Jaina Iconography

Author(s): B Bhattacharya
Publisher: Motilal Banarasidas
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011018/1

Page #1
THE FREE INDOLOGICAL COLLECTION WWW.SANSKRITDOCUMENTS.ORG/TFIC FAIR USE DECLARATION This book is sourced from another online repository and provided to you at this site under the TFIC collection. It is provided under commonly held Fair Use guidelines for individual educational or research use. We believe that the book is in the public domain and public dissemination was the intent of the original repository. We applaud and support their work wholeheartedly and only provide this version of this book at this site to make it available to even more readers. We believe that cataloging plays a big part in finding valuable books and try to facilitate that, through our TFIC group efforts. In some cases, the original sources are no longer online or are very hard to access, or marked up in or provided in Indian languages, rather than the more widely used English language. TFIC tries to address these needs too. Our intent is to aid all these repositories and digitization projects and is in no way to undercut them. For more information about our mission and our fair use guidelines, please visit our website. Note that we provide this book and others because, to the best of our knowledge, they are in the public domain, in our jurisdiction. However, before downloading and using it, you must verify that it is legal for you, in your jurisdiction, to access and use this copy of the book. Please do not download this book in error. We may not be held responsible for any copyright or other legal violations. Placing this notice in the front of every book, serves to both alert you, and to relieve us of any responsibility. If you are the intellectual property owner of this or any other book in our collection, please email us, if you have any objections to how we present or provide this book here, or to our providing this book at all. We shall work with you immediately. -The TFIC Team.

Page #2
lAla bahAdUra zAstrI prazAsana akAdamI Lal Bahadur Shastric Aademy of Administration masUrI / MUSSOORIE pustakAlaya 1030 . . . . . .. . . . . . . LIBRARY * avApti saMkhyA K Accession No......13858.... varga saMkhyA Class NO ............3.04.9... 9 pustaka saMkhyA KBook No......... Bha..... ...... ........ ......

Page #3

Page #4
THE JAINA ICONOGRAPHY

Page #5
rontispicce Caturviriati-palla of Rsabhanatha gifted by Saranika, Caulukya, 860 A.D., Akota. Gujarat, Baroda Museum.

Page #6
THE JAINA ICONOGRAPHY B.C. BHATTACHARYA Foreword by B.N. SHARMA, M.A., PH.D., D. LITT., Keeper, National Museum, New D Delhi MOTILAL BANARSIDASS :: Varanasi :: Patna

Page #7
OMOTILAL BANARSIDASS Indological Publishers & Booksellers Head Office : BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHARNAGAR, DELHI-7 Branches : 1. CHOWK, VARANASI-1 (U.P.) 2. ASHOK RAJPATH, PATNA-4 (BIHAR) ISBN 0-8426-0663-1 First Edition : Lahore, 1939 Second Revised Edition : Delhi 1974 Price : Rs. 70.00 Printed in India BY SHANTILAL JAIN, AT SHRI JAINENDRA PRESS, BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHAR NAGAR, DELHI-7 AND PUBLISHED BY SUNDARLAL JAIN, FOR MOTILAL BANARSIDASS, BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHAR NAGAR, DELHI-7

Page #8
To Colonel Sir Kailashnarain Haksar kt., C.I.E., The Great Exempla'r of Education, Enlightenment and Character, This Book is respectfully Dedicated

Page #9
CONTENTS ix xxxy Foreu ord Preface xxx Bibliograply of Printed and Ms. Texts xxxii List of Illustrations Introdi.clion 1-25 Fundamentals of Jaina Religion; The Digambaras and the Svetambaras. Who are the Tirthankaras ?; Origin of Jaina Images; Jaina Temple-worship; Classes of Jaina Gods and Goddesses; The Main characteristics of Jaina Images; Centres of Jaina pilgrimage; Age of Image worship. CHAPTERS 1. THE TIRTHANKARAS 26-64 The Twenty-four Jinas; Jina Quadruple; Adinatha or Rsabhanatha; Ajitanatha; Sambhavanatha; Abhinandananatha: Sumatinatha; Padmaprabha; Suparavanatha; Chandraprabha; Suvidhinatha; Sitalanatha; Sreyamsanatha; Vasupujya; Vimalanatha; Anantanatha; Dharmanatha; Santinatha; Kunthanatha; Aranatha; Mallinatha; Munisurvrata ; Naminatha ; Neminatha ; Parsvanatha ; Mahavira. THE YAK SAS AND SASANADEVATAS 65-85 General remarks; Gomukha; Mahayaksa; Trimukha; Yaksesvara; Tumbara; Kusuma or Puspa Yaksa; Matanga or Varanandi; Vijaya or Syama Yaksa; Ajita; Brahma Yaksa; Isvara Yaksa; Kumara Caturmukha or Sanmukha Yaksa; Patala Yaksa; Kinnara Yaksa; Garuda Yaksa of Santinatha; Gandharva Yaksa; Khendra or Yaksendra; Kubera; Varuna; Bhekuti; Gomedha or Gomeda; Pariva or Dharanendra; Matariga Yaksa. III. THE YAKSINIS 86-107 General remarks; Cakre vari; Ajita or Rohini; Duritari or Prajiapii; Vajra-Srmkhala or Kali;

Page #10
(viii) Mahakali or Purusadatta; Acyuta or Syama or Manovega; Santa or Kali; Bhikuti or Jvalamalini; Sutara Mahakali; Asoka or Manavi; Gauri or Manavi; Canda or Gindhari; Vidita or Vijaya or Vairoti; Ainkusa or Anantamati; Kandarpa (Parinagadevi) or Manavi; Nirvani or Mahamanasi; Bala (Acyuta) or Vijaya; Dharani or Tara; Vairoti or Aparajita; Naradatta or Bahurupini; Gandhari; Camunda; Ambika (Kusmindi) or Amra; Padravati; Siddhayika. IV. THE DIKPALAS 108-116 Gencral remarks; Indra; Agni; Naista; Varuna; Vayu; Kubera; Isana; Brahma; and Naga. V. THE NAVAGRAHAS 117-121 The Nine Planets; Surya; Chandra; Mangala; Budha; Bshaspati; Sukra; Sani; Ruhu; Ketu. VI. SRUTADEVIS AND VIDYADEVIS 122-132 General remarks; Sarasvati and Srutadcvi; Rohina the Vidyadevi; Prajiapti; Vajra-Somkhala; Vajrainkusa; Apraticakra or Jambunadi; Purusadatla; Kali; Mahakali; Gauri; Gandhari; Mahajvala or Jvalamalini; Manavi; Vairoti; Acyuta; Manasi; Mahamanasi. VII. MISCELLANEOUS JAINA DIVINITIES 133-137 Harinegamesi or Naigamesa; Ksetrapala; Sri or Laksmi; Santidevi; Yoginis. VIII. THE ASANAS AND MUDRAS 138-141 General remarks; Puryamklisana or Sumparurihusana; Arddhaparyumkasana; Khadgasana; Vajrasana; Virisana; Mudras; Jina-mudri; Foga-mudra; Vira-mudri. NOTES ON JAINA SYMBOLS AND TECHNICAL TERMS 142-143 APPENDIX B 144 BIBLIOGRAPHY 145-165 INDEX 165 PLATES Frontispiece and I-LIII

Page #11
FOREWORD Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are the three main streams of religious faiths that have nurtured and influenced Indian life and thought through the ages. The origin of Jainism goes back to hoary past. It is recognised as older than Buddhism. The Jainas believe that right faith, right knowledge, right conduct and chastity lead the wayfarer along the path of salvation. Ultimate release from matter is, according to the Jainas, the ideal state of existence for the soul. As even the minutest being is believed to have lise, the Jainas are very careful not to destroy it. II The antiquity of Jainism is shrouded in obscurity. According to the Jaina Puraras and the caritas, their first twenty-two Tirthankaras flourished several thousand years before Christ. P. C. Roy Choudhury thinks that, "Not much rescarch is possible in the pre-historical age as to the role Bihar played in the story of Jainism. But some of the ancient Jaina scriptures mention that Jainismi had been preached in Magadha (Bihar) by Lord Rsabha at the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Agricultural Age. At that remote period Magadha was separated from the rest of India by Ganga-s.igara. The ancient history of Nepal bears this also."2 The discovery of a few seals and a nude male torso led some scholars to believe that they are the representations of Dr. R.P. Tewari, Delhi University, has prepared the bioliography and the inclex and Sri C. M. Srivastava, Archaeological Survey of India, bas helped in the selection of the photographs. 1. It has been remarked that, "It is impossible to find a beginning for Jainism ......Jainism thus appears an earliest faith of India."-Furlong, J.R., Studies in Science of Comparative Religions, pp. 13-1). Roy Choudhury, P.C., Jainism in Bihar, p. 7. Sce also Thakur, Upendra, A Historical Survey of Jainism in North Bihar, JBRS, XXXXV, 1-4, pp. 106 ff; Bajpai, K. D., Evolution of Jaina Art in Madhya Pradesh, Bulletin of the Department of Ancient Indian History & Archaeology, Saugar, No. 3, pp. 75-79. 2.

Page #12
( x ) their Tirthankaras and were as such objects of worship during the Harappan age. But this view has not been accepted by several present-day art historians.2 To begin with, Jainism was an atheist religion. Hence, like the Buddha, the Jaina Masters were also silent about the existence of god. But when the Jainas became idol-worshippers in later periods, they also started worshipping Tirthankaras as gods. The Jainas believe in the existence of twenty-four Tirthankaras, among whom Rabhanatha was the carliest. The last two, namely, Parvanatha and Mahavira, were historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. Another important Tirthankara is Mallinatha, but there is doubt among the Jainas whether he was a male or a female. Most of the Tirthankaras were Ksatriyas and belonged to royal families. They attained enlightenment by performing austerities and practised the law of piety which they preached for the spiritual benefit of human beings. The Jainas regard their Tirthankaras, law-givers', as Supreme Deities, superior even to the Hindu gods, i. e., Devadeva or Devadi-deva. They are free from the circle of transmigration as they have attained emancipation. The Jainas do not have faith in other gods, but regard their Tirthankaras as fit objects of worship. They believe that the images of the Tirthankaras should be installed in the temples for worship, their life-story should be remembered by the devouts, the important events of their lives should be narrated and translated into stone, bronze or pallas, so that people may see and follow them and thus free themselves from the cycle of birth and rebirth. III Rsabhanatha or Adinatha," the first Tirthankara, is the propounder of the Jaina religion. In one of the verses of the I. Cf. Modern Review, Calcutta, August 1932, pp. 152 ff. 2. See Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 3-4. See also Agrawala, V. S., Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965, pp. 21-22. 3. The reasons for Rsabhadeva's birth are vividly described in the Mahapurana (III, 190-91); Adi Purana (XVI, 179-go), etc.

Page #13
( si ) Rgveda, Rsabhadeva1 has been mentioned as a king, the bestower of wealth to his subjects, while Indra is described as the lord of the agriculturists: A carSaNitrA vRSabho janAnAM rAjA kRSTInAM puruhUta indraH / stutaH zravasyannavamopa madrig yuktvA harI vRSaNA yAhyarvAG // -Rv., 1, 23, 177. The Bhagavata Purana has given interesting details about the birth of Rsabhanatha: iti nizAmayantyA merudevyAH patimabhidhAyAntardadhe bhagavAn / barhipi tasminneva viSNudatta bhagavAn paramarSibhiH prasAdito nAbheH priyacikIrSayA tadavarodhAyane merudevyAM dharmAndarzayitukAmo vAtarazanAnAM zramaNAnAmRSINAmUrdhvamanthinAM zuklayA tanuvAvatatAra / atha ha tamutpattyaivAbhivyajyamAnabhagavallakSaNaM sAmyopazamavairAgyaizvarya mahAvibhUtibhiranundinameghamAnAnubhAvaM prakRtayaH prajA brAhmaNA devatAzcAvanitalasamavanAyAtitarAM jagRdhuH / tasya ha vA itthaMvarmaNA varIyasA bRhacchlokena caujasA valena zriyA yazasA vIryazauryAbhyAM ca pitA RSabha itIdaM -- Bhagarata Puruna, V, 3, 20; 4, 2. In the Brahmanda Purana, he has been described as the progenitor of the Ksatriyas on earth. He had one hundred sons, among whom Bharata was the eldest: nAma cakAra / RSabhaM pArthivazreSThaM sarvakSatrasya pUrvajam / RpabhAd bharato jajJe vIraH putrazatAgrajaH / / -- Brahmanda Puruna, Purva, II, 14. and this country got the name of Bharatavarsa due to him:3 yeSAM khalu mahAyogI bharato jyeSThaH zreSThaguNa AsIdyenedaM varSaM bhAratamiti -Bhagavata Purana, V, 4, 9. vyapadizanti || Cf. also: tvaM rathaM pramaro yodhamuSvamAvo yudhyantaM vRSabhaM dazadyum / tvaM tugraM vetasave sacAntvaM tuji gRNantamindra ! tUtoH // Ro., 4, 6, 26, 4. For details see the Bhagarata Purana, V, Chs. 1-6; XI, 14-26, etc. This Puranic story of naming this country Bharatavarsa after the name of Bharata, the eldest son of Rsabhanatha has also been mentioned in some other Puranas: himAhvayaM tu vai varSaM nAbherAsInmahAtmanaH / tasyarSabho'bhavatputro merudevyAM mahAdyutiH //

Page #14
( xii ) In the Siva Purana, he is referred to as one of the Yogavataras of Lord Siva : dadhivAharaca Rpabho munirugro'trireva ca / --Siva Purana, VII, 9, 3. At another place in the same Purana, his oneness with Siva has been described in a remarkable manner: itthaMprabhAva RSabho'vatAraH zaMkarasya me / satAM gatirdInabandhurnavamaH kathitastu naH || -- Siva Purana, 1, 47. RSabhAdbharato jajJe jyeSThaH putrazatasya saH / kRtvA rAjyaM svadharmeNa tatheSTvA vividhAnmakhAn / / abhiSicya sutaM vIraM bharataM pRthivIpatiH / tapase sa mahAbhAgaH pulahasyAzramaM yayau || vAnaprasthavidhAnena tatrApi kRtanizcayaH / tapastepe yathAnyAyamiyAja sa mahIpatiH / / tapasA kapito'tyarthaM kRzo dhamanisantataH / nagna vITAM mukhe kRtvA vIrAdhvAnaM tato gataH // tatazca bhArata varSametallokeSu gIyate / bharatAya yataH pitrA dattaM prAtiSThatA vanam // -- Visnu Purana, RSabhAdbharato jajJe vIraH putrazatAdvaraH / so'bhiSicyarSabhaH putraM mahAprAvrAjyamAsthitaH // tapastepe mahAbhAgaH pulahAzramasaMzrayaH / himA dakSiNaM varSaM bharatAya pitA dadau / tasmAttu bhArataM varSaM tasya nAmnA mahAtmanaH / II, 1, 27-32. --Markandeya Purana, 50 39-41. nAbhistvajanayat putraM merudevyAM mahAdyutiH / RpabhaM pArthivazreSThaM sarvakSatrasya pUrvajam // RSabhAdbharato jajJe vIraH putrazatAgrajaH / so'bhiSicyAtha bharataH putraM prAvrAjyamAsthitaH // himA dakSiNaM varSa bharatAya nyavedayat / tasmAttad bhArataM varSaM tasya nAmnA vidurbudhAH || and also RSabhAd bharato bharatena cirakAlaM dharmeNa -- Vayu Purana, 31, 50-52. pAlitatvAdidaM bhArataM varSamabhUt / -- Nrsimha Purana, 30, 7.

Page #15
( xii ) All these attest to the effect that in ancient times he was equally adored by the Hindus. Rsabhadeva also finds mention in Buddhist literature and in one of the works he is referred to as Vratapalaka : prajApateH suto nAbhiH tasyApi UrNamucyate / lAbhino RSabhaputraH siddhakarmA dRDhavrataH / / tasya maNicaro yakSa: siddho haimavate girii| RSabhasya bharataH putra: so'pi mantrAn tadA japet // -Aryamasijusrim ulakalpa, 53, 363-64. Neminatha or Aristanemi also finds a mention in the Rgveda : svasti na indro vRddhazravAH svasti naH pUSA vizvadevAH / svasti nastAkSyo ariSTanemiH svasti no bRhaspatirdadhAtu / / --Rv. 1, 1, 16. Parsvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara was a historical figure. According to Professor Rhys Davids,' he was the real founder of Jainism. He prescribed four vows for the people to follow, viz., not to injure life; to speak the truth; not to steal and nonattachment. Lord Mahavira, the 24th and the last Tirthankara added 'chastity' as the fifth. Mahavira was a friend of Bimbisara and his son Ajatasatru, the king of Magadha, and hence, he commanded great influence in their courts. According to the Jaina canons, Udayana, the son and successor of Ajatasatru, was also a Jaina, who is credited with having built a Jaina temple at Pataliputra. The Nandas also had some leanings towards the Jaina faith. The Hathigumpha inscription records that a Nanda king had taken away an image of a Jina as a trophy from Kalinga to Magadha. From the Jaina traditions we lcarn that a great famine, lasting for twelve years, occurred during the time of Candragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya dynasty. The king, following his Jaina preceptor, Bhadrabahu, retired into the region of Mysore and starved himself to death. 1. Davids, Rhys, Encyclopaedia Britannica, gth ed. XII, p. 543.

Page #16
( xiv) Some scholars feel that emperor Asoka, before embracing Buddhism, was a devout Jaina. In his Pillar Edict VII, the emperor mentions Nirgranthas along with the Brahmanic Ajivikas. They have been taken to denote the followers of the Jaina faith. His grandson, Samprati, was a great patron of Jainism and, according to Hemacandra, he had built many Jaina temples all over Jambudvipa. A torso of a naked male figure was found at Lohanipur, near Paina, and is now preserved in the Patna Museum.It has an excellent polish preserved throughout. According to some scholars this sculpture revcals the existence of Jina images in the Maurya period. Another similar statue from the same site, but without polish, suggests the existence of Jina worship during the Sunga period. King Kharavcla of Kalinga (2nd-Ist century B.C.), who was a devout Jaina, styles himself as Bhiksu-raja, i.e., 'the monk king' in his Hathigumpha inscription. The great king in the twelfth year of his reign, after defeating the king of Magadha, took back the Jina image which was originally carried away by a Nanda king from Kalinga. Later he excavated a number of caves in the Kumari-parvata (Khandagiri hill) near Bhubaneshwar and built a monastery at Pabhara, not far from these caves. During the Kusana period, Jainism was flourishing in northern India. Numcrous stone sculptures fashioned during this period are now preserved in the Mathura Museum. Besides these, some exquisitely carved Jaina bronze images uncarthed at Chausa in Bihar are displayed in the Patna Museum. Jaina ayagapatlas (tablets of homage) have been discovered at Mathura and Kausambi. These are tastefully carved and 1. Thomas, E., The Early Faith of Asoka, Jour, of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London, (N. S.), IX. pp. 155-234. 2. Banerjee, P., Early History of Jainism, Indo-Asian Culture, New Delhi. XIX. p. 7. 3. Lee, S. E., Ancient Sculptures from India, Cleveland, 1964, fig. 14. 4. Epigraphia Indica XX, pp. 72 ff. 5. Agrawala, V. S., Catalogue of the Sculptures in the Mathura Museum, Four. U. P. Historical Society, Lucknow, XXIII, pp. 36 ff. 6. Gupta, P. L... Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities, pp. 116-17 and plates.

Page #17
( x ) most of them bear inscriptions. On a few of these aragapallas, the figure of Tirtharikara is shown in the centre. These stone tablets are assignable to a period between the 1st century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D. The Junagarh inscription of the grandson of Jayadaman datable to the middle of the 2nd century A.D., contains an important reference to Jaina monks who had attained perfect knowledge. The widc popularity of Jainism during the reign of the Guptas is borne out by the discovery of several epigraphs and images. The Udaigiri cave inscription of the reign of Kunaragupta I refers to the construction of an image of Jinesvara Pariva. natha. The Kahaum stone pillar inscription of the time of Skandagupta mcntions an endowment in favour of Jainism, and the installation of five sculptures of the Tirthankaras in the niches of a pillar of stone. Several images of the Jaina divinities fashioned during the Gupta rulc, arc displayed in the State Museum, Lucknow, Mathura Museum and other museums of the country. In the seventh century, Jainism was prevalent all over India as a fully developed religion. Banabhatla mentions the Jainas along with Arhatas, Maskaris, Varnis, Bhagavatas, Pancaratrikas, Lokayatikas, Pauranikas, adepts in grammar, ascetics who shaved their hair, ascctics who studied dhatuvada, law books and sacrificial lore and ascetics who followed the tenets of Kapila, Kanada, Upanisads and Nyaya.' Yuan Chwang had seen the followers of both Diganbara and Svetambara sccts of Jainism at Taxila in the west and at Vipula in the east. An excellent image of Lord Parsvanatha originally enshrined in a Jaina temple at Gyaraspur near Bhilsa is now displayed in the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. The image shows the great master seated beneath the Dhalaki tree practising the 'exposure to all weathers' austerity when Meghakumara (Cloud Prince) attacked him with a great storm. The serpent king, the Naga Dharanendra, spreads his hoods above Parsvanatha's head and his consort, the Nagani Padmavati, holds an 1. Harsacharita, VIII, pp. 236-37.

Page #18
( xvi) umbrella over him. The image can be dated to the Vardhana period, 7th century A.D.1 By the beginning of the 8th century A.D., Jainism came to bear the brunt of those factors, which were at that time undermining Buddhism. Discipline became lax; a rich laity made the monk's life easy; desire for wealth, property and earthly honour guided most of the spiritual leaders of Jainism. Several great spiritual leaders, like Haribhadra Suri and later Uddyotana Suri and Siddharsi Suri, however, rescued Jainism from this insidious rot, through the message conveyed by their disciples. These followers of the gaccha, later on known as Kharatara, did not pay mere lip service to Haribhadra's anti-corruption campaign, on the other hand, they popularised the teachings of their preceptor by their preachings, writings, discussions, debates and practice. Jinavallabha founded and restored the old temples at Marwar, Chittor, Marot and Nagor in Rajasthan. His disciple Jinadatta composed works to get rid of the evils that had crept into the Jaina church. So also Jinapati, a contemporary of the Cauhan king Prthviraja III of Delhi and Ajmer carried the message of his teachers almost to all parts of Rajasthan. Kumarapala Caulukya of Gujarat, acting under the influence of his great teacher Hemacandra, also popularised Jainism in his dominions. The Bhattaraka Sampradaya contributed a lot to the development of the true spirit of Jainism in the early mediaeval period. This is attested by the numerous art relics at Deogarh and the region around. Jainism continued to flourish during the Muslim rule also. Several Jainas held responsible posts in the courts of the Muslim and Mughal rulers. Due to their good financial condition and influence, Jaina atras in the mediaeval period were no less frequent than before." I. 2. IV According to Jaina legends, Bharata, the son of Rsabha See my paper, Videsi Sangrahalayon men Jaina Pratimayen. Mahavira Jayanti Smarika, Jaipur, 1972, fig. 1 on p. 126. Sharma, B. N., Social & Cultural History of Northern India (c. 1000-1200 A. D.). p. 115.

Page #19
( xvii) natha, had built temples on the Kailasa mountain for enshrining the images of Jina in them. And from that time onwards the people also followed the same tradition: zrutvA sakAzAd bharatezvaro'pi kailAsabhUdhra mnnirtncuurnn:| dvAsaptati janapamaMdirANAM nirmApya cakre jinabiMbasaMsthAm // tataH prabhRtyeva mahAdhanaiH svaM pratiSThayA dhanyatamaM vidhAya / maMrakSyate'nAdijinendracandramukhodgataM sthApanasadvidhAnam // -Pratisthapatha, 62, 63. Vasunandi states that all such places, where the Tirthankaras were born, initiated, enlightened and attained nirvana, as well as the bank of rivers, mountains, villages, and seashore are suitable for sites for Jaina temples: janmaniSkramaNasthAnajJAnanirvANabhUmiSu / anyepa puNyadezeSu nadIkalanageSu ca / / grAmAdisannivezeSu samudrapulineSu c| anyeSu vA manojJeSu kArayejjinamaMdiram / / -Pratisthasarasaigraha, 3, 3-4. The same idea has also been expressed by Jayasena : zaddhe pradeze nagare'pyaTavyAM nadIsamIpe zucitIrthabhUmyAm / vistIrNazRgonnataketumAlAvirAjitaM jainagRhaM prazastam // -Pratisthapatha, 125. Bhuvanadeva also remarks that the Jaina temples should be built inside the towns : tIrthakarodbhavAH sarve sarvazAntipradAyakAH / jinendrasya prakartavyAH puramadhyeSu zAntidA: // -Aparajitapsccha, 179, 14. The place for building a Jaina temple was carefully selected and had to be good in all respects : ramyAM snigdhAM sagandhAdidUrvAdyADhyAM tataH zucim / jinajanmAdinAvAsye svIkuryAd bhUmimuttamAm / / -Pratisthasaroddhara, 1, 18. As far as the material of a Jina image is concerned, it can be made of mani, ratna, gold, silver, brass, muktaphala and stone :

Page #20
( xviii ) maNi-kaNaya-rayaNa-ruppaya-pittala-muttAhalovalAIhi / paDimAlakkhaNavihiNA jiNAipaDimA ghddaavinjaa| -Sravakacara, 390. Images can also be made of sphatika, but the use of clay, wood and plaster has been ruled out for preparing the images : svarNaratnamaNiraupyanirmitaM sphATikAmalazilAbhavaM tathA / utthitAMbujamahAsanAMgita jainabimbamiha zasyate budhaiH / / -Pratisthapatha, 69. Vardhamana Suri in his Acaradinakara has restricted the use of bronze and lead in making the icons, but allows the use of ivory and wood : svarNarUpyatAmramayaM vAcyaM dhAtumayaM param / kAMsyasIsabaGgamayaM kadAcinnava kArayet / / The Jaina texts relate that after the completion of a Jaina temple, one should go along with the artist on an auspicious day and time to select proper type of stone for fashioning the images :' dhAmni sidhyati siddhe vA setsyatyarcAkRta zilAm / anveSTu sepTazilpIndraH sulagna-zakune vrajet / / --Pratisthasaroddhara, 1, 49. The authorities have discussed various types of stone suitable for the purpose.- Vasunandi states that white, red, cc. grAhyAM zilAM dine gatvA zobhane snapayed budhaH / - Tisnurlharmottara Purana.YC, 25. and uttarAyaNamAse tu zuklapakSe zubhodaye / / prazastapakSanakSatre muharte karaNAnvite / / gacchalliGga samuddizya vana copavana girim / / __- Muyamala, 33, 19-20. 2. zvetazca padmavarNazca kusumoparasannibham / pANDuro mudgavarNazca kApotI bhRGgasannibha: // jJeyA: prazastA: pASANA: aSTAvete na saMzayaH / kRSNavarNA zilA yA tu zuklA hiirksNyutaa| -Visrudharmottara Purana. III. 90, 21-22. and

Page #21
( xix) black and green coloured stones are the best for making the image of Jina : zvetA raktA'sitA mitrA pArAvatasamaprabhA / mudgakapotapadmAbhA mAMjiSThA haritaprabhA || V -Pratisthasarasangraha, 3, 77. The images of Tirthankaras are purely human in form. They do not exhibit any unusual number of head, eyes, arms or legs. They are shown only in two postures, i.e., seated crosslegged, in dhyana-mudra or standing erect in kayotsarga-pose. Both the dhyana and the kayotsarga mudras are yogic, as the Jainism believes in penance (tapasya). They are unlike the images of Visnu (Sesasayin) and Buddha (parinirvana) and are never shown in the reclining pose. The images of a Tirthankara and the Buddha seated in dhyana-mudra are quite similar, but from the Srivatsa mark executed on the chest of a Tirthankara, one can easily distinguish it from that of the Buddha. In the Tirthankara images from South India, this particular symbol is, however, conspicuous by its absence." 1. The idea of carving Sarvatobhadra (four-fold) Tirthankara images started during the late Kusana period. This feature continued till the late medieval period. Some of the Sarvatobhadra images of the four chief Jinas (Adinatha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira) found in Mathura, Kausambi or elsewhere are remarkable works of art. Several ancient and medieval works mention the characteristic features of the Jina images. The oft-quoted description has been given by Varahamihira in his famous work Brhatsamhita in the following words: "the god of the Arhats (the Jinas, i. e., kapotabhRGgakumudamApamudgA sitopamA / pANDurA ghRtapadmAbhA sarvAvasu zubhA zilA // Cf. Haribhadra Suri's statement : zrAmyatIti zramaNAH tapasyatItyarthaH / -Rubamandana, I, 3. -Dasavaikalika Sutra, 1, 3. 2. Sivaramamurti, C., Geographical and Chronological Factors in Indian Iconography, Ancient India, No. 6, (Jan. 1954), PP. 44-46.

Page #22
( xx ) any of the 24 Tirtharkaras) should be shown nude, young and beautiful in appearance, with a tranquil expression and arms reaching down to the knees; his breast should have the (auspicious) Srivatsa mark."l The Manasara states that the distinguishing features of a Jina icon are nudity, Srivatsa symbol, long hanging arms, the meditative pose, etc. : dvibhujaM ca dvinetra ca muNDatAraM ca zIrSakam / RjusthAnakasaMyukta tathA cAsanameva ca / samAdhri RjvAkAraM syAllambahastadvayaM tathA / AsanaM ca dvipAdau ca padmAsanaM tu saMyutam / Rjuke ca RjubhAvaM yoga tatparamAtmakam / nirAbharaNasarvAGga nirvastrAGga manoharam / sarvavakSaHsthale hemavarNa zrIvatsalAMchanam / / The Pratisthasaroddhara mentions that a Tirtharkara should have a calm and screne face: zAntaprasannamadhyasthanAsAgrasthAvikAradRk / saMpUrNabhAvArUDhAnuviddhAGga lakSaNAnvitam // -Pratisthasaroddhara, 1, 62. In the Pratis thapada, it is stated that a Tirthankara should not be depicted as an old man or as a boy, but as a youth. He should bcar Srivatsa mark on the chest and should not have nails or hair. The image should be made cither of good metal or stone and should display all the virtues of an ascetic or a vairagi: vRddhatvabAlyarahitAMgamupetazAMti zrIvRkSabhUSihRdayaM nakhakezahInam / saddhAtucitradRSadAM samasUtrabhAgaM vairAgyabhUpitaguNaM tapasi prazaktam / / -Pratisthapada, 151-52. The Vivekavilasa relates that a Tirtharkara having Srivatsa on the chest and usnisa on the head should be seated in padmasana pose on a beautiful pedestal shaded by an umbrella : upaviSTasya devasyordhvasya vA pratimA bhavet / dvividhApi yuvAvasthA paryaGkAsanagA''dimA // . 27, n.2; Banerjea, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography, p. 588.

Page #23
XX1 devasyordhvasya cArcA syAjjAnu lmbibhujdyaa| zrIvatsoSNISayukta dve chatrAdiparivArite / / -Vivekavilasa, 1, 128-30. The Pratisthasarasarigraha gives some more details about the icon (bimba) of Jinendra (i.e., Tirthankara). After inentioning his seat, etc., it states that he should be young (taruna), nude (digambara) and decorated in chest (bhusita) with a Srivatsa symbol. The height of the image should be 108 angulas. There should be no hair in the arm-pit or on any other part of his body and no line for the moustache : atha bimbaM jinendrasya kartavyaM lakSaNAnvitam / RjvAyutama saMsthAna taruNAGga digambaram / / zrIvakSabhUSitoraskaM jAnuprAptakarAgrajam / nijAGagulapramANena sASTAGagulazatAyutam / / kakSAdiromahInAGgaM zmazralekhAvivajitam / UvaM pralambakaM datvA samAptyantaM ca dhArayet / / -Pratisthasarasaigraha, 4,1,2,4. The Rupamandana, an important iconographic text by Sutradhara Mandana, devotes its sixth chapter to Jaina iconography. After mentioning the names of the 24 Tirthankaras, it specifies their colour, symbols, Yaksas and Yaksis and the tree under which each one of them had attained the supreme knowledge. It also describes the following features of a Jina linage : chatratrayaM jinasyaiva rathikAbhistribhiryatA (-yutam) // azokadrumapatraizca devadundubhivAdakaiH / siMhAsanamasurAdyogajasiMhA (siMhAsanenAsurAdyargajasiMhaiH) vibhUSitAH / / madhye ca karmacakraM ca tatpAvayozca yakSiNI / dvitAlavistarAH kAryA bahiH parikarasya tu / / derpA tu pratimA tulyA tayorudraM tu toraNam / vAhikA bAhyapakSe tu gosiMharalaMkRtAH (gosiMhaiH samalaMkRtAH) / kartavyA dvArazAkhA ca tattanmUrtigasaMyutA / / toraNaM paJcadhA proktaM rathikArya (rathikAyAM) ca devatAH / / 1. Srivastava, B. (ed.) Rupamandana, Varanasi, 1964. See also Jain, B.C. Jaina Pratima Laksana, Anekanta, Delhi, XIX, 3, pp. 204-13.

Page #24
(xxii ) lalitaM cetikAkAraM trirathaM balitodaram / zrIpu paJcararthikaM sAptAvA (saptamA - ) nandavardhanam // rathikAyAM bhavedbrahmA viSNurIzazca caNDikA / jino gaurI gaNezazca sve sve sthAne sukhAvahAH // - Rupamandana, VI, 33-39. According to the Rupamandana, Padmaprabha and Vasupujya are of red colour, Candraprabha and Puspadanta ( ? ) (white); Nemi and Muni black, Malli and Parsva blue, while the rest of them are of golden hue : rakto (raktoM) ca padmaprabhubhavAsaMpUjyo ( prabhavAsapUjyo ) / zukla (zuklI) ca candraprabhapuSpadantI // kRSNa punama puguNaivilIna: ( munI ca nIlo ) / zrImalliH pArzve (zrImallipAvI ) kanakatviSo'nye // -Rupamandana, VI, 4. The Aparajitap: cche also gives some details of the colours of the Tirthankaras : candraprabhaH puSpadantaH veto va krauJcasambhavI / padmaprabho dharmanAtho vanotpalanibho matI // supArzvaH pArzvanAthazca hariNa prakIrtito / nemiraca zyAmavarNaH syAnnIlo malliH prakIrtitaH / zepA: poDaza samproktAstaptakAJcanasamprabhAH // -- Aparanitaprccha, 221, 5-7. The Rupamandana states that there are a number of Jina images and these should be adored as they are the bestower of happiness. Nevertheless it regards Sri Adinatha, Nemi, Parsva and Vira (Mahavira ) and Cakresvari, Ambika, Padmavati and Siddhayika as more venerable. jinasya mUrttayo'nantAH pUjitAH maukhyasarvadA - ( sarvasaukhyadAH ) / catasro'tizayayuktAstAsAM pUjyA vizeSataH // zrI AdinAtho nemica parve vIracaturthakaH (pArvI vIrazcaturthakaH) / cakre caryAmbikA (cakrezvaryambikA) padmAvatI siddhAyaketi ca / / kailAza somazaraNaM siddhiti sadAzivam / siMhAsanaM dharmacakramuparIndrAtapatrakam / / -Rupamandana, VI, 25-27.

Page #25
( xxiii) Vrsa A list of the 24 Tirthankaras along with their emblems and Yaksa and Yaksini figures as found in the Rupanandana? is given below in a tabular form : No. Tirthankara Cognisance aksa Paksini 1. Rsabha Gomukha Cakres vari 2. Ajita Gaja Mahayaksa Ajitabala 3. Sambhava Aiva Trimukha Duritari 4. Abhinandana Kari? Yaksesvara Kalika 5. Sumati Kraunca Tumburu Mahakali 6. Padmaprabha Raktabija Kusuma Syama 7. Suparsva Svastika Matanga Santa or Santi 8. Candraprabha Sasi Vijaya Bhrkuti 9. Suvidha Makara Jaya" Sutarika 10. Sitala Srivatsa Brahma Asoka 11. Sreyamia Gandaka* Yakset Manavi 12. Vasupujya Mahisa Kumara Candi 13. Vimala Sukara Sanmukha Vidita 14. Anant. Syena Patala Ankusi 15. Dharma Kinnara Kandarpi 16. Santi Garuda Nirvani 17. Kuntha Chiga Gandharva Bala 18. Ara Nandyavarta Yakseti Dharini 19. Malli Ghata Kubera Dharnapriya 20. Muni Kurma Varuna Nadarakta or Naradatta 21. Suvrata Nilotpala Bh kuti Gandharva? 22. Nemi Sankha Gomcdha Ambika 23. Parsva Phani Purvas Padmavati 24. Mahavir. Itanga Skalnika Vajra Mrga 1. Rupamandana, pp. 98-99. In the Afrarajilaprccha (III, 221, 8), the word Kapayal has been used for Kapi. 3. Ajita has been referred to in other texts. 4. The Rupamandana wrongly mentions Khaggisa for Gandaka, i, c.. rhino ccros. 5. Isvara according to other literary works. 6. Ksendra or Yaksendra according to other Jaina texts. 7. In other works, she has been referred to as Gandhari. He is popularly known as Dharanendra.

Page #26
( xxiv ) It is evident from the above table that Mandana has followed the Svetambara traditions in describing the symbols and Yaksa and Yaksini figures of the Tirthaukaras.' According to thc Digambaras, Vrscika (crab), asvattha (Ficus religioso), and iksa (crab) are the symbols of Suvidha, Sitala and Ananta, respectively. The Digambara texts also record that Suparsva, Srcyamsa, Vasupujya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma, Santi, Kuntha, Malli and Neminatha have Kali, Gauri, Gandhari, Vairoti, Anantamati, Manasi, Mahamanasi, Vijaya, Brahmarupini, Camundi and Kusmandini as their Yaksinis. Similarly, Sreyarnisa and Santinatha have Isvara and Kimpurusa as their Yaksas instead of Yakset and Garuda as referred to in the Rupamandana. VI The Rupamandana mentions seven Sasana-devatas in the following order : Firstly, it describes Gomukha, the Yaksa of Rsabhanatha as of golden colour and riding on an elephant. He holds a vara, a rosary, a noose and a citron: ripabho (Rpabhe) gomukho yakSo hemavarNA gajAnanA (HTUT T3177:) ! varAkSasUtramAzAzca ubhabIjapUreSu ca || (varo'kSasUtraM pAzAMzca bIjapUraM kareSu ca) // --Ripamandana, VI, 17. The Aparajitaprcchu refers to a bull instead of an clephant as his mount : varAkSasUtre pAzazca mAtuliGga caturbhujaH / zvetavarNo vRpamukho vapabhAsanasaMsthitaH / / --Aparajitaprccha, 221, 43. Cakresvari is one of the most important divinitics in the Jaina pantheon. She has been described of golden colour and 1. Srivastava, B., op. cit., p. 100. Scc also Banerjea, J.N., Jaina Icons, The age of Imperial Unity, Bombay, 1960, pp. 425-31; Shah, U. P., Jaina Iconography. A Brief Study, Muni Jina Vijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1971, pp. 190-218.

Page #27
( xxv) riding on the Garuda. The deity has eight arms; her one hand is held in gift-bestowing attitude, while others carry a bow, a noose and disc, etc. asau SS$?qqf arerfaerszaigal | varaM bANaM cakraM (zaktizUlamanAkulam ? ) / / -Rupamandana, VI, 18. The Maladevi temple at Gyarasapur1 has an interesting image, where she is shown riding on Garuda and carrying a noose, a thunderbolt and disc, etc., in her hands. The Rupamandana also describes a twelve-armed image of the goddess holding discs in her eight hands, and thunderbolts and citron in the remaining two cach: dvAdazabhujASTacakrANi vajrayordvayameva ca / mAtuliGgAbhaye caiva padmasthA garuDopari / / -Rupamandana, VI, 24. The Aparajitaprccha and the Devatamurtiprakarana3 also refer to twelve-armed images of the devi. Dr. U. P. Shah1 has discussed the iconography of Cakresvari with the help of several photographs of the images from different parts of India. I. Deva, K., Maladevi temple at Gyaraspur, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, pp. 262 ff. 2. Cf. SaTpAdA dvAdazabhujA cakrANyaSTI dvivajrakam / mAtuliGgAbhaye caiva tathA padmAsanA'pi ca / / garuDoparisaMsthA ca cakrezI hemavaNikA / -Aparajitaprccha, 221, 15-16. 3. Cf. atha dvitIyabhedena cakre (zvarI) / dvAdazabhujASTacakre vajrayordvayameva ca / mAtuliGgAbhayaM caiva padmasthA ga ( ruDo ) pari || -Devatamurtiprakarana, 7, 66. 4. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, Jour. of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, XX, 3, pp. 280-313 and plates; Settar, S, Cakresvari in Karnatak Literature and Art, Oriental Art, (N. S.) London, XVII, 1, pp. 63-69 and figures; Sharma, B. N., Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the National Museum, New Delhi, Jour. of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, XIX, 3, p. 276, fig 2; Some Interesting Temple Sculptures at Osia, Roopa-Lekha, New Delhi, XL, 1 & 2, pp. 100-101, fig VII; Gandhavala Ki Jaina Murtiyan, Anekanta, Delhi, XIX, 1-2, pp. 129 ff, fig. 4.

Page #28
i sxvi) Ambika is of yellow colour and rides the lion. She holds a bunch of mangoes, a serpent-noose, a goad and a child : siMhArUDhA'mbikA pItA mala bi ? (tvAmrakaM ?) nAgapAzakam / aGga kuzaJca tathA putra tathA hastepvanakramAt // ---Rupamandana, VI, 19. From the above description it appears that the text refers to a four-armed image. The Aparajitaprccha mentions a twoarmed image of the goddess carrying a fruit and a child in her hands : haridvarNA siMhasaMsthA dvibhujA ca phalaM varam / putraNopAsyamAnA ca sutotsaGgA tathA'mbikA / / -Aparajilaprccha, 221, 36. Several varieties of the images of Ambika are known from various parts of India. Parsva, the Yaksa of Parsvanatha has been described as of black colour. He holds in his hands a citron, cobras, and a mongoose : pAzvaH syAt pArzvanAthasya kUrmArUDho gajAnanaH / bIjapUroraga nAgaM nakulaM zyAmavarNakaH / / -Ripamandana, VI, 20. The-Iparujitaprccha, on the other hand, states that he should carry a bow, an arrow, a bhindi and a mulgara : pAvoM dhanurvANa bhaNDimudgarazca phalaM vrH| marparUpaH zyAmavarNaH kartavyaH zAntimicchatA / / ----1parajitaprccha, 221, 55. Padmavati has red complexion and shc rides on a cock. In her four hands, she holds a lotus, a noosc, a goad and a citron: raktAyasavatI pUrNA (padmA) kakuMToraga __ (kukkuTasthA) caturbhujA / padmapAzoMzo (padmapAzAGakuzau) bIjapuraM haste yu kArayet (dhArayet) / / -Rupamandana, VI, 21. Shah, U. P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, jour, of the University of Bombay, x, 2, pp. 195-2183; Muni Jayantavijayaji, Holy Abu, Bhavanagar, 1954, fig. 29.

Page #29
( xxvii ) The Aparajitaprccha also describes a four-armed image of the goddess as follows: pAzAGakuza padmavare raktavarNA caturbhujA / padmAsanA kukkuTasthA khyAtA padmAvatIti ca // -- Aparajitaprccha, 221, 37. Several images of Padmavati have been discovered in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Of these, the finest sculpture can be seen in the Santinatha temple at Khajuraho, where she is shown seated at ease with her consort Dharanendra.1 Matanga, the Yaksa of Mahavira, has been described as riding on an elephant and holding a mongoose in his right hand and a citron in the left: mahAvIrasya mAtaGgo gajArUDho ( gajArUDhaH) mito bhavet / dakSiNe nakulaM haste vAme syAd bIjapUrakam // - Rupamandana, VI, 22. In the Aparajitaprccha, he has been mentioned in the following words : phalaM varo'tha dvibhujo mAtaGgo hastisa sthitaH / yakSAzcaturviMzatikAstayarSabhAditaH kramAt / / -- Aparajitaprccha, 221, 56. Another important Jaina goddess described in the Rupamandana is Siddhayika." The four-armed devi having blue complexion rides on a lion. She holds a manuscript, an arrow and a citron, while her remaining hand displays abhaya-mudra: sidrAyakA ( siddhAyikA) nIlavarNA siddhA - ( siMhA-) rUDhA caturbhujA / pustakaM cAbhayaM datte ( dhatte) vANaM vai mAtuliGgakam / / -- Rupamandana, VI, 23. Bhattacharyya, A. K., An Introduction to the Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Padmavati, Muni Jinavijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1971, pp 219-29; Jain, Niraj, Khajuraho Ke Jaina Mandira, Satna 1970, pl. II. Shah, U. P., Yaksini of the twenty-fourth Jina Mahavira, Four of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, XXII, 1-2, pp. 78 and plates. A medieval seated image of the devi is also preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow See the Mahavira Favanti Smarika, Jaipur, 1973, plate facing page 4.

Page #30
( xxviii) The Aparajitaprccha mentions a two-armed image of Siddhayika as below : dvibhujA kanakAbhA ca pustakaM cAbhayaM tathA / siddhAyikA tu kartavyA bhadrAsanasamanvitA // -Aparajitaprccha, 221, 38. VII The Jaina literature classifies the subsidiary divinities into four classes, namely, Jyotisi, Vimanavasi, Bhavanapati and Vyantara, based on their natural and individual affiliations. The Rupamandana mentions the names of twenty-four Naksatras! and twelve Rasis, but does not give their iconographic features. It also narrates the eight Pratiharyas, viz., Indra, Indrajaya, Mahendra, Vijaya, Dharanendra, Padmaka, Sunabha, Suradundubhi and furnishes details about each of them. The description appears to be based on the Aparajitapsccha.4 The developed iconometry of the Jaina pantheon and the profuse number of Jaina images during the medieval period tend to indicate thc growing Tantric influence which had gained ground during this period. It also shows that the Hindu Puranic religion had its 'inter-action on the medieval Indian culture including the field of plastic art. Besides a few iconographic texts referred to above, there are several other literary works like the Abhidhana-Cintamani, 1. Ripamandana, VI, 7-8. 2. Ibid., 10-11. 3. Ibid., 28-32. 4. Cr. phalaM vajrAGakuzau daNDa indro'savye indrajayaH / dvau vajrau phaladaNDI ca mahendro'savye vijayaH ? // tadAyudhayogodbhavAstripaJcAzvaphaNA (grahA) matAH / dharaNendra: padmakazca sarve zAntikarAH smRtAH / / yakSarUpAdhikArAzca nidhihastAH zubhodarAH / sarvazAntipradAvevaM sunAbhaH suradundubhiH // ityaSTau ca jinendrasya pratihArAzca zAntidAH / nagarAdau pure grAme sarvavighnapraNAzamAH / / -Aparajitaprccha, 220, 35-38.

Page #31
( xxix ) Diparnava, Samarangana-Sutradhara, Prasadamandana, Rajavallabha, Devatam urtiprakarana, Kasyapa-Samhita, Raya-Paseni-Jivabhigama, Tiloyapannatti, Vastusaraprakarana, etc., which provide a minc of information to a student of Jaina art and iconography. VIII Professor B. C. Bhattacharya, the celebrated author of the Jaina Iconography, was a distinguished scholar of Indology deeply interested in the study of Indian iconography, literature and culture. His rescarches in the field of Jaina iconography were not only pioneering works of their times but still form the basis of research in Jainology. Obviously the book has always been in great demand. It is a matter of regret that Professor Bhattacharya did not live to revise and see the second cdition of his book. The publication of the present cdition by M/s. Motilal Banarsidass, the leading Indological Publishers of India, at the time of the 2500th Nirvanotsava of Lord Mahavira is a fitting tribute to the great contribution made by Professor Bhattacharya and a great service to the students of Jainology. National Museum, New Delhi. Mahavira Jayanti, 1974. B. N. SHARMA KEEPER

Page #32
PREFACE Following my Brahmanic Iconography, "Indian Images" Part I, published in 1921, I present to the public the Jaina Iconography now after a lapse of ncarly two decades. The delay has been long but unavoidable on account of several family mishaps even though thc MS. had almost been completed by the end of 1926. An additional difficulty in my way was that of a suitable publisher for undertaking the printing and publishing of a book which by its very nature call; for illustrative plates. I make my apology to those scholars, both in this country and the west, who by thcir frequent enquiries about this volume have kept alive in me the desire for presenting it to the public, a desire which might otherwise have been killed in the midst of my many trials and misfortunes. I offer my thanks also to the enterprising proprietors of the Punjab Sanskrit Series who), of all Oriental publishers, have placed me in their debt by readily undertaking to bring out this first book on Jaina Iconography. The study of iconography and that of sculptures are inseparable. To all students of arts and culture, therefore, I hope, this book will present a new interest. To rescue the hitherto hidden materials of Jaina Iconograply from their hiding places, I turned my attention in the first place to the published and unpublished literature of Jaina School. To be jusily enlightened on the subject, I frecly sought thc guidance of orthodox Jaina scholars who, though deeply learned in Jaina philosophy, were unable to adequately indicate the various texts relating to the Jaina images, scattered over in their ritualistic literature. In order to find these, I took to exploring the different MS. collections preserved in far distant places of our country. This involved me in visits to Arrah, Agra, Bikaner, Baroda, Ahmadabad, Rajkot and several other places where such literature was to be found. Everywhere I was received with great kindness by the reverend monks of the sect, who placed at my disposal their MSS. and allowed me to copy out such of them

Page #33
( xxxi ) as, I thought, would be useful. I acknowledge my profound debt of gratitude to those monks whose memory even at this day is my cherished possession. At the same time as I visited the monasteries, I renewed my visits to all the Museums of Northern India and also personally explored many old sites of Jaina ruins in search of images properly illustrative of the iconographic texts. Within about three years, I was able to collect a vast store of materials for my purpose. The present book is the product of all my humble researches on the subject. In the ever expanding field of Indology some intolerance and unfriendliness still hold sway. This is to be regretted. In the field of Indological research more, I believe, could be achieved by mutual sympathy and understanding and less, very much less by the lack of them. Criticism of a constructive character is always extremely helpful; and no one need grudge it, I mean, no one who has the interest of truth nearest to his heart. I am no judge of my own work. Having put the first furrow in the hitherto fallow field of Jaina Iconography, I place with considerable diffidence this humbie work of nine in the hands of Orientalists for their criticism and suggestion which, I doubt not, will be of great help to me in seeing much that I may not have seen at first. To my general readers my request is that they may be pleased to read the introduction and the introductory paragraphs of cach chapter and then relate and compare them to the illustrations at the end of the book. In conclusion, I desire to record my cordial thanks to Kumar Probodhendu Nath Tagore B.L. for same financial help and to Khan Bahadur Maqsud Ali Khan (C.S. ret.), Chief Secretary to H.H. the Maharaja of Benaras, for his benevolent encouragement and ready sympathy. I have also to express my indebtedness to my esteemed friend, Professor U.C. Nag M.A. Ph.D. for many usefu! suggestions and to my old student, Mr. T.N. Sarkar B.A. (U.P. Police), for preparing under my instruction the index of this volume. Durgakund Road, Banares, U.P. January 20, 1939 B C.B.

Page #34
A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRINTED AND MS. TEXTS 1. ORIGINAL BOOKS CONSULTED 1. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra (Asiatic Society of Bengal). 2. Dravya-Samgraha (Sacred Books of the Jainas) by Nemi Chandra, about 10th Century A.D. 3. Pancastikaya. -4. Pancastikaya Samayasara, by Kundakundacarya, (S.B.1.) Dated 50 B.C. 5. Adhyatma Tattvaloka (Tran. by M.J. Mehta). 6. Jaina Sutra (Tran. by H. Jacobi, Sacred Books of East). 7. Syadvadamanjari, by Mallisena. 8. Tattvartha-raja-Varttika, by Urnasvati (Sanatana Jaina Granthamala, Benarcs). Circa 3rd cent A.D. Samayika-Patha. Samantabhadracarya's Brhat Svayambhu Stotra. 11. Uttaradhyayana-Sutra. 12. Pravacana-sara, by Kunda-Kundacarya, (Bhandarkar's Report on the search for Sanskrit MSS, 1883-89). 13. Hemachandra's Abhidhana Cintamani (Ed. by Otto Boeht lingk, St. Petersberg). 14. The Antagada-Dasao (Oriental Tran. fund). 15. Hemachandra's Trisasti-Salaka Purusa-Caritra which is based (10 vols., Published at Bhavnagar 1906-09 by Jaina Dharma Prakasaka Sabha) upon older sources. The author's floruit is 1089, p. 117. 16. Uttarapurana by Jinasena composed about the 8th. century A.D. 17. Kalpa-Sutra (Ed. by Jacobi and Rev. Stevenson, 1848), by Bhadrabahu. Parsvanatha-Carita, by Bhavadeva Suri, Dated A.D. 1356 Acaranga Sutra (S.B.E.) 20. Asadhara's Pratisthasaroddhara. A.D. 1200-50. 21. Guna Vijaya Suri's Neminatha-Carita (Prosc) Nirnaya Sagar Press, about Samvat 16. 22. Juanarnava, Nirnaya Sagar Press. 23. Sattva-Saroddhara.

Page #35
( xxxiii ) II. MSS. and TEXTS. 1. Acara-dinakara (Ramghat Jaina Collection) by Vard dhamana Suri Pujavidhi Chapter and faste faut called the Pratisthavidhi treats of Iconography. MSS. No. 26 74 19 36. Cf. pp. no. 12500 Patan Bhandara 2, 3-4, 14th century A.D. 2. Vastusara and Pratisthasara-Saringraha, MSS. No.68Jaina Collection, Jnana Mandir, Baroda. 3. Vasunandi's Pratistha-sara Sangraha, (Jaina Siddhanta bhavan, Arrah) : Beginning : vijJAnavAdasatsUtrAdvAgdevIkalpatastathA / candraprajJaptisaMjJAcca sUryaprajJaptigranthataH // tathA mhaapuraannaarthaacchaavkaadhyynshrutaat| sAraM saMgRhya vakSye'haM pratiSThAsArasaMgraham / tatra tAvat pravakSyAmi pratiSThAsAralakSaNam / tasyodayAnmato (?) yasmAdvizvakarmapravartanam // 4. Travacana-Saroddhara, Ch. 26 and 27. (a) Ramghat Collection, Benarcs. (b) MSS. Chhani Jaina Bhandara, Baroda. Tika by Siddhascna Suri, 1142 Samvat, (Jaina Bhandara, Limdi, Kathiawad). (c) Colophon--teSAM guNiSu gurUNAM ziSyaH zrIsiddhasenasUririmAM pravacanasAroddhArasya vRttimakarodatispaSTAm / karisAgararavisaMkho zrIvikramanRpativatsare caitrapuSpArkadine zuklASTamyAM vRttiH samA ptaasii|| 5. Tirtha Kalpa or Rajaprasada by Jinaprabha, (Probably of 14th Century A.D.). 6. Sutradhara Mandana's Vastu Sastra (A) MSS. 1351, Jnana collection Jnana Mandir, Baroda. (B) Sutravrt Mandana's Vastusastra Sri Vijayadharma, Jaina Mandir, Agra. Folio 5, No. 3178 Folio 14. 11" x 54". (C) Vastu-sastra by Mandana, No. 3177 Folio 14. 730x5". 7. Mandira-Pratistha Vidhana MSS. No. 6 Jaina S. Bhavan, Arrah. 8. MSS, No. 1351, Harmsavijaya, Jaina Collection, Jiana Mandir, Baroda. Vastu-Sastra, Bimba parimana-Guna dosalaksama caturvirnlati Jina Yaksa Yaksini vicara by Vidyadhara.

Page #36
( xxxiv ) 9. Nirvana Kalika, AISS. JHana Alandir, Agra folio, No. 2141, 11"x5t. Beginning:-oM namo viitraagaay| varddhamAnaM jina natvA samuddhatya jinAgamAt nityakarma tathA dIkSAM pratiSThAM ca pracakSmahe / pratiSThApaddhatizcaSAM zrImatpAdaliptasUrINAM bhavyAnAma pakArAya spaSTArthA vyaakhyte'dhunaa| Colophon:--atha prazastiH / zrIvidyAdharavaMzabhUSaNamaNiH prakhyAtanAmA bhuvi zrImastaMgamasiha ityadhipatiH zvetAmbarANAmabhRt zipyastasya babhUva maNDanagaNioM vAcanAyAM cayiH / 10. Devapaja MSS. Jaina Siddhantabhavana, Arrah. 11. Catuhsasti Yogini Namani, MSS. Ramghat Jaina Col lection. 12. (Catuhsasthi Yogini) MSS. No. 396 Hansa Vijaya Collection, Juana Mandir, Baroda.

Page #37
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FRONTISPIECE Plate Plate Plate III Plate IV Caturvimsatipatta of Rsabhanatha gifted by Saranika, Caulukya, c.860. A.D., Akota, Gujarat, Baroda . Museum. Torso of a naked Jaina Tirtharikara, Maurya, 3rd century B.C., Lohanipur, Patna, Bihar, Patna Museum. Ayagapatia, Kusana, 1st century A.D., Karkali pila, Mathura, U.P., State Museum, Lucknow. Ayagapatla, Kusana, 2nd century A.D., Mathura, U.P., State Museum, Lucknow. Rsabhanatha, Gahadavala, 12th century A.D., Mahet, Gonda, Ullar Pradesh. Rsabhanatha, Cedi, 11th century A.D., Tripuri, Madhya Pradesh, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Ajitanatha, Cedi, 10th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum. Sambhavanatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Abhinandananatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Sumatinatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Plate v Plate VI Plate VII Plate VIII Plate IX

Page #38
Plate X Plate XI Plate XII Plate XIII Plate XIV Plate XV ( xxxvi) Padmaprabha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Suparsvanatha, Cedi, 10th-11th century A.D., Tripuri, Madhya Pradesh. Suparsvanatha, Rastrakuta, 9th-10th century A.D., Katoli, Canda, Maharashtra, Nagpur Museum. Candraprabha, Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Suvidhinatha (or Puspadanta), 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Sitalanatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Srcyarnsanatha, Cedi, 10th-11th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum. Vasupujya, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Vimalanatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Anantanatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Dharmanatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Santinatha, 10th century A.D., Rajnapur-Kinkini, Akola, Maharashtra. Plate XVI Plate XVII Plate XVIII Plate XIX Plate XX Plate XXI

Page #39
xxxvii ) Plate XXII Plate XXIII Plate XXIV Plate XXV Plate XXVI Plate XXVII Kunthanatha, Tomara, 15th-16th century A.D., Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh. Aranatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Mallinatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Munisuvrata, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Naminatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Neininatha, Cauhan, 12th century A.D., Narhad, Pilani, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi. Parsvanatha attacked by Kamatha, Vardhana, 7th century A.D., Bihar, Indian Muscum, Calcutta Mahavira, Cedi, 10th-14th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum. Isvara Yaksa, Candella, c. 10th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, (Author's collection). Kubera, Pratihara, 8th century A.D., Bansi, Rajasthan, Udaipur Museum. Ksetrapala, Pratihara, 10th century A.D., Candapur, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Plate XXVIII Plate XXIX Plate XXX Plate XXXI Plate XXXII

Page #40
Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate XXXIII Plate XXXIV Plate XXXV Plate XXXVIII XXXVI XXXVII Plate XL XXXIX XLI XLII XLIII ( xxxviii) Cakresvari, Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Mahamanasi, Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Rohini, Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Ambika, Candella, c. 11th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Gomedha and Ambika, Cardella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Dharmendra and Padmavati, Ca della, 10th-11th century A.D., Santinata temple, Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh. Nirvanidevi, Candella, c. 10th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, (Author's collection). Sarasvati, Kusana, 2nd century A.D., Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, State Museum, Lucknow. Srutadevi (Sarasvati), Candella, c. 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Sarasvati, Cauhan, 12th century A.D., Pallu, Bikaner, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi. Savatolhadra-pratima (Caumul ha sculpture), Pratihara, c.10th century A.D., Jaghina, Rajasthan, State Museum, Bharatpur.

Page #41
xxxix Plate XLIV Plate XLV Plate XLVI Plate XLVII Ajitanatha Ajitadevi Sambhavanatha Duritari or Prajnapti, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri Caves, Puri, Orissa. 1. Abhinandana 2. Sreyainsanatla 3. Not identifiable 4. Gauri or Manavi 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri Caves, Puri, Orissa. 1. Parsvanatha, 2. Neminatha, 3. Padmavati, 4. Ambika, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri Caves, Puri, Orissa. Bahubali, Cedi, 9th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh. Jivantasyaini, Caulan, 12th century A.D., Khinvasar, Rajasthan, Sardar Museum, Jodhpur. Cakravarti Bharala, Candella, c. 11th cent. A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Ucar Pradesh. Navagrahas, Candella, 10th century A.D., Dcogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Nandisvara-dvipa, c. 14th century A.D., Ranakapur, Rajasthan. Samavasarana, c. 19th century A.D. Pataudi Ka Mandir, Jaipur, Rajasthan. The Weapons of Jaina Deities. Platc XLVIII Platc XLIX Plate Plate LI Plate LII Plate LIII

Page #42
( x1 ) The Photographs have been published through the courtesy of the following: Plate I-Dr. B. N. Sharma, New Delhi; XXIV, XXXVIII, XLIX-LII-Sri Niraj Jaina, Satna; XXX, XXXIX and LIII-author; XXVII and XLII-National Museum, New Delhi and Frontispiece and remaining Plates--Archaeological Survey of India. COVER Lord Mahavira, Kusana, c. 2nd century A.D., Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. Courtesy: Sri Niraj Jain, Satna.

Page #43
INTRODUCTION In the vast domain of Indian art, the Jaina Iconography, unfortunately, signalizes a great blank. Except a few useful contributions by the late Dr. Burgess and Prof. D.R. Bhandarkar, the subject, as a whole, is left practically unexplored. There is as inuch truth in the fact that the great majority of the Brahmanic sculptures of ancient dates are unrecognised by the ordinary Hindu Public as there is in the case of old Jaina images, which dely accurate identification even by an orthodox Jaina. The cause is, however, not far to seck. Time and evolution of custom 11.1ve cut short the claborale Jaina Pantheon, economising iininensely the details of its ancient statuary. In consequence, in no Jaina temple of modern times, one can easily notice, the important entourage of the Tirthaikaras, less probably, onc would expect there to meet with all the canonically fashioned deities of Jainisin. On the contrary side, however, uptodate exploration at the ancient Jaina sites has rendered abundant possibilities to students of history and the Jaina world to see with a new vision nearly a full number of representative Jaina images. Hence, the need arises to collect informations, literary and archaeological, which would systematise our present knowledge of the Jaina Iconography. As we, thus, proceed with the same subject in hand, we would, at the outset, offer a preliminary treatincnt of the Jaina rcligion and philosophy in its most characteristic form. Fundamentals of Jaina Religion This Religion may be described, in its very clemental features, as an Arya or Indian Sectarian Religion.' Contentions arise and develop, when only it asserts its heresy against the orthodox Brahmanic Rcligion by rejecting the authority 1. "The Jaina Religion like Buddhism is held to have been originally an off-shoot froin Hinduism, and many Jainas still continue to consider themselves as members of the Hindu Community, will intermarry with Hindus and take part in their festivals." Census of India Vol. 1. Part I Rofort (Gorcrument Printins, 1924). Their total populatior is 178, 596.

Page #44
Jaina Iconography of the Vedas as apocryphal and corrupt. The Jainas substitute, however, the Vedic Scripture by their own Angas and Sutras. They, in their difference, never accept the Hindu Sraddha or funeral rites nor do they venerate Hindu sacred places which they replace by their own having rites specially attached to them. A further point of their protest against Aryan orthodoxy is the exclusion of all but the twiceborn (Dvija) from the monastic fraternities, an attitude which ultimately brought into world this independent sect with an established rank of its own. Mainly, the two characteristic features, which should clearly mark out Jainism from all other religious systems are firstly, the extremity of tenderness shown towards all animal life, the tenet being called Ahimsa and secondly, the Saint-worship in which they assign to the Tirthankaras, a station even superior to that of the gods. 2 In certain respects, on the other hand, the Jainas meet the orthodox Hindus on a common ground. For instance, they admit the institution of caste, observe the essential ceremonies, called the Samskaras and instal amidst their pantheon, a number of male and female deities of Brahmanism. Further, the Jainas, in many cases, employ the Brahmana Pujakas (Religious officiants) in their sanctuarics and some of their class freely intermarry with the Hindu Vaisyas. In points of heterodoxy against Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism probably stand on a common platform. But despite their outward similarity, which led the late Mr. Hunter to remark on Jainism as "a religion allied in doctrine to ancient Buddhism but humanised by Saint-worship", both religions have certain doctrinal distinctions of leading importance. The conception of Nirvana in Buddhism differs essentially from the Moksa view of the Jainas. With the Buddhists, to be clearer, its proposed meaning is extinction whereas with the Jainas it has a positive significance implying absolute purity and freedom from the snares of Karma.' In Metaphysics, Jainism recognises a pluralistic realism and is more akin to the Nyaya-Vaiscsika 1. karmapAzavinirmukta: also kRtsnakarmakSayo mokSa: Tattrarthadhigama Sutra (Asiatic Society, Bengal), p. 10.3.

Page #45
Introduction theory than to the Samkhya system, while Buddhism with its doctrine of Universal void inclines naturally to the inonism of Sarikaracarya. In the idea of Thimsa (non-killing, non-injury), Loo, both the religious systems do not appear to be in perfect accord. The Buddhist idea of Ahimsa is rather positive and huinble as consisting in showing mercy (Metta) to all living creatures of the world. The Jainas on the other hand, have carried the idea of Ahimsa to probably an excessive limit, for instance, in the utter abstention from hurting a living molecule and in the refusal to take as food even a dcad creature's body. A further point of difference between the two religions is the fact that Jainisin lays special stress on the rigour of asceticism which, Buddhism, however, has sternly avoided as an extreme (Anta). Like all religions, Jainism has three main sides, philosophical, ethical and ritualistic. In philosophy, it is partially aiheistic (deistic ?) denying the existence of a supreme Being as crcator but essentially pluralistic as mentioned before. The Jainas hold the theory that thc world exists from cternity. It consists of Loka and Aloka.2 There are two ultimate substances (Dravyas)3 in this world,- Jiva (Alive) and Ajiva (Not Alive). An inhabitant even of the highest heaven cannot obtain Moksa (liberation) in the ordinary course. For becoming a Jina or Arhat, hc nceds to be born as a man. The Ajiva Draryas are of five kinds: Pudgala (matter or the physical basis of the world), Dharma (the principle of motion), Adharma (the fulcrum of rest), Akasa (space), Kala (Time).4 With Jiva, these make up the six first categories of Jaina Philosophy. 1. Colebrooke's hypothesis of the identity of Jainism and Samkhya has been ably refuted by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in his Indian Philosophy Vol. 1, pp. 202-293 (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.).. "Lokakasa is that in which Dharma, Adharma, kala, Pudgala and Jira exist. That which is beyond is called Alokakasa-Dravya Simgraha, p. :8 (Sacred Books of the Jainas). Substance may be defined as that which persists in and through its own qualities and changes having the characteristics of creation, des truction and permanence (cf. dravyAthikanaya and paryAyAthikanaya). 4. Soulfur (V.1.) 37517919 feAffityanat: (V.1.) 9197 (V.3.) i Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, Cf. 3711at got 1317 WEFAT ETA 2017 kAlo puggalamutto ruvAdiguNo amuttisesAdu / / Drarya Samgraha 15 (S.B.J.).

Page #46
Jaina Iconography The remark by Prof. Jacobi as follows in general review of the Jaina Metaphysics is worth consideration. (i) The animistic belief of the Jainas, (ii) the absence of the category of quality in their enumeration of the principal constituent elements of the universe, (iii) thc inclusion of Dharma and Adharma in the class of substances. The Jainas hold, moreover, that the body, Manas and speech are constituted of Pudgala, which they regard as existing in atomic and aggregate form. One of the central features of Jaina Mctaphysics is their group of seven Tattvas or Principles underlying which stand their doctrines of Karma and Samsara. The principles are (1) Jiva (soul), (2) Ajiva (non-soul), (3) Asrava (influx of karmic matter into soul), (4) Bandha (Bondage), (5) Samvara (stoppage of the inflow of fresh matter), (6) Nirjara (removal of any past karma), (7) Moksa (absolute liberation). If, to this series two more principles of Punya or mcrit and Papa or demerit are added, thc collection is to be known as the nine Padarthas. This aspect of Metaphysics describes the stages upon the way to salvation. Moksa is in fact the liberation of Jiva from Ajiva. Jiva is entangled by Karmas and Karmic matter throughout all his births and overmore fresh Karmas are pouring in. It is Karma, which brings on the Asrava, 3 which for the first time taints the pure soul. Thus, with the inflow of matter, there is it kind of fusion of soul and matter. This binding of the soul to the body is Bandha, which is not to the advantage of the former. Hence accrue Paba (dcmerit) and Punya (mcrit) in consequence of which, the Jiva revolves in the circle of births and deaths (Samsara). The only step towards Moksa or final release can be attained by stopping the "inslux" (Sariwara)* and by ridding the soul of matier (Nirjara). This is, however, affected by practising the thirty-five ordinary 1. 00197 Tatar TrafATTTTTTTTTTTTI Tutt'artha Sutra 1.4. 2. jIvAjIvAbhAvA puNNaM pAvaM ca AsatraM tesi / Tafuust Tart Het Jagfra a ET II Pancastikaya 103. Cf. Drarra-sumgraha (Ed. by S. Ghosal) 28 Sloka. 9. FR54T: FH-TTT: 11 Talliartalhigama Sulra, 6. 1. (Asiatic Society's Edition, p. 139). 4. TTTTT: FTT: || Ibid. (Asiatic Society's Edition).

Page #47
Introduction rules of conduct, self-control, twelve special rules of conduct and concentration. Thus, when the soul is completely purged of all impurities of Karma past and new, the Jiva in all his real refulgence, power, bliss and knowledge, obtains Moksa.1 The Jainas have certain original theories of knowledge, which form an important element of their philosophy and religion. According to them, Philosophy consists in the voluntary and consistent striving, intellectual and moral, manifest in the removal of Karmic impediments (1), on the way to samyak Jnana (i.c. Right knowledge of the doctrine), (2) Samyak DarSana (i.c. Right faith in the true doctrine)2 (3) Samyak Caritra (i.e. strict observance of Jaina precepts). These are called Triratna or three Jewels as means to attaining Moksa. Of these knowledge is divided into five kinds (1) Mati-Perceptual and inferential knowledge, (2) Sruta -knowledge derived from the reading and hearing of the scriptural books, (3) Avadhi---direct knowledge of things even at a distance of time and space, (4) Manahparyaya-direct knowledge of the thoughts of other people, (5) Kevala-Perfect, limitless knowledge or omniscience. 3 1. The Jaina Philosophy is again original in the doctrine of Syadvada or the seven modes of predication (Saptabhangi naya). "It is the doctrine of the non-isolation of the parts, elements, properties or aspects of things; it is the method of knowing or speaking of a thing synthetically".5 We can affirm the existence vandhahetvabhAvanirjarAbhyAM kRtsnakarmavipramokSo mokSaH // Tallvartha Sutra X 2. 5 Cr. jo saMvareNa jutto NijjaramANoca savvakammANi / vavagadakhedAusso muyadi bhavaM teNa so mokkho // Pancastikaya-samayasara Verse 158. 2. Adhyatma-Tattvaloka (tr. by M.J. Mehta), p. xxi. 3. Caritra has two kinds-one which is unaccompanied by desire (a), and the other accompanied by desire (1). The first leads to Moksa, the second to sovereign dignity. 4. Uttaradhyayana Sutra (Jaina Sutras tr. by H. Jacobi-S.B. E.) Cr. matizrutAvadhimana:paryaya kevalAni jJAnam / 5. Jainism by H. Warren, p. 20. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra (Sutra 9, ch. 1.)

Page #48
Jaina Iconography of a thing from one point of view--that of its material, place, time and naturel (Syad asti) and deny it from these attributes of another thing (Syad nasti). All affirmations are true as well as false in some sense (Spad asti nasti). A thing is unpredicable when we should affirm both existence and non-existence at the same time froin the same point of view (Syad avaktavya). From the point of view of its own quarternary and at the same time from the joint quarternary of itself and nothing, a thing is and is unpredicable (Syad asti avaklavya). Similarly a thing is not and unpredicable (Syad asti nasti avaklava).? Every proposition starts with a 'perhaps', a may be or a Syad and suggests the absolute affirmation or denial as impossible. What is mea eant in short by these seven modes are but different stand-points (Naya) of the position, form etc, from which the existence of every object can be regarded in order to have a full view of it. On the cthical side, certain scriptural injunctions bind the Monks and the Laity to a moral systein of a specialised character. The most important of them is the five-fold vow of the Jainas-viz. (i) non-injury, (ii) renunciation of lying, (iii) abstinence from theft, (iv) chastity, (v) detachment from all external and internal temptations.? No religion, as mentioned before, has carricd Ahiisa further i.e. respect for and abstinence from everything that has life. The most orthodox among the Jainas drink only carefully strained water, and their ascetics before they sit brush the ground before them with a broom of peacock's fcather or a cloth-brush Icst any visible animalcule be crushed. It is enjoined in their canonical books that a man should practise certain resignations of mind by thinking that nothing in the world really belongs to him, should abstain from all intoxicants, from gambling, from adultery, from hunting, from taking food at 1. FET, Fagan, Fae and #17 I 2. Scc Mallisena's Syadradamanjari, p. 169 ff.; for a clcar exposition of the doctrinc Vidc Prof. S. Radhakrishnan's Indian Philosophy Vol. 1, Pp. 302-304. 3. hiMsAnRtasteyAbrahmacaryaparigrahebhyo vira tivratam / Taltzartha-raja-Vartlika, Ch. Vii. I. (Sanatana Jaina Series). _cr. ahiMsAsavyAsteya brahmacaryAparigrahA yogaH // Yoga Sutras

Page #49
Introduction night, etc. All these summarisc the very norms of Jaina Ethics of which the details may be found in certain vows and the eleven Pratimas.1 Most of them share in character with the orthodox Hindu and Buddhist rules of lifc cxccpt probably the duties which prescribe a Sravaka to have faith in his own rcligion, to do Samayika (meditation during one Muhurta) and to keep certain fasts, to limit his indispensible necessities of life and to abandon part by part worldly occupations as a preparatory to the inonk's life. Another characteristic of the Jaina Religion is its constituent division of the Sravakas "hearers" or lay disciples and Yatis or Monks, who should hold no property and never quit their dwelling except to beg for food. The Yati's life is one of utter abstinence, taciturnity and continence. He has to sweep the ground before sitting, rein in silent and stcady at one place at night and not to ride any ve'ricle for travelling. He is allowed, in turn, to dispense with all a:ts of worship, whilst the Sravaka has to add to the ob ervance of the religious and moral duties the worship of the Tirthamkaras and a profound reverence 10 be shown to his more pious brethren. The secular Jain like the ascetic must practise the four virtucs, --libcrality, gentleness, picty and penance? : he should govern his mind, tongue and acts; abstain, at certain seasons, from salt, flower, green fruits, honcy, grapes, tobacco; drink water thrice strained, and never Icave a liquid uncovered lest an insect should be drowned in it; it is his duty also to visit daily a temple, where some of the images 1. -T5-1A1f97.--1911990.- afrTIT - faTTTTTTTT hAra-brahmacarya-ArambhatyAga---parigrahatyAga anamodana vrata--udiSTavrata SAHTI (1) 2017 (Faith). (2) Vow. (3) Samayika (one 1). (4) Furtnightly fast. (-) Abstinence from the flesh of conscious creatures. (6) Abstinence from cating at nigbt. (7) Abstinence. (8) Abandonment of nearly all worldly engagements & occupations. (9-11). qFTHECATT, 377 afacant, 3fEGZCITT- (a gradual giving up of the world and retirement). sattveSu maitrI gaNiSu pramodaM kliSTeSu jIveSu kRpAparatvam / mAdhyasthabhAvaM viparItavRttau sadA mamAtmA vidadhAtu devaH / / Samayika-Patha No. 1 by Amitagati.

Page #50
Introduction and some subordinate deities, the worship of the Siddha-calina, which is kept in a Jaina temple has found a firm hold on the Jaina devotce. The Digambaras and the Svetambaras The followers of Mahavira were originally called Nirgianthas (without a bond)? who latterly received the designation of "Jaina". Tradition and historical records assign to the wellknown division among them into the Svetambaras "putting on white clothes' and the Digambaras "Sky-robcd" or wearing no garment, the date of 79 A. D. This almost synchronizes with the time of the similar scctarian division among the Buddhists into the Mahayana and the Hinayana. The real origin of this division is to be looked for in the specific acceptance, which some people accorded to some of the doctrines of Mahavira or his predecessors while others followed the rest of his or their doctrines. The schism began as carly as the time of the First Council of Pataliputra at the end of the fourth century B. C. The visitation of a terrible famine in Magadha led some Jainas to migrate to the south under their leader Bhadrabahu about 315 B. C. They are said to have planted Jainism for the first time in the Deccan. Those who remained in the faminc-stricken land found a lcader in Sthulabhadra, who being anxious to preserve the Jaina scriptures summoned a Council at Pataliputra, which collected the Eleventh Anga and renewed the 12th moon of 3913- 15th of Fitfarti I T HAT means oft 775 FIAT AT T i.c. serving with a whole-hearted devotion. This is the religious session during the rains. micakrapUjA-.cclebrated in Azvina and caitra devAli-day of Mahavira's Nirrina. jJAnapaJcamI (kAttika 7487.), aipatu ends with this day. 1. Tatag fann fo 2: Fariga fo ..., 1.soka's Pillar Edict vii. Lexicographers like Hemacandra and the author of the Medini make nirgrantha synonymous with nagnaka (naked) digambara (sky-clad). 2. According to orthodox Digambara Jain tradition Bhadrabahu and his followers must have chosen such a place where there had been the Jaina laity to dwell with. Thus, the Deccan was an earlier seat of Jainism when we follow this view.

Page #51
Jaina Iconography Anga. At the end of the far.inc, Bhadrabahu returned with his followers. They refused to accept the work of the Council and sternly disapproved the custom of wearing clothes, which the followers of Sthulabhadra had already adopted. Thus, according to the Svetambaras, the Ja na Canon was fixed by the Council of Pataliputra towards the end of the 4th Cent. B. C., whereas the Digambara books as available sofar prove that their age cannot go back further than Vikrama Year 49 or B. C. 8. Regarding the origin of the Digambaras as a sect the Svetambaras ascribe it to Sivabhuti,1 who started the heretical sect of the 'Bhotikas' in A. D. 83. 10 The diverging doctrines of the two sects are in the main as follows: (a) The Svetambaras decorate the image of the Tirthamkaras with earrings, necklaces, armlets, and tiaras of gold and jewels, the Digambaras leave their images naked and unadorned. (b) The Svetambaras assert that there are 12 heavens and 64 Indras; the Digambaras maintain that there are 16 heavens, and 100 olympian monarchs. (c) The Svetambaras allow their gurus to eat out of vessels, the Digambaras receive the food in their open hands from their disciples. (d) The Svetambaras consider the accompaniments of the wooden pots for bringing food etc. as alms etc., as essential to the character of an ascetic, the Digambaras do not admit their importance. (e) The Svetambaras credit the Angas or Scriptures to be the work of the immediate disciples of the Tirthankaras, the Digambaras, on the other hand, maintain that the leading authoritics of the Jaina Religion are the composition of subsequent teachers or Acaryas, their original Angas being lost. (f) The Digambaras hold that salvation is not possible for a woman, although they have the order of nuns as well. The Svetambaras have not, however, such a view. (g) The Omniscient Being or a Kevalajnani lives without food according to the Digambaras, who strongly maintain that a monk should not have anything, even clothes. The 1. The story of Sivabhuti is given in Mrs. Stevenson's Heart of Jainism, p. 79

Page #52
Introduction 11 Svetambaras hold contrary opinions on these points. In Puja, the Svetambaras use flowers, sweets etc., the Digambaras substitute them for dry rice, spices etc. The former in contradictum to the latter regard Mallinatha as a female Tirthamkara. In comparatively modern times during the Mahommedan rule, new sects such as the Lunkas (452 A. D.) and Sthanakavasis or Dhundias (1653 A. D.) arose. The chief distinction resting with them is their absolute opposition to image worship. Who are the Tirtharkaras ? Several definitions of a Tirthaikara or Tirthakara are to be met with in both Svetambara and Digambara literatures, but they all converge upon the same purport that a Tirthamkara means a prophet. Let us look into some of the literary definitions as found in their books. "A Tirtharkara is hie by whom was shown the broad fording-place of virtue, the best of all reaching which men overcome sorrow."1 "Tirtha" means here Dharma or religious system, "one who expounds Dharma"2 or according to another version, "Tirtham" or "Dharma" by which this Ocean of Sansara or transmigration can be crossed.? According to Svetambara view, "Tirtham" means a "Samgha" or 'Church' and a Tirthakara is one who founds the Church or Coininunity. This "Tirtha' or 'order' is not one but four in number-viz, (i) Sadhu or Monk, (ii) Sadhvi or nun, (iii), Sravaka or lay brother and (iv) Sravaka or lay-sister. Thus, everything analogises to what we know by an advent of God or Prophet or deificd saint. As in all religions, the Jaina Tirthamkaras were no more than deified herocs, born of human parents, 1. yena praNItaM pRthudharmatIrtha jyeSThaM janAH prApya jayanti duHkham / Brhutsvayambhu-stotra o, by Samantabhadra. 2. tIrtha dharma karoti prakaTayati iti tiirthkrH| svatIrthAnAmAdikartAraH frizer: 1 A0 cu0 adhyaya II 3. alea 27 i Cf. arfer ta uhtThrafuferater naar agoufereafirdeva saGghastIrthaM tatkaraNazIlatvAttIrthakarAH / Blagavati Sutra, I. I 30.

Page #53
12 J aina Iconography raised to the position of God by their renunciation and great services to religion for the deliverance of mankind. Another name of the Tirthamkara is Jina or conqueror from which the religion has been named as 'Jaina'. The word "Jina" has the technical sense of one who conquers the enemies such as, lust, anger, etc".2 These "Jinas" are four-fold--viz, (i) Nama Jina or those who were Jinas boy name, e.g. Rsabha and others, (ii) Sthapana Jina or images which are installed and are made of gold, stone, etc., (iii) Dravya-Jina or those beings who are endowed with a Jina's quality, e. g. Srenika, (iv) Bhava Jina or those who have attained the Samavasarana.3 The Jaina literatures of both the sccts furnish the names and detailed history relating to 24 Tirthaikaras. From the early references to the name of Rsabhanatha, the doctrine of Arhat, Nirgrantha and the Syudvada in the Hindu and Buddhist books, there is nothing seemingly very incredible about the early authenticity of the Jaina incarnations. It is also a curious coincidence that the number 24 rescmbles exactly the number of 24 Bralmanic Incarnations of Visnu according to some accounts. In all likelihood, the carly Hindu number of 10 Avataras might lave been also numerically strengthened under the Jaina or the Buddhist influence in later times. Of the 24 Tirthaikaras, the most favourite ones among the Jainas are the first and the three last oncs but temples as well as images of the remaining ones are also met with in many parts of India. Almost all the Tirtharkaras have been the subjects of many Carita books and Purana books in Jaina Literature cither in an associated account or in a scparate account. For instance, we have the Adipurana about the life of Rsabha, Uttara purana about the lives of the other Jainas, Bhavadeva Suri's Pariranathacarila, Sakalakirti's Sanlinatha Caritra, Vijayagani's Aris!a1. loyassujjoyayare sudhammatitthakare jiNe vande / arahante kittaise cauvIsaM ceva kevaliNo / Samayika-Palha. 2. jayati nirAkaroti rAgaDha pAdirUpAnarAtIniti jinaH / saM 2 sama0 3. nAmajiNA jiNanAmA ThavaNajiNA puNa jinnidpddimaano| davvajiNA jiNajIvA bhAvajiNA samavasaraNatthA / cr. Praracanasaroddhara, 49 art.

Page #54
Introduction nemicarita, Krsnadasa's Vimalanatha Purana, Brahmancmidatia's Neminatha Purana. No body can believe that such a number of books written with the avowed object of giving truth to the believers may have related only unhistorical fictitious bcings ! Making reasonable allowance for the glorification and exaggeration which cach religion attaches to its heroes, we have reason to place our credence in thc historical authenticity of the 24 Tirthaikaras. According to the Jaina notion, Tirthaikaras are superior 10 gods inasmuch as a Tirthamkara is approaching salvation whcrcas a God is merely a heavenly being subject to births and dcaths. This relative position is made inore conspicuous in the Jaina sculptures as we shall see later on, where the main figures of Tirthamkaras are worshipped or served by some surrounding gods, goddesses, and other heavenly beings as only their subordinates. Origin of Jaina Images. It is a time-honoured custom of India to instal images for the purposes of private and public worship. Neither the Buddhists nor the Jainas disregarded it and in fact, by assimilation completely developed a system of their own with a multitude of images with canonical and mythic details which we utilise today in our iconographical studies. With the Jainas, the images no doubt originated froin their Tirthainkaras. The governing idea of an image scems to be that it reminds a believer of the condition through which a Tirthamkara passed to attain salvation and that allords him a strong incentive to follow the noble example of the Tirtharkara in life. This applies to all image or relic worship. The insluence left behind by the Jinas after their deaths lingered on for sometime. And soon, devotees found it necessary to preserve the glorious memory of thicir prophets by setting up their statues principally in the sacred places associated with their lives. The literature belonging to them also supplies a clue to this point. Jacobi writes, "Lives of the Jinas were probably not intended for biographical treatises, but served a liturgical purpose, for when the images of the Tirthamkaras are worshipped in the temples they are adressed with hymns, one of which sums up the halfanakas or auspicious moments. It is with thesc Kalyanakas that the lives of the finas

Page #55
14 Jaina Iconography are chiefly concerned, and this fact seems to prove that the custom of mentioning the k'alyanakas in the worship of the Tirthamkaras is a very old one; for otherwise it would be impossible to conceive what could have induced an author to treat so largely of so barren a subject as has been donc in thc Kalpasutra".! Besides the images of Tirtharkaras, the images of other gods and goddesses, though subordinate in type, play not a small part in Jaina Iconography. A closer study of the subject discloses the unmistakable fact how many of the Brahmanic divinities were silently assimilated into the Jaina Pantheon. Undoubtedly, there was a need for them. Human mind ever seeks ideals realised into forms. Ideas of auspiciousness, prosperity, wealth, kingly splendour or so on found a direct outlet in the sculptor's art-in the images of Ganesa, Sri , Kubera, Indra. The long-standing traditions and well-established images of thcsc gods in Brahmanism directly appealed to the Jainas as they might have appealed to the Buddhists. Thus, they unconventionally welcomed them and admitted into their worship many of them as they connected with the tales of their saints. Jaina Temple-worship The integral part of the Jaina worship is performed in their temples. In this way, their temple may be said to be their repository of Dharma. In Brahmanic religion, though temple is visited on Occasions and pilgrimages, most injunctions of religion, however, such as the Trisandhya or the 3 prayers, the Gurupaja, Siva-Puja, Sraddha, Tarpana, Vrata-Puja, the Devi-Pujas and the l'ajnas are followcd in practice in individual homes. In this respect, the Jaina Religion marks a great contrast to Brahmanic religion. The Jainas in optional cases keep an image in their houses, do not undergo the special ritualistic formalism in their private worship. The temples are their churches, where besides the daily worship of the images by the religious officiants, religious books are kept, the Aratis or waving rites are attended largely by men, women and boys with sincere faith and devotion. There are occasions 1. Jaina Sutras (S.B.E.) by Jacobi, Part I. Introduction Lii.

Page #56
Introduction 15 when the images are specially decorated, the Samavasarana is arranged, readings from the scriptures are given by Brahmacaris, Yatis and Suris. In many other respects, the Jaina temple worship bears a close resemblance to Brahmanic customs. The images go through the same process of canonical installation, daily worship, ceremonious worship, occasional processions, decorations and Arati. Almost in the same way as that of the Brahmans, the Deities are offered rice, water and Naivedya. There are bells, drums, chowries and no foreigner, unless he is told, will find any appreciable distinction between a strictly Brahmanic temple and a Jaina one. In temple worship, the Digambaras and the Svetambaras differ in some important heiratic points. For instance, "The Digambaras bathe the images with abundance of water but Svetambaras usc very little. The Digambaras may bathe and worship their images during the night, but the Svetambaras do not even light lamps in their temples, much less do they bathe or worship the images lest in so doing they might thereby kill, or indirectly cause the death of any living thing, for to do so during the night they regard as a great sin. The Digambaras wash their images with Pancamrta but the others do not". Classes of Jaina Gods and Goddesses Classification arose among the Jaina divinities as soon as their number grew enormously, parily to systematise their pantheon and partly to lend facilities to the sacerdotal worship. The deities have been looked at from specific view-points and this has led to various classifications. Some of the gods and goddesses have been worshipped by Svetambaras, which have not bcen acknowledged by the Digambaras and similarly, some of the Digambara deities are nearly unknown to the Svetarnbaras. There are variants in certain names in both the sects. In an early text of Jaina Religion called the Acura Dinakara, we find, goddesses have been divided into three classes-viz. (1) Prasada Devis or installed images (2) Kuladevis or Tantrik Goddesses worshipped according to mantras from preceptors. (3) Sampra 1. Burgess. Ind. Ant. 1903, p. 459 ff.

Page #57
Jaina Iconography 16 diya Devis or class-goddesses. The author describes the goddesses as on dais, on field, installed in a cave or in a palatial temple, cither as a symbol as self-created or created by man, sectarian goddesses such as Amba, Sarasvati, Tripura, Tara etc., Kuladevis such as Chandi, Kanthe vari, Vyaghrariji etc. This, indeed, is a more exhaustive classification of gods and goddesses. From this as well as from other references to Jaina books, it is clear that a grcat many Tantric goddesses have found a room in the Jaina Pantheon. We come across the names of Goddesses of clearly Tantrik nature such as Kaiikili, Kali, Mahakali, Camunda, Jvalamukhi, Kamakhya, Kapalini, Bhadrakali, Durgii, Lalita, Gauri, Sumangala, Rohini, Sulakata, Tripura Kurukulla, Candravati, Yamaghanta, Krantimukha etc.2 In a Mss. of the Jaina collection of Jnana Mandir in Baroda, I found a passage which gives a further list of Tantric Goddesses -- suchas--Ganesvari, Pretaksi, Sanikhini, Kali, Kalaratri, Vaitali, Bhutalamnari, Malakali, Virupaksi, Candi, Varahi, Karikali, Bhuvanc: vari, Yanmaditi, etc. called Catussasli Troginis or 64 Yoginis. This predominent Tantrik element in Iconography seems to be represented by the Svetambara sect, who like the Mahayana Buddhists, developed by assimilation and invention, ...tatra devyastridhA-- prAsAdadevyaH saMpradAyadevyaH kuladevyazca / prAsAdadevyaH pIThopapITheSu kSetropakSetreSu guhAsthitA bhUmisthitAH prAsAdasthitA liGgarUpA vA svayambhUtarUpA vA manuSyanimitarUpA vA / sampradAyadevyaH ambAsarasvatItripurAtArAprabhRtayo gurUpadiSTamantropAsanIyAH / kuladevyaH caNDI cAmuNDA kaNThezvarI sarIsatyakA (?) suzayanA vyAghrarAjIprabhRtayaH / Pralisthu-l'idh:. Activarlinakara. * kaGkAlyai namaH / karAlyai namaH / kAlyai namaH / mahAkAlyai namaH / cAmaNDAyai namaH / bhadrakAlyai namaH / durgAyai nmH| ambikAyai namaH / lalitAyai namaH / kurukullAyai nama: / Ibid. The first nanie kaikili opens the cluc how a great number of Jaina sculptures were exposed to view from the same named Karikali pila at Mathura.. padmAvatyai nama: / divyayogI mahAyogI siddhiyogI gnneshvrii| pretAkSI zaGginI kAlI kAlarAtrI nizAcarI / / proGkArI siddhavaitAlI 'catuHpaSTi: samAkhyAtA yoginyo hi varapradAH / /

Page #58
Introduction 17 a tantrik system of their own. The carlicr classification divides the gods into 4 classes viz. Jyotisi, Vimanavasi, Bhavanapati and Vyantara of the Bhavanavasi class, there are 10 subdivisions-the Asura-, Naga-, Vidyut-, Suparna-, Agni-, Dvipa-, Udadhi-, Dikvata and Ghanika-Kumaras. Of the 4th named division, there are 8 kinds --- Pisacas, Bhutas, Raksasas, Yaksas, Kinnaris, Kipurusas, Mahoragas, and Gandharvas. The 9 planets, the Naksatras, the Stars belong to the region of the Jyotiskas. The Vaimanika gods are of 2 kinds : those born in the halpas and those born above the halpas. The former category of divinjtics falls into twelve classes, who live in the halpas after which they are named : Sudharma, Isana, Sanat Kumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Lantaka, Sukra (or Maha Sukra) Salasara, Anata, Pranala, Arana and Acyuta.' In the Anullaravimana, there are 5 places, cach with a god called Indra to rule over it, viz. Vijaya, Vijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvartha Siddha." There is a class of gods called Navavidhana gods such as, Naisarpa, Panduka, Pingala, Sarvaralna, Mahapadma, Kala, Mahabala, Manava, and Samkha. The Viradevas may be cnumerated as Manabhadra, Purnabhadra, Kapila and Pingala. Out of this long list of divinities, those who actually appear in iconography scem to be the 9 planets under the category of Jyotisigods, the Dikpalas or guardians of the quarters under the hcad of a Bhavanavasi Yaksas or attendants of the Tirthamkaras under the class of 'yantara-gods, Isana, Brahma under the class of Vimanavasi Gods. Besides these, there are divinities recognised and worshipped by the Jainas, who would not come under any of the above-mentioned categories. For instance, we may mention, the name of the 16 Sruta or Vidyadevis, the Astamatnkas such as Brahmani,Mahes vari etc., the mothers of the I. Ultaradhyayana Sutra Ch.. 36. Keith: Indian Mythology, the Mythology of the Jainas. Cl. classification and description of gods. Jaina Sutras (S.B.E.), pp. 225-9,381. 2. Mrs. Stevenson: Heart of Jainism, p. 970. These last but four names are identical with the gods mentioned in thc Arthusastra. Cr. p. 61. (Mysore Oriental Series). 3. rohiNI prajJaptirvajrazRGkhalA kulizAGkuzA / cakrezvarI naradattA kAlyathAsau mahAparA //

Page #59
Jaina Iconography Tirthamkaras such as Marudevi, Vijaya etc., Ksetrapala, the Bhairavas, the Sri or Laksmi Devi. And if we cannot establish the correspondence between the so-called "Kumaras" and the Dikpalas or as they are further called Vastu-Devas, they may come outside the category of the deities as dealt with before. It is to be noted here that most of these Gods and Goddesses borrowed right from the Brahmanic Pantheon are regarded by the Jainas as devoted adherents of the Tirthamkaras and thus they consider them to be deities of their system and accordingly perform certain Pujas in honour of them profusely referred to in their ritualistic literature. 18 The main characteristics of Jaina Images The sculpture devoted to religion follows the art tradition of a particular sect. That art-tradition specially in India known for its symbolism, has a mixed growth of ritualism and art forms. The artist was under the religious necessity of carrying out the canonical injunctions in art but his duty was not over there, for he had to make a compromise between symbolism and beauty, the latter clement being demanded from him by the same formalism of religion. Hence, we find, in most images of India, a number of mystical symbols now calling for explanation, side by side with the representation of a true art, exquisite in quality and impressive in form. Such an art had a religious mission to serve: an ugly figure could never gratify a devotee's mind and his thirst for the infinite through a visible form. Hence, all native books on art declare unanimously that the form must be excellent: But this decree was fully satisfied when sculptors of genius were close to hand. Contrarily, ugly figures came out 1. gaurI gAndhArI sarvAstramahAjvAlA ca mAnavI / vairoTyacyutA mAnasI mahAmAnasiketi tAH / / vAg brAhmI bhAratI gaurgIrvANI bhASA sarasvatI / zrutadevI vacanaM tu vyAhAro bhASitaM vacaH // Hemacandra's Abhidhanacintamani (Ed. by Otto Boetlingk, ST. Petersberg) bhAvarUpAnuviddhAGgaM kArayed bimbamarhataH / -Vastusara & Pratisthasara-Samgraha (MSS. N. 68. Jain collection, Jnana Mandir, Baroda)

Page #60
Introduction 19 as we some times find, mixed with good images, when the sculptor available happened to be a bad artist. Specific rules are given in Silpa or art manuals for making an image artistically perfect. Commonsense assures us that the authors of these manuals who made much minute rules of art-technique were not mere priests of temples or clerks of religion but were well-versed in the science of sculptural art. We are, however, more concerned here with symbolism and iconography than with art-techniques. Flow are we to distinguish Jaina images generally from other images of India ? As prominence is given to imagery of Tirthamkaras or pontists in Jaina Iconography, we must find the chicf characteristic of a Jina figure to settle this point. The distinguishing features of a Jaina figure are its long hanging arms, the Srivatsa symbol, the mild form, youthful body and nudity. Other characteristics of such images seem to be the main figure being attended on his right side by a Yaksa and on his left side by a Yaksini,3 the presence of the Asoka or the particular tree under which the Tirtharkaras attained the supreme knowledge, one of the tight Pratiharyas which consist of (i) heavenly tree, (ii) a throne 1. zeSasthAnavikalpeSu yathAzobhaM vikalpayet / paryaGkamapi tAvattu tiryagAyAmasaMsthitam // vAhuyugmAntaraM deze hrAsayeccaturagulam / prakoSThA kUrparaM yAvaddvayaGgulaM vardhayetsadA // kAyotsargasthitasyatallakSaNaM bhASitaM budhaiH / paryasthaparANyevam ... urdhvasthitasya mAnArddha mutsevaM parikalpayet / / Ibid. Such passages indicate the author's expert knowledge of the techniques of art. 2. AjAnulambabAhuH zrIvatsAGkaH prazAntamUrtizca / digvAsAstaruNo rUpavAMzca kAryo'rhatAM devaH // (Varahamihira's Bihatsarihita 58 Adhyaya, 45 Sloka) Cf. atha bimbaM jinendrasya kartavyaM lakSaNAnvitam / RjvAyatasusaMsthAnaM taruNAGgadigambaram / zrIvatsabhUSitoraskaM jAnuprAptakarAgrajam / nijAmulaM pramANena sASTAGgulazatAyatam / kakSAdiromahInAGga zmazruzeSavivarjitam / UrdhvapralambakaM datvA samAptyantaM ca dhArayet // Vasunandi's Pratistha-sura-samgraha (Jaina Sidd. Library 9 ir). 3. pragRhItasitavimalavaracAmarAgrahastobhayapArzvastha vividhamaNi * * * vikRtAbharaNAlaGakRta-yakSa-nAga-mithunAH / / Akalamkadeva's Tattrartha-Rajavarttika

Page #61
Jaina Iconography seat, (iii) Trilinear umbrella and a lion throne, (iv) Aura of a beautiful radiance, (v) Drum (Divya-dhvani), (vi) showers of celestial blossoms, (vii) 2 chowries, (viii) Heavenly music.1 All these symbols are seen in a complete image of a Tirthamkara. The Yaksa and Yaksini or Sas ana devatas (Lit. "governing dcitics') are to be noticed in the lowest corner of the whole statue. When thcy appear in individual sculpture, the keynote to recognise is the presence of a small Jina figure either at their hcad or at the top of the statue. Each Tirthamkara is recognisable by a cognizance or cihna usually placed below his image. Besides these, certain symbolic ornaments mark out a Jaina representation distinctly from others. These arc (i) Svastika (ii) mirror, (iii) urn, (iv) cane-scat shaped like an hour-glass (v) & (vi) 2 small fish, (vii) flower garland, (viii) book. To an untrained cyc, the image of a seatcd Tirtharkara may be easily mistaken for that of the Buddha. The symbolic marks as stated above may safe-guard one from such mishmash or misinterpretation. Among the Jinas, Rsabha, Nemi and Mahavira agree in the fact that they attain relcase when scated on the lotus-throne, while other Tirthaikaras pass away in the karotsarga posture (that of a man standing with his arms hanging stiff with the body). Centres of Jaina pilgrimage Tirthas or Holy shrines sprang up on the sites associated with the lives of the great Jaina Prophets. In fact, the Tirthamkaras made their Tirthas. The phenomenal incidents in Jaina Litt, are known as (a) Garbha or conception, (b) Janma or Birth, (c) Tapas or acc. to others Pariniskramana, (d) jnana or Enlighten 1. divyataru: surapuSpasuvRSTirdundubhirAsanayojanaghoSau / AtapavAraNacAmarayugme yasya vibhAti ca maNDalatejaH / / Jaina-santipatha. Cr. azokavRkSaH surapuppavaSTidivyadhvanizcAmaramAsanaJca / bhAmaNDalaM dundubhirAtapatraM sattAtihAryANi jinezvarANAm / / A verse quoted in D.R. Bhandarkar's Jaina Jonnograply. (Ind. Ant. 1911). The Heavenly Dundubhis consist of 5 musical instruments. See Appendix.

Page #62
223 Introduction Age of Image worship Orthodox Jainas seem to give very great antiquity to their religion,' but actual historical records do not go very far back beyond the age of Mahavira or utmost the age of Parsvanatha. Their early pontiffs may not be totally unhistorical beings; in fact, they lived, had a prominent career and left much of the greatness in carly Jaina Literature but sofar as tangible archacological documents are concerned, their lives only supply an unbroken chain of which the last two or three Tirthamkaras came into the historical period. The age of the whole body of the Jaina Litt. in the present form does not recede much further than the time of Mahavira, of the 6th century B.C. When did image-worship come into Jainism is rather difficult to say precisely but not impossible to determine in broad lines. Should we believe in recorded tradition of an inscription, we get an actual evidence to prove that images existed among the Jainas as early as the time of the Sisunaga or the Nanda kings i.c., some years after the birth of Mahavira. Mention is made in the Hathigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela of the recovery and reinstallation of an image of Sri Rsabha-Deva removed from the country about 300 years previously.2 It may not be quite discreditable for subsequent to the death of Parsva, his statues evidently began to be made and adored. Otherwise, how was it possible to preserve the tradition of his association with Dharanendra and Snakes except in art. By the time, Parava, and Mahavira flourished, Brahmanic art was in full swing and had a much carlier history of Iconolatry. In all likelihood, this was immediately taken up by the new founders and adherents of Jainism, who necessitated the aid of imageworship in their ritualistic phase of religion. Kautilya, the author of Arthasastra mentions the image of Jaina Gods viz., Jayanta, Vaijayanta, Aparajita etc., the existence would naturally go 1. ariSTanemiH svasti naH (yajurvede vaizvadevaRcI) ; rakSAriSTanemi svAhA ( vRhadAraNyake ); Rpabha eva bhagavAntrahmA (AraNyake ) ; sa nemirAjA (9,25) etc. are Vedic references 2. Hathigumpha Inscription, Vol. III., Pt. IV. pp. 461-467 from the Journal of the Bihar Orissa Society, 1. 12. The Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves are full of Jaina Images of very early date.

Page #63
24 Jaina Iconography to the 4th century B.C. Image is referred to in a passage in the Antagada Dasao thus, "there dwelt in those days....a gentleman named Nage in the city of Bhaddila pure, rich.... This gentleman Nagc had a wise named Sulasa. Of the lady Sulasa it was prophesied in her childhood ly a soothsayer that she should bear dead babes. Now Sulasa was from childhood a worshipper of the God Harinegamesi. She caused to be made an image of Harinegamesi and cvery morning she bathed..... Other references to images in Jaina Literature are : worship of prophets as gods by Jainas and Buddhas, cach Tirihaukara has his Vimana, temples and statues created to their prophets by Buddhists and Jainas.' Concrete archaeological finds have been discovered at Mathura, which prove beyond all doubts that temples of images were made as carly as 600 B.C. We have images of Aryavati, dated in the 42nd year of the Sarrap Sodasa, and "Ayagapata" with an inscription of which the character is in form anterior to the alphabet used by the Kushan Kings and may be consideratcly earlier than the Christian era." The Mathura inscriptions dealt with by Dr. Fuhrer show that there are dedicatious and offerings of a very ancient date made to Rsabhanatha. Lastly, we may mention the stupas erected in honour of the 7th Jina Supar vanatha, built about the 7th century B.C. Let me quote the late Mr. V.A. Smith, the most scrupulous historian on the point : "Assuming the ordinarily l'eccived date B.C. 527 for the death of Mahivira to be correct, thcattaiment of perfection by that saint may be placed about B.C. 550. The restoration of the stupa may be dated about 1300 years later or A.D. 750. Its original erection in brick in the time of Par 1. The Antagada-Dasao (Oriental Tran. Fund), p. 67. Further references to images - (a) "There he had a temple of thc Jina made and image of the holy Lord Santi set up in it" Kathakosa, Royal Asiatic Society's publication p. 210. (b). "Then the prince saw that Caitra, and an image of the cminent Rsabha". Ibid, p. 100. (c) "On the top of this mountain, there is......an image of the lord Nemi made out of a sapphire, Ibid p. 75. 2. Vide Jaina Sutras (S.B.E.) 22.xxi. 3. Ibid. pp. 190, 218, 19.5. 276. 4. 2. xxi. 5. Pl. xiv. The Jaina Stupa and other antiguities by V. A. Smith. 6. Ibid, Pl. xii.

Page #64
Introduction 25 svanatha, the prcdccessor of Mahavira would fall at a date not later than B.C. 600. Considering the significance of the phrase in the inscription "built by the Gods" as indicating that the building at about the beginning of the Christian era was bclicved to date from a period of mythical antiquity, the date B.C. 600 for its first erection is not too early. Probably therefore, this stupa of which Dr. Fuhrer exposcd the foundations, is the oldest known building in India".I 1. Ibid, Chapter II.

Page #65
CHAPTER I THE TIRTHANKARAS The traditional number the Jainas give for their Tirthamkaras is 24. The historicity of all these 24 Tirthamkaras cannot be proved for many reasons. First of all, the number is not an original one, it is canonically the same as given by the Buddhists and the Hindus for thcir respective incarnations. Either we must believe that the Hindu number is older copied by the Jainas and Buddhists for the sake of form or the number is purely conjectural and stercotyped which the thrcc religions adopted in order to keep some identity. The second objection to accrediting the number is the mythically high age, which the Jainas attribute to their Tirtharikaras. The period assigned, if we believe it, would cover many milleniums and exceed all anterior limits of the Vedic age in India. Nor can we prove the authenticity of all the carly Tirthamkaras from literary records of sccond millenium B. C., which do not belong to the Jainas. Some Jaina scholars quote from the Vedas some identical names of the Jinas, which to Vedic scholar would positively prove none but those of Vedic Rsis. Under the circumstances, it would be a scientific crror to suppose that the 24 Tirthamkaras lived and preached as the Jainas rcligiously believe and as their books written in the Buddhistic age record. It would be far more correct to say if we all have to put some belief in all the 24, that some of them had flourished side by side and others flourished in succession to one another. The first Tirthamkara Rsabhanatha about whom recorded traditions are so varied and old images (say of the Kushan agc) are so many that one finds it rather dislicult to disavow his historical existence. The intervening ages of thc Jainas are, of course, appalling and cannot be accepted as true. Whether real or ficticious, one fact is certain that these Tirthamkaras represent truly Jaina elements and their origin is not due to any extranuous influences. In this connection, it is to

Page #66
Tirthamakaras 27 be noted that while Buddhism formally admitting a number of Buddhas makes singularly prominent the Buddha or Gautama Buddha, the Jainas on the contrary render many of their Tirthamkaras appear in the forefront. A modern temple of the Jainas would show a gallery of images of many of their Tirthamkaras to whom equal respect is offered in their daily worship. In the Jaina pantheon, the Tirthamkaras have been given the highest position. Even the gods and goddesses many of whoin are borrowed beings from Hinduism come in subordinate order and have been regarded as ministering hands to the Jinas. In Hemacandra's, Abhidhana-Cintamani, the divinities have been classified under two classes :--The Devadideva or the higher gods and the Devas or ordinary gods. To the former class, hc has assigned the Tirthamkaras and the subordinate deities, who are almost purely of Jaina origin. In the minor class, we find other gods, who share their existence cqually with the Hindu pantheon. In Iconography, also, this idea of the relative superiority of the Jainas has manifested itself. In the carliest sculptures of Jainism, the Tirtharnkaras prominently occupy about the whole relief of the stone. Jainism is a living religion in India and the temples of the Jainas preserving the old tradition of image-worship to a considerable extent should give us many materials for Iconographiy. The images in a Jaina temple arc arranged in order of precedence. There is one Mula-niyaka, he may be either Rsablanatha, Suparsvanatha, Par vanatha or Malavira surrounded by other Jinas, who hold a less dignified position according as the teinple-cult is associated with him. This predominance of a particular Jina is due to the situation of the temple in a place sanctified by him. For instance, in the temple at Sarnath bclicved by the Jainas to be the Birth-place of Srcyamanatha, we find his image in the position of a mulanayaka. Other deities such as the Yaksa, Sasana-devata, Laksini, Ganesa play the part as subordinates to the Jinas and are found in their relative positions in a temple. Thus, we sec thc Tirtharkaras are the highest divinities in Jainism and they are believed to be absolutely free from desires (Ragas) while the other gods and goddesses possess desires and have their heavens of enjoyment. Here, the Jaina idcal of asceticism asserts itself and their stand-point

Page #67
Jaina Iconography in this respect is brought to bear upon their Iconography. The Jainas represent a high order of asceticism and other gods, according to the Jaina belief, cannot approach that order. In actual images, the Jinas are shewn as ascetics draped, sometimes naked in two Yogic postures of Padmasana or Kayotsarga. In general appearance, the image of Tirthankara resembles that of Daksina-murti of Siva. This resemblance is significant and it may be possible to infer that the Jaina imagery might have been borrowed from Siva's asceticism. There is also some resemblance between a Jina image and a Buddha image and a layman is very apt to mistake one for the other. What are the differences between the two, common to all idols? Jaina images of Tirthamkaras, whether new or old, must have a Srivatsa symbol on the chest of the figures, must have a trilinear umbrella above the figure and except the early Mathura statues, have a Lanchana or symbol which not only distinguishes them from other images but differentiates them from each other. The fact that the Jaina images of the Kushan period from Muttra do not bear the Lanchanas prove that in the earliest stage of Jaina Iconography, there had not been a practice of marking out a Jina figure with a distinctive symbol. Next, probably a confusion arose to distinguish a Jina figure from another having a stereotyped appearance. Thus images of the Gupta and subsequent periods have invariably a Lanchana and cannot be misapprchended. Although the Tirthankara images of the Kushana age bear no Lanchanas, in cases of the Parsva image, the Kushana artists have given a snake canopy behind the head of the figure and we are enabled to identify the Jina without any difficulty.1 In other cases, we are almost left in the dark as to the identification of the Jina represented unless inscriptions come to enlighten us with the actual names of the Jina.2 Of course, such inscriptions are only too limited in number. Thus, it may be repeated that the carliest Jina figures had no distinguishing Lanchanas. This conclusion does not probably imply that Larchanas were not known to the Jainas and to the Jaina artists. 28 I. Fig 2. plate OXC. V.A. Smith's "The Jaina Stupa and other antiquities of Mathura. 2. Image of Sambhavanatha the year 48, Epi. Ind. Vol. X. Plate III, P. 112.

Page #68
Tirthaskaras In fact, we find a large number of these distinctive symbols, to wit, a bull, ram, deer, Kraunca bird, clephant, dolphin. Syena bird, conch, lion, lotus, rhinoceros, buffalo, represented on rail-bars and coping stones discovered in Kankali pila of Mathura." The Kalpasutra, a very early text of the Jaina canon (date 300 B.C.) gives a list of all the 24 Lauchanas for the 24 Jinas, monumental evidences fail to show their early association with their master in sculplural art. In no sculpture of the Kushan age from Mathura the Tirthainkara figure is seen attended by either a Yaksa or a Yaksini. Curiously, however one example of a Yaksini named Ambika is to be noticed in a sculpture on the reverse of the Jina statue of the year 9 from Mathura. From the Gupta period onwards, we find the Jaina sculptors have regularly appended the Yaksa and Yaksini figures to the sculptures of the Tirthamkaras, 3 Thus, it may be concluded that the Lanchanas as well as the Yaksa figures might have remained as isolated and in a germinal state and their actual association with the Jaina images did not take place in the Kushan age of Jaina art. Another fcature of the Jina icon is the presence of Ganadharas just to the right and left of the main figure. Jaina texts specially of iconography mention them as attendants of a Tirthainkara. Such figures are represented as holding some Chowris, one of them might be shown with its hands clapsed in adoration. Though Yaksa figures are absent from the early Jina images of Mathura, Ganadhara figures are prominent by their presence in many of these images." A further feature of the Mathura Sculpture is that most of the Jina figures are shown completely naked. No conclusion, 1. Ibid, Plate LXXV, Figs 1, 3, 5, Plate LXXIV, Figs 2. 3. 4. 5, Plate LXXI, Figs. 2.7. Plate LXXX, Fig. 3. Plate LXXXI. Fig. I. 2. Jaina Fig. the year 9, back, II, 1, Ep. In. Vol. X. p. 104. 3. A pair of conches, deer or lion indicate nothing of this image with conches below the seat. Ancient image of Rsabhanatha from Kankali Tila, V.A. Smith's "Mathura stupa" plate XC VIII wrongly identificd for Neminatha. The Sasana-devata scen in this case is not Cakresvari with discs but Ambika with a child in her lap. 5. New Brahmi inscriptions of the Scythian period by R.D. Bancrji. Epi. Ind. Vol. X. Plate 1, p. 109.

Page #69
Jaina Iconography however, can be drawn from the images of the Scythian or Pre-Scythian period as to their origin either of the Digambara or Svetambara sect. The Svetambaras, on no ground, would allow their figures to be represented as such. The Mathura Jaina figures can neither be claimed by the Digambaras because we find the attendant Ganadharas both male and female in the sculptures are fully draped and decorated with ornaments, a custom which stands in opposition to their doctrine as they never permit any nun an admission into the ascetic order. Therefore, it can safely be concluded that the sectarian distinction relating to nudity or drapery did not, atleast in sculptures, originate as early as the Kushan period. The Gupta period showed a marked development in the iconographic characteristics of a Jina figure. Not only do we see in such images the particular Lanchanas incorporated but miniature figures of a Yaksa and Sasana devata invariably included.1 Other marks such as a trilinear umbrella, a drumplayer surmounting it, a pair of clephants on two sides of the umbrella and a Dharmacakra symbol attended by a pair of either bulls or deer form parts of a Jina sculpture. 30 All thesc Iconographic marks are prescribed for a Jina image in Jaina books on Pratistha (or installation of images) written about the late Gupta period. Of these marks, the Dharma-cakra symbol seems to be positively of carly growth. We find even in the Kushan Jina images the simple representation of a Dharma-cakra symbol. The addition of a pair of bulls or deer begins with figure of the Gupta period (Epi. ind. Vol. II. p. 210. Sculpture from Kosam) on both sides of the "Wheel of the Law". The bulls may have some mythological connexion with Rsabhanatha, whose symbol is a bull and who first turned the "Wheel of the Law" or in other words, founded the Jaina religion. A pair of antelopes facing the Dharmacakra, a device 1. "This image of a Jina, richly endowed with the embellishments of) the expanded hoods of a snake and an attendant female divinity, having the name Parsva"-Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions no. 61. Pl. XXXVIII, p. 258 ff. Cf. Jaina Cave at Badami. Arch: Surv. W. Ind. Vol. I, p. 25. 2. Vasunandi is the author of Pratisthasara. He flourished in 536, see Bhandarkar's Report published by the Jaina Svatantra Bhandara, Pavapuri.

Page #70
T'irlhamkaras 31 of later growth, must have been borrowed from the Buddhist Iconography. Some of these symbols viz. Dharma-cakra, Chowris, lion-seat, 3 umbrellas, an aureola, an Asoka trec have been enumerated among the 21 Atisayas or supernatural qualities of a Jina by Hcmacandra in his Abhidhanacintamani. The Jina sculptures of the Gupta and the later ages are found to be always marked with these well-known symbols. The Jaina religion places some of the Hindu deities in a subordinate category (under Devas and not Devadhidevas) and makes them waiting upon the Tirthanikaras. This fact is strikingly borne out by some of the Hindu sculptures of the Gupta pcriod. For instance, in the illustration of the so-called image of "Rsabha," Mathura series, Kankali sila, we can recognise in the two figures immcdiately to the right and left of the main figure, Balarama with a snake-canopy and a plough and Vasudeva with his usual attributes of conch, club (flute?), Vanamala and disc. As the Jina represented is undoubtedly Neminatha known from his Yaksa Gomedha and Sasanadcvata Ambika, this relation of Ksrna and Balarama, the Jina's cousins, is ingeniously brought into relies by the sculptor. The sculpturing of the pedestal of the Jina images underwent some changes in the Gupta period. In many instances, the pedestal of the Kushan age shews a large group of male and female devotees surrounding the Dharma-cakra surmounting a pilaster, The pedestals in the Gupta age as mentioned before, portray a pair of deer and the figures of the planets in a lower row. When we come to treat of thc race and families of the Jinas we find that history and mythology cannot be co-ordinated. The Jaina books inform us that twenty-two Tirthamkaras belonged to the Iksvaku race and the two, namcly, Munisuvrata and Nemi belonged to the Harivam a family. From the stercotyped character of the birth, renunciation and salvation of the Jainas, we are led to believe that their lives had been cast into the same mould. They showed no novclty or variety in their character. The 24 Tirthamkaras, as if, lcd a monotonous course of existence on carth. Although, however, their lives arc outwardly similar, there are in them a great many points of diffcrence which the Jaina mythology brings home to us. The names of the Jinas (explained by the commentators), their mothers'

Page #71
32 Jaina Iconography 16 dreams, Lancanas, Yaksas shew a widely varied character. It is, indeed, so difficult to separate truth from mythology in the critical treatment of their lives as they are presented in the Jaina Puranas. Some observations may safely be made regarding the genetic development of the mythological matter. The origin of the names is purely an accidental matter and there is hardly any room for believing in Hemacandra's much-laboured interpretation of the Jina names sometimes with reference to grammar, sometimes to a myth associated with their lives. For instance, he would explain the name Nemi as derived from the circumference (f) of the Dharmacakra, the name Parsva as derived from the fact that "he touches (Sprsati) all ideas by knowledge" or from the circumstance that his mother in her pregnancy, while lying, saw a black serpent crawling about. Hemacandra by similar method traces the origin of the name Rsabha of the first Jina from the myth that his mother before his birth saw in her 14 dreams a bull as the very first. The dreams of the Jina's mothers and the way in which a Jina is born descending from heaven bear a distant echo of Buddha's mother Maya's dream and her conception. All the mythological stories related in the Jaina Puranas seem to have been engrafted into the life of a Jina. For instance, the 14th Tirthamkara Mallinatha was made a woman by the Svetambaras. They tell a story in support of his female incarnation. It is related in Hemacandra's Mallinatha Carita, chap. 6. that Mallinatha in his previous birth while practising penances with other ascetics concealed some extra penances from them. As a result of this, he was born as a woman. The Digambaras, however, lay no credence to all this fanciful story of the Svetambaras, probably fabricated in order to show that women had equal rights with men to asceticism and salvation. From the enormous mass of mythological matter, we may draw out one or two facts which should claim our serious attention. The Lanchanas of some of the Jinas look like the totems of the families to which they belonged. For instance, the Iksvaku family of Ayodhya used bull as a vehicle. Hence, Rsabhanatha descending from the same famous royal family made a bull as his totem or Lanchana. 1. This point is elaborated in a Hindi article by Rai Krishna Das, Secretary, Nagari Pracarini Sabha, Benares.

Page #72
Tirtharkaras 33 Similarly, Munisuvrata's and Neminatha's respective symbols of tortoise and conch speak of their birth from the Hari family, whose connection with these Vaisnavite symbols are wellknown. JINAS IN AYAGAPATAS The Karikali Tila of Mathura yielded among other sculptures some Ayagapatas of very carly age. In 3 of them, we notice the Tirthamkara figure seated with hands laid in the lap. A feature of these representations is the inclusion of some of the Jaina Asgamangala symbols such as a pair of fish, a Svastika etc. in a serial row around the main figure. A head-dress and trace of a parasol are visible in the case of one Ayagapata (pl. VII, Smith's Mathura). There is hardly any mark or Lanchana by which we can recognise the particular Jinas figured in thcsc tablets of homage. One tablet, however, shows the figure of a Jina, which by its mark of snake-canopy we can identify as that of Parsvanatha. The representations of Jinas in these Ayagapatas of pre-Kushan age as may be proved from the script of the inscriptions on them appear to be the earliest in the stages of Jaina iconography. Thus, we can infer that in the first stage of iconic developmen! Jinas had no Lanchanas or distinctive marks, the Pari va figure had the invariable symbol of snake canopy and some of the Astamargalikas had been very primitive in their growth. The figures in this tablet of homage (VII, IX, X) as they belong to an age anterior to Kushan rule, are devoid of any mark of any classical influence and are purely of Indian origin. The conventional type of a Jina figure must have been derived from an Indian Yogi seated erect in meditation. The general appearance of Jina figures, their face, body is the same and with thc exception of their distinctive marks of Lauchanas they would be just regarded as representing only one Tirthariikara. VARIETIES OF JINAS OF THE KUSHAN SCHOOL The Tirthamkara images of the Kushan age may be divided

Page #73
34 Faina Iconograph into 3 varieties viz: first, in which the Jina figures form a part of a sculptured panel; second, in which the figures are represented as images for worship; third, figures in the middle of the Ayagapatas. The Jinas in panels in one case are seated in a row in meditation posture on both sides of a stupa, (PI; XVII, fig. 2) and another, Neminatha preaching to royalty (2). In the former, the third Jina is endowed with snake hood of Par vanatha, others possessing no distinctive marks. The "imagetypes" of Jinas of this age have some noticeable peculiarities, such as, scated figures have no attendants on sides but have a devotional scene on the pedastal; standing figures are nude and are attended by 2 Ganadharas. JINA QUADRUPLE In place of the Brahmanic Trimurti, there is the Jaina Quadruple, popularly known as "Caumukhi". It has the further name of Sarratobhadra-Pratima i.e. auspicious from all sides. It is a broad obelisk representing the figure of a Tirthaikara on cach of the four sides. There seems to be no regularity as to the particular Jinas to be sculptured there. But the most important of them have, as a rulc, been selected for representation in a Caumukhi. The symbols and descriptions of the Jinas in such a group are thosc that wc shall discuss next in connection with them separately. Adinatha or Rsabhanathu The Jaina Puranas and ritualistic texts do not yield much in the way of describing specially the images of the Tirthamkaras. The same may be said of the Jaina Silpa Sastras, which seem to be very laconic in this respect. On the contrary, all this body of literature, when traced, is very informative with regard to the iconography of the attendant figures of the Jainas as well as the other divinities. From the categorical list of the Lanchanas or emblems of the Jinas given in the Pravacanasaroddhara'l we are informed vasahagayaturayavAnarakuMco kamalaM ca satthiyo cNdo| mayarasirivacchagaNDayamahisavarAho ya seNo ya /

Page #74
Tirtharkaras that the first Tirthamkara's cognizance is a Bull. Over and above this symbol, we get a clue that he has also the symbol of DharmaCakra. All the patriarchs have certain special trees under which they received the Kevala Jrana or Perfect Knowledge. The tree connected with the first Jina is Nyagrodha or the Indian Banyan tree. Other iconographic marks of the Jina are his Yaksa named Gomukha (lit. Bull-Faced) and Yaksini Cakresvari (Goddess of whcels) or Apraticakra. The texts give two worshippers on either side of Rsabhadeva viz. Bharata and Bahubali.2 The images of Adinatha, so far discovered in India and preserved in Museums and icmples, essentially satisfy the above conditions. The illustration of the saint we have reproduced in Pl. II, show's the effigy of a bull in the middle of the pedestal. At the left end of it, may be seen the figure of Yaksini Cakresvari, who holds a discus and rides the Guruda. Standing types of the same Jina statues may also be scen. In these, nudity is very prominent and there is no lion or the lion-seat.3 In the Jaina history of the Patriarchs, Rsalhanatha or Vrsabhanatha is regarded as the founder of the religion. Deiails of his history are preserved in the Adipurana of the Digambaras, Kalpasutra and Hemachandra's Trisaslhi-Salakapurusacaritra of the vajja hariNo chagalo nadAvatto ya kalasakumbho ya / nIlappalasaMkhaphanIsIho a jiNANa cihAi // TT TAHTTIET 16 IT 1. takSazilAyAM bAhubalinA kArite bhagavata RSabhadevasya dharmaprakAzake cakre ca 3919: 1 pAzvayorbharatabAhubalibhyAmapasevitaH / TETET (?) fa greifachte 29995: 11 Trisastisalaka, Adisvara, 1st Parva, 3rd Ch. 58 verse. I saw in an old picture collection preserved in the Asiatic Society of Bengal Mss. Collection No. 1544, the representation of Rsabhanatha attended by Bharatacakri, his son. 3. For examples see the figure of Rsabhanatha half way up on the Vaibhar hill of Rajgir. It has a mark of a lotus with two bulls on cither side. For other fig. vide and cf. Cunningham Arch. S. R. Vol XI., P. 12. Ibid., Vol. X p. 17. Ibid, Vol. IX., p. 58. Mathura Museum Catalogue, p. 67. fig. B. 4. p. 71, fig. B 21, p. 81, fig. B 76, Deogarh Fort, 2228 list... (3) Ibid, No. 2223.

Page #75
Jaina Iconography Svetambaras. Curiously, the Brahmanic Puranas like the Bhagavala Agni and Varaha mention him as an incarnation of Visnu although by his symbolism of a bull and his place of Moksa as Kailasa, one is tempted to connect him with Siva in these respects. Whatever may be the real or supposed relation between these three gods, that he is prominently a Jaina Prophet and his image has little or no connection with any Brahmanic image may be taken as a proven fact. 36 The explanation of his bull symbol is clear from the origin of his name. His mother like the mothers of all the Tirthamkaras saw certain dreams and the first dream was about a bull. Hence, the name of the Jina as Vrsabhanatha or Rsabhanatha and the symbol of bull as invariably connected with his representation.1 The symbol of his Yaksa Gomukha having a bull's face has a definite connection with the same origin. Cakres vari, the Yaksini of the Jina looks like the Vaisnavi, the wife of Brahmanic Visnu. Thus, the originator of the sculpture tried to show the superiority and triumph of Adinatha over Siva, and Visnu, the two greatest gods of the Brahmanas. Ajilanatha Saptaparna The Jaina original books give him the symbol of elephant (Gaja) and his other symbol, namely his special tree (kevala UrvorvRSabhalAJchanamabhUd bhagavato jananyA ca caturdazAnAM svapnAnAmAdAvRSabho dRSTastena RSabhaH / Hemacandra: Abhidhana-Cintamani "All mothers of Tirthankaras see, first of all, this elephant in their dreams excepting only the mother of Rsabhadeva, who saw a bull first, hence the child's name. Mrs. Stevenson's Heart of Jainism, p. 22. The 14 Dreams are: qat af: fqqet: aqrit zfq: 1 mahAdhvajaH pUrNakumbhaH padmasaraH saritpatiH // vimAnaM ratnapuJjazca vidhuragniriti kramAt / dadarza svAminI svapnAnmukhe pravizatastadA || Trisasti-Salaka, Parva 10, Sarga II-19-21. Ullarapurana, Parva 48.

Page #76
Tirthamkaras 37 vsksa) treel both being connected with his images. Further, two other iconographic points by which Ajitanatha's statues may be differentiated from those of others are the figures of his particular Yaksa called Mahayaksa and his Yaksini named Ajitabala. Mention of these is made in the Jaina canonical Literature. His posture is what is technically known as Khadgasana i.e., standing with two arms hanging on the sides. His chowir-bcarer is Sagaracakri. In sculpture, the images of Ajitanatha fully answer to the above characteristic descriptions. Two noteworthy figures of Ajita, one in the Deogarh Fort, Jhansia and another preserved under the old sculpturc-shed at Sarnath, Benares,' may be cited here as examples bearing his symbols. In both these representations, his main figure is standing in the so-called Khadgasana; in the Deogarh statue, it is attended by two Chowri-bearers and two devotecs in front of them. The emblem of clephant is shown as usual under the seat of the Jina. The Yaksa and the Yaksini occupy the two corners of the pedestal. The origin of his symbolism and his name can be traced to the Jaina books. The Jina's mother saw an elephant in her several dreanis.4 An elephant in India is always connected with kingly power. After his birth all his father's enemies were conquered (Jita), hence his name the 'invincible' onc. The Sretambara author Hemachandra interprets his name as 'not conqucrcd by excrement of the bowels etc.'s The Digambara authoritative book, the Ullarapurana 1. HTET HTfe faat qe ti feveri tattfanti ___sahetuke vane saptaparNadra masamIpagaH // l'ttara Purana. Parva 48. 2. Image of Ajitanatha, Dcogarh, No. 2526. List of Photo-negatives, A.S.I. Catalogue of the Sarnath Museum, No. g. 61. 4. The dream of an elephant admitting into the mouth of Ajita's mother is particularly mentioned in the undermentioned verse. devIM vijayasenAkhyAM SoDazasvapnapUrvakam / pravizantaM vilokyAtmavaktrAbjaM gandhasinduram // Uttara, Parva 48. pUrISahA'dibhirna jita ityajitaH /

Page #77
Jaina Iconography explains the word Ajita as not conquered by sin or by all heretics'.1 Thus, all the facts and ideas primarily connected with the life and teachings of this Jina, converge to one point "invincibility", 'conquest.' His elephant emblem, his Yaksa's just the identical emblem together with the warlike symbols of spear, goad, club his Yaksini's symbols noose, goad etc eminently express the idea of temporal conquest, on one hand, the symbols of rosary, Varada mudra, and abhaya mudra on the part of the Yaksa and Varada mudra on the part of the Yaksini, the idea of spiritual conquest on the other. Sambhavanatha etc., 38 The Jaina literature relating to our subject provides the distinct clue to identify the image of Sambhavanatha. That clue is the symbol of horse (Turaya Skt. Turaga) connected with his representations. We are informed from the same literature of his Yaksa being Trimukha and Yaksini being Duritari Devi-other special marks of his images. The tree under which Sambhavanatha received the Kevala knowledge and of which the mention is made in the Jaina books is the Indian Sala tree (Shorla robusta)-his Chowri-bearer is called Satyavirya. So far with iconographical details. The Jina's parentage has come down to our knowledge through Jaina history. His father was a king named Drdharaja and his mother was called Susena. His birth place is Sravasti.3 We come now to discuss the origin of his name respecting which there is a tale in Jaina books. "The king, his father, had been distressed to see the way his dominions were ravaged by plague, but when he heard the good news of the boy's birth, he felt there was a chance (Sambhava) of better times coming, 14: arq a fasafafa ar gaifafuzarfacrnAmAnvarthamavAptavAniti vidAM stotrasya pAtraM bhavan // dvisaptasu gate dIkSAvane zAlataroravaH / 3. dvIpe'smin bhArate varSe zrAvastinagare zilaH / rAjJaH kAzyapagotrasya dRDharAjasya sadyuteH / vallabhekSvAkuvaMzasya suSeNA tatsurAgame // I. 2. Uttarapurana, Parva 48. Verse 40 para 49, Uttarapurana. Ibid. 49.

Page #78
Tirthamkaras 39 hence the boy's namnc"1. The Jina's symbol of horse, which in India is regarded as auspiciousa originates from the idea of good chance associated with his name. His Yaksa's emblem of a mongoose Skt. Sarvatobhadra (lucky on all sides), and the Yaksini's name as Duritari, meaning 'vanquisher of enemies' and her symbols of Varada mudra, fruit and Abhaya all very clearly bespeak the same idea of auspiciousness or 'good chance. Not many sculptures of Sambhavanatha have yet been found out. But those that are found show in lithic art the aphorism of iconography as enunciated before on the basis of Jaina original texts. 3 Abhinandananatha The fourth Tirthamkara's iconographic marks may be gathered from the different Jaina books in different contexts. His emblem or the so-called Lauchana is an ape.4 The trec connected with his Kevala knowledge is Pivala (Vesali trec according to other texts). The Yaksa believed to have been appointed by Indra, as in all cases, to serve him is named Isvara and the Yaksini's name is Kali. The particular pose in which he is to appear in sculpture is called Khadgasana i.c., standing posture. In sculpture, all this specification has been followed almost strictly. The examples of his figures are rare in India. 1. Hcart of Jainism, p. 51. cr. yadvA--garbhasthe'smin dyUte rAjJA jananI na jitetyajitazaM sukhaM bhavatyasmin stute shmbhvH| yahA--garbhagate'pyasminnabhyavikAyasya sambhavAt Fatso 11 2. dhenarvastrayuktA vRSagajaturagA dkssinnaavrtvhniH| divyastrI pUrNakumbhA dvijanRpagaNikA puppamAlA patAkA / / etc., are lucky things at all times. 3. An inscribed image of Sambhavanatha at Khajuraho in Hamirpur. Cf. Cunningham, Arch. Surr. Rep. Vol. II., Epi Indi. Vol. I p. 112& Plate III In another text the list of the Lanchanas is given as follows: Trofitis a: #f9:14: 4461 Faffat: Taft i makaraH zrIdrumo gaNDo mahiSaH kolasedhiko / vajra mRgo'jaSTagara kalazaH kUrma utpalam / zaGkho nAgAdhipa: siMho lAJchanAnyahatAM kramAt / 4.

Page #79
Jaina Iconography In Jaina history of pontiffs, Abhinandananatha's birthplace is Ayodhya.? His father's name is King Svayamvara and mother's name Siddhartha." He attained mok:sa accompanied by a thousand monks, as, indeed, did all the first eleven Tirthamkaras cxcept Suparsvanatha. In treating of his symbolism. we encounter some difficulties. His main symbol is a monkey. If we interpret hari, one of the dreams of Jina's mothers, to stand for a monkey, the propriety of the emblern is explained. Hari also means a lion, which makes it a symbol of Mahavira. The real nature of his Yaksa and Yaksini may, lo some extent, help us !o get at the meaning of the symbols. Yaksa, as .we have seen, is named Isvara and Yaksini is named Kali. Clearly, they are Saivite deities borrowed from the Brahmanic pantheon. Thus, it is likeliest to connect the ape of the Jina with the apish incarnation of Isvara or Siva. The explanation of his name is given clearly enough in the Jaina books." According to it, he acquired the name of Abhinandana because he used to be honoured (Abhinandana) by Indra and others. Sumatinatha He is known from the Jaina Literature to be associated with the symbol of a curlow (Firauricha) or a red goose. The kevala tree, in his case, is Priyamgu. The Yaksa and Yaksi attend 1. The birth places of Jainas are given collectively in the following passage: ...THAT AT FT ET377 I ikkhAgabhUma jujjhA sAvatthI doaujjo kosNbii| vANArami candapurI kAyadI bhadilapuraM ca / / sIthapuracampakapilla ujjhrynnpurtigypurmihilaa| rAyagihamihilasUriyapuravANArasi ya kuMDapuraM // Abhidhana Rajendra Satta, Dvara 20. 2. Ash ura ato an arfera: 1 rAjA svayamvaro nAmnA siddhArthAsyAgravallabhA / Uttarapurana. Verse 16. 3. Heart of Jainism, P. 52. 4. 3ffarga darifafafafarga: 11 Abhidhana-Cintamani.

Page #80
Tirtharkaras 41 ing upon him in the image are named Tumbaru and Mahakali. His chowribearer is called Mitravirya. The sculptures extant agree with the rules of Iconography as given before. Besides the fundamental marks, which specialise one Jina from all the rest, the sculpture contains the figures of the flying garland-bearers, the drums etc., and sometimes miniature figures of other Jina which with the main figure complete the number of twenty-four. The lion-seat is meaningly borne by a pair of lions. Two elephants often are seen either pouring showers of water or merely standing at the top of the 'main figure. Apart from the special cognizance of the Jina, a Cakra or whce! is noticed represented on the pedestal. The donor's image is also included below the fect of the statue. Images of Sumatinatha have been found in many places in Northern India, the most noteworthy figure to be mentioned is the one discovered at Sahet Mahet." The Sumatinatha's native place and his parents have een mentioned in the Jaina traditional history. His birth place was Ayodhya (Saketa), his father was called Mcgharatha and mother Mangala.? When and how he attained the kevala knowledge and what palanquin carried him, ail these are given in the Uttaraburana. Wc omit, however, those details as rather too far from our main topic. With regard to the derivation of his name, there is, as usual. a story to explain it. "The child was called Sumati. natha, because cvcn before his birth his mother's inrellect (Sumati) was so sharpened. To prove the queen's ability, a story resembling that of the judgment of Solomon runs. An old Brahmin did, leaving two wives; both women laimed the only son as their's and the dispute was taken to the queen to settle, who decreed, as Solomon did (and with similar result, that 1. Sec. Arch. Surv. Rept. 1997-8. 2. dvIpe'smin bhArate varSe sAkete vRSabhAnvaye / tad gotre kSatriyo'stAriH zlAghyo megharatho'bhavat / maGgalA'sya mahAdevI vasudhArA'pi pUjitA // Ullaralurana.

Page #81
Jaina Iconography the living child should be cut into two".! The Jina's Lasichana of a goose has clear association with the same symbol of Sarasvati, the goddess of intelligence. It summarily symbolises the central dea of Sumati or Intelligence behind the life of the Tirtharkara. In other cases, we shall see, th symbol is the material object to stand for the name. As for example the crescent is the symbol of Candraprabha (lit. 'shining like the moon'). l'admaprablia The books of Jainism assign to the sixth Tirthamkara Padmaprabha the cihna or iconographic cognizance of a red lotus. His Kevala trec is called thc Chatrabha. The attendant spirits are named Kusuma and Syarna (Dig. Manovega). The chowribcarer, generally, the contemporary king, is Yamadyuti by name. So far with sculptural details froin literary sources. The sculptures of Padmaprabha so far discovered in Jaina places, though not many in number, when seen in the light of iconography tally with the above description.? I have seen two images of Padmaprabha wrongly identified as Mahavira on the Vaibhara Hill in Rajgir with the clear symbol of a lotus on the pedestal. The two lions should not have been mistaken for the symbol Mahavira in the presence of the lotus, the lions being simply the bcarers of the Simhasana or lion-scat. We are informed by the Jaina Puranas of both sects that his native place is Kausambi. His father's name is known as Susima. Other details are left out as being redundant.3 Two interpretations of his name are given. First, his colour was of a red lotus, hence the name. Second, his mother, while the Jina was in her womb, expressed a desire to slcep upon a bed of red lotuses, which was fulfilled. This originated the name. 1. Heart of Jainism p. 52. C. THAT Afrika yafa: 1 TET TIRI jananyAH sunizcitA matirabhUditi sumatiH / / Abhidhana-Cinlamani. 2. Cr. Cunningham: Arch. Surr. Rep. VIII., p. 193. 3. Halata a aftan AT: qfafcargar: 1 gotreNa kAzyapo rAjA dharaNAkhyo mahAnabhUta // tasya devI susImAkhyA ratnavRSTyAdimAnitA // Uttarapurana.

Page #82
Tirthamkaras 43 His symbolism is just expressive of the same fact. The name of Yaksa attendant Kusuma connected with him irans u flower and lends support to the very idea. Suparsvanatha He has, according to the canon, the emblem of the mystic cross called the Svostika. Books give him the additional synibolic decorations of serpents. There is some regularity with regard to the number of the hoods of the serpents. The number must be either one or five or nine. His evala trce is Sirisa (farsit). The attendant spirits serving him are malanga and Santi (Dig. Varanandi and Kali). The name of the bearer of the fly-fan is Dharmavirya. Now, the Puranas give the historical news that he was the son of a Ksatriya ruling prince named Supratistha. The mother was Queen Psthivi by name. His birth-place and kingdom was Banares and Kasi.Unlike the other earlier Tirthamkara, he attained Moksa with only five hundred companions. The representation of Supar: vanatha in art may either be seen in a group or single. Either of these representations fulfils the condition laid down by the canons. The most important point regarding Suparsvanatha's image is the five-fold serpenthood as distinguished from the usual seven-fold serpent-hood of Pars vanatha.4 Disregard or ignorance of this point has led to many wrong identifications. For instance, in the Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, Dr. Vogel has in several instances, written without being sure "a Jina, either Suparsva or Parsvanatha". Again, the statue No. B 62 has been wrongly identified as Jina Parsvanatha. It is, in fact, the figure of Supar vanatha. The image also shows another cognizance of the Jina, namely, 1. ET QU 79 T H TT (594:959 79 795051:, 4913 ATT for 1) Sattvasaroddhara, 43 Dvara. 2. supAvo maunamAsthAya cchAmasthe navavarSakaH / ____ sahetukavane mUle zirISasya dva yupoSitaH / / Uttarafurana. 3. g cnererat arcureat het afa: 1 Ceritcaferataron a 97 RETT TETEO II Ibid. 4. Cunningham: Arch. Surr. Rep. Vol. XIX, p. 6. 5. Prof. Dr. Vogel: Cat. Arch: Mus. Mathura, p. 73.

Page #83
44 Jaina Iconography Svastika. Prof. Vogel himself writes, "and that over the outermost head on the proper left and the Svastika."1 His name has a historical meaning. He acquired the name of Supari va because he was endowed from birth with 'beautiful sides'. His mother suffered from leprosy in both her sides. This dreadful discase was cured before the Child's birth, so he was given the name of Su (good) Parsva (side). This has also evident connection with his emblem of Svastika which stands for good and auspiciousness. Candraprabha The main iconographic details to be gleaned from the Jaina books distinguish the image of Candraprabha from all other Indian images. His Lanchana or technical emblem is the moon or the crescent. His special tree is Naga (Nagakesara, (AM). The goblins are Vijaya and Bhrkuti (Jvalamalini). The Chowri-bearer, who does him honour is called Dana-virya. Many good specimens of this Jina's image have come to light in Northern India. All of them, however, answer the definitions as detailed above, in a specific way. The artists in India, it is well known, acted up to the demands of the priests and temple-worshippers. In sculpture, we get two types, the seated and the standing types, in which the main figure of the Tirthamkara appears amidst his attendants and Chowri-bearers. It is obviously not a difficult question to explain the origin of his name and his symbolism. Literally, he was called Candraprabha because he had the lustre (Prabha) of that of the moon. There is also a historical tradition accounting for this name 5 I. Ibid.. p. 77. 2. zobhanau pAzrvAvasya supArzva: / Hemacandra. 3. Heart of Jainism. p. 52. 53. 1. Inscribed image of Candraprabha standing with other Tirthamkaras, Deogarh Fort, Dist. Jhansi. No. 2224, list of Photo-negatives A.I.S. In the same fort may be seen a seated image of the Jina. In Madanpur, Jhansi Dist.. 5 Jina Figures have been found out of which one represents the Jina Candraprabha. An erect Fig. of Candraprabha from Gwalior is in the Indian Museum. Gat, 12. No. 3702. candrasyeva prabhA jyotsnA saumyalezyA vizeSo'sya candraprabhaH / Hemacandra. 5.

Page #84
Tirthamkaras 45 "Before his birth, his mother (the wife of the Rajput King of Candrapuri)' longed to drink the moon (Candra). To assuage her craving, a plate of water was one night handed to her in such a way that the moon was reflected in it; when the child was born, he was found to be as bright and white as the moon, which accordingly became his emblem, and he was called Candraprabha."'? With such lunar association in life, one needs hardly any explanation to understand why the moon or the crescent became his essential symbol, we may also note in this connection that one of the dreams of the Jina's mothers is about the moon. Suvidhinatha Suvidhinatha has two names given to him, another being Puspadanta. There is a dispute over his emblem. Some say, it is a dolphin (Makara); others dcclare it is a crab. His Yaksa and Yaksini are narned Ajita and Sutari Devi (Dig. Mahakali) respectively. The chowri-bearer has the name of Maghavataraja. The religious tree under which he attained the hevala knowledge is the Naga according to some authoritics,: Malli according to other authorities. From patriarchical history, we gather his native place was called Kakandinagara. His father was the ruling prince by the name of Sugriva and his mother was named Rama,' his place of Nirvana was Sameta-Sikhara or Mount Parasnatha. A separate sculpture of Suvidhinatha is not yet known to the author. The Jina, of course, appears with the other 23 Tirtharkaras in a group. The sculpture, there is little doubt to say, must when discovered exhibit all the important iconographic details described above. The point of interest will be that some sculptures will bear the symbol of a crab. 1. In thc Benares district, also called Candravati. 2. Heart of Jainism, p. 53. Cf. TT T T Sout: 4FGYTECTECTS fafa TESTI: 1 3. FargutyaTA: Y R ITY: | Ullara p. 8.. 4. dvIpe'smin bhArate kSetra kAkandInagarAdhipaH / mutatsen helaet 14 stafa 37497 11 Ibid.

Page #85
Jaina Iconography The two names have two origins as might be expected. The name "Suvidhinatha" was given to him because after an internecine warfare fought by his kingly relatives, they gave up fighting and took to performing religious duties. His birth eventually brought 'good order' (Suvidhi)' to the distracted family. The other name, namely, Puspadanta was derived from the fact that the Jina's teeth resembled the buds of a flower (puspa). The origin of his symbols seems prima facie rather enigmatic. Neither a crocodile nor a crab has been dreamt of by the Jina's mother. His father was the lord of Kakandi. Curiously, Kakandi is called Kakandinagara, Skt. Kiskindhinagara. Let us remember, his father is called Sugriva, his mother has the name of Rama. All this has curious association with the Ramayana. The Kiskindha of the Ramayana was situated on the sea. Hence, it is evident that aquatic animals like a crocodile or a crab have come to be the emblems of this Tirthankara. His Yaksa Ajita for the same reason has tortoise as vehicle and his Yaksini Sutara Devi has an urn symbolising her intimate connexion with waters. 46 Sitalanatha 2 The Tirthamkara in question was, as usual, born of a Ksatriya family of Malaya Kingdom. His birth-place is named Bhadrikapura or Bhadillapura (Madrapura according to one version). His parent's names were king Drdharatha and Queen Sunanda respectively. His chowri-bearer was called Raja Simandhara. The tree under which he attained the Kevala knowledge is Vilva (Aegle Marmelos). The Jaina texts assign to him the Yaksa named Brahma and Yaksini named Asoka (Dig. Manavi). The Digambaras regard the Asvattha (Ficus religioso) as his emblem, the Svetambaras Srivatsa (wishing tree) for the same. A separate specimen of Sitalanatha's image has not been discovered so far. When discovered, it is doubtless expected to 1. zobhano vidhividhAnamasya suvidhi: | Hemacandra dvIpe'smin bhArate varSe viSaye malayAhvaye / rAjA bhadrapure vaMze purordR Dharatho'bhavat // 2. Ullara p. 92. Ibid.

Page #86
Tirthamkaras yield a material illustration of iconographic canons discussed above.1 47 The Jina received the name of Sitalanatha inasmuch he could take away men's heat of sorrow. Another version explains the name as follows-"The tenth Tirthamkara had marvellous power of imparting coolness (Sitalata) to fevered patients. Before his birth his mother laid her hand on her husband and immediately the fever which had defied all the efforts of physicians left him, and all his life being the saint had a similar power, hence his name Sitalanatha, Lord of coolness." His emblems have not much to interpret. The Peepal tree is known for its cool shade, similarly the Srivatsa symbol stands for auspiciousness and blessedness. as Sreyamsanatha The Jaina texts concur in giving him the symbol of a rhinoceros. The Yaksa and the Yaksini to serve him as guards of honour, have been named as Yakseta and Manavi (Dig. Ivara and Gauri) respectively. The tree special to him was Tumbara (7) or Tindaka according to some authorities. Raja Tripista Vasudeva was to act as a Chowri-bearer. The sculptures hitherto found of Sreyamanatha closely accord with the above iconographic prescriptions. At Sarnath, in Benares, the traditional place of the Jina, there is a Jaina temple dedicated to this patriarch. An old image of the same Jina may be seen in the "Brahmanical sculpture shed" attached to the Museum.5 The Jaina Puranas record his lineage. His father was a 1. Anderson Catalogue of the Indian Museum, Part II. Gupta gallery TA 1. The figure has been identified as that of Sitalanatha. It seems to be a doubtful identification. First, no Jina figure is represented in the Bhumisparsa Mudra as in this case. Secondly, no specific sign of Svastika is to be seen on the pedestal of the sculpture. 2. sakalasattvasantApaharaNAt zItalaH / 4. munirmanoharodyAne tumbaradrumasaMzrayaH / 5. See Fig. C. 62. Abhidhana-Cintamani. 3. IHeart of Fainism, p. 53. Cf. tathA garbhasthe bhagavati pituH pUrvotpannA - cikitsyapittadAho jananIkarasparzAdupazAnta iti zItalaH / Ullara, p. 103.

Page #87
Jaina Iconography Ksatriya prince of Iksvaku clan named Visnu and his mother was called Visnudri. His home was at Simhapuri, the present Sarnath.1 The origin of his name has, as usual, a historical tale to explain it. "King Visnudeva possessed a beautiful throne, but unfortunately an evil spirit took up his abode in it, so that no one dare sit there. His wife, however, so longed to sit on it that she determined to do so at any risk; to every one's astonishment she was quite uninjured; so, when her son was born, he was named Sreyamsanatha, the Lord of good, for already he had enabled his mother to cast out an evil spirit and so do a world of good (Sreyamsa)." All his turbulence and forwardness on the part of both the mother and the child have been fittingly symbolised by the sign of a rhinoceros, so known for those qualities. 48 Vasupujya The emblem constantly associated with Vasupujya, as we gather from Jaina books, is the buffalo. The other characteristics of his image viz. the Sasanadeva and the Sasanadevi, are known by the names of Kumara and Canda (Dig. Gandhari). The tree which gave him shade while acquiring the Kevala knowledge is Patalika 'according to the Abhidhanacintamani and Kadamba () according to the Uttarapurana. A King named Darpista-Vasudeva is to wave the Chowri or the fly-fan by his side. So far as my knowledge goes, one separate figure of Vasupujya has only been found in Northern India. It tallies with the above description.4 From Jaina sources, we gather that his father named Vasupujya was a Ksatriya prince of Iksvaku race. His mother is I. sfera ara faggeratai azeaz: 1 ikSvAkuvaMzavikhyAto viSNunAmA'sya vallabhA // Uttara, ibid. 2. Heart of Jainism p. 54. For Sanskrit version Hemacandra :yathA garbhasthe'smin kenApyanAkrAntapUrvA devatA'dhiSThitazayyA jananyA zreyo jAtamiti zreyAMzaH / 3. kadambavRkSamUlasthaH sopavAso'parA / Ullara, p. 113. 4. One good figure of the Jina is in Nathanagara, Jaina Temple, Bhaagplur.

Page #88
Tirthamkaras 49 called Jayavati. Campapuri (Modern Bhagalpur) was his birth-place. His name has been derived in various ways. As he was the son of Vasupujya, he was fitly called Vasupujya. It is said that while in the mother's woml), God Indra used to give his father wealth (vasu). Hence his name Vasupujya. Thirdly, the gods Vasus worshipped him, which lcd to his name as such. The only explanation that can be rendered to his symbol is that cattle formed the chief wealth in Ancient India. Hence, a buffalo as the emblem. Vimalanatha Jaina liturgical treatises attribute to Vimalanatha, the thirteenth Jina, thc Lauchana or symbol of the boar. The parti, cular attendant spirits attached to him are named as Sanmukha and Vairoti (Svetam-Vidita). The King to stand for his fanner is called Svayambhu-Vasudeva. His Kevala tree is Jambu (Blackberry)." As for his parentage, his father's name is Kotavarman and mother's name is Suramya. His birth occurred in Kampilya (Kampil in Furrukhabad), the Southern capital of the Pancala. An interesting story is told to explain the origin of his name. We reproduce it here. "He got his name Vimalanatha (Lord of Clearness) through the clearness (Vimalata) of intellect with which he endowed his mother before his birth, and which she displayed in the following manner. A certain man and his wife unwiscly stayed in a temple inhabited by a female demon, who, falling in love with the husband, assumed his real wife's form. The miserable man was quite unable to tell which was his true wise, and asked the King of Kampilapura to distinguish between them. It was the queen, however, who solved the difficulty. She knew the long reach that witches and only witches have and telling the husband to stand a long distance off, 1. vasupUjyanRpaterayaM vAsupUjyaH / yadvA- garbhasthe'smin vasu hiraNyaM tena vAsavo rAjakulaM pUjitavAniti / vasavo devavizeSAH teSAM pUjyo vA vasupUjyaH; prajJAdyaNi vAsupUjyaH / 2. Frutatavaht ottagande analfa: 1 Utarapurana, P. 126. Abhidhana-Cintamani,

Page #89
Tirtharikaras 51 recognised is Vajra-danda or thunder-bolt. The Yaksa couple 10 attend upon him are respectively called Kimnara and Kandarpa (Dig. Manasi). The position of a lanner has been taken up by Pundarika-Vasudeva. The Kevala trce for him is called Dadhiparna or Sapta-cchada.' The statues of Dharmanatha so far known to us correspond with the above description. The Nagpur Nsuseum preserved two such images. They show the symbol of the thunderbolt and the Chowri-bearer in a royal attire." With regard to his family we are told that his father's name was Bhanu Raja and his mother's name Suvrata. He was born at Ratnapura.3 He obtained the name of Dharmanatha because he saved mankind from iniseries. There is tradition also that the Jina's mother perforincd many acts of religion while bearing him in the womb. Hence the name of the child as Dharmanatha. It appears that the symbol of the Tirthankara, as the naine suggests, has evident connection with Yama's staff. God Yama has another name of Dharmanatha or Dharma-raja. Hence, the similarity of symbolism. Santinatha The cognizance which separates the image of Santinatha from those of other Tirtharikaras is a deer. The Yaksa and Yaksini attendants escorting him arc respectively named as Kimpurusa and Mahamanasi (Svetam-Garuda and Nirvani). Raja Purusadatta stands for his Chowri-bcarer. The tree under which he attained thc Kevala knowledge is Nandi Viksa. The images of Santinatha so far discovered are not a few in number. They all correspond with the descriptive details, as given above. In sculpture, we notice as his emblem, a pair 1. ah AGTTEGRITET: Fluosty9144: 1 Ullara P., J. 166. 2. Vide B. 14. B.15. "They (Chowri-bearers) wear an claborate diadem and many ornaments. They seem to be of royal rank." Descriptive list of exhibits in the Arch. Section of the Nagpur Museum, pp. 27-28. 3. dvIpe'smin bhArate ratnapurAdhIzo mahIpatiH / devyA bhAnumahArAjasaMjasya vipulazriyaH // Utlara P., ibid.

Page #90
Jaina Iconography of antilopes between a wheel. The attendant spirits occupy the recesses of the lowest panel.' Regarding the Jina's parentage, we gather from Jaina books that King Visvasena was his father and Acira was his mother. He was born at Hastinapura. In Jaina history of pontiffs, Santinatha occupies a very high place. Not only did he revive Jainism, which was in danger of falling into oblivion, but he so consolidated the faith that it never disappeared again. Another extraordinary fact about him is that he was the first Tirthankara to become a Cakravarti or emperor of the whole of India. The occasion, which gave origin to his name, is that before Santinatha's birth, his mother was able to stay the course of the pestilence which was raging in the kingdom by sprinkling the sufferers with Santi water. Hence, the name "Santinatha" or 'Lord of Peace'. 52 The symbol of a wheel flanked by two antilopes is exactly equivalent to the Buddhist symbol of the "Turning of the wheel of Law" at Sarnath. As we are informed that Santinatha revived the decadent Jainism, in other words, he preached anew the Jaina religion, it is evident, therefore, he invented or adopted the common symbol of a wheel and two deer. It may not be unlikely that men, in later times, in analogy to the Buddhist symbol of preaching, assigned to his image the "Dharina-Cakra" emblem. I. Vide a statue of Santinatha in the Fyzabad Museum, Arch: 1907-08 No. 52; another seated image of the Tirthamkara in the Jogin Ka Matha near Rohtak town, Arch. List No 2430. In Khajuraho, Chattarapur State, there is an image of Santinatha, 14 feet high; in Sirankala, near Lalitpur, Jhansi, there is a temple dedicated to the same Jina; Cf. B. 16. Catalogue of the Nagpur Museum, Mm 1 (Gupta Gallery) Anderson : Catalogue of the Ind. Mus., pp. 201, 215. 2. Heart of Jainism, p. 55. Cf. i gateranfagenfaryfafa anfa: 3. For the alternate rise and decline of Jainism refer to the following passage: "After the Nirvana of the ninth Tirthamkara Suvidhinatha, the Jaina faith disappeared until the birth of the tenth Tirthamkara, who revived it; on his Nirvana it disappeared again, but was revived on the birth of the cleventh; and this continued to be the case until the birth of Santinatha the Sixteenth Tirthamkara after which it never disappeared again". Heart of Jainism, P. 55.

Page #91
Tirthankaras Kunthanatha. Jaina tradition as preserved in their literature, has always connected the symbol of a goat with this Tirthamkara. He has as his Yaksa Gandharva and Yaksini Bala (Dig. Vijaya). The contemporary King, who carries his Chowri-fan is called Kunala. The tree selected by him to sit under for attaining the Kevala knowledge is Tilaka taru. Hitherto, no image of Kunthanatha, to the best of my knowledge, has come to light. Doubtless, however, any image when found out will shew unmistakably the iconographic marks as detailed above. His parent's names, as may be gathered from the Jaina Puranas, are variously called Surasena, Surya, Sivaraja (Svetambara version) for the father, Srikanta or Sri-devi for the mother. His father belonged to the Kuru race, and Hastinapura as his capital, where the Jina was born. He, like his predecessor, became an emperor. 53 Two explanations of the origin of his name are given in the Abhidhana Cintamani. First the Jina stood firmly on earth hence Kunthanatha. Secondly, before his birth, his mother saw a heap (Kuntha) of jewels.3 Agni, the god of fire, is believed in India to be the presiding deity of wealth also. His symbol of goat has been borrowed in this case to symbolise the idea of riches, which, too, is responsible for the origin of the Jina's name. Aranatha The eighteenth Jina Aranatha carries with him the mystic symbol of either the Nandyuvarla (a kind of Svastika) or a fish. His ministerial staff consists of the Taksa named Yaksendra and I. tilakadrumamUlasthazcaitrajyotsnAparAhna / hastinAkhyapurAdhIzaH kauravaH kAzyapAnvayaH / zUraseno mahArAjaH zrIkAntAsyAgravallabhA // Ibid. 3. kuH pRthvI tasyAM sthitavAniti kunthuH / tathA garbhasthe bhagavati jananI Hemacandra. 2. Ullara P.. 2. 281. ratnAnAM kunthurAziM dRSTavatIti kunthuH Mrs. Stevenson mentions two more explanations, viz.. "...during his life people began to show great kindness to insects (Kunthu) and the power of his enemies was stunted (Kuntha)".

Page #92
Jaina Iconography Yaksini named Dharani Devi. The sacred tree peculiar to him is Cuta or mango trec.1 Govinda Raja had the honour of holding his flywhisk. 54 One or two images of Aranatha that have been found out so far in Northern India meet the conditions of iconographic marks mentioned in the preceding paragraph. These were discovered in Mathura and belong to the ancient Kushan age." Aranatha's father was a Ksatriya prince of the lunar race. He was known by the name of Sudarsana. The Jina's mother was queen Mitrasena. Their capital was at Hastinapura, when Aranatha was born." This Jina also became an emperor. He obtained the name of Ara because his mother saw a dream of a wheel (Ara) of jewels.* It is obvious to explain his emblem of a Nandyavartla. This, as also fishes, come under the Astamangala or cight auspicious symbols.5 Mallinatha The Jaina books point out to us the emblem of a water-jar distinguishing Mallinatha sharply from his predecessors as well as his successors. His special attendant goblins or technically Sasana devatas are known as Kubera and Dharanapriya (Dig. Aparajita). Raja Suluma stands by his side as a Chowri-bearer. The Kevala tree in his case goes by the name of Asoka." 1. revatyAM zuklapakSe'parA cUtataroradhaH / Uttara P., P. 286. 2. Vide Ch. II. Plate VI "Base of image of the Nandyavarta or Ara, dated in the year 79"; Cf. Plates XCII, XCIVI figures showing Nandyacarta symbol on the chest. The Jaina Stupa and other antiquities of Mathura by V.A. Smith. 3. hastinAkhyaM puraM tasya patirgotreNa kAzyapaH / somavaMzasamudbha tasudarzanasamAhvayaH / mitrasenA mahAdevI prANebhyo'pyasya vallabhA // Uttara P. 4. tathA garbhasthe bhagavati jananyA svapne sarvaratnamayo'ro dRSTa ityaraH // Hemacandra. 5. Aupapatika Sutra. The symbols are: (1) Svastika, (2) Srivatsa, (3) Nandyavartta, (4) powder-box, (5) throne of Fortune etc.. Notes on Jaina Art by Dr. Coomarswamy. J.I.A.I. 6. adhastarorazokasyaUttara, P. P. 30

Page #93
Tirthamkaras Separate sculptures of Mallinatha are not altogether rare. The examples known to us materially verify the description given above. They particularly shew the emblem on the pedestal and the Sasana devalus in the two extreme corners.! His father was the king of Mithila in Vanga (Bengal) and belonged to the Iksvaku racc. llis namc was Kumbha and his queen was called Prajavati." According to the Svetambara sect, Mallinatha was a woman. But the sculpture and the name ending in Natha (Mascu.) are not in favour of this tradition as they do not shew the Tirtharikara with any feminine signs. The Jina acquired the name of Malli as his mother longed for fragrant Alalli (a kind of Jasmine) flowers while bearing him in the womb." The emblem of a water-jar cither symbolises the ninth dream of the Jina mother or one of the Asla-mangalas or eight auspicious things. Alumiwata The Jaina texts furnish the emblem of a tortoise which differentiates the image of this Jina from those of all the rest. The Yaksa husband and wife are called Varuna aud Naradatta (Dig. Bahurupini) respectively. The king who plays the part of his Chouri-bearer is named Ajita. The tree made sacred by being associated with the scene of his Kevala knowledge is Campaka. Nagpur Museum Fig. B. 18. Thc Jina is flanked by two attendants of roval birth. They scem to hold Choari carh in one hand; vide Catalogue, p. 29. Fig. B. 19. "The proper right and left extremities of the pedestal arc carved with the sisundiderata : kuvera and Dharanapriya respectively." Vide Catalogur, p. 3i. 5. atra va bhArate vaGgaviSaye mithilAdhipaH / ikSvAkurbhUpatiH kumbhanAmA kAzyapagotrajaH / prajAvatI mahAdevI tasya lakSmIrivAparA // Ullara P., p. 305. It is worth nothing here that Mithila (modern Darbhanga) is said to be a part of Bengal (Banga Visaya). 3. Also graagifchen ufafarrufen: I TYT TIET Frafa Art: surabhikusumamAlyazayanIyadohado devatayA pUrita iti malliH / Hemacandra.

Page #94
56 Jaina Iconography The few sculptures hitherto discovered of this Jina shew, in unmistakable terms, the symbols ctc., as we have described above. Of him, one separately sculptured in age is only known Regarding the Jina's parentage, we are informed that his father named Sumitra was the king of Magadha. His mother had the name of Soma (Padmavati according to some books). His dynasty is called the Harivania. The capital was at Rajaglha. His name originated from the fact that he kept noble vows (Suvrata, good vows) devoutly and he was a Muni or a Saint. The tortoise as his emblen symbolises the idea of slowness and steadiness, the two requisite qualities for keeping vows. Naminatha The emblem which is associated with this Jina is a blue Jotus or the Asoka trec, according to the sectarian view of the Digambaras. Bhikuti and Gandhari (Dig. Camundi) are his respective Yaksa and Yaksina. The King who holds the Chouri-fan by him is called Vijaya Raja. The tree under the shade of which he sat and attained the Kerala knowledge is Bakuln. No image with the particular symbol of a lotus, so far as I know, has yet come to light. One image of a Tirthankara with the sign of a lolus between two conches was seen by me among the group of Jaina statues on the Vaibhar Hill. It may presumably be the figure of Naminatha. Conches have been added to clistinguish the syinbolism of Padmaprabha, who likewise has a lotus emblem. 1. Dr. Fuhrer obtained a black pillar with the representation of Muni Suvrata not far from the gate of the Agra Fort overlooking the Jumna river. 2. atra va bharate rAjJAM pure rAjagRhAhvaye / sumitro magadhAdhIzo harivaMzazikhAmaNiH // gotreNa kAzyapastasya devI somAyA suraiH / / Utlara P., p. 318. 3. zobhanAni vratAnyasya suvrataH, munizcAsau suvratazca munisuvrataH // Hemarandra. a fpectarea pregatirea: i Uttara P. 1. 437.

Page #95
Jaina Iconography that Neminatha was a cousin of Sri Krisna and Baladeva. His name has been derived in two ways. First, his circumference (figuratively) was like that of the Dharma Cakra.1 Secondly, before his birth his mother saw a wheel of black jewels. Hence, his other name of Aristanemi. 58 His emblem of a conch may be accounted for as being symbolic of his residence in a sea-side place where conches are abundantly met with or as reminiscent of his kinship with the Vaisnavite family of Srikrsna. Parsvanatha. He is one of the greatest Tirthankaras or Prophets of Jainism. Some, with a scrupulously historical eye, regard him as the true founder of the Jaina faith." His historicity is unquestioned, his date is almost precisely known and his influence on the Jaina religion is of leading importance. From all sources, we gather his emblem or cognizance is a snake. In sculpture, snake seems to be everything with him. Not only do we find snake in the usual place of the symbol, we find, snakes canopy him with three or seven or eleven hoods. His Yaksa is called Parsva or Vamana or Dharanendra and Yaksini is called Padmavati. The king, who stands by his side as a Chowri-bearer is known as Ajitaraja. The Devadaru (Deodar) or Dhataki is his Kevala-tree. No dearth of images for Par: vanatha ! His statues can equal in number those of Mahavira abundantly found in ancient places of Northern India. In sculpture, several coils of the snake, which flank him are to be noticed. Parsva's Yaksa carries a snake. The Yaksini, also has the cobra as her vehicle. Much is known from Jaina Puranas and Caritas of Pars vanatha's personal 1. dharmacakrasya nemivannemiH / nemItInnanto'pi dRzyate / 2. Abhidhanacintamani. According to Rhys Davids, Parsvanatha was probably the founder of the Sect. Ency. Britt. gth ed.. Vol. xii. p. 43. 3. Vide Pl. standing image of Parsva, in the Jogion ka Matha near Rohtak town, No. 2431; Mathura Muscum B. 62, Catalogue p. 77 Nagpur Museum, Figs B. 21. B. 22 D. 23. B. 24; Raipur Museum, B. 5. (Nagpur Muscum Catalogue, Appendix p. 3); 2 Figs of Parsva discovered on the Vaibhara Hill, Rajgir, they shew 7 hoods of the snake; Cr. 1. Cabinet 5. Gupta gallery, Indian Museum Ibid., J. Ms. 1, J. Ms. 2

Page #96
Tirthamkaras 59 and family history. He was probably born about 817 and died about717 B.C. His father Asvasena was the King of Benares. His mother's name was Vama or Brahma. Pariva was a brave warrior and once he carried his victorious arms down to Kalina ga. He marricd the daughter of King Prasenajit, King of Kosala, but like Prince Siddhartha, he left his princess to follow the life of an ascetic at 30 years of age. He preached his doctrines of love and universal fraternity for about 70 years and finally attained liberation or Moksa on Mt. Summet Sikhara non called after him Giri Parsvanatha Hill, in South Bihar. A little history mixed with niythology is accredited to Parsvanatha. The story how he saved a serpent from being burnt by an ascetic namned Kalha may be studicd critically and iconographically. One day Parsi va sces Katha surrounded by a great concourse of people, performing the severe five-fire penance. And he secs that Katha has thrown a great serpent into a fire-pan. He asks the reason for this pitiless practice, inconsistent with Katha's own austerities. Katha replies that kings might understand clephants and horses, but the sages alone understood religion. Park va has the fire put out; the agonized serpent comes out and Parsva makes his people show honour to him. Absorbing the essence of their worship, the serpent is reborn as Dharana, the wealthy king of the Nagas in Patala, Katha, as the result of his false practice, is reborn as an Asura by name of Meghamalin. One day, "Pars va happening to see on the wall of his palace a picture of the Arhat Nemi, who had taken the vow early in life, decides to do the same...... He wanders from place to place, instructing and acclaimed as a Saint. While standing in the forest of Kausambi in the karotsarga posture, the serpent king Dharana comes in great state to do him honour, performs a mimic representation and during three days holds an umbrella over his head to protect him from the sun. The Asura Meghamalin (the soul of Kamatla) allacks Lord Parsva with tigers, elephants etc. Dharana, then excoriates Meghamalin's hatred of the Lord, pointing out he had donc him no injury but on the contrary, had saved him from the sin 1. vArANasyAmabhUdvizvasenaH kAzyapagotrajaH / brahmAsya devI samprAptavasudhArAdipUjanA / / Uttara P.

Page #97
Jaina Iconography of burning up Dharana on the occasion of his uncanny practice".1 The name of Par va has been explained in Jaina literature differently. "He touches (Sprsati) all ideas by knowledge"is one version. The name was given him because his mother before his birth while lying on her couch, saw a black serpent crawling about. This is the version of the Parsvanatha Carita also. Thirdly, he is the lord (Natha) of his Yaksa named Pars va." Very little now remains to explain emblem of a serpent. Throughout his life and tradition, serpent plays a prominent part. We shall have a further occasion of dealing with the symbolism of the Yaksas and Yaksinis separately. It here suffices to add that the Ganadhara-Sarddha-Sataka speaks of Parsva wearing nine serpent's hoods; (Parsvanatha Naraphana Dharana)." Thus, the canon of the numbers of hoods cited above is not always regular. 60 Mahavira. Mahavira, the twenty-fourth or the last Jina is the greatest of all the Tirthankaras. His position is of unchallenged eminence in the Jaina religion, history and iconography. Being the Lion among the Jaina prophets, rightly given was his emblem of a lion. His Yaksa spirits are respectively known as Matanga and Siddhayika. The Magadhan King Srenika or better known as Bimbisara acts as his Chowri-bearer. His Kevala tree is called Sala (L. Shorca Robusta). 1. M. Bloomfield: The Life and stories of the Jaina Saviour. Parsvanatha (Baltimore, 1914, based upon Parscanatha Carita, p. 10. The same incident we find represented in some images of Parsva. Vide J. Ms. (Gupta Gallery) Indian Museum. "The rest of the slab is profusely covered over with human figures. demons, monsters, and animals, doubtless a representation of the attack of Parsvanatha by his chemy Kamatha, treated after the fashion of the attack of Mara on Buddha Gotama" Anderson Catalogue Part II. spRzati jJAnena sarvabhAvAniti pArzvaH / tathA garbhasthe jananyA nizi sarpo dRSTa iti garbhAnubhAvo'yamiti matvA pazyatIti niruktAtpArzvaH / pArzvo'sya vaiyAvRttyakaraH yakSaH tasya nAthaH pArzvanAthaH / 2. Abhidhanacintamani. 3. Bloomfield, Ibid. p. 20. See Weber-Verzeichnisse Vol. II. p. 982. Rohineya-carita, however, asserts clearly that Dharanendra here called 'Naga King of Patala,' covers him with seven hoods.

Page #98
Tirtham karas The statues of all sizes, which number great, have been found in all Jaina places of Northern and Southern India. The complete images show in detail an accord to the description furnished above. Standing and seated figures have been met with, which range in size from a miniature to a colossus. In most cases, the image is represented as seated rather than standing in which posture other Tirthankaras usually appear in sculptures.1 Regardin his life history, the Jaina books such as the Kalpa-Sutra, Uttara-purana, Trisasti Salaka Purusa Carita, Vardhamanacaritra yield abundant materials. We just deal with those important events of his life, which relate directly to his images and worship. The five Kalyanakas ically mark out the salient periods of a Jina's life. These in Vardhamana's life are associated with interesting episodes. Vardhamana was born of a royal family of Videla or North Bihar, his father Siddhartha, being the ruling prince of Kundapura, the abode of the Nata or Naya clan. His mother is known by the name of Trisala. Connected with his birth is the auspicious legend that the Tirthankara was actually born of Devananda of the family of Jalandhara, wife of Rsabha Datta, a Brahmana, but Indra finding that a Jina ought not to according to tradition, take his birth in a Brahmin family, transferred the foctus through his general Harinegamesa to the womb of Trisala, a Ksatriya lady of royal family. The child Vardhamana 3 61 1. Vide Fig. B. 25, Nagpur Museum, Fig. B 4. Raipur Museum: Two very ancient images in the Arch. Collection, on the Vaibhar Hill, Rajgir; See T a 2 Fig. (Gupta Gallery), Indian Museum. Anderson: Catalogue, Part II., p. 207, the Gwalior Fort sculptures include many prominent figures of Mahavira. In the Deogarh Fort, I noticed a well-preserved image of Vardhamana on a plinth near the Western gate. The fig. is attended by his Yaksa and Yaksini. The earliest images of the Tirthainkara are those which were discovered from the Kankali- ila Vide P. XVII., XCI. V.A. Smith's "The Jaina stupa and other antiquities of Math'ira.' "" bhArate'smin videhAkhyaM viSaye bhavanAGgane / rAjJaH kuNDapurezasya vasudhArA'patat aand: at: araf: fazriea faci fa 11 pRthuH / 3. Cr. tasyAzca devanandAyA garbhayorvyatyayo mayA / vimRzyaivaM zatamukhaH samAhUya ugityapi // 2. Ultarapurana.

Page #99
62 Jaina Iconography had shown early igns of being destined to be a Prophet. Thirty ycars he lived as a house-holder, but after his parent's death, hi deterinined to take the ascetic life and obtained the permission of his brother, who had, then, become king. He renounced everything, all his gold and jewels, distributing them in charity and dividing them among his relatives. He then proceeded in his palanquin to the Park called Sundavana (Sveta) or Sarathi Khanda (Digi. in Kundanagara (of Vairali) and there under the Hioku urce, he stripped himself of all his raiments and jewels and entered upon an ascetic life of Suverest penances and austeri les. The adorable ascetic hero for one year and a month wore clothing, afterwards he went robtless and had no vessel but his hand. Mahavira for twelve years and full six months, entirely neglected his bodly, and laid aside all care of his person, he conclucted himself with perfect patience and equanimity and felt nothing dispirited by the wretchedness of his condition. He had no attachunent or lie binding him to the world. These ties are of four kinds: ar!icles of possession, place, time and affections. "Bound neither !o this world nor to the world to come desiring neither life nor clcath, wholly superior to worldly attachments, he set himself to slay the enemy works (karma). The third stage of Malavira's life is represented by his attainment of hevalajnana or Perfect knowledge. After twelve years of constant practice of asceticism and meditation, when he was 42 years old he went to a place differently known as Trmblikagrama or Jsmbhikagraina, not far from the Pars vanatha Jills. There under the shade of a Sala iree by the side of the river called Rtuvalika or Rjuvalika, 'sitting in a crouching posture, as one does in nuilking a cow' (Samparvarikasana), he was in deepest meditation and attained the absolute or the perfect knowledge. From that time, he became an Arhat or Jina. Then began his career as a preacher of his doctrine which Adideza tathA kartu senAnyaM naigameSiNam / vidadhe naigameSI ca tathaiva svAmizAsanam / / Trisas!i-sulaki-purusu-caritu, Paran, 10, 2nd Sarga, 24-25. 1. Rev. J. Stevenson's version of the Kalpa Sutra (1848).

Page #100
Tirthamkaras 63 went on for 30 years unti! his Nirvana or death. The fundamental point in his doctrine is that birth is nothing, caste nothing, and authority of scripture is nothing but Karma every thing and one gets full release from the revolution of births and deaths on the destruction of Karma through utmost austerities. Like Buddha, he preached first to the rich and aristocratic, and though his followers are to be found more amongst the middle classes, his carliest supporters seem to have been rulers and petty kings.... The Digambara and Svetambara legends give the names of the different rulers Mahavira visited, and tell how Cetaka, king of Videha became a patron of the order, and Kunika, king of Anga, gave him the most cordial welcome,and how, when he travelled as far as Kausambi, he was received with the greatest honour by its King Satanika, who listened with deep interest to his preaching and eventually entered his order. The Digambaras claim that in 30 years he converted to Jainisin, Magadha, Bihar, Prayaga, Kausambi, Campapuri and many other powerful states in North India.' The places visited by the Jina number great in the Jaina chronicles. The first rainy season of his religious ministry was spent at a town named Asthigrama. "Proceeding then to Campa and Prstacampa, he there spent 3, a Vanijyagrama near Vaisali he spent 12, and in the village of Nalanda, near Rajagrha 14, six at Mithila, two at Bhadrika, one at Sravasti, one at Panitabhumi, and the last of the rainy season, he spent at Papa, the place of his Nirvana. His first disciple was Gotama Indrabhuti, who attained Supreme knowledge and became the chief of his perfectly initiated disciples. At the last-named place, sitting on his lotus seat, he preached the fifty-five discourses that explain the results of Karma and while repeating all alone the sixty-sixth called the chief lesson, he passed away at the age of 72 in about 527 B.C.2 We are to deal now with the origin of his name and symbolism. The two principal names by which he was known were is explained 1. The Heart of Jainism. p. 40. 2. This short life of Mahavira is sketched mainly from the Kalpa Sutra of the Svetambaras. The Digambaras, however, differ in the points of his birth, marriage and dress in the Saint's life. Cf. Uttarapurana and the Digambara Harivamsa Purana, Chapters II, III.

Page #101
64 Jaina Iconography 'since the prince was placed in the womb of the Ksatriyani Triala this family's (trcasure ) of gold, silver, riches, corn, jewc!s, pearls, shells, precious stones and corals incrcased, theresore, the prince shall be called Vardhamana (ie. Increasing).1 He was called Vira or Mahavira inasmuch as he specially sent away the deeds (Karmans) His symbol of the lion is the niost befitting mark of his spiritual heroisin. His forbearance, his austerities, his strenuous work in the path of destroying work are all unmistakable proofs of his lion-like personality. Indeed, he figures aniongst the whole range of Jaina Tirthakaras as the Coeur de lion. For the same reason, we find his Yaksini Siddhiyika has the symbol, as her vehicie, of a lion. His Yaksa Malanga riding an elephant personifies the royal power, which was associated with Vardhamana in his worldly as well as in his spiritual lifc. diaranga Sutra. S.B.E. XXII, p. 191. vizeSeNa Irayati prerayati karmANIti vIraH / Abhidhana-Cin!amani. He had also five names Vira, Ativira, Mahavira, Sanmati, Vardhana.

Page #102
CHAPTER II THE YAKSAS AND THE SASANA-DEVATAS In what period of time and how the Yaksas and their spouses Yaksinis otherwise known as Sasana-devatas first appear ed in the Jaina pantheon, we have no means of ascertaining. This much can be said with reliable certainty that these demigods do not represent purely Jaina elements but the form in which we find them is an outcome of mixture of ideas. The names of some of the Yaksas and Sasana-devatas betray unmistakable identity with those of Hindu deities while the symbols connected with them are also of those of the latter class. These are: Agni-Purana. The Yaksas as a class had existed in popular belief and in literary tradition of the Hindus much earlier than the rise of both Buddhism and Jainism. Kuvera or Vaisravana, the king of the Yaksas, who was the treasurer of Siva and lord of the Alaka is several times referred to in carly Hindu literature His attendants were many and several of them are mentioned in a canonical text of the Jainas thus, Purnabhadra, Manibhadra Salibhadra, Sumanabhadra Laksaraksa, Purnaraksa, Sravana, Sarvayasas, Sarva-kama, Samrddha, Amogha, Asmata.1 Of these Manibhadra, whose another name is Yaksendra or Yaksapati attained much antiquarian importance on account of a discovery of his image in the frontier. Such discussion was evoked and it was generally accepted by scholars that Manibhadra was a Yaksa. It may be remarked here in brief that this image must be Jaina in origin on the ground that Manibhadra's name as Yaksendra is counted in the list of the Jaina Yaksas and the inscription in the pedestal reads like the Mathura Jaina 1. pracetasaH sutA yakSAsteSAM nAmAni me zRNu / kevala harikezazca kapilaH kAJcanastathA / meghamAlI ca yakSANAM gaNa eSa udAhRtaH // 2. Bhagavati-Sutra III. 7, also discussed by Rai Bahadur R. Chanda in his "four ancient Yaksa statues", p. 6. Journal of the Dept. of Letters, Cal. Universitv. 1921. See M. BH.

Page #103
66 Jaina Iconography inscriptions. The Yaksas are, in Indian tradition, regarded as the presiding spirits over wealth and therefore it is easy to see why Jainas who represent a mercantile class specially endeared themselves to this cult and appropriated them especially among the class of their Dhundhi-devas or highest divinities. In the foregoing chapter, we have had occasion, in connection with the individual Tirthamkaras, of making mention of the Yaksas by names but a description of their general character was not outlined. 'A Yaksa is a devotee of the Tirthankaras',1 so defines a Jaina liturgical text. According to the Jaina belief, Indra appoints one Yaksa and Yaksi to serve, as attendants of each Tirthankara. The Yaksa would be on his right side and Yaksini on his left. Thus, they also came to be called SasanaDevata or attendant spirits. According to Hemacandra, a Yaksa originates from the particular religious spirit of a Jina.2 Hence, we can take, in all strong probability, that the Yaksa was the leader of the disciples and Yaksini was the first female convert. Truth of this statement can also be supported by the fact that just like the disciples of the Buddha in his image, the Yaksa and the Yaksini occupy the corner of the pedestal on which the Tirthankara figure is seated. In later development, the Yaksa cult obtained greater veneration among the Jainas, hence we find detached independent images of the Yaksas among the ancient ruins. In this connection, we should bear in mind that the Yaksas are traditionally known as demi-gods of riches, Kuvera, their leader, being the supreme deity of treasures. The question may arise why the Yaksas play such a prominent role in the Jaina Pantheon and why they became associates of the Tirthamkaras. It may again be conjectured and probably yakSA bhaktidakSAstIrthakRtAmime / Cf. yA pAti zAsana jainaM sadyaH pratyUhanAzinI / sAbhipretasamRddhyarthaM bhUyAt zAsanadevatA / / Pratistha-kalpa, p. 13. A Yaksa is always spoken of as "tattIrthajanmA", "tattIrthabhUH " tatazca tIrthe ttraivotpnnH|" tIrthe " tatra samutpanne" etc.. repeatedly in Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusa-carita. A yoksa is again clearly described as the defender of the Jina's religion. ( yakSAya zrIyugAGga jinazAsanarakSAkArakAya - Acara-dinakara) Ramaghata Collection, Benares). MSS..

Page #104
Yaksas and Sasana-Devatas with strong grounds that as the Yaksas and Yaksinis were leader disciples of the Jinas, they had been chosen from the rich mercantile class and some of them had represented as bankers. In actual images, we find them decorated in rich jewels and characterised with the symbol of money-bag etc. Apart, however, from this historical background, some quasi-mythological incidents exist in the Jaina literature to explain the origin of some of the Yaksas, as for instance, Dharanendra and Padmavati in the case of Parsvanatha. We, now, proceed to discuss the iconographic points of each and every Yaksa or Safana Deva. Gomukha As first in order of the Yaksas, Gomukha is attached to Rsabhanatha. The texts of both the branches of Jainism concur generally in respect of his attributes. His hands hold the l'arada Mudra and a rosary and left hands hold a Pasa (Digambara Parasu or Axe). His riding animal differs from an ox according to some texts, to an elephant according to others. His colour is golden. The Digambara books assign in addition a Dharma 1. caturbhujaH suvarNAbho gomukhe vRSavAhanaH / hastena parazu N dhatte bIjapUrAkSasUtrakam / varadAnaparaH samyak dharmacakraJca mastake | Vasunandi's Pratistha-saroddhara (MSS. Jaina Siddhanabhuvana. Arrah). Cf. savyetarordhvakaradIpraparazvadhokSasUtraM tathAdharakarAGkaphalepTadAnam / prAggomukhe vRSamukhaM vRSagaM vRSAGka bhaktaM yaje kanakabhaM vRSacakrazIrSam // Pratistha saraddhara by Asadhara, P. 66 Also Cf. svarNAbho vRSavAhano caturbAhubha Again ... Acara-dinakara. varAkSamAlAzAlibhyAM dorbhyAM dakSiNapArzvayoH / mAtuliGgapAzabhRdbhyAM vAmadorbhyAM ca zobhitaH // 67 hemavarNI gajarathaH etc., Trisasti salaka purusa-carita. Further, prathamajinasya gomukho yakSaH svarNavarNo gajavAhanaH Pravacana-Saroddhara (MSS. Chani Jaina Bhandara. Baroda). RSabha gomukho yakSo hemavarNo gajAnanaH / varAkSasUtrapAzaJca bIjapUraM kareSu ca // Sutradhara Mandana's Vastu-sastra (MSS. No.. 1351. Jaina Collection jnana Mandir, Baroda. Cf the details in the Mandira - pratistha-ridhana MSS. Jaina Siddhantabharana, Arrah.

Page #105
Jaina Iconography 68 Cakra symbol to his head. Images of Geinukha are found in two types, one detached and larger in size and another miniature in form as attendant to Adinatha in his representation. The latter type is more abundant as image of Adinatha can be met with in numerous Jaina places of India. In both the types, the figues do not, as a rule, strictly follow the canons of iconography as laid down by the scriptures. The figure of Gomukha, for instance, from Gandaval in Gwalior state shows a staff, axc etc. in his hands. This ascription of the attributes is due to the artist's partial obedience to divergent texts. Now, how to explain the symbolism and name of this particular Yaksa? His bull face, bull as animal, Dharma Cakra mark on his hand all speak of his intimate association with Rsablanitha or Vrsabhanatha, whose bull and Dharma Cakra (wheel of the law or faith) are the prominent effigies. Further, we find, in one text, tha: he has been identified with Dharma or God of Gods (Mahadeva), he being the originator of the Jaina religion. Thus, he is also identified with a bull, the symbol of religion.1 Mahayak, a The Digambara, as well as the Svetambara texts coincidently describe him as riding an elephant and having four faces and eight hands armed with weapons. Only with regard to these weapons the texts vary. The Svetambara books enumerate them as (for right hands) Varada, club rosary, noose, (for left hands) citrus, Abhaya, goad and Sakti. The Digambara texts read for these a disc, trident, lotus, goad (for left arms), a sword, staff, axe and Vara-Mudra (for right arms). Another point of difference between the texts of the two sects is that the Svetambaras Ai acate: eTgleadisea 9121 a aia aa gtalaisen i tridhA baddho vRSabho roravIti mahAdevo martyaM zrA viveza / svAhA / / Pratisthasara-samgraha, p. 13. MSS. J.S. Bhavan, Arrah. tatazca tIrthe tatraivotpanno yakSazcaturmukhaH / zyAmavarNo gajaratha mahAyakSAbhidhAnataH // Cf. the description of the Yaksa in Pravacana-:aroddkara and also in the cava-dinakara.

Page #106
raksas and Sasana-devatas 69 will have green colour, wbile the Digambaras will have golden colour for the Yaksa.1 We do not know images of Mahayaksa except in the case of attendant miniature figures as can be seen in the sculpture of Ajitanatha.Correspondence between the descriptions given above and the figures may be maintained. The Yaksa's symbol of an elephant should be interpreted as clirectly concerned with his master's symbol of the same animal. His eight arms naturally correspond with his four faces. Trimukha Trimukha is Sambhavanatha's attendant disciple. Tests of both the Svetambaras and Digambaras are concordant in describing this Yaksa as possessed of three faces, sis arms and riding on a peacock. With respect to articles held in the hands, the books vary in some respects. The Svetambara texts give him a mongoose, club, Abhaya-Mudri (for his right hands) and a ci!rus garland and rosary (for his left hands).3 The Digambara text, on the contrary, gives the following attributes for his six arms-a disc, sword, Smi (goad) staff, trident and dagger.. 1. cakratrizUlakamalAGkuzavAmahasto nistrizadaNDaparazupravarAnyapANiH / cAmIkaradyutiprabhAGkanato mahAdiryakSo'jito gajarathazcaturAnano'sau // Pratisthasaro!dkarn, p. 66. Cf. ajitasya mahAyakSo hemavarNazcaturmukhaH / / gajendravAhanArUDhaH svocitASTabhujAyudhaH // Vasunandi's Pratisthasara-sangraha MSS, Jaina Collection, Arrah. 2. The figure of Mahai-Yaksa occurs in the Sculpture of Ajitanatha, Dro garh Fort, Jhansi. Cr. Aich. Scrial No. 2225. 3. trinetrastrimukhaH zyAmaH paDbAhubahivAhanaH / dakSiNa kuladharaH gadAbhRdabhayapradaiH / yukto vAmairbhujairmAtuliGgadAmAkSasUtrimiH // Hemacandra's Sumbhavacurita. Cf. zyAmavarNo mayUravAhanaH paDbhujo nakulagadA'bhayayuktadakSiNakarakamalaH mAtuliGgadAmAkSasUtrayuktavAmapANiH Pravacana:aroddhara MSS, Jaina Bhandar Chhani Baroda, 4. cakrAsizRNyupagasavyasayonyahastairdaNDatrizUlamupayan zitakartikAM ca / vAjidhvajaprabhunataH zikhigo'janAbhastryakSaH pratIkSatu bali trimukhAkhyayakSaH // Pratistha-saroddhara. Cf. the same details in Mandira Pralistharidhana MSS. Jaina bhavana, Arrah.

Page #107
770 Jaina Iconography Separate representations of Trimukha have not been discovered anywhere in India. A corner figure in miniature of the Yaksa may be seen in the sculpture of the third Jina Sambhavanatha. In general details, the figures accord with the canonical descriptions. His symbol of peacock has close connection with his Faksini, Prajnapti, who is one of the presiding deities over learning or as they are the Fidyadevis, and who also has peacock as her vehicle. The Yaksa's name of Trimukha can be explained as his having three faces. Taksesvara He belongs, as an attendant spirit, to Abhinandana. He is characterised by the symbol of an elephant, the ascription thereof is common to divergent books. The attributes held by the spirit are not regular. Sectarian canons vary in this respect. According to the Svetambara view, the Yaksa holds in his right hands- a citrus, a rosary, and in his left hand, a mongoose and a goad. According to the other view, he has a bow, shield (Khetaka) and a sword. We have not met with any instance of an image of YakseSvara as a separate piece. The sculpture of Abhinandana, however, includes a figurine of this Yaksa and when compared reveals much correspondence in respect of symbolism with the canonical description." This Yaksa has been described as the King of Yaksas (Yakses vara) and very powerful. The elephant symbol, in his 1. tIrthayakSezvarastatra zyAmo dviradavAhanaH / aldust aferit fazrungfa gr&gfaut || vAmau ca dhArayan bAhU nakulAMkuzadhAriNo // Hemacandra's Abhinandana-carita III. 2. Cr. zyAmasundaravAhano yugabhujo hastadvaye dakSiNe muktAkSAvalimuttamAM pariNataM mAtu liGga vahan vAme'pyaGka zamuttamaM ca nakulaM kalyANamAlAkaraH // Acaradinakara (MSS. Ramaghata Jaina Collection) 2. preGkhaddhanuHkheTakavAmapANi sakampatrANAsyapasavyahastam / zyAmakaristhaM kapiketubhaktaM yakSezvaraM yakSamihArcayAmi || 3. Cf. Fig. B. 10. Nagpur Museum Collection. Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 68.

Page #108
Yaksas and Sasana-Devalas case, betrays thus kingly magnificence. His goad is an instrument for driving the elephant. The symbol of a mongoose (Nakula) is curiously identical with the same symbol held by Jambhala, the Buddhist Kuvera of wealth. Tumbara He is attached to Sumatinatha Jina as an attendant Yaksa. That his vehicle is Garuda is attested by the scriptures of both the sects of Jainism. His attributes according to the Svetambara iconography are: Varada, Sakti (spear) club and noose' whereas the Digambara variants are these: two snakes, fruit and Farada. The Digambara scripture gives him in addition a snake in the shape of a holy thread. Except in the sculpture of Sumatinatha, no separate image of Yaksas has up to the present been discovered. Tumbara, in Hindu Literature is said to be the divine musician, a Gandharva. In Jaina pantheon, this aspect is completely changed for some reason or other; he changed his musical instrument for deadly weapons. Both he and his Yaksini known as Purusadatta (among the Digambara) ride upon birds, his being Garuda, and the Yaksini's red goose (Cakravaka). The Jina Sumatinatha, to whom they are attached, has also a red goose for his emblem. Kusuma or Puspa Taksa His characteristic symbol, according to the Svetambaras and Digambaras, is an antilope. Texts of both the sects, how 1. tattIrthe tumbarurnAma zvetAGgastArkSyavAhanaH / dakSiNI varadazaktidharau bAhU samudrahan / vAmau bAhU gadAdharau pAzayuktau ca dhArayan / / Hemacandra's Sumatinathacarita. 71 2. sarpopavItaM viSapannagordhvakaraM sphuraddAnaphalAnyahastam / kokAGkanamraM garuDAdhirUDhaM zrItumbaraM zyAmaruci yajAmi // Cf. sarpadvayaM phalaM dhatte varadaH parikIrtitaH / sarpayajJopavIto'sau khagAdipativAhanaH / / Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 67. Vasunandi's Pralisthasarasamgraha, Arrah Jaina Collection.

Page #109
72 Jaina Iconography (ver, diverge with regard to the objects held by him. The Svetambara Yaksa will have four hands holling a fruit and ,,1bhaya (in the right hands) and a rosary and a mongoose, (in his left hands).' The Yaksa as known to the Digambaras has a lance, Varaun-.Mudra, shield and lbhaya-Mudra in his four hands.? The Yaksa's name as Kusuma or l'uspa (flower) has direct counction with the emblem of red lotus flower of his master. His antelope symbol standing for the idea of quickness seems to be associated with his Yaksini, whose name is 'Manovega' or quick as mind' in a literal sense). Malanga ir l'aranandi His characteristic emblem is not comnion to both the sects. The Svetamlara view will prescribe an elephant for his vehicle while the Digambara will make him ride a lion. The attributes which the Yaksa holds vary with the books of the two sccts. The Svetambara version gives them as: a l'ilva fruit, noose, mongoose and goad." The other version cnumeralt's the same as: -stall, spear, Svastika and flag.' Onc text, however, of the Digambaras speaks of the Yaksa as two-armed and as having a crooked face." 1. zrIpadmaprabhamya kusumo yakSo nIlavarNaH kuraGgavAhanazcaturbhujaH phalAbhayayukta dakSiNapANidvayo nakalAkSastrayaktavAmapANizca / Paracam-'ciruleika NSS. Chhani Jaina Bhardwa. Barva). Cr. sphUrjatphalAbhayamudakSiNapANigmo nakalAkSasUtrayutavAmakaradvayazca saMgha jinArcanarataM kusumaH punAtu / Acaradinakara (MSS. Ramaghala Collection, Benorcs). 2. mRgAdhirUDhaM varakuntavAmakaraM sakheTAbhayasavyahastam / zyAmAGgamabjadhvajadevasavyaM puSpAkhyayakSaM paritarpayAmi / / illuulin Pharistbar:diana Mss. Jain Siddhanta bhavana, Arrah). 1. supArzvasya mAtaGgo yakSo nIlavarNo gajavAhanazcaturbhujo bilvapAzayuktadakSiNapANidvayanakulAMkuzaSThavatavAmapANiH / / Baucamasaumlahain (MISS. Chhani Collection'. 1. siMhAdhirohasya sadaNDazUlasavyAnyapANeH kuTilAnanasya / kRSNatvipaH svastikaketubhaktarmAtaGgayakSasya karomi pUjAm / Prasthasaroddlara. 5. supArzvanAthadevasya yakSo mAtaGgasaMjJakaH / dvibhujo vakratuNDo'sau kRSNavarNaH prakIrtitaH // Pratisthasarasangraha (MSS. Jaina Siddhanta bhavana, Arrah).

Page #110
Yaksas and Sasana-Devatas 73 A survey of the North Indian Muscums and Jaina sites makes it possible for me to say that nowhere a separate image of this particular Yaksa has been found. In the sculptures of Suparsvanatha, however, we find him represented in his usual position. As his name (Matanga- elephant') suggests, his symbol ought to be appropriately an elephant. And his goad shows that he drives the animal. In his Digambara aspect, his Svastika symbol may be explained as directly concerned with the same emblem bclonging to his master Suparsvanatha. Vijara or Srana taksa He has, in the Digambara vcrsion, three eyes, and holds in his hands a fruit, rosary, axc and the l'aramudra'; with some alterations the Svetambaras represent him with three cycs, a swan as his vehicle, two hands holding a disc and a club.? He is known to them by the name of Vijaya. The sculptures of Candraprabha include, as a whole, a figure of this Yaksa. The symbolism as noticed above is followed by such figures. 3 Ajila His symbol of a tortoise as a vehicle is admitted by both the sects. The attributes vary, however, with them. Thc Svetambara image will hold in his hands, a citrus, rosary, mongoose and a spear." The image as conceived by the Digambaras will bear 1. candraprabhajinendrasya zyAmo yakSastrilocanaH / phalAkSasUtrakaM dhatte parazuM ca varapradaH / , (MSS, Jaina Siddhanta bhavana, Arrah). 2. dienafeenafarit HTET: 1 dadhAno dakSiNe cakraM bhuje vAme tu mudgaram // Hemacandra's Trisastisnlalapurusucurita). 3. A clear figure of the Yaksa in the sculpture of Candraprabha, discovered in the Gwalior Statc Arch. No. 84. 4. Tarat caferat: darf: FATEHT: 1 bibhrANo dakSiNI bAhU mAtuliGgAkSasUtriNau // vAmau tu nakulakuntadhAriNau dhArayan bhujau / / Smyddhinathacarita by Ilcmacandra.

Page #111
74 vice above a Sakti, Varada-mudra, fruit and rosary.1 The tortoise symbol is the same with the symbol of his Yaksini (according to the Digambara version). The Svetambara Yaksini holds an urn having some connection with water. All this group of emblems agree in nature with the aquatic symbol of a crocodile or a crab as associated with their master Suvidhinatha. Brahma aksa He is invariably given four faces, three eyes, eight hands, and a lotus seat. The difference lies in respect of the attributes held by the eight hands. The Svetambara Brahma Yaksa bears the following objects in his hands: a citrus, club, noose, Abhaya, mongoose, mace, goad and rosary." The Digambara variants are a bow, staff, shield, a sword, l'ara-Mudra etc. The conception of this Yaksa has much in common, together with the name with that of the Brahmanic deity Brahma. The same four faces (Caturmukha) an epithet of Brahma, the lotus seat etc. are attributed to this demi-god. His Yaksini Asoka (of the Svetambaras) has the lotus-seat while the same Yaksini as represented by the Digambaras has black hogs for her chariot and with the emblem of dawn may be said to be the Aurora of the Jainas. Jaina Iconography Isvara Yaksa This Yaksa of Sreyamsanatha has from both accounts, a bull vehicle, three eyes and four hands. The Digambara canon places on his hands the attributes of a trident (Trisula), staff, rosary and a fruit." The Svetambara icon of the same Yaksa 1. pratipuSpadaNDasya yakSaH khetacaturbhujaH / phalAkSasUtrazaktayADhyo varadaH kUrmavAhanaH // Pratisthasurasamgraha. 2. tattIrthabhUrbrahmanAmA yakSastrayakSazcaturmukhaH / padmAsanaH zvetavarNazcatubhirdakSiNairbhujaiH / mAtuliGgI mudgarabhRtsapAzAbhayadAyibhiH / vAmaistu nakulagadAGakuzAkSasUtradhAribhiH // Hemacandra's Sitalanathacarita. 3. trinetro vRSavAhanaH phalAkSasUtrasaMyuktaH satrizUlazcaturbhujaH / Pratistha-sara-samgraha (MSS.. Arrah Library).

Page #112
Yaksas and Sasana-devatas holds a mongoose, rosary, staff and a fruit. 1 A separate image of this Yaksa was unexpectedly explored by the author, who gave it to the Indian Museum, Calcutta. The image with slight modifications agrees with the scriptural description. The important symbol of a bull is prominent enough in the figure. From the aforesaid description and from the name itself the Yaksa, represents a borrowed form of the Brahmanic Siva or Isvara. His Yaksini also bears the name of Gauri (according to the Digambaras ). And as Manavi (Svetambara version ), she rides an elephant like the consort of Siva. All this shows that the older gods became subordinate to the Tirthankaras whom they also served as attendants with their wives. Kumara Both the texts of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras coincide in attributing to him a vehicle of swan and white complexion. The Digambara view makes him three-headed and six-handed while the Svetambara school only four-armed. The attributes held by him according to the former are a bow, ichneumon, fruit, club, vara.3 The attributes as represented by the latter view are a citrus, arrow, mongoose and bow. 1 It is rather curious that this Yaksa, who bears the analog 1. 2. Cr. trizUladaNDAnvitavAmahastaH kare'kSasUtraM tvaparaM phalaM ca / Pratistha-saruddhara. p. 68. vRSayAno mAtuliGgagadAdakSiNadordvayaH / nakulAkSasUtrayuktadakSiNetarabAhukaH / / Hanacandra's Sreyamsanathacarita. trimukhaH SaDbhujaH zvetaH surUpo haMsavAhanaH / Pratistha-sara-samgraha (Jaina Bhavana, Arrah). 3. zubhro dhanurbabhru phalADhyasavyahasto'nyahasteSu gadeSTadAnaH / lulAyalakSmapraNatastrivaktraH pramodatAM haMsacaraH kumAraH / / 4. tattIrthabhUH kumArAkhyo yakSo haMsarathaH sitaH / mAtuliGgazaradharau dhArayan dakSiNau karau // vAmau ca nakuladhanadhAriNau dhArayan bhujau / vAsupUjya jitendrasyAbhavat zAsanadevatA / / 75 Pratistha savoddhara. Hemacandra's Vavupaiya-carita.

Page #113
Jaina Iconography ous name to Kumara or Karitikeya should have a swan instead of a peacock for his vehicle while the next Yaksa, who is called Caturmukha (an epithet of Brahma) has a peacock as his riding animal. In all probability there must havc been some unknown anomaly in the symbolism of these two Yaksas. Caturmukha or Sanmukha laksa He is known by the name of Caturmukha, to the Digambaras and Sanmukha to the Svetambaras. Both sects, however, concurrently assign to him the vehicle of a peacock. Caturmukha las twelve arms according to one version and cight arms according to another. The arms hold such objects as-an axe, scimilar (haukscinko), Iksamani (?) shield, staff etc. The Yaksa Sanmukha has twelve hands holding a fruit, disc, arrow, sword, noose, rosary, mongoose, discus, bond, fruit, goad and Abhara. l'rom the description and names, he bcars anomalously, as mentioned before, identity with Brahima as well as with Kumira or Kirtikeya, The Sverinbara Yaksa is clcarly called Sanmukha (six-headed, a designation of Karttikeya) while in accordance with both the doctrines, lic rides a peacock, the svinbol of Kurttikeya. Putula luksa The Digarnbara and the Svetanibara books agrec insofar as the Yaksa has three faces, six arms and the vehicle of a dolphin. The former tests state in a version of difference that he 1. vimalasya jitendrasya nAmArthAbhyAM caturmukhaH / yakSo dvAdazadordaNDa: murUpaH zikhivAhanaH / / Prutisthu-svira-sangraha MSS. Jaina Bhavana. 67. Tet T741963/4fTHT (?) centfot: atenuai temaforecaiguEHET: 1 vibhraccatubhiraparaiH zikhigaH kirAGkanamraH pratRpyata yathArthacaturmakhAkhyaH / / Mendia-Pratistiu-I'ielana (MISS 6/2 Arrah). 2. Pravacana-saroddhara, Dvira 26. tattIrthabhUH SaNmukhAkhyo yakSaH zikhirayaH sitaH / dakSiNaH zUlacakrepukhagapAzAkSasUtribhiH / vAmaiH sanakulacakrakodaNDazUlazaGkukaiH / Heinacandra's l'imalunithacarita.

Page #114
Taksas and Sasana-Devatas holds a goad, spear, bow, rope, plough and fruit' and in addition bears a canopy of a three-hooded snake. The latter texts represent his hands as holding a lotus, sword, moose, mongoose, fruit and rosary. For some reason or other his name "Patala" has been connected with Ananta both meaning serpent-kings of the nether world. His symbol of a three-headed snake may support this explanation. He seems to be the presiding spirit of the Naga world and the plough symbol suggests of agriculture also. Kinnara raksa The texts of both the schools is unaninious in giving this Yaksa three faces and six arms. His vehicle differs from a tortoise with the Svetambaras to a fish with thc Digambaras. The former sect describes his attributes as a citrus, mace, Abhaya, mongoose, lotus and a rosary. The Digambaras, on the contrary, describe them as a disc, Vajra, goad, club, rosary and Fara Mudra.3 The symbolisms of the some of the Yaksas are sometimes very riddling. It is certain that the conception of this Yaksa is mainly borrowed from an older tradition. Thc Kinnaras are yakSaH pAtAlanAmakaH / trimukhaH SaDbhujo raktavarNo makaravAhanaH / Pratistha-sara-sangrahn (MSS.. Jaina Collection Arrah). Cr. pAtAlakaH sazRNizUlakacApasavya hastaH kaSAhalaphalAGkitasavyapANiH / rakto'ryatAM triphaNanAgazirAstrivaktraH / Pratisthi-saroddhara, p. 69. 2. tattIrthabhUH kinnarAkhyastryAsyaH kUrmaratho'ruNaH / dakSiNastu mAtuliGgagadAbhRdabhayapradaiH / vAmaistu nakulapadmAkSamAlAmAlibhirbhujaiH // Hemacandra's Dharmunatlincarita, Parva 4, Sarga 5. 3. dharmasya kinnaro yakSastrimukho mInavAhanaH / ___Pratistha-sriva-samgraha. sacakravajrAGkuzavAmapANiH samudgarAkSAlivarAnyahastaH / pravAlavarNastrimukho jhaSastho vajrAGkabhakto'haMtu kinnaro'rcAm // Pratistha-sarorldhara.

Page #115
Jaina Iconography supposed to be human figures with horse-heads and Kubera is their leader being called Kimisvara. Gradually, we find, these Yaksas are associated with Nagas, Kinnaras, Garudas, Gandharvas and so on. Of course, the particular appearance in which they appear along with the Jinas is, no doubt, of Jaina invention. The idea of his three faces is quite original to them. The fish symbol alone given by the Digambaras is curious enough to be noticed in the case of his Yaksini Kandarpa as represented by the Svetambara. 78 Garuda Yaksa of Santinatha Garuda Yaksa is represented from both points of view as riding a boar. (acc. to the Pravacana-Saroddhara and elephant acc. to Hemacandra) and as endowed with four hands. The objects borne by the hands, as usual, vary canonically. In accordance with the Svetambara view, the hands hold a citrus, lotus, mongoose and rosary. To the other sect the hands are known to have a lotus, fruit, Fajra and discus.2 I saw a figure of Garuda Yaksa on the Southern face of a pillar just entering the Deogarh Fort Gate (Western) as an attendant of Santinatha. He rides a boar and holds a club, rosary, citrus, and snakes. Thus, all this agrees mostly with the description cited before. It seems to be a Svetambara image although in Deogarh Fort there are Digambara images in greater number as well. Both are found inseparably mixed up. His symbol of an elephant might not have distant allusion to the mythical bird Garuda while holding an elephant in one hand and tortoise in another (Gaja Kacchapa). 1. tattIrthajanmA garuDayakSo gajaratho'sitaH / sistent vIjapUrAbjabhRddakSiNakaradvayaH / vAmau dadhAno nakulAkSasUtrAbhyAM sahitau karau // Hemacandra's Santinathacarita, Parva 5. Sarga 5. 2. garuDo nAmato yakSaH zAntinAthasya kIrtitaH / varAhavAhanazyAmo vakravaktracaturbhujaH Pratistha-sara-sangraha (Arrah). Cr. vaktrAnadho'dhastanahastapadmaphalo'nyahastApitavajracakraH / mRgadhvajArhatpraNataH saparyAM zyAmaH kiTistho garuDo'bhyupaitu // Pratistha-saroddhara, p. 69.

Page #116
Taksas and Sasana-devatas 79 Gandharva l'aksa The Digambara account inakes this Yaksa to ride a bird and bear four hands. The symbols held in them are a snake, noose, bow etc. The Svetambara representation shows a swan as his vehicle and his four hands holding a l'arada, noose, citrus and goad.? The Gandharvas are a class of derni-gods regarded as the musicians of gods and are said to give good and agreeable voice to girls. As the Yaksas came out from all kinds of demi-gods, it is very natural that a Gandharva also had a place among them. His vehicle of a bird ora swan might echo theidca of his inherent connection with sound and sky, which is called "Gandharvanagara" or the city of the Gandharvas. Khendra or Yaksendra According to the imagery of both the sects, this Yaksa is represented as having six mouthis and twelve arms. The Svetambara version gives the vehicle of a conch-shell and adorns his arms with a citrus, arrow, sword, club, noose, and Abhara, Imongoose, bow, fruit, spcar, goad and rosary. Another book of the same school gives him a peacock as a vehicle.' He, as called "Khendra' by the Diganilaras, is described as bcaring in 1. kunthunAthajinendrasya yakSo gandharvasaMjJakaH / pakSiyAnasamArUDhaH zyAmavarNazcaturbhujaH / / *** Pratis!havara-Samurahin (MSS. Arrah). Cr. sanAgapAzordhvakaradvayo'dhaH karadvayAttepudhanuH sunIlaH / ___ gandharvayakSaH stamaketu bhaktaH pUjAmupetu zritapakSijAnuH // 2. tattIrthabhUzca gandharvayakSo haMsaratho'sitaH / dadhAno dakSiNI vAhudaNDau varadapAzinau / mAtuliGgAGkuzadharau dhArayan dakSiNetarau // Hemacandra. 3. yakSendraH SaNmukhastryakSaH zyAmaH zaGkharatho bhujaiH / mAtuliGgibANikhaGgimudgaripAzabhIpradaiH (chidaH) / dakSiNaH SaDabhiranyazca nakuleSvasicarmabhiH / zUlAGkuzAkSaH sUtrAkSaMyuktastattIrthabhUstathA / Hemacandra's dranathacaritra. 4. Pravacanasaroddhara.

Page #117
80 Jaina Iconography his twelve arms a bow, thunderbolt, noose, club, goad, Varada, arrow, fruit, garland, etc.' In description and name, he seems to be a Jaina counterpart of Kartikeya 'sis-faced'. The vehicle of Sadanana i.c. peacock is the same in both the cases. It is to be noted also that this Yaksa is again nearly the same in all respects as the Sanmukha Yaksa of Vimalanatha already described. The representation and the name (Kha--Indra) suggest the idea of a heavenly Indra, one of the Dikpalas. This Yaksa also holds a thunderbolt. Kubera. His iconographic marks common to both the schools of Jainism are rainbow colour, an elephant as vehicle, his eight hands and four faces. The Svetambara Kubera Yaksa holds distinctly, however, a Varada, axe, spear, Abhaya, citrus, sakti, club, and rosary The Digambara image has, instead, the attributes of a shield (phalaka ) bow, staff, lotus, sword, axe, noose, Varada-Mudra.3 As an illustration of the description, the figure of Kubera, in the sculpture of Mallinatha, in the Nagpur Muscum, (Fig. B. 18) may be cited. As usual, in important points, the figure is the material embodiment of the iconographic rules. 1. rasya jinanAthasya khendro yakSastrilocanaH / dvAdazorubhujaH zyAmaH SaDmukhaH zaGkhavAhanaH / / Pratisthasara Samgraha, MSS.. Jaina Bhavana Arrah. 2. tattIrthajanmA kuberayakSa indrAyudhadyutiH / caturmukho gajarathazcatubhirdakSiNairbhujaiH // varadena parzuzUlamRdbhyAmabhayadena ca / vAmaiH zaktimudgarakabIjapUrAkSasUtribhiH // Mallinathacarita, Parva 8, Sarga 8.. 3. mallinAthasya yakSezaH kubero hastivAhanaH / surendracApasaMvarNazcASTahastazcaturbhujaH // Pratisthasangraha (MSS. Arrah ). Cr. saphalakadhanurdaNDapadmakhaDgaparazupAzavarapradASTapANim / gajagamanacaturmukhendracApadyutikalazAGkanataM yaje kuveram // Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #118
Taksas and Sasanaderasas In the list of the Yaksas, Kubera, who was the king of them, must be included. Every Indian religion has a Kubera. This Kubera of Jainism retains the common symbol of a club found in the Hindu Kubera. In other respects, his aspect is quite original and distinct. Varuna Descriptions of both the sectarian literatures agree insofar as to make him three-eyed, crowned with matted hair and riding a bull. The Digambara books represent him as eight-headed and four-arined but the Svetambara books represent him as cightheaded and eight-armed. The former representation bears in the hands a shield, sword, fruit and Varada1 and the latter-a citrus, mace, arrow, spcar, mongoose, lotus, bow and axe.2 This is another instance of mixing up the conception of Varuna, the guardian deity of ocean and the Western quarter, with that of a Yaksa, the attendant Jina Muni Subrata. His name is Varuna. He holds, on the other hand, citron, club, and the mongoose,-the symbols of Kubera and Jambhala of Bud dhism. Bhrkuti The Svetambara and Digambara descriptions are undivided as to the present Yaksa's having four faces, eight hands and a bull as the vehicle. The Digambara books give the following attributes to his hands,-shield, sword, bow, arrow, goad, lotus, disc, Varada. The texts of the other school substitute these: 1. trinetro vRSabhArUDhaH zvetavarNazcaturbhujaH / aSTAnano mahAkAyo jaTAmukuTabhUSitaH // Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 69. 2. tattIrthajanmA varuNayakSastryakSazcaturmukhaH / zani uct queeezgfrafarinjat: 11 mAtuliGgagadAbANazaktibhRdbhistathAparaiH / nakulAkSaghanuHparzudhAribhiH parizobhitaH // Hemacandra's Munisuvratanathacarita. 81 3. aSTabAhuzcaturvaktro raktAkSo nagavAhanaH / Pratisthasa:asamgraha.

Page #119
Jaina Iconography cilrus spcar, macc, 1bhara, mongoose, axe, thunderbolt, rosary." ___ This Yaksa, as he is called, Nandiga ( going on the Bull of Siva'; has some mysterious connection with the Nandi, the chief attendant of Siva. He once assumed the form of Bhr. kuti, hence such is the name in his Jaina type. Gomodha or Gomeda Ile is the Yaksa of Aristancini or Neninatha. The descriptions of both the sects are equal regarding the features of his three faces, six hands and vehicle of a man. In other respccts, the Svetintbara books prescribe for his hands a citrus, axc, disc, mongoose, trident, and Sakti (spear)); the Digambara texts give him similarly for his hands- a hammer (Drughana), axc, staff, fruit, Fajra, l'aruda Mudra. We have fairly a good number of Comedha figures for caa. kheTAsikodaNDazarAGkuzAvjacakrepTadAnollasitApTahastam / caturmugvaM nandigamutpalAbhabhaktaM japAbhaM bhRkuTiM yajAmi // Pratis!husarasanyrala. 1. tattIrthajanmA bhRkuTiyakSastryakSazcaturmakhaH / svarNavarNo vRpagthazcatubhirdakSiNairbhujaiH / / ghRtamAtuliGgazaktimudgarAbhayadairyutaH / vAmaiH punarnakulakapazuvajrAkSasUtribhiH // Hernacandra's Nominathacarita. 2. racitabhRkuTibandhaM nandinA dvAri ruddhe / Herariline. 1. tattIrthajanmA trivadanaH zyAmavarNa: purupavAhano bIjapUraparazucakrasaMyuktadakSiNakaratrayo nakulatrizUlazaktisahitavAmakaratraya evaMvidhagomedhanAma Cunavijaya Suri's Nominathacarite (Nirnava Sagar Press) caa. zrIneminAthe gomedho narasthastrimukho'sitaH / p. 16. bIjapUraM pazu cakra zakti zUlaM nakulaM (kareSu) (MSS No. 1351, Juin Collection. Inina Mandir, Baroda). +. ariSTanemidevasya yakSo gomedasaMjJakaH / trimukhaH paDbhujaH zyAmaH puSpayAno navAhanaH / zyAmastrivaktro drughanaM kuThAraM daNDaM phalaM vajravarau ca bibhrat / gomedayakSaH sitazaGkhalakSmA pUjAM nRvAho'rhatu puSpayAnaH // Pratisthararasamgruha (Jaina bhavana, Arrah).

Page #120
Yaksas and Sasanadevatas comparison. They all show the nearest correspondence to the scriptural description.1 He is typically a Yaksa and probably a form of Kubera. Two symbols occurring in the description very strongly support this. In the first place, he is called Naravahana (riding a man), which is another name of Kubera. He is also called Puspayana (driving the chariot called Puspa). This is, again indicative of this Kubera type inasmuch as Kubera's chariot was called Puspa or Puspakam, which was subsequently snatched away by Ravana and after him by Rama. Parsva or Dharanendra This Yaksa of Parsvanatha is one of the most important amongst the members of his class. His image whether Svetambara or Digambara has the common points of snake-hoods, snake-attribute and a tortoise as vehicle. The Svetambara books, in points of difference, make him appear with four hands holding an ichneumen, snake, citrus, and snake (again).2 The Digambara texts, in turn, give his hands snake, noose and Varada. A clear representation of Parsva Yaksa's figure may be seen in the statue of Parsvanatha from Jogion ka Matha, near Rohtak town. Another good figure of the Yaksa was seen by the I. What Dr. Vogel has wrongly identified as the figure of Kubera is, in fact, the figure of Gomedha, Mathura Museum fig. B. 65 (Cata). The same case with fig. No. 75 of the figure of Gomedha, Deogarh Fort, Jhansi, Arch Photo-Negatives, Serial No. 2229. tattIrthabhUrabhUtpArzvayakSaH kUrmarathaH zitiH / gajAnanaH phaNiphaNAchatrazobhI caturbhujaH / nakulAhI vAmadorbhyAM vIjapUroragau punaH / Hemacandra's Parsvanalhacarita. 2. Cf. pArzvaH syAtpArzvanAthasya kUrmArUDho gajAnanaH / bIjapuroragaM nAgaM nakulaM zyAmavarNakaH / 4. 83 Sutradhara Mandana's Vastusastra (MSS Jnana mandir, Baroda). 3. UrdhvadvihastaghRtavAsukirudbhaTAghaH savyAnyapANiphaNipAzavara praNantA / zrInAgarAjakakudadharaNo'bhranIlaH kUrmazrito bhajatu vAsukimaulirijyAm / / Prastisthasaroddhara. Vide Photo Negatives, Arch: Dept., Serial No. 2431.

Page #121
84 Jaina Iconography author in a cave on the Eastern side of the Gwalior l'ort. Both the examples answer to the descriptions of the Yaksa. In connection with his origin, there exists in Jaina literaturc a mythological story as to how he was saved by Jina Parkvanatha from being burnt in the sacred fire of a falsc ascetic Katha (afterwards, Meghamalin) and how when attacked by Mcghamaliu, in his kapotsarga risana, Pars vanatha was gratefully waited upon by the same serpent, born next as Dharansndra, or Nagendra Yaksa of Patala. This story we have reproduced in detailin connection with the treatment of Pars vanatha and his images (vide ante). Apart from this mythology, the very name Dharanendra, or Dharanidhara clearly signifies his identity with Sesanaga, the king of the serpents. In actual iconography, we find this Yaksa has snake-symbols abundantly besides the snakehoods. He holds also Vasuki, the king of snakes (said to be a son of Kas yapa). His vehicle of a tortoise might suggest his superiority over Kamatha (hamatha= tortoise), wlio had been his and his master's enemy for ages. Nalanga laksa. He, being the attendant of Malavira, is the last but the most important one in the list of Yaksas. Not much difference cxists between the two sects in the matter of his iconographic descriptions. Both the sects describe him as two-handed and riding an elephant. The Svetanibara school gives a mongoose and a citrus as his attributes,' while, the Digambara makes them a Varada Mudra and a citron. The same sect adds a Dharma Cakra symbol for his head.? 1. artFHT ATA GT TET: #ffrantser: 1 bIjapUraM bhuje vAme dakSiNe nakulaM dadhat / / Hemacandra's Mnhaviracarita, Parva 14. cr. Eratzen ATAS TOTECTSat Tata ___ dakSiNe nakulaM haste vAme syAd bIjapUrakam // (MISS, 1351, Juanamandir, Baroda). 2. TaraftarafT TETT ATT :... RCT TOATA: 1 mAtaliGga kare dhatte dharmacakraJca mastake // Pratishasarasamgruha (MSS J.S. B. Arrah).

Page #122
CHAPTER III THE YAKSINIS The Yaksinis as much as the Yaksas constitute a class of deified beings quite peculiar to the Jaina religion. There are reasons for believing that they are not purcly fanciful creations. The Jaina books supply us the clue that they were female attendants of the Tirtharkaras, being the leaders of the women converts. As they, however, appear in the Jaina representations, they are cudowed with semi-divine attributes and symbolism of various kinds. These, in historical analysis, may reveal inixed conceptions, which explain how their well-developed iconography arose. The names and symbols of some of thic Sasana devis, such as, Cakresvari, Nirvani Devi, Ambika betray unmistakably original ideas of personalities fused with those of older Brahmanic goddesses. Of the Yaksinis a good number passes into an order of Jaina female deities, called the l'idraderis or goddesses of learning. These goddesses share in a great measure forms of the Brahmanic fernale deities. All these resemblances prove the fact with greater force how the Yaksini representations underlic striking conceptions borrowed from Brahmanic pantheon. Additionally too, there are cases in which the Yaksinis with their consorts have inore directly evolved their forms out of semi-mythological incidents in which the Jinas were the main actors. Further, it may be said that the Yaksa character of the Yaksini's symbolisin and their chief mission as Sasana-devis (governing goddesses) have been carefully taken into account by the sculptors as they represented them in images. Cakreivari The Svetambaras and the Digambaras concurrently descrilic her as holding the symbol of disc and riding a Garuda. The Svetambara image has eight hands, which carry Parada Mudra, 1. atqifa Tri MA: HET:TUESIT it i sAbhipretasamRddhayarthaM bhUyAcchAsanadevatA //

Page #123
Yaksinis 1 arrow, disc, noosc, bow, thunder, disc, goad. The Digambara image, on the other hand, is represented as having either twelve or four hands. In case of twelve, the attributes are these :-cight discs, citrus Varada Mudra, and two Fajras. The four-handed figure holds two discs.2 A good number of images of Cakresvari, both as detached and as part of the Rsabha Jina figure, has been found in Jaina places. The abundance of her image is due to her important cult-position as the Sasanadevi of the first Tirtharikara.3 By her naune and symbols of disc., Garuda etc., she pertains to the nature of Vaisnavi, the wife of Visnu, whose one name is Cakresvara. Some texts give her the symbol of citron, which brings her into connection with the Yaksa class. Thus, as pointed out before, the Yaksinis, as a rule, combine in them influences from the Brahmanic goddesses as well as those of the Yaksa demi-divinities. nAmatoticakreti hemAbhA garuDAsanA | varapradeSubhRccakripA zibhidakSiNairbhujaiH / / vAmahastairdhanurvajjracakrAGkuzadharairyutA // Hemacandra's Adisconcerte. Parva : Sarga . Cf. The Prac coana-saroddhara, Dvara 26. vAme cakrezvarI devI sthApyA dvAdaza paDbhujA / dhatte hastadvaye vajre cakrANi ca tathASTasu // ekena bIjapUraM tu varadA kamalAsanA / caturbhujA'thavA cakraM dvayorgaruDavAhanA / / Vasunandi's Pratisthasarasamgraha. 87 sUryAbhAdyakaradvayAttakulizA cakrAGkahastANTakA savyAsavyazayollasatphalavarA paNmUrtirAste'mbuje / tArkSyavAsukicakrayugmarucakatyAgaizcatubhiH karaiH Pratisthasaroddhara. Vide, Cakresvari Fig. 8-9/499, Lucknow Sculpture; Fig. Deogarh Fort, Annual Report, Arch. Dept., 1917-1918 Plate II; Another Fig. on the Pillar across the Western gate, Deogarh Fort; Gwalior Fort, Cave, Eastern roof: Fig. No. D6 Mathura Museum has been wrongly identified by Dr. Vogel as Vaisnavi. The hands of the Yaksini do not seem to be quite regular. The Mathura image has ten hands, the Deogarh image (first) has 16 arms, the other one bas 8 arms. A twelve-handed fig. 5 in the Barabhuj Gumpha, Udayagiri, Distt. Puri.

Page #124
88 Jaina Iconography Ajita or Rohini. Her symbolic vehicle varies with different texts even among the same sect. For instance most of the Svetambara books, in agreement with the Digambara books, give her an iron-seat (Lohisana) but the Svetambara text called the Icaradinakara makes her vehicle a bull. The other symbols, which she holds in her hands are constantly among the Svetambara books as follows-I'arada Mudra, noose, citron and grad. Except the Yaksini's common vehicle, the Digambara books furnish her hands differently with the following attribute's :--Tarada, albhaya, conch and disc. Examples of images of this Yaksini are only too limited. The one or two figures that I have been able to see show the bull symbol and co-ordinate with the description. A clear image may be seen in the Deogarh Fori. The Yaksimi's name and symbolismo seem to be obviously connected with those of her Jina Ajiranatha. She has been named after him as Ajita, mcaning invincible.' ller spirit, ils such, is also symbolised by the iron-scat (Lohasani), known for its hardness and metallic strength. dakSiNabAhubhyAM varadenAtha pAginau / bIjapUgaGkuzabhRdbhyAM vAmadobhyA' ca zobhitA / lohAsanasthA pArve'sthAd bhartuH zAsanadevatA // Hemacandra's Ajitanulhucurita. Gr. lohAsanAdhirUDhAM caturbhujAM varadapAzAdhiSThitadakSiNakarAM bIjapUrAGkuzayuktavAmakarAM ceti / Nirvanakaliki (MSS. Juanamandir, Agra). Again, gogAminI dhavalaruk / 'vAmetaraM vrdpaashvibhaasmaanaa| vAmaM ca pANiyugalaM sRNimAtuliGgayuktaM .. Iradinukura libhaya (MSS., Ramaghala Collection). devI lohAsanArUDhA rohiNyAkhyA caturbhujA / varadobhayahastAsau zaGkhacakrojjvalAyudhA / / ___Pratisthasarasamgralu. (MSS. Jainabhavana, Arrah). Cr. svarNadyutizaGkharathAGgazastrA lohaasnsthaa'bhydaanhstaa| Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #125
Vaksinis 89 Duritari or Prajnapti. The first name belongs to the Sretambara representation, the second to the Digambara. Duritari rides a ram and is fourhanded. The hands hold l'arada, rosary, fruit and Abhara. The Digambara Prajnapti places herself upon a bird. She has six hands, which are adorned with an axe, crescent, fruit, sword, (Idhi) and Vara-mudra.? The symbol of a ram in the case of Duritari implies her connexion with the wife of Agni. The symbols of Vara and rosary also support this supposition. The conception of Prajnapti scerns clearly to be derived from that of Sarasvati or goddess of learning. The bird appears to be a peacock as her husband is represented as riding on the same bird (Barhivahana). Further, the name 'Prajnapti' literally means 'one of intellect' (Prajia) and we find, therefore, the name in the list of the Vidyadevis to be described later. Vajra-Syriikhala or Kali. Descriptions of this Yaksini of Abhinandana disser with the two sccts. The Digambaras represent Vajra-Sriikhala as riding on a swan and holding in her four hands a snake, noose, rosary and fruit.' The Svetambara variant of the same Yaksini 1. duritAridevI gauravarNAM meSavAhanAM caturbhujAM varadAkSasUtrayuktadakSiNakarAM phalAbhayAnvitavAmakarAM ca / Nirrann-Kalika (MSS Juanamandir, Agra). Cr. caturbhujA gauravarNA meSavAhanagAminI / dakSiNAbhyAM bhujAbhyAM tu varadenAkSasUtriNA / / ___ vAmAbhyAM zobhamAnA tu phalenAbhayadena ca / 2. prajJaptidevatA zvetA SaDbhujA pakSivAhanA // ardhendu parazuM dhatte phlaasiiddhivrprdaa| Pratisth:asarasangraha (MSS Jainendrabhavana. Arrah). cr.pakSisthArdhenduparazuphalAsIDhivaraiH sitaa| Pratisthasuroddhara. 3. varadA haMsamArUDhA devatA vjrshRngkhlaa| nAgapAzAkSasUtroruphalahastA caturbhujA // Pratisthivarasameraha (MSS, Arrah).

Page #126
90 Jaina Iconography named Kali is described as seated on a lotus and as holding in her hands Farada, noose, snake and goad. T Vajra-srmkhala or Kali is both a Yaksini and one of the Vidyadevis. Her Yaksini character is well symbolised by the presence of a citrus and goad and Vidya-devi character is symbolised by a swan and rosary. Kali also assumes some symbols as becoming Vidyadevi such as Farada and Naga, and other symbols of noose and goad as they should belong to a Yaksini. When we treat Vajra-srinkhala as a Vidyadevi, we shall see, she holds actually a Sikhala or chain, which may explain as the origin of her name. Mahakali or Purusadalla Mahakali of the Svetambaras appears in her representation seated on a lotus with her four hands holding Varada, noose citrus and goad." Purusadatta in her Digambara aspect rides an elephant and holds in her hands a dise, Fajra, fruit and Farada Mudra. A Cr. sanAgapAzoruphalAkSamUtrA haMmAdhirUDhA varadAnuyuktA / 1. kAlikAdevI zyAmavarNAM padmAsanAM caturbhujAM varadapAzAdhiSThitadakSiNabhujAM nAgAGkuzAnvitavAmakarAM / 2. Pratistkavaroddhara. Viragakalika (MSS. Janamandir, Agra). Ct. zyAmAbhA padmasaMsthA valayavalicaturvAhuvibhrAjamAnA pAzaM visphUrjamUrdhvasvalamapi varadaM ... bibhraNA cApi vAme'Gkuzamapi karipa | acaradinakara (Ramaghata). A thousand image with the name is found in the temple of "Pataini Devi" 8 miles from Unchhera C. I. 3. tathotpannA mahAkAlI svarNak padmavAhanA / dadhAnA dakSiNau bAhU varadAbhayapAzinau || mAtuliGgAGkuzadharau paroM bAhU ca vibhratI // 4. devI puruSadattA ca caturhastA gajendragA / rathAGgavastrazastrAsau phalahastA varapradA // Sumatinathacarita. Hemacandra's Sumatinathuacuta. Pratisthasarasarigraha (MSS. Siddhantabhavana, Arrah ).

Page #127
Taksinis 91 The attributes such as citrus, goad and, noose held by Mahakali arc symbolic of her Yaksa character. Her other aspect represented by Purusadatta makes her half like a Vidyadevi and half like a Yaksini. Purusadatta as Vidyadevi is described as riding a cuckoo and holding a l'ajra and lotus. In this case, her symbols of an elephant (Gajendraga), Fajra and citrus are those by which we recognise her as a Yaksini. Acyula or Syama, Manovega. The Yaksini of Padmaprabha is known to the Svetambaras as Acyuta or Syama and to the Digambaras as Manovega. The Svetambara image is canonically represented as riding a man and holding, in her four hands, Varada, Vina, bow and Abhaya.1 The Digambara Yaksini Manovega has a horse as her vehicle, and holds a sword, lance, fruit, and Vara Mudra. The name Acyuta or Syama may have, most probably, originated from Acyuta or Visnu or Syama. Her Vina symbol would qualify her as a Vidyadevi, almost a derivative of Acyuta who like the Digambara Manovega, rides a horse and holds a sword, arrow etc. Her vehicle of a man, undoubtedly, makes up her character as a Yaksini as Yaksa is proverbially a manrider or Nara-Vahana. Manovega or 'swift as mind' is aptly symbolised by the vehicle of a horse known for its swiftness. Santa or Kali. The Svetambara books describe Santa as riding an clephant and her hands as furnished with Farada, rosary, lance, 1. acyutAdevIM zyAmavarNAM naravAhanAM caturbhujAM varavINAcitadakSiNakarAM kArmukAbhayayutavAmahastAm / Nirvana-kalika (MSS. Juana-mandir). Cr. zyAmA caturbhujadharA naravAhanasthA pAzaM tathA ca varadaM karayordadhAnA / vAmAnyayostadanu sundarabIjapUraM tIkSNAGkuzaM ca parayoH... .. . acyutA // Acaradinakara MSS. Ramaghata Collection. 2. turaGgavAhanA devI manovegA caturbhujA / Pratisthasarasamgraha. Also, manovegA saphalakA phalakhaGgavarArcyate / Mandira pratistha-Vidhana (MSS. Jaina-siddhanta library, Arrah)

Page #128
Yaksinis as her riding animal and holds in her hands disc, arrow, noose, shield, trident, sword, bow etc. ' An image of this Yaksini was seen by me in a cave, under the Eastern roof, Gwalior Fort. It has cight hands and conse quently should be identified with Jvalamalini rather than with Bhrkuti.2 Bhrkuti's symbol of a swan (acc. to Hemacandra) may be explained as identically the same riding animal for the husband Vijaya (Vijayo hansavahanal, Vide ante). Her other symbols as held in the hands are such as become a Yaksini or 'guardian goddess'. Jvalamalini or Jvalini or Mahajvala as known to the Svetambaras also assume, in the same name, the function of a Vidyadevi. Her symbol of a buffalo shows her symbolic connexion with her husband Vijaya, who, in Brahmanism, is synonymous with Yama, the famous rider of a Buffalo. Sutara or Mahakaii. Sutara Yaksini of the Svetambaras as described in their books rides a bull and bears four hands with Varada, rosary urn and goad. 3 Mahakali, the Digambara variant of the Yaksini sit upon a tortoise and carries in her hands l'ajra, club, fruit and Vara Mudra. A 1. candrojjvalA cakravArasapAzacarma trizule pujhpAsihastAm / 2. 93 Maudirajratisthavidhana. Cr. jvAlinI mahiSArUDhA devI zvetA bhujASTakA / kANDaM vajra N trizUlaJca dhatte pAzaM catuSTaye // (MSS. J.B. Arrah ) Pratisthasarasangraha. A thousand image of the Yaksini in the "Pataini" temple, 5 miles from Nachhera State. 3. sutArAM devIM gauravarNAM vRSabhavAhanI caturbhujAM varadAkSasUtrayuktadakSiNabhujAM kalazAGkuzAnvitavAmapANim / Nervaya-Kalika (MSS. Inanamandir, Agra ). Cf. tathotpannA sutArAkhyA gaurAGgI vRSavAhanA / varadaM sAkSasUtraM ca bibhrANA dakSiNI bhujau / kalazAGkuzinau bAhU dadhAnA dakSiNetarau // 4. devI tathA mahAkAlI vinItA kUrmavAhanA / savajramudgarahastA phalahastA caturbhujA || Hemacandra's Suvidhinathacarita. Pratistha sara-samgraha (MSS. J.S. Arrah ).

Page #129
Jaina Iconography The Yaksini's tortoise symbol originates from the same animal as used by Ajita, her husband. As the names Sutara or Mahakali suggest, the Yaksini's aspect seems, to some extent, to be Saivite although Mahakali has her part to play, as a Vidyadevi, with some cominon symbolic attributes. 94 Asoka or Manavi The image of the Svetambara Yaksini Asoka is described as seated upon a lotus and bearing in her hands Varada, noose, fruit and goad. The Digambara books describe Manavi as riding a hog and holding the attributes, as follows, fruit, Vara, bow, etc. " Like the majority of Yaksinis, the Yaksini, in question, has a dual aspect, she is in one aspect a Yaksini and in another, a Vidyadevi. As Vidyadevi, her name is Manavi and she is described as seated on a blue lotus. Here, also as a pure Yaksini, the Svetambara accounts give her a blue lotus. The warlike attributes like a goad, noose, bow are symbols quite befitting her characteristic of a Yaksini or Guardian angel. The benign symbols, such as, Varada, fruit and a blue-lotus seat she is given, however, would make us recognise in her a form of Vidyadevi or goddess of learning. Cr. kRSNA kUrmAsanA dhanvazatonnatajinAnatA / mahAkAlIjyate vajraphalamudgaradAnayuk / / Pratisthasaroddhara. 1. azokAM devIM mudgavarNAM padmavAhanAM caturbhujAM varadapAzayukta dakSiNakarAM phalAGkuzayuktavAmakarAm / Nircunabalika (MSS. Jnanamandir ). Cf.nIlA padmakRtAsanA varabhujairvedapramANairyutA pAzaM sadvaradaM ca dakSiNakare hastadvaye bibhratI / vAme cAGkuzavarmaNI bahuguNA''zokA vizokA janaM. ... 2. mAnavI ca haridvarNA jhaSahastA caturbhujA / kRSNazUkarayAnasthA phalahastA Acaradinakara. varapradA / Pratisthavarasangraha (MSS. Jaina S. Bhavana, Arrah ) Cf. jhaSadAmarucakadAnocitahastAM kRSNakolagAM haritAm / navatidhanusnuga ( ? ) jinapragatAmiha mAnavIM prayaje // Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #130
Yaksinis Gauri or Manavi. This eleventh Yaksini belongs to the eleventh Tirthamkara Sreyamsanatha. The Digambara representation of the Yaksini known therein as Gauri rides, according to their accounts, an antelope and bears a club, lotus, urn and Varada in her hands.1 The Svetambara variant of the same Yaksi in the name of Manavi or Srivatsa Devi has been described as riding a lion and holding a Varada, club, urn and goad." The name Gauri originates evidently from the Brahmanic Gauri, the wife of Siva. Here, in this instance, the Yaksa, of whom Gauri is the consort is called Ivara. Her other aspect is represented by a Vidyadevi, known by the same name. Now, the Svetambaras give her the name of Srivatsa or Manavi. This name, however, presents an anomaly due to the identity of Manavi with the Digambara Yaksini, of Sitalanatha bearing the same name. Thus, it is possible to explain the name Srivatsa as originating from the Srivatsa figure, the canonical symbol of Sitalanatha. As regards the attributes, which adorn the hands of the Devi some of them are warlike, as worthy of a Yaksini, and others are benign, as symbolic of a goddess of learning. Canda or Gandhari. Canda or Pracanda, as she is also called by the Svetambaras, has a horse for her riding animal, and carries the symbols 1. padmahastA suvarNAbhA gaurI devI caturbhujA / jinendrazAsanabhaktA varadA mRgavAhinI // Pratisthasarasamgraha (MSS. Arrah Collection) Cr. samudgarAbjakalazAM varadAM kanakaprabhAm / gaurI yaje'zItidhanuH prAMzudevI mRgopamAm / / 95 Pratisthasarasamgraha, 2. tathaiva mAnavI devI gaurAGgI siMhavAhanA / varadaM mudgariNaM ca dadhatI dakSiNI karI / vAmau ca bibhratI pANI kulazAGkuzadhAriNau // Sreyamsunalhacarita by Hemacandra cr. mAnavIM devIM gauravarNAM siMhavAhanAM caturbhujAm / varadamudgarAnvitadakSiNapANi nakulasAGkuzayuktavAmakarAm // Nirvanakalika (MSS. Jnana mandir, Agra)

Page #131
96 Jaina Iconography of Varala, spcar, flower and club.1 The Diganibara form of the same deity is represented as riding on a crocodile and having the hands equipped with a clul), two lotuses and V'arada mudra. Like the previous one, this Yaksini, too, takes her part as a Vidyadevi. As such, the name borne by her is Gandhari. There is some essential connection between the Yaksini Gandhari's animal of a crocodile and the Vidyadevi Gandhari's animal of a tortoise. (anda or Pracanda seems to be, as the name indicates, a Jaina prototype of the Brahmanic Canda or Durga. Vidita or Vijara or l'airoli The Svetanbaras kuow this Yaksini as Vidita or Vijaya. She is described in their books as scated on a lotus and as having four hands with an arrow', noose, bow and snake. The Digambara Vairoti appears in representations as riding on a snake (Gonasa) and bearing in her hands two snakes, bow and arrow 3 Vairoti figures also like others as a Vidyadevi. The other name of Vidita means 'learned onc'. This would suggest the 1. tathotpannA zyAmavarNA caNDA naamaashvvaahnaa| dakSiNau varadazaktidhAriNau dadhatI bhujau // pANI puSpagadAyuktau bibhratI dakSiNetarau / / Hemacandra's l'asubujyacarita. Cr. zyAmA turagAsanA caturdoHkarayodakSiNayorvaraM ca zaktim / dadhatI kila vAmayoH prasanaM sugadA sA pravarAvatAcca caNDI // Achrodinakaru. 2. tathotpannA viditAkhyA haritAlasamadyutiH / padmArUDhA bANapAzadharadakSiNapANikA / kodaNDanAgasaMyuktadakSiNetaravAhukA // Hemacandra's Vimulanulhacarita, Cr. viditAM devI haritAlavarNAM padmArUDhAM caturbhujAm / __bANapAzayuktadakSiNapANi dhanurnAgayuktavAmapANim / / 3. vairoTI nAmato devI haridvarNA cturbhujaa| hastadvayena sapoM dvau dhatte goNasavAhanA // Pratisthasvirasamgraha (NMSS.Arrah Collection).

Page #132
Taksinis central idea of Goddess of learning. In other respects, Vidita or Vijaya with her colour of yellow, symbols of bow, arrow, snake and lotus or the vehicle or Gonasa seems to be a clear derivative of a form of Durga. The name of Vijaya, it is worth observing, retains the original name of her arche-type.1 Amkusa or Anantamati Amkusa of the Svetambaras is to be canonically sculptured as scated on a lotus, and having four hands with a sword, noose, spear and goad. The Digambaras to whom this Yaksini is known as Anantamati describe her as being carried by a swan and as holding in her hands a bow, arrow, fruit and l'arada.3 The name 'Amkusa' appears to be derived from the Amkusa or goad, which the Yaksini carries. In the same name, we find a Vidyadevi who also bears a goad. The name Anantamati originates very evidently from Anantanatha, the Jina and master, whom the Yaksini waits upon. Brahma's wife is Sarasvati; here the origin of the swan as a vehicle might be due to this connection. Kandarpa (Pannagad vi) or Manasi Descriptions from the Svetambara books make her ride upon a horse or a fish and appear in sculpture with four hands, adorned with a lotus, goad, lotus and Abhaya. Manasi, the Cr. paSTidaNDoccatIrthezanatA goNasavAhanA / sasarpa cApasarpeSu vairoTI haritArcyate // 1. 97 2. Pratisthasaroddhara. An inscribed image of her is in the "Paitini Temple" Uchnera State. aGkuzAM devIM gauravarNAM padmavAhanAM caturbhujAM khaGgapAzayuktadakSiNakarAM camaphalAGkuzayutavAmahastAm // (Nirvanakulika MSS, Jnana mandir, Agra). 3. tathAnantamatI devI hemavarNA caturbhujA / cApaM bANaM phalaM dhatte varadA haMsavAhanA / / Pratisthasarasamg raha (MSS, Arrah, Jaina S. Bhavan). Cr. hemAbhA haMsagA cApaphalabANavarodyatA / paJcAzaccApatuGgArhadbhaktAnantamatIjyate // Pratisthasaroddhara. 4. kandarpA devIM gauravarNAmazvavAhanAM caturbhujAM Nirvanak alika (MSS, Jnana mandir, Agra).

Page #133
98 Jaina Iconography Digambara variant of the same Yaksini, is described from their point of view, as riding a tiger, and holding in her six hands a lotus, bow, Varada, goad, arrow and lotus.1 The origin of symbols, it must have been noticed, is of irregular character. The fish symbol of the Yaksini scems to be due to the identical symbol of her consort Kinnara as furnished by the Digambara books (Dharmasya Kimaro Taksah..Minarihana). It is hardly easy to see any possible connection between her name as Kandarpa and the Brahmanic God, Kandarpa or Karna. The name -Manasi has very probable relation with 'Manasija' innplying the same idea. Thus, the other name of Pannaga devi or the Goddess of snakes might have been derived from Manasa, who is characteristically a goddess of snakes. Manasi is also a deity, in the list of the Vidyadevis and as such, she is interestingly seen to be symbolised by a snake. Her tiger vehicle, in this instance, shows her a prototype of Vagisvari (goddess of learning) whose figure in Benares show's the same animal as her vchicle. Nirvani or Mahamanasi Nirvani, in Svetarnbara accounts, is represented as scated on a lotus and four-armed, the attributes being a book, lotus, k'amandalu and a lotus bud.? The Digambara books supply Cr. tathotpannA ca kandarpA gaurAGgI mtsyvaahnaa| utpalAGgadhAribhyAM dakSiNAbhyAM virAjitA / dordhyA taditarAbhyAM ca padminA'bhayadena ca / / Hemacandra's Duro matha Ciwita. Further, kandarpAkRtaparapannagAbhidhAnA gaurAbhA jhapagamanA caturbhujA ca / ciniradinukara (Ramghala Collection). 1. sAmbujadhanudAnAGkuzazarotpalA vyAghragA pravAla nibhA / navapaJcakacApocchritajinanamrA mAnasIha maanyte| Pratis!hisarecikara. Cr. vyAghravAhanamArUDhA shilpdhrmaanuraaginnii| l'rutis!ha dziusamgraha (MSS., Arrah) 2. nirvANAM devI gauravarNA padmAsanAM caturbhujAM pustakotpalayuktadakSiNakarAM kamaNDalukamalayutavAmahastAm / Nirranukalika (Jzana-mandir, Agra).

Page #134
raksinis 99 descriptions of Mahamanasi, according to which, she has the vehicle of a pcacock and holds in her hands a disc, fruit, Idi (sword ?) and Varada.! Although most rare, unexpectedly, I was able to explore a separate figure of Virvani, which generally agrees with the above description. It is now in the Lucknow Muscum. A subordinate representation of the Yaksini may be seen in some places of Jaina antiquity." The name Nirvani conotes the idea of Nirvana. Her symbols of a book, lotus, kumandalu strike one with her characteristic nature of the wife of Brahma. Curiously, Brahma's wife is also called Sarasvati. As Mahamanasi, the Yaksini holds her new function being a Vidyadevi. Malimanasi lilcrally means the 'great Goddess to preside over learning'. The symbol of a peacock, again, speaks of her connection with Sarasvati, the river goddess, who has the same bird as her riding vehicle. Bala (Acruta) or Vijaya We sind her described in the Svetainbara books as a Yaksini riding a peacock and bcaring four hands symbolised with a citron, spear, Bhusundi and lotus.: Canonically different cr. tattIrthajanmA nirvANI gaurAgI kamalAsanA / pustakotpalasaMyuktau vibhratI dakSiNau kro| sakamaNDalukamalau vAmau ca dadhatI karau // Hemacandra's Sunlinallacarita. 1. THETATET 297 hauf TTISTI phaleDhicakrahastAsau varadA zikhivAhanA // Pratisthasarasamgraha (MSS., Arrah Collection). C.cakraphale DhivarAGkitakarAM mahAmAnasIM suvarNAbhAm / zikhigAM catvAriMzaddhanurunnatajinamatAM prayaje // Pralistlusroldhara; Vidy the fig. of Santinitha, in a cave, castern roof, Gwalior Fort. It bears four hanils. Inside the Fort through the Urai gate, another figure may be seen on the left side of the road, amidst three Jaina Colossi, of which one is of Santinatha. Cf, the figure in 'the "Pataini Devi" Temple in Unchhera State, C.I. 3. reiteradat at there Ifaiateat I bibhrANA dakSiNI bAhU bIjapUra

Page #135
Jaina Iconography account is given of Vijaya, the Digambara counterpart of the Yaksini, in their literature. According to it, she should be represented as riding a black boar and carrying the attributes of a conch, sword, disc and Farada Mudra.1 Hala or Acyuta of the Svetambaras from the nature of her vehicle of a peacock seems to be a form of Sarasvati. This supposition may be supported by the fact that her consort Gandharva rides on a sun and is a divine musician. Sarasvati is known to be also presiding over the art of music. The symbol of a citron, indicating the Yaksa characteristic is borne by both the husband and the wife. Vijaya of the Digambaras, on the other hand, shown by her boar vehicle, a Yaksini goddess whose form must have been borrowed from Marici of Buddhism and Varahi of Brahmanism. Her other symbols provided by the Digambara books of a disc, sword, conch and Varada speak of her origin from Varahi.2 100 Dharani or Tara The Svetambara texts described Dharani Yaksini as seated on a lotus and possessing four hands with a citrus, two lotuses, and a rosary. Tara, the Yaksini of the Digambara is to appear, 3 bhuzuNDipaGkajabhRtau bibhratI dakSiNetarI / sadA sannihitA jajJa e prabhoH: zAsanadevatA // Hemacandra's Kunthusramicaritam. Cr. zikhigA sacaturbhujA'tipItA phalapUraM dadhatI trizUlayuktam / karayorapasavyayozca savye karayugme tu bhuzuNDibhRdbalA'vyAt / 1. jayAdevI suvarNAbhA kRSNazUkaravAhanA / argufazmetanat arar atfacuer II MSS. Ramaghata. Pratisthasarasamgraha (MSS. Jaina Siddhanta Bhavana Library, Arrah). cr. sacakrazaGkhAsivarAM rukmAbhAM kRSNakolagAM yaje jayAm // Mandirapratisthavidhana (MSS. Ibid.) 2. An inscribed image of Vijaya in a group is to be found in the "Pataini Temple" Uchnera State C.I. 3. devI ca dhAraNI nAma nIlAGgI kamalAsanA / mAtuliGgotpaladharA dakSiNobhayabAhukA / padmAkSasUtrabhRt Hemacandra's Aracaritam.

Page #136
Yaksiris 101 according to them, as riding on a swan and holding a snake, Vajra, deer and Varada Mudra. In this casc, like more cases, the Yaksini Dharani bears the Yaksa symbol of a citrus together with other symbols, which explain her mixed origin. The name Tara renders her connection with the Brahmanic Tara almost obvious. The snake symbol in her hand is primarily common to the deity of either sccts. Vairoli or Aparajita The Yaksini, in her Svetambara appearance, is to be represenied as seated on a lotus, and carrying in her hands l'arada, rosary, citrus, and Sakti. Aparajita, the Digambara counterpart, is represented by their texts as a goddess riding a lion and bearing hands, equipped with a citrus, sword, shield and l'ara-mudra.3 The citrus symbol, in both the forms, makes the goddess typically a Yaksini. The name Vairoti occurs in connection with the Vidyadevis and as a presiding deity over learning, she For comparison, see dhAraNIdevIM kRSNavarNAM caturbhujAM padmAsanAM mAtuliGgotpalAnvitadakSiNabhujAM pAzAkSasUtrAnvitavAmakarAM // Nirranu-kulika (MSS.. Agra, Jnana mandir). 1. devI tArAvatI nAmnA hemavarNA cturbhujaa| sarpavajra mRgaM dhatte varadA haMsavAhanA / Pratisthastirasangraha (MSS., Arrah Collection). cr. svarNAbhAM haMsagAM sarpamRgavajra'.. Mandira pralistha ridhana (MSS.. Ibid). 2. tattIrthabhuzca vairoTI kRSNAGgI kamalAsanA / bhAntI dordhyA dakSiNAbhyAM vrdenaaksssuutrinnaa| mAtuliGgazaktibhRdbhyAM vAmadortyAM Hermacandra. Compare vairoTI devIM kRSNavarNAM padmAsanAM caturbhujAm / varadAkSasUtrayuktadakSiNakarAM mAtuliGgazaktiyuktavAmahastAm / / Nirvina-kulika (MSS., Jilanamandir, Agra). 3. aSTApadaM samArUDhA devInAmnAparAjitA / phalAsikheTahastAsau haridvarNA caturbhujA // Pratisthasamgraha. (MSS., Jainabhavana, Arrah) An image of the Yaksini is in the Pataini Temple vide ante.

Page #137
102 Jaina Iconography has a lion as her vehick:. We find, however, the lion symbol in the case of Aparajita, the Digambara form of the Yaksini. We had occasion of describing Vairoti as the Digambara counterpart of Vijaya. There seems to be an exchange in the pair of combinations. Vijaya and Aparajita sceni to be the same in meaning; the original idea of both must have been derived from that of Durga, who bears the same names in Brahmanism. Naradatla or Bahurupini Naradatta is described in the Svetambara literature as scated in the Bhadrasuna posture, showing four hands which hold l'arada, rosary, citron, and trident (or urn).' The Digambara Yaksini is represented by thein as riding a black snake and holding a shield, fruit, sword and l'araila Mudra.? Naradatta or Bahurupini from the nature of her symbols and her husband's being of Saivite character, discloses herself in representation as a form of Durga or a Brahmanic Sakti. The Yaksini element in her may be clearly attested by the symbol of the fruit citron and the urn, the true attributc of the wise of Varuna. It should be noted in this connection that this Naradatta and thic predefined Purusadatta, the Yaksini of Sumatinatha, being the same in meaning suggest some mysterious common origin.: Gandhari or Crmunda The Svetambara sectarian Yaksini, Gandhari by namc, has been described as riding a swan and furnished with four hands, 1. bhadrAsanA kanakaruktanuruccabAhurakSAvalIvaradadakSiNapANiyugmA / sanmAtuliGgayutazUlitadanyapANiracchuSmikA zrInaradattA / Acaradinakara. E. naradattAM devI gauravarNAM padmAsanArUDhAM caturbhujAm / varadAkSasUtrayutadakSiNakarAM bIjapUrakakumbhayutavAmahastAm / / Nirvanakaliki (MSS., Svetarbara, Library Agra). 9. CUTTERTHTEGT aan eefourt i kheTaM khaGga phalaM dhatte hemavarNA caturbhujA / / Pulisthanirasangvaha (MSS., Arrah) baharUpiNI yaje kRSNAhigAM kheTaphalakhaGgavarottarAm // Mandirafiralistic vidhana (MSS., Arrah). 3. Her image with name inscribed is in the "Pataini Templc" Uchnera.

Page #138
Taksinis 103 which hold, in turn, Farada Mudra, sword. citron and spear (kota).1 The Cammyda or Digambara form of the same Yaksini is represented in their way as riding on a dolphin and carrying in her hands a rosary, staff, shield and sword. This pair of names (viz. Gandhari and Camunda) has already occurred in connexion with the Yaksini of Vasupujya. There seems to have been some mysterious transposition of these deities. In the case of Vasupujya Canda is Svetambara Yaksini, whereas Gandhari, who is Svetambara here was Digambara there. Gandhari there rides a dolphin as Camunda rides the same animal in the present case. The Yaksini Gandhari we describe now, assumes such symbols (for instance swan, Varada, citron) as would make her partly a Vidyadevi and partly a Yaksini. Her Digambara counterpart Camunda is also called Kusuma-malini and as such, her dolphin symbol may be justified because Kusumamali or kama has the same symbolical mark (Makar :- ketana ) " . Ambika (Kusmundi ) or Amra This Yaksini of Neminatha has the Svetambara description of a goddess, who rides a lion and bears a bunch of mangoes, nose, a child and goad. 4 The Digambara image of the Yaksini 1. tathaiva devI gAndhArI zvetAGgI haMsavAhanA / dorbhyAM varadakhaDgibhyAM dakSiNAbhyAM virAjitA / vAmAbhyAM bIjapUribhyAM bAhubhyAmupazobhitA / / Hemacandra's Neminathacarita. Cf. gAndhArIM devIM zvetAM haMsavAhanAM caturbhujAM varadakhaGgayuktadakSiNabhujadvayAM bIjapUrakuntayutavAmapANidvayAM / Nreanakaka (MSS. Jnanamandira, Agraj. 2. cAmuNDA devatA bhImA haridvarNA caturbhujA / prakSasUtraM ca yaSTi ca dhatte makaravAhanA / / Pratisthasarasangraha (MSS. Arrah). Cf. cAmuNDA yaSTikheTAkSasUtrakhaDgotkaTA harit / makarasthArcyate paJcadazadaNDonnatezabhAk / / Pratisthasaroddhara. 3. An inscribed iinage with name is in the "Paitini Temple" Uchnera. 4. tattIrthajanmA svarNakAntiH siMhavAhanA grAmralumbi (?) pAzasaMyuktadakSiNakaradvayA putrAGkuzasahitavAmakaradvayA kuSmANDItidvitIyanAmadhAriNI ambikA prabhoH zAsanadevI samabhavat / Gunavjaya gani's Neminatha Caritra (Nirnayasagar Press)

Page #139
104 Jaina Iconography is described as also riding upon a lion, but as bearing two hands with a bunch of mangoes and a child.' Images of both types inay be seen in some Jaina places although they have hecn wrongly identificd in every case. The distinction regarding the number of hands has strictly followed in ihe representations the point being decisive in making it either Ambika or Kusmandiniexcept lier symbol of a bunch of mangoes, which gave origin to one of her names as Imra, she is by name and appearance a borrowed forin of Durgi. Amba, Ambalika and Ambika are names of Durga. She has further the name, as in this case, of Kusinancini. Kusmandi is the name of Durga. Kusmandas were a billy clan attached to lord Siva. It is highly probable that being a Yakini, whose class originated from the Northern Himalayan region, Kusmandi came out of this class. Padmovali name of the Yaksini is cominon to both the sects. According to the Svetunibara view, Padmavati is to be represented as riding on a snake and cock, and holding a lotus, noose, fruit and goad.3 Pacmavari of the Digambaras is described 10 be (:. kupmANDI devI kanakavarNA siMhabAhnAM caturbhujAM mAtuliGgapAzayukta___ dakSiNakarAm aGkugAnvitavAmakarAM / / ...cil-hai ki (MSS.. Agra 1. fang AFATEET ATARE ECHI Pralistusirasuringud: MISS., Arrah) C.savye karyupagapriyaGkarasutaprItyai kare vimratIm / divyAmrastabakaM zubhaGkara __karazliSTAnyahamtAGgulim / siMhe bhartRcare sthitAM haritabhAmAmradrumacchAyagAm / Pratisthasaioildara 2. "The Fig. No. D 7, Veithuru Aluvium, wrongly called by Dr Vogel as Parvati is, in fact, the Digambara image of Kusmandi. The fact that the Digambara image has no ornaments is not always true as it bears ornaments. What has been wrongly called 'happy twins", Deogarh Fort, Jhansi, Arch. Serial 2-28 is the image of Kusmandi with her consort. fine and separate image of the Yaksini is in the Deogarh Fort, on the West of the Main temple. We can identify rightly the images of Pirvati'. No 629. Gwalior Arch. Dept. from Atolumpur and Nimthur as those of 4 armcd Ambika. 3. tathA padmAvatI devI kurkaToragavAhanA |svrnnvrnnaa padmapAzabhRddakSiNakaradvayA / phalAGkuzadharAbhyAM ca vAmadortyAM virAjitA // Hemacandra's Parsvanathacaritam.

Page #140
Yaksinis of four types according to the number of hands. Some texts give her a snake and cock as her vehicle, others give her a lotus seat. The four-handed figure holds a goad, rosary, two lotuses. The six-handed type has a nose, sword, spear, crescent, club, staff, as attributes. The eight-handed figure has a noose and other attributes. The twentyfour-handed figure holds a conch, sword, Cakra, crescent, lotus, blue lotus, bow (Sarasanan), spear, noose, Kusa-grass, bell, arrow, staff, shield, trident, axe, ( Kunta ) Vajra, garland, fruit, club, leaf, stalk, and Farada Mudra. 1 Separate-sculptures of an important Yaksini like Padmavati ought to have been discovered but we have, so far, only seen the Yaksini's likeness with symbols in her master's statues.2 The legend of Padmavati is throughout associated with snakes and she belongs to the Nether Regions or Patala. This 105 svarNAbhonamakurkuTAhigamanA saumyA caturbAhubhR ... dvAme hastayuge'GkuzaM dadhiphalaM tatrApi . padma pAzamadaJcayantyavirataM padmAvatI . . dakSiNe / 1. devI padmAvatI nAmnA raktavarNA caturbhujA / padmAsanAGkuzaM dhatte akSasUtraM ca paGkajam . athavA paDbhujA devI caturviMzatisadbhujA || pAzAsikuntabAlendugadAmusalasaMyutam / bhujASTakaM samAkhyAtaM caturviMzatirucyate / zaGkhA sicakrabAlendupadmotpalazarAsanam / zakti pAzaM kuzaM ghaNTAM bANaM musalakheTakam / trizUlaM parazuM kuntaM vajra mAlAM phalaM gadAm / patraJca pallavaM dhatte varadA dharmavatsalA // 2. Pratisthasarasamgraha (MSS, Arrah ) cr. yeSTuM kukkuTasarpagA triphaNakottaMsA dvipo yA taSTA pAzAdiH sadasatkRte ca ghRtazaGkhAsyAdidoraSTakA ( ? ) / tAM zAntAmaruNAM sphuracchaNisarojanmAkSa mAlAmbarAM padmasthAM navahastakaprabhunatAM yAyAjmi padmAvatIm // A fig. of Padmavati in Pakhir, Purula Dill. Scc Beglar's report, Arch. Suri. Reports Vol. VIII; with Parsvanatha's image in Gwalior Fort, Eastern roof; on the Western face of the pillar near the Western gate (No. I) in the Deogarh Fort.

Page #141
l'aksinis 107 The most important symbol connected with Siddhayika is her lion. This may be interpreted in the light of the same syznbol as assuined by the Yaksini's master Alahavira. Her other symbol, such as a book and Vina (lute) would make her, in appearance, a Vidyadevi. The custom of giving a lion to a goddess of learning does not appear to be singular to the Jainas as we find the Vagisvari of Benares is scated on a lion's back. Siddhayika's other symbol is a citrus and this is particularly indicative of her Yaksini nature.

Page #142
CHAPTER IV THE DIKPALAS Equally with Brahmanism, the Jainas of both the sects make room for an important class of divinities under the designation of the Dikpalas, who are supposed to guard the quarters. Their origin, on probable grounds, underlies the actual ideals of certain semi-divine kings, who took the responsibility of governing regions of all the distinct quarters. Their ideas were, undoubtedly, far anterior to the carly Bralmanas than to the Jainas. Like the majority of gods imported into the Jaina Pantheon, the Dikpila gods were directly taken over by the Jaina people. The main charactcristics of the Dikpalas are ncarly those which we find in connection with the same deities of Brahmanisin. In one point, however, the position of the Dikpilas of Jainismi is clistinct enough. It is always subscrvient to that of the Tirthamkaras, who like the Buddhas were served and cared for by the chiess of the quarters. It is interesting to reflect that some of the Yaksas, who owe', as a rule, their origin to other ideas as well, bear rccoguisable names and nature of the Dikpalas. Whether the Dikpalas came first in order or the Yaksas is an open question. Yet we have niore reason to believe that the conception of the latter was clearly influenced by the former. The Dikpalas, in some cases, such as Indra, Isana, Brahma and Naga introduce into the Jaina godhood their spouses described separatcly in the iconographic texts. Another feature regarding the Dikpalas, who are also called Lokapalas, is their worship as Vastu-devatas. One Svetambara test makes them functioning as Kumaras, who diller very little in nature from the Gods of the quarters. We shall describe, now separately the iconography of these ten Dikpalas recognised by both thc Svetainbaras and Digambaras. Indra There seems to lie very little difference between the descriptions of the Dikpala Indra, as afforded both by the Sve

Page #143
Dikpalas 109 tambara and Digambara texts. His chief characteristics are his elephant called Airavata and his Vajra or thunderbolt.1 Indra is the guardian of the castern regions and his wife is called Saci. In one text, we shall sec, later on, he has been described as possessed of thousand cyes. We can infer, therefore, that the Brahmanic conception of Indra's having thousand eyes, is carried to Jainism. Clcar identity of some features leads me also to infer that Mataiga, the Yaksa of Mahavira or Mahendra, the Yaksa of Aranatha according to the Digambaras owes largely its conception to that of Indra. Agni Both from the Svetamlara and Digambara standpoints, Agni is described as riding a ram, holding a Sakli (spear; and bearing seven flamcs. One Svetambara test, however, gives him a bow and arrow while a Digambara text adds a sacrificial pot to his attributes and makes rosary as his armlet.? His wife is Svaha and he has the charge of the south-castern regions. 1. dRpyatsAmAnikAditridazaparivRtaM rucyazacyAdidevI 113 lolAkSaM vajrabhUpodbhaTasubhagarucaM prAgihendraM yajAmi // Pratisthasaroddhara. caa. pUrvasyAM dizi kuNDalAMzunicayavyAlIDhagaNDasthalaM zatru mUrdhani sAdhubaddha___ mukuTaM svArUDhamarAvatam / patnIbAndhavabhRtyavargasahitaM devaM sadAhvAnaye / Derapuja (MSS.. Jaina. S. Bhavana, Arrah.). Svetambara version-atha lokapAlA: zakraM pItavarNamairAvatavAhanaM vajrapANi . . .. Nirranakalika (MSS., Agra Collection). cr. vAstudevAH oM hrIM airAvataskandhamadhizrayantaM vajrAyudhaM rucyazacIsametaM pratyUhavidhvaMsakam / (MSS., Rimaghata) 2. agnimagnivarNa meSavAhanaM saptazikhaM zaktipANi / ___Niranakalika (MSS.. Agra, J. Library). cr. zrIagnaye * * kapilavarNAya chAgavAhanAya nIlAmbarAya dhanurbANahastAya Pujavidhi, Acaradinakara (MSS.No. 74/11/36 Ramaghat a MSS. Library, p. 14) Again, jvAlA yAtmakazaktihastA vastAdhirUDhA - 'svAhA mahiSyAsamamagnidevAH oM hrIM agnivAstudevAya svAhA / bid.. P. 33. S ... . . . . .y . . . " | bid.. D 38s

Page #144
Jaina Iconography It may be seen from the above description that there is very little difference in iconography between a Brahmanic Agni and Jaina Agni, the latter being a by-product of the former. The attributes of a bow and arrow are, of course, conspicuous. We can imagine that these attributes, which arm the hands of Karttikeya may have been conceived in case of Agni, who was the presiding god of Kartikeya. The symbols of sacrificial pot (Kundi) and rosary are only indicative of the god's primary nature as a sacrificial priest. The meaning of Svaha, also, supports this idea. Fama 110 Yama, the god of death, who governs the south regions, is to be sculptured both according to the Svetambaras and Digambaras, as riding on a buffalo and holding a staff. He is known to be the son of the sun and accompanied by his wife called Chaya. His chief function is not only to guard the south but also to pronounce judgment on merits and demerits of departed souls.1 Digambara.. rukmArugghurdhurasraggalacaTulapRthuprAyabhRGgAbhaGgasthaM raudraM piGgalekSaNayugamamalaM brahmasUtraM zikhAstram / kuNDIvAtaprakoSThe dadhatamitarapANyAttapuNyAkSasUtram / svAhAnvItaM dhinomi zrutimukharasamaM prAcyaprocyAntarAgnim / chAgArohaNamakSasUtravalayaM svAhAsaMyutamujjva.... .. Pratisthasaroddhara. namo yamAya dharmarAjAya dakSiNadigadhIzAya samavartine dharmAdharmavicArakaraNAya kRSNavarNAya carmAvaraNAya mahiSavAhanAya daNDahastAya / Acaradinakara, Pujavidhi. Gr. chAyAsametaM mahiSAdhirUDhaM daNDAyudhaM daNDitavairivargaM vaivasvataM .... yamavAstudevAya svAhA | Ibid. zrIM hrIM Digambara version: yamadevasyeti / zrAsInaM zitavarNabhAji mahiSe vaivasvataJca svayam / daNDamaNDitabhujaM dakSiNasyAM dizi / .... Devapuja (MSS.; Arrah Collection). Cr. caNDAciHkANDadaNDaM DumarakaramatikrUradAraM viloke / kASrNodrekaM nRzaMsaM prathamamatha yamaM dizya prAcyAM yajAmi // Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #145
Dikpalas 111 The conception of the Jaina Yana is almost identical to that of the Brahmanic God of the same name. The only diffcrence seems to be the Jaina Yama's wife being Chaya, who, in Brahmanism, is known to be the wife of the Sun-god Surya. There is some justification on the part of the Jainas to inako Chaya as the wife of Yama, who has been called Dharma-raja, by which appellation the Sun-god is also known. In this connection, it is to be pointed out that Candraprabha's Yaksa Vijaya or Syama has some radical identity by name and symbols, to this god of death. Vijaya literally means Yana and Shyama's wife Jvalini actually rides a buffalo, the vehicle of the Dikpala of the south. Nairta Naista, the guardian-god of the south-west quarters, is made to ride a corps or a goblin according to the Svetambara texts. In the vicw of the same, he wcars a tiger's skin and holds a club or a sword and a bow (Pinaka).1 The Digambaras represent the god as riding a bear and holding the same attribute of a club. The general conception of this Lokapala or Dikpala is due to the Brahmanic influence. There are points, however, which make the Jaina God in some ways distinct. The attribute of a bow, his vehicle of a bear and the tiger's skin are of clearly Jaina origin. 1. naiRti haritavarNaM zavavAhanaM khaDgapANi .Vircakaliki (Agra MSS). Cr. dhUmravarNAya vyAghracarmavRtAya mudgarahastAya pretavAhanAya Triradinakara (Ramaghala MSS). Further, Nigare: fangray(?) 74: SECTEUTHERNET: 1 foaia 77475 Gafa i 1749rgaard FATT I Ibid. 2. *7** CEHETETUi fimraerthi Dernbuja (Arrah MSS). T6...VI KHIY (?) HH cf. p houryeta fafazau FireTourets Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #146
112 Jaina Iconography Varuna Divergence exists among cven tho Svetambara texts with regard to the vehicle of Varuna, the guardian God of the west. Some texts assign to him the vehicle of a dolphin, others a fish. He is, however, unaniinously represented as bearing a noose and figuratively wears the ocean. The other sect makes him appcar in icons bedecked in pearls, corals, etc., riding a dolphin and bearing a noosc.! The Jaina form of Varuna may be distinguished only by his symbol of a fish, as some texts render him. In all other respects, he is the same as the Brahmana guardian-god of the west. The symbols of a dolphin, noosc, pcarls etc., all originate from the god's connection with the west and the ocean. We find, among the Yaksas, one named Varuna but he rides a bull. On the contrary, Patala Yaksa of Ananta Jina, rides a dolphin and has among his attributes a noose. Either of them presumably has been influenced by the original idea of Varuna. Vayu He rides a deer according to all Jaina authorities. Some Svetambara texts give him the attribute of a Vajra, others give him a banner.2 The Digambara account of him only differs 1. varuNaM dhavalavarNa makaravAhanaM pAzapANim / Nirvanakalika. Cr. zrIvaruNAya pazcimadigadhIzAya samudravAsAya meghavarNAya pItAmbarAya pAzahastAya matsyavAhanAya Acaradinakara. padminyAzritadantidantamakarArUDhaM bhujaGgAyudhaM muktAvidrumabhUSaNaM ca varuNaM kASThAM pratIcIM zritam / Derohija. cr. protphullatpadmakhelatkarakarimakaravyomayAnAdhirUDhaM prevanmuktApravAlAbharaNamupasthAvRdA rAhatAkSaM (?) sphUrjaddhImAhipAzaM varuNamaparadigrakSaNaM prINayAmi // Pratisthasaroddhara. 2. oM namaH zrIvAyave vAyavyadigadhIzAya dhUsarAGgAya raktAmbarAya hariNavAhanAya. dhvajapraharaNAya... Acaradinakara.

Page #147
Dikpalas from this in the substitute of a wooden weapon.1 Vayu is the guardian or Lord of the North-west quarters. The Jaina Vayu differs not essentially from the Brahmanic Vayu. The assignment of the attribute of a Vajra seems to be a new idea. Similarly, the symbol of a wooden weapon attributed by the Digambaras is another peculiar feature unknown to Brahmanism. The Yaksa, who presents some identity of Vayu, is Kusuma, who likewise rides a deer, according to the view of both the sects. Kubera Kubera, the Protector of the northern regions, has been conceived of by the Svetambara Jainas, as a deity, who rides a man, bears gems and a club. According to the authoritics of the same sect, he is the treasurer of Indra, King of Yaksas, having his control over Kailasa. He, also, rides the chariot by the name of Puspaka. The Digambara view gives not more than the last symbol for the representation of Kubera.3 Cr. vAyu N sitavarNaM mRgavAhanaM vajrAlaGkRtapANim / Nirvanakalika (MSS. Agra). 1. ekasyApi pazcimottaradizi hArAvalIbhUSaNaM vAyuM tuGgakuraGgapRSThagamanaM hasta sthavRkSAyudham / 2. Devapuja. Cf. khurakaSitakulaM grAvasAraGgayugyam / vyAloladgAtrayantraM trijagadasudhRtivyagramugradrumAstram / Pratisthasaroddhara. kuberamanekavarNaM nighinavakAdhirUDhaM niculakahastaM gadApANim / Cf. Nirvanakalika ( Agra MSS). zrIM namaH zrIdhanadAya uttaradigadhIzAya sarvayakSezvarAya kailAzasthAya alakApurIpratiSThAya zakrakozAdhyakSAya naravAhanAya ratnahastAya / Acaradinakara (Ramaghata, MSS ). Further, noM hrIM puSpitapuSpikAbhrayAnAdhirUDha sphuritAtizakti vrajayakSa rAjapUta mayA svIkuru pAyasAnnam / Thid. 3. preGkhadvimAnadhvajairArUDhapRthupuSpakaM dhanapati proccairudIcIdizi * .. 113 Devapuja (Arrah) Cf. haMsAghonAhyamAnaM pavananarInRtatketupaGkti vimAnaM svArUDhaH puSpakAkhyaM kramasakharasanAdAmamuktAkalApaH / Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #148
114 Jaina Iconography Some single figures of the deity may be noticed rarely. The corpulent belly, club and purse guide us to identify such figures. The number of hands is irregular but it is cither two or four. The miniature figure of a Jina on the head-dress makes any such figure a Jaina onc.! Except in one feature namely being the urcasurer of Indra instead of Siva, the Jaina Kubera varies nowise from the Brahmanic Kubera. The symbols of gems, club and the vehicle of a man are common to the conception of the two religions. The fact of his being the treasurer of Indra or Sakra instead of Siva is due to the superiority, which the former god receives both in Jainism and Buddhism to the latter. We find a Kubera Yaksa among the attendent spirits of the Jinas but he rides an clephant although he holds a clul) and cilrus as becoming of the king of Yaksas. There is another Yaksa named Gomedha, who, like Kubera, rides on a man and bears one or two of his attributes as met with in the Buddhist Kubera. It may be interesting to note here that to ride on a man or a Vimana (Puspaka) a kind of palanquin is a custom much in vogue in the Himalayan regions, of which Kailasa was a part. Isuna He, the Guardian-god of the North-east quarters is to be represented according to the Svetambara texts as riding a bull (joined by Uma), holding a bow and trident. He also bears matted hair and snakes on his person,2 The Digambara books 1. The standing image of Kubera from Choma Kher in the Mathura Aluseum has two hands with a club and a purse. A figure from Nimthur, Gwalior State, No. 40/1974 is by appearance of Kubera. It has a Jina miniature above the head-dress, 2. IzAnaM dhavalavarNaM vRSabhavAhanaM trinetraM zUlapANi / Nirranakalika (Agra. MSS). C. JATHAFT QTHaecat selffitat a forafaaly: 1 fargefa: pramathAdhinAtho gRhNAtu dugdhAnnamidaM sasapi / oM IzAnavAstudevAya. icaradinakara, Pujaridhi. Again. zvetavarNo vRSabhavAhano nIlalohitavastraH caturbhujaH jayabhRtazUlacApabhRtakaradvayenAJjalikazca . . . Acaradinakara , Pratisthakalpa.

Page #149
Dikpalas mention only the symbols of a skull over and above the abovenamed characteristics.1 115 Isana, otherwise designated as Siva in Brahmanism, has been directly imported into the Jaina Pantheon. Skull, bow, properly known as Pinaka and snakes are all well-known symbols of Siva. As there is every likelihood to believe that in Prehistorical times the Siva-cult had much prevalence in the northeastern regions, roughly coterminous with the present area of Tibet, Sikkim and Bhutan, still holding the same faith, the north-eastern direction received the name of Isana Dik. It is to be noted in this connection that Isvara Yaksa of Sreyamsanatha has been influenced by Isana, in his vehicle of bull and symbols of three eyes, trident etc. Brahma and Naga As in Brahmanism, so in Jainism, too, the Dikpala Brahma has been given the charge of the upper regions. The Svetambara texts describe him as four-headed, riding on a swan and holding a book and lotus.2 The Digambaras do not seem to have accepted not more than eight guardian gods. Brahma and Naga being left out from their descriptive list. Naga is to be imaged as a figure seated on a lotus and having a snake in his hand. He rules over nether world or Patala, the region of the snakes. The representation of Brahma and Naga as Dikpalas evince no further improvement on those of Brahmanism. The symbols of both the deities tally exactly with what we notice in 1. IzAnaM vRSapRSThagaM hastodastakapAlazUlabhayadaM pUrvottarasyAM dizi nAgairAbharaNairalaGkRta' * * devapUjA / Cf. bhAsvadbhUSAbhujaGgabhujagasitajaTAketakArdhenducUlaM bibhrad zulaM kapAlaM sagaNavaramihArcAmi pUrvottarezam // Pratisthasaroddhara. 2. proM namo brahmaNe UrdhvalokAdhIzvarAya sarvasurapratipannAya pitAmahAya nAbhisambhavAya caturmukhAya haMsavAhanAya kamalasaMsthAnAya pustakakamalahastAya / Acaradinakara (Ramaghita, MSS). 3. nAgaM zyAmavarNa padmavAhanamuragapANi ceti / Nirvanakalika (MSS Agra).

Page #150
116 Jaina Iconography their Brahmanic originals. Brahma, in one of his four hands, has been given a book, cvidently the Vedas. It seems to be a most interesting inadvertance on the part of Jainas to admit this symbol of Brahma, as against their avowed antipathy for the Brahmanic Vedas.

Page #151
CHAPTER V THE NAVAGRAHAS The Jainas following the earlier Brahmanic tradition reduced the Planetary system to a group of iconic representations, which constitute an important class of gods known as Jyotiska Devas. The features of these Gods in sculpture are mostly of the kind of their originals though, as in other cases, there are distinct characteristics by which we recognise them showing them as purely Jaina creations. From the ritualism attached to these gods we may well infer that individually and collectively their worship had much vogue among the Jainas. It is likely, therefore, that images of the planets used to be constructed either separately or in a group like the panel of Brahmanic art representing the Navagrahas. In the discoveries of Jaina scriptures, we have had very little instance of meeting with the separate figures of their nine planets. Nevertheless, it is nccessary to deal with their descriptions in our book for we are not devoid of hope of finding out examples of Jaina Grahas as we have found their other images, all equally receiving the treatment in the Jaina iconographical literature. In this topic, it is noticeable that stress has been given to the supremacy of the planets over the different quarters (Dik) calling them "ruler of cast" etc., and this seems to be a new feature in the Jaina iconology of the astronomical deities. Surya 1. The sun-god has been described in Svetambara Jainism as riding on a chariot, drawn by seven steeds and holding in his hands two lotuses. He is known there as the deity of the East and the husband of Ratna Devi.1 The Digambara description zrIsUryAya sahasrakiraNAya ratnadevIkAntAya gaGgAya yamunAya nakArajagatsAkSiNe karmasAkSiNe / pUrvadigadhIzAya kamalahastAya saptAzvarathavAhanAya / Acaradinakara, Pujavidhi (Ramaghata MSS).

Page #152
118 Jaina Iconography of the God is simpler.! Candra Candra or the Moon-god of thc Svetambaras drives a chariot of ten white horses and holds an urn of nectar. He is the master of the stars and rules over the north-western quarters. The Digambara description of the planet has no mention of his symbols. Mangala Mangala or the Planet Mars, as described in the Svetambara lexis holds a shovel and stands upon the earth in one type and in another, he has four hands, holding Varada, Sakti (spear), trident and club. He is known as the son of the carth and the ruler of the South. The Digambara tcxt gives the planet no more attribute than a spcar.5 1. tvaM toSTA tApasepTyA kamalakaraharidvAhanetA grahANAM naivedyaiH sAnugAGkarghanazRtaparamAnnodyapigaMDAdyaiH / Pratisthasa ruddhara. 2. candrazcitre vidhAtavyaH zvetazvetAmbarAvRtaH / dazazvetAzvasaMyukta prArUDhaH syandanaM zubham // Nirranukalika (MSS. Agra Library). cr.oM caM caM caM - 'namazcandrAya zambhuzivarAya * 'tArAgaNAdhIzAya vAyavyadigadhIzAya * * * 'sarvajagatpoSaNAya zvetadazavAjivAhanAya sudhAkumbhahastAya / Acaradinakara. 3. Vide Pratisthasaroddhara, p. 28 4. zrImaGgalAya dakSiNa digadhIzAya vidmavarNAya raktAmbarAya bhUmisthitAya kuddAlahastAya / Ararudinakara (MSS, Ramaghata). Cr. dharAputrasya vakSyAmi lakSaNaM citrakarmaNaH / caturbhujo mepagAmI dakSiNa budhnagaM hastavaradaM parikalpayet / UrdhvazaktisamAyuktaM vAmau shuulgdaadhrau| bhaum| Nirvanakalika (Agra MSS). 5. phyUne bimbamitAGkayojanazate krozArdhamAtra kSiterbAhya dvidvisahasrakesarimukhaibhikSupriyaH zUlabhRt / Pratisthasaroddhura.

Page #153
Navagrahas 119 Budha Two different types of description occur in the Svetambara books for the image of Budha. According to one he should be represented as riding on a swan and holding a book in his hand." The other type makes the figure riding a lion and having the attributes of a sword, shield, club and Varada.? Budha is known as the son of the Moon and the ruler of the north. The Digambara account informs us mcrcly of a book for the planet. Brhaspati In this case, 100, the Svetambara literature furnishes iwo different accounts. Conforming to the one, the image should bear a book and ride a swan, to the other, he should hold the attributes, in his four hands, of a rosary, staff, kamandalu and Varada. He is the ruler of the north-castern quarters. The Diganibara Bshaspati sits on a lotus and holds a book, Kamandalu and a rosary." 1. priya1prakhyAGgo galadamalapIyUSanikapasphuradvArItrANi (?) kRtasakalazA stropacayadhI: * * 'zazisutaH / 'oM namaH zrIbudhAya * * 'uttaradigadhIzAya .. kalahaMsavAhanAya pustakahastAya / (Arivadinakara MMSS. Ramaghata). 2. siMhArUDho budhaH pItamAlyAmbaradharaH / varadaM khaGgayuktaJca kheTakena samanvitaM gadayA ca samAyuktaM / . . . Nirranakulika (Agra). 1. bimbaM khaM zazino'STayojanamatItyocaM vrajadbha javAt / krozArdhapramitaM kujasthitirito varNISTimutpustakam // Pratisthasaruidhara. 4. zAstraprastArasAra * zrIgurave bRhaspataye IzAna digadhIzAya * 'pItavastrAya pustakahastAya haMsavAhanAya / Acaradinakara. Cr. pIto devagururlekhyaH zubhrazca bhRgunandanaH / caturbhirbAhubhiryuktazcitrakarma vizAradaH / varadaH sAkSasUtrazca kamaNDaludharau tathA / daNDinau ca tathA bAhU vibhrANaH parikalpayet / ..Nirranakalika. 5. taccArAdrasayojanarupari yA tadvadvimAnaM manAgUnakrozamitaH sapustakakamaNDalvakSasUtro'bjagaH / Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #154
120 Sukra He is described in the Svetambara texts as having the vehicle of a snake and bearing the symbol of an urn. He is known as the teacher of the demons and ruler of the Southeast regions. The Digambara canon makes him hold a three-fold +hread, snake, noose and rosary. 2 Sani 3 The Saturn-god has the Svetambara figure, which caronically should ride a tortoise and bear the attribute of an axe. The attribute of the Digambara is only mentioned as a three-fold thread. According to the former view. the planet is the ruler of the west Rahu Jaina Iconography Rahu is represented by the Svetambara as a rider of lion and bearer of an axe. He has the charge of the South-western quarters. The Digambara Rahu seems to have the symbol of a flag." Ketu Ketu, as imaged by the Svetambara, is a snake deity. He rides on a cobra and bears the attribute of a cobra. He 1. zrIzukrAya daityAcAryAya prAgneyadigadhIzAya sphaTikojjvalAya zvetavastrAya kumbhahastAya uragavAhanAya.... 2. preryaM krozatataM visUtraphaNabhRt pAzAkSasUtraiH sphuran / Pratisthasaroddhara. 3. zrIM zanaizcarAya pazcimadigadhIzAya nIladehAya parazuhastAya kamaThavAhanAya / 4. tadvadgantRgatordhvapalyaparamAyuSkaistrisUtrIyutaH / 5. zrIrAhave naiRtadigadhIzAya parazuhastAya siMhavAhanAya / 6. tyaktAriSTadaronayojanatatasvavyomapAnadhvajam / 7. noM namaH zrIketave bAhupraticcha* dAya zyAmAGgAya hastAya // acaradinakara. Acaradinakara. Pratisthasavoddhara. acaradinakara. Pratisthasaroddhara. * pannagavAhanAya pannaga

Page #155
Navagrahas has no direction to rule over. The Digambara description of the planet's attribute is unavailable.1 121 Since I wrote out the above chapter I have been able to find out examples of Jaina Planets. Sec the pedestal of the Tirthamkara image, No 52, Fyzabad Muscum. Cf. Fig. B. 75, Mathura Museum also, Catalogue p. 81.

Page #156
CHAPTER VI SRUTA-DEVI AND VIDYADEVIS Of all the conceptions found in the Jain Iconography, none is so original as the conception of the Vidradevis or the Goddesses of learning. They are sixteen in number. In no other Indian religion are the goddesses of knowledge so numerous. Besides the sixteen Vidradevis, the Jains of both sects admit into their pantheon, one Sruta-devi or Sarasvali approximating very closely the Brahmanical conception of the same goddess. She seems to be at the head of the collective body of the sixteen Vidyadevis and her worship is prior to that of other subordinate deities. Her name as Sruta-deri meaning 'Goddess of Sruti' originally refers to the Vedas or revealed literature preserved through hearing. There is some hidden meaning behind this name. The description of Sruta-devi as a florded by the Jain books makes it on a par with Brahmani's (wife of Brahma) description.' And Brahma is known to hold, the Vedas or the Ancient Scripture. The Jains, like the Brahmanas, make a special ceremony of her worship on the Sukla Pancami day of the Kartrika month, which they call "Juana Pancami. On that special anniversary day of knowledge, the devout people fast, worship the books and instal them carcfully custed. The conceptions and imageries of the other sixteen goddesses of lcarning, if analysed disclose clear points of identity in respect of names, attributes, etc., with those of the Jain Yaksinis. This lcads us to assuine reasonably that the Vidyadevis in conception were modelled after the Yaksinis. The reverse would have been assurned as well but is inadmissible on the ground of the priority of the Yaksinis as connected in mythology and ritual with the Tirtharkaras in Jainism. The sixteen divinities under the name of the Vidyadevis may be prima facie supposed to sway the sixteen 1. oM hrIM namo bhagavati brahmANi vINApustakapadmAkSasUtre haMsavAhane zvetavarNe iha SaSThIpUjane Agaccha / Acaradinakara Pratisthavidhi (MS.R.B.). cr. the description of Srutadevi infra.

Page #157
Sruladevi and Vidyadevis 123 arts and sciences but the texts of Jainism give a different clue namely that through their worship the devotee gets knowledge, character, religion, effort and mental qualities of many kinds.1 Really speaking, in point of fact, these qualities lic at the bottom of all education, whether literary, artistic or scientific. Sarasvati or Srula-devi The goddess, as vicwed by the Svetambaras rides a swan, has four hands bearing a lotus or Varada book and rosary.2 The Digambara texts seem to give the vehicle of a peacock to Sarasvati.3 A number of images of Sruta-devi have been compared by me. In all cases, the symbols of a book, lotus or a swan are to be noticed. But a strict observance with the canon has not been observed in any case. 4 Sruta-devi, the main goddess of learning, seems to be identical with the consort of Brahma, a Dikpala, as described in this book. The attributes of a lute, book and rosary are common. The vehicle of swan is also characteristic of Brahma. The substitute of peacock for swan, as made by the Digambara seci, agrees with the conception of Sarasvati, who is also the river-goddess in Brahmanism. The Jain literature, so extensive cven as it exists at present, has been presided over by this goddess. dRgjJAnacAritrapareSu sUripurassareSvapyakRtAdaro yaH / Pratisthasaruddhura. zvetavarNA zvetavastradhAriNI haMsavAhanA zvetasiMhAsanAsInA caturbhujA zvetAjavINAlaGkRtavAmakarA pustakamuktAkSamAlAlaGkRtadakSiNakarA / Acaradinakara, Pralisthakalpa, p. 146. (MS, Ramaghata Collection, Benares) Cr. Nirvunakaliku Ms. (Jnanamandira, Agra). vAgvAdini bhagavati sarasvati hrIM namaH ityanena mUlamantreNa veSTayet / oM hrIM mayUravAhinyai nama iti vAgadhidevatAM sthApayet / Pratisthasaroddhara. A two-handed imagc at the Lucknow Muscum No. 8-6/507 is the earlicst. Cf. A four-handed image from Pallu, Bikaner. Another at Deogarh Fort, Scrial. No. 2262. See Indian Images, Part I, pp. 43, 44.

Page #158
124 J aina Iconography Rohini, the Vidyadevi The description of this goddess, as in other cases, varies, with the two sects. With the Svetambara, she rides a cow and holds in her hands a conch, rosary, bow and arrow. With the other sect, she appears bearing the attributes of an urn, conch, lotus and fruit.2 We shall gradually sce that most of the names of the Vidyadevis are in common with those of Yaksinis, specially of the Digambara scct. In this case, Rohini is also the name of the consort of Mahayaksa, who attends upon Ajitanatha. From the text of the Svetambaras, it appears that she specially presides over the art of music. The Digambaras believe that by her worship, the devotee attains right insight. Prajiapli In her Svetambara aspect, she rides on a peacock and holds a lotus and a Sakti.? According to one text of the same school, she holds varada, Sakti, citrus and Sakti again.4 The Digambara image should be represented as bearing a sword and a disc.. Prajnapti is identical in name with the Digambara Yaksini of Sambhavanatha. Thus, we find she has borrowed the 1. zaGkhAkSamAlA zaracApazAlicatupkarA kundtussaargauraa| gogAminI gItacaraprabhAvA zrIrohiNI siddhimimAM dadAtu / / Acaradinakara. __Cr. Nirrimakalika (MS Agra Library). 2. vizodhya yaH sveSTaguNaiH sarAgAM dRSTi virAgazca parAM pracakre / taM kumbhazaGkhAbjaphalAmbujasthA zritAya'se rohiNI rukmaruk tvam // Pratisthasarodelhura (Ramaghata MS). 1. zaktisarojahastA mayUrakRtayAnalIlayA klitaa| prajJaptivijJapti zRNotu naH kamalapatrAbhA // Acaradinakara (Ramaghata MS). 4. prajJapti zvetavarNAM mayUravAhanAM caturbhujAM varadazaktiyuktadakSiNakarAM mAtuliGgazaktiyuktavAmahastAm / Nirvanakalika 5. dRgjJAnacAritratapassu sUripurassareSvapyakRtAdaro yaH / tadbhaktikAM tvAzyagatinilInAM prajJaptike'rcAmi sacakrakhaGgAm / / Pralisthasaroddhara.

Page #159
Srutadevi and Vidyadevis 125 vehicle of peacock from Yaksa Trimukha, Prajnapti's husband. The peacock symbol with lotus should be Vidyadevi's characteristic. The name might have been derived either from Prajnapti, meaning intellect' or Prajna, meaning 'Sarasvati'. Vajra-srmkhala Two forms of this goddess are known to the Svetambara scripture. In one form she is seated on a lotus and carries a chain and club. In another form, she is also seated on a lotus but has four hands adorned with varada mudra, chain, lotus and chain again.2 The Digambara text mentions only a chain for the deity.3 We meet with the goddess of the like name in connection with the Yaksini of Abhinandana. But, in no point, the two dcities seem to agree with one another. The Svelambara form, however, of the Yaksini has a lotus scat like Vajra Srinkhala. According to the Digambara text used, she grants to her worshippers good boons and habits. Vairamkusa She, too, has two forms according to Svetambara texts. In one, she rides an clephant and bears as symbols a sword, vajra, shield and spear. 4 In another, she is riding an elephant in varada-mudra, Vajra, citrus and goad,5 The Digambaras represent 1. sazRGkhalagadAhastA kanakaprabhavigrahA / padmAsanasthA zrIvajrazRGkhalA // Acaradinakara. 2. vajrazRGkhalAM zaGkhAvadAtAM padmavAhanAM caturbhujAM varadazRGkhalAnvitadakSiNakarAM padmazRGkhalAdhiSThitavAmakarAm / Nirvanakalika. 3. vratAni zIlAni ca jAtu yo'ntarvRttyAmanagno bahirIhayA vA / tadbhaGgimAsthAya vizRGkhalAstrA pItA ca tRpti parizRGkhale'smin / / Pratisthasaroddhara. 4. nistrizavajraphalakottamakuntayuktahastA sutaptavilasatkaladhautakAntiH / unmattadantigamanA bhuvanasya vighnaM vajrAGkuzI haratu... Acaradinakara. 5. Nirianakalika.

Page #160
126 Jaina Iconography the deity as driving in an aerial car and holding in her hands a goad and a lute.1 The Vidyadevi of the presnt description bcars the same name as the Svetambara Yaksini of Anantanatha. Some symbols of the Svetambara form and others of the Digambara form, such as sword, spear and goad come to be equal to those of the Yaksini. The synibol of an elephant, the name Vajramkusa meaning 'one adorned with vajra and goad' leads us to suppose some mysterious connection between this Vidyadevi and Indra. Her lure, as given by the Digambaras, is only a symbol of Sarasvati. Apraticakra or Jambunada According to the Svetambara books, she rides a Garuda and all her four hands are armed with discs. She is called Jambunada by the Digambaras, who represent her as riding a peacock and bearing a sword and a spear. 3 Apraticakra by naine and symbols bears equality with the Yaksini of Rsabhanatha. This Vidyadevi may have some innate relation to Vaisnavi, the wife of Visnu, as Jambunada scems to have relation with Kaumari, the wife of Karttikeya. Peacock and spear are in this form the common characteristics. Purusadatla In Svcrambara literature, she is differently described. In one aspect, she holds a sword and shield,' in another,' she rides on a buffalo and carries in her four palms Varada, sword, 1. jJAnopayogaM vyadadhAdabhIkSNaM yastaM bhajantaM zritapuSpayAnAm / vajrAGkuze tvAM sRNipANimudyadvINArasAM maju yaje'JjanAbhAm // Pratis!hastiroddhara. 2. garutmatpRSTha AsInA bhUyAd praticakrAntasiddhaye ckrdhaarinnii| zrI apraticakrAya * * / Acaradinakara. Cf. Nirrannkalika. 3. dharme rajaddharmaphalekSaNe ca yo janmabhIstasya makhe shikhisthaa| jAmbUnadAbhA ghRtakhaGgakuntA jAmbUnade svIkuru yajJabhAgam // Pratisthasaroddhara. 4. Acaradinakara.

Page #161
Srutadevi and Vidyadevis 127 citrus and shield. The Digambara text makes her ride a peacock and hold as symbols vajra and a lotus. We meet with the Yaksini of the same description as the wise of Tumbaru, the attendant of Sumati. The bullalo vehicle indicates strongly thc Vidyadevi's original relation with the wise of Yama, who characteristically moves on the back of the same animal. kali The Digambara image of this Vidyadevi sbould ride a deer and should be surnished in its hands with the symbols of a staff and sword. There are two Svetamhara forms to be marked. She is scated on a lotus and holds cither in two hands a club and varada or in four hands rosary, club, vajra and Abhara.4 She has similarity in name and certain synbols with the Svetambara Yaksini of Abhinandana. The Digambara goddess, though having denominational similarity with the Yaksini of Suparsvanatha of the same sect seems to have been modelled after the type of the wife of Vayu. This is strongly suggested by the common characteristic symbol of a deer as vehicle. Mahakali Thc Svetambaras have iwo descriptions for the goddess. According to one', she rides on a man and holds a rosary, fruit, bell and Varada mudra. According to another, she equally rides 1. puruSadattAM kanakAvadAtAM mahiSIvAhanAM caturbhujAM varadAsiyuktadakSiNakarAM mAtuliGgakheTakayutavAmahastAm / Nirranakalika. 5. kokAzritAM vajrasarojahastAM yaje sitAM puruSadattike tvAm / Pratisthasaroddluira. 3. T araf Hot airfor TUTHT ETETT HATHEFI I Ibid. 4. vikacakamalavAhanA gadAbhRtakulazamalakurutAt sadaiva kaalii| Acaradinakara. CF Nirranakalika for the description of the same 5. naravAhanA zazadharopalojjvalA rucirAkSasUtraphalavisphuratkarA zubhaghaNTikA afaa zoetefeuit... HETAreiti Acaradinakara.

Page #162
128 Jaina Iconography a man but holds a rosary, vajra, Abhaya mudra and bell.1 The Digambara form of Mahakali is to be represented as standing on a corpse and bearing in her hands a bow, sword, fruit and weapon." Though the Yaksini of the like name, the Svetambara one of Sumatinatha and Digambara one of Suvidhinatha, exists in Jain Iconography, the Vidyadevi named Mahakali partakes more of the nature of Kali of Brahmanism than of the same Yaksini. The symbols of sword, bell, rosary, etc., are sufficiently tantrik in character, the corpse at the feet of the goddess being a true mark of Kali. The Digambara book states that the goddess grants religious trance (Samadhi) to her worshippers. Gauri She of the Svetambara type rides on an alligator (T) and bears four hands equipped with Varada, club, rosary and water-lily. In Digambara form, too, Gauri has an alligator as her vehicle and holds lotus as her symbol.4 There is also Gauri, the Digambara Yaksini of Sreyams anatha. Some of her symbols, such as lotus, Varada, are identical with those of this Vidyadevi. As an alligator is mythologically associated with a form of Brahmani, Gauri or Durga, we have reason enough to infer that the goddess, model came after her. The alligator and some of the symbols such as water-lily and urn indicate her connection with the goddess Ganga of Brahmanism.5 I. mahAkAlIM devIM puruSavAhanAM caturbhujAmakSasUtravajjAnvitadakSiNakarAm prabhayaghaNTAlaGkRtavAmabhujAm / Nirvanakalika. 2. cakre'dhikAM sAdhuSu yaH samAdhi taM sevamAnA zaramAdhirUDhA / zyAmA dhanuHkhaGgaphalA'strahastA bali mahAkAli jupasva zAntyai // Pratisthasaroddhara. 3. godhAsanasamAsInA kundakarpUranirmalA / 4. gaurIM devIM godhAvAhanAM caturbhujAM varadamusalayutadakSiNakarAmakSamAlAlaGkRta vAmahastAm / 5. godhAgatA hemarugavjahastA gauri pramodasva tadarcanAMzaiH // Nirvanakalika. Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #163
Srutadevi and Vidyadevis 129 Gandhari The Svetambara Gandhari is to be represented either as scated on a lotus and holding a staff and vajra or Varada, staff, Abhaya and Vajra.' Digambara goddess rides a tortoise and holds a disc and sword.2 We meet with the Svetambara Yaksini of the like name, who belonged to Nami. Her swan vehicle gave her the character of Sarasvati. The Yaksini Gandhari of the Digambaras rides a crocodile but the Vidyadevi Gandhari rides a tortoise. This latter point leads us to connect her with Yamuna, as the preceding Vidyadevi was suggested to be associated with Garga. Mahajvala or Jvalamalini The text called the Acaradinakara of the Svetambaras describes this goddess as riding a cat but mcntions no attributes. The Nirvanakalika another text of the same sect describes her as riding a boar and holding many weapons without description.3 Images of Digambara type should ride a buffalo and bear such weapons as a bow, shield, sword and disc. 4 The Yaksini of similar name we find as attached to Candraprabha. The Svetambara Yaksini has a cat as her vehicle like the present goddess and the Digambaras' also has the common vehicle of a buffalo. The underlying idea of the Jvalamalini representation seems to have been derived from the consort of Yama, whose symbol is a buffalo. The cat symbol is also held by a Brahmanical deity named Sasthi. It is, indeed, difficult to say which idea is older, the Jain or the Brahmanic. Manavi According to one text, she has blue colour and sits on a 1. zavapatrasthitacaraNA musalaM vajaca hstyorddhtii| ____ kamanIyAJjanakAntirgAndhArI gAM zubhAM dadyAt // . Acaradinakara. 1. cakrAsibhRtkUrmaganIlamUrte gRhANa gAndhAri tadadhrigandham / Pratisthasaroddhara. 3. mahAjvAlAM dhavalavarNAM varAhavAhanAmasaMkhyapraharaNayutahastAm // Nirvanakalika. 4. zubhrAM dhanuHkheTakakhaDgacakrAdyugrASTabAhu mahiSAdhirUDhAm // Pratisthasaraddhara.

Page #164
130 Jaina Iconography blue lotus and a twig.1 According to another of the same Svetambara school, she sits on a lotus and is four-handed showing Varada, rosary and a bough of a tree. The Digambara text also describes her as of blue colour and as riding a boar and bearing a trident. The Vidyadevi has a parallel in name to the Svetambara Yaksini of Sreyamsanatha and in the Digambara Yaksini of Sitalanatha. The former parallel does not seem to be of form but of mere name. Sitalanatha's Yaksini as admitted by the Digambara school presents a similarity of name and vehicle. Stress has been laid on the Vidyadevi's colour being blue and in this connection, one is led to trace some faint relation between her and the Nilasarasvati of Brahmanism. The boar symbol would connect the female deity with Varahi having the same vehicle. Vairoti The Svetambara text represents the goddess as riding on a snake and carrying in her hands a sword, snake, shield and snake. The Digambaras' Vidyadevi rides a lion and has a snake symbols. The Yaksini of the identical name occurs in the Digambara Iconography and belongs to Vimalanatha. Her vehicle and symbol in both the instances consist of snakes. That there exists a sure cognateness between the conception of the Vidyadevi and the Yaksini is clearly indicated by a Digambara text which in an invocation calls the latter a Vidyadevi." 1. nIlAGgI nIlasarojavAhanA vRkSabhAsamAnakarA mAnavasya sarvasya maGgalaM mAnavI dadyAt // Acaradinakara. 2. Nirvanakalika. 3. svaM dhinvato mAnavI kekikaNThanIlA kiTisthA sajhaSatrizUlA / Pratisthasaroddhara. 4. vairoTI zyAmavarNAmajagaravAhanAM caturbhujAM khaGgoragAlaGkRtadakSiNakarAM kheTakAhiyutavAmakarAm / Nirvanakalika. 5. cai faguarauqqani asi`seu azife aaserietu || 6. vairoTI haritArcyate / proM hrIM vidyAdevi idam / / Pratisthasaroddhara. Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #165
Srutadevi and Vidyadevis 131 Acyupta She is called in the Svetambara literature Acyupta and described as riding a horse and holding a bow, sword, shield and arrowl. Acyuta as represented by the Digambaras equally rides a horse and holds the symbol of a sword. Manasi Manasi of Svetambara conception has two types in iconography. According to one, she rides a swan and bears the attributes of Varada and Vajral. According to another, shc sits on a lion and has four hands carrying Varada mudra, Vaira, rosary and again Vajra". The Digambara Manasi seats hersclf on a snake vchicles. Manasi by name and by the symbol of swan, Vajra and lion scems to be based upon a mixture of ideas. The swan symbol is very apt and is in keeping with the traditional emblem of the goddess of Icarning. The Buddhist deity of learning called Vagisvaris, who has a famous temple in Benares rides on a lion. Thus, there must be some undercurrent of interrelation in the symbolism. She rides a tiger. In this case, the Digambara Vidyadevi rides a snake. This appears to be due to the fact of Manasi and Manasa having the same literal sense. 1. savyapANi-dhRtakArmukavarA'nyasphuradvizikhakhaGgadhAriNI / vidyuddAmatanurazvavAhanA'cyuptikA bhgvtii| Acaradinakara. 2. dhautAsihastAM hayage'cyute tvAM hemaprabhAM tvAM praNatAM praNaumi / ___Pratisthasaroddhara. 3. haMsAsanAsInA varadendrAyudhAnvitA / mAnasI mAnasIM pIDAM hantu jAmbunadacchaviH / Aciradinokara. 4. mAnasIM dhavalavarNA siMhavAhanAM caturbhujAM varadavajrAlaGkRtadakSiNakarAmakSavalayAzaniyuktavAmakarAm / Nirranakalika. raktAhigA tatpragatapraNAmamudrAnvitA mAnasi' * / Pratisthusaroddhara. 5. vaagiishvrii=srsvtii| Trikandasesa.

Page #166
132 Jaina Iconography Mahamanasi The Svetambaras describe the sixteenth Vidyadevi as riding on a lion and bearing, in her four hands, varada, sword, kamandalu and lancel. The Digambara representation of the goddess sits on a swan and holds a rosary, Varadamudra, goad and garland? Again, the conception of this Vidyadevi is presumably based upon that of Vagisvari. The sword symbol specially corresponding to the Digambara Yaksini of like name is Nirvani of Jina santinatha. As noticed before, her symbols of book, kamandalu and lotus befit more a Vidyadevi than a Yaksini. The Digambara conception of Mahamanasi either as a Yaksini or Vidyadevi has symbols such as, peacock, swan, rosary, which fit in with the characteristics of the goddess of learning. mahAmAnasIM dhavalavarNA siMhavAhanAm / caturbhujAM varadAsiyuktadakSiNakarAM kuNDikAphAlakayutavAmahastAm / Nirvanakalika. raktAM mahAhaMsagatAkSasUtravarAGkuzasraksahitAM yaje tvAm / / Pratisthasaroddhara.

Page #167
CHAPTER VII MISCELLANEOUS JAINA DIVINITIES Under this hcad, we propose to trcat of certain other dcities of Jainisin, who do not prove to be constituent osa distinct class of importance but still figure promiscuously in Jaina temples and rock sculpture. The inodels of their representations except in the casc of Naigamesa or Nameso, and Santidevi must have been originally Brahmanic, though, of course, as they are in Jainism, much modified and inaderenascent. It is very interesting as we shall notice in this topic, that Jainism with its absolute doctrine of Ahimsa or non-killing should have, alongside with the later Buddhism adopted even minor goddesses of Tantricism. Nor should it be css interesting to observe that exactly like the Brahmanic custom of giving a prior worship to Ganesa and Laksmi, the Jainas, including their merchant class, attach a high importance to the veneration of these deities. Harinegamesi or Naigamesa He is represented in Jaina religious art, as a male figure, either with thc hcad of a ram or antelope or a goat. We have the noteworthy example of the god's icon in the Jaina antiquities of Mathura. In this, Naigamcsa is represented as bearing a goat's head. The god with his variant names is mentioned in the Kalpasutra, Neminalhacarita and Antagadadasao. He is primarily the captain of the foot forces of Indra, at whose command, he transferred the embryo of Mahavira from the body of the Brahmani Devananda to the womb of Ksatriyani Trisala. Hence, he acquired the power of granting the boon of child-birth. Thus, we 1. The Jaina Stupa and other antiquities of Mathura by V.A. Smith, PI, XVIII (obversc and reverse) "The Obrerse shows five figures. The principal figure is a goat-headed deity seated in an easy attitude. The deity is labelled Bhagara Nemeso, dating from about the beginning of the Christian era or earlier. To the right are three standing females, and a male infant stands by the left knee of the deity.

Page #168
134 Faina Iconography find him, in later literature, connected with the procreation of children. He is known to have two aspects, one beneficent another malevolent. The conception of the god does not seem to us to be wholly original as Prof. Keith has supposed. The three ideas connected with the deity, namely, the deer-face, goat-face and power of procreation, we conjecture were derived from the mythology of Daksa Prajapati. As Prajapati, he is fundamentally associated with work of creation and procreation. The Brahmanic mythology refers to the incident in which Siva at the self-immolation of his wife, Sati, being enraged, pursued Daksa, who assumed the form of a deer and at last decapitated him. But Siva is said to have afterwards restored him to life. According to another account, a demon camc out from a torn hair of Siva in rage, who beheaded Daksa and put a goat's head on his neck. Ksetrapala In the Svetambara books, we meet with two descriptions of this god. From one, we gather he has twenty hands with many weapons, matted hair, a snake as his holy thread and rides a dog. He is surrounded by Ananda and other Bhairavas and leads the sixty-four Yoginis.3 The other description makes him six-handed, the attributes being a club, noose, Damaru, bow, goad and Getika ? Images of this divinity have been discovered in many places but lie unidentified. The figures that I have studied, 1. "Now Sulasa was from childhood a worshipper of the god Harinega mesi. She causcd to be made an image of Harinegamesi and every morning shc bathed. So in compassion for the lady Sulasi, thc god Harincgamesi made both her and thee to become pregnant at the same tiine." The Antaguda-Dasau (Oriental Translation Fund), pp. 36, 37. Indian Alythology (Mythology of all races scries) by A.B. Keith. A[ythology of the Jainas. 3. zrIkSetrapAlAya' - 'viMzatibhujadaNDAya barbarakezAya jaTAjUTamaNDitAya vAsukI kRtajinopavItAya * 'pretAsanAya kukkuravAhanAya trilocanAya AnandabhairavAdyaSTabhairavaparivRtAya catuHSaSTiyoginImadhyagatAya / / Acatadinakara. + kSetrapAlaM barbarakezaM SaTbhujaM mudgarapAzaDamarukAnvitadakSiNapANi cApAGkuzaitseile FranhyifoTH.. Ninanakalika.

Page #169
Miscellaneous Jaina Divinities 135 agree with the description in its most essential features. Ksetrapala is a Bhairava and seems to be the master of the Yoginis. As the name suggests, he is the deity whose function is to protect the field. Hence, probably, he has the dog, who might watch the field and help his master by guarding it against any aggressor. The Bhairavas of Brahmanism, such as the Kalabhairava and Vatukabhairava are always associated with a dog. In fact, the relation of Ksetrapala with Vatukabhairava has been clearly mentioned of in the Jaina texts.2 Ganesa His hands vary from two, four, six, nine, eighteen to one hundred and eight. According to the description of the Acaradinakara, Ganapati should be pol-bellied and should hold, in his hands, an axe, Varada, Modaka (Sweet-meat ball), and Abhaya. His vehicle is a mouse.3 The form of Ganapati with four hands seems to be standard. The symbols of axe, Modaka and mousc are exactly the same with those of the Brahmanic Ganesa. Hence, we may reasonably conclude that the icon of this god is the result of one of the many assimilations which Jainism made from Brahmanism. 1. A fig. from Gandhawal Gwalior no. 1974/211 rides a dog and has four hands. It seems to be a Digambara image. Another fig. may be seen on the right wall in a group of rock-cut sculptures on the left of the road, inside the Gwalior Fort. It has also four hands with the canonical symbols. 2. kSetrapAlapratiSThAyAM bttuknaathhnumnnaarsiNhaadipurpuujitdeshpuujitprtisstthaa| Acarudinakara. 01. *7: 179187 AUTOCE E1479* * caru THETATA ! Pratisthakalpa. 3. stupefaefrostfafar: 1 # arei ferro-T5-T6 TAT- H E16EdazabhujASTottarazatabhujarUpA gurUpadezavizeSeNa bahuvidhA bhavanti / . . . . jaya lambodara prshuvrdyuktaapsvyhstyug| savyakaramodakAbhayadhara yAvakavarNapItalAsika mUSikavAhana piivrjngghaabhujbstilmbigurujtthr| vAraNamukhaikarada / varadasaumya / jayadeva gnnnaath| Vardhamanasuri's Acara dinakara pratisthavidhi.

Page #170
136 Jaina Iconography Sri or Laksmi Sri or goddess of wealth has been described in a Digambara MS. as a four-handed figure holding a flower and lotus. The same goddess in a Svetambara MS. is represented as riding on an clephant and holding, as symbol, lotuses. The worship of Laksini has a great hold upon the orthodox Jainas of both communities. The special day on which honour is done to the goddess of wealth is called Dhanaterasa. On the same occasion, the Svetambara women polish their jewellery and ornaments in honour of Laksmi. The description of Jaina Laksmi, given above, does not far differ from that of the Brahmanic Sri or Kamala. Only in one point, it appears, namely in the riding on an elephant, the Jaina image presents an originality. It must be noted here that the conception of Laksmi even in Jainism is very old as the goddess is mentioned in the Kalpasutra as one of the objects of Triiala's dream. santidevi She may be found described in Svetarbara accounts as a goddess seated in a lotus and hearing in her four hands Varada, rosary, Kamandalu and a pitcher." The idca of this female dcity seems to be quite now to us. No deity of Brahmanism or Buddhism affords even a nearer parallel to this. She is believed by the Jainas to have the function of improving the origination of the four-fold Jaina church." 1. oM hrIM suvarNavarNe caturbhuje puSpakamalamukhahaste zrIdevi atrAgaccha / Manulira-pratistharidhana. (MSS. No. 6/2. Jaina S. Library, Arrah) 2. mahAlakSmyai namaH / pativastrAM suvarNAGgI padmahastAM gajAGkitA' * * kSIrodatanayAM at aterat afafaat GTECI TATIERI (A MSS. from Ramaghata Library). 3. zAntidevatAM dhavalavarNAM kamalAsanAM caturbhujAM varadAkSasUtrayuktadakSiNakarAM ___kuNDikAkamaNDalvanvitavAmakarAm / Nirzanak lika. 1. etagfatata atrapa fanfeunt zivazAntikarI bhUyAt zrImatI zAntidevatA / / Pratisthakalpa.

Page #171
Miscellaneous Jaina Divinities 137 In several Jaina MSS., I have noticed the names of the Yoginis and their number is mentioned to be six-four. Some of the names may be mentioned here : Mahayogini, Siddhayogini, Yugesvari, Pretaksi, Dakini, Kali, Kalaratri, Nisacari, Klimkari, Battali, Bhutalamari, Kumarika, Candika, Varahi, Kamkali, Bhuvanesvari, Kundali, Laksmi, Karali, Visati, and so on.' Another MS. gives a list of names with some alterations. They are Divyayogi, Mahayogi, Siddhiyogi, Gaacsvari, Pretaksi, Dakini, Kali, Kalaratri, Nisacari, Hrimkari, Siddhi, Vaitala, Klimkari, Bhutalamari, Orddhvakesi, Mahakali, Suskargi, Narabhojini, Phutkari, Virabhadrani:7, Dhumraksi, Kalahapriya, Rajasi, Ghoraraktaksi, Virupaksi, Bhayamkari, Bairi, Kaumariki, Candi, Karkali, Bhuvanes vari Kundala, Jalaki (?) Laksmi, Yamaduti, Karatapani, Kozaki-bhaksani, Yaksa Kaumari, Yantra-vahini, Vieala, Kamaki, Yaksini, Pretabhaksini, Dhurjati, Kinkari, Kapala, Visamaluli.2 The list, though long and sometimes obscure, does not exhaust the number of sixty-four. Some of the names are in common with the Brahinanic names of Yoginis but majority of them are quite original to Jainism. How the cult of the Tantrik Yoginis originated among the vegetarian Jainas is unknown. The Yoginis are known as attendants on Siva or Parvati. But in the case of Jainism, we may suppose, as seen before that they are subordinates to Ksctrapala, the chicf of the Bhairavas. (MSS. from the Ramaghata Jain Library) 1. catuSpaSTiyoginInAmAni 2. hoafocelfritt Mandir, Baroda). (MSS. No. 396, Hamsa Vijaya Collection, Jaina

Page #172
CHAPTER VIII THE ASANAS AND MUDRAS Among all great religions of India, certain symbolic positions of hands and legs form prominent parts of poses in spiritual contemplation. They are believed to be aids to mental concentration. The Hatha Yoga or the primary culture of the body combined with will-force has as its subject these Mudras and Asanas in a general sense. It is well-known that the Indian Yogis practise the various Asanas to gain some control of the body, proceeding as they do, towards the Raja Yoga or Higher mental culture. The Jaina Tirtharkaras were also essentially Yogis on one hand and teachers of religion on the other. Hence, the explanation of the Yogic Asanas and Mudras, as found in the sculptures of the Jainas, their followers and attendants. In this respect, however, the Jaina Iconography presents some novel features. For some of the Asanas, for example, the Kayotsarga, are distinctly of Jaina origin. Five kinds of Asanas may be differentiated. These are the Paryanka, Ardhaparyanka, Vajra, Khadgasana and Vira.1 They are also known as Moksasana or the postures assumed by a Jina at the time of the salvation or on the way to attaining it. There is, further, another Asana called the Bandhurasana, which has been defined as the easy posture, the assumption of which makes the mind motionless.? Now, let us describe the Asanas individually. Paryankasana or Samparyamkasana Glossed as Padmasana, which, in the Jaina Yogic texts, is 1. Vide the text paryaGkamardhaparyata vajra vIrAsanaM tathA / sukhAravindapUrvaM ca kAyotsargazca sammataH / / Jnanarnava (Nirnayasagara Press), p. 278 2. yena yena sukhAsInA vidadhyunizcalaM manaH / tatra deva vidheyaM syAnmunibhirbandhurAsanam // Ibid., p. 278.

Page #173
Asanas and Mudras 139 described as a posture in which the Jaina or any devotee squats on a seat with legs folded, the right leg being on the left thigh and the left leg on the right thigh, while the eyes are fixed upon the tip of the nose. The position of the arms varies. There is a religious prescription to the effect that the image of Mahavira, Rsabhanatha and Neminatha should be constructed in this posture or Asana.? The extant sculptures of the Tirthankaras mentioned do not always support the injunction.3 Ardhaparyamkasana While the Paryamkasana is sitting on the hams, the Ardhaparyamkasana is half sitting on hams. In the latter posture, one leg hangs angularly, the other remains folded. The same Asana is also called Paryamkasana mana, which has been defined as the position in which the Yogi lessens the weight of his body by one-third.4 This posture is not common to the images of the Jinas. We get, however, instances of this in the case of the Yaksas and Yaksinis. The figures of Cakresvari from Gandhawal in Gwalior State and Nirvani Yaksini explored by me are represented in this posture. Khadgasana The standing posture with feet at a distance of about two inches from each other, the hands resting naturally by the sides, 1. Cf. The Antagada-Dasao (Oriental Translation Fund) p. 59, footnote. 2. For an illustration of this posture refer to the image of Rsabhanatha, from Maheth, Distt. Gonda. 3. The injunction runs like this vIraH, RSabhaH, nemiH, eteSAM jinAnAM paryaGkAsanam / zeSajinAnAmutsarga THE 1 Sativusaroddhara, 151 dvara 4. paryaGkAsanamAnantu svadehamAnAttRtIyabhAgonaM yadA karoti tadA paryaGkAsanamAnaM Hanifa i Ibid. Cr. urdhvatastasya mAnArdhamutsedhaM parikalpayet / paryaGkamapi tAvantaM tiryagAyAmasaMsthitam // Pratisthasaroddhara (MSS Jaina S. Library=Arrah).

Page #174
Jaina Iconography but not so as to touch the body. All the standing Jina figures are represented in this posture. It is, however, enjoined that the figures of Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha and Abhinandana should be especially sculptured in the Khadgasana. Mudras 140 Whercas Asanas refer to particular mystic positions of legs, the Mudras relate to positions of hands as well as feet. In the Jaina pantheon, the Tirthankaras have not many Mudras in their representations but their attendants, viz., the Yaksa and Yaksinis assume different Mudras in their hands analogous to those, generally met with in the Hindu and Buddhist images. We find mentioned in the Jaina literature quite a number of Mudras with their descriptions, some of which it is not possible to trace in the actual sculptures. Consequently, we would describe below those which we find in actual sculptures and also those which though not seen already are very likely to be found in figures of future discovery. Jina-Mudra The position, so called, when the ascetic stands in Kayotsarga keeping the feet at four fingers breadth between the toes and lesser width between the heels.3 Kayotsarga literally means 'letting loose the body'. tAvattu tiryagAyAmasaMsthitam / bAhuyugmAntaraM deze hrAsayeccaturaGgulam // prakoSThAtkurparaM yAvad dvyaGgulaM vardhayetsadA / kAyotsargasthitasyaitallakSaNaM bhASitaM budhaiH // Vasunandi's Vastusara & Pratisthasamgraha (MSS. 68 Jnanamandir, Baroda) See for illustration, the fig. 9. Candraprabha, Devagarh Fort. 2. 3. cattAri aMgulAI purano DuNAijatya pacchimano / pAyANaM ussaggo esA puNa hoi jiNamuddA || Panca, 3 Viva. Cr. caturaGgulamagrataH pAdayorantaraM kiJcinnyUnaM ca pRSThataH kRtvA samakAyo tsargeNa jinamudrA / Acaradinakara.

Page #175
Asanas and Mudras 141 Yoga-Mudra The position of sitting in which the palms of the hands in the form of lotus-buds should be laid upon one another beside the belly.1 Vira Mudra __Same as Varada-Mudra-(giving a boon'). The posture, in which one sits at ease and keeps one's hands opening outwards.2 Many of the figures of the Yaksinis and Vidyadevis already described bear this Mudra. praNoNaMtari aMguliko sAkArehiM dohi hatthehiM / piTThovari kopparayaM DhiehiM taha jogamuchatti / / Panca, Viva. sukhAsanasthasya varadAkArI hastau vIramudrA srvrkssaakrii| Acaradinakara.

Page #176
APPENDIX A NOTES ON JAINA SYMBOLS AND TECHNICAL TERMS Astamangalika- . to wit, a Svastika, Srivatsa, Nandyavarta, Vardhamanaka, state-seat, pitcher, fish and a mirror. Ayagapata or tablet of homage. It is an ornamental slab bearing the representation of a Jina or of some other object of worship and the term may be appropriately rendered by 'tablet of homage or of worship'. Since such slabs were put up in temples as the numerous inscriptions on them say 'for the worship of the Arhats'. Avasyakas arc singing hymns to the 24 Jinas Stavana, Vandana, Pratikramana, kayotsarga. Dharmacakra (wheel of law)-It seems to have been borrowed from Buddhism to indicate the preaching of the Dharma in connection with the Tirthankaras. Dundubhi The Heavenly Dundubhis consist of five musical instruments. These are the Pancamahasabda viz. (1) Sringa, the horn. (2) Tammata, the drum. (3) Samkha, the conchshell. (4) Bheri, the trumpet. (5) Jayaghata, the cymbal. (Cf. Prof. Bhandarkar's "Jaina Iconography" Ind. Ant., 1911, June.) Hara is a combination of 18 strings of jewels (The Antagada-Dasao and Anuttarovavaiya-Dasao Oriental Translation Fund, p. 21). Nandyavarta It is defined as a Svastika with nine corners. It is a peculiar geometrical pattern. (See Colebrooke's Mis. Essays, Ed. by Cowell Vol. II p. 190).1 A sort of building in the form of a quadrangle without a western Setc-Apte's dictionary.

Page #177
Jaina Symbols and Technical Terms 143 Palamva Samayika-Patha Samavasarana Srivatsa Svastika 'Pendant jewels'. Some commentators explain it as 'long' applied to silks. The hymns which the Jainas recitc in the beginning of their meditation. It is believed that the Tirthankaras rise upto 5000 man's height and Indra constructs the famous Samavasarana consisting of 12 Sabhas. (Cf. Prof. Bhandarkar's note on the subject. Ind. Ant. 1911 June). a diagram resembling a lower of four petals arranged at right angles one to another or a curl of hair. A mystical cross which is believed to bring good fortune to the wearer thereof and which resembles a Greek cross with ends turned in at right angles. This symbol is probably very ancient, as it was one of the chief marks on the feet of Buddha. Prof. Burnouf (sce Schliemann's Troy p. 103) holds that it is intended to denote the invention of the fire drill. The Svastika has been observed on greek pottery of antiquity, on innumerable ornaments in the catacombs of Rome, on ancient personal ornaments in Scandinavia, on ancient urns and weapons in Britain, in devices in Japan and Britain, on coffins in China and on Church bells in England'i. 1. Anderson, catalogue Part II, p. 197, for an interesting article of this, subject, see Ind. Ant. Vol. VII, p. 176, also Thomas, Ind. Ant. Vol. IX p. 65, Beal Ibid., p. 67.

Page #178
APPENDIX B 5 Sevidu=1 Alakku 2 Alakku=1 Ulakku 2 Ulakku=1 Uri 2 Uri 1 Nali or Padi 8 Nali or Padi=1 Kuruni or Marakkal 2 Kuruni 2 Padakku=1 Tuni 3 Tuni 1 Kalam =3 Maunds 1 Padakku SII., II, p. 48, note 5. Ancient India (Iyengar), pp. 182-3. 1 Veli-6 Acres.

Page #179
BIBLIOGRAPHY* Acarya Jinasena Agrawala, R.C. Adi Puruna, tr. Pt. Panna Lal, Delhi, 1968. Harivamsa Purana, ed. B. Ch. Chhabra and S. S. Narayan, Delhi, 1968. A Unique Image of Jivantasvami from Rajasthan, Brahma Vidv.i, Adyar, XXII, 1 & 2, pp. 32-34. A Unique Sculpture of Jaina Goddess Saccika, Artibus Asiae, Ascona, XVIII, 3-4, pp. 232-34; JBBRAS, XXIX, 2, pp. 63-66; Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Arrah, XXI, 1, pp. 1-5. Some Early Jaina Icons from Jodhpur Division, JA, XX, 2, pp. 15-17. Some Interesting Sculptures of Jaina Goddess Ambika from Marwar, IHQ, XXXII, 4, pp. 434-38. A Jaina Cloth Painting or Cilrapala of Taruna Prabha Suri, JUPHS, XXII, pp. 214-15. Agrawala, V. S. *ABBREVIATIONS IN BIBLIOGRAPHY ASIAR=Archacological Survey of India, Annual Report, BPWM=Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. BMA=Bulletin of Museums and Archaeology in U.P., Lucknow. EI-Epigraphia Indica. IA=Indian Antiquary.i IH -Indian Historical Quartery, Calcutta. JA-Jaina Antiquary, Arrah. JBBRAS=Journal of the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay. JBRS=Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Patna. JBORS=Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Patna. JIM=Journal of Indian Museums, Bombay. FISOA Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta. JJ Jaina Journal, Calcutta. JO1-Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda. JUPHS=Journal of the U.P. Historical Society, Lucknow. 0A-Oriental Art, London.

Page #180
146 Amar, G.L. Jaina Iconography A New Stone Umbrella from Mathura, JUPHS, XXIII. Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, JUPHS, XXIII. Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965. Jaina Art of Mathura, Babu Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 87-92. Jaina Vidya, Sri Mahavira Smriti Grantha, 1948-49. Mathura Ayagapattas, JUPHS, XVI, 1. Mathura Ki Jaina Kala, Mahavira Jayanti Smarika, Jaipur, April, 1962. Sludies in Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965. The nativity scene of a Jaina relief from Mathura, JA, X. Kali Talai Ki Jaina Murtiyan (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, February, 1968. Patiyan Dai-Eka Gupta-Kalina Jaina Mandira (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XIX, 6, pp. 340-46. Pratisthasaroddhara, ed. Pt. Manohar Sastri, Bombay, V. S. 1974. The Art of India and Pakistan (Commemorative catalogue of the Royal Academy Exhibition, 1947-48), London, 1950. A collection of Somo Jaina Stone Images from Mount Girnar, Bulletin of the Museum & Picture Gallery, Baroda, XX, pp. 51-59. A New Inscribed Image of a Yaksa, India Antiqua, Leiden, 1947. Deogarh Ki Jaina Pratimayen (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, April, 1962. Evolution of Jaina Art in Madhya Pradesh, Bulletin of the Deptt. of Ancient Indian History & Archaeology, University of Saugar, Sagar, No. 3, pp. 75-79. Asadhara Ashton, Sir A. (ed.) Atri, C. M. Bajpai, K.D.

Page #181
Bibliography 147 Epigraphical Evidences bearing on the Svetambara and Digambara Divisions, JA, 1946. Jaina Image of Sarasvati in the Lucknow Muscum, JA, XI, II, pp. 4ff. Madhya Pradesh Ki Prachina Jaina Kala (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, August, 1964. Suparsvanatha in Indian Archaeology, Voice of Ahimsa, Etah, 1963. New Jaina Images in the Mathura Museum, JA, July, 1948. New Rcading of the inscription on Jina Image J. 20 in the Lucknow Muscum, JUPHS, 1958. New Jaina Mathura Finds, JUPHS, XIX. A Jaina Cameo at Cittorgarh, Babu Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 71-76. Jaina Antiquities in Rajgir, IHQ, XXV, 3, pp. 205-10. Two Jaina Images, JBRS, XXVIII, 1, Banerji, Adris p. 43. Banerjea, J. N. Banerjee, P. The Development of Hindu Iconography, Calcutta, 1956. A Note on the Worship of Images in Jainism, c. 200 B.C. 10 A.D. 200, JBRS, XXXVI, I-II, pp. 57ff. Early History of Jainism, Indo-Asian Culture, New Delhi, January, 1970, pp. 5-23. Early Indian Religions, New Delhi, 1973. A Jaina Bronze from the Deccan, OA (N. S.), V, 4, pp. 162-65. Caurnukha Temple at Ranakpur, ASIAR, 1907-08. Jaina Iconography, ASIAR, 1905-06. Jaina Iconography, IA, XL. Barrett, D. E. Bhandarkar, D. R.

Page #182
pada 148 Jaina Iconography Bhattacharyya, A. K. An Introduction to the Iconography of Jaina Goddess Padmavati, Muni Jina Vijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1971, pp. 219-29; Babu Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 77-86. Iconography of Some Minor Deities in Jainism, IHQ, XXXIX, 4, pp. 332-39. Bhattacharya, H. S. Lord Aristaneni, Delhi, 1929. Bhattacharya, Tara- Brahma Cult and Jainism, JBRS, XLII, I, pp. 82 fr. Bhoja Samarargana-Sutradhara, Lucknow, 1965. Bonn, K. F. The Image of Heaven in the Ceiling of the Adinatha Temple at Ranakpur, Babu Chholey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 93-98. Booth, Mark H. Indian Sculplure-A Travelling Exhibi tion, London, 1971. Brown, Percy Indian Architecture, I, Bombay, 1956. Brown, W. N. Manuscript Illustrations of the Uttara dhyayana Sutra, New Haven, 1941. Stylistic Varietics of Early Western Paintings about 1400 A.D., JISOA, V, pp. 2-12. The Jaina temple room in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, JISOA, XVII, pp. 6-21. The Story of Kalaka, Washington, 1933. The Svastika-A Pamphlet, Emerson Books, Inc. 1933. Bruhn, Klaus The Figures of the two lower reliefs on the Parsvanatha Temple at Khajuraho, Acarya Vijaya Vallabha Suri Smaraka Grantha, Bombay, 1956 (English Section), pp. 7ff. The Jaina Images of Deogarh, Leiden, 1969. Buhler, G. Specimens of Jaina Sculptures from Mathura, EI, II. Burgess, J. Digambara Jaina Iconography, IA,

Page #183
Bibliography Chakravarti, S. N. Chanda, R.P. Chandra, Pramod, 149 Chaudhary, G. C. XXXII, pp. 459ff; ibid., XXXIII, pp. 330 ff. The Origin and Decline of Buddhism and Jainism in South India, IA, XL, pp. 209 ff. Note on an Inscribed Jaina Image, BPWM, No. 3, pp. 40-42. Jaina Remains at Rajgir, ASIAR, 1925-26. 1924. Svet mbara and Digambara Images, ASIAR, 1925-26, pp. 186 ff. A Unique Kalakacarya MS. in the Style of the Mandu Kalpasutra, Bulletin of the American Academy of Benaras, Varanasi, I, pp. 1-10. Stone Sculptures in the Allahabad Museum, Bombay, 1971. Political History of Northern India from Jaina Sources (c. 650 A.D. to 300 A.D.), Amritsar, 1963. Coomaraswamy, A.K. Catalogue of Jaina Paintings and Manus Note on Pre-Historic Antiquitics from Mohenjo-daro, Modern Review, Calcutta, cripts, Boston, 1924. Catalogue of Indian collections in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Boston, 1923. History of Indian & Indonesian Art, London, 1927. Life of Mahavira, JJ, 1, 4, pp. 142-48. Notes on Jaina Art, Journal of Indian Art, London, 1914, Vol. XVI. "The Conqueror's life" in Jaina painting: cxplicitur reductio Haec Artis ad Theologiam, JISOA, III, pp. 127-44. Yaksas, 2 parts, Washington, 1928, 1931. Jaina Sculpture (Recent Acquisition), Bulletin Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, August, 1922, p. 53.

Page #184
150 Jaina Iconography Dash, M.P. Jaina Antiquities from Charampa (Orissa), Orissa Historical Research Jou ral, Bhubaneswar, XI, 1, pp. 50-53. De, Sudhin Caumukha, a Symbol of Jaina Art, JJ, VI, 1, pp. 27-30. Two Unique inscribed Jaina Sculptures, JJ, V, 1, pp. 24-26. Del Bonta, Robert). An Image of Parsvanatha from Varuna, 04 (N.S.), XVIII, 2, pp. 174-75. Deo, S. B. llistory of Jaina Monochism from Inscriptions and Literature, Poona, 1956. Jainism in Indian History, 75, VI, 4, pp. 175-208. Desai, P. B. Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, Sholapur, 1957. Deva, Krishna Maladevi Temple at Gyaraspur, Sri Mahuvira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Boinbay, 1968, pp. 262 fr. santara Sculpture, JISOA (N.S.), IV, 1, pp. 78-96. Dhaky, M. A. The Chronology of the Solanki Ternples of Gujarat, Journal of the M. P. Itih isa Parisail, Bhopal, No. 3. The Iconography of Sacciya Devi, Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 63-70. The Influence of Samarangana-Sutradhara on Aparajitaprccha, JOI, X, 3, pp. 318. The Temple of Mahavira at Ahar, Muni Jina Vijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1967, pp. 230-32. Dhaky, M. A. & Sricitrakuta Kumaraviharam (Gujarati), Bapna, P. Svadivaya, V, 4, pp. 561 . Dhaky, M. A. & The Date of Aparajilapiccha, JOI, IX, 4. Vora, M. P. Dikshit, R. K. Jainism Under the Candellas, JA, XXII, 1, pp. 7-13.

Page #185
151 Bibliography Dikshitar, V. R. R. Fergusson, James Gai, G. S. Gairola, Vachaspati Ganguly, K. K. Ganguly, 0. C. Gupta, P. C. D. Origin and carly history of Caityas, IHQ, XIV. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, Delhi, 1967. Three Inscriptions of Ramagupta, 701, XVIII, 3, pp. 247-51. Bharaliya Citrakala --- Jaina Saili, pp. 12944, Allahabad, 1963. Jaina Images in Bengal, Indian Culture, VI, 2. Somc Symbolic Representations in Early Jaina Art, JJ, I, pp. 31-36. A Hindu relief from a Jaina temple, Rupam, Calcutta, 13-14, p. 1. A Jaina Relief from South Kensington Muscum, Rupam, Calcutta, 37, p. I. A Note on the Nirgranthas mentioned in the Delhi-Topra Pillar, 7), III, 3, pp. 119-21. A Rarc Jaina Icon from Sat-Dculiya, 77, VII, 3, pp. 130-32. Pakbirra's Shrines of the Emancipated, JJ, V, 3, pp. 121-25. Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities, Patna, 1965. Gandhawala-A Rare Jaina Site of Malwa, Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 99-102. Gandhawala aur Jaina murtiyan, Aneka'ila --Chhotey Lal Jaina Coinmemoration Volume, Delhi, XIX, 1-2, pp. 129-30. Iconography of the Hindus, Buddhists and Jainas, Bombay, 1972. Note on two Jaina Images, Rupam, Calcutta, 17, pp. 48 ff. Dasavaikalika Sutra. Purva-Puranam, ed. K. G. Kundanagar, Kolhapur, 1942. Gupta, P. L. Gupta, S. P. Gupta, S.P. and Sharma, B.N. Gupte, R. S. Hadaway, W. S. Haribhadra Suri Hastimallisenacarya

Page #186
152 Jaina Iconography Jacobi, Herman Jain, B. C. Jain, C. L. Jain, C. R. Jain, H. L. Jain, H. L. & Vijayamurti Jain, J. P. Jaina Sutras, Delhi, 1964. Studies in Jainism, Ahmedabad, 1946. Dhubela Sangrahalaya Men Jaina Murtiyan (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, October, 1966. Jaina Bronzes from Rajnapur-Kinkini, JIN1, XI, pp. 15-33. Jainism in Buddhist Literature (Hindi), Nagpur, 1972. Jaina Pratima Laksana (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XIX, pp. 204-13. Jaina Sadhu Ki Pratimayen (Hindi), nekanta, Delhi, December, 1963. Jaina Bibliography, Calcutta, 1945. Rsabhadeva, the Founder of Jainism, Allahubad, 1929. Contribution of Jainisin to Indian Culturc, JBRS, XLIV, I-II, pp. 11. Jaina Silalekhasarigraha, Bombay, 1928, 1952, 1957. Jainism, the Oldest Living !gion, Banaras, 1951. Revival of Sramana Dharma in Later Vcdic Age, 7.7, VI, 3, pp. 109-13. The Contribution of Jainas to Indian Culture, 7J, VI, 4, pp. 209-22. The Taina Sources of the History of Ancient India (100 B. (:.-900 A.D.), Delhi, 1964. Jainism in Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963. A Further Note on the Svetamhara and Digambara Sects of the Jainas, IHQ, VI, 2, pp. 378-83. Digambara Jaina Stupa at Mathura, IHQ, VI, 2, pp. 376-77. Sankisa as a Jaina Tirtha, IHQ, V, 1, pp. 142-43. Gwalior kc Puratattva Sangrahalaya ki Jaina Murtiyan, Anekanta, Delhi, XVI, 5, pp. 214-16. Jain, K. C. Jain, K.P. Jain, Niraj

Page #187
Bibliography Jain, Niraj & Jain, Dasharatha Jayaswal, K. P. Jayantavijaya, Muni Jindal, K. B. Johnson, H. M. Joshi, N. P. Kapadia, H. R. Kramrisch, Stella Law, B.C. 153 Kundalapura, Satna, 1974. Navagarh, Satna, 1964. Patiyande Mandir ki Murti aur Chaubis Jina Sasana Deviyan, Anekanta, Delhi, XVI, 3, pp. 99-103. Rajghat ki Jaina Pratimayen, Anekanta, Delhi, XIX, 1-2, pp. 49-50. Tin Vilaksana Jina Bimba, Anekanta, Delhi, XV, 3, pp. 121-22. Jaina Monuments at Khajuraho, Satna, 1968. Jaina Images of Maurya Period, JBORS, XXIII, pp. 130-32. Holy Abu, Bhavanagar, 1954. The Doctrines of Jainism, JJ, VI, pp. 153-74. Jaina worship and formula of Initiation, JJ, VIII, 2, pp. 45-53. Svetambara Jaina Iconography, IA, February, 1927. Lucknow Museum Collection of Jaina Metel Images, BMA, IX, pp. 34-37. The Jaina System of Education, Journal of the University of Bombay, Bombay, VII, 4. The Art of India, London, 1965. Mahavira: His Life and Teachings, London, 1937. Parsvanatha: His Life and Doctrines, Journal of Indian History, XXXI, 1. Some Jaina Canonical Sutras, Bombay. Ancient Sculptures from India, Cleveland, 1964. Lee, S. E. Mankad, P. A. (ed.) Aparajitaprccha of Bhuvanadeva, Baroda, 1950. Majumdar, R. C. & Pusalkar, A. D. (ed.) Marshal, Sir John The History and Culture of the Indian People, Bombay, I-V. Mohen-Jo-Daro and the Indus Valley Civilization, I-III, London, 1931.

Page #188
154 Jaina Iconography Mehta, M. L. Outlines of Jaina Philosophy, Bangalore, 1954. Meister, M. W. Ama, Amrol, and Jainism in Gwalior Fort , JOI, XXII, 3, pp. 354-58. A Plea for the Restoration of Aesthetics to the consideration of Jaina art, BMA, IX, pp. 19-22. Mislira, Yogendra The Date of Mahavira, J7, I, 4, pp. 149-66. Mitra, K. P. Noc on Two Images, JBORS, XXVIII, II, pp. 19311. Mitra, Debala Soine Jaina Antiquities froin Bankura, West Bengal, Journal of the Asiatic Society. Letters, Calcutta, XXIV, 2 131-34. Mode, Heinz The Study of Jaina Art, 77, 1, pp. 7-12. Moti Chandra :7aina Miniature Paintings from Western India, Ahmedabad, 1949. An Illustrated Ms. of the Kalpasutra and Kalakacaryakatha, BPWM, 4, pp. 40-48. Architectural Data in Jaina Canonical Literature, JUPHS, XXII, pp. 64-80. Moti Chandra & Jaina Bronzes from Western India from Gorakshkar, Sadasiva thc late Smt. Amoravati Gupta Collec tion, BPIVM, No. 11, pp. 13-25. Mukhopadhyaya, S. Place of Rajagriha in the History of Early Jainism, IHQ, XXXVII, 2-3, pp. 105-10. Muni Kanti Sagar Khandaharon Ka Vaibhava (Hindi), Delhi, 1969. Khoja ki Pagadandiyan, Delhi, 1969. Mookerjee, Satkari Jaina Philosophy of non-absolutism : A Critical Study of Anekantavada, Calcutta. 1944. Murthy, S, G. Jaina Vestiges in Andhra, Hyderabad 1963.

Page #189
155 Bibliography Nawab S. M. Faina Citra-kialpadruma (Gujarati), 2 parts, Ahmedabad, 1936, 1938. Jaina Tirthas in India and their Architecture, Ahmedabad, 1944. The Collection of Kiilaka Story, 2 parts, Ahmedabad, 1958. Nahar, P. C. Rajgir Jaina Inscription, JBRS, V, III, pp. 33119. Nahta, A. C. Bharatiya Vastusastra men Jaina Prati ma Sambandhi Jnatavya (Ilindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XX, 5, pp. 207-15. Sutradhara Mandana virachita Rupamandana men Jaina Murti Laksana, Anekanta, Delhi, XIX, 5, pp. 294-98. Nair, V. G. Indus Valley Civilisation, 77, VI, 4, pp. 225-26. Ranakpur Temple, 77, II, 1, pp. 38-39. Nanavati, J. M. The Ceilings in the temples of Gujarat, & Dhaky, M. A. Baroda, 1963. Narasimhachar, D. L. Thc Jaina Ramayana, IHQ, XV, 4, pp. 575-94. Nemichandra Pralistha-Tilaka, Sholapur, 1951. Pravacanasaroddhara, 2 vols., Bombay, 1915. Padaliptacarya Suri Nirvanakalika, ed. B. M. Zaveri, Indore, 1926. Pai, M. G. Why arc the Bahubali Colossai called Gommata ? INQ, VI, 2, pp. 270-86. Parmar, B.M.S. Jaina Pratimayen : Bharatpur Sangra halaya (Hindi), Rajasthan Bharati, Bika ner, X, 3, pp. 15-17. Prasad, H. K. Jaina Bronzes in the Patna Muscum, Sri Mahivira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, 1, pp. 275 ff. Premi, N. R. Jaina Sahitya aur Itihasa (Hindi), Bom bay, 1956. Punya Vijaya Jesalmer Citravali, (Hindi), Ahmedabad, 1951.

Page #190
156 Faina Iconography Ramchandran, T. N. Jaina Monuments and Places of First Class Importance, Calcutta. Ramachandran, T.N. Khandagiri-Udaigiri Cares, Calcutta, & Jain, C. L. 1951. Ramcsan, N. Jaina Bronzes from Bapatla, Lalit Kala, New Delhi, 13, pp. 28-30. Rao, S. K. R. Jainism in South India, Madras, 1970. Rao, S. R. Jaina Bronzes from Lilvadeva, JIM, XI, pp. 30-34. Ravisena, Acarya l'adma Purana, ir. Pt. Panna Lal, Delhi, 1968. Rca, A., Buried Jaina Remains at Danavulpad, 1SIAR, 1905-06. Roy Choudhary, H.C. Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta, 1972. The Vajjis--The Clan of Mahavira, 17, 1, 4, pp. 167-72. Roy Choudhury, P.C. Jainism in Bihar, Patna, 1956. Sahu, L. N. Orissa Men 7aina Dharma (Hindi), Ali garh, 1959. Saletore, B.A. lediaeval Jainism with Special Reference to the Vijayanagar Empire, Bombay, 1938. Samsookha, P. C. Lord Mahavira : His Life and Doctrines, Calcutta, 1957. Sankalia, H. D. Archaeology of Gujarat, Bombay, 1941. Earliest Jaina Sculpture in Kathiawar, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Calcutta, July, 1938, pp. 426 ff. Jaina Monuments from Deogarh, JISOA , IX, pp. 97-104. The Story in stone of the Great Rcnunciation of Neminatha, IHQ, XVI, 2, pp. 314-17. Schubring, Walter The Doctrine of the Jainas, Delhi, 1962. Sen, A. C. Schools and Sects in Jaina Literature, Santi Niketan, 1931. Sengupta, R. The Jaina Ayaga-platforms at Mathura: An Interpretation, BMA, IX, pp. 23-29.

Page #191
157 Bibliography Settar, S. Shah, Priyabala (ed.) Shah, U. P. Cakresvari in Karnatak Literature and Art, OA (N.S.), XVII, 1, pp. 63-69. Visnudharmottara Purana, Baroda, 1958 and 1961. Akola Bronzes, Bombay, 1959. A Brass incense-burner from Akola, JISOA, XIX, pp. 6-10. A Jaina Metal image from Surat, JISOA, Spl. No.on Western Art, 195566, p. 3. A Jaina Bronze in Virginia Museum, OA (N. S.), XVIII, 3, pp. 253-54. A Female Chauri-bearer from Ankottaka and the School of the Ancient West, BPWM, I, pp. 43-46. A Further Note on Ramagupta inscription, JOI, XVIII, 3, pp. 254-55. A Further Note on Stone Umbrellas from Mathura, JUPHS, XIV. A Jaina Bronze from Jesalmer, Rajasthan, J1904, Spl. No. on Western Art, 1965-66, pp. 25-26. A Note on Stone Umbrellas from Mathura, JUPHS, XXIV-XXV, pp. 205-208. A Panca-Tirthika Metal Image with a Torana from Patan, JISOA, Spl. No. on Western Art, (1965-66), pp. 23-24. A Parsvanatha Sculpture in Cleveland, The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art for December, 1970, pp. 303-11. A Peep into the History of Tantra in Early Jaina Literature, Bharata Kaumudi, II, pp. 839 ff. A Unique Jaina Image of Jivanlasvami, J01, I, pp. 72-79. An Old Jaina Image from Khed-Brahma (North Gujarat), 701, X, 1, pp. 61-63.

Page #192
158 Jaina Iconography An Early Image of Parsvanatha, BPWM, No. 3, pp. 63 ff. Age of Differentiation of Digambara and Svetarbara image and the earliest known Svetambara Bronzes, BPWM, 1, pp. 34 ff. Bahubali, BPWM, No. 4, pp. 32 ff. Beginnings of Jaina Iconography, BMA, IX, pp. 1-14. Brahma santi and Kapardi Yaksa, Journal of the M. S. University, Baroda, VII, pp. 59-72. Bronze Hoard from Vasantagadh, LalitaKala, New Delhi, 1-2, pp. 55-65. Foreign Elements in Jaina Literature, IHQ, XXIX, 3, pp. 260-65. Harinegamesin, JISOA, XIX, pp. 19. 41. Iconography of Cakresvari, the Yaksi of Rsabhanatha, 701, XX, 3, pp. 280313. Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, Journal of the University of Bombay, IX, 2. Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Sarasvati, Journal of the University of Bombay, X, 2. Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas, JISOA, XV, pp. 114-77 Jaina Iconography-A Brief Survey, Muni Jina Vijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1971,p. 184-218. Jaina Bronzes from Cambay, Lalila Kala, New Delhi, 13, pp. 31-34. Jaina Bronzes and Sculptures in the Salarjung Museum, SJM-Bi-Annual Research Journal, Hyderabad, I & II, pp. 11-14.

Page #193
Bibliography 159 Jaya group of Goddesses, Vidya-Vallabha Suri Smriti Grantha, pp. 124-27. Muni Vairadeva of the Son-Bhandara Jaina Cave, Rajgir, JBRS, XXXIX, pp. 410-12. Parents of the Jinas, BPWM, No. 5, pp. 24-32. Sidclights on the life-time Sandalwood image of Mahavira, 701, I, 4, pp. 358-68. Seven Bronzes from Lilva-Deva (PanchMahals), Bulletin of the Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery, Baroda, IX, I-II, pp. 43-52. Some more images of Jivantasvami, JIM, XI, pp. 49-50. Studies in Jaina Art, Varanasi, 1955. Supernatural Beings in the Jaina Tantras, Acarya Dhruva Commemoration Volume, III, pp. 67 ff. The so-called Mauryan Polish in Jaina Literature, Journal of the University of Baroda, Baroda, Junc, 1955. Two Jaina Bronzes from Ahmedabad, J01, XXX, 1-4, pp. 463 ff. Varddhamana-Vidya-Pata, JISOA, VI, pp. 52-87. ff Yaksa Worship in Early Jaina Literalure, 701, III, 1, pp. 55 ff. Yaksini of thc Twenty-fourth Jina, Mahavira, joi, XXII, 1-2, pp. 70-78. A few early sculptures from Gujarat, JO1, I, 1, pp. 160 ff. An Image of Parsvanatha from Rajasthan, The Researcher, Jaipur, VII-IX, pp. 31-32. Jaina . Pratimaon Ke Vikas men Narhada Ki Murtiyan (Hindi), Maru Bharati, Pilani, January 1962, pp. 14-20. Shah, U. P. & Mehta, R.N. Sharma, B. N.

Page #194
160 Jaina Iconography Rastriya Sangrahalaya men MadhyaKalina Jaina Prastara Pratimayen (Hindi), Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 183-86. Sarasvati Pratimayon Ke Vikas men Pallu Ki Jaina Sarasvati Pratimayen (Hindi), Maru Bharati, Pilani, October, 1963, pp. 88-94. Social & Cultural History of Northern India (c. 1000-1200 A.D.), New Delhi, 1972. Some Interesting Temple Sculptures at Osian, Roopa-Lekha, New Delhi, XL, pp. 95 ff. Some Mediaeval Sculptures from Rajasthan in the National Museum, New Delhi, Roopa-Lekha, New Delhi, XXXV, 1-2, pp. 30 ff. The Art Institute of Chicago men Jaina Murtiyam, Mahavira Jayanti Smarika, Jaipur, 1974, pp. 5-6. Tri-Tirthika of Parsvanatha (in the National Museum, New Delhi), JIM, New Delhi, XXV-XXVI, pp. 131-32. Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the National Museum, New Delhi, JOI, XIX, 3, pp. 275-78. Videsi Sangrahalayon men Jaina Pratimayen, Mahavira Jayanti Smarika, Jaipur, 1972, pp. 124-28. Rastriya Sangrahalaya men Jaina Murtiyan, Dilli Jaina Dir.:ctory, Delhi, 1970, pp. 318-20. Gleanings from the Kharatara-gacchaPallavali ( A History of Jaina Acaryas of the Kharataragaccha Branch, 10101336 A.D.), IHQ, III, pp. 223-31. The Kharataragaccha Patlavali compiled by Jinapala, IHQ, XI, 4, pp. 779-81.. Sharma, B. N. & Jain, S. K. Sharma, Dasharatha

Page #195
Bibliography 161 Sharma, R. C. Shastri, A. M. Sheth, C. B. Shukla, D. N. Sinha, B. P. Sircar, D. C. Art Data in Rayapaseniya, BMA, IX, pp. 38-44. The Early Phase of Jaina Iconography, Babu Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 57-62. Jaina Murti-Kala Ka Arambhika Svarupa (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, June, 1966, pp. 142 ff. Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu in the Religion and Culture of the Jainas, cd. D. C. Sircar, Calcutta, 1973, pp. 71-95. Jainism in Gujarat (A. D. 1100 to 1600), Bombay, 1953. Bharaliya Vastusastra--Pratima Vigyana (Hindi), Lucknow, 1956. Bharatiya Kala ko Bihar Ki Dena (Hindi), Patna, 1958. Barli fragmentary stone inscription, JBRS, XXXVII, I-II, pp. 34 ff'; XL, I, 8 r. Vidisa Jaina image inscriptions of the time of Ramagupta, Journal of Ancient Indian History, Calcutta, III, 1-2, pp. 145-51. Geographical and Chronological Factors in Indian Iconography, Ancient India, New Delhi, No. 6, pp. 44-45. Indian Bronzes, Bombay, 1962. Indian Sculpture, New Delhi, 1961. South Indian Bronzes, New Delhi, 1963. The Royal Conquests and Cultural Migrations in South India and the Deccan, Calcutta, 1954. The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura, Allahabad, 1901. Rupamandana, Varanasi, 1964. Sivaramamurti, C. Smith, Vincent Srivastava, Balram (ed.) Srivastava, V. N. Some Interesting Jaina Sculptures in the

Page #196
162 Jaina Iconography Stevenson, Sinclair, Stein, Otto Tatia, Nathmal Tawney, C. H. Thakur, Upendra Tiwari, M.N.P. State Museum, Lucknow, BMA, IX, pp. 45-52. The lleart of Jainism, London, 1915. Itinerary of Mahavira, 73, I, 4, pp. 186-97. Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Varanasi, 1951. The Katha-hosa, London, 1895. A Historical Survey of Jainisin in North Bihar, JBRS, XLV, I-IV, pp. 186 ff. Studies in Jainism and Buddhism in Mithila, Varanasi, 1964. A brief survey of the iconographic data at Kumbharia, North Gujarat, Sambodhi, Ahmedabad, April, 1973, pp. 7-14. A note on the identification of a Tirthankara image at Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi, 73, VI, 1, pp. 41-43. An unpublished image of Adinatha in the Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi, 33, VI, 3, pp. 122-123. An unpublished image of Neminatha from Deogarh, JJ, VIII, 2, pp. 84-85. Bharat Kala Bhawan Ka Jaina Puratattva (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXIV, 2, pp. 51 fl. Candravati Ka Jaina Puratattva (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXV, 4, pp. 145-47. Daksina Bharata Se Prapta Mahavira Pratimayen (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXIII, 5-6, pp. 242-45. Jaina Silpa Men Bahubali (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXIV, 1, pp. 8-11. Khajuraho Ke Adinatha Mandira Ke Parsvadvara Ki murtiyan (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXIV, 5, pp. 218-21. Khajuraho Ke Parsvanatha Mandira Ki

Page #197
Bibliography 163 Rathikaon Men Jaina Deviyan (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXIV, 4, pp. 183 ff. Khajuraho Ke Jaina Mandiron Kc doorlintels Par Utkirna Jaina Deviyan (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXIV, 6, pp. 251-54. Kumbharia Ka Jaina Puratattva (Ilindi), Anekanta, XXV, 3, pp. 101-103. Representation of Sarasvati in Jaina Sculptures of Khajuraho, Journal of the Gujarat Research Society, Bombay, XXXIV, 4, pp. 307-12. Sarasvati in Jaina Sculptures, Sramana, Varanasi, January, 1971, pp. 27-34; and February, 1971, pp. 25-28. :. Some Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi, Journal of the Gujarat Research Society, Bombay, XXXIII, 4, pp. 230-35. Uttara Bharata Men Jaina Yaksini Cakresvari Ke Murtigat Avatarana (Hindi), Anekanta, Delhi, XXV, 1, pp. 35-40. Uttara Bharatiya Silpa Men Tirthankara Mahavira (Hindi), Sramana, Varanasi, October, 1970, pp. 18-23. Bharaliya Citrakala aur Uske Mula-Tattva (Hindi), Delhi, 1973. Survey of Drawing in Ancient India, Delhi, 1973. An Introduction to True Religion, 3.7, VI, 4, pp. 137-57. Faina Iconography Mainly in Svetambaras, Bombay, 1969. Aryamanjusrimulakalpa (Mahayana Sutrasangraha, Part II), Darbhanga, 1964. Acaradinakara, 2 vols., Bombay, 1922 and 1923. Pratisthasarasangraha, Sholapur, 1925. Tiwari R. P. Trott, W. G. Upadhyaya, S. G. Vaidya, P. L. (ed.) Vardhamana Suri Vasunandi

Page #198
164 Venkatasubbiah, A. Faina Iconography When was the Gommata image at Sravana Belgola set up ? IHQ, VI, 2, pp. 290-302. Catalogue of the Archaeological Museum at Mathura, Allahabad, 1910. The Mathura School of Sculpture, ASIAR, 1906-07 and 1909-10. La Sculpture de Mathura, Arts Asiatica, Paris, XV. Jainas in the History of Indian Literature, Ahmedabad, 1936. Tiloyapannatti, 2 vols., ed. A. N. Upadhye and H. L. Jain, Sholapur, 1943, 1951. The Art of Indian Asia, 2 vols., New York, 1955. Vogel, J. Ph. Winternitz, Maurice Yativrsabha Zimmer, Heinrich

Page #199
INDEX Arista-nemicarita 12 Arthasastra 23 Arya 1 Aryan 2 Aryavati 24 Asanas 138 Asmata 65 Asoka 19, 46, 54, 74, 94 Asram 4 Aslamangala 33, 54, 55 Astamargalika 142 Asthigrama 63 Astomalskas 17 Astapada 21 Asrasena 54 Asvattha 46, 50 Aura 20 Aurora 74 Avadhi 5 Avasyakas 142 Avataras 12 Ayagapata 33, 142 Ayagapalas 24, 33, 142 Ayodhya 33, 40, 41, 50 B Abhaya 72, 9-92, 97, 127 Abhaya-Mudra 69, 72 Abhidhana-cintamani 27, 31, 53 Abhinandana 40, 70, 89, 126, 127 140 Abhinandananatha 39 Acara Dinakara 15, 88, 129, 133 Acaryas 10 Acyupta 131 Acyuti 91, 100 Adharma 3, 4 Adinatha 34, 35, 68 Adipurana 12, 35 Agni 36, 89, 109, 110 Agni-Purana 65 Ahicchatra 22 Ahimsa 3, 6, 8, 133 Airavata 109 Ajita 38, +5, 8, 73, 88 Ajitanatha 36, 69, 88, 124, 140 Ajitaraja 58 Ajitavala 37 Ajira 3, 4, 37 Ajiva Draryas 3 Akasa 3, 4 Aksamani 76 Aksata Puja 8 Aloka 3, 65 Alokakasa 3 Amba 16 Ambalika 104 Ambika 57, 86, 103 Aikusa 97 Amogha 65 Amra 103 Ananda 134 Argas 2, 10, 11 Anta 2, 3 Ananta 77, II 2 Anantamati 97 Anantanatha 50, 126 Anlagadadasao 23 Anuttaravimana 17 Aparajila 17, 23, IOI Apraticakra 35, 126 Aranatha 15 Arali 8, 15 Aratis 14 Ardhaparyamkasana 139 Ardhaparyamkasana Mana 139 Arhat 62 Aristanemi 58, 82 Bahubali 35 Bahit ubini 55, 102 Bakula 56 Bala 53, 99 Baladeva 58 Bandha 4 Badhurasana 138 Behula 106 Bhadrabahu 9, 10 Bhadrasana 102 Bhadikapur 46 Bhagavata 36 Bhairava 135 Bhandarkar (Prof. D.R.) 1 Bhanu Raja 51 Bharata 35 Bhavajina 12 Bhavanapati 17 Bheri 142 Bhotikas 10 Bhrgupattana 22 Bhrkuli 44, 56, 82, 92 Bhuvanesvari 27, 137 Bhutalamari 137 Bimbisara Go Brahma raksa 74 Brahma 46, 74, 108, 115, 123

Page #200
166 Jaina Iconography Brahmana Pujakas 2 Dharma Priya 54 Brahmacaris 15 Dharma-raja III Brahmanemidatta 13 Dhanaterasa 8-136 Bihaspali 119 Dharani 100 Buddha 119 Dharani Devi 54 Buddhism 1, 3 Dharanendra 23, 67, 83, 8: Burgess (Dr.) 1 Dhataki 58 Burnouf (Prof.) 143 Dhundhi-devas 66 Dhundias 11 Dikpalas 18, 83, 108, 115 Digambaras 9, 10, 15, 16 Cakra 41 Divali 8 Cakresvari 35, 86, 87, 139 Divya-dhwani 20 Camunda 16, 102-103 Dravyas 3 Campapuri 21 Drurya-Jina 12 Canda .48, 95, 96, 103 Dsdharaja 38 Candika 137 Dridharatha 38, 46 Candana Paja 8 Drughana 82 Candra 118deg Dundhubhi 142 Carita 12, 106 Durga 16, 96, 102, 128 Cetaka 63 Duritari 89 Chakresvara 87 Duritari Devi 38 Champa 21, 63 Drija 2 Champaka 55 Dvaraka 57 Champapuri 49 Chanderi 22 Chandi 16 Chand Merchant 106 Fuhrar (Dr.) 25 Chandra 118 Chandrapuri 44 Chandraprabha 22, 42, 44, 73,111, Gaja-Kachhapa 78 Chandravati 22 Ganapati 135 Charita Books 13 Ganadhara-Sarddha-Sataka 60 Chaturmukha 76 Ganadharas 29, 79 Chatussasti Yogini 16 Gandhari 56, 95, 102, 103, 129 Chaumukhi 34 Ganadbarva 53, 79 Chhatrabha 42 Ganesa 14, 135 Chhaya 110, III Gancsvari 16 Chinha 20 Gandaval 68 Chowries 15, 29 Gandhawal 139 Garbha 20 Garuda 71, 78, 87, 126 Gauri 75, 95, 128 Girnar, 21 Daksa 134 Gomatesvar 22 Daksa-Prajapati 134 Gomedha 31, 57 Daksina-murli 28 Gomedha or Gomeda 82 Dana-Vira 44 Gomukha 35, 67, 85 Darpista-Vasudeva 48 Gonasa 135 Dasahara 8 Gotama Indrabhuti 63 Deogarh-Fort 37, 78, 85, 88 Guru-Puja 14 Devadaru 58 Gupta 20 Devadideva 27, 31 Gwalior Fort 85,93 Devipuja 14 Devananda 61, 138 H Dharma 3, 4, II Dharma-Cakkra 21, 31, 52, 58, 68, Hala 100 Dharmanatha 50 Hara 142 Dharmavirja 43 Harinegamesa 133 129

Page #201
Index 167 Harinegamesi 24, 133 Harivamsa 56, 57 Hastinapur 52-54 Hathayoga 138 Iathigumpha Inscription 23 Hemachandra 27, 37 Hinayana 9 Hunter (Mr.) 2 Iksraku 48, 55 Indra 9, 14, 108, 113 Indian Sectarian Religion i Isana 108, 114 Isvara 40, 74, 95 Isvara Ynksa 74 J Jacobi (Prof.) 3, 13 Jagannath Sabha 21 Jaina Mandir 16 Jaina Pantheon Jala-Puja 8 Jambhala 71, 81 Jumbunada 126 Janma 20 Jaratkaru 106 Jaya-ghata 142 Jayanta 16, 17 Jayasyama 50 Jayavati 49 Jina-Mudra 140 Jina 3, 11, 12, 62 Jiva 3, 5, 12 Inana Pancami 8, 22 Jnana 20 Jrimbhikagrama 62 Jvalamalini 22, 92, 129 Jvalamukhi 16 Jvalini 92, 111 Jyotisi 17 Jyotiska Devas 117 Kandarpa 51, 78, 97 Kankali 16, 29 Kankali Tila 31 Kanthesvari 16 . Karma 2, 4, 6, 62 Karttikcya 76, 80, 110, 126 Karttiki Purnima 8 Kashi 43 Kausambi 42, 59, 63 Katha 59, 106 Kaumari 126 Kaumarika 137 Kautilya 23 Kayotsarga 20, 28, 59, 138, 140, 14 Kuyotsarga Asana 84 Keith (Prof.) 134 Ketu 120 Kevala 5 Kevalajziana 62 Kevalajnanin 11 Khadgasana37, 139 Khetuka 70 Kharavela 23 Khendra 79 Kimpurusa 51 Kinnisvara 78 Kinnara 50, 77, 78, 98 Kiskindha 16 Klimkari 137 Koyadvara 22 Kraunicha 40 Krsnadasa 13 Ketavarman 49 Ksetrapala 18, 134, 135 Kubcra 14, 65, 66, 80, 113 Kuladevis 15, 16 Kumara 48, 75 Kumaras, 18, 19, 108 Kumbha 55 Kunala 53 Kundapura 61 Kunika 63 Kundi 110) Kunthanatha 53 Kusinandi 103 Kusuma 43, 71, 72 Kusuma-malini 103 Kusumamali 103 Kusmandini 57, 103 Kuvera 66 k Kadamba 48 Kailasa 113 Kakandinagara 45, 46 Kala 3, 4 Kalabhairava 135 Kali 16, 89, 92, 127, 137 Kalpas 17 Kalpasutra 14, 29, 34, 61, 136 Kalyapas 21 Kalyanakas 1, 6, 13, 14, 61 Kama 65, 98, 103 Kamandalu 99, 119, 132 Kamala 136 Kamatha 84 Kampilya 49 Kancana-valanaka 22 Lakkundi 21 Laksaraksa 65 Laksmi 136 Laksmi Puja 8 Lanchana 28, 29, 31, 32 Loka 3 Lokapala 112 Lokapalas 108

Page #202
168 Faina Iconography M P Lucknow Museum 99 Nandi 82 Lunkas u Nandiga 82 Nandi VIksa 51 Nandya 142 Maghavataraja 45 Nandyavartta 53, 54, 142 Mahakali 16, 41 90, 91, 94, 127 Naradatta 55, 102 Mahamanasi 32, 51, 99 Nararahana 83, 91 Mahajrala 129 Nata 61 Maharciu 57 Navavidhana 18 Mahavira (), 10, 60, 64, 106,107,139 Navagrahas 117 Mahayaksa 37, 68, 124 Neminatha 51, 82, 103 Mahayana 9 Nominatha carila 133 Maha Yogini 137 Neminatha Purana 13 Mahindra 109 Nilasarasvati 130 Makara-ketana 103 Nirjara 4, 5 Mukarasamkranti 8 Nirrann 2, 63 Malli 45, 55 Nirvani 98, 132, 137 Mallinatha 11, 54, 80 Nirvani devi 86 Mollinatha carita, 32 Nirrana-kalika 88, 124, 129 Malulunga 85 Nisacari 137 Manahparyaya 5 Nirgrantha 12 Manas 4 Nirgranthas 9 Manasa 98, 106 Nyagrodha 35 Manasi 97, 131 Nyaya-Vaisesika 2 Manavi 47, 75, 94, 95, 129 Mangala 41, 118 Manibhadra 65 Manovega 72, 91 Asantras 15 Padarthas 4 Marici 50, 100 Marudovi 18 Padmaprabha 42, 56, 91 Padmapurana 106 Matanga 43, 60, 72, 84, 92, 109 Podmasana 28, 138 Mathura 21, 76 Padmarati 104 Mati 5 Pajjusana Samvatsari 8 Meghamalin 59, 84 Palamva 143 Megharatha 41 Metta 3 Pancamahasabda 142 Minavahana 98 Pancastikaya 4 Paicamtita 16 Mithila 57 Pampagadlevi 97 Mitrasena 54 Papa 4, 63 Mitravirya 41 Papamata 22 Moksa 2, 4, 5, 36 Parimatala 21 Moksasana 138 Parini skramana 20 Mudras, 138, 140 Parsva 58, 60, 83 Muhurta 7 Parsvanatha 43 Muni Suvrata 31, 55, 81 Parsvanathacarita 12, 13, 60 N Parsvanatha 43, 58, 83 Palala 50, 59, 76,, 105, 112, 115 Naga 44, 45, 78, 115 Pataliputra 9 Nagakesara 44 Parvati 137 Naigamesa 133 Paryanka 138 Naisita II Paryamkasana 138, 139 Naivedya 15 Pinaka i Naivedya Puja 8 Piyala 39 Nalanda 63 Pavapuri 21 Nama 12 Prabha 44 Nemeso 133 Pracanda 95 Nami 1333; Prajapati 134 Naminatha 139 Prajnapti 70, 89, 124

Page #203
Index 169 Prajavati 55 Prasada 15 Prasenajit 59 Pratimas 7 Pratiharyas 19 Pratikramana 142 Pratistha 30 Pratistha-vidhi 17 Pravacanasaroddhara 34 Prayascitta 8 Pretaksi 137 Prsthacampa 63 Priyamgr. 40 Prithivi 43 Pudgala 3, 4 Pujakas 2 Pundarika Vasudeva 51 Punya 3, 4 Purana 12 Puroabhadra 47, 65 Purnaraksa 65 Purusa 71 Purusa-carita 61 Purusadatta 71, 90, 91, 102, 126 Puspa 71, 83 Puspadanta 45 Puspaka 114 Puspayana 83 Puspakam 83 Purusottama Vasudeva 50 Sakala Kirti 12 Sakra 114 Sala 60 Sala tree 38 Salibhadra 65 Samskaras 2 Samsara 3 Samayika 7, 8 Samayika-patha 7, 143 Samavasarana 12, 13, 143 Sambhava 38 Sambhavanatha 30, 69, 70, 124, 140 Samrddha 65 Samkhya 3, 143 Samkhini 17 Sametasikhara 21, 45 Samparyankasana 62 Sampradaya 15 Samsara 4, 11 Samudravijaya 57 Samvara 4 Samyak caritra 5 Samyak Darsana 5 Samyak jnana 5 Sankaracarya 2 Sani 120 Sanmukha 49, 76 Sanmukha raksa 80 Shanta 91 Santi 43 Santideri 137 Santinatha 12, 51, 78 Santinathacaritra 12 Saptabhanginaya 5 Sapta-cchada 51 Sapta-parna 36 Sarada Puja 8 Sarnath 47, 48, 52 Sarasvati 16, 99, 100, 122, 128 Sarvatobhadra 39 Sarvatobhadra-Pratima 34 Sarvakama 65 Sarvartha Siddha 17 Sarvayasas 65 Sasana-devatas 29, 30, 32, 54, 65 Sasanadevi 46, 86, 92 Sasthi 129 Satanika 63 Satrap Sodasa 24 Satrunjaya Hill 21 Saturn-god 120 Satyavirya 38 Sauripuri 57 Svayarivara 40 Sesa 106 Siddhacakra 9 Siddhartha 40, 59 Siddhayika 60, 64, 106, 107 Siddhayogini 137 Silpa Sastra 34 Quadruple 34 R Rajgriha 56, 63 Rahu 1 20 Raja Purusa Datta 51 Rajayoga 138 Ratna Devi 117 Ratnapura 51 Ravana 83 Rjuvalika 62 Rsis 26, 31 Rjupalika 21 Rtuvalika 62 Rohini 88, 124 Rsabha 12, 20 Rshabha Datta 61 Rsabhanatha 12, 26, 27, 35,126,134 S Saci 109 Sadanana 80 Sadhu 11 Sadhvi 11 Sagaracakri 37 Sahet Mahet 41

Page #204
170 Jaina Iconography Simhapuri 48 Simhasana 48 Sivihasena 50 Simandhara 40 S:sunaya 23 Sirisa 42 Siva 74, 115, 134, 137 Sivabhuti 10 Sivadevi 57 Siva puja 14 Sivarija 53 Sitala Puja 8 Sitalanatha 46, 95, 139, 133 Soma 56 Sprsati 32 Suddha 2, 14 Sarwka 7, u Sarakas 7 Sravar a 6: Srivana Belagola 21 Srivasti 38 Srenika 12, 60 Sreyanisanatha 27, 47, 95, 115, 128, 130 Sri 14, 136 Sri-Parvata 27 Sridevi 53 Srikanta 53 Srikrisi:a 5,8 Sriratsa 19, 28, 47, 95, 142, 113 Srivatsa Devi 95 Sriga 142 Sri 69 Srutii-cri 122 Sruti 1, 122 Stavana 142 Sth:ipana Jina 12 Stan ikn-iosis II Sthlabhadra 4, 10 Suvichinitha 74 Sudarsana 54 Sugriva 45 Sukla Pancami 122 Sukra 120 Suluma 54 Silas. 24 Sumanabhadra 65 Sumati 40, 127 Sumatinatha -40, 71, 102, 128 Sumitra 58 Sunanda 46 Sun-God 117 Sundavana 62 Suparsva 43 Suparsvanatha 24, 40, 43, 73, 85, 142, 143 Supratistha 43 Suramya 49 Surascna 53 Suris 15 Surya 53, 111, 117 Susena 38 Susima 42 Sustari Devi 63 Sutra devi 123 Sutras 2 Suvidhinatha 45, 46 Suvrata 51 Svaha 109, 110 Svastika 20), 43, 44, 72 Sertaumbaras 9, 10, 15, 16, 37 Svadrada 5, 12 Syama 42, 91, III Syama Yaksa 73 t Tammata 142 Tapas 21 Tara 16, 201, 100 Tarpana 14 Tattvas 4 Tilaka taru 53 Tirthas 20, 21 Tirtha Tirthakalpa 21 Tirthamkaras 1, 2, 8, 11,12, 35, 42 Trilincar 20 Trimukha 38, 69, 125 Trimurti 34 'Tripista 47 Tripura 16 Triratna 5 Trisala 61, 74, 133 Tri-San-tha 14 Trisasti-Salakipurusa-Carita 35 Trisasi-Sataka 61 Tumbara 47, 71 Tumbaru 41, 127 U Ugrasena 57 Ujjain 22 Uttarapurana 12 37, 41,42, 48, 61 V Vagisvari 98, 132 Vaijayanta 72, 23 Vaimanika 17 Vaira 138 Vairoti 49, 96, 101, 130 Vaisravana 65 Vaisnavi 87, 126 Vaitali 16 Vajra 78, 82, 101, 108, 112, 125 Vajra-danda 51 Vajramkusa 125 Vajra-stimkhula 89, 90, 114, 125 Vama 59 Vamana 58 Vandana 142

Page #205
Index 171 Vimanavasi Vina 91, 107 17 Virad 13807 141deg%, 8, Viradevas 17 Vira Mudra 141 Virasvami 63 Virupaksi 16 Visnu 18, 126 Visnudevi 48 Visnudeva 48 Visnudri 48 Visvasena 52, 81 Vogal (Mr.) 43 Vrata-Puja 14 Vrsabhanatha 36 Vyantara God 17 Vyaghraraji 16 Vanamala 31 Vanijyagrama 63 Vappila 57 Varada 68, 71, 81, 88, 96 Varada mudra 38, 72, 77, 84, 87, 88, 89, 91, 96, 99, 141 Varaha 36 Varahi 16, 100, 137 Varinandi 72 Vardhamana 61, 63 Vardhamanacaritra 61 Vardhamanaka 142 Varhivahana 89 Voruna 55, 81, 89, 112 Vasuki 84 Vasudeva 31, 48, 49 Vasupujya 48, 49, 103 Vastu Devas 18 Vastu-Devalis 108 Vastupila 21 Vatukabhairava 135 Vayu 112, 127 Vesali 39 Vedas 116, 122 Vidita 96 Vidyadevi 26, 91-95, 124, 130. Vidyadevis 17, 89, 90, 122 Vijapuraka 85 Vijaya 18, 44, 73, 74, 93, 96, 102, M Vijaya Raja 56 Vilna 46 Vilra fruit 72 Vimalanatha 49, 79, 80, 130 Vimalanatha-Purana 13 Vimalata 19 Vimalashah Tejapala 21 Tajnas 14 raksa 29, 30, 35 Yaksas 65 Yaksini 29, 46, 65, 129 Yakseta 47 Yaksendra 53, 79 raksesvara 70 Yaksinis 65, 86, 135 Yamaghanla 16 Yama 51, 110, III, 129 Yamaduti 16, 42 Yamuna 129 Yatis 15 Yoga 138 Yoga-Mudra 141 Yogesvari 137 Yoginis 134

Page #206

Page #207
"ww.x Vai M PLATE I Torso of a naked Jaina Tirthankara, Maurya, 3rd century B.C., Lohanipur, Patna, Bihar, Patna Museum.

Page #208
PLATE II Ayagapatta, Kusana, 1st century A.D., Kamkali 'Tila, Mathura, U.P., State Museum, Lucknow.

Page #209
PL:ITE UND . 23 Y $$ * . . LDO . A & 21 A A4 SA 2. . Hoe 2 2 . ro . w 2 Oy Iyagapalla, Kusana, 2nd century A.D., Mathura, U.P., Stato Muscum, Lucknow.

Page #210
PLATE IV Rsabhanatha, Gahadavala, 12th century A.D., Mahet, Gonda, U. P.

Page #211
PLATE V E . - - #carros* ** Rsabhanatha, Cedi, 11th century A. D., Tripuri, M.P., Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Page #212
PLATE VI . More Ajitanatha, Cedi, 10th century A.1)., Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Muscum.

Page #213
PLATE VII Sambhavanatha, 12th-13th century A.D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #214
PLATE VUI y 3M . re Abhinandananatha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #215
PLATE IX Toth in to Tratorato Toront Sumatinatha, 12th-13th century A.D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #216
PLATE XII . itx . w WE * RS w 2. Suparsvanatha, Rastraktita, 9th-10th century A.D., Katoli, Canda, Maharastra.

Page #217
PLATE XIII Candraprabha, Candella, 12th century A. D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #218
PLATE XIV Suvidhinatha (or Puspadanta), 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #219
PLATE XV Sitalanatha, 12th-13th century A. D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #220
PLATE XVI EVE Sreyasanatha, Cedi, 10th-11th century A. D. Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum.

Page #221
PLATE XIX MIGALIAVE Anantanatha, 12th-13th century A.D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #222
LATE XX * * N . AN Yule ww 1. W . de es su 1 . R. Dharmanatha, 12th-13th century A. D., Khandagiri, Orissa.

Page #223
PLATE XXI ext 33 . Santinatha, Rastrakuta, c. 10th century A. D., Rajnapur-Kinkini, Akola, Maharastra, Nagpur Museum.

Page #224
PLATE XXII In 2 . ! . . Kunthanatha, Tomara, 15th-16th century A. D., Gwalior Fort, M. P.

Page #225
PLATE SIIT . . EN . . NS Aranatha, 12th-13th century A. D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #226
PLATE SKIV A 9. . 2. denen . .. WE wy 1 Sew . . . 7 1. * $ wo MAX Nr. E s ve . .) .. 182 wY - eink . VAR .. .. . . . . Mallinatha, 12111-13th century A. D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #227
PL:ITE SIVI 28 ci "We Naminatha, 121h-13th century A. D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #228
PLATE XXVII 2 Neminatha, Cauhan, 12th century A. D., Narhad, Pilani, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi,

Page #229
PLATE XXVIII . . . w ST Parsvanatha allacked by Kamatha, Vardhana, 7th century A. D., Bihar, Indian Museuin, Calcutta.

Page #230
PLATE XXIX Mahavira, Cedi, 10th-11th century A. D., Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum.

Page #231
PLATE XXX U . Isvara Yaksit, (andella, c. 10th century A.1)., Mladhya Pradesh ! Author's Collection).

Page #232
PLATE XXXI Kubcra, Pratihara, 8th century A. D. Bansi, Rajasthan, Udaipur Muscum.

Page #233
PLATE SS.XIII Co g * Cakresvari, Candella, 12th century A. D. Deogarh, Jhansi, U.P.

Page #234
PLATE XXXIV : TYMAS VA . . Mahamanasi, Candella, 12th century A. D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #235
PLATE XXXV Rohini, Candella, 12th century A. D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #236
PL:ITE XXXV Os AN W ANAM Ambika, Candella, c. 11th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #237
PLATE XXXVII Gomedha and Ambika, Candella, 12th century A. D. Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttara Pradesh.

Page #238
PLATE XXXVIII Dharmendra and Padmavati, Candella, 10th-11th century A. D., Santinitha temple, Khajuraho, M. P.

Page #239
PLATE XXXIX Can 14 Nirvanidevi, Candella, 10th century A. D. Madhya Pradesh (Author's collection).

Page #240
PLATE XL cute(pns) Cajale Sarasvati, Kusana, 2nd century A. D., Mathura, U. P., State Museum, Lucknow.

Page #241
PLATE SLUI 11 W Sarasvati, (auhan, 12th century A. 1)., Pallu, Bikaner, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi.

Page #242
PLATE XLIII 27 ** > ..... . 1970 . * * * . .. Sarvatobhadra-pratima (Caumukha sculpturei, Prauihara, c. 10th century A. D., Jaghina, Rajasthan, State Museum, Bharatpur.

Page #243
PLATE XLV * it . new ery . Ah . . A 1. Abhinandananatha 2. Sreyarivianatha, 3. nol identifiable, 4. Gauri or Manavi, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #244
I'L.ILE L Navagrahas, Candella, 10th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #245
PLATE LI Nandisvara-dvipa, c. 14th century A. D., Ranakapur, Rajasthan.

Page #246
'GYANLCK LIBRARY" lAla bahAdura zAstrI rASTrIya prazAsana akAdamI, pustakAlaya Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration Library masUrI MUSSOORIE dinAMka Date kRpayA isa pustaka ko nimna likhita dinAMka yA usase pahale vApasa kara deM / Please return this book on or before the date last stamped below. udhArakartA kI saMkhyA avApti saM0 Acc. No..... Borrower's No. dinAMka Date udhArakartA kI sakhyA Borrower's No.

Page #247
starfca 11030 LIBRARY +3855 704.9 Bha 2nd. ed. ACC. No.. art pustaka saM. Class No................. Book No.... lekhaka Author...Bhattacharya......... zIrSaka Title.The.Jaina....iconogranhw . 704.9 Bha LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI National Academy of Administration MUSSOORIE 111030 Accession No. 1. Books are issued for 15 days only but may have to be recalled earlier if urgen tly required. 2. An over-due charge of 25 Paise per day por volume will be charged. 3. Books may be renewed on request, at the discretion of the Librarian. 4. Periodicals, Rare and Reference books may not be issued and may be consulted only in the Library. 6. Books lost, defaced or, injured in any way shall have to be replaced or its doublo price shall be paid by the borrower. Help to keep this book fresh, clean & moving