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quite different from the animistic belief in the existence of spirits in trees, stones, and running brooks" which are to be propitiated by various types of sacrifices. But with the spread of Jainism in Dravidian countries some of its factors were embibed by Jainism and the belief in the spirits, ghosts and evil omens infected even the Jaina followers. In the NC. various types of spirits and ghosts like the bhūtas,2 jakkhas, pisacas,* raksasas, gujjhakas, vāṇamamtaras" and the female hobgoblins like the putana (puyana ) and dakini (dagini) have been frequently mentioned who were largely worshipped and propitiated. Belief in obsession by the jakkhas was widely spread amongst the people and it had deeply affected the monastic life also. Very frequently the Jaina monks and nuns may be observed being obsessed by the jakkhas (jakkhaittha-jakkhaggaha) and later treated with exorcism (bhūyavijja).10 A monk obsessed by the jakkhas was not to be punished even for committing the most heinous crime.11 All the exceptions to the general rules could be resorted to by an obsessed monk. The jakkhas were believed to have two-fold influence-beneficial and evil, and they were propitiated to yield the beneficial aspect. 12
1. Ibid., p. 133.
2. NO. 1, p. 9; NC. 3, p. 186.
RELIGION
With the belief in the existence of ghosts and spirits there arose the desire to master the occult lores-Mantravidyā, Tantravidya-to counteract the effects of the same. knowledge of occult lores became the source of prestige amon
The
3. NC. 1, p. 21; NC. 3, p. 141.
4. NC. 3, pp. 185-86.
5. NC. 3, p. 186.
6. NC. 4, p. 224.
7. NC. 1, pp. 8–9; NC. 4, p. 13.
8. NC. 3, p. 408.
9. NC. 2, p. 81.
10. NG. 1, p. 67; NG. 2, P. 262; NG. 3, p. 102.
11. NC. 2, p. 2.
12. NG. 2, p. 308; NG. 3, p. 416.
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