Disclaimer: This translation does not guarantee complete accuracy, please confirm with the original page text.
The *Sutrakritanga Sutra* provides examples to illustrate similarity or dissimilarity. For example, a pot is an example of similarity. An example of dissimilarity is the sky, which is not impermanent and therefore not created. This is an example of how to conclude a point by stating that something is or is not like something else. For example, a word is impermanent because it is created. Just as a pot is created, so too is a word. If something is not impermanent, it is permanent and not created, like the sky. A word is not like the sky.
The repetition of the proposition and reason is called *nigamana*. For example, "A word is impermanent because it is created." If these five components are merely words, they are *poudgalika* and are absorbed by the non-living. Therefore, it is not logical to consider them as separate substances. If the five components are considered to be the knowledge generated by the word, then it is a quality of the living being and is absorbed by the living being. If different types of knowledge are considered to be separate substances, then there will be an abundance of substances because there are many types of knowledge.
After doubt, the perception of a substance is called *tarka*. For example, "There must be a post or a man here." *Tarka* is also a specific type of knowledge. Knowledge is inseparable from the knower. Therefore, it is not wise to consider its different aspects as separate substances. The definitive knowledge that comes after doubt and *tarka* is called *nirnaya*. This is also not different from previous knowledge. It is definitive. Therefore, it is included in the evidence of perception, etc. It is not logical to consider it as a separate substance.
There are three types of stories: *vad*, *jalpa*, and *vitanda*. *Vad* is where one's own point is proven and the opponent's point is refuted using evidence and logic. It is consistent with principles, arises from the five components, and considers both sides. It takes place between a student and a teacher with the goal of understanding the truth. *Jalpa* is where one tries to win by using deception, caste, and suppression to support one's own side and refute the other side. *Vitanda* is where there is no establishment of the opponent's side.
Jains say that these three types of stories are not proven. In the context of contemplating the truth, only *vad* should be used to determine the truth. Deception, *jalpa*, etc. do not lead to understanding. They are used to deceive others and do not lead to knowledge of the truth. Even if there are differences, their substantiality is not proven. It is logical to accept as a substance what is truly real. *Vad* is subject to human desire and therefore impermanent. Its substantiality is not proven. *Vad* is subject to human desire. It also occurs between chickens and doves, so it should also be accepted as a substance, which you do not want.
In Nyaya philosophy, there are three types of fallacious reasons: *asiddha*, *anekantika*, and *viruddha*. Those that appear similar to reasons are called fallacious reasons. Here is the Jain perspective on this: