Asceticism Religion And Biological Evolution

Author(s): Johannes Bronkhorst
Publisher: Johannes Bronkhorst

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JOHANNES BRONKHORST
Polycarp himself, when about to be nailed to the equipment on which he will be burned alive, asks his torturers not to do so, "For He who has given me the strength to endure the flames will grant me the strength to remain without flinching in the fire even without the firmness you will give me by using nails." Carpus, in the Martyrdom of Saints Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonice (Greek recension), while being hung up and scraped, kept screaming "I am a Christian" until he grew exhausted and was no longer able to speak. Papylus, passing through the same ordeal, did not utter a sound. Both then were burnt alive, praying and smiling. The martyr Justin expects to ascend to heaven after being scourged and beheaded, if he endures. An extreme example of endurance is Blandina who, during the persecution in Lyons, received refreshment and rest, and acquired insensibility to her present pain on account of her admission "I am a Christian; we do nothing to be ashamed of; this in spite of the fact that her torturers admitted that they were beaten, that there was nothing further they could do to her, after having tortured her in every way from dawn to dusk. Sanctus, similarly, resisted his torturers with such determination that he would not even tell them his own name, his race, or the city he was from, whether he was a slave or a freedman. To all of their questions he answered in Latin "I am a Christian!" He maintained his firmness even though his body was stretched and distorted out of any recognizably human shape, and again when the same tortures were applied to his swollen and inflamed limbs some days later. Perpetua had to be firm against the urgent requests of her father to abandon her faith, before she is led to her death in the
arena.
The connection between martyrdom and asceticism did not escape the Christians themselves (Viller 1925; Malone 1950). Restraint was considered the preparation of martyrdom. This is clear from the Martyrs of Lyons, where the apostates are said to be those who had not exercised themselves, while the others had learned to confess their faith. Tertullian is likewise of the opinion that he who has killed his flesh is sure to be victorious in the battle of martyrdom. A Christian should not remarry, in that way he will be better prepared for persecution and firmer in martyrdom. Virginity, widowhood, continence in marriage, along with fasting and asceticism, are thus all preparations for martyrdom. Origen observes that, beside the perfection of martyrdom obtained in a short time, there is the slow practice of all virtues and the progressive perfection of a man which consists of the
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perfection of all virtues. Cyprian considers virgins the most illustrious among the Christians and admonishes them to live in the spirit of the martyrs. Other early Christian authors are of a similar opinion (see Viller 1925: 106-108, 110-111, 113; cf. Malone 1950: 14).
There is another interesting parallel between martyrdom in carly Christianity and asceticism in India and, subsequently, in Christianity. The case in India may be taken as example. There, insight into the true nature of the soul was seen as an alternative to asceticism, even though some considered a combination of the two was most desirable. We find a similar belief among certain Gnostics, who held that their gnosis made martyrdom unnecessary (Pagels 1980: chapter 4). The Testimony of Truth, for example, ridicules those who think that mere testimony secures salvation; they fall in the clutches of the authorities. They are "[empty] martyrs, since they bear witness only [to] themselves." The true testimony, which leads to salvation, is when man knows himself and God who is over the truth (NHL: 407408, 411). Public confession and subsequent martyrdom are decried in the Apocalypse of Peter, because it is wrongly thought that this makes one pure. The orthodox Christians are accused of oppressing their brothers, claiming that God has pity on them through martyrdom, since salvation comes through it (NHL: 341, 343).
This aspect of Gnosticism is confirmed by a number of early orthodox authors. Justin the Martyr, for instance, complains that the Gnostics "are neither persecuted nor put to death". Irenaeus tells us that the Gnostic heretics "even pour contempt upon the martyrs, and vituperate those who are killed on account of confessing the Lord". Tertullian goes to the extent of claiming that Gnosticism exerts its greatest attraction upon weak Christians in times of persecution. Ignatius, who joyfully met his fate of being eaten by wild beasts, rejects the Gnostic view that Christ was a spiritual being and only appeared to suffer and die; in that case martyrdom would be in vain. Hippolytus uses the same argument (Pagels 1980: 83-89).
However, it may not be correct to think that all Gnostics rejected martyrdom. Yet it seems likely that martyrdom played the same role vis-à-vis the Gnostic sects as did asceticism vis-à-vis the notions about the inactive nature of the soul in India. This is not surprising, voluntary martyrdom and asceticism share some striking features. Both the martyr and the ascetic refuse to act on the urges of the body even where these are extreme. In the case of martyrs, these urges are provoked by outsiders; ascetics often provoke them themselves.