quoted from Uttarajjhaya. The parallelism between the nominal and verbal expressions is particularly clear in such phrases as na himsai kimcanam (Suy 1.1.4.10 [= 85] = 1.11.10 (= 506 kamcanam ] - na himsae kamcana savva-loe, (1.5.2.24 [= 350]) and savve ahimsiya (Suy 1.1.4.984; v.l. -aya; Cu '-aga' = ahimsaniyani, quoted JAS p.15 n.4) savve na-himsaya. (1.11.9 505 Cu ahimsaga) To some extent the presence of the negative or privative particle underlines the definite aspect of HIMS 91; therefore emphasises the total exclusion of injury, and the actual positive bearing of the above padas.92 The negative predicate also enhances the definition of the true brahmana proposed in Utt 25.23 (=974): ...(-)pane viyanitta... 93 jo na himsai tivihenam tam vayam buma 'mahanam', "he who thoroughly knows living beings /./ and does not injure them in any of the three ways, him we call a Brahmana" (Jacobi). The positive implications of such grammatically negative expressions are all the more conspicuous as the negative sentence is often preceded or followed by some corresponding affirmative counterpart. Exactly as ahimsa (+) samjamo tavo,94 "non-injury - self-control, asceticism" are extolled in Dasav I.1 (supra), attention is called, in Ayar p. 31.11 (= 1.6.4.3) on those "who abstain from injury - are true to the vows, calm", avihimse (+) suvvae dante.95

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224 Colette Caillat A perfect complement or periphrase is provided by Suy 2.6.5 (=811), where ahimsaya is expanded by savva-payanukampi (sarva-prajanukampin), "who has compassion on all", followed by dhamme thiya (dharme sthita), "wellgrounded in the Law", and contrasted with aya-danda "brutal", "violent"%. undoubtedly the positive aspect of ahinsa is already emphasised in the old canonical scriptures, so clearly that the later authors will quote them when teaching daya, "compassion".97 In the above passages it can be seen how grammar, vocabulary, style combine to impress upon the Jaina mind the necessity to respect and spare all life, "not to injure" (na HIMS) the living: there is little doubt that the seniors of the canon insist on "non-injury" (ahimsa) so consistently that from the start Jainism can be termed a doctrine of non-violence, ahimsa-samaya.98 There is no denying that ahimsa is an old concept in the Indian traditions: H.-P. Schmidt has shown how it has originated, has evolved, has been transformed, enriched, and has become essential in India.'' But it is no less certain that from the beginning it was central in the Jaina system, which has explored it indefatigably. As far as the seniors of the canon are concerned, it is clear that the vocabulary relating to (non-)violence is particularly rich. Some terms appear to be archaic, technical and of limited use, thus panaivaya, which seems to refer to the destructive process itself. Others have a comparatively wide semantic range, thus HAN, which moreover, is abundantly used also because of its grammatical vitality. As for the aggressive process, its beginning is expressed by such phrases as dandam (sam)arambhai, while the verbal and nominal forms of HIMS point to its final result. In a way these two last expressions refer to the two essential moments characterizing brutal and cruel undertakings, which they summarize, as they do in Asoka's fourth Major Rock-Edict when the emperor contrasts his own benevolence with his predecessors' brutal behaviour. Girnar writes: (A) valhito eva pranarambho vihinsa ca bhutanam; (C) aja vadhite (sic) 1./ anarambho prananam avihisa bhutanam, "killing of animals and injury of livings beings were only made to grow; now on the contrary ...". In this antithetic statement, pranarambho and anarambho prananam mark the initial phase of the conduct which had previously ended in vihimsa, but now culminates in perfect benevolence, a-vihisa. Thus the Jaina phraseology

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 225 could help to penetrate the implications of the imperial message100 and of the old Indian statements concerning violence. ABBREVIATIONS: LANGUAGES: Amg = ArdhaMagadhi; BHS = Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit; Gdh = Gandhari, JM = Jaina Maharastri; MIA = Middle Indo-Aryan; OIA = Old IndoAryan; Pa = Pali; Sk = Sanskrit. TEXTS, etc.: Abbreviations for Pa texts as in CPD. - Acar = Acaranga-sutra. Erster Srutaskandha. Text, Analyse und Glossar von Walther Schubring, Leipzig, 1910 (AKM 12.4). - Ags = Agamodaya- Samiti. - AgSK = Acarya Tulasi - Yuvacarya Mahaprajna, Agamasabda-Kosa, Ladnun 1980 (JVBh). - AIG = J. Wackernagel - A. Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik. - AKM = Abh, fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Leipzig. - Ayar = Ayaranga-sutta (PTS ed. by Jacobi, London 1882. AKM ed. of Ayar 1 by Schubring, cf. Acar, JAS ed. by Muni Jambuvijaya, Bombay 1977 (JAS 2.1). - For Ayar 1, references successively to AKM (page and line) and to PTS; for Ayar 2, references to PTS (the case being also to JAS). - BSS = W.B. Bollee, Studien zum Suyagada, Wiesbaden, I, 1977; II, 1988 (Schriftenreihe des Sudasien-Instituts der Univ. Heidelberg, 24; 31). - CDIAL =R.L. Turner, A Comparative Dictionary of Indo-Aryan Languages. - CPD = A Critical Pali Dictionary. -ct(t) = commentaries. - Cu = cunni (cumi). * Dasav = Dasaveyaliyasutta, ed. by E. Leumann, ZDMG 46 (1892), ref. to chapter (I-XII) and verse number, for prose to page and line; by Punyavijaya and A.M. Bhojak, Bombay 1977 (JAS 15); Engl. trsl., with intr. and notes, by W. Schubring, Ahmedabad 1932 (cf. KI. Schr, ed. K. Bruhn, Wiesbaden, 1977 (Glasenapp-Stift. 13), 111-248). - Ee = European edition. - Erz= Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen in Maharashtri, herausg. von H. Jacobi, Leipzig 1886 (repr. Darmstadt, 1967). - GDhp = The Gandhari Dharmapada, ed. J. Brough, London, 1962 (London Oriental Series, 7). - Hc = Hemacandra's Grammatik der Prakritsprachen (Siddhahemacandram adhyaya VIII), mit kritischen und erlauternden Anmerkungen hrsg. von R. Pischel, 1877.1880 (repr. 1969) - JAS = Jaina-Agama-Series, Bombay (Shri Mahavira Vidya laya). - JVBh = Jain Visva Bharati, Ladnun. - KEWAI = M. Mayrhofer, Kurzgefasstes Etymologisches Worterbuch des Altindischen. - LSJA = Lala Sunderlal Jain Agamagranthamala, Delhi (re-ed. with app. etc., by Muni Jambuvijaya, of Ayar and Suy, (with Nijjutti and sika] of the text originally ed. by Sagaranandasuri). - Lehre = W. Schubring, Die Lehre der Jainas, Berlin-Leipzig, 1935 (GrAPHA 3.7). - PED = The Pali Text Society Pali-English Dictionary. - Pi = R. Pischel, Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen (ref. to $$). - PSM = PaiaSadda Mahannavo. - PrTS = Prakrit Text Series. - PTS = Pali Text Society. - SBE = Sacred Books of the

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226 Colette Caillat East (Jaina Sutras translated from Prakrit by Hermann Jacobi: 22, London, 1884 (Ayir); 45, 1895 (Utt; Suy); repr. Delhi, 1964. - Suy = Suyagadanga-sutta, ed. Jambuvijaya, JAS 2.2, 1978 (ref. successively 1) as in Jacobi's SBE tsl., 2) as in JAS). - T - Tika. - Uberblick = O. von Hinuber, Das altere Mittelindisch im Uberblick, Wien 1986 (Osterreichische Ak. der Wiss., Philosophisch-Hist. Kl. Sitzungsberichte, 467) (Veroffentlichungen der Kommission fur Sprachen und Kultur Sudasiens 20). - Utt = Uttarajjhaya, ed. by J. Charpentier, Lund, 1921-22 (Archives d'Etudes Orientales, 18.1-2), ref. to chapter and verse; by Punyavijaya and A.M. Bhojak, Bombay, 1977 (JAS 15); ed. with Bhavavijaya's vitti, by Bhuvanabhanu, Bombay, 1982. - Uv = Udanavarga, hrsg. von F. Bernhard, Gottingen, PhilologischHistorische Kl. 3.54, (Sanskrittexte aus den Turfanfunden X). - Udanavarga de Subasi (Bibl. Nationale de Paris. Fonds Pelliot), par H. Nakatani, Paris, 1987 (Pub. Institut de Civilisation Indienne 53). - Worte = Worte Mahaviras. Kritische Ubersetzungen aus dem Kanon der Jaina, von W. Schubring, Gottingen-Leipzig, 1926 (Quellen der Rel.-Gesch. 14.7) (German trsl. of Ayar 1; Suy 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.12, 2.1, 2.7). NOTES 1. Dasav I.1: "The best word to begin with, is Dharma. (Dharma consists in) non-violence, self-control and asceticism" (Schubring). 2. On the etymology of HIMS, and the related discussions, H.-P. Schmidt, "The origin of ahimsa" (in Melanges d'indianisme a la memoire de Louis Renou, Paris 1958, 625-655), ubi alia; KEWAI, s.v. hinasti, ubi alia. Also see (for Pali) Saddaniti (ed. H. Smith, Lund 1928-66), p. 398.6: hana hinsa-gatisu. For the general context, see the recent publications of The International Institute for Buddhist Studies, Tokyo, 1991: Buddhism and Nature. Proceedings of an International Symposium on the occasion of EXPO 1990. Further, Lambert Schmithausen, Buddhism and Nature. The lecture delivered on the occasion of the EXPO 1990. An enlarged Version with notes (Studia Philologica Buddhica. Occasional Paper Series VII). Id., The problem of the sentience of plants in Earliest Buddhism (Studia Philologica Buddhica. Monograph Series VI). 3. On the tridanda of the Brahmanic ascetics and on the Buddhist Vinaya prescrip tions and / or prohibitions concerning staffs, see O. v. Hinuber, Sprachentwicklung und Kulturgeschichte. Ein Beitrag zur materiellen Kultur des buddhistischen Klosterlebens, Stuttgart 1992 (Ak. der Wiss. u. der Literatur. Abhandl. der Geistes-und Sozialwiss. Kl., 1992 Nr. 6), ubi alia.

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 227 4. Cf. Lehre 145; Dasav ch. IV, Ee 617.15 = JAS 54; Ayar 2.2.3.2. 5. Cf. H.-P. Schmidt, op. cit. 637. 6. Acar 1, gloss., s.v.: "Strafe und Gewalttar". 7. Dasav IV.2.8: danda-sattha-parijunna, "ill-treated with sticks and sharp instruments" (Schubring). - Compare, in Pa, PED, s.v. danda 4. 8. Ayar p. 40.27* = 1.8.1.8: danda-jujjhaim muthi-jujjhaim. "fights at quarter-staff and boxing-matches" (Jacobi). 9. Ayar p.43.13* = 1.8.3.10. Compare Suy 1.3.1.16 = JAS 180: dandena samvie mutthina adu phalena va; or, in Ayar 2.1.3.4 = JAS 342: dandena va atthina va mutthina va... abhihaya-puvve bhavai; further Ut 12.18 = JAS 377: eyam khu dandena phal(a)ena hanta (referred to in Acar gl., s.v.d.; for the text, v. Alsdorf, ILJ 6 (1962), 131. 10. Cf. Ayar p. 40.25* = 1.8.1.7: haya-puvvo tattha dandehim lusiya-puvvo appa-punnehim, "he was beaten with sticks, and struck by sinful people" (Jacobi). 11. Compare PED, s.v. danda. 12. Ayar p. 19.11 = 1.4.3.1; p. 27.5 = 1.6.1. Cf. SBE 22, 39 and n. 1; 53. Compare nikkhitta-saltha, and similar bahuvrihis in Pa, PED, s.v. danda 4. 13. Suy 1.13.23b = JAS 579. 14. Ayar p. 35.9 = 1.7.3.1; p. 43.7* = 1.8.3.7. Compare Pa nidhaya dandam bhutesu, Sn 629 = Dhp 405, cf. PED, s.v. danda 4. 15. For a similar evolution, v. salla (salya), "dart", "piercing sting (of evil)", etc., Utt 19.916 (JAS 696): danda-salla-bhaesu ya niyatto, "he turned away from injurious, hurtful, and dangerous actions" (Jacobi). Compare PED, s.v. salla. 16. T equates nisirati with nisrjati (!) = niksipati. 17. SuyT 205.3 f., ad Suy 2.2.5 (JAS 695). In this passage Jacobi renders danda-samayana with "sinning", "committing sins": a somewhat loose translation; but in Ayar p. 7.29 = 1.2.2.3, with "violence is done" ("wird Gewalttat gehandhabt", Worte 74).

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228 Colette Caillat 18. "Sinning by slaying", Jacobi. But this translation does not tally with the develop ment of Suy, mamam va ... hinsimsu va himsai va himsissai va, tam dandam ... sayam eva nisirai, 2.2.9 (JAS 697), cf. Suys, ghatayisdsyatity evam matva ... vyapadayisyatiti matva, 206.7 ff. 19. Cf. Jacobi's translation in SBE. 20. Compare 'himsimsu' va 'himsai' va 'himsissai' va, tam dandam ... nisirai ..., Suy 2.2.9 (JAS 697), and app'ege 'himsinsu me' iti va vahanti, app'ege "himsanti me' tti va vahanti, app'egge 'himsissanti me' tti va vahanti, Ayar p. 5.16 f. = 1.1.6.5, where "to slay" (VADH) is the counterpart of dandam... nisirai (supra, n. 18). 21. On these formations, Pi 582; Acar 98 (gloss. s.v. lumpaittar- opittar., ubi alia). 22. "Who is a d. to himself", or "who does harm to his own soul" (Jacobi, infra), "self-destructive": an etymology accepted in the AgsK, s.v. -Compare n.36. 23. Pi 169; 277; 401; cf. 87; PSM, s.v.; AgsK s.v.; compare R.L. Turner, "Geminates after long vowel in Indo-aryan", BSOAS 30 (1967) 73-82 (= Col lected Papers 1912-1973, London 1975, 405-415). 24. Cf. Suy 1.7.2 (= JAS 382), etc. 25. JOIB 31.3 (1982) 247-9; BSS [ 74 ff. ad Suy 1.2.3.9 (JAS 151). - Also see C. Caillat "Ardhamagadhi ayadanda 'autodestructeur' ou 'arme, agressif, violent'?", Bulletin d'Etudes Indiennes 7-8 (1989-90), 17-45. 26. Cf. the quotations from Suy CuT in BSS II ib.-Prof. S. Insler calls my attention to the existence of Vedic compounds like udyata-danda, udyatayudha, udyatastra (in a personal letter, 30.7.1991). 27. Pa 1. atta-d. (glossed gahita-d.) occurs in an old floating sloka (Dhp, Sn, S); Pa 2. atta-d. is isolated (Sn 935). From Sk Bollee quotes only atta-sastra and attayudha, but alta-d. also occurs (cf. PW 3.571, s.v. DA, a-DA 4, quoting Sakuntala 105; glossed grhita-d.). Moreover, it is used in Uv 33.39: aviruddho (sic) viruddhesu tv atta-dandesu nirvrtah, the BHS counterpart of Dhp 406: aviruddham viruddhesu atta-dandesu nibbutam, "peaceful among those with uplifted staves" (Radhakrishnan), "who have embraced violence" (K. R. Norman), "among the violent" (1. B. Horner-Rahula) for Sn 630. The interpretation by atta-d. is warranted by GDhp 29b: ata-danesu nivudu; for in Gdh ata can only continue Sk atta, whereas atman is represented by atva

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 229 (cf. Brough, index and $53). Thus, in Buddhism, the linguistic etymology appears to have survived. 28. Cf. KEWAI s.v. lusati and 3.111, on Amg lus-, "brechen", finally "verletzen". - Compare the proximity of a. and lusanti in Suy 1.3.1.14 (JAS 178). 29. Again, in 2.6.23 (JAS 809), aya-d. appears as so to say summarizing the preced ing statement, in which an aggressive behaviour is described: arambhayam c'eva pariggaham ca aviussiya nissiya, aya-danda, 'arambham'... ca tatha parigraham ca 'avyutsrjya' aparityajya ... lasminn evarambhe ... parigrahe ca... avabaddhah ninsritah (? 264), "not having abandoned activities and properties, being entangled ..., being a." For further details (on 1.3.1.14, 1.7.2), cf. my article in Bulletin d'Etudes Indiennes 7 (supra n. 25). For JAS 827b (= 2.6.41) ihaya-d. read ni(d)haya dandam (cf.? 266-7). 30. Cf. Suy 2.6.23 (supra n. 29); 1.9.2 f. (JAS 438 f.). Similarly, sarambha sa-parig gaha, Suy 2.1.43 f. (JAS 677 f.); or the privative apparambha + appa-pariggaha, 2.7.21 (JAS 860). Further, the secondary adjectives arambhi(n), pariggahi(n), 1.9.9 (JAS 445: narambhi na pariggahi). For the possible pejorative meaning of arambha, compare CPD s.v. c): <>, energy, perseveranced; <>; further 1. arabhati, <>, and 2. arabhati, <> - referring to Sadd . 409.6 ff. 'himsa). - Cf., in the Brahmana prose, a labhate, H.-P. Schmidt, op. cit. 646. 31. pavovaga ya arambha, Suy 1.8.7 = JAS 417; compare the sequence in Suy 1.2.3.9 = JAS 151: je iha arambha-nissiya aya-danda eganta-lusaga, "those who engage in undertakings, ... and who kill (living beings)" (Jacobi). 32. Cf. Suy 1.9.35 = JAS 471 (concerning, in the privative, men): agiddhe sadda-phasesu arambhesu anissie, "not longing for sensual pleasures, not engaged in works". Suy 1.10.16 = JAS 488: arambha-satta gadhiya ya loe, ...dhammam na yananti, "those occupied with works and held in worldly bondage ... do not know the Law"., 34. Cf. Suy 2.1.43 f. (= JAS 677.1-2): iha khalu garattha sarambha sa-pariggaha, sanr' egaiya samana-mahana sarambha sa-pariggaha, je ime lasa-thavara pana te sayam samarambhanti, annena vi samarambhaventi, annam pi samarambhantam samanujananti. -iha khalu garattha s. s., sant' egaiya s.-m. vi

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230 Colette Caillat s. s., je ime kama-bhoga sa-citta va a-citta va te sayam c'eva pariginhanti, annena vi ..., "Here, indeed, householders are killers (of beings) and acquirers of property, and so are even some sramanas and brahmanas. They themselves kill movable and immovable living beings, have them killed by another. 1./ They themselves acquire sentient or senseless objects of pleasure ..." (Jacobi). 35. Haribhadra's Dasavs ad Dasav IV Ee 615 = JAS 341 (ed. Jambuvijaya, Pindavada, 1980, p. 96). 36. Ayar p. 34.5 (= 1.7.1.5). 37. Uu 20.60 (JAS 763). 38. Ayar 1.33.28-34.2(= 1.7.1.5). Cf. Dasav IV Ee 615.13 ff. = JAS 41 ff.: icc esim chanham jiva-nikayanam n'eva sayam dandam samarambhejja, ... javajjivae tiviham tivihenam manenam vayae kaenam na karemi na karavemi karentam pi annam na samanujanami, "Towards these six groups of souls he should not perform any act of violence himself ... As long as I live I (shall) not perform (an act of violence] in (one of the three ways, viz. with mind, ..." (Schubring's translation, 84). 39. Utt 8.10 (= JAS 218), cf. K. R. Norman, in Mahavira and his teachings, ed. A. N. Upadhye et al., Bombay (1977), 10. 40. Benevolence is an obligation as soon as it has been recognized that "earth bodies" etc. are sentient beings, which suffer and dislike pain, etc. 41. Ayar 2.15 I (p. 132.34) = Dasav IV p.615.20 (JAS 42). savvam bhante panaivayam paccakkhamill: n'eva sayam pane aivaejja, n'ev' annehim pane aivayavejja, pane aivayante vi anne na samanujanejja, javajjivae tiviham tivihenam... - Cf. paccakkhami savvam panaivayam // n'eva sayam panaivayam karejija 3 ..., Ayar 2 p. 131.32 ff. 43. Nanamoli's trsl., 19 f. 44. Cf. PW, s.v.-With Pa panatipata compare Asoka IV (A), infra. 45. Cf. 'nipatayanti' tri vindhanti (Cu, quoted JAS p. 57 n. 15); cf. (ib.) the v.l. nivayatanti, further atitapayanti apanayanti (stanka, quoted ib.). - Most ed. prefer the reading 'bhitavayanti (LSJA, Gurgaon, Jain Vishva Bharati), cf. not only 1.5.2.10a (JAS 336; compare the v.1. JAS p. 59 n. 19); but also (a)bhitaventi and (a)bhitappamana in 1.5.1.13: the root TAP is certainly expected in a Naraga chapter. Jacobi translates: "torment". 46. 'Tribhyo' mano-vak-kayebhya ayur-bala-sarirebhyo va 'patayer' cyavayet 'pranan' praninah; a-kara-lopad va 'atipatayet' pranan iti, cf. Suy? 9, "should one deprive beings of their three (constituents, viz. manas, ..., or span of life, ...); or (rather) given the disappearance of a-, should one knock the breaths

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 231 out", cf. Cu p. 22. 47. Renou, Grammaire sanscrite, 139 $111. 48. In PW and DCD the references for this meaning are to Susruta and Caraka. Further, Prof. C. B. Tripathi calls my attention to atipata, denoting an incurable disease (cf. DCD, s.v. E ii; I). 49. CPD I s.v. atipateti, atimapeti. 50. Which survives in Sinhalese, paniva (CDIAL 8931). 51. The treatises (sastra), or / and the (practice of) arms (sastra), cf. Jacobi, SBE 45, 298 n. 1. 52. Possibly aivaya occurs also in two or three difficult or uncertain passages of Ayar 1 (cf. Schubring's Glossar). 53. The particle nam seems to have sometimes been taken as the gen. pl. ending. 54. Suys 9, infra. Cf. the Cu ad Ayar p. 41.13*: aivaijjai jena so aivao, hims'ai (cf. Schubring's Glossar, s.v. aivaiya). 55. Suy? 9. 56. SuyT 127. 57. Quoted ad loc. in JVBh; and in JAS (hedha vibadhane badhante ity arthah) p. 71 n. 8. Compare pana-bhuya-vihedhino, Suy 1.8.4 (JAS 414). 58. For the neutralisation of the opposition 3 sg./3pl., Pi 515; 518; 459; etc. CPD I s.v. atthi (p. 111). 59., Here in the opening of a tristubh: hanai sattham jaha kuggahiyam (20.44b) hanai veyala... (d), "as a weapon injures if awkwardly handled, as a Vetala injures ...". For hanati in Pa, cf. PED s.v. hanati, referring to Ja V 461.28* (Burmese v.l. hanati); further VI 210.32* yo hanati (tristubh cadence), quoted Sadd 398 n.e, q.v.; cf. 1541.38. For Pa bhanati, patibhanasi (Ja*), Sadd 1647, s.v. bhanati. On 3 sg. ind. pres. -ati, IF 75 (1970) 302; also infra n. 74. Ayar p. 16.1* = 1.3.3.2 (v.l. hannai); cf. SBE 22 p. 32, n. 3; Wone 84. About hammai, "aktivisch", Schubring, Glossar, refers to HC 4.244 (hammai hanijjai and hammai hantity arthah). In the notes of his edition he compares Suy 1.5.2.24 60. (= 350): na hinsale kamcana savva-loe. Cf. further, Sn (515): na so himsati kamci (v.1. kimci) sabba-loke (515); and na ca bhikkhu himseyya kamci (v.1. kimci) loke (368).

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232 Colette Caillat Also see Mvu 3.395.16*: na ca so hinsati kamci loke. 61. Quoted JAS p. 175 n. 2.- On this usage, Uberblick 445, referring to Pi 466; 515; Nalini Balbir, in Dialectes dans les litteratures indo-aryennes, Paris 1989 (ICI 55). 509 ff., ubi alia. 62. Cf. JAS p. 96 n. 1, and the gloss 'hanyat tadayet, T (Ags. p. 168). - Also see Suy T 138, ad Suy 1.11.37 (JAS 533), 'vinihannejja' = vihanyat (infra n. 64). On the "double optative suffix" (cf. Pa dajje, *dad-y-e, etc.), Uberblick 440, referring to CPD I s.v. asnati, Epilegomena 29*. Further see s.v. anu-ppadeti. Concerning Asoka XIII (N), see Bulletin d'Etudes Indiennes, 9 (1991) 11-13; "The double optative suffix' in Prakrit", ABHORI Amrtamahotsava Vol. (in the press). Another possibility would be to assume a MIA active present base *hanyahanna-(cf. Pi 487 f. on the present -ya- stems in Pk). But this seems less likely. 63. For the passive of HAN and KHAN, HC 4.244 teaches hammai hanijjai, khammai khanijjai; in the future hammihii hanihii, khammihii khanihii (Pi 540). Consequenuy, in his edition of Utt 2, Charpentier always writes (-)hamm- even "in spite of all the MSS." (sic, Ee p. 287, ad 2.17; 22). As a matter of fact, a passive stem hanna- seems to have spread in the mss. tradition, which is normally. followed by JAS. Compare, e.g. in Utt 2: JAS 67 vinihannijja (v.1. Vihammejja, Ee 17 -mm-); 72 vihannejja (no v.1., but Ee 22 -mm-); 96 vihannejja (Cu nihanejja (sic), Ee 46 -mm-). But Charpentier has evidently overlooked the existence of a "double optative suffix" and of a possible intransitive value of vi-ni-HAN (cf. n. 62; 64). 64. For Suy 1.11.37 the vulgate reads: aha nam vaya-m-avannam phasa uccavaya phuse na lesu vinihannejja - vaeneva Mahagiri, (LSJA, JAS, Gurgaon); but the Cu (quoted JAS p. 95 n. 2): na tehim vinihammejja. In fact, according to the PYTS ed of Suy I (with Bhadrabahu's Niryukti and Cumi by anonymous writer, ed. Punyavijaya, Ahmedabad-Varanasi 1975, PTS 19), the Cu quotesna tehim vinihammejja', and comments thus: na tehi udinnehi vi nana-damsana-caritta-samjuttao maggao vinihannejja. Suy is therefore taken as meaning: "should troubles (sparsah' = parisahopasarga-rupah) befall him who has entered the vows (vratani apannam, Cu), he will not, because (when) they (have surged up), be struck away (from the Path), no more than the Great Mountain (is) by the wind" (but tesu - tehim probably only mean "on these

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 233 occasions"). But ? appears to take the above -hannejja as an opt. active (= vihanyat, cf. supra and n. 62): sa ca sadhus tair abhidrutah 1./ na tair anukula-pratikulair vihanyat, naiva samyamdnusthanan manag api vicalet (138), "due to these pleasant or unpleasant (circumstances) he should not ruin, he should not swerve from the practice of self-control". The Suy sutra and corresponding I have an exact parallel in Utt 2.17c (JAS 67), warning against the 8th parisaha (women!): no tahim vinihannejja (v.1., Ee-mm-), glossed by santisuri as atipatayet, atmanam iti gamyate (152 f.), "should not utterly destroy (viz. the Self)". Could this 'no vinihannejja' = naiva vinihanyat continue an old formula with the active verb used absolutely: "he should not crash, collapse, break down in front of them"; or "he should not strike at them"? - Other remnants of this usage exist: they are dealt with in a forthcoming paper. 65. For a passive stem hanna-, see PSM, s.v. hana (passive: hammai / hannai); also the Curni reading (-)hanna- for (-) hamma-mane, quoted by Schubring ad Ayar p. 32.22 = 1.6.5.6.- For HC 4.244, see n. 63. 66. 3.sg. opt. - Compare Suy 1.1.1.3a-6 on which supra): sayam tivayae pane aduva annehi ghayae ................ veram vaddhei appano and Dasav VI 10d: na hane no vi ghayae; further Ayar p. 15.19 (= 1.3.3.1) = 25.24 (= 1.5.5.4): tamha na hanta na vi ghayae. Cf. Schubring Gl, s.v. ghalay, referring to Sn 705d, na haneyya na ghataye. The same pada recurs in various versions of the Dhp: Pa Dhp 129; cf. "Patna Dhp" (ed.G. Roth) 203: neva hamyye na ghalaye; Uv Subasi 5.18: * (han)ny(e) n(a) ghatayet, Uv (ed. Bernhard) 5.19: naiva hanyan na ghatayet, compare Mvu 3.387.13*: nafva hinse na ghataye. In the above passages the opposition between han- and ghataya- is in evidence, and functions like the usual opposition between the simple and the causative stems. Cf. also Suy 2.24 (JAS 657): se kinam kinavemane, hanam ghayamane,

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234 Colette Caillat payam payavemane, "buys and causes to buy, kills and causes to kill, cooks..." (Jacobi). - On the discussions concerning the etymological relationship between HAN and ghataya-, KEWAI 3.576 f. 67. "Problematisch bleibt die Auffassung der ghat-Formen", KEWAI ib. 68. On ghat, Lehre $87. On the complete "knocking out", annihilation of karman particles and their ejection at the time of death (maran'antiya sammugshaya), ib. -89. - In Utt 5.32b (JAS 161), the verbal construction of aghaya (in the dat. + acc.) will be noted: aha kalammi sampatte aghayaya samussayam, (vinasaya I. / karmana-dehasya, Bhavavijaya), "when the time for quiting the body has come" (Jacobi). The privative an-aghaya is applied to a "smooth" death which generates no injury, Utt 5.18 (= 147). 69. On (a-)vihannu, BSS II 51; K.R. Norman, WZKS 36 (1992) 32. 70. Cf. Suy? 92 ad Suy 1.5.2.9 (JAS 335): hanyante mudgaradibhih; etc.; Worte 96 and n. 1 (ad Ayar p. 25.20 = 1.5.5.4). Cf. infra n. 72; 73. Obviously, in the present Jaina contexts, the connotations of HAN differ from those which seem to prevail in the RV and AV, according to Saverio Sani, "Valore semantico e identificazione di funzioni: il verbo hanti nel Rgveda e nell' Atharvaveda" in Studi e saggi linguistici 30, Supplemento alla Rivista "L'Italia dialettale", 53 (N.S. 30), Pisa 1990, 61-77. (Compare L. Renou, JA 1939, 167 n. 1: HAN almost exclusively said of gods who strike, destroy their enemies.] 71. Ayar p. 17.19 (= 1.4.1.1), etc. 72. na hantavyah danda-kasadibhih, /. / najnapayitavyah 1.), na parigrahyah 1.1, napadravayitavyah prana-vyaparopanatah, Ayars 119. 73. Suy 2.1.48 (JAS 679); "hanyamanasya' kasadibhih, T 199. 74. V.l. daheha (metrically correct). Should one read this imper. as dahaha? - Cf. khamaha (bhante), Uu 12.30 f. (= 389 f.; quoted Pi 471), and dalaha (majjham), 12.12 (= 371), both in a tristubh cadence. - Also supra n. 59. Suy? 86 specifies: 'hata' mudgaradina, 'chinta' khadgadina, bhinta' suladina, 'dahata' murmuradina. 75. Cf. Suy 2.1.17(=651) = Ayar p. 34.26 (= 1.7.2.4). 76. With Ayar p. 16.1* compare the padas quoted supra n. 60. 77. Cf. Schubring G1, s.v. lumpaittar. 78. T 51: prathamam idam mahavratam. Also see supra n. 65. 79. Cf. supra n. 60. 80. Compare n. 66.

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Words for violence in the "Seniors" of the Jaina Canon 235 81. SuyT 189 (ad Suy 2.1.24). 82. Cf. n. 60; 66. 83. Quoted JAS p. 109 n. 2. - On HIMS, himsa "injury done to a living being", Schmithausen, op. cit. 60 and n. 356 (referring to A. Wezler, Adyar Libr. Bull. 50 (1986) 455). 84. On Ved. himsra- "verwundend", AiG 2.2.851. 85. Cf. supra, and, on the other hand, Suy? 85 (ad Suy 1.5.1.4 = 303), 104 (ad 1.7.5 = 385), etc.; na kam api praninam 'hinsyat na vyapadayet, 94 (ad 1.5.2.24 = 350, na himsae). 86. Suy 2.1.48 (= 679), supra: hammamanassa /. I paritavijjamanassa. Or, in the text of the bhavanas (Ayar 2 p. 132): abhihanejja /. / pariyavejja. Also 'na hinasti' na paritapayati, Suy? 34 (ad Suy 1.1.4.10, na himsai). 87. Suy? 9, cf. supra section 2. 88. "Not to injure, to tell the truth, not to steal, to be chaste, not to hoard property". Cf. ahimsa satyam astainyam, Baudhayana DhSu 2.10.18.2 = Manu 10.63, quoted in Schmidt, op. cit., 637 and n. 1, 628 and n. 1. 89. Cf. Suy 2.2.9 (= 697), 'himsimsu va himsai (v.l. -anti) va himsissai (v.l. -anti) va'. Cf. supra; also n. 58. 90. Cf. n. 60, 66; 93. 91. From Suy? 9 (supra) it follows that HIMS points particularly to the physical injury resulting from violence; cf. Suy 1.1.2.25, opposing he who intends (to kill) a living being, but actually does not do it; and he who unknowingly does injure one (merely in consequence of his physical activity): abuho jam ca himsai (ajanarah kaya-vyapara-matrena yam ca hinasti praninam, T 25). The definite aspect of HIMS is clear: there can be little doubt that the result (not the intention) is in evidence (cf. Suy 1.7.5 (= 385); 1.7.9 (= 389]). 92. Cf. L. Renou, BSOAS 10 (1939), especially $826 f.; 31. 93. The Buddhist counterparts use HAN: yo na hanti na ghateti tam aham brumi brahmanam, Sn 629 = Dhp 405; also GDhp 1.18: yo na hadi na ghadhedi tam aho bromi bramana; further, in part, Uv 33.36: yo na hanti hi bhutani bravimi brahmanam hi tam. Compare ma hane, Suy 1.2.3.21a (JAS 163), supra. 94. Compare Utt 3.8 (= 104): ... padivajjanti tavam khantim (+) ahimsayam,

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236 Colette Caillat "they practise asceticism, forbearance - non-injury". 95. Cf. Renou, op. cit. In a sense, redundant expressions. Compare Uut 4.1 (= 117) vihinsa ajaya (vihimsra + ayata); 36.256 (= 1709); or the emphatic repetition, Dasav VI 28 ff. (= 290): pudhavi-kayam vihimsanto himsah tu tay-assie. 96. Quoted supra (cf. the discussion on aya-danda). 97. For details and references, R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, London 1963 (London Oriental Series 14), 70 f. 98. For a discussion on the morpho-syntax and meaning of the acc. ahimsa samayam, Suy 1.1.4.10 (=85) = 1.11.10 (= 506), BSS I, 127 f. 99. Cf. Hans-Peter Schmidt, "The origin of ahimsa". - On ahimsa / daya in Gautama Dharma Sutra, 634; 655 (also underlining "the transition of the idea of ahimsa l./ which was mainly concerned with bodily injury, to that of a general fellow feel ing for all living beings"). 100. Compare K.R. Norman, "Notes on Asoka's fifth Pillar edict", JRAS April 1967, 26-32 (studying the animal names in this inscription in the light of the Jaina data). Colette Caillat (URA 1058)