Jaina Iconography

Author(s): B Bhattacharya
Publisher: Motilal Banarasidas
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011018/1

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लाल बहादूर शास्त्री प्रशासन अकादमी Lal Bahadur Shastric Aademy of Administration
मसूरी । MUSSOORIE
पुस्तकालय
1030
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LIBRARY * अवाप्ति संख्या K Accession No......13858....
वर्ग संख्या
Class NO ............3.04.9... ९ पुस्तक संख्या KBook No......... Bha..... ......
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THE JAINA ICONOGRAPHY

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rontispicce
Caturviríati-paļļa of Rşabhanātha gifted by Saraņikā, Caulukya, 860 A.D., Akoțā. Gujarat, Baroda Museum.

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THE
JAINA ICONOGRAPHY
B.C. BHATTACHARYA
Foreword by
B.N. SHARMA, M.A., PH.D., D. LITT., Keeper, National Museum, New D
Delhi
MOTILAL BANARSIDASS :: Varanasi :: Patna

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OMOTILAL BANARSIDASS
Indological Publishers & Booksellers Head Office : BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHARNAGAR, DELHI-7
Branches : 1. CHOWK, VARANASI-1 (U.P.) 2. ASHOK RAJPATH, PATNA-4 (BIHAR)
ISBN 0-8426-0663-1
First Edition : Lahore, 1939 Second Revised Edition : Delhi 1974
Price : Rs. 70.00
Printed in India BY SHANTILAL JAIN, AT SHRI JAINENDRA PRESS, BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHAR NAGAR, DELHI-7 AND PUBLISHED BY SUNDARLAL JAIN, FOR MOTILAL
BANARSIDASS, BUNGALOW ROAD, JAWAHAR NAGAR, DELHI-7

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To Colonel
Sir Kailashnarain Haksar kt., C.I.E., The Great Exempla'r of Education, Enlightenment and Character, This Book is respectfully Dedicated

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CONTENTS
ix
xxxy
Foreu ord Preface
xxx Bibliograply of Printed and Ms. Texts
xxxii List of Illustrations Introdı.clion
1-25 Fundamentals of Jaina Religion; The Digambaras and the Svetāmbaras. Who are the Tirthankaras ?; Origin of Jaina Images; Jaina Temple-worship; Classes of Jaina Gods and Goddesses; The Main characteristics of Jaina Images; Centres of Jaina
pilgrimage; Age of Image worship. CHAPTERS 1. THE TIRTHANKARAS
26-64 The Twenty-four Jinas; Jina Quadruple; Adinātha or Rşabhanātha; Ajitanātha; Sambhavanātha; Abhinandananātha: Sumatinātha; Padmaprabha; Supärávanātha; Chandraprabha; Suvidhinātha; Śītalanātha; Sreyāmšanātha; Vāsupūjya; Vimalanātha; Anantanātha; Dharmanātha; Sāntinātha; Kunthanātha; Aranātha; Mallinātha; Munisurvrata ; Naminātha ; Neminātha ; Pārsvanātha ; Mahavira.
THE YAK ŞAS AND SASANADEVATAS 65-85 General remarks; Gomukha; Mahāyakşa; Trimukha; Yakşeśvara; Tumbara; Kusuma or Puspa Yakşa; Mātanga or Varanandi; Vijaya or Syāma Yakşa; Ajita; Brahma Yakşa; Isvara Yakşa; Kumāra Caturmukha or Şanmukha Yakşa; Pātāla Yakşa; Kinnara Yakşa; Garuda Yakṣa of Sāntinātha; Gandharva Yakşa; Khendra or Yakşendra; Kubera; Varuna; Bhệkuţi; Gomedha or Gomeda;
Pāríva or Dharaṇendra; Mātariga Yakşa. III. THE YAKȘINIS
86-107 General remarks; Cakre vari; Ajitā or Rohiņi; Duritāri or Prajîapıi; Vajra-Śrmkhalā or Kāli;

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Mahākāli or Puruşadattā; Acyutā or Syāmā or Manovegā; Sāntā or Kāli; Bhỉkuți or Jvālāmālini; Sutārā Mahākālī; Asokā or Mānavi; Gauri or Mānavī; Candā or Gindhārī; Viditā or Vijayā or Vairoţi; Ainkusā or Anantamatī; Kandarpā (Parinagādevi) or Mānavī; Nirvani or Mahāmānasi; Balā (Acyutā) or Vijayā; Dhāraņi or Tārā; Vairoți or Aparājitā; Naradattā or Bahurūpiņi; Gāndhārī; Câmundā; Ambikā (Kuşmīndi) or
Amrā; Padrāvati; Siddhāyikā. IV. THE DIKPALAS
108-116 Gencral remarks; Indra; Agni; Naista; Varuņa;
Vāyu; Kubera; Išāna; Brahmā; and Nāga. V. THE NAVAGRAHAS
117-121 The Nine Planets; Sūrya; Chandra; Mangala;
Budha; Bșhaspati; Sukra; Sani; Rūhu; Ketu. VI. SRUTADEVIS AND VIDYĀDEVIS
122-132 General remarks; Sarasvati and Śrutadcvī; Rohiņā the Vidyādevī; Prajiapti; Vajra-Somkhalā; Vajrāınkuśā; Apraticakrā or Jämbunadi; Puruşadatlā; Kālī; Mahākālī; Gauri; Gāndhāri; Mahājvālā or Jvālāmālini; Mānavi; Vairotī; Acyutā; Mānasī;
Mahāmānasi. VII. MISCELLANEOUS JAINA DIVINITIES 133-137
Harinegameși or Naigameșa; Kșetrapāla; Śri or
Lakşmī; Sāntidevī; Yoginis. VIII. THE ASANAS AND MUDRĀS
138-141 General remarks; Puryamklīsana or Sumparürihusana; Arddhaparyumkāsana; Khadgāsana; Vajrāsana; Virisana;
Mudrās; Jina-mudri; Foga-mudra; Vira-mudrī. NOTES ON JAINA SYMBOLS AND TECHNICAL TERMS
142-143 APPENDIX B
144 BIBLIOGRAPHY
145-165 INDEX
165 PLATES Frontispiece and I-LIII

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FOREWORD
Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are the three main streams of religious faiths that have nurtured and influenced Indian life and thought through the ages. The origin of Jainism goes back to hoary past. It is recognised as older than Buddhism. The Jainas believe that right faith, right knowledge, right conduct and chastity lead the wayfarer along the path of salvation. Ultimate release from matter is, according to the Jainas, the ideal state of existence for the soul. As even the minutest being is believed to have lise, the Jainas are very careful not to destroy it.
II The antiquity of Jainism is shrouded in obscurity. According to the Jaina Purāras and the caritas, their first twenty-two Tirthankaras flourished several thousand years before Christ. P. C. Roy Choudhury thinks that, “Not much rescarch is possible in the pre-historical age as to the role Bihar played in the story of Jainism. But some of the ancient Jaina scriptures mention that Jainismı had been preached in Magadha (Bihar) by Lord Rşabha at the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Agricultural Age. At that remote period Magadha was separated from the rest of India by Gangā-s.īgara. The ancient history of Nepal bears this also."2
The discovery of a few seals and a nude male torso led some scholars to believe that they are the representations of
Dr. R.P. Tewari, Delhi University, has prepared the bioliography and the inclex and Sri C. M. Srivastava, Archaeological Survey of India, bas helped in the selection of the photographs. 1. It has been remarked that, "It is impossible to find a beginning for
Jainism ......Jainism thus appears an earliest faith of India."-Furlong, J.R., Studies in Science of Comparative Religions, pp. 13-1). Roy Choudhury, P.C., Jainism in Bihar, p. 7. Sce also Thakur, Upendra, A Historical Survey of Jainism in North Bihar, JBRS, XXXXV, 1-4, pp. 106 ff; Bajpai, K. D., Evolution of Jaina Art in Madhya Pradesh, Bulletin of the Department of Ancient Indian History & Archaeology, Saugar, No. 3, pp. 75-79.
2.

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their Tirthankaras and were as such objects of worship during the Harappan age. But this view has not been accepted by several present-day art historians.2
To begin with, Jainism was an atheist religion. Hence, like the Buddha, the Jaina Masters were also silent about the existence of god. But when the Jainas became idol-worshippers in later periods, they also started worshipping Tirthankaras as gods. The Jainas believe in the existence of twenty-four Tirthankaras, among whom Rabhanatha was the carliest. The last two, namely, Parvanatha and Mahavira, were historical figures. Mahāvīra was a contemporary of the Buddha. Another important Tirthankara is Mallinatha, but there is doubt among the Jainas whether he was a male or a female.
Most of the Tirthankaras were Ksatriyas and belonged to royal families. They attained enlightenment by performing austerities and practised the law of piety which they preached for the spiritual benefit of human beings.
The Jainas regard their Tirthankaras, law-givers', as Supreme Deities, superior even to the Hindu gods, i. e., Devadeva or Devadi-deva. They are free from the circle of transmigration as they have attained emancipation. The Jainas do not have faith in other gods, but regard their Tirthankaras as fit objects of worship. They believe that the images of the Tirthankaras should be installed in the temples for worship, their life-story should be remembered by the devouts, the important events of their lives should be narrated and translated into stone, bronze or pallas, so that people may see and follow them and thus free themselves from the cycle of birth and rebirth.
III
Rṣabhanatha or Adinatha," the first Tirthankara, is the propounder of the Jaina religion. In one of the verses of the
I. Cf. Modern Review, Calcutta, August 1932, pp. 152 ff.
2. See Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 3-4. See also Agrawala, V. S., Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965, pp. 21-22.
3. The reasons for Rṣabhadeva's birth are vividly described in the Mahāpurana (III, 190-91); Adi Purana (XVI, 179-go), etc.

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Rgveda, Rṣabhadeva1 has been mentioned as a king, the bestower of wealth to his subjects, while Indra is described as the lord of the agriculturists:
आ चर्षणित्रा वृषभो जनानां राजा कृष्टीनां पुरुहूत इन्द्रः ।
स्तुतः श्रवस्यन्नवमोप मद्रिग् युक्त्वा हरी वृषणा याह्यर्वाङ् ॥
-Rv., 1, 23, 177. The Bhagavata Purāna has given interesting details about the birth of Rṣabhanatha:
इति निशामयन्त्या मेरुदेव्याः पतिमभिधायान्तर्दधे भगवान् । बर्हिपि तस्मिन्नेव विष्णुदत्त भगवान् परमर्षिभिः प्रसादितो नाभेः प्रियचिकीर्षया तदवरोधायने मेरुदेव्यां धर्मान्दर्शयितुकामो वातरशनानां श्रमणानामृषीणामूर्ध्वमन्थिनां शुक्लया तनुवावततार । अथ ह तमुत्पत्त्यैवाभिव्यज्यमानभगवल्लक्षणं साम्योपशमवैराग्यैश्वर्य महाविभूतिभिरनुन्दिनमेघमानानुभावं प्रकृतयः प्रजा ब्राह्मणा देवताश्चावनितलसमवनायातितरां जगृधुः । तस्य ह वा इत्थंवर्मणा वरीयसा बृहच्छ्लोकेन चौजसा वलेन श्रिया यशसा वीर्यशौर्याभ्यां च पिता ऋषभ इतीदं — Bhāgarata Purūna, V, 3, 20; 4, 2. In the Brahmanda Purāna, he has been described as the progenitor of the Ksatriyas on earth. He had one hundred sons, among whom Bharata was the eldest:
नाम चकार ।
ऋषभं पार्थिवश्रेष्ठं सर्वक्षत्रस्य पूर्वजम् । ऋपभाद् भरतो जज्ञे वीरः पुत्रशताग्रजः ।।
— Brahmānda Purūna, Purva, II, 14. and this country got the name of Bharatavarṣa due to him:3 येषां खलु महायोगी भरतो ज्येष्ठः श्रेष्ठगुण आसीद्येनेदं वर्षं भारतमिति -Bhagavata Purana, V, 4, 9.
व्यपदिशन्ति ||
Cf. also:
त्वं रथं प्रमरो योधमुष्वमावो युध्यन्तं वृषभं दशद्युम् । त्वं तुग्रं वेतसवे सचान्त्वं तुजि गृणन्तमिन्द्र ! तूतोः ॥
Ro., 4, 6, 26, 4.
For details see the Bhāgarata Purana, V, Chs. 1-6; XI, 14-26, etc. This Puranic story of naming this country Bharatavarṣa after the name of Bharata, the eldest son of Rṣabhanatha has also been mentioned in some other Puranas:
हिमाह्वयं तु वै वर्षं नाभेरासीन्महात्मनः । तस्यर्षभोऽभवत्पुत्रो मेरुदेव्यां महाद्युतिः ॥

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In the Siva Purana, he is referred to as one of the Yogāvatāras of Lord Siva :
दधिवाहरच ऋपभो मुनिरुग्रोऽत्रिरेव च ।
—Siva Purāņa, VII, 9, 3. At another place in the same Purāna, his oneness with Siva has been described in a remarkable manner:
इत्थंप्रभाव ऋषभोऽवतारः शंकरस्य मे । सतां गतिर्दीनबन्धुर्नवमः कथितस्तु नः ||
— Siva Purāna, 1, 47.
ऋषभाद्भरतो जज्ञे ज्येष्ठः पुत्रशतस्य सः । कृत्वा राज्यं स्वधर्मेण तथेष्ट्वा विविधान्मखान् ।। अभिषिच्य सुतं वीरं भरतं पृथिवीपतिः । तपसे स महाभागः पुलहस्याश्रमं ययौ || वानप्रस्थविधानेन तत्रापि कृतनिश्चयः । तपस्तेपे यथान्यायमियाज स महीपतिः ।। तपसा कपितोऽत्यर्थं कृशो धमनिसन्ततः । नग्न वीटां मुखे कृत्वा वीराध्वानं ततो गतः ॥ ततश्च भारत वर्षमेतल्लोकेषु गीयते । भरताय यतः पित्रा दत्तं प्रातिष्ठता वनम् ॥
— Visnu Purana,
ऋषभाद्भरतो जज्ञे वीरः पुत्रशताद्वरः । सोऽभिषिच्यर्षभः पुत्रं महाप्राव्राज्यमास्थितः ॥ तपस्तेपे महाभागः पुलहाश्रमसंश्रयः । हिमा दक्षिणं वर्षं भरताय पिता ददौ । तस्मात्तु भारतं वर्षं तस्य नाम्ना महात्मनः ।
II, 1, 27-32.
—Mārkandeya Purāna, 50 39-41.
नाभिस्त्वजनयत् पुत्रं मेरुदेव्यां महाद्युतिः । ऋपभं पार्थिवश्रेष्ठं सर्वक्षत्रस्य पूर्वजम् ॥ ऋषभाद्भरतो जज्ञे वीरः पुत्रशताग्रजः । सोऽभिषिच्याथ भरतः पुत्रं प्राव्राज्यमास्थितः ॥ हिमा दक्षिणं वर्ष भरताय न्यवेदयत् । तस्मात्तद् भारतं वर्षं तस्य नाम्ना विदुर्बुधाः ||
and also
ऋषभाद् भरतो भरतेन चिरकालं धर्मेण
— Vayu Purāna, 31, 50-52.
पालितत्वादिदं भारतं वर्षमभूत् ।
— Nrsimha Purāna, 30, 7.

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All these attest to the effect that in ancient times he was equally adored by the Hindus.
Rsabhadeva also finds mention in Buddhist literature and in one of the works he is referred to as Vratapālaka :
प्रजापतेः सुतो नाभिः तस्यापि ऊर्णमुच्यते । लाभिनो ऋषभपुत्रः सिद्धकर्मा दृढव्रतः ।। तस्य मणिचरो यक्ष: सिद्धो हैमवते गिरी। ऋषभस्य भरतः पुत्र: सोऽपि मन्त्रान् तदा जपेत् ॥
-Aryamasījuśrīm ūlakalpa, 53, 363-64. Neminātha or Aristanemi also finds a mention in the Rgveda :
स्वस्ति न इन्द्रो वृद्धश्रवाः स्वस्ति नः पूषा विश्वदेवाः । स्वस्ति नस्ताक्ष्यो अरिष्टनेमिः स्वस्ति नो बृहस्पतिर्दधातु ।।
--Rv. 1, 1, 16. Pārsvanātha, the 23rd Tīrthankara was a historical figure. According to Professor Rhys Davids,' he was the real founder of Jainism. He prescribed four vows for the people to follow, viz., not to injure life; to speak the truth; not to steal and nonattachment. Lord Mahāvīra, the 24th and the last Tirthankara added 'chastity' as the fifth.
Mahāvira was a friend of Bimbisāra and his son Ajātaśatru, the king of Magadha, and hence, he commanded great influence in their courts. According to the Jaina canons, Udayana, the son and successor of Ajātaśatru, was also a Jaina, who is credited with having built a Jaina temple at Pāțaliputra.
The Nandas also had some leanings towards the Jaina faith. The Hāthīgumphā inscription records that a Nanda king had taken away an image of a Jina as a trophy from Kalinga to Magadha.
From the Jaina traditions we lcarn that a great famine, lasting for twelve years, occurred during the time of Candragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya dynasty. The king, following his Jaina preceptor, Bhadrabāhu, retired into the region of Mysore and starved himself to death.
1. Davids, Rhys, Encyclopaedia Britannica, gth ed. XII, p. 543.

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Some scholars feel that emperor Asoka, before embracing Buddhism, was a devout Jaina. In his Pillar Edict VII, the emperor mentions Nirgranthas along with the Brāhmaṇic Ajivikas. They have been taken to denote the followers of the Jaina faith. His grandson, Samprati, was a great patron of Jainism and, according to Hemacandra, he had built many Jaina temples all over Jambūdvipa.
A torso of a naked male figure was found at Lohanipur, near Paina, and is now preserved in the Patna Museum.It has an excellent polish preserved throughout. According to some scholars this sculpture revcals the existence of Jina images in the Maurya period. Another similar statue from the same site, but without polish, suggests the existence of Jina worship during the Sunga period.
King Khāravcla of Kalinga (2nd-Ist century B.C.), who was a devout Jaina, styles himself as Bhikṣu-rāja, i.e., 'the monk king' in his Hāthigumphā inscription. The great king in the twelfth year of his reign, after defeating the king of Magadha, took back the Jina image which was originally carried away by a Nanda king from Kalinga. Later he excavated a number of caves in the Kumāri-parvata (Khaņdagiri hill) near Bhubaneshwar and built a monastery at Pābhāra, not far from these caves.
During the Kuşāņa period, Jainism was flourishing in northern India. Numcrous stone sculptures fashioned during this period are now preserved in the Mathura Museum. Besides these, some exquisitely carved Jaina bronze images uncarthed at Chausā in Bihar are displayed in the Patna Museum.
Jaina āyāgapatļas (tablets of homage) have been discovered at Mathurā and Kausāmbi. These are tastefully carved and
1. Thomas, E., The Early Faith of Asoka, Jour, of the Royal Asiatic Society
of Great Britain and Ireland, London, (N. S.), IX. pp. 155-234. 2. Banerjee, P., Early History of Jainism, Indo-Asian Culture, New Delhi.
XIX. p. 7. 3. Lee, S. E., Ancient Sculptures from India, Cleveland, 1964, fig. 14. 4. Epigraphia Indica XX, pp. 72 ff. 5. Agrawala, V. S., Catalogue of the Sculptures in the Mathura Museum,
Four. U. P. Historical Society, Lucknow, XXIII, pp. 36 ff. 6. Gupta, P. L... Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities, pp. 116-17 and plates.

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most of them bear inscriptions. On a few of these ārāgapallas, the figure of Tīrtharikara is shown in the centre. These stone tablets are assignable to a period between the 1st century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D.
The Jūnāgarh inscription of the grandson of Jayadāman datable to the middle of the 2nd century A.D., contains an important reference to Jaina monks who had attained perfect knowledge.
The widc popularity of Jainism during the reign of the Guptas is borne out by the discovery of several epigraphs and images. The Udaigiri cave inscription of the reign of Kunāragupta I refers to the construction of an image of Jineśvara Pāríva. nātha. The Kahaum stone pillar inscription of the time of Skandagupta mcntions an endowment in favour of Jainism, and the installation of five sculptures of the Tirthankaras in the niches of a pillar of stone. Several images of the Jaina divinities fashioned during the Gupta rulc, arc displayed in the State Museum, Lucknow, Mathura Museum and other museums of the country.
In the seventh century, Jainism was prevalent all over India as a fully developed religion. Bāṇabhatļa mentions the Jainas along with Ārhatas, Maskaris, Varņīs, Bhāgavatas, Pañcarātrikas, Lokāyatikas, Paurāņikas, adepts in grammar, ascetics who shaved their hair, ascctics who studied dhātuvāda, law books and sacrificial lore and ascetics who followed the tenets of Kapila, Kaņāda, Upanişads and Nyāya.' Yuan Chwang had seen the followers of both Diganbara and Svetāmbara sccts of Jainism at Taxilā in the west and at Vipula in the east.
An excellent image of Lord Pārsvanātha originally enshrined in a Jaina temple at Gyāraspur near Bhilsā is now displayed in the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. The image shows the great master seated beneath the Dhālaki tree practising the 'exposure to all weathers' austerity when Meghakumāra (Cloud Prince) attacked him with a great storm. The serpent king, the Nāga Dharanendra, spreads his hoods above Pārsvanātha's head and his consort, the Nāgani Padmāvatī, holds an
1.
Harsacharita, VIII, pp. 236-37.

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umbrella over him. The image can be dated to the Vardhana period, 7th century A.D.1
By the beginning of the 8th century A.D., Jainism came to bear the brunt of those factors, which were at that time undermining Buddhism. Discipline became lax; a rich laity made the monk's life easy; desire for wealth, property and earthly honour guided most of the spiritual leaders of Jainism. Several great spiritual leaders, like Haribhadra Sūri and later Uddyotana Suri and Siddharși Sūri, however, rescued Jainism from this insidious rot, through the message conveyed by their disciples. These followers of the gaccha, later on known as Kharatara, did not pay mere lip service to Haribhadra's anti-corruption campaign, on the other hand, they popularised the teachings of their preceptor by their preachings, writings, discussions, debates and practice. Jinavallabha founded and restored the old temples at Marwar, Chittor, Marot and Nagor in Rajasthan. His disciple Jinadatta composed works to get rid of the evils that had crept into the Jaina church. So also Jinapati, a contemporary of the Cauhan king Pṛthvīrāja III of Delhi and Ajmer carried the message of his teachers almost to all parts of Rajasthan.
Kumārapāla Caulukya of Gujarat, acting under the influence of his great teacher Hemacandra, also popularised Jainism in his dominions.
The Bhaṭṭaraka Sampradaya contributed a lot to the development of the true spirit of Jainism in the early mediaeval period. This is attested by the numerous art relics at Deogarh and the region around.
Jainism continued to flourish during the Muslim rule also. Several Jainas held responsible posts in the courts of the Muslim and Mughal rulers. Due to their good financial condition and influence, Jaina ātrās in the mediaeval period were no less frequent than before."
I.
2.
IV
According to Jaina legends, Bharata, the son of Ṛṣabha
See my paper, Videśī Sangrahālayon men Jaina Pratimayen. Mahāvira Jayanti Smarika, Jaipur, 1972, fig. 1 on p. 126.
Sharma, B. N., Social & Cultural History of Northern India (c. 1000-1200 A. D.). p. 115.

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nātha, had built temples on the Kailāsa mountain for enshrining the images of Jina in them. And from that time onwards the people also followed the same tradition:
श्रुत्वा सकाशाद् भरतेश्वरोऽपि कैलासभूध्र मणिरत्नचूर्ण:। द्वासप्तति जनपमंदिराणां निर्माप्य चक्रे जिनबिंबसंस्थाम् ॥ ततः प्रभृत्येव महाधनैः स्वं प्रतिष्ठया धन्यतमं विधाय । मंरक्ष्यतेऽनादिजिनेन्द्रचन्द्रमुखोद्गतं स्थापनसद्विधानम् ॥
-Pratisthāpatha, 62, 63. Vasunandi states that all such places, where the Tirthankaras were born, initiated, enlightened and attained nirvāna, as well as the bank of rivers, mountains, villages, and seashore are suitable for sites for Jaina temples:
जन्मनिष्क्रमणस्थानज्ञाननिर्वाणभूमिषु । अन्येप पुण्यदेशेषु नदीकलनगेषु च ।। ग्रामादिसन्निवेशेषु समुद्रपुलिनेषु च। अन्येषु वा मनोज्ञेषु कारयेज्जिनमंदिरम् ।।
-Pratisthāsārasaigraha, 3, 3-4. The same idea has also been expressed by Jayasena : शद्धे प्रदेशे नगरेऽप्यटव्यां नदीसमीपे शुचितीर्थभूम्याम् । विस्तीर्णशृगोन्नतकेतुमालाविराजितं जैनगृहं प्रशस्तम् ॥
-Pratișthāpātha, 125. Bhuvanadeva also remarks that the Jaina temples should be built inside the towns :
तीर्थकरोद्भवाः सर्वे सर्वशान्तिप्रदायकाः । जिनेन्द्रस्य प्रकर्तव्याः पुरमध्येषु शान्तिदा: ॥
-Aparājitapşcchā, 179, 14. The place for building a Jaina temple was carefully selected and had to be good in all respects :
रम्यां स्निग्धां सगन्धादिदूर्वाद्याढ्यां ततः शुचिम् । जिनजन्मादिनावास्ये स्वीकुर्याद् भूमिमुत्तमाम् ।।
-Pratisthāsāroddhāra, 1, 18. As far as the material of a Jina image is concerned, it can be made of mani, ratna, gold, silver, brass, muktaphala and stone :

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मणि-कणय-रयण-रुप्पय-पित्तल-मुत्ताहलोवलाईहि । पडिमालक्खणविहिणा जिणाइपडिमा घडाविन्जा।
-Srāvakācāra, 390. Images can also be made of sphatika, but the use of clay, wood and plaster has been ruled out for preparing the images :
स्वर्णरत्नमणिरौप्यनिर्मितं स्फाटिकामलशिलाभवं तथा । उत्थितांबुजमहासनांगित जैनबिम्बमिह शस्यते बुधैः ।।
-Pratisthāpatha, 69. Vardhamāna Sūri in his Acāradinakara has restricted the use of bronze and lead in making the icons, but allows the use of ivory and wood :
स्वर्णरूप्यताम्रमयं वाच्यं धातुमयं परम् । कांस्यसीसबङ्गमयं कदाचिन्नव कारयेत् ।।
The Jaina texts relate that after the completion of a Jaina temple, one should go along with the artist on an auspicious day and time to select proper type of stone for fashioning the images :'
धाम्नि सिध्यति सिद्धे वा सेत्स्यत्यर्चाकृत शिलाम् । अन्वेष्टु सेप्टशिल्पीन्द्रः सुलग्न-शकुने व्रजेत् ।।
--Pratisthāsāroddhāra, 1, 49. The authorities have discussed various types of stone suitable for the purpose.- Vasunandi states that white, red,
cc. ग्राह्यां शिलां दिने गत्वा शोभने स्नपयेद् बुधः ।
- Tisnurlharmottara Purana.YC, 25.
and
उत्तरायणमासे तु शुक्लपक्षे शुभोदये ।। प्रशस्तपक्षनक्षत्रे मुहर्ते करणान्विते ।। गच्छल्लिङ्ग समुद्दिश्य वन चोपवन गिरिम् ।।
__- Muyamala, 33, 19-20. 2. श्वेतश्च पद्मवर्णश्च कुसुमोपरसन्निभम् ।
पाण्डुरो मुद्गवर्णश्च कापोती भृङ्गसन्निभ: ॥ ज्ञेया: प्रशस्ता: पाषाणा: अष्टावेते न संशयः । कृष्णवर्णा शिला या तु शुक्ला हीरकसंयुता।
-Visrudharmottara Purana. III. 90, 21-22.
and

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black and green coloured stones are the best for making the image of Jina :
श्वेता रक्ताऽसिता मित्रा पारावतसमप्रभा ।
मुद्गकपोतपद्माभा मांजिष्ठा हरितप्रभा ||
V
-Pratiṣṭhāsārasangraha, 3, 77.
The images of Tirthankaras are purely human in form. They do not exhibit any unusual number of head, eyes, arms or legs. They are shown only in two postures, i.e., seated crosslegged, in dhyāna-mudrā or standing erect in kayotsarga-pose. Both the dhyana and the kayotsarga mudrās are yogic, as the Jainism believes in penance (tapasya). They are unlike the images of Viṣņu (Sesaśayin) and Buddha (parinirvāna) and are never shown in the reclining pose. The images of a Tīrthankara and the Buddha seated in dhyana-mudra are quite similar, but from the Srivatsa mark executed on the chest of a Tirthankara, one can easily distinguish it from that of the Buddha. In the Tirthankara images from South India, this particular symbol is, however, conspicuous by its absence."
1.
The idea of carving Sarvatobhadra (four-fold) Tirthankara images started during the late Kuṣāņa period. This feature continued till the late medieval period. Some of the Sarvatobhadra images of the four chief Jinas (Adinātha, Neminātha, Pārśvanatha and Mahāvīra) found in Mathura, Kausambi or elsewhere are remarkable works of art.
Several ancient and medieval works mention the characteristic features of the Jina images. The oft-quoted description has been given by Varahamihira in his famous work Bṛhatsamhitā in the following words: "the god of the Arhats (the Jinas, i. e.,
कपोतभृङ्गकुमुदमापमुद्गा सितोपमा ।
पाण्डुरा घृतपद्माभा सर्वावसु शुभा शिला ॥
Cf. Haribhadra Suri's statement : श्राम्यतीति श्रमणाः तपस्यतीत्यर्थः ।
-Rubamaṇḍana, I, 3.
-Daśavaikälika Sutra, 1, 3.
2. Sivaramamurti, C., Geographical and Chronological Factors in Indian Iconography, Ancient India, No. 6, (Jan. 1954), PP. 44-46.

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any of the 24 Tirtharkaras) should be shown nude, young and beautiful in appearance, with a tranquil expression and arms reaching down to the knees; his breast should have the (auspicious) Srivatsa mark."l The Manasāra states that the distinguishing features of a Jina icon are nudity, Srivatsa symbol, long hanging arms, the meditative pose, etc. :
द्विभुजं च द्विनेत्र च मुण्डतारं च शीर्षकम् । ऋजुस्थानकसंयुक्त तथा चासनमेव च । समाध्रि ऋज्वाकारं स्याल्लम्बहस्तद्वयं तथा । आसनं च द्विपादौ च पद्मासनं तु संयुतम् । ऋजुके च ऋजुभावं योग तत्परमात्मकम् । निराभरणसर्वाङ्ग निर्वस्त्राङ्ग मनोहरम् ।
सर्ववक्षःस्थले हेमवर्ण श्रीवत्सलांछनम् ।।
The Pratisthāsāroddhāra mentions that a Tirthařkara should have a calm and screne face:
शान्तप्रसन्नमध्यस्थनासाग्रस्थाविकारदृक् । संपूर्णभावारूढानुविद्धाङ्ग लक्षणान्वितम् ॥
-Pratisthāsāroddhāra, 1, 62. In the Pratis thāpāda, it is stated that a Tirthankara should not be depicted as an old man or as a boy, but as a youth. He should bcar Srivatsa mark on the chest and should not have nails or hair. The image should be made cither of good metal or stone and should display all the virtues of an ascetic or a vairāgi: वृद्धत्वबाल्यरहितांगमुपेतशांति
श्रीवृक्षभूषिहृदयं नखकेशहीनम् । सद्धातुचित्रदृषदां समसूत्रभागं वैराग्यभूपितगुणं तपसि प्रशक्तम् ।।
-Pratisthāpāda, 151-52. The Vivekavilāsa relates that a Tirtharkara having Srivatsa on the chest and ūşnişa on the head should be seated in padmasana pose on a beautiful pedestal shaded by an umbrella :
उपविष्टस्य देवस्योर्ध्वस्य वा प्रतिमा भवेत् । द्विविधापि युवावस्था पर्यङ्कासनगाऽऽदिमा ॥
. 27, n.2; Banerjea, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconography, p. 588.

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XX1
देवस्योर्ध्वस्य चार्चा स्याज्जानु लम्बिभुजदया। श्रीवत्सोष्णीषयुक्त द्वे छत्रादिपरिवारिते ।।
-Vivekavilāsa, 1, 128-30. The Pratisthāsārasarigraha gives some more details about the icon (bimba) of Jinendra (i.e., Tirthankara). After inentioning his seat, etc., it states that he should be young (taruna), nude (digambara) and decorated in chest (bhusita) with a Srivatsa symbol. The height of the image should be 108 angulas. There should be no hair in the arm-pit or on any other part of his body and no line for the moustache :
अथ बिम्बं जिनेन्द्रस्य कर्तव्यं लक्षणान्वितम् । ऋज्वायुतम संस्थान तरुणाङ्ग दिगम्बरम् ।। श्रीवक्षभूषितोरस्कं जानुप्राप्तकराग्रजम् । निजाङगुलप्रमाणेन साष्टाङगुलशतायुतम् ।। कक्षादिरोमहीनाङ्गं श्मश्रलेखाविवजितम् । ऊवं प्रलम्बकं दत्वा समाप्त्यन्तं च धारयेत् ।।
-Pratisthāsārasaigraha, 4,1,2,4. The Rūpamandana, an important iconographic text by Sutradhāra Mandana, devotes its sixth chapter to Jaina iconography. After mentioning the names of the 24 Tirthankaras, it specifies their colour, symbols, Yakşas and Yaksis and the tree under which each one of them had attained the supreme knowledge. It also describes the following features of a Jina linage :
छत्रत्रयं जिनस्यैव रथिकाभिस्त्रिभिर्यता (-युतम्) ॥ अशोकद्रुमपत्रैश्च देवदुन्दुभिवादकैः । सिंहासनमसुराद्योगजसिंहा (सिंहासनेनासुराद्यर्गजसिंहैः) विभूषिताः ।। मध्ये च कर्मचक्रं च तत्पावयोश्च यक्षिणी । द्वितालविस्तराः कार्या बहिः परिकरस्य तु ।। देर्पा तु प्रतिमा तुल्या तयोरुद्रं तु तोरणम् । वाहिका बाह्यपक्षे तु गोसिंहरलंकृताः (गोसिंहैः समलंकृताः) । कर्तव्या द्वारशाखा च तत्तन्मूर्तिगसंयुता ।। तोरणं पञ्चधा प्रोक्तं रथिकार्य (रथिकायां) च देवताः ।।
1. Srivastava, B. (ed.) Rūpamandana, Varanasi, 1964. See also Jain, B.C.
Jaina Pratimã Laksana, Anekānta, Delhi, XIX, 3, pp. 204-13.

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ललितं चेतिकाकारं त्रिरथं बलितोदरम् ।
श्रीपु पञ्चरर्थिकं साप्तावा (सप्तमा - ) नन्दवर्धनम् ॥ रथिकायां भवेद्ब्रह्मा विष्णुरीशश्च चण्डिका । जिनो गौरी गणेशश्च स्वे स्वे स्थाने सुखावहाः ॥
- Rūpamandana, VI, 33-39.
According to the Rupamandana, Padmaprabha and Vasupūjya are of red colour, Candraprabha and Puspadanta ( ? ) (white); Nemi and Muni black, Malli and Pārśva blue, while the rest of them are of golden hue :
रक्तो (रक्तों) च पद्मप्रभुभवासंपूज्यो ( प्रभवासपूज्यो ) । शुक्ल (शुक्ली) च चन्द्रप्रभपुष्पदन्ती ॥
कृष्ण पुनम पुगुणैविलीन: ( मुनी च नीलो ) ।
श्रीमल्लिः पार्श्वे (श्रीमल्लिपावी ) कनकत्विषोऽन्ये ॥
-Rupamandana, VI, 4.
The Aparajitap: cche also gives some details of the colours of the Tirthankaras :
चन्द्रप्रभः पुष्पदन्तः वेतो व क्रौञ्चसम्भवी । पद्मप्रभो धर्मनाथो वनोत्पलनिभो मती ॥ सुपार्श्वः पार्श्वनाथश्च हरिण प्रकीर्तितो । नेमिरच श्यामवर्णः स्यान्नीलो मल्लिः प्रकीर्तितः । शेपा: पोडश सम्प्रोक्तास्तप्तकाञ्चनसम्प्रभाः ॥
— Aparãñitaprcchā, 221, 5-7.
The Rupamandana states that there are a number of Jina images and these should be adored as they are the bestower of happiness. Nevertheless it regards Śrī Adinatha, Nemi, Pārsva and Vira (Mahāvīra ) and Cakreśvarī, Ambikā, Padmavati and Siddhayika as more venerable.
जिनस्य मूर्त्तयोऽनन्ताः पूजिताः मौख्यसर्वदा - ( सर्वसौख्यदाः ) । चतस्रोऽतिशययुक्तास्तासां पूज्या विशेषतः ॥
श्री आदिनाथो नेमिच पर्वे वीरचतुर्थकः (पार्वी वीरश्चतुर्थकः) । चक्रे चर्याम्बिका (चक्रेश्वर्यम्बिका) पद्मावती सिद्धायकेति च ।। कैलाश सोमशरणं सिद्धिति सदाशिवम् ।
सिंहासनं
धर्मचक्रमुपरीन्द्रातपत्रकम् ।।
-Rupamandana, VI, 25-27.

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Vrsa
A list of the 24 Tīrthankaras along with their emblems and Yaksa and Yakşiņi figures as found in the Rūpanandana? is given below in a tabular form : No. Tirthankara Cognisance akşa Paksini 1. Rsabha
Gomukha Cakres vari 2. Ajita
Gaja
Mahāyaksa Ajitabalā 3. Sambhava Aiva
Trimukha Duritări 4. Abhinandana Карі?
Yaksesvara Kālikā 5. Sumati
Krauñca
Tumburu Mahäkāli 6. Padmaprabha Raktabīja Kusuma Syāmā 7. Supārsva Svastika Mātanga Sāntā or
Sänti 8. Candraprabha Sasi
Vijaya
Bhrkuți 9. Suvidha
Makara Jaya" Sutārikā 10. Śitala
Srivatsa Brahmā Asokā 11. Śreyāmía Gandaka* Yakset Mänavi 12. Vāsupūjya
Mahisa
Kumāra Candi 13. Vimala
Sukara
Sanmukha Viditā 14. Anant.
Syena
Pātāla Ankusi 15. Dharma
Kinnara Kandarpi 16. Sānti
Garuda Nirvāņi 17. Kuntha
Chiga
Gandharva Balā 18. Ara
Nandyāvarta Yakşeti Dhāriņi 19. Malli
Ghata
Kubera Dharņapriya 20. Muni
Kūrma Varuna Nadaraktā
or
Naradattā 21. Suvrata
Nilotpala Bh kuti Gandharvā? 22. Nemi
Sankha Gomcdha Ambikā 23. Pārsva
Phani
Purvas Padmăvati 24. Mahāvīr.
Itanga Skalnikā
Vajra Mrga
1. Rūpamandana, pp. 98-99.
In the Afrarājilaprcchā (III, 221, 8), the word Kapayal has been used
for Kapi. 3. Ajita has been referred to in other texts. 4. The Rūpamandana wrongly mentions Khaggisa for Gandaka, i, c.. rhino
ccros. 5. Isvara according to other literary works. 6. Kşendra or Yakşendra according to other Jaina texts. 7. In other works, she has been referred to as Gāndhāri.
He is popularly known as Dharanendra.

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( xxiv ) It is evident from the above table that Maņdana has followed the Svetāmbara traditions in describing the symbols and Yakşa and Yakṣiṇi figures of the Tīrthaukaras.' According to thc Digambaras, Vrścika (crab), aśvattha (Ficus religioso), and įkşa (crab) are the symbols of Suvidha, Sitala and Ananta, respectively. The Digambara texts also record that Supārsva, Śrcyāmśa, Vāsupūjya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma, Sānti, Kuntha, Malli and Neminātha have Kāli, Gaurī, Gāndhārī, Vairoți, Anantamati, Mānasi, Mahāmānasi, Vijaya, Brahmarūpiņi, Cāmundi and Kuşmāņdini as their Yakşiņīs. Similarly, Sreyārnisa and Säntinātha have Isvara and Kimpurusa as their Yaksas instead of Yakşeţ and Garuda as referred to in the Rūpamaņdana.
VI
The Rūpamandana mentions seven Sāsana-devatās in the following order :
Firstly, it describes Gomukha, the Yakṣa of Rşabhanātha as of golden colour and riding on an elephant. He holds a vara, a rosary, a noose and a citron:
रिपभो (ऋपभे) गोमुखो यक्षो हेमवर्णा गजानना
(HTUT T3177:) ! वराक्षसूत्रमाशाश्च उभबीजपूरेषु च || (वरोऽक्षसूत्रं पाशांश्च बीजपूरं करेषु च) ॥
--Rīpamandana, VI, 17. The Aparājitaprcchū refers to a bull instead of an clephant as his mount :
वराक्षसूत्रे पाशश्च मातुलिङ्ग चतुर्भुजः । श्वेतवर्णो वृपमुखो वपभासनसंस्थितः ।।
--Aparājitaprccha, 221, 43. Cakreśvari is one of the most important divinitics in the Jaina pantheon. She has been described of golden colour and
1.
Srivastava, B., op. cit., p. 100. Scc also Banerjea, J.N., Jaina Icons, The age of Imperial Unity, Bombay, 1960, pp. 425-31; Shah, U. P., Jaina Iconography. A Brief Study, Muni Jina Vijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1971, pp. 190-218.

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( xxv)
riding on the Garuda. The deity has eight arms; her one hand is held in gift-bestowing attitude, while others carry a bow, a noose and disc, etc.
ašaû §¤qqf arerfærszaigal | वरं बाणं चक्रं (शक्तिशूलमनाकुलम् ? ) ।।
-Rupamanḍana, VI, 18.
The Maladevi temple at Gyarasapur1 has an interesting image, where she is shown riding on Garuda and carrying a noose, a thunderbolt and disc, etc., in her hands.
The Rupamandana also describes a twelve-armed image of the goddess holding discs in her eight hands, and thunderbolts and citron in the remaining two cach:
द्वादशभुजाष्टचक्राणि वज्रयोर्द्वयमेव च । मातुलिङ्गाभये चैव पद्मस्था गरुडोपरि ।।
-Rupamanḍana, VI, 24. The Aparajitapṛccha and the Devatāmurtiprakarana3 also refer to twelve-armed images of the devi. Dr. U. P. Shah1 has discussed the iconography of Cakreśvari with the help of several photographs of the images from different parts of India.
I.
Deva, K., Mālādevi temple at Gyāraspur, Sri Mahāvīra Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, pp. 262 ff.
2. Cf. षट्पादा द्वादशभुजा चक्राण्यष्टी द्विवज्रकम् ।
मातुलिङ्गाभये चैव तथा पद्मासनाऽपि च ।। गरुडोपरिसंस्था च चक्रेशी हेमवणिका ।
-Aparajitapṛccha, 221, 15-16.
3. Cf. अथ द्वितीयभेदेन चक्रे (श्वरी) । द्वादशभुजाष्टचक्रे वज्रयोर्द्वयमेव च । मातुलिङ्गाभयं चैव पद्मस्था ग ( रुडो ) परि ||
-Devatamurtiprakaraṇa, 7, 66.
4. Shah, U.P., Iconography of Cakreśvari, the Yakşi of Rṣabhanatha, Jour. of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, XX, 3, pp. 280-313 and plates; Settar, S, Cakreśvari in Karṇāṭak Literature and Art, Oriental Art, (N. S.) London, XVII, 1, pp. 63-69 and figures; Sharma, B. N., Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the National Museum, New Delhi, Jour. of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, XIX, 3, p. 276, fig 2; Some Interesting Temple Sculptures at Osiä, Roopa-Lekha, New Delhi, XL, 1 & 2, pp. 100-101, fig VII; Gandhävala Ki Jaina Mürtiyān, Anekānta, Delhi, XIX, 1-2, pp. 129 ff, fig. 4.

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i sxvi) Ambikā is of yellow colour and rides the lion. She holds a bunch of mangoes, a serpent-noose, a goad and a child :
सिंहारूढाऽम्बिका पीता मल बि ? (त्वाम्रकं ?) नागपाशकम् । अङ्ग कुशञ्च तथा पुत्र तथा हस्तेप्वनक्रमात् ॥
---Rūpamaņdana, VI, 19. From the above description it appears that the text refers to a four-armed image. The Aparajitaprcchā mentions a twoarmed image of the goddess carrying a fruit and a child in her hands :
हरिद्वर्णा सिंहसंस्था द्विभुजा च फलं वरम् । पुत्रणोपास्यमाना च सुतोत्सङ्गा तथाऽम्बिका ।।
-Aparajilaprcchā, 221, 36. Several varieties of the images of Ambikā are known from various parts of India.
Pārsva, the Yakşa of Pārsvanātha has been described as of black colour. He holds in his hands a citron, cobras, and a mongoose :
पाश्वः स्यात् पार्श्वनाथस्य कूर्मारूढो गजाननः । बीजपूरोरग नागं नकुलं श्यामवर्णकः ।।
-Rīpamandana, VI, 20. The-Iparūjitaprcchā, on the other hand, states that he should carry a bow, an arrow, a bhindi and a mulgara :
पावों धनुर्वाण भण्डिमुद्गरश्च फलं वरः। मर्परूपः श्यामवर्णः कर्तव्यः शान्तिमिच्छता ।।
----1parajitaprcchā, 221, 55. Padmăvati has red complexion and shc rides on a cock. In her four hands, she holds a lotus, a noosc, a goad and a citron: रक्तायसवती पूर्णा (पद्मा) ककुंटोरग
__ (कुक्कुटस्था) चतुर्भुजा । पद्मपाशोंशो (पद्मपाशाङकुशौ) बीजपुरं हस्ते यु कारयेत् (धारयेत्) ।।
-Rupamandana, VI, 21.
Shah, U. P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambikā, jour, of the University of Bombay, x, 2, pp. 195-2183; Muni Jayantavijayaji, Holy Abu, Bhavanagar, 1954, fig. 29.

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( xxvii )
The Aparajitaprccha also describes a four-armed image of the goddess as follows:
पाशाङकुश पद्मवरे रक्तवर्णा चतुर्भुजा ।
पद्मासना कुक्कुटस्था ख्याता पद्मावतीति च ॥
— Aparājitaprcchā, 221, 37.
Several images of Padmavati have been discovered in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Of these, the finest sculpture can be seen in the Santinatha temple at Khajuraho, where she is shown seated at ease with her consort Dharanendra.1 Matanga, the Yakṣa of Mahāvīra, has been described as riding on an elephant and holding a mongoose in his right hand and a citron in the left:
महावीरस्य मातङ्गो गजारूढो ( गजारूढः) मितो भवेत् । दक्षिणे नकुलं हस्ते वामे स्याद् बीजपूरकम् ॥
- Rūpamandana, VI, 22. In the Aparajitapṛccha, he has been mentioned in the following words :
फलं वरोऽथ द्विभुजो मातङ्गो हस्तिस स्थितः । यक्षाश्चतुर्विंशतिकास्तयर्षभादितः क्रमात् ।।
— Aparājitaprcchā, 221, 56. Another important Jaina goddess described in the Rupamandana is Siddhāyikā." The four-armed devi having blue complexion rides on a lion. She holds a manuscript, an arrow and a citron, while her remaining hand displays abhaya-mudrā: सिद्रायका ( सिद्धायिका) नीलवर्णा
सिद्धा - ( सिंहा-) रूढा चतुर्भुजा । पुस्तकं चाभयं दत्ते ( धत्ते)
वाणं वै मातुलिङ्गकम् ।।
— Rupamandana, VI, 23.
Bhattacharyya, A. K., An Introduction to the Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Padmāvati, Muni Jinavijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1971, pp 219-29; Jain, Niraj, Khajuraho Ke Jaina Mandira, Satna 1970, pl. II. Shah, U. P., Yaksini of the twenty-fourth Jina Mahāvīra, Four of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, XXII, 1-2, pp. 78 and plates. A medieval seated image of the devi is also preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow See the Mahavira Favanti Smärikā, Jaipur, 1973, plate facing page 4.

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( xxviii)
The Aparājitaprcchă mentions a two-armed image of Siddhāyikā as below :
द्विभुजा कनकाभा च पुस्तकं चाभयं तथा । सिद्धायिका तु कर्तव्या भद्रासनसमन्विता ॥
-Aparājitaprcchā, 221, 38.
VII
The Jaina literature classifies the subsidiary divinities into four classes, namely, Jyotisi, Vimanavāsi, Bhavanapati and Vyantara, based on their natural and individual affiliations. The Rūpamandana mentions the names of twenty-four Nakşatras! and twelve Rāsis, but does not give their iconographic features. It also narrates the eight Pratihāryas, viz., Indra, Indrajaya,
Mahendra, Vijaya, Dharanendra, Padmaka, Sunabha, Suradundubhi and furnishes details about each of them. The description appears to be based on the Aparăjitapşcchã.4
The developed iconometry of the Jaina pantheon and the profuse number of Jaina images during the medieval period tend to indicate thc growing Tāntric influence which had gained ground during this period. It also shows that the Hindu Purāņic religion had its 'inter-action on the medieval Indian culture including the field of plastic art.
Besides a few iconographic texts referred to above, there are several other literary works like the Abhidhāna-Cintāmani,
1. Ripamandana, VI, 7-8. 2. Ibid., 10-11. 3. Ibid., 28-32. 4. Cr. फलं वज्राङकुशौ दण्ड इन्द्रोऽसव्ये इन्द्रजयः ।
द्वौ वज्रौ फलदण्डी च महेन्द्रोऽसव्ये विजयः ? ॥ तदायुधयोगोद्भवास्त्रिपञ्चाश्वफणा (ग्रहा) मताः । धरणेन्द्र: पद्मकश्च सर्वे शान्तिकराः स्मृताः ।। यक्षरूपाधिकाराश्च निधिहस्ताः शुभोदराः । सर्वशान्तिप्रदावेवं सुनाभः सुरदुन्दुभिः ॥ इत्यष्टौ च जिनेन्द्रस्य प्रतिहाराश्च शान्तिदाः । नगरादौ पुरे ग्रामे सर्वविघ्नप्रणाशमाः ।।
-Aparajitaprcchā, 220, 35-38.

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( xxix ) Dipārnava, Samarāngana-Sūtradhāra, Prasādamandana, Rājavallabha, Devatām ürtiprakarana, Käsyapa-Samhitā, Rāya-Paseni-Jivābhigama, Tiloyapannatti, Vāstusāraprakarana, etc., which provide a minc of information to a student of Jaina art and iconography.
VIII
Professor B. C. Bhattacharya, the celebrated author of the Jaina Iconography, was a distinguished scholar of Indology deeply interested in the study of Indian iconography, literature and culture. His rescarches in the field of Jaina iconography were not only pioneering works of their times but still form the basis of research in Jainology. Obviously the book has always been in great demand. It is a matter of regret that Professor Bhattacharya did not live to revise and see the second cdition of his book. The publication of the present cdition by M/s. Motilal Banarsidass, the leading Indological Publishers of India, at the time of the 2500th Nirvānotsava of Lord Mahāvira is a fitting tribute to the great contribution made by Professor Bhattacharya and a great service to the students of Jainology.
National Museum, New Delhi. Mahāvira Jayanti, 1974.
B. N. SHARMA
KEEPER

Page #32

PREFACE
Following my Brāhmaṇic Iconography, “Indian Images" Part I, published in 1921, I present to the public the Jaina Iconography now after a lapse of ncarly two decades. The delay has been long but unavoidable on account of several family mishaps even though thc MS. had almost been completed by the end of 1926. An additional difficulty in my way was that of a suitable publisher for undertaking the printing and publishing of a book which by its very nature call; for illustrative plates. I make my apology to those scholars, both in this country and the west, who by thcir frequent enquiries about this volume have kept alive in me the desire for presenting it to the public, a desire which might otherwise have been killed in the midst of my many trials and misfortunes. I offer my thanks also to the enterprising proprietors of the Punjab Sanskrit Series who), of all Oriental publishers, have placed me in their debt by readily undertaking to bring out this first book on Jaina Iconography.
The study of iconography and that of sculptures are inseparable. To all students of arts and culture, therefore, I hope, this book will present a new interest.
To rescue the hitherto hidden materials of Jaina Iconograply from their hiding places, I turned my attention in the first place to the published and unpublished literature of Jaina School. To be jusıly enlightened on the subject, I frecly sought thc guidance of orthodox Jaina scholars who, though deeply learned in Jaina philosophy, were unable to adequately indicate the various texts relating to the Jaina images, scattered over in their ritualistic literature. In order to find these, I took to exploring the different MS. collections preserved in far distant places of our country. This involved me in visits to Arrah, Agra, Bikaner, Baroda, Ahmadabad, Rajkot and several other places where such literature was to be found. Everywhere I was received with great kindness by the reverend monks of the sect, who placed at my disposal their MSS. and allowed me to copy out such of them

Page #33

( xxxi )
as, I thought, would be useful. I acknowledge my profound debt of gratitude to those monks whose memory even at this day is my cherished possession. At the same time as I visited the monasteries, I renewed my visits to all the Museums of Northern India and also personally explored many old sites of Jaina ruins in search of images properly illustrative of the iconographic texts. Within about three years, I was able to collect a vast store of materials for my purpose. The present book is the product of all my humble researches on the subject.
In the ever expanding field of Indology some intolerance and unfriendliness still hold sway. This is to be regretted. In the field of Indological research more, I believe, could be achieved by mutual sympathy and understanding and less, very much less by the lack of them. Criticism of a constructive character is always extremely helpful; and no one need grudge it, I mean, no one who has the interest of truth nearest to his heart. I am no judge of my own work. Having put the first furrow in the hitherto fallow field of Jaina Iconography, I place with considerable diffidence this humbie work of nine in the hands of Orientalists for their criticism and suggestion which, I doubt not, will be of great help to me in seeing much that I may not have seen at first.
To my general readers my request is that they may be pleased to read the introduction and the introductory paragraphs of cach chapter and then relate and compare them to the illustrations at the end of the book.
In conclusion, I desire to record my cordial thanks to Kumar Probodhendu Nath Tagore B.L. for same financial help and to Khan Bahadur Maqsud Ali Khan (C.S. ret.), Chief Secretary to H.H. the Maharaja of Benaras, for his benevolent encouragement and ready sympathy. I have also to express my indebtedness to my esteemed friend, Professor U.C. Nag M.A. Ph.D. for many usefu! suggestions and to my old student, Mr. T.N. Sarkar B.A. (U.P. Police), for preparing under my instruction the index of this volume.
Durgakund Road, Banares, U.P. January 20, 1939
B C.B.

Page #34

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRINTED AND MS. TEXTS
1. ORIGINAL BOOKS CONSULTED 1. Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra (Asiatic Society of Bengal). 2. Dravya-Samgraha (Sacred Books of the Jainas) by Nemi
Chandra, about 10th Century A.D. 3. Pañcāstikāya. -4. Pañcāstikāya Samayasāra, by Kundakundācārya, (S.B.1.)
Dated 50 B.C. 5. Adhyātma Tattvāloka (Tran. by M.J. Mehta). 6. Jaina Sūtra (Tran. by H. Jacobi, Sacred Books of East). 7. Syādvādamañjarī, by Mallisena. 8. Tattvārtha-rāja-Vārttika, by Urnāsvāti (Sanātana Jaina
Granthamālā, Benarcs). Circa 3rd cent A.D. Sāmāyika-Patha.
Samantabhadrācārya's Brhat Svayambhu Stotra. 11. Uttarādhyayana-Sūtra. 12. Pravacana-sara, by Kunda-Kundācārya, (Bhandarkar's
Report on the search for Sanskrit MSS, 1883-89). 13. Hemachandra's Abhidhāna Cintāmaņi (Ed. by Otto Boeht
lingk, St. Petersberg). 14. The Antagada-Dasão (Oriental Tran. fund). 15. Hemachandra's Trișașți-Salākā Purusa-Caritra which is
based (10 vols., Published at Bhavnagar 1906-09 by Jaina Dharma Prakāšaka Sabhā) upon older sources. The
author's floruit is 1089, p. 117. 16. Uttarapurāņa by Jinasena composed about the 8th.
century A.D. 17. Kalpa-Sūtra (Ed. by Jacobi and Rev. Stevenson, 1848),
by Bhadrabāhu. Pārsvanātha-Carita, by Bhavadeva Suri, Dated A.D. 1356
Acārānga Sūtra (S.B.E.) 20. Āsādhara's Pratişthāsāroddhāra. A.D. 1200-50. 21. Guņa Vijaya Sūri's Neminātha-Carita (Prosc) Nirnaya
Sagar Press, about Samvat 16. 22. Jūānārņava, Nirnaya Sagar Press. 23. Sattva-Sāroddhāra.

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( xxxiii ) II. MSS. and TEXTS. 1. Acāra-dinakara (Ramghat Jaina Collection) by Vard
dhamāna Sūri Pūjāvidhi Chapter and faste faut called the Pratisthāvidhi treats of Iconography. MSS. No. 26 74 19 36. Cf. pp. no. 12500 Patan Bhandara 2, 3-4, 14th
century A.D. 2. Vastusāra and Pratisthasara-Saringraha, MSS. No.68Jaina
Collection, Jñāna Mandir, Baroda. 3. Vasunandi's Pratisthā-sara Sangraha, (Jaina Siddhanta
bhavan, Arrah) : Beginning : विज्ञानवादसत्सूत्राद्वाग्देवीकल्पतस्तथा ।
चन्द्रप्रज्ञप्तिसंज्ञाच्च सूर्यप्रज्ञप्तिग्रन्थतः ॥ तथा महापुराणार्थाच्छावकाध्ययनश्रुतात्। सारं संगृह्य वक्ष्येऽहं प्रतिष्ठासारसंग्रहम् । तत्र तावत् प्रवक्ष्यामि प्रतिष्ठासारलक्षणम् ।
तस्योदयान्मतो (?) यस्माद्विश्वकर्मप्रवर्तनम् ॥ 4. Travacana-Sároddhāra, Ch. 26 and 27.
(a) Ramghat Collection, Benarcs. (b) MSS. Chhani Jaina Bhandara, Baroda. Tikā by Siddhascna Suri, 1142 Samvat, (Jaina Bhandara, Limdi, Kathiawad). (c) Colophon--तेषां गुणिषु गुरूणां शिष्यः श्रीसिद्धसेनसूरिरिमां
प्रवचनसारोद्धारस्य वृत्तिमकरोदतिस्पष्टाम् । करिसागररविसंखो श्रीविक्रमनृपतिवत्सरे चैत्रपुष्पार्कदिने शुक्लाष्टम्यां वृत्तिः समा
प्तासी।। 5. Tīrtha Kalpa or Rājaprasāda by Jinaprabha, (Probably
of 14th Century A.D.). 6. Sutradhāra Mandana's Vastu Sastra (A) MSS. 1351,
Jñāna collection Jñāna Mandir, Baroda. (B) Sutravrt Mandana's Vastusāstra Sri Vijayadharma,
Jaina Mandir, Agra. Folio 5, No. 3178 Folio 14.
11" x 54”. (C) Vastu-sastra by Mandana, No. 3177 Folio 14. 730x5". 7. Mandira-Pratişthā Vidhāna MSS. No. 6 Jaina S. Bhavan,
Arrah. 8. MSS, No. 1351, Harmsavijaya, Jaina Collection, Jiana
Mandir, Baroda. Vastu-Sastra, Bimba parimāna-Guna doşalakşama caturvirnlati Jina Yakşa Yakşiņi vicāra by Vidyadhara.

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( xxxiv ) 9. Nirvana Kalika, AISS. JHana Alandir, Agra folio, No.
2141, 11"x5t. Beginning:-ओं नमो वीतरागाय। वर्द्धमानं जिन नत्वा समुद्धत्य जिनागमात् नित्यकर्म तथा दीक्षां प्रतिष्ठां च प्रचक्ष्महे । प्रतिष्ठापद्धतिश्चषां श्रीमत्पादलिप्तसूरीणां भव्यानाम पकाराय स्पष्टार्था व्याख्यतेऽधुना। Colophon:--अथ प्रशस्तिः । श्रीविद्याधरवंशभूषणमणिः प्रख्यातनामा भुवि श्रीमस्तंगमसिह इत्यधिपतिः श्वेताम्बराणामभृत् शिप्यस्तस्य
बभूव मण्डनगणिों वाचनायां चयिः । 10. Devapājā MSS. Jaina Siddhāntabhavana, Arrah. 11. Catuhsasti Yogini Namāni, MSS. Ramghat Jaina Col
lection. 12. (Catuhsasthi Yogini) MSS. No. 396 Hansa Vijaya
Collection, Jūāna Mandir, Baroda.

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FRONTISPIECE
Plate
Plate
Plate
III
Plate
IV
Caturvimsatipatta of Rşabhanātha gifted by Sāraņikā, Caulukya, c.860. A.D., Akoţā, Gujarāt, Baroda . Museum. Torso of a naked Jaina Tirtharikara, Maurya, 3rd century B.C., Lohanipur, Patna, Bihar, Patna Museum. Āyāgapația, Kuşāņa, 1st century A.D., Karkāli pīlā, Mathurā, U.P., State Museum, Lucknow. Āyāgapatļa, Kuşāņa, 2nd century A.D., Mathura, U.P., State Museum, Lucknow. Rşabhanātha, Gāhadavāla, 12th century A.D., Mahet, Gonda, Ullar Pradesh. Rşabhanātha, Cedi, 11th century A.D., Tripuri, Madhya Pradesh, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Ajitanātha, Cedi, 10th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum. Sambhavanātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Abhinandananātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Sumatinātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa.
Plate
v
Plate
VI
Plate
VII
Plate
VIII
Plate
IX

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Plate
X
Plate
XI
Plate
XII
Plate
XIII
Plate
XIV
Plate
XV
( xxxvi) Padmaprabha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Supārsvanātha, Cedi, 10th-11th century A.D., Tripuri, Madhya Pradesh. Supārsvanātha, Rāsțrakūta, 9th-10th century A.D., Kațoli, Cāndā, Maharashtra, Nagpur Museum. Candraprabha, Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Suvidhinātha (or Puşpadanta), 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Sitalanātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Śrcyārnsanātha, Cedi, 10th-11th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum. Vāsupūjya, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Vimalanātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Anantanātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Dharmanātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Sāntinātha, 10th century A.D., Rajnapur-Kinkini, Akola, Maharashtra.
Plate
XVI
Plate
XVII
Plate
XVIII
Plate
XIX
Plate
XX
Plate
XXI

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xxxvii )
Plate
XXII
Plate
XXIII
Plate
XXIV
Plate
XXV
Plate
XXVI
Plate
XXVII
Kunthanātha, Tomara, 15th-16th century A.D., Gwalior Fort, Madhya Pradesh. Aranātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Mallinātha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Munisuvrata, 12th-13th century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa. Naminátha, 12th-13th century A.D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa. Neininātha, Cauhān, 12th century A.D., Narhad, Pilani, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi. Pārsvanātha attacked by Kamatha, Vardhana, 7th century A.D., Bihar, Indian Muscum, Calcutta Mahāvīra, Cedi, 10th-14th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum. Isvara Yakşa, Candella, c. 10th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh, (Author's collection). Kubera, Pratihāra, 8th century A.D., Bansi, Rajasthan, Udaipur Museum. Kșetrapāla, Pratihāra, 10th century A.D., Candapur, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh.
Plate
XXVIII
Plate
XXIX
Plate
XXX
Plate
XXXI
Plate
XXXII

Page #40

Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
XXXIII
Plate
XXXIV
Plate
XXXV
Plate XXXVIII
XXXVI
XXXVII
Plate XL
XXXIX
XLI
XLII
XLIII
( xxxviii)
Cakreśvari,
Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Mahāmānasī,
Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Rohini,
Candella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Ambika,
Candella, c. 11th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Gomedha and Ambika, Cardella, 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Dharmendra and Padmavati, Ca della, 10th-11th century A.D., Santināta temple,
Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh. Nirvāņidevi,
Candella, c. 10th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh,
(Author's collection).
Sarasvati,
Kuṣāņa, 2nd century A.D., Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, State Museum, Lucknow. Śrutadevi (Sarasvati), Candella, c. 12th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh.
Sarasvati,
Cauhan, 12th century A.D., Pallu, Bikaner, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi.
Savatolhadra-pratimā
(Caumul ha sculpture), Pratihāra, c.10th century
A.D.,
Jaghina, Rajasthan,
State Museum, Bharatpur.

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xxxix
Plate
XLIV
Plate
XLV
Plate
XLVI
Plate
XLVII
Ajitanātha Ajitādevi Sambhavanātha Duritāri or Prajñapti, 12th-13th century A.D.,
Khandagiri Caves, Puri, Orissa. 1. Abhinandana 2. Sreyainsanātla 3. Not identifiable 4. Gauri or Mānavi
12th-13th century A.D.,
Khaņdagiri Caves, Puri, Orissa. 1. Pārsvanātha, 2. Neminātha, 3. Padmāvati, 4. Ambikā,
12th-13th century A.D.,
Khaņdagiri Caves, Puri, Orissa. Bāhubali, Cedi, 9th century A.D., Madhya Pradesh. Jivantasyāini, Caulān, 12th century A.D., Khinvasar, Rajasthan, Sardar Museum, Jodhpur. Cakravarti Bharala, Candella, c. 11th cent. A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, Ucar Pradesh. Navagrahas, Candella, 10th century A.D., Dcogarh, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh. Nandiśvara-dvipa, c. 14th century A.D., Rāņakapur, Rajasthan. Samavasaraña, c. 19th century A.D. Pataudi Kā Mandir, Jaipur, Rajasthan. The Weapons of Jaina Deities.
Platc
XLVIII
Platc
XLIX
Plate
Plate
LI
Plate
LII
Plate
LIII

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( x1 )
The Photographs have been published through the courtesy of the following:
Plate I-Dr. B. N. Sharma, New Delhi; XXIV, XXXVIII, XLIX-LII-Śrī Niraj Jaina, Satna; XXX, XXXIX and LIII-author; XXVII and XLII-National Museum, New Delhi and Frontispiece and remaining Plates--Archaeological Survey of India.
COVER
Lord Mahavira,
Kuṣāṇa, c. 2nd century A.D., Mathura, Uttar Pradesh. Courtesy: Śri Niraj Jain, Satna.

Page #43

INTRODUCTION
In the vast domain of Indian art, the Jaina Iconography, unfortunately, signalizes a great blank. Except a few useful contributions by the late Dr. Burgess and Prof. D.R. Bhandarkar, the subject, as a whole, is left practically unexplored. There is as inuch truth in the fact that the great majority of the Brāhmaņic sculptures of ancient dates are unrecognised by the ordinary Hindu Public as there is in the case of old Jaina images, which dely accurate identification even by an orthodox Jaina. The cause is, however, not far to seck. Time and evolution of custom 11.1ve cut short the claborale Jaina Pantheon, economising iininensely the details of its ancient statuary. In consequence, in no Jaina temple of modern times, one can easily notice, the important entourage of the Tīrthaikaras, less probably, onc would expect there to meet with all the canonically fashioned deities of Jainisın. On the contrary side, however, uptodate exploration at the ancient Jaina sites has rendered abundant possibilities to students of history and the Jaina world to see with a new vision nearly a full number of representative Jaina images. Hence, the need arises to collect informations, literary and archaeological, which would systematise our present knowledge of the Jaina Iconography. As we, thus, proceed with the same subject in hand, we would, at the outset, offer a preliminary treatincnt of the Jaina rcligion and philosophy in its most characteristic form. Fundamentals of Jaina Religion
This Religion may be described, in its very clemental features, as an Arya or Indian Sectarian Religion.' Contentions arise and develop, when only it asserts its heresy against the orthodox Brāhmanic Rcligion by rejecting the authority
1. "The Jaina Religion like Buddhism is held to have been originally an
off-shoot froin Hinduism, and many Jainas still continue to consider themselves as members of the Hindu Community, will intermarry with Hindus and take part in their festivals." Census of India Vol. 1. Part I Rofort (Gorcrument Printins, 1924). Their total populatior is 178, 596.

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Jaina Iconography
of the Vedas as apocryphal and corrupt. The Jainas substitute, however, the Vedic Scripture by their own Angas and Sutras. They, in their difference, never accept the Hindu Sraddha or funeral rites nor do they venerate Hindu sacred places which they replace by their own having rites specially attached to them. A further point of their protest against Aryan orthodoxy is the exclusion of all but the twiceborn (Dvija) from the monastic fraternities, an attitude which ultimately brought into world this independent sect with an established rank of its own. Mainly, the two characteristic features, which should clearly mark out Jainism from all other religious systems are firstly, the extremity of tenderness shown towards all animal life, the tenet being called Ahimsa and secondly, the Saint-worship in which they assign to the Tirthankaras, a station even superior to that of the gods.
2
In certain respects, on the other hand, the Jainas meet the orthodox Hindus on a common ground. For instance, they admit the institution of caste, observe the essential ceremonies, called the Samskāras and instal amidst their pantheon, a number of male and female deities of Brahmanism. Further, the Jainas, in many cases, employ the Brahmana Pujakas (Religious officiants) in their sanctuarics and some of their class freely intermarry with the Hindu Vaisyas.
In points of heterodoxy against Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism probably stand on a common platform. But despite their outward similarity, which led the late Mr. Hunter to remark on Jainism as "a religion allied in doctrine to ancient Buddhism but humanised by Saint-worship", both religions have certain doctrinal distinctions of leading importance. The conception of Nirvana in Buddhism differs essentially from the Moksa view of the Jainas. With the Buddhists, to be clearer, its proposed meaning is extinction whereas with the Jainas it has a positive significance implying absolute purity and freedom from the snares of Karma.' In Metaphysics, Jainism recognises a pluralistic realism and is more akin to the Nyāya-Vaiścṣika
1.
कर्मपाशविनिर्मुक्त: also कृत्स्नकर्मक्षयो मोक्ष: Tattrārthādhigama Sūtra (Asiatic Society, Bengal), p. 10.3.

Page #45

Introduction
theory than to the Sāmkhya system, while Buddhism with its doctrine of Universal void inclines naturally to the inonism of Sarikarācārya. In the idea of Thiṁsā (non-killing, non-injury), Loo, both the religious systems do not appear to be in perfect accord. The Buddhist idea of Ahimsā is rather positive and huinble as consisting in showing mercy (Metta) to all living creatures of the world. The Jainas on the other hand, have carried the idea of Ahimsā to probably an excessive limit, for instance, in the utter abstention from hurting a living molecule and in the refusal to take as food even a dcad creature's body. A further point of difference between the two religions is the fact that Jainisin lays special stress on the rigour of asceticism which, Buddhism, however, has sternly avoided as an extreme (Anta).
Like all religions, Jainism has three main sides, philosophical, ethical and ritualistic. In philosophy, it is partially aiheistic (deistic ?) denying the existence of a supreme Being as crcator but essentially pluralistic as mentioned before. The Jainas hold the theory that thc world exists from cternity. It consists of Loka and Aloka.2 There are two ultimate substances (Dravyas)3 in this world,- Jiva (Alive) and Ajiva (Not Alive). An inhabitant even of the highest heaven cannot obtain Moksa (liberation) in the ordinary course. For becoming a Jina or Arhat, hc nceds to be born as a man. The Ajīva Draryas are of five kinds: Pudgala (matter or the physical basis of the world), Dharma (the principle of motion), Adharma (the fulcrum of rest), Akāśa (space), Kāla (Time).4 With Jiva, these make up the six first categories of Jaina Philosophy. 1. Colebrooke's hypothesis of the identity of Jainism and Samkhya has
been ably refuted by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in his Indian Philosophy Vol. 1, pp. 202-293 (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.).. "Lokākāśa is that in which Dharma, Adharma, kala, Pudgala and Jira exist. That which is beyond is called Alokākāša-Dravya Simgraha, p. :8 (Sacred Books of the Jainas). Substance may be defined as that which persists in and through its own qualities and changes having the characteristics of creation, des
truction and permanence (cf. द्रव्याथिकनय and पर्यायाथिकनय). 4. Soulfur (V.1.) 37517919 feAffityanat: (V.1.) 9197 (V.3.) i
Tattvärthādhigama Sūtra, Cf. 3711at got 1317 WEFAT ETA 2017 कालो पुग्गलमुत्तो रुवादिगुणो अमुत्तिसेसादु ।।
Drarya Saṁgraha 15 (S.B.J.).

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Jaina Iconography
The remark by Prof. Jacobi as follows in general review of the Jaina Metaphysics is worth consideration. (i) The animistic belief of the Jainas, (ii) the absence of the category of quality in their enumeration of the principal constituent elements of the universe, (iii) thc inclusion of Dharma and Adharma in the class of substances. The Jainas hold, moreover, that the body, Manas and speech are constituted of Pudgala, which they regard as existing in atomic and aggregate form.
One of the central features of Jaina Mctaphysics is their group of seven Tattvas or Principles underlying which stand their doctrines of Karma and Samsāra. The principles are (1) Jiva (soul), (2) Ajiva (non-soul), (3) Asrava (influx of karmic matter into soul), (4) Bandha (Bondage), (5) Samvara (stoppage of the inflow of fresh matter), (6) Nirjarā (removal of any past karma), (7) Moksa (absolute liberation). If, to this series two more principles of Punya or mcrit and Papa or demerit are added, thc collection is to be known as the nine Padārthas.
This aspect of Metaphysics describes the stages upon the way to salvation. Moksa is in fact the liberation of Jiva from Ajīva. Jiva is entangled by Karmas and Karmic matter throughout all his births and overmore fresh Karmas are pouring in. It is Karma, which brings on the Asrava, 3 which for the first time taints the pure soul. Thus, with the inflow of matter, there is it kind of fusion of soul and matter.
This binding of the soul to the body is Bandha, which is not to the advantage of the former. Hence accrue Pāba (dcmerit) and Punya (mcrit) in consequence of which, the Jiva revolves in the circle of births and deaths (Saṁsāra). The only step towards Mokṣa or final release can be attained by stopping the “inslux" (Sariwara)* and by ridding the soul of matier (Nirjarā). This is, however, affected by practising the thirty-five ordinary
1. 00197 Tatar TrafATTTTTTTTTTTTI Tutt'ārtha Sūtra 1.4. 2. जीवाजीवाभावा पुण्णं पावं च आसत्रं तेसि ।
Tafuust Tart Het Jagfra à ET II Pañcāstikāya 103.
Cf. Drarra-sumgraha (Ed. by S. Ghosal) 28 Śloka. 9. FR54T: FH-TTT: 11
Talliārtālhigama Sülra, 6. 1. (Asiatic Society's Edition, p. 139). 4. TTTTT: FTT: || Ibid. (Asiatic Society's Edition).

Page #47

Introduction
rules of conduct, self-control, twelve special rules of conduct and concentration. Thus, when the soul is completely purged of all impurities of Karma past and new, the Jiva in all his real refulgence, power, bliss and knowledge, obtains Mokṣa.1
The Jainas have certain original theories of knowledge, which form an important element of their philosophy and religion. According to them, Philosophy consists in the voluntary and consistent striving, intellectual and moral, manifest in the removal of Karmic impediments (1), on the way to samyak Jnana (i.c. Right knowledge of the doctrine), (2) Samyak DarSana (i.c. Right faith in the true doctrine)2 (3) Samyak Caritra (i.e. strict observance of Jaina precepts). These are called Triratna or three Jewels as means to attaining Moksa. Of these knowledge is divided into five kinds (1) Mati-Perceptual and inferential knowledge, (2) Śruta -knowledge derived from the reading and hearing of the scriptural books, (3) Avadhi---direct knowledge of things even at a distance of time and space, (4) Manaḥparyaya-direct knowledge of the thoughts of other people, (5) Kevala-Perfect, limitless knowledge or omniscience.
3
1.
The Jaina Philosophy is again original in the doctrine of Syadvāda or the seven modes of predication (Saptabhangi naya). "It is the doctrine of the non-isolation of the parts, elements, properties or aspects of things; it is the method of knowing or speaking of a thing synthetically".5 We can affirm the existence
वन्धहेत्वभावनिर्जराभ्यां कृत्स्नकर्मविप्रमोक्षो मोक्षः ॥
Tallvartha Sutra X 2.
5
Cr. जो संवरेण जुत्तो णिज्जरमाणोच सव्वकम्माणि । ववगदखेदाउस्सो मुयदि भवं तेण सो मोक्खो ॥
Pañcāstikāya-samayasāra Verse 158.
2. Adhyatma-Tattvaloka (tr. by M.J. Mehta), p. xxi.
3. Caritra has two kinds-one which is unaccompanied by desire (a), and the other accompanied by desire (1). The first leads to Moksa, the second to sovereign dignity.
4. Uttaradhyayana Sutra (Jaina Sūtrās tr. by H. Jacobi-S.B. E.)
Cr. मतिश्रुतावधिमन:पर्यय केवलानि ज्ञानम् ।
5. Jainism by H. Warren, p. 20.
Tattvärthadhigama Sutra (Sūtra 9, ch. 1.)

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Jaina Iconography
of a thing from one point of view—that of its material, place, time and naturel (Syäd asti) and deny it from these attributes of another thing (Syad nāsti). All affirmations are true as well as false in some sense (Spād asti nästi). A thing is unpredicable when we should affirm both existence and non-existence at the same time froin the same point of view (Syad avaktavya). From the point of view of its own quarternary and at the same time from the joint quarternary of itself and nothing, a thing is and is unpredicable (Syād asti avaklavya). Similarly a thing is not and unpredicable (Syād asti nāsti avaklava).? Every proposition starts with a 'perhaps', a may be or a Syâd and suggests the absolute affirmation or denial as impossible. What is mea
eant in short by these seven modes are but different stand-points (Naya) of the position, form etc, from which the existence of every object can be regarded in order to have a full view of it.
On the cthical side, certain scriptural injunctions bind the Monks and the Laity to a moral systein of a specialised character. The most important of them is the five-fold vow of the Jainas-viz. (i) non-injury, (ii) renunciation of lying, (iii) abstinence from theft, (iv) chastity, (v) detachment from all external and internal temptations.? No religion, as mentioned before, has carricd Ahiisā further i.e. respect for and abstinence from everything that has life. The most orthodox among the Jainas drink only carefully strained water, and their ascetics before they sit brush the ground before them with a broom of peacock's fcather or a cloth-brush Icst any visible animalcule be crushed. It is enjoined in their canonical books that a man should practise certain resignations of mind by thinking that nothing in the world really belongs to him, should abstain from all intoxicants, from gambling, from adultery, from hunting, from taking food at
1. FET, Fagan, Fae and #17 I 2. Scc Mallişena's Syādrādamañjari, p. 169 ff.; for a clcar exposition of
the doctrinc Vidc Prof. S. Rādhakrishnan's Indian Philosophy Vol. 1,
Pp. 302-304. 3. हिंसानृतस्तेयाब्रह्मचर्यपरिग्रहेभ्यो विर तिव्रतम् ।
Taltzārtha-rāja-Vārtlika, Ch. Vii. I.
(Sanātana Jaina Series). _cr. अहिंसासव्यास्तेय ब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहा योगः ॥
Yoga Sūtras

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Introduction
night, etc. All these summarisc the very norms of Jaina Ethics of which the details may be found in certain vows and the eleven Pratimās.1 Most of them share in character with the orthodox Hindu and Buddhist rules of lifc cxccpt probably the duties which prescribe a Srāvaka to have faith in his own rcligion, to do Sāmāyika (meditation during one Muhūrta) and to keep certain fasts, to limit his indispensible necessities of life and to abandon part by part worldly occupations as a preparatory to the inonk's life.
Another characteristic of the Jaina Religion is its constituent division of the Srāvakas "hearers” or lay disciples and Yatis or Monks, who should hold no property and never quit their dwelling except to beg for food. The Yati's life is one of utter abstinence, taciturnity and continence. He has to sweep the ground before sitting, rein in silent and stcady at one place at night and not to ride any ve'ricle for travelling. He is allowed, in turn, to dispense with all a:ts of worship, whilst the Srāvaka has to add to the ob ervance of the religious and moral duties the worship of the Tirthamkaras and a profound reverence 10 be shown to his more pious brethren. The secular Jain like the ascetic must practise the four virtucs, --libcrality, gentleness, picty and penance? : he should govern his mind, tongue and acts; abstain, at certain seasons, from salt, flower, green fruits, honcy, grapes, tobacco; drink water thrice strained, and never Icave a liquid uncovered lest an insect should be drowned in it; it is his duty also to visit daily a temple, where some of the images
1. -T5-1A1f97.—1911990.- afrTIT - faTTTTTTTT
हार-ब्रह्मचर्य-आरम्भत्याग---परिग्रहत्याग अनमोदन व्रत--उदिष्टव्रत SAHTI (1) 2017 (Faith). (2) Vow. (3) Sāmāyika (one 1). (4) Furtnightly fast. (-) Abstinence from the flesh of conscious creatures.
(6) Abstinence from cating at nigbt. (7) Abstinence. (8) Abandonment of nearly all worldly engagements & occupations. (9-11). qFTHECATT, 377 afacant, 3fEGZCITT- (a gradual giving up of the world and retirement). सत्त्वेषु मैत्री गणिषु प्रमोदं क्लिष्टेषु जीवेषु कृपापरत्वम् । माध्यस्थभावं विपरीतवृत्तौ सदा ममात्मा विदधातु देवः ।।
Sāmāyika-Pātha No. 1 by Amitagati.

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Introduction
and some subordinate deities, the worship of the Siddha-calina, which is kept in a Jaina temple has found a firm hold on the Jaina devotce.
The Digambaras and the Svetāmbaras
The followers of Mahāvīra were originally called Nirgianthas (without a bond)? who latterly received the designation of "Jaina". Tradition and historical records assign to the wellknown division among them into the Svetāmbaras "putting on white clothes' and the Digambaras "Sky-robcd” or wearing no garment, the date of 79 A. D. This almost synchronizes with the time of the similar scctarian division among the Buddhists into the Mahāyāna and the Hinayāna. The real origin of this division is to be looked for in the specific acceptance, which some people accorded to some of the doctrines of Mahāvira or his predecessors while others followed the rest of his or their doctrines. The schism began as carly as the time of the First Council of Pāțaliputra at the end of the fourth century B. C. The visitation of a terrible famine in Magadha led some Jainas to migrate to the south under their leader Bhadrabāhu about 315 B. C. They are said to have planted Jainism for the first time in the Deccan. Those who remained in the faminc-stricken land found a lcader in Sthūlabhadra, who being anxious to preserve the Jaina scriptures summoned a Council at Pataliputra, which collected the Eleventh Anga and renewed the 12th
moon of 3913- 15th of Fitfarti I T HAT means oft 775 FIAT
AT T i.c. serving with a whole-hearted devotion. This is the religious session during the rains. मिचक्रपूजा-.cclebrated in आश्विन and चैत्र देवालि-day of Mahavira's Nirrina. ज्ञानपञ्चमी (कात्तिक
7487.), aipatu ends with this day. 1. Tatag fann fo 2: Fariga fo ...,
1.soka's Pillar Edict vii. Lexicographers like Hemacandra and the author of the Medini make निर्ग्रन्थ synonymous with नग्नक (naked) दिगम्बर
(sky-clad). 2. According to orthodox Digambara Jain tradition Bhadrabāhu and his
followers must have chosen such a place where there had been the Jaina laity to dwell with. Thus, the Deccan was an earlier seat of Jainism when we follow this view.

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Jaina Iconography
Anga. At the end of the far.inc, Bhadrabahu returned with his followers. They refused to accept the work of the Council and sternly disapproved the custom of wearing clothes, which the followers of Sthulabhadra had already adopted. Thus, according to the Svetambaras, the Ja na Canon was fixed by the Council of Pataliputra towards the end of the 4th Cent. B. C., whereas the Digambara books as available sofar prove that their age cannot go back further than Vikrama Year 49 or B. C. 8. Regarding the origin of the Digambaras as a sect the Svetambaras ascribe it to Sivabhūti,1 who started the heretical sect of the 'Bhotikas' in A. D. 83.
10
The diverging doctrines of the two sects are in the main as follows:
(a) The Svetambaras decorate the image of the Tirthamkaras with earrings, necklaces, armlets, and tiaras of gold and jewels, the Digambaras leave their images naked and unadorned. (b) The Svetämbaras assert that there are 12 heavens and 64 Indras; the Digambaras maintain that there are 16 heavens, and 100 olympian monarchs.
(c) The Svetambaras allow their gurus to eat out of vessels, the Digambaras receive the food in their open hands from their disciples.
(d) The Svetämbaras consider the accompaniments of the wooden pots for bringing food etc. as alms etc., as essential to the character of an ascetic, the Digambaras do not admit their importance.
(e) The Svetämbaras credit the Angas or Scriptures to be the work of the immediate disciples of the Tirthankaras, the Digambaras, on the other hand, maintain that the leading authoritics of the Jaina Religion are the composition of subsequent teachers or Acaryas, their original Angas being lost.
(f) The Digambaras hold that salvation is not possible for a woman, although they have the order of nuns as well. The Svetämbaras have not, however, such a view.
(g) The Omniscient Being or a Kevalajñānī lives without food according to the Digambaras, who strongly maintain that a monk should not have anything, even clothes. The
1.
The story of Sivabhuti is given in Mrs. Stevenson's Heart of Jainism, p. 79

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Svetāmbaras hold contrary opinions on these points. In Pūjā, the Svetāmbaras use flowers, sweets etc., the Digambaras substitute them for dry rice, spices etc. The former in contradictum to the latter regard Mallinātha as a female Tirthamkara.
In comparatively modern times during the Mahommedan rule, new sects such as the Lunkás (452 A. D.) and Sthānakavāsis or Dhundiās (1653 A. D.) arose. The chief distinction resting with them is their absolute opposition to image worship.
Who are the Tirthařkaras ?
Several definitions of a Tirthaikara or Tirthakara are to be met with in both Svetāmbara and Digambara literatures, but they all converge upon the same purport that a Tirthamkara means a prophet. Let us look into some of the literary definitions as found in their books. "A Tīrthařkara is hie by whom was shown the broad fording-place of virtue, the best of all reaching which men overcome sorrow."1 "Tirtha" means here Dharma or religious system, “one who expounds Dharma”2 or according to another version, "Tīrtham" or "Dharma" by which this Ocean of Sansāra or transmigration can be crossed.? According to Svetāmbara view, "Tīrtham” means a "Samgha" or 'Church' and a Tirthakara is one who founds the Church or Coininunity. This "Tīrtha' or 'order' is not one but four in number-viz, (i) Sādhu or Monk, (ii) Šādhvi or nun, (iii), Srāvaka or lay brother and (iv) Srāvakā or lay-sister. Thus, everything analogises to what we know by an advent of God or Prophet or deificd saint. As in all religions, the Jaina Tirthamkaras were no more than deified herocs, born of human parents,
1. येन प्रणीतं पृथुधर्मतीर्थ ज्येष्ठं जनाः प्राप्य जयन्ति दुःखम् ।
Brhutsvayambhu-stotra o, by Samantabhadra. २. तीर्थ धर्म करोति प्रकटयति इति तीर्थकरः। स्वतीर्थानामादिकर्तारः frizer: 1
आ० चु० adhyāya II 3. alea 27 i Cf. arfer ta ühtThrafuferater naar agoufereafirदेव सङ्घस्तीर्थं तत्करणशीलत्वात्तीर्थकराः ।
Blagavati Sūtra, I. I 30.

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J aina Iconography
raised to the position of God by their renunciation and great services to religion for the deliverance of mankind.
Another name of the Tirthamkara is Jina or conqueror from which the religion has been named as 'Jaina'. The word "Jina” has the technical sense of one who conquers the enemies such as, lust, anger, etc".2 These "Jinas” are four-fold—viz, (i) Nāma Jiņā or those who were Jinas boy name, e.g. Rşabha and others, (ii) Sthāpanā Jiņā or images which are installed and are made of gold, stone, etc., (iii) Dravya-Jiņā or those beings who are endowed with a Jina's quality, e. g. Sreņika, (iv) Bhāva Jiņā or those who have attained the Samavasaraṇa.3 The Jaina literatures of both the sccts furnish the names and detailed history relating to 24 Tirthaikaras. From the early references to the name of Rsabhanātha, the doctrine of Arhat, Nirgrantha and the Syūdvāda in the Hindu and Buddhist books, there is nothing seemingly very incredible about the early authenticity of the Jaina incarnations. It is also a curious coincidence that the number 24 rescmbles exactly the number of 24 Brālmanic Incarnations of Visnu according to some accounts. In all likelihood, the carly Hindu number of 10 Avatāras might lave been also numerically strengthened under the Jaina or the Buddhist influence in later times. Of the 24 Tīrthaikaras, the most favourite ones among the Jainas are the first and the three last oncs but temples as well as images of the remaining ones are also met with in many parts of India.
Almost all the Tirtharkaras have been the subjects of many Carita books and Purāna books in Jaina Literature cither in an associated account or in a scparate account. For instance, we have the Adipurāna about the life of Rşabha, Uttara purāņa about the lives of the other Jainas, Bhavadeva Sūri's Pāríranāthacarila, Sakalakirti's Sānlinātha Caritra, Vijayagani’s Aris!a1. लोयस्सुज्जोययरे सुधम्मतित्थकरे जिणे वन्दे । अरहन्ते कित्तइसे चउवीसं चेव केवलिणो ।
Sāmāyika-Pāļha. 2. जयति निराकरोति रागढ पादिरूपानरातीनिति जिनः । सं २ सम० 3. नामजिणा जिणनामा ठवणजिणा पुण जिणिदपडिमानो। दव्वजिणा जिणजीवा भावजिणा समवसरणत्था ।
cr. Praracanasāroddhāra, 49 art.

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nemicarita, Krşņadāsa's Vimalanātha Purāna, Brahmancmidatia's Neminātha Purāna.
No body can believe that such a number of books written with the avowed object of giving truth to the believers may have related only unhistorical fictitious bcings ! Making reasonable allowance for the glorification and exaggeration which cach religion attaches to its heroes, we have reason to place our credence in thc historical authenticity of the 24 Tīrthaikaras. According to the Jaina notion, Tīrthaikaras are superior 10 gods inasmuch as a Tīrthamkara is approaching salvation whcrcas a God is merely a heavenly being subject to births and dcaths. This relative position is made inore conspicuous in the Jaina sculptures as we shall see later on, where the main figures of Tirthamkaras are worshipped or served by some surrounding gods, goddesses, and other heavenly beings as only their subordinates. Origin of Jaina Images.
It is a time-honoured custom of India to instal images for the purposes of private and public worship. Neither the Buddhists nor the Jainas disregarded it and in fact, by assimilation completely developed a system of their own with a multitude of images with canonical and mythic details which we utilise today in our iconographical studies. With the Jainas, the images no doubt originated froin their Tirthainkaras. The governing idea of an image scems to be that it reminds a believer of the condition through which a Tirthamkara passed to attain salvation and that allords him a strong incentive to follow the noble example of the Tirtharkara in life. This applies to all image or relic worship. The insluence left behind by the Jinas after their deaths lingered on for sometime. And soon, devotees found it necessary to preserve the glorious memory of thicir prophets by setting up their statues principally in the sacred places associated with their lives. The literature belonging to them also supplies a clue to this point. Jacobi writes, "Lives of the Jinas were probably not intended for biographical treatises, but served a liturgical purpose, for when the images of the Tīrthamkaras are worshipped in the temples they are adressed with hymns, one of which sums up the halfāņakas or auspicious moments. It is with thesc Kalyanakas that the lives of the finas

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Jaina Iconography
are chiefly concerned, and this fact seems to prove that the custom of mentioning the k'alyāņakas in the worship of the Tirthamkaras is a very old one; for otherwise it would be impossible to conceive what could have induced an author to treat so largely of so barren a subject as has been donc in thc Kalpasūtra”.! Besides the images of Tīrtharkaras, the images of other gods and goddesses, though subordinate in type, play not a small part in Jaina Iconography. A closer study of the subject discloses the unmistakable fact how many of the Brāhmanic divinities were silently assimilated into the Jaina Pantheon. Undoubtedly, there was a need for them. Human mind ever seeks ideals realised into forms. Ideas of auspiciousness, prosperity, wealth, kingly splendour or so on found a direct outlet in the sculptor's art-in the images of Gaņeśa, Śri , Kubera, Indra. The long-standing traditions and well-established images of thcsc gods in Brāhmanism directly appealed to the Jainas as they might have appealed to the Buddhists. Thus, they unconventionally welcomed them and admitted into their worship many of them as they connected with the tales of their saints.
Jaina Temple-worship
The integral part of the Jaina worship is performed in their temples. In this way, their temple may be said to be their repository of Dharma. In Brāhmanic religion, though temple is visited on Occasions and pilgrimages, most injunctions of religion, however, such as the Trisandhyā or the 3 prayers, the Gurupājā, Siva-Pūjā, Śrāddha, Tarpaņa, Vrata-Pūjā, the Devi-Pūjās and the l'ajñas are followcd in practice in individual homes. In this respect, the Jaina Religion marks a great contrast to Brāhmanic religion. The Jainas in optional cases keep an image in their houses, do not undergo the special ritualistic formalism in their private worship. The temples are their churches, where besides the daily worship of the images by the religious officiants, religious books are kept, the Āratis or waving rites are attended largely by men, women and boys with sincere faith and devotion. There are occasions
1.
Jaina Sūtras (S.B.E.) by Jacobi, Part I. Introduction Lii.

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when the images are specially decorated, the Samavasaraṇa is arranged, readings from the scriptures are given by Brahmacāris, Yatis and Sūris. In many other respects, the Jaina temple worship bears a close resemblance to Brāhmanic customs. The images go through the same process of canonical installation, daily worship, ceremonious worship, occasional processions, decorations and Arati. Almost in the same way as that of the Brahmans, the Deities are offered rice, water and Naivedya. There are bells, drums, chowries and no foreigner, unless he is told, will find any appreciable distinction between a strictly Brāhmanic temple and a Jaina one. In temple worship, the Digambaras and the Svetāmbaras differ in some important heiratic points. For instance, “The Digambaras bathe the images with abundance of water but Svetāmbaras usc very little. The Digambaras may bathe and worship their images during the night, but the Svetāmbaras do not even light lamps in their temples, much less do they bathe or worship the images lest in so doing they might thereby kill, or indirectly cause the death of any living thing, for to do so during the night they regard as a great sin. The Digambaras wash their images with Pañcāmrta but the others do not”.
Classes of Jaina Gods and Goddesses
Classification arose among the Jaina divinities as soon as their number grew enormously, parıly to systematise their pantheon and partly to lend facilities to the sacerdotal worship. The deities have been looked at from specific view-points and this has led to various classifications. Some of the gods and goddesses have been worshipped by Svetāmbaras, which have not bcen acknowledged by the Digambaras and similarly, some of the Digambara deities are nearly unknown to the Svetārnbaras. There are variants in certain names in both the sects. In an early text of Jaina Religion called the Acūra Dinakara, we find, goddesses have been divided into three classes-viz. (1) Prāsāda Devis or installed images (2) Kuladevis or Tantrik Goddesses worshipped according to mantras from preceptors. (3) Sampra
1.
Burgess. Ind. Ant. 1903, p. 459 ff.

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Jaina Iconography 16 diya Devis or class-goddesses. The author describes the goddesses as on dais, on field, installed in a cave or in a palatial temple, cither as a symbol as self-created or created by man, sectarian goddesses such as Ambā, Sarasvatī, Tripura, Tārā etc., Kuladevis such as Chandi, Kanthe vari, Vyāghrariji etc. This, indeed, is a more exhaustive classification of gods and goddesses. From this as well as from other references to Jaina books, it is clear that a grcat many Tāntric goddesses have found a room in the Jaina Pantheon. We come across the names of Goddesses of clearly Tantrik nature such as Kaiikili, Kali, Mahakali, Camunda, Jvalamukhi, Kamakhya, Kapalini, Bhadrakali, Durgii, Lalita, Gauri, Sumangala, Rohini, Sulakata, Tripura Kurukulla, Candravati, Yamaghanta, Krantimukha etc.2 In a Mss. of the Jaina collection of Jñāna Mandir in Baroda, I found a passage which gives a further list of Tantric Goddesses -- suchas--Ganesvari, Pretaksi, Sanikhini, Kali, Kalaratri, Vaitali, Bhūtaļāmnarī, Malākālī, Virūpākṣī, Candi, Vārāhī, Karikāli, Bhuvanc: vari, Yanmaditi, etc. called Catussasli Troginis or 64 Yoginīs. This predominent Tantrik element in Iconography seems to be represented by the Svetāmbara sect, who like the Mahāyāna Buddhists, developed by assimilation and invention,
...तत्र देव्यस्त्रिधा-- प्रासाददेव्यः संप्रदायदेव्यः कुलदेव्यश्च । प्रासाददेव्यः पीठोपपीठेषु क्षेत्रोपक्षेत्रेषु गुहास्थिता भूमिस्थिताः प्रासादस्थिता लिङ्गरूपा वा स्वयम्भूतरूपा वा मनुष्यनिमितरूपा वा । सम्प्रदायदेव्यः अम्बासरस्वतीत्रिपुराताराप्रभृतयो गुरूपदिष्टमन्त्रोपासनीयाः । कुलदेव्यः चण्डी चामुण्डा कण्ठेश्वरी सरीसत्यका (?) सुशयना व्याघ्रराजीप्रभृतयः ।
Pralişthū-l'idh:.
Activarlinakara. • कङ्काल्यै नमः । कराल्यै नमः । काल्यै नमः । महाकाल्यै नमः । चामण्डायै नमः । भद्रकाल्यै नमः । दुर्गायै नमः। अम्बिकायै नमः । ललितायै नमः । कुरुकुल्लायै नम: । Ibid. The first nanie kaikili opens the cluc how a great number of Jaina sculptures were exposed to view from the same named Karikäli pilä at Mathura.. पद्मावत्यै नम: । दिव्ययोगी महायोगी सिद्धियोगी गणेश्वरी। प्रेताक्षी शङ्गिनी काली कालरात्री निशाचरी ।। प्रोङ्कारी सिद्धवैताली 'चतुःपष्टि: समाख्याता योगिन्यो हि वरप्रदाः ।।

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a tāntrik system of their own. The carlicr classification divides the gods into 4 classes viz. Jyotişi, Vimānavāsī, Bhavanapati and Vyantara of the Bhavanavāsi class, there are 10 subdivisions-the Asura-, Nāga-, Vidyut-, Suparna-, Agni-, Dvipa-, Udadhi-, Dikvāta and Ghanika-Kumāras. Of the 4th named division, there are 8 kinds --- Piśācas, Bhūtas, Rākşasas, Yakşas, Kinnarīs, Kipurusas, Mahoragas, and Gandharvas. The 9 planets, the Nakşatras, the Stars belong to the region of the Jyotiskas. The Vaimānika gods are of 2 kinds : those born in the halpas and those born above the halpas. The former category of divinjtics falls into twelve classes, who live in the halpas after which they are named : Sudharma, Isāna, Sanat Kumāra, Mahendra, Brahmā, Lāntaka, Sukra (or Mahā Śukra) Salasāra, Anata, Prānala, Ārana and Acyuta.' In the Anullaravimāna, there are 5 places, cach with a god called Indra to rule over it, viz. Vijaya, Vijayanta, Jayanta, Aparājita and Sarvārtha Siddha.” There is a class of gods called Navavidhāna gods such as, Naisarpa, Pānduka, Pingala, Sarvaralna, Mahāpadma, Kāla, Mahābāla, Mānava, and Saṁkha. The Viradevas may be cnumerated as Mānabhadra, Pūrņabhadra, Kapila and Pingala. Out of this long list of divinities, those who actually appear in iconography scem to be the 9 planets under the category of Jyotişigods, the Dikpālas or guardians of the quarters under the hcad of a Bhavanavāsi Yakşas or attendants of the Tirthamkaras under the class of 'yantara-gods, Išāna, Brahmă under the class of Vimānavāsī Gods. Besides these, there are divinities recognised and worshipped by the Jainas, who would not come under any of the above-mentioned categories. For instance, we may mention, the name of the 16 Sruta or Vidyādevīs, the Astamātņkās such as Brahmāṇī,Mahes vari etc., the mothers of the
I.
Ultarādhyayana Sūtra Ch.. 36. Keith: Indian Mythology, the Mythology of the Jainas. Cl. classification and description of gods. Jaina Sūtras (S.B.E.), pp.
225-9,381. 2. Mrs. Stevenson: Heart of Jainism, p. 970. These last but four names
are identical with the gods mentioned in thc Arthuśāstra. Cr. p. 61.
(Mysore Oriental Series). 3. रोहिणी प्रज्ञप्तिर्वज्रशृङ्खला कुलिशाङ्कुशा ।
चक्रेश्वरी नरदत्ता काल्यथासौ महापरा ॥

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Tīrthamkaras such as Marudevi, Vijaya etc., Kṣetrapala, the Bhairavas, the Śri or Lakṣmi Devi. And if we cannot establish the correspondence between the so-called "Kumāras" and the Dikpālas or as they are further called Västu-Devas, they may come outside the category of the deities as dealt with before. It is to be noted here that most of these Gods and Goddesses borrowed right from the Brahmanic Pantheon are regarded by the Jainas as devoted adherents of the Tirthamkaras and thus they consider them to be deities of their system and accordingly perform certain Pūjās in honour of them profusely referred to in their ritualistic literature.
18
The main characteristics of Jaina Images
The sculpture devoted to religion follows the art tradition of a particular sect. That art-tradition specially in India known for its symbolism, has a mixed growth of ritualism and art forms. The artist was under the religious necessity of carrying out the canonical injunctions in art but his duty was not over there, for he had to make a compromise between symbolism and beauty, the latter clement being demanded from him by the same formalism of religion. Hence, we find, in most images of India, a number of mystical symbols now calling for explanation, side by side with the representation of a true art, exquisite in quality and impressive in form. Such an art had a religious mission to serve: an ugly figure could never gratify a devotee's mind and his thirst for the infinite through a visible form. Hence, all native books on art declare unanimously that the form must be excellent: But this decree was fully satisfied when sculptors of genius were close to hand. Contrarily, ugly figures came out
1.
गौरी गान्धारी सर्वास्त्रमहाज्वाला च मानवी । वैरोट्यच्युता मानसी महामानसिकेति ताः ।। वाग् ब्राह्मी भारती गौर्गीर्वाणी भाषा सरस्वती । श्रुतदेवी वचनं तु व्याहारो भाषितं वचः ॥
Hemacandra's Abhidhanacintamani (Ed. by Otto Boetlingk, ST. Petersberg)
भावरूपानुविद्धाङ्गं कारयेद् बिम्बमर्हतः ।
-Vastusāra & Pratiṣṭhāsära-Samgraha (MSS. N. 68. Jain collection, Jñana Mandir, Baroda)

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as we some times find, mixed with good images, when the sculptor available happened to be a bad artist. Specific rules are given in Silpa or art manuals for making an image artistically perfect. Commonsense assures us that the authors of these manuals who made much minute rules of art-technique were not mere priests of temples or clerks of religion but were well-versed in the science of sculptural art. We are, however, more concerned here with symbolism and iconography than with art-techniques. Flow are we to distinguish Jaina images generally from other images of India ? As prominence is given to imagery of Tirthamkaras or pontists in Jaina Iconography, we must find the chicf characteristic of a Jina figure to settle this point. The distinguishing features of a Jaina figure are its long hanging arms, the Srivatsa symbol, the mild form, youthful body and nudity. Other characteristics of such images seem to be the main figure being attended on his right side by a Yaksa and on his left side by a Yakṣiṇī,3 the presence of the Asoka or the particular tree under which the Tīrthařkaras attained the supreme knowledge, one of the tight Pratihāryas which consist of (i) heavenly tree, (ii) a throne
1. शेषस्थानविकल्पेषु यथाशोभं विकल्पयेत् । पर्यङ्कमपि तावत्तु तिर्यगायामसंस्थितम् ॥ वाहुयुग्मान्तरं देशे ह्रासयेच्चतुरगुलम् । प्रकोष्ठा
कूर्परं यावद्द्वयङ्गुलं वर्धयेत्सदा ॥ कायोत्सर्गस्थितस्यतल्लक्षणं भाषितं बुधैः । पर्यस्थपराण्येवम् ... उर्ध्वस्थितस्य मानार्द्ध मुत्सेवं परिकल्पयेत् ।। Ibid. Such passages indicate the author's expert knowledge of the techniques
of art. 2. आजानुलम्बबाहुः श्रीवत्साङ्कः प्रशान्तमूर्तिश्च । दिग्वासास्तरुणो रूपवांश्च कार्योऽर्हतां देवः ॥
(Varāhamihira's Bịhatsarihitā 58 Adhyāya, 45 Sloka) Cf. अथ बिम्बं जिनेन्द्रस्य कर्तव्यं लक्षणान्वितम् । ऋज्वायतसुसंस्थानं तरुणाङ्गदिगम्बरम् । श्रीवत्सभूषितोरस्कं जानुप्राप्तकराग्रजम् । निजामुलं प्रमाणेन साष्टाङ्गुलशतायतम् । कक्षादिरोमहीनाङ्ग श्मश्रुशेषविवर्जितम् । ऊर्ध्वप्रलम्बकं दत्वा समाप्त्यन्तं च धारयेत् ॥
Vasunandi's Pratisthā-sūra-saṁgraha (Jaina Sidd. Library 9 ir). 3. प्रगृहीतसितविमलवरचामराग्रहस्तोभयपार्श्वस्थ विविधमणि · · · विकृताभरणालङकृत-यक्ष-नाग-मिथुनाः ।।
Akalamkadeva's Tattrārtha-Rajavārttika

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Jaina Iconography seat, (iii) Trilinear umbrella and a lion throne, (iv) Aura of a beautiful radiance, (v) Drum (Divya-dhvani), (vi) showers of celestial blossoms, (vii) 2 chowries, (viii) Heavenly music.1 All these symbols are seen in a complete image of a Tīrthamkara. The Yaksa and Yaksiņi or Śās ana devatās (Lit. “governing dcitics') are to be noticed in the lowest corner of the whole statue. When thcy appear in individual sculpture, the keynote to recognise is the presence of a small Jina figure either at their hcad or at the top of the statue. Each Tīrthamkara is recognisable by a cognizance or cihna usually placed below his image. Besides these, certain symbolic ornaments mark out a Jaina representation distinctly from others. These arc (i) Svastika (ii) mirror, (iii) urn, (iv) cane-scat shaped like an hour-glass (v) & (vi) 2 small fish, (vii) flower garland, (viii) book. To an untrained cyc, the image of a seatcd Tīrtharkara may be easily mistaken for that of the Buddha. The symbolic marks as stated above may safe-guard one from such mishmash or misinterpretation. Among the Jinas, Rşabha, Nemi and Mahāvīra agree in the fact that they attain relcase when scated on the lotus-throne, while other Tirthaikaras pass away in the kārotsarga posture (that of a man standing with his arms hanging stiff with the body).
Centres of Jaina pilgrimage
Tirthas or Holy shrines sprang up on the sites associated with the lives of the great Jaina Prophets. In fact, the Tīrthamkaras made their Tirthas. The phenomenal incidents in Jaina Litt, are known as (a) Garbha or conception, (b) Janma or Birth, (c) Tapas or acc. to others Pariniskramana, (d) jñāna or Enlighten
1. दिव्यतरु: सुरपुष्पसुवृष्टिर्दुन्दुभिरासनयोजनघोषौ । आतपवारणचामरयुग्मे यस्य विभाति च मण्डलतेजः ।।
Jaina-säntipāțha. Cr. अशोकवृक्षः सुरपुप्पवष्टिदिव्यध्वनिश्चामरमासनञ्च ।
भामण्डलं दुन्दुभिरातपत्रं सत्तातिहार्याणि जिनेश्वराणाम् ।। A verse quoted in D.R. Bhandarkar's Jaina Jonnograply.
(Ind. Ant. 1911). The Heavenly Dundubhis consist of 5 musical instruments.
See Appendix.

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Introduction
Age of Image worship
Orthodox Jainas seem to give very great antiquity to their religion,' but actual historical records do not go very far back beyond the age of Mahāvīra or utmost the age of Parsvanatha. Their early pontiffs may not be totally unhistorical beings; in fact, they lived, had a prominent career and left much of the greatness in carly Jaina Literature but sofar as tangible archacological documents are concerned, their lives only supply an unbroken chain of which the last two or three Tirthamkaras came into the historical period. The age of the whole body of the Jaina Litt. in the present form does not recede much further than the time of Mahavira, of the 6th century B.C. When did image-worship come into Jainism is rather difficult to say precisely but not impossible to determine in broad lines. Should we believe in recorded tradition of an inscription, we get an actual evidence to prove that images existed among the Jainas as early as the time of the Sisunaga or the Nanda kings i.c., some years after the birth of Mahavira. Mention is made in the Häthigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela of the recovery and reinstallation of an image of Sri Rṣabha-Deva removed from the country about 300 years previously.2 It may not be quite discreditable for subsequent to the death of Parsva, his statues evidently began to be made and adored. Otherwise, how was it possible to preserve the tradition of his association with Dharanendra and Snakes except in art. By the time, Pāráva, and Mahāvīra flourished, Brahmanic art was in full swing and had a much carlier history of Iconolatry. In all likelihood, this was immediately taken up by the new founders and adherents of Jainism, who necessitated the aid of imageworship in their ritualistic phase of religion. Kautilya, the author of Arthasastra mentions the image of Jaina Gods viz., Jayanta, Vaijayanta, Aparajita etc., the existence would naturally go
1. अरिष्टनेमिः स्वस्ति नः (यजुर्वेदे वैश्वदेवऋची) ; रक्षारिष्टनेमि स्वाहा ( वृहदारण्यके ); ऋपभ एव भगवान्त्रह्मा (आरण्यके ) ; स नेमिराजा (9,25) etc. are Vedic references
2. Hathigumpha Inscription, Vol. III., Pt. IV. pp. 461-467 from the Journal of the Bihar Orissa Society, 1. 12. The Khandagiri and Udaigiri caves are full of Jaina Images of very early date.

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24
Jaina Iconography
to the 4th century B.C. Image is referred to in a passage in the Antagada Dasão thus, "there dwelt in those days....a gentleman named Nage in the city of Bhaddila pure, rich.... This gentleman Nagc had a wise named Sulasă. Of the lady Sulasă it was prophesied in her childhood ly a soothsayer that she should bear dead babes. Now Sulasă was from childhood a worshipper of the God Harinegamesi. She caused to be made an image of Harinegameși and cvery morning she bathed..... Other references to images in Jaina Literature are : worship of prophets as gods by Jainas and Buddhas, cach Tirihaukara has his Vimana, temples and statues created to their prophets by Buddhists and Jainas.' Concrete archaeological finds have been discovered at Mathura, which prove beyond all doubts that temples of images were made as carly as 600 B.C. We have images of Aryavati, dated in the 42nd year of the Sarrap Sodāsa, and “Ayāgapața” with an inscription of which the character is in form anterior to the alphabet used by the Kushan Kings and may be consideratcly earlier than the Christian era." The Mathura inscriptions dealt with by Dr. Fuhrer show that there are dedicatious and offerings of a very ancient date made to Rsabhanātha. Lastly, we may mention the stūpas erected in honour of the 7th Jina Supār vanātha, built about the 7th century B.C. Let me quote the late Mr. V.A. Smith, the most scrupulous historian on the point : "Assuming the ordinarily l'eccived date B.C. 527 for the death of Mahīvira to be correct, thcattaiment of perfection by that saint may be placed about B.C. 550. The restoration of the stūpa may be dated about 1300 years later or A.D. 750. Its original erection in brick in the time of Pār
1. The Antagada-Dasão (Oriental Tran. Fund), p. 67. Further references
to images - (a) “There he had a temple of thc Jina made and image of the holy Lord Sānti set up in it" Kathākośa, Royal Asiatic Society's publication p. 210. (b). "Then the prince saw that Caitra, and an image of the cminent Rşabha". Ibid, p. 100. (c) "On the top of this mountain, there is......an image of the lord Nemi made out of a
sapphire, Ibid p. 75. 2. Vide Jaina Sūtras (S.B.E.) 22.xxi. 3. Ibid. pp. 190, 218, 19.5. 276. 4. 2. xxi. 5. Pl. xiv. The Jaina Stūpa and other antiguities by V. A. Smith. 6. Ibid, Pl. xii.

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Introduction
25
śvanātha, the prcdccessor of Mahävīra would fall at a date not later than B.C. 600. Considering the significance of the phrase in the inscription “built by the Gods” as indicating that the building at about the beginning of the Christian era was bclicved to date from a period of mythical antiquity, the date B.C. 600 for its first erection is not too early. Probably therefore, this stupa of which Dr. Führer exposcd the foundations, is the oldest known building in India”.I
1.
Ibid, Chapter II.

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CHAPTER I
THE TIRTHANKARAS
The traditional number the Jainas give for their Tirthamkaras is 24. The historicity of all these 24 Tirthamkaras cannot be proved for many reasons. First of all, the number is not an original one, it is canonically the same as given by the Buddhists and the Hindus for thcir respective incarnations. Either we must believe that the Hindu number is older copied by the Jainas and Buddhists for the sake of form or the number is purely conjectural and stercotyped which the thrcc religions adopted in order to keep some identity. The second objection to accrediting the number is the mythically high age, which the Jainas attribute to their Tirtharikaras. The period assigned, if we believe it, would cover many milleniums and exceed all anterior limits of the Vedic age in India. Nor can we prove the authenticity of all the carly Tirthamkaras from literary records of sccond millenium B. C., which do not belong to the Jainas. Some Jaina scholars quote from the Vedas some identical names of the Jinas, which to Vedic scholar would positively prove none but those of Vedic Rşis. Under the circumstances, it would be a scientific crror to suppose that the 24 Tīrthamkaras lived and preached as the Jainas rcligiously believe and as their books written in the Buddhistic age record. It would be far more correct to say if we all have to put some belief in all the 24, that some of them had flourished side by side and others flourished in succession to one another. The first Tirthamkara Rşabhanātha about whom recorded traditions are so varied and old images (say of the Kushān agc) are so many that one finds it rather dislicult to disavow his historical existence. The intervening ages of thc Jainas are, of course, appalling and cannot be accepted as true.
Whether real or ficticious, one fact is certain that these Tīrthamkaras represent truly Jaina elements and their origin is not due to any extranuous influences. In this connection, it is to

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Tirthamakaras
27
be noted that while Buddhism formally admitting a number of Buddhas makes singularly prominent the Buddha or Gautama Buddha, the Jainas on the contrary render many of their Tirthamkaras appear in the forefront. A modern temple of the Jainas would show a gallery of images of many of their Tirthamkaras to whom equal respect is offered in their daily worship.
In the Jaina pantheon, the Tīrthamkaras have been given the highest position. Even the gods and goddesses many of whoin are borrowed beings from Hinduism come in subordinate order and have been regarded as ministering hands to the Jinas. In Hemacandra's, Abhidhāna-Cintamani, the divinities have been classified under two classes :--The Devādideva or the higher gods and the Devas or ordinary gods. To the former class, hc has assigned the Tirthamkaras and the subordinate deities, who are almost purely of Jaina origin. In the minor class, we find other gods, who share their existence cqually with the Hindu pantheon. In Iconography, also, this idea of the relative superiority of the Jainas has manifested itself. In the carliest sculptures of Jainism, the Tirtharnkaras prominently occupy about the whole relief of the stone.
Jainism is a living religion in India and the temples of the Jainas preserving the old tradition of image-worship to a considerable extent should give us many materials for Iconographıy. The images in a Jaina temple arc arranged in order of precedence. There is one Müla-nīyaka, he may be either Rşablanātha, Supārsvanātha, Par vanātha or Malāvīra surrounded by other Jinas, who hold a less dignified position according as the teinple-cult is associated with him. This predominance of a particular Jina is due to the situation of the temple in a place sanctified by him. For instance, in the temple at Sārnāth bclicved by the Jainas to be the Birth-place of Śrcyāmanātha, we find his image in the position of a mûlanāyaka. Other deities such as the Yakşa, Sāsana-devatā, Lakşınī, Ganesa play the part as subordinates to the Jinas and are found in their relative positions in a temple. Thus, we sec thc Tīrtharkaras are the highest divinities in Jainism and they are believed to be absolutely free from desires (Rāgas) while the other gods and goddesses possess desires and have their heavens of enjoyment. Here, the Jaina idcal of asceticism asserts itself and their stand-point

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Jaina Iconography
in this respect is brought to bear upon their Iconography. The Jainas represent a high order of asceticism and other gods, according to the Jaina belief, cannot approach that order. In actual images, the Jinas are shewn as ascetics draped, sometimes naked in two Yogic postures of Padmāsana or Kayotsarga. In general appearance, the image of Tirthankara resembles that of Daksiņa-murti of Siva. This resemblance is significant and it may be possible to infer that the Jaina imagery might have been borrowed from Siva's asceticism. There is also some resemblance between a Jina image and a Buddha image and a layman is very apt to mistake one for the other. What are the differences between the two, common to all idols? Jaina images of Tirthamkaras, whether new or old, must have a Srivatsa symbol on the chest of the figures, must have a trilinear umbrella above the figure and except the early Mathura statues, have a Lānchana or symbol which not only distinguishes them from other images but differentiates them from each other. The fact that the Jaina images of the Kushan period from Muttra do not bear the Lanchañas prove that in the earliest stage of Jaina Iconography, there had not been a practice of marking out a Jina figure with a distinctive symbol. Next, probably a confusion arose to distinguish a Jina figure from another having a stereotyped appearance. Thus images of the Gupta and subsequent periods have invariably a Lanchana and cannot be misapprchended. Although the Tirthankara images of the Kushana age bear no Lãñchanas, in cases of the Parsva image, the Kushana artists have given a snake canopy behind the head of the figure and we are enabled to identify the Jina without any difficulty.1
In other cases, we are almost left in the dark as to the identification of the Jina represented unless inscriptions come to enlighten us with the actual names of the Jina.2 Of course, such inscriptions are only too limited in number. Thus, it may be repeated that the carliest Jina figures had no distinguishing Lanchanas. This conclusion does not probably imply that Larchanas were not known to the Jainas and to the Jaina artists.
28
I. Fig 2. plate OXC. V.A. Smith's "The Jaina Stupa and other antiquities of Mathura.
2. Image of Sambhavanatha the year 48, Epi. Ind. Vol. X. Plate III, P. 112.

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Tirthaskaras
In fact, we find a large number of these distinctive symbols, to wit, a bull, ram, deer, Krauñca bird, clephant, dolphin. Syena bird, conch, lion, lotus, rhinoceros, buffalo, represented on rail-bars and coping stones discovered in Kankāli pīlā of Mathura." The Kalpasūtra, a very early text of the Jaina canon (date 300 B.C.) gives a list of all the 24 Lāùchanas for the 24 Jinas, monumental evidences fail to show their early association with their master in sculplural art. In no sculpture of the Kushan age from Mathura the Tirthainkara figure is seen attended by either a Yaksa or a Yaksiņi. Curiously, however one example of a Yakşiņi named Ambikā is to be noticed in a sculpture on the reverse of the Jina statue of the year 9 from Mathura. From the Gupta period onwards, we find the Jaina sculptors have regularly appended the Yaksa and Yakşiņi figures to the sculptures of the Tirthamkaras, 3 Thus, it may be concluded that the Lāńchanas as well as the Yakşa figures might have remained as isolated and in a germinal state and their actual association with the Jaina images did not take place in the Kushan age of Jaina art.
Another fcature of the Jina icon is the presence of Ganadharas just to the right and left of the main figure. Jaina texts specially of iconography mention them as attendants of a Tīrthainkara. Such figures are represented as holding some Chowris, one of them might be shown with its hands clapsed in adoration. Though Yakșa figures are absent from the early Jina images of Mathura, Ganadhara figures are prominent by their presence in many of these images."
A further feature of the Mathura Sculpture is that most of the Jina figures are shown completely naked. No conclusion,
1. Ibid, Plate LXXV, Figs 1, 3, 5, Plate LXXIV, Figs 2. 3. 4. 5, Plate
LXXI, Figs. 2.7. Plate LXXX, Fig. 3. Plate LXXXI. Fig. I. 2. Jaina Fig. the year 9, back, II, 1, Ep. In. Vol. X. p. 104. 3. A pair of conches, deer or lion indicate nothing of this image with
conches below the seat. Ancient image of Rşabhanātha from Kankāli Tilä, V.A. Smith's "Mathura stupa" plate XC VIII wrongly identificd for Neminātha. The Sāsana-devatā scen in this case is not Cakreśvari with discs but
Ambikā with a child in her lap. 5. New Brāhmi inscriptions of the Scythian period by R.D. Bancrji. Epi.
Ind. Vol. X. Plate 1, p. 109.

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Jaina Iconography
however, can be drawn from the images of the Scythian or Pre-Scythian period as to their origin either of the Digambara or Svetämbara sect. The Svetämbaras, on no ground, would allow their figures to be represented as such. The Mathura Jaina figures can neither be claimed by the Digambaras because we find the attendant Gaṇadharas both male and female in the sculptures are fully draped and decorated with ornaments, a custom which stands in opposition to their doctrine as they never permit any nun an admission into the ascetic order. Therefore, it can safely be concluded that the sectarian distinction relating to nudity or drapery did not, atleast in sculptures, originate as early as the Kushan period.
The Gupta period showed a marked development in the iconographic characteristics of a Jina figure. Not only do we see in such images the particular Lañchanas incorporated but miniature figures of a Yakṣa and Sasana devată invariably included.1 Other marks such as a trilinear umbrella, a drumplayer surmounting it, a pair of clephants on two sides of the umbrella and a Dharmacakra symbol attended by a pair of either bulls or deer form parts of a Jina sculpture.
30
All thesc Iconographic marks are prescribed for a Jina image in Jaina books on Pratistha (or installation of images) written about the late Gupta period. Of these marks, the Dharma-cakra symbol seems to be positively of carly growth. We find even in the Kushan Jina images the simple representation of a Dharma-cakra symbol. The addition of a pair of bulls or deer begins with figure of the Gupta period (Epi. ind. Vol. II. p. 210. Sculpture from Kosam) on both sides of the "Wheel of the Law". The bulls may have some mythological connexion with Rṣabhanatha, whose symbol is a bull and who first turned the "Wheel of the Law" or in other words, founded the Jaina religion. A pair of antelopes facing the Dharmacakra, a device
1. "This image of a Jina, richly endowed with the embellishments of) the expanded hoods of a snake and an attendant female divinity, having the name Pārsva"-Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions no. 61. Pl. XXXVIII, p. 258 ff. Cf. Jaina Cave at Badami. Arch: Surv. W. Ind. Vol. I, p. 25. 2. Vasunandi is the author of Pratiṣṭhäsära. He flourished in 536, see Bhandarkar's Report published by the Jaina Svatantra Bhāndāra, Pavapuri.

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T'irlhamkaras
31
of later growth, must have been borrowed from the Buddhist Iconography. Some of these symbols viz. Dharma-cakra, Chowris, lion-seat, 3 umbrellas, an aureola, an Asoka trec have been enumerated among the 21 Atisayas or supernatural qualities of a Jina by Hcmacandra in his Abhidhānacintāmaņi. The Jina sculptures of the Gupta and the later ages are found to be always marked with these well-known symbols.
The Jaina religion places some of the Hindu deities in a subordinate category (under Devas and not Devādhidevas) and makes them waiting upon the Tirthanikaras. This fact is strikingly borne out by some of the Hindu sculptures of the Gupta pcriod. For instance, in the illustration of the so-called image of "Rşabha," Mathura series, Kankāli silā, we can recognise in the two figures immcdiately to the right and left of the main figure, Balarama with a snake-canopy and a plough and Väsudeva with his usual attributes of conch, club (flute?), Vanamālā and disc. As the Jina represented is undoubtedly Neminātha known from his Yaksa Gomedha and Sāsanadcvatā Ambikā, this relation of Kșrna and Balarāma, the Jina's cousins, is ingeniously brought into relies by the sculptor. The sculpturing of the pedestal of the Jina images underwent some changes in the Gupta period. In many instances, the pedestal of the Kushan age shews a large group of male and female devotees surrounding the Dharma-cakra surmounting a pilaster, The pedestals in the Gupta age as mentioned before, portray a pair of deer and the figures of the planets in a lower row.
When we come to treat of thc race and families of the Jinas we find that history and mythology cannot be co-ordinated. The Jaina books inform us that twenty-two Tirthamkaras belonged to the Ikşvāku race and the two, namcly, Munisuvrata and Nemi belonged to the Harivam a family. From the stercotyped character of the birth, renunciation and salvation of the Jainas, we are led to believe that their lives had been cast into the same mould. They showed no novclty or variety in their character. The 24 Tīrthamkaras, as if, lcd a monotonous course of existence on carth. Although, however, their lives arc outwardly similar, there are in them a great many points of diffcrence which the Jaina mythology brings home to us. The names of the Jinas (explained by the commentators), their mothers'

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Jaina Iconography
16 dreams, Lancanas, Yakṣas shew a widely varied character. It is, indeed, so difficult to separate truth from mythology in the critical treatment of their lives as they are presented in the Jaina Purāņas. Some observations may safely be made regarding the genetic development of the mythological matter. The origin of the names is purely an accidental matter and there is hardly any room for believing in Hemacandra's much-laboured interpretation of the Jina names sometimes with reference to grammar, sometimes to a myth associated with their lives. For instance, he would explain the name Nemi as derived from the circumference (f) of the Dharmacakra, the name Parsva as derived from the fact that "he touches (Spṛśati) all ideas by knowledge" or from the circumstance that his mother in her pregnancy, while lying, saw a black serpent crawling about. Hemacandra by similar method traces the origin of the name Rṣabha of the first Jina from the myth that his mother before his birth saw in her 14 dreams a bull as the very first.
The dreams of the Jina's mothers and the way in which a Jina is born descending from heaven bear a distant echo of Buddha's mother Maya's dream and her conception. All the mythological stories related in the Jaina Purāņas seem to have been engrafted into the life of a Jina. For instance, the 14th Tirthamkara Mallinatha was made a woman by the Svetāmbaras. They tell a story in support of his female incarnation. It is related in Hemacandra's Mallinatha Carita, chap. 6. that Mallinatha in his previous birth while practising penances with other ascetics concealed some extra penances from them. As a result of this, he was born as a woman. The Digambaras, however, lay no credence to all this fanciful story of the Svetāmbaras, probably fabricated in order to show that women had equal rights with men to asceticism and salvation. From the enormous mass of mythological matter, we may draw out one or two facts which should claim our serious attention. The Lanchanas of some of the Jinas look like the totems of the families to which they belonged. For instance, the Ikṣvāku family of Ayodhya used bull as a vehicle. Hence, Rṣabhanatha descending from the same famous royal family made a bull as his totem or Lanchana.
1. This point is elaborated in a Hindi article by Rai Krishna Das, Secretary, Nagari Pracarini Sabha, Benares.

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Tirthařkaras
33
Similarly, Munisuvrata's and Neminātha's respective symbols of tortoise and conch speak of their birth from the Hari family, whose connection with these Vaisņavite symbols are wellknown.
JINAS IN AYĀGAPATAS
The Karikāli Țīlā of Mathura yielded among other sculptures some Ayāgapațas of very carly age. In 3 of them, we notice the Tīrthamkara figure seated with hands laid in the lap. A feature of these representations is the inclusion of some of the Jaina Aşgamangala symbols such as a pair of fish, a Svastika etc. in a serial row around the main figure. A head-dress and trace of a parasol are visible in the case of one Ayāgapața (pl. VII, Smith's Mathura).
There is hardly any mark or Lāñchana by which we can recognise the particular Jinas figured in thcsc tablets of homage. One tablet, however, shows the figure of a Jina, which by its mark of snake-canopy we can identify as that of Pārsvanātha.
The representations of Jinas in these Ayāgapațas of pre-Kushan age as may be proved from the script of the inscriptions on them appear to be the earliest in the stages of Jaina iconography. Thus, we can infer that in the first stage of iconic developmen! Jinas had no Lāñchanas or distinctive marks, the Pārí va figure had the invariable symbol of snake canopy and some of the Aştamārgalikas had been very primitive in their growth.
The figures in this tablet of homage (VII, IX, X) as they belong to an age anterior to Kushan rule, are devoid of any mark of any classical influence and are purely of Indian origin. The conventional type of a Jina figure must have been derived from an Indian Yogi seated erect in meditation. The general appearance of Jina figures, their face, body is the same and with thc exception of their distinctive marks of Lāùchanas they would be just regarded as representing only one Tirthariikara.
VARIETIES OF JINAS OF THE
KUSHAN SCHOOL The Tīrthamkara images of the Kushan age may be divided

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Faina Iconograph
into 3 varieties viz: first, in which the Jina figures form a part of a sculptured panel; second, in which the figures are represented as images for worship; third, figures in the middle of the Ayāgapațas. The Jinas in panels in one case are seated in a row in meditation posture on both sides of a stupa, (PI; XVII, fig. 2) and another, Neminātha preaching to royalty (2). In the former, the third Jina is endowed with snake hood of Pār vanātha, others possessing no distinctive marks. The "imagetypes” of Jinas of this age have some noticeable peculiarities, such as, scated figures have no attendants on sides but have a devotional scene on the pedastal; standing figures are nude and are attended by 2 Gañadharas.
JINA QUADRUPLE In place of the Brāhmanic Trimurti, there is the Jaina Quadruple, popularly known as "Caumukhī". It has the further name of Sarratobhadra-Pratimā i.e. auspicious from all sides. It is a broad obelisk representing the figure of a Tīrthaíkara on cach of the four sides. There seems to be no regularity as to the particular Jinas to be sculptured there. But the most important of them have, as a rulc, been selected for representation in a Caumukhi. The symbols and descriptions of the Jinas in such a group are thosc that wc shall discuss next in connection with them separately.
Adinātha or Rsabhanāthu
The Jaina Purāṇas and ritualistic texts do not yield much in the way of describing specially the images of the Tirthamkaras. The same may be said of the Jaina Silpa Šāstras, which seem to be very laconic in this respect. On the contrary, all this body of literature, when traced, is very informative with regard to the iconography of the attendant figures of the Jainas as well as the other divinities.
From the categorical list of the Lāñchanas or emblems of the Jinas given in the Pravacanasāroddhāra'l we are informed
वसहगयतुरयवानरकुंचो कमलं च सत्थियो चंदो। मयरसिरिवच्छगण्डयमहिसवराहो य सेणो य ।

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Tirthařkaras
that the first Tirthamkara's cognizance is a Bull. Over and above this symbol, we get a clue that he has also the symbol of DharmaCakra. All the patriarchs have certain special trees under which they received the Kevala Jrāna or Perfect Knowledge. The tree connected with the first Jina is Nyagrodha or the Indian Banyan tree. Other iconographic marks of the Jina are his Yaksa named Gomukha (lit. Bull-Faced) and Yaksiņi Cakresvari (Goddess of whcels) or Apraticakrā. The texts give two worshippers on either side of Rşabhadeva viz. Bharata and Bahubali.2
The images of Adinātha, so far discovered in India and preserved in Museums and icmples, essentially satisfy the above conditions. The illustration of the saint we have reproduced in Pl. II, show's the effigy of a bull in the middle of the pedestal. At the left end of it, may be seen the figure of Yakşiņi Cakreśvarī, who holds a discus and rides the Guruda. Standing types of the same Jina statues may also be scen. In these, nudity is very prominent and there is no lion or the lion-seat.3
In the Jaina history of the Patriarchs, Rşalhanātha or Vrşabhanātha is regarded as the founder of the religion. Deiails of his history are preserved in the Adipurāņa of the Digambaras, Kalpasūtra and Hemachandra's Trişaşlhi-Salākāpuruşacaritra of the
वज्ज हरिणो छगलो नदावत्तो य कलसकुम्भो य । नीलप्पलसंखफनीसीहो अ जिणाण चिहाइ ॥
TT TAHTTIET 16 IT 1. तक्षशिलायां बाहुबलिना कारिते भगवत ऋषभदेवस्य धर्मप्रकाशके चक्रे च
3919: 1 पाश्वयोर्भरतबाहुबलिभ्यामपसेवितः ।
TETET (?) fa greifachte 29995: 11 Trişaşțišalākā, Ādīśvara, 1st Parva, 3rd Ch. 58 verse. I saw in an old picture collection preserved in the Asiatic Society of Bengal Mss. Collection No. 1544, the representation of Rsabhanatha
attended by Bharatacakri, his son. 3. For examples see the figure of Rşabhanātha half way up on the Vaibhär
hill of Rājgir. It has a mark of a lotus with two bulls on cither side. For other fig. vide and cf. Cunningham Arch. S. R. Vol XI., P. 12. Ibid., Vol. X p. 17. Ibid, Vol. IX., p. 58. Mathura Museum Catalogue, p. 67. fig. B. 4. p. 71, fig. B 21, p. 81, fig. B 76, Deogarh Fort, 2228 list... (3) Ibid, No. 2223.

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Śvetămbaras. Curiously, the Brahmanic Purāņas like the Bhāgavala Agni and Varaha mention him as an incarnation of Viṣṇu although by his symbolism of a bull and his place of Moksa as Kailasa, one is tempted to connect him with Siva in these respects. Whatever may be the real or supposed relation between these three gods, that he is prominently a Jaina Prophet and his image has little or no connection with any Brahmanic image may be taken as a proven fact.
36
The explanation of his bull symbol is clear from the origin of his name. His mother like the mothers of all the Tirthamkaras saw certain dreams and the first dream was about a bull. Hence, the name of the Jina as Vṛṣabhanatha or Rṣabhanatha and the symbol of bull as invariably connected with his representation.1 The symbol of his Yakṣa Gomukha having a bull's face has a definite connection with the same origin. Cakres vari, the Yakşini of the Jina looks like the Vaiṣṇavi, the wife of Brāhmanic Visņu. Thus, the originator of the sculpture tried to show the superiority and triumph of Adinātha over Šiva, and Visņu, the two greatest gods of the Brāhmaṇas.
Ajilanatha Saptaparna
The Jaina original books give him the symbol of elephant (Gaja) and his other symbol, namely his special tree (kevala
ऊर्वोर्वृषभलाञ्छनमभूद् भगवतो जनन्या च चतुर्दशानां स्वप्नानामादावृषभो दृष्टस्तेन ऋषभः ।
Hemacandra: Abhidhana-Cintamani
"All mothers of Tirthankaras see, first of all, this elephant in their dreams excepting only the mother of Rṣabhadeva, who saw a bull first, hence the child's name. Mrs. Stevenson's Heart of Jainism, p. 22. The 14 Dreams are:
qat af: fqqet: aqrit zfq: 1 महाध्वजः पूर्णकुम्भः पद्मसरः सरित्पतिः ॥ विमानं रत्नपुञ्जश्च विधुरग्निरिति क्रमात् । ददर्श स्वामिनी स्वप्नान्मुखे प्रविशतस्तदा ||
Trişaşti-Salaka, Parva 10, Sarga II-19-21. Ullarapurana, Parva 48.

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vşkşa) treel both being connected with his images. Further, two other iconographic points by which Ajitanātha's statues may be differentiated from those of others are the figures of his particular Yaksa called Mahāyaksa and his Yakşiņi named Ajitabalā. Mention of these is made in the Jaina canonical Literature. His posture is what is technically known as Khadgāsana i.e., standing with two arms hanging on the sides. His chowir-bcarer is Sagaracakri.
In sculpture, the images of Ajitanātha fully answer to the above characteristic descriptions. Two noteworthy figures of Ajita, one in the Deogarh Fort, Jhānsia and another preserved under the old sculpturc-shed at Sarnath, Benares,' may be cited here as examples bearing his symbols. In both these representations, his main figure is standing in the so-called Khadgāsana; in the Deogarh statue, it is attended by two Chowri-bearers and two devotecs in front of them. The emblem of clephant is shown as usual under the seat of the Jina. The Yakșa and the Yaksiņi occupy the two corners of the pedestal.
The origin of his symbolism and his name can be traced to the Jaina books. The Jina's mother saw an elephant in her several dreanıs.4 An elephant in India is always connected with kingly power. After his birth all his father's enemies were conquered (Jita), hence his name the 'invincible' onc. The Sretāmbara author Hemachandra interprets his name as ‘not conqucrcd by excrement of the bowels etc.'s
The Digambara authoritative book, the Ullarapurāna
1. HTET HTfe faat qe ti feveri tattfanti ___सहेतुके वने सप्तपर्णद्र मसमीपगः ॥
l'ttara Purāņa. Parva 48. 2. Image of Ajitanātha, Dcogarh, No. 2526. List of Photo-negatives,
A.S.I.
Catalogue of the Sarnath Museum, No. g. 61. 4. The dream of an elephant admitting into the mouth of Ajita's mother is particularly mentioned in the undermentioned verse.
देवीं विजयसेनाख्यां षोडशस्वप्नपूर्वकम् । प्रविशन्तं विलोक्यात्मवक्त्राब्जं गन्धसिन्दुरम् ॥
Uttara, Parva 48. पूरीषहाऽदिभिर्न जित इत्यजितः ।

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explains the word Ajita as not conquered by sin or by all heretics'.1 Thus, all the facts and ideas primarily connected with the life and teachings of this Jina, converge to one point "invincibility", 'conquest.' His elephant emblem, his Yakṣa's just the identical emblem together with the warlike symbols of spear, goad, club his Yakṣini's symbols noose, goad etc eminently express the idea of temporal conquest, on one hand, the symbols of rosary, Varada mudrā, and abhaya mudra on the part of the Yakṣa and Varada mudra on the part of the Yakṣiņi, the idea of spiritual conquest on the other. Sambhavanatha
etc.,
38
The Jaina literature relating to our subject provides the distinct clue to identify the image of Sambhavanatha. That clue is the symbol of horse (Turaya Skt. Turaga) connected with his representations. We are informed from the same literature of his Yakṣa being Trimukha and Yakṣiņi being Duritāri Devi-other special marks of his images. The tree under which Sambhavanatha received the Kevala knowledge and of which the mention is made in the Jaina books is the Indian Sāla tree (Shorla robusta)-his Chowri-bearer is called Satyavirya. So far with iconographical details.
The Jina's parentage has come down to our knowledge through Jaina history. His father was a king named Dṛdharāja and his mother was called Suṣeņā. His birth place is Śrāvasti.3 We come now to discuss the origin of his name respecting which there is a tale in Jaina books. "The king, his father, had been distressed to see the way his dominions were ravaged by plague, but when he heard the good news of the boy's birth, he felt there was a chance (Sambhava) of better times coming,
14: arq a fàsafafa ar gaifafuzarfacर्नामान्वर्थमवाप्तवानिति विदां स्तोत्रस्य पात्रं भवन् ॥
द्विसप्तसु गते दीक्षावने शालतरोरवः ।
3. द्वीपेऽस्मिन् भारते वर्षे श्रावस्तिनगरे शिलः । राज्ञः काश्यपगोत्रस्य दृढराजस्य सद्युतेः । वल्लभेक्ष्वाकुवंशस्य सुषेणा तत्सुरागमे ॥
I.
2.
Uttarapurana, Parva 48.
Verse 40 para 49, Uttarapurana.
Ibid. 49.

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hence the boy's namnc"1. The Jina's symbol of horse, which in India is regarded as auspiciousa originates from the idea of good chance associated with his name. His Yakşa's emblem of a mongoose Skt. Sarvatobhadra (lucky on all sides), and the Yakşiņi's name as Duritāri, meaning 'vanquisher of enemies' and her symbols of Varada mudrā, fruit and Abhaya all very clearly bespeak the same idea of auspiciousness or 'good chance.
Not many sculptures of Sambhavanātha have yet been found out. But those that are found show in lithic art the aphorism of iconography as enunciated before on the basis of Jaina original texts. 3
Abhinandananātha
The fourth Tīrthamkara's iconographic marks may be gathered from the different Jaina books in different contexts. His emblem or the so-called Läùchana is an ape.4 The trec connected with his Kevala knowledge is Pivāla (Veśāli trec according to other texts). The Yaksa believed to have been appointed by Indra, as in all cases, to serve him is named Isvara and the Yakşiņi's name is Kāli. The particular pose in which he is to appear in sculpture is called Khadgāsana i.c., standing posture.
In sculpture, all this specification has been followed almost strictly. The examples of his figures are rare in India.
1. Hcart of Jainism, p. 51.
cr. यद्वा--गर्भस्थेऽस्मिन् द्यूते राज्ञा जननी न जितेत्यजितशं सुखं भवत्यस्मिन् स्तुते शम्भवः। यहा--गर्भगतेऽप्यस्मिन्नभ्यविकायस्य सम्भवात्
Fatso 11 २. धेनर्वस्त्रयुक्ता वृषगजतुरगा दक्षिणावर्तवह्निः।
दिव्यस्त्री पूर्णकुम्भा द्विजनृपगणिका पुप्पमाला पताका ।। etc., are lucky things at all times. 3. An inscribed image of Sambhavanatha at Khajuraho in Hamirpur.
Cf. Cunningham, Arch. Surr. Rep. Vol. II., Epi Indi. Vol. I p. 112& Plate III In another text the list of the Lāñchanas is given as follows: Trofitis a: #f9:14: 4461 Faffat: Taft i मकरः श्रीद्रुमो गण्डो महिषः कोलसेधिको । वज्र मृगोऽजष्टगर कलशः कूर्म उत्पलम् । शङ्खो नागाधिप: सिंहो लाञ्छनान्यहतां क्रमात् ।
4.

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In Jaina history of pontiffs, Abhinandananātha's birthplace is Ayodhyā.? His father's name is King Svayamvara and mother's name Siddhārthā.” He attained mok:sa accompanied by a thousand monks, as, indeed, did all the first eleven Tirthamkaras cxcept Supārsvanātha.
In treating of his symbolism. we encounter some difficulties. His main symbol is a monkey. If we interpret hari, one of the dreams of Jina's mothers, to stand for a monkey, the propriety of the emblern is explained. Hari also means a lion, which makes it a symbol of Mahāvīra. The real nature of his Yaksa and Yakșiņi may, lo some extent, help us !o get at the meaning of the symbols. Yakşa, as .we have seen, is named Isvara and Yakṣiṇī is named Kāli. Clearly, they are Saivite deities borrowed from the Brāhmaṇic pantheon. Thus, it is likeliest to connect the ape of the Jina with the apish incarnation of Isvara or Siva. The explanation of his name is given clearly enough in the Jaina books." According to it, he acquired the name of Abhinandana because he used to be honoured (Abhinandana) by Indra and others.
Sumatinātha
He is known from the Jaina Literature to be associated with the symbol of a curlow (Firauricha) or a red goose. The kevala tree, in his case, is Priyamgu. The Yaksa and Yaksi attend
1. The birth places of Jainas are given collectively in the following passage:
...THAT AT FT ET377 I इक्खागभूम जुज्झा सावत्थी दोअउज्जो कोसंबी। वाणारमि चन्दपुरी कायदी भदिलपुरं च ।। सीथपुरचम्पकपिल्ल उज्झरयणपुरतिगयपुरमिहिला। रायगिहमिहिलसूरियपुरवाणारसि य कुंडपुरं ॥
Abhidhāna Rājendra Satta, Dvāra 20. 2. Ash ura ato an arfera: 1 राजा स्वयम्वरो नाम्ना सिद्धार्थास्याग्रवल्लभा ।
Uttarapurāņa. Verse 16. 3. Heart of Jainism, P. 52. 4. 3ffarga darifafafafarga: 11
Abhidhāna-Cintāmani.

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41
ing upon him in the image are named Tumbaru and Mahākāli. His chowribearer is called Mitravirya.
The sculptures extant agree with the rules of Iconography as given before. Besides the fundamental marks, which specialise one Jina from all the rest, the sculpture contains the figures of the flying garland-bearers, the drums etc., and sometimes miniature figures of other Jina which with the main figure complete the number of twenty-four. The lion-seat is meaningly borne by a pair of lions. Two elephants often are seen either pouring showers of water or merely standing at the top of the 'main figure. Apart from the special cognizance of the Jina, a Cakra or whce! is noticed represented on the pedestal. The donor's image is also included below the fect of the statue. Images of Sumatinātha have been found in many places in Northern India, the most noteworthy figure to be mentioned is the one discovered at Sahet Mahet."
The Sumatinātha's native place and his parents have een mentioned in the Jaina traditional history. His birth place was Ayodhyā (Sāketa), his father was called Mcgharatha and mother Mangalā.? When and how he attained the kevala knowledge and what palanquin carried him, ail these are given in the Uttaraburāna. Wc omit, however, those details as rather too far from our main topic.
With regard to the derivation of his name, there is, as usual. a story to explain it. "The child was called Sumati. nātha, because cvcn before his birth his mother's inrellect (Sumati) was so sharpened. To prove the queen's ability, a story resembling that of the judgment of Solomon runs. An old Brahmin did, leaving two wives; both women laimed the only son as their's and the dispute was taken to the queen to settle, who decreed, as Solomon did (and with similar result, that
1. Sec. Arch. Surv. Rept. 1997-8. 2. द्वीपेऽस्मिन् भारते वर्षे साकेते वृषभान्वये ।
तद् गोत्रे क्षत्रियोऽस्तारिः श्लाघ्यो मेघरथोऽभवत् । मङ्गलाऽस्य महादेवी वसुधाराऽपि पूजिता ॥
Ullaralurāna.

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the living child should be cut into two”.! The Jina's Lāsichana of a goose has clear association with the same symbol of Sarasvati, the goddess of intelligence. It summarily symbolises the central dea of Sumati or Intelligence behind the life of the Tirthařkara. In other cases, we shall see, th symbol is the material object to stand for the name. As for example the crescent is the symbol of Candraprabha (lit. 'shining like the moon').
l'admaprablia
The books of Jainism assign to the sixth Tīrthamkara Padmaprabha the cihna or iconographic cognizance of a red lotus. His Kevala trec is called thc Chatrābha. The attendant spirits are named Kusuma and Syārnā (Dig. Manovegā). The chowribcarer, generally, the contemporary king, is Yamadyuti by name. So far with sculptural details froin literary sources.
The sculptures of Padmaprabha so far discovered in Jaina places, though not many in number, when seen in the light of iconography tally with the above description.? I have seen two images of Padmaprabha wrongly identified as Mahavīra on the Vaibhāra Hill in Rājgir with the clear symbol of a lotus on the pedestal. The two lions should not have been mistaken for the symbol Mahāvīra in the presence of the lotus, the lions being simply the bcarers of the Simhasana or lion-scat.
We are informed by the Jaina Purānas of both sects that his native place is Kaušāmbi. His father's name is known as Susīmā. Other details are left out as being redundant.3
Two interpretations of his name are given. First, his colour was of a red lotus, hence the name. Second, his mother, while the Jina was in her womb, expressed a desire to slcep upon a bed of red lotuses, which was fulfilled. This originated the name.
1. Heart of Jainism p. 52. C. THAT Afrika yafa: 1 TET TIRI जनन्याः सुनिश्चिता मतिरभूदिति सुमतिः ।।
Abhidhāna-Cinlāmani. 2. Cr. Cunningham: Arch. Surr. Rep. VIII., p. 193. 3. Halata a aftan AT: qfafcargar: 1
गोत्रेण काश्यपो राजा धरणाख्यो महानभूत ॥ तस्य देवी सुसीमाख्या रत्नवृष्ट्यादिमानिता ॥
Uttarapurāna.

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His symbolism is just expressive of the same fact. The name of Yakşa attendant Kusuma connected with him irans ü flower and lends support to the very idea.
Supārsvanātha
He has, according to the canon, the emblem of the mystic cross called the Svostika. Books give him the additional synıbolic decorations of serpents. There is some regularity with regard to the number of the hoods of the serpents. The number must be either one or five or nine. His evala trce is Sirişa (farsit).
The attendant spirits serving him are mālanga and Sānti (Dig. Varanandi and Kāli). The name of the bearer of the fly-fan is Dharmavīrya.
Now, the Purāņas give the historical news that he was the son of a Kșatriya ruling prince named Supratiştha. The mother was Queen Pșthivi by name. His birth-place and kingdom was Banares and Kāsi.Unlike the other earlier Tīrthamkara, he attained Mokșa with only five hundred companions.
The representation of Supār: vanātha in art may either be seen in a group or single. Either of these representations fulfils the condition laid down by the canons. The most important point regarding Supārsvanātha's image is the five-fold serpenthood as distinguished from the usual seven-fold serpent-hood of Pārs vanātha.4 Disregard or ignorance of this point has led to many wrong identifications. For instance, in the Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, Dr. Vogel has in several instances, written without being sure "a Jina, either Supārsva or Pārsvanātha”. Again, the statue No. B 62 has been wrongly identified as Jina Pārsvanātha. It is, in fact, the figure of Supār vanātha. The image also shows another cognizance of the Jina, namely, 1. ET QU 79 T H TT (594:959 79 795051:, 4913 ATT for 1)
Sattvasaroddhāra, 43 Dvāra. 2. सुपावो मौनमास्थाय च्छामस्थे नववर्षकः । ____ सहेतुकवने मूले शिरीषस्य द्व युपोषितः ।।
Uttarafurāņa. 3. g cnererat arcureat het afa: 1
Ceritcaferataron a 97 RETT TETEO II Ibid. 4. Cunningham: Arch. Surr. Rep. Vol. XIX, p. 6. 5. Prof. Dr. Vogel: Cat. Arch: Mus. Mathura, p. 73.

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Jaina Iconography
Svastika. Prof. Vogel himself writes, "and that over the outermost head on the proper left and the Svastika.”1
His name has a historical meaning. He acquired the name of Supari va because he was endowed from birth with 'beautiful sides'. His mother suffered from leprosy in both her sides. This dreadful discase was cured before the Child's birth, so he was given the name of Su (good) Pārsva (side). This has also evident connection with his emblem of Svastika which stands for good and auspiciousness.
Candraprabha
The main iconographic details to be gleaned from the Jaina books distinguish the image of Candraprabha from all other Indian images. His Lanchana or technical emblem is the moon or the crescent. His special tree is Naga (Nāgakesara, (AM). The goblins are Vijaya and Bhrkuti (Jvālāmalini). The Chowri-bearer, who does him honour is called Dana-virya.
Many good specimens of this Jina's image have come to light in Northern India. All of them, however, answer the definitions as detailed above, in a specific way. The artists in India, it is well known, acted up to the demands of the priests and temple-worshippers. In sculpture, we get two types, the seated and the standing types, in which the main figure of the Tirthamkara appears amidst his attendants and Chowri-bearers. It is obviously not a difficult question to explain the origin of his name and his symbolism. Literally, he was called Candraprabha because he had the lustre (Prabhā) of that of the moon. There is also a historical tradition accounting for this name
5
I. Ibid.. p. 77.
2. शोभनौ पाश्र्वावस्य सुपार्श्व: । Hemacandra.
3.
Heart of Jainism. p. 52. 53.
1.
Inscribed image of Candraprabha standing with other Tirthamkaras, Deogarh Fort, Dist. Jhansi. No. 2224, list of Photo-negatives A.I.S. In the same fort may be seen a seated image of the Jina. In Madanpur, Jhansi Dist.. 5 Jina Figures have been found out of which one represents the Jina Candraprabha. An erect Fig. of Candraprabha from Gwalior is in the Indian Museum. Gat, 12. No. 3702.
चन्द्रस्येव प्रभा ज्योत्स्ना सौम्यलेश्या विशेषोऽस्य चन्द्रप्रभः ।
Hemacandra.
5.

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“Before his birth, his mother (the wife of the Rajput King of Candrapuri)' longed to drink the moon (Candra). To assuage her craving, a plate of water was one night handed to her in such a way that the moon was reflected in it; when the child was born, he was found to be as bright and white as the moon, which accordingly became his emblem, and he was called Candraprabha."'? With such lunar association in life, one needs hardly any explanation to understand why the moon or the crescent became his essential symbol, we may also note in this connection that one of the dreams of the Jina's mothers is about the moon.
Suvidhinātha
Suvidhinātha has two names given to him, another being Puşpadanta. There is a dispute over his emblem. Some say, it is a dolphin (Makara); others dcclare it is a crab. His Yaksa and Yaksiņi are narned Ajita and Sutāri Devi (Dig. Mahākāli) respectively. The chowri-bearer has the name of Maghavatarāja. The religious tree under which he attained the hevala knowledge is the Nāga according to some authoritics,: Malli according to other authorities.
From patriarchical history, we gather his native place was called Kākandinagara. His father was the ruling prince by the name of Sugrīva and his mother was named Rāmā,' his place of Nirvāṇa was Sameta-Sikhara or Mount Pārasnātha.
A separate sculpture of Suvidhinātha is not yet known to the author. The Jina, of course, appears with the other 23 Tirtharkaras in a group. The sculpture, there is little doubt to say, must when discovered exhibit all the important iconographic details described above. The point of interest will be that some sculptures will bear the symbol of a crab.
1. In thc Benares district, also called Candravati. 2. Heart of Jainism, p. 53. Cf. TT T T Sout: 4FGYTECTECTS fafa
TESTI: 1 3. FargutyaTA:
Y R ITY: | Ullara p. 8.. 4. द्वीपेऽस्मिन् भारते क्षेत्र काकन्दीनगराधिपः ।
mutatsen helaet 14 stafa 37497 11 Ibid.

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The two names have two origins as might be expected. The name "Suvidhinatha" was given to him because after an internecine warfare fought by his kingly relatives, they gave up fighting and took to performing religious duties. His birth eventually brought 'good order' (Suvidhi)' to the distracted family. The other name, namely, Puspadanta was derived from the fact that the Jina's teeth resembled the buds of a flower (puspa). The origin of his symbols seems prima facie rather enigmatic. Neither a crocodile nor a crab has been dreamt of by the Jina's mother. His father was the lord of Kākandi. Curiously, Kākandi is called Kākandinagara, Skt. Kişkindhinagara. Let us remember, his father is called Sugrīva, his mother has the name of Rāmā. All this has curious association with the Rāmāyaṇa. The Kişkindha of the Rāmāyaṇa was situated on the sea. Hence, it is evident that aquatic animals like a crocodile or a crab have come to be the emblems of this Tirthankara. His Yaksa Ajita for the same reason has tortoise as vehicle and his Yakṣiņi Sutārā Devi has an urn symbolising her intimate connexion with waters.
46
Sitalanatha
2
The Tirthamkara in question was, as usual, born of a Kṣatriya family of Malaya Kingdom. His birth-place is named Bhadrikapura or Bhadillapura (Madrapura according to one version). His parent's names were king Drdharatha and Queen Sunanda respectively. His chowri-bearer was called Rājā Simandhara. The tree under which he attained the Kevala knowledge is Vilva (Aegle Marmelos). The Jaina texts assign to him the Yakṣa named Brahmā and Yakṣiņi named Aśokā (Dig. Mānavi). The Digambaras regard the Asvattha (Ficus religioso) as his emblem, the Svetambaras Srivatsa (wishing tree) for the
same.
A separate specimen of Šītalanatha's image has not been discovered so far. When discovered, it is doubtless expected to
1. शोभनो विधिविधानमस्य सुविधि: | Hemacandra
द्वीपेऽस्मिन् भारते वर्षे विषये मलयाह्वये । राजा भद्रपुरे वंशे पुरोर्दृ ढरथोऽभवत् ॥
2.
Ullara p. 92. Ibid.

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yield a material illustration of iconographic canons discussed above.1
47
The Jina received the name of Sitalanatha inasmuch he could take away men's heat of sorrow. Another version explains the name as follows-"The tenth Tirthamkara had marvellous power of imparting coolness (Sitalata) to fevered patients. Before his birth his mother laid her hand on her husband and immediately the fever which had defied all the efforts of physicians left him, and all his life being the saint had a similar power, hence his name Śītalanatha, Lord of coolness." His emblems have not much to interpret. The Peepal tree is known for its cool shade, similarly the Srivatsa symbol stands for auspiciousness and blessedness.
as
Sreyamsanatha
The Jaina texts concur in giving him the symbol of a rhinoceros. The Yakṣa and the Yakṣiņi to serve him as guards of honour, have been named as Yakṣeta and Manavi (Dig. Ivara and Gauri) respectively. The tree special to him was Tumbara (7) or Tindaka according to some authorities. Rājā Tripiṣṭa Vasudeva was to act as a Chowri-bearer.
The sculptures hitherto found of Śreyamanatha closely accord with the above iconographic prescriptions. At Sarnath, in Benares, the traditional place of the Jina, there is a Jaina temple dedicated to this patriarch. An old image of the same Jina may be seen in the "Brahmanical sculpture shed" attached to the Museum.5
The Jaina Purāņas record his lineage. His father was a
1. Anderson Catalogue of the Indian Museum, Part II. Gupta gallery TA 1. The figure has been identified as that of Sitalanatha. It seems to be a doubtful identification. First, no Jina figure is represented in the Bhumisparsa Mudra as in this case. Secondly, no specific sign of Svastika
is to be seen on the pedestal of the sculpture.
2. सकलसत्त्वसन्तापहरणात् शीतलः ।
4. मुनिर्मनोहरोद्याने तुम्बरद्रुमसंश्रयः ।
5. See Fig. C. 62.
Abhidhana-Cintamani.
3. IHeart of Fainism, p. 53. Cf. तथा गर्भस्थे भगवति पितुः पूर्वोत्पन्ना - चिकित्स्यपित्तदाहो जननीकरस्पर्शादुपशान्त इति शीतलः ।
Ullara, p. 103.

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Ksatriya prince of Ikṣvāku clan named Vişņu and his mother was called Viṣṇudri. His home was at Simhapuri, the present Sarnath.1
The origin of his name has, as usual, a historical tale to explain it. "King Visnudeva possessed a beautiful throne, but unfortunately an evil spirit took up his abode in it, so that no one dare sit there. His wife, however, so longed to sit on it that she determined to do so at any risk; to every one's astonishment she was quite uninjured; so, when her son was born, he was named Śreyāṁśanatha, the Lord of good, for already he had enabled his mother to cast out an evil spirit and so do a world of good (Sreyāṁsa)." All his turbulence and forwardness on the part of both the mother and the child have been fittingly symbolised by the sign of a rhinoceros, so known for those qualities.
48
Vāsupujya
The emblem constantly associated with Vāsupūjya, as we gather from Jaina books, is the buffalo. The other characteristics of his image viz. the Sasanadeva and the Sasanadevi, are known by the names of Kumāra and Caṇḍā (Dig. Gāndhārī). The tree which gave him shade while acquiring the Kevala knowledge is Patalika 'according to the Abhidhanacintamani and Kadamba () according to the Uttarapurana. A King named Darpişța-Vasudeva is to wave the Chowri or the fly-fan by his side.
So far as my knowledge goes, one separate figure of Vasupujya has only been found in Northern India. It tallies with the above description.4
From Jaina sources, we gather that his father named Vāsupūjya was a Kṣatriya prince of Iksvaku race. His mother is
I.
sfera ara faggeratai azeaz: 1 इक्ष्वाकुवंशविख्यातो विष्णुनामाऽस्य वल्लभा ॥
Uttara, ibid.
2. Heart of Jainism p. 54. For Sanskrit version Hemacandra :यथा गर्भस्थेऽस्मिन् केनाप्यनाक्रान्तपूर्वा देवताऽधिष्ठितशय्या जनन्या श्रेयो जातमिति श्रेयांशः ।
3. कदम्बवृक्षमूलस्थः सोपवासोऽपरा ।
Ullara, p. 113.
4. One good figure of the Jina is in Nathanagara, Jaina Temple, Bhaagplur.

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49
called Jayāvati. Campāpuri (Modern Bhāgalpur) was his birth-place.
His name has been derived in various ways. As he was the son of Vasupujya, he was fitly called Väsupūjya. It is said that while in the mother's woml), God Indra used to give his father wealth (vasu). Hence his name Vásupūjya. Thirdly, the gods Vasus worshipped him, which lcd to his name as such.
The only explanation that can be rendered to his symbol is that cattle formed the chief wealth in Ancient India. Hence, a buffalo as the emblem.
Vimalanātha
Jaina liturgical treatises attribute to Vimalanātha, the thirteenth Jina, thc Lāùchana or symbol of the boar. The parti, cular attendant spirits attached to him are named as Şanmukha and Vairoţi (Svetām-Viditā). The King to stand for his fanner is called Svayambhu-Väsudeva. His Kevala tree is Jambu (Blackberry).”
As for his parentage, his father's name is Kộtavarman and mother's name is Suramyā. His birth occurred in Kämpilya (Kāmpil in Furrukhabad), the Southern capital of the Pancāla.
An interesting story is told to explain the origin of his name. We reproduce it here. "He got his name Vimalanātha (Lord of Clearness) through the clearness (Vimalatā) of intellect with which he endowed his mother before his birth, and which she displayed in the following manner. A certain man and his wife unwiscly stayed in a temple inhabited by a female demon, who, falling in love with the husband, assumed his real wife's form. The miserable man was quite unable to tell which was his true wise, and asked the King of Kāmpilapura to distinguish between them. It was the queen, however, who solved the difficulty. She knew the long reach that witches and only witches have and telling the husband to stand a long distance off,
1. वसुपूज्यनृपतेरयं वासुपूज्यः । यद्वा- गर्भस्थेऽस्मिन् वसु हिरण्यं तेन
वासवो राजकुलं पूजितवानिति । वसवो देवविशेषाः तेषां पूज्यो वा
वसुपूज्यः; प्रज्ञाद्यणि वासुपूज्यः । 2. Frutatavaht ottagande analfa: 1 Utarapurāna, P. 126.
Abhidhāna-Cintamani,

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51
recognised is Vajra-danda or thunder-bolt. The Yakșa couple 10 attend upon him are respectively called Kimnara and Kandarpā (Dig. Mānasi). The position of a lanner has been taken up by Puņdarika-Vasudeva. The Kevala trce for him is called Dadhiparna or Sapta-cchada.'
The statues of Dharmanātha so far known to us correspond with the above description. The Nagpur Nsuseum preserved two such images. They show the symbol of the thunderbolt and the Chowri-bearer in a royal attire."
With regard to his family we are told that his father's name was Bhānu Rāja and his mother's name Suvratā. He was born at Ratnapura.3
He obtained the name of Dharmanātha because he saved mankind from iniseries. There is tradition also that the Jina's mother perforincd many acts of religion while bearing him in the womb. Hence the name of the child as Dharmanātha.
It appears that the symbol of the Tirthankara, as the naine suggests, has evident connection with Yama's staff. God Yama has another name of Dharmanātha or Dharma-rāja. Hence, the similarity of symbolism.
Sāntinātha
The cognizance which separates the image of Sāntinātha from those of other Tirtharikaras is a deer. The Yakșa and Yakşiņi attendants escorting him arc respectively named as Kimpurușa and Mahāmānasi (Svetām-Garuda and Nirvāņi). Rājā Puruşadatta stands for his Chowri-bcarer. The tree under which he attained thc Kevala knowledge is Nandi Viksa.
The images of Sāntinātha so far discovered are not a few in number. They all correspond with the descriptive details, as given above. In sculpture, we notice as his emblem, a pair
1. ah AGTTEGRITET: Fluosty9144: 1 Ullara P., J. 166. 2. Vide B. 14. B.15. "They (Chowri-bearers) wear an claborate diadem
and many ornaments. They seem to be of royal rank." Descriptive
list of exhibits in the Arch. Section of the Nagpur Museum, pp. 27-28. 3. द्वीपेऽस्मिन् भारते रत्नपुराधीशो महीपतिः ।
देव्या भानुमहाराजसंजस्य विपुलश्रियः ॥ Utlara P., ibid.

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of antilopes between a wheel. The attendant spirits occupy the recesses of the lowest panel.'
Regarding the Jina's parentage, we gather from Jaina books that King Visvasena was his father and Acira was his mother. He was born at Hastinapura.
In Jaina history of pontiffs, Santinātha occupies a very high place. Not only did he revive Jainism, which was in danger of falling into oblivion, but he so consolidated the faith that it never disappeared again. Another extraordinary fact about him is that he was the first Tirthankara to become a Cakravarti or emperor of the whole of India. The occasion, which gave origin to his name, is that before Śantinātha's birth, his mother was able to stay the course of the pestilence which was raging in the kingdom by sprinkling the sufferers with Santi water. Hence, the name "Śantinatha" or 'Lord of Peace'.
52
The symbol of a wheel flanked by two antilopes is exactly equivalent to the Buddhist symbol of the "Turning of the wheel of Law" at Sarnath. As we are informed that Santinātha revived the decadent Jainism, in other words, he preached anew the Jaina religion, it is evident, therefore, he invented or adopted the common symbol of a wheel and two deer. It may not be unlikely that men, in later times, in analogy to the Buddhist symbol of preaching, assigned to his image the "Dharina-Cakra"
emblem.
I. Vide a statue of Santinatha in the Fyzabad Museum, Arch: 1907-08 No. 52; another seated image of the Tirthamkara in the Jogin Ka Matha near Rohtak town, Arch. List No 2430. In Khajuraho, Chattarapur State, there is an image of Santinatha, 14 feet high; in Sirankala, near Lalitpur, Jhansi, there is a temple dedicated to the same Jina; Cf. B. 16. Catalogue of the Nagpur Museum, Mm 1 (Gupta Gallery) Anderson : Catalogue of the Ind. Mus., pp. 201, 215.
2. Heart of Jainism, p. 55. Cf.
i gateranfagenfaryfafa
anfa:
3. For the alternate rise and decline of Jainism refer to the following passage: "After the Nirvana of the ninth Tirthamkara Suvidhinatha, the Jaina faith disappeared until the birth of the tenth Tirthamkara, who revived it; on his Nirvana it disappeared again, but was revived on the birth of the cleventh; and this continued to be the case until the birth of Santinatha the Sixteenth Tirthamkara after which it never disappeared again". Heart of Jainism, P. 55.

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Kunthanatha.
Jaina tradition as preserved in their literature, has always connected the symbol of a goat with this Tirthamkara. He has as his Yakṣa Gandharva and Yakṣiņi Bala (Dig. Vijayā). The contemporary King, who carries his Chowri-fan is called Kuṇāla. The tree selected by him to sit under for attaining the Kevala knowledge is Tilaka taru.
Hitherto, no image of Kunthanatha, to the best of my knowledge, has come to light. Doubtless, however, any image when found out will shew unmistakably the iconographic marks as detailed above.
His parent's names, as may be gathered from the Jaina Purāņas, are variously called Šūrasena, Surya, Sivarāja (Svetambara version) for the father, Srikantā or Śri-devi for the mother. His father belonged to the Kuru race, and Hastinapura as his capital, where the Jina was born. He, like his predecessor, became an emperor.
53
Two explanations of the origin of his name are given in the Abhidhana Cintamani. First the Jina stood firmly on earth hence Kunthanatha. Secondly, before his birth, his mother saw a heap (Kuntha) of jewels.3
Agni, the god of fire, is believed in India to be the presiding deity of wealth also. His symbol of goat has been borrowed in this case to symbolise the idea of riches, which, too, is responsible for the origin of the Jina's name.
Aranatha
The eighteenth Jina Aranatha carries with him the mystic symbol of either the Nandyuvarla (a kind of Svastika) or a fish. His ministerial staff consists of the Taksa named Yakṣendra and
I.
तिलकद्रुममूलस्थश्चैत्रज्योत्स्नापराह्न । हस्तिनाख्यपुराधीशः कौरवः काश्यपान्वयः । शूरसेनो महाराजः श्रीकान्तास्याग्रवल्लभा ॥
Ibid.
3. कुः पृथ्वी तस्यां स्थितवानिति कुन्थुः । तथा गर्भस्थे भगवति जननी
Hemacandra.
2.
Ullara P.. 2. 281.
रत्नानां कुन्थुराशिं दृष्टवतीति कुन्थुः
Mrs. Stevenson mentions two more explanations, viz.. "...during his life people began to show great kindness to insects (Kunthu) and the power of his enemies was stunted (Kuntha)".

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Yakṣiņi named Dharani Devi. The sacred tree peculiar to him is Cuta or mango trec.1 Govinda Raja had the honour of holding his flywhisk.
54
One or two images of Aranatha that have been found out so far in Northern India meet the conditions of iconographic marks mentioned in the preceding paragraph. These were discovered in Mathura and belong to the ancient Kushan age."
Aranatha's father was a Kṣatriya prince of the lunar race. He was known by the name of Sudarsana. The Jina's mother was queen Mitrasena. Their capital was at Hastinapura, when Aranatha was born." This Jina also became an emperor.
He obtained the name of Ara because his mother saw a dream of a wheel (Ara) of jewels.*
It is obvious to explain his emblem of a Nandyāvartla. This, as also fishes, come under the Astamangala or cight auspicious symbols.5
Mallinatha
The Jaina books point out to us the emblem of a water-jar distinguishing Mallinatha sharply from his predecessors as well as his successors. His special attendant goblins or technically Sasana devatās are known as Kubera and Dharanapriya (Dig. Aparājitā). Rājā Suluma stands by his side as a Chowri-bearer. The Kevala tree in his case goes by the name of Asoka."
1. रेवत्यां शुक्लपक्षेऽपरा चूततरोरधः ।
Uttara P., P. 286.
2.
Vide Ch. II. Plate VI "Base of image of the Nandyavarta or Ara, dated in the year 79"; Cf. Plates XCII, XCIVI figures showing Nandyacarta symbol on the chest. The Jaina Stupa and other antiquities of Mathura by V.A. Smith.
3. हस्तिनाख्यं पुरं तस्य पतिर्गोत्रेण काश्यपः । सोमवंशसमुद्भ तसुदर्शनसमाह्वयः । मित्रसेना महादेवी प्राणेभ्योऽप्यस्य वल्लभा ॥ Uttara P. 4. तथा गर्भस्थे भगवति जनन्या स्वप्ने सर्वरत्नमयोऽरो दृष्ट इत्यरः ॥
Hemacandra.
5. Aupapātika Sutra. The symbols are: (1) Svastika, (2) Srivatsa, (3) Nandyavartta, (4) powder-box, (5) throne of Fortune etc.. Notes on Jaina Art by Dr. Coomarswamy. J.I.A.I.
6. अधस्तरोरशोकस्यUttara, P. P. 30

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Separate sculptures of Mallinātha are not altogether rare. The examples known to us materially verify the description given above. They particularly shew the emblem on the pedestal and the Sāsana devalūs in the two extreme corners.!
His father was the king of Mithilā in Vanga (Bengal) and belonged to the Iksvāku racc. llis namc was Kumbha and his queen was called Prajāvati.” According to the Svetāmbara sect, Mallinātha was a woman. But the sculpture and the name ending in Nātha (Mascu.) are not in favour of this tradition as they do not shew the Tirtharikara with any feminine signs.
The Jina acquired the name of Malli as his mother longed for fragrant Alalli (a kind of Jasmine) flowers while bearing him in the womb." The emblem of a water-jar cither symbolises the ninth dream of the Jina mother or one of the Asļa-mangalas or eight auspicious things.
Alumiwata
The Jaina texts furnish the emblem of a tortoise which differentiates the image of this Jina from those of all the rest. The Yaksa husband and wife are called Varuņa aud Naradattā (Dig. Bahurūpiņi) respectively. The king who plays the part of his Chouri-bearer is named Ajita. The tree made sacred by being associated with the scene of his Kevala knowledge is Campaka.
Nagpur Museum Fig. B. 18. Thc Jina is flanked by two attendants of roval birth. They scem to hold Choari carh in one hand; vide Catalogue, p. 29. Fig. B. 19. "The proper right and left extremities of the pedestal arc carved with the sisundiderata : kuvera and Dharanapriyā
respectively." Vide Catalogur, p. 3i. ५. अत्र व भारते वङ्गविषये मिथिलाधिपः ।
इक्ष्वाकुर्भूपतिः कुम्भनामा काश्यपगोत्रजः । प्रजावती महादेवी तस्य लक्ष्मीरिवापरा ॥
Ullara P., p. 305. It is worth nothing here that Mithila (modern Darbhangā) is said to be
a part of Bengal (Banga Vişaya). 3. Also graagifchen ufafarrufen: I TYT TIET Frafa Art: सुरभिकुसुममाल्यशयनीयदोहदो देवतया पूरित इति मल्लिः ।
Hemacandra.

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Jaina Iconography
The few sculptures hitherto discovered of this Jina shew, in unmistakable terms, the symbols ctc., as we have described above. Of him, one separately sculptured in age is only known
Regarding the Jina's parentage, we are informed that his father named Sumitra was the king of Magadha. His mother had the name of Soma (Padmāvati according to some books). His dynasty is called the Harivanía. The capital was at Rājagļha.
His name originated from the fact that he kept noble vows (Suvrata, good vows) devoutly and he was a Muni or a Saint. The tortoise as his emblen symbolises the idea of slowness and steadiness, the two requisite qualities for keeping vows. Naminātha
The emblem which is associated with this Jina is a blue Jotus or the Asoka trec, according to the sectarian view of the Digambaras. Bhỉkuți and Gandhari (Dig. Camundi) are his respective Yakșa and Yaksiņā.
The King who holds the Chouri-fan by him is called Vijaya Rāja. The tree under the shade of which he sat and attained the Kerala knowledge is Bakuln.
No image with the particular symbol of a lotus, so far as I know, has yet come to light. One image of a Tīrthankara with the sign of a lolus between two conches was seen by me among the group of Jaina statues on the Vaibhār Hill. It may presumably be the figure of Naminātha. Conches have been added to clistinguish the syinbolism of Padmaprabha, who likewise has a lotus emblem.
1. Dr. Fuhrer obtained a black pillar with the representation of Muni
Suvrata not far from the gate of the Agra Fort overlooking the Jumna
river. 2. अत्र व भरते राज्ञां पुरे राजगृहाह्वये ।
सुमित्रो मगधाधीशो हरिवंशशिखामणिः ॥ गोत्रेण काश्यपस्तस्य देवी सोमाया सुरैः ।।
Utlara P., p. 318. 3. शोभनानि व्रतान्यस्य सुव्रतः, मुनिश्चासौ सुव्रतश्च मुनिसुव्रतः ॥
Hemarandra. å fpectarea pregatirea: i Uttara P. 1. 437.

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that Neminatha was a cousin of Sri Krisņa and Baladeva. His name has been derived in two ways. First, his circumference (figuratively) was like that of the Dharma Cakra.1 Secondly, before his birth his mother saw a wheel of black jewels. Hence, his other name of Ariṣṭanemi.
58
His emblem of a conch may be accounted for as being symbolic of his residence in a sea-side place where conches are abundantly met with or as reminiscent of his kinship with the Vaisnavite family of Śrīkṛṣṇa.
Pārsvanatha.
He is one of the greatest Tirthankaras or Prophets of Jainism. Some, with a scrupulously historical eye, regard him as the true founder of the Jaina faith." His historicity is unquestioned, his date is almost precisely known and his influence on the Jaina religion is of leading importance. From all sources, we gather his emblem or cognizance is a snake. In sculpture, snake seems to be everything with him. Not only do we find snake in the usual place of the symbol, we find, snakes canopy him with three or seven or eleven hoods.
His Yakṣa is called Parsva or Vamana or Dharanendra and Yakṣiņi is called Padmavati. The king, who stands by his side as a Chowri-bearer is known as Ajitaraja. The Devadāru (Deodar) or Dhataki is his Kevala-tree.
No dearth of images for Pär: vanatha ! His statues can equal in number those of Mahāvīra abundantly found in ancient places of Northern India. In sculpture, several coils of the snake, which flank him are to be noticed. Pārsva's Yakṣa carries a snake. The Yakṣiņi, also has the cobra as her vehicle. Much is known from Jaina Puranas and Caritas of Pārs vanatha's personal
1. धर्मचक्रस्य नेमिवन्नेमिः । नेमीतीन्नन्तोऽपि दृश्यते ।
2.
Abhidhanacintamani.
According to Rhys Davids, Pārsvanatha was probably the founder of the Sect. Ency. Britt. gth ed.. Vol. xii. p. 43.
3. Vide Pl. standing image of Parsva, in the Jogion ka Matha near Rohtak town, No. 2431; Mathura Muscum B. 62, Catalogue p. 77 Nagpur Museum, Figs B. 21. B. 22 D. 23. B. 24; Raipur Museum, B. 5. (Nagpur Muscum Catalogue, Appendix p. 3); 2 Figs of Parsva discovered on the Vaibhāra Hill, Rajgir, they shew 7 hoods of the snake; Cr. 1. Cabinet 5. Gupta gallery, Indian Museum Ibid., J. Ms. 1, J. Ms. 2

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59
and family history. He was probably born about 817 and died about717 B.C. His father Aśvasena was the King of Benares. His mother's name was Vāmä or Brahmā. Pāríva was a brave warrior and once he carried his victorious arms down to Kalina ga. He marricd the daughter of King Prasenajit, King of Kosala, but like Prince Siddhārtha, he left his princess to follow the life of an ascetic at 30 years of age. He preached his doctrines of love and universal fraternity for about 70 years and finally attained liberation or Moksa on Mt. Summet Sikhara non called after him Giri Pārsvanātha Hill, in South Bihár.
A little history mixed with niythology is accredited to Pārsvanātha. The story how he saved a serpent from being burnt by an ascetic namned Kaļha may be studicd critically and iconographically. One day Pārsi va scęs Katha surrounded by a great concourse of people, performing the severe five-fire penance. And he secs that Katha has thrown a great serpent into a fire-pan. He asks the reason for this pitiless practice, inconsistent with Katha's own austerities. Katha replies that kings might understand clephants and horses, but the sages alone understood religion. Pārk va has the fire put out; the agonized serpent comes out and Pārsva makes his people show honour to him. Absorbing the essence of their worship, the serpent is reborn as Dharaṇa, the wealthy king of the Nāgas in Pātāla, Katha, as the result of his false practice, is reborn as an Asura by name of Meghamālin. One day, "Pārs va happening to see on the wall of his palace a picture of the Arhat Nemi, who had taken the vow early in life, decides to do the same...... He wanders from place to place, instructing and acclaimed as a Saint. While standing in the forest of Kaušāmbi in the kārotsarga posture, the serpent king Dharana comes in great state to do him honour, performs a mimic representation and during three days holds an umbrella over his head to protect him from the sun. The Asura Meghamālin (the soul of Kamațla) allacks Lord Pārsva with tigers, elephants etc. Dharana, then excoriates Meghamālin's hatred of the Lord, pointing out he had donc him no injury but on the contrary, had saved him from the sin
1. वाराणस्यामभूद्विश्वसेनः काश्यपगोत्रजः ।
ब्रह्मास्य देवी सम्प्राप्तवसुधारादिपूजना ।।
Uttara P.

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of burning up Dharana on the occasion of his uncanny practice".1 The name of Par va has been explained in Jaina literature differently. "He touches (Sprsati) all ideas by knowledge"is one version. The name was given him because his mother before his birth while lying on her couch, saw a black serpent crawling about. This is the version of the Pārsvanātha Carita also. Thirdly, he is the lord (Natha) of his Yakṣa named Pārs va."
Very little now remains to explain emblem of a serpent. Throughout his life and tradition, serpent plays a prominent part. We shall have a further occasion of dealing with the symbolism of the Yakṣas and Yakṣinīs separately. It here suffices to add that the Ganadhara-Sārddha-Sataka speaks of Pārsva wearing nine serpent's hoods; (Pārsvanātha Naraphana Dharana)." Thus, the canon of the numbers of hoods cited above is not always regular.
60
Mahavira.
Mahavira, the twenty-fourth or the last Jina is the greatest of all the Tirthankaras. His position is of unchallenged eminence in the Jaina religion, history and iconography. Being the Lion among the Jaina prophets, rightly given was his emblem of a lion. His Yakṣa spirits are respectively known as Matanga and Siddhāyikā. The Magadhan King Śrenika or better known as Bimbisara acts as his Chowri-bearer. His Kevala tree is called Sala (L. Shorca Robusta).
1. M. Bloomfield: The Life and stories of the Jaina Saviour. Parsvanātha (Baltimore, 1914, based upon Pārscanātha Carita, p. 10. The same incident we find represented in some images of Parsva. Vide J. Ms. (Gupta Gallery) Indian Museum. "The rest of the slab is profusely covered over with human figures. demons, monsters, and animals, doubtless a representation of the attack of Pārsvanatha by his chemy Kamatha, treated after the fashion of the attack of Mara on Buddha Gotama" Anderson Catalogue Part II.
स्पृशति ज्ञानेन सर्वभावानिति पार्श्वः । तथा गर्भस्थे जनन्या निशि सर्पो दृष्ट इति गर्भानुभावोऽयमिति मत्वा पश्यतीति निरुक्तात्पार्श्वः । पार्श्वोऽस्य वैयावृत्त्यकरः यक्षः तस्य नाथः पार्श्वनाथः ।
2.
Abhidhanacintamani.
3. Bloomfield, Ibid. p. 20. See Weber-Verzeichnisse Vol. II. p. 982. Rohineya-carita, however, asserts clearly that Dharanendra here called 'Naga King of Patala,' covers him with seven hoods.

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Tirtham karas
The statues of all sizes, which number great, have been found in all Jaina places of Northern and Southern India. The complete images show in detail an accord to the description furnished above. Standing and seated figures have been met with, which range in size from a miniature to a colossus. In most cases, the image is represented as seated rather than standing in which posture other Tirthankaras usually appear in sculptures.1
Regardin his life history, the Jaina books such as the Kalpa-Sutra, Uttara-purana, Trisaṣṭi Salākā Puruşa Carita, Vardhamanacaritra yield abundant materials. We just deal with those important events of his life, which relate directly to his images and worship. The five Kalyāṇakas ically mark out the salient periods of a Jina's life. These in Vardhamana's life are associated with interesting episodes.
Vardhamana was born of a royal family of Videla or North Bihar, his father Siddhartha, being the ruling prince of Kundapura, the abode of the Nata or Naya clan. His mother is known by the name of Trisala. Connected with his birth is the auspicious legend that the Tirthankara was actually born of Devananda of the family of Jalandhara, wife of Rṣabha Datta, a Brāhmaṇa, but Indra finding that a Jina ought not to according to tradition, take his birth in a Brahmin family, transferred the foctus through his general Harinegameșa to the womb of Trisalā, a Ksatriya lady of royal family. The child Vardhamana
3
61
1. Vide Fig. B. 25, Nagpur Museum, Fig. B 4. Raipur Museum: Two very ancient images in the Arch. Collection, on the Vaibhar Hill, Rajgir; See T a 2 Fig. (Gupta Gallery), Indian Museum. Anderson: Catalogue, Part II., p. 207, the Gwalior Fort sculptures include many prominent figures of Mahavira. In the Deogarh Fort, I noticed a well-preserved image of Vardhamana on a plinth near the Western gate. The fig. is attended by his Yakṣa and Yakṣini. The earliest images of the Tirthainkara are those which were discovered from the Kankali- ila Vide P. XVII., XCI. V.A. Smith's "The Jaina stupa and other antiquities of Math'ira.'
""
भारतेऽस्मिन् विदेहाख्यं विषये भवनाङ्गने ।
राज्ञः कुण्डपुरेशस्य वसुधाराऽपतत् aand: at: araf: fazriea faci fa 11
पृथुः ।
3. Cr. तस्याश्च देवनन्दाया गर्भयोर्व्यत्ययो मया । विमृश्यैवं शतमुखः समाहूय उगित्यपि ॥
2.
Ultarapurāna.

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Jaina Iconography
had shown early igns of being destined to be a Prophet. Thirty ycars he lived as a house-holder, but after his parent's death, hi deterinined to take the ascetic life and obtained the permission of his brother, who had, then, become king. He renounced everything, all his gold and jewels, distributing them in charity and dividing them among his relatives. He then proceeded in his palanquin to the Park called Sundavana (Sveta) or Sārathi Khaņda (Digi. in Kundanagara (of Vairāli) and there under the Hioku urce, he stripped himself of all his raiments and jewels and entered upon an ascetic life of Suverest penances and austeri
les.
The adorable ascetic hero for one year and a month wore clothing, afterwards he went robtless and had no vessel but his hand. Mahāvīra for twelve years and full six months, entirely neglected his bodly, and laid aside all care of his person, he conclucted himself with perfect patience and equanimity and felt nothing dispirited by the wretchedness of his condition. He had no attachunent or lie binding him to the world. These ties are of four kinds: ar!icles of possession, place, time and affections. “Bound neither !o this world nor to the world to come desiring neither life nor clcath, wholly superior to worldly attachments, he set himself to slay the enemy works (karma).
The third stage of Malāvira's life is represented by his attainment of hevalajñāna or Perfect knowledge. After twelve years of constant practice of asceticism and meditation, when he was 42 years old he went to a place differently known as Trmblikagrāma or Jşmbhikagrāına, not far from the Pārs vanātha Jills. There under the shade of a Sāla iree by the side of the river called Rtuvālika or Rjuvālika, 'sitting in a crouching posture, as one does in nuilking a cow' (Samparvarikāsana), he was in deepest meditation and attained the absolute or the perfect knowledge. From that time, he became an Arhat or Jina.
Then began his career as a preacher of his doctrine which
आदिदेश तथा कर्तु सेनान्यं नैगमेषिणम् । विदधे नैगमेषी च तथैव स्वामिशासनम् ।।
Trişaş!i-sulāki-puruşu-caritu, Paran, 10, 2nd Sarga, 24-25. 1. Rev. J. Stevenson's version of the Kalpa Sūtra (1848).

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Tirthamkaras
63
went on for 30 years unti! his Nirvana or death. The fundamental point in his doctrine is that birth is nothing, caste nothing, and authority of scripture is nothing but Karma every thing and one gets full release from the revolution of births and deaths on the destruction of Karma through utmost austerities. Like Buddha, he preached first to the rich and aristocratic, and though his followers are to be found more amongst the middle classes, his carliest supporters seem to have been rulers and petty kings.... The Digambara and Svetambara legends give the names of the different rulers Mahāvīra visited, and tell how Cetaka, king of Videha became a patron of the order, and Kunika, king of Anga, gave him the most cordial welcome,and how, when he travelled as far as Kausambi, he was received with the greatest honour by its King Satānika, who listened with deep interest to his preaching and eventually entered his order. The Digambaras claim that in 30 years he converted to Jainisin, Magadha, Bihar, Prayaga, Kausambi, Campapurī and many other powerful states in North India.' The places visited by the Jina number great in the Jaina chronicles. The first rainy season of his religious ministry was spent at a town named Asthigrama. "Proceeding then to Campa and Prṣtacampa, he there spent 3, a Vanijyagrāma near Vaiśāli he spent 12, and in the village of Nālandā, near Rajagṛha 14, six at Mithila, two at Bhadrikā, one at Śrāvasti, one at Paṇitabhūmi, and the last of the rainy season, he spent at Papa, the place of his Nirvana. His first disciple was Gotama Indrabhūti, who attained Supreme knowledge and became the chief of his perfectly initiated disciples. At the last-named place, sitting on his lotus seat, he preached the fifty-five discourses that explain the results of Karma and while repeating all alone the sixty-sixth called the chief lesson, he passed away at the age of 72 in about 527 B.C.2 We are to deal now with the origin of his name and symbolism. The two principal names by which he was known were is explained
1. The Heart of Jainism. p. 40.
2. This short life of Mahavira is sketched mainly from the Kalpa Sutra of the Svetambaras. The Digambaras, however, differ in the points of his birth, marriage and dress in the Saint's life. Cf. Uttarapurāņa and the Digambara Harivaṁśa Purana, Chapters II, III.

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Jaina Iconography
‘since the prince was placed in the womb of the Ksatriyāņi Trialā this family's (trcasure ) of gold, silver, riches, corn, jewc!s, pearls, shells, precious stones and corals incrcased, theresore, the prince shall be called Vardhamāna (ie. Increasing).1 He was called Vira or Mahāvira inasmuch as he specially sent away the deeds (Karmans)
His symbol of the lion is the niost befitting mark of his spiritual heroisin. His forbearance, his austerities, his strenuous work in the path of destroying work are all unmistakable proofs of his lion-like personality. Indeed, he figures aniongst the whole range of Jaina Tirthakaras as the Coeur de lion. For the same reason, we find his Yaksiņi Siddhīyikā has the symbol, as her vehicie, of a lion. His Yaksa Mālanga riding an elephant personifies the royal power, which was associated with Vardhamāna in his worldly as well as in his spiritual lifc.
diärānga Sūtra. S.B.E. XXII, p. 191. विशेषेण ईरयति प्रेरयति कर्माणीति वीरः ।
Abhidhāna-Cin!āmani. He had also five names Vira, Ativira, Mahavira, Sanmati, Vardhana.

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CHAPTER II
THE YAKSAS AND THE SASANA-DEVATĀS
In what period of time and how the Yakṣas and their spouses Yakṣinis otherwise known as Sasana-devatās first appear ed in the Jaina pantheon, we have no means of ascertaining. This much can be said with reliable certainty that these demigods do not represent purely Jaina elements but the form in which we find them is an outcome of mixture of ideas. The names of some of the Yakṣas and Šāsana-devatās betray unmistakable identity with those of Hindu deities while the symbols connected with them are also of those of the latter class. These
are:
Agni-Purāna.
The Yakṣas as a class had existed in popular belief and in literary tradition of the Hindus much earlier than the rise of both Buddhism and Jainism. Kuvera or Vaisravana, the king of the Yaksas, who was the treasurer of Siva and lord of the Alaka is several times referred to in carly Hindu literature His attendants were many and several of them are mentioned in a canonical text of the Jainas thus, Pūrṇabhadra, Manibhadra Šalibhadra, Sumanabhadra Lakṣarakṣa, Pūrṇarakṣa, Šravana, Sarvayasas, Sarva-kāma, Samṛddha, Amogha, Asmata.1 Of these Manibhadra, whose another name is Yakṣendra or Yakṣapati attained much antiquarian importance on account of a discovery of his image in the frontier. Such discussion was evoked and it was generally accepted by scholars that Manibhadra was a Yakṣa. It may be remarked here in brief that this image must be Jaina in origin on the ground that Manibhadra's name as Yakṣendra is counted in the list of the Jaina Yakṣas and the inscription in the pedestal reads like the Mathura Jaina
1.
प्रचेतसः सुता यक्षास्तेषां नामानि मे शृणु । केवल हरिकेशश्च कपिलः काञ्चनस्तथा । मेघमाली च यक्षाणां गण एष उदाहृतः ॥
2.
Bhagavati-Sutra III. 7, also discussed by Rai Bahadur R. Chanda in his "four ancient Yakṣa statues", p. 6. Journal of the Dept. of Letters, Cal. Universitv. 1921.
See M. BH.

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Jaina Iconography
inscriptions. The Yakṣas are, in Indian tradition, regarded as the presiding spirits over wealth and therefore it is easy to see why Jainas who represent a mercantile class specially endeared themselves to this cult and appropriated them especially among the class of their Dhundhi-devas or highest divinities.
In the foregoing chapter, we have had occasion, in connection with the individual Tirthamkaras, of making mention of the Yakṣas by names but a description of their general character was not outlined. 'A Yakṣa is a devotee of the Tirthankaras',1 so defines a Jaina liturgical text. According to the Jaina belief, Indra appoints one Yakṣa and Yakṣi to serve, as attendants of each Tirthankara. The Yakṣa would be on his right side and Yakṣiņi on his left. Thus, they also came to be called SasanaDevata or attendant spirits. According to Hemacandra, a Yakṣa originates from the particular religious spirit of a Jina.2 Hence, we can take, in all strong probability, that the Yakṣa was the leader of the disciples and Yakṣini was the first female convert. Truth of this statement can also be supported by the fact that just like the disciples of the Buddha in his image, the Yakṣa and the Yakṣini occupy the corner of the pedestal on which the Tirthankara figure is seated. In later development, the Yakṣa cult obtained greater veneration among the Jainas, hence we find detached independent images of the Yakṣas among the ancient ruins. In this connection, we should bear in mind that the Yakṣas are traditionally known as demi-gods of riches, Kuvera, their leader, being the supreme deity of treasures. The question may arise why the Yakṣas play such a prominent role in the Jaina Pantheon and why they became associates of the Tirthamkaras. It may again be conjectured and probably
यक्षा भक्तिदक्षास्तीर्थकृतामिमे ।
Cf. या पाति शासन जैनं सद्यः प्रत्यूहनाशिनी । साभिप्रेतसमृद्ध्यर्थं भूयात् शासनदेवता ।।
Pratistha-kalpa, p. 13.
A Yaksa is always spoken of as “तत्तीर्थजन्मा", "तत्तीर्थभूः " ततश्च तीर्थे तत्रैवोत्पन्नः।” तीर्थे " तत्र समुत्पन्ने” etc.. repeatedly in Hemacandra's Trişaṣtisalākāpuruşa-carita. A yoksa is again clearly described as the defender of the Jina's religion. ( यक्षाय श्रीयुगाङ्ग जिनशासनरक्षाकारकाय - Acāra-dinakara) Ramaghata Collection, Benares).
MSS..

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Yaksas and Sasana-Devatās
with strong grounds that as the Yakṣas and Yakṣinis were leader disciples of the Jinas, they had been chosen from the rich mercantile class and some of them had represented as bankers. In actual images, we find them decorated in rich jewels and characterised with the symbol of money-bag etc. Apart, however, from this historical background, some quasi-mythological incidents exist in the Jaina literature to explain the origin of some of the Yakṣas, as for instance, Dharanendra and Padmavati in the case of Parsvanatha. We, now, proceed to discuss the iconographic points of each and every Yakṣa or Safana Deva.
Gomukha
As first in order of the Yakṣas, Gomukha is attached to Rṣabhanatha. The texts of both the branches of Jainism concur generally in respect of his attributes. His hands hold the l'arada Mudrā and a rosary and left hands hold a Pasa (Digambara Parasu or Axe). His riding animal differs from an ox according to some texts, to an elephant according to others. His colour is golden. The Digambara books assign in addition a Dharma
1.
चतुर्भुजः सुवर्णाभो गोमुखे वृषवाहनः । हस्तेन परशु ं धत्ते बीजपूराक्षसूत्रकम् । वरदानपरः सम्यक् धर्मचक्रञ्च मस्तके |
Vasunandi's Pratiṣṭhā-sāroddhāra (MSS. Jaina Siddhānabhuvana. Arrah). Cf. सव्येतरोर्ध्वकरदीप्रपरश्वधोक्षसूत्रं तथाधरकराङ्कफलेप्टदानम् ।
प्राग्गोमुखे वृषमुखं वृषगं वृषाङ्क भक्तं यजे कनकभं वृषचक्रशीर्षम् ॥ Pratisthā sāraddhāra by Asādhara, P. 66
Also Cf. स्वर्णाभो वृषवाहनो
चतुर्बाहुभ
Again
...
Acāra-dinakara.
वराक्षमालाशालिभ्यां दोर्भ्यां दक्षिणपार्श्वयोः । मातुलिङ्गपाशभृद्भ्यां वामदोर्भ्यां च शोभितः ॥
67
हेमवर्णी गजरथः etc., Trisasti salākā purusa-carita. Further, प्रथमजिनस्य गोमुखो यक्षः स्वर्णवर्णो गजवाहनः
Pravacana-Sāroddhāra (MSS. Chāni Jaina Bhandara. Baroda).
ऋषभ गोमुखो यक्षो हेमवर्णो गजाननः ।
वराक्षसूत्रपाशञ्च बीजपूरं करेषु च ॥
Sutradhara Mandana's Västu-sastra (MSS. No.. 1351. Jaina Collection jñāna Mandir, Baroda. Cf the details in the Mandira - pratistha-ridhāna MSS. Jaina Siddhāntabharana, Arrah.

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Jaina Iconography
68
Cakra symbol to his head. Images of Geinukha are found in two types, one detached and larger in size and another miniature in form as attendant to Adinatha in his representation. The latter type is more abundant as image of Adinatha can be met with in numerous Jaina places of India. In both the types, the figues do not, as a rule, strictly follow the canons of iconography as laid down by the scriptures. The figure of Gomukha, for instance, from Gandaval in Gwalior state shows a staff, axc etc. in his hands. This ascription of the attributes is due to the artist's partial obedience to divergent texts.
Now, how to explain the symbolism and name of this particular Yakṣa? His bull face, bull as animal, Dharma Cakra mark on his hand all speak of his intimate association with Rṣablanitha or Vṛṣabhanatha, whose bull and Dharma Cakra (wheel of the law or faith) are the prominent effigies. Further, we find, in one text, tha: he has been identified with Dharma or God of Gods (Mahadeva), he being the originator of the Jaina religion. Thus, he is also identified with a bull, the symbol of religion.1
Mahāyak, a
The Digambara, as well as the Svetambara texts coincidently describe him as riding an elephant and having four faces and eight hands armed with weapons. Only with regard to these weapons the texts vary. The Svetambara books enumerate them as (for right hands) Varada, club rosary, noose, (for left hands) citrus, Abhaya, goad and Sakti. The Digambara texts read for these a disc, trident, lotus, goad (for left arms), a sword, staff, axe and Vara-Mudra (for right arms). Another point of difference between the texts of the two sects is that the Svetämbaras
Âï acate: eTgleadisea 9121 à âîâ aa gtalaisen i त्रिधा बद्धो वृषभो रोरवीति महादेवो मर्त्यं श्रा विवेश । स्वाहा ।। Pratisthāsara-samgraha, p. 13. MSS. J.S. Bhavan, Arrah. ततश्च तीर्थे तत्रैवोत्पन्नो यक्षश्चतुर्मुखः ।
श्यामवर्णो गजरथ महायक्षाभिधानतः ॥
Cf. the description of the Yakşa in Pravacana-:āroddkāra and also in the cava-dinakara.

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rakşas and Sāsana-devatās
69
will have green colour, wbile the Digambaras will have golden colour for the Yaksa.1
We do not know images of Mahāyakșa except in the case of attendant miniature figures as can be seen in the sculpture of Ajitanātha.Correspondence between the descriptions given above and the figures may be maintained.
The Yakşa's symbol of an elephant should be interpreted as clirectly concerned with his master's symbol of the same animal. His eight arms naturally correspond with his four faces.
Trimukha
Trimukha is Sambhavanātha's attendant disciple. Tests of both the Svetāmbaras and Digambaras are concordant in describing this Yakșa as possessed of three faces, sis arms and riding on a peacock. With respect to articles held in the hands, the books vary in some respects. The Svetambara texts give him a mongoose, club, Abhaya-Mudri (for his right hands) and a ci!rus garland and rosary (for his left hands).3 The Digambara text, on the contrary, gives the following attributes for his six arms-a disc, sword, Smi (goad) staff, trident and dagger.. 1. चक्रत्रिशूलकमलाङ्कुशवामहस्तो निस्त्रिशदण्डपरशुप्रवरान्यपाणिः । चामीकरद्युतिप्रभाङ्कनतो महादिर्यक्षोऽजितो गजरथश्चतुराननोऽसौ ॥
Pratisthāšāro!dkārn, p. 66. Cf. अजितस्य महायक्षो हेमवर्णश्चतुर्मुखः ।।
गजेन्द्रवाहनारूढः स्वोचिताष्टभुजायुधः ॥ Vasunandi's Pratisthāsāra-sangraha MSS, Jaina Collection, Arrah. 2. The figure of Mahai-Yaksa occurs in the Sculpture of Ajitanatha, Dro
garh Fort, Jhansi. Cr. Aich. Scrial No. 2225. 3. त्रिनेत्रस्त्रिमुखः श्यामः पड्बाहुबहिवाहनः । दक्षिण कुलधरः गदाभृदभयप्रदैः । युक्तो वामैर्भुजैर्मातुलिङ्गदामाक्षसूत्रिमिः ॥
Hemacandra's Sumbhavacurita. Cf. श्यामवर्णो मयूरवाहनः पड्भुजो नकुलगदाऽभययुक्तदक्षिणकरकमलः मातुलिङ्गदामाक्षसूत्रयुक्तवामपाणिः
Pravacana:āroddhāra MSS, Jaina Bhandar Chhani Baroda, 4. चक्रासिशृण्युपगसव्यसयोन्यहस्तैर्दण्डत्रिशूलमुपयन् शितकर्तिकां च । वाजिध्वजप्रभुनतः शिखिगोऽजनाभस्त्र्यक्षः प्रतीक्षतु बलि त्रिमुखाख्ययक्षः ॥
Pratisthā-säroddhāra. Cf. the same details in Mandira Pralisthāridhāna MSS. Jaina bhavana, Arrah.

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Jaina Iconography
Separate representations of Trimukha have not been discovered anywhere in India. A corner figure in miniature of the Yakṣa may be seen in the sculpture of the third Jina Sambhavanatha. In general details, the figures accord with the canonical descriptions.
His symbol of peacock has close connection with his Faksini, Prajnapti, who is one of the presiding deities over learning or as they are the Fidyadevis, and who also has peacock as her vehicle. The Yakṣa's name of Trimukha can be explained as his having three faces.
Taksesvara
He belongs, as an attendant spirit, to Abhinandana. He is characterised by the symbol of an elephant, the ascription thereof is common to divergent books. The attributes held by the spirit are not regular. Sectarian canons vary in this respect. According to the Svetambara view, the Yakṣa holds in his right hands- a citrus, a rosary, and in his left hand, a mongoose and a goad. According to the other view, he has a bow, shield (Khetaka) and a sword.
We have not met with any instance of an image of YakṣeSvara as a separate piece. The sculpture of Abhinandana, however, includes a figurine of this Yakṣa and when compared reveals much correspondence in respect of symbolism with the canonical description."
This Yakṣa has been described as the King of Yaksas (Yakses vara) and very powerful. The elephant symbol, in his
1. तीर्थयक्षेश्वरस्तत्र श्यामो द्विरदवाहनः । aldust aferit fazrungfa gr&gfaut || वामौ च धारयन् बाहू नकुलांकुशधारिणो ॥
Hemacandra's Abhinandana-carita III. 2.
Cr. श्यामसुन्दरवाहनो युगभुजो हस्तद्वये दक्षिणे
मुक्ताक्षावलिमुत्तमां परिणतं
मातु लिङ्ग वहन् वामेऽप्यङ्क शमुत्तमं च नकुलं कल्याणमालाकरः ॥ Acāradinakara (MSS. Rāmaghāṭa Jaina Collection)
2.
प्रेङ्खद्धनुःखेटकवामपाणि सकम्पत्राणास्यपसव्यहस्तम् । श्यामकरिस्थं कपिकेतुभक्तं यक्षेश्वरं यक्षमिहार्चयामि ||
3. Cf. Fig. B. 10. Nagpur Museum Collection.
Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra, p. 68.

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case, betrays thus kingly magnificence. His goad is an instrument for driving the elephant. The symbol of a mongoose (Nakula) is curiously identical with the same symbol held by Jambhala, the Buddhist Kuvera of wealth.
Tumbara
He is attached to Sumatinatha Jina as an attendant Yakṣa. That his vehicle is Garuda is attested by the scriptures of both the sects of Jainism. His attributes according to the Svetambara iconography are: Varada, Sakti (spear) club and noose' whereas the Digambara variants are these: two snakes, fruit and Farada. The Digambara scripture gives him in addition a snake in the shape of a holy thread.
Except in the sculpture of Sumatinatha, no separate image of Yakṣas has up to the present been discovered.
Tumbara, in Hindu Literature is said to be the divine musician, a Gandharva. In Jaina pantheon, this aspect is completely changed for some reason or other; he changed his musical instrument for deadly weapons. Both he and his Yakṣiņi known as Puruṣadatta (among the Digambara) ride upon birds, his being Garuda, and the Yakṣini's red goose (Cakravāka). The Jina Sumatinatha, to whom they are attached, has also a red goose for his emblem.
Kusuma or Puspa Taksa
His characteristic symbol, according to the Svetāmbaras and Digambaras, is an antilope. Texts of both the sects, how
1. तत्तीर्थे तुम्बरुर्नाम श्वेताङ्गस्तार्क्ष्यवाहनः । दक्षिणी वरदशक्तिधरौ बाहू समुद्रहन् । वामौ बाहू गदाधरौ पाशयुक्तौ च धारयन् ।।
Hemacandra's Sumatinathacarita.
71
2. सर्पोपवीतं विषपन्नगोर्ध्वकरं स्फुरद्दानफलान्यहस्तम् । कोकाङ्कनम्रं गरुडाधिरूढं श्रीतुम्बरं श्यामरुचि यजामि ॥
Cf. सर्पद्वयं फलं धत्ते वरदः परिकीर्तितः ।
सर्पयज्ञोपवीतोऽसौ खगादिपतिवाहनः ।।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra, p. 67.
Vasunandi's Praliṣṭhāsārasamgraha, Arrah Jaina Collection.

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Jaina Iconography (ver, diverge with regard to the objects held by him. The Svetāmbara Yaksa will have four hands holling a fruit and „1bhaya (in the right hands) and a rosary and a mongoose, (in his left hands).' The Yaksa as known to the Digambaras has a lance, Varaun-.Mudra, shield and lbhaya-Mudrä in his four hands.?
The Yakşa's name as Kusuma or l'uspa (flower) has direct counction with the emblem of red lotus flower of his master. His antelope symbol standing for the idea of quickness seems to be associated with his Yaksini, whose name is 'Manovega' or quick as mind' in a literal sense).
Malanga ir l'aranandi
His characteristic emblem is not comnion to both the sects. The Svetāmlara view will prescribe an elephant for his vehicle while the Digambara will make him ride a lion. The attributes which the Yaksa holds vary with the books of the two sccts. The Svetambara version gives them as: a l'ilva fruit, noose, mongoose and goad." The other version cnumeralt's the same as: -stall, spear, Svastika and flag.' Onc text, however, of the Digambaras speaks of the Yaksa as two-armed and as having a crooked face." 1. श्रीपद्मप्रभम्य कुसुमो यक्षो नीलवर्णः कुरङ्गवाहनश्चतुर्भुजः फलाभययुक्त
दक्षिणपाणिद्वयो नकलाक्षस्त्रयक्तवामपाणिश्च । Paracam-'cīruleika NSS. Chhani Jaina Bhardwa. Barva). Cr. स्फूर्जत्फलाभयमुदक्षिणपाणिग्मो नकलाक्षसूत्रयुतवामकरद्वयश्च संघ जिनार्चनरतं कुसुमः पुनातु ।
Acaradinakara (MSS. Ramaghāļa Collection, Benorcs). 2. मृगाधिरूढं वरकुन्तवामकरं सखेटाभयसव्यहस्तम् ।
श्यामाङ्गमब्जध्वजदेवसव्यं पुष्पाख्ययक्षं परितर्पयामि ।।
illuulin Pharistbär:diāna Mss. Jain Siddhanta bhavana, Arrah). १. सुपार्श्वस्य मातङ्गो यक्षो नीलवर्णो गजवाहनश्चतुर्भुजो बिल्वपाशयुक्तदक्षिणपाणिद्वयनकुलांकुशष्ठवतवामपाणिः ।।
Baucamasāumlahăin (MISS. Chhāni Collection'. 1. सिंहाधिरोहस्य सदण्डशूलसव्यान्यपाणेः कुटिलाननस्य । कृष्णत्विपः स्वस्तिककेतुभक्तर्मातङ्गयक्षस्य करोमि पूजाम् ।
Praşthāsāroddlāra. 5. सुपार्श्वनाथदेवस्य यक्षो मातङ्गसंज्ञकः । द्विभुजो वक्रतुण्डोऽसौ कृष्णवर्णः प्रकीर्तितः ॥
Pratisthāsārasangraha (MSS. Jaina Siddhanta bhavana, Arrah).

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73
A survey of the North Indian Muscums and Jaina sites makes it possible for me to say that nowhere a separate image of this particular Yaksa has been found. In the sculptures of Supārsvanātha, however, we find him represented in his usual position.
As his name (Mātanga- elephant') suggests, his symbol ought to be appropriately an elephant. And his goad shows that he drives the animal. In his Digambara aspect, his Svastika symbol may be explained as directly concerned with the same emblem bclonging to his master Supārsvanātha. Vijara or Srāna taksa
He has, in the Digambara vcrsion, three eyes, and holds in his hands a fruit, rosary, axc and the l'aramudrā'; with some alterations the Svetāmbaras represent him with three cycs, a swan as his vehicle, two hands holding a disc and a club.? He is known to them by the name of Vijaya.
The sculptures of Candraprabha include, as a whole, a figure of this Yakşa. The symbolism as noticed above is followed by such figures. 3
Ajila
His symbol of a tortoise as a vehicle is admitted by both the sects. The attributes vary, however, with them. Thc Svetāmbara image will hold in his hands, a citrus, rosary, mongoose and a spear." The image as conceived by the Digambaras will bear
1. चन्द्रप्रभजिनेन्द्रस्य श्यामो यक्षस्त्रिलोचनः । फलाक्षसूत्रकं धत्ते परशुं च वरप्रदः ।
, (MSS, Jaina Siddhānta bhavana, Arrah). 2. dienafeenafarit HTET: 1 दधानो दक्षिणे चक्रं भुजे वामे तु मुद्गरम् ॥
Hemacandra's Trisastiśnlālāpurusucurita). 3. A clear figure of the Yaksa in the sculpture of Candraprabha, discovered
in the Gwalior Statc Arch. No. 84. 4. Tarat caferat: darf: FATEHT: 1
बिभ्राणो दक्षिणी बाहू मातुलिङ्गाक्षसूत्रिणौ ॥ वामौ तु नकुलकुन्तधारिणौ धारयन् भुजौ ।।
Smyddhināthacarita by Ilcmacandra.

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74
vice above a Sakti, Varada-mudra, fruit and rosary.1
The tortoise symbol is the same with the symbol of his Yakṣiņi (according to the Digambara version). The Švetāmbara Yakṣini holds an urn having some connection with water. All this group of emblems agree in nature with the aquatic symbol of a crocodile or a crab as associated with their master Suvidhinatha.
Brahma akşa
He is invariably given four faces, three eyes, eight hands, and a lotus seat. The difference lies in respect of the attributes held by the eight hands. The Svetambara Brahma Yakṣa bears the following objects in his hands: a citrus, club, noose, Abhaya, mongoose, mace, goad and rosary." The Digambara variants are a bow, staff, shield, a sword, l'ara-Mudrā etc. The conception of this Yakṣa has much in common, together with the name with that of the Brahmanic deity Brahma. The same four faces (Caturmukha) an epithet of Brahma, the lotus seat etc. are attributed to this demi-god. His Yakṣiņi Asoka (of the Svetambaras) has the lotus-seat while the same Yakşini as represented by the Digambaras has black hogs for her chariot and with the emblem of dawn may be said to be the Aurora of the Jainas.
Jaina Iconography
Isvara Yakşa
This Yakṣa of Sreyamsanatha has from both accounts, a bull vehicle, three eyes and four hands. The Digambara canon places on his hands the attributes of a trident (Trisüla), staff, rosary and a fruit." The Svetambara icon of the same Yakṣa
1.
प्रतिपुष्पदण्डस्य यक्षः खेतचतुर्भुजः । फलाक्षसूत्रशक्तयाढ्यो वरदः कूर्मवाहनः ॥
Pratisthasurasaṁgraha.
2. तत्तीर्थभूर्ब्रह्मनामा यक्षस्त्रयक्षश्चतुर्मुखः । पद्मासनः श्वेतवर्णश्चतुभिर्दक्षिणैर्भुजैः । मातुलिङ्गी मुद्गरभृत्सपाशाभयदायिभिः । वामैस्तु नकुलगदाङकुशाक्षसूत्रधारिभिः ॥
Hemacandra's Sitalanathacarita.
3. त्रिनेत्रो वृषवाहनः फलाक्षसूत्रसंयुक्तः सत्रिशूलश्चतुर्भुजः । Pratistha-sara-samgraha (MSS.. Arrah Library).

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holds a mongoose, rosary, staff and a fruit. 1
A separate image of this Yakṣa was unexpectedly explored by the author, who gave it to the Indian Museum, Calcutta. The image with slight modifications agrees with the scriptural description. The important symbol of a bull is prominent enough in the figure.
From the aforesaid description and from the name itself the Yakṣa, represents a borrowed form of the Brahmanic Siva or Isvara. His Yakṣiņi also bears the name of Gauri (according to the Digambaras ). And as Manavi (Svetāmbara version ), she rides an elephant like the consort of Siva. All this shows that the older gods became subordinate to the Tirthankaras whom they also served as attendants with their wives.
Kumāra
Both the texts of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras coincide in attributing to him a vehicle of swan and white complexion. The Digambara view makes him three-headed and six-handed while the Svetämbara school only four-armed. The attributes held by him according to the former are a bow, ichneumon, fruit, club, vara.3 The attributes as represented by the latter view are a citrus, arrow, mongoose and bow. 1
It is rather curious that this Yakṣa, who bears the analog
1.
2.
Cr. त्रिशूलदण्डान्वितवामहस्तः करेऽक्षसूत्रं त्वपरं फलं च । Pratisthã-sāruddhāra. p. 68.
वृषयानो मातुलिङ्गगदादक्षिणदोर्द्वयः । नकुलाक्षसूत्रयुक्तदक्षिणेतरबाहुकः ।।
Hanacandra's Sreyāṁšanāthacarita.
त्रिमुखः षड्भुजः श्वेतः सुरूपो हंसवाहनः ।
Pratistha-sara-samgraha (Jaina Bhavana, Arrah).
3. शुभ्रो धनुर्बभ्रु फलाढ्यसव्यहस्तोऽन्यहस्तेषु गदेष्टदानः । लुलायलक्ष्मप्रणतस्त्रिवक्त्रः प्रमोदतां हंसचरः कुमारः ।।
4. तत्तीर्थभूः कुमाराख्यो यक्षो हंसरथः सितः । मातुलिङ्गशरधरौ धारयन् दक्षिणौ करौ ॥ वामौ च नकुलधनधारिणौ धारयन् भुजौ । वासुपूज्य जितेन्द्रस्याभवत् शासनदेवता ।।
75
Pratisthā sāvoddhara.
Hemacandra's Vāvūpaiya-carita.

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ous name to Kumāra or Kāritikeya should have a swan instead of a peacock for his vehicle while the next Yakşa, who is called Caturmukha (an epithet of Brahmā) has a peacock as his riding animal. In all probability there must havc been some unknown anomaly in the symbolism of these two Yakşas.
Caturmukha or Sanmukha laksa
He is known by the name of Caturmukha, to the Digambaras and Sanmukha to the Svetāmbaras. Both sects, however, concurrently assign to him the vehicle of a peacock. Caturmukha las twelve arms according to one version and cight arms according to another. The arms hold such objects as-an axe, scimilar (haukscinko), Iksamani (?) shield, staff etc. The Yakşa Șanmukha has twelve hands holding a fruit, disc, arrow, sword, noose, rosary, mongoose, discus, bond, fruit, goad and Abhara.
l'rom the description and names, he bcars anomalously, as mentioned before, identity with Brahımā as well as with Kumīra or Kirtikeya, The Sverīnbara Yaksa is clcarly called Şanmukha (six-headed, a designation of Kärttikeya) while in accordance with both the doctrines, lic rides a peacock, the svinbol of Kurttikeya.
Pütüla luksa
The Digarnbara and the Svetānıbara books agrec insofar as the Yakşa has three faces, six arms and the vehicle of a dolphin. The former tests state in a version of difference that he
1. विमलस्य जितेन्द्रस्य नामार्थाभ्यां चतुर्मुखः । यक्षो द्वादशदोर्दण्ड: मुरूपः शिखिवाहनः ।।
Prutişthū-svīra-sangraha MSS. Jaina Bhavana. 67. Tet T741963/4fTHT (?) centfot: atenuai temaforecaiguEHET: 1 विभ्रच्चतुभिरपरैः शिखिगः किराङ्कनम्रः प्रतृप्यत यथार्थचतुर्मखाख्यः ।।
Mendia-Pratiştiu-I'ielāna (MISS 6/2 Arrah). 2. Pravacana-sároddhāra, Dvira 26.
तत्तीर्थभूः षण्मुखाख्यो यक्षः शिखिरयः सितः । दक्षिणः शूलचक्रेपुखगपाशाक्षसूत्रिभिः । वामैः सनकुलचक्रकोदण्डशूलशङ्कुकैः ।
Heinacandra's l'imalunithacarita.

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holds a goad, spear, bow, rope, plough and fruit' and in addition bears a canopy of a three-hooded snake. The latter texts represent his hands as holding a lotus, sword, moose, mongoose, fruit and rosary.
For some reason or other his name “Pātāla” has been connected with Ananta both meaning serpent-kings of the nether world. His symbol of a three-headed snake may support this explanation. He seems to be the presiding spirit of the Nāga world and the plough symbol suggests of agriculture also. Kinnara raksa
The texts of both the schools is unaninious in giving this Yaksa three faces and six arms. His vehicle differs from a tortoise with the Svetāmbaras to a fish with thc Digambaras. The former sect describes his attributes as a citrus, mace, Abhaya, mongoose, lotus and a rosary. The Digambaras, on the contrary, describe them as a disc, Vajra, goad, club, rosary and Fara Mudrā.3
The symbolisms of the some of the Yakşas are sometimes very riddling. It is certain that the conception of this Yaksa is mainly borrowed from an older tradition. Thc Kinnaras are
यक्षः पातालनामकः । त्रिमुखः षड्भुजो रक्तवर्णो मकरवाहनः ।
Pratisthā-sāra-sangrahn (MSS.. Jaina Collection Arrah). Cr. पातालकः सशृणिशूलकचापसव्य
हस्तः कषाहलफलाङ्कितसव्यपाणिः । रक्तोऽर्यतां त्रिफणनागशिरास्त्रिवक्त्रः ।
Pratisthi-säroddhāra, p. 69. 2. तत्तीर्थभूः किन्नराख्यस्त्र्यास्यः कूर्मरथोऽरुणः ।
दक्षिणस्तु मातुलिङ्गगदाभृदभयप्रदैः । वामैस्तु नकुलपद्माक्षमालामालिभिर्भुजैः ॥
Hemacandra's Dharmunātlıncarita, Parva 4, Sarga 5. 3. धर्मस्य किन्नरो यक्षस्त्रिमुखो मीनवाहनः ।
___Pratisthā-sriva-samgraha. सचक्रवज्राङ्कुशवामपाणिः समुद्गराक्षालिवरान्यहस्तः । प्रवालवर्णस्त्रिमुखो झषस्थो वज्राङ्कभक्तोऽहंतु किन्नरोऽर्चाम् ॥
Pratisthā-sarorldhāra.

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supposed to be human figures with horse-heads and Kubera is their leader being called Kimisvara. Gradually, we find, these Yakṣas are associated with Nagas, Kinnaras, Garudas, Gandharvas and so on. Of course, the particular appearance in which they appear along with the Jinas is, no doubt, of Jaina invention. The idea of his three faces is quite original to them. The fish symbol alone given by the Digambaras is curious enough to be noticed in the case of his Yakṣini Kandarpa as represented by the Svetambara.
78
Garuda Yaksa of Santinatha
Garuda Yakṣa is represented from both points of view as riding a boar. (acc. to the Pravacana-Sāroddhāra and elephant acc. to Hemacandra) and as endowed with four hands. The objects borne by the hands, as usual, vary canonically. In accordance with the Svetambara view, the hands hold a citrus, lotus, mongoose and rosary. To the other sect the hands are known to have a lotus, fruit, Fajra and discus.2
I saw a figure of Garuda Yakṣa on the Southern face of a pillar just entering the Deogarh Fort Gate (Western) as an attendant of Santinatha. He rides a boar and holds a club, rosary, citrus, and snakes. Thus, all this agrees mostly with the description cited before. It seems to be a Svetambara image although in Deogarh Fort there are Digambara images in greater number as well. Both are found inseparably mixed up.
His symbol of an elephant might not have distant allusion to the mythical bird Garuḍa while holding an elephant in one hand and tortoise in another (Gaja Kacchapa).
1. तत्तीर्थजन्मा गरुडयक्षो गजरथोऽसितः । sistent वीजपूराब्जभृद्दक्षिणकरद्वयः । वामौ दधानो नकुलाक्षसूत्राभ्यां सहितौ करौ ॥
Hemacandra's Santinathacarita, Parva 5. Sarga 5. 2. गरुडो नामतो यक्षः शान्तिनाथस्य कीर्तितः । वराहवाहनश्यामो वक्रवक्त्रचतुर्भुजः
Pratistha-sara-sangraha (Arrah). Cr. वक्त्रानधोऽधस्तनहस्तपद्मफलोऽन्यहस्तापितवज्रचक्रः । मृगध्वजार्हत्प्रणतः सपर्यां श्यामः किटिस्थो गरुडोऽभ्युपैतु ॥
Pratistha-saroddhāra, p. 69.

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79
Gandharva l'aksa
The Digambara account inakes this Yaksa to ride a bird and bear four hands. The symbols held in them are a snake, noose, bow etc. The Svetāmbara representation shows a swan as his vehicle and his four hands holding a l'arada, noose, citrus and goad.?
The Gandharvas are a class of derni-gods regarded as the musicians of gods and are said to give good and agreeable voice to girls. As the Yakşas came out from all kinds of demi-gods, it is very natural that a Gandharva also had a place among them. His vehicle of a bird ora swan might echo theidca of his inherent connection with sound and sky, which is called "Gandharvanagara" or the city of the Gandharvas.
Khendra or Yaksendra
According to the imagery of both the sects, this Yaksa is represented as having six mouthis and twelve arms. The Svetāmbara version gives the vehicle of a conch-shell and adorns his arms with a citrus, arrow, sword, club, noose, and Abhara, Imongoose, bow, fruit, spcar, goad and rosary. Another book of the same school gives him a peacock as a vehicle.' He, as called "Khendra' by the Diganılaras, is described as bcaring in
1. कुन्थुनाथजिनेन्द्रस्य यक्षो गन्धर्वसंज्ञकः । पक्षियानसमारूढः श्यामवर्णश्चतुर्भुजः ।।
*** Pratis!hāvāra-Samurahın (MSS. Arrah). Cr. सनागपाशोर्ध्वकरद्वयोऽधः करद्वयात्तेपुधनुः सुनीलः ।
___ गन्धर्वयक्षः स्तमकेतु भक्तः पूजामुपेतु श्रितपक्षिजानुः ॥ 2. तत्तीर्थभूश्च गन्धर्वयक्षो हंसरथोऽसितः । दधानो दक्षिणी वाहुदण्डौ वरदपाशिनौ । मातुलिङ्गाङ्कुशधरौ धारयन् दक्षिणेतरौ ॥
Hemacandra. 3. यक्षेन्द्रः षण्मुखस्त्र्यक्षः श्यामः शङ्खरथो भुजैः ।
मातुलिङ्गिबाणिखङ्गिमुद्गरिपाशभीप्रदैः (छिदः) । दक्षिणः षडभिरन्यश्च नकुलेष्वसिचर्मभिः । शूलाङ्कुशाक्षः सूत्राक्षंयुक्तस्तत्तीर्थभूस्तथा ।
Hemacandra's dranāthacaritra. 4. Pravacanasāroddhāra.

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his twelve arms a bow, thunderbolt, noose, club, goad, Varada, arrow, fruit, garland, etc.'
In description and name, he seems to be a Jaina counterpart of Kārtikeya 'sis-faced'. The vehicle of Şadānana i.c. peacock is the same in both the cases. It is to be noted also that this Yakṣa is again nearly the same in all respects as the Sanmukha Yakṣa of Vimalanatha already described. The representation and the name (Kha--Indra) suggest the idea of a heavenly Indra, one of the Dikpalas. This Yaksa also holds a thunderbolt.
Kubera.
His iconographic marks common to both the schools of Jainism are rainbow colour, an elephant as vehicle, his eight hands and four faces. The Svetämbara Kubera Yakṣa holds distinctly, however, a Varada, axe, spear, Abhaya, citrus, sakti, club, and rosary The Digambara image has, instead, the attributes of a shield (phalaka ) bow, staff, lotus, sword, axe, noose, Varada-Mudra.3
As an illustration of the description, the figure of Kubera, in the sculpture of Mallinātha, in the Nagpur Muscum, (Fig. B. 18) may be cited. As usual, in important points, the figure is the material embodiment of the iconographic rules.
1.
रस्य जिननाथस्य खेन्द्रो यक्षस्त्रिलोचनः । द्वादशोरुभुजः श्यामः षड्मुखः शङ्खवाहनः ।।
Pratisthāsāra Samgraha, MSS.. Jaina Bhavana Arrah.
2. तत्तीर्थजन्मा कुबेरयक्ष इन्द्रायुधद्युतिः । चतुर्मुखो गजरथश्चतुभिर्दक्षिणैर्भुजैः ॥ वरदेन पर्शुशूलमृद्भ्यामभयदेन च । वामैः शक्तिमुद्गरकबीजपूराक्षसूत्रिभिः ॥
Mallināthacarita, Parva 8, Sarga 8..
3. मल्लिनाथस्य यक्षेशः कुबेरो हस्तिवाहनः । सुरेन्द्रचापसंवर्णश्चाष्टहस्तश्चतुर्भुजः ॥
Pratisthāsangraha (MSS. Arrah ).
Cr. सफलकधनुर्दण्डपद्मखड्गपरशुपाशवरप्रदाष्टपाणिम् । गजगमनचतुर्मुखेन्द्रचापद्युतिकलशाङ्कनतं यजे कुवेरम् ॥
Pratisthasaroddhāra.

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Taksas and Sasanaderasās
In the list of the Yakṣas, Kubera, who was the king of them, must be included. Every Indian religion has a Kubera. This Kubera of Jainism retains the common symbol of a club found in the Hindu Kubera. In other respects, his aspect is quite original and distinct.
Varuna
Descriptions of both the sectarian literatures agree insofar as to make him three-eyed, crowned with matted hair and riding a bull. The Digambara books represent him as eight-headed and four-arined but the Svetambara books represent him as cightheaded and eight-armed. The former representation bears in the hands a shield, sword, fruit and Varada1 and the latter-a citrus, mace, arrow, spcar, mongoose, lotus, bow and axe.2
This is another instance of mixing up the conception of Varuna, the guardian deity of ocean and the Western quarter, with that of a Yakṣa, the attendant Jina Muni Subrata. His name is Varuna. He holds, on the other hand, citron, club, and the mongoose,-the symbols of Kubera and Jambhala of Bud
dhism.
Bhrkuți
The Svetambara and Digambara descriptions are undivided as to the present Yakṣa's having four faces, eight hands and a bull as the vehicle. The Digambara books give the following attributes to his hands,-shield, sword, bow, arrow, goad, lotus, disc, Varada. The texts of the other school substitute these:
1. त्रिनेत्रो वृषभारूढः श्वेतवर्णश्चतुर्भुजः । अष्टाननो महाकायो जटामुकुटभूषितः ॥
Pratisthāsāroddhāra, p. 69.
2. तत्तीर्थजन्मा वरुणयक्षस्त्र्यक्षश्चतुर्मुखः । zànì uct queeezgfráfarinjat: 11 मातुलिङ्गगदाबाणशक्तिभृद्भिस्तथापरैः । नकुलाक्षघनुःपर्शुधारिभिः परिशोभितः ॥
Hemacandra's Munisuvratanāthacarita.
81
3. अष्टबाहुश्चतुर्वक्त्रो रक्ताक्षो नगवाहनः ।
Pratisthāsä:asamgraha.

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Jaina Iconography
cilrus spcar, macc, 1bhara, mongoose, axe, thunderbolt, rosary."
___ This Yaksa, as he is called, Nandiga ( going on the Bull of Siva'; has some mysterious connection with the Nandi, the chief attendant of Siva. He once assumed the form of Bhr. kuti, hence such is the name in his Jaina type.
Gomodha or Gomeda
Ile is the Yaksa of Aristancini or Neninātha. The descriptions of both the sects are equal regarding the features of his three faces, six hands and vehicle of a man. In other respccts, the Svetintbara books prescribe for his hands a citrus, axc, disc, mongoose, trident, and Sakti (spear)); the Digambara texts give him similarly for his hands- a hammer (Drughana), axc, staff, fruit, Fajra, l'aruda Mudrā.
We have fairly a good number of Comedha figures for
cा. खेटासिकोदण्डशराङ्कुशाव्जचक्रेप्टदानोल्लसिताप्टहस्तम् । चतुर्मुग्वं नन्दिगमुत्पलाभभक्तं जपाभं भृकुटिं यजामि ॥
Pratis!husārasanyrala. 1. तत्तीर्थजन्मा भृकुटियक्षस्त्र्यक्षश्चतुर्मखः ।
स्वर्णवर्णो वृपग्थश्चतुभिर्दक्षिणैर्भुजैः ।। घृतमातुलिङ्गशक्तिमुद्गराभयदैर्युतः । वामैः पुनर्नकुलकपशुवज्राक्षसूत्रिभिः ॥
Hernacandra's Nomināthacarita. 2. रचितभृकुटिबन्धं नन्दिना द्वारि रुद्धे । Herariline. १. तत्तीर्थजन्मा त्रिवदनः श्यामवर्ण: पुरुपवाहनो बीजपूरपरशुचक्रसंयुक्तदक्षिणकरत्रयो नकुलत्रिशूलशक्तिसहितवामकरत्रय एवंविधगोमेधनाम
Cunavijaya Sūri's Nomināthacarite (Nirnava Sagar Press) cा. श्रीनेमिनाथे गोमेधो नरस्थस्त्रिमुखोऽसितः । p. 16. बीजपूरं पशु चक्र शक्ति शूलं नकुलं (करेषु)
(MSS No. 1351, Juin Collection. Iñīna Mandir, Baroda). +. अरिष्टनेमिदेवस्य यक्षो गोमेदसंज्ञकः ।
त्रिमुखः पड्भुजः श्यामः पुष्पयानो नवाहनः । श्यामस्त्रिवक्त्रो द्रुघनं कुठारं दण्डं फलं वज्रवरौ च बिभ्रत् । गोमेदयक्षः सितशङ्खलक्ष्मा पूजां नृवाहोऽर्हतु पुष्पयानः ॥
Pratisthārārasamgruha (Jaina bhavana, Arrah).

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Yaksas and Sasanadevatās
comparison. They all show the nearest correspondence to the scriptural description.1
He is typically a Yakṣa and probably a form of Kubera. Two symbols occurring in the description very strongly support this. In the first place, he is called Naravahana (riding a man), which is another name of Kubera. He is also called Puspayāna (driving the chariot called Puspa). This is, again indicative of this Kubera type inasmuch as Kubera's chariot was called Puspa or Puspakam, which was subsequently snatched away by Ravana and after him by Rama.
Parsva or Dharanendra
This Yakṣa of Parsvanatha is one of the most important amongst the members of his class. His image whether Svetämbara or Digambara has the common points of snake-hoods, snake-attribute and a tortoise as vehicle. The Svetambara books, in points of difference, make him appear with four hands holding an ichneumen, snake, citrus, and snake (again).2 The Digambara texts, in turn, give his hands snake, noose and Varada.
A clear representation of Parsva Yakṣa's figure may be seen in the statue of Parsvanatha from Jogion ka Matha, near Rohtak town. Another good figure of the Yaksa was seen by the
I. What Dr. Vogel has wrongly identified as the figure of Kubera is, in fact, the figure of Gomedha, Mathura Museum fig. B. 65 (Cata). The same case with fig. No. 75 of the figure of Gomedha, Deogarh Fort, Jhansi, Arch Photo-Negatives, Serial No. 2229.
तत्तीर्थभूरभूत्पार्श्वयक्षः कूर्मरथः शितिः । गजाननः फणिफणाछत्रशोभी चतुर्भुजः । नकुलाही वामदोर्भ्यां वीजपूरोरगौ पुनः ।
Hemacandra's Pārsvanalhacarita.
2.
Cf. पार्श्वः स्यात्पार्श्वनाथस्य कूर्मारूढो गजाननः । बीजपुरोरगं नागं नकुलं श्यामवर्णकः ।
4.
83
Sutradhara Mandana's Vastusāstra (MSS Jñāna mandir, Baroda).
3. ऊर्ध्वद्विहस्तघृतवासुकिरुद्भटाघः सव्यान्यपाणिफणिपाशवर प्रणन्ता । श्रीनागराजककुदधरणोऽभ्रनीलः कूर्मश्रितो भजतु वासुकिमौलिरिज्याम् ।।
Prastiṣṭhāsāroddhāra.
Vide Photo Negatives, Arch: Dept., Serial No. 2431.

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Jaina Iconography
author in a cave on the Eastern side of the Gwalior l'ort. Both the examples answer to the descriptions of the Yakşa.
In connection with his origin, there exists in Jaina literaturc a mythological story as to how he was saved by Jina Pārkvanātha from being burnt in the sacred fire of a falsc ascetic Katha (afterwards, Meghamalin) and how when attacked by Mcghamāliu, in his kāpotsarga risana, Pārs vanātha was gratefully waited upon by the same serpent, born next as Dharanсndra, or Nagendra Yakṣa of Pātāla. This story we have reproduced in detailin connection with the treatment of Pārs vanātha and his images (vide ante). Apart from this mythology, the very name Dharaņendra, or Dharanidhara clearly signifies his identity with Sesanāga, the king of the serpents. In actual iconography, we find this Yaksa has snake-symbols abundantly besides the snakehoods. He holds also Vāsuki, the king of snakes (said to be a son of Käs yapa). His vehicle of a tortoise might suggest his superiority over Kamatha (hamatha= tortoise), wlio had been his and his master's enemy for ages.
Nalanga laksa.
He, being the attendant of Malāvīra, is the last but the most important one in the list of Yakşas. Not much difference cxists between the two sects in the matter of his iconographic descriptions. Both the sects describe him as two-handed and riding an elephant. The Svetānıbara school gives a mongoose and a citrus as his attributes,' while, the Digambara makes them a Varada Mudrā and a citron. The same sect adds a Dharma Cakra symbol for his head.?
1. artFHT ATA GT TET: #ffrantser: 1 बीजपूरं भुजे वामे दक्षिणे नकुलं दधत् ।।
Hemacandra's Mnhāviracarita, Parva 14. cr. Eratzen ATAS TOTECTSat Tata ___ दक्षिणे नकुलं हस्ते वामे स्याद् बीजपूरकम् ॥
(MISS, 1351, Jūānamandir, Barodā). 2. TaraftarafT TETT ATT :... RCT TOATA: 1 मातलिङ्ग करे धत्ते धर्मचक्रञ्च मस्तके ॥
Pratishāsārasamgruha (MSS J.S. B. Arrah).

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CHAPTER III
THE YAKŞINIS
The Yaksiņis as much as the Yaksas constitute a class of deified beings quite peculiar to the Jaina religion. There are reasons for believing that they are not purcly fanciful creations. The Jaina books supply us the clue that they were female attendants of the Tirtharkaras, being the leaders of the women converts. As they, however, appear in the Jaina representations, they are cudowed with semi-divine attributes and symbolism of various kinds. These, in historical analysis, may reveal inixed conceptions, which explain how their well-developed iconography arose. The names and symbols of some of thic Sasana devis, such as, Cakresvari, Nirvāni Devi, Ambika betray unmistakably original ideas of personalities fused with those of older Brāhmānic goddesses. Of the Yakşiņīs a good number passes into an order of Jaina female deities, called the l'idrāderīs or goddesses of learning. These goddesses share in a great measure forms of the Brāhmaṇic fernale deities. All these resemblances prove the fact with greater force how the Yakṣiṇi representations underlic striking conceptions borrowed from Brāhmaṇic pantheon. Additionally too, there are cases in which the Yakşiņīs with their consorts have inore directly evolved their forms out of semi-mythological incidents in which the Jinas were the main actors. Further, it may be said that the Yaksa character of the Yaksiņi's symbolisin and their chief mission as Sāsana-devis (governing goddesses) have been carefully taken into account by the sculptors as they represented them in images.
Cakreivari
The Svetāmbaras and the Digambaras concurrently descrilic her as holding the symbol of disc and riding a Garuda. The Śvetāmbara image has eight hands, which carry Parada Mudrā,
1. atqifa Tri MA: HET:TUESIT it i
साभिप्रेतसमृद्धयर्थं भूयाच्छासनदेवता ॥

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Yaksinis
1
arrow, disc, noosc, bow, thunder, disc, goad. The Digambara image, on the other hand, is represented as having either twelve or four hands. In case of twelve, the attributes are these :-cight discs, citrus Varada Mudrā, and two Fajras. The four-handed figure holds two discs.2
A good number of images of Cakreśvari, both as detached and as part of the Rṣabha Jina figure, has been found in Jaina places. The abundance of her image is due to her important cult-position as the Sāsanadevi of the first Tirtharikara.3
By her naune and symbols of disc., Garuda etc., she pertains to the nature of Vaisnavi, the wife of Visnu, whose one name is Cakresvara. Some texts give her the symbol of citron, which brings her into connection with the Yaksa class. Thus, as pointed out before, the Yaksinis, as a rule, combine in them influences from the Brahmanic goddesses as well as those of the Yakṣa demi-divinities.
नामतोतिचक्रेति हेमाभा गरुडासना | वरप्रदेषुभृच्चक्रिपा शिभिदक्षिणैर्भुजैः ।। वामहस्तैर्धनुर्वज्ज्रचक्राङ्कुशधरैर्युता ॥
Hemacandra's Adisconcerte. Parva : Sarga .
Cf. The Prac coana-sāroddhāra, Dvára 26. वामे चक्रेश्वरी देवी स्थाप्या द्वादश पड्भुजा । धत्ते हस्तद्वये वज्रे चक्राणि च तथाष्टसु ॥ एकेन बीजपूरं तु वरदा कमलासना । चतुर्भुजाऽथवा चक्रं द्वयोर्गरुडवाहना ।।
Vasunandi's Pratisthāsarasamgraha.
87
सूर्याभाद्यकरद्वयात्तकुलिशा चक्राङ्कहस्ताण्टका सव्यासव्यशयोल्लसत्फलवरा पण्मूर्तिरास्तेऽम्बुजे । तार्क्ष्यवासुकिचक्रयुग्मरुचकत्यागैश्चतुभिः करैः
Pratisthasaroddhāra.
Vide, Cakreśvari Fig. 8-9/499, Lucknow Sculpture; Fig. Deogarh Fort, Annual Report, Arch. Dept., 1917-1918 Plate II; Another Fig. on the Pillar across the Western gate, Deogarh Fort; Gwalior Fort, Cave, Eastern roof: Fig. No. D6 Mathura Museum has been wrongly identified by Dr. Vogel as Vaisnavi. The hands of the Yaksini do not seem to be quite regular. The Mathura image has ten hands, the Deogarh image (first) has 16 arms, the other one bas 8 arms. A twelve-handed fig. 5 in the Barabhuj Gumpha, Udayagiri, Distt. Puri.

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Jaina Iconography
Ajitā or Rohini.
Her symbolic vehicle varies with different texts even among the same sect. For instance most of the Svetāmbara books, in agreement with the Digambara books, give her an iron-seat (Lohisana) but the Svetambara text called the Icāradinakara makes her vehicle a bull. The other symbols, which she holds in her hands are constantly among the Svetāmbara books as follows-I'arada Mudrā, noose, citron and grad. Except the Yaksiņi's common vehicle, the Digambara books furnish her hands differently with the following attribute's :--Tarada, albhaya, conch and disc.
Examples of images of this Yaksiņi are only too limited. The one or two figures that I have been able to see show the bull symbol and co-ordinate with the description. A clear image may be seen in the Deogarh Fori.
The Yaksimī's name and symbolismo seem to be obviously connected with those of her Jina Ajiranātha. She has been named after him as Ajitā, mcaning invincible.' ller spirit, ils such, is also symbolised by the iron-scat (Lohāsani), known for its hardness and metallic strength.
दक्षिणबाहुभ्यां वरदेनाथ पागिनौ । बीजपूगङ्कुशभृद्भ्यां वामदोभ्या॑ च शोभिता । लोहासनस्था पार्वेऽस्थाद् भर्तुः शासनदेवता ॥
Hemacandra's Ajitanulhucurita. Gr. लोहासनाधिरूढां चतुर्भुजां वरदपाशाधिष्ठितदक्षिणकरां बीजपूराङ्कुशयुक्तवामकरां चेति ।
Nirvanakaliki (MSS. Jūānamandir, Agra). Again, गोगामिनी धवलरुक् । 'वामेतरं वरदपाशविभासमाना। वामं च पाणियुगलं सृणिमातुलिङ्गयुक्तं ..
Irādinukura libhaya (MSS., Rāmaghāļa Collection). देवी लोहासनारूढा रोहिण्याख्या चतुर्भुजा । वरदोभयहस्तासौ शङ्खचक्रोज्ज्वलायुधा ।।
___Pratisthāsārasamgralu. (MSS. Jainabhavana, Arrah). Cr. स्वर्णद्युतिशङ्खरथाङ्गशस्त्रा लोहासनस्थाऽभयदानहस्ता।
Pratisthāsāroddhara.

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Vaksinis
89
Duritāri or Prajnapti.
The first name belongs to the Sretāmbara representation, the second to the Digambara. Duritāri rides a ram and is fourhanded. The hands hold l'arada, rosary, fruit and Abhara. The Digambara Prajňapti places herself upon a bird. She has six hands, which are adorned with an axe, crescent, fruit, sword, (Idhi) and Vara-mudra.?
The symbol of a ram in the case of Duritāri implies her connexion with the wife of Agni. The symbols of Vara and rosary also support this supposition. The conception of Prajñapti scerns clearly to be derived from that of Sarasvati or goddess of learning. The bird appears to be a peacock as her husband is represented as riding on the same bird (Barhivāhana). Further, the name 'Prajñapti' literally means 'one of intellect' (Prajia) and we find, therefore, the name in the list of the Vidyadevis to be described later.
Vajra-Syriikhalā or Kāli.
Descriptions of this Yakșiņi of Abhinandana disser with the two sccts. The Digambaras represent Vajra-Sriikhala as riding on a swan and holding in her four hands a snake, noose, rosary and fruit.' The Svetāmbara variant of the same Yakṣiṇī
1. दुरितारिदेवी गौरवर्णां मेषवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदाक्षसूत्रयुक्तदक्षिणकरां फलाभयान्वितवामकरां च ।
Nirrānn-Kalika
(MSS Jūānamandir, Agra). Cr. चतुर्भुजा गौरवर्णा मेषवाहनगामिनी ।
दक्षिणाभ्यां भुजाभ्यां तु वरदेनाक्षसूत्रिणा ।। ___ वामाभ्यां शोभमाना तु फलेनाभयदेन च । 2. प्रज्ञप्तिदेवता श्वेता षड्भुजा पक्षिवाहना ॥ अर्धेन्दु परशुं धत्ते फलासीढिवरप्रदा।
Pratisth:āsārasangraha (MSS Jainendrabhavana. Arrah). cr.पक्षिस्थार्धेन्दुपरशुफलासीढिवरैः सिता।
Pratisthāsūroddhāra. 3. वरदा हंसमारूढा देवता वज्रशृङ्खला। नागपाशाक्षसूत्रोरुफलहस्ता चतुर्भुजा ॥
Pratisthivarasameraha (MSS, Arrah).

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Jaina Iconography
named Kāli is described as seated on a lotus and as holding in her hands Farada, noose, snake and goad. T
Vajra-sṛmkhala or Kali is both a Yakṣini and one of the Vidyadevis. Her Yakṣiņi character is well symbolised by the presence of a citrus and goad and Vidya-devi character is symbolised by a swan and rosary. Kālī also assumes some symbols as becoming Vidyadevi such as Farada and Naga, and other symbols of noose and goad as they should belong to a Yakṣiņi. When we treat Vajra-srinkhala as a Vidyadevi, we shall see, she holds actually a Sikhala or chain, which may explain as the origin
of her name.
Mahakali or Puruşadalla
Mahakali of the Svetambaras appears in her representation seated on a lotus with her four hands holding Varada, noose citrus and goad." Puruṣadatta in her Digambara aspect rides an elephant and holds in her hands a dise, Fajra, fruit and Farada Mudra. A
Cr. सनागपाशोरुफलाक्षमूत्रा हंमाधिरूढा वरदानुयुक्ता ।
1. कालिकादेवी श्यामवर्णां पद्मासनां चतुर्भुजां वरदपाशाधिष्ठितदक्षिणभुजां नागाङ्कुशान्वितवामकरां ।
2.
Pratiṣṭkāvāroddḥāra.
Virāgakalika (MSS. Jānamandir, Agra).
Ct. श्यामाभा
पद्मसंस्था वलयवलिचतुर्वाहुविभ्राजमाना पाशं विस्फूर्जमूर्ध्वस्वलमपि वरदं ... बिभ्रणा चापि वामेऽङ्कुशमपि करिप |
ācāradinakara (Rāmaghāta).
A thousand image with the name is found in the temple of "Pataini Devi" 8 miles from Unchhera C. I.
३. तथोत्पन्ना महाकाली स्वर्णक् पद्मवाहना । दधाना दक्षिणौ बाहू वरदाभयपाशिनौ ||
मातुलिङ्गाङ्कुशधरौ परों बाहू च विभ्रती ॥
4. देवी पुरुषदत्ता च चतुर्हस्ता गजेन्द्रगा । रथाङ्गवस्त्रशस्त्रासौ फलहस्ता वरप्रदा ॥
Sumatinathacarita.
Hemacandra's Sumatinathuacuta.
Pratisthāsārasarigraha (MSS. Siddhāntabhavana, Arrah ).

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91
The attributes such as citrus, goad and, noose held by Mahākāli arc symbolic of her Yakṣa character. Her other aspect represented by Puruşadatta makes her half like a Vidyadevi and half like a Yaksini. Puruşadatta as Vidyadevi is described as riding a cuckoo and holding a l'ajra and lotus. In this case, her symbols of an elephant (Gajendragā), Fajra and citrus are those by which we recognise her as a Yakṣiņi.
Acyulā or Syāmā, Manovegā.
The Yakşini of Padmaprabha is known to the Svetāmbaras as Acyuta or Syama and to the Digambaras as Manovega. The Svetambara image is canonically represented as riding a man and holding, in her four hands, Varada, Vina, bow and Abhaya.1 The Digambara Yakṣiņi Manovega has a horse as her vehicle, and holds a sword, lance, fruit, and Vara Mudra.
The name Acyuta or Syama may have, most probably, originated from Acyuta or Visnu or Syama. Her Viņā symbol would qualify her as a Vidyadevi, almost a derivative of Acyută who like the Digambara Manovega, rides a horse and holds a sword, arrow etc. Her vehicle of a man, undoubtedly, makes up her character as a Yakṣini as Yakṣa is proverbially a manrider or Nara-Vahana. Manovega or 'swift as mind' is aptly symbolised by the vehicle of a horse known for its swiftness.
Santā or Kāli.
The Svetambara books describe Santa as riding an clephant and her hands as furnished with Farada, rosary, lance,
1.
अच्युतादेवीं श्यामवर्णां नरवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरवीणाचितदक्षिणकरां कार्मुकाभययुतवामहस्ताम् ।
Nirvana-kalika (MSS. Juana-mandir). Cr. श्यामा चतुर्भुजधरा नरवाहनस्था पाशं तथा च वरदं करयोर्दधाना । वामान्ययोस्तदनु सुन्दरबीजपूरं तीक्ष्णाङ्कुशं च परयोः... .. . अच्युता ॥ Acāradinakara MSS. Rāmaghāta Collection.
2. तुरङ्गवाहना देवी मनोवेगा चतुर्भुजा ।
Pratisthāsarasamgraha.
Also, मनोवेगा सफलका फलखङ्गवरार्च्यते ।
Mandira pratisthā-Vidhāna (MSS. Jaina-siddhanta library, Arrah)

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as her riding animal and holds in her hands disc, arrow, noose, shield, trident, sword, bow etc. '
An image of this Yakṣiņi was seen by me in a cave, under the Eastern roof, Gwalior Fort. It has cight hands and conse quently should be identified with Jvālāmālinī rather than with Bhrkuti.2
Bhrkuti's symbol of a swan (acc. to Hemacandra) may be explained as identically the same riding animal for the husband Vijaya (Vijayo hansavāhanal, Vide ante). Her other symbols as held in the hands are such as become a Yakṣini or 'guardian goddess'. Jvālāmālinī or Jvālinī or Mahājvālā as known to the Śvetāmbaras also assume, in the same name, the function of a Vidyadevi. Her symbol of a buffalo shows her symbolic connexion with her husband Vijaya, who, in Brahmanism, is synonymous with Yama, the famous rider of a Buffalo.
Sutara or Mahākāïi.
Sutārā Yakṣiņi of the Svetambaras as described in their books rides a bull and bears four hands with Varada, rosary urn and goad. 3 Mahākālī, the Digambara variant of the Yakşiņi sit upon a tortoise and carries in her hands l'ajra, club, fruit and Vara Mudra. A
1. चन्द्रोज्ज्वला चक्रवारसपाशचर्म त्रिशुले पुझ्पासिहस्ताम् ।
2.
93
Maudirajratisthāvidhāna.
Cr. ज्वालिनी महिषारूढा देवी श्वेता भुजाष्टका ।
काण्डं वज्र ं त्रिशूलञ्च धत्ते पाशं चतुष्टये ॥
(MSS. J.B. Arrah ) Pratisthāsārasangraha.
A thousand image of the Yakşini in the "Pataini" temple, 5 miles from Nachhera State.
3. सुतारां देवीं गौरवर्णां वृषभवाहनी चतुर्भुजां वरदाक्षसूत्रयुक्तदक्षिणभुजां कलशाङ्कुशान्वितवामपाणिम् ।
Nervāya-Kalikā (MSS. Inānamandir, Agra ).
Cf. तथोत्पन्ना सुताराख्या गौराङ्गी वृषवाहना । वरदं साक्षसूत्रं च बिभ्राणा दक्षिणी भुजौ । कलशाङ्कुशिनौ बाहू दधाना दक्षिणेतरौ ॥
4. देवी तथा महाकाली विनीता कूर्मवाहना । सवज्रमुद्गरहस्ता फलहस्ता चतुर्भुजा ||
Hemacandra's Suvidhināthacarita.
Pratisthā sāra-samgraha (MSS. J.S. Arrah ).

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The Yakṣini's tortoise symbol originates from the same animal as used by Ajitā, her husband. As the names Sutārā or Mahākālī suggest, the Yaksini's aspect seems, to some extent, to be Saivite although Mahākāli has her part to play, as a Vidyadevi, with some cominon symbolic attributes.
94
Asoka or Mānavi
The image of the Śvetāmbara Yakṣiņi Aśokā is described as seated upon a lotus and bearing in her hands Varada, noose, fruit and goad. The Digambara books describe Manavi as riding a hog and holding the attributes, as follows, fruit, Vara, bow, etc. "
Like the majority of Yaksinis, the Yaksini, in question, has a dual aspect, she is in one aspect a Yakṣini and in another, a Vidyadevī. As Vidyadevi, her name is Manavi and she is described as seated on a blue lotus. Here, also as a pure Yakṣiņi, the Svetambara accounts give her a blue lotus. The warlike attributes like a goad, noose, bow are symbols quite befitting her characteristic of a Yaksini or Guardian angel. The benign symbols, such as, Varada, fruit and a blue-lotus seat she is given, however, would make us recognise in her a form of Vidyadevi or goddess of learning.
Cr. कृष्णा कूर्मासना धन्वशतोन्नतजिनानता ।
महाकालीज्यते वज्रफलमुद्गरदानयुक् ।।
Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra.
1. अशोकां देवीं मुद्गवर्णां पद्मवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदपाशयुक्त दक्षिणकरां
फलाङ्कुशयुक्तवामकराम् ।
Nircūnabalikā (MSS. Jñānamandir ). Cf.नीला पद्मकृतासना वरभुजैर्वेदप्रमाणैर्युता पाशं सद्वरदं च दक्षिणकरे हस्तद्वये बिभ्रती । वामे चाङ्कुशवर्मणी बहुगुणाऽऽशोका विशोका जनं. ... 2. मानवी च हरिद्वर्णा झषहस्ता चतुर्भुजा । कृष्णशूकरयानस्था फलहस्ता
Acāradinakara.
वरप्रदा ।
Pratisthāvārasangraha (MSS. Jaina S. Bhavana, Arrah ) Cf. झषदामरुचकदानोचितहस्तां कृष्णकोलगां हरिताम् । नवतिधनुस्नुग ( ? ) जिनप्रगतामिह मानवीं प्रयजे ॥
Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra.

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Gauri or Mānavi.
This eleventh Yakṣini belongs to the eleventh Tirthamkara Sreyamsanatha. The Digambara representation of the Yakṣiņi known therein as Gauri rides, according to their accounts, an antelope and bears a club, lotus, urn and Varada in her hands.1 The Svetambara variant of the same Yaksi in the name of Manavi or Srivatsa Devi has been described as riding a lion and holding a Varada, club, urn and goad."
The name Gauri originates evidently from the Brāhmaṇic Gauri, the wife of Siva. Here, in this instance, the Yakṣa, of whom Gauri is the consort is called Ivara. Her other aspect is represented by a Vidyadevi, known by the same name. Now, the Svetambaras give her the name of Srivatsa or Mānavi. This name, however, presents an anomaly due to the identity of Manavi with the Digambara Yakṣiņi, of Sitalanatha bearing the same name. Thus, it is possible to explain the name Srivatsā as originating from the Srivatsa figure, the canonical symbol of Šītalanatha. As regards the attributes, which adorn the hands of the Devi some of them are warlike, as worthy of a Yakṣiņi, and others are benign, as symbolic of a goddess of learning.
Canda or Gandhāri.
Canda or Pracaṇḍā, as she is also called by the Svetambaras, has a horse for her riding animal, and carries the symbols
1. पद्महस्ता सुवर्णाभा गौरी देवी चतुर्भुजा । जिनेन्द्रशासनभक्ता वरदा मृगवाहिनी ॥
Pratisthāsarasamgraha (MSS. Arrah Collection)
Cr. समुद्गराब्जकलशां वरदां कनकप्रभाम् । गौरी यजेऽशीतिधनुः प्रांशुदेवी मृगोपमाम् ।।
95
Pratisthāsarasamgraha,
2. तथैव मानवी देवी गौराङ्गी सिंहवाहना । वरदं मुद्गरिणं च दधती दक्षिणी करी । वामौ च बिभ्रती पाणी कुलशाङ्कुशधारिणौ ॥
Sreyamsunālhacarita by Hemacandra cr. मानवीं देवीं गौरवर्णां सिंहवाहनां चतुर्भुजाम् । वरदमुद्गरान्वितदक्षिणपाणि नकुलसाङ्कुशयुक्तवामकराम् ॥ Nirvanakalikā (MSS. Jñana mandir, Agra)

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Jaina Iconography
of Varala, spcar, flower and club.1 The Diganibara form of the same deity is represented as riding on a crocodile and having the hands equipped with a clul), two lotuses and V'arada mudrā.
Like the previous one, this Yaksiņi, too, takes her part as a Vidyādevī. As such, the name borne by her is Gāndhāri. There is some essential connection between the Yakşiņi Gāndhāri's animal of a crocodile and the Vidyādevī Gāndhārī's animal of a tortoise. (andā or Pracandā seems to be, as the name indicates, a Jaina prototype of the Brāhmaṇic Caņdā or Durgā.
Viditā or Vijara or l'airoli
The Svetānbaras kuow this Yaksini as Viditā or Vijayā. She is described in their books as scated on a lotus and as having four hands with an arrow', noose, bow and snake. The Digambara Vairoţi appears in representations as riding on a snake (Gonasa) and bearing in her hands two snakes, bow and arrow 3
Vairoți figures also like others as a Vidyādevi. The other name of Viditā means 'learned onc'. This would suggest the
1. तथोत्पन्ना श्यामवर्णा चण्डा नामाश्ववाहना।
दक्षिणौ वरदशक्तिधारिणौ दधती भुजौ ॥ पाणी पुष्पगदायुक्तौ बिभ्रती दक्षिणेतरौ ।।
Hemacandra's l'âsubūjyacarita. Cr. श्यामा तुरगासना चतुर्दोःकरयोदक्षिणयोर्वरं च शक्तिम् । दधती किल वामयोः प्रसनं सुगदा सा प्रवरावताच्च चण्डी ॥
Achrodinakaru. 2. तथोत्पन्ना विदिताख्या हरितालसमद्युतिः ।
पद्मारूढा बाणपाशधरदक्षिणपाणिका । कोदण्डनागसंयुक्तदक्षिणेतरवाहुका ॥
Hemacandra's Vimulanülhacarita, Cr. विदितां देवी हरितालवर्णां पद्मारूढां चतुर्भुजाम् ।
__बाणपाशयुक्तदक्षिणपाणि धनुर्नागयुक्तवामपाणिम् ।। 3. वैरोटी नामतो देवी हरिद्वर्णा चतुर्भुजा। हस्तद्वयेन सपों द्वौ धत्ते गोणसवाहना ॥
Pratisthāsvirasamgraha (NMSS.Arrah Collection).

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central idea of Goddess of learning. In other respects, Viditā or Vijaya with her colour of yellow, symbols of bow, arrow, snake and lotus or the vehicle or Gonasa seems to be a clear derivative of a form of Durga. The name of Vijayā, it is worth observing, retains the original name of her arche-type.1
Amkusa or Anantamati
Amkusa of the Svetämbaras is to be canonically sculptured as scated on a lotus, and having four hands with a sword, noose, spear and goad. The Digambaras to whom this Yakṣini is known as Anantamati describe her as being carried by a swan and as holding in her hands a bow, arrow, fruit and l'arada.3
The name 'Amkuśā' appears to be derived from the Amkusa or goad, which the Yakṣiņi carries. In the same name, we find a Vidyadevi who also bears a goad. The name Anantamati originates very evidently from Anantanatha, the Jina and master, whom the Yakṣiņi waits upon. Brahma's wife is Sarasvati; here the origin of the swan as a vehicle might be due to this connection.
Kandarpa (Pannagad vi) or Manasi
Descriptions from the Svetambara books make her ride upon a horse or a fish and appear in sculpture with four hands, adorned with a lotus, goad, lotus and Abhaya. Manasi, the Cr. पष्टिदण्डोच्चतीर्थेशनता गोणसवाहना ।
ससर्प चापसर्पेषु वैरोटी हरितार्च्यते ॥
1.
97
2.
Pratisthasaroddhara.
An inscribed image of her is in the "Paitini Temple" Uchnera State.
अङ्कुशां देवीं गौरवर्णां पद्मवाहनां चतुर्भुजां खङ्गपाशयुक्तदक्षिणकरां चमफलाङ्कुशयुतवामहस्ताम् ॥
(Nirvanakulikā MSS, Jñana mandir, Agra).
3. तथानन्तमती देवी हेमवर्णा चतुर्भुजा । चापं बाणं फलं धत्ते वरदा हंसवाहना ।।
Pratisthāsārasamg raha (MSS, Arrah, Jaina S. Bhavan). Cr. हेमाभा हंसगा चापफलबाणवरोद्यता । पञ्चाशच्चापतुङ्गार्हद्भक्तानन्तमतीज्यते ॥
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.
4. कन्दर्पा देवीं गौरवर्णामश्ववाहनां चतुर्भुजां
Nirvanak alika (MSS, Jñāna mandir, Agra).

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Jaina Iconography
Digambara variant of the same Yaksiņi, is described from their point of view, as riding a tiger, and holding in her six hands a lotus, bow, Varada, goad, arrow and lotus.1
The origin of symbols, it must have been noticed, is of irregular character. The fish symbol of the Yakşiņi scems to be due to the identical symbol of her consort Kinnara as furnished by the Digambara books (Dharmasya Kimaro Taksah..Minarihana). It is hardly easy to see any possible connection between her name as Kandarpā and the Brāhmaṇic God, Kandarpa or Kārna. The name -Mānasi has very probable relation with 'Manasija' innplying the same idea. Thus, the other name of Pannagā devī or the Goddess of snakes might have been derived from Manasā, who is characteristically a goddess of snakes. Mānasi is also a deity, in the list of the Vidyādevīs and as such, she is interestingly seen to be symbolised by a snake. Her tiger vehicle, in this instance, shows her a prototype of Vāgīśvarī (goddess of learning) whose figure in Benares show's the same animal as her vchicle.
Nirväni or Mahāmānasi
Nirvāṇī, in Svetārnbara accounts, is represented as scated on a lotus and four-armed, the attributes being a book, lotus, k'amandalu and a lotus bud.? The Digambara books supply
Cr. तथोत्पन्ना च कन्दर्पा गौराङ्गी मत्स्यवाहना।
उत्पलाङ्गधारिभ्यां दक्षिणाभ्यां विराजिता । दोर्ध्या तदितराभ्यां च पद्मिनाऽभयदेन च ।।
Hemacandra's Duro mātha Ciwita. Further, कन्दर्पाकृतपरपन्नगाभिधाना गौराभा झपगमना चतुर्भुजा च ।
cīnīradinukara (Ramghala Collection). 1. साम्बुजधनुदानाङ्कुशशरोत्पला व्याघ्रगा प्रवाल निभा । नवपञ्चकचापोच्छ्रितजिननम्रा मानसीह मान्यते।
Pratis!hisārecikara. Cr. व्याघ्रवाहनमारूढा शिल्पधर्मानुरागिणी।
l'rutis!hā dziusamgraha (MSS., Arrah) 2. निर्वाणां देवी गौरवर्णा पद्मासनां चतुर्भुजां पुस्तकोत्पलयुक्तदक्षिणकरां कमण्डलुकमलयुतवामहस्ताम् ।
Nirrānukalikā (Jžāna-mandir, Agra).

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raksiņis
99
descriptions of Mahāmānasi, according to which, she has the vehicle of a pcacock and holds in her hands a disc, fruit, Idi (sword ?) and Varada.!
Although most rare, unexpectedly, I was able to explore a separate figure of Virvāṇī, which generally agrees with the above description. It is now in the Lucknow Muscum. A subordinate representation of the Yaksiņi may be seen in some places of Jaina antiquity.”
The name Nirvāṇi conotes the idea of Nirvana. Her symbols of a book, lotus, kumandalu strike one with her characteristic nature of the wife of Brahmā. Curiously, Brahma's wife is also called Sarasvati. As Mahāmānasī, the Yakşiņi holds her new function being a Vidyādevī. Malīmānasi lilcrally means the 'great Goddess to preside over learning'. The symbol of a peacock, again, speaks of her connection with Sarasvati, the river goddess, who has the same bird as her riding vehicle.
Balā (Acrutā) or Vijayā
We sind her described in the Svetainbara books as a Yakṣiṇi riding a peacock and bcaring four hands symbolised with a citron, spear, Bhuşundi and lotus.: Canonically different
cr. तत्तीर्थजन्मा निर्वाणी गौरागी कमलासना ।
पुस्तकोत्पलसंयुक्तौ विभ्रती दक्षिणौ करो। सकमण्डलुकमलौ वामौ च दधती करौ ॥
Hemacandra's Sūnlinallacarita. 1. THETATET 297 hauf TTISTI फलेढिचक्रहस्तासौ वरदा शिखिवाहना ॥
Pratisthāsārasaṁgraha (MSS., Arrah Collection). C.चक्रफले ढिवराङ्कितकरां महामानसीं सुवर्णाभाम् । शिखिगां चत्वारिंशद्धनुरुन्नतजिनमतां प्रयजे ॥
Pralistlusroldhāra; Vidy the fig. of Santinitha, in a cave, castern roof, Gwalior Fort. It bears four hanıls. Inside the Fort through the Urai gate, another figure may be seen on the left side of the road, amidst three Jaina Colossi, of which one is of Sāntinātha. Cf, the figure in 'the “Pataini Devi"
Temple in Unchhera State, C.I. 3. reiteradat at there Ifaiateat I
बिभ्राणा दक्षिणी बाहू बीजपूर

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Jaina Iconography
account is given of Vijaya, the Digambara counterpart of the Yakṣiņi, in their literature. According to it, she should be represented as riding a black boar and carrying the attributes of a conch, sword, disc and Farada Mudrā.1
Hala or Acyuta of the Svetambaras from the nature of her vehicle of a peacock seems to be a form of Sarasvati. This supposition may be supported by the fact that her consort Gandharva rides on a sun and is a divine musician. Sarasvati is known to be also presiding over the art of music. The symbol of a citron, indicating the Yakṣa characteristic is borne by both the husband and the wife. Vijaya of the Digambaras, on the other hand, shown by her boar vehicle, a Yakṣiņi goddess whose form must have been borrowed from Mārici of Buddhism and Vārāhi of Brahmanism. Her other symbols provided by the Digambara books of a disc, sword, conch and Varada speak of her origin from Vārāhi.2
100
Dharani or Tarā
The Svetambara texts described Dharani Yakṣini as seated on a lotus and possessing four hands with a citrus, two lotuses, and a rosary. Tārā, the Yakṣiņi of the Digambara is to appear,
3
भुशुण्डिपङ्कजभृतौ बिभ्रती दक्षिणेतरी ।
सदा सन्निहिता जज्ञ े प्रभोः: शासनदेवता ॥
Hemacandra's Kunthusramicaritam.
Cr. शिखिगा सचतुर्भुजाऽतिपीता फलपूरं दधती त्रिशूलयुक्तम् । करयोरपसव्ययोश्च सव्ये करयुग्मे तु भुशुण्डिभृद्बलाऽव्यात् ।
1. जयादेवी सुवर्णाभा कृष्णशूकरवाहना । argufazmetanat arar atfacuer II
MSS. Rāmaghāṭa.
Pratisthāsārasaṁgraha (MSS. Jaina Siddhanta Bhavana Library, Arrah).
cr. सचक्रशङ्खासिवरां रुक्माभां कृष्णकोलगां यजे जयाम् ॥
Mandirapratisthavidhāna (MSS. Ibid.)
2. An inscribed image of Vijaya in a group is to be found in the "Pataini Temple" Uchnera State C.I.
3. देवी च धारणी नाम नीलाङ्गी कमलासना ।
मातुलिङ्गोत्पलधरा दक्षिणोभयबाहुका । पद्माक्षसूत्रभृत्
Hemacandra's Aracaritam.

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Yakṣiris
101
according to them, as riding on a swan and holding a snake, Vajra, deer and Varada Mudrā.
In this casc, like more cases, the Yakşini Dhāraṇi bears the Yaksa symbol of a citrus together with other symbols, which explain her mixed origin. The name Tārā renders her connection with the Brāhmaṇic Tārā almost obvious. The snake symbol in her hand is primarily common to the deity of either sccts.
Vairoļi or Aparājitā
The Yaksini, in her Svetambara appearance, is to be represenied as seated on a lotus, and carrying in her hands l'arada, rosary, citrus, and Sakti. Aparajitā, the Digambara counterpart, is represented by their texts as a goddess riding a lion and bearing hands, equipped with a citrus, sword, shield and l'ara-mudrā.3
The citrus symbol, in both the forms, makes the goddess typically a Yakșiņi. The name Vairoți occurs in connection with the Vidyādevis and as a presiding deity over learning, she
For comparison, see धारणीदेवीं कृष्णवर्णां चतुर्भुजां पद्मासनां मातुलिङ्गोत्पलान्वितदक्षिणभुजां पाशाक्षसूत्रान्वितवामकरां ॥
Nirrānu-kulikā (MSS.. Agra, Jnana mandir). 1. देवी तारावती नाम्ना हेमवर्णा चतुर्भुजा। सर्पवज्र मृगं धत्ते वरदा हंसवाहना ।
Pratisthastirasangraha (MSS., Arrah Collection). cr. स्वर्णाभां हंसगां सर्पमृगवज्र'..
Mandira pralişthā ridhāna (MSS.. Ibid). 2. तत्तीर्थभुश्च वैरोटी कृष्णाङ्गी कमलासना ।
भान्ती दोर्ध्या दक्षिणाभ्यां वरदेनाक्षसूत्रिणा। मातुलिङ्गशक्तिभृद्भ्यां वामदोर्त्यां
Hermacandra. Compare
वैरोटी देवीं कृष्णवर्णां पद्मासनां चतुर्भुजाम् । वरदाक्षसूत्रयुक्तदक्षिणकरां मातुलिङ्गशक्तियुक्तवामहस्ताम् ।।
Nirvīna-kulikā (MSS., Jilānamandir, Agra). 3. अष्टापदं समारूढा देवीनाम्नापराजिता । फलासिखेटहस्तासौ हरिद्वर्णा चतुर्भुजा ॥
Pratisthāsamgraha. (MSS., Jainabhavana, Arrah) An image of the Yakşini is in the Pataini Temple vide ante.

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Jaina Iconography
has a lion as her vehick:. We find, however, the lion symbol in the case of Aparājitā, the Digambara form of the Yakșiņi. We had occasion of describing Vairoți as the Digambara counterpart of Vijaya. There seems to be an exchange in the pair of combinations. Vijaya and Aparājitā sceni to be the same in meaning; the original idea of both must have been derived from that of Durgā, who bears the same names in Brāhmanism.
Naradatlā or Bahurūpini
Naradattā is described in the Svetāmbara literature as scated in the Bhadrāsuna posture, showing four hands which hold l'arada, rosary, citron, and trident (or urn).' The Digambara Yakşiņi is represented by thein as riding a black snake and holding a shield, fruit, sword and l'araila Mudrā.?
Naradatta or Bahurūpini from the nature of her symbols and her husband's being of Saivite character, discloses herself in representation as a form of Durga or a Brāhmaṇic Sakti. The Yaksiņi element in her may be clearly attested by the symbol of the fruit citron and the urn, the true attributc of the wise of Varuņa. It should be noted in this connection that this Naradattā and thic predefined Puruşadattā, the Yakṣiṇī of Sumatinātha, being the same in meaning suggest some mysterious common origin.:
Gandhāri or Crmundā
The Svetambara sectarian Yaksini, Gāndhāri by namc, has been described as riding a swan and furnished with four hands,
1. भद्रासना कनकरुक्तनुरुच्चबाहुरक्षावलीवरददक्षिणपाणियुग्मा । सन्मातुलिङ्गयुतशूलितदन्यपाणिरच्छुष्मिका श्रीनरदत्ता ।
Acaradinakara. E. नरदत्तां देवी गौरवर्णां पद्मासनारूढां चतुर्भुजाम् । वरदाक्षसूत्रयुतदक्षिणकरां बीजपूरककुम्भयुतवामहस्ताम् ।।
Nirvānakaliki (MSS., Svetārbara, Library Agra). 9. CUTTERTHTEGT aan eefourt i खेटं खङ्ग फलं धत्ते हेमवर्णा चतुर्भुजा ।।
Pulisthānīrasangvaha (MSS., Arrah) बहरूपिणी यजे कृष्णाहिगां खेटफलखङ्गवरोत्तराम् ॥
Mandirafiralistic vidhāna (MSS., Arrah). 3. Her image with name inscribed is in the "Pataini Templc" Uchnera.

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Taksinis
103
which hold, in turn, Farada Mudra, sword. citron and spear (kota).1 The Cammyda or Digambara form of the same Yakșini is represented in their way as riding on a dolphin and carrying in her hands a rosary, staff, shield and sword.
This pair of names (viz. Gandhari and Camuṇḍā) has already occurred in connexion with the Yakṣini of Vāsūpūjya. There seems to have been some mysterious transposition of these deities. In the case of Vāsupūjyā Canda is Svetāmbara Yaksinī, whereas Gāndhari, who is Svetambara here was Digambara there. Gandhari there rides a dolphin as Camunda rides the same animal in the present case. The Yakṣini Gandhari we describe now, assumes such symbols (for instance swan, Varada, citron) as would make her partly a Vidyadevi and partly a Yakşini. Her Digambara counterpart Camunda is also called Kusuma-mālinī and as such, her dolphin symbol may be justified because Kusumamāli or kama has the same symbolical mark (Makar :- ketana ) " .
Ambikā (Kusmūndi ) or Amrā
This Yakşini of Neminatha has the Svetämbara description of a goddess, who rides a lion and bears a bunch of mangoes, nose, a child and goad. 4 The Digambara image of the Yaksinī
1. तथैव देवी गान्धारी श्वेताङ्गी हंसवाहना ।
दोर्भ्यां वरदखड्गिभ्यां दक्षिणाभ्यां विराजिता । वामाभ्यां बीजपूरिभ्यां बाहुभ्यामुपशोभिता ।।
Hemacandra's Neminathacarita.
Cf. गान्धारीं देवीं श्वेतां हंसवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदखङ्गयुक्तदक्षिणभुजद्वयां बीजपूरकुन्तयुतवामपाणिद्वयां ।
Nreānakaka (MSS. Jñānamandira, Agraj.
2. चामुण्डा देवता भीमा हरिद्वर्णा चतुर्भुजा । प्रक्षसूत्रं च यष्टि च धत्ते मकरवाहना ।।
Pratisthāsārasangraha (MSS. Arrah).
Cf. चामुण्डा यष्टिखेटाक्षसूत्रखड्गोत्कटा हरित् । मकरस्थार्च्यते पञ्चदशदण्डोन्नतेशभाक् ।।
Pratisthāsāroddhara.
3. An inscribed iinage with name is in the "Paitini Temple” Uchnera. 4. तत्तीर्थजन्मा स्वर्णकान्तिः सिंहवाहना ग्राम्रलुम्बि (?) पाशसंयुक्तदक्षिणकरद्वया पुत्राङ्कुशसहितवामकरद्वया कुष्माण्डीतिद्वितीयनामधारिणी अम्बिका प्रभोः शासनदेवी समभवत् ।
Gunavjaya gani's Neminatha Caritra (Nirnayasagar Press)

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Jaina Iconography
is described as also riding upon a lion, but as bearing two hands with a bunch of mangoes and a child.'
Images of both types inay be seen in some Jaina places although they have hecn wrongly identificd in every case. The distinction regarding the number of hands has strictly followed in ihe representations the point being decisive in making it either Ambikā or Kuşmāņdiniexcept lier symbol of a bunch of mangoes, which gave origin to one of her names as Imrā, she is by name and appearance a borrowed forin of Durgi. Ambā, Ambālikā and Ambikä are names of Durgā. She has further the name, as in this case, of Kuşinăncini. Kuşmāndi is the name of Durgā. Kuşmāndas were a billy clan attached to lord Siva. It is highly probable that being a Yakini, whose class originated from the Northern Himalayan region, Kuşmāndi came out of this class.
Padmovali
name of the Yaksini is cominon to both the sects. According to the Svetūnibara view, Padmavati is to be represented as riding on a snake and cock, and holding a lotus, noose, fruit and goad.3 Pacmāvarī of the Digambaras is described 10 be
(:. कुप्माण्डी देवी कनकवर्णा सिंहबाह्नां चतुर्भुजां मातुलिङ्गपाशयुक्त___ दक्षिणकराम् अङ्कुगान्वितवामकरां । ।
...cil-hai ki (MSS.. Agra 1. fang AFATEET ATARE ECHI
Pralistusirasuringud: MISS., Arrah) C.सव्ये कर्युपगप्रियङ्करसुतप्रीत्यै करे विम्रतीम् । दिव्याम्रस्तबकं शुभङ्कर __करश्लिष्टान्यहम्ताङ्गुलिम् । सिंहे भर्तृचरे स्थितां हरितभामाम्रद्रुमच्छायगाम् ।
Pratisthasāioildāra 2. "The Fig. No. D 7, Veithuru Aluvium, wrongly called by Dr Vogel
as Parvati is, in fact, the Digambara image of Kuşmāndi. The fact that the Digambara image has no ornaments is not always true as it bears ornaments. What has been wrongly called 'happy twins", Deogarh Fort, Jhansi, Arch. Serial 2-28 is the image of Kuşmandi with her consort. fine and separate image of the Yaksini is in the Deogarh Fort, on the West of the Main temple. We can identify rightly the images of Pirvati'. No 629. Gwalior Arch. Dept. from Atolumpur and
Nimthur as those of 4 armcd Ambikā. 3. तथा पद्मावती देवी कुर्कटोरगवाहना ।स्वर्णवर्णा पद्मपाशभृद्दक्षिणकरद्वया । फलाङ्कुशधराभ्यां च वामदोर्त्यां विराजिता ॥
Hemacandra's Pārsvanáthacaritam.

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Yakṣinis
of four types according to the number of hands. Some texts give her a snake and cock as her vehicle, others give her a lotus seat. The four-handed figure holds a goad, rosary, two lotuses. The six-handed type has a nose, sword, spear, crescent, club, staff, as attributes. The eight-handed figure has a noose and other attributes. The twentyfour-handed figure holds a conch, sword, Cakra, crescent, lotus, blue lotus, bow (Sarāsanan), spear, noose, Kusa-grass, bell, arrow, staff, shield, trident, axe, ( Kunta ) Vajra, garland, fruit, club, leaf, stalk, and Farada Mudra. 1
Separate-sculptures of an important Yakşini like Padmavati ought to have been discovered but we have, so far, only seen the Yaksinī's likeness with symbols in her master's statues.2
The legend of Padmavati is throughout associated with snakes and she belongs to the Nether Regions or Pātāla. This
105
स्वर्णाभोनमकुर्कुटाहिगमना सौम्या चतुर्बाहुभृ
...
द्वामे हस्तयुगेऽङ्कुशं दधिफलं तत्रापि . पद्म पाशमदञ्चयन्त्यविरतं पद्मावती
. . दक्षिणे ।
1. देवी पद्मावती नाम्ना रक्तवर्णा चतुर्भुजा । पद्मासनाङ्कुशं धत्ते अक्षसूत्रं च पङ्कजम् . अथवा पड्भुजा देवी चतुर्विंशतिसद्भुजा || पाशासिकुन्तबालेन्दुगदामुसलसंयुतम् । भुजाष्टकं समाख्यातं चतुर्विंशतिरुच्यते । शङ्खा सिचक्रबालेन्दुपद्मोत्पलशरासनम् । शक्ति पाशं कुशं घण्टां बाणं मुसलखेटकम् । त्रिशूलं परशुं कुन्तं वज्र मालां फलं गदाम् । पत्रञ्च पल्लवं धत्ते वरदा धर्मवत्सला ॥
2.
Pratisthāsārasamgraha (MSS, Arrah )
cr. येष्टुं कुक्कुटसर्पगा त्रिफणकोत्तंसा द्विपो या तष्टा पाशादिः सदसत्कृते च घृतशङ्खास्यादिदोरष्टका ( ? ) । तां शान्तामरुणां स्फुरच्छणिसरोजन्माक्ष
मालाम्बरां पद्मस्थां नवहस्तकप्रभुनतां यायाज्मि
पद्मावतीम् ॥
A fig. of Padmāvati in Pakhir, Purula Dill. Scc Beglar's report, Arch. Suri. Reports Vol. VIII; with Pārśvanātha's image in Gwalior Fort, Eastern roof; on the Western face of the pillar near the Western gate (No. I) in the Deogarh Fort.

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l'aksinīs
107
The most important symbol connected with Siddhāyikā is her lion. This may be interpreted in the light of the same syznbol as assuined by the Yakşiņi's master Alahāvīra. Her other symbol, such as a book and Vinā (lute) would make her, in appearance, a Vidyādevī. The custom of giving a lion to a goddess of learning does not appear to be singular to the Jainas as we find the Vägisvarī of Benares is scated on a lion's back. Siddhāyika's other symbol is a citrus and this is particularly indicative of her Yaksiņi nature.

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CHAPTER IV
THE DIKPĀLAS
Equally with Brāhmaṇism, the Jainas of both the sects make room for an important class of divinities under the designation of the Dikpālas, who are supposed to guard the quarters. Their origin, on probable grounds, underlies the actual ideals of certain semi-divine kings, who took the responsibility of governing regions of all the distinct quarters. Their ideas were, undoubtedly, far anterior to the carly Brālmaņas than to the Jainas. Like the majority of gods imported into the Jaina Pantheon, the Dikpīla gods were directly taken over by the Jaina people. The main charactcristics of the Dikpālas are ncarly those which we find in connection with the same deities of Brāhmaṇisın. In one point, however, the position of the Dikpīlas of Jainismı is clistinct enough. It is always subscrvient to that of the Tirthamkaras, who like the Buddhas were served and cared for by the chiess of the quarters. It is interesting to reflect that some of the Yaksas, who owe', as a rule, their origin to other ideas as well, bear rccoguisable names and nature of the Dikpālas. Whether the Dikpālas came first in order or the Yakşas is an open question. Yet we have niore reason to believe that the conception of the latter was clearly influenced by the former. The Dikpalas, in some cases, such as Indra, Išāna, Brahmä and Nāga introduce into the Jaina godhood their spouses described separatcly in the iconographic texts. Another feature regarding the Dikpālas, who are also called Lokapālas, is their worship as Vāstu-devatās. One Svetambara test makes them functioning as Kumāras, who diller very little in nature from the Gods of the quarters. We shall describe, now separately the iconography of these ten Dikpālas recognised by both thc Svetāinbaras and Digambaras.
Indra
There seems to lie very little difference between the descriptions of the Dikpāla Indra, as afforded both by the Sve

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Dikpälas
109
tâmbara and Digambara texts. His chief characteristics are his elephant called Airāvata and his Vajra or thunderbolt.1 Indra is the guardian of the castern regions and his wife is called Saci. In one text, we shall sec, later on, he has been described as possessed of thousand cyes. We can infer, therefore, that the Brāhmaṇic conception of Indra's having thousand eyes, is carried to Jainism. Clcar identity of some features leads me also to infer that Mātaiga, the Yakşa of Mahavira or Mahendra, the Yaksa of Aranātha according to the Digambaras owes largely its conception to that of Indra.
Agni
Both from the Svetāmlara and Digambara standpoints, Agni is described as riding a ram, holding a Sakli (spear; and bearing seven flamcs. One Svetambara test, however, gives him a bow and arrow while a Digambara text adds a sacrificial pot to his attributes and makes rosary as his armlet.? His wife is Svāhā and he has the charge of the south-castern regions.
1. दृप्यत्सामानिकादित्रिदशपरिवृतं रुच्यशच्यादिदेवी
113 लोलाक्षं वज्रभूपोद्भटसुभगरुचं प्रागिहेन्द्रं यजामि ॥
Pratisthāsāroddhāra. cा. पूर्वस्यां दिशि कुण्डलांशुनिचयव्यालीढगण्डस्थलं शत्रु मूर्धनि साधुबद्ध___ मुकुटं स्वारूढमरावतम् । पत्नीबान्धवभृत्यवर्गसहितं देवं सदाह्वानये ।
Derapūjā (MSS.. Jaina. S. Bhavana, Arrah.). Svetāmbara version-अथ लोकपाला: शक्रं पीतवर्णमैरावतवाहनं वज्रपाणि . . ..
Nirrānakalikā (MSS., Agra Collection). cr. वास्तुदेवाः ओं ह्रीं ऐरावतस्कन्धमधिश्रयन्तं वज्रायुधं रुच्यशचीसमेतं प्रत्यूहविध्वंसकम् ।
(MSS., Rimaghāta) 2. अग्निमग्निवर्ण मेषवाहनं सप्तशिखं शक्तिपाणि ।
___Nirānakalika (MSS.. Agra, J. Library). cr. श्रीअग्नये · · कपिलवर्णाय छागवाहनाय नीलाम्बराय धनुर्बाणहस्ताय Pūjāvidhi, Acaradinakara (MSS.No. 74/11/36 Råmaghāt a
MSS. Library, p. 14) Again, ज्वाला यात्मकशक्तिहस्ता वस्ताधिरूढा - ‘स्वाहा महिष्यासममग्निदेवाः
ओं ह्रीं अग्निवास्तुदेवाय स्वाहा । bid.. P. 33. S ...
.
. . .
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| bid.. D 38s

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It may be seen from the above description that there is very little difference in iconography between a Brahmanic Agni and Jaina Agni, the latter being a by-product of the former. The attributes of a bow and arrow are, of course, conspicuous. We can imagine that these attributes, which arm the hands of Kärttikeya may have been conceived in case of Agni, who was the presiding god of Kartikeya. The symbols of sacrificial pot (Kundi) and rosary are only indicative of the god's primary nature as a sacrificial priest. The meaning of Svaha, also, supports this idea.
Fama
110
Yama, the god of death, who governs the south regions, is to be sculptured both according to the Svetāmbaras and Digambaras, as riding on a buffalo and holding a staff. He is known to be the son of the sun and accompanied by his wife called Chaya. His chief function is not only to guard the south but also to pronounce judgment on merits and demerits of departed souls.1
Digambara.. रुक्मारुग्घुर्धुरस्रग्गलचटुलपृथुप्रायभृङ्गाभङ्गस्थं रौद्रं पिङ्गलेक्षणयुगममलं ब्रह्मसूत्रं शिखास्त्रम् । कुण्डीवातप्रकोष्ठे दधतमितरपाण्यात्तपुण्याक्षसूत्रम् । स्वाहान्वीतं धिनोमि श्रुतिमुखरसमं प्राच्यप्रोच्यान्तराग्निम् । छागारोहणमक्षसूत्रवलयं स्वाहासंयुतमुज्ज्व....
..
Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra.
नमो यमाय धर्मराजाय दक्षिणदिगधीशाय समवर्तिने धर्माधर्मविचारकरणाय कृष्णवर्णाय चर्मावरणाय महिषवाहनाय दण्डहस्ताय । Acäradinakara, Pūjāvidhi. Gr. छायासमेतं महिषाधिरूढं दण्डायुधं दण्डितवैरिवर्गं वैवस्वतं .... यमवास्तुदेवाय स्वाहा | Ibid.
श्रीं ह्रीं
Digambara version:
यमदेवस्येति । श्रासीनं शितवर्णभाजि महिषे वैवस्वतञ्च स्वयम् । दण्डमण्डितभुजं दक्षिणस्यां दिशि ।....
Devapūjā (MSS.; Arrah Collection).
Cr. चण्डाचिःकाण्डदण्डं डुमरकरमतिक्रूरदारं विलोके । काष्र्णोद्रेकं नृशंसं प्रथममथ यमं दिश्य प्राच्यां यजामि ॥
Pratisthāsäroddhära.

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Dikpālas
111
The conception of the Jaina Yana is almost identical to that of the Brāhmaṇic God of the same name. The only diffcrence seems to be the Jaina Yama's wife being Chāyā, who, in Brāhmaṇism, is known to be the wife of the Sun-god Sūrya. There is some justification on the part of the Jainas to inako Chāyā as the wife of Yama, who has been called Dharma-rāja, by which appellation the Sun-god is also known. In this connection, it is to be pointed out that Candraprabha's Yaksa Vijaya or Syāma has some radical identity by name and symbols, to this god of death. Vijaya literally means Yana and Shyama's wife Jvālini actually rides a buffalo, the vehicle of the Dikpāla of the south. Nairta
Naista, the guardian-god of the south-west quarters, is made to ride a corps or a goblin according to the Svetāmbara texts. In the vicw of the same, he wcars a tiger's skin and holds a club or a sword and a bow (Pināka).1 The Digambaras represent the god as riding a bear and holding the same attribute of a club.
The general conception of this Lokapāla or Dikpāla is due to the Brāhmaṇic influence. There are points, however, which make the Jaina God in some ways distinct. The attribute of a bow, his vehicle of a bear and the tiger's skin are of clearly Jaina origin.
1. नैऋति हरितवर्णं शववाहनं खड्गपाणि
.Vircākaliki (Agra MSS). Cr. धूम्रवर्णाय व्याघ्रचर्मवृताय मुद्गरहस्ताय प्रेतवाहनाय
Trīradinakara (Ramaghāļa MSS). Further,
Nigare: fangray(?) 74: SECTEUTHERNET: 1 foaia
77475 Gafa i 1749rgaard FATT I Ibid. 2. *7** ÇEHETETUi fimraerthi
Dernbūjā (Arrah MSS). T6...VÌ KHIỸ (?) HH cf. p houryeta fafazau FireTourets
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.

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Varuna
Divergence exists among cven tho Svetāmbara texts with regard to the vehicle of Varuna, the guardian God of the west. Some texts assign to him the vehicle of a dolphin, others a fish. He is, however, unaniinously represented as bearing a noose and figuratively wears the ocean. The other sect makes him appcar in icons bedecked in pearls, corals, etc., riding a dolphin and bearing a noosc.!
The Jaina form of Varuņa may be distinguished only by his symbol of a fish, as some texts render him. In all other respects, he is the same as the Brāhmaṇa guardian-god of the west. The symbols of a dolphin, noosc, pcarls etc., all originate from the god's connection with the west and the ocean. We find, among the Yaksas, one named Varuna but he rides a bull. On the contrary, Pātāla Yaksa of Ananta Jina, rides a dolphin and has among his attributes a noose. Either of them presumably has been influenced by the original idea of Varuņa.
Vāyu
He rides a deer according to all Jaina authorities. Some Svetāmbara texts give him the attribute of a Vajra, others give him a banner.2 The Digambara account of him only differs
1. वरुणं धवलवर्ण मकरवाहनं पाशपाणिम् ।
Nirvanakalikā. Cr. श्रीवरुणाय पश्चिमदिगधीशाय समुद्रवासाय मेघवर्णाय पीताम्बराय पाशहस्ताय मत्स्यवाहनाय
Ācāradinakara. पद्मिन्याश्रितदन्तिदन्तमकरारूढं भुजङ्गायुधं मुक्ताविद्रुमभूषणं च वरुणं काष्ठां प्रतीचीं श्रितम् ।
Derohija. cr. प्रोत्फुल्लत्पद्मखेलत्करकरिमकरव्योमयानाधिरूढं प्रेवन्मुक्ताप्रवालाभरणमुपस्थावृदा राहताक्षं (?) स्फूर्जद्धीमाहिपाशं वरुणमपरदिग्रक्षणं प्रीणयामि ॥
Pratisthāsāroddhāra. 2. ओं नमः श्रीवायवे वायव्यदिगधीशाय धूसराङ्गाय रक्ताम्बराय हरिणवाहनाय. ध्वजप्रहरणाय...
Acāradinakara.

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Dikpälas
from this in the substitute of a wooden weapon.1 Vayu is the guardian or Lord of the North-west quarters.
The Jaina Vayu differs not essentially from the Brāhmaṇic Vayu. The assignment of the attribute of a Vajra seems to be a new idea. Similarly, the symbol of a wooden weapon attributed by the Digambaras is another peculiar feature unknown to Brāhmaṇism. The Yakṣa, who presents some identity of Vayu, is Kusuma, who likewise rides a deer, according to the view of both the sects.
Kubera
Kubera, the Protector of the northern regions, has been conceived of by the Svetambara Jainas, as a deity, who rides a man, bears gems and a club. According to the authoritics of the same sect, he is the treasurer of Indra, King of Yaksas, having his control over Kailasa. He, also, rides the chariot by the name of Puspaka. The Digambara view gives not more than the last symbol for the representation of Kubera.3
Cr. वायु ं सितवर्णं मृगवाहनं वज्रालङ्कृतपाणिम् ।
Nirvāņakalikā (MSS. Agra).
1. एकस्यापि पश्चिमोत्तरदिशि हारावलीभूषणं वायुं तुङ्गकुरङ्गपृष्ठगमनं हस्त
स्थवृक्षायुधम् ।
2.
Devapujā.
Cf. खुरकषितकुलं ग्रावसारङ्गयुग्यम् । व्यालोलद्गात्रयन्त्रं त्रिजगदसुधृतिव्यग्रमुग्रद्रुमास्त्रम् ।
Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra.
कुबेरमनेकवर्णं निघिनवकाधिरूढं निचुलकहस्तं गदापाणिम् ।
Cf.
Nirvāņakalikā ( Agra MSS). श्रीं नमः श्रीधनदाय उत्तरदिगधीशाय सर्वयक्षेश्वराय कैलाशस्थाय अलकापुरीप्रतिष्ठाय शक्रकोशाध्यक्षाय नरवाहनाय रत्नहस्ताय । Acāradinakara (Ramaghata, MSS ).
Further, नों ह्रीं पुष्पितपुष्पिकाभ्रयानाधिरूढ स्फुरितातिशक्ति व्रजयक्ष राजपूत मया स्वीकुरु पायसान्नम् । Thid.
3. प्रेङ्खद्विमानध्वजैरारूढपृथुपुष्पकं धनपति प्रोच्चैरुदीचीदिशि •
..
113
Devapuja (Arrah)
Cf. हंसाघोनाह्यमानं पवननरीनृतत्केतुपङ्क्ति विमानं स्वारूढः पुष्पकाख्यं क्रमसखरसनादाममुक्ताकलापः ।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.

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Some single figures of the deity may be noticed rarely. The corpulent belly, club and purse guide us to identify such figures. The number of hands is irregular but it is cither two or four. The miniature figure of a Jina on the head-dress makes any such figure a Jaina onc.!
Except in one feature namely being the urcasurer of Indra instead of Siva, the Jaina Kubera varies nowise from the Brāhmaņic Kubera. The symbols of gems, club and the vehicle of a man are common to the conception of the two religions. The fact of his being the treasurer of Indra or Sakra instead of Siva is due to the superiority, which the former god receives both in Jainism and Buddhism to the latter. We find a Kubera Yaksa among the attendent spirits of the Jinas but he rides an clephant although he holds a clul) and cilrus as becoming of the king of Yaksas. There is another Yaksa named Gomedha, who, like Kubera, rides on a man and bears one or two of his attributes as met with in the Buddhist Kubera. It may be interesting to note here that to ride on a man or a Vimāna (Puspaka) a kind of palanquin is a custom much in vogue in the Himālayan regions, of which Kailāsa was a part.
Išūna
He, the Guardian-god of the North-east quarters is to be represented according to the Svetambara texts as riding a bull (joined by Umā), holding a bow and trident. He also bears matted hair and snakes on his person,2 The Digambara books
1. The standing image of Kubera from Choma Kher in the Mathura
Aluseum has two hands with a club and a purse. A figure from Nimthur, Gwalior State, No. 40/1974 is by appearance of Kubera. It has a Jina
miniature above the head-dress, 2. ईशानं धवलवर्णं वृषभवाहनं त्रिनेत्रं शूलपाणि ।
Nirrāņakalikā (Agra. MSS). C. JATHAFT QTHaecat selffitat a forafaaly: 1 fargefa: प्रमथाधिनाथो गृह्णातु दुग्धान्नमिदं ससपि । ओं ईशानवास्तुदेवाय.
īcāradinakara, Pūjāridhi. Again. श्वेतवर्णो वृषभवाहनो नीललोहितवस्त्रः चतुर्भुजः जयभृतशूलचापभृतकरद्वयेनाञ्जलिकश्च . . .
Ācāradinakara , Pratisthākalpa.

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Dikpälas
mention only the symbols of a skull over and above the abovenamed characteristics.1
115
Iśāna, otherwise designated as Siva in Brāhmaṇism, has been directly imported into the Jaina Pantheon. Skull, bow, properly known as Pinaka and snakes are all well-known symbols of Siva. As there is every likelihood to believe that in Prehistorical times the Siva-cult had much prevalence in the northeastern regions, roughly coterminous with the present area of Tibet, Sikkim and Bhutan, still holding the same faith, the north-eastern direction received the name of Isana Dik. It is to be noted in this connection that Isvara Yakṣa of Śreyamsanatha has been influenced by Isana, in his vehicle of bull and symbols of three eyes, trident etc.
Brahma and Naga
As in Brāhmaṇism, so in Jainism, too, the Dikpäla Brahmā has been given the charge of the upper regions. The Svetambara texts describe him as four-headed, riding on a swan and holding a book and lotus.2 The Digambaras do not seem to have accepted not more than eight guardian gods. Brahmā and Nāga being left out from their descriptive list.
Naga is to be imaged as a figure seated on a lotus and having a snake in his hand. He rules over nether world or Pātāla, the region of the snakes.
The representation of Brahma and Naga as Dikpalas evince no further improvement on those of Brahmaṇism. The symbols of both the deities tally exactly with what we notice in
1. ईशानं वृषपृष्ठगं हस्तोदस्तकपालशूलभयदं पूर्वोत्तरस्यां दिशि नागैराभरणैरलङ्कृत' · · देवपूजा ।
Cf. भास्वद्भूषाभुजङ्गभुजगसितजटाकेतकार्धेन्दुचूलं
बिभ्रद् शुलं कपालं सगणवरमिहार्चामि पूर्वोत्तरेशम् ॥
Pratiṣṭhasaroddhāra.
2. प्रों नमो ब्रह्मणे ऊर्ध्वलोकाधीश्वराय सर्वसुरप्रतिपन्नाय पितामहाय नाभिसम्भवाय चतुर्मुखाय हंसवाहनाय कमलसंस्थानाय पुस्तककमलहस्ताय । Acaradinakara (Ramaghița, MSS).
3. नागं श्यामवर्ण पद्मवाहनमुरगपाणि चेति ।
Nirvanakalika (MSS Agra).

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Jaina Iconography their Brāhmaṇic originals. Brahmā, in one of his four hands, has been given a book, cvidently the Vedas. It seems to be a most interesting inadvertance on the part of Jainas to admit this symbol of Brahmā, as against their avowed antipathy for the Brāhmaṇic Vedas.

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CHAPTER V
THE NAVAGRAHAS
The Jainas following the earlier Brāhmaṇic tradition reduced the Planetary system to a group of iconic representations, which constitute an important class of gods known as Jyotiska Devas. The features of these Gods in sculpture are mostly of the kind of their originals though, as in other cases, there are distinct characteristics by which we recognise them showing them as purely Jaina creations. From the ritualism attached to these gods we may well infer that individually and collectively their worship had much vogue among the Jainas. It is likely, therefore, that images of the planets used to be constructed either separately or in a group like the panel of Brāhmanic art representing the Navagrahas. In the discoveries of Jaina scriptures, we have had very little instance of meeting with the separate figures of their nine planets. Nevertheless, it is nccessary to deal with their descriptions in our book for we are not devoid of hope of finding out examples of Jaina Grahas as we have found their other images, all equally receiving the treatment in the Jaina iconographical literature. In this topic, it is noticeable that stress has been given to the supremacy of the planets over the different quarters (Dik) calling them "ruler of cast" etc., and this seems to be a new feature in the Jaina iconology of the astronomical deities.
Surya
1.
The sun-god has been described in Svetāmbara Jainism as riding on a chariot, drawn by seven steeds and holding in his hands two lotuses. He is known there as the deity of the East and the husband of Ratna Devi.1 The Digambara description
श्रीसूर्याय सहस्रकिरणाय रत्नदेवीकान्ताय गङ्गाय यमुनाय नकारजगत्साक्षिणे कर्मसाक्षिणे । पूर्वदिगधीशाय कमलहस्ताय सप्ताश्वरथवाहनाय ।
Acaradinakara, Pūjāvidhi (Rāmaghața MSS).

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Jaina Iconography
of the God is simpler.! Candra
Candra or the Moon-god of thc Svetambaras drives a chariot of ten white horses and holds an urn of nectar. He is the master of the stars and rules over the north-western quarters. The Digambara description of the planet has no mention of his symbols.
Mangala
Mangala or the Planet Mars, as described in the Svetāmbara lexis holds a shovel and stands upon the earth in one type and in another, he has four hands, holding Varada, Sakti (spear), trident and club. He is known as the son of the carth and the ruler of the South. The Digambara tcxt gives the planet no more attribute than a spcar.5
1. त्वं तोष्टा तापसेप्ट्या कमलकरहरिद्वाहनेता ग्रहाणां
नैवेद्यैः सानुगाङ्कर्घनशृतपरमान्नोद्यपिगंडाद्यैः ।
Pratisthāsā ruddhāra.
2. चन्द्रश्चित्रे विधातव्यः श्वेतश्वेताम्बरावृतः । दशश्वेताश्वसंयुक्त प्रारूढः स्यन्दनं शुभम् ॥
Nirrānukalikā (MSS. Agra Library). cr.ओं चं चं चं - ‘नमश्चन्द्राय शम्भुशिवराय · 'तारागणाधीशाय वायव्यदिगधीशाय · · · 'सर्वजगत्पोषणाय श्वेतदशवाजिवाहनाय सुधाकुम्भहस्ताय ।
Acaradinakara. 3. Vide Pratisthāsāroddhāra, p. 28 4. श्रीमङ्गलाय दक्षिण दिगधीशाय विद्मवर्णाय रक्ताम्बराय भूमिस्थिताय कुद्दालहस्ताय ।
Ararudinakara (MSS, Rāmaghāta). Cr. धरापुत्रस्य वक्ष्यामि लक्षणं चित्रकर्मणः । चतुर्भुजो मेपगामी दक्षिण
बुध्नगं हस्तवरदं परिकल्पयेत् । ऊर्ध्वशक्तिसमायुक्तं वामौ शूलगदाधरौ। भौम।
Nirvānakalikā (Agra MSS). 5. फ्यूने बिम्बमिताङ्कयोजनशते क्रोशार्धमात्र क्षितेर्बाह्य द्विद्विसहस्रकेसरिमुखैभिक्षुप्रियः शूलभृत् ।
Pratisthāsāroddhūra.

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Navagrahas
119
Budha
Two different types of description occur in the Svetāmbara books for the image of Budha. According to one he should be represented as riding on a swan and holding a book in his hand." The other type makes the figure riding a lion and having the attributes of a sword, shield, club and Varada.? Budha is known as the son of the Moon and the ruler of the north. The Digambara account informs us mcrcly of a book for the planet.
Brhaspati
In this case, 100, the Svetāmbara literature furnishes iwo different accounts. Conforming to the one, the image should bear a book and ride a swan, to the other, he should hold the attributes, in his four hands, of a rosary, staff, kamandalu and Varada. He is the ruler of the north-castern quarters. The Diganıbara Bșhaspati sits on a lotus and holds a book, Kamandalu and a rosary." 1. प्रिय१प्रख्याङ्गो गलदमलपीयूषनिकपस्फुरद्वारीत्राणि (?) कृतसकलशा
स्त्रोपचयधी: · · 'शशिसुतः । 'ओं नमः श्रीबुधाय · · 'उत्तरदिगधीशाय .. कलहंसवाहनाय पुस्तकहस्ताय ।
(Arivadinakara MMSS. Ramaghāta). 2. सिंहारूढो बुधः पीतमाल्याम्बरधरः । वरदं खङ्गयुक्तञ्च खेटकेन समन्वितं गदया च समायुक्तं । . . .
Nirrānakulikā (Agra). १. बिम्बं खं शशिनोऽष्टयोजनमतीत्योचं व्रजद्भ जवात् । क्रोशार्धप्रमितं कुजस्थितिरितो वर्णीष्टिमुत्पुस्तकम् ॥
Pratisthāsāruidhara. 4. शास्त्रप्रस्तारसार · श्रीगुरवे बृहस्पतये ईशान दिगधीशाय · 'पीतवस्त्राय पुस्तकहस्ताय हंसवाहनाय ।
Acāradinakara. Cr. पीतो देवगुरुर्लेख्यः शुभ्रश्च भृगुनन्दनः । चतुर्भिर्बाहुभिर्युक्तश्चित्रकर्म
विशारदः । वरदः साक्षसूत्रश्च कमण्डलुधरौ तथा । दण्डिनौ च तथा बाहू विभ्राणः परिकल्पयेत् ।
..Nirranakalika. 5. तच्चाराद्रसयोजनरुपरि या तद्वद्विमानं मनागूनक्रोशमितः सपुस्तककमण्डल्वक्षसूत्रोऽब्जगः ।
Pratişthāsāroddhāra.

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Sukra
He is described in the Svetambara texts as having the vehicle of a snake and bearing the symbol of an urn. He is known as the teacher of the demons and ruler of the Southeast regions. The Digambara canon makes him hold a three-fold +hread, snake, noose and rosary. 2
Sani
3
The Saturn-god has the Svetāmbara figure, which caronically should ride a tortoise and bear the attribute of an axe. The attribute of the Digambara is only mentioned as a three-fold thread. According to the former view. the planet is the ruler of the west
Rahu
Jaina Iconography
Rahu is represented by the Svetambara as a rider of lion and bearer of an axe. He has the charge of the South-western quarters. The Digambara Rahu seems to have the symbol of a flag."
Ketu
Ketu, as imaged by the Svetāmbara, is a snake deity. He rides on a cobra and bears the attribute of a cobra. He
1.
श्रीशुक्राय दैत्याचार्याय प्राग्नेयदिगधीशाय स्फटिकोज्ज्वलाय श्वेतवस्त्राय कुम्भहस्ताय उरगवाहनाय....
2. प्रेर्यं क्रोशततं विसूत्रफणभृत् पाशाक्षसूत्रैः स्फुरन् ।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.
3. श्रीं शनैश्चराय पश्चिमदिगधीशाय नीलदेहाय परशुहस्ताय कमठवाहनाय ।
४. तद्वद्गन्तृगतोर्ध्वपल्यपरमायुष्कैस्त्रिसूत्रीयुतः ।
5. श्रीराहवे नैऋतदिगधीशाय परशुहस्ताय सिंहवाहनाय ।
6. त्यक्तारिष्टदरोनयोजनततस्वव्योमपानध्वजम् ।
7.
नों नमः श्रीकेतवे बाहुप्रतिच्छ• दाय श्यामाङ्गाय हस्ताय ॥
ācāradinakara.
Acāradinakara.
Pratisthāsāvoddhāra.
ācāradinakara.
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.
• पन्नगवाहनाय पन्नग

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has no direction to rule over. The Digambara description of the planet's attribute is unavailable.1
121
Since I wrote out the above chapter I have been able to find out examples of Jaina Planets. Sec the pedestal of the Tirthamkara image, No 52, Fyzabad Muscum. Cf. Fig. B. 75, Mathura Museum also, Catalogue p. 81.

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CHAPTER VI ŚRUTA-DEVI AND VIDYĀDEVIS Of all the conceptions found in the Jain Iconography, none is so original as the conception of the Vidrādevis or the Goddesses of learning. They are sixteen in number. In no other Indian religion are the goddesses of knowledge so numerous. Besides the sixteen Vidrādevis, the Jains of both sects admit into their pantheon, one Sruta-devī or Sarasvali approximating very closely the Brahmanical conception of the same goddess. She seems to be at the head of the collective body of the sixteen Vidyādevis and her worship is prior to that of other subordinate deities. Her name as Śruta-deri meaning 'Goddess of Sruti' originally refers to the Vedas or revealed literature preserved through hearing. There is some hidden meaning behind this name. The description of Sruta-devī as a florded by the Jain books makes it on a par with Brahmāni's (wife of Brahmā) description.' And Brahmā is known to hold, the Vedas or the Ancient Scripture. The Jains, like the Brāhmaṇas, make a special ceremony of her worship on the Sukla Pancami day of the Kārtrika month, which they call "Jūāna Pañcami. On that special anniversary day of knowledge, the devout people fast, worship the books and instal them carcfully custed. The conceptions and imageries of the other sixteen goddesses of lcarning, if analysed disclose clear points of identity in respect of names, attributes, etc., with those of the Jain Yaksiņis. This lcads us to assuine reasonably that the Vidyādevis in conception were modelled after the Yaksinīs. The reverse would have been assurned as well but is inadmissible on the ground of the priority of the Yakşiņīs as connected in mythology and ritual with the Tirtharkaras in Jainism. The sixteen divinities under the name of the Vidyādevīs may be prima facie supposed to sway the sixteen
1. ओं ह्रीं नमो भगवति ब्रह्माणि वीणापुस्तकपद्माक्षसूत्रे हंसवाहने श्वेतवर्णे इह षष्ठीपूजने आगच्छ ।
Ācāradinakara Pratisthāvidhi (MS.R.B.). cr. the description of Srutadevi infra.

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arts and sciences but the texts of Jainism give a different clue namely that through their worship the devotee gets knowledge, character, religion, effort and mental qualities of many kinds.1 Really speaking, in point of fact, these qualities lic at the bottom of all education, whether literary, artistic or scientific.
Sarasvati or Srula-devi
The goddess, as vicwed by the Svetāmbaras rides a swan, has four hands bearing a lotus or Varada book and rosary.2 The Digambara texts seem to give the vehicle of a peacock to Sarasvati.3
A number of images of Śruta-devi have been compared by me. In all cases, the symbols of a book, lotus or a swan are to be noticed. But a strict observance with the canon has not been observed in any case. 4
Śruta-devi, the main goddess of learning, seems to be identical with the consort of Brahmā, a Dikpāla, as described in this book. The attributes of a lute, book and rosary are common. The vehicle of swan is also characteristic of Brahmā. The substitute of peacock for swan, as made by the Digambara seci, agrees with the conception of Sarasvati, who is also the river-goddess in Brāhmanism. The Jain literature, so extensive cven as it exists at present, has been presided over by this goddess.
दृग्ज्ञानचारित्रपरेषु सूरिपुरस्सरेष्वप्यकृतादरो यः ।
Pratisthāsāruddhūra. श्वेतवर्णा श्वेतवस्त्रधारिणी हंसवाहना श्वेतसिंहासनासीना चतुर्भुजा श्वेताजवीणालङ्कृतवामकरा पुस्तकमुक्ताक्षमालालङ्कृतदक्षिणकरा ।
Acāradinakara, Pralisthäkalpa, p. 146.
(MS, Råmaghăța Collection, Benares) Cr. Nirvūnakaliků Ms. (Jñānamandira, Agra). वाग्वादिनि भगवति सरस्वति ह्रीं नमः इत्यनेन मूलमन्त्रेण वेष्टयेत् । ओं ह्रीं मयूरवाहिन्यै नम इति वागधिदेवतां स्थापयेत् ।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra. A two-handed imagc at the Lucknow Muscum No. 8-6/507 is the earlicst. Cf. A four-handed image from Pallu, Bikaner. Another at Deogarh Fort, Scrial. No. 2262. See Indian Images, Part I, pp. 43, 44.

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Rohini, the Vidyādevi
The description of this goddess, as in other cases, varies, with the two sects. With the Svetāmbara, she rides a cow and holds in her hands a conch, rosary, bow and arrow. With the other sect, she appears bearing the attributes of an urn, conch, lotus and fruit.2
We shall gradually sce that most of the names of the Vidyādevīs are in common with those of Yakşiņis, specially of the Digambara scct. In this case, Rohiņī is also the name of the consort of Mahāyaksa, who attends upon Ajitanātha. From the text of the Svetāmbaras, it appears that she specially presides over the art of music. The Digambaras believe that by her worship, the devotee attains right insight.
Prajiapli
In her Svetāmbara aspect, she rides on a peacock and holds a lotus and a Sakti.? According to one text of the same school, she holds varada, Sakti, citrus and Sakti again.4 The Digambara image should be represented as bearing a sword and a disc..
Prajňapti is identical in name with the Digambara Yakșiņi of Sambhavanātha. Thus, we find she has borrowed the
1. शङ्खाक्षमाला शरचापशालिचतुप्करा कुन्दतुषारगौरा। गोगामिनी गीतचरप्रभावा श्रीरोहिणी सिद्धिमिमां ददातु ।।
Ācāradinakara. __Cr. Nirrimakalika (MS Agra Library). 2. विशोध्य यः स्वेष्टगुणैः सरागां दृष्टि विरागश्च परां प्रचक्रे । तं कुम्भशङ्खाब्जफलाम्बुजस्था श्रिताय॑से रोहिणी रुक्मरुक् त्वम् ॥
Pratisthāsārodelhūra (Rāmaghāța MS). १. शक्तिसरोजहस्ता मयूरकृतयानलीलया कलिता। प्रज्ञप्तिविज्ञप्ति शृणोतु नः कमलपत्राभा ॥
Ācāradinakara (Rāmaghāța MS). 4. प्रज्ञप्ति श्वेतवर्णां मयूरवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदशक्तियुक्तदक्षिणकरां मातुलिङ्गशक्तियुक्तवामहस्ताम् ।
Nirvanakalikā 5. दृग्ज्ञानचारित्रतपस्सु सूरिपुरस्सरेष्वप्यकृतादरो यः । तद्भक्तिकां त्वाश्यगतिनिलीनां प्रज्ञप्तिकेऽर्चामि सचक्रखङ्गाम् ।।
Pralisthāsāroddhāra.

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vehicle of peacock from Yaksa Trimukha, Prajñapti's husband. The peacock symbol with lotus should be Vidyādevi's characteristic. The name might have been derived either from Prajnapti, meaning intellect' or Prajna, meaning 'Sarasvati'.
Vajra-śrmkhala
Two forms of this goddess are known to the Svetāmbara scripture. In one form she is seated on a lotus and carries a chain and club. In another form, she is also seated on a lotus but has four hands adorned with varada mudrā, chain, lotus and chain again.2 The Digambara text mentions only a chain for the deity.3
We meet with the goddess of the like name in connection with the Yaksini of Abhinandana. But, in no point, the two dcities seem to agree with one another. The Śvelāmbara form, however, of the Yakşiņi has a lotus scat like Vajra Srinkhalā. According to the Digambara text used, she grants to her worshippers good boons and habits.
Vairāṁkušā
She, too, has two forms according to Svetāmbara texts. In one, she rides an clephant and bears as symbols a sword, vajra, shield and spear. 4 In another, she is riding an elephant in varada-mudrā, Vajra, citrus and goad,5 The Digambaras represent
1. सशृङ्खलगदाहस्ता कनकप्रभविग्रहा । पद्मासनस्था श्रीवज्रशृङ्खला ॥
Acāradinakara. 2. वज्रशृङ्खलां शङ्खावदातां पद्मवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदशृङ्खलान्वितदक्षिणकरां पद्मशृङ्खलाधिष्ठितवामकराम् ।
Nirvanakalika. 3. व्रतानि शीलानि च जातु योऽन्तर्वृत्त्यामनग्नो बहिरीहया वा । तद्भङ्गिमास्थाय विशृङ्खलास्त्रा पीता च तृप्ति परिशृङ्खलेऽस्मिन् ।।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra. 4. निस्त्रिशवज्रफलकोत्तमकुन्तयुक्तहस्ता सुतप्तविलसत्कलधौतकान्तिः । उन्मत्तदन्तिगमना भुवनस्य विघ्नं वज्राङ्कुशी हरतु...
Ācāradinakara. 5. Niriānakalikā.

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Jaina Iconography
the deity as driving in an aerial car and holding in her hands a goad and a lute.1
The Vidyādevī of the presnt description bcars the same name as the Svetāmbara Yakşiņi of Anantanātha. Some symbols of the Svetāmbara form and others of the Digambara form, such as sword, spear and goad come to be equal to those of the Yaksiņi. The synıbol of an elephant, the name Vajrāmkušā meaning 'one adorned with vajra and goad' leads us to suppose some mysterious connection between this Vidyādevi and Indra. Her lure, as given by the Digambaras, is only a symbol of Sarasvati.
Apraticakrā or Jambunadā
According to the Svetāmbara books, she rides a Garuda and all her four hands are armed with discs. She is called Jambunadā by the Digambaras, who represent her as riding a peacock and bearing a sword and a spear. 3
Apraticakrā by naine and symbols bears equality with the Yakşiņi of Rsabhanātha. This Vidyādevī may have some innate relation to Vaisnavi, the wife of Vişnu, as Jambunadā scems to have relation with Kaumārī, the wife of Kärttikeya. Peacock and spear are in this form the common characteristics.
Puruşadatlā
In Svcrāmbara literature, she is differently described. In one aspect, she holds a sword and shield,' in another,' she rides on a buffalo and carries in her four palms Varada, sword,
1. ज्ञानोपयोगं व्यदधादभीक्ष्णं यस्तं भजन्तं श्रितपुष्पयानाम् । वज्राङ्कुशे त्वां सृणिपाणिमुद्यद्वीणारसां मजु यजेऽञ्जनाभाम् ॥
Pratis!hāstīroddhara. 2. गरुत्मत्पृष्ठ आसीना भूयाद् प्रतिचक्रान्तसिद्धये चक्रधारिणी। श्री अप्रतिचक्राय · · ।
Ācāradinakara. Cf. Nirrānnkalikā. 3. धर्मे रजद्धर्मफलेक्षणे च यो जन्मभीस्तस्य मखे शिखिस्था। जाम्बूनदाभा घृतखङ्गकुन्ता जाम्बूनदे स्वीकुरु यज्ञभागम् ॥
Pratisthāsāroddhāra. 4. Acāradinakara.

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citrus and shield. The Digambara text makes her ride a peacock and hold as symbols vajra and a lotus.
We meet with the Yakşiņi of the same description as the wise of Tumbaru, the attendant of Sumati. The bullalo vehicle indicates strongly thc Vidyādevi's original relation with the wise of Yama, who characteristically moves on the back of the same animal.
kāli
The Digambara image of this Vidyādevi sbould ride a deer and should be surnished in its hands with the symbols of a staff and sword. There are two Svetāmhara forms to be marked. She is scated on a lotus and holds cither in two hands a club and varada or in four hands rosary, club, vajra and Abhara.4
She has similarity in name and certain synbols with the Śvetāmbara Yaksini of Abhinandana. The Digambara goddess, though having denominational similarity with the Yakșini of Supārsvanātha of the same sect seems to have been modelled after the type of the wife of Vāyu. This is strongly suggested by the common characteristic symbol of a deer as vehicle.
Mahākāli
Thc Svetāmbaras have iwo descriptions for the goddess. According to one', she rides on a man and holds a rosary, fruit, bell and Varada mudrā. According to another, she equally rides
1. पुरुषदत्तां कनकावदातां महिषीवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदासियुक्तदक्षिणकरां मातुलिङ्गखेटकयुतवामहस्ताम् ।
Nirrānakalikā. ५. कोकाश्रितां वज्रसरोजहस्तां यजे सितां पुरुषदत्तिके त्वाम् ।
Pratisthāsāroddluira. 3. T araf Hot airfor TÚTHT ETETT HATHEFI I Ibid. 4. विकचकमलवाहना गदाभृतकुलशमलकुरुतात् सदैव काली।
Acāradinakara. CF Nirrāņakalikā for the description of the same 5. नरवाहना शशधरोपलोज्ज्वला रुचिराक्षसूत्रफलविस्फुरत्करा शुभघण्टिका afaa zoetefeuit... HETAreiti
Acaradinakara.

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a man but holds a rosary, vajra, Abhaya mudra and bell.1 The Digambara form of Mahākālī is to be represented as standing on a corpse and bearing in her hands a bow, sword, fruit and weapon."
Though the Yakṣiņi of the like name, the Svetambara one of Sumatinatha and Digambara one of Suvidhinatha, exists in Jain Iconography, the Vidyadevi named Mahākālī partakes more of the nature of Kali of Brahmanism than of the same Yakṣiņi. The symbols of sword, bell, rosary, etc., are sufficiently tantrik in character, the corpse at the feet of the goddess being a true mark of Kāli. The Digambara book states that the goddess grants religious trance (Samadhi) to her worshippers.
Gauri
She of the Svetämbara type rides on an alligator (T) and bears four hands equipped with Varada, club, rosary and water-lily. In Digambara form, too, Gauri has an alligator as her vehicle and holds lotus as her symbol.4 There is also Gauri, the Digambara Yakṣiņi of Śreyāms anatha. Some of her symbols, such as lotus, Varada, are identical with those of this Vidyadevi. As an alligator is mythologically associated with a form of Brahmāṇī, Gauri or Durgā, we have reason enough to infer that the goddess, model came after her. The alligator and some of the symbols such as water-lily and urn indicate her connection with the goddess Ganga of Brāhmaṇism.5
I.
महाकालीं देवीं पुरुषवाहनां चतुर्भुजामक्षसूत्रवज्जान्वितदक्षिणकराम् प्रभयघण्टालङ्कृतवामभुजाम् ।
Nirvanakalika.
2. चक्रेऽधिकां साधुषु यः समाधि तं सेवमाना शरमाधिरूढा । श्यामा धनुःखङ्गफलाऽस्त्रहस्ता बलि महाकालि जुपस्व शान्त्यै ॥
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.
3. गोधासनसमासीना कुन्दकर्पूरनिर्मला ।
4. गौरीं देवीं गोधावाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदमुसलयुतदक्षिणकरामक्षमालालङ्कृत
वामहस्ताम् ।
5. गोधागता हेमरुगव्जहस्ता गौरि प्रमोदस्व तदर्चनांशैः ॥
Nirvanakalika.
Pratisthāsāroddhara.

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Gāndhāri
The Svetāmbara Gāndhārī is to be represented either as scated on a lotus and holding a staff and vajra or Varada, staff, Abhaya and Vajra.' Digambara goddess rides a tortoise and holds a disc and sword.2
We meet with the Svetāmbara Yakṣiṇi of the like name, who belonged to Nami. Her swan vehicle gave her the character of Sarasvati. The Yakşiņi Gāndhārī of the Digambaras rides a crocodile but the Vidyadevi Gāndhārī rides a tortoise. This latter point leads us to connect her with Yamunā, as the preceding Vidyādevi was suggested to be associated with Gargā.
Mahājvālā or Jvālāmālini
The text called the Acāradinakara of the Svetāmbaras describes this goddess as riding a cat but mcntions no attributes. The Nirvāņakalikā another text of the same sect describes her as riding a boar and holding many weapons without description.3 Images of Digambara type should ride a buffalo and bear such weapons as a bow, shield, sword and disc. 4 The Yakşiņi of similar name we find as attached to Candraprabha. The Svetāmbara Yakşiņi has a cat as her vehicle like the present goddess and the Digambaras' also has the common vehicle of a buffalo. The underlying idea of the Jvālāmālini representation seems to have been derived from the consort of Yama, whose symbol is a buffalo. The cat symbol is also held by a Brāhmaṇical deity named Şaşthi. It is, indeed, difficult to say which idea is older, the Jain or the Brāhmaṇic.
Manavi
According to one text, she has blue colour and sits on a 1. शवपत्रस्थितचरणा मुसलं वजच हस्तयोर्दधती। ____ कमनीयाञ्जनकान्तिर्गान्धारी गां शुभां दद्यात् ॥ .
Acaradinakara. १. चक्रासिभृत्कूर्मगनीलमूर्ते गृहाण गान्धारि तदध्रिगन्धम् ।
Pratisthäsäroddhāra. 3. महाज्वालां धवलवर्णां वराहवाहनामसंख्यप्रहरणयुतहस्ताम् ॥
Nirvāņakalika. 4. शुभ्रां धनुःखेटकखड्गचक्राद्युग्राष्टबाहु महिषाधिरूढाम् ॥
Pratisthäsäraddhāra.

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blue lotus and a twig.1 According to another of the same Svetambara school, she sits on a lotus and is four-handed showing Varada, rosary and a bough of a tree. The Digambara text also describes her as of blue colour and as riding a boar and bearing a trident. The Vidyadevi has a parallel in name to the Svetambara Yakṣiņi of Śreyāṁśanatha and in the Digambara Yakṣini of Sitalanatha. The former parallel does not seem to be of form but of mere name. Šītalanatha's Yakṣiņi as admitted by the Digambara school presents a similarity of name and vehicle. Stress has been laid on the Vidyadevi's colour being blue and in this connection, one is led to trace some faint relation between her and the Nilasarasvati of Brāhmaṇism. The boar symbol would connect the female deity with Vārāhi having the same vehicle.
Vairoți
The Svetambara text represents the goddess as riding on a snake and carrying in her hands a sword, snake, shield and snake. The Digambaras' Vidyadevi rides a lion and has a snake symbols. The Yakşini of the identical name occurs in the Digambara Iconography and belongs to Vimalanatha. Her vehicle and symbol in both the instances consist of snakes. That there exists a sure cognateness between the conception of the Vidyadevi and the Yakṣiņi is clearly indicated by a Digambara text which in an invocation calls the latter a Vidyadevi."
1.
नीलाङ्गी नीलसरोजवाहना वृक्षभासमानकरा मानवस्य सर्वस्य मङ्गलं मानवी दद्यात् ॥
Acaradinakara.
2. Nirvanakalikā.
3. स्वं धिन्वतो मानवी केकिकण्ठनीला किटिस्था सझषत्रिशूला ।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.
4. वैरोटी श्यामवर्णामजगरवाहनां चतुर्भुजां खङ्गोरगालङ्कृतदक्षिणकरां खेटकाहियुतवामकराम् ।
Nirvanakalikā.
5. cai faguarauqqani asî`seu âzìfe aàserietų ||
6. वैरोटी हरितार्च्यते । प्रों ह्रीं विद्यादेवि इदम् ।।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.
Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra.

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Acyupta
She is called in the Svetambara literature Acyuptā and described as riding a horse and holding a bow, sword, shield and arrowl. Acyutā as represented by the Digambaras equally rides a horse and holds the symbol of a sword.
Mānasi
Mānasi of Svetāmbara conception has two types in iconography. According to one, she rides a swan and bears the attributes of Varada and Vajral. According to another, shc sits on a lion and has four hands carrying Varada mudrā, Vaira, rosary and again Vajra". The Digambara Mānasi seats hersclf on a snake vchicles.
Mānasi by name and by the symbol of swan, Vajra and lion scems to be based upon a mixture of ideas. The swan symbol is very apt and is in keeping with the traditional emblem of the goddess of Icarning. The Buddhist deity of learning called Vāgīśvaris, who has a famous temple in Benares rides on a lion. Thus, there must be some undercurrent of interrelation in the symbolism. She rides a tiger. In this case, the Digambara Vidyādevi rides a snake. This appears to be due to the fact of Mānasi and Manasā having the same literal sense.
1. सव्यपाणि-धृतकार्मुकवराऽन्यस्फुरद्विशिखखङ्गधारिणी । विद्युद्दामतनुरश्ववाहनाऽच्युप्तिका भगवती।
Acaradinakara. २. धौतासिहस्तां हयगेऽच्युते त्वां हेमप्रभां त्वां प्रणतां प्रणौमि ।
___Pratisthāsāroddhāra. 3. हंसासनासीना वरदेन्द्रायुधान्विता । मानसी मानसीं पीडां हन्तु जाम्बुनदच्छविः ।
Acīradinokara. 4. मानसीं धवलवर्णा सिंहवाहनां चतुर्भुजां वरदवज्रालङ्कृतदक्षिणकरामक्षवलयाशनियुक्तवामकराम् ।
Nirrānakalika. रक्ताहिगा तत्प्रगतप्रणाममुद्रान्विता मानसि' · ।
Pratisțhūsāroddhāra. 5. वागीश्वरी=सरस्वती।
Trikāndasesa.

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Jaina Iconography Mahāmānasi
The Svetambaras describe the sixteenth Vidyadevi as riding on a lion and bearing, in her four hands, varada, sword, kamandalu and lancel. The Digambara representation of the goddess sits on a swan and holds a rosary, Varadamudrā, goad and garland?
Again, the conception of this Vidyādevi is presumably based upon that of Vāgīśvari. The sword symbol specially corresponding to the Digambara Yakșiņi of like name is Nirvāņi of Jina śāntinātha. As noticed before, her symbols of book, kamandalu and lotus befit more a Vidyādevī than a Yakşiņi. The Digambara conception of Mahāmānasi either as a Yakșiņi or Vidyādevi has symbols such as, peacock, swan, rosary, which fit in with the characteristics of the goddess of learning.
महामानसीं धवलवर्णा सिंहवाहनाम् । चतुर्भुजां वरदासियुक्तदक्षिणकरां कुण्डिकाफालकयुतवामहस्ताम् ।
Nirvāņakalika. रक्तां महाहंसगताक्षसूत्रवराङ्कुशस्रक्सहितां यजे त्वाम् ।।
Pratisthāsāroddhāra.

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CHAPTER VII
MISCELLANEOUS JAINA DIVINITIES
Under this hcad, we propose to trcat of certain other dcities of Jainisin, who do not prove to be constituent osa distinct class of importance but still figure promiscuously in Jaina temples and rock sculpture. The inodels of their representations except in the casc of Naigameșa or Nameso, and Sāntidevī must have been originally Brāhmaṇic, though, of course, as they are in Jainism, much modified and inaderenascent. It is very interesting as we shall notice in this topic, that Jainism with its absolute doctrine of Ahimsā or non-killing should have, alongside with the later Buddhism adopted even minor goddesses of Tantricism. Nor should it be css interesting to observe that exactly like the Brāhmaṇic custom of giving a prior worship to Gaņeśa and Lakşmi, the Jainas, including their merchant class, attach a high importance to the veneration of these deities.
Harinegamesī or Naigameșa
He is represented in Jaina religious art, as a male figure, either with thc hcad of a ram or antelope or a goat. We have the noteworthy example of the god's icon in the Jaina antiquities of Mathurā. In this, Naigamcşa is represented as bearing a goat's head.
The god with his variant names is mentioned in the Kalpasūtra, Neminālhacarita and Antagadadasão. He is primarily the captain of the foot forces of Indra, at whose command, he transferred the embryo of Mahāvīra from the body of the Brāhmaṇi Devanandā to the womb of Ksatriyāņi Trišalā. Hence, he acquired the power of granting the boon of child-birth. Thus, we
1.
The Jaina Stupa and other antiquities of Mathura by V.A. Smith, PI, XVIII (obversc and reverse) “The Obrerse shows five figures. The principal figure is a goat-headed deity seated in an easy attitude. The deity is labelled Bhagarā Nemeso, dating from about the beginning of the Christian era or earlier. To the right are three standing females, and a male infant stands by the left knee of the deity.

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Faina Iconography find him, in later literature, connected with the procreation of children. He is known to have two aspects, one beneficent another malevolent.
The conception of the god does not seem to us to be wholly original as Prof. Keith has supposed. The three ideas connected with the deity, namely, the deer-face, goat-face and power of procreation, we conjecture were derived from the mythology of Daksa Prajāpati. As Prajapati, he is fundamentally associated with work of creation and procreation. The Brāhmaṇic mythology refers to the incident in which Śiva at the self-immolation of his wife, Sati, being enraged, pursued Dakşa, who assumed the form of a deer and at last decapitated him. But Śiva is said to have afterwards restored him to life. According to another account, a demon camc out from a torn hair of Śiva in rage, who beheaded Daksa and put a goat's head on his neck.
Ksetrapāla
In the Svetāmbara books, we meet with two descriptions of this god. From one, we gather he has twenty hands with many weapons, matted hair, a snake as his holy thread and rides a dog. He is surrounded by Ananda and other Bhairavas and leads the sixty-four Yoginis.3 The other description makes him six-handed, the attributes being a club, noose, Damaru, bow, goad and Geţika ?
Images of this divinity have been discovered in many places but lie unidentified. The figures that I have studied,
1. "Now Sulasă was from childhood a worshipper of the god Harinega
meşi. She causcd to be made an image of Harinegameşi and every morning shc bathed. So in compassion for the lady Sulasi, thc god Harincgameşi made both her and thee to become pregnant at the same tiine." The Antaguda-Dasāu (Oriental Translation Fund), pp. 36, 37. Indian Alythology (Mythology of all races scries) by A.B. Keith.
A[ythology of the Jainas. 3. श्रीक्षेत्रपालाय' - 'विंशतिभुजदण्डाय बर्बरकेशाय जटाजूटमण्डिताय वासुकी
कृतजिनोपवीताय · 'प्रेतासनाय कुक्कुरवाहनाय त्रिलोचनाय आनन्दभैरवाद्यष्टभैरवपरिवृताय चतुःषष्टियोगिनीमध्यगताय ।।
Acātadinakara. + क्षेत्रपालं बर्बरकेशं षट्भुजं मुद्गरपाशडमरुकान्वितदक्षिणपाणि चापाङ्कुशitseile FranhyifoTH..
Nināņakalika.

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agree with the description in its most essential features.
Kșetrapāla is a Bhairava and seems to be the master of the Yoginis. As the name suggests, he is the deity whose function is to protect the field. Hence, probably, he has the dog, who might watch the field and help his master by guarding it against any aggressor. The Bhairavas of Brāhmaṇism, such as the Kålabhairava and Vațukabhairava are always associated with a dog. In fact, the relation of Kșetrapāla with Vațukabhairava has been clearly mentioned of in the Jaina texts.2
Ganesa
His hands vary from two, four, six, nine, eighteen to one hundred and eight. According to the description of the Acāradinakara, Ganapati should be pol-bellied and should hold, in his hands, an axe, Varada, Modaka (Sweet-meat ball), and Abhaya. His vehicle is a mouse.3
The form of Ganapati with four hands seems to be standard. The symbols of axe, Modaka and mousc are exactly the same with those of the Brāhmaṇic Ganesa. Hence, we may reasonably conclude that the icon of this god is the result of one of the many assimilations which Jainism made from Brāhmaṇism.
1. A fig. from Gandhāwal Gwalior no. 1974/211 rides a dog and has
four hands. It seems to be a Digambara image. Another fig. may be seen on the right wall in a group of rock-cut sculptures on the left of the road, inside the Gwalior Fort. It has also four hands with the
canonical symbols. २. क्षेत्रपालप्रतिष्ठायां बटुकनाथहनुमन्नारसिंहादिपुरपूजितदेशपूजितप्रतिष्ठा।
Acārudinakara. 01. *7: 179187 AUTOCE E1479* • caru THETATA !
Pratisthäkalpa. 3. stupefaefrostfafar: 1 # arei ferro-T5-T6 TAT-
H E16Eदशभुजाष्टोत्तरशतभुजरूपा गुरूपदेशविशेषेण बहुविधा भवन्ति । . . . . जय लम्बोदर परशुवरदयुक्तापसव्यहस्तयुग। सव्यकरमोदकाभयधर यावकवर्णपीतलासिक मूषिकवाहन पीवरजङ्घाभुजबस्तिलम्बिगुरुजठर। वारणमुखैकरद । वरदसौम्य । जयदेव गणनाथ।
Vardhamanasuri's Acara dinakara pratisthåvidhi.

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Sri or Laksmi
Śri or goddess of wealth has been described in a Digambara MS. as a four-handed figure holding a flower and lotus. The same goddess in a Svetāmbara MS. is represented as riding on an clephant and holding, as symbol, lotuses.
The worship of Lakşınī has a great hold upon the orthodox Jainas of both communities. The special day on which honour is done to the goddess of wealth is called Dhanaterasa. On the same occasion, the Svetāmbara women polish their jewellery and ornaments in honour of Laksmi. The description of Jaina Lakşmi, given above, does not far differ from that of the Brāhmanic Śri or Kamalā. Only in one point, it appears, namely in the riding on an elephant, the Jaina image presents an originality. It must be noted here that the conception of Lakşmi even in Jainism is very old as the goddess is mentioned in the Kalpasūtra as one of the objects of Triíalā's dream. śāntidevi
She may be found described in Svetārbara accounts as a goddess seated in a lotus and hearing in her four hands Varada, rosary, Kamandalu and a pitcher."
The idca of this female dcity seems to be quite now to us. No deity of Brāhmanism or Buddhism affords even a nearer parallel to this. She is believed by the Jainas to have the function of improving the origination of the four-fold Jaina church."
1. ओं ह्रीं सुवर्णवर्णे चतुर्भुजे पुष्पकमलमुखहस्ते श्रीदेवि अत्रागच्छ ।
Manulira-pratisthāridhăna.
(MSS. No. 6/2. Jaina S. Library, Arrah) 2. महालक्ष्म्यै नमः । पतिवस्त्रां सुवर्णाङ्गी पद्महस्तां गजाङ्किता' · · क्षीरोदतनयां at aterat afafaat GTECİ TATIERI
(A MSS. from Rāmaghāta Library). 3. शान्तिदेवतां धवलवर्णां कमलासनां चतुर्भुजां वरदाक्षसूत्रयुक्तदक्षिणकरां ___कुण्डिकाकमण्डल्वन्वितवामकराम् ।
Nirzānak likā. 1. etagfatata atrapa fanfeunt शिवशान्तिकरी भूयात् श्रीमती शान्तिदेवता ।।
Pratisthäkalpa.

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In several Jaina MSS., I have noticed the names of the Yoginis and their number is mentioned to be six-four. Some of the names may be mentioned here : Mahāyoginī, Siddhayogini, Yugesvarī, Pretākşi, Dākini, Kālī, Kālarātrī, Niśācari, Klīmkāri, Bațțāli, Bhūtaļāmari, Kumārikā, Candikā, Vārāhī, Kamkālī, Bhuvaneśvari, Kundali, Lakşmi, Karāli, Visati, and so on.' Another MS. gives a list of names with some alterations. They are Divyayogi, Mahāyogī, Siddhiyogi, Gaạcśvari, Pretākṣī, Dakini, Kāli, Kālarātrī, Niśācari, Hrīmkārī, Siddhi, Vaitālā, Klimkārī, Bhūtaļāmari, Orddhvakesī, Mahākālī, Suşkārgi, Narabhojinī, Phútkārī, Virabhadrāni:7, Dhūmrākşi, Kalahapriya, Rājasī, Ghoraraktākṣī, Virūpākşi, Bhayamkarī, Bairī, Kaumāriki, Candi, Karkālī, Bhuvanes vari Kundalā, Jālaki (?) Lakşmi, Yamadūti, Karatapani, Kozaki-bhakşaņi, Yaksa Kaumārī, Yantra-vāhini, Viéālā, Kāmakī, Yakṣiṇī, Pretabhakşiņi, Dhūrjați, Kinkari, Kapālā, Visamáluli.2 The list, though long and sometimes obscure, does not exhaust the number of sixty-four. Some of the names are in common with the Brāhinanic names of Yoginis but majority of them are quite original to Jainism. How the cult of the Tantrik Yoginis originated among the vegetarian Jainas is unknown. The Yoginīs are known as attendants on Siva or Pārvati. But in the case of Jainism, we may suppose, as seen before that they are subordinates to Ksctrapāla, the chicf of the Bhairavas.
(MSS. from the Rāmaghāta Jain Library)
1. चतुष्पष्टियोगिनीनामानि 2. hoafocelfritt
Mandir, Baroda).
(MSS. No. 396, Hamsa Vijaya Collection, Jaina

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CHAPTER VIII THE ASANAS AND MUDRĀS
Among all great religions of India, certain symbolic positions of hands and legs form prominent parts of poses in spiritual contemplation. They are believed to be aids to mental concentration. The Hatha Yoga or the primary culture of the body combined with will-force has as its subject these Mudrās and Asanas in a general sense. It is well-known that the Indian Yogis practise the various Asanas to gain some control of the body, proceeding as they do, towards the Rāja Yoga or Higher mental culture. The Jaina Tīrtharkaras were also essentially Yogis on one hand and teachers of religion on the other. Hence, the explanation of the Yogic Asanas and Mudrās, as found in the sculptures of the Jainas, their followers and attendants. In this respect, however, the Jaina Iconography presents some novel features. For some of the Asanas, for example, the Kāyotsarga, are distinctly of Jaina origin.
Five kinds of Asanas may be differentiated. These are the Paryanka, Ardhaparyanka, Vajra, Khadgāsana and Vira.1 They are also known as Mokşāsana or the postures assumed by a Jina at the time of the salvation or on the way to attaining it. There is, further, another Asana called the Bandhurāsana, which has been defined as the easy posture, the assumption of which makes the mind motionless.? Now, let us describe the Asanas individually.
Paryańkāsana or Saṁparyaṁkāsana
Glossed as Padmāsana, which, in the Jaina Yogic texts, is 1. Vide the text
पर्यङ्कमर्धपर्यत वज्र वीरासनं तथा । सुखारविन्दपूर्वं च कायोत्सर्गश्च सम्मतः ।।
Jñānārnava (Nirnayasāgara Press), p. 278 २. येन येन सुखासीना विदध्युनिश्चलं मनः । तत्र देव विधेयं स्यान्मुनिभिर्बन्धुरासनम् ॥
Ibid., p. 278.

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described as a posture in which the Jaina or any devotee squats on a seat with legs folded, the right leg being on the left thigh and the left leg on the right thigh, while the eyes are fixed upon the tip of the nose. The position of the arms varies.
There is a religious prescription to the effect that the image of Mahāvīra, Rşabhanātha and Neminātha should be constructed in this posture or Asana.? The extant sculptures of the Tīrthankaras mentioned do not always support the injunction.3
Ardhaparyaṁkāsana
While the Paryamkāsana is sitting on the hams, the Ardhaparyamkāsana is half sitting on hams. In the latter posture, one leg hangs angularly, the other remains folded. The same Asana is also called Paryamkâsana māna, which has been defined as the position in which the Yogi lessens the weight of his body by one-third.4 This posture is not common to the images of the Jinas. We get, however, instances of this in the case of the Yaksas and Yakṣiṇīs. The figures of Cakreśvari from Gandhawal in Gwalior State and Nirvāṇi Yakşiņi explored by me are represented in this posture.
Khadgāsana
The standing posture with feet at a distance of about two inches from each other, the hands resting naturally by the sides,
1. Cf. The Antagada-Dasão (Oriental Translation Fund) p. 59, footnote. 2. For an illustration of this posture refer to the image of Rşabhanātha,
from Maheth, Distt. Gonda. 3. The injunction runs like this
वीरः, ऋषभः, नेमिः, एतेषां जिनानां पर्यङ्कासनम् । शेषजिनानामुत्सर्ग THE 1
Sativusāroddhāra, 151 dvāra 4. पर्यङ्कासनमानन्तु स्वदेहमानात्तृतीयभागोनं यदा करोति तदा पर्यङ्कासनमानं
Hanifa i Ibid. Cr. उर्ध्वतस्तस्य मानार्धमुत्सेधं परिकल्पयेत् । पर्यङ्कमपि तावन्तं तिर्यगायामसंस्थितम् ॥
Pratisthāsāroddhāra (MSS Jaina S. Library=Arrah).

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Jaina Iconography
but not so as to touch the body. All the standing Jina figures are represented in this posture. It is, however, enjoined that the figures of Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha and Abhinandana should be especially sculptured in the Khadgāsana.
Mudräs
140
Whercas Asanas refer to particular mystic positions of legs, the Mudrās relate to positions of hands as well as feet. In the Jaina pantheon, the Tirthankaras have not many Mudrās in their representations but their attendants, viz., the Yakṣa and Yakṣiņis assume different Mudras in their hands analogous to those, generally met with in the Hindu and Buddhist images. We find mentioned in the Jaina literature quite a number of Mudras with their descriptions, some of which it is not possible to trace in the actual sculptures. Consequently, we would describe below those which we find in actual sculptures and also those which though not seen already are very likely to be found in figures of future discovery.
Jina-Mudra
The position, so called, when the ascetic stands in Kayotsarga keeping the feet at four fingers breadth between the toes and lesser width between the heels.3 Kayotsarga literally means 'letting loose the body'.
तावत्तु तिर्यगायामसंस्थितम् ।
बाहुयुग्मान्तरं देशे ह्रासयेच्चतुरङ्गुलम् ॥ प्रकोष्ठात्कुर्परं यावद् द्व्यङ्गुलं वर्धयेत्सदा । कायोत्सर्गस्थितस्यैतल्लक्षणं भाषितं बुधैः ॥
Vasunandi's Vastusāra & Pratisthāsaṁgraha (MSS. 68 Jnanamandir, Baroda) See for illustration, the fig. 9. Candraprabha, Devagarh Fort.
2.
3. चत्तारि अंगुलाई पुरनो डुणाइजत्य पच्छिमनो ।
पायाणं उस्सग्गो एसा पुण होइ जिणमुद्दा ||
Pañca, 3 Viva.
Cr. चतुरङ्गुलमग्रतः पादयोरन्तरं किञ्चिन्न्यूनं च पृष्ठतः कृत्वा समकायो
त्सर्गेण जिनमुद्रा ।
Acaradinakara.

Page #175

Asanas and Mudrās
141
Yoga-Mudrā
The position of sitting in which the palms of the hands in the form of lotus-buds should be laid upon one another beside the belly.1 Vira Mudra
__Same as Varada-Mudrā-(giving a boon'). The posture, in which one sits at ease and keeps one's hands opening outwards.2 Many of the figures of the Yakṣiṇīs and Vidyādevis already described bear this Mudrā.
प्रणोणंतरि अंगुलिको साकारेहिं दोहि हत्थेहिं । पिट्ठोवरि कोप्परयं ढिएहिं तह जोगमुछत्ति ।।
Pañca, Viva. सुखासनस्थस्य वरदाकारी हस्तौ वीरमुद्रा सर्वरक्षाकरी।
Acaradinakara.

Page #176

APPENDIX A NOTES ON JAINA SYMBOLS AND TECHNICAL TERMS Aştamāngalika- . to wit, a Svastika, Śrīvatsa, Nandyāvarta,
Vardhamānaka, state-seat, pitcher, fish and
a mirror. Ayāgapata or tablet of homage. It is an ornamental
slab bearing the representation of a Jina or of some other object of worship and the term may be appropriately rendered by 'tablet of homage or of worship'. Since such slabs were put up in temples as the numerous inscriptions on them say 'for the worship
of the Arhats'. Avašyakas arc singing hymns to the 24 Jinas Stavana,
Vandanā, Pratikramaņa, kāyotsarga. Dharmacakra (wheel of law)-It seems to have been
borrowed from Buddhism to indicate the preaching of the Dharma in connection with
the Tirthankaras. Dundubhi The Heavenly Dundubhis consist of five
musical instruments. These are the Pañcamahāśabda viz. (1) Sringa, the horn. (2) Tammata, the drum. (3) Samkha, the conchshell. (4) Bheri, the trumpet. (5) Jayaghāta, the cymbal. (Cf. Prof. Bhandarkar's "Jaina Iconography"
Ind. Ant., 1911, June.) Hāra
is a combination of 18 strings of jewels (The Antagada-Dasão and Aņuttarovavāiya-Dasão
Oriental Translation Fund, p. 21). Nandyavarta It is defined as a Svastika with nine corners.
It is a peculiar geometrical pattern. (See Colebrooke's Mis. Essays, Ed. by Cowell
Vol. II p. 190).1 A sort of building in the form of a quadrangle without a western Setc-Apte's dictionary.

Page #177

Jaina Symbols and Technical Terms
143
Palamva
Sāmāyika-Pātha
Samavasarana
Srivatsa
Svastika
'Pendant jewels'. Some commentators explain it as 'long' applied to silks.
The hymns which the Jainas recitc in the beginning of their meditation. It is believed that the Tirthankaras rise upto 5000 man's height and Indra constructs the famous Samavasaraṇa consisting of 12 Sabhās. (Cf. Prof. Bhandarkar's note on the subject. Ind. Ant. 1911 June). a diagram resembling a lower of four petals arranged at right angles one to another or a curl of hair.
A mystical cross which is believed to bring good fortune to the wearer thereof and which resembles a Greek cross with ends turned in at right angles. This symbol is probably very ancient, as it was one of the chief marks on the feet of Buddha. Prof. Burnouf (sce Schliemann's Troy p. 103) holds that it is intended to denote the invention of the fire drill. The Svastika has been observed on greek pottery of antiquity, on innumerable ornaments in the catacombs of Rome, on ancient personal ornaments in Scandinavia, on ancient urns and weapons in Britain, in devices in Japan and Britain, on coffins in China and on Church bells in England'ı.
1.
Anderson, catalogue Part II, p. 197, for an interesting article of this, subject, see Ind. Ant. Vol. VII, p. 176, also Thomas, Ind. Ant. Vol. IX p. 65, Beal Ibid., p. 67.

Page #178

APPENDIX B
5 Seviḍu=1 Ālākku
2 Alakku=1 Ulakku
2 Ulakku=1 Uri
2 Uri 1 Nāli or Paḍi
8 Nāli or Padi=1 Kuṛuņi or Marakkāl
2 Kuruni
2 Padakku=1 Tūņi
3 Tūņi 1 Kalam
=3 Maunds
1 Padakku
SII., II, p. 48, note 5.
Ancient India (Iyengar), pp. 182-3.
1 Veli-6 Acres.

Page #179

BIBLIOGRAPHY*
Ācārya Jinasena
Agrawala, R.C.
Adi Purūņa, tr. Pt. Panna Lal, Delhi, 1968. Harivamsa Purāņa, ed. B. Ch. Chhabra and S. S. Narayan, Delhi, 1968. A Unique Image of Jivantasvāmī from Rajasthan, Brahma Vidv.i, Adyar, XXII, 1 & 2, pp. 32-34. A Unique Sculpture of Jaina Goddess Saccikā, Artibus Asiae, Ascona, XVIII, 3-4, pp. 232-34; JBBRAS, XXIX, 2, pp. 63-66; Jaina Siddhānta Bhāskara, Arrah, XXI, 1, pp. 1-5. Some Early Jaina Icons from Jodhpur Division, JA, XX, 2, pp. 15-17. Some Interesting Sculptures of Jaina Goddess Ambikā from Marwar, IHQ, XXXII, 4, pp. 434-38. A Jaina Cloth Painting or Cilrapaļa of Taruņa Prabhā Sūri, JUPHS, XXII, pp. 214-15.
Agrawala, V. S.
*ABBREVIATIONS IN BIBLIOGRAPHY ASIAR=Archacological Survey of India, Annual Report, BPWM=Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. BMA=Bulletin of Museums and Archaeology in U.P., Lucknow. EI-Epigraphia Indica. IA=Indian Antiquary.i IH -Indian Historical Quartery, Calcutta. JA-Jaina Antiquary, Arrah. JBBRAS=Journal of the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay. JBRS=Journal of the Bihar Research Society, Patna. JBORS=Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Patna. JIM=Journal of Indian Museums, Bombay. FISOA Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta. JJ Jaina Journal, Calcutta. JO1-Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda. JUPHS=Journal of the U.P. Historical Society, Lucknow. 0A-Oriental Art, London.

Page #180

146
Amar, G.L.
Jaina Iconography A New Stone Umbrella from Mathura, JUPHS, XXIII. Catalogue of the Mathura Museum, JUPHS, XXIII. Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965. Jaina Art of Mathura, Babu Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 87-92. Jaina Vidyā, Sri Mahāvira Smriti Grantha, 1948-49. Mathurā Āyāgapațțas, JUPHS, XVI, 1. Mathurā Kī Jaina Kalā, Mahāvīra Jayanti Smārikā, Jaipur, April, 1962. Sludies in Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965. The nativity scene of a Jaina relief from Mathura, JA, X. Kāli Talāi Ki Jaina Mürtiyān (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, February, 1968. Patiyān Dāi-Eka Gupta-Kālīna Jaina Mandira (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XIX, 6, pp. 340-46. Pratisthāsāroddhāra, ed. Pt. Manohar Sastri, Bombay, V. S. 1974. The Art of India and Pakistan (Commemorative catalogue of the Royal Academy Exhibition, 1947-48), London, 1950. A collection of Somo Jaina Stone Images from Mount Girnar, Bulletin of the Museum & Picture Gallery, Baroda, XX, pp. 51-59. A New Inscribed Image of a Yakşa, India Antiqua, Leiden, 1947. Deogarh Ki Jaina Pratimāyen (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, April, 1962. Evolution of Jaina Art in Madhya Pradesh, Bulletin of the Deptt. of Ancient Indian History & Archaeology, University of Saugar, Sagar, No. 3, pp. 75-79.
Asādhara
Ashton, Sir A. (ed.)
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Bajpai, K.D.

Page #181

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1SIAR, 1905-06. Roy Choudhary, H.C. Political History of Ancient India, Calcutta,
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1, 4, pp. 167-72. Roy Choudhury, P.C. Jainism in Bihar, Patna, 1956. Sahu, L. N.
Orissa Men 7aina Dharma (Hindi), Ali
garh, 1959. Saletore, B.A. lediaeval Jainism with Special Reference
to the Vijayanagar Empire, Bombay, 1938. Samsookha, P. C. Lord Mahāvira : His Life and Doctrines,
Calcutta, 1957. Sankalia, H. D. Archaeology of Gujarāt, Bombay, 1941.
Earliest Jaina Sculpture in Kathiawar, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Calcutta, July, 1938, pp. 426 ff. Jaina Monuments from Deogarh, JISOA , IX, pp. 97-104. The Story in stone of the Great Rcnunciation of Neminātha, IHQ, XVI, 2,
pp. 314-17. Schubring, Walter The Doctrine of the Jainas, Delhi, 1962. Sen, A. C.
Schools and Sects in Jaina Literature,
Santi Niketan, 1931. Sengupta, R. The Jaina Ayāga-platforms at Mathura:
An Interpretation, BMA, IX, pp. 23-29.

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Cakreśvari in Karnātak Literature and Art, OA (N.S.), XVII, 1, pp. 63-69. Vişnudharmottara Purāna, Baroda, 1958 and 1961. Akoļā Bronzes, Bombay, 1959. A Brass incense-burner from Akola, JISOA, XIX, pp. 6-10. A Jaina Metal image from Surat, JISOA, Spl. No.on Western Art, 195566, p. 3. A Jaina Bronze in Virginia Museum, OA (N. S.), XVIII, 3, pp. 253-54. A Female Chauri-bearer from Ankottaka and the School of the Ancient West, BPWM, I, pp. 43-46. A Further Note on Rāmagupta inscription, JOI, XVIII, 3, pp. 254-55. A Further Note on Stone Umbrellas from Mathura, JUPHS, XIV. A Jaina Bronze from Jesalmer, Rajasthan, J1904, Spl. No. on Western Art, 1965-66, pp. 25-26. A Note on Stone Umbrellas from Mathura, JUPHS, XXIV-XXV, pp. 205-208. A Pañca-Tīrthikā Metal Image with a Toraņa from Patan, JISOA, Spl. No. on Western Art, (1965-66), pp. 23-24. A Pārsvanātha Sculpture in Cleveland, The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art for December, 1970, pp. 303-11. A Peep into the History of Tantra in Early Jaina Literature, Bhārata Kaumudi, II, pp. 839 ff. A Unique Jaina Image of Jivanlasvāmī, J01, I, pp. 72-79. An Old Jaina Image from Khed-Brahma (North Gujarat), 701, X, 1, pp. 61-63.

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158
Jaina Iconography An Early Image of Pārsvanātha, BPWM, No. 3, pp. 63 ff. Age of Differentiation of Digambara and Svetārbara image and the earliest known Śvetāmbara Bronzes, BPWM, 1, pp. 34 ff. Bāhubali, BPWM, No. 4, pp. 32 ff. Beginnings of Jaina Iconography, BMA, IX, pp. 1-14. Brahma śānti and Kapardi Yaksa, Journal of the M. S. University, Baroda, VII, pp. 59-72. Bronze Hoard from Vasantagadh, LalitaKalā, New Delhi, 1-2, pp. 55-65. Foreign Elements in Jaina Literature, IHQ, XXIX, 3, pp. 260-65. Harinegameşin, JISOA, XIX, pp. 19. 41. Iconography of Cakreśvarī, the Yakşi of Rşabhanātha, 701, XX, 3, pp. 280313. Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambikā, Journal of the University of Bombay, IX, 2. Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Sarasvatī, Journal of the University of Bombay, X, 2. Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahāvidyās, JISOA, XV, pp. 114-77 Jaina Iconography-A Brief Survey, Muni Jina Vijaya Abhinandana Grantha, Jaipur, 1971,p. 184-218. Jaina Bronzes from Cambay, Lalila Kalā, New Delhi, 13, pp. 31-34. Jaina Bronzes and Sculptures in the Salarjung Museum, SJM-Bi-Annual Research Journal, Hyderabad, I & II, pp. 11-14.

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Jayā group of Goddesses, Vidyā-Vallabha Sūri Smriti Grantha, pp. 124-27. Muni Vairadeva of the Son-Bhaņdāra Jaina Cave, Rajgir, JBRS, XXXIX, pp. 410-12. Parents of the Jinas, BPWM, No. 5, pp. 24-32. Sidclights on the life-time Sandalwood image of Mahāvira, 701, I, 4, pp. 358-68. Seven Bronzes from Lilvā-Devā (PañchMahāls), Bulletin of the Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery, Baroda, IX, I-II, pp. 43-52. Some more images of Jivantasvāmi, JIM, XI, pp. 49-50. Studies in Jaina Art, Varanasi, 1955. Supernatural Beings in the Jaina Tantras, Acārya Dhruva Commemoration Volume, III, pp. 67 ff. The so-called Mauryan Polish in Jaina Literature, Journal of the University of Baroda, Baroda, Junc, 1955. Two Jaina Bronzes from Ahmedabad, J01, XXX, 1-4, pp. 463 ff. Varddhamāna-Vidyā-Pața, JISOA, VI, pp. 52-87. ff Yaksa Worship in Early Jaina Literalure, 701, III, 1, pp. 55 ff. Yakşiņī of thc Twenty-fourth Jina, Mahāvīra, joi, XXII, 1-2, pp. 70-78. A few early sculptures from Gujarat, JO1, I, 1, pp. 160 ff. An Image of Pārsvanātha from Rajasthan, The Researcher, Jaipur, VII-IX, pp. 31-32. Jaina . Pratimāon Ke Vikās men Narhada Ki Mūrtiyān (Hindi), Maru Bhārati, Pilani, January 1962, pp. 14-20.
Shah, U. P. &
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160
Jaina Iconography Rāsțriya Sangrahālaya men MadhyaKālīna Jaina Prastara Pratimāyen (Hindi), Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 183-86. Sarasvati Pratimāyon Ke Vikās men Pallu Ki Jaina Sarasvati Pratimāyen (Hindi), Maru Bhārati, Pilani, October, 1963, pp. 88-94. Social & Cultural History of Northern India (c. 1000-1200 A.D.), New Delhi, 1972. Some Interesting Temple Sculptures at Osian, Roopa-Lekhā, New Delhi, XL, pp. 95 ff. Some Mediaeval Sculptures from Rajasthan in the National Museum, New Delhi, Roopa-Lekha, New Delhi, XXXV, 1-2, pp. 30 ff. The Art Institute of Chicago men Jaina Mūrtiyām, Mahāvīra Jayanti Smārikā, Jaipur, 1974, pp. 5-6. Tri-Tīrthika of Pārsvanātha (in the National Museum, New Delhi), JIM, New Delhi, XXV-XXVI, pp. 131-32. Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the National Museum, New Delhi, JOI, XIX, 3, pp. 275-78. Videśī Sangrahālayon men Jaina Pratimāyen, Mahāvira Jayanti Smārikā, Jaipur, 1972, pp. 124-28. Rāștriya Sangrahālaya men Jaina Murtiyan, Dilli Jaina Dir.:ctory, Delhi, 1970, pp. 318-20. Gleanings from the Kharatara-gacchaPaļļāvali ( A History of Jaina Acāryas of the Kharataragaccha Branch, 10101336 A.D.), IHQ, III, pp. 223-31. The Kharataragaccha Pațļāvali compiled by Jinapāla, IHQ, XI, 4, pp. 779-81..
Sharma, B. N. & Jain, S. K.
Sharma, Dasharatha

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161
Sharma, R. C.
Shastri, A. M.
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Art Data in Rāyapașeniya, BMA, IX, pp. 38-44. The Early Phase of Jaina Iconography, Babu Chhotey Lal Jain Smriti Grantha, Calcutta, 1967, pp. 57-62. Jaina Mūrti-Kalā Kā Arambhika Svarūpa (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, June, 1966, pp. 142 ff. Varāhamihira and Bhadrabāhu in the Religion and Culture of the Jainas, cd. D. C. Sircar, Calcutta, 1973, pp. 71-95. Jainism in Gujarat (A. D. 1100 to 1600), Bombay, 1953. Bhāraliya Vāstuśāstra—Pratimā Vigyāna (Hindi), Lucknow, 1956. Bhāratiya Kala ko Bihar Ki Dena (Hindi), Patna, 1958. Barli fragmentary stone inscription, JBRS, XXXVII, I-II, pp. 34 ff'; XL, I, 8 r. Vidiśå Jaina image inscriptions of the time of Rāmagupta, Journal of Ancient Indian History, Calcutta, III, 1-2, pp. 145-51. Geographical and Chronological Factors in Indian Iconography, Ancient India, New Delhi, No. 6, pp. 44-45. Indian Bronzes, Bombay, 1962. Indian Sculpture, New Delhi, 1961. South Indian Bronzes, New Delhi, 1963. The Royal Conquests and Cultural Migrations in South India and the Deccan, Calcutta, 1954. The Jaina Stūpa and other Antiquities of Mathura, Allahabad, 1901. Rūpamaņdana, Varanasi, 1964.
Sivaramamurti, C.
Smith, Vincent
Srivastava, Balram
(ed.) Srivastava, V. N.
Some Interesting Jaina Sculptures in the

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162
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Stevenson, Sinclair, Stein, Otto
Tatia, Nathmal
Tawney, C. H. Thakur, Upendra
Tiwari, M.N.P.
State Museum, Lucknow, BMA, IX, pp. 45-52.
The lleart of Jainism, London, 1915. Itinerary of Mahāvīra, 73, I, 4, pp. 186-97. Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Varanasi, 1951. The Kathā-hosa, London, 1895. A Historical Survey of Jainisin in North Bihar, JBRS, XLV, I-IV, pp. 186 ff. Studies in Jainism and Buddhism in Mithila, Varanasi, 1964. A brief survey of the iconographic data at Kumbharia, North Gujarat, Sambodhi, Ahmedabad, April, 1973, pp. 7-14. A note on the identification of a Tīrthankara image at Bharat Kala Bhawan, Varanasi, 73, VI, 1, pp. 41-43. An unpublished image of Adinātha in the Bharat Kalā Bhawan, Varanasi, 33, VI, 3, pp. 122-123. An unpublished image of Neminātha from Deogarh, JJ, VIII, 2, pp. 84-85. Bharat Kalā Bhawan Ka Jaina Purātattva (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXIV, 2, pp. 51 fl. Candrāvati Kā Jaina Purātattva (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXV, 4, pp. 145-47. Dakşiņa Bhārata Se Prāpta Mahāvīra Pratimāyen (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXIII, 5-6, pp. 242-45. Jaina Silpa Men Bāhubali (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXIV, 1, pp. 8-11. Khajurāho Ke Adinātha Mandira Ke Pārsvadvāra Ki mürtiyān (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXIV, 5, pp. 218-21. Khajuraho Ke Pārsvanātha Mandira Ki

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Rathikāon Men Jaina Deviyan (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXIV, 4, pp. 183 ff. Khajurāho Ke Jaina Mandiron Kc doorlintels Par Utkīrṇa Jaina Devīyān (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXIV, 6, pp. 251-54. Kumbharia Ka Jaina Purātattva (Ilindi), Anekānta, XXV, 3, pp. 101-103. Representation of Sarasvati in Jaina Sculptures of Khajuraho, Journal of the Gujarat Research Society, Bombay, XXXIV, 4, pp. 307-12. Sarasvati in Jaina Sculptures, Sramana, Varanasi, January, 1971, pp. 27-34; and February, 1971, pp. 25-28. :. Some Unpublished Jaina Bronzes in the Bharat Kalā Bhawan, Varanasi, Journal of the Gujarat Research Society, Bombay, XXXIII, 4, pp. 230-35. Uttara Bhārata Men Jaina Yakșiņi Cakreśvari Ke Mūrtigat Avataraña (Hindi), Anekānta, Delhi, XXV, 1, pp. 35-40. Uttara Bhāratiya Silpa Men Tirthankara Mahāvira (Hindi), Sramana, Varanasi, October, 1970, pp. 18-23. Bhāraliya Citrakalā aur Uske Müla-Tattva (Hindi), Delhi, 1973. Survey of Drawing in Ancient India, Delhi, 1973. An Introduction to True Religion, 3.7, VI, 4, pp. 137-57. Faina Iconography Mainly in Svetāmbaras, Bombay, 1969. Aryamañjūsrimülakalpa (Mahāyāna Sūtrasangraha, Part II), Darbhanga, 1964. Acāradinakara, 2 vols., Bombay, 1922 and 1923. Pratisthāsārasangraha, Sholapur, 1925.
Tiwari R. P.
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Vardhamāna Sūri
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164 Venkatasubbiah, A.
Faina Iconography When was the Gommaţa image at Śrāvaņa Belgola set up ? IHQ, VI, 2, pp. 290-302. Catalogue of the Archaeological Museum at Mathura, Allahabad, 1910. The Mathura School of Sculpture, ASIAR, 1906-07 and 1909-10. La Sculpture de Mathura, Arts Asiatica, Paris, XV. Jainas in the History of Indian Literature, Ahmedabad, 1936. Tiloyapannatti, 2 vols., ed. A. N. Upadhye and H. L. Jain, Sholapur, 1943, 1951. The Art of Indian Asia, 2 vols., New York, 1955.
Vogel, J. Ph.
Winternitz, Maurice
Yativrşabha
Zimmer, Heinrich

Page #199

INDEX
Arişta-nemicarita 12 Arthaśāstra 23 Arya 1 Aryan 2 Aryavati 24 Asanas 138 Asmata 65 Asoka 19, 46, 54, 74, 94 Aśram 4 Aşlamangala 33, 54, 55 Astamärgalika 142 Asthigrāma 63 Aştomālskās 17 Aşțăpada 21 Aśrasena 54 Aśvattha 46, 50 Aura 20 Aurorā 74 Avadhi 5 Avaśyakas 142 Avatāras 12 Ayāgapata 33, 142 Ayāgapalas 24, 33, 142 Ayodhyā 33, 40, 41, 50
B
Abhaya 72, 9-92, 97, 127 Abhaya-Mudrā 69, 72 Abhidhāna-cintāmaņi 27, 31, 53 Abhinandana 40, 70, 89, 126, 127
140 Abhinandananātha 39 Acāra Dinakara 15, 88, 129, 133 Acāryas 10 Acyuptā 131 Acyuti 91, 100 Adharma 3, 4 Adinātha 34, 35, 68 Adipurāņa 12, 35 Agni 36, 89, 109, 110 Agni-Purāna 65 Ahicchatrā 22 Ahimsă 3, 6, 8, 133 Airavata 109 Ajita 38, +5, 8, 73, 88 Ajitanātha 36, 69, 88, 124, 140 Ajitarāja 58 Ajitavală 37 Ajira 3, 4, 37 Ajiva Draryas 3 Akāśa 3, 4 Akşamani 76 Aksata Puja 8 Aloka 3, 65 Alokākāśa 3 Ambā 16 Ambālikā 104 Ambikā 57, 86, 103 Aikušā 97 Amogha 65 Amrā 103 Ananda 134 Argas 2, 10, 11 Anta 2, 3 Ananta 77, II 2 Anantamati 97 Anantanātha 50, 126 Anlagadadasão 23 Anuttaravimāna 17 Aparājila 17, 23, IOI Apraticakra 35, 126 Aranātha 15 Arali 8, 15 Aratis 14 Ardhaparyamkāsana 139 Ardhaparyamkåsana Mana 139 Arhat 62 Ariştanemi 58, 82
Bahubali 35 Bahit übini 55, 102 Bakula 56 Balā 53, 99 Baladeva 58 Bandha 4 Badhurāsana 138 Behula 106 Bhadrabāhu 9, 10 Bhadrâsana 102 Bhadikapur 46 Bhagavata 36 Bhairava 135 Bhandarkar (Prof. D.R.) 1 Bhānu Rāja 51 Bharata 35 Bhāvajina 12 Bhavanapati 17 Bheri 142 Bhotikas 10 Bhrgupattana 22 Bhrkuļi 44, 56, 82, 92 Bhuvaneśvari 27, 137 Bhūtaļāmari 137 Bimbisära Go Brahma raksa 74 Brahmā 46, 74, 108, 115, 123

Page #200

166
Jaina Iconography
Brāhmana Püjakas 2
Dharma Priya 54 Brahmacāris 15
Dharma-rāja III Brahmanemidatta 13
Dhanaterasa 8-136 Bịhaspali 119
Dharani 100 Buddha 119
Dhārani Devi 54 Buddhism 1, 3
Dharanendra 23, 67, 83, 8: Burgess (Dr.) 1
Dhātaki 58 Burnouf (Prof.) 143
Dhundhi-devas 66 Dhundias 11 Dikpālas 18, 83, 108, 115
Digambaras 9, 10, 15, 16 Cakra 41
Divali 8 Cakreśvari 35, 86, 87, 139
Divya-dhwani 20 Camundā 16, 102-103
Dravyas 3 Campāpuri 21
Drurya-Jiņā 12 Caņdā .48, 95, 96, 103
Dşdharăja 38 Candikā 137
Dridharatha 38, 46 Candana Pājā 8
Drughana 82 Candra 118°
Dundhubhi 142 Carita 12, 106
Durga 16, 96, 102, 128 Cetaka 63
Duritāri 89 Chakreśvara 87
Duritari Devi 38 Champā 21, 63
Drija 2 Champaka 55
Dvārakā 57 Champāpuri 49 Chanderi 22 Chandi 16 Chand Merchant 106
Führar (Dr.) 25 Chandra 118 Chandrapuri 44 Chandraprabha 22, 42, 44, 73,111,
Gaja-Kachhapa 78 Chandravati 22
Ganapati 135 Charita Books 13
Ganadhara-Sārddha-Sataka 60 Chaturmukha 76
Ganadharas 29, 79 Chatusșaşti Yogini 16
Gāndhāri 56, 95, 102, 103, 129 Chaumukhi 34
Ganadbarva 53, 79 Chhatrābha 42
Ganesa 14, 135 Chhāyā 110, III
Gancśvari 16 Chinha 20
Gandāval 68 Chowries 15, 29
Gandhawal 139 Garbha 20 Garuda 71, 78, 87, 126 Gauri 75, 95, 128
Girnar, 21 Daksa 134
Gomateśvar 22 Dakşa-Prajāpati 134
Gomedha 31, 57 Daksinā-mürli 28
Gomedha or Gomeda 82 Dāna-Vira 44
Gomukha 35, 67, 85 Darpista-Vasudeva 48
Gonaśa 135 Dasaharā 8
Gotama Indrabhūti 63 Deogarh-Fort 37, 78, 85, 88 Guru-Pūjā 14 Devadāru 58
Gupta 20 Devādideva 27, 31
Gwalior Fort 85,93 Devipujā 14 Devanandā 61, 138
H Dharma 3, 4, II Dharma-Cakkra 21, 31, 52, 58, 68, Hala 100 Dharmanātha 50
Hära 142 Dharmavirja 43
Harinegameşa 133
129

Page #201

Index
167
Harinegamesi 24, 133 Harivamsa 56, 57 Hastinapur 52-54 Hathayoga 138 Iāthigumpha Inscription 23 Hemachandra 27, 37 Hinayāna 9 Hunter (Mr.) 2
Ikşrāku 48, 55 Indra 9, 14, 108, 113 Indian Sectarian Religion i Isāna 108, 114 Isvara 40, 74, 95 Isvara Ynkşa 74
J Jacobi (Prof.) 3, 13 Jagannath Sabha 21 Jaina Mandir 16 Jaina Pantheon Jala-Pūjā 8 Jambhala 71, 81 Jumbunadā 126 Janma 20 Jaratkāru 106 Jaya-ghāta 142 Jayanta 16, 17 Jayaśyāmā 50 Jayāvati 49 Jina-Mudrā 140 Jina 3, 11, 12, 62 Jiva 3, 5, 12 Iñána Pañcami 8, 22 Jñana 20 Jřimbhikāgrāma 62 Jvālāmalini 22, 92, 129 Jvälāmukhi 16 Jvälini 92, 111 Jyotişi 17 Jyotiska Devas 117
Kandarpa 51, 78, 97 Kankäli 16, 29 Kankāli Tila 31 Kanthesvari 16 . Karma 2, 4, 6, 62 Kārttikcya 76, 80, 110, 126 Karttiki Purnima 8 Käshi 43 Kausāmbi 42, 59, 63 Katha 59, 106 Kaumāri 126 Kaumārika 137 Kautilya 23 Kāyotsarga 20, 28, 59, 138, 140, 14 Küyotsarga Asana 84 Keith (Prof.) 134 Ketu 120 Kevala 5 Kevalajžiāna 62 Kevalajñānin 11 Khadgāsana37, 139 Khetuka 70 Khāravela 23 Khendra 79 Kimpuruşa 51 Kinnisvara 78 Kinnara 50, 77, 78, 98 Kiskindhā 16 Klimkāri 137 Koyadvāra 22 Krauñicha 40 Krşnadāsa 13 Kệtavarman 49 Ksetrapāla 18, 134, 135 Kubcra 14, 65, 66, 80, 113 Kuladevis 15, 16 Kumāra 48, 75 Kumāras, 18, 19, 108 Kumbhā 55 Kuņāla 53 Kundapura 61 Kunika 63 Kundi 110) Kunthanātha 53 Kuşınāndi 103 Kusuma 43, 71, 72 Kusuma-mālini 103 Kusumamāli 103 Kuşmāndini 57, 103 Kuvera 66
к Kadamba 48 Kailasa 113 Kākandinagara 45, 46 Kāla 3, 4 Kālabhairava 135 Kāli 16, 89, 92, 127, 137 Kalpas 17 Kalpasūtra 14, 29, 34, 61, 136 Kalyäpas 21 Kalyanakas 1, 6, 13, 14, 61 Kama 65, 98, 103 Kamandalu 99, 119, 132 Kamala 136 Kamatha 84 Kämpilya 49 Kāñcana-valánaka 22
Lakkundi 21 Laksaraksa 65 Lakşmi 136 Laksmi Pūjā 8 Lanchana 28, 29, 31, 32 Loka 3 Lokapāla 112 Lokapālas 108

Page #202

168
Faina Iconography
M
P
Lucknow Museum 99
Nandi 82 Lunkās u
Nandiga 82 Nandi VỊkşa 51
Nandya 142 Maghavatarāja 45
Nandyāvartta 53, 54, 142 Mahākāli 16, 41 90, 91, 94, 127 Naradattā 55, 102 Mahāmānasi 32, 51, 99
Nararāhana 83, 91 Mahājrālā 129
Nāta 61 Mahārciū 57
Navavidhāna 18 Mahavira (), 10, 60, 64, 106,107,139 Navagrahas 117 Mahāyakşa 37, 68, 124
Neminātha 51, 82, 103 Mahayana 9
Nominātha carila 133 Mahā Yogini 137
Neminātha Purana 13 Mahindra 109
Nilasarasvati 130 Makara-ketana 103
Nirjarā 4, 5 Mukarasamkrānti 8
Nirrānn 2, 63 Malli 45, 55
Nirvāni 98, 132, 137 Mallinātha 11, 54, 80
Nirvāni devi 86 Mollinātha carita, 32
Nirrāna-kalikā 88, 124, 129 Malulunga 85
Nišācari 137 Manahparyāya 5
Nirgrantha 12 Manas 4
Nirgranthās 9 Manasā 98, 106
Nyagrodha 35 Mánasi 97, 131
Nyāya-Vaiseșika 2 Mänavi 47, 75, 94, 95, 129 Mangala 41, 118 Manibhadra 65 Manovegā 72, 91 Asantras 15
Padārthas 4 Mārici 50, 100 Marudovi 18
Padmaprabha 42, 56, 91
Padmapurāna 106 Mātanga 43, 60, 72, 84, 92, 109
Podmāsana 28, 138 Mathurā 21, 76
Padmarati 104 Mati 5
Pajjusana Samvatsari 8 Meghamălin 59, 84
Palamva 143 Megharatha 41 Metta 3
Pañcamahāśabda 142 Minavāhana 98
Pañcāstikāya 4
Paicāmțita 16 Mithilā 57
Pampagādlevi 97 Mitrasena 54
Papa 4, 63 Mitravirya 41
Pāpāmata 22 Moksa 2, 4, 5, 36
Parimatāla 21 Moksāsana 138
Parini skramana 20 Mudrās, 138, 140
Pārsva 58, 60, 83 Muhurta 7
Pārsvanātha 43 Muni Suvrata 31, 55, 81
Pārsvanathacarita 12, 13, 60 N
Pārsvanātha 43, 58, 83
Pālāla 50, 59, 76,, 105, 112, 115 Nāga 44, 45, 78, 115
Pāțaliputra 9 Nägakeśara 44
Pärvati 137 Naigameşa 133
Paryanka 138 Naisita II
Paryamkāsana 138, 139 Naivedya 15
Pinaka i Naivedya Puja 8
Piyāla 39 Nålandā 63
Pāvāpuri 21 Nama 12
Prabhā 44 Nemeso 133
Pracanda 95 Nami 1333;
Prajāpati 134 Naminātha 139
Prajñapti 70, 89, 124

Page #203

Index
169
Prajāvati 55 Prāsāda 15 Prasenajit 59 Pratimas 7 Pratihāryas 19 Pratikramana 142 Pratişthā 30 Pratisthā-vidhi 17 Pravacanasāroddhāra 34 Prāyaścitta 8 Pretākṣī 137 Prsthacampā 63 Priyamgr. 40 Prithivi 43 Pudgala 3, 4 Pūjakas 2 Pundarika Vasudeva 51 Punya 3, 4 Purāna 12 Pūroabhadra 47, 65 Purņaraksa 65 Puruşa 71 Puruşa-carita 61 Puruşadattā 71, 90, 91, 102, 126 Puspa 71, 83 Puspadanta 45 Puşpaka 114 Puspayāna 83 Puspakam 83 Purusottama Väsudeva 50
Sakala Kirti 12 Sakra 114 Sala 60 Sāla tree 38 Salibhadra 65 Samskäras 2 Samsāra 3 Sāmāyika 7, 8 Sāmāyika-pātha 7, 143 Samavasarana 12, 13, 143 Sambhava 38 Sambhavanātha 30, 69, 70, 124, 140 Samrddha 65 Samkhya 3, 143 Samkhini 17 Sametaśikhara 21, 45 Samparyankäsana 62 Sampradāya 15 Samsara 4, 11 Samudravijaya 57 Samvara 4 Samyak caritra 5 Samyak Darśana 5 Samyak jñāna 5 Sankarācārya 2 Sani 120 Şanmukha 49, 76 Şanmukha raksa 80 Shāntā 91 Sānti 43 Sāntideri 137 Sāntinātha 12, 51, 78 Sāntināthacaritra 12 Saptabhanginaya 5 Sapta-cchada 51 Sapta-parna 36 Sáradá Püja 8 Sārnāth 47, 48, 52 Sarasvati 16, 99, 100, 122, 128 Sarvatobhadra 39 Sarvatobhadra-Pratima 34 Sarvakāma 65 Sarvärtha Siddha 17 Sarvayaśas 65 Sasana-devatās 29, 30, 32, 54, 65 Sāśanadevi 46, 86, 92 Şaşthi 129 Satānika 63 Satrap Sodāsa 24 Satruñjaya Hill 21 Saturn-god 120 Satyavirya 38 Sauripuri 57 Svayarivara 40 Sesa 106 Siddhacakra 9 Siddhārtha 40, 59 Siddhảyikå 60, 64, 106, 107 Siddhayogini 137 Silpa Sastra 34
Quadruple 34
R
Rājgriha 56, 63 Rāhu 1 20 Rājā Puruşa Datta 51 Rājayoga 138 Ratna Devi 117 Ratnapura 51 Ravana 83 Rjuvälika 62 Rşis 26, 31 Rjupālikā 21 Rtuvälika 62 Rohiņi 88, 124 Rşabha 12, 20 Rşhabha Datta 61 Rşabhanātha 12, 26, 27, 35,126,134
S
Saci 109 Şadānana 80 Sadhu 11 Sadhvi 11 Sagaracakri 37 Sahet Mahet 41

Page #204

170
Jaina Iconography
Simhapuri 48 Simhāsana 48 Sivihasena 50 Simandhara 40 S:sunāya 23 Sirisa 42 Siva 74, 115, 134, 137 Sivabhūti 10 Sivadevi 57 Siva pūjā 14 Sivarija 53 Sitalā Pūjā 8 Sitalanātha 46, 95, 139, 133 Soma 56 Sprşati 32 Suddha 2, 14 Sārwka 7, u Särakas 7 Sravar a 6: Srivaņa Belagola 21 Srivasti 38 Srenika 12, 60 Śreyānisanátha 27, 47, 95, 115, 128,
130 Sri 14, 136 Sri-Parvata 27 Sridevi 53 Srikānta 53 Srikrişi:a 5,8 Sriratsa 19, 28, 47, 95, 142, 113 Srivatsa Devi 95 Sriga 142 Sri 69 Srutii-cri 122 Sruti 1, 122 Stavana 142 Sth:īpanā Jiná 12 Stan ikn-iosis II Sthlabhadra 4, 10 Suvichinitha 74 Sudarśana 54 Sugriva 45 Sukla Pancami 122 Sukra 120 Suluma 54 Silas. 24 Sumanabhadra 65 Sumati 40, 127 Sumatinātha -40, 71, 102, 128 Sumitrā 58 Sunanda 46 Sun-God 117 Sundavana 62 Supārsva 43 Supārsvanātha 24, 40, 43, 73,
85, 142, 143 Supratiştha 43 Şuramya 49 Sūrascna 53 Sūris 15
Sürya 53, 111, 117 Sușeņā 38 Susimā 42 Sustāri Devi 63 Sūtra devi 123 Sūtrās 2 Suvidhinātha 45, 46 Suvrata 51 Svāhā 109, 110 Svastika 20), 43, 44, 72 Sertaumbaras 9, 10, 15, 16, 37 Svadrāda 5, 12 Syamă 42, 91, III Syama Yaksa 73
т Tammata 142 Tapas 21 Täră 16, 201, 100 Tarpana 14 Tattvas 4 Tilaka taru 53 Tirthas 20, 21 Tirtha Tirthakalpa 21 Tirthamkaras 1, 2, 8, 11,12, 35, 42 Trilincar 20 Trimukha 38, 69, 125 Trimurti 34 'Tripista 47 Tripurā 16 Triratna 5 Trišalā 61, 74, 133 Tri-San-tha 14 Trişasti-Salākipurusa-Carita 35 Trişaşı-Sataka 61 Tumbara 47, 71 Tumbaru 41, 127
U Ugrasena 57 Ujjain 22 Uttarapurāņa 12 37, 41,42, 48, 61
V Vāgiśvari 98, 132 Vaijayanta 72, 23 Vaimānika 17 Vaira 138 Vairoti 49, 96, 101, 130 Vaisravana 65 Vaisnavi 87, 126 Vaitāli 16 Vajra 78, 82, 101, 108, 112, 125 Vajra-danda 51 Vajrāmkuśā 125 Vajra-śțimkhulā 89, 90, 114, 125 Vāmā 59 Vamana 58 Vandanā 142

Page #205

Index
171
Vimänavāsi Vinā 91, 107
17
Virad 13807
141°%, 8,
Viradevas 17 Vira Mudrā 141 Virasvāmi 63 Virūpākşi 16 Vişnu 18, 126 Vişnudevi 48 Vişnudeva 48 Vişnüdri 48 Viśvasena 52, 81 Vogal (Mr.) 43 Vrata-Pūjā 14 Vrşabhanātha 36 Vyantara God 17 Vyāghrarāji 16
Vanamālā 31 Vanijyagrāma 63 Vappilā 57 Varada 68, 71, 81, 88, 96 Varada mudrā 38, 72, 77, 84, 87,
88, 89, 91, 96, 99, 141 Varāha 36 Värähi 16, 100, 137 Varinandi 72 Vardhamana 61, 63 Vardhamanacaritra 61 Vardhamānaka 142 Varhivāhana 89 Voruna 55, 81, 89, 112 Väsuki 84 Vasudeva 31, 48, 49 Väsupūjya 48, 49, 103 Vāstu Devas 18 Vāstu-Devalis 108 Vāstupila 21 Vatukabhairava 135 Vāyu 112, 127 Vesāli 39 Vedas 116, 122 Viditā 96 Vidyadevi 26, 91-95, 124, 130. Vidyādevis 17, 89, 90, 122 Vijapūraka 85 Vijayā 18, 44, 73, 74, 93, 96, 102,
M Vijaya Rāja 56 Vilna 46 Vilra fruit 72 Vimalanātha 49, 79, 80, 130 Vimalanātha-Purāna 13 Vimalată 19 Vimalashāh Tejapāla 21
Tajñas 14 rakșa 29, 30, 35 Yaksas 65 Yakṣiṇi 29, 46, 65, 129 Yakseta 47 Yaksendra 53, 79 rakseśvara 70 Yakşiņis 65, 86, 135 Yamaghanļā 16 Yama 51, 110, III, 129 Yamadūti 16, 42 Yamunā 129 Yatis 15 Yoga 138 Yoga-Mudra 141 Yogeśvari 137 Yoginis 134

Page #206


Page #207

"ww.x
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M
PLATE I
Torso of a naked Jaina Tirthankara, Maurya, 3rd century B.C., Lohanipur, Patna, Bihar, Patna Museum.

Page #208

PLATE II
Ayagapaṭṭa, Kuṣāņa, 1st century A.D., Kaṁkālī 'Ṭīlā, Mathurā, U.P., State Museum, Lucknow.

Page #209

PL:ITE UND
.
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21
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SA
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.
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2
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2
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Iyāgapaļļa, Kuşāņa, 2nd century A.D., Mathurā, U.P., Stato
Muscum, Lucknow.

Page #210

PLATE IV
Rşabhanātha, Gāhadavāla, 12th century A.D., Mahet, Gonda,
U. P.

Page #211

PLATE V
E
.
-
-
#carros*
**
Rşabhanātha, Cedi, 11th century A. D., Tripurī, M.P.,
Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Page #212

PLATE VI
.
More
Ajitanātha, Cedi, 10th century A.1)., Madhya Pradesh,
Nagpur Muscum.

Page #213

PLATE VII
Sambhavanatha, 12th-13th century A.D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #214

PLATE VUI
y 3M
.
re
Abhinandananātha, 12th-13th century A.D.,
Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #215

PLATE IX
Toth in
to Tratorato Toront
Sumatinatha, 12th-13th century A.D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #216

PLATE XII
.
itx
.
w
WE
• RS
w
2.
Supārsvanātha, Rāştraktița, 9th-10th century A.D.,
Katoli, Candā, Mahārāştra.

Page #217

PLATE XIII
Candraprabha, Candella, 12th century A. D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #218

PLATE XIV
Suvidhinātha (or Puspadanta), 12th-13th century A.D.,
Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #219

PLATE XV
Šitalanatha, 12th-13th century A. D., Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #220

PLATE XVI
EVE
Sreyasanatha, Cedi, 10th-11th century A. D.
Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum.

Page #221

PLATE XIX
MIGALIAVE
Anantanatha, 12th-13th century A.D. Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #222

LATE XX
*
*
N
.
AN
Yule
ww
1.
W
.
de
es su
1
.
R.
Dharmanātha, 12th-13th century A. D.,
Khandagiri, Orissa.

Page #223

PLATE XXI
ext
33
.
Sāntinātha, Rāșțrakūța, c. 10th century A. D., Rajnapur-Kinkini, Akolā, Mahārāşțra, Nagpur Museum.

Page #224

PLATE XXII
In
2
.
!
.
.
Kunthanātha, Tomara, 15th-16th century A. D.,
Gwalior Fort, M. P.

Page #225

PLATE SIIT
.
.
EN
.
.
NS
Aranātha, 12th-13th century A. D.
Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #226

PLATE SKIV
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2.
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1
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182
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.
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..
.
.
.
.
Mallinātha, 12111-13th century A. D.
Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #227

PL:ITE SIVI
28
ci
"We
Naminātha, 121h-13th century A. D.
Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #228

PLATE XXVII
2
Neminātha, Cauhān, 12th century A. D., Narhad, Pilānī, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi,

Page #229

PLATE XXVIII
.
.
.
w
ST
Pārsvanātha allacked by Kamatha, Vardhana, 7th century A. D., Bihar, Indian Museuin, Calcutta.

Page #230

PLATE XXIX
Mahavira, Cedi, 10th-11th century A. D., Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, Nagpur Museum.

Page #231

PLATE XXX
U
.
Isvara Yaksit, (andella, c. 10th century A.1).,
Mladhya Pradesh ! Author's Collection).

Page #232

PLATE XXXI
Kubcra, Pratihāra, 8th century A. D. Bansi, Rajasthan, Udaipur Muscum.

Page #233

PLATE SS.XIII
Co
g
*
Cakreśvari, Candella, 12th century A. D.
Deogarh, Jhansi, U.P.

Page #234

PLATE XXXIV
:
TYMAS
VA
.
.
Mahāmānasi, Candella, 12th century A. D.,
Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #235

PLATE XXXV
Rohini, Candella, 12th century A. D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #236

PL:ITE XXXV
Os
AN
W
ANAM
Ambikā, Candella, c. 11th century A.D.,
Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #237

PLATE XXXVII
Gomedha and Ambika, Candella, 12th century A. D. Deogarh, Jhansi, Uttara Pradesh.

Page #238

PLATE XXXVIII
Dharmendra and Padmavati, Candella, 10th-11th century A. D., Santinitha temple, Khajuraho, M. P.

Page #239

PLATE XXXIX
Can
14
Nirvāṇidevi, Candella, 10th century A. D.
Madhya Pradesh (Author's collection).

Page #240

PLATE XL
cute(pns)
Cajale
Sarasvati, Kuṣāṇa, 2nd century A. D., Mathura, U. P., State Museum, Lucknow.

Page #241

PLATE SLUI
11
W
Sarasvati, (auhān, 12th century A. 1)., Pallu, Bikaner, Rajasthan, National Museum, New Delhi.

Page #242

PLATE XLIII
27
**
>
.....
.
1970
.
*
*
*
.
..
Sarvatobhadra-pratimā (Caumukha sculpturei, Prauihāra, c. 10th century A. D., Jaghina, Rajasthan,
State Museum, Bharatpur.

Page #243

PLATE XLV
*
it
. new ery
.
Ah
.
.
A
1. Abhinandananātha 2. Sreyārivíanātha, 3. nol identifiable, 4. Gauri or Mänavi, 12th-13th
century A.D., Khaņdagiri, Puri, Orissa.

Page #244

I'L.ILE L
Navagrahas, Candella, 10th century A.D., Deogarh, Jhansi, U. P.

Page #245

PLATE LI
Nandisvara-dvipa, c. 14th century A. D., Rāṇakapur, Rajasthan.

Page #246

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