Jains in India and Abroad

Author(s): Prakash C Jain
Publisher: International Summer School for Jain Studies
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/007601/1

Page #1
Jains in India and Abroad A Sociological Introduction

Page #2

Page #3
Jains in India and Abroad A Sociological Introduction Prakash C. Jain NAL SCA SELF STUDY IS THE SUPREME AUSTERITY NI 1 ESITT 074: SE International School for Jain Studies New Delhi

Page #4
First Edition: Delhi, 2011 (c) Author 2011 All Rights Reserved No part of this Publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN: 81-86715-79-7 Published by: International School for Jain Studies D-28, Panchsheel Enclave New Delhi - 110 017 Ph: 011 - 4079 3387 Email: svana@vsnl.com; issjs_india@yahoo.co.in Website: www.jainstudies.org Printed in India by: Salasar Imaging System Pvt. Ltd. C-7/5, Lawrence Road Industrial Area Delhi - 110 035 Ph: 011 - 27180932 Email: salasar1@gmail.com, salasar1@sis-asia.com

Page #5
CONTENTS Preface List of Tables List of Figures List of Maps List of Plates xiij xiii xiv Chapter 1: The Jains 1 - 22 : Jainism and its Origin & Growth History of Jainism Sects in Jainism Jain Social Organisation Food, Festivals and Pilgrimage Jains' Contribution to the Indian Culture & Society Concluding Remarks Chapter 2: Jain Way of Life 23 - 47 Jain Philosophy Jain Ethics Householder's Code of Conduct Code of Conduct for Ascetics Practicality of Jain Asceticism for Laity Jain way of Life: Diasporic Context Concluding Remarks Chapter 3: Jain Demography 48 - 85 Population Size Population Growth Rate Population Variation by States/Union Territories Concentration in Seven States/UT Urbanisation Sex Ratio Literacy, Work Participation and Occupation Concluding Remarks

Page #6
Chapter 4: Jain Diaspora and Its Linkages with India East Africa West Asia South and South-East Asia United Kingdom United States of America Canada Diaspora-Homeland Linkages Federation of Jain Associations in North America Jain International Trade Organisation Jain Social Groups' Federation International School for Jain Studies Bharatvarshiya Digambar Jain Mahasabha Siddhachalam and Sarvodaya Teerth Bhagwan Mahavir Chair for Jain Studies Concluding Remarks Chapter 5: Towards a Sociology of the Jain Community Population Dynamics Social Organisation Economic Status Minority Status Political Status Dualistic Organisation Religious Ethic Segmental Orientation Inter-Ethnic Relations Concluding Remarks Appendices I. Population of India by Religion Communities, 2001 II. Distribution of Population of Indian Religious Communities by Caste Categories. 86-112 113-139 140-148 148

Page #7
III. Text of the Letter to the Prime Minister of India for the enactment of Jain Marriage Act from the national president of Shree Bharatvarsheeya Digambar Jain Mahasabha, Delhi 149-150 IV. A list of Prominent Jain Public Figures of the Twentieth Century 151-158 V. A List of Jain Associations Abroad 159-169 Bibliography 170-230 Glossary 231-238 Plates 239-242 Index 243

Page #8
Publisher's Note International School for Jain Studies conducts various programs for the students, scholars and faculty members of the universities of North America primarily and Europe, Asia in general. Since its inception, more than 250 persons have attended various programs conducted by ISJS. ISJS alumni occupy positions of significance in their respective universities and are regularly contributing to promote Jain studies, research and publication. Experience of ISJS so far had been the perception of Jainism as being mostly concerned with detachment with the world and aiming to attain liberation. This may be true for the monks but partially true for the laity and householders as Jains do form a small but highly educated, prosperous and socially involved minority community. ISJS had been taking several steps, like organizing eleven one day conferences on Social Consciousness in Jainism in the universities of India and abroad and regularly participate in seminars on topics of social relevance. The present book by Prof. Prakash C. Jain, is the first publication by ISJS on this topic. Prof Jain is a senior adviser and faculty member of ISJS. I hope this is the beginning and the book shall arouse more research and publication in similar or associated topics concerning anthropology, social and professional ethics, economic, health and political scenario etc. Prior to this publication, ISJS had translated in English books on metaphysics (Jainism, key to reality, i.e. Tatvarthasutra in questions and answer form and Jain Legend (history of Jainism till 1500 A.D. i.e. Jain dharma ka Maulik Itihas by Hasti Malji in 4 volumes) for the benefit of ISJS alumni and associates and English speaking scholars which were published by different Jain research institutes. We wish success to Prof. Jain on writing this up to date book on Jains in India and abroad and hope it will lead him to undertake more research projects on Jain sociology. Shugan C Jain Chairman International School for Jain Studies New Delhi Email: svana@vsnl.com

Page #9
PREFACE Ever since I was exposed to Max Weber's Protestant Ethic thesis during my M. A. (Sociology) studies programme, I had more or less decided to test the thesis by myself writing a dissertation on Jainism and the Jains. Reading Weber's insightful analysis of Jainism contained in Religion of India further strengthened my resolve to do that. An award of Canadian Commonwealth Scholarship for Ph.D. programme in the late 1970s that landed me at the Carleton University of Ottawa kept my resolve intact, where I wrote a term paper on the Jains for a course on Sociology of Religion. Unfortunately it could not go further for a number of reasons. Instead my academic interest got shifted to Indian Diasporic Studies - an academic subject that eventually earned me a Ph.D. degree. Nevertheless, an updated and thoroughly revised version of that term paper constitutes Chapter 5 of the book. The book begins with an introduction of Jainism with its brief history in different parts of India and the sects and sub-sects that developed within it during the past two thousand years. Some basic social structural features such as family, kinship and marriage are also mentioned alongwith a brief note on food, festivals and places of pilgrimage of Jains. Chapter 2 highlights the salient features of Jain philosophy in terms of its metaphysics, ontology, epistemology and ethics which have been the basis of the Jain way of life for centuries. At the end, the Jain way of life and its practicality in diasporic context as well as India is critically examined. During the mid-1990s, the Census of India 1991 data revealed a relatively slow population growth rate of the Jains vis-a-vis other five major religious communities of India, namely Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and Buddhists. The findings were reported widely in the media that rekindled my interest to probe the problem further. Subsequently I wrote a brief article entitled "The Jains in the 1991 Census of India" that I sent for publication to a prominent Jain journal in India. The editor of the journal expressed his inability to publish the same saying "the committee does not want to publish it". I still fail to understand why, given the fact that an article based on the 1981 census data was earlier published by the same journal. My best guess is that perhaps the journal did not want to highlight the suddenly emerged situation of low fertility behaviour among the Jains in the 1991 census data. Meanwhile, the 2001 Census data on religious communities in India were also available, which prompted me to revise the article in the light of the new data. Chapter 3 in the present volume is an outcome of that exercise. IX

Page #10
A large number of Jains are either ignorant about the size of their community and its other demographic aspects, or have serious misgivings about it. They often seem to nurse grievances against the Census of India authorities for under-estimating the Jain population. Many of them suggest at the same time that there are no less than 10 million Jains in India. Notwithstanding such a wild claim, the census data clearly point towards a figure of no more than 4.5 million Jains in India. The 1991 and the 2001 Census data also underline the fact of low fertility behaviour among the Jains. The 2001 Census data further underlined the fact of ethnic revivalism that got intensified among them during the 1990s, as a result of which about 600,000 Jains "lost" to the Hindus returned back to the community. The rise of the Hindu fundamentalism in India since the late 1980s, demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992, and the growing ethnocentrism among other communities might have been responsible for this phenomenon among the Jains, who otherwise have been very well integrated into the mainstream of the Indian society. It would be interesting to note the outcomes of the 2011 Census that might tell us whether the process is over or there is more to it. Having been engaged in the field of Indian diaspora in general for the past three decades, it was natural for me to pay some attention to the Jain diaspora, which currently is estimated at around quarter of a million, and is growing steadily. Not only numerous socio-cultural associations have sprung up within the Jain diaspora, a number of Jain temples have been constructed in those countries where there is a sizeable Jain community. Lately, Jain diaspora has been in the process of projecting Jainism and the Jain way of life as rational and scientific. Towards this goal some literature is being produced that put emphasis on the Jainist principles of ahimsa (nonviolence), aparigraha (non-possession) and anekant (relativism). Promotion of vegetarianism as well as Jainism as an area of serious academic research appears to be the twin goals of diasporic Jain activism. The Jain diaspora has begun to exert its influence on the Jains in India. In the process the Jains in India are also trying to reach out to their counterparts abroad. These mutually reinforcing linkages can best be seen in the activities of such associations as the Federation of the Jaina Associations in North America, the Jain International Trade Organisation, Mumbai and Shree Bharatvarshiya Digambara Jain Mahasabha, Delhi. They have been active in the fields of not only trade and commerce but have also been propagating Jainism around the world. The Jain Diaspora and some of its activities are highlighted in Chapter 4. An earlier version of this paper was presented at Bangalore at a conference on the "Diversity in Indian Diaspora" (Jain 2011).

Page #11
The book contains a large bibliography with special reference to Jain philosophy and religion, history, demography, anthropology, sociology and other social sciences. Needless to say, the five chapters and a bibliography constitute only a small book - essentially an outline of the theme "Jains in India and Abroad". As mentioned above, the genesis of the book lies in differential circumstances over a long period of time, and therefore a certain amount of repetition of contents has been inevitable. There might be a number of other shortcomings in the book. Nevertheless, encouragement received from various quarters finally prompted me to put together the book. I earnestly hope that it would be useful to the general readers as well as the scholars. I am grateful to Prof. Nathan R. B. Loewen of Vanier College, Montreal for reading earlier drafts of the manuscript and for making extensive criticism and comments towards improving the same. Some of the Ph.D. scholars working under my supervision, particularly Kundan Kumar, Jaffar Ali Khan, Rakesh K. Ranjan, Rajiv Kumar, Rajeevan Kunnath, Navendu Shekhar and Ms. Rajni Bala helped me in a number of ways in finalizing the book. Ms. Chanchal Jain and Mr. Sushil Jana of International School for Jain Studies composed the book on PageMaker and assisted in designing the cover page with great enthusiasm. I am thankful to all of them. Thanks are also due to Dr. Shugan C. Jain, India-Director of International School for Jain Studies, New Delhi for promptly accepting the manuscript for publication on behalf of the School. And finally, the book is dedicated to the fond memories of my father Shri Ratna Chand Jain and my father-in-law Shri C. K. Saxena who, in spite of their different socio-economic and religious backgrounds, had some common "Jaintlemanly" qualities. The book also purports to be a gift to my wife Dr. Renu Saxena, and our daughters Ms. Rashi Prakash and Ms. Sanskriti Prakash who might learn about the Jains a little more systematically than had so far been possible for me by telling them in bits and pieces. New Delhi March 21, 2011 Prakash C. Jain xi

Page #12
List of Tables Table 3.1: Variations in the number of Jains since 1891 Demographic Indicators of the six Major Religious Communities of India, 2001 70 71 Table 3.2: Table 3.3: 72 Table 3.4: Total population-Jains, 1961-2001 (India, States and Union territories) Variations in the Number and Percentage of Jains and Decadal Percent Population Change in Seven major States since 1961 73 Table 3.5: 74 Distribution of Jain population by states, Rural/Urban background and Gender 1991 Table 3.6: Distribution of Jain Population by Rural-Urban Background Sex Ratio among the Jains, 2001 Table 3.7: Table 3.8: Literacy, Female Literacy and Work Participation Rate in India by religious Communities Table 3.9: Literacy rate among the Jains, 2001 Table 3.10: Distribution of Category of Workers by Religious Communities, 2001 Table 3.11: Work Participation among the Jains, 2001 Table 3.12: Number of Persons and Selected Population Characteritics of Jains in the Districts Having at Least 10,000 Jains, 1981 Table 3.13: District Where the Jains Constitute the Third Largest Religious Group 82 85

Page #13
Fig. 1: Fig. 2: Fig. 3: Fig. 4: Fig. 5: Fig. 6: Fig. 7: Fig. 8: Fig. 9: Fig.10: Fig. 11: Fig. 12: Map 1: Map 2: Map 3: Map 4: List of Figures Variations in the number of Jains since 1891 Total population of Jains, 1961-2001 (India, States and Union territories) A comparison of decadal population growth of various religious communities during 1981-91 and 1991-2001 Decadal percentage of growth of Jains, 19612001 Percentage of total number of Jains in seven major states District where the Jains constitute the third largest religious group Decadal percent change of population of Jains in seven major States since 1961 Distribution of Jain population by rural/urban divide in seven major states Sex ratio and child sex ratio in various religious communities in India, 2001 Literacy and work participation rate by religious communities, 2001 Religious communities and their occupations, 2001 Distribution of category of workers by religious communities, 2001 List of Maps Sex ratio among Jains in India by districts, 2001 Jains in India: Proportion of population in age group 0-6 by districts, 2001 Literacy rate among Jains in India by districts, 2001 Work participation rate among Jains in India by districts, 2001 50 51 52 53 55 56 57 57 62 64 64 66 60 61 63 68 xili

Page #14
List of Plates 239 239 239 240 240 240 1. Jain Temple, Ranakpur, Rajasthan. 2 Jain Temple, Chaitanyadham, Gujarat 3. Jain Temple, Palitana, Gujarat. Keertistambha, Chittoregarh, Rajasthan. Statue of Bahubali, Sravanbelagola, Karnataka. Statue of a Jain Tirthankar in Jain Temple, Antwerp, Belgium. 7. Jain Temple, Dilwara, Mt. Abu, Rajasthan. 8. Jain Temple, Chicago, USA. 9. Jain Temple, Houston, USA. 10. Jain Temple, Boston, USA. 11. Jain temple, California, USA. 12. Jain Temple, Kenya. 240 241 241 242 242 242 XIV

Page #15
Chapter 1 THE JAINS The Jains are an ancient community of India with their own distinctive religion and philosophy, worship and rituals, social customs and cultural traditions. Their estimated population in India is about five million. About a quarter of a million Jains live in diaspora. This chapter introduces the Jains in terms of their history, major sectarian divisions within the community, social organizational aspects such as caste, family and kinship, life cycle rituals, and food, festivals and the places of pilgrimage. Finally, Jains' contribution to Indian culture and society is highlighted. Jains are the followers of "Jina", the conqueror, the spiritual victor, the one who has conquered all the worldly passions and desires. A Jina is a human being who obtained omniscience through his own efforts. There have been 24 such Jinas of which Mahavir (599-527 B.C.E.) was the last. The current Jain Sangh (order) consisting of a four-fold congregation of munis (male ascetics) and aryikas or sadhvis (female ascetics) and shrawak (male laity) and shrawikas (female laity) was established by Lord Mahavir. Besides Jinas, the profounder of Jainism in different periods in ancient times were also known as Shraman (monk), Arhat (worthy of worship), Arihant (destroyer of passions), and Nirgranth (detached). The religion followed by the Jains is called Jainism. Origin and Growth of Jainism Many scholars as well as the Jains themselves trace the origin of Jainism to the first Jain Tirthankar Adinath, or Rishabh Dev who was born to King Nabhirai and Queen Maru Devi (Jain, J.P 1983; Jaini 1979; Radhakrishnan 2002: 287; Sangave 1980). Adinth "is considered as the harbinger of human civilization because he inaugurated the Karma-bhumi (the age of action); founded the social institutions of marriage, family, law, justice, state, etc., taught mankind the cultivation of land, different arts and crafts, reading, writing and arithmetic; built villages, towns and cities; and in short, 1 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #16
pioneered the different kinds of activities with a view to provide a new kind of social order meant for increasing the welfare of human beings" (Sangave 2006: 19). Jains often claim that the indigenous name of India, i.e, Bharat comes after the name of Bharat, the eldest son of Lord Rishabh Dev, in whose favour he had abdicated his throne and renounced the world. Incidentally, his other prominent son was Bahubali who is also worshiped by the Jains, but not as a tirthankar. As already mentioned, Lord Rishabh was followed by a succession of 23 Tirthankaras ending with Lord Mahavir. Contrary to this Jainist view of the origin of Jainism, some scholars believe that Jainism constituted a reformatory movement within Brahmanism and that it was organically connected in a sect-like manner with Brahmanism. Thus, according to Lunia (1960) both Jainism and Buddhism were not new faiths and they arose as a result of the "disappointment" of certain Hindus with the Brahmanical religion. Similarly taking into account the notion of Indian "Great tradition", Singh (1973: 46) argues that both Jainism and Buddhism were the result of, "a process of inner dialectics in the worldview of Hinduism." In other words, not only Hindu cultural tradition internally reorganized from time to time (cultural renaissance), "another kind of change in this tradition is revealed in the formation of new, autonomous traditions through differentiation" (Ibid: 45). Thus, according to Singh, Jainism and Buddhism were purely orthogenetic in nature. Although from the point of view of national integration this kind of "synthetic" approach is expedient, it is not useful in social scientific understanding of history. It mistakenly equates Brahmanism (Vedic religion) to Hinduism. What is forgotten in this regard is the fact that Hindu Great tradition itself is the result (a process of synthesis) and not necessarily the cause of a variety of autonomous traditions. It is being increasingly recognized that "Jainism was not a revolt in the strict sense of the term against the existing Brahmanical hierarchy" (Thakur 1975: 251). On the contrary, as part of the Sramanic tradition, Jainism had already originated and spread among certain ethnic groups. Ethnographic studies of ancient Indian society show how before the consolidation of Aryan Vedic tradition, 2 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #17
some of the cults prevailing among the local tribes such as Asura, Pani, Bhils, Nagas, Mundas, etc. went into the formation of Sramanic tradition ("one which originated in lay circles") (see Jain, R.C 1970; also Guseva 1971). During the middle of the first millennium B.C.E, the interaction and assimilation processes between Brahmanic and Sramanic traditions were particularly intensive, owing to the fact that monarchic states in the form of Janapadas (republics) were being formed uniting several ethnic territories within their borders (Wagle 1966). The process of cultural assimilation was far from smooth, because each religious tradition was contending for superiority over the others. The view that Jainism was not merely a protest movement within Hinduism is also borne out by the Jain belief as well as historical evidence that Mahavir (599-527 B.C.E.) revived the teachings (Chaturyama Dharma) of Parswanath who lived and preached during the ninth century B.C.E. and is regarded by the Jains as their 23rd Tirthankar. In other words, the origin of Jainism can be traced back to at least the ninth century B.C.E. As early as in 1826 a noted Indological scholar H.T. Colebrook (1977 11: 317) observed: "I take Parswanath to have been the founder of the sect (sic) of Jainas, which was confirmed and thoroughly established by Mahavir and his disciple Sudharma." Many contemporary scholars also regard Parswanath (899-799 B.C.E.) as the founder of Jainism (e.g., Guseva 1971; Jaini 1979: 2, n. 2; Sechubring 1966: 1; Zimmer 1956: 181). Teachings of Lord Mahavir attempted to undermine some of the basic elements of the established Vedic/Brahminical social order such as the caste system, dominance of the priestly caste (Brahmins) in socio-cultural and religious matters, ritualistic sacrifice of animals, secondary status of women, slavery, untouchability, monarchical basis of policy, etc. Both Buddha and Mahavir "spoke" in the language of the masses and thus sidelined Sanskrit, the holy language of the Brahmin elites. Mahavir as well as Parsvanath also admitted women and Sudras into his religious order. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #18
History of Jainism East India Jainism has a long history since at least the 9th century B.C.E. when the Chaturyam Dharma of the 23rd Tithankar Parshvanath that emphasized Satya (truth), Ahimsa (non-violence), Achaurya (nonstealing) and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness) was being preached. Chaturyam Dharma served as precursor to Mahavir's religious and social order. East India therefore figures prominently in the early history of Jainism. Jainism enjoyed patronage of King Chetaka, the ruler of Vaishali, Kings Bimbasar (Shrenika) and Ajatshtru of Sisunaga Dynasty (642-413 B.C.E.), the Namdas kings (413-322 B.C.E.) and the Emperor Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.E.) of the Maurya Dynasty (See Jash 1989; Tiwari 1996). In this context it is also suggested that Jainism was also patronized by Emperor Ashoka before he got converted into Buddhism. He was also instrumental in spreading Jainism into Kashmir. The grandson of Ashoka, Emperor Samprati also extended patronage to Jainism. Beyond Eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Jainism appears to have been popular in present day Orissa and West Bengal (Mukherji 1997). In Orissa King Kharavela provided royal patronage to Jainism during the second century B.C.E. Jainism continued to be reasonably popular in Orissa until the seventh century C.E. The Chinese pilgrim Hieum Tsang who visited the region in 629 C.E. provides enough evidence to this effect. In Bengal, among other things, the indigenous people known as "Saraka" (distorted form of the word shrawak) are considered to be the Hinduized remanants of the early Jaina people (Sangave 2006: 114). Not surprisingly, some contemporary Jain scholars and voluntary organisations have been showing great concern about the development of Saraks. South India Jainism reached to South India in 3rd Century B.C.E., when in order to escape the 12 years long drought in North India Acharya Bhudrabahu led a Sangh of over 7,000 monks to Shravanbelagola in Karnataka. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya was the part of the delegation. During the Christian era in Karnataka itself a number of rulers from various dynasties such as the Kadamba (3rd to 6th century C.E.), 4 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #19
Ganga (350-999 C.E.), Chalukya (500-757 C.E.), Rastrakutas (757-973 C.E.), Western Chalukyas (10th to 12th Century C.E.), Hoyasala (10061345 C.E.), Kalachuris (1156-1183 C.E.), etc. patronized Digambar Jainism in varying degrees. Jainism also made "contribution to the success and greatness of the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565 C.E.) which is considered to have been the most magnificent product of medieval Hindu statesmanship" (Jain, J.P. 1983: 29). In Andhra and Tamil Nadu too Jainism had considerable influence for more than a millennium in the Christian era (Ayyangar and Rao 1922). The rise of Vaishnavism and Shaivism however forced Jainism to decline by 14th century A.D. in most of South India. West India The migration of Jains from Eastern to Western parts of India probably occurred sometime in the 3rd Century B.C.E. following the decline of Jains' clout in the Mauryan Empire. Some idea of the antiquity of Jainism in West India can be ascertained from the fact that Lord Neminath, the 22nd Tirthankar of the Jains had attained salvation on the Mount Girnar in Junagarh district of Gujarat sometime in the second millennium B.C.E. "Furthermore, ancient literary evidences suggest that Lord Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar, had visited the Marathavada region and Maharastra during his religious propagation tour of different parts of India" (Sangave 2006: 119). In 446 C.E. the council of Jain ascetics met at Vallabhi and put down in writing the Jain canon. As Digambar Jainism flourished in South India, the West India became the strong-hold of Shvetambar Jainism. In Gujarat Jainism was patronized by the Rashtrakuta, Chalukya and Baghela rulers during 8th to 13th centuries C.E. (Sheth 1953). It was during the reigns of Baghelas that the beautiful temples at Satrunjaya, Girnar and Mt. Abu were built by the two Jain minister brothers Vastupal and Tejpal. In Maharashtra from the 3rd Century onwards, "the powerful ruling dynasties like the Satavahanas of Paithans, Chalukyas of Kalyan, Rastrakutas of Malakhed, Yadavas of Devagiri and Silaharas of Kolhapur and Konkan had extended their royal patronage in a large measure to Jaina religion" (Sangave 2006: 120). The Jains in 5 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #20
Maharastra can boast of having four major Siddhakshetras (places from where Tirthankars or other saints have attained nirvana) at Gajapantha (District Nasik), Magitungi (District Khamdesh), Kunthalagiri (District Osmanabad) and Muktagiri (District Amraoti); a large number of caves and cave-temples, including the famous ones at Ellora (Dist Aurangabad), Ter (Dist Osmanabad), and Anjaneri (Dist Nasik); some of the great Jain saints and scholars such as ntabhadra, Virasen, Jinasena and Somedeva, and the largest proportion of Jain population in India (about 30% of all Jains in 2001 Census). North India For about a millennium, beginning perhaps in the 3rd century B.C.E., Mathura, the capital of Surasena rulers, remained the stronghold of Jainism. Ujjain was an important centre of Jainism in central India which was the capital of Maurya Emperor Samprati (Jaina Asoka), the grandson of Ashoka. Emperor Samprati was also responsible for spreading Jainism to Kashmir, and some other parts of East India. With minor exceptions here and there Jainism was generally deprived of royal support during the first few centuries of Muslim rule in north India. As a part of his Din-e-Elahi policy Mughal Emperor Akbar was favourably inclined towards Jainism. He had banned animal slaughter during the Paryushan days in his empire in 1583 C.E. Initially Jahangir had revoked this policy, but again decreed the same in 1610 C.E. Emperor Shahjahan was also tolerant of Jainism and allowed a Jain temple to be built in front of the Red Fort mainly for the Jains in his administration as well as the other residents in the locality. The presence of the Lal Mandir (red stone Jain temple) in Chandni Chowk is an eloquent testimony to this. "Duri Mohammedan period, the Jainas particularly increased in the native states of Rajputana, where they came to occupy many important offices under the state as generals and ministers" (Sangave 2006: 122). In this context the name of Raja Bhamashah (1542-1598 C.E.), advisor of the Rajput warrior Maharana Pratap of Mewar, easily comes to one's mind. He had played a crucial role in numerous military exercises of Mewar against the mighty Mughal army, including the famous battle of Haldi Ghati. 6 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #21
Sects in Jainism Any religion and/or system of thought cannot remain undifferentiated or monolithic for a long time. Jainism too has not been an exception in this regard. Its spread over the large parts of India, varying interpretations of the Jain canons, and the revolt against the existing authorities at the time led to the formation of sections and sub-sections within Jainism at different points of time in its long history. The most important schism within Jainism in the form of Digambar and Shvetambar sects, known as the Great schism, occurred at the end of the first century C.E., which is about six hundred years after the nirvana of Lord Mahavir. Scholars point out that this was the eighth schism within Jainism - the first one caused by Jamali during the life-time of Tirthankar Mahavir himself (Dundas 1992: 41; Banks 1986; Jain, M.U.K. 1975; Jain, J.P. 1983). The schism was not the result of an abrupt doctrinal split, but a long drawn out process. The seeds of the Great schism were laid in the migration of Jainism: Major Sects and Sub-sects Bhagwan Mahaveer (599-527 BCE) Shvetambar Digambar Taranpanth (Ca 1490) Lonka Sect 1452 CE Sthanakvasi 1653 CE Terapanth (1760 CE) Kanjiswami (1889-1981) Terahpanth (1626 CE) Terapanth Deravasi/ Murtipujak Sthanakvasi Kanjipanth Bisapanth Terahpanth Taranpanth Rajchandra Sub-sects a section of Jains from Magadha to Shravanbelagola on the eve of the 12-year long famine in Eastern India in the 3r century B.C.E. It is said that the left-behind Jain monks "had been prevailed upon by their lay followers to cover their private parts with a strip of cloth (ardhaphalaka) while begging for alms (Dundas 1992: 43). The 7 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #22
ardhaphalaka sect and its descendents the Yapanias were possibly the prototypes of Shvetambar Jains. Digambaras and Shvetambaras differ on about a dozen minor as well as major points. The major points of difference include the practice of nudity, "soteriology and women", and the possessions of ascetics. Whereas Digambar Jainism requires its highest ranking ascetics to observe absolute nudity, and denies them to have any possessions other than pichchhi (broom made of peacock feathers) and kamandala (wooden pot), and believes that women cannot attain liberation, the Shvetambara Jainism is liberal on these counts. The Shvetambaras also believe that the 19th Tirthankara Mallinath was a female; Digambaras believe that all the Tirthankaras were male. These and other points of difference between the two sects however do not come in the way of their doctrinal unity. The most influential text of Jainism, the Tattvartha Sutra written by Acharya Umasvami/Umasvati (2nd century B.C.E.), is accepted by both the sects. The two sects got further sub-divided into a number of sub-sects at various points of time during the past 500 years or so (See Jain, M.U.K. 1975; Banks 1986; Dundas 1992). Digambara Sub-Sects There are three major sub-sects within Digambara Jainism, namely Bisapantha, Terapantha, and Taranpantha. Bisapanth This is the original idolatrous (idol worshipping) stream of Digambar Jainism whose followers support the institution of Bhattarak (head of religious monastery or math) that flourished in the medieval period from 14th to 19th century. The Panth believes in worshipping idols of Kshetrapals, Padmawati and other deities' alongwith those of the Tirathankaras. The Bisapanthis "worship these idols with saffrons, flowers, fruits, sweets, scented agarbattis i.e. insense [sic] sticks, etc" (Sangve 2006: 104). Bispanthi Digambar Jains are mainly found in south Indian states, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Terapanth This reformer sub-sect originated within the Bisapantha sometime in the early 17th century C.E. as a revolt against the domination and conduct of the Bhattarakas. At the same time its origin is also traced 8 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #23
back to the Adhyatma movement in North India in which Pt. Banarsidas figures prominently. According to Lath, "the Terapanth proudly declares itself an offshoot of Banarsi's Adhyatma, and revers him as its Adiguru, the founder-teacher" (1981: iii). "In their temples, the Terapanthis install the idols of Tirathankaras and not of Kshetrapalas, Padmawati and other deities. Further they worship the idols not with flowers, fruits and other green vegetables (known as sachitta things), but with sacred rice called 'Aksata', cloves, sandle paste, almonds, dry coconuts, dates, etc" (Sangve 2006: 104). The Terapanthis are generally found in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Taranpanth This non-idolatrous sub-sect was founded by Taran Swamy (14481515 C.E.) which was apparently influenced by Islam on the one hand and the teachings of Lonka Shah, the founder of the nonidolatrous Sthnakvasi subsect of Shvetambara Jainism on the other. In their temples, Taranpanthis worship the fourteen sacred books of their founder along with the sacred books of Digambara Jainism. Regarding religious or caste distinctions, the Taranpanthis are quite liberal vis-a-vis other Digambara subsects. Very few in number, Taranpanthis are found in parts of Bundelkhand and Malwa regions and some areas of Maharashtra. In Bundelkhand, Taranpanthis are also known as "Samaiyas". Besides these three major sub-sects, there are two minor sub-sects or traditions that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries within Digambara Jainism. One of them was originated with Shrimad Rajchandra (1867-1901) and the other with Kanji Swamy (1889-1981). These are briefly discussed below. Shrimad Rajchandra 'Sub-Sect' A child prodigy, Shrimad Rajchanda (formal name Shri Rajchandbhai Ravjibhai Mehta) was born in a merchant family. His father was a Vaishnava and his mother a Jain. He was greatly influenced by the writings of Digambar Jain saint and scholar Acharya Kundkund. In his teachings he emphasized on self-reflection and meditation, besides advocating reforms in crippling social customs. "Many of Mahatma Gandhi's beliefs and practices came from his friendship with 9 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #24
Rajchandra. Gandhi's stance towards equality of women, emancipation of the lower castes, Satyagraha (truth struggle) was rooted in Rajchandra's guidance" (Jain 2007: 23). Shrimad Rajchandra has a small following in Gujrat, U.K. and the U.S. Kanji Swamy Panth During the past few decades, a new sub-sect called Kanji Swamy Panth (KSP) in Digambara Jainism has emerged which is known after its founder Kanji Swamy. A Sthankavasi by birth, Kanji Swami who was based in the town of Sonagarh in Gujarat reinterpreted the first century Digambara Jain sacred text Samayasara written by Acharya Kundkund in a manner and perspective that gives more prominence to Nischaya-Naya (realistic/essential standpoint) than to Vyavaharanaya (practical standpoint). The nischaya-naya lays emphasis on understanding and contemplating on the true nature of the soul with a view of its purification, whereas the vyavahar-naya considered to be a temporary or transitory view-point helps us in adjusting with the practical issues in life. Emphasizing the former the Kanji-Panth obviously wants to minimize the religious rituals in Jainism. The Panth is also not favourable to nudity in Jainism. It is therefore more popular with the educated class and the diasporic community, and its influence has been steadily increasing. However, another scholarly opinion is that "the poorer and lower caste Digambars tend to support the KSP" (Jain, R. K. 1999: 117). In any case, the Kanji Panth has created a sharp division within the Digambara Jain community in north and central India (Jain, Neeraj 2010) The critics believe that it violates the doctrine of Anekantavada - in this context the preference of one naya at the expense of the other (See section on Jain Epistemology in Chapter 2). Besides Sonagarh, Jaipur and Mumbai are the major centres of Kanji-Panth. Shvetambar Sub-Sects Like Digambara the Shvetambara Jainism too is divided into three major sub-sects, namely Murtipujak, Sthanakavasi and Terapanth. These are briefly discussed below. Murtipujak Murtipujakas (idol worshippers, also known as Dera-vasi or Chaityavasi (temple residents), Mandir-margi (temple goers), or Pujera Jains in India and Abroad

Page #25
(worshippers) constituted the original stock of Shvetambara Jainism. They worship idols of Tirthankaras which are richly decorated with cloths. The worship is done with flowers, fruits, saffron, etc. The ascetics, both male and female, wear white cloths and cover their mouth with strips of cloth while speaking; otherwise they keep them in their hands. They stay in temples or in the especially reserved buildings known as Upashrayas (Sangave 2006: 108). The followers of this sub-sect are mainly concentrated in Gujarat, but increasingly now they are also found in most major towns and cities of India. Sthanakvasi This sect initially known as Lonka sect founded by Lonka Shah in Ahmadabad in 1474 C.E. was subsequently reformed in 1653 C.E. by a Surat-based layman, Viraji. At that time followers were known as Dhundiliyas (searchers). Then and later on they were also called Sthanakvasi meaning those who performed their religious activities not in temples but in Sthanakas (Prayer Halls). The Sthanakavasis do not believe in building temples, idol-worship, and pilgrimage. The ascetics wear white cloths and cover their mouth with cloth strips. The Sthanakvasis are mainly found in Gujrat, Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. Terapanth An offshoot of Sthnakvasi sub-sect, Terapanthi sub-sect was founded by Achrarya Bhikanji in 1760 A.D. Like Sthnakvasis, Terapanthis also do not believe in idol-worshipping. Since its inception some 250 years ago, it has been closely organized under eleven successive Acharyas of the Panth, including the current incumbent Acharya Mahashraman. Its 9th guru Archarya Tulsi (1914-97) had earned considerable name and fame for himself for his Anubrata movement that emphasized five small vows of Jainism for moral wellbeing of the masses. Mainly concentrated in certain areas of Rajasthan, Terapanthis are also found in some major towns and cities of north and central India. To sum up, it is indeed ironical that a religion that professes anekantvad (doctrine of relativisim) should be having so many sects and sub-sects and that too with arrays of contestations and confrontations taking place within and among them. Apart from the 11 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #26
contestations involving differences of doctrinal opinions, debates, rivalries and modes of worship, there have also been frequent confrontations between the Digambar and Shvetambar sects over the ownership of pilgrimage places (See Jain, R. K. 1999: 76-82). Thus during the late 1980s there were about 134 such disputes taking place in India (Dundas 1992: 48). Jain Associations Almost all the Jain sects, sub-sects and castes have their own associations whose annual meetings are organised at local, regional or national levels. Depending on the level of association and the exigencies of the time, a wide variety of issues pertaining to the community are deliberated on in these meetings and conventions. Thus for example, about 115 year-old Bharatvarshiya Digambar Jain Mahasabha had deliberated upon a large number of other issues such as the need for maintaining a distinctive identity of the Jains; restoration and proper maintenance of Jain pilgrimage places; need for social reforms within the community, especially regarding child marriage, dowry system, old-age homes and the homes for the disabled; education and emancipation of women; demand for declaration of Mahavir Jayanti as a public holiday in 1939 and then in the early 1950s; support for Mahatma Gandhi's satyagraha, swadeshi and civil disobedience movements, etc. Incidently, at one stage the Jains did demand for a separate electoral rol representation in the Council, though it did not materialize. The association was also quite vocal in opposing the Hindu Code Bill of 1949 and Untouchability Removal and Harijan Temple Entry Bill on the ground that by the passage of these Bills the Jains too would be affected by the provisions of the Bills as legally they are clubbed with the Hindus, whereas in reality the Jains constitute a separate religion and community (See Kothari 2004). Besides Bharatvarshiya Digambar Jain Mahasabha and the other sectarian associations, the non-sectarian Jain associations too have emerged from time to time. These include Jain Young Men Association (1899), Bharat Jain Mahamandal (1910), Jain Political Conference (1917) and Jain Milan (1953). Jain Milan was reorganised in 1966 as Bhartiya Jain Milan which presently has more than 800 units all over India. Besides promoting Jain religion, culture and 12 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #27
literature, the association is devoted to the Jain unity. It also brings out a monthly magazine Bhartiya Jain Milan Samachar. Jain Social Organisation Jains' social organisational patterns closely resemble those prevalent among the Hindus. The Jains share the kinship and marriage structures of the regional-linguistic area they are located in. Thus for example, "the cross-cousin marriage is neither allowed nor practiced by Jains in the northern India but in the Deccan and Karnataka the cross-cousin marriage is not only allowed but preferred also" (Sangave 1980: 156). Caste and sub-sect endogamy and the gotra exogamy are generally practised by the Jains. According to the People of India Project reports that were based on surveys of about one hundred Jain "communities" (sic), "Cross-cousin marriage [involving Father's Sister's Daughter (FSD)] is reported among 14 communities (14 per cent against 44.01 per cent at the national level), cross-cousin [involving Mother's Brother's Daughter (MBD)] among 15 (15 per cent against a national level 51.09 per cent) and uncle-niece marriage in six communities" (Singh 1998: 1328). The findings further suggest that "Sorrorate junior is practised in 44 communities (44 per cent against a national average of 58.04 per cent) and levirate junior in five communities (5 per cent against a national average of 30.33 per cent)" (Singh 1998: 1329). Jains prefer adult marriage, arranged through negotiations, but with the consent of the potential bride and the groom. Earlier, marriages before the puberty of a girl were common, but now the girls are married around 18 years of age and boys around 22. Monogamy is an expected norm. As among the Hindus, in Jains too a sindur (vermilion) mark, bindi, toe-rings, mangalsutra and glass bangles are the symbols of a married woman. Dowry is accepted in cash and kind, and the amount of dowry is on the increase. Residence is patrilocal. Divorce and widow remarriages are generally discouraged. Widower remarriage however is quite common. According to the findings of the People of India Project mentioned earlier, "widows and female divorcees are permitted to remarry in 29 communities (29 per cent as against a national average of 81.36 per cent), while widower remarriage is permitted in 97 communities" (Singh 1998: 1329). Jain marriages are performed at the bride's residence, though in some 13 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #28
parts of India, especially in Bundelkhand, this trend has been completely reversed since about the beginning of the present century, mainly due to the shortage of marriageable girls and economic reasons. In the changed circumstances, the financial burden of the marriage mainly rests on the shoulders of the groom's family. Jains live in both nuclear and extended families. But nuclear families have been on the increase in recent decades. As per the 1981 census the average size of the household among Jains was found to be only 5.86 persons (Jain, M. K. 1986: 43). Sons inherit property, equally. Succession is held by the eldest son. Jain women do not get a share in their parental property. Prior to 1950s, women were kept secluded, but now-a-days they are educated, and many of them are find professional employment (receptionists, teachers, doctors, accountants, IT professionals, etc.). The Jain women are also greatly involved in observing religious rituals and acquiring knowledge of Jain philosophy and religion (Reyneil 1991). Life-Cycle Rituals The Jains observe many life-cycle rituals of which the birth, marriage and death are the most important ones. During the seventh month of pregnancy of a woman, they observe a ritual called Sad in which the pregnant woman is offered sweets, fruits, flowers, etc. by the women of the family and relatives. In some areas this ritual is known as Athwan which is observed in the eighth month of pregnancy. The pregnant woman goes to the temple and worships the deity. A feast is organized on this occasion. Childbirth usually takes place in a hospital or at home under the supervision of a doctor. On the tenth day of the child's birth the nahavan ritual is preformed when the house is cleaned and the mother takes a bath. Birth pollution remains for 40 days. The pollution period is followed by Namkaran Sanskar in which the child is named after consulting the horoscope prepared by a Brahmin or Jain astrologer. Cereals are fed to the child, for the first time when he is about six months old. The child is bathed, dressed in new clothes and taken to the temple to worship the idol. On his return, 14 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #29
he is fed khir (made of milk, sugar and rice) by the eldest member of the family. The mundan ceremony of a male child is observed in the 3rd, 5th or 7th year. This is generally done at a pilgrimage place, at a local temple, or in a specified temple for which a vow was taken. It is optional in case of a girl child. The Hajjam (barber) cuts the hair for which he is paid in cash and/or kind. The child is given a bath and taken to the deity. A swastika mark is made on his skull. An offering of some cash is given to the deity. The marriage ceremony is preceded by sagai. The bridge's parents and some elder members of the girl's family go to the bridegroom's house and place fruits in the lap of bridegroom. The bridegroom's party goes to the bride's house for godbharai. Appropriate gifts including clothes, cosmetics and fruits, are given to the bride. At the auspicious time, the marriage rite is performed by a Brahmin or a Jain priest, amidst the chanting of hymns. Saptadigaman or Saptapadi (walking seven times around the sacred fire) is an essential ritual. The ritual of Kanyadan (giving away of the bride) is performed by the father, brother, or the guardians of the bride. The wedding rituals usually come to a close after sindurdan (application of vermilion by the bridegroom on the forehead of the bride). On the following day, the bride goes to her husband's house. After death, the body is cremated on a fixed burial place, on the bank of a river, lake or pond. The last rites are generally performed by the eldest son. The person who lights the pyre is called the karta (chief mourner). He has to observe several restrictions for a period of thirteen days. On the day after the cremation, head is shaved by the male members of the family and other relatives who thereafter go to collect the ashes of the diseased and disperse/submerge them in the nearby water body. This is followed by the Pagdi ceremony in which a headgear is tied on the head of the karta declaring him the head of the family. Food, Festivals and Pilgrimage Jains generally are strict vegetarians. Their diet varies according to the regional-lingustic area they live in. The staple food consists of 15 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #30
roti (bread) and/or rice. They also consume most vegetables and fruits available locally. They also eat pulses like ahrar, moong, urad, chana, moth, massor, rajma, etc. They regularly consume milk and milk-products like curd, ghee, butter, paneer. Alcoholic drinks are prohibited by the community. Smoking of cigarettes, bidis and chewing tobacco, betel leaf, betel nuts, cardamom and cloves was quite common amongst the males until a generation ago, but now the consumption of tobacco products is on the decline. Jains generally celebrate all the major Hindu festivals such as Rakshbandhan, Dashahra, Deepawali, and Holi. Different reasons are given for celebrating them. Thus Deepawali, for example, is celebrated by the Jains not so much because that day Lord Rama returned to Ayodhya after the victory over the Lanka king Ravana, but because Tirthankara Mahavira attained Nirvana on the same day. The birthday of Lord Mahavira (Mahavira Jayanti) has been a public holiday in India since the late British days for which the Jains had to indulge in some politics. Other important festivals celebrated by Jains are Paryushan Parva/Das Lakshan (last eight/ten days of Bhadra) and Ashthanika (the last eight days of Kartika). These are regarded very auspicious by the Jains. During these days the atmosphere in most Jains families is charged with high spirituality and almost all the Jains make it a point to go to the temples for worship, and recite or listen to the scriptures. In many temples or Sthanakas Pandits are also engaged to deliver religious discourses in the evenings. At the conclusion of Paryushan/Das Lakshan, Pratikraman or Kshamavani ceremony is held in which repentance of faults and forgiveness is asked for and given to all. Some Jains do the same thing through newspaper advertisements, and/or through sending hand-written or printed letters by post, or through emails. Jains have a vast network of pilgrimage places (Teerth Kshetras) all over India. These can broadly be classified into four categories. "The Kalyanaka Kshetras, associated with the birth and other memorable events in the life of the Tirthankaras; the Siddha Kshetras, where the Tirthankaras or other saints attained Nirvana; the Attishaya Kshetras, associated with some miracle or myth; and Kala Kshetras, reputed 16 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #31
for their artistic momuments, temples, and images" (Jain, J. P. 1983: 128). The following are the major Jain pilgrimage places: Ayodhya, Mathura, Varanasi, Champapur, Hastinapur, Patna, Rajgrahi, Kundalpur, Pawapur, Sammedshikharaji, Giranara, Khandagiri, Taxila, Sonagiri, Devagarh, Khajuraho, Gwalior, Chanderi, Mahavirji, Chittor, Ajanta-Ellora, Ranakpur, Mount Abu, Dharmasthala, Mudhabidri, Sravanabelagola, etc. This is obviously not an exhaustive list. Jains often go on pilgrimage in groups. During the winter months a large number of Jains can be seen traveling from place to place in the reserved buses, jeeps, and cars. Others travel by trains and some even by air. Air conditioned vehicles, hotels, and dharmashalas have facilitated the pilgrimage even during the summer months. In recent years some temple sites in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Kenya, the U.K., Canada and the U.S., etc have been fast emerging as the new pilgrimage places, at least for those who can afford to visit them. Jains' Contribution to Indian Culture and Society Throughout their long history Jains have made tremendous contribution to the Indian culture and society which is quite disproportionate to the size of the community. Undoubtedly, the most lasting contribution of the Jains has been to Indian Philosophy. The Jain philosophy is an original, independent, distinct and complete thought system with its own brand of metaphysics, ontology, epistemology, logic and ethics (See chapter 2). According to Jain philosophy, the world is real; it is neither an illusion (maya) nor untrue or unreal (mithya). So is the spirit, or soul. Jainism is also unique in devising an elaborate theory of Karma that explains the interactive nature of soul and matter. Besides the doctrine of Karma, the other original contribution of the Jain philosophy is the twin-doctrines of Anekantvad and Syadvad, that is, the doctrines of many-sided view-points, and their comprehension and expression. Apart from helping one to comprehend the complete reality, they also promote intellectual tolerance which is very much needed today in order to avoid religious and ideological fundamentalism. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #32
Jainism has been a living religion for at least 3,000 years now. Its ethical codes of conduct that centre around Anuvratas, and especially Ahimsa and Aparigraha are of universal value. Jainism is unique in extending the concern of "Live and Let Live" to all the creatures including microbes and even plants (See Singhvi 1990). Jainism had historically exerted a great influence on Shrishaiva, Vaisnava, Lingayata and other Saint-sects in medieval times in terms of the spread of vegetarianism and teetotalism. Perhaps the most original items in the Jain ethical codes of conduct are Sallekhana (the art of dying) and Kshama (forgiveness). On the whole, the Jain ethical code of conduct has tended to steer its followers towards rational thinking regarding certain social customs such as Sati and Shraddha. It also discourages superstitions such as worshipping certain deities for getting cured of diseases, and/or restoring good health. Again, another characteristic feature of Jainism is the common code of conduct for its ascetics and laymen or laywomen. This perhaps has been an important factor in the survival of Jainism for so long even in the face of adverse political conditions. Next to philosophy and religion, the contribution to languages and literature by the Jains is quite remarkable (Winternitz 1946). The Jain literature includes a vast body of non-canonical works, poetical narratives (Puranas, Charitras, Kathas, prabandhas, kavyas and mahakavyas, etc) and scientific and technical literature pertaining to astronomy, astrology, cosmology, mathematics, geography, economics, grammar, logic, philosophy, poetics, lexicography, etc. Much of this literature which put Shramanic values to the fore emphasizes misery and sufferings in the world (Samsar) and the ways to overcome them not through sacrifices and priestly help but through good moral conduct and compassion. Through their writings the Jains have enriched not only the ancient languages such as Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhramsa, but also many modern Indian languages, namely, Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu. Much of this vast Jain literature continues to be stored in innumerable Jain temples and Shastra bhandaras, and remains unclassified and unpublished as yet (Balbir et al. 2006: Bhargava 1968: 226-55; Jain, K. C. 1991). 18 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #33
Jains' contribution to Indian arts and architecture is no less significant. Their contribution in these fields covers various architectural forms such as temples, cave temples, temple cities, pillars (manasthambhas) and towers, sculptures, and a wide variety of paintings, frescoes, and manuscript-illustrations (See Chandra 1949; Nagar 2000). Building temples has been a matter of utmost pride for the Jains. Dilwara Jain temples at Mt. Abu, Ranakpur Jain temples, temples at Khajuraho, ancient cave-temples of Udaigiri and Khandgiri, cave-temples of Ellora, temple cities of Shatrunjaya (Gujarat), Girnar (Gujarat), Sammedshikhar (Bihar), Sonagiri (M.P.), Mudhabidri (Karnataka), the Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola (Karnataka), the Kirti-Sthambha at Chittor are some of the best examples of the Jain architecture (See Singhvi and Chopra 2002). Most of these monuments, particularly the temples, had been funded by single wealthy individuals. As temple construction is considered a meritorious act, scores of temples are being built annually by the Jains all over India, in spite of the fact that their heritage monuments are being neglected in the absence of proper funds and management. Needless to say, the Jain heritage, both physical and socio-cultural needs to be appreciated and preserved. A majority of Jains have always enjoyed relative economic affluence and a high social status due to the fact that they have been traders, merchants, or bankers. A nineteenth century observer went to the extent of claiming that "half the mercantile transactions of India pass through their hands" (Thornton 1898: 40). Be that as it may, the Jains continue to make their mighty contribution to the Indian economy even though the Indian economy itself has undergone a sea-change. The Jains have taken the full advantage of modern education system and a significant number of them have entered into a wide variety of professions and services, besides consolidating their position as trading and commercial petty bourgeoisie in the Indian economy. Additionally, the Jains hold quite a substantial amount of ownership in real estate, share-market and mass media and publishing industries. Rajasthan Patrika Group, Lokmat Group (Maharashtra), Gujarat Samachar, The Times of India Group and Mathribhumi Group (Kerala) are the outstanding examples of mass media ownership by the Jains. 19 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #34
Besides the spread of secular education among the Jains, the 20th century also witnessed the development of Jainology that happened along with Indological studies. With the donations of the Jain community, a large number of Jain Sanskrit vidyalayas (schools/colleges) were established in which the intending students studied free of charge subjects like Sanskrit language and literature, grammar, logic and Indian philosophy, in addition to Jain religious texts. In north India this movement was spearheaded in the early decades of the 20th century by Ganesh Pasad Varni, a Kshullaka who was instrumental in establishing, directly or indirectly, a number of Sanskrit vidyalayas all over north India, including the reputed ones at Varanasi, Arrah, Morena, Jaipur, Hastinapur, Indore, Jabalpur, Katni, Sagar, Mahavirji, Papauraji, Sadhumal, etc (See Varni 1948). These vidyalayas produced generations of Jain pandits, priests, and students who have helped in raising the level of knowledge about Jain philosophy and religion among the Jains. Until about the 1960s Jains' contribution to the Indian public life in modern times was quite remarkable. With thousands of them serving jail terms and scores of them having sacrificed their lives as martyrs during India's independence movement (Jain, K.C. and Jyoti Jain 2006), the Jains' political participation was certainly exemplary, which was further sustained by their disproportionately high representation in the Constituent Assembly of India, and in the first few parliaments and in some state assemblies. It is only during the last four decades that their role in public life has significantly dwindled. Historically, however, this has not been so. "The Jains, especially in southern and western India, produced a large number of monarchs, ministers and generals" (Sangave 2006: 134). Even the Jain saints were no indifferent to the secular affairs of the country. They were frequently consulted by the kings regarding political matters. In south India "the Jain saints were virtually responsible for the founding of the Ganga kingdom in the 2nd century A.D. and the Hoysala kingdom in the 11th century A.D." (Sangave 2006: 134). As part of the Shramanic value system, Jainism puts a great emphasis on the establishment of egalitarian social order (Nevaskar 1978). 20 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #35
Besides social equality, gender equality is an equally important concern for the Jains. It is interesting to note that at least in principle Jainism is open to all irrespective of caste, colour, creed, gender or wealth, though in practice Jains observe all forms of discrimination and exclusion. The Jains do accept the Hindu Varna Vyavastha, but only as a system of division of labour, and not in terms of any ascriptive criterion (birth). What is implied here is the fact that the social order is a man-made system, and not a divinely ordained one. This had far reaching impact on the status of Sudras, and also on the institution of slavery. Incidently, the Jainist conception of society is anarchist or atomistic. It accepts the view that the society is the sum total of individuals. The quality of society is determined by the quality of its constituent units. Obviously, this conception of society does not recognize the sui generis (self-dependent) property of society. The contribution of Jainism to the Indian socio-cultural value system is subtle and diffused yet quite significant. The five Anubratas of which Ahimsa has become synonymous to Jainism constitute the core of this value system. The Jainist concern of Ahimsa extends from controlling individual passions to managing inter-personal and family relations, to inter-group tolerance, to maintaining world peace, and to preserving ecological balance and sustainability (See Amar 2009). Vegetarianism is the most visible expression of Jainist concern to Ahimsa. So much so that the overwhelming majority of Jains not only "rigidly abstain from eating non-vegetarian food and intoxicants, some of them even avoid eating roots and tubers like potatoes, onions, garlic, radish and carrot, while many renounce supper and avoid the use of honey and stale butter because they are afraid of destroying living creatures in the bargain" (Singh 1998: 1330). For the same reason, most Jains drink only strained water, and avoid eating after sunset. Mahatma Gandhi's Satyagraha in South Africa and India and its impact on the racial equality movement of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in the U.S. are some of the successful political applications of Ahimsa (Hay 1979). Therefore, it was highly appropriate that 2nd October, 21 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #36
the birth day of Mahatma Gandhi, should have been celebrated as the World Ahimsa Day by the United Nations. Last, but not the least, Jainism stands for self-reliance, humanism and social welfare. It is often said that there are no beggars and criminals in the Jain community. The Jains run the largest network of philanthropic activities, including schools and hostels, hospitals, dispensaries, birds hospitals, drinking water facilities, and nongovernmental organisations for disbursement of loans and scholarships for students, and other forms of charities. Of the 16,000 Cow-sheds in India, 12,000 shelters are run with the donations of the Jains. Concluding Remarks This chapter introduced Jains as a community in the wider context of Indian history and society. It is argued that the Jains belong to the Shraman tradition, an indigenous tradition that is older and rival to the Vedic tradition. As a community, the Jains have been an integral part of Indian society and culture since time immemorial. Of all the religious communities in India, the Jains have been closest to the Hindus in terms of social organizational features and life cycle rituals, and the overall cultural ethos. So much so that the Jains, in spite of belonging to a separate religion, are often subsumed within the Vaishya category of the Hindu Varna system - a situation that they have been trying to protest and correct since the late 19th century and more intensely since the early 1980s by claiming for themselves a separate community identity as well as the formal legal status. 22 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #37
Chapter 2 JAIN WAY OF LIFE In the previous chapter some of the basic sociological features of the Jain community, and the Jains' contribution to the Indian culture and society have been highlited. This chapter focuses on the Jain identity and the way of life which is mainly derived from their philosophy and religion, and more specifically from the doctrinally prescribed ethical code of conduct. The chapter also takes into account the Jain way of life in the diasporic context of North America and Europe. The Jains primarily derive their identity from religion, that is, Jainism. This has been so for centuries now. Time and again the unequivocal emphasis has been placed in Jainism on the moksha-marg as the true path of liberation. That the Jain social identity as well as the culture and the way of life are distinct from others is clearly highlighted by Prof. Vilas A. Sangave (1980: 350) in his celebrated sociological survey that was done in the late 1940s. He writes that "the features of Jaina culture are quite distinct from other cultures especially in matters like outlook towards life and world, insistence on spiritual progress, and observance of Ahimsa or creed of nonviolence in all possible ways. The basic difference, it is stated, lies in the religious philosophy of Jainas and as religion moulds the entire way of life automatically becomes separate from other ways of life." Occasionally, a case is made out of the Jains being placed by some scholars in the Vaishya category of the Hindu Varna system. As has been pointed out by other scholars (Banks 1992; Cort 2001; Jain, J. P. 1983; Jain, R. K. 1999, Sangave 1980) this claim does not stand up to empirical scrutiny. In most of India, the Jains maintain their distinct way of life and identity. This is not the case, perhaps, where certain Jain castes (e.g. Agrawal, Khandelwal and Oswal) closely interact with their Hindu counterparts leading to even matrimonial relations (e.g. Agrawal, Khandelwal and Oswal Jains in Gujarat, Delhi and parts of Western Uttar Pradesh). The consistent campaign since the early 1990s exhorting the Jains to return themselves as Jains in the 2001 census and in the 2011 census has further been helpful in consolidating the Jain identity in terms of religion. It must however 23 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #38
be added that the Jain identity cannot be divorced from its sect/subsect as well as the regional-linguistic context in which a particular Jain caste or community reside. Additionally, the divide between northern and southern Digambar Jainism can be fruitful in contextualizing any sociological analysis (See Carrithers 1988; Jain, R.K. 1999). More or less the same is true about other religious/ethnic communities in India, including the Hindus. Jain Philosophy In India Jainism as well as Buddhism has since long been recognized as a heterodox philosophical system. The traditional Indian philosophers regarded the two systems as nastik (non-believers, i.e., non-believers in the authority of the Vedas). As such, they are not part of the Hindu Shad darshanas (Six philosophical systems). Nevertheless, they have been recognized as formidable, autonomous and independent philosophical systems which merit attention in Indian philosophical discourses. In the West, however, a number of scholars until the late 19th century treated Jainism either as a sect of Hinduism or as an offshoot of Buddhism (Barth 1969: 151; Eliot 1962; Lilly cited in Shah 1932; Weber 1878; Wilson 1861: 344). As Dasgupta (1963: 169) explained: Notwithstanding the radical differences in their philosophical notions, Jainism and Buddhism which were originally both orders of monks outside the pale of Brahmanism, present some resemblances in outward appearances, and some European scholars who became acquainted with Jainism through inadequate samples of Jaina literature easily persuaded themselves that it was an offshoot of Buddhism. Thanks to the researches of a number of German Indologists, (Buhler 1963; Jacobi 1946), Jainism is no longer considered merely a sect of Hinduism, or an offshoot of Buddhism. In the words of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (1969: 73): "Buddhism and Jainism were certainly not Hinduism or even the Vedic Dharma. Yet they arose in India and were integral parts of Indian life, culture and philosophy. A Buddhist or Jain in India is a hundred percent product of Indian thought and culture, yet neither is a Hindu by faith." 24 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #39
Jain Metaphysics Jainism does not believe in the "Creator" of the universe. It believes in the entity of the world. It further believes that the reality (sat) is uncreated, and is characterized by origination or appearance (utpad), destruction or disappearance (Vyaya), and permanence (dhrauvya). Every object of reality is also characterized by modes (paryays) des (paryays) and qualities (gunas) through which persist the essential sub-strata through all the times. The Universe, according to Jainsim, consists of six substances (dravyas): (i) living creatures or souls (jiva), (ii) matter (pudgal), (iii) medium/principle of motion (dharma), (iv) medium/principle of rest (adharma), (v) space (akash), and (vi) time (kala). These can be classified into two categories: living and non-living. Whereas jiva is the living substance, the rest of them are non-living. These dravyas are uncreated and undestructible. Their essential qualities remain the same; it is only their mode of condition (paryay) that can and does change. Jain Ontology The characteristic feature of jiva or soul is consciousness. The soul is the doer of all actions, and is the enjoyer of the fruits of its actions. The souls are of two kinds: (i) Sansarin (mundane) or Baddha (in bondage), and (ii) Siddha (liberated) or mukta (free). Mundane souls are the embodied souls of living beings in the world and are still subject to the cycle of birth and death. On the other hand, Siddha jivas are the liberated souls and they will be embodied no more (Sangave 2006: 30). The liberated souls in their pure condition possess the following four attributes: infinite perception, infinite knowledge, infinite power, and infinite bliss. In contrast, the mundane souls exist in the impure state as they are permeated with subtle psychosomatic matter called karma. The Jain philosophy is based on the nature and interaction of the two constituent elements of the Universe, Jiva and Ajiva. The interaction is explained by the doctrine of Karma which is a remarkable feature of the Jain philosophy. According to Sangave (2006: 38), "The supreme importance of the doctrine of Karma lies in providing a rational and satisfying explanation to the apparently Jains in India and Abroad

Page #40
inexplicable phenomena of birth and death, of happiness and misery, of inequality in mental and physical attainments, and of the existence of different species of living beings." Doctrine of Karma In Jainism Karmas are defined as a form of matter (pudgala) which are very fine and subtle and cannot be comprehended by any of the human senses. They are almost psycho-somatic in character and permeate the universe. Every phenomenon in the universe is the manifestation of Karmic energy. All the existential conditions and enigmas of the world such as the all pervasive cycle of birth and death, suffering and happiness, wide variety of species of living beings, their differential mental and physical abilities and other characteristics can be explained by the doctrine of Karma which, as already mentioned, maintains that the soul is the doer of action and therefore has to bear the consequences of karmas. It further maintains that all the worldly souls are already in bondage of varying degrees. This bondage of karmas with soul obscures the innate qualities of the soul. The doctrine further assumes the transmigration of the soul after death into the next life. The balance sheet of the karmas in this life and the previous ones determine the kind and quality of next life. The doctrine further asserts that the moksa or liberation can be achieved only by completely destroying all the karmas. The structure and dynamics of the karma doctrine can be summed up in terms of the following seven tattvas or elements: (i) Jiva, i.e., living substance, (ii) Ajiva, i.e., non-living substance, (iii) Asrava, i.e., the influx of karmic matter into the soul, (iv) Bandha, i.e, bondage of soul by karmic-matter, Samvara, i.e., the stopping of asrava, the influx, (vi) Nirjara, i.e, the gradual removal of karmic matter, and (vii) Moksha, i.e., the attainment of perfect freedom from the karmas. (v) 26 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #41
Whereas the first two items represent the structural elements of the universe, the last five unfold the dynamics of the Karma doctrine. "Stated briefly, karma is matter which 'flows in', asrava, and 'sticks', literally. What I do, sticks to me, and determines my character, the quality of my life and relationships. My thoughts, emotions and my speech are also 'acts'. They are called bhavasrava. They determine my perceptions, which lead me to act in the way that I do.... It is my thoughts and emotions, whether my own or inherited, that draw a veil over my perceptions. Untruth, delusion, and violence are its outcome. Jainism suggests to us that anekanta-vada, or the manysidedness of truth; a-prigraha, or not-grasping; and a-himsa, or notviolence are the true basis of human freedom" (Badrinath 1996). Karma doctrine is a corner stone of the Jain philosophy. Jain scholars have gone into great details by classifying karmas into eight kinds and 148 sub-kinds. Based on the criterion whether a particular karma obstructs or destroys the essential attributes of the soul, the eight karmas are divided into the following two categories: (i) the ghatia (obstructive) and, (ii) the aghatia (non-obstructive) karmas. The former category consists of (a) Jnanavarniya (knowledge obstructing), (b) darshanavarniya (conation obstructing), (c) vedaniya (which causes feelings of pleasure and pain, etc.) and mohiniya (deluding) karmas. In the latter category are included the rest of the four karmas, namely: (a) ayuh (age), (b) nama (body making), (c) gotra (family determining) and (d) antaraya (karmas which hamper the innate qualities of the soul). It is easily clear that the aghatia karmas are mainly concerned with the state and particular conditions of embodiment (name, age family, etc.). A cursory look at the typology and functioning of karmas would suggest to their over-deterministic role in human life, but the Jain scholars emphatically maintain that theirs is not the doctrine of fatalism. Instead it is only a law of cause and effect. "Jainism does not fortify its followers by the terrors of karma nor does it make them languish in unhealthy, effeminate fatalism, as many people think all oriental religions do, but on the contrary, it trains the individuals to become a true hero on the battle field of selfconquest" (C. Krause quoted in Sangave 2006: 44). 27 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #42
Jain Epistemology Jain epistemology deals with the nature of objects of knowledge, means of knowledge, and the modes of comprehension and expression of reality. The objects of knowledge consist of all the six substances and associated phenomena as mentioned earlier. These substances not only display the properties of quality and modification, they are also extended over infinite space and time (past, present and future). Additionally they are subject to origination, destruction and permanence. Moreover, when it comes to social phenomena they are additionally complex by virtue of being subjective, symbolic and dynamic, and also diverse over space and time. Thus, according to Jain philosophers the reality is complex and multifaceted (anekanta). The recognition of this fact is summed up in the doctrine of Anekantvad. They further assert that such a reality can be fully comprehended only by an omniscient being, and not by ordinary human beings who have various kinds of limitations in their comprehension and expression of reality. This is more evident in the light of the fact that in terms of its means of acquisition, knowledge is classified by the Jain scholars into five categories: sense knowledge (mati-jnan), verbal or scriptural knowledge (shruti-jnan), extrasensory perception or clairvoyant knowledge (avadhi-jnan), thought reading or telepathy (manahparyay-jnan), and ommiscience, absolute or perfect knowledge (kevala-jnan). The fact that a human being can apprehend only partial reality led the Jain scholars to introduce the doctrine of Nayavada which is a system of describing reality from different points of view or standpoints (nayas). No single standpoint can be claimed as the only valid one. Thus the doctrine recognizes the relative validity of other standpoints. At the same time it provides a framework to introduce another doctrine, namely the doctrine of Syadvada which simply states that given the fact that our statements are only conditionally or relatively true, they must be "qualified with the term Syat, i.e. 'in some respects', or 'somehow', or 'in a way', with a view to emphasize its conditional or relative character (Sangave 2006: 48). Jain Ethics Jainism is basically a salvation religion - a religion that puts significant emphasis on attaining moksha. In terms of the karma doctrine, the 28 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #43
complete freedom of the soul from karmic matter is called moksha. In Jainism moksha is not a place in heaven, but the attainment of the state of liberated soul, a final emancipation from the endless cycles of birth and death. According to German sociologist Max Weber, Jainism is a liberation religion of "cultured professional monks", and as such it requires considerable amount of spiritual education and training on the part of those who wish to follow the path of Jainism. The Jain path to salvation consists of simultaneous pursuit of the right belief or perception, right knowledge and right conduct (samyak-darshan, samyak-jnana and samyak-charitra). The three together are known as ratnatrayh (three jewels) in Jain philosophy. The right belief consists in believing in the fundamentals of Jainism. According to Acharya Umaswami, "Tattvartha Sraddhanam samyagdarsanam", that is, right belief is the faith in the true nature of the substances as they are (Tattvarthadhigama-Sutra, Chapter 1, Sutra 2). At the same time, right belief also consists in believing in the true Jain god, the true Jain scriptures (shastras), and the true Jain preceptors (gurus). The observance of right belief additionally requires the eight essential requisites, freedom from three kinds of superstitious beliefs (mudhatas), and freedom from eight kinds of pride or arrogance (mada). All these conditionalities are extremely difficult in practical observance as these are required to be rigorously followed by those who wish to advance on the path of salvation. The second jewel of the tri-ratna of the liberation path, the right knowledge consists in having full comprehension of the real nature of soul and non-soul (i.e. matter) in such a manner that such knowledge should be free from doubt, perversity, and vagueness or wide finiteness" (Sangave 2006: 58). We have already discussed the five kinds of means of acquiring such knowledge. How to do that has been deliberated upon at great length in Jain scriptures in terms of the right kinds of requirements that are again rigorous in observances. In short, "the right knowledge can be acquired by pursuit with devotion, by reading sacred scriptures, understanding their full meaning and significance in proper time and with punctuality, imbued with zeal, proper behaviour and open mind" (Sangave 2006: 60). 29 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #44
The right conduct is the third integral component of the path of salvation. The right conduct is defined by Jain scholars as proper, appropriate and truly natural conduct of the soul which is conducive to its salvation. In practical terms it comprises the ethical code and the rules, and disciplines which an aspirant is required to pursue. In Jainism more or less common rules of conduct are prescribed for the laity and the ascetic of both sexes. Obviously, the rules prescribed for the laity are less rigorous compared to those for the ascetics for the simple reason that the householders have to earn their livelihood and maintain the family life. Looking at the rigorous conditionalities associated with right perception, right knowledge, right conduct, etc., it is difficult for a sociologist to escape the conclusion that there is a strong element of indoctrination in Jainism. It does allow free inquiry but only within the parameters set by itself. Code of Conduct for the Householders Four sets of ethical code are prescribed for Jain householders: Twelve vratas, eleven pritimas, six avashyakas, and a number of appropriate conducts. It would appear that whereas the first two sets of conduct are more specific in nature in terms of their number as well as observance, the last two sets are general and perhaps flexible in practice. Thus, the fourth set of conducts known as Bhadraka (gentlemanly) or marganusari (accessory to the path) consists of 17, 21, or 35 rules according to different authorities. Twelve Vows The twelve vows prescribed for a Jain householder comprise the five anuvratas, three gunavratas and four sikshavratas. The five anuvratas, so-called because they are only lesser, partial, limited and qualified vows, and not absolute vows as prescribed for the ascetics, are ahimsa (abstention from violence or injury to living beings), satya (abstention from false speech), achaurya or asteya (abstention from theft), bramhacharya or shil (abstention from sexuality or unchastity), and aparigraha (abstention from greed for worldly possessions). The first vow demands abstinence from intentional injury or killing of life for food, sport, pleasure or some other purpose. As much as possible violence must be avoided in thought, words and deed. 30 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #45
Defensive violence if necessary however, is allowed for the householder in order to protect his country, society, family, religious institutions, and property. Injury to life is also permitted to householders who might commit it during their vocational calling such as agricultural, industrial or other occupational activities. Injury should be limited to the minimum possible extent. The second vow demands that one must not only abstain from telling lies, but also avoid using harsh or abusive language. Language that hurts the feelings of others or amounts to ridiculing, backbiting and flattery should also be avoided. The third vow achauryaanuvrata demands abstaining from stealing, robbing, or misappropriation of others' property. It also includes abstinence from cheating and using dishonest or illegal means in acquiring any worldly possessions. The fourth vow, shil anuvrata demands abstention from having sexual relations with anyone except one's own lawfully wedded spouse. The fifth, parigraha-parimanaanuvrata requires the imposition of a limit on one's needs, acquisitions and possessions. During the course of observing the above discussed five vows a householder has to guard himself against committing certain infringements and transgressions such as tying up living beings or keeping them in bondage, mutilating them, beating them, overloading them and starving them, in the case of the first vow; preaching falsehood, divulging other people's secrete, forgery, misappropriation, and disclosure of a man and wife's secret talk, in the case of the second vow; adulteration, abetment of theft, receiving stolen property, violation of government laws, and use of false weights and measures, in the case of the third vow; avoidable match making, intercourse with an unchaste married person, prostitution, unnatural offence or sex perversion and inordinate sex desire, in the case of the fourth vow; and to exceed the limits set by oneself with regard to landed property, movable effects and riches, servants, pet animals, and other worldly goods, in the case of the fifth vow (Jain, J. P. 1983: 86-87). 31 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #46
In addition to five anuvratas, a householder is required to practice three guna-vratas (the multiplicative vows) that enhance the effect and value of the anuvratas manifold. These are: (1) dig-vrata, taking a life-long vow to limit one's worldly activities to fixed points in different spatial directions, (2) desa-vrata, taking a vow to limit the above also to a limited area, and (3) anarthadanda-vrata, taking a vow not to indulge in purposeless moral offences. Besides five anuvratas and three guna-vratas, a householder is also required to practice four disciplinary vows (siksha-vratas) which are intended to prepare the aspirant gradually for the discipline of ascetic life. These are samayika, prosadhopavasa, upabhogaparibhoga-parimana, and atithi-samvibhaga. The first one requires the householder to contemplate or meditate preferably thrice a day for about forty five minutes each. The second vow requires him to fast on two days of the lunar fortnight, namely, the eighth and the fourteenth. The third requires a householder to limit on daily basis his or her enjoyment of consumable and non-consumable items. And the fourth vow requires the householder to share food with the guest including ascetic, recluse, pious or needy person. Observance of five anuvratas and abstention from wine, meat and honey together constitute eight mulagunas, that is, basic or primary virtues of a householder. Similarly, the three quna-vratas and four siksha-vratas combine to form seven shila-vratas that supplement the anuvratas. In addition to the twelve vows, a householder is expected to undergo in the last days of his/her life the process of Sallekhna, that is, peaceful or voluntary death which is different from suicide in that the latter is regarded in Jainism as a cowardly act and even a sin (Streefkerk 1997). For Jains Sallekhna is an equanimously-planned preparation for the inevitable death, and therefore a religious act. (Baya 'Sreyas' 2007). That sallekhna/santhara has been a living tradition is borne out by the findings of a recent study (Baya 'Sreyas' 2007) which is based on the sample size of 350 cases of 'voluntary peaceful death' (extrapolated figure 2,400 cases) in Udaipur district during the 32 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #47
period 1994-2003. The study suggests (i) that compared to Digambaras (26%), about three times more (74%) Shvetambar Jains practice santhara; (ii) that overall householders, both males and females, embrace the vow of voluntary peaceful death in much greater number than their ascetic counterparts (p. 263); (iii) that within the Digambar tradition the practice was found to be fivetimes less prevalent among the householders (4.3%) than among the ascetics (22.3%). The situation was found to be reverse in Shvetambar Jainism with 62.3% householders and only 11.1% ascetics practicing santhara. The incidences of voluntary peaceful death were reported more from the urban areas (62.9%) than from the rural areas (37.1%). The study further suggests that maximum number of such incidences take place in the 61-90 years age-group with average age of the practitioners being 77 years. Old age and/or incurable disease was found to be the main cause of death. The overwhelming majority of people took the vow of santhara when they were fully conscious and remained on the death-bed for more than one day (p. 267). Eleven Stages (Pratimas) Shravaka-Pratimas consisting of eleven steps plan chart out the course of spiritual journey prescribed for the householders. Each step like a rung in the ladder progressively leads to the higher stage of spiritual progress. These are briefly presented below. 1. Darsana Pratima: At this first stage the householder is required to observe all the practical aspects of the Right Belief. He is also supposed to have given up eating meat, wine and honey and five udumbara fruits. Hunting, gambling, prostitution and adultery are strictly prohibited. 2. Vrata Pratima: The householder is required to observe without transgression the twelve vows discussed earlier. 3. Samayika Pratima: It consists of self-contemplation and meditation in general for fortyeight minutes, three times daily so that one could concentrate on spiritual values, and purify one's ideas and mind. 4. Prosadhopavasa Pratima: It involves regular fasting twice a fortnight in each lunar month, accompanied by meditation, hearing of religious discourse and study of scriptures. 33 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #48
5. Sachitta-tyaga Pratima: This pratima consists in abandoning the use of animate items such as roots, fruits, seeds, etc. without getting them sterilized by boiling etc. One is also refrained from serving such food to others. A householder should also not trample upon any growing plant or pluck fruits from a tree. 6. Ratri-Bhojan Tyag Pratima: At this stage the householder is required to give up forever eating or drinking anything after sunset. To offer food and drinks to others at night is also prohibited. 7. Brahmacharya Pratima: At this stage the householder leads a life of absolute continence and gives up sexual gratification in any manner even with own spouse. It also includes avoidance of personal decorations. 8. Arambha-tyaga Pratima: This stage requires the householder to renounce all occupational activities agriculture, business, service, or profession. 9. Parigraha-tyaga Pratima. At this stage the householder is required to give up almost all the worldly possessions, except bare minimum necessary for the preparation of an ascetic life. 10. Anumati-Tyag Pratima: The householder in this stage refrains from showing any concern about family affairs. "He would not even express his agreement or disagreement, approval or disapproval in such matters. He is for all purposes an anchorite, or recluse, only that he is still living in the home with other members of his family" (Jain, J. P. 1983: 90). 1 11. Uddista-tyag Pratima. At this stage the householder becomes a wandering monk after leaving his home. He lives in the forest or a lonely place in the company of an ascetic. On attaining the eleventh stage the householder can choose to become either a "Kshullaka" or an "Ailaka" depending on his preference for dress and style of meal-taking, etc. Thus whereas the kshullaka uses a loincloth and an upper garment, the ailaka uses only a loin-cloth. The former applies instruments for cutting his hair, keeps a broom in place of a picchi, takes his meal once a day either in the palm of his hands or in some pot in a sitting posture, and observes fast on every parvan day. The latter pulls out his hair and takes his meals in the palm of his hands" (Bhargava 1968: 145). 34 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #49
Accessory Rules A number of rules, known as bhadraka (gentlemanly) or marganusari (accessory to the path), are advocated for the guidance of a lay follower in his day-to-day practical conduct and behaviour. Their exact number -- seventeen, twenty-one, or thirty-five - differs from authority to authority, but many of the qualities advocated are common. These rules are: to earn one's living lawfully; to pursue one's economic and religious activities without conflict; to keep one's expenditure within the limits of his income; to avoid misuse of money; to undertake a task according to one's capacity; to specialise at least in some one branch of learning, art or industry; to take proper and wholesome food; to observe cleanliness of person and environment; to live in a proper and suitable house; to avoid residing in a habitation or locality which is not peaceful and congenial to one's own way of living; to spouse a suitable person; due respect and care of one's parents; due care, protection and maintenance of wife, children and other dependents; to have love for one's country and to uphold national character, ideologies and culture; to avoid doing things contrary to the customs of one's country, social group or family; to adopt fashions of the place and times one lives in, that is, adaptability; to follow the lead given by old and experienced persons; to respect the wise and the pious; to have love for the god; to avail opportunity of listening to religious discourse; fear of sin., i.e, to fear from committing sinful acts; to cultivate a sense of duty and responsibility; to be ready to serve fellow human beings; to develop manners, decent behaviour and proper conduct; to avoid talking ill of others; to refrain from wickedness; to avoid being cruel; to be amiable and sweet in speech; to be amicable; to be impartial; to be tolerant; to have a yielding disposition, as opposed to obstinacy or stubbornness; hospitality; charitability; generosity of heart; gentility; popularity, i.e, to try to win the love and esteem of others; to be kind and compassionate; gratefulness; prudence; modesty; humility; to avoid being vain, proud, conceited, arrogant or haughty; honesty and truthfulness; to avoid hatred; to refrain from 35 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #50
being jealous; to try not to give way to anger, greed, or abnormal sexual passion; to try to practice sense-control; to save oneself from being deluded; and to have a comprehension of one's ultimate goal" (Jain, J.P. 1983: 84-85). It is clear that the cultivation of these qualities paves the path of spiritual progress. Code of Conduct for Ascetics "The ascetics, whether male or female, are those fully dedicated souls who have renounced worldly life and pleasures, adopted a life of renunciation and asceticism, and devote themselves to the pursuit of moksa or liberation, by attending primarily to their own spiritual wellbeing and secondarily to the moral welfare of the society in general" (Jain 1983: 81-82). Thus the ascetics are not only the spiritual self-seekers but also the "community builders" (Folkert 1993). They are in regular interaction with the laity - the interaction being especially intense during the four-month rainy season (chaturmas). As in other religions, in Jainism too the ascetics constitute a tiny minority, perhaps numbering about 5,000, including women ascetics. However, their authority and influence over the laity is extra-ordinary. Apart from the personality factor, much of their institutionalised legitimacy and authority is derived from their spiritual attainment along the path of salvation (See Carrithers 1989; Cort 1991; Flugel 2011; fohr 2001; Goonasekera 1986; Sethi 2010; Vallely 2003). The Digambar tradition prescribes the following twenty-eight qualities of a monk which are known as Mulagunas: 22 1-5 Five great vows (pancamaha-vratas), 6-10 Five-fold path of vigilance (panca-samitis), 11-15 Control of five senses (Indriya-jaya), 16-21 Six essential duties (Saddvaiyakas), Pulling out of the hair (Kesa-luncana), 23 Nudity, 24. Non-bathing, Sleeping on the ground, 26. Not cleaning the teeth, 27. Taking food in standing posture, 28. Eating only once in twenty four hours. 25. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #51
The Shvetambar tradition, as already mentioned, does not take nudity to be an essential quality of a monk. Besides this, the last two qualities also do not find a place amongst essentials of a monk in the Shvetambar tradition. The Shvetambar tradition enumerates the following 27 qualities as essential for a monk: 12. 14. 15 1-5 Five great vows, 6. Not taking food in the night, 7-11 Controling the five senses, Inner purity, 13. Purity of possessions of a monk, Forgiveness, Detachment, 16. Mental goodness, 17. Vocal goodness, 18. Physical goodness, 19-24. Protection of the six types of living beings, Three-fold discipline, 26. Forbearance, and 27. Sallekhana-vrata. 25. It would be observed that the ethical codes of conduct for both the ascetics and the householders are more or less common, though in the case of ascetics it is more rigorous for obvious reasons. There is also a gradation in both the codes, and the householders and the ascetics are required to follow a graduated course of conduct keeping in mind the individual capacity of the person. Moreover, it must also be kept in mind that "though the rules of conduct as prescribed by Jainism appear to be too elaborate and sometimes even superfluous, yet the basic idea behind these rules is that of selfrealisation. When there is a feeling-realisation of the true nature of the self and when one is completely lost in the bliss of selfmeditation, the observance of all the moral rules becomes spontaneous coming from within and not being an imposition from without" (Bhargava 1968: 220). Practicality of Jain Asceticism for Laity Scriptural reading of Jainism and particularly that of its ethical codes of conduct establishes the salvation or moksha-marg discourse as 37 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #52
central to Jainism. The moksh-marg ideology exhibits all the characteristic features of a religious orthodoxy which can be defined as the way of life involving regular interaction with ascetics, observance of rituals, "recitation of prayers and mantras, full acceptance of the authority of Mahavir and his teachings, and a concern with correct practice and sectarian exclusivity, all typically associated with women and old-people" (Dundas 1992: 233). It was therefore quite appropriate for Max Weber and many other scholars to characterize Jainism as soteriological religion (Jaini 1979; Sangave 1980; Weber 1958). Recent fieldwork-based studies of Shvetambar Jains in Gujarat and Rajasthan however do not entirely support this view (e.g. Banks 1992; Cort 2001; Laidlaw 1995). Thus, in his ethnographical study of Shvetambar Murtipujak Jains in Jamnagar, Marcus Banks (1992) points out "the lack of knowledge about doctrines and also the lack of modeling of the lay behaviour after ascetic ideals" (cited in Jain, R.K. 1999: 51). According to Banks, "Jainism in practice therefore is a collaborative project undertaken by both lay and ascetic (rather than the graduated project implied by P. S. Jaini's (1979) account of lay and ascetic paths, where the former is seen as wholly subordinate to the latter" (Banks 1992: 3). In his study of Shvetambar Jains in Jaipur, Laidlaw also examines the practicality of Jain asceticism, and argues that the "asceticism which lay Jainism exudes comes not from uniform adherence to a set of socially enforced rules" (1995: 170) "There is no single view expressed either in ancient sacred texts or in religious debate and practice today" (p. 191). The numerous vows including those of fasting and dietary practices that Jain laity undertakes are often voluntary and based on personal decisions "which Jain teachers have charted out, and around which contemporary asceticism tends to move" (p. 191). Laidlaw further argues that "the self that Jainism proposes for its followers to make of themselves is fragmented and incomplete, torn between conflicting ideals and focused ultimately on an impossible one" (1995: 20-21). Similarly, John Cort (2001: 186) in his study of Shvetambar Murtipujak Jain community of Patan, Gujarat argues that the 38 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #53
moksha-marg ideology, spelled out some two thousand years ago in such works like Tattvarth Sutra and Uttradhyan Sutra, "has remained remarkably consistent throughout the Jain history." It is however mainly practiced only by ascetics and a few Jain laypersons, and for the vast majority of laity it is not compelling. For the latter the realm of wellbeing is more important which involves "a mix of health, contentment, peace and prosperity". Furthermore, "the mokshamarg ideology and the value of wellbeing are held in unresolved tension because of the multivocality of the symbols by which the two are expressed. According to the moksh-marg ideology, an individual has to make a choice between wellbeing and the moksh-marg. In practice the two are held in tension, and people act and live on the assumption that one can have it both ways; following practices of the moksh-marg brings wellbeing, and pursuit of wellbeing (within certain boundaries) advances one at least a small way along the moksh-marg" (Cort 2001: 200). These studies need to be contextualised in terms of the sectarian monastic organisation in that the Shvetambar lay Jains are not generally stratified along the path of moksha-marg unlike their Digambar Jain counterparts. As Cort (1989: 663) himself remarks elsewhere, "The principal hierarchical differentiation among Digambar occurs before full initiation as a muni, in the level of advanced householder ship of brahmachari, ksullak and ailak, while the mendicants consists mainly of the single level of munis, with hierarchy determined by seniority of initiation. The Shvetambars, on the other hand, exhibit uniformity among the laity - they are all just sravaks (men) and sravikas (women) - but a graduated hierarchy of initiatory ranks among the mendicants". The sect-specific monastic organisation in Jainism becomes more clear when we contrast these studies with two studies of north Indian Digambar Jains done by Ravindra K. Jain - one based on the autobiography of Kshullak Ganesh Prasad Varni (1948) that describes in detail the organisation of Jains in the Bundelkhand region of central India and the other, a brief ethnography of Digambar Jains of Baraut of Meerut district in Uttar Pradesh (Jain, R. K. 1999: 50-82 and 83-100). These studies maintain that in Varni's accounts of Digambar Jain communities of Bundelkhand the "doctrine and practice are Jains in India and Abroad

Page #54
closely tied up with each other" and that there is "a continuous and ever-increasing stress on the path of purification among Digambar Jain householders" (Jain, R. K. 1999: 51), which manifests in hierarchical differentiation of laity in the form of brahmachari, kshullak and ailak (collectively called tyagis). Along with tyagis, Jain pandits (teachers and scholars) form a significant intermediate layer between the ascetics and the laity in Bundelkhand region. The sectarian context thus puts the moksh-marg ideal and ascetic-laity interaction in some perspective. However, Cort's thesis cannot be dismissed lightly. Indeed, it provides deeper insight into the world of Jain laity as rightly argued by Peter Flugel (2006) in his review article of Jains in the World. Undoubtedly, more studies are required on the issue before we discover the underlying sociological patterns. On-going social change and modernization in India has been exerting considerable pressure on the moksha-marg ideal which can be seen in the laxity in observance of prescribed codes of conduct for ascetics and laypersons. It has affected the daily life of a large segment of the Jain community, particularly those who have been living in large cities and metropolises. The emergent value system reflected in contemporary cinema, television and mass media is adding to this impact. There have been significant changes among the Jains in their daily routine, food habits, religious and life-cycle rituals, inter-personal relations, structure of the family and even that of the community. In most of these spheres one can notice a certain amount of moral dilution in the orthodox Jain way of life. Increased individualism, competition and consumerism in the context of the growth of capitalism in India have disturbed the equilibrium of the traditional Jain way of life as indeed all other traditional ways of life. Increased incidences of economic crimes, corruption, dowry demands, and female foeticide, use of alcohol and non-vegetarian food, and general disinterest in religion in the young generation have given rise to concern in the Jain community leadership to arrest these trends. Emigration and diasporic experience of the Jain communities in Europe and North America have also thrown up somewhat similar concerns that address the core issue of retaining the Jain identity in the face of emergent liberal value system. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #55
Shithilachara or the laxity in observance of the muilachara on the part of the sadhus has been an old problem in Jain community. The rigorous code of conduct is not appropriately followed by some of the ascetics. A number of them have not been able to control such basic impulses as anger, greed, pride and envy. Some of these behavioural traits are extended to intra-group and inter-group levels. A subtle under-current of rivalry and politics can easily be discerned among the various muni-sanghas. So much so, that they avoid sharing the public meeting platforms with each other. Some of them are also accused of ekal-vihar (moving or living alone, and not with the sangh), inviting criticism from many quarters in the Jain community. Seeking name and fame has also been a weakness with some sadhus and aryikas - something which is strictly prohibited in Digambar Jain ascetic code of conduct. There has been an increased tendency among them to getting celebrated their birthdays and deeksha days, etc. Patronage is also provided by most sadhus to rich shrawakas for getting new temples built, and for getting published their own religious discourses in book forms. Whether the salvation ideology and its twin pillars, namely mulachara and shravakachara require any change or modern reinterpretation in the context of the contemporary life is a moot sociological question. The orthodox Jains would obviously support the status quo in this regard. The reformists on the other hand would certainly insist on some changes. Inconclusive seminars have also been held on Shravakachar and Mulachara with no concrete plan to modify or even reinterpret the old codes of conduct, although the need for doing something about this situation has been underlined in the face of increasing laxity in observing the prescribed codes of conduct. The Jain Way of Life: Diasporic Context Diasporic Jains in their respective country of residence cannot practice religious orthodoxy in the same manner in which their counterparts in India can afford to do. This is so for at least two important reasons: (i) since the Jain ascetics are generally not allowed to travel abroad, they are not available for interface with the community, and (ii) the time constraint and other social 41 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #56
environmental factors do not allow a majority of diasporic Jains to indulge in elaborate religious rituals. Such circumstances have prompted the diasporic Jain community to practice two variant value systems of orthodoxy, namely neoorthodoxy and heterodoxy (See Banks 1992; Dundas 1992; Jain, R.K. 1999: 16). A study of Leicester Jains done in England and an anthology on the Jain way of life published in the U.S. amply illustrate these developments (Banks 1992; Jain, Y. 2007). Before we further discuss the emergent Jain way of life in certain diasporic context, a definition each of the two concepts mentioned above would be in order. According to Dundas (1992: 233), neo-orthodoxy "presents itself as modern and progressive with an emphasis on those aspects of Jainism which can be interpreted as scientific and rational and can therefore be accommodated to and encompass western modes of thought." Again to quote Dundas (1992): Heterodoxy involves an interpretation of Jainism as theistic and frees from the metaphysical complexities which many feel to be a feature of the religion, with the ford-makers being viewed as in some way the manifestation of a supreme deity and endowed with the capacity to intervene directly in human affairs and offer assistance. Here God-focused devotion plays an important part in the Jains who have espoused this heterodoxy see no incongruity in, for example, worshipping in Hindu or Sikh temples. It must be pointed out here that in India too, there are a few adherents of the two value systems (See Mardia 2003; Kachhara 2005; Rankin 2007). Interestingly, the first initiative that reinterpret Jainism as per diasporic requirements has come from North American Jains in the form of an edited book "Jain Way of Life" by Yogendra Jain, an engineering professional in the US. The book should be considered as a major step in "repackaging" Jainism which is relevant in the modern context for Jains and non-Jains. The book, as the subtitle reads, provides an excellent guide to "compassionate, healthy and happy living". According to Yogendra Jain, the Jain way of life Jains in India and Abroad

Page #57
essentially consists in respecting and honouring all living beings through the practice of non-violence, non-absolutism and nonpossessiveness. These are briefly discussed below. 1. Non-Violence (Ahimsa) Non-violence, as already mentioned, is central to Jainism. Not surprisingly, the edict "Ahimsa Permo Dharmah" (Non-violence is the supreme religion) is the motto of Jainism. Quite a few Jain beliefs, rituals and practices, including choice of occupation emanate from this central theme (Amar 2009; Weber 1958). There is no equivalent term in English for ahimsa, the closest being "non-violence (avoidance of injury or reverence for life)" But these terms do not fully explain the meaning of ahimsa, because the Jainist notion of ahimsa is much deeper, extensive and all inclusive, wideranging than these terms would imply. The Jains believe that every living organism howsoever small is endowed with a soul which in its inherent nature and potentialities is no different from that of the human beings. Therefore, one must avoid any kind of injury-mental, verbal and physical-to all organisms, including oneself. As Yogendra Jain (2007: 13) put it, "The circle of non-violence is multi-layered. We begin with being nonviolent toward the self. This means that we do not harm ourselves physically by smoking, drinking, or using illicit drugs. Also, it means that we do not harm ourselves mentally by stress, self criticism, or negative thoughts. From the self, we expand our circle of non-violence toward family. Probably the most difficult practice is compassion and forgiveness toward our enemies, which is the next circle, and finally environment." (See also Chapple 1993, 2002). From the perspective of Jain doctrine, practice and belief, violence is one of the most pervasive phenomena in our daily life. While some forms of violence are quite manifest, many other forms are latent, unintended and unavoidable. Jainism does take into account the numerous situations in life where one has to face dilemma about the use of violence, and compromise the vow of ahimsa. This becomes clear when we look into the typology of violence suggested in the Jain scriptures. Accordingly, violence is classified into the following four categories: life-style-generated (arambhi), vocational (udyogi), defensive (virodhi) and intentional (sankalpi). For example, bathing 43 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #58
and cooking food does involve violence to micro organisms (arambhi himsa). Agricultural and some other occupational activities might also involve violence (udyogi himsa). This type of violence can be avoided by the householder only when he has reached at the eighth step of his spiritual progress (pratima). Violence used for selfdefense or country's defense is called virodhi himsa. While these three kinds of violence are conditionally permitted, intentional violence (samkalpi himsa) involving violence for the sake of fun or violence performed under intense passion is absolutely prohibited. In any case, Jainism requires all forms of violence to be minimized at any cost. (Jaini 1990; Vallely 2004). The cycle of violence is also vicious which can be broken only by transforming ourselves at the levels of thought, speech and action. Thus anger, hatred, curse, hurting and discrimination need to be transformed into forgiveness, understanding and love. It is for the reason of cruelty to animals that strict vegetarianism has been the way of life with the Jains for thousands of years. 2. Non-Absolutism (Anekantvad-Syadvad) We already discussed in previous pages the centrality of Anekantvad and Syadvad in Jain philosophy. The infinitely multi-faceted reality and its conditional perception by human beings and consequently varied viewpoints force us to accept the fact that reality can be comprehended and stated only relatively. An understanding of Anekantvad-Syadvad would not only help in avoiding absolutist or one-sided views, but also help in forming attitudes and opinions that are informed by tolerance, openmindedness, and spirit of dialogue. "Absolute Truth cannot be grasped from any particular viewpoint alone because absolute truth is the sum total of all the different viewpoints that make up the universe. Because it is rooted in the doctrines of Anekantvad and Syadvad, Jainism does not look upon the universe from only anthropo-centric, ethno-centric or ego-centric viewpoints. It takes into account the viewpoints of other species, other communities and nations, and other human beings. Jains encourage dialogue and harmony with other faiths" (Jain, Y. 2007: 14). Jains in India and Abroad

Page #59
3. Non-Possessiveness (Aprigraha) Non-possessiveness is one of the five vows prescribed for laymen as well as ascetics. This vow "asks for minimizing accumulation of possessions and personal enjoyment. The wants and desires must be reduced and kept in check as much as possible in thoughts, words, and actions. With the limited resources on this planet, we must be aware of the consequences of our possessiveness. Unchecked possessiveness can lead to great direct harm to oneself, family, society, and the environment" (Jain, Y. 2007: 17). Besides laying the foundation-stone of the Jain way of life for a modern living, and suggesting ways for self-evaluation with respect to a number of constituent elements as discussed above, the book Jain Way of Life also gives tips on a number of day-to-day activities such as healthy diet, responsible food purchasing, eating and drinking out, purchasing of household items including cruelty-free products, excelling in work-place, donations and gift-giving, family celebrations, vacationing, etc. Further on, for those living abroad, the book also gives guidelines for how to raise children, how to get them through schooling, how to develop partnership with non-Jain groups. For the Jain readers especially, the book offers briefs on Jain festivals, Jain pooja, prayers and symbols, Jain scriptures, Paryuashan parv and Das Lakshan, Kshamvani parv, meditation, practice of equanimity and Pratikraman, Jain philosophy and history, comparison of Jainism with other religions, Jain Centres and Societies of North America. The book Jain Way of Life not only prescribes a code of conduct for Jains to live life in modern times but also provides a methodology for measuring one's progress in living a Jain way of life. Thus a number of five-point scales of self-evaluation have been developed by the author/editor with respect to various aspects/items pertaining to one's mind, body, possession, consumption, spirituality, life and the world. For example, the section on "My Mind & My Body" has the following nine scales on forgiveness, anger, passions/sexuality, active mind, death/preparation, pride, relaxation/meditation, body care, and vibrations/karma. The section "My Things" has four scales on greed, money, material possessions and travel. The section "My 45 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #60
Consumption" consists of scales on food, drinks, personal/care products, nutrition and eating. The section "My Life & My World" has scales on family/friends, entertainment, animal compassion and care, possession/work, social service, other living beings and environment. The section "My Spirituality" has five scales on multiple views/anekantvad, knowledge, religion and scriptures, traditional celebrations and prayers. A few scales are presented below in order to enlighten the readers about them (Jain, Y. 2007: 37, 39, 45). The author recommends that the Jain way of life is to progress towards level 4 and 5. Greed 1. I'm obsessed with getting a bigger house and car, and I want more money. I'm very jealous of friends and family. 2. I desire a better and better house, car, or more money. I am jealous of friends and family. 3. Occasionally, I desire more comfort and have mild jealousy towards others. 4. I have minimal internal greed, no enviousness of others and I appreciate the things I do have. 5. I am in constant equanimity and balance. Pride 1. I'm arrogant about personal success, wealth, education, appearance and family. 2. I know that pride is wrong and must be balanced. Occasionally, I imply external pride in conversation with others. 3. I show no external pride, but occasionally have internal pride. 4. I have minimal internal pride. 5. I have no internal or external pride. Profession/Work 1. I'm critical of others at work, even though my own work lacks luster, and tend to cheat. 2. I avoid works which directly create, sells, or promote violent and/or sensual products; I tend to exaggerate accomplishment and performance. my 3. I have a strong sprit of collaboration and team work. 46 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #61
4. I mentor others, listen to my colleagues and conduct my business with care and compassion. 5. Both my work and family life are strong and balanced. I do non profit work regularly. The above discussion of Jain way of life is only a particular example of some diasporic Jains' attempt to reconcile their tradition with its new context, and should not be construed as an alternative to the orthodox Jain way of life which is based on a long and consistent history of Jain teachings, scriptures and practices. The discussion is also illustrative of the fact that no religion remains statically homogenous over any period of time or span of geography. Concluding Remarks The Jain identity is crystallized around Jainism which also provides the Jains with a world-view and a way of life that embodies selfreliance, social equality, inter-group tolerance, non-violence, and limiting one's desires and needs. Furthermore, this way of life is "built on the bed-rock of self-realization, the entire conduct is imbued with the spirit of Ahimsa, sanctity of all life, equity and equanimity and the thinking processes dominated by Anekantist Syadvada" (Jain, J. P. 1983: 174). In the face of social change and modernization, however, the orthodox Jain way of life appears to be steadily eroding, and this has been for some time now a cause of concern in the Jain community leadership in India and abroad. Moreover, for how long Jainism and the Jain way of life would be carried forward in future by its declared adherents is a moot sociological question for the simple reason that the demographic dynamics of the Jains in India has begun to show some disturbing signs. This is analysed in the next chapter. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #62
Chapter 3 JAIN DEMOGRAPHY Whatever might have been the numerical strength of the followers of Jainism in the past, presently they add up to less than five million souls the world over. Nevertheless, this figure represents the largest Jain population in modern times. The smallest population of the Jains in India with about 1,117,000 persons was recorded in 1921 census. Even if we add the then population of overseas Jains, the figure would hardly exceed the 1,150,000 mark. Taking a bit larger historical perspective on the extent and causes of decline of the Jain population in India, it can rightly be maintained that since the beginning of the medieval period (circa 12th century) till the first quarter of the present (twentieth) century, the community had been continuously losing in numbers, so that which had been once a major religious group on the subcontinent was reduced to a small minority .... Most of the Brahmana, Kshatriya (Rajput), Kayastha and Sudra followers became converts to other faiths under the influence of Christian missions, Muslim Tabligh, the Arya Samaj movement, or the Vaisnava, Virasaiva and other sectarian preachers. Nevertheless, Jainism is still diffused throughout the length and breadth of the Indian Union, and there is hardly any city, big town or trade centre where the Jains are not to be found" (Jain, J.P. 1983: 30-31). This chapter analyses the major population characteristics of the Jains as per the 1991 and 2001 censuses of India. The 2001 census data are derived from Census of India 2001: The First Report of Religion Data (2004). The 1991 census data are based on the C-9 Religion Table which gives data for persons, males and females separately for each of the six major religious communities, viz., Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Jains and combined figures for "other religions and persuasions" and "religion not stated" by total, rural and urban for India, states and union 48 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #63
territories. The 1991 and 2001 census tables correspond to Table CVII-Religion of 1961, 1971 and Table HH-15 of 1981, the only difference being that the figures of religion for 1961, 1971, 1991 and 2001 were based on the religion of the individual whereas the figures presented in 1981 were based on religion of head of the household. Population Size Jains are one of the oldest indigenous religious communities of India. During certain periods of ancient and medieval history, a number of kings and other ruling elites as well as large sections of the population were Jains, in modern times the Jains have been a minority community in India (Jain 1975; Sharma 1976). Exactly how small has been the Jain community in recent times was not known until 1881 when the first systematic census of Indian population was undertaken. In 1881 the total Jain population was enumerated at 1,221,896 or 0.48 percent of the total Indian population. Since then the Jains have seldom constituted more than half-a percent of the total population of India (See Table 3.1). With the enumeration of 4.2 million (0.4%) Jains in the 2001 census of India they still constitute the smallest religious community in the country. The corresponding figures for other religious communities are: Hindus 827 million (81.4%), Muslims 138 million (12.4%), Christians 24 million (2.3%), Sikhs 19 million (1.9%), Buddhists 7.9 million (0.8%), other religious communities 6.6 million (0.7%). In the 1991 census, Hindus were enumerated as the largest religious community (82%) followed by Muslims (12.12%), Christians (2.34%), Sikhs (1.94%), Buddhists (0.76%) and Jains (0.4%). As can be seen in Table 3.2, the religious composition of the Indian society in the census year 2001 continued to remain more or less the same with minor variations. The average decadal growth rate was found to be 21.5%. Against this only Hindus (20.0%) and Sikhs (16.9%) showed less than average growth rate during 1991-2001, whereas Muslims (29.3%), Christians (22.1%), Buddhists (23.2%) and Jains (26.0%) grew at higher than average rate. Other important religious communities enumerated in the 1991 census were Jews (5,271), Zorostrians (76,382) and Bahai's (5,575). 49 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #64
About a quarter of a million people were listed as unclassified. In the 2001 census only 69,601 (33,949 males and 35,652 females) Parsis/Zorostrians were enumerated. Variation of Jain Population in India, 1881-2001 28.48 25.17 26 23.17 15.94 15.81 Percentage to Total Populaton 11.67 6.28 Y 4.42 1881 1891 1901 1911 192 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 5.83-6.47 -5.26 Percentage of total population Decadal percent change in the number of Jains Figure:1 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #65
NUMBER OF JAINS ('000) 4,500 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,222 1,000 500 0 Number of Jains (in 000s) in India, 1881-2001 1,417 1,334 1,248 1,440 1,251 1,177 1,618 2,027 2,605 3,193 3,352 4,225 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Figure: 2 Population Growth Rate During the decade 1881-1891 Jain population did increase by about 16% but went on declining in the 1901, 1911 and 1921 censuses. The 1891 level of the Jain population was restored only in 1941. Since then until 1981 the Jain population had been increasing continuously at varying rates ranging from 12% to over 28% per decade. Between 1981 and 1991 the Jain population grew by only 141, 065 persons, or by 4.42%. This was one of the lowest decadal growth rates in the Jain population since 1921. This is also the most striking feature of the 1991 census of India with respect of the Jain population. The slow growth in Jain population can be attributed to the decline in fertility rate due to affluence among the Jains and their upper middle class status. When most demographers were expecting less than 4% population growth rate of Jains in the 2001 census, they were surprised to discover that it turned out to be over 26% during the decade 1991-2001. This time around "ethnic revivalism" is considered to be the main cause of population growth among the Jains. According to the Indian Census officials, the "respondents 51 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #66
were allowed to look at the information collected from them by enumerators and sign the forms after verifying that they were to their satisfaction in 2001 census. This was the first time this procedure was followed. Earlier, many of the enumerators might have recorded Jains as Hindus. But with the respondents verifying and signing the form, they would have insisted on being registered as separate, as Jains and not Hindus. This could be one of the reasons for the jump in Jain growth figures" (Nagarajan 2004). However the birth rate still continues to be low among the Jains. Thus the proportion of child population (0-6 age group) among the Jains was found to be only 10.6%, which the Commissioner's report of the 2001 census attributed to "low fertility" in the community. Comparative figures for Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs and Buddhists were 15.9%, 15.6%, 13.5%, 12.8% and 14.4% respectively (Table 3.2). The total fertility rate (TFR) among the Jains was estimated to be 1.8 for the year 1998-99 as against the national average of 2.7. A Comparison of Deca dal Population Growth of various Religious Communities during 1981-1991 and 1991-2001 111.3 32.9 29.3 22.8 22.1 25.5 16.9 23.2 23.8 21.5 17 13.2 Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others Total/ Average w Population growth (1981-1991) Population growth (1991-2001) Figure: 3 52 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #67
Decadal Percentage Growth of Jains in India, 1961-2001 Percentage to total Population 1961 -11-1971 1981 1991 2001 M.P Delhi Gujarat Rajasthan Karnataka Maharashtra Figure: 4 Population Variation by States/Union Territories Table 3.3 presents data regarding distribution of Jain population by States and Union Territories for five consecutive census years since 1961. The variation in Jain population across the states and union territories has not obviously been uniform. Data in this table clearly suggest that as per the 1991 census data, in 14 States and five union territories there was varying increase in Jain population over the 1981 figures. These states and union territories are: Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu, Tripura and Uttar Pradesh, Andman & Nicobar, Dadar & Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, Delhi, and Pondicherry. In the 2001 census, however, all the states and union territories showed varying percentage of increase in the Jain population. No Jains were reported in Lakshadweep in any census year. There was no census taking in Assam in 1981 and in Jammu and Kashmir in 1991. As per 1991 census, in nine States and one Union Territory Jain population varyingly had declined during the decade 1981-1991. These States and the Union Territory along with percent decrease in population are listed as follows: Bihar (-16.53), Haryana (-0.52), Meghalaya (-17.90), Mizoram (-63.64), Orissa (-5.12), Punjab (-23.24), Rajasthan (-9.85), Sikkim (-62.96), West Bengal (-11.14), Chandigarh 53 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #68
(-18.95). It is remarkable, however, that no decline of Jain population was registered in any state and union territory in India between 1991 and 2001. It must be pointed out here that during the 1990s there was a vigorous campaign in the Jain ethnic media to the effect that during the census enumerations they should return themselves as "Jains" and not "Hindus". The media still continues to exhort them to write their surnames as "Jain" in addition to, or in place of using caste, sub-caste, clan or family names. If by some definition or devise India could be divided into Eastern and Western halves then it can very well be established that at least 90% of total Jain population lives in Western half of the country and only less than 10% in the Eastern half. Incidentally as per 1991 census figures, in the seven North-Eastern States only about 24,000 Jains were enumerated. Of these over 20,000 lived in Assam alone. The corresponding figures for the census year 2001 were about 29,000 and 24,000 respectively. Among the union territories the largest number of Jains lived in Delhi: about 74,000 in 1981, a little over 94,600 in 1991 and 155,122 in 2001. In other Union Territories, Chandigarh had 1,531 Jains in 1991 followed by Dadra and Nagar Haveli (529), Pondicherry (470), Daman and Diu (212) and Andaman and Nicobar (17). Corresponding figures for the census year 2001 for Chandigarh, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Pondicherry, Daman and Diu and Andaman & Nicobar were 2,592; 864; 952; 268 and 23. No Jains were reported in Lakshadweep in any census year since 1951 (Table 3.3). Concentration in Seven States/Union Territories Table 3.4 presents data about variations in the number and percentage of Jains and decadal percent population change among them in seven major States/Union Territories, namely Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi. In 1951 Gujarat had the largest number of Jains followed by Rajasthan and Maharashtra. In 1961 however Maharastra became the number one State to have the largest number of Jains, followed by Gujarat and then Rajasthan. Since then Maharastra has been continuing to have this distinction with ever increasing concentration of the Jain population within its boundaries. Thus in the 1991 census 54 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #69
report there were 965,840 Jains in Maharastra followed by 562,806 in Rajasthan and 491,331 in Gujarat. The corresponding figures in the 2001 census were: Maharashtra 1,301,843, Rajasthan 650,491, and Gujarat 525,305. Meanwhile in the 2001 census Madhya Pradesh with 545,446 Jains emerged as the state supporting the third largest Jain population after Maharashtra and Rajasthan. These four States, together with Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi accounted for about 90% of the total Jain population in India in 2001. The varying pace of population growth can be attributed mainly to inter-state migration, ethnic revivalism and natural increase. Urbanisation A highly significant population characteristic of the Jains in India is their high degree of urbanization. Thus as per 2001 census 3,215,706 Percentage of total number of Jains in seven major states in india, 1961 - 2001 2001 1991 1981 1971 1961 Delhi UP Karnataka Gurajrat M.P Rajasthan Maharashtra 0.07 6.02 12.91 12.23 Figure: 5 .340.21 15.3989 19:52 20.22 30.81 29.42 27.02 23.96 55 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #70
lived in urban areas, whereas only 1,009,347 lived in rural areas. About 64% of the Jains lived in cities and towns in 1981. This figure increased to about 71% in the 1991 census and to about 75% in the 2001 census. Thus today Jains are the most urbanized religious community in India. Apparently this has been so for over a century now. State-wise distribution of the Jain population in terms of rural-urban breakup and gender for the census year 1991 is presented in Table 3.5, and for the census year 2001 in Table 3.6. District where the Jain's Constitute the third largest Religious group having population more then 20,000 85160 147285 38561 24829 59931 28873 32383 63037 26326 23818 22238 83699 Sangali Kolhapur Ahmadnagar Ujjain Sagar Ratlam Jabalpur Indore Guna Damoh Bhopal Udaipur Todak Rajsaod Pali Kota Jodhpur Jalore Jaipur Chillogarh Bikaner Bhilwarh Barmer Ajmer Vadodra Surendra Nagar Surat Rajkot Kachchh Jamnagar Bhamnagar Ahmadabad 23644 20048 25599 23259 36694 21015 Districts having more than 20000 jain population across India, 2001 Population 73631 35026 31235 37659 35744 47812 31566 22721 86607 30629 23894 21907 28921 170093 50000 100000 150000 200000 Figure: 6 56 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #71
44.88 43.87 33.5 34.78 2.82 Maharasthra Population Decadal Percentage Change of Population of Jains in Seven Major States 1951-61 25.43 13.8 mrh 21.57 Rajasthan -9.85 14,00,000 12,00,000 10,00,000 8,00,000 15.58 6,00,000 4,00,000 2,00,000 36.73 0 1961-71 39.24 Delhi 28.9 10. M.P 12.75 1971-81 Rajastha n 10.21 9.3 5.04 6.9 Gujarat 24.661 Figure:7 1981-91 UP 29.99 25.52 26.53 24.93 Distribution of Jain Population bu Rural-Urban divide in seven major states Across India, 2001 14.62 1991-2001 Karnataka 24.52 13.49 2.15 UP 17.5 70.68 0 46.33 28.08 Delhi MP Gujarat Jain Population 1,55,122 6,50,493 2,07,111 5,45,446 5,25,305 13,01,843 4,12,659 -Urban 1,53,068 4,35,321 1,77,208 4,19,929 4,54,964 10,15,286 1,93,758 -Rural 2,054 2,15,172 70,341 2,86,557 2,18,901 29,903 1,25,517 Figure: 8 Maharas Karnatak htra a 63.85 57 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #72
Sex Ratio The 1991 census data reveal that of the 3,352,706 Jains, 1,722,715 were males and 1,629,991 females. The sex ratio (females per 1,000 males) thus comes to 946 which suggest a slight improvement over that for the census year 1981 that is 941. The sex ratio among the Jains was thus found to be better vis-a-vis Hindus (925), Muslims (930) and Sikhs (888) but worse than that among the Christians (994) and Buddhists (952). Unfortunately, this gain was wiped out in the 2001 census in which case there were only 2,047,655 females for 2,177,398 males. Thus the sex ratio among the Jains in 2001 declined to only 940. "Among the major states Kerala has returned the highest sex ratio of 996 for Jains. In Gujarat and Rajasthan also sex ratio of Jains is high at 969 and 966 respectively. In twenty states Jain population has sex ratio between 901 and 950" (The First Report on Religion Data 2004: xviii). Even more alarming aspect of sex ratio among the Jains is the sharp decline of sex ratio in the 0-6 age group which is only 870 compared to 927 for all religious communities in India, 925 for Hindus and 950 for Muslims. In terms of state-wise distribution, sixteen states and union territories had a child sex ratio below 850 among the Jains (The First Report on Religion Data 2004: xviii). Among the major states having large Jain population sex ratio in the age group 0-6 is low at 832 in Gujarat, 878 in Rajasthan and 906 in Madhya Pradesh (Table 3.7). On another measure, that is, the proportion of child population in the age group 0-6 years to the total population, the Jains are again lagging behind all other religious communities in India (Table 3.7). Thus Jains had the lowest proportion of child population (10.6%) compared with the national average (15.9%), Hindus (15.6%), Muslims (18.7%), Christians (13.5%), Sikhs (12.8%) and Buddhists (14.4%). "The proportion of population in the age group 0-6 among the Jains reveals that among the major states Karnataka accounts for highest proportion of 12 percent which is far below the national average. Gujarat has the lowest proportion of 9.2 percent. Low fertility trend among the Jains is evident from the fact that except two states all other states have child population proportion below 14 percent. Jains have reported the lowest child population 9.2 percent 58 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #73
in Gujarat followed by West Bengal (9.6%) among the major states" (The First Report on Religion Data 2004: xx). In the absence of any study on the subject the causes of declining sex ratio among the Jains are not easy to find. Apparently the prevalence of female foeticide could be one factor in this regard. Female child diksha and discouragement of widow remarriage in the community could also be the contributing factors (See Sangave 1980: 29-30). Needless to say, this decline in sex ratio has begun to give rise to a number of marital and social problems among the Jains that in turn have been contributing factors in lowering the sex ratio - a vicious circle indeed. 59 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #74
Map 1: Sex Ratio among Jains in India by Districts, 2001 AOHAN STAN N A Bandet, T KLOMETRES 16300 160 400 S I K NEPA A R BHUTAN BANGLADESH MYANMAR (BURMA) ARABIAN SEA BAY OF BENGAL Distribution of 303 Districts (113) (84) (212) FEMALES PER 1000 MALES 850 AND BELOW 851.900 901 - 950 N.A-940) 951 - 1000 1001 AND ABOVE NEGLIGIBLE 382 SRI LANKA INDIAN OCEAN Source: Census of India 2001 (2004) 60 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #75
Map 2: Proportion of Population in Age Group 0-6 among Jains by District, 2001 A T KUOVETRES 2011 2010 5 H k 1 NA NE PA A r BHUTAN BANGLADESH MYANMAR (BURMA) ARABIAN SEA BAY OF BENGAL Distribution of 593 Districts JAIN POPULATION IN AGE GROUP 0:6 (339) 120 AND BELOW NA - 10,60) (149) 1201 - 15.00 15.01.18.00 18.01 - 21.00 21.01 AND ABOVE NEGLIGIBLE (33) gas NERIE SRI LANKA INDIAN 0 ( EAN Source: Census of India 2001 (2004) 61 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #76
SEX RATIO AND CHILD SEX RATIO AMONG VARIOUS RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES: 2001 1200 1009 964 992 976 1000 931 925 936 950 953 942 940 893 870 780 Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others Sex Ratio Sex Ratio (0-6) Figure: 9 Literacy, Work Participation and Occupation Literacy-wise, in 2001 Jains with a figure of 94.1% were the most literate community, followed by Christians at 80.3%, Buddhists 72.7%, Sikhs 69.4%, Hindus 65.1% and Muslims 59.1% (Table 3.8). It must be noted that in as many as 29 states of India the literacy rate among the Jains is above 90%. The national average for literacy is 64.8%. In all the religious communities female literacy was found to be lower than the male literacy by about 11 percentage points. It stood at 53.7%. In female literacy too, the Jains take the lead with a figure of 90.6%, followed by Christians (76.2%), Sikhs (63.1%), Buddhists (61.7%), Hindus 53.2% and Muslims (50.1%). In twentynine states and union territories the female literacy among the Jains is 80% or above (Table 3.9). According to the report of the RegistrarGeneral and Census Commissioner of India, the Jains are likely to reach the goal of universal literacy for the total population any time now" (The First report on Religion data 2004: xxi). 62 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #77
Map 3: Literacy among Jains in India by Districts, 2001 Binder worden R SU LOMETRES 100002 PAKISTAN NLP BHUTAN BANGLADESH MYANMAR (BURMA) BAY ARABIAN SEA OF BENGAL (11) listribution PERCENTAGE OF JAIN UTERATES Districts TO TOTAL JAIN POPULATION (24) 50.00 AND BELOW 50.01 - 80.00 60.01 - 70.00 (37) 70.01 - 80.00 (490) 80.01 AND ABOVE (NA .94.0) 17) NEGLIGIBLE MA INA BAVA SRI LANKA ISATI INDIAN OCEAN Source: Census of India 2001 (2004) 63 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #78
Literacy, Female Literacy and Work Participation Rate in India by religious Communities, 2001 90.6 76.2 63.1 61.7 48.4 Percentage 140.4 50.1 39.7 377 40.694.1 31.380.3 32.9 69.4 72.7 59.1 39.1 65.1 64.4 Literacy Rate Female Literacy Rate Work Participation Hindus Muslims Christians Jains Sikhs Buddhists Others Total/ Average Religious communities Figure: 10 Religious Communities and their Occupations, 2001 81.7 49.1 52.8 49.9 47.3 Percentage to their Population 37.89.2 B Cultivators 324 29.2 37.6 32.6 31.7 26.5 27.6 Agricultural Labourers 2017 III Household Industry Workers 1 15.3 168 204 14.3 Others 3.4 2.9 333 Hindus Muslims Sikhs Christians Buddhists Jains Others Average Religious Communities Figure: 11 64 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #79
Distribution of Category of Workers by Religious Communities, 2001 Cultivators Others 4% Average Hindus 10% 10% Muslims 14% Jains 23% Christian 15% Sikhs 13% Buddhist 11% Agricultural Labourers Others 4% Average Hindus 10% 10% Muslims 14% Jains 23% Christian 15% Sikhs 13% Buddhis 11% 65 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #80
Household Industry Workers Others 4% Average Hindus 10% 10% Muslims 14% Jains 23% Christian S 15% Sikhs 13% Buddhist S 11% Others Others 4% Average Hindus 10% 10% Muslims 14% Jains 23% Christian 15% Sikhs 13% Buddhis ts 11% Figure: 12 66 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #81
Along with the highest literacy rate the work participation rate (WPR) or percentage of workers to total population is also highest among the Jain males (55.2%) followed by Sikhs (53.3%) and Hindus (52.4%); the WPR for all religious communities being 39.1 percent in the 2001 census (Table 3.10). The lowest WPR for the male population is found among the Muslim males (47.5%). In spite of the highest literacy rate among the Jain females however their WRP in 2001 census was the lowest (9.2%) preceded by Muslims (14.1%) and Hindus (27.5%). This suggests that gender gap in regard to WPR is extremely sharp among the Jains. Apparently lots of talent among the Jain women is not being properly utilized. It is likely that most Jain women spend their time either in performing religious activities or in doing household chores. It is also very likely that they do not feel the need for economic employment given the fact that the Jains are economically a better off community. But these are only just hypotheses. These require sociological validation through fieldwork in different parts of India. In terms of the four broad work participation categories, namely, cultivators, agricultural labourers, household industry workers and other workers (this last category includes workers in tertiary sector, such as service, manufacturing, trade and commerce and allied activities) the distribution of Jain population was heavily skewed in favour of the "Others". Only 11.7% of the Jain population was engaged as cultivators, 3.3% as agricultural labourers, and less than 3.0% as household industry workers (Table 3.11). Thus the business character of the Jain community is evident from the 2001 census data. But again, systematic sociological studies are needed to ascertain the precise nature of the economic and occupational status of the Jain community in India. 67 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #82
Map 4: Work Participation Rate among Jains in India by Districts, 2001 S ARABIAN SEA AFGHANSTAN INDIAN N SRI LANKA Source: Census of India 2001 (2004) Bartenders). 1005 (23) (34) (8) 35.01-40.00 40.01-45.00 45.01-50.00 LOVETRES ** 21 330 400 530 Ready RT BANGLADESH Distribution of 593 PERCENTAGE OF JAIN WORKERS Districts TO TOTAL JAIN POPULATION (417) 35.00 AND BELOW (NA-32.90) (74) (37) BHUTAN 50.01 AND ABOVE NEGLIGIBLE OCEAN BAY OF BENGAL MYANMAR (BURMA) W A INCR www NMST 68 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #83
Conclusion The Jains have always been a minority community in India in modern times. Since the 1881 census the Jains seldom constituted more than half a percent of the total population of India. The current population of Jains is estimated around 5.0 million. They are heavily concentrated in the western half of India, particularly Maharastra, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi. About 250,000 Jains are in diaspora, mainly in North America, the UK and East Africa. Estimatedly about 80% of the Jain population belongs to the Shvetambar sect and the rest are Digambars. Close to 75% of Jains live in urban areas. Other demographic features include very high level of literacy, the lowest infant mortality rate and the medium level of sex ratio (940 in 2001 compared to 931 for Hindus and 950 for Muslims. During the 19811991 decade, the Jain population had increased very slowly, that is, at the rate of only 4.42% compared to 23.17% for the previous decade. This firmly confirmed the urban middle class character of the community. Two major demographic challenges that the Jain community in India is facing today are the very low rate of population growth and the declining sex ratio not only among the adults but also among the younger generation. Both these trends are quite evident from the data available from the 1991 and 2001 census reports. Although due to ethnic revivalism the decadal growth rate of the Jain population during the 1991-2001 decade has jumped to 26.0 per cent, in all probability it will come down to around 4.0 per cent by the next census date in 2011. The sex ratio among the Jains is also likely to further drop slightly by that time. 69 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #84
Table 3.1: Variations in the number of Jains since 1891 * Census 1881 1891 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981* 1991** 2001 Number of Jains (in 000s) Sources: 1,222 1,417 1,334 1,248 1,177 1,251 1,440 1,618 2,027 2,605 3,193 3,352 4,225 Percentage of total population 0.49 0.51 0.47 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.37 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.48 0.40 0.40 Decadal percent change in the number of Jains Excluding Assam where, census was not held in 1981 owing to disturbed conditions. ** Excluding Jammu & Kashmir where 1991 census was not held. 15.94 -5.83 -6.47 -5.26 6.28 15.81 11.67 25.17 28.48 23.17 4.42 26.0 1. Kingsley Davis, Population of India & Pakistan, Russell & Russell, New York, 1951, pp. 178-179 2. Census of India, 1961, Paper No. 1 of 1963, Religion, R.G. Office, New Delhi, 1963, pp. ii-viii. 3. Census of Indian, 1971, Paper No. 2 of 1972, Religion, R. G. Office, New Delhi, 1972, pp.2-5. 4. Census of India, 1981, Paper No. 4 of 1984, Household Population by Religion of Head of Household, R.G, Office, New Delhi, 1984, p. 26 (figures amended as per Errata issued subsequently by this office). 5. Census of India, 1991, Paper No, 1 of 1995, Religion, R.G. Office, New Delhi, 1995. 6. Census of India 2001, First Report of Religion Data. R.G. Office, New Delhi, 2004. 70 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #85
Table 3.2: Demographic Indicators of the six Major Religious Communities of India, 2001 Religious Communit Percentage of total population Sex Ratio Sex Rati Population growth (19811991)* Populatio n growth (19912001) Infant Mort ality ies Proportio n of Child Populatio n in Age group (0 0 (0 6) 20.0 29.3 22.1 Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains 81.4 12.4 2.3 1.9 0.8 0.4 0.7 22.78 32.76 16.89 25.48 35.98 4.42 NA 931 925 936 950 1009964 893 780 953 942 940 870 992 976 15.6 18.7 13.5 12.8 77 69 49 53 16.9 54 23.2 26.0 111.3 | 14.4 10.6 18.0 47 80 Others Total/ Average 100.0 23.05 21.5 933 927 15.9 61.3 * Excludes figures of Assam and Jammu & Kashmir. Source: 1. Census of India, 2001. 2. Infant mortality data are based on National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2), 1998-99, Indian Express, Delhi, November 18, 2001. 71 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #86
Table 3.3: Total population-Jains, 1961-2001(India, States and Union territories) India/States/Union territories 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 3,352,706 2,027281 1,427 95 48,754 2,604,646 1,150 626 21,383 1,016 3,206,038 1,576 1,046 27,049 1,889 * ** 4,225,053 2,518 1,408 39,276 2,592 9,294 57,167 155,122 650,493 207,111 16,085 183 ** 29,595 409,417 122,108 17,598 19 14 263 31,173 50,513 513,548 124,728 25,185 1,206 20,763 1,531 7,870 35,296 94,672 562,806 168,389 11,332 40 64 1,202 1,337 35,482 73,917 624,317 141,549 27,613 108 42 1,153 975 39 216 627 778 1,408 11 195 *** 297 542 India Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Punjab Chandigarh Uttaranchal Haryana Delhi Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Bihar Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura Meghalaya Assam West Bengal Jharkhand Orissa Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Daman & Diu Dadra & N. Haveli Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Goa Lakshadweep Kerala Tamil Nadu Pondicherry Andn & Nicobar Is. 375 268 12,917 32,203 $$$ 9,468 26,940 $$$ 2,295 $$ 247,927 409,754 6,521 $$ 2,093 1,461 179 477 772 23,957 55,223 16,301 9,154 56,103 545,446 525,305 268 864 1,301,843 41,846 412,659 820 38,663 $$$ 6,642 $$ 444,960 467,768 140 372 939,392 18,642 297,974 462 301 445 20,645 34,355 11,717 6,302 43,213 447,111 491,331 212 529 965,840 26,564 326,114 487 345,211 451,578 223 303 703,664 16,108 218,862 333 120 485,672 9,012 174,366 68 2,967 28,350 3,336 41,097 237 14 3,605 49,564 277 3,641 66,900 470 17 4,528 83,359 952 23 76 3 11 72 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #87
Notes: 2. 1. The Census 2001 Population figures for India and Manipur exclude those of Mao Maram, Paomata and Pural sub- divisions of Senapati district of Manipur. In 1991 figures for Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, Chattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh have been recasted as per the Jurisdiction in 2001 census. 3. All religious communities include 'Religion not stated'. 4. Population figures for 1961 are as per 'Social and Culture Tables' part II-C (i), Census of India 1971, 1981 as per 'Religion'- Paper 2 of 1972, Census of India 1971, 1981 as per 'Household population by religion of head of household'-paper 4 of 1984, Census of India 1981 and 1991 as per 'Religion' -Part IV-B (ii) Census of India 1991 * No Census conducted, ** Included under Punjab, ***Included under Assam, $- Included under Uttar Pradesh, $$-Included under Madhya Pradesh $$$- Included under Bihar, +- Included under Goa. ++- India figures for 1971 excludes population of Sikkim that is 209, 843 as per 'Household population by Religion of Head of the Household, Paper 3 of 1985, Series 19, Sikkim. Table 3.4: Variations in the Number and Percentage of Jains and Decadal Percent Population Change in Seven major States since 1961 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 State / Number of Jains Maharashtra Rajasthan M.P Gujarat Karnataka UP Delhi 485,672 409,417 247,927 409,754 174,366 122,108 29,595 703,664 513,548 345,211 451,578 218,862 124,728 50,513 939,392 965,840 624,317 562,806 444,960 490,324 467,508 491,331 284,508326,114 141,549 176,259 73,917 94,672 1,301,843 650,493 545,446 525,305 412,659 207,111 155,122 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #88
Percentage of total no. of Jains 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Maharashtra Rajasthan M.P Gujarat Karnataka 23.96 20.22 12.23 20.21 8.60 6.02 0.07 27.02 19.72 13.25 17.34 8.40 4.79 1.20 29.42 19.56 13.94 14.65 8.91 4.43 1.74 28.98 16.89 13.35 14.75 9.79 5.29 2.24 30.81 15.39 12.91 12.43 9.76 4.90 3.67 UP Delhi 1951-61 1961-71 1971-81 1981-91 1991-2001 Percent Population change during Maharashtra Rajasthan M.P Gujarat Karnataka UP Delhi 43.87 13.80 36.73 9.30 24.66 24.93 44.88 25.43 39.24 10.21 25.52 2.15 70.68 33.50 21.57 28.90 3.59 29.99 13.49 46.33 2.82 -9.85 10.20 5.04 14.62 24.52 28.08 34.78 15.58 12.75 6.90 26.53 17.50 63.85 Source: As in Table 1. Table 3.5: Distribution of Jain population by states, Rural/Urban background and Gender 1991 States/UT Persons Male Rural/ Urban Female India Andhra Pradesh Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban 3,352,706 997,718 2,354,998 26,564 1,092 25,472 64 17 47 20,645 4,512 16,133 1,722,7151,629,991 505,578 492,140 1,217,137 1,137,851 14,103 12,461 594 498 13,509 11,963 42 22 13 4 29 18 11,512 9,133 2.577 1,935 8,935 7,198 Arunachal Pradesh Assam 74 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #89
Bihar 10,996 12.053 2,228 9,825 253 Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Karnataka Kerala Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural | Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total 23.049 4.208 18.841 487 128 259 359 491,331 120,893 370,438 35,296 4,748 30,548 1,206 121 1,085 326,114 188,389 137,725 3,641 1,499 2,142 490,324 128,049 362,275 965,840 263,514 702,326 1,337 27 1,310 445 49 396 4 4 - 4 1,202 12 1,190 6,302 1,938 4,364 | 20,763 1,327 19,436 562,806 1,980 9,016 234 55 179 246,941 63,692 183,249 16,941 2,240 14,701 566 59 507 157,290 92,061 65,229 1,804 751 1,047 235,135 61,206 173,229 466,111 127,137 338,974 631 16 615 191 23 161 - 73 180 244,390 57,201 187,189 18,355 2,508 15,847 640 62 578 168,824 96,328 | 72,496 1,837 742 1,095 255,189 66,843 188,346 499,729 136,377 363,352 706 11 695 254 26 228 4 Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland 512 Orissa 690 19 681 3,328 1,011 2,317 10,662 675 9,987 284,198 509 2,974 927 2,047 10,101 652 9,449 278,658 Punjab Rajasthan Jains in India and Abroad

Page #90
11 108,905 175,243 26 111,813 166,845 14 Sikkim 220,718 342,088 40 - 40 66,900 12,415 54,485 301 26 Tamil Nadu Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Tripura 85 34,882 6,148 28,734 181 57 124 91,999 19,727 72,272 18,326 2,744 15,582 216 176,259 37,406 138,853 34,355 5,223 29,132 14 32,018 6,267 25,751 120 28 92 84,260 17,679 66,581 16,029 2,479 13,550 Uttar Pradesh West Bengal Union Territory Andman & Nicobar Island Total 17 Chandigarh Dadra & Nagar Haveli 13 16 4 1,531 804 47 27 1,484 777 529 267 290 140 239 127 212 115 198 9 203 107 94,672 49,120 989 538 93,683 48,582 727 20 707 262 150 112 97 Daman & Diu Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban Total Rural Urban 1 Delhi 96 45,552 451 45,101 Lakshadweep Pondicherry 470 268 202 470 268 202 Source: Adapted From Census of India, 1991; Paper I of 1995, Religion, Registrar - General and Census Commissioner, New Delhi, 1995, pp. 6, 10 and 14. 76 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #91
Table 3.6: Distribution of Jain Population by Rural-Urban Background State/Union Territory India Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Punjab Chandigarh Uttaranchal Haryana Delhi Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Bihar Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura Meghalaya Assam West Bengal Jharkhand Orissa Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Daman & Diu Dadra & Nag. Hav. Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Goa Lakshadweep Kerala Tamil Nadu Pondicherry And. & Nico. Is. Total population Jain 1,02,86,10,328 1,01,43,700 60,77,900 2,43,58,999 9,00,635 84,89,349 2,11,44,564 1,38,50,507 5,65,07,188 16,61,97,921 8,29,98,509 5,40,851 10,97,968 19,90,036 21,66,788 8,88,573 31,99,203 23,18,822 2,66,55,528 8,01,76,197 2,69,45,829 3,68,04,660 2,08,33,803 6,03,48,023 5,06,71,017 1,58,204 2,20,490 9,68,78,627 7,62,10,007 5,28,50,562 13,47,668 60,650 3,18,41,374 6,24,05,679 9,74,345 3,56,152 Source: Census of India (2001). Population 42,25,053 2,518 1,408 39,276 2,592 9,249 57,167 1,55,122 6,50,493 2,07,11 16,085 183 216 2,093 1461 179 477 772 23,957 55,223 16,301 9,154 56,103 5,45,446 5,25,305 268 864 13,01,843 41,846 4,12,659 820 4,528 83,359 952 23 Urban 3,215,706 2,040 1,148 37,265 2,570 8,167 50,829 153,068 435,321 177,208 12,903 126 130 1,984 1,369 45 287 432 20,354 45,869 11,688 6,038 45,837 419,929 454,964 212 601 1,015,286 39,856 193,758 721 2,328 72,427 928 18 Rural 1,009,347 478 260 2,011 22 1,082 6, 338 2,054 215,172 29,903 3,182 57 86 109 92 134 190 340 3,603 9,354 4,613 3,116 10,266 125,517 70,341 56 263 286,557 1,990 218,901 99 2,200 10,932 24 5 77 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #92
Table 3.7: Sex Ratio among the Jains, 2001 State/UT India Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Punjab Chandigarh Uttaranchal Haryana Delhi Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Bihar Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura Meghalaya Assam West Bengal Jharkhand Orissa Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Daman & Diu Dadra & Nag. Hav. Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Goa Lakshadweep Kerala Tamil Nadu Pondicherry And. & Nico. Is. Jain Population of Jain 42,25,053 2,518 1,408 39,276 2,592 9,249 57,167 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 1.1 1.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0,1 0.0 0.3 0.9 1.0 0.2 0.4 13,01,843 1.3 0.1 0.8 0.1 1,55,122 6,50,493 2,07,11 16,085 183 216 2,093 1461 179 477 772 23,957 55,223 16,301 9,154 56,103 5,45,446 5,25,305 268 864 41,846 4,12,659 820 Proportion 4,528 83,359 952 23 Source: Census of India (2001). Population - 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 Sex Ratio 940 856 877 914 940 930 911 935 960 911 904 664 662 852 842 738 916 906 866 929 928 933 922 925 969 1000 895 942 936 926 885 996 933 900 917 Sex ratio (0-6) 870 887 644 758 940 833 798 849 878 846 853 615 545 768 771 1000 1036 926 922 920 852 895 922 906 832 1071 831 862 912 892 867 845 889 692 500 Proportion of child Population in the age group 0-6 yrs. 10.6 10.9 10.5 10.2 10.0 9.8 11.3 11.3 10.7 11.9 11.0 11.5 15.7 11.7 10.1 16.8 11.9 13.5 10.5 9.6 11.1 10.8 11.7 11.3 9.2 10.8 13.8 10.1 11.3 12.0 11.5 9.7 10.8 11.6 13.0 78 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #93
Table 3.8: Literacy, Female Literacy and Work Participation Rate in India by religious Communities. Religious Communities Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others Total/ Average Literacy Rate 65.1 59.1 80.3 69.4 72.7 94.1 47.0 Female Literacy Rate 53.2 50.1 76.2 63.1 Participation 40.4 31.3 39.7 37.7 40.6 32.9 48.4 39.1 61.7 90.6 64.4 Source: Census of India, 2001 Table 3.9: Literacy rate among the Jains, 2001 Jain State/Union Territory Total population Population 97.4 42,25,053 2,518 1,408 39,276 2,592 9,249 57,167 1,55,122 6,50,493 2,07,11 16,085 98.5 90.8 183 India Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Punjab Chandigarh Uttaranchal Haryana Delhi Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Bihar Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura Meghalaya Assam West Bengal Jharkhand Orissa Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat 1,02,86,10,32 1,01,43,700 60,77,900 2,43,58,999 9,00,635 84,89,349 2,11,44,564 1,38,50,507 5,65,07,188 16,61,97,921 8,29,98,509 5,40,851 10,97,968 19,90,036 21,66,788 8,88,573 31,99,203 23,18,822 2,66,55,528 8,01,76,197 2,69,45,829 3,68,04,660 2,08,33,803 6,03,48,023 5,06,71,017 Literacy Male Female rate literacy literacy rate rate 94.1 97.4 90.6 86.5 89.2 83.3 96.3 97.7 94.8 95.9 94.2 97.3 98.7 95.8 96.3 98.2 94.4 94.2 97.4 90.7 96.8 95.1 94.0 98.6 89.3 93.2 95.9 90.3 93.3 95.7 90.7 93.8 86.2 85.2 91.7 75.7 94.5 96.6 92.2 94.5 95.4 93.5 55.7 82.9 86.9 78.4 69.9 65.3 95.3 97.2 93.0 92.8 96.5 88.9 90.9 95.6 86.0 93.3 96.6 89.6 96.8 98.7 94.8 96.2 93.6 96.0 93.5 79 | Jains in India and Abroad 61.7 65.9 74.1 216 2,093 1461 179 477 772 23,957 55,223 16,301 9,154 56,103 5,45,446 5,25,305 98.5 98.4

Page #94
94.6 94.4 95.4 93.2 Daman & Diu Dadra & Nag. Haveli Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Goa Lakshadweep Kerala Tamil Nadu Pondicherry And. & Nico. Islands 268 864 13,01,843 41,846 4,12,659 820 1,58,204 2,20,490 9,68,78,627 7,62,10,007 5,28,50,562 13,47,668 60,650 3,18,41,374 6,24,05,679 9,74,345 3,56,152 97.5 97.7 98.3 96.5 90.9 96.3 84.3 91.6 90.7 92.3 89.6 77.2 95.2 95.7 4,528 83,359 952 23 95.5 92.2 96.3 100.0 97.6 95.8 98.9 100.0 93.4 88.4 93.6 100.0 LUU.U Source: Census of India, 2001 Table 3.10: Distribution of Category of Workers by religious Communities, 2001 Religious Communities Others Total 3.8 Hindus Muslims Christians Sikhs Buddhists Jains Others Average Cultivators Agricultural Household Labourers Industry Workers 33.1 27.6 20.7 22.0 8.1 29.2 15.3 2.7 32.4 16.8 3.4 20.4 37.6 2.9 11.7 3.3 3.3 49.9 32.6 L 3.2 31.7 | 26.5 L 4.2 35.5 49.1 52.8 47.3 39.2 81.7 14.3 37.6 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Census of India, 2001. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #95
Table 3.11: Work Participation Rate among the Jains, 2001 State/Union Territory Total population Jain Population Work participati on rate Male work Female participatiwork on rate participati on rate 9.2 9.8 10.2 32.9 34.6 33.8 32.7 34.4 30.1 31.1 31.2 30.1 28.8 29.9 38.3 42.6 33.7 India Jammu & Kashmir Himachal Pradesh Punjab Chandigarh Uttaranchal Haryana Delhi Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh Bihar Sikkim Arunachal Pradesh Nagaland Manipur Mizoram Tripura Meghalaya Assam West Bengal Jharkhand Orissa Chhattisgarh Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Daman & Diu Dadra & Nag. Haveli Maharashtra Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Goa Lakshadweep Kerala Tamil Nadu Pondicherry And. & Nico. Islands 37.6 1,02,86,10,328 1,01,43,700 60,77,900 2,43,58,999 9,00,635 84,89,349 2,11,44,564 1,38,50,507 5,65,07,188 16,61,97,921 8,29,98,509 5,40,851 10,97,968 19,90,036 21,66,788 8,88,573 31,99,203 23,18,822 2,66,55,528 8,01,76,197 2,69,45,829 3,68,04,660 2,08,33,803 6,03,48,023 5,06,71,017 1,58,204 2,20,490 9,68,78,627 7,62,10,007 5,28,50,562 13,47,668 60,650 3,18,41,374 6,24,05,679 9,74,345 3,56,152 42,25,053 2,518 1,408 39,276 2,592 9,249 57,167 1,55,122 6,50,493 2,07,11 16,085 183 216 2,093 1461 179 477 772 23,957 55,223 16,301 9,154 56,103 5,45,446 5,25,305 268 864 13,01,843 41,846 4,12,659 820 7.2 13.0 7.4 7.4 6.3 7.3 5.5 4.2 13.7 23.3 5.6 16.3 48.7 15.8 31.6 5.0 55.2 55.9 54.5 56.1 54.5 51.1 52.6 54.4 52.0 50.1 53.2 54.5 55.4 57.5 55.6 69.9 64.3 63.0 57.1 56.5 52.4 54.1 54.1 53.7 56.2 66.4 59.4 57.0 55.3 58.2 60.0 60.9 41.1 48.1 32.9 32.9 30.5 30.5 30.7 31.4 31.9 36.9 35.8 34.5 30.4 39.3 37.1 7.5 7.5 9.3 10.6 3.9 18.8 11.2 4,528 83,359 36.0 32.3 32.0 30.4 59.7 55.3 55.5 58.3 12.3 7.7 6.0 952 23 Source: Census of India, 2001. 81 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #96
Table 3.12: Number of persons and selected population characteritics of Jains in the districts having at least 10,000 Jains, 1981 1. Districts having 100,000 and more SI. District Population Growth rate, 1971-81 Level of Urbanisation Sex ratio No. Average household size 1. 341,980 52.18 100.00 869 5.730 Greater Bombay 3. Belgaum Kolhapur Ahmedabad 127,306 121,722 119,235 15.59 30.51 14.60 21.32 23. 84 95.92 1 946 ,098 955 5.965 6.307 5.573 II. Districts having 50,000-99,999 District Population Growth rate, 1971-81 Level of Urbanisation Sex ratio No. Average household size Udaipur 92,093 38.27 988 5.387 wilon 17.31 46.33 Delhi 73,917 99.41 893 6.017 Sangli 67,304 13.20 25.92 946 5.644 Pune Kachchh Pali 65,907 57,454 50,116 41.85 0.61 12.38 76.19 22.98 43.87 907 1271 1080 6.013 3.987 4.980 10. 1080 ill Dustricts having 20,000-49,999 District Population SI. No. Growth rate, 1971-81 Level of Urbanisation Sex ratio Average househol d size 11. Jaipur 47,416 26.69 74.32 917 5.792 12. Thane 158.75 71.91 857 5.483 13. Sagar 21.95 58.11 913 6.203 14. Ajmer 45,609 45,144 44,263 41,873 39,802 18.82 58.43 928 5.764 15. 20.49 27.44 1,164 5.082 Jalore Bhavnagar 16. 1.68 94.99 917 6.236 82 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #97
49.40 94.99 Indore Ahmednagar 39,074 33,565 32,627 917 936 6.236 5.994 18. 18.47 40.87 19. Barmer 28.37 48.73 989 6.077 20. Bhilwara 32,483 20.71 30.91 Churu 31,645 22.72 77.88 973 1,043 1,028 936 5.467 6.483 5.207 5.628 Banskantha 31,028 21. 22. 23. 24. -2.29 31.20 Meerut 30,710 16.16 64.41 Dharwad 30,629 37.44 41.74 892 6.601 95.23 97.72 829 6.777 25. 26. 27. Bangalore Chandigarh Jodhpur 30,108 29,984 28.10 46.98 940 5.515 29,558 19.82 72.49 940 6.042 28. Rajkot 28,973 -9.08 93.82 1,009 5.403 29. Nasik 28,792 34.17 58.13 9316.248 940 6.397 30. 28,453 20.92 52.65 31. Mandsaur Surendra Nagar 28,358 0.48 81.54 1,006 5.413 Jabalpur 32. 33. 34. 26,858 26,739 38.62 -10.73 29.67 Jamnagar 79.15 56.46 71.09 906 1,034 892 6.153 5.336 Surat 26,312 5.516 Jalgaon 24,589 25.64 54.13 941 35. 36. 5.853 6.784 Bikaner 24,342 9.32 78.40 1,012 37. Sholapur 24,141 14.91 50.35 38. Ratlam 24,096 26.88 80.10 39. Sirohi 23,977 24.90 39.48 928 5.659 932 6.308 1,141 | 4.984 920 5.927 960 5.912 1,037 6.186 40. 23,323 33.36 47.95 Aurangabad Agra 41. 23,179 70.92 9.05 19.43 42. 23,013 51.24 43. Nagpur Bijapur Madras 23,011 28.04 37.79 948 6.717 44. 22,812 32.91 100.00 848 6.595 45. Mahesana 21,347 -11.22 61.90 1,008 5.033 46. Ujjain 20,950 20.54 81.31 924 6.224 47. Calcutta 20,487 8.19 100.00 726 6.632 48. Guna 20,265 27.42 63.52 903 6.775 83 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #98
IV. Districts having 10,000-19,999 sl. No. District Population Sex ratio 49. 50. 51. 52. Growth rate, 1971-81 9.59 27.65 23.40 30.97 42.33 10.24 -6.28 30.04* 31.45 19,062 19,041 18,639 17,073 16,853 16,720 16,242 16,234 15,778 Level of Urbanisati on 84.27 39.79 33.31 48.98 85.53 58.66 64.23 51.56 70.95 53. Average household size 5.314 6.290 5.723 6.438 5.754 5.921 5.366 9.161 6.807 971 934 929 908 | 940 | 937 994 830 883 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 15,719 59.12 36.65 932 5.798 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. Vadodara Tonk Damoh Dhule Nagpur Akola Kheda Lalitpur Bhind Sawai Madhopur Banswara Muzaffarnagar Sabarkantha Valsad Vidisha South Kannad Kota Dungarpur Jaipur Sitara Gwalior Buldhana Yavatmal Osmanabad Parbhani Tikamgarh Shajapur Durg Bhopal Amravati Dhar Alwar 68 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 14,667 14,138 13,857 13,725 13,683 13,646 13,106 11,972 11,474 11,293 11,248 11,168 11,124 11,113 11,100 11,029 10,973 10,835 10,721 10,447 10,339 10,321 40.48 16.35 14.12 22.62 26.27 14.22 28.88 23.00 43.41 26.07 27.78 8.38 28.84 33.57 -7.37 36.23 17.21 39.72** 29.76*** 4.80 11.89 25.36 71.46 49.53 70.12 69.13 15.77 80.39 31.30 84.91 58.79 88.37 48.22 46.15 39.72 51.76 47.07 66.97 73.02 97.17 63.44 56.19 48.78 937 936 1,045 900 921 1,027 891 954 906 934 930 957 924 951 922 | 901 940 877 914 927 943 932 5.774 6.707 5.261 5.492 6.007 5.140 5.756 5.555 7.299 5.689 6.636 5.953 5.923 6.073 5.701 5.729 6.417 6.751 5.634 5.638 6.398 6.236 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 30.50 Source: Jain, M.K. 1986: 48-50. *Relates to Lalitpur and Jhansi districts together in 1981 as no separate population figures are available from 1971 Census. **For Durg and Rajnandgaon together in 1981 as population figures for each of these are not available from 1971 Census. ***Growth rate computed by clubbing Bhopal and Sehore districts of 1981 together as no separate figures are available for them in 1971. 84 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #99
Table: 3.13: Districts Where the Jains Constitute the Third Largest Religious Group. State/District Gujarat Ahmadabad Amreli Banaskantha Bharnagar Gandhinagar Jamnagar Junagrah Kachchh Mehsana Navsari Panchmahal Palam Porbander Rajkot Sabar Kantha Surat Surendra Nagar Vadora Rajasthan Ajmir Bansbara Barmer Bhilwarh Bikaner Bundi Chillorgrh Churu Dansa Dungar Dholpur Jaipur Jalor Jhalawar Jodhpur Karauli Kota Nagaur Pali Rajsaod Swai Madhopur Sikar Sirohi Toak Udaipur Jain Population 525,306 170,093 2,309 18,544 28,921 7,769 21,907 4,291 23,894 7,122 13,575 4,382 5,136 589 30,629 11,198 86,607 22,721 31,566 47,812 18,406 35,744 37,659 31,235 13,186 35,026 13,882 3,908 12,542 2,685 73,631 21,015 11,759 36,694 3,760 23,259 17,478 25,599 20,048 10,660 3,957 12,427 23,644 83,699 State/District Madhya Pradesh Bhopal Chhattarpur Damoh Dewas Dhar Guna Hara Indore Jabalpur Katni Mandsaur Morena NarshaPur Neemach Panna Raisen Rajgrah Ratlam Sagar Satna Sehore Sahjapur Shivpuri Tikamgrah Ujjain Vidisha West Nimad Maharashtra Ahmadnagar Kolhapur Sangali Uttar Pradesh Agra Baghpat Banda Etawa Firozabad Jhansi Lalitpur Delhi Karnataka Jain Population 545,448 22,238 9766 23,818 6,767 12,397 26,326 1,505 63,037 32,3838 5,307 19,519 7,177 8,178 14,626 4,534 10,459 1,854 28,873 59,931 3,162 5,936 13,536 12,093 14,604 24,829 17,757 6,273 38,561 147,285 85,160 18,463 17,929 884 3,176 19,237 7,620 19,797 No district is qualified No district is qualified 85 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #100
Chapter 4 JAIN DIASPORA AND ITS LINKAGES WITH INDIA This chapter profiles the global Jain diaspora that was formed during the past one hundred years or so. The profile is presented in terms of migration patterns as a result of which the diaspora has been formed, population estimates, sectarian composition, economic/occupational status, and the number and activities of socio-cultural associations, etc. At the end of the chapter, Jain diaspora's linkages with India are also discussed. Since the Jain diaspora evolved in close association with the wider Indian diaspora, it would be useful to begin with a brief note on the Indian diaspora. Indian Diaspora Until recently the term 'diaspora' referred to the Jews living in different parts of the world outside Israel their ancestral "homeland". Of late, however, the purview of the term diaspora has been broadened to refer to any population group settled abroad but maintaining close links with its homeland. As such diasporas can be defined as "ethnic minority groups of migrant origins residing and acting in host countries but maintaining strong sentimental and material links with countries of origin- homelands" (Sheffer 1986: 3). - Modern organized diasporas constitute trans-state triadic networks involving ethnic diasporas, their host countries and homelands, and as such they have significant ramifications for international relations and international politics, and other activities. The ties diasporic communities maintain through visits, marriages, remittances, and trade networks, transfer of technology and skills and political lobbying for the homeland are some other aspects of diasporic activities. Like the Jewish, Chinese and other major world diasporas, the Indian diaspora too provides an interesting case study of all these activities. Modern Indian diaspora is about 200 years old largely a creation of British colonialism in India and some other countries of Asia, Africa, Oceania and the West Indies. This is evident from the fact that the vast majority of Indians migrated to the British colonies only 86 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #101
(two major exceptions being Surinam and Reunion Islands - then Dutch and French colonies respectively). Whereas the expanding capitalist plantation economies in the overseas British colonies created a great demand for labour and other occupational groups (especially traders, artisans and government servants), in India a combination of the following factors led to the exodus of Indians abroad: decline of handicraft industry, increase in land revenue, famines in the second half of the nineteenth century, sluggish and enclavist industrialization and mass illiteracy. Indian migration overseas began with the export of indentured, contract or "coolie" labour in the 1830s when following the abolition of slavery in the British Empire labour was needed to work on the sugar plantations in various British colonies. Until the Second World War Indians emigrated mainly as indentured or contract labourers to British Guiana, Trinidad, Surinam, South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius, Reunion; and as kangani or maistry labourers to Burma, Malaysia, Singapore and Sri Lanka. Along with these, the migration of traders also took place, especially to Burma, Malaysia, Fiji, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and South Africa. Such migration, however, was proportionately very small. This form of emigration is known as "free" or "passage" emigration - the nomenclature being derived from the fact that the emigrants paid their own passage and were free in all respects (Jain, P. C. 1990; 1999). Following the Second World War Indian migration to the advanced industrialized countries of Europe and North America had also begun to gain momentum. The post-war economic expansion in these countries created heavy demand for skilled labour and professionals. Simultaneously, immigration laws were also relaxed in Canada and the U.S. This form of overseas Indian migration of skilled and educated personnel, popularly known as the "brain drain", thus resulted in the formation of sizeable Indian communities in Britain, Canada, Australia and the U.S. Since the early 1970s Indians have also been migrating to the oil-rich Persian Gulf and other West Asian countries (Jain, P. C. 2007). Some Indians have been settled down permanently in these countries. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #102
To sum up, five distinctive patterns of Indian emigration during the past two hundred years or so can be identified: (1) indentured labour emigration, (2) Kangani/maistry labour emigration, (3) "free" or "passage" emigration, (4) "brain drain" type, or voluntary emigration to the metropolitan countries of Europe, North America and Oceania, and (5) temporary manpower/labour emigration to West Asia. Whereas the first three forms of migration were colonial phenomena the last two are the results of the inherent contradictions of the post-colonial socio-economic development in India. The current global Indian Diaspora population is estimated at about 30.0 million. Jain Diaspora Since the Jains are not known to have migrated abroad as labourers, in this chapter we are mainly concerned with the last three forms of migration. In other words, the Jains emigrated mostly in relation to trade, business or commerce or as professionals and semiprofessionals. Thus, for example, as "passage" or "free" emigrants they migrated to South Africa, Eastern African countries of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Fiji and Hong Kong (Jain 1990, 1999; Mangat 1969; Ramchandani 1972; Vaid 1972). The Jains also migrated to Britain, Canada, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and many European countries. Lately they have also been migrating to oil-rich Persian Gulf countries and to Israel. It is against this general background of the world-wide Indian Diaspora that the various Jain diasporic communities in different parts of the world are briefly discussed in the following pages. East Africa Although India's trade relations with East Africa go back to antiquity, the sizeable Indian and particularly the Jain diaspora could emerge only after the consolidation of the British colonial rule in East Africa. Thus a beginning was made in 1899 when a couple of Jains migrated to settle in Mombasa. Their descendents can still be found in Kenya (Shah 1977: 371). The Jains as a community in East Africa grew slowly during the inter-war period, and rather rapidly after the Second World War. In 1930 there were about 2,000 Jains in East Africa: about 1,000 in Nairobi, 500 in Mombasa, 100 in Dar-esSalaam, and the rest elsewhere. By the late 1940s their total number was estimated at 7,400: 6,000 in Kenya, 1,000 in Tanzania and 400 in 88 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #103
Uganda (Mangat 1969: 142). "In 1963 the total for East Africa was estimated at 32,000, with a possible 25,000 in Kenya (including 8,000 in Nairobi and 4,000 in Mombasa). The group in Uganda was rather small with a few families in Kampala and some scattered in the smaller townships. In Tanganyika, as well as scattered settlers, there were an estimated 850 Jains in Dar-es-Salaam, and 850 in Zanzibar" (Shah 1977: 372). Almost all the Jains in East Africa have been Shvetambars originating from Western India, particularly Saurashtra, Gujarat, Kutch and Maharashtra. These can be further divided into two main groups: (1) the Visa Oswals, also known as Halari Jains; and (2) the Kutchi Jains. "In Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, the majority of Jains were Visa Oswals, and it was only in Zanzibar that approximately half of the community were Kutchi Jains and the other half Sthanakvasis" (Shah 1977: 372). A great majority of Jains had been Dukawalas or traders, settled in urban areas (Jain 1990: Chapter 4). With the advancement in education in the East African countries, in due course of time some of their descendents also diversified into other vocations. Being mostly traders and professionals the members of the Indian diaspora including the Jains formed a "middleman minority" in East Africa. They faced racial discrimination in East African countries not only from the White settlers but also from the native Africans, particularly during the latter phase of their national independence movements. Consequently many Indians chose to migrate to Britain, Canada, the United States and other countries. In 1972 the Ugandan dictator Idi Amin expelled about 70,000 Indians. Unfortunately we do not know precisely as to how many Jains were affected by these moves and where and when they migrated. A recent report suggests that there were at least 13,000 Jains living in Kenya in 2003; the vast majority being concentrated in the capital city Nairobi and the rest living in Mombasa, Kisumu, Thika, Eldoret, Nakuru and Kitale. Although there are different sects of Jains living in Kenya (Shvetambara Mirtipujaks, Sthanakvasis, Digambaras and a few who follow Srimad Rajchandra), strong sectarianism is absent (Shah 2003: 4). Digambars in Kenya who constitute a tiny minority have a temple called Digambar Jain Chaityalaya in Nairobi that was constructed in 1980. A Shvetambar Jain temple already existed in Nairobi since 89 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #104
1926 and one in Mombaa since 1963 (Dundas 1992: 233). Prominent Jain associations in Kenya and Tanzania are: Young Jains Nairobi; Shree Sthanakvasi Jain Mandal (Jain Bhavan, Forest Road, Nairobi); Jain Shvetambar Derawasi (Lagoni Road, Mombasa); Visa Oshwal Community, Thika; Jain Sangh of Tanzania, Dar-Es-Salaam. Young Jains Nairobi, (YJN) a non-sectarian Jain organisation has been active in Kenya since 1996. Inspired and modeled after Young Jains UK, the YJN has undertaking a large number of projects in the fields of ecology, education, health care, and other aspects of community services in Kenya. Besides establishing an educational institution named Shree Chandana Vidyapeeth in Nairobi, the YJN has adopted several schools for its numerous activities, including distribution of food and scholarships. The ecological projects undertaken by the YJN include tree planting, Nairobi National Park clean-up, paper recycling and water projects, etc. By 2006, the YJN had completed 150 water projects in Kangundu, Kajiadu, Kitui, Machakos and Mbeere districts. Another sixty were in progress. In all, more than half a million families had been benefiting from these projects that provide clean drinking water. The YJN had raised and spent over a million U.S. dollars on them, at times in partnership with UNICEF, Rotary Club International, Lions Club International and other local charitable organisations. Elsewhere in Africa, Sudan hosts a small community of Jains who are of Gujarati origin and are settled in older part of the capital city. There are also small number of Jains in Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Africa, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe perhaps not more than one hundred in each country. Lusaka (Zambia) has an association called Jain Association. West Asia "The ancient Jain canonical text - the Sutrkratanga makes reference to the Jain influence on the Persian King Karusha and the prince Aradak of ancient Persia in circa 558 BCE, i.e. over 2,500 years ago". A medieval text Jagaducharita narrates the life and work of a Jain merchant Jagadu who owned ships and had maintained a trade post at Ormuz and carried out trade with Persia. Whether this kind of migration of Jains during the ancient and medieval periods led to the 90 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #105
formation of significant diasporic communities is not known. What is known with some certainty is the fact that as early as in 1549 "Ormuz had a small colony of the Jains and Hindus who were described "as complete vegetarians and worshippers of cows" (Lach 1965). Historical records of the Jain rulers from southwestern coastal regions of India show that they not only established a sea-route but also transshipped their commodities. These Jain officers and merchants thus made large gifts of precious stones and Jain images to their temples back in their country, and these precious gifts are now vaulted at the Jain matha in Moodbidri, an important Jain town from historic times to the present, situated at about thirty miles from the Arabian sea coast" (Kumar 1996: 49). A very small number of Jains have also been migrating to the West Asian countries, particularly to countries and territories in the Persian Gulf/Red Sea region since the second half of the nineteenth century when the region came under the British influence and/or administration, and economic opportunities were made available in pearl financing and general trade. Aden, Muscat and Dubai were particularly important in this regard. Subsequent to oil-price hike during the 1970s the Jains have been migrating as professionals as well as traders in significant numbers to all the Gulf countries. In fact we do not have much information about the Jains in different Gulf countries. In the United Arab Emirates some five hundred families/individuals were reported to have been living. In Kuwait the reported figure of total Jain families/individuals is about 70-80. Elsewhere there must be a sizeable Jain community in Oman, and much smaller communities in Bahrain, Qatar, Yemen and Saudi Arabia. In Kuwait and the UAE there are branches of the Jain Social Group, a Mumbai-based Jain socio-cultural association. Due to restrictions on non-Islamic religions in these countries, there are no organized religious activities in most Gulf countries. However even then, clandestine organizations and activities may not be ruled out. Thus one Jain informer in UAE told me about the existence of a Jain association that is named as "Haryana". In Kuwait an association is named Arihant Social Group whose members belong to both the major sects of Jainism. One Jain Pandit recently recounted his 91 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #106
experience of conducting and celebrating 18-days long Paryushan Parva in August 2006 in Kuwait (Jain "Sahityacharya" 2007: 5). According to him, different homes were selected for hosting the daily ceremonies in such a manner that no Kuwaiti, Pakistani or other "fundamentalist" individuals should reside in their neighbourhood. These select houses were also supposed to be away from any mosque. A "Happy Birthday" cardboard was displayed at the entrance of the house. Morning worship and religious discourse were frequented mostly by both young and old. In the evening the religious discourse was followed by Aarti and Bhajans. There are about 500 Jain families in UAE, of which about 125 are Digambars. Besides the above mentioned associations the existence of two more socio-cultural associations in Dubai was reported by the Jain Gazzett dated 25th October 2010, namely Arihant Mitra Mandal and Digambar Jain Samaj. International trade in gems and diamonds has led some Jains to settle in Israel as well as Belgium, South Africa, the U.K. and the U.S.A. In Israel there are about thirty Jain families consisting of about 150 individuals. Almost all of them are Gujarati Swetambar Jains tracing their origin to Palanpur, and are involved in diamond business. "The Gujarati community is socially active and, by and large, well respected in Israel. It has set up an informal association called the Gujarati Indian Association that celebrates major cultural festivals" (Report of the High Level Committee on the Indian Diaspora 2001: 115). According to one observer (Shah 1998: 80), "Jain diamond traders have won major export awards both in India and Israel. Jain scholars are made welcome in these places and these unique niche business communities are actively involved in philanthropic work". South and South-East Asia We do not have information about the population of Jains in various South Asian countries, except Nepal in which case there were about 21,500 Jains in the late 1990s (Gall 1998: 565, 567). Current population could be estimated at about 30,000. There is also a Jain Temple situated at Bhagwan Mahavir Jain Niketan in Kathmandu. It serves all the major sects of the Jain community. There are about half a dozen Jain associations in Nepal. The major ones being: Nepal 92 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #107
Jain Parisad. Nepal Swetamber Terapanthi Sabha, Shri Digamber Jain Parisad, Nepal Jain Mahila Mandal, Terapanthi Mahila Mandal, Nepal Jain Yuvak Parisad, etc. (www.nepaljain.com). During the British period a number of Jains migrated to Southeast Asian countries of Burma, Malaya, Singapore, Hong Kong and Japan. In Burma the capital city of Rangoon hosted about 10,000 Jains. In 1956, a Jain temple was constructed there. A military coup in 1958 compelled a majority of them to migrate elsewhere. The Jain population in Myanmar is presently estimated at about 2,000. In Malaysia, Singapore and Hong Kong a considerable number of Jains have been residing for a couple of generations. Malaysia hosts about 3,000 Jains. Almost all of them belong to the Swetambar sect. "They are mostly ethnic Gujaratis, with a lineage in Malaysia of several generations. It is possible that some of the early Jains arrived way back in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in Malacca, which today has a strong Jain community (http://www.jainheritagecentres.com/abroad/malaysia). There is also a Jain temple located at First Garden, Ipoh. It was built by a Jain businessman Bharat Jasani. The Temple houses the idol of Parshvanath, and now serves as a pilgrimage place as well as a cultural centre. It is managed by a charitable trust called Shantiniketan Foundation. The temple is designed after a famous one in Tithal in India. The Jains have been living in Singapore for more than a century now. Although only a few Jains had settled in Singapore during the 1920s and 1930s, their number and organized activities increased only after the World War II. Until 1965, these activities were carried out at 79 Waterloo Street, and since 1978 at 18 Jalan Yasin off Jalan Eunos. The two storey-building named "Jain Sthanak" consisted of a big hall, kitchen, store, parking lots on the ground floor, and an office, a library, and a hall used for religious functions on the second floor. In 1995, a new building with modern amenities was constructed with a donation of Singapore $500,000 by Shrimati Nirmalaben Doshi in loving memory of her husband, Shri Chandulal Doshi, Society's founder trustee and former president. Now the building is named Shrimati Nirmalaben Chandulal Doshi Jain Sthanak. 93 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #108
Presently there are about 1,000 Jains in Singapore, about 95 per cent of them being from the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Singapore Jain Religious Society has been running a "Jain shala (school) every Sunday morning. A chartered bus shuttles the children from their homes to the Sthanak and back. The Society library has religious and cultural books in Gujarati, Hindi and English. Ladies have their satsang every week. The members also use the Sthanak premises for marriages and other social activities (http://www.sirs.org.sg/history.html). Besides the Singapore Jain Religious Society, there are three more Jain associations in Singapore, namely Jain Sangh of Singapore at 54 Arab Street; Jain Sangh in Katong; and Singapore Jain Society on 150 South Bridge Road. The Society is managed by a committee which is elected annually at a general body meeting. In Hong Kong there are about 500 Jains, mainly Gujarati and Rajasthani. Most of them migrated to Hong Kong in 1980s, and are mainly engaged in diamond trading business. The Hong Kong Jain Sangh had founded a Jain temple in 1996. The Jain Centre of Hong Kong Ltd. (4-B, 4/F Wealthy Hts, 35-37 Macdonnel Road) and the Jain International (38a, Macdonnel Road, 4th Floor) are two more Jain associations in Hong Kong. In Japan, the Jain community is relatively small consisting of about 50 families, but a Mahavir Swamy Jain Temple exists in Kobe since 1984. The idol of Bhagwan Mahavir was flown from Bombay in 1984 and the panch kalyanak pratishtha was held in April month of the same year. However the formal opening ceremony of the temple was held on 1 June 1885. The temple is located at Ijinkan quarters of Kitancho, Chou-Ku-Kobe, Japan. Thailand hosts a major Jain community in Southeast Asia. It consists of 500 families of which about 100 families belong to the Digambar Jain sect and the rest to the Swetambar sect. The Digambar Jains have got an association called the Digambar Jain Federation, Bangkok, whereas the Swetambars are organised through an association named Bangkok Jain Sangh. Most of the Jains in Thailand are reportedly doing business in gems and jewellery. A majority of them lives in Bangkok which now boasts of two Jain temples - one 94 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #109
each for Swetambars and Digambars. Whereas the three-storey Digambar Jain temple called Shri 1008 Mahavir Digambar Jain Mandir came into existence in 2006, the Swetambar Jain temple was constructed a few years ago. Interestingly, a periodic Jain pilgrimage tourism from India to Thailand and some other countries of the region has also begun to take place in recent years. Jakarta, Indonesia also hosts a small Jain community of about 80 families with an association Jain Social Group. In other countries of the Asia-Pacific region, New Zealand had only 57 adherents of Jainism in its 2001 census. In Australian census the Jains are not listed separately and therefore they are enumerated along with the Hindus. Small communities of Jains are there in Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth and Sydney - the total amounting to about a thousand souls. There is a Jain temple in Canberra since March 2000, and another had come up in Melbourne in April 2008. In Melbourne an association called Melbourne Shwetambr Jain Sangh is active since 2002. Jain Society of Sydney is located at 38 Ourimbah Road, Mosman, Sydney. United Kingdom Barrister Champatrai Jain was perhaps the first Jain to have gone to England for getting a degree in Law during 1862-67. Subsequently he visited Europe several times, studied Christianity, and wrote a few books on comparative religion (e g., Science, Jainism and Christianity, and Confluence of Opposites). The next Jain scholar to have visited Britain in 1896 and again in 1901 was Virchand R. Gandhi, who was instrumental at that time in getting a few Christians converted to Jainism in the US and the U.K. One such convert Mr. Herbert Warren wrote a book called Jainism in Western Garb (1912). In 1905, J. L. Jaini, a prominent Jain scholar, visited Britain where he wrote and published his well-known book Outlines of Jainism. Besides these scholars a very few Jains immigrated into England either from India or East Africa until the mid-1960s. Since the late 1960s a small number of Jains began to migrate to the U. K. individually under the Commonwealth Immigrants Quota System. About the same time Jains from East Africa also began to settle in England, particularly following the introduction of the Voucher 95 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #110
System by the British Government. The policy of Africanization pursued by the newly-independent East African states that culminated in the expulsion of Asians from Uganda in 1972 was the major push factor for the Jains as well to get out of East Africa (Ramchandani 1978). Some Jains also immigrated into Britain from Ethiopia, Sudan and Yemen during the 1960s and 1970s due to adverse political situations there. Thus of the estimated total population of about 20,000 Jains in Britain in the mid-1990s, about 5,000 were from India and about 15,000 from East Africa and elsewhere (Shah 1977: 371). By the late 1990s there were 30,000 Jains in the U.K. -- 25,000 in London, 1,000 in Leicester, 500 in Manchester and 500 in Birmingham. Presently, the Jain population in the U.K. is estimated at around 50,000. Jains' socio-cultural and religious needs in Britain are being looked after by about half a dozen temples and more than thirty associations. Major Jain temples are: Jain Temple, Leicester; Kailash Giri Jain Temple, London; Shree Parshwanath Digambar Jain Mandir, London and Bhagwan Mahaveer Jain Temple, Middlesex. The Jain Temple of Leicester is located at a converted church which was bought by the Jains in 1980 with the blessings of Shri Chitrabhanuji. The pratishtha mahotsav was held in 1988 under the guidance of H. H. Shri Charukeerthi Bhattarak Maharaj of Shravanbelagola. The Temple has the idol of Bhagwan Chandraprabhu as the main deity. A ten feet high idol of Bhagwan Bahubali in a kayotsrga, goddess Padmavati and other Jain idols are also there in the temple. The Temple premises also have three sanctum sanctorums dedicated to the Shwetambar sect, besides a big hall, a school and a library, the boarding and lodging facilities are also available in the Temple complex. Of the numerous Jain socio-cultural associations in the U. K., the following three are the most important ones: the Jain Samaj Europe, the Oswal Association of the United Kingdom and the Navnat Vanik Association (U.K.). "The Jain Samaj Europe has established a Jain Centre in the city of Leicester. This centre is a major symbol of Jain unity, the first centre of its kind to embody co-operation among Jain groups by including in one building a Shvetambar temple, a Digambar temple, a Guru Gautam mandir, a Sthanakvasi upashraya 96 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #111
and a Shrimad Rajchandra Jnana Mandir. Its fine Jain architecture, including elaborate interior and exterior carvings, has made it a major tourist attraction and place of pilgrimage for the Jains. The Jain Samaj Europe has published books and a journal on Jainism. Jains in Europe are seeking to widen their activities through the creation of inter-faith' links such as the Jain-Christian Association, the Jain-Jewish Association and the Leicestershire Ahimsa Society for the Care of Nature" (Shah 1998: 80). A major initiative taken by the Jains in U. K. was the establishment of Institute of Jainology. The Institute, conceived in 1983 at the first International Jain Conference in London, has campuses in Greenford (Middlesex, U. K.) and Ahmedabad (Gujarat, India). It is a charitable trust registered in 1986. The following are the major aims and objectives of the Institute: (1) To raise awareness of the history, art, philosophy, and practices of the Jain faith to the Jain and the wider community. In particular, to promote its relevance to today's world with regard to key aspects such as the environment and respect for all living beings. (2) To provide a platform for interaction between different community organizations, where all Jains, regardless of their tradition and background, jointly promote the faith with the aim of encouraging a sense of Jain unity. (3) To promote interfaith relationships in order to acquaint the Jain community with other religions to create a better understanding of Jainism. (4) To provide more opportunities for the study of Jainism, both at community level, at institutions of higher learning and to facilitate scholarly research on Jainism through the establishment of scholarships and cataloguing of Jain manuscripts and artifacts. The institute commenced its activities with educational programmes; by bringing guest scholars from India to the UK, publishing newsletters and distributing religious literature and books. In various activities of the institute the Oshwal Association and the Navnat Vanik Association are deeply involved. One of the major achievements of the institute has been the finalization of Jain Declaration on Nature which was incorporated by the World Wide Fund (WWF) on nature in October 1990 as official entry of the Jain faith into the WWF Network on conservation and religion. The preparation of this document involved about thirty scholars from 97 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #112
different countries including late Dr. L. M. Singhvi, a prominent jurist, a Jain scholar, Indian parliamentarian and a former Ambassador of India to U. K. who had prepared the final draft. Among other activities of the institute the translation of the Jain scriptures under the Jain Sacred Literature Trust is important. This included the translation of the 5th century Tatvartha Sutra (a compendium of Jain philosophy and ethics by Vachaka Umasvati) into contemporary English under the guidance of late Dr. Nathmal Tatia and published by Harper-Collins Publishers in 1994. In 2006 the lOJ in collaboration with the British Library also published a Catalogue of the Jain manuscripts of the British Library (in three volumes) compiled by Nalini Balbir, Kanubhai Sheth, Kalpana Sheth and late C. B. Tripathi (2004). Jain Academy of the United Kingdom was founded in 1991 which has been offering an undergraduate course in Jain philosophy and religion from De Montfort University in Leicester. The Academy is also associated with an educational and research centre at Bombay University. The School of Oriental and African Studies of the University of London has also started M. Phil. and Ph. D. programmes in Jain Studies in recent years. Besides U. K., Belgium hosts a well-organised Jain community consisting of about 400 families, numbering about 1,500 persons. They have been there since about the middle of the 20th century. The majority of the Jains lives in Antwerp, and they are engaged in the diamond business. A Jain temple and a meditation centre (upashray) exist in Wilrijk (near Antwerp) which was completed in August 2010. There are two cultural associations in Belgium: one is called Jain Cultural Centre and is located at Hoventerstraat 2, Room 345, 2018 Antwerp, and the other is Jain Ashram located at 15 Ahornen Laan, Wilrijk, Antwerp. United States Sri Virchand R. Gandhi is credited as the first Jain visitor to North America when he attended the Parliament of World Religions in Chicago in 1893. He stayed with the Howard family for two years and lectured extensively on Jainism. His next visit to the U.S. occurred in 1896. Another Jain to have visited the U.S. was Barrister Champat Rai 98 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #113
Jain. He addressed the World Fellowship of Faiths in Chicago on 30th August 1933. A third name often mentioned in this context is that of Sri J. L. Jaini of the World Jain Mission of Aliganj, Etah, India, who had traveled to the U.S., the U.K., Germany and some other European countries. The first Jain settlers in US had arrived in 1944. For the next 30 years a very small number of Jains continued to immigrate and settle in the US. Meanwhile, two Shvetambar Jain monks Shri Chitrabhanuji and Muni Shushil Kumarji did considerably towards propagating Jainism in North America and Europe. The former first visited North America in 1971 and had established many Jain meditation centres and contributed substantially through his discourses and publications. Similarly Muni Shushil Kumarji who first visited North America in 1975 was instrumental in establishing the International Mahavir Jain Mission (IMJM) at Blairstown in New Jersey in 1991, and its numerous branches in the U. S., Canada and other parts of the world. The Blairstown IMJM also known as Siddachalam (The Jain Tirth) has emerged as a major Jain pilgrimage centre in North America. The Canadian headquarter of the IMM is located at Scarborough, Ontario. Until 1950s there was no Jain diasporic community worth the name in the U.S. From 1960s onwards a considerable number of professionals, academics and students began to settle in North America. During mid-1960s the Jain population in North America was estimated at about 15,000; a majority of them being Gujaratis. By the early 1980s this figure increased to "20,000 plus", constituting about one-fourth of the total Jain diasporic population (Dundas 1992: 232). A statistical profile of the Jain community given in the 1986 Directory of Jains shows that the majority of the respondents were either engineers (33.1%) or in the medical field (19.8%); even though Jains are known as businessmen in India, a small percentage (12.1%) are self-employed in the United States" (Williams 1988: 64). By 1990s the population of Jains in the U.S. had increased to about 50,000 and presently it is estimated at 150,000. In the U. S. 80 percent of Jains live in ten states, dominated by New Jersey (16 percent), California 99 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #114
(15 percent), and New York (12 percent), with significant representation in Maryland, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, and Texas. By the mid-1990s there were 55 Jain socio-cultural associations /societies/centres in the U.S. catering to a wide variety of community needs. Currently such associations may number more than one hundred. The Harvard University's Pluralism Project had identified 107 Jain centres/societies in the U.S. by 2007, including about two dozen Jain temples. In order to co-ordinate the activities of a certain number of these associations the Federation of Jain Associations in North America (JAINA) was formed in 1981 "which had more than 6,000 participants in their ninth biannual convention in 1997" (Shah 1998: 82). The 15th JAINA convention was held at Los Angeles during July 2-5, 2009, and the next one is scheduled at Houston, Texas in July 2011. JAINA is a non-sectarian federation of 65 Jain organizations representing more than 140,000 Jains living in the USA and Canada. It was initiated at the first Jain Convention in 1981 in Los Angeles under the guidance of Shri Chitrabhanuji and the late Acharya Sushil Kumarji and formed at the second Jain Convention in New York in 1983. Since that time JAINA has striven to foster brotherhood, friendship, and unity among various Jain communities and to preserve, protect, and promote Jain heritage. JAINA has also been very active in forging relationships with interfaith and multi-faith organizations. JAINA headquarters are located in Getzville, New York, but Jain centres can be found in over half of the 50 states. JAINA functions through more than 300 volunteers from all corners of North America. The Executive Committee of JAINA is elected every two years from a group of Directors nominated by member organisations. Lately JAINA has been very active in developing and publishing educational materials for Jain children so that they are able to fully understand their Jain heritage. The organization is also working to create liaisons with academic institutions in North America to expand the scope of Jain studies. They supported the formation of the Ahimsa Centre at California State Polytechnic University and are 100 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #115
in the process of looking at programs at Stanford University and the University of Pennsylvania. JAINA became a member of Religions for Peace-USA to help better fulfill its interfaith mission. This past May JAINA graciously hosted a meeting of the Executive Council of Religions for Peace-USA in the beautiful new Jain Centre of America in Flushing, Queens. Nearly 30 persons in attendance were treated to a tour of the Temple and introduction to Jainism. JAINA has also been working closely with Religions for Peace International in preparation for the villth World Assembly of Religions for Peace in Kyoto, Japan. Diasporic Jains are particularly keen to pass on their social values and cultural heritage to the next generation. Towards this end the JAINA had established in July 1991 a "committee" called Young Jain Association (YJA) that puts emphasis on projects relating to Jain youth between the ages 14-29. The mission of the YJA is "to be recognized as a national and international umbrella youth organisation for establishing a network to share Jain heritage through young people" (www.yja.org/aboutyja). The objectives of the YJA are: (1) to create a forum for sharing Jain religion; (2) to instill a sense of pride among Jain youth about their heritage; (3) to address the problems, difficulties, and concerns facing Jain youth; (4) to assist and to promote charitable community activities; (5) to prepare Jain youth to become successful Jain leaders of tomorrow; (6) to foster and strengthen local Jain youth groups. The YJA administrative setup includes an executive board and committees for education, publications and the website. The 9th biennial convention of YJA was held in July 2010 in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Judging by the performance of the YJA and the interest shown by various diasporic Jain youth in its activities, the future of the YJA appears to be very bright. In fact the "Young Jain" movement has already spread into many other countries, besides the U.S. Thus we now have associations like Young Jains UK., Young Jains of Singapore, Young Jains of India, Young Jains of Nairobi, etc. there is not only an association named Young Jain Professionals in the U.S., Jain associations have also come up among the university students (e.g. Cambridge University Young Jain Society, Young Jain Students Oxford, Young Jain Students Warwick, etc.). The first national convention of 101 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #116
the Young Jains of India in which about 250 youth between ages 18 and 40 had participated was held during December 23-25, 2005 at Indore. Based on the themes of Ahimsa, Aparigraha and Anekant, the motto of the Convention was "Progress through Jain Way of Life". The Jain community in North America has been slowly moving towards institutional completeness in terms of building temples, establishing socio-cultural associations, attempting to socialize the new generation in the Jaina way of life and increasingly continuing marriages within the community. More than 3,500 Jain youth regularly attend Jain Pathashalas (schools) once a month on Sundays in about 70 Jain centres of North America. The Jaina education committee provides support to all the Pathashalas of North America in terms of text books and other logistics. The Jain Pathahalas at Los Angeles, San Jose, Chicago, Detroit, Houston, New Jersey, Toronto, Washington DC, and Boston centres have 100 to 400 students. North American Jains have a great reputation for supporting humanitarian relief activities, Jivadaya activities, and temple construction. JAINA Education Committee also requests financial support to build the Temple of Knowledge (Jain Jnan Mandir) which can benefit every Jain family of North America and worldwide. Canada Jains in Canada are often hyphenated with their US counterparts. Most Jain activities are also tied up with those of the US Jain communities. In the case of Canada it is difficult to say who migrated first to Canada and when. In all probability the first Jains must have migrated to Canada after India's independence, particularly from the 1950s onwards. Since then a large number of Jains have migrated to Canada first under the Quota system and subsequently under the Point system. These were joined by a small number of East African Jain refugees who were expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin Dada in 1972. As per Canadian Census data, there were 1,410 Jains in 1991 and 2,455 in 2001. It is difficult to reconcile these figures with an estimate that suggested that in the early 1990s there were about 10,000 Jains in Canada (Kumar 1996). According to the same source, all Canadian provinces except Saskatchewan, Prince Edward Island, Yukon and North West Territories, had Jain residents. Ontario was the host to the majority of Jains followed by Quebec and British 102 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #117
Columbia. This trend of geographical distribution still holds good. As in the U.S., in Canada too a majority of Jains reside in urban and industrial centres and happen to be professionals. Diaspora-Homeland Linkages All diaspora by definition are supposed to maintain, a multiple linkages with their respective homelands through trade relations, socio-cultural associational networks, marriage, pilgrimage and tourism, etc. These linkages are initiated and maintained from both the sides. Talking about the associational networks in the case of the Indian diaspora, for example, the annual event of the Pravasi Bhartiya Divas (Indian Diaspora Day) organized by the Government of India since 2003 can be considered as a major initiative by the homeland, whereas the Global Organisation of the People of Indian Origin (GOPIO) that started in 1989 in New York was a diasporic initiative. The Jains are no exception in this regard as can be seen from the activities of some of their socio-cultural associations discussed below. JAINA Earlier we made a reference to JAINA whose membership is open to all the Jains in North America irrespective of their sect, language or region. JAINA is a federation of 65 Jain associations of USA and Canada and as such provides a forum for fostering co-operation and unity among various Jain communities in North America. Its major objectives are as follows: 1. To promote religious and educational activities related to the Jains religion and to develop better understanding of the Jain religion. 2. To assist and promote charitable and humanitarian activities in North America and worldwide. 3. To actively promote vegetarianism and Nonviolence. 4. To provide and promote academic and cultural exchanges amongst Jains everywhere. 5. To assist existing Jain associations and support the formation of new Jain associations in North America. 6. To serve as a liaison with government agencies in pursuance of the above objectives. 103 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #118
7. To foster cordial relationships with interfaith or multi-faith organisations. JAINA is recognized by USAID as well as the Ministry of Welfare and the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India. Its objective is to promote Jain culture and religious values including vegetarianism. Besides holding conventions every two years, the Federation also brings out a journal called Jain Digest which is mailed to 7,500 families free of charge (Times of India, o7th January 1998). JAINA's activities in the US also include promoting and protecting the rights of the members and maintaining their identity. In order to keep Jain cultural and religious heritage alive in the younger generation, Jain Youth Camps are held at regular intervals which also provide them with a forum for exchanging ideas on issues like premarital sex, cross religious marriages, drug abuse and so on. It also provides matrimonial services and sends youths to India on pilgrimage. Jaina Education Committee also organises workshops from time to time on themes that are relevant for the youth living in western countries. In 2010, for example, a workshop was organised on the theme "Striking a Balance: Examining Social, Cultural, and Spiritual Environment". This kind of problem is generally faced by the Jain youth while growing up in North America. JAINA has also instituted its highest award, the Jaina Ratna, which is presented to an individual for exceptional dedication and contribution towards promotion of Jainism in North America. The Federation among other things has proposed to institute a peace prize worth U.S. $100,000. The Jain community in the US has been sending relief and medical supplies not only to India but also to other countries affected by natural calamities. The Federation had won acclaim for assistance rendered to Rwanda refugees during the disturbances there. Teams of doctors have been visiting India to hold medical camps in various parts of the country at the instance of the Federation. Jain International Trade Organisation Earlier known as Shree Jain Vyapar Udyog Seva Sansthan, Jain International Trade Organisation (JITO) was established in 2007 which is a Mumbai-based global association of Jain businessmen, 104 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #119
industrialists and professionals. JITO has the blessings of the Swetamba Jain Muni Padam Sagarji Maharaj. Its major objective is to promote intra-community networking among the Jains and towards this end a global directory of 100,000 prominent Jain entrepreneurs has been prepared. In January 2007, and again in January 2008, JITO organized in Mumbai triple grand events consisting of an international multi-trade fair, a Jain cultural pavilion and an international conference of concerned Jains. On both these occasions the fairs were organized over a sprawling area of 270,000 sq. ft., which housed over 700 stalls. There was a presence across sectors such as gems, jewellery and precious stones, textiles, construction, metals and much more. Pavilions, rooms and conference facilities had been made available for participants from different sectors of industry, including large, small and medium enterprises. The fairs had attracted participation from business persons and speakers from around forty countries over the world. The objective here was to establish lasting networks for personal and professional interaction with a view to identifying various opportunities in trade, commerce and industry. Indore hosted the third JITO fair and convention in January 2009. The fourth fair and convention was held in January 2010 at Ahmadabad. By encouraging the Jains to identify business opportunities in their own community, JITO is giving them the chance to understanding the large and vibrant community that they are part of. Going ahead, JITO plans to achieving several goals-educating and helping businessman, identifying job opportunities, encouraging ethical business practices, setting up charitable institutions, helping the youth enter and succeed in different aspects of public life, settling inter-community disputes amicably and working with the administration to promote good governance. JITO had also launched two new wings called Jain International Women's Organisation (JIWO) and Jain International Youth Organisation (JIYO) in 2007. The JIWO was aimed at providing Jain women a platform to unite and showcase their talent and empower them economically. Similarly, the JIYO's main objective is to provide a platform to young Jain entrepreneurs to interact and gain purposeful knowledge from the experienced and well established business leaders. At the same time JITO had taken initiative for arranging facilities in Delhi and Chennai for coaching 105 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #120
central and state level civil services aspirants. The facilities would also include free boarding and lodging. For promoting education and encouraging bright Jain students to pursue higher studies, JITO has launched JITO Educational Loan Programme (JELP). JITO's objective behind JELP is to ensure that no bright Jain student is deprived of higher education due to lack of financial resources. The Loan Assistance Programme will not only support needy Jain students but also motivate them to aim higher and to be ambitious about their educational career. JITO has finalized with Oriental Bank of Commerce (OBC) a Scheme for providing educational loans at very competitive interest rates and terms. Thanks to its extensive national and international contacts, JITO has recently launched a project called JITO Employment Assistance Programme (JEAP) that, as the name clearly suggests, assists in providing employment to prospective Jain candidates. Lately, JITO has also started providing some funding to Jain candidates fighting elections at various levels of the Indian political structure. It also does lobbying with Indian political parties for getting tickets to potential Jain candidates. Jain Social Groups' International Federation Initially started in Mumbai in January 1965, Jain Social Group (SG), renamed Jain Social Groups' International Federation on 15 August 1980, is a non-profit, non-sectarian global organisation of Jains. In 2003, the federation consisted of 235 groups in India and 15 abroad, with a total membership of about 70,000. Its membership is open to only married couple members. "There are also junior groups for youngsters where single membership is accepted. The federation comes up with a newsletter, the Mangalyatra, where the activities of all groups are mentioned" (Kothari 2003: 22). The founder president of this federation C. N. Sangahavi is also instrumental in the formation of World Jain Confederation and the Indian Vegetarian Congress, among others. The 11th international convention of the Jain Social Group Confederation was held at Udaipur during 23-25 January 2010 106 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #121
International School for Jain Studies One of the major initiatives taken up by some of the Jain associations in North America and the U. K. in 2005 was the beginning of the International Summer School for the Jain Studies that is organized at various places in India and Thailand. The participants include faculty members as well as graduate students from universities of US, UK, Poland, Canada, Singapore, Thailand and Philippines. The programme is supervised by a joint Indo-American Academic Council, presently chaired by Professor Cromwell Crawford of the Department of Religion and Philosophy at the University of Hawaii, USA. The International School for Jain Studies provides an important link between the Jain community and the academic world. The Jain community despite its small number has, and continues to have, a large impact on Indian religious, social and cultural life. The academic study of Jainism is still an underdeveloped area of research. The spirit of the ISSJS is to work towards rectifying this omission in scholarly inquiry by fostering an interest in Jainism in universities around the world. ISSJS programmes are run by International School for Jain Studies, a project of Mahavir Vision Inc, a non-profit organisation. ISJS works in collaboration with Academic Studies of Jainism in North America (ASJNA), World Council of Jain Academies (WCJA) and Jain Academic Foundation of North America (JAFNA), University of Ottawa, American Institute of Indian Studies and Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute (SICI), Calgary and New Delhi. ISSJS programmes were started in 2005 with only seven scholars. Since then about 200 participants have benefitted by attending these programmes in seven annual summer programmes. The participants came from twenty five universities of the world. In April 2009 and May 2010 the ISSJS programmes were also organized at Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. A series of about ten seminars on the theme "Social Consciousness in Jain Religion" have been organised by the School at different cities in India and Ottawa, Canada during the year 2010. In 2010 107 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #122
International Summer School for Jain Studies had conducted four stand alone programmes consisting of sixty scholars and students: A) ISSJS in Bangkok, at Mahidol University: This programme was held from April 25th to May 15th. A total of fifteen scholars including faculty, students as well as some businessmen, and media persons from USA now settled in Bangkok and studying Buddhism were enrolled for the programme. The teaching faculty included two Jain Scholars from India and a few Thai ISJS alumni. B) ISSJS in India: Here three different programmes were offered in the months of May, June and July. These were: a) Ottawa University Programme One three week programme was specially designed for Prof. Anne Vallely's Class at University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada. The class size was of thirteen and included Graduate and Post-Graduate students. Prof. Anne Vallely herself traveled to India to facilitate the programme. b) Three-week programme for eighteen undergrads students from eight universities in USA and Canada. c) Six-week programme for Grad students, Post Docs and full time faculty. This was an advanced level course in Jainism. A total of fourteen scholars participated and they came from USA, Canada, Czech Republic, Thailand, Norway, India, South Korea, Denmark and Slovenia representing eight universities. The ISSJS programme is intended to provide an opportunity to pursue experiential and academic Jain studies in India during the summer months to scholars in philosophy, religion, anthropology, theology and South Asian studies associated with the recognized university systems. During this period the participants study in the cities of Mumbai, Jaipur, Varanasi and Delhi (including Hastinapur) and also undertake a few one day pilgrimage tours to holy Jain centres. The course of study follows a daily schedule of academic lectures by notable Jain scholars covering a range of topics from Jain history, 108 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #123
philosophy, rituals, ethics and contemporary Jain life. An important part of this programme is the opportunity to contextualize what is learned in the class room by visiting academic, historical places of interests, interacting with the members of the Jain community and participating in cultural activities. In addition, ISSJS also provides opportunities to learn languages like Prakrat and Sanskrit, study Jain holy texts like Acaranga Sutra, Uttradhyana Sutra, Rattankarand Shravakachar, Samayasara for short periods. Shree Bharatvarshiya Digambar Jain Mahasabha Shree Bharatvarshiya Digambar Jain Mahasabha is the foremost association of Digambar Jains in India. It was established in 1894 by Seth Raja Lakshmandas Tongya of Mathura, a founder-member of the Indian National Congress. The Mahasabha was formally registered in 1895. Some of the Jain stalwarts who have been associated with the Mahasabha include Raja Dwarikadas Rayees of Mathura; Seth Manikchand, J.P., Bombay; Barrister Champatrai Jain; Sir Seth Hukamchand, Indore; Sir Seth Bhagchand Soni, Ajmer; Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi, Delhi. Mahasabha's numerous activities are carried out through the following five wings, with each of them having a separate set-up: Shree Bharatvarshiya Digambar Jain (Dharma Sanrakshni) Mahasabha (established in 1895), Teerth Sanrakshni Mahasabha; Shrut Samvardhini Mahasabha (2004), Mahila Mahasabha (2006), and Mahasabha Charitable Trust (1988). Since its inception the Mahasabha has been publishing a weekly newspaper "Jain Gazette" in Hindi. Other affiliated organizations also publish monthly magazines namely, Prachin Teerth Jirnoddhar, Shrut Sambardhani, and Jain Mahiladarsh. Mahasabhas' various activities-religious, socio-cultural, educational are concerned with most aspects of the community life of the Digambar Jains. In 2007 the Mahasabha launched a political consciousness forum in order to encourage Jains to have increased participation in the political life of the country. For the past few years the Mahasabha has been active in reviving and establishing its branches in the U. S., Thailand and Kuwait. In the U.S. the Management Guru Dipak Jain heads one such unit at Chicago. The other one is located in San Francisco. Bangkok city not 109 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #124
only hosts a unit of the Mahasabha, but also has a Digambar Jain Temple. The Mahasabha is also attempting to revive the magazine "Voice of Ahimsa" that used to be published during 1920s and 30s, and in which a number of scholars including Barrister Champatrai Jain, J. L. Jaini, Kamta Prasad Jain, Ajit Prasad Jain, etc. were involved. In addition to these activities the Mahasabha's Foreign Department is also attempting to achieve the following objectives: (1) to encourage people involved in the teaching, study and research of Jainism all over the world; (2) to provide guidance and financial help to needy Jain students who wish to go abroad for pursuing higher studies; (3) to host Jain archeological exhibitions from time to time at different places; (4) to establish a guest house in Delhi which would be made available to the Jain visiters from abroad; (5) to publish a quarterly English/Hindi magazine pertaining to the activities of Jains abroad. (6) to get financial assistance from Diaspora Jains for preservation and development of Jain archaeological sites and places of pilgrimage in India; (7) to assist in preservation and development of Jain archaeological sites, old manuscripts, museum artifacts, etc which are located abroad. These objectives suggest that the Mahasabha is actively involved in establishing the multi-faceted homeland-Diaspora linkages within the global Jain community, particularly in North America. These objectives clearly suggest that the Mahasabha is actively involved in establishing the multi-faceted homeland-Diaspora linkages within the global Jain community. Siddhachalam and Sarvodaya Teerth Besides Mahasabha, many other Jain associations and individuals have been involved in different activities. We already alluded to the first U.S. visit of Jain Sthanakvasi Muni Sushil Kumarji in 1975. He was the first Jain Muni to have gone abroad. He extensively lectured in the U.S. not only on Jainism but also on ahimsa, ecological preservation, vegetarianism and world peace. Besides establishing Siddhachalam as a major pilgrimage centre in North America, he was also instrumental in establishing International Mahavir Jain Mission that was recognized by the United Nations as an NGO. At the same time Jainism was also recognized as a major world religion by the U.N. Spread over 120 acres of land, Siddhachalam hosts 27 houses and 110 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #125
two temples, each dedicated to Lord Adinath and Lord Parshvanath. Inspired by Muni Sushil Kumarji, the Jain community in North America has decided to develop Siddhachalam as a Teerthraj. A project called "Shikharji at Siddhachalam" is underway since August 2010 whereby the famous Jain pilgrimage place Shikharji, the Nirvan Bhoomi of 20 Teerthankars, will be replicated at Siddhachalam. The bhoomi-poojan and khanan mahotsava for the same was done on 28th and 29th August 2010. The project is likely to be completed in the next few years. Similarly, Acharya Chandanaji, a disciple of Upadhayay Amar Muni has not only been active in the fields of education, healthcare and rehabilitation works for flood and earth quake victims in Kutch, Bihar and other parts of India through Veerayatan since 1972, she has also established a large retirement and vacation resort community in the U.S. known as Sarvodaya Teerth. Bhagwan Mahavir Chair for Jain Studies Jain Education and Research Foundation established in 2006 by a section of the Jain community in the U.S. to foster the core principles of Jainism has established with one million dollar endowment at Florida International University, Miami. The endowment is a part of a larger initiative by the Jain community to establish an academic education centre. Under the spiritual guidance of Late Acharya Mahapragya, with the blessings from Acharya Mahashraman, and through the efforts of Samani Charitra Pragna (Vice Chancellor, Jain Vishva Bharti University, Ladnun) and Dr. Dipak Jain (renowned educationist and management expert, ex-Dean, Kellogg School of Business, Northwestern University), the foundation established a historic milestone when it endowed a perpetual professorship in Jain Studies at FIU in 2010. It is presently chaired by Dr. Nathan Katz, a professor of comparative religion at FIU. Samani Charita Pragya and Unnata Pragya of Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan, India) have also been associated with the Jain Studies programme since 2006. They have been leading meditation sessions while also teaching graduate and post-graduate courses at FIU. This was the first ever endowed professorship on Jain studies anywhere outside of India. The efforts of JERF have received acclaim all around including special blessings from H.H. Dalai Lama. This is a unique, first ever initiative in 111 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #126
western world by the Jain community and will hopefully pave the way for many more to come in near future. Concluding Remarks The Jain diaspora was mainly formed during the past four decades though its history can be traced back to the late nineteenth century. It made a small beginning in the last decade of the 19" century in East Africa, and has been continuing to flourish there in spite of two World Wars, the great depression, Africanisation and the expulsion of Indians from Uganda. In countries other than East Africa the Jain diaspora could not emerge until the last quarter of the 20th century when the Jains began to emigrate to the industrially developed countries in Europe and North America, Australia, New Zealand, and the Persian Gulf countries. Unlike in India where the Jains continue to remain overwhelmingly a trading community, the diasporic Jains have emerged mainly as communities of professionals. With the increase in their numerical strength over the years the Jain diaspora has acquired an independent identity - independent of the Hindu diaspora. Everywhere they are consolidating their distinct identity and life style by forming socio-cultural or religious associations, building Jain temples and promoting vegetarianism, etc. Of the total diasporic population estimated at about quarter-of-amillion, about 90% of the Jains abroad live in just five countries, namely the US (140,000+), the UK (50,000+), Nepal (25,000), Kenya (15,000), and Canada (5,000). For the past few years the small diasporic Jain population has been exerting a significant amount of influence on the Jains in India through such international associations as the Federations of Jains Associations of North America (JAINA), Jain Samaj Europe, Jain Social Group International Federation, Jain International Trade Organisation, and the International Summer School for Jain Studies, etc. Making people aware about Jainism as a world religion and spreading its messages of ahimsa, peaceful co-existence and vegetarianism appear to be high on the agenda of the Jain diasporic pro-activism. 112 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #127
Chapter 5 TOWARDS A SOCIOLOGY OF THE JAIN COMMUNITY There is considerable amount of literature on the Jain philosophy and religion. The social anthropological and sociological studies of the Jain community, however, continue to remain scarce. This chapter attempts to identify and suggest some of the major areas of the Jain community that require social sciences studies. Before we do so, a cursory look at the anthropological/sociological historiography on the subject would be useful. Sociological studies of Jainism begins with the German sociologist Max Weber's book Religion of India (1958) which contained a halfchapter on Jainism titled "Heterodox Soteriology of the Cultured Professional Monks". This small piece provides significant sociological insight into the structure and functioning of the Jain community and religion. However, his work remained virtually unknown to the world until its translation into English in 1920s. Meanwhile, in the late 1950s an Indian sociologist V.A. Sangave (1980) had published a major work on the Jains which was mainly based on scriptural material and a preliminary social survey. Surprisingly, Weber does not figure in this work. After Sangave's work, no major sociological/anthropological work on the Jains was done for over a decade until 1971 when Balwant Nevaskar published his book on a comparative study of the Jains and the Quakers using some of the propositions of the Weberian Protestant Ethic thesis. Again after a gap of about twenty years or so a group of scholars at Oxford and Cambridge and other western universities began to publish research papers and books based on their fieldwork in India, particularly in Gujarat and Rajasthan (Babb 1998; Banks 1992; Carrithers 1989; Carrithers and Humphrey 1991; Chapple 2002; Cort 1991; Dundas 1992; Folkert 1993; Humphrey and Laidlaw 1994; Laidlaw 1995; Vallely 2003). A cursory look at this rature published since the late 1980s suggest that much of it is concerned with the Jain religious themes such as renunciation, worship, rituals and role of the mendicants in the community. These developments have inspired some Indian scholars (Jain, R.K. 1999; 113 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #128
Jain, P.C. 2004; Lath 1991; Singhi 1991) to undertake social scientific studies of the Jain community. During the late 1980s, the Anthropological Survey of India's People of India Project did collect some descriptive data on about one hundred "Jain Communities" (sic) across India but they are sketchy and repetitive (Singh 1998). Nevertheless, it can fairly be stated that a great scope is there to conduct anthropological/sociological studies on various aspects of the Jain community. Some of these aspects are briefly discussed below. Population Dynamics Jain demography is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. To recapitulate, in modern times, the Jains have been a small religious community in India (Sharma 1976). Thus in 1881 when the first systematic census of India was taken, the total Jain population was enumerated at 1,221,896, that is, 0.48 per cent of the total Indian population. Two million more members were added to the community after the elapse of a century in 1981, and a million more in the next two decades. However, all through these years the Jains never constituted more than 0.50 percent of the total population of India. During the decade of 1981-1991 the Jain population grew very slowly, that is at the rate of only 4.42 per cent compared to 23.17 per cent for the previous decade. The population growth rate however was high (26.0%) during 1991-2001 period giving the impression that the trend of slow growth rate had been reversed. Ironically there are no corroborating data in the 2001 census to this effect. On the contrary, the available data on the fertility behaviour of the Jains, namely the proportion of population in the 0-6 age-group clearly suggest that the community has low fertility rate vis-a-vis other major religious communities. How then to explain the sudden jump in consecutive decadal growth rate from 4.2% to 26.0%. As already explained in Chapter 3, the answer to this question given by demographers and sociologists suggests that the sudden jump occurred not due to change in fertility behaviour but because of "ethnic revivalism" among the Jains - resulting from a community-wide campaign during the 1990s to declare themselves as "Jains" and not Hindus in the 2001 census returns. A similar campaign was done for the 2011 census. 114 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #129
Jains are increasingly becoming urban dwellers. In 1901 about 30 percent Jains lived in urban areas. This figure went up to about 75 percent in 2001 census. For obvious reasons this represents the continuity in rising urbanization trend among the Jains. The 1971 census data also suggest that the Jains are "more urban in the areas where they are few in number and more rural in the areas where they are comparatively large in number" (Sangave 1980: 17). As already discussed, other demographic features include a very high level of literacy, the lowest infant mortality rate, and medium level of sex ratio (940 in 2001). Although spread all over the country, the Jains are found to be heavily concentrated in the western half of India. Thus according to the 1991 census, the five Indian provinces of Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka alone had over 86.0 percent of the total Jain population. If we add two more states to this list, namely Delhi and Uttar Pradesh, then the seven states together accounted for over 94.0 percent of the total Jain population in 1991. In 2001 these seven states accounted for about 90% of the total Jain population - a slight reversal of the trend due to low natural increase and/or out-migration. Bihar, the cradle of Jainism, had less than one percent of the Jains living there. Today Jains in Bihar and Jharkhand are mostly confined to the districts of Aurangabad, Bhagalpur, Bhojpur, Munger, Patna, Ranchi and Hazaribagh. Given the fact that the majority of Jain Tirthankars lived and preached in nd other parts of eastern India, the historical shift from Bihar to western half of India where overwhelming majority of Jains today live is both interesting and intriguing and requires analysis in terms of the changing political economy of India over the millennia. Almost all the Jain community related demographic trends highlighted in various census reports need sociological validation through fieldwork in various parts of India. In particular, extensive studies are required to be done about causes and effects of falling population growth rate, low sex ratio and allied aspects of fertility behaviour. Similarly, in and out migration trends pertaining to Jains in India needs a thorough investigation. With over 75% of them living in urban areas in India, the situation has been causing marriage problems in rural areas as the city and town-based girls are unwilling 115 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #130
to get married in villages. The low sex ratio within the community has already been exacerbating this social problem. Additionally, we need to know the nature and extent of inter-religious and inter-caste marriages taking place among the Jains. Needless to say, similar studies are required to be done on the major Jain diasporic communities. How these communities were formed and got consolidated, what is their economic and occupational status, what are their socio-cultural problems - all these aspects deserve adequate attention of the social scientists. The philanthropic activities of the Jain diaspora and their ramifications on the Jain community in India too are an emergent field of inquiry. Social Organisation In chapter 1 we discussed at some length the social organisation of the Jain community in terms of sect/sub-sect, caste, kinship and family, etc. A few additional observations are added here in the context of some of the ethnographic studies done recently. The social organization of the Digambar Jain sect displays individualistic, prophet derived and sect-like character in contrast to the Swetambar Jainism which shows the group bound, priest derived and church like ambience (See Jain, R.K. 1999: 34). Each sect is divided and subdivided into a number of subsects and sections and sub-sections (Jain, M.U.K. 1975). In spite of being a small community, contestations and confrontations between and within different sects/sub-sects have not been lacking altogether among the Jains (Dundas 1992: 44-48; Jain, R.K 1999: 76-82). Although Jainism does not sanction caste system, the Jain community today is divided into a number of castes and sub-castes. The caste system among the Jains probably arose during the medieval period. However, it is not as rigid as among the Hindus. As Sangave (1980: 81) put it, "Among the Jains the castes were not arranged in a hierarchical order of respectability. No restrictions were put on social intercourse between different caste members and there was no lack of choice of occupation." Recent ethnographic studies suggest that caste rankings are based more on economic status rather than ritual purity (Banks 1992: 253; Dundas 1992; Singhi 1991). Apart from exclusive Jaina castes there are a number of Vaishnav Hindu castes among whom there are Jaina followers. 116 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #131
The Hindu Aggarwals of Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh are the well-known examples who inter-marry with the Jains. In short, the caste system among the Jains has been transmuted into competitive endogamous status groups. Socially, Jains are not a self-sufficient community. Whereas at the all-India level the Jain community can be treated as a statistical category, at the local level it constitutes what sociologists have termed as the "partial community" - partial in the sense that not all kinds of castes and occupations are present in it. In fact an overwhelming majority of Jains are engaged only in so-called "clean occupations". There are no exclusive Jain villages or towns in any part of India or elsewhere. Also, unlike the Sikhs for example, the Jains are neither regionally concentrated nor do they have a particular language or script to identify with. There is some degree of ambivalence among the Jains with respect to their social status vis-a-vis the majority Hindu community. One view is that the Jains are Hindus and as such they fall in the vaishya varna of the varna vyavastha. The other view of course is that the Jains are outside of, and distinct from, the Hindus and their caste system. Empirically we do not know which self-perception is prevalent among the Jains and to what extent. Nevertheless, the two views have differential implications for their ethnic boundary maintenance and their ethnic relations vis-a-vis other communities. Historically, Jainism and Buddhism represent the rise of urban mercantile community in the Indian social structure. The orthogenetic growth of the ancient Indian cities played an important role in the consolidation of Jain faith. Conversely, Jainism and Buddhism became instrumental in the growth of cities and city culture. In this connection Weber (1958: 84) makes the point that whereas in the West, "cities used armed force to protect themselves and gain ascendancy", in India pacificism of urban salvation religions such as Buddhism and Jainism with their emphasis on ahimsa helped develop not only a business-congenial atmosphere in the cities, it was also instrumental in degrading at the same time the peasant way of life vis-a-vis business and commerce. 117 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #132
Besides the role played by the political economy of the ancient Indian cities, the other factor which internally helped in the evolution of Jains as predominantly a business community was Jainism's emphasis on ahimsa. The practice of ahimsa led to the exclusion of the Jains "from all industrial trades endangering life, hence from all trade which made use of fire, involved work with sharp instruments (wood or stone work); from masonry; and in general from the majority of industrial callings" (Weber 1958: 199). Although there is no religious sanctions for doing agricultural work in Jainism, "various restrictions on its practice have been introduced on the basis of ahimsavrata" (Williams 1963: xxii). Sociologically, one of the most important consequences of emphasis on ahimsa in Jainism was the evolution of the Jains as relatively an occupationally homogeneous community. This occupational homogeneity and specialization of Jains must be conceived as part of the process of functional integration within the wider system of division of labour in the Hindu society. This is so because except for religion, for all practical purposes, the Jains function as a caste or status group within the Hindu caste system. While ritually remaining outside the caste system Jains think themselves as equal, indeed superior, to Brahmins (Banks 1992: 253). In Gujarat state where Jains are highly concentrated, they along with Vaishnava Banias are regarded at the top of the social hierarchy (Panchanadikar and Panchanadikar 1970: 25). More or less similar situations obtain in other parts of India. Jain community requires a whole range of anthropological/ sociological studies pertaining to its social structure, social stratification and social change both at micro and macro levels across India in different regional-linguistic settings. Thus for example, the caste system, a basic social structural unit of Indian society, though prevalent among the Jains has not been adequately studied (a few exceptions being Agarwal 1974, Banks 1942, Cort 2004). The scholars have named as many as 84 castes among the Jains, but in actuality the number of caste in a particular locality has perhap never exceeded a dozen or at the most two dozens. Numerous caste associations, their history and activities need to be documented in a more systematic manner than hitherto done. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #133
What kinds of inter-caste relations obtain among Jains in terms of marriage, commensality, food taking, religious observances, etc. are some of the issues that need investigation. Inter-caste competition in business and profession, hierarchal status and mutual perceptions and stereotypes are other related areas of concern to social scientists. Sectarian divide among the Jains in India has been a much studied phenomenon in terms of historical causes, philosophical and ritualistic differences but its sociological significance in terms of monastic organization, life style differences, social and economic attitudes, business ethic, etc. is perhaps yet to be understood. In this context it is more interesting to note that Jain Diaspora at this stage of its existence has been displaying less sectarianism than among the Jains in India. Beside the caste system among the Jains, the Jain family is another institution that needs to be sociologically/anthropologically researched in a wide variety of settings. These settings can be differentiated in terms of rural/urban residence, social/economic class, sectarian divisions, level of urbanisation, etc. The central issue is whether the Jains continue to have the traditional joint family structure or not. What are the structural and functional features of the emergent nuclear family? What is the role of grandparents in this new family? To what extent it is psychologically supportive of the young generation. Problems of alcoholism and drug abuse, and other forms of deviant behaviour also need to be addressed, especially within the context of metropolitan cities. Marriage as an institution has been the corner stone of the Indian family. With the increased pace of urbanisation and modernisation however the marriage institution is increasingly witnessing a number of changes: late marriages, love marriages, divorce etc. Although Jains constitute a separate religious minority community, in matrimonial matters they are governed by the Hindu Marriage Act. Along with the demand for a minority status, there has also been the demand for having a separate Marriage Act for Jains (See Appendix III). Nevertheless, in most parts of the country the Jains follow more or less the same rituals as among the Hindus. In recent decade there 119 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #134
is increasing practice of conducting marriage by Jain priests. Most Jain marriages follow caste/sub-caste endogamy and gotra exogamy. Inter-religious and inter-caste, inter-sect marriages are few and far between, but we do not know preciously the extent of such marriages. Small size of the Jain community, sectarian divide, caste endogamy, low sex ratio, lack of widow remarriage, practicing of Bal Diksaha all these factors have tended to aggravate the problems of marriage among the Jains in that the availability of choice of marriage partners is increasingly being restricted. In the rural areas the situation has got further aggravated by the fact the girls from cities or towns are not willing to get married to boys in rural areas. Needless to say, these issues need sociological investigations. Patriarchy and its impact on the status and role on women and youth are other social issues requiring sociological investigation in the context of the Jain community. Economic Status For over a century now, the relative affluence among the Jains has been noted by a number of scholars (Weber 1958; Hardiman 1996; Stevenson 1915). In some sections of Indian society, namely the peasantry in north and central India, the Bengalis in general, etc. the Jains are stereotypically regarded as wealthy, though obviously they are an economically stratified community. The overall perception of the Jains as a wealthy community can be attributed to the fact that they have traditionally been engaged mainly in trade, commerce, and banking. Since the 18th century a number of Jains have also been engaged in industrial production in a big way. According to Sangave (1980: 356), "The contribution of Jain community is considered to be most prominent in the economic field. In modern industrialization the place of Jains is second only to that of Parsis in India. The names of leading business and industrial magnets of India like Sheth Kasturbhai Lalabhai and Sheth Ambalal Sarabhai of Ahmedabad, Seth Walchand Hirachand, Sir Chunilal B.Mehta, Sir Santidas Ashukaran, Sheth Kantilal Ishwardas and Sheth Punamachand Ghasilal of Bombay, Sir Sheth Hukumchand of Indore, Sir Bhagchandji Soni of Ajmer and Sheth Santiprashad Jain of Dalmia-Jain concerns of Calcutta are, it is stated, sufficient to prove the Jaina contribution to 120 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #135
Indian commercial and industrial advancement. Further the Jains are for the last so many decades the prominent indigenous bankers having branches all over India and even abroad and in this capacity they have catered to the enormous financial needs and transactions of all people." Not surprisingly, the Jains have varyingly been described by scholars as "the Jews of India", "the middlemen minority", "the marginal trading community", "the capitalist without capitalism", etc. (See Bonacich 1972; Hardiman 1996; Laidlaw 1995: 104; Nevaskar 1971). The business and trading character of the Jain community has been continuing even today. Thus according to the 2001 Census, only 18.3% of the Jain population was engaged in "working class" jobs (11.7% cultivators, 3.3% agricultural labourers, 3.3% household industry workers); the rest, that is, 81.7% were in "other" occupations. These other occupations comprise various trade and commercial activities and the modern education-based professions such as teaching, engineering, medicine, law, accountancy, management, information technology, etc. The Jains have also vigorously entered into some new professions such as business management, computer and information technology and healthcare related professions. Thus a large number of them own specialised medical clinics, nursing homes and even hospitals, etc. In the past few years, a number of them have also entered in the field of education by establishing schools and colleges. Some of them have even opened new universities. Theerthankar Mahavir University, Moradabad and Mangalayatan University near Aligarh are cases in point. In these cases it is the individual entrepreneurship rather than the institutional ones (eg. deemed/proposed universities at Ladnun and Shravanbelagola) that need to be underlined. In recent years the Jains have themselves begun to take pride in their affluence and their contribution to the national exchequer. Thus it is claimed that in spite of comprising only 0.5% of India's total population, the Jains' contribution to the country's GDP is about 25%. The Jains' share in direct income tax revenues is about 24%. About 46% of the share market is held by the Jains. They also own up 121 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #136
about 28% of the private property in India. About 62% of the charity donations come from the Jains. And finally, the Jains also constitute an affluent diaspora. It must be pointed out here that these statements that keep appearing in a section of the Jain ethnic and diasporic press from time to time are not based on reliable data, and therefore the readers are warned to take them only provisionally. The relative affluence of the Jains in India still remains to be scientifically quantified. Two contradictory explanations can be offered in regard to the relative affluence among the Jains. One is the Weberian in terms of the Protestant ethic thesis. Weber maintains that there is "a positive relationship between Jainism and economic motivation". Weber seems to suggest that although Jainism is spiritualised in the direction of "World renunciation", some features of inner worldly asceticism are also present in it. These are reflected in such virtues as thriftiness, self-discipline, frugality, abstention, economy of time etc, which eventually promote savings and accumulation of wealth. The other is the Marxist explanation in which the historically-evolved predominantly petty bourgeois class position of the Jains vis-a-vis the dependent, impoverished mass of the Indian peasantry and its exploitation by the former can account for the prosperity of the Jains. Unfortunately hardly any work has been done along these lines although both the perspectives offer a number of hypotheses for systematic studies (Hardiman 1996; Weber 1958). Minority Status As already noted, Jains have been a minority community since at least the beginning of the modern times. Presently the Jains as an affluent minority face two major problems. One of these relate to seeking and maintaining its separate ethnic/religious identity vis-avis the Hindus. The 2001 census figures pertaining to the Jains suggest that ethnic revivalism has been taking place among the Jains. Thus compared to the 1991 census figures where the Jains registered only 4% decadal growth rate, in the 2001 census their growth rate was about 26%. The Indian census authorities as well as demographers believe that this dramatic change in the growth rate is not due to change in fertility behaviour among the Jains, but rather 122 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #137
because of the fact that more and more of them preferred to be returned as "Jains" rather than "Hindus". In spite of the Jains being enumerated separately in Indian censuses since the very beginning, it is unfortunate that they have not been officially accorded the minority status by the Government of India. On 29th October 1993, a notification was issued by the Central Government that included Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists and Zoroastrians as distinct religious minorities, and excluded Jains. This prompted a Jain social activist Mr. Bal Patil to approach the High Court. Subsequently a division bench of the Bombay High Court comprising of Justice Ashok Desai and Justice S.S. Parkar had directed the Central government to take an early decision as to whether the Jains constitute a distinct religious minority or not. Mr. Bal Patil, who filed the petition against the Central Government, has authored a book titled Jainism. He has argued that the Jains do not believe in any Creator of the world, and that they do not accept the Vedas as the supreme authority. Hence, they do not come under the umbrella of Hinduism, argued Mr. Dhananjay Chandrachud who appeared for the petitioner. Although the Central Government was served with notices to appear in the case there was no counsel to represent their point of view in the court. Hence, the matter was heard ex-parte. According to press reports, Mr. Chandrachud told the Court that the Central Government has already decided to confer the status of a distinct religious minority on the Jains and this recommendation was only awaiting the approval of the cabinet. Mr. Chandrachud also told the Court that the sociological, historical and cultural material proved that Jainism was a separate and distinct religion, and the National Commission for Minorities (NCM) considered the Jains as a distinct religious minority. The Commission also noted that Jainism differed from Buddhism in its tenets and beliefs and even the founding fathers of the constitution recognised Jainism as a religion distinct from Hinduism. Therefore efforts are being made by the Jains to seek the legal recognition to their minority status. The Jains have been demanding 123 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #138
minority status at the national level for the past few years with representations in the Central Government, National Minority Commission and State Legislatures. The Supreme Court of India had directed the Central Government to take a final decision in this regard by 28th November 2004. Subsequenly, the central government had decided in 2009 to make necessary amendments in the constitution to accord the minority status to the Jains. However, the amendment act is yet to be passed by the Indian Parliament. After a long time there is a Jain Minister of State in the cabinet. In response to the affidavit filed by the Central Government the Supreme Court had also subsequently given the ruling that under section 30 of the Constitution of India, the decision about according minority status on the grounds of language or religion can be taken y the respective State governments and not by the Central Government. Thus, so far only eleven Indian states/union territories, namely Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Tripura, West Bengal, Delhi and Andhra Pradesh have already granted minority status to the Jain community. Apart from the numerical and legal aspects of minority status, more serious problem relates to the progressive erosion of the Jain values, or the Jain way of life, particularly among the younger generation, and amongst those settled abroad. The disintegration of the caste system, increasing inter-caste/religious marriages, use of alcohol and non-vegetarian food are some of the concerns of those who wish to retain the traditional value system of Jainism. The second problem with which the Jains have to come to terms with is their slow growth rate which had come down to as low as about 4% in the 1991 census and was expected to come down further. However, the 2001 census data with over 26% decadal growth rate do not confirm this trend. It is widely believed that this high growth rate of Jains in the 2001 census was due to ethnic revivalism and not due to any change in their fertility behavior. Therefore only the next census report would be able to confirm the slow growth rate trend decisively. Logically, the affluent minorities of the world such as the Jews and the Parsees share the predicament of 124 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #139
demographic stagnation and eventual decline in the long run and the Jains appear to follow the same trend. Political Status Being mainly engaged in business and professions and thereby being economically well-off the Jains appear to have little time or desire for entering the field of active politics. At least this has been so for the past few decades. A large number of Jains vigorously participated in India's national independence movement. Whereas thousands of Jains went to jails all over India as freedom fighters during the first half of the 20th century, at least 20 of them were hanged to death by the British for their varying acts of patriotism (Jain 2006). As Prof. Sangave (1980: 355) put it, In the Non-Co-operation Movement of 1919 many Jains left the Government service or abandoned the legal practice and in the 1942 struggle the Jaina students who lived together became the nerve centres of revolution. In supplying finance to national movements the contributions of Jainas, it is clearly mentioned, was greater as compared to their number in the country. Those who could not participate directly did contribute in an indirect manner. The Jains are intensely national and they whole-heartedly supported the Indian National Congress. It must be remembered that even though they form a small minority community they never demanded for them specific rights like separate electorate or reservation of seats in Assemblies. After India's independence, six Jains, namely Mr. Ajit Prasad Jain (Saharanpur, UP), Mr. Balwantsinha Mehta(Udaipur, Rajasthan), Mr. R. L. Malviya (Sagar, MP), Mr. Bhawani Arjun Khimji (Kutchha, Gujarat), Mr. Chimanbhai C. Shah (Saurashtra, Gujarat) and Mr. Kusumkant Jain (Indore, MP) were members of the Constituent Assembly of India. A small number of Jains were politically active in initial decades after independence. Thus there were 35 Jain members in the first Parliament of India comprising the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha. This number got progressively reduced to the extent that in the current parliament there are only three Jain members in the Lok Sabha, and two in the Rajya Sabha. The reasons 125 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #140
for this state of affairs are not difficult to find. The small population of the Jain community, lack of adequate concentration in any particular parliamentary/legislative constituenties, sectarian and factional disunity do not generally encourage any political party to put up a Jain candidate in today's caste/community-based electoral politics. A few of them who are selected for the job are either chosen on the basis of their extraordinary personal integrity and/or social influence or on the basis of their money power. The general mood within the community during the past few decades therefore has been one of political indifference or apathy. In a country ridden with caste and communal politics, so the argument goes, the Jains as a tiny minority community find it difficult to mobilize enough votes and support for their candidates. So the next best thing for them has been to indulge in "indirect politics", as it were, by making donations or even bribing the political parties or political leaders. The infamous Jain Hawala case in which scores of politicians (of different political parties) and bureaucrats had allegedly received funds from abroad through the Jain Brothers is symptomatic of this phenomenon. During 60 years of India's independence Jains have produced only about half a dozen Chief Ministers in Madhya Pradesh and one in Rajasthan, a handful of cabinet ministers in the central government and only a small number of ministers/members of legislative assemblies in various Indian states/Union Territories. The enlightened opinion in the Jain community is that there has been a deficit of politicians among them which has hampered their progress on issues such as the declaration of Jains as a minority by the states as well as the Union governments. Many problems pertaining to the Jains have remained unresolved in various Indian states due to "political weakness" of the community. With these considerations in mind the Jain Political Forum was launched in June 2007 by the members of the All India Digambar Jain Mahasabha, Delhi which also has separate wings for Women and Youth. Recently the Jains have joined hands with some of the Hindu Vaishnav/Bania castes in order to enhance political representation through various political parties. Thus, on 19th September 2010 a political convention was held in Lucknow in which a number of politicians from both the 126 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #141
communities participated under the banner "Vaishya Self-Pride Mahakumbh". Notwithstanding the deficit of politicians however, Jain community has certainly produced scholars, authors, saints and philosophers, educationists, engineers, doctors, scientists, teachers, lawyers, accountants, bureaucrats, publishers, filmmakers and social activists in numbers disproportionate to their size in India (See Appendix IV). Against this backdrop the entire range of political activities of Jains at national, provincial and local levels need to be studied. Thus, for example, why only Madhya Pradesh could produce so many Jain Chief Ministers? Or, what explains the rise of Veerendra Kumar as two-time M.P. and minister from Kerala which has a Jain population of only 4,000 in the entire state. The history, organisation and functioning of various Jain associations such as Young Men's Jaina Association, Shree Baharat Varshiya Digambar Jain Mahasabha, Shvetambar Jain Mahasabha, All India Shvetambara Jain Conference, All India Sthanakvasi Jaina Conference, Dakshina Bharat Jaina Sabha (Digambar), Maharathtriya Jain Sabha (Shvetambar), Bharat Jaina Mahamandala, All India Digambar Jain Parishad, Bhartiya Jain Milan, etc. need to be analysed. At the same time, ethnic Jain press/journalism, journalists and their associations need our attention. Attention is also needed to take stock of Jain academic/religious magazines and journals. Finally, Jain professional associations (of Chartered Accountants, Engineers, Doctors, Pandits, etc.) as well as the Jain NGOs are to be sociologically investigated. To sum up, the Jains as a community display a less interactive role in politics and humanitarian events. Proactive and physical participation appears to be lacking among the Jains which they try to compensate by making donations for various causes of their concern. Dualistic Organization Like the Jews and Parsis, the Jains are basically a trading community. Such "marginal" communities are characterized by their having the dual ethic or dual value system (e.g. absolute vs relative, in-group vs out-group, etc.), which help them in adjusting with their respective majority communities on the one hand and in maintaining their own 127 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #142
separate identity on the other. The Jains can be considered distinct from the Hindus in more or less the same way in which the Sikh and the Buddhists are. German scholar Max Weber maintains that the Jains are an exclusive "merchant sect" (sic) and that there is apparently "a positive relationship between Jainism and economic motivation which is otherwise quite foreign in Hinduism". Weber seems to suggest that although Jainism is spiritualised in the direction of world renunciation, some features of inner worldly asceticism are also present in it. In Max Weber's typology of religions the basic orientation of Jainism is characterized as "other worldly asceticism". As Weber (1958: 195) put it, "it is spiritualized in the direction of world renunciation. Homelessness is the basic holy concept. It signifies the break of all worldly relations. Thus, above all, indifference to all sense perceptions and avoidance of all action based on worldly motives". The ultimate aim of a Jain ascetic is to attain nirvana, which means "salvation from the body, the source of all sin and lust of all limitations of spiritual power". Corresponding to these goals, an elaborate and severe code of conduct exists for the Jain monks. It must be pointed out here that Weber's ideal typical form of extreme asceticism is required to be practiced only by a minority of monks and that, too, step by step. The layman, unless he wishes to do so, is not required to follow this path of salvation. As Basham (1959: 292) rightly maintains: "Full salvation is not possible to the layman. In this Jainism differs from Buddhism and Hinduism, which concede it in very exceptional cases". According to Jain belief Mahavir was the last Tirthankar to reach Nirvan. In these degenerate days, the only hope for layman and even for monks lies in ending up in one of the 16 heavens, depending upon their past and present karmas (incidentally, there are 7 hells). This dualistic (or, better to say "stratified") ethical code and corresponding religious organization and their organic integration into a single continuum is a unique feature of Jainism. The following rather lengthy quotation from Jaina Yoga by Williams (1963: xxi) adequately summarizes the ethical dualism present in Jainism: 128 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #143
The polarity of householder and ascetic is indeed one of the most characteristic features of the Jaina structure. The layman has the obligation to cherish his family; the monk must sever all ties with them. The layman is enjoined to perform dravyapuja: not only does he offer fruits and flowers and sweetmeats but he cleans the image, and if he has skill in music and dancing (accomplishments which when put at any other use are regarded as undesirable and indeed harmful) he should display it; the monk on the other hand may offer only mental praise. Even if the tradition provides that as little water as possible should be used, the household must still bathe frequently, but in theory at least the ascetic should never bathe. The monk - the Digambara monk-should be naked but the layman has to be decently clad, and for all religious ceremonies must wear at least two pieces of cloth. This antithesis of the partial and the complete vows disappears to some extent in some of the avasyaka rites where the layman is assimilated to the ascetic but in general it may be said that where the monk is excessive, since his life is the negation of compromise, moderation must be the keynote of existence for the householder whose life is rooted in compromise. In Jainism the notion of ahimsa (non-violence) has been pushed to the extreme. It prohibits not only physical violence to any creature (including vegetables) but also violence in thought (bhavhimsa). Observance of ahimsa again reflects the characteristic dualism. Thus while a layman takes only partial vow of ahimsa, an ascetic is required to take greater vow. In case of layman, to practice ahimsa in milder form is based on two considerations: (1) a householder has to earn a livelihood, and (2) he has to safeguard himself and his country against enemies. In spite of this however, "there has never been a Jain war - the Jains never attempt to convert anybody to Jainism; nor do they trespass on anybody's territory" (Harshadbhai Sanghrajka, http://www.jainology.org accessed on 12/1/2007). The dualism is present not only in ethical practices and organization of the religious order of the Jains, it is reflected at the metaphysical and the epistemological levels of the Jain philosophy as well. In Jainism consciousness (jiva) and matter (ajiva) both are real for they 129 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #144
both exist. For the Jains world is not an illusion; it is real. But epistemologically speaking, this is valid only from the empirical standpoint (paryayarthika naya). From the transcendental point of view, however, Reality and Existence, and Reality and Substance are identified as one which finds expression in a cryptic proposition of a Jain classic: "All is one because all exists" (Tattvarth-Sutra Bhasya, I. 35). Spiritual individualism or "individuation" and familism constitute another set of dualism which is very strong among the Jains. Individuation refers to the individual quest for salvation and in the case of Jainism it is particularly derived from its elaborate karma theory. The essence of familism on the other hand is filial obedience and parental authority. At the metaphysical level, the sense of individual responsibility in Jainism stems from what Weber (1958: 108) in case of Protestantism termed "an unheard-of inner isolation of the individual". The gap between human frailty on the one hand and the belief in the perfectibility of man on the other further intensifies this inner isolation. In the case of Jainism, this resulted neither in "radical devaluation" nor in "mistrust" of human relationships as Weber finds in the case of Protestantism. Therefore, it should not be surprising that contrary to Calvinist anti-familism "in its emphasis upon a first obedience to one's own soul and to God" (Strodtbeck 1958: 156), the Jains display rather a strong sense of familism and jointness of the family. Although the emphasis on familism restricted the growth of impersonal relationships, and national formal organization, nevertheless, it contributed towards normative and functional integration of the joint family and consequently a sense of discipline which is so essential in business and commerce. Although no crossreligious studies exist regarding the extent of breakdown and disorganization of joint family in India, it can well be hypothesized that the practice must be less among Jains (Jain 1986). Joint family not only checks division of property, it is less "expensive" and encourages savings. Joint family bonds also help businessmen in retaining a tight control over their resources and management. 130 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #145
Family plays an extremely important role in imparting skills and training to the younger generation regarding trade and commerce. When these occupations become hereditary it is but natural that for each successive generation, older generation must serve as a "reference" group. In the process the collective representations are also passed on to the next generation perpetuating gerontocracy and socio-cultural conservatism in general. Religious Ethic Taking into account this pervasive dualism, it is difficult to label Jainism as only "world rejecting" asceticism. But at the same time while it cannot be labeled as "inner worldly" asceticism, some of the characteristics of this ideal type are indeed present in Jainism. Thus as briefly discussed below the twin doctrines of predestination and the calling implied in Protestantism are only indirectly present in Jainism but they must be understood in the light of the doctrine of Karma, and not in relation to God. Many aspects of rational conduct promoting savings such as thriftiness, self-discipline, frugality and abstention as part of this worldly concept of asceticism, however, are directly present in Jainism. In Jainism salvation does not depend upon the grace of God, for as an atheist religion it denies the existence of God. Instead, it places singular emphasis on "individualism" in the sense that every soul can attain perfection - its true "dharma" (nature), i.e., perfect wisdom, unlimited perception, infinite power and unbounded happiness, etc. What hinders it from doing so is its increasing bondage with Karmicmatter (psycho-physical micro-particles). Karmas are destroyed only when moksa or nirvana is attained, which means perfect freedom of the soul from all kinds of matter (see Jaini 1979). In Jainism karma functions automatically; one is responsible for one's thoughts, words, and acts. No one, not even the God, can intervene in this routine. This is something very characteristic of Jainism. In order to stop the influx of karmas one is required to have right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. It is not sufficient to stop the influx of bad karmas and destroy the accumulated karmas, it is also necessary to "earn" good karmas. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #146
Therefore, a Jain must always be on his guard, apprehensive of sin. According to the author of Jaina Yoga, a Jain "works hard, conforms to conventions, obeys constituted authority, leads a frugal and unostentatious life, and carefully calculates the consequences of every step he takes. This conception of the lay life which follows logically from the dogmas of the creed is assuredly the main factor responsible for the close association, so often noted, of Jainism with the middle-class trading community. Such a conclusion is very far from the view, which falsifying the picture of its origins, regards it as tailor made for the bourgeoisie" (Williams 1963: xxii). McClelland (1961: 369) comparing three religiously diverse minority business communities of India, i.e., Jains, Vaishnava Hindus and Parsees, seems to be correct when he writes: "What all these religious viewpoints appear to mean for the individual behaviour is a sense of being religiously on his toes, so to speak. He must consider the religious significance of every act, not in the ritualistic and brahminical sense but in the sense of having to make a responsible decision as to whether he is showing reverence for life or contributing to his eternal salvation" (emphasis added). In the "negative" sense this McClelland finds reflected in the denial of their handing over the religious authority to the experts (priestly class) or "tradition that prescribe minutely for them how they should behave ritually". Weber (1958: 204) rather misunderstands this "innovative individualism" when he writes of Jainism: "Its ritualistic attitude was not completely clear and could not be in the absence of a supramundane God and an ethic anchored to his will. While the sect is constituted on the principle of strict separation and while the laity is bound to the monks, it has not been provided with a fixed ritual of its own". This strong religious and ethical foundation whose popular expression we find in Bania stereotype of being "strict about ritual purity and religion in general" (Miller 1975: 63) offers a well-rounded commercial ethic. Limitation of desires and self discipline are important qualities for a successful businessman in the long run. One of the five basic vows for a layman, the self-prescribed limitation of possession (parigraha-pariman vrara) is perhaps directly responsible for cultivating these qualities. Stevenson (1915: 209) writes: "The 132 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #147
Jaina have shrewdly realized that the true way of increasing our wealth is by curbing our desires. When we remember that the Jaina creed has forced its holders to become a commercial people, we can see the special value this view of limitation might have, if it were really lived up to". More direct attempts at savings of time as well as money by the Jains can be seen in the absence of expensive rituals among them which, by way of comparison, are absolutely essential for traditional Hindus. The death ceremony is a case in point. Among the Jains the mortal remains of the dead are not necessarily taken to the confluence of sacred rivers or to the places of pilgrimage; instead they are consigned to a local river, lake, and pond or even in the bushes. "Jains neither performs the shradha ceremony nor gives Dana or gifts to Brahmins" (Sangave 1980: 345). Pindadana, i.e., the custom of offering rice balls to the dead has no sanction in Jain religion, and the custom of giving death feasts is also on the decline, particularly in big cities. Perhaps the Jains were also first among those who adopted one-day marriages (instead of three-four days long ceremonies), and group marriages for the poorer sections of their community. At the individual level the prescribed simple way of life further helped in having considerable savings. In the words of Nevaskar (1971: 198-99): "Abstinence from intoxicants, meat, and honey, avoidance of status pride and anger regulated the daily life of a Jain. He simply had no way left in which to squander his wealth." Thus, to quote Weber (1958: 201), "as with the Puritans, the strict methodical nature of their prescribed way of life was favourable in accumulation of wealth." Jainism as a religion is relatively a better researched area, especially in terms of studies of rituals and worship, role of mendicants, duties of laymen and laywomen, sect-wise organisation of religion, and religious ethic, etc (See Babb 1998, Carithers 1989, Cort 1991, 2001; Folkert 1993, Humphrey and Laidlaw 1995, Weber 1958, Williams 1963). Still, lots of sociological investigations are required in all these areas. Thus for example, what percentage of Jain population is deeply motivated by the concept of moksha, and the Jain path of liberation, and therefore rigorously follow the course of householder's duties is a moot sociological question. How the 133 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #148
householders perceive and put to practice various anuvratas, gunavratas, shiksha vratas, etc. and how many of them are at what stage of eleven pratimas are some of the questions that need investigations in order to understand the nature of religiousity among the Jains (Banks 1992; Cort 2001; Laidlaw 1995). At the more basic level, the knowledge as to how many Jains routinely avoid the use of leather goods, honey, wine, onion, garlic, potato, tomato, non-vegetarian food items, etc. will be further useful. Is there any gender or generational variation about these issues? Jainism's origin, growth and spread across India are also better researched areas (Ayyangar and Rao 1922; Desai 1957; Guseva 1970; Jain, J.P. 2005; Jaini 1979; Sangave 1980; Shah 1932) along with its emphasis on opposition to the caste system, dominance of priestly caste, ritual sacrifices, secondary status of women, slavery and monarchical basis of polity, etc. However, comparative religious studies vis-a-vis Judaism, Christianity, Islam, etc. are needed. Jainism as a religion and way of life can well be compared with various forms of Shiism practised by such trading communities as Bohras and Khojahs, or Ismailis in which case the control of the priest on the adherents of Islam is relatively high. Various Vaishnavite sects of Hinduism also have considerable resemblance to Jainism in ethical conduct and rituals. In these comparisons the nature of indoctrination, the role of mendicants and other religious intermediaries and particularly the head priest or head of the church, the "closed" nature of the community, religious ethic, etc. would be the fruitful points of departure. Beyond the history of Jainism in different regions of India for different periods of time which is rather well documented, we need to have historical studies of Jain communities in various major cities and towns across India. These should incorporate not only Jains' entrepreneurial activities, but also incorporate aspects of their political, socio-cultural and religious life. Their maritime commercial activities also need to be documented. The changing nature of the Jain monastic organisation, particularly in Digambar Jainism in terms of competition for religious power among various religious agents such as munis, bhattaraks, tyagis and 134 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #149
pandits; and their inter-relationships with the seths (wealthy businessmen) and the laity deserve our attention. This complex relationship not only generates power politics within the community but also sets the tone of religious discourse and practices at a given point in time (Jain 1999: 80-82). There is a growing tendency of "domestication" among the Jain Munis whereby they appear to have developed a stake in a particular place that is organised somewhat like a Math (See also Carrithers 1989). Even a certain amount of politics and rivalry among them has been noticed by alert observers. Along with ethnic revivalism one can also see the rise of religious fundamentalism, particularly in north India in terms of punitive fines for night eating and even arranging marriage ceremonies during the night. Segmental Orientation Drawing upon the Weber's typology of asceticism and mysticism, Clark (1973: 87) "draws attention to an apparent regularity or recurrent pattern in the relationship of the two religious types to the social context in which they occur". In general he argues that while asceticism is characterized by "segmental orientation", mysticism by "stratificatory orientation". He substantiates his thesis on the basis of a comparative study of Judaism and Hinduism which are representatives of asceticism and mysticism respectively. The assumption behind this typology is that religious groups invest their energy along either of the two dimensions of conflict -- segmental conflict between provinces, states, empires, etc. on the one hand, and stratificatory conflicts between classes and status groups on the other (Clark 1973: 87). In other words, segmental orientation is primarily characterized by "out group" conflict while stratificatory orientation by "in-group conflict". The typology, however, is not necessarily bipolar and does not rule out the possibility of a single continuum between asceticism and mysticism as well. In the case of Jainism, the segmental orientation particularly in its formative period is well documented whereby it had to wage a constant battle for its existence against "Hinduism" and later on Buddhism. Thus, the claim for religious superiority and distinct 135 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #150
identity is one factor in maintaining its segmental orientation. Another factor contributing towards Jain's segmental orientation was their minority and "peripheral" status in relation to Hindu majority. Their occupational specialization further rendered it a relatively closed system in spite of its open door policy to all, irrespective of caste, class, and creed. Segmental Orientation of Jains helped them prevent from developing elaborate stratificatory orientation within, i.e., caste system, etc. Segmental orientation of a community creates hindrances in its adjustment with other communities. Apparently this must have been more so in the case of Jains who predominantly as a community of traders and merchants had to be dependent on non-Jains for various services as well as market. This places them in a paradoxical situation of isolation and adjustment. More than anything else the survival of Jainism and the disappearance of Buddhism from India during the medieval period clearly highlight the nature of this paradox. Accounting for Jainism's ability to weather the Muslim assault during the 12th and 13th centuries, Horenle (1898), Stevenson (1995/1915) and Lamb (1958) suggest that Jain monastic organization largely explain this phenomenon. Lay adherents, though part of the monastic organization, do not live in monasteries. Thus when monastic settlements were assaulted by Muslims, lay adherents still survived taking refuge among Hindus, who themselves were subjected to harassment. This sympathy or affinity was not incidental. As already mentioned there are many similarities of religious beliefs and practices between the two. Among others, the Jains share with the Vedantins the notion of soul (atma) and its reincarnation and karma theory, although Jainist notion of soul (jivatma) derives from animism and has far-reaching implications in their system of thought. Buddhism, on the contrary, altogether denies the existence of the soul. Stevenson (1915: 6) further observes that Jain's "worship exactly resembles Hindu worship, and their domestic chaplains, though not their temple officials, are still Brahmins." Thus, unlike Buddhism, Jainism did not cut itself off from the core Hindu community. As part of the mechanism of this adjustment Jains also started incorporating 136 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #151
the Hindu pantheon heroes like Rama, Krisna, etc. into their mythology and wrote their stories within the framework of Jainist theology and interpretation. They also started participating in several Hindu festivals on one pretext or the other giving their own Jainist reasons for doing so. Thus the process of "Hinduization" (or is it "Jainisation"?) can be thought to be aimed at boundary maintenance and cultural "self-sufficiency" as it were, and thereby maintaining the segmental orientation. Inter-Ethnic Relations Jain's sense of tolerance and peaceful coexistence with other communities can be related to their epistemological doctrine of relative pluralism (nayavada) which puts emphasis on nonablolutism (anekantvad) in regard to seeking truth and knowledge. It states that the reality can be comprehended from an infinite number of standpoints which have been classified into seven types known as saptabhangi naya (seven-fold standpoint). In other words, no single proposition can express that whole of Reality. And even then "the truth of each affirmation is... only conditional, and inconceivable from the absolute point of view. To guarantee correctness, therefore, each affirmation should be preceded by the phrase 'syat' ('may be') (Dasgupta 1963: 179). This doctrine is known as syadavad (doctrine of may be). In short, the doctrines of anekant and syadavad constitute one of the distinguishing features of Jainism. The Jains are particularly proud of this part of the Jain philosophy and in all probability it reflects in their definition and perception of social reality. In the wider context of the Indian socio-cultural diversity and pluralism, inter-ethnic relations of Jains vis-a-vis major religious and ethnic communities require anthropological/sociological investigation. Historically, the Jain had to suffer a lot, especially in the medieval period in South India when Hinduism was being revived. Not only hundreds of Jain Munis were put to violent death, Jain and Buddhist temples were destroyed and/or converted into Hindu places of worship. In modern times with the exception a few violent clashes between Jains and Hindus over the contents of Jain Ramayan, and some other issues, the relations of Jains with the Hindus and other ethnic groups 137 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #152
have by and large been cordial. Nevertheless, the Jains do maintain varying degree of social distance vis-a-vis rest of the communities in India. In different parts of India Jains tend to behave like upper caste Hindus and as such they did and do practice untouchability against the Dalits. An experiment of integration of Dalits (Bhangis in Udaipur) into the Jain fold under the auspicious of Acharya Tulsi could not go smoothly far enough (see Shyamlal 1981). However, on the positive side of it, the Jains do maintain cordial relations including intermarriages with Hindu Banias in many parts of India, particularly in Gujarat, Western U. P. and most metropolitan towns. The services of Brahmin priests are utilized on the occasions of birth and marriage. And the Rajput and other Kshatriya castes are treated respectfully by the Jains. In village India the Jains have been the part of the Jajmani system. It is equally important to study the inter-ethnic relations of the Jains with Muslim, Sikh, Christian, Parsi, Buddhist and other religious communities. Conceptual Frameworks Two major considerations have to be made in relation to any sociological study of the Jains, or for that matter, any other minority community in India. The first one is that the Jain community cannot be studied in isolation. Socio-economic development, changes in value system, social structural changes, demographic changes, community's role in politics - all or any of these aspects can be studied only in the wider context of the Indian society, and that too in the historical perspective. The second consideration relates to the fact that sociology is a multiparadigmatic social science, and as such a number of theories are available to analyse various social phenomena pertaining to the Jain community. At the macro level theories of modernization and Marxist/neo-Marxist theories provide two mutually opposed paradigmatic perspectives on community's contemporary as well as historical developments and social changes. As already pointed out, Max Weberian Protestant Ethic thesis can additionally be useful in analyzing the prosperity, business ethics and socio-cultural life style of the followers of Jainism. At the micro level, symbolic interactionism can take care of family situations. Ethnomethodological and other phenomenological theories too can 138 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #153
fruitfully be used in order to analyse the self-perception and identity of the Jains in various regional-linguistic settings. The case study method would be appropriate for investigating activities of any social unit, institution etc. of the Jain community. Many other phenomena such as consumption patterns, voting behaviour, opinion polls, etc. can adequately be taken care of by survey research methods. In short, a wide variety of theories and methodologies are available for researchers for carrying out anthropological/sociological studies. Conclusion The current status of anthropological/sociological literature clearly suggests the need for more systematic studies of Jainism and the Jain community. The list of topics suggested here for social science research is not exhaustive. Clearly there is an urgent need for identifying the knowledge gaps in the anthropological/sociological studies of the Jain communities. The compilation of a good bibliography on the Jain community should be the first major step towards building a credible body of social science on the subject. Besides anthropology and sociology, history and political science and demography are other disciplines that can further enrich the social science studies of the Jain community. Hitherto too much emphasis has been placed on the researches of the Jain philosophy, religion and literature. In the process the social science studies have been totally neglected. The community and its leadership therefore need to be sensitized to the importance and the lopsided development of the Jain social studies. Before it is too late, a well thought out strategy by the Jain research institutions, associations, business houses and NGOs to plan and execute social science research projects on the Jain community is the need of the hour. The lack of specialists and funding constraints might be the major stumbling blocks in this regard. But then for a prosperous community like the Jains it should not be difficult to overcome these hurdles. In this regard, the Jains can learn a lesson from the Jews who constitute one of the most researched communities in the world. 139 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #154
S No. State / UT 1 2 13 14 15 16 7 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 India India India India India India India India Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andaman & Nicobar Islands Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh Population by religious communities Religious Communities Hindu Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Muslim Appendices Christian APPENDIX-I All Religious Communities 1,028,610,328 532,156,772 496,453,556 Hindu 827,578,868 428,678,554 398,900,314 Muslim 138,188,240 71,374,134 66,814,106 Christian 24,080,016 11,984,663 12,095,353 Sikh 19,215,730 10,152,298 9,063,432 Buddhist 7,955,207 4,074,155 3,881,052 4,225,053 2,177,398 2,047,655 6,639,626 3,332,551 3,307,075 Sikh Buddhist Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain Other Religious Communities 356,152 Persons 246,589 29,265 77,178 1,587 421 23 238 76,210,007 67,836,651 6,986,856 1,181,917 30,998 32,037 41,846 4,768 Males 192,972 163,180 134,878 111,711 15,736 40,529 873 Females 310 12 128 13,529 36,649 714 111 11 110 38,527,413 37,682,594 34,278,050 33,558,601 3,562,239 3,424,617 580,319 601,598 17,264 13,734 16,342 15,695 21,613 20,233 2,450 2,318 140 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #155
25 26 27 28 579,941 217,195 12,726 102,606 1,475 72,618 518,027 162,740 7,949 102,942 390 170,410 30 18 31 130 86 168,613 168,786 33 35 36 37 13,777,037 12,878,491 8,951,108 8,345,347 4,252,691 3,987,920 502,756 483,833 13,508 9,011 26,322 24,707 12,840 11,117 Sikh 38 39 11,795 11,204 41 42 Arunachal Pradesh All Religious Communities 1,097,968 Arunachal Pradesh Hindu 379,935 Arunachal Pradesh Muslim 20,675 Arunachal Pradesh Christian 205,548 Arunachal Pradesh Sikh 1,865 Arunachal Pradesh Buddhist 143,028 Arunachal Pradesh Jain 216 Other Religious Arunachal Pradesh 337,399 Communities Assam All Religious Communities 126,655,528 Assam Hindu 17,296,455 Assam Muslim 8,240,611 Assam Christian 986,589 Assam 22,519 Assam Buddhist 51,029 Assam Jain 23,957 Other Religious Assam 22,999 Communities Bihar All Religious Communities (82,998,509 Bihar Hindu 69,076,919 Bihar Muslim 13,722,048 Bihar Christian 53,137 Bihar Sikh 20,780 Bihar Buddhist 18,818 Bihar Jain 16,085 Other Religious Bihar 52,905 Communities Chandigarh All Religious Communities 900,635 Chandigarh Hindu 707,978 Chandigarh Muslim 135,548 Chandigarh Christian 7,627 Chandigarh Sikh 145,175 Chandigarh Buddhist 1,332 Chandigarh 2,592 Other Religious Chandigarh 257 Communities Chhattisgarh All Religious Communities (20,833,803 Chhattisgarh Hindu |19,729,670 Chhattisgarh Muslim 409,615 43,243,795 39,754,714 36,077,374 32,999,545 7,061,908 6,660,140 43 44 26,913 26.224 45 46 11,057 10,220 8,446 19,723 8,598 7,639 47 48 27,336 25,569 49 Cham 50 51 506,938 403,191 21,539 3,947 76,000 717 1,336 393,697 304,787 14,009 13,680 69,175 615 52 o 53 54 55 Jain 11,256 56 1136 121 57 10,474,218 10,359,585 19,915,670 19,814,000 210,829 198,786 59 141 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #156
60 Chhattisgarh 61 Chhattisgarh 162 Chhattisgarh 163 Chhattisgarh 164 65 66 67 68 169 70 71 72 173 74 75 176 177 78 79 181 182 83 84 85 186 187 188 Chhattisgarh Dadra & Nagar Haveli 189 90 91 Dadra & Nagar Haveli Dadra & Nagar Haveli Dadra & Nagar Haveli Dadra & Nagar Haveli Dadra & Nagar Haveli 80 Daman & Diu Dadra & Nagar Haveli Dadra & Nagar Haveli Daman & Diu Daman & Diu Daman & Diu Daman & Diu Daman & Diu Daman & Diu Daman & Diu Delhi Delhi Delhi Delhi Delhi Delhi Delhi Delhi Goal Goa Goa Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities 220,490 206,203 Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist 401,035 69,621 65,267 56,103 95,187 Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Hindu Muslim 6,524 6,058 123 457 Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities 158,204 Hindu 141,901 Muslim 12,281 Christian 3,362 Sikh 145 Buddhist 126 Jain 268 Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist 864 90 103 13,850,507 11,358,049 1,623,520 130,319 555,602 23,705 155,122 2,174 1,347,668 886,551 92,210 198,471 36,662 32,444 29,186 47,255 121,666 98,824 113,650 3,855 3,185 96 279 456 48 92,512 83,569 6,827 1,729 192 92 134 202,564 32,959 32,823 26,917 47,932 57 92,553 2,669 2,873 27 178 408 42 65,692 58,332 5,454 1,633 153 134 134 46 7,607,234 6,243,273 6,249,351 5,108,698 911,006 712,514 62,763 67,556 288,675 266,927 12,958 10,747 80,150 74,972 1,162 1,012 687,248 660,420 462,186 424,365 49,391 42,819 142 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #157
170,680 590 Goa 970 188,888 380 292 385 357 95 Jain 435 189 164 26,385,577 24,285,440 23,538,770 21,604,304 2,370,832 2,222,022 142,881 141,211 24,987 20,600 9,439 8,390 266,768 258,537 Jain 14,452 14,246 92 Goa Christian 359,568 93 Sikh 94 Goa Buddhist 649 Goa 820 Other Religious 96 Goa 353 Communities 97 Gujarat All Religious Communities 50,671,017 98 Gujarat Hindu 45,143,074 99 Gujarat Muslim 4,592,854 100 Gujarat Christian 284,092 101 Gujarat Sikh 45,587 102 Gujarat Buddhist 17,829 103 Gujarat 525,305 Other Religious 104 Gujarat 28,698 Communities 105 Haryana All Religious Communities 21,144,564 106 Haryana Hindu 18,655,925 107 Haryana Muslim 1,222,916 108 Haryana Christian 27,185 109 |Haryana 1,170,662 110 Haryana Buddhist 7,140 111 |Haryana Jain 57,167 Other Religious 112 Haryana |1,255 Communities 113 Himachal Pradesh All Religious Communities 16,077,900 114 Himachal Pradesh Hindu 5,800,222 115 Himachal Pradesh Muslim 119,512 116 Himachal Pradesh (Christian 7,687 117 Himachal Pradesh Sikh 72,355 118 Himachal Pradesh (Buddhist 75,859 119 Himachal Pradesh Jain 1,408 120 Himachal Pradesh Other Religious 425 Communities 121 Jammu & Kashmir (All Religious Communities (10,143,700 122 Jammu & Kashmir Hindu 3,005,349 123 Jammu & Kashmir Muslim 6,793,240 124 Jammu & Kashmir Christian 20,299 125 Jammu & Kashmir Sikh 207,154 126 Jammu & Kashmir Buddhist 113,787 127 Jammu & Kashmir Jain 2,518 11,363,953 9,780,611 10,041,282 18,614,643 654,040 568,876 14,175 13,010 618,558 552,104 4,004 3,136 29,914 27,253 Sikh 701 554 3,087,940 2,939,150 66,173 4,220 38,118 39,066 2,989,960 2,861,072 53,339 3,467 34,237 36,793 750 658 212 213 5,360,926 4,782,774 1,647,533 1,357,816 3,525,446 13,267,794 12,733 7,566 114,524 92,630 58,610 55,177 1,357 1,161 143 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #158
128 Jammu & Kashmir 129 Jharkhand 130 Jharkhand 131 Jharkhand 132 Jharkhand 133 Jharkhand 134 Jharkhand 135 Jharkhand 136 Jharkhand 137 Karnataka 138 Karnataka 139 Karnataka 140 Karnataka 141 Karnataka 142 Karnataka 143 Karnataka 144 Karnataka 145 Kerala 146 Kerala 147 Kerala 148 Kerala 149 Kerala 150 Kerala 151 Kerala 152 Kerala 153 Lakshadweep 154 Lakshadweep 155 Lakshadweep 156 Lakshadweep 157 Lakshadweep 158 Lakshadweep 159 Lakshadweep 160 Lakshadweep 161 Madhya Pradesh 162 Madhya Pradesh Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Hindu Muslim Christian Sikh Buddhist 97 Jain Other Religious Communities All Religious Communities Hindu 26,945,829 18,475,681 3,731,308 1,093,382 83,358 5,940 16,301 3,514,472 52,850,562 44,321,279 6,463,127 1,009,164 15,326 393,300 412,659 115,460 31,841,374 17,883,449 7,863,842 6,057,427 2,762 2,027 4,528 Jain Other Religious Communities 2,256 All Religious Communities 60,650 Hindu 2,221 Muslim 57,903 Christian 509 Sikh Buddhist 16 1 0 10 60,348,023 55,004,675 51 13,885,037 13,060,792 9,582,113 8,893,568 1,924,730 1,806,578 541,703 551,679 45,348 38,010 3,151 2,789 8,457 7,844 1,766,245 1,748,227 26,898,918 25,951,644 22,549,324 21,771,955 3,302,582 3,160,545 497,205 511,959 8,811 6,515 206,227 187,073 214,244 198,415 58,715 56,745 46 15,468,614 16,372,760 8,690,473 9,192,976 3,776,371 4,087,471 2,981,790 3,075,637 1,611 1,081 2,268 1,153 31,131 1,776 28,921 422 6 10 0 10 1,151 946 2,260 1,103 29,519 445 28,982 87 10 1 10 10 31,443,652 28,904,371 28,685,595 26,319,080 144 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #159
1,991,181 85,356 80,122 107,416 283,359 1,850,268 85,025 70,650 101,906 262,087 Jain 201,734 207,551 50,400,596 46,478,031 40,496,085 37,363,300 5,437,926 4,832,559 530,975 527,338 117,736 97,601 2,977,607 2,861,103 670,236 631,607 Jain 119,113 117,728 1,095,634 505,108 96,787 373,173 163 Madhya Pradesh Muslim 3,841,449 164 Madhya Pradesh Christian 170,381 165 Madhya Pradesh Sikh 150,772 166 Madhya Pradesh Buddhist 209,322 167 Madhya Pradesh 545,446 168 Madhya Pradesh Other Religious 409,285 Communities 169 Maharashtra All Religious Communities 196,878,627 170 Maharashtra Hindu 77,859,385 171 Maharashtra Muslim 10,270,485 172 Maharashtra Christian 1,058,313 173 Maharashtra Sikh 215,337 174 Maharashtra Buddhist 5,838,710 175 Maharashtra 1,301,843 Other Religious 176 Maharashtra 236,841 Communities 177 Manipur All Religious Communities 178 Manipur Hindu 996,894 179 Manipur Muslim 190,939 Manipur Christian 737,578 Manipur Sikh 1,653 182 Manipur Buddhist 1,926 183 Manipur Jain 1,461 Other Religious 184 Manipur 235,280 Communities 185 Meghalaya All Religious Communities 12,318,822 186 Meghalaya Hindu 307,822 187 Meghalaya Muslim 99,169 188 Meghalaya Christian 1,628,986 189 Meghalaya Sikh 3,110 190 Meghalaya Buddhist 4,703 191 Meghalaya Other Religious 192 Meghalaya 267,245 Communities 193 Mizoram All Religious Communities 1888,573 194 Mizoram Hindu 31,562 195 Mizoram Muslim 10,099 196 Mizoram Christian 772,809 197 Mizoram Sikh 326 198 Mizoram Buddhist 70,494 1,071,154 491,786 94,152 364,405 562 901 668 1,091 1,025 793 117,106 118,174 1,176,087 168,517 52,455 812,961 1,810 2,513 |1,142,735 139,305 46,714 816,025 1,300 2,190 Jain 772 405 367 133,899 133,346 459,109429,464 23,528 8,034 7,946 2,153 389,155 383,654 125175 3 6,540 33,954 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #160
199 Mizoram 103 1,231 76 1,212 200 Mizoram 201 Nagaland 202 Nagaland 203 Nagaland 204 Nagaland 205 Nagaland 206 Nagaland 207 Nagaland 1,047,141 96,808 21,690 922,406 774 761 1,130 942,895 56,354 13,315 867,943 Sikh 378 595 2,093 1963 208 Nagaland Jain - 179 Other Religious 2,443 Communities All Religious Communities (1,990,036 Hindu 153,162 Muslim 35,005 Christian 1,790,349 1,152 Buddhist 1,356 Jain Other Religious 6,108 Communities All Religious communities 36,804,660 Hindu 34,726,129 Muslim 761,985 Christian 897,861 Sikh 17,492 Buddhist 9,863 Jain 9,154 Other Religious 361,981 Communities All Religious Communities 1974,345 3,150 2,958 209 Orissa 210 Orissa 211 Orissa 212 Orissa 213 Orissa 214 Orissa 215 Orissa 18,660,570 18,144,090 17,615,951 17,110,178 391,234 370,751 443,245 454,616 9,448 8,044 5,1804,683 4,736 4,418 216 Orissa 180,156 |181,825 486,961 487,384 217 Pondicherry 218 Pondicherry 219 Pondicherry 220 Pondicherry 221 Pondicherry 222 Pondicherry 223 Pondicherry 425,459 28,303 32,214 70 419,990 31,055 35,474 Sikh 38 41 32 |451 501 224 Pondicherry 83 75 225 Punjab 226 Punjab 227 Punjab 228 Punjab 229 Punjab 230 Punjab 231 Punjab Hindu 845,449 Muslim 59,358 Christian 67,688 108 Buddhist 73 Jain 952 Other Religious 158 Communities All Religious Communities 24,358,999 Hindu 8,997,942 Muslim 382,045 Christian 292,800 14,592,387 Buddhist 41,487 39,276 Other Religious 8,594 Communities All Religious Communities 56,507,188 12,985,045 11,373,954 4,874,765 4,123,177 213,023 169,022 154,673 138,127 7,692,776 6,899,611 22,171 19,316 20,523 18,753 Sikh Jain 232 Punjab 4,655 3,939 233 Rajasthan 29,420,011 27,087,177 146 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #161
234 Rajasthan 235 Rajasthan 236 Rajasthan 237 Rajasthan 238 Rajasthan 239 Rajasthan 26,122,326 2,482,394 36,591 432,534 5,734 331,871 24,029,126 2,305,833 36,069 385,886 4,601 318,622 240 Rajasthan 12,895 2,358 241 Sikkim 242 Sikkim 243 Sikkim 244 Sikkim 245 Sikkim 246 Sikkim 247 Sikkim Hindu 50,151,452 Muslim 4,788,227 Christian 72,660 Sikh 818,420 Buddhist 10,335 Jain 650,493 Other Religious 5,253 Communities All Religious Communities 1540,851 Hindu 329,548 Muslim 7,693 Christian 36,115 Sikh 1,176 Buddhist 152,042 Jain 183 Other Religious 12,926 Communities All Religious Communities |62,405,679 Hindu 54,985,079 Muslim 3,470,647 Christian 3,785,060 Sikh 9,545 Buddhist 5,393 Jain 83,359 Other Religious 7,252 Communities All Religious Communities 3,199,203 Hindu 2,739,310 Muslim 254,442 288,484 177,900 5,346 18,428 1,061 78,191 110 252,367 151,648 2,347 17,687 115 73,851 73 248 Sikkim 6,519 6,407 31,400,909 131,004,770 27,732,367 27,252,712 1,718,511 1,752,136 249 Tamil Nadu 250 Tamil Nadu 251 Tamil Nadu 252 Tamil Nadu 253 Tamil Nadu 254 Tamil Nadu 255 Tamil Nadu 1,864,044 1,921,016 5,515 2,887 43,114 4,030 2,506 40,245 256 Tamil Nadu 3,854 13,398 1,642,225 1,405,428 130,788 257 Tripura 258 Tripura 259 Tripura 260 Tripura 261 Tripura 262 Tripura 263 Tripura 52,815 1,556,978 1,333,882 123,654 49,674 108 48,347 228 1,074 50,575 249 264 Tripura 726 551 Christian 102,489 Sikh 1,182 Buddhist 98,922 Jain 477 Other Religious |1,277 Communities All Religious Communities 166,197,921 Hindu 133,979,263 Muslim 30,740,158 Christian 212,578 Sikh 678,059 265 Uttar Pradesh 266 Uttar Pradesh 267 Uttar Pradesh 87,565,369 78,632,552 70,756,011 63,223,252 16,028,562 14,711,596 108,430 104,148 361,320 316,739 268 Uttar Pradesh 269 Uttar Pradesh 147 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #162
159,408 108,350 142,623 98,761 Jain 4,961 4,320 4,325,924 3,646,560 539,740 4,163,425 3,565,700 472,401 13,833 13,283 111,723 6,992 100,302 5,442 4,458 4,791 270 Uttar Pradesh Buddhist 302,031 271 Uttar Pradesh 207,111 Other Religious 272 Uttar Pradesh 9,281 Communities 273 Uttaranchal All Religious Communities 18,489,349 274 Uttaranchal Hindu 7,212,260 275 Uttaranchal Muslim 1,012,141 276 Uttaranchal Christian 27,116 277 Uttaranchal Sikh 212,025 278 Uttaranchal Buddhist 12,434 279 Uttaranchal Jain 9,249 Other Religious 280 Uttaranchal 770 Communities 281 West Bengal All Religious Communities 80,176,197 282 West Bengal Hindu 58,104,835 283 West Bengal Muslim 20,240,543 284 West Bengal Christian 515,150 285 West Bengal Sikh 66,391 286 West Bengal Buddhist 243,364 287 West Bengal Jain 55,223 Other Religious 288 West Bengal 895,796 Communities Source: Census of India 2001 437 333 141,465,985 38,710,212 30,069,503 28,035,332 10,470,406 9,770,137 257,337 257,813 36,738 29,653 122,877 120,487 28,631 26,592 451,334 444,462 APPENDIX - 11 Table: Distribution of Population of Indian Religious Communities by Caste Categories Religion/Caste SCS STS OBCs Others All 100 100 100 100 Hindu Muslim Christians Sikh Jain Buddhist Zorastrian Others Total 22.2 0.8 9.0 30.7 0.0 89.5 0.0 2.6 19.7 9.1 0.5 32.8 0.9 2.6 7.4 15.9 82.5 8.5 42.8 39.2 24.8 22.4 3.0 0.4 13.7 6.2 41.1 26.0 59.5 33.3 46.1 94.3 2.7 70.4 8.7 30.8 100 100 100 100 100 Source: Distribution obtained from merged sample of Schedule 1 and Schedule 10 of NSSO, 61 round Survey. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #163
APPENDIX - III Letter to the Prime Minister of India Requesting the Enactment of Separate Jain Marriage Act Hon'ble Shri Manmohan Singh Prime Minister of India 7, Race Course Road New Delhi Hon'ble Shri Manmohan Singh Ji, Sub: Enactment of JAIN MARRIAGE ACT- Request for With due respect we have the honour to submit herewith the following facts for your kind perusal and consideration and passing necessary orders on the subject of Enactment of a separate JAIN MARRIAGE ACT so that the followers of Jain Religion may register their marriage under the proposed Jain Marriage Act instead of Hindu Marriage Act as done at the moment. We have very solid grounds for saying so which are based on the following amongst other grounds: 2. That Sir, Jainism is an important, fully developed and well-established religious and cultural system, purely indigenous to India and totally different from Hinduism. It has been proved beyond doubt that Jainism is different from Hinduism and that Hindu Law is not applicable on the Jain Community. That Sir, many states in India including Delhi, West Bengal etc have declared Jain community as religious minority community and as such the Hindu Marriage Act should not be applicable on the Jain Community. That Sir, Late Sri Jawaharlal Nehru, the erstwhile Prime Minister of India has mentioned in his famous book "Discovery of India" that Jainism is different from Hinduism. He further states that with our present knowledge of Jainas and their sacred literature, it is not difficult to prove that Jainism, far from being an offshoot of Buddhism or Brahmanism, was one of the earliest home religions of India. That Sir, Dr. Hermann Jacobi and others are also of the opinion that Jainism was related to the primitive philosophy of India, because of certain of its metaphysical conceptions, animistic beliefs, rituals or morals. 149 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #164
5. 6. 7. That Sir, in the Hindu religious scriptures, marriage is termed as "Yagna" and those who did not pursue this "Yagna" were described as "Yagnaheena" and were looked down upon. But in Jaina tradition, a marriage is said to be completely performed when it was held according to the Jaina rituals. A marriage in Jain community is held under the presence and witness of 'Deva, Shastra and Guru", and also in the presence of elderly people known as 'Panchas' and it is said to be formally completed only after taking seven-fold rounds ("Saptapadi") of a pot containing 'Fire'. Only then, a marriage is said to be actually performed according to Jain rituals. That Sir, according to Jaina tradition, a marriage is a religious act which includes in itself the sixteen moral acts (Samskar). The reason behind taking seven-folds rounds of a pot containing 'Fire' is that the children born out of the wedlock may achieve the seven most important posts like 'Sajjati' "Sad Grahasthata", Muni Diksha, Indra Pad, Chakravarty Pad, Tirthankar Pad, Nirwan etc. For achieving these most holy posts, the seven fold rounds are taken which is called 'Saptapadi'. That Sir, as already said, in the Jaina tradition, marriage is said to be a religious act and as such a marriage is said to be performed according to Jaina rituals if only it is held under the presence and/or witness of Deva who is represented by either an idol or a 'Yantra' and only after performing "Hawan". The most learned Jaina Acharya Pujyapada of 5th Century A.D. has said that a marriage is said to be performed only when it is performed in the presence of 'Deva', 'Dwija' (Pancha), 'Fire' (Devadwi jagni Sakshipurvak Kanyadan Vivaha). From the above points, it is crystal clear that the marriage system of the Jain community is totally different from that of the Hindus. We, therefore, implore upon the Central Govt. to enact a separate Jain Marriage Act so that the people belonging to the Jain community may perform their marriage according to the Jain tradition and rituals and for this act of kindness, we shall remain ever grateful to you. Thanking you, Yours Sincerely, Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi, National President Bharatvarsheeya Digambar Jain Mahasabha, New Delhi (The letter was written sometime in May, 2007) 150 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #165
APPENDIX - IV Twentieth Century Jain Public Figures (The following lists are by no means exhaustive) Acharyas 1. Acharya Atmaramji - Guru of Acharya Vijay Vallabsuriji. 2. Shrimad Rajchandraji - 19th Century philosopher/mystic. 3. Acharya Vallabhsuri - Jain Acharya of 20th Century; A postal stamp of Rs. 4.00 was issued in his honour by the Government of India in 2009. 4. Virchand R. Gandhi (1864-1901) - Barrister and Jain scholar, First Silver Medalist Jain at First Ever Parliament of World Religions at Chicago, USA (1893); A postal stamp of Rs. 5.00 was issued in his honour by the Government of India in 2009. Kanji Swami - 20th Century philosopher/mystic/founder of Kanji Swami Panth. 6. Champaben - 20th Century philosopher/mystic. 7. Acharya Bhikshu - Jain Acharya, founder of Terapanth Shvetambar sect; A postal stamp of Rs. 5.00 was issued in his honour by the Government of India. 8. Kshullak 105 Shri Ganesh Prasad Varni (1874-1961) - Digambar Jain Saint, Educationist and Reformer; A special cover was released in 1999 on the occasion of 125th birth anniversary by the Postal Department, Government of India. Kshullak Jinendra Varni (1922-1983) - a prominent scholar and author of five volumes of Jainendra Sidhanta Kosha and Saman Suttam Compilation. 10. Acharya Tulsi (1914-97) - 9th Svetamber Jain Acharya with Revolutionary vision, proponent of Anuvrata movement a postal stamp of Rs. 3.00 was issued in his memory by the Government of India in 1998. 11. Acharya Mahaprajna - 10th Jain Acharya of Svetamber Terapanth. 12. Acharya Shantisagar - Digambar Jain Acharya of 20th Century. 13. Acharya Chitrabhanu - Preached Jainism in North America in 1970s and 80s. 9. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #166
14. Muni Sushil Kumar (1926-94) - Shvetamber Jain Monk who was main driving force behind many Jain temples in Europe and North America. 15. Aryika Gyanmati Mataji - Creator of Jambudwip pilgrimage complex at Hastinapur (U.P.). 16. Acharya Rajneesh (1931-1990) - "OSHO", philosopher, thinker, spiritual guru. 17. Shwastishri Charukeerti Swami (b. 1949) - Bhattarak, Shravanbelagola. 18. Chandra Swami (b. 1950) - Controversial godman,-tantrik. 19. Acharya Chandanaji, social worker, founder of Veerayatan. Politicians Ajit Prasad Jain - a prominent politician from Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh, India. He was a veteran freedom fighter who was member of the UP Legislative Council before independence. He was a member the Constituent Assembly of India. He was appointed the rehabilitation minister and then Union Food minister in the cabinet of Pandit Nehru. He was elected to the Lok Sabha three times and Rajya Sabha twice. He played a prominent role in the formulating Zamidari abolition bill and for agricultural reform in India which went a great way in launching the green revolution in India. He is remembered for his courage, honesty and great social work done for the poor. Balwantsinha Mehta - Member of the Constituent Assembly of India. R. L. Malviya - Member of the Constituent Assembly of India. Bhawanji Arjan Khimji - Member of the Constituent Assembly of India. C. C. Shah - Member of the Constituent Assembly of India. Kusumkant Jain - Member of the Constituent Assembly of India. Annasaheb B. Latthe - First Finance minister of Maharashtra, Diwan Of Kolhapur, Educationalist, Social Reformer, Author, Awarded the Title "Diwan Bahaddur" by the then Viceroy of India. Sarkar Laxmichand Hingarh - Business Tycoo; had equivalent powers of King and was honoured with title of Sarkar by Maharaja of Jodhpur. ni won 152 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #167
16. 9. Sunder Singh Bhandari - Ex-Governor of Gujarat. 10. Sundar Lal Patwa - Former Chief Minister of MP and Cabinet Minister of India. 11. P C Sethi - Former Chief Minister of MP, and Union Home Minister. 12. Virendra Kumar Sakhlecha - Former Chief Minister of MP. 13. Takhtmal Jain - Former Chief Minister of Central Province. 14. Mr. Mohan Lal Sukhadia - Ex-Chief Minister of Rajasthan and ex-Governor of various states. 15. Misrilal Gangawal, ex-Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh. Himmat Kothari - Minister in MP Govt (Cabinet/Forest). Raghavji Bhai - Minister in MP Govt (Cabinet/Finance). 18. Jayant Mallya - Minister in MP Govt (Cabinet/Urban Development). 19. Sri Paras Jain - Minister in MP Govt (State/Higher Education). Birendra Hegde - Member of Parliament, well known social activist, Padma Bhusan Awardee. 21. Jawaharlal Darda - a veteran freedom fighter and journalist, Congress leader and founder of the Lokmat group of newspapers. Mr. Darda was elected to the Maharastra Legislative Council between 1972 and 1995. He made a mark in the governance in Maharastra by his admirable handling of the portfolios of energy, industry, irrigation, health, food and civil supplies, sports, youth affairs, textiles and environment as a Minister. 22. Dr. Laxmi Chand Jain (1925-2010) - Development economist, Ex-High Commissioner to the Republic of South Africa, Exmember of Planning Commission and recipient of Magsaysay Award for public service. Padma Vibhushan awardee, 2011. Jairamdas Daulatram - Cabinet Minister in Nehru's Government from Gujarat. Manubhai Shah - Cabinet Minister in Nehru's Government from Gujarat. Seth Achal Singh - Congress M.P. in Nehru's Government from Agra. L. M. Singhvi (1931-2007) - Prominent Jurist, Former Indian Ambassador to UK, Member of Parliament, Padma Bhusan Awardee. 27. Dalchand Jain-Freedom fighter, Ex-Member of Parilament. 153 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #168
28. 29. 30. 32. 31. Pradeep Jain "Aditya" Minister of State (Rural Development). Dileep Gandhi BJP M.P. (Lok Sabha) from Ahmad Nagar, Maharashtra. 33. Raju Shetty Independent M. P. (Lok Sabha) from Hatkarangale, Maharashtra. 4. Abhisek Manu Singhvi - Advocate, General-Secretary & spokes-person of Indian National Congress party, a Member of the Parliament (Rajya Sabha). 10. Virendra Kumar, Kerala, two-time Lok Sabha MP and Minister of State in I. K. Gujaral and Devegoda Cabinets; author, publisher and owner of Mathribhumi Group of publications. Nirmal Kumar Jain Sethi, National President of Bharatvarshiya Digamber Jain Mahasabha since 1981. 14. -- Businessmen 1. Sir Seth Hukum Chand, Indore - Industrialist. Sir Bhagchand Soni, Ajmer - Industrialist. 2. 3. Kasturbhai Lalbhai Founder of Arvind Mills, Industrialist, Padma Bhusan Awardee (1968). Subodh Kumar Jain (1920-2006) - Industrialist, patron of Jain Siddhant Bhawan and Jain College, Arah. 5. Shahu Shanti Prasad Jain -- Business tycoon, Calcutta. 6. 7. Shahu Shreyans Prasad Jain -- Business tycoon, Calcutta. Shahu Ashok Kumar Jain -- Business tycoon, Calcutta. 8. Shahu Ramesh Chandra Jain - Business tycoon, Calcutta. Shri Harakh Chand Nahata (1936-1999), Calcutta Leading businessman, entrepreneur, philanthropist and writer; a postage stamp of Rs. 5 was issued in his honour by the Government of India in 2009. 9. Indu Jain and Vineet Jain - Owners of Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd., which owns the Times of India and other related media brands. -- Congress M. P. (Lok Sabha) and 11. 12. Vinnet Jain, 44 - MD, Bennett Coleman & Co. 13. Tejraj Dedavat - Jain business tycoon & founder of Bombay umbrella industry (M/S Oswal Umbrellas). Late Ram Lal Golcha Famous Jute businessman who established in Nepal a biggest business house. 154 Jains in India and Abroad 1 Samir Jain, 56 - Vice Chairman, Bennett Coleman & Co. -

Page #169
15. Walchand Hirachand Doshi- Founder, Balchand Hirachand group; A postal stamp of Rs. 5.00 was issued in his honour by the Government of India in 2004. 16. Narendra Patni -- Patni Computer Systems, a billion dollar IT company. 17. Suresh Patni - Industrialist, Chairman, Impex Group of companies, Kolkata. 18. Gautam Adani -- Chairman, Adani Group. 19. Ashok Patni - R. K. Marbles Group. 20. Pradeep Jain - Parsvanath Builders Group. 21. D. K. Jain - Luxor Group, Delhi. 22. Suresh C. Jain - Founder and Chancellor of Tirthankar Mahaveer University, Moradabad. 23. Pawan Jain - Founder of Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. Devendra Kumar Pandya - Siddhumal Kagzi Group, Delhi. 25. Dr. Trilokchand Kothari - Author and businessman, Om Group of Companies, Kota/Delhi. 26. Deepchand Gardi - Barrister-at-Law, Real Estate Business Group, Mumbai. 27. Sanjay Jain - Chairman, Floriana Group, Delhi, Marble business. 28. Kanhayalal Patawari - Plastic Business, Delhi. 29. Raj Kumar Jain - Emkay Group, Business, Delhi. ). Ashok Oswal - Textile and Hosiery Business, Ludhiana, Punjab. 31. G. D. Mundhra - Mundhra Group of Industries operating in Chemicals, IT, Textile, Cement, Machinery etc. 32. Harshad Mehta - Stockbroker, Mumbai. He was involved in a major shares scam in 1990s. 33. Dr. Pukhraj Bafna, Padam Shri Awardee, 2011. Literature and Journalism 1. Nathuram Premi (1881-1960) - Publisher and Scholar of Jainism, founder of Hindi Granth Karyalay and Manikchandra Jain Granthamala, Historian, Researcher, Social reformer and Editor of Jain Mitra and Jain Hitaishi. Jainendra Kumar - Famous Hindi novelist, short story writer, thinker. Rama Jain - Wife of Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain & founder of the publishing house Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi and Varanasi. Girilal Jain -- Former editor of The Times of India, Delhi. 155 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #170
5. N. P. Jain - Present owner and publisher of the famed publishing house of indological books, Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd. Akshaya Kumar Jain - Former editor, Nav Bharat Times, Delhi. Lalit Darda - Lokmat Group, M.P. Rajya Sabha. 7. wono o Jainology/Education/Science/Teaching 1. Pandit Jugalkishore Mukhtar (1877-1968), Jain Scholar. 2. Pandit Shuklal Sanghvi (1880-1978), Scholar and Author. 3. Dr. Hiralal Jain (1899-1973), Jain Scholar. Dr. A. N. Upadhye (1906-1975), Jainologist. Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain (1912-1988), Historian. Barrister Champat Rai Jain-Jain scholar, author (Hardoi). Kamta Prasad Jain - World Jain Mission, Aliganj, Etah. Justice J. L. Jaini - Chief Justice, Indore State High Court, Jain scholar. 9. Dr. Karmveer Bhaurao Patil - educationalist and social worker, Padma Bhusan Awardee; A postal stamp of Rs. 0.60 was issued in his honour by the Government of India in 1988. Dr. Jagdish Chandra Jain - renowned Jain philosopher and Prakrit scholar; A postal stamp of Rs. 2.00 was issued in his honour by the Government of India in 2004. Annasaheb B. Latthe - Started the magazines Sri Jinavijay, Pragati Ani Jinavijaya, Deccan Rayat and wrote many books on Jainism and politics. Pt. Phool Chandra Siddhantshastri (1901-91) - scholar, author and editor of many books. 13. Pt. Kailash Chand Shastri, scholar, author and editor of many books. Pt. Indra Chandra Shastri -Jain scholar, author, editor; A postal stamp of Rs. 5.00 was issued in his honour by the Government of India. Pt. Mahendra Kumar Jain, Jain Nyayacharya. 16. Prof. Bhag Chandra Jain 'Bhaskar' - Renowned Scholar of Jainism and Buddhism. He is a recipient of the President's (Rastrapati) award, 2004. 17. Prof. Rajaram Jain; Recipient of Rashtrapati Award for Prakrit Studies. 156 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #171
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Shahil Mehta - Renowned Mathematician Prof. Daulat Singh Kothari (1906-1993) - Physicist, former UGC Chairman; A postal stamp of Rs. 5.00 was issued in his honour by the Government of India in 2011. Prof. P. S. Jaini - Scholar of Budhism and Jainism, University of California. Professor Jagdish N. Seth - Renowned author, consultant, lecturer, and philanthropist. Author of Chindia Rising, Rule of Three, Clients for Life, and Tectonic Shift. 27. Devaki Jain, (born 1933) -- Development economist and Padma Bhusan Awardee. Dr. Dipak C. Jain Dean Emiritus, Kellog Business School, Northwestern University, Chicago; he has been named Dean of Instead Business School. 26. 28. 29. 30. 31. Prof. Gokul Chandra Jain; Recipient of Rashtrapati Award for being "an outstanding scholar in Prakrit, language & literature, 2008. Prof. Prem Suman Jain; Recipient of Rashtrapati Award for Prakrit Studies, 2006. Prof. V. A. Sangave (1920-2011) Renowned Sociologist, author of Jain Community: A Social Survey and other works. Dr. Hukamchand Bharill Jain scholar, author and orator. Secretary-General of Pandit Todarmal Smarak Trust, Jaipur. Dr. Vikram A. Sarabhai (1919-71) World famous space scientist of India, Padma Vibushan Awardee; A postal stamp of Rs. 0.20 was issued in his memory by the Government of India in 1972. 32. - - Ajit Jain - Chairman, Reinsurance division, Berkshire Hathway, USA. -- Anshuman Jain - London-based NRI who is tipped to succeed as co-head of Deutsche Bank, the largest private bank in Germany Prof. Rajmal Jain famous astronomical scientist who has been involved in the launch of Chandrayan-2 as the principal investigator and chief engineer. He was the first Asian recipient of "International Young Astronomer" award in America. Bhaskar H. Nalte Jain -- a senior Defence scientist at Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, Bengaluru. He was involved in designing 157 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #172
the Pilotless Light Combat Aircraft which is being used in the Indian Airforce. ni ni Entertainment 1. V Shantaram - Pioneer of Indian Film Industry, recipient of Dada Saheb Phalke Award; A postal stamp of Rs. 4.00 was issued in his honour by the Government in 2001. Pt. Umakant & Pt. Ramakant Gundecha - Foremost exponents of dhrupad style of Indian classical music. Komal Kothari (1929-2004) - Prominent folklorist and ethnomusicologist and Padma Bhusan Awardee. Asha Parekh - Famous leading lady of Bollywood, ExChairperson of the Central Board of Film Certification. Sooraj R. Barjatya - Film Producer & Director. Kalyanji - Anandji - Music Directors. Ravindra Jain - Music Director. Anuradha Paudwal - Singer. Bharat Shah - Diamond Merchant and Film Producer. 10. Sanjay Leela Bhansali- Famous Film Maker. 11. K Lal - Famous Magician. 12. Darsheel Safary - Award winning child artist of Bollywood film "Taare Zameen Par". wono Sports 1. Pavananjay Chougule - First Indian Athlete in Olympics. 2. Dilip Doshi - Former Indian Test and One Day Cricketer. 3. Anju Jain - Former Captain, Indian Women Cricket Team. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #173
APPENDIX - V JAIN ASSOCIATIONS ABROAD Africa Shree Sthanakvasi Jain Mandal, Jain Bhavan Forest Road, PO Box 46469, Nairobi, Kenya, East Africa. Jain Svetamber Derawasi, P.O. Box 80711, Lagoni Road, Mombasa Kenya, E Africa. Visa Oshwal Community, Thika, Kenya, East Africa Jain Association, P. O. Box 50272 (RW), Lusaka, Zambia. Jain Sangh of Tanzania, P.O.Box 3016, Da- Es-Salaam, Tanzania, East Africa. Asia Singapore Jain Religious Society, 18 Jalan Yasin, Off Jalan Eunos, Singapore. Jain Sangh of Singapore, 54 Arab Street, Singapore 0719. Jain Sangh, Katong, PO Box 106, Singapore 9143. Singapore Jain Society, 150 South Bridge Road, 04-Fook Hai Bldgs, Singapore 0105. Jain Sangh of Kobe, 6-17 Yamamoto Dori 2- Chome, Chico-ku, Kobe 650, Japan. Mahavir Swami Jain Temple, 7-5 Kitano-Cho, 3 Chome, Chuo Ku, Japan. Jain Centre of Hongkong Ltd, 4-B, 4/F Wealthy Hts, 35 -37 Macdonnell Rd, Hong Kong. Jain International, 38a, Mac Donnell Road, 4th Floor, Hong Kong. Jain Social Group, P.O. Box 4396, Al Maktoum St., Deira, Dubai, U.A.E. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #174
Europe Young Jains, 199 Kenton Lane, Harrow HA3 8TL, Middlesex, U.K Digambar Visa Mevada Jain Association, 116 Kingscourt Road, London SW16, U.K. Bhakti Mandal, 23 Silkfield Road, Collindale, London NW9, U.K. Federation of Jain Organization, 11 Lindsay Dr., Kenton Harrow, Middlesex HA3 OTA, U.K. International Mahavira Mission, 25 Sunny Garden Road, London NW4, U.K. Jain Association, 1 Hartford Ave, Kenton, Harrow HA3 8TA, Middlesex U.K. Jain Association of UK, 61 Upper Selsdon Rd., Sanderstead CR2 8DJ, Surry, U.K. Jain Centre, 36, Masons Ave., Wealdstone, Harrow, Middlesex, U.K. Jain Pragati Mandal, 49 Highfield Avenue, London NW 11, U.K. Jain Social Group, 153 Chalklands, Wembley, Middlesex HA 9900, U.K. Jain Samaj Europe, 27 Homefield Ave, Leicester LE2 2BG, U.K. Jain Samaj Manchester, 12 Cringle Dr., Cheadle, Cheshire SK8 1JJ, U.K. Jain Sangh Birmingham, 679 Shirley Road, Hall Green, Birmingham B28 9JX, U.K. Jain Sangh -- East London & Essex, 167 Eastern Ave., Redbridge Ilford, Essex IG4 5AW, U.K. Jain Social Group, 153 Chalklands, Wembly, Middlesex, U.K. Jain Social Group, 2 Hillside, Bishp's Walk, Croydon, CRO 5 BA, U.K. Jain Social Group, London, 18 Wickham Road, Hendon, London NW4 2SU, U.K. Navnat Vanik Assn. of the U.K. 19 Hedge Lane, London N13 5SJ, U.K. 160 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #175
Jain Social Group Midlands & North, 4 Spinney, Cheadle, Cheshire SK8 1JA, U.K. Jain Social Group, South London, Hill Side, Bishop's Walk, Croydon, Surrey, CRO 5BA, U.K. Navyug Jain Pragati Mandal, 127 Denzil Road, London NW10 3XB, U.K. Mahavir Foundation, 18 Florence Mansions, Vivian Ave, Hendon, London NW4, U.K. Navyug Jain Pragati Mandal, 79 Friar Rd, Orpington BR5 2BP, U.K. Vanik Samaj-Coventry, 17 Poitiers Road, Cheylesmore, Coventry CV3 5JY, U.K. Oshwal Association of U.K, Coopers Lane Road, Herts ENG 4DG, U.K. Oshwal Association UK 123 Jensington, PK Creek Harrow, U.K. Vanik Association, 71 Pretoria Road, Streatham, SW16 6RL, U.K. Vanik Samaj of U.K., 92 Osborne Road, Brighton BN1 6LU, U.K. Shree Digamber Jain Association, The Broadway (Off Locket Road), Wealdstone, Harrow, Middlesex, HA3 7EH, U.K The Jain Academy, UK, 49 Highfield Avenue, Golders Green, London, NW11 9EU, UK Jain Cultural Centre, Antwerp, Hoventerstraat 2, Box 444, Room 345, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium. Jain Ashram, 15 Ahornen Laan, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium Jain Association International (Germany) V. Schweriner Str., 524558 Henstedt Ulzburg, Germany Phone. +49 4193 968360; Fax: +49 4193 968361 website: www.jain-germany.de 161 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #176
JAIN ASSOCIATIONS/CENTRES/TEMPLES IN NORTH AMERICA United States of America Jain Centre of Greater Phoenix, P.O. Box 64221, Phoenix, Arizona 85041 Phone: 602-863-1073 Website: http://www.jcgp.org Jain Centre of Northern California, 722 South Main Street, Milpitas, California 95035 Phone: 408-262-6242 Website: http://www.jcnc.org Jain Centre of Southern California, 8072 Commonwealth Ave. Bueno Park, California 90621 Phone: 714-739-9161 Website: http://www.jaincenter.net Jain Society of Greater Sacramento, 5239 Fair Oaks Blvd, Carmichael, California 95608 Phone: 916-488-2601 Jain Society of San Diego, 9474 Black Mountain Road, San Diego, California 92126 Phone: 858-676-1150 Jain Centre of Connecticut, 7 Trailling Ridge Road, Brookfield, Connecticut 06805 Phone: 203-775-1906 Jain Centre of Greater Hartford, 23 Fellen Road, Storrs, Connecticut 06268 Phone: 860-487-0607 Jain Centre of Colorado, 10976 West 66th Ave. Arvada, Colorado 80004 Phone: 303-420-7049 Jain Society of Southern Florida, 6100 Old Winter Garden Rd., Orlando, Florida 32835 Phone: 407-295-8694 162 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #177
Jain Society, Inc. of Tampa Bay, 5513A Lynn Road, Tampa, Florida 33624 Phone: 813-962-2487 Jain Society of Central Florida, 407 W. Citrus Street, Altamonte Springs, Florida 32714 Phone: 407-323-3509 Website: http://jsocf.org/ Jain Centre of Ft. Meyers, 6759 Highland Pines Cir, Fort Meyers, Florida 33912 Phone: 941-561-2731 Jain Association of Palm Beach, 3949 Whaleboat Way, Wellington, Florida 33414 Phone: 561-793-3564 Jain Vishwa Bharati USA, 7819 Lillwill Ave, Orlando, Florida 32809 Phone: 407-852-8964 Website: http://jainvishwabharati.org Augusta Jain Community, 408 Hastings Place, Martinez, Georgia 30907 Phone: 706-863-6976 Hindu/Jain Temple Society of Augusta, 1421 Lukes Road, Augusta, Georgia 30907 Phone: 706-860-3864 Website: http://www.augustahts.org Jain Society of Greater Atlanta, 669 South Peachtree Rd., Norcross, Georgia 30071 Phone: 770-613-0103 Website: http://www.jsgatemple.org Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago, 435 North Route 59, Bartlett, Illinois 60103 Phone: 630-837-1077 Website: http://www.jsmconline.org 163 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #178
Jain Society of Kansas City, 15404, W-79th Terrace, Lenexa, Kansas 66219 Phone: 913-599-4582 Jain Society of Southern Louisiana, 3829 Deer Creek Lane, Harvey, Louisiana 70058 Phone: 504-340-4283 Jain Society of Metropolitan Washington, 1021 Briggs Chaney Road, Silver Spring, Maryland 20905 Phone: 703-620-9837 Website: http://www.jainsocietydc.org Jain Centre of Greater Boston, 15 Cedar Street, Norwood, Massachusetts 02062 Phone: 781-762-9490 Website: http://www.jcgb.org Website: http://www.pluralism.org/resources/slideshow/icgb/index.php Jain Sangh of New England, 124-A Cummings Park Dr., Woburn, Massachusetts 01801 Phone: 781-245-0051 Website: http://www.jsne.org Jain Society of Greater Detroit, 29278 West 12 Mile Road, Farmington Hills, Michigan Phone: 248-851-5246 Website: http://www.shubhlabh.net/detroittemple.html Jain Centre of Lansing, 1047 Prescott Street, East Lansing, Michigan Jain Centre of Minnesota, 147, 14th Ave SW St.Paul, Minnesota Phone: 651-636-1075 Website: http://www.jaincentermn.org Jain Centre of Greater St. Louis, 725 Weldman Road, St. Louis, Manchester, Missouri Phone: 636-230-3330 Website: http://www.jcstl.org 164 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #179
Jain Centre of New Jersey, 233 Runnymede Road, Essex Fells, New Jersey Phone: 973-226-2539 Website: http://www.jaincenternj.org/ Jain Sangh of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware 3401 Cooper Avenue Pennsauken, New Jersey Phone: 856-662-2627 Website: http://www.jainsangh.org Jain Vishva Bharati of North America, 151 Middlesex Ave, Iselin, New Jersey Website: http://www.jvbna.org/ Siddhachalam (International Mahavir Jain Mission), 65 Mudd Pond Road, Blairstown, New Jersey Phone: 908-362-9793 Website: http://www.siddhachalam.org/ Jain Association of Elmira, 108 Lincoln Road, Horseheads, New York Phone: 607-796-9065 Jain Centre of America, 43-11 Ithaca Street, Elmhurst, New York Phone: 718-803-0195 Website: http://www.nyjaincenter.org Jain Centre of Syracuse, 4013 Pawnee Drive, Liverpool, New York Phone: 315-622-3287 Jain Sangh of Hudson Valley, 18 Stephen Drive, Hopewell Junction, New York Phone: 914-226-6016 Jain Society of Buffalo, 1560 North French Road, Getzville, New York 14068 Phone: 716-634-7469 Jain Society of Albany, 450 Albany-Shakers, Rd., Loudonville, New York 12211 Phone: 518-785-7470 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #180
Jain Society of Rochester, 14 Ambergate Rise, Pittsford, New York 14534 Phone: 716-264-9834 JAINA - (Federation of Jain Associations in North America), P.O. Box 700, Getzville, New York Phone: 716-636-5342 Website: http://www.jaina.org Jain Meditation International Centre (JMIC), 401 East 86th Street, #20A, New York, New York 10028 Phone: 212-362-6483 Jain Society of Las Vegas, 1701 Sagberry Dr., Las Vegas, Nevada 89144 Phone: 702-304-9207 Website: http://www.hinhutemplelv.org Jain Study Centre of North Carolina (Raleigh), 509 Carriage Woods Circle, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607 Phone: 919-469-0956 Website: http://www.jainism.org Jain Study Group of Charlotte, 7400 City View Dr., Charlotte, North Carolina 28212 Phone: 704-535-3440 Jain Centre of Central Ohio, 2770 Sawbury Blvd. Columbus, Ohio 43225 Phone: 614-596-7887 Website: http://www.jcoco.org/ Jain Centre of Cincinnati/Dayton, 6798 Cincinnati-Dayton Road, Cincinnati, Ohio Phone: 513-885-7414 Jain Centre of Toledo, 7219 Cloister Road, Toledo, Ohio 43617 Phone: 419-841-8985 Jain Society of Greater Cleveland, 14835 Lancelot Ln., N. Royalton, Ohio 44138 Phone: 440-748-3420, Website: http://www.jsgc.org 166 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #181
Tulsa Jain Sangh, 8707 E. 133rd Place, Bixby, Oklahoma 74008 Phone: 918-369-3163 Jain Society of Oregon, 5432 S.W. Seymore St., Portland, Oregon 97221 Phone: 503-292-1965 Young Jains of America (YJA), 5432 SW Seymour Street, Portland, Oregon Website: http://www.yja.org Hindu/Jain Temple of Pittsburgh, 615 Illini Drive, Monroeville, Pennsylvania 15146 Phone: 724-325-2054 Website: http://www.hindujaintemple.org Jain Centre of South Central PA, 301 Stelgerwalt Hallo Rd. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 170706 Phone: 717-898-6173 Jain Sangh of Allentown, 4200 Airport Road, Allentown, Pennsylvania 18130 Phone: 610-868-1231 Samarpan Hindu/Jain Temple, 6515 Bustleton Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19149 Phone: 215-537-9537 Website: http://www.samarpantemple.org Samarpan Jain Sangh, Inc, 9701 Bustleton Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19115 Phone: 215-464-7676 Jain Society of Pittsburgh, 1010 Summer Ridge Crt., Murrysville, Pennsylvania 15668 Phone: 724-327-6570 Jain Group of Greenville, 108 Meaway Crt., Simpsonville, SC 92681 Phone: 803-967-4605 167 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #182
Jain Society of Middle Tennessee, 2273 Pewitt Drive, Clarksville, Tennessee 37403 Phone: 931-648-9535 Jain Society of Greater Memphis, 2173 East Glendalen Dr., Memphis, Tennessee 38139 Phone: 901-755-3600 Jain Centre of West Texas, 1110 Juneau Ave., Lubbock, Texas 79416 Phone: 409-295-1600 Jain Society of Houston, 3905 Arc Street Houston, Texas 77215 Phone: 713-789-2338 Website: http://www.jain-houston.org Jain Society of North Texas, 538 Apollo Road, Richardson, Texas 75081 Phone: 972-470-0606 Website: http://dfwjains.org/ Jain Vishwa Bharati Institute Preksha Meditation Centre - Houston, 1712 Highway 6 S, South Houston, Texas 77077 Phone: 281-596-9642 Jainova (Jains of Northern Virginia), 3728 Persimmon Circle, Fairfax, Virginia 22031 Website: http://www.jainova.org/index.html Jain Religion Centre of Wisconsin, N4063 W243 Pewaukee Rd., Highway 164 North, Pewaukee, Wisconsin 53072 Phone: 262-242-0245 Website: http://www.jainwi.org Prerana Yoga & Meditation Foundation, 1302 Deer Run, Morgantown, West Virginia 26505 Phone: 304-594-1818 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #183
Canada Jain Society of Alberta, Heritage Park, Tower South 203, 2910 - 109 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6J 7H4 Phone: 780-435-9070 (Edmonton also has a Bhagwan Mahavir Jain temple). Jain Society of Toronto, 48 Rosemeade Avenue, Etobicoke, Ontario MBY 3A5 Phone: 416-241-2044 Bhagwan Mahaveer Jain Temple/Jain Society of Toronto, 247 Parklawn Road, Toronto, Ontario M8 Y 3j6 Phone: (416) 273-9387 Temple (416) 251-8112 Jain Association of Ottawa-Carleton, 3 Huntwood Court, Ottawa, Ontario K1V OR3 Phone: 613-736-0783 The Jain Centre of British Columbia, 4431 Price Crescent, Burnaby, B.C. V5G 2N5 Phone: 604-438-2243 Montreal Jain Association, 1830 Eduardo Lauren Blvd, St. Laurent, Que. H4L 2C2 Phone: 514-747-9707 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #184
BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, C. J. (1977) (ed) A Reader's Guide to the Great Religions. 2nd edn. New York: Free Press. Agarwal, B. C. (1974) "Changing Patterns of Jati Among Jains of Madhya Pradesh", in K.S. Mathur and B.C. Agarwal (eds.) Tribe, Caste and Peasantry. Lucknow: Ethnographic and Folk Culture Society. Agrawal, B. C. (1972) "Diksha Ceremony in Jainism: An Analysis of its SocioPolitical Ramifications", The Eastern Anthropologist 25: 13-20. Agrawal, Binod C. (1980) Cultural Contours of Religion and Economics in Hindu Universe. New Delhi: National Publishing House. Aiyangar, S. K. (1914) All India Digambara Jaina Directory. Bombay. Aiyangar, S. K. (1923) Some Contributions of South India to Indian Culture. Calcutta. Alsdorf, Ludwig (2006) Jaina Studies: Their present State and Future Tasks. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay. Altekar, A. S. (1934) Rashtrakutas and Their Times. Poona. Altekar, A. S. (1938) The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization. Banaras. Amar, Acharya Gopilal (2009) Victory over Violence: A Critical Appreciation. Lucknow and New Delhi: Shree Bharatvarsheeya Digambar Jain Mahasabha. Ambirajan, S. (1991) "Changing attitudes towards business in India", pp. 118, in Dwijendra Tripathi, (ed.), Business and Politics in India: A Historical Perspective. New Delhi: Manohar. Ames, Michael M. (1964) "Magical-Animism and Buddhism: A Structural Analysis of the Sinhalese Religious System", pp 21-52, in Edward B. Harpet (ed.), Religion in South Asia. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities. London: New Left Books. Ayyangar, M. S. Ramaswamy (1922) "The Jains in the Tamil Land", pp. 32-72, in M.S.R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, Studies in South Indian Jainism. Madras: Vizianagaram Maharaja's College Publication 1. 170 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #185
Ayyangar, M. S. Ramaswamy and B. Seshagiri Rao (1922) Studies in South Indian Jainism. Madras: Vizianagaram Maharaja's College Publication 1. Babb, Lawrence A. (1975) The Divine Hierarchy: Popular Hinduism in Central India. New York: Columbia University Press. Babb, Lawrence A. (1988) "Giving and Giving Up: The Eightfold Worship among Shvetambar Murtipujak Jains", Journal of enthropological Research 44(1):67-86. Babb, Lawrence A. (1993) "Monks & Miracles: Religious Symbols & Images of Origin among Osval Jains", The Journal of Asian Studies 52(1): 3-12. Babb, Lawrence A. (1998) "Rejecting Violence: Sacrifice and the Social Identity of Trading Communities", Contributions to Indian Sociology (n.s.) 32(2): 387-408. Babb, Laurence A. (1998) Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Babb, Lawrence A. (1999) "Mirrored Warriors: On the Cultural Identity of Rajasthani Traders". International Journal of Hindu Studies 3(1): 1-15. Babb, Lawrence A. (2002) "Violence and the Construction of Trading-Caste Identities", pp. 15-38, in Lawrence A. Babb, Varsha Joshi and Michael W. Meister (eds) Multiple Histories: Culture and Society in the Study of Rajasthan. Jaipur: Rawat Publications. Babb, Lawrence A. (?) Alchemies of Violence: Myths of Identity and the Life of Trade in Western India. New Delhi: Sage Publications. Badrinath, Chaturvedi (1996) "The Roots of Violence-l: Jainism as Freedom from Fear" The Times of India, 20th December; and "The Roots of Violence-II: Jainism towards Human Freedom", The Times of India, 21st December. Badrinath, Chaturvedi (2008) "Anekant: Freedom from Hatreds and Violence", Tulsi Prajana 141: 14-26. Bagchi, P. C. (1927) "The Historical Beginnings of Jainism", pp. 71-86, Sir Asutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee Volumes, Vol. III, part 3. Calcutta. Bailey, G. (1983) The Mythology of Brahma. Delhi. 171 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #186
Bajpeyi, Madhulika (1989) Developmenr of Jain Religion in Madhya Padesh (From the Earliest Time to c. 1200 A. D.) (In Hindi). New Delhi: Ramanand Vidya Bhawan. Bakker, Hans (1982) "The Rise of Ayodhya as a place of Pilgrimage", IndoIranian Journal, 24. Balbir, Nalini (1990) "Recent Developments in a Jaina Tritha: Hastinapur (U.P)- A Preliminary Report", pp. 177-91, in Hans Bakker, (ed.) The History of Sacred Places in India as Reflected in Traditional Literature: Papers on Pilgrimage in South Asia. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Balbir, Nalini, et al. (2006) Catalogue of the Jain Manuscripts of the British Library. 3 Vols. London: British Library and Institute of Jainology. Balbir, Nalini (2008) "Autobiographies of Jain Monks and Nuns in the 20" Century: A Preliminary Essay", pp. 143-180, in Colette Caillat and Nalini Balbir (eds) Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Bandopadhyay, Sankar Prasad (1999) "A Study of Jain Puranas", Jain Journal XXXIV(2): 91-101. Banerjee, Satya Ranjan (1998) "Research in Sanskrit and Jaina Literature", Jain Journal XXXIII (2): 59-80. Banerjee, Satya Ranjan (2001) "Chronological Development of Jain Literature", Jain Journal XXXV (4): 206-31. Banerjee, Satya Ranjan (2004) Jainism in Different States of India. Kolkata: Jain Bhawan Publications. Banerjee, Suresh Chandra (1987) Folklore in Buddhist and Jaina Literatures. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. Banks, Marcus (1985) On the Shrawacs or Jains: Processes of Divison and Cohesion among Two Jain Communities in India and England. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis: Cambridge University. Banks, Marcus (1986) "Defining Division: An Historical Overview of Jain Social Organisation", Modern Asian Studies, 20(3): 447-60. Banks, Marcus (1989) "The Narrative of Lived Experience: Some Jains of India and England (Photographic essay)", Critique of Anthropology, 9(2): 65 76. 172 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #187
Banks, Marcus (1991) "Competing to Give, Competing to Get: Gujarati Jains in Britain", pp. 226-50, in Pinna Werbner and Muhammad Anwar (eds) Black and Ethnic Leaderships in Britain. London: Routledge. Banks, Marcus (1992) Organising Jainism in India and England. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Banks, Marcus (1994) "Jain Ways of Being", pp. 231-50, in R. Ballard (ed.), Desh Pradesh: The South Asians Presence in Britain. London. Banks, Marcus (1994) "Why Move? Regional and Long Distance Migrations of Gujarati Jains", pp. 131-48, in Judith Brown and Rosemary Foot (eds.) Migration: The Asian Experience. London: St. Martin's Press. Barodia, U.D. (1909) History and Literature of Jainism. Bombay. Barth, A. (1969) The Religion of India. Sixth Edition. New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Barz, R.K. (1976) The Bhakti Sect of Vallabhacarya. New Delhi: Thomson Press. Basham, A.L. (1956) The Wonder That Was India. New York: Grove Press. Baya "Shreyas", D. S. (2007) Death with Equanimity: The Pursuit of Immortality. Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy. Bayly, C. A. (1973) "The Organization of Merchants in Benares, 1780-1830". Paper delivered at the postgraduate seminar, History Department, SOAS, University of London. Bayly, C. A. (1975) "The Urban Merchant Family in North India during the Nineteenth Century". Kaplan Memorial Lecture, University of Pennsylvania. Bayly, C. A. (1978) 'Indian Merchants in a "Traditional" Setting: Benares 1780-1830', pp. 171-93, in C. Dewey and A. G. Hopkins (eds.) the Imperial Impact: Studies in the Economic History of Africa and India. London: Athlone Press. Bayly, C. A. (1983) Rulers, Townsmen and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770-1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 173 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #188
Bayly, C. A. (1985) "The Pre-History of 'communalism': religious conflict in India, 1700-1860", Modern Asian Studies 19. Bayly, Susan (1999) Caste, Society and Politics in India from the eighteenth century to the modern age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bechert, Heintz (1983) "A Remark on the Problem of the Date of Mahavira", Indologica Taurinensia, 11: 287-90. Behura, N. K. (1993) "Caste: Hierarchy, Status and Power - A Critique", Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society 28: 11-22. Bender, Earnest (1976) "An Early Nineteenth Century Study of the Jains", Journal of the American Oriental Society 96(1): 114-19. Bennett, Peter (1993) The Path of grace: Social organization and temple worship in a Vaishnava Sect. Delhi: Hindustan Publishing Corporation. Berreman, Gerald D. (1971) "The Brahmannical (sic) view of caste", Contribution to Indian Sociology (n.s.) 5(1): 16-23. Besant, Annie (2010) (1801) "The Religious Problem in India: Jainism", Tulsi Prajna 37(146): 49-62. Bhachu, Parminder (1985) Twice Migrants: East African Sikh Settlers in Britain. London: Tavistook Publications. Bhandarkar, R.G. (1927) The Early History of the Deccan (Collected works of Sir R.G. Bhandarkar, Vol. III), Poona. Bhansali, Sohanraj (1982) Osval Vams, Anusandhan ke Alok mein (in Hindi). Jodhpur: Kusalam Jain Granthalaya. Bharati, Agehananda [Leopold Fischer] (1965) "A Social Survey", 13-63, in Ghai, Dharam P. (ed.) Portrait of a Minority: Asians in East Africa. Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Bharati, Agehananda [Leopold Fischer] (1972) The Asians in East Africa: Jayhind and Uhuru. Chicago: Nelson Hall. Bhardwaj, Surinder and G. Rinschede (1988) Pilgrimage in World Religions. Berlin: D. Reimer. 174 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #189
Bhargava, Dayanand (1968) Jaina Ethics. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Bharucha, Filita (1984) The Role of Space-Time in Jaina Syadvada and Quantum Theory. Delhi. Bhatnagar, V.S. (1974) "Akbar and Jainism", Jijnasa 1(3-4): 52-59. Bhattacharya, B.C. (1939) Jaina Iconography. Lahore. Bhattacharya, H. (1925) Divinity in Jainism. Madras. Bhattacharya, Hari Satya (1966) Reals in the Jaina Metaphysics. Bombay: The Seth Santi Das Khetsy Charitable Trust. Bhattacharya, J. N. (1968) (1896) Hindu Castes and Sects. Calcutta: Editions Indians. Bhattacharya, Jagat Ram (2008) "Woman in Ancient Jain Literature", pp. 3342, in Caillat, Colette and Nalini Balbir (eds) Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Bhattacharya, Narendra Nath (1999) Jain Philosophy: Historical Outline. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Bhutoria, Mangilal (1988) Oswal Itihas ki Amar Bel. Calcutta: Priyadarshi Prakasan. Bhutoria, Mangilal (2002) History of Oswals. Kolkata: Priyadarshi Prakashan. Billawaria, Anita K. (2003) "Jain", pp. 400-407, in K. N. Pandita, et al. (eds) People of India: Jammu & Kashmir (Vol. XXV). New Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Manohar Books. Biswas, D. P. (1998) "Godha", pp. 388-90, in B. K. Labania, et al. (Eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Bloomfield, Maurice 1985 (1919) The Life Stories of the Jain Savior Parsvanath. New Delhi: Gian Publishing House. Blunt, E. A. H. (1931) The Caste System of Northern India with Special Reference to the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. London: Oxford University Press. 175 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #190
Bollee, W. (2005) "Jain Studies in Germany", Shrut Samvardhini, February, p. 16. Bollee, W. B. (1981) "The Indo-European sodalities in ancient India". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschafi 131, pp. 172-91. Bonacich, E. (1973) "A Theory of Middleman Minorities", American Sociological Review 38(5): 583-94. Bool Chand (1946) Jaina Cultural Studies. Banaras. Bool Chand (1948) Lord Mahavira Banaras. - A Study in Historical Perspective. Bose, N. K. (1971) "Review of Homo Hierarchicus", Man in India 51(4): 40510. Bossche, Frank van den (1999) A Reference Manual of Middle Prakrit Grammar: The Prakrits of the Dramas and the Jain Texts. Ghent, Belgium: University of Ghent. Bossche, Frank van den (2007) Eliments of Jain Geography: The Jambu Dwipasamgrahani of Haribhadra Suri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Bothra, Lata (2002) "Mahavira's Vision on Management", Jain Journal XXXVII (1): 30-36. Bothra, P. (1976) Jain Theory of Perception. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Bougle, Celestin (1971) Essays on the Caste System. Translated by D.F. Pocock. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Business/Occupation/ Bourdieu, P. (1979) Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boyer, Pascal (1990) Tradition as Truth and Communication: A Cognitive Description of Traditional Discourse. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Boyer, Pascal (ed.) (1993) Cognitive Aspects of Religious Symbolism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Braudel, F. (1979) The Wheels of Commerce. London: Collins. 176 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #191
Briggs, H. G. (1849) The Cities of Gujarashtra: Their Topography and History, Illustrated in the Journal of a Recent Tour. Bombay: James Chesson. Bruhn, K. (1983) "Repetition in Jaina Narrative Literature", Indologica Taurensia 11. Buhler, Alfred and Eberhard Fischer (1979) The Patola of Gujarat. Two Volumes. Basle: Krebs AG. Buhler, Johann Georg (1936) Life of Hemacandracarya, trans. M. Patel. Shantiniketan: Singhi Jaina Jnanapitha. Buhler, Johann Georg (1963) (1903) The Indian Sect of the Jainas (Translated and edited by J. Burgess). Calcutta: Sushil Gupta (India) Pvt. Ltd. Burgess, James (1976) (1869) Notes of a Visit to Somnath, Girnar and Other Places in Kathiawad in May 1869. Varanasi: Kishore Vidya Niketan. Burgess, James (1869) The Temples of Satrunjaya: The Celebrated Jaina Place of Pilgrimage near Palitana in Kathiawad. Bombay: Sykes and Dwyer. Burgess, James (1876) Report on the Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh, Archaeological Survey of Western India, II. London: W.H. Allen. Burghart, Richard (1978) "Hierarchical Models of the Hindu Social System", Man (n.s.) 13(4): 519-36. Cahoone, Lawrence E. (ed) (1996) Anekantavada: An Anthology. London: Blackwell Publishers. Caillat, Collette (1965) Atonements in the Ancient Ritual of the Jaina Monks. Ahmedabad; L.D. Institute of Indology. Caillat, Collette, A. N. Upadhye and B. Patil (1975) Jainism. Delhi: Macmillan Co. of India. Caillat, Collette and Ravi Kumar (1981) The Jain Cosmology. New York: Harmony Books. Caillat, Collette and Nalini Balbir (eds) (2008) Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Carrithers, M. (1988) "Passions of Nation and Community in the Bahubali Affair", Modern Asian Studies 28: 281-310. 177 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #192
Carrithers, M. (1989) 'Naked Ascetics in Southern Digambar Jainism', Man (NS) 24: 210-235. Carrithers, M. (1991) 'The Foundations of Community among Southern Digambar Jains: An Essay on Rhetoric & Experience", pp. 261-286, in M. Carrithers & C. Humphrey (eds.) The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carrithers, M. (1992) Why Humans Have Culture. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Carstairs, G. Morris (1961) Patterns of Religious Observation in Three Village of Rajasthan, in L. P. Vidyarthi (ed.) Aspects of Religion in Indian Society. Meerut: Kedar Nath Ram Nath. Carstairs, G. Morris (1967) The Twice-born: A Study of a Community of HighCaste Hindus. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Carstairs, M. (1957) The Twice-Born. London. Hogarth Press. Census of India 1961 (1963) Paper No. 1 of 1963, Religion. New Delhi: R. G. Office. Census of India 1971 (1972) Paper No. 2 of 1972, Religion. New Delhi: R. G. Office. Census of India 1981 (1984) Paper No. 4 of 1984, Household Population by Religion of Head of Household. New Delhi: R. G. Office. Census of India 1991 (1995) Paper No, 1 of 1995, Religion. New Delhi: R. G. Office. Census of India 2001 (2005) First Report of Religion Data. New Delhi: R. G. Office. Chakravarti, A. (1941) Jaina Literature in Tamil. Arrah. Chakravarti, A. (1957) The Religion of Ahimsa. Bombay. Snigdha (2008) "Marwaris", Chakraborti, pp.860-65, in Shekhar Bandopadhyay, et al. (eds) People of India: Bihar. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India and Seagull Books. Chanchreek, K. L. and Mahesh K. Jain (2004) Jaina Economic Life: Ancient and Medieval India. New Delhi: Shree Publishers & Distributors. 178 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #193
Chanchreek, K. L. and Mahesh K. Jain (2004) Jaina Social Life. New Delhi: Shree Publishers & Distributors. Chanchreek, K. L. and Mahesh K. Jain (2004) Jaina Worship and Rituals. New Delhi: Shree Publishers & Distributors. Chanchreek, K. L. and Mahesh K. Jain (2004) Jainism and Western Thinkers. New Delhi: Shree Publishers & Distributors. Chanchreek, K. L. and Mahesh K. Jain (eds.) (2005) Encyclopedia of Jain Religion. 11 vols. New Delhi: Shree Publishers & Distributors. Chandra, Moti (1949) Jaina Miniature Paintings from Western India. Ahmedabad. Chapple, Christopher Key (1993) Nonviolence to Animals, Earth and Self in Asian Tradition. Albany: State University of New York Press. Chapple, Christopher Key (2001) "The Living Cosmos of Jainism: A Traditional Science Grounded in Environmental Ethics", Daedalus 103(4). Chapple, Christopher Key (2002) Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in Web of life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Chapple Christopher Key (2003) Reconciling Yogas, Haribhadra's Collection of Views on Yoga. Albany: State University of New York Press. Chatterjee, Asim Kumar (2000) (1984) A Comprehensive History of Jainism, 2 vols. Second Revised Edition. Delhi: Munsiram Manoharlal. Chopra, C. A (No date) Short History of the Terapanthi Sect of the Shvetambara Jainas and its Tenets. Calcutta. Chopra, P. N. (1982) Religions and Communities of India. New Delhi: Vision Books. Choudhary, G.C. (1963) Political History of Northern India from Jaina Sources. Amritsar. Clark, Martin (1973) "The Field Orientations of Ascetic and Mystical Religion", in H. B. Clark (ed) Religion and Social Sciences. New York: American Academy of Religion. Coelho, W. (1950) The Hoyasala Wamsa. Bombay. 179 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #194
Colebrooke, H. T. (1872) Miscellaneous Essays. Madras. Colebrook, H. T. (1977) (1837) Essays on History, Literature and Religion of Ancient India. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. Coleman, David A. (1982) (ed.) Demography of Immigrants and Minority Groups in the United Kingdom. London: Academic Press. Conlon, F. (1977) A Caste in a Changing World. Berkeley: University of California Press. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1927) History of Indian and Indonesian Art. London. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (ed.) (2003) Essays on Jaina Art. New Delhi: Manohar. Coren, A. R. (1967) Tradition, Values and Inter-role Conflict in Indian Family Businesses. Unpublished PhD thesis. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Business School. Cort, John E. (1985) Ganesa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press. Cort, John (1986) "Recent Descriptive Accounts of the Contemporary Jainas", Man in India 66: 180-87. Cort, John E. (1987) "Medieval Jaina Goddess Traditions", Numen, 34. Cort, John E. (1989) Liberation and Wellbeing. Doctoral dissertation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cort, John E. (1990) "Models of and for the Study of the Jains", Method and Theory in the Study of Religion, 2(1): 42-71. Cort, John E. (1991) 'The Shvetambar Murtipujak Jain Mendicant', Man, 26(4): 651-671. Cort, John E. (1991) "Two Ideals of the Shvetambar Murtipujak Jain Layman", Journal of Indian Philosophy 19(4): 1-30. / 391-420. Cort, John E. (1995) "The Jain Knowledge Warehouses: Libraries in Tradional India", Journal of the American Oriental Society 115: 77-87. 180 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #195
Cort, John E. (1995) "Centres of Jain History", Journal of Indian Philosophy 23: 469-506. Cort, John E. (1998) Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History. Albany: State University of New York Press. Cort, John E. (2000) "Defining Jainism: Reform in the Jain tradition", pp. 165-91, in Joseph T. O'Conneli, (ed.), Jain Doctrine and Practice: Academic Perspectives. Toronto: University of Toronto, Centre for South Asian Studies. Cort, John E. (2001) Jains in the world: Religious Values and Ideology in India. New York and Delhi: Oxford University Press. Cort, John E. (2004) "Jains, Caste and Hierarchy in North Gujarat", Contributions to Indian Sociology 38 (1&2): 73-112. Cottam C. (1980) "City, town and village: the continuum considered", in K. Balhatchet and J. Harrison (eds.) City in South Asia. London and Dublin: Curzon Press. Cottam C. (1983) The Merchant Castes of a Small Town in Rajasthan: A Study of Business Organization and Ideology. Ph.D. thesis. University of London. Cottam Ellis, C. M. (1991) "The Jain Merchant Castes of Rajasthan: Some Aspects of the Management of Social Identity in a Market Town", pp. 75108, in M. Carrithers and C. Hamphrey (eds.) The Assembly of Listeners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crooke, W. (1896) Tribes and Castes of the North Western Provinces and Oudh. Calcutta. Darling, M. L. (1947) The Punjab Peasant in Prosperity and Debt, 4th edn. London: Oxford University Press. Das, Veena (1982) Structure and Cognition: Aspects of Hindu Caste and Ritual. Second edition. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Dasgupta, D.C. (1996) (1942) The Jaina System of Education. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Ltd. Dasgupta, Surendranath (1963) A History of Indian Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 181 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #196
Davis, Kingsley (1951) Population of India & Pakistan, New York: Russell & Russell. Deo, S. B. (1974) "The Expansion of Jainism", pp. 22-34, in A. Ghosh (ed.) Jaina Art and Architecture. Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith. Deo, S.B. (1956) History of Jaina Monachism from Inscriptions and Literature. Deccan College Dissertation Series 17. Poona: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute. Deo, S.B. (1960) Jaina Monastic Jurisprudence. Banaras. Desai, Govindbhai H. and A.B. Clarke (1923) Gazetteer of the Baroda State, Volume I: General information. Bombay: Times Press. Desai, M. N. (1945) Rural Karnataka. Poona. Desai, Mohanlal Dalichand (1942) "Jain Priest at the Court of Akbar", Journal of the Gujarat Research Society IV(1):.1-17. Desai, P.B. (1957) Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs. Sholapur. Desai, S. S. M. (1979) Rural Banking in India. Bombay: Himalaya Publishing House. Dhariwal, Surajraj (1986) Amar Chand Banthia: Amar Sahid (in Hindi). Kanpur: Banthia Foundation. Dirks, Nicholas (2001) Castes of Mind: Colonialism and the Making of Modern India. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Divakara, S. C. (1962) Religion and Peace. Mathura. Divakar, V. D. (1981) Survey of Material in Marathi on the Economic and Social History of India. Pune: Bharata Itihasa Samshodaka Mandal. Dixit, K. K (1978) Early Jainism. Ahmadabad: L. D. Institute of Indology. Diwakar, R. R. (ed.) (1959) Bihar through the Ages. Delhi. Doshi, Bechardas (1966) Jaina Sahityaka Brihad Itihasa (in Hindi). Vol.I. Varanasi: Anga-Agama. 182 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #197
Doshi, C. M. (1933) The Dasa Srimali Jaina Banias of Kathiawar. PhD Thesis. Bombay. Doshi, S. (1981) Homage in Shravanabelgola. Bombay. Dubois, A. J. A. O. and H. K. Beauchamp (1906) Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies. Oxford. Dumasia, Naoroji K. (1927) Jamnagar: A Sketch of its Ruler and its Administration. Bombay: The Times Press. Dumont, Louis (1960) "Word Renunciation in Indian Religions", printed as Appendix B in Homo Hierarchicus, comp. rev. edn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Dumont, Louis (1980) (1966) Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implications, 2nd edn. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Dundas, Paul (1985) "Food and Freedom: The Jaina Sectarian Debate on the Nature of the Kevalin", Religion, 15: 161-98. Dundas, Paul (1991) 'The Digambara Jain Warrior', pp. 169-86, in M. Carrithers & Humphrey (eds.), The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dundas, Paul (1992) The Jains. London & New York: Routledge. Dundas, Paul (1997) "Recent Research on Jainism", Religious Studies Review 23(2): 113-19. Dundas, Paul (2000) "The Meat at the Wedding Feasts: Krishna, Vegetarianism and a Jain Dispute", in Joseph T. O'Connell (ed.) Jain Doctrine and Practice: Academic Perspectives. Toronto: Centre for South Asian Studies, University of Toronto. Dundas, Paul (1987-88) "The Tenth Wonder: Domestication and Reform in Medieval Shvetambara Jainism", Indologica Taurinensia 14:181-94. Durkheim, Emile (1965) (1915) The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. Translated by J.W. Swain, New York: The Free Press. Dutt, N.K. (1931) Origin and Growth of Caste in India. London. 183 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #198
Dutt, R. C. (1908) Civilisation in the Buddhist Age. Calcutta. Dwivedi, O. P. (1989) World Religions and the Environment. New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing House. Dwivedi, R. C. (ed) (1975) Contribution of Jainism. Banaras: Motilal Banarsidass. Eisenstadt, S. N. (1984) "Dissent, heterodoxy and civilisational Dynamics: some analytical and comparative indications", In Eisenstadt et al, (eds) Orthodoxy, Heterodoxy and Dissent in India. Berlin: Mouton. Eliade, Mircea (1961) The Sacred and the Profane. New York: Harper and Row. Eliot, Charles (1962) Hinduism and Buddhism, vol. I. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Elliot, F.A.H. (1883) Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. Vol. VII: Baroda. Bombay: Government Central Press. Engineer, Asghar Ali (1989) The Muslim Communities of Gujarat: An Explanatory Study of Bohras, Khojas and Memons. Delhi: Ajanta Publications. Enthoven, R.E. (1975)(1920-22) The Tribes and Castes of Bombay. 3 Volumes. Delhi: Cosmo Publications. Erdman, H. I. (1975) Political Attitudes of Indian Industry: A Case Study of the Baroda Business Elite. London: Athlone Press. Eschmann, A., Kulke, H., and G. D. Tripathi (eds.) (1978) The Cult of Jagannath and the Regional Tradition of Orissa. Delhi: Manohar. Fenton, John Y. (1988) Tansplanting Religious Traditions: Asian Indians in America. New York: Praeger. Fischer, Eberhard & Jyotindra Jain (1977) Art & Rituals: 2500 Years of Jainism in India. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Fischer, Klaus (1957) Caves and Temples of the Jaina. Aliganj. Flugel, Peter (1995-96) "The Ritual Circle of the Teraparth Shvetambara Jains" Bulletin d'Etudes Indiennes 13: 117-76. 184 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #199
Flugel, Peter (1999) "Jainism and the Western World", Jain Journal XXXIV (1):1-11. Flugel, Peter (2000). "Protestantische und Post-Protestantische JainaReformbewegungen: Zur Geschichte und Organisation der Sthanakavasi" I. Berliner Indologische Studien 13/14: 37-103.pp. Flugel, Peter (2003) "The Code of Conduct of the Terapanth Saman Order", South Asia Research 23(1): 7-53. Flugel, Peter (2006) "Jainism and Society", Bulletin of SOAS 68: 91-112. Flugel, Peter (ed) (2006) Studies in Jain History and Culture: Disputes and Dialogues. London: Routledge. Flugel, Peter (2007) "A Short History of Jain Law," Jaina Studies Newsletter, 2:24-27. Flugel, Peter (2008) "The Unknown Lonka: Tradition and the Cultural Unconscious", pp. 181-271, in Caillat, Colette and Nalini Balbir (eds) Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Flugel, Peter (2011) "Jain Monastic Life: A Quantitative Study of the Terapanth Swetambara Mendicant Order", Tulsi Prajana 38(150): 66-80. Fohr, Sherry E. (2001) Gender and Chastity: Female Jain Renouncers. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Virginia. Folkert, Kendal W. (1993) Scripture and Community: Collected Essays on the Jains. Atlanta: Scholars Press. Folkert, Kendal W. (1993) "The Jain Sadhu as Community Builder", pp. 16774, in K. W. Folkert, Scripture and Community: Collected Essays on the Jains. Atlanta: Scholar Press. Foot, Rosemary and Judith Brown (eds.) Migration: The Asian Experience London: Macmillan Forester, Tom (1973) "Pariah Capitalism and Traditional Indian Merchants: Past and Present", pp. 16-36 in Milton Singer, (ed.) Entrepreneurship and Modernization of Occupational Cultures in South Asia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 185 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #200
Forester, Tom (1978) "Asians in Business", New Society, 43: 420-3. Fox, R. G. (1967) "Family, Caste and Commerce in a North Indian Market Town", Economic Development and Cultural Change 15 (3): 297-314. Fox, R. G. (1969) From Zamindar in Ballot Box: a Community Change in a North Indian Market Town. Ithaca and New York: Cornell University Press. Fox, R. G. (1971) Kin, Clan, Raja and Rule: State-Hinterland Relations in Preindustrial India. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Fox, Richard G. (1970) "Rurban settlements and Rajput 'clans' in Northern India", pp.167-85, in Richard G. Fox (ed) Urban India: Society, Space and Image. Durham, NC: Duke University Program in Comparative Studies on Southern Asia. Frankenberg, R. (1971) Communities in Britain: Social Life in Town and Country. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Fuller, C. J. (1979) "Gods, Priests and Purity: On the Relation between Hinduism and the Caste System", Man (n.s.) 14(3): 459-76. Fuller, C. J. (1984) Servants of the Goddess: The Priests of a South Indian Temple. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fuller, C. J. (1988) "The Hindu Pantheon and the Legitimation of Hierarchy", Man (n.s.) 23(1): 19-39. Fuller, C. J. ed. (1996) Caste Today. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Fynes, R.C.C. (1998) The Lives of the Jain Elders. New York: Oxford University Press. Gall, Timothy L. (1998) Worldmark Encyclopedia of Culture & Daily Life. Vol. 3. Cleveland, Oh: Eastword Publications. Gandhi, L. P. (1984) Pattern of Genetic Variation among Jains. Ph.D. Thesis. Pune: University of Poona. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Bannore Jain", pp. 152-57, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. 186 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #201
Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Bogar/Bogara/Kesara Jain", pp. 365-69, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Chaturtha Jain", pp. 435-39, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Dhakad Jain", pp. 490-94, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Dosake Jain", pp. 152-57, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. CHECK THE AUTHOR! Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Gangerwal Jain", pp. 613-17, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Gollalare Jain", pp. 666-70, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Kambhoja Jain", pp. 910-15, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds.) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Narsingpura Jain", pp. 1538-44, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds.) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Newa Jain", pp.1561-66, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Oswal Jain", pp.1567-75, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds.) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Palliwar/Padmavati Jain", pp.1616-20, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds.) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. 187 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #202
Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Pancham Jain", pp.1621-26, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds.) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Porwal Jain", pp.1738-42, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds.) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Saitwal Jain", pp.1818-24, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi, L. P. (2004) "Shri Shrimal Jain", pp.1839-44, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Gandhi. M. K. (1940) An Autobiography, or the Story of My Experiments with Truth: Ahmedabad: Navjivan Press. Ganeri, Anita (1997) Religions Explained: A Beginner's Guide to World Faiths. Markham, Ont.: Henry Hold and Company. Geertz, Clifford (1973), The Interpretation of Cultures: Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. New York: Basic Books. Gellner, D. (1982) "Max Weber, Capitalism and the Religion of India", Sociology 16 (2): 1527-42. Gellner, E. (1979) "Notes towards a theory of ideology", in E. Gellner (ed) Spectacles and Predicaments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ghai, D.P. (1965) (ed.) Portrait of a Minority: Asians in East Africa. Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Ghai, Y.P., and Ghai, D. P. (1971) The Asian Minorities of East and Central Africa. London: Minority Rights Group. Ghosh, A. (1974) (ed.) Jaina Art and Architecture. Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith. Ghoshal, Sarat Chanda (trans. and ed.) (1917), Davrya-Samgraha: The Sacred Books of the Jains, I. Arrah: CJ P House. Ghurye, G.S. (1969) (1932), Caste and Race in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. 188 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #203
Gillion, Kenneth L. (1968) Ahmedabad: A Study in Indian Urban History. Berkeley: University of California Press. Glasenapp, Helmuth von (1992), The Doctrine of Karma in Jain Philosophy. Bombay: Bhai Vijibhai Jivanlal Pannalal Charity Fund. Glasenapp, Helmuth von (1999) Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation. Gold, Ann Grodzins (1988) Fruitful Journeys: The Ways of Rajasthani Pilgrims. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. Goldman, Robert P. (1992) "Foreword", in Padmanabh S. Jaini, Gender & Salvation: Jaina debate on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Delhi: Munsiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Gombrich, R. F. (1971) Precept and Practice: Traditional Buddhism in the Rural Highlands of Ceylon. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Goonasekera, Ratna S. A. (1986) Renunciation and Monasticism among the Jains of India. Ph.D Thesis. San Diego: University of California. Gopal, Surendra (1973) "Jains in Bihar in the Seventeenth Century", Jain Journal, September, pp. 79-83. Gopal, Surendra (1975) Commerce and Crafts in Gujarat in 16th and 17th Centuries. New Delhi. Gopal, Surendra (1984) "Jain Merchants in Eastern India under the Great Mughals", pp. 69-81, in Dwijendra Tripathi (ed) Business Communities of India: A Historical Perspective. Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. Gopal, Surendra (1991) "Life-Style of Jains in Rajasthan in the 17th Cer pp. 156-92, in N. R. Ray and P. N. Chakraborti (eds.), Studies in Cultural Developments in India. Calcutta. Gopal, Surendra (1994) "The Jain Community and Akbar", pp. 421-30, in N. N. Bhattacharya (ed.) Jainism and Prakrit in Ancient and Medieval India: Essays for Prof. Jagdish Chandra Jain. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. Gopalan, S. (1973) Outlines of Jainism. New Delhi: Wiley Eastern. Goyaleeya, Ayodhya Prasad (1964) Jain Jagaran ke Agradoot (in Hindi). New Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith. 189 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #204
Granoff, P. (1984) "Holy Warriors: A Preliminary Study of Some Saints and Kings in the Classical Indian Tradition", Journal of Indian Philosophy 12: 291303. Granoff, P. (1989) "Religious Biography and Clan History among the Shvetambara Jains in North India", East and West 39: 195-215. Granoff, Phyllis (1987) "The Biographies of Siddhasena: A Study in the Texture of Allusion and the Weaving of a Group Image". Part One, Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:329-84. Granoff, Phyllis (1989) The Forest of Thieves and the Magic Gardens: An Anthology of Medieval Jain Stories. London: Penguin Classics. Granoff, Phyllis (1990a) "The Biographies of Siddhasena: A Study in the Texture of Allusion and the Weaving of a Group Image". Part Two, Journal of Indian Philosophy 18:261-304. Granoff, Phyllis (1990b) "Jain Biographies", in Phyllis Granoff (ed) The Clever Adulteress And Other Stories. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic Press. of Guha, Ramchandra and Juan Martiner-Alier (1997) Varieties Environmentalism: Essays North and South. London: Earthscan. Gunarthi, Rameschandra (1987) Rajasthani Jatiyo ki Khoj. Ajmer: Arya Brothers Bookseller. Gupta, Aniruddha (1975) "India and the Asians in East Africa", pp. 125-39, in Michael Twaddle (ed.) Expulsion of a Minority: Essays on Ugandan Asians. London: Athlone Press. Gupta, B. R. (1976) The Aggarwals: a Socio-Economic Study, New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Pvt. Ltd. Gupta, C. S. (1966) Census of India 1961. Vol. XIV, part VII-B. Rajasthan: Fairs and Festivals. Gupta, Dipankar (2000) Interrogating Caste: Understanding Hierarchy and Difference in Indian Society. New Delhi: Penguin Books. Gupta, Khadija A. (1976) Politics of a Small Town. New Delhi: Impex India. Guseva, N. R. (1971) Jainism. Bombay: Sindhu Publications Pvt. Ltd. 190 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #205
Gyanmati, Aryika (1985) Jain Bhoogol (in Hindi). Hastinapur: Digambar Jain Trilok Shodh Sansthan. Habib, Irfan (1964) "Usury in Medieval India", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 6(4): 393-419. Hampa, Nagarajaiah (1996) "The Ganga Monarchy and Jainism", Jain Journal XXXIV(2): 147-152. Hampa, Nagarajaiah (1997) A History of the Rastrakutas and Jainism. Bangalore. Hampa, Nagarajaiah (1999) "Vikramaditya VI and Jainism", Jain Journal XXXIV(1):12-48. Hampa, Nagarajaih (2000) Manastambha (Jaina Pillars of Eminence). Bangalore: C.V.G. Publications. Hampa, Nagarajaiah (2006) "The Neo-Digambara School", Jain Journal XL(3): 119-125. Hampara, Kamala (1996) "The Hoysalas and Jainism", Jain Journal XXXIV(3): 153-158. Hampara, Kamala (1999) "Status of Women in Jainism in Karnataka", Jain Journal XXXIII(3): 101-115. Handiqui, Krishna Kanta (1968) (1949) Yasastilaka and Indian Culture or Somadeva's Yasastilaka and Aspects of Jainism and Indian Thought and Culture in the Tenth Century. Second revised edn. Sholapur: Jaina Samskriti Samraksaka Sangha. Hardiman, David (1996) Feeding the Bania: Peasants and Usurers in Western India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Harper, Edward B. (1964) "Ritual pollution as an integrator of caste and religion", pp. 151-96, in E. B. Harper, (ed). Religion in South Asia. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Havell, E.B. (1915) The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India: A Study of Indo-Aryan Civilisation. London. 191 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #206
Hay, S. (1979) "Jaina goals and disciplines in Gandhi's pursuit of Swaraj", in P. Robb and D. Taylor (eds.) Rule, Protest, Identity: Aspects of Modern South Asia. London: Curzon. Haynes, Douglas E. (1987) "From Tribute to Philanthropy: The Politics of Gift Giving in a Western Indian City", Journal of Asian Studies 46(2):339-60. Haynes, Douglas E. (1991) Rhetoric and Ritual in Colonial India: The Shaping of a Public Culture in Surat city, 1852-1928. Berkeley: University of California Press. Hazlehurst, L. W. (1966) Entrepreneurship and the Merchant Castes in a Punjabi City. NC: Duke University Press. Hazlehurst, L. W. (1968) "Caste and Merchant Communities", pp. 285-98, in Milton Singer and B. S. Cohn (eds.) Structure and Change in Indian Society. New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation. Heesterman, J. C. (1985) The Inner Conflict of Tradition: Essays in Indian Ritual, Kingship, and Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Hilman, Sean (2010) "Sallekhna-Santhara-Samadhimarana and End-of-Life Care: Jain Voluntary and Controlled Death as Model for Secular Health Care", Paper presented at the Seminar on Social Conciousness in Jainism, held at the University of Ottawa, Canada on 27th August 2010 (Mimeographed). Hocart, A. M. 1950 (1938) Caste: A Comparative Study. London: Methuen. First published in French. Hoernle, A. F. Rudolf (1890) "The Pattavali or List of the Upkesa-Gachchha", Indian Antiquary 19 (August): 233-42. Hoernle, A. F. R. (1898) Annual Address. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal. Horner, I. B. (1951) Book of the Discipline. Vol. IV, London. Humphrey, C. (1985) "Some aspects of the Jain Puja: The idea of 'God' and the Symbolism of Offerings", Cambridge Anthropology, 9(3), 1-19. Humphrey, C. (1991) "Local Jain Communities", pp. 69-73, In M. Carrithers and C. Humphrey (eds.) The Assembly of Listeners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 192 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #207
Humphrey, Caroline and James Laidlaw (1994) Archetypal Actions of Ritual: A Theory Illustrated by the Jain Rite of Worship. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Hutchinson, John (1969) Paths of Faith. New York: McGraw Hill. Hutton, J. H. (1946) Caste in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Indra, M. A. (1940) The Status of Women in Ancient India, Lahore. lyer, L. K. A. (1930) The Mysore Tribes and Castes. Mysore. Jacobi, Hermann (1884) Jaina Sutras: Part I, The Acaranga Sutra and the Kalpa Sutra. Oxford: Sacred Books of the East XXII. Jacobi, Hermann (1884) Jaina Sutras: Part II, The Uttaradhyayana Sutra and the Sutrakritanga Sutra. Oxford: Sacred Books of the East 45. Jacobi, Hermann (1946) Studies in Jainism. Ahmedabad: Jaina Sahitya Samsodhaka Karyalay. Jain, Amit (2011) Bhartiya Swatantrata Andolan mein Uttar Pradesh ke Jain Samaj ka Yogadan (in Hindi). Ph.D. Thesis. Meerut: Choudhry Charan Singh Vishwavidyalaya. Jain, Anekant Kumar (2003) "Jain Vishvavidyalaya: Kyon aur Kaise?: Ek Parikalpana", Shrut Samvardhini, December, pp. 8-10 Jain, Anekant Kumar (2005) "Jain Sanskrit Mahavidyalayon ke Kshatron ki Dasha aur Disha", Shrut Samvardhini, February, pp. 13-15. Jain, Anupam (1992) Ganit ke Vikas men Jainacharyon ka Yogadan (in Hindi). Ph.D. Thesis. Meerut University, Meerut. Jain, Anupam and Hansmukh Gandhi (2010) Digambara Jain Teerth Nirdeshika (in Hindi). 6th Edition. Indore: Jain Teerth Nirdeshika Prakashan Samiti. Jain, Arun Kumar (2006) "Alpsankhyak Jain Samudaya Hetu Samvedhanik Suraksha Kavach", Shrut Samvardhini, May, pp. 22-23 and 25. Jain, B. K. (1983), "Ethics and Narrative Literature in the Daily Life of a Traditional Jain Family in Agra during the 1930s, a Study Based on my Personal Childhood Experiences", Indologica Taurinessia, 11. 193 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #208
Jain, Bhag Chand (1972) Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Nagpur. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1926) Jaina Law. Madras. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1926) Sanyasa Dharma. Delhi. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1929) Practical Dharma. Allahabad. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1930) Jaina Penance. Allahabad. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1931) Householder's Dharma. Bijnore. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1934) Jaina Culture. Bijnore. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1939) Change of Heart. Delhi. Jain, Barrister C. R. (1974) Fundamentals of Jainism. Meerut: Veer Nirvan Bharti. Jain, Barrister C. R. (2008) (1915) Rishabha Deva, The Founder of Jainism. Second Edition. Sanganer, Jaipur: Bhagwan Rishabhadev Granthamala. Jain, Barrister C. R. (2008) (1929) The Key of Knowledge. Fourth Edition. Sanganer, Jaipur: Bhagwan Rishabhadev Granthamala. Jain, Dulichand (1997) Pearls of Jaina Wisdom. Varanasi: Parshwanath Vidyapeeth. Jain, Dulichand (1999) "Relevance of Non-Violence in Mdern Life", Jain Journal XXXIV: 49-55. Jain, Gokul Chandra (2009) "Jain Shastron ke Samajik avam Sanskritik Tattvon ka Manav Vaigyanik Adhyyan", Shrut Samvardhini, Feb., pp. 7-9. Jain, H. C. (1972) Ancient Towns and Cities of Rajasthan: A Study in Culture and Civilisation. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Jain, Harish C. (1990) "Jains in Canada: The Role of the International Mahavir Jain Mission", Polyphony (Bulletin of the Multicultural History Society of Ontario), Vol. 12. Jain, Hiralal (1928) Jaina Silalekha Sangraha (in Hindi). Bombay. Jain, Hiralal (1939) Jaina Itihasaki Purva Pithika Aura Hamara Abhyutthana (in Hindi). Bombay. 194 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #209
Jain, Hiralal (1962) Bharatiya Sanskritimen Jaina Dharma-ka Yogadana (in Hindi). Bhopal. Jain, Hiralal and A.N. Upadhye (1975) Mahavira: His Times and his Philosophy of Life. New Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith. Jain, Hukum Chand (2010) "Jain Samudaya: Samajik Sanrachna", New Delhi: Centre for Jain Sociological Studies (mimeographed). Jain, J. C. (1947) Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jaina Canons. Bombay: New Book Company. Jain, J. C. (1952) Bharata-ke Prachina Jaina Tirtha (in Hindi). Banaras. Jain, J. C. (1961) Prakrit Sahitya-ka Itihasa (in Hindi). Varanasi. Jain, J. C.and M. L. Mehta (1966) Jaina Sahitya-ka Brihad Itihasa, Vol. II: Angabahya Agama (in Hindi). Varanasi. Jain, Jagdish Chandra (1992) Studies in Early Jainism: Selected Research Articles. Delhi: Navrang Publishers. Jain, Jivaraj (2006) "21vin Sadi mein Jain Shodh Sansthan aur Unse Ubharti Apekshayen", Shrut Samvardhini, April, pp. 13-15. Jain, Jyoti (1997) Swarajya aur Jain Mahilayen (in Hindi). Khatauli: Shri Kailash Chand Jain Smriti Nyas. Jain, J. P. (1975) Pramukh Aitihasik Jain Purush aur Mahilayen (in Hindi). Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith. Jain, Jyoti Prasad (1983) Religion and Culture of the Jains. 3rd Edition. Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith. Jain, Jyoti Prasad (2005) (1964) The Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India (100 B.C.-A.D. 900). Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. Jain, Jyotindra (1977) "Jaina Ritual and space", pp. 35-41, in Niels Gutschow and Thomas Sieverts (eds.) Beitrage and Studienmaterialiender Fachgruppe Stadt Nr. 11: Stadt und Ritual/Urban Space and Ritual, Darmstadt: Technisse Hochschule Darmstadt, 1977; and London: Art and Archaeology Research Papers, 1978. 195 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #210
Jain, Kailash Chand (1963) Jainism in Rajasthan. Sholapur: Jain Sanskriti Sanrakshak Sangh. Jain, Kailash Chand (1972) Malwa through the Ages. Delhi. Jain, Kailash Chand (1972) Ancient Cities and Towns of Rajasthan. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Jain, Kailash Chand (1975) "Jain Castes and their Gotras in Rajasthan", pp. 263-69, in R. C. Dwivedi (ed) Contribution of Jainism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Jain, Kailash Chand (1991) (1974) Lord Mahavira and His Times. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Jain, Kamlesh Kumar (2010) "Jain Vidyaon ke Vikas mein Acharya Jugal Kishore Mukhtar ka Yogdaan", Anekant 63(1): 82-89 Jain, Kamta Prasad (1924) Bhagavana Mahavira (in Hindi). Surat. Jain, Kamta Prasad (1926) Prachina Jaina Lekha Sangraha (in Hindi). Wardha. Jain, Kamta Prasad (1930) "A Further Note on the Shvetambara and Digambara Sects", Indian Antiquary, 59: 151-4. Jain, Kamta Prasad (1941) Some Historical Jaina Kings and Heroes. Delhi. Jain, Kamta Prasad (1946) Jaina Tirtha aura Unaki Yatra (in Hindi). Delhi. Jain, Kamta Prasad (1947) Hindi Jaina Sahitya-ka Sankshipta Itihasa (in Hindi). Banaras. Jain, Kamta Prasad (1964) The Religion of Tirthankaras. Aliganj. Jain, Kapoor Chand (1991) Bibliography of Prakit and Jain Research. Khatauli: Shri Kailash Chand Jain Memorial Trust. Jain, Kapoor Chand and Jyoti Jain (2006) Swatantrata Sangram mein Jain (Part 1) Second Edition. Khatauli: Sarvodaya Foundation. Jain, Kiran (2003) "Jain", pp. 219-25, in I. J. S. Bansal and Swaran Singh (eds) People of India: Punjab (Vol. XXXVII). New Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Manohar Books. 196 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #211
Jain, L. C. (1929) Indigenous Banking in India. London: Macmillan. Jain, M. K. (1975) "Jains in India: How Many and Where?" Tirthankar, Vol. 1(2): 8-23. Jain, M. K. 1986 "A Demographic Analysis on the Jains", Jain Journal, Vol. 21(2): 33-50. Jain, Maneesha (2005) Manav Vikas mein Jain Parmarthik Sansthaon ki Bhumika (in Hindi). Ph.D. Thesis. Indore: Devi Ahilya Vishwavidylaya. Jain, Manjusha (1994) "Jain", pp. 216-24, in M. L. Sharma and A. K. Bhatia (eds) People of India: Haryana (Vol. XXIII). New Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Manohar Publishers and Distributors. Jain, Muni Uttam Kamal (1975) Jain Sects and Schools. Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Jain, Nand Lal (ed.) (1995) Glossary of Jain Terms. Ahmedabad: Jain International. Jain, Nandlal (2004) "Bahuaayami Pt Phoolchandra Shastri (1901-91)", Shrut Samvardhini, December, pp. 18-20. Neeraj (2010) Songarh Sameeksha (in Hindi). Lucknow: Bharatvarsheeya Digambar Jain Mahasabha. Jain, Jain, Neelu and Benjamin Forest (2004) "From Religion to Ethnicity: The Identity of Immigrant and Second Generation Indian Jains in the United States", National Identities, 6 (3): 277-97. Jain, P. D. (1934) Vijatiya Vivaha Mimamsa (in Hindi). Calcutta. Jain, Prakash C. (1989) "Migration and Settlements of Indians Abroad", Sociological Bulletin, 38(1): 156-70. Jain, Prakash C. (1990) Racial Discrimination against Overseas Indians: A Class Analysis. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Jain, Prakash C. (2004) "Notes on Religion and Community among the Jains", Gandhian Perspective 12(3): 86-104. Jain, Prakash C. (2010) Non-Resident Indian Entrepreneurs in the United Arab Emirates. Delhi: Manak Publications Pvt. Ltd. 197 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #212
Jain Prakash C. (2010) "For Sociology of the Jain Community", Tulsi Prajna 37 (146): 63-76. Jain, Prakash C. (2010) "Jains in Kerala", Anekanta 63(2): 79-85. Jain, Prakash C. (2010) "Status of the Contemporary Jain Community", Arhat Vachan 22(1 & 2): 71-83. Jain, Prakash C. (2011) "Exploring the Global Jain Diaspora", pp. 155-72, in N. Jayaram (ed) Diversities in the Indian Diaspora. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Jain, Prem Suman (1964) Hindi Jaina Bhakti Kavya aura Kavi in Hindi). Varanasi. Jain, Prem Suman (1970) Jaina Sodha aura Samiksha (in Hindi). Jaipur. Jain, Prem Suman and Raj Mal Lodha (eds) (1990) Medieval Jainism: Culture and Environment. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House. Jain, Prem Suman (2003) "The Family of Anekantavada and its Significance", Jain Journal XXXVII(2): 65-74. Jain, Rajaram (2007) Ahimsa Evam Paryavarana Sanrakshan - Sidhanto ka Akshay-Srota: Jaina Dharma Tatha Lokanayak Vardhman Mahavir. New Delhi: Shri Mohanlal Chandrvati Trust. Jain, Rajkumar (2010) Jain Dharam aur Ayurveda in Hindi). Itarsi: Jain Ayurveda Sahitya Anusandhan Kendra. Jain, Ram Chandra (1970) Ethnology of Ancient Bharata. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. Jain, Ram Chandra and Pt. Chandulal Jain (1914) Narsigpura Jatiki Utpattika Varnan (in Hindi). Bombay: All India Digambar Jain Mandal. Jain, Ramakant (1976) "Uttar Pradesh Mein Jainon ki Vartman Sthiti", pp. 99-104, in Jyoti Prasad Jain (ed.), Uttar Pradesh aur Jain Dharma. Lucknow: Gyandeep Prakashan. Jain, Ramesh Chand (2006) Jaindharma Darshan (in Hindi). Jaipur: Bhagwan Rishabhdev Granthmala, Mandir Sanghiji. 198 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #213
Jain, Ranu (1987) "Jain Oswals of Calcutta: A Socio-Historical Perspective", Man in India 67(4): 383-403. Jain, Ranu (1991) Ethnicity in Plural Societies: with special reference to Jain Oswals in Calcutta. Ph.D. Thesis. Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, University of Calcutta. Jain, Ranu (2002) "Strategies for Effective Integration of an Affluent Minority in a Plural Society: Case of Jains in India", pp. 77-098, in Munirul Hussain and Lipi Gupta (eds.) Religious Minorities in South Asia. Delhi: Manak Publications. Jain, Ratan Chandra (2009) Jain Parampara aur Yapniya Sangh (in Hindi) 3 Vols. Agra: Sarvodaya Jain Vidyapeeth. Jain, Ravindra K. (1999) The Universe as Audience: Metaphor and Community among the Jains of North India. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study. Jain, Sagarmal (2007) "How Appropriate is the Proposition of Neo-Digambar School?", Jain Journal XLI(3): 119-127. Jain, Sagarmal (2009) "The World's Problems and Jaina View-Point", Tulsi Prajna, 143 (April-June): 86-96. Jain, Satish Kumar (1987) Progressive Jains. New Delhi: Shraman Sahitya Sansthan. Jain, Shobhita (1971), A Social Anthropological Study of Jainism in North India. Unpublished B. Litt. Dissertation, University of Oxford. Jain, Shugan C. (2010) Key to Reality in Jainism: Tattwarth Sutra by Acharya Umaswami. Hastinapur: Digambar Jain Trilok Shodh Sansthan. Delhi: Jain, Shugan C. (201 10) "Social Consciousness in Jainism" New International School for Jain Studies (mimeographed). Jain, Sushil (1996) "On Jaina Polity and Somadeva's Nitivamrtam", Jain Journal XXXI(1): 4-17. Jain, Vardhman K. (1990) Trade and Traders in Western India, AD 1000-1300. New Delhi: Munsiram Manoharlal Publishers. 199 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #214
Jain, V. K. (2003) "Meat Eating by the Early Jains - A Tragedy of Linguistics", Jain Journal XXXVII(4): 198-203. Jain, Veersagar (2010) "Jaindharam ki Vyavaharikta", New International School for Jain Studies (mimeographed). Delhi: Jain, Vijay Kumar (2007) Pali evam Prakrit Vidhya: Ek Tulnatmak Adhyayan (in Hindi). Lucknow: Maitry Prakashan. Jain, Viney (2010) "The Concept of Uttam kshama or Supreme Forgiveness in Jain Philosophy and its Relevance in the Modern World", paper presented at the International Summer School for Jain Studies Seminar on Social Consciousness in Jainism, New Delhi (mimeographed). Jain, Yogendra (2007) Jain Way of Life. Getzville, New York: Federation of Jain Associations in North America. Jain, "Advocate", R. (1988) Jaiswal Jain Itihas (in Hindi). Gwalior: Jaiswal Jain Samaj. Jain "Bhaskar", Bhagchandra (2004) "Jain Sanskratik Virasat ka Anuthapan", Prachin Teerth Jeernoddhar, September, pp. 2-5. Jain "Bhaskar", Bhagchandra (2008) "Jain Dharma ka Prachar-Prasar", Prachin Teerth Jeernoddhar, Feb.-March, pp. 8-12 and 42. Jain "Bharati", Surendra Kumar (2004) "Jain Patrakarita Ka Vikas", Samvardhini, October and November, pp. 6-9 and 12-16. Jain "Premi", Phool Chand (2008) "Jainvidya ke Vikas mei Shree Syadvad Mahavidyalaya ka Yogadana", Shrut Samvardhini, August, pp. 12-14. Jain "Sadhak", Jagdish Prasad (2005) Fundamentals of Jainism. New Delhi: Radiant Publishers. Jain "Sahityacharya", Pandit Rakesh (2000) "Kuwait mein Mera Paryushan Parva", Veerodaya, July-September. Jain Sethi, Nirmal Kumar (2007) "Meri England Yatra", Prachin Teerth Jeernoddhar, May, pp. 39-43. Jain Sethi, Nirmal Kumar (2009) "Dakshin-Poorva Asia ki Yatra", Jain Gazettee, 11 June, pp. 4-5. 200 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #215
Jaini, J. L. (1916) Outlines of Jainism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jaini, J. L. (1916) The Jaina Law. Arrah. Jaini, J. L. (1926) The Bright Ones in Jainism. Allahabad. Jaini, J. L. (1978) (1923) The Self-Realization: Being the Translation of AtmaSiddhi of Shrimad Rajchandra. Ahmedabad: Shrimad Rajchandra Gyan Pracharak Trust. Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1970) "Sramanas: Their Conflict with Brahmanical Society", pp. 39-81, in J. W. Elder (ed.) Chapters in Indian Civilization, I. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt. Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1974) "Jina Rsabha as an Avatara of Visnu", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, XL (pt. 2): 321-37. Jaini, Padmanabh, S. (1977) 'Bhavyatva and Abhavyatva: A Jain Doctrine of "Predestination", pp. 95-111, in Bhagavan Mahavira 2,500th Nirvana Mahotsava Samiti. Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1979) The Jain Path of Purification. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. Jaini, Padmanabh, S. (1980) 'The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Survival of Jainism: A Study in 'Contrast"", pp. 81-91, in A. K. Narain (ed.) Studies in Buddhism. New Delhi: B. R. Publishing Corporation. Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1985) "The pure and the auspicious in the Jaina tradition", pp. 84-93, in J. B. Carman and F. A. Marglin (eds.). Purity and Auspiciousness in Indian Society. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Reprinted in Collected Papers on Jaina Studies, pp. 229-42. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Jaini, Padmanabh, S. (2000) Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Jaini, Padmanabh, S. (2001) Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Jash, Pranabananda (1989) Some Aspects of Jainism in Eastern India. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 201 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #216
Jhavery, M. B. (1925) Historical Facts about Jainism. Bombay. Jindel, R. (1976) Culture of a Sacred Town: A Sociological Study of Nathdwara. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Joharapurkar, V. (1958) Bhattaraka Sampradaya (in Hindi). Sholapur. Joshi, A. P., M. D. Srinivas and J. K. Bajaj (2003) Religious Demography of India. Chennai: Centre for Policy Studies. Joshi, Madanlal (ed.) (1962) Dadavari-Digdarsan (in Hindi). Bombay: Pratapmal Sethiya (Srijindattsuri) Seva Sangh. Jayasree, R. (1989) Religion, Social Change and Fertility Behaviour: A Study of Kerala. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. Kachhara, N. L. (2005) Jain Doctrine of Karma: The Religious and Scientific Dimensions. Udaipur: Dharam Darshan Sewa Samsthan. Kala, B. T. (1940) Jaina Vivaha Paddhati aur Lokachara (in Hindi). Nandgaon. Kalam, Mohammed A. and Zubeeda Banu (2003) "Jain", pp. 492-96, in R. Thirumalai and S. Manoharan (eds) People of India: Tamil Nadu (Vol. XL, Part One). Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd. Kalam, M. A. and Zubeeda Banu (2003) "Marwari", pp. 1014-19, in R. Thirumalai and S. Manoharan (eds) People of India: Tamil Nadu (Vol. XL, Part One). Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd. Kalghatgi, T. G. (ed.) (1981) Gommateshvara Commemoration Volume (A.D. 981-1981). Sravana Belgola. Kalghatgi, T. G. (1969) Jaina View of Life. Sholapur: Lalchand Hirachand Doshi. Kane, P. V. (1968-77) History of Dharamashashtra. Five Volumes. Revised Editions. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Kapadia, H. R. (1941) A History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas. Surat. 202 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #217
Kapadia, Hiralal Rasiklal (1944) The Jaina Religion and Literature. Vol.I. Lahore: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. Kapadia, K. M. (1947) Hindu Kinship. Bombay. Kapadia, K. M. (1966) Marriage and Family in India. Bombay. Karnavat, Devendra K. and Mahendra karnavat (eds) Anuvrata Itihas, Part I: 1949-1958. New Delhi: Anuvrata Mahasamiti Prakashan. Karve, Irawati (1961) Hindu Society: An Interpretation. Pune: Deccan College. Karve, Irawati (1965) Kinship Organization in India. Second edition. Bombay: Asia Publishing House. Kasliwal, Kasturchandra (ed.) (1981) Pandit Babulal Jain Jamadar Abhinandan Granth. Baraut: Akhil Bhartiya Digambar Jain Shastri Parishad. Kesharajayati (2001) The Illustrated Manuscript of Jain Ramayana. Arrah: Shri Dev Kumar Oriental Library. Kelting, Witney M. (2001) Singing to the Jinas: Jain Laywomen Mandal Singing and the Recitations of Jain Devotion. Oxford: Oxford University Press Ketkar, S. V. (1909) History of Caste in India. New York. Khadabadi, B. K. (2002) "Contribution of Jainism to the Culture of South India", Jain Journal XXXVII(1): 37-52. Khalidi, Omar (2009) "Hindu by Default: Inflating Hindu Majority in India", Journal of South Asian and Middle Eastern Studeis XXXII (3): 1-20. Khare, R.S. (1976) The Hindu Hearth and Home. New Delhi: Vikas. Klatt, J. (1882) "Extracts from the Historical Records of the Jainas", Indian Antiquary 11: 245-56. Klimburge-Saher, D. E. (ed.) (1982) The Silk Route and the Diamond Path. Los Angeles: UCLA Arts Council. Kling, B. B. (1966) "Indian and British Businessmen in Calcutta, 1820-1860", Paper delivered at the American Historical Association. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #218
Kolenda, Pauline (1978) Caste in Contemporary India: Beyond Organic Solidarity. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin Cummings. Kosambi, D. D. (1965) Culture and Civilization in Ancient India in Historical Outline. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kothari, Dhara (2003) "A Social Revolution", Jain Spirit 14 (March-May): 22 23. Kothari, Dhara (2003) "A family Legacy" (Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi), Jain Spirit 14 (March-May): 48-49. Kothari, Rajni and Rushikesh Maru (1965) "Caste and Secularism in India", Journal of Asian Studies 25, 1:33-50. Kothari, Rajni and Rushikesh Maru (1970) "Federating for political interests: The Kshatriyas of Gujarat", In Rajni Kothari, ed., Caste in Indian Politics, pp. 70-101. New Delhi: Orient Longman. Kothari, Trilokchand (2003) Akhil Bharatvarsheeya Digambar Jain Mahasabhaka Ateet, 1895-1980. Kota: Trilok Institute of Higher Studies and Research. Kothari, Trilokchand (2005) Akhil Bharatvarsheeya Digambar Jain (Teertha Sanrakshni) Mahasabhaki Uplavdhian. Kota: Trilok Institute of Higher Studies and Research. Krause, C. (1929) An Interpretation of Jain Ethics. Bhavnagar. Krause, C. (1930) "The Social Atmosphere of Present Jainism", Calcutta Review, 275-86. Kulirani, B. Francis (2002) "Jains", pp. 491-97, in T. Madhava Menon, et al. (eds) People of India: Kerala. (Vol. XXVII, Part Two). New Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd. Kulkarni, V. M. (1990) The Story of Rama in Jain Literature. Ahmedabad: Saraswati Pustak Bhandar. Kumar, Bhuvanendra (1996) Jainism in North America. Missisauga, Ontario: Humanities Press. Kumar, Bhuvanendra (1997) "Jains and their Religion in America: A Social Survey", Arhat Vachan 9(1): 43-53. 204 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #219
Kumar, Muni Sushil (1996) History of World Religions' Confeences. Delhi: World Fellowship of Religions. Kumar, Rajjan (2004) "Life Science and Jainism", Jain Journal XXXIX(1): 2030. Kumar, Rajjan (2006) Different Aspects of Jainism. New Delhi: Sunrise Publishers. Kumar, Ravi and Collette Caillat (2004) Jain Cosmology (English translation by R. Norman). New Delhi. Kumar, Sahdev (2001.) A Thousand-Petalled Lotus: Jain Temples of Rajasthan. New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for Art and Abhinav Publications. Kumari, Vasantha (1987) "Power and Tranquility: A Profile of Jaina Martial Class of Karnataka", Jain Journal XXV(4): 178-84. Kumari, Vasantha (1997) "Karnataka-Tamil Nadu Jain Relations through the Ages: Historical Perspective", Jain Journal XXXII(1): 1-34. Kumari, Vashantha (2000) "Jainism during the Wodeyars of Mysore", Jain Journal XXXIV(3): 115-138. Lach, Donald (1965) Asia in the Making of Europe, vol. 1, Book I, Chicago. Laidlaw, James (1985) "Profit, Salvation and Profitable Saints", Cambridge Anthropology 9(3): 50-70. Laidlaw, James and Caroline Humphrey (1994) The Archtypal Actions of Rituals: A Theory of Ritual illustrated by the Jain Rite of Worship. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Laidlaw, James (1995) Riches and Renunciation: Religion, Economy and Society among the Jains. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Lal, P. N. and N. P. Srivastava (2004) "Agarwal", pp. 63-66, in Amir Hasan, et al. (eds) People of India: Uttar Pradesh. Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Manohar Publishers & Distributors. Lal, P. N. (2004) "Khandelwal" pp 790-93, in Amir Hasan, et al. (eds) People of India: Uttar Pradesh. Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Manohar Publishers & Distributors. 205 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #220
Lal, P. N. (2004) "Oswal", pp. 1101-1104, in Amir Hasan, et al. (eds) People of India: Uttar Pradesh. Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Manohar Publishers & Distributors. Lalwani, kastur Chand (1979) Kalpa-Sutra of Bhadrabahu Svami. Text with English translation and notes. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Lamb, Helen (1955) "The Indian business Communities and the Evolution of an Industrialist class", Pacific Affairs, 28: 101-16. Lamb, Helen (1959) "The Indian Merchant", pp. 25-34, in Milton Singer (ed) Traditional India: Structure and Change. Austin: University of Texas Press. Lath, Mukund (ed.) (1981) Ardhakathanaka: Half Tale: A Study in the Interrelationship between Autobiography and History. Jaipur: Rajasthan Prakrit Bharati Sansthan. Lath, Mukund (1991) "Somadeva Suri and the Question of Jain Identity", pp. 19-30, in M. Carrithers and C. Humphrey (eds.) The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Law, B. C. (1937) Mahavira: His Life and Teachings. London. Law, B. C. (1941) India as Described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism. London. Law, B. C. (1949) Some Jaina Cononical Sutras. Bombay. LCCR (1982a) Distribution of Ethnic Minorities in Leicester. Leicester: Leicester Council for Community Relations. LCCR (1982b) The Ethnic Minority Population of Leicester. Leicester: Leicester Council for Community Relations. Leumann, E. (1926) Buddha and Mahavira. Munich. Lodrick, Deryck O. (1981) Sacred Cows, Sacred Places: Origins and Survivals of Animal Homes in India. Berkeley: University of California Press. Loewen, Nathan (2010) "Jains in Development: Challenging Some 'Religion and Development Arguments", Paper presented at Seminar on Social Consciousness in Jainism, held at the University of Ottawa, Canada on 27 August 2010 (Mimeographed). 206 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #221
Long, Jeffery D. (2009) Jainism: An Introduction. London and New York: I. B. Tauris. Luhadia, Pramod Kumar and Shakun (2007) Sachitra Tirth Darshan Sangrah. Jaipur: Jaina Network. Lunia, B.N. (1960) Evolution of Indian Culture. Bombay: Popular Books. Lynch, Owen M. (1990), "The Social Construction of Emotion in India", in Owen M. Lynch (ed.), Divine Passions: The Social Construction of Emotion in India. Berkeley: University of California Press. Madan, T. N. (1987) Non-Renunciation: Themes and Interpretations of Hindu Culture. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Mahaprajna, Acharya (2002) Anekanta: The Third Eye. Ladnun: Jain Vishva Bharati University. Mahmood, Tahir (1993) "Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs: Religious Identity, Beliefs and Practices under the Indian Legal System," Religion and Law Review 2 (2): 5-28. Majumdar, M. R. (ed) (1960) Historical and Cultural Chronology of Gujarat. Baroda: Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. Majumdar, M. R. (1965) Cultural History of Gujarat. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Majumdar, R.C., H. L. Raychauduri and K. Datta (1963) An Advanced History of India. London: Macmillan. Malamoud, Charles (1982) "On the Rhetoric and Semantics of Purusartha", pp.33-54, in T. N. Madan (ed.) Way of Life: King, Householder, Renouncer. New Delhi: Vikas. Malvania, D. (1977) "The story of Bharata and Bahubali", Sambodhi 6: 1-11. Malvania, D. and N. Shah (eds.) (1981) Studies in Indian Philosophy. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology. Malvania, D. D. (1975) "The Jaina Concept of the Deity", in U. P. Shah and M. A. Dhaky (eds.), Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture. Ahmedabad: LD Institute of Indology. 207 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #222
Mandal, S. K. (1998) "Matheran/Mahatma", pp. 625-28, in B. K. Lavania, et al, (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Mandelbaum, D. G. (1970) Society in India. 2 Vols. Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press. Mangat, J. S. (1969) A History of Asians in East Africa, 1886-1945. London: Oxford University Press. Manirul Hussain and Lipi Ghosh (eds.) (2002) Religious Minorities in South Asia, New Delhi: Manak. Mardia, K. V. (2003) The Scientific Foundations of Jainism. Second Edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Marett, Paul (1988) Meghji Pethraj Shah: His Life and Achievements. Bombay and London: Bharatiya Vidhya Bhavan. Marett, Paul (2000) Jainism Explained. Leicester: Jain Samaj Europe Publication. Markovits, Claude (2000) The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750-1947: Traders of Sind from Bukhara to Panama. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Marriott, M. (1959) "Interactional and Attributional Theories of Caste Ranking", Man in India, 39(2): 92-107. Marriott, McKim (1968) "Caste ranking and food analysis: A matrix analysis", pp. 133-71, in Milton Singer and Bernard S. Cohn, (eds.) Structure and Change in Indian Society. Chicago: Aldine Press. Marshall, Sir John (1931) Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization. 3 Vols. London. Mathur, U. B. (1976) Census of India 1971. Rajasthan, Part II-C (i), Social and Cultural Tables. Mayer, A. C. (1960) Caste and Kinship in Central Indian Village and its Region. Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press. McCrindle, J. W. (1926) Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian. Calcutta. 208 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #223
McClelland, David G. (1961) The Achieving Society. New York: Free Press. Mcgilvray, Dennis B., ed. (1982) Caste Ideology and Interaction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mehta, D. (n.d.) Shrimad Rajchandra: A Life. Ahmedabad: Shrimad Rajchandra Janma Shatabdi Mandal. Mehta, M. and D. Tripathi (1991) Business Houses in Western India. New Delhi: Manohar Books. Mehta, M. J. (1927) The Jainas and Palitana. Ahmedabad: L D. Institute. Mehta, M. L. (1969) Jaina Culture. Varanasi. Mehta, Makrand (1991) "Social Base of Jain Entrepreneurs in the 17th Century: Shantidas Zaveri of Ahmedabad", pp. 91-114, in Makrand Mehta (ed) Indian Merchants and Entrepreneurs in Historical Perspective. Delhi: Academic Foundation. Mehta, Mohan Lal (2000) Jaina Psychology: An Introduction. Varanasi: Parshwanath Vidyapeeth. Mehta, Shirin (1984) "The Mahajans and the Business Communities of Ahmedabad", pp. 173-85, in Dwijendra Tripathi, (ed.)., Business Communities of India: A Historical Perspective. New Delhi: Manohar Books. Menon, Sreedhara (1979) Social and Cultural History of Kerala. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Meyer, Johann J. (1930) Sexual Life in Ancient India. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Michaelson, M. (1983) Caste, Kinship and Marriage: A Study of Two Gujarati Trading Castes in England. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of London. Michaelson, Maureen (1979) "The Relevance of Caste among East African Gujaratis in Britain", New Community 7(3): 350-60. Michie, B. H. (1978) "Baniyas in the Indian Economy: A Case of Stagnant Entrepreneurship", Journal of Asian Studies, 37(4): 637-52. Miles, William (1835) "On the Jainas of Gujarat and Marwar", Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 3: 335-71. 209 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #224
Miller, D. B. (1975) From Hierarchy to Stratification: Changing Patterns of Social Inequality in a North Indian Village. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Millman, H. A. (1954) The Marwaris: A Study of a Group of Trading Castes. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of California Minakshi, C. (1938) Administration and Social Life under the Pallavas. Madras. Mines, M. (1972) Muslim Merchants: The Economic Behaviour of an Indian Muslim Community. Delhi: Sri Ram Centre. Mishra, Jogendra (1962) An Early History of Vaisali. Delhi. Misra, Rajalakshmi (1972) "The Jains in an Urban Setting", Bulletin of Anthropological Survey of India 31 (1 & 2): 1-68. Misra, R. N. (1981) Yaksha Cult and Iconography. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Mitra, K. (1957) "Sea-Voyage in Jain Folk-Lore", Journl of Bihar Research Society 43: 291-98. Mittal, A.C. (2006) Economic Aspects of Jainism. Delhi: Vista International Publications. Mohanadoss, T. (1996) "Jain Entrepreneurship", Mankind Quarterly 37 (1): 77-91. Monier-Williams, Monier (1962) (1899) A Sanskriti-English Dictionary. New Edition. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas. Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1936) Hindu Civilisation. London. Morris, H. S. (1968) The Indians in Uganda. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. Mugali, R. S. (1946) The Heritage of Karnataka. Bangalore. Mukerjea, Satya V. (1932) Census of India 1931, volume xix, Baroda. Part I: Report. Bombay: Government of Baroda. Mukherji, S. C. (1997) "Cultural Heritage of Bengal in Relation to Jainism", Jain Journal XXXVII(2): 52-60. 210 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #225
Mukhtar, Jugal Kisor (1963) "Jin-Pujadhikar-Mimamsa", In his Yugvir Nibandhavali, vol. I, pp. 47-106. Originally published as a separate pamphlet in 1913. Mukhtar, J. K. (1916) Vivaha ka Uddesa (in Hindi). Bombay. Mukhopadhayay, Ashok Kumar (2008) "The Jains", pp.398-401, in Surendra Gopal and Hetukar Jha (eds) People of India: Bihar. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India and Seagull Books. Nagar, Shantilal (2000) Jaina Sculptures in Indian and World Museums. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Nagarajaiah, Hampa (2004) "Apropos of Himsa Vs. Ahimsa", Jain Journal XXXIX (1): 7-19. Nagarajaji, Muni Srl (1959) Jain Philosophy and Modern Science. Kanpur. Nagarajaji, Muni Srl (1960) Anuvrata Jivana-Darsana (in Hindi). Delhi. Nagarajan, Rema (2004) "How, or Why, Hindus are Losing the Race", The Hindustan Times, Delhi, 9 September. Nahar, P. C. and K. C. Ghosh (eds) (1996) (1917) An Encyclopedia of Jainism. Delhi: Satguru. Nahar, P. C. (1929) "A Note on the Shvetambar and Digambar Sects", Indian Antiquary, 58: 167-8. Nahar, P. C. (1932) "Antiquity of the Jain Sects", Indian Antiquary, 61: 121-6. Nahta, Agarcand (presumed author) (1987) Dada Guru Caritra. Ajmer: Sri Jindattsuri Mandal. Naik, T. B. (1957) "Social Status in Gujarat", The Eastern Anthropologist 10(1): 173-81. Nair, Adoor K. K. Ramchandran (1986) Gazetteer of India: Kerala State Gazetteer, Vol. II. Trivandrum: Government of Kerala. Naravan, Raideva and Janardan Kumar (eds) (2003) Ecology and Religion: Ecological Concepts in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, Christianity and Sikhism. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd. 211 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #226
Nehru, Jawaharlal (1961) The Discovery of India. Bombay: Asia Publishing House. Nemichandra Sastri (1968) Adipuranamen Pratipadita Bharata (in Hindi). Varanasi. Nevaskar, Balwant (1971) Capitalists without Capitalism: The Jains of India and the Quakers of the West. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Corporation. Nevaskar, Balwant (ed.) (1978) Sramana Tradition: Its Contribution to Indian Culture. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology. Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1929) The Pandyan Kingdom. London. Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1934) Osavala Jatika Itihasa (in Hindi). Indore: Osavala History Publishing House. Norman, K. R. (1991) "The Role of the layman according to the Jain Canon", pp. 31-40, in M. Carrithers and C. Humphrey (eds.) The Assembly of Listeners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. O'Flaherty, W. D. (1976) The Origins of Evil in Hindu Mythology. Berkeley: University of California Press. Ohira, Suzuko (1997) "Jainism and Unification Thought", Jain Journal XXXI(3): 85-97. Olivelle, Patrick (1998) "Caste and Purity: A Study in the Language of the Dharma Literature", Contributions to Indian sociology (n.s.) 32(2): 189-216. Ommen, T. K. (2001) "Civil Society: Religion, Caste and Language in India," Sociological Bullentin, 50(2): 219-35 Padmarajiah, Y. J. (1963) A Comparative Study of the Jaina Theories of Reality and knowledge. Bombay. Pal, Chitta Ranjan (2005) "Jainism in Bengal", Jain Journal XL(2): 73-88. Panchanadikar, K. C. and J. Panchandidkar (1970) Determinants of Social Structure and Social Change in India. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Pande, G. C. (1978) The Sramana Tradition. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute. 212 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #227
Paniker, Agustin (2010) Jainism: History, Society, Philosophy and Practice. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Pankaj, Vishnu (1989) Arjun Lal Sethi. Jaipur: Rajasthan Prakashan. Parekh, Ravindra (2004) "Bal Diksha takes away the fundamental rights of Children", India Today, June 14, pp. 77-78. Pargiter, F.E. (1922) Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London. Parikh, R. B. (1904) The Priority of Jainism over Buddhism. Bombay. Parikh, Vastupal (2002) Jainism and the New Spirituality. Toronto: Peace Publications. Parry, Jonathan P. (1973) "Grades within Castes: Two Studies in Gujarat", South Asian Review 6(4): 323-31. Parry, Jonathan P. (1994) Death in Banaras. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Patel, Tulsi (1990) Fertility Behaviour in Rajasthan Village. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Patel, Tulsi (ed.) (2007) Sex-Selective Abortion in India: Gender, Society and New Reproductive Technologies. New Delhi: Sage Publications. Patil, Bal (2011) Jainism: An Eternal Pilgrimage. Second revised edition. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay. Patil, Padmaja A. (2010) "A Century of Boarding Houses under Dakshin Bharat Jain Sabha", New Delhi: International School for Jain Studies (mimeographed). Pearson, M. N. (1976) Merchants and Rulers in Gujarat: The Response to the Portuguese in the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pertold, O. (1921) The Place and Importance of Jainism in the Comparative Science of Religions. Bhavnagar. Phoolchandra Siddhantasastri (1963) Varna, Jati aur Dharma (in Hindi). Kashi: Bharatiya Jnanpitha. 213 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #228
Pocock, D. F. (1954) "The hypergamy of the Patidars", pp. 195-204, in K. M. Kapadia (ed.) Professor Ghurye felicitation Volume. Bombay: Popular Book Depot. Pocock, D. F. (1955) "The Movement of Castes", Man 55: 71-72. Pocock, D. F. (1957a) "The Bases of Faction in Gujarat", British Journal of Sociology 8 (4): 295-306. Pocock, D. F. (1957b) "Difference" in East Africa: A Study of Caste and Religion in Modern Indian Society", Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 13(4): 289-300. Pocock, D. F. (1960) Sociologies: Urban and Rural", Contributions to Indian Sociology 4: 63-81. Pocock, D. F. (1973) Mind, Body and Wealth: A Study of Belief and Practice in an Indian Village. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Poros, Maritsa V. (2005) "Varieties of Hindu Nationalism in the Diaspora", Illinois Institute of Technology, Dearborn Street, Chicago, Il. (Mimeographed). Prabhakar, M. (1972) Cultural Heritage of Rajasthan. Jaipur: Panchsheel Prakashan. Prabhavananda, Swami (1979) The Spiritual Heritage of India. Hollywood: Vedanta Press. Prasad, Ajit (1951) Agyat Jivan (in Hindi). Allahabad: Shanti Press. Prashad, Sital (1995) A Comparative Study of Jainism and Buddhism. Delhi: Indian Book Centre. Premi, Nathuram (1956) Jaina Sahitya aur Itihasa (in Hindi). Second Edition. Bombay: Hindi Grantha Ratnakara. Prime Minister's High Level Committee Report, Government of India (2006) Social, Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India: A Report. New Delhi: Cabinet Secretariate (Sachhar Committee Report). Pruthi, R. K. (ed) (2004) Jainism and Indian Civilization. New Delhi: Discovery. Quigley, Declan (1993) The Interpretation of Caste. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 214 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #229
Radhakrishnan, S. (2002) "Pluralistic Realism of the Jainas", Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, Ch 6. London: Oxford University Press. Eighth Impression. Radhakrishnan, Sarvapalli and Charles A. Moore (ed.) (1957) A Source Book of Indian Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Raghav Varier, M. R. (1979) Jainism in Kerala, M.Phil. dissertation, Centre for Historical Studies, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Raheja, Gloria Goodwin (1988) "India: Caste, Kingship and Dominance reconsidered", Annual Review of Anthropology 17: 497-522. Ramachandran, T. N. (1944) Jaina Monuments of India. Calcutta. Ramachandran, T. N. and Chhotelal Jain (1951) Khandagiri - Udayagiri Caves. Calcutta. Ramapuria, S. C. (1947) The Cult of Ahimsa, Calcutta. Ramchandani, R. R. (1976) Uganda Asians: The End of an Enterprise. Bombay: United Asian Publication. Rankin, Aidan (2007) The Jain Path: Ancient Wisdom for an Age of Anxiety. New Delhi: New Age Books. Rao, K. R. (2004) "Agarwal", pp. 46-49, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Rao, K. R. (2004) "Khandelwal", pp. 983-87, in B. V. Bhanu, et al. (eds) People of India: Maharashtra. Delhi and Mumbai: Anthropological Survey of India and Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd. Rapson, E. J. (ed) (1922) Cambridge History of India, Vol. - 1, Ancient India. Cambridge. Ray, Rajat K. (ed) (1992) Entrepreneurship and Industry in India, 1980-1947. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Renou, Louis (1953) Religions of Ancient India. London: Athlone Press. Rettig, Nael (1972) "An Anthropological Study of the Religion of the Jainas", Jain Journal VI (3). 215 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #230
Reynell, Josephine (1985a) Honour, Nurture and Festivity: Aspects of Female Religiosity amongst Jain Women in Jaipur. Ph.D. Thesis. Cambridge University Reynell, Josephine (1985b) "Renunciation and Ostentation: A Jain Paradox", Cambridge Anthropology 9(3): 20-33. Reynell, Josephine (1991) "Women and the Reproduction of the Jain Community", pp. 41-68, in M. Carrithers and C. Humphrey (eds.) The Assembly of Listeners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rhys Davis, T. W. and C. A. F. (1923) Dialogues of the Buddha. London: Sacred Books of the Buddhists. Rice, B. L. (1921) Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions. London. Rice, Edward (1978) Ten Religions of the East. New York: Four Winds Press. Richards, J. F. (ed.) (1981) Kingship and Authority in South Asia. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Riencourt, A. D. (1961) The Soul of India. London. Risley, Herbert (1891) Tribes and Castes of Bengal. Calcutta. Risley, Herbert. (1915) People of India. Calcutta. Rivers, W.H.R. (1932) Social Organisation. London. Rosenfield, C. (1981) Gurudeva Shree Chitrabhanu: A Man with a Vision. New York: Jain meditation International Centre. Roy, A. K. (1978) History of the Jaipur City. New Delhi: Manohar Publications. Roy, A. K. (1984) A History of the Jainas. Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing House. Roy Choudhury, P. C. (1956) Jainism in Bihar. Patna. Russell, Robert Vane and Hiralal (1975) (1916) The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India. Delhi: Cosmo Publications. Saheb, S. A. A. (1997) "Jain", pp.708-11, People of India: Andhra Pradesh (Vol. XIII, Part Two). New Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Affiliated East-West Press Pvt. Ltd. 216 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #231
Sahityacharya, Pandit Rakesh Jain (2006) "Kuwait mein Mera Paryushan Parva", Veerodaya, July-September. Salatore, Bhaskar A. (1934) Social and Political Life in Vijayanagara Empire. Madras. Salatore, Bhaskar A. (1938) Mediaeval Jainism: with special reference to the Vijayanagar Empire. Bombay: Karnatak Publishing House. Samani Chaitanya Prajna (2005) Scientific Vision of Lord Mahavira, Philosophical and Scientific Study of a Jain Canonical Text Bhagavatisutra. Ladnun: Jain Vishva Bharati. Samanta, D. K. and S. R. Maitra (1998) "Agarwal", pp.28-32, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Chitoda", pp. 229-33, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Golalare", pp. 391-94, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Golapurab", pp. 395-99, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Humad", pp.429-33, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. and S. R. Maitra (1998) "Khandelwal", pp.524-28, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Narsingpura", pp. 685-89, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Oswal", pp. 720-25, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Porwal", pp. 756-59, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (1998) "Sailwal", pp. 760-64, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. 217 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #232
Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Bhavsar (Jain)", pp. 209-213, in R. B. Lal et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Golsinghare", pp. 432-37, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Humad", pp. 513-18, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Kharaua", pp. 646-51, in R. B. Lal et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Lamechu", pp. 749-54, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Mewada", pp. 916-21, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Narasingpura", pp. 1008-13, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Oswal", pp. 1044-49, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Porwal", pp. 1147-52, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, D. K. (2003) "Srimali", pp. 1330-34, in R. B. Lal, et al. (eds) People of India: Gujarat, Vol. XXII. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Samanta, Samari Kanta (2009) "On Samlekhana: An Existentialist Perspective", Tulsi Prajna, 36(145): 51-92. Sandesara, Bhogilal J. (1953) Literary circle of Mahamatya Vastupala and its contribution to Sanskrit literature. Bombay: Singhi Jain Shastra Sikshapith and Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. Sangave, Vilas. A. (1976) Daksin Bharat Jain Sabhaka Itihas. Sangli: Daksin Bharat Jain Sabha. Sangave, Vilas A. (1980) (1959) Jain Community: A Social Survey. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. 218 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #233
Sangave, Vilas A. (1991) "Reform movements among Jains in Modern India", pp. 233-40, in Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey (eds.) The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sangave, Vilas A. (1992) Jain Society through the Ages. Delhi: R.K. Jain Charitable Trust. Sangave, Vilas A. (2001) Facets of Jainology: Selected Papers on Jain Society, Religion and Culture. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Sangave, Vilas A. (2006) (1990) Aspects of Jaina Religion. New Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith. 5th edition. Sanghavi, Sukhlal (1950) Pacifism Research Society Bulletin 25. and Jainism. Benaras: Jain Cultural Sanghavi, Sukhlal (1951) Dharma aur Samaj (in Hindi). Bombay: Hindi Grantha Ratnakar. Sankalia, H.D. (1949) Studies in the historical and cultural geography and ethnography of Gujarat. Poona: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute. Saran, A. (2004) "Porwal", pp. 1151-56, in Amir Hasan, et al. (eds) People of India: Uttar Pradesh. Delhi: Anthopological Survey of India and Manohar Publishers & Distributors. Satyaprakash (1984) Jainism: A Select Bibliography. Gurgaon: Indian Documentation Service. Schermerhorn, R. A. (1978) "Jains: The Un-obstrusive Minority", pp. 101127, Ethnic Plurality in India. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Schubring, Walter (1962) The Doctrine of the Jainas - Described after the Old Sources. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Schubring, Walther (1966) The Religion of the Jainas. Calcutta: Sanskrit College. Sekhar, Vincent (1998) "The Sramana Response to the Human Predicament", Jain Journal XXXIII(2): 37-58. Sen, A. C. (1931) Schools and Sects in Jaina Literature. Calcutta. 219 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #234
Sen, A. C. (1953) Elements of Jainism. Calcutta. Senart, E. (1930) Caste in India. London. Shah, A.M. (1964) "Political System in Eighteenth Century Gujarat", Enquiry (n.s.) 1: 83-95. Shah, A.M. (1982) "Division and Hierarchy: An overview of Caste in Gujarat" Contributions to Indian sociology (n.s.) 16 (1): 1-33. Reprinted in A.M. Shah and I. P. Desai (eds.) (1988) Division and Hierarchy: An Overview of Caste in Gujarat, pp. 1-39. Delhi: Hindustan. Shah, Atul K. (2007) Celebrating Diversity: How to Enjoy Respect and Benefits from Great Coloured Britain. Suffolk: Kevin Mayhew Ltd. Shah, Hemant (2008), Gems of Jainism. Ahmedabad: Academy of Philosophy. Shah, C. J. (1932) Jainism in North India. London: Green & Co. Shah, C. J. (1989) "Jainism in Kalinga-Desa", pp. 147-186, in Jainism in North India, 800BC -526 AD. New Delhi: A. Sagar Book House. Shah, Ghanshyam (1975) Caste Association and Political Process in Gujarat: A Study of the Gujarat Kshatriya Sabha. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Shah, Natubhai (1996) "The Western Order of Jainism", Jain Journal XXXI (July). Shah, Natubhai (1998) Jainism: The World of Conquerors. 2 Vols. Blighton: Sussex Academic Press. Shah, Sneh (1977) "Who Are the Jains?" New Community, 7: 369-75. Shah, U. P. (1955) Studies in Jaina Art. Banaras: Jaina Cultural Research Society. Shah, U. P. (1982) "Minor Jaina Deities", Journal of the Oriental Institute 31: 274-90 and 371-78. Shah, Vina (2003) "Nairobi Revival", Jain Spirit, Issue 14: 4-5. Shanta, N. (1997) The Unknown Pilgrims: The Voice of the Sadhvis: The History, Spirituality and Life of the Jaina Ascetics. Delhi: Satguru. 220 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #235
Sharma, Arvind (2001) A Jain Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Sharma, D. (ed.) (1966) Rajasthan through the Ages. Bikaner: Rajasthan State Archives. Sharma, G. N. (1968) Social Life in Medieval Rajasthan. Agra: Lakshmi Narain Agarwal Publishers. Sharma, J. P. (1975) "Hemacandra: Life and Scholarship of a Jaina Monk", Asian Profile 3. Sharma, J. P. (1989) Jaina Yakshas. Meerut: Kusumanjali Prakashan. Sharma, Jagdish P. (1976) "The Jains as a Minority in History and Society", Jain Journal 5 (April): 137-148. Sharma, Jagdish P. (1999) "The Jinasattvas: Class and Gender in the Social Origins of Jaina Heroes", in Wagle, N. K. and Olle Quarnstrom (eds) Approaches to Jain Studies: Philosophy, Logic, Rituals and Symbols. Toronto: The Centre for South Asian Studies, University of Toronto. Sharma, S. R. (1940) Jainism and Karnataka Culture. Dharwar. Sharma, Ursula M. (1970) "The Problem of Village Hinduism: 'Fragmentation' and integration", Contributions to Indian sociology (n.s.) 4: 1-21. Sharma, V. K. (2005) History of Jainism with Special reference to Mathura. Delhi: D. K. Printworld. Shastri, Pt. Kailash Chand (1985) Jain Dharma (in Hindi). Sixth Edition. Mathura: Bharatvarsheeya Digambara Jain Sangh. Sheffer, Gabriel (ed) (1986) Modern Diasporas in International Politics. London: Croom Helm. Sherring, M. A. (1872) Hindu Tribes and Castes. Calcutta. Sheth, C. B. (1953) Jainism in Gujarat, AD 1100-1600. Bombay: Shree Vijay Devsur Sangh Gnan Samiti. Shethi, Manisha (2010) Asceticism among Jaina Women: Power, Sexuality and Social Control in Selected Districts of North India. Ph.D. Thesis. Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. 221 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #236
Shethia, Tara (ed) (2002) The Lessons of Ahinsa and Anekant for Contemporary Life. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Shroff, M. M. (1956) Jainism and the Modern Thought. Bombay. Shukla, Rajnish (2005) "Jain sahitya mein Naree", Shurta Samvardhini, January, pp. 5-7. Singer, Milton (1959) (ed.) Traditional India: Structure and Change. Philadelphia: The American Folklore Society. Singer, Milton (1973) (ed.) Entrepreneurship and Modernization of Occupational Cultures in South Asia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Singh, Balmiki Prasad (2009) Bahudha and the 9/11 World. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Singh, K. (1983) Religions of India. Delhi: Clarion Books. Singh, K. S. (1998) "Jain", pp. 1327-1338, India's Communities, H-M (People of India National Series Vol. V). Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India and Oxford University Press. Singh, K. S. (2009) "Diversities: Objective and Cognitive", Tulsi Prajna, 143: 73-77. Singh, Munshi Hardyal (1995) (1894) The Castes of Marwar (Reprint). Jodhpur: Books Treasure. Singh, Pradyumna Shah (2011) Jainism in Punjab. Patiala: Punjabi University. Singh, Ram Bhushan Prasad "Origin and Growth of Jaina Monachism in Karnataka", pp. 100-134, Jainism in Early Medieval Karnataka, AD 500-1200. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. Singh, Yogendra (1973) Modernization of Indian Tradition. Delhi: Thomson Press. Singhi, N. K. (1991) "A Study of Jains in a Rajasthani Town", pp. 139-64, in M. Carrithers and C. Humphrey (eds.), The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Singhi, N. K. (1987) Studies in Jainism: Ideal, Ideology, and Practice. Jaipur: Printwell Publishers. 222 | Jains in India and abroad

Page #237
Singhvi, L. M. (1990) The Jain Declaration on Nature. London: Office of the High Commissioner of India. Singhvi, L. M. and Tarun Chopra (2002) Jain Temples in India and around the World. New Delhi: Himalayan Books. Smith, Vincent A. (1901) Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities from Mathura. Allahabad: Archaeological Survey of India. Smith, Vincent A. (1911) A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Smith, Vincent A. (1917) "The Jain Teachers of Akbar", in Commemorative Essays Presented to Sri Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. Smith, Vincent A. (1923) History of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Smith, Vincent A. (1924) Early History of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sogani, K. C. (1967) Ethical Doctrines in Jainism. Sholapur: Jaina Samskriti Samraksaka Sangha. Somani, Ramvallabh (1997) "Jainism under the Rastrakutas of Deccan", Jain Journal XXXI(3): 80-84. Soni, Lok Nath (1998) "Sarogi", pp. 876-79, in B. K. Lavania, et al. (eds) People of India: Rajasthan. Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. Sopher, David E. (1968) "Pilgrim Circulation in Gujrat", Geographical Review, 58: 392-425. Spodek, Howard (1974) "Rulers, merchants and other groups in the citystates of Saurashtra, India, around 1800", Comparative Studies in Society and History 16(4): 448-70. Spratt, P. (1966) "Jainism", pp. 300-314, in Hindu Culture and Personality: A Psycho-Analytic Study. Bombay: Manaktalas & Sons. Srinivas M. N. (1952) Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India. Oxford: Clarenden Press. 223 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #238
Srivastava, V. K. (1993) On Religion and Renunciation: The Case of the Raikas of Western Rajasthan. Ph.D. Dissertation. Cambridge University. Stein, Burton (1980) Peasant State and Society in Medieval South India. Delhi. Stevenson, A. M. (1910) Notes on Modern Jainism. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Stevenson, Margaret (1921) "Worship (Jain)", In J. A. Hastings, (ed) Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. XII: 799-802. Stevenson, Sinclair (1971) (1920) The Rites of the Twice-Born. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. Stevenson, Sinclair (1995) (1915) The Heart of Jainism. 3rd Edition. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Strandberg, E. (1981) "Some remarks on the role of the lay followers in the Jaina community", In Malvania and Shah (eds.) Studies in Indian Philosophy. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology. Streefkerk, Hein (1997) Gujarati Entrepreneurship: Historical Continuity amongst Changing Perspective", Economic and Political Weekly, Feb. 22: M2 - M10. Strong, J. S. (1983) The Legend of King Asoka: a Study and Translation of the Asokavadana. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Stroudtbeck, Fred (1958) "Family Interaction, Values, and Achievement", in David McClelland, et al (eds.), Talent and Society. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand Co. Sukla, Ram Sajiwan (1989) India as known to Haribhadrasuri. Meerut: Kusumanjali Prakashan. Sushil Kumar, Muni (1958) Jaina Dharma (in Hindi). New Delhi. Swami Brahmeshananda, (2002) "Jain Monasticism", "Jain Monastic Rules", Jain Journal, Vol. XXXVI (3): 105-112, 113-121. Swami Brahmeshananda, (2002) "The Ideal of Service in Jainism", Jain Journal XXXVI (4): 180-85. 224 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #239
Syamlal (1992) "The Jain Movement and Socio-Religious Transformation of the "Bhangis" of Jodhpur, Rajasthan", The Indian Journal of Social Work LIII (1): 59-67. Talib, G.S., (ed.) (1975) Jainism. Patiala: Punjabi University. Tambs-Lyche, Herald (1997) Power, Profit and Poetry: Traditional Society in Kathiawar, Western India. New Delhi: Manohar. Tanaka, Kanoko (2007) "On the Life-centred Ethics of Zorostrianism and Jainism - A Study of Indo-Iranian Religions", Jain Journal XLII(1):7-18. Tank, U. S. (1914) Jain Historical Studies. Delhi. Tatia, Nathmal (1951) Studies in Jaina Philosophy. Banaras: Jain Cultural Research Society. Tatia, Nathmal (trans) (1994) That which is: Tattvartha-sutra of Umasvati/Umasvami with the combined commentaries of Umasvati/Umasvami, Pujyapada and Siddhasenagani. San Francisco: Harper Collins. Tatia, N. and Muni M. Kumar (1981) Aspects of Jaina Manasticism. Delhi: Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers. Tawney, C. H. (1895) The Kathakosa or Treasury of Stories. London. Taylor, G. P. (1915) "Introduction", in S. Svetenson, The Heart of Jainism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Thakur, Upednra (1975) "Jainism in Mithila and Its Impact on Mithila, Culture", pp. 248-62, in R. C. Dwivedi (ed.) Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture. Varanasi: Motilal Banarsidass. Thapar, Romila (1987) Cultural Transaction and Early India. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Thaplyal, Kiran Kumar (1995) Jaina Paintings. Delhi: Wiley Eastern. Thomas A. Tweed and Stephen Prothero (1999) "Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago, 1993", pp. 309-12, in Asian Religions in America. New York: Oxford University Press. 225 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #240
Thomas, Edward (1995) (1877) Jainism or The Early Faith of Asoka. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. Thornton (2003) (1898) Parsi, Jaina, and Sikh: Or Some Minor Religious Sects in India. New Delhi: Mittal Publications. Thurston, E. (1975) (1909) Castes and Tribes of Southern India. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. Reprint. Timberg, T. A. (1971) "A North Indian Firm seen through its Business Records, 1860-1914", Indian Economic and Social History Review 8: 264-83. Timberg, T. A. (1973) "Three types of Marwari Firms", Indian Economic and Social History Review 10:1-36. Timberg, T. A. (1978) The Marwaris: From Traders to Industrialists. Delhi: Vikas Publishing House. Timberg, T. A. and C. V. Aiyar (1984) "Informal credit markets in India", Economic Development and Cultural Change, 33(1): 43-59. Titze, Kurt (1998) Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. Tiwari, Maruti N. P. (2009) "Landmarks of Jaina Iconography", pg. 76-89, in Study Notes, V.3.0. New Delhi: International Summer School for Jain Studies. Tiwary, Binod Kumar (1996) History of Jainism in Bihar. Gurgaon: The Academic Press. Tiwary, Binod Kumar (1998) "The Followers of Parsvanath", Jain Journal, XXXIII (1): 28-31. Tobias, Michael (1991) Life Force: The World of Jainism. Berkley: Asian Humanities Press. Tod, James (1839) Travels in Western India. London: W. H. Allen. Tod, James (1920) Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, 3 vols. London: Oxford University Press. Tod, James (1983) Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. 2 vols. New Delhi: M. N. Publishers. 226 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #241
Tripathi, Dwijendra (1981) The Dynamics of Tradition: Kasturbhai Lalbhai and his Entrepreneurship. New Delhi: Manohar. Tripathi, Dwijendra (ed) (1984) Business Communities of India: A Historical Perspective. Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. Tripathi, Dwijendra and M. J. Mehta (1978) "The Nagarsheth of Ahmedabad: The History of an Urban Institution in a Gujarati City", Indian History Congress, Proceedings from the 39th Session, pp.481-96. Tripathi, Dwijendra and M. J. Mehta (1984) "Class character of the Gujarati Business Community", pp. 151-71, in Dwijendra Tripathi, (ed.), Business Communities of India: A Historical Perspective. New Delhi: Manohar. Trivedi, R. K. (1965) Census of India 1961. Vol. V, part VII-B. Gujarat: Fairs and Festivals. Delhi: Manager of Publications. Turner, Ralph (1941) The Great Cultural Traditions. New York. Turner, V. W. (1969) The Ritual Process. London: Routledge Twaddle, Michael (1975) (ed.) Expulsion of a Minority: Essays on Ugandan Asians London: Athlone Press. Tweed, Thomas A. and Stephen Prothero (1999) Asian Religions in America. New York: Oxford University Press. Uno, Tsushi (2001) "Jaina Studies in Japan", Jain Journal XXXV(4): 173-78. Unnithan-Kumar, Maya (1997) Identity, Gender and Poverty: New Perspectives on Caste and Tribe in Rajasthan. Providence: Berghahn Books. Upadhyay, Vachaspati (2001) Sanskrit Studies Abroad. New Delhi: Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeeth. Upadhye, A. N. (1933) "Yapaniya Sangha: A Jaina Sect", Journal of the University of Bombay, vol. I (4): 224-231. Upadhye, A. N. (1946) "Studies in Jaina Gotras", Jain Antiquary II (3): 61-69. Upadhye, A. N. (1974) "More Light on the Yapaniya Sangh", Annals of the Bhankarkar Oriental Research Institute LV (1-4): 9-22. 227 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #242
Upadhye, A. N. et al. (1983) Mahavir and his Teachings. Second Edition. Bombay: Shree Vallabhsuri Smarak Nidhi. Vaid, K. N. (1972 The Overseas Indian Community in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong Press. Vaidya, C. V. (1921-1926) History of Medieval Hindu India. 3 Vols. Poona. Valavalkar, P. H. (1939) Hindu Social Institutions. Bombay. Vallely, Anne (1999) Women and the Ascetic Ideal in Jainism. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Toronto. Vallely, Anne (2002) "Ethical Discourses among Orthodox and Diaspora Jains" in Michael Lambek (ed) A Reader in the Anthropology of Religion. London: Blackwell Publishing. Vallely, Anne (2003) Guardians of Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Vallely, Anne (2004) "The Jain Plate: Semiotics of the Diaspora Diet", in Kunt, A. Jacobsen and P. Pratap Kumar (eds.) South Asians in the Diaspora: Histories and Religious Traditions. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Vandana, Shiva (1988) Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development. London: Zed Books. Varni, Ganesh Prasad (1948) Meri Jeevan Gatha (in Hindi). Kashi: Bhargava Bhushan Press. Vidal, Denis (1997) Violence and Truth: A Rajasthani Kingdom Confronts Colonial Authority. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Vinayasagara (Ed.) (1959) Kharatara Gachchhaka Itihasa (in Hindi). Ajmer. Wagle, Nagendra K. (1966) Society at the Time of Buddha. Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Ward, B. E. (1960) "Cash or credit crops? An examination of some implications of peasant commercial production with special reference to the multiplicity of traders and middlemen", Economic Development and Cultural Change 8 (2): 148-63. 228 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #243
Ward, Robin and Richard Jenkins (1984) (eds.) Ethnic Communities in Business. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Warren, Herbert 1983 (1913) Jainism in Western Garb, as a Solution to Life's Great Problems. Second Edition. Bombay: Shree Vallabh suri Smarak Nidhi. Watson, James C. (1977) (ed.) Between Two Cultures: Migrants and Minorities in Britain. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Weber, Alfred (1878) A History of Indian Literature. London. Weber, Max (1948) The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. New York: Scribner. Weber, Max (1958) "The Heterodox Soteriologies of the Cultured Professional Monks", pp. 192-204, in The Religion of India. New York: Free Press of Glencoe. Weber, Max (1958) (1920) The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe. German Original in 1916. Weber, Max (1962) The City. Trs. and ed. by D. Martindale and G. Neuwirth. New York: Collier. Weber, Max (1968) Economy & Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology, edited by Guenther Roth and Clans Wittich. New York: Bedminster Press. Weiner, Myron (1967) Party-Building in a New Nation: The Indian National Congress. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Welles, Sam (1972) The World's Great Religions. New York: Western Publishing Co. Westermarck, E. (1921) Short History of Human Marriage, London. Wilberforce-Bell, H. (1916) The History of Kathiawad: From the Earliest Times. London: Heinemann. Wiles, Royce (2000) "The Bibliography of the Swetambara Canon", Jain Journal XXXV (2): 53-82. Wiles, Royce (2001) "The Bibliography of the Swetambara Canon", Jain Journal XXXV (3): 104-131. 229 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #244
Wiley, Kristi L. (2006) The A to Z of Jainism. New Delhi: Vision Books. Williams, R. (1963) Jaina Yoga: A Study of the Medieval Sravakacharas, London: Oxford University Press. Williams, Ramond Body (1988) Religions of Immigrants from India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Wilson, H. H. (1861) Works of Wilson, Vol. I. London: Trubner & Co. Winternitz, M. (1933) History of Indian Literature. Calcutta. Winternitz, M. (1946) The Jainas in the History of Indian Literature, (A Short Outline of the History of Jain Literature), Edited by Jina Vijaya Muni, Ahmedabad. Zarwan, John (1974) "The Social Evolution of the Jains in Kenya", Hadith [Special Issue: History and Social Change in East Africa, (ed.) B.A. Ogot], 6: 134-44. Zarwan, John (1975) "The Social and economic network of an Indian family business in Kenya, 1920-1970". Kroniek van Africa (n.s.) 6: 219-36. Zarwan, John (1977) Indian Businessmen in Kenya during the Twentieth Century: A Case Study. Ph.D. dissertation. Yale University. Zimmer, H. (1951) Philosophies of India. London. Zydenbos, Robert J. (1999) "The Ritual Giving of Food to a Digambar Renunciant", pp. 291-304, in N. K. Wagley and Olle S. Qvarnstrom (eds.) Approaches to Jaina Studies: Philosophy, Logic, Rituals and Symbols. Toronto: University of Toronto, Centre for South Asian Studies. Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006) Jainism Today and its Future. Munich: Manya Verlag. Website Sources http://www.jainworld.com http://www.jainnet.com http://www.jaincentre.com http://www.pluralism.org/directory http://jainmaps.com 230 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #245
GLOSSARY Acharya Adharma Agama Aghatiya Karma Ahimsa Ailaka Ajina Akasa Akshata Ananta-darsana Ananta-Jnana Ananta-sukha Anasana Anatmavada Anekanta Anekantavada Anumana Anupreksa Anu-vrata Aparigraha : The head of a group of sadhus : Medium of rest : Scared precepts : The non-destructive karma : Abstention from injury to living beings The grade of ascetics of Digambara sect below that of Nirgrantha grade Non-soul, non-living substance : Space : Scared rice : Infinite perception : Infinite knowledge : Infinite bliss : Fasting : Belief in the non-existence of soul Manifoldness Many sided view point, doctrine of manifold aspects Inference Reflection The five small vows : Abstention from greed for worldly possessions : Water-bodied souls : Tirthankara : Life style violence : Waving of lights in front of an idol : A female ascetic : Wealth, worldly prosperity, meaning : Falsehood : A stage in life The attraction of karmic matter towards the soul Influx of vice or demeritorious karmas into the soul : Abstention from theft : Transgression, short-coming A vow to feed ascetics and/or pious householders Ap-kaya jivas Apta Arambhi himsa Arati Arjika Artha Asatya Asrama Asrava Asubha-asrava Asteya Atichara Atithisamvibhagavrata 231 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #246
Atman Atmavada Avadhi-jnana Avasarpini Avasyakas Avatara Avidya Avirati Ayu-karma Baddha jives Bahya-parigraha Bahya-tapa Bandha Bhadrak Bhakti Bharata-varsa Bhasa-samiti Bhattaraka Bhavana Bhogabhumi Bindi : Soul, spirit : Belief in existence of soul Clairvoyant knowledge of matter : Descending : Necessary daily duties Incarnation Ignorance Vowlessness, non-renunciation The age-determining karma : Souls in bondage : Actual possession of worldly objects External austerities Bondage of soul by karmic matter : Accessory rules of conduct : Faith, devotion India, i.e, the country named after Bharat, the eldest son of the first jaina Trithankara Adinatha : Regulation of mode of speech : A Dharma-guru of a Digambara sect : Contemplation : Enjoyment-region : Red dots that most Indian women put on forehead : Name of a sub-sect of Digambara Jainas : Abstention from unchastity or sexuality, celibacy : The first stage in, stage of study : idol or statue : A temple : Temple residents, another name of Muripujaka sub-sect of Shvetambara sect : Emperor, a paramount sovereign Biographies of great teachers and personages : Souls having first four senses of touch, taste, smell and sight Fourfold religion propagated by Lord Parsvanath : Theft : Charity : The conation-obscuring karma Bisapantha Brahmacharya Brahmachary-asrama Chaitya Chaityalaya Chaityavasi Chakravarti Charitra Chatur-indriya jivas Chaturyama Dharma Chaurya Dana Darsanavaraniya karma 232 | Jains in India and abroad

Page #247
Dasalaksana dharma Deravasi Desa-vrata Deva-gati Dharma-guru Dhrauvya Dhundhia Dhyana Digambara Dig-vrata Diksa Diksa-vidhi Dravya Dravya-naya Dvindriya jives Esana samiti Ganadhara Ghatiya karma Gotra karma Grantha Grharambhi himsa : Observance of ten virtues : Temple residents, another name of Murtipujaka sub-sect of Shvetambara sect : A Vow to limit worldly activity to a particular area : Celestial condition of existence : A religious authority Permanence : Searchers, another name of Sthanakavasi sub-sect of Shvetambara sect : Meditation, concentration of mind Sky-clad, naked, name of a major sect of Jains : A vow to limit worldly activity to fixed points in all directions : Initiation : Initiation rite : Substance : The substantial point of view : Souls having first two senses of touch and taste : Regulation of seeking or eating food : Spokesman of Tirthankara : The destructive karma : The family-determining karma : Book, correct use of the words : Accidental injury due to household activities : The second stage in life of a house-holder : Quality : A multiplicative vow : Regulation, control Injury, Violence Spiritual victor : An ascetic who observes prescribed rules of conduct in the strictest form Soul, spirit, living substance : Knowledge : The knowledge-obscuring karma : Time, period, age Pleasure, want, desire : A wooden water pot : Subtle particles of matter Grhasthasrama Guna Guna-vrata Gupti Himsa Jina Jinakalpi sadhu Jiva Jnana Jnanavaraniya karma Kala Kama Kamandalu Karma Jains in India and Abroad

Page #248
Karmabhumi Karta Kasaya Katha Kavya Kaya-gupti Kayotsarga Kevalajnana Kevali Kshama Kshullaka Kulakara Loka Madhya-marga Maha-Kavya Maha-vrata Manahparyaya-jnana Mandira-margi Mangal-sutra Manu Matha Mati-jnana Maya Mithya Mithyadarsama Mohaniya karma Moksha Moksha-marga Mudhata Mukti Mundan Maula-gunas Mumhapatti Muni Muni-dharma Murtipujaka Nama karma : : : : Story, tale : Poetry : Regulation of bodily activity : Practicing penance in a standing posture : : : : : : : : : : : Life based on efforts Head of the family Passion Epic A great vow Capacity to know other's mind temple goers, another name of Murtipujaka sub-sect of Shvetambara sect : Sacred wedding necklace worn by married ladies : Ancient Hindu law maker : Monastery Sense-knowledge : Pure infinite knowledge The omniscient Foregiveness The lowest grade of ascetics of Digambara sect Law giver : : : : Wrong belief : : : Universe Middle path : Deception, illusion Unreal : Way to salvation : Superstitious belief : Complete liberation or emancipation Head shave : : Basic attributes, root-virtues The deluding-karma Attainment of complete freedom of the soul from karmic matter, salvation, Nirvana : A piece of white cloth kept always on the mouth by Shvetambara sadhus An ascetic Ethical code for ascetics Idol-worshipper, a major sub-sect of Shvetambara sect : The body-making karma 234 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #249
Nama-karan Naraka-gati Nastik Naya Nayavada Nirgrantha Nirjara Nirvana Nischaya naya Niyoga Padmavati Panch-endriya jivas Papa Parigraha Parigraha-parimana Parigraha-parimana vrata Parisaha Paryaya Paryushan parv Pichhi Prabandhas Pramada Pramana Pratikramana : Naming ceremony : Hellish form : Non-believer : A particular point of view, a mode of expressing things : System of describing reality from different points of view Naked, a naked ascetic, the highest grade of Digambar ascetics : Gradual removal of karmic matter from the soul : Salvation, liberation : The realistic point of view : Levirate : Goddess associated with Lord Parshwanath : Souls having all five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing : Demerit : Worldly attachments and possessions : Limitation of worldly attachments : A vow not to exceed worldly attachments beyond a pre-determined limit : Suffering of sufferings : Mode or form : Holy days of spiritual purification : A peacock-feather whisk-broom : Epic : Carelessness Means of acquiring knowledge : The recitation of the formulae of confession of past faults : A stage of ethical progress in a householder's life : Expiation : A vow to fast on the four days of a month : Matter : Worship Worshippers, another name of Mutipujaka sub-sect of Shvetambara sect : Merit : A biography of great teachers or persons : The three Jewels, viz., samyak-darsana, jnana and charitra Pratima Prayaschitta Prosadhopavasa Pudgala Puja Pujera Punya Purana Ratna-traya 235 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #250
Sachitta Sadhu Sadhvi Sallekhana Samanya kevali Samiti Samayika Samsara Samsari jivas Samyak-darsana Samyak-jnana Samyak-charitra Samvara Sankalpi himsa Sanyasa-asrama Sapta-bhangi Sapta-padi Saraks Sat Sati Satya Satyagraha Sastra Shraddha : Flowers, fruits and green vegetables : A male ascetic A female ascetic : Ritual peaceful voluntary death by fasting : The jina or the omniscient involved in his own salvation : Carefulness Equanimity, meditation World, cycle of transmigration : Mundane souls, embodied souls : Right conduct : Right knowledge Right conduct : The stopping of asrava Intentional injury : The last life-stage of absolute renunciation : Another name of Anekantavada, the doctrine of seven-fold predication : Seven steps around fire in marriage : A tribal Jain caste in eastern India Reality : Custom of entering the pyre of husband : Truth, abstention from false speech real : Truthful right : Scripture : Custom of offering rise balls to the dead person An Ascetic; Religious tradition opposed to the Vedic tradition : Disciplinary vows : Supplementary vows : Vermilion Male householder, a layman Ethical code for layman Female householder, a Jain lay-woman : Scriptural knowledge Influx of virtue or meritorious karmas : A liberated soul : A building meant for prayer and religious activities Major sub-sect of Shvetambara sect, sthanaka-residents : Forth category of Hindu Varna system Shraman Siksa-vratas Sila-vratas Sindoor Sravaka Sravaka-dharma Sravika Sruta-jnana Subh-asrava Siddha jiva Sthanaka Stanakavasi Sudra 236 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #251
Sutra Svadhyaya Svastika Syadvada Syat Tapa Tarana-pantha Tattva Terapantha Tithankara Tiryancha-gati Trasajiva Triindri-jivas Udyami himsa Upabhoga- paribhoga parimana-vrata Upadhyaya Upasraya Vanaspati-kaya jiva Varna-vyavastha : Aphoristic expression, religious text : Self study of scriptures Vayu-kaya jiva Vedaniya karma : : The particular sign considered propitious Many-sided view point, the doctrine of qualified assertion In some respect, somehow, in a way Penance, austerity Name of a sub-sect in Digambara Jainism Principle, reality Name of sub sects within Digambar and Shvetambar sects One who makes the Tritha, ford maker across the stream of existence, great guide Sub-human form A mobile soul : : : : : : : : : Souls having first three senses of touch, taste and smell Occupational injury A vow to limit enjoyment of consumable and non-consumable things : : Utpada Utsarpini Uttama akinchanya Uttama arjava : Supreme simplicity Uttama brahmacharya : Supreme chastity Uttama dharma : Supreme virtue Uttama ksama : Supreme forgiveness Uttama mardava : Supreme humility or tenderness Uttama sanyama : Supreme self-restraint : Supreme truthfulness Uttama satya Uttama saucha : Supreme purity Uttama tapa : Supreme austerity : Supreme renunciation Uttama tyaga Vaiyavrttya Vanaprasth-asrama : The sadhu in charge of instruction : A building meant for stay of Shvetambara ascetics : Origination, appearance Ascending : : Supreme non-attachment Rendering service to saints : The third stage in life of retirement from worldly activities : Vegetable bodied and bacteria type soul : Four-fold division of Hindu society : Air-bodied soul : The feeling karma 237 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #252
Vimoha Vinaya Virodhi himsa Vrata Vrati Vyavahara-naya Vyaya Yoga : Attachment, delusion : Reverent attitude, modest behaviour : Protective injury : A vow : A person who observes vratas : The practical point of view Destruction, disappearance : Activity of mind, speech and body. Jains in India and Abroad

Page #253
PLATES Jain Temple, Ranakpur, Rajasthan Jain Temple, Chaitanyadham, Gujarat Jain Temple, Palitana, Gujarat Jains in India and Abroad

Page #254
Kirtistambh, Chittoregarh, Rajasthan Statue of Bahubali, Sravanabelagola, Karnataka Statue of a Jain Teerthankar in Jain temple, Antwerp, Belgium Jain Temple, Dilwara, Mt. Abu, Rajasthan 240 | Jains in India and Abroad

Page #255
ca Jain Temple, Chicago, USA AWERS Jain Temple, Houston, USA 241 Jains in India and Abroad T

Page #256
Jain Temple, Boston, USA Jain Temple, California, USA www.jainpushp.org Jain Temple, Kenya 242 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #257
A Adharma, 25 Agrawal, 23, 117 Ahimsa, 30, 43, 110, 112, 117, 118, 129 Ahmedabad, 21, 82, 97, 120 Ajiva, 26, 129 Akash, 25 Anekantvad, 18, 28, 44 Animism, 136 Anubrata, 11, 30, 32 Aparigraha, 4, 18, 102 Arhat, 1 Asoka, 6 Asrava, 26 Asteya, 30 Avasyaka, 129 B Babb, Lawrence, 113, 133 Bangkok, 108 Banks, Marcus, 7, 8, 23, 38, 41, 42, 113, 116, 118, 133 Belgium, 92, 98 Bharat, 2 Bhargava, Dayanand, 18, 34, 37 Bhattarakas, 8, 134 Bhagwan Mahavir Chair for Jain Studies, 111 Bihar, 4, 19, 53, 72-81, 111, 115 Brahmacharya, 34 Brahmana, 48 Britain, 86, 87, 89, 95, 96 British colonialism, 86 Buddha, Gautama, 3 Buddhism, 2, 4, 24, 108, 117, 123, 136 Buddhists, 48, 49, 52, 58, 64-66, 71, 79, 80, 123, 128 INDEX C Canada, 17, 87, 88, 99-102, 106, 108, 112, 113 Carrithers, Michael, 24, 36, 133 Cave temples, 19 Chaityalaya, 89 Chalukya, 5 Chapple, C. K. 43, 113 Charities, 22 Chaturyam Dharma, 3, 4 Child marriage, 12 Chitrabhanuji, 99 Christianity, 95, 134 Christians, 48, 49, 52, 58, 62-68, 71, 79, 80, 95, 123 Conservatism, 130 Contribution of Jain, 1, 5, 17-23, 103, 119, 120 Cort, John E, 23, 36, 38-40, 112, 117, 132 a Dalits, 138 Dana, 133 Das Lakshan, 16, 45 Deepawali, 16 Deity, 14, 15, 42, 95 Delhi, 23, 53-55, 69-82, 85, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 115, 117, 124, 125 Dharma, 3, 4, 24, 25, 108 Digambar, 7-13, 24, 33, 36, 39, 41, 88, 91, 93, 95, 108, 115, 125, 126, 133 Dispensaries, 22 Divorce, 119 Doctrine of Karma, 17, 26, 27, 131 Dowry, 12 Dravyas, 25 Dubai, 91, 92 Dundas, Paul, 7, 8, 12, 38, 42, 90, 99, 113, 116 243 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #258
E Humphrey, Caroline, 113, 133 Economic status, 120-22 Educational institution, 90 Ellora, 6, 17, 19 Endogamy, 13, 120 Exogamy, 13, 120 Identity, 12, 22, 23, 40, 47, 103, 111, 121, 127, 134, 137 Indian diaspora, 86-88, 103 Inter-caste Marriages, 120, 124 Inter-Ethnic Relations, 137-138 Islam, 9, 134 Israel, 86, 87, 92 F Famine, 7 Female, 1, 8, 11, 14, 36, 40, 58, 662, 64, 81 Fertility behaviour, 114, 115, 124 Festivals, 1, 15, 16, 45, 92, 137 Florida International University, 111 Flugel, Peter, 36, 40 Folkert, Kendal W, 36, 113, 133 Food, 1, 16, 21, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 43, 45, 90, 119, 134 Jacobi, Hermann, 24 Jain Asceticism, 36-41 Jain community, Associations, 12, 90, 100, 101 Contribution to Indian culture and society, 17-22 Economic status, 120-122 Food Festivals and Pilgrimage, 15 17 Gandhi, Mahatma 10, 12, 22 Gandhi, Virchand R, 95, 98 Germany, 99 Gotra, 13, 27, 120 Gujarat, 5, 8, 10-11, 19, 20, 23, 38, 53-55, 57-58, 69, 71-81, 85, 88, 94, 97, 113, 115, 118, 125, 138 Gunavratas, 30, 134 Guseva, N. R., 3, 134 N Hardiman, David, 120, 122 Hastinapur, 17, 20, 108 Heritage, 19, 100, 104 Hinduism, 2, 3, 24, 123, 127, 128, 134, 135, 137 Hindus, 2, 12, 13, 22, 24, 48, 49, 52, 54, 58, 62, 67, 69, 71, 79, 80, 91, 95, 114, 116, 117, 119, 122, 123, 128, 132, 135-138 Holi, 16 Hong Kong, 88, 93, 94 Householders, 30, 31, 33, 37, 39, 133 Hoyasala, 5 Jain identity, 23-24, 40, 47, 104, 112, 122, 128, 136-137 Life cycle rituals, 14, 15 Minority status, 122-124 Political status, 125-127 Population dynamics, 114-116 Social organisation, 13-14, 116 120 Jain demography, 48-85, 114 Jain diaspora, 86, 88-112, in Canada, 102-103, in East Africa, 88-90, in South and Southeast Asia, 0295, in United Kingdom, 95-98, in United States, 98-102, in Canada, 101-102 Jain Diaspora-Homeland Linkages, 103-112 Jain International Trade Organisation, 104, 112 Jain, Barrister, C. R., 95, 98, 110 Jain, Jyoti Prasad, 1, 5, 7, 17, 23, 31, 34, 35, 47, 48,,134 Jain, MK, 7, 8, 14, 83, 115 4 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #259
M Jain Marriage Act, 119 JAINA, 103-104, 112 Jain, Ravindra K, 10, 12, 23, 24, 38, 39, 41, 113, 116 Jain, Yogendra, 42-46 Jain Social Organisation, 13 Jain temples, 19, 93, 95, 99, 111 Jain Tirthankars, 114 Jaini, JL, 95, 99, 110 Jaini, PS, 1, 3, 38, 134 Jainism, History of, 4-6 and Buddhism, 2,4, 24 Origin and Growth of, 123 Sects in, 7-12 Jaipur, 10, 20, 38, 81, 83, 84, 107 Jajmani system, 137 Japan, 17, 93, 94, 101, 159, 227 Jews, 49, 86, 121, 124, 127, 138 Jharkhand, 71, 72, 76, 77, 78, 80, 114 Jina, 1 Jiva, 25, 129 Judaism, 134 Maharashtra, 5, 8, 9, 19, 53, 54, 55, 71-75, 77-78, 80-81, 85, 115, 124 Mahavir, 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 12, 92, 93, 94, 99, 109, 110, 128 Malaysia, 17, 87, 93 Mangalytan University, 121 Marathi, 18 Mathura, 6, 17, 108 McClelland, David G, 131 Migration, 5, 7, 55, 86, 87, 88, 90, 115 Minority status, 118, 122, 123 Modernisation, 40 Moksha-marg, 23, 37, 38, 39, 40 Mount Abu, 17 Mughal, 6 Muni Sushil Kumarj, 99, 110 Munis, 1, 39, 134, 137 K Namkaran, 14 Nehru, J. L., 24 Nepal, 17, 92, 112 Nirjara, 26 Nirvana, 6, 7, 127, 130 Oman, 91 Oswals, 23, 89 Kala, 17 Kanji Panth, 10 Kanji Swamy, 9, 10 Karma, 25, 26, 27, 28, 45, 129, 130, 135 Karnataka, 4, 13, 19, 53, 54, 55, 57, 72-81, 115, 124 Kenya, 17, 87, 88, 90, 112 Kerala, 19, 53, 58, 72-81, 127 Khajuraho, 17, 19 Khandelwal, 23 Kharavela, 4 Kshatriya, 48, 137 Kuwait, 90, 109 P Parshwanath, 3, 4 Parsis, 49, 120, 127 Paryushan Parv, 16, 92 Patan, 38 Patil, Bal, 123 Political Status, 125-127 Prakrit, 18 Pratimas, 33-34, 132 Pudgal, 25 Laidlaw, James, 38, 113, 121, 133 Lath, Mukund, 9, 114 Lonka Shah, 9, 11 Jains in India and Abroad

Page #260
Sthanakvasi, 7, 11, 89, 95, 109, 126 Sudra, 48 Syadvad, 17, 28, 44 Rajasthan, 8, 9, 11, 19, 53-55, 58, 69, 72, 74-75, 77-79, 81, 85, 94, 113,115, 124 Rajput, 6, 48, 138 Ranakpur, 17, 19 Ratnatrayh, 29 Reynell, Josephine, 14 Rishabh Dev, 1, 2 Tamil, 18 Tattvartha Sutra, 8, 29 Teerthankar Mahavir University, 121 Telugu, 18 Thailand, 17, 94, 106, 107, 108 Udaigiri, 19 UK, 90, 96-99, 107, 1112 Umaswami/Umasvati, 8, 29 Upashraya, 95 Urbanization, 54, 114 USA, 87, 98-102, 107-112 Sadhus, 40 Sadhvis, 1 Samvara, 26 Sangave, V. A, 1-6, 11, 13, 20-29, 38, 58, 113, 115, 120, 124, 133, 134 Sanskrit, 3, 20, 109 Santhara/Sallekhna, 18, 32-33 Saraks, 4 Sati, 18 Satya, 4 Sculptures, 19 Sect, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 24, 39, 69, 89, 93, 96, 103, 116, 120, 128, 133 Seth Walchand Hirachand, 120 Sheth Kantilal Ishwardas, 120 Sheth Punamachand Ghasilal, 120 Shraman Tradition, 22 Siddhachalam and Sarvodaya Teerth, 110 Sikhs, 48, 49, 51, 57, 58, 61, 66, 70, 78, 79, 116, 122 Sir Chunilal B.Mehta, 120 Sir Santidas Ashukaran, 120 Sir Sheth Hukumchand, 120 Social change, 40, 47, 117 Social status, 19, 116 Sonagiri, 17, 19 Sthanakas, 11, 16 Vaishya, 22, 23, 127 Vallely, Anne, 36, 44,108 Varna vyavastha, 117 Varni Ganesh Prasad, 20, 39 Vedic tradition, 2, 22 Vegetarianism, 18, 21, 44, 102, 103 104, 110, 112 W Weber, Max, 29, 38, 43, 113, 117, 120, 122, 128, 130, 132-133, 138 Widow remarriage, 13, 59, 120 Williams, R, 118, 128, 132 Z Zorastrians, 49, 148 246 | Jains in India and Abroad