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Vol. XXI, 1997
REVIEWS
155
prominence in Jaina temple ritualism. Certain Bhavanavasin gods are called upon to help in purifying the elements on the site; the gods of the cardinal regions are called upon to protect the site against evil influences that might approach from those various directions. Among the Jyotiskas or spirits of the heavenly bodies are the nine heavenly bodies that are of importance in Indian astrology. But still far more prominent than these deities are the Yaksas; they form the class of gods known as Vyantaradevas or "gods that reside everywhere"., and their importance in the everyday religious life of the people, both in the temple and in the household rituals, is enormous. Tīrthankaras and Siddhas cannot intervene in our lives through any action, but the Yakşas and especially the Yakşis, however, can be approached for help in worldly matters. In old Jaina literature we come across malicious Yaksas, overpowered by Jina and compelled to worship the latter. In the course of time, the idea developed that each of the twenty-four Tirthankaras was associated with a Yaksa and a Yaksini, who came to serve the Tīrthankara. In the case of Pārsva, we read that in their last moments Pārsva taught the two snakes the principles of Jainism, and being responsive to his teaching they immediately assumed new existence as Dharanendra and Padmāvati, who protected Pārśva against misfortunes and the ill-will of demons that would have come in the way of his becoming the twenty-third Tirthankara. The Yaksa and Yaksis who are associated with the Tirthankaras are also known as śāsanadevatās or "deities who serve the Jaina teachings", because through service to the Tīrthankaras in their last sojourns on earth, they have served the cause of Jainism. In some stories about Yaksis, the idea that they are basically souls like other souls is underlined by their having been incarnated as human beings in earlier existences. The stories of the Yaksis Kuşmāņdini and Jvālāmālini are good illustrations of this. As we know, the Jaina belief is that the soul is actually in possession of immense powers and abilities, but these are obscured by various kinds of karma. Karma removes itself from us in the course of time as it takes effect on us and gets worn out (nirjarā), but we must prevent new karma from entering us, through certain psychosomatic practices, which involve meditation. The Jaina method of purifying the self involves a great deal of subtle psychology, which came to be expressed in terms of its doctrine of karma, which deals more than only psychology, and this is because as a religion, Jainism must deal with the totality of human existence. Jung's depth psychology may explain why the worship of the feminine Yaksis is so much more popular than that of the masculine Yakșa. Possibly, the reasons are that the Yaksi cult witnessed an
