Asceticism Religion And Biological Evolution

Author(s): Johannes Bronkhorst
Publisher: Johannes Bronkhorst

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JOHANNES BRONKHORST
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ASCETICISM, RELIGION, AND BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
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All this implies that, in order to strengthen the idea that the forms of asceticism detailed in sections 2 and 3 of this essay are manifesta- tions of a shared predisposition, it is necessary to determine whether sufficiently similar phenomena are current in other cultural areas of the world. The absence of such phenomena in one or more regions will not constitute proof that no shared predisposition, no human universal of the kind looked for, exists. Nor will it be necessary to find in other regions more or less exact replicas of what we came across in the Indian subcontinent and the classical Mediterranean world. This may at first sight look rather wishy-washy, and the risk of unre- strained subjectivity in the selection of evidence is a real one. Yet we have already formulated our universal in a rather precise manner as "the disinclination to identify with body and mind"; we can give this formulation a more positive twist, by speaking of the attitude of being different from body and mind". Either way, we have a suffi- ciently precise formulation to allow us to test whether material corre. sponding to it occurs in altogether different cultures. The next section will take up this task by considering religious and related phenomena that occur in a great number of tribal societies.
d oes more than this, for states of unconsciousness and fainting are also connected with its departure from the body. This soul is only observed when the person concemed is not able to do anything Fischer 247). It is clear that this dream-ego is what we just called, following Hultkrantz, 'free-soul Fischer is of the opinion that the dream-ego is the principle of life and of consciousness, and as such is the precondition for thought, feeling and will. It does not by itself think, feel or will (321, 324). In much of Melanesia and Micronesia the word for dream-ego also denotes the shadow or reflection. In PolyEnesia, on the other hand, different words are generally used. Fischer arrives on this basis at the conclusion that in the whole of Oceania the concept of a 'spiritual double' exists beside that of the dream-ego 255, 262). They are respectively the outer' and the inner' aspects of the same being, for which Fischer deems the designation free soul Appropriate (273).
This same type of free-soul is found among the Batak, where it is a lled tondi or fendi. Beside this, an extemal double' is known, which, Among the Karo Batak, is closely related to the indi, yet not identical Sith it. The same concept, but not the external double, is found on Sias, the Batu Islands and the Mentawei Islands (Leertouwer 1977:
5. A human universal confirmed
The notion that the self is different from body and mind-including both thought and volition-is abundantly attested in a number of socalled primitive societies. In fact, different kinds of souls are often distinguished in such societies. One of these, called 'free-soull by rescarchers, though thought to reside in the body, plays no role in the latter's activities. Nor does it play a role in ordinary thought-processes. It is free to leave the body and is therefore sometimes designated 'external soul"), and does this when its owner is asleep or in trance. The adventures of this free-soul' may be remembered as dreams. Religious specialists, such as shamans, are often considered capable of sending out this soul on errands such as finding back someone else's lost soul. It is essential for a person that their free-soul does not stay away for too long from their body, if it does, then the persons concerned are likely to lose their senses or even their life.
Hans Fischer (1965: 243) designates the most wide-spread form of soul in Oceania dream-ego (Traumego). The dream-ego leaves the body during sleep and thus explains dream experiences. However, it
Many of the peoples of northern Eurasia know a free-soul, the spect of a person that manifests itself outside the body. It can leave
body during sleep and thus explains dreams, or during trances in der to communicate with other souls or supernatural beings. This I represents the personal individuality of its owner, and as such
be called his or her 'self. Yet, the question what role this soul ays while its owner is awake is as a rule not even asked. It is, wever, assigned different seats in the body by different peoples: the stole) body by some; the skull by others; the body or the head by ters again. The free-soul in this area manifests itself outside the ly in the shape of its owner in reduced size, this is especially the
in eastem Siberia. Other manifestations include whirlwinds. a t or fire, big animals such as bear and reindeer, and small-winged mals. Most important for our present context is that the free-soul
orthern Eurasia does not take part in the activities of the body. is is visibly the case where the activities of the soul take place only Den the body is motionless, i.e., asleep, unconscious, or in trance,
much is most common. The close connection of the free-soul with se person as a whole is never in doubt. It also happens that a soul