Shravakachar of Vasunandini

Author(s): Signe Kirde
Publisher: Signe Kirde
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/007737/1

Page #1

Vasunandin's Śrāvakâcāra (57-205): English Translation with Critical Notes
Edited by Signe Kirde
Lahnstein, Rowela, 2011

Page #2

Vasunandin's Śrāvakâcāra (57-205): English Translation with Critical Notes
Signe Kirde: Vasunandin's Śrāvakâcāra (57-205): English Translation with Critical Notes. Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Philosophie in der Philosophischen Fakultät der Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen
Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 30.10.2009
Gutachter:
1. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger
2. Berichterstatterin: Prof. Dr. Nalini Balbir
Dekan: Prof. Dr. Jürgen Leonhardt
Auflage: 200 Exemplare, gedruckt mit Genehmigung der Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen
Rowela Druck (ehemals Dinges und Frick GmbH, Medientechnik und Verlag), D-56112 Lahnstein, 2011

Page #3

CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Contents
1 Preface
1.1 English Preface .......... 1.2 Deutschsprachiges Vorwort ...................
2 Introduction
2.1 Jain Categories ......... 2.2 The Srāvaka .... 2.3 The Author .... 2.4 The Time 2.5 The Contents .......... 2.6 Human-Animal Studies ... 2.7 Acknowledgements ....
Self-Purification 3.1 Dispositions of Mind ....... 3.2 Contemplation......... 3.3 Mārgana-sthāna .... 3.4 Guna-sthāna .... 3.5 Mūla-gunas ..... 3.6 Sravaka-pada ......... 3.7 Anuyoga..
4 Style of Śr (57-205) 4.1 Elements of Style ..
4.1.1 Vasunandin's Prākrt ....... 4.1.2 Metre of Śr (V). 4.1.3 Alterations in Spelling .... 4.1.4 Past Tenses .......... 4.1.5 Infinitives and Gerunds...
4.1.6 Exclamation Particles ... 4.2 Numerical Patterns ..........
4.2.1 Multiples of Four ..., 4.2.2 Multiples of Ten .... 4.2.3 Number Twelve ................... 4.2.4 Geography of Death ................
5
Translation: Śr (57-205) 5.1 The Stage of True Insight .................... 5.2 Catalogue of Vices ........ 5.3 Wheel of Rebirth and Death ........ 5.4 Result of Each of the Vices ... 5.5 Suffering of the Asuras ..

Page #4

CONTENTS
5.6 Suffering of Animals and Plants.
5.7 Suffering of Human Beings.
5.8 Suffering of the Gods. .
6 Analysis
6.1 The Sound of Shrieking 6.2 Cross-Cultural Parallels
6.3 The Mystic Pattern 6.4 Conclusion . .
7 Bibliography
7.1 Main Work Titles..
7.2
Reference Literature
8 Appendices.
8.1 Śravakâcara (57-205)
8.1.1
Pada-Index
8.1.2 List of Quotations 8.1.3 8.2 Abbreviations . . 8.3 Epilogue...
Index of Prākṛt Terms
ii
CONTENTS
RER 255
73
77
79
85
88
92
95
97
100
100
106
126
126
145
150
161
167 169

Page #5

1 PREFACE
1
Preface
1.1 English Preface When a cart has a weakness somewhere, it is repaired and serves once more. When, though fixed, it remains weak, it is because one cannot counteract the decomposition of wood.
When a vessel has a weakness somewhere, it is repaired and serves once more. When, though fixed, it remains weak, it is because one cannot counteract the decomposition of wood.
Good health is not certain. Even if one is allright yet one may be unable to perform ones physical and mental activities. When one incurs this fault, one acts on purpose, but a trained monk should not do so.
Vyavahāra Bhāsya Pithikā (180-182), translated by Willem Bollée, Mumbai, 2006

Page #6

1.2 Deutschsprachiges Vorwort
1 PREFACE
1.2 Deutschsprachiges Vorwort
Die Autorin verdankt viele Vorschläge zur Verbesserung der Lesarten und der Übersetzung den zwei Gutachtern, Frau Prof. Dr. Nalini Balbir, Paris, und Herrn Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger, Tübingen. Diese Arbeit wurde als Dissertation im Fachbereich Philosophie (ehemals Fachbereich für Kulturwissenschaften der Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen 2009 angenommen. Als Verfasserin halte ich mich nach bestem Wissen und Gewissen in Verantwortung für die Fehler, die der Text enthalten mag. Ich widme die Dissertation meiner Mutter.
Signe Kirde Lahnstein, im September 2011

Page #7

2 INTRODUCTION
2
Introduction
The study in hand is a translation of Vasunandin's Srāvakâcāra (in the following Sr), stanzas 57-205, with critical notes on selected technical terms. English has been chosen as the target language, mainly because it is a means of communication, in which Digambars (Digs.) in India express themselves (the others are Samskrt, Prākrt, Hindi, and regional dialects). Moreover, the glossaries on Williams' monography, Jaina Yoga (1963) by Prof. Willem Bollée, and the translation of the Ratna-karanda-śrāvakâcāra, a Jain manual with related topics, have been recently published in English by Prof. Willem Bollée. The Jain doctrine which is outlined in Vasunandin's manual is in agreement with that of Umāsvāmin's/ Umāsvātin's Tattuârtha-sūtrat in the following Ts). According to TS VI.5 the activities of a person driven by passions cause long-term inflow (bondage), while the activities of a person free of passions cause instantaneous inflow. The cardinal passions (kasāyas) are anger, pride, deceit, and greed.By recalling to mind that creatures are suffering our author might have intended to persuade the reader to follow the path of non-violence.
2.1 Jain Categories Vasunandin's ideas could not be examined without taking into consideration the Jain categories of truth. One main feature of this doctrine seems to be the complementary set of categories of the "sentient being and the "non-sentient matter" (jivajiva). With the help of an enlarged form of this doctrine Jains explain the "law of cause and effect", which is well-known in the different versions of the Indian "karma-theory" 3 The Jain categories are
With respect to the Tattvartha-sūtra (in the following Ts) of Umāsvāmin/ Umāsvātin (in the following Umāsvāmin) this seems to be the only philosophical treatise which is acknowledged by all Jain sects as sacred scripture. But the Ts can not be considered as a "canonical source in the strict sense. Since the Ts has been translated into different European languages several times, it serves as a source for studies of Jain religious thinking. Different commentary traditions have come down to us. The Svetâmbaras in the following Svets.) call this textual corpus Tattvarthâdhigama-sútra and credit to Umāsvātin the text and an ancient Samskrt in the following Skt.) commentary. The Dig. traditions hold that Umāsvāmin is the author. There are also different opinions with regard to the age of the text, the number of sūtras, their textual arrangement, the meaning of the technical terms defined in this text, the explanations in the commentary. See for instance Tatia 1984, foreword, XIIff.; Bronkhorst 1985; Wiley 2004, Introduction; Fujinaga 2007:2.
See Tatia 1994:152. Cf. also the Sarvartha-siddhi-commentary on Ts VI.6. For the "kaşāya doctrine”, which is not treated explicitely in Śr (57ff.), see for instance Ohira 1982:142; Johnson 1995:72ff.
3 For my understanding of the Indian concepts of karma and the "transmigrationtheory" Prof. Klaus Butzenberger's thesis Beiträge zum Problem der personalen Identität in der indischen Philosophie (1989) has been of crucial importance. Inseparable from the "transmigration-theory" in India seems to be the karma-theory. Pkt. kamma/

Page #8

2.1
Jain Categories
2 INTRODUCTION
defined in Sr (10) and Ts 1.4 (Tatia 1994:6; Dixit 1974:73). They comprise the acknowledgement of the seven categories 1. "sentient entity" 2. "nonsentient entity" (matter) 3. the "inflow" or "influx" of karma or "karmic matter" into the "sentient being" 4. the binding of the "karmic particles 5. the stopping of the "inflow of karmic particles" 6. the shedding off or falling away of the "karmic particles" 7. emancipation, the "liberation from karmic bondage". "Sentience" and its relation with matter, the "stoppage of inflow", emancipation etc., are topics of Jain contemplation. According to Ts VI.1-2, action (yoga) is defined as the operation of body, speech and mind. Matter (Skt. pudgala) is regarded as non-sentient entity, something "substantial", which stands in contrast to the "pure sentience" or "self (Tatia 1994:123-145). The threefold action is regarded as the cause of the "inflow" (Skt. asrava) of karmic matter.
We should take to account that different terms such as Pkt./ Skt. jiva, Skt. ātman and Pāli peta /Skt. preta occur in Indian religious thinking. They have been mostly rendered into English "soul" by the European translators (see my notes on jiva, below). Obviously, in the poems of different schools and sects which have come down to us the same repetitions of semantic elements and structural segments appear. Outside Jainism the kernel of the Mārkandeya-purana, chapters X-XV, contains the descriptions of human virtues and vices and characteristics of those beings that are assigned to hell and those that are released from hell etc. We might take to account that the period of composition of this scripture differs considerably from that of Vasunandin's. The Markandeya-purāņa might be much earlier than Vasunandin's manual. According to Pargiter 1904, Introduction, p. XIV, this Purāņa was compiled in the fourth century CE. Some of the pre-Islamic Persian and Central Asian scriptures have related numerical patterns, but the technical terms (see the chapter Geography of Death, below) of these instructive texts have different functions in the ritual.
Skt. karman in the following the Skt. stem karma is used) denotes 1. "action; deed”; "performance" 2. "religious act or rite as originating in the hope of future recompense" 3. "product; result; effect" 4. "former act as leading to inevitable results" (= doctrine of "retribution of an individual's thought, word and action") (MW: p. 258).

Page #9

2.2
The Srāvaka
2 INTRODUCTION
2.2
The Śrāvaka
It is well known that the social structures of Jains and their communities in India are established in the "dual organisation" of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. As has been pointed out by Flügel 2006 the religious activities of the Dig. Jains are mainly organised by members of lay communities under the "spiritual command" of a monk or groups of monks, a fact observed by Max Weber 100 years ago. But we should take into consideration that in the organisation of Jain communities there might have always existed and still exist intersections with non-Jain sectarian movements and religious traditions. Although it is true that the Digs. are one of the two important Jain sects, to be more precise, they are organised in three sub-groups, the Bisapanthi, the Terapanthi, and the Tarana-panthi. The members of the first two use statues and images in their worship, while the members of the last use books only.
Cort 2006:262-263 justly states that for years scholarship on the Jains has examined and discussed mainly the philosophical differences between the groupings of Svets, and Digs., or, the differences in ritual between Jains and other Indian communities. But neither do the two designations "Svetâmbar" and "Digambar”, nor do the categories "Jains" and "Hindus" represent the actual sectarian divisions.
In the Jain tradition Skt. śrāvaka denotes a "listener", "householder”, or "layman". Beside the designation śrāvaka Jains use other terms, for instance Skt. upāsaka for the follower of the doctrine of Mahāvira who is a layman. Vasunandin's Sr is also known by the designation Upāsakadhyayana."
*First and foremost I would like to express at this place my gratitude to Drs. Luitgard and Jayandra Soni in Marburg who introduced me into Jain religious thinking and their religious and literary languages. From the beginning of my research I benefitted much from the knowledge of Prof. Konrad Klaus, Drs. Susanne Bennedik, Helmut Eimer, Heinz-Werner Wessler, Karl-Heinz Golzio, and Mr. Peter Wyzlic, M.A., in Bonn. They all helped me to increase my knowledge of primary and secondary sources on the history of Jainism.
5 Dual organisation" is a term coined by the sociologist Max Weber. The Jain as well as most of the Hindu and Buddhist communities in India and Sri Lanka are based on a so-called "dual organisation" (German: "die typische zwiespältige Organisation der hinduistischen Sekten"). See Weber 1996:312-313, 366.
For designations of schools and sects of contemporary Jains in India, their denominations and divisions see Fohr 2006:164, 176, note 26; Flügel 2006; Cort 2006; Salters 2006; Reynell 2006; Menski 2006.
Flügel 2006:312ff.,339ff. comments on the methods of sociological research: The "investigation of categories which are recognised by Jains themselves promises indeed to yield testable results of greater accuracy and relevance for the Jain community itself."
& The term śrāvaka means "someone who listens" (śrnoti), derived from v ŚRU: "to listen". See Williams 1963:36.
Upāsakadhyayana means "study of the layman"; "study book of the layman". The

Page #10

2.3
The Author
2 INTRODUCTION
Laidlaw 2003:25-26 maintains that there are many modes and media, in which the Jains learn, exchange, and discuss religious ideas”. He draws special attention to two of them, narrative and tabulation. In conversation, especially when doing field studies in India, a typical switch between those two patterns could be observed, that of narrative and that of tabulation, or analytical lists or patterns, as I would call them. The patterns and stories encapsulate religious knowledge: principles and values. Both are open to different interpretations according to how and by whom they are used, and in fact, citing Laidlaw, "individuals often present their own interpretation of Jainism by using a story to illustrate an item on a list, and by using a list to pluck out the point of a story".
Vasunandin's Śr is a "study book", "manual" or "guideline" concerned with rules of conduct (ācāra) for the Jain layman. It consists of 546 verses in Dig. Prakrt (Pkt.), a literary language, and is composed in the new Aryā metre. The manual contains a brief summary of the Jain doctrine, followed by the detailed rules of conduct for laypeople, and a very short outline of important Jain rituals such as fasting, worship of idols, etc. In the last section, a kind of appendix, the author describes in brief the path to emancipation.
In the beginning of the twentieth century Ernst Leumann collected Indian manuscripts and the available printed editions and compared the canonical and non-canonical ritual sections of the scriptures of the two great sects of Jainism, Digs. and Svets., especially the Avasyaka-sections. He refers to parallels in the late Jain canonical scriptures and the Dig. Mūlâcāratradition. The monography Jaina Yoga by Robert Williams (1963) has since been published, with a biographical sketch of Jain authors of Srāvakácāras, an outline of Jain patterns of purification, and an evaluation of the numerical patterns in which Jain knowledge is organised. 10
2.3
The Author
It is a fact that Dig. scriptures have been neglected by South Asian scholarship.11 Ernst Leumann's studies of the Avasyaka-sections12 opened a "totally new terrain" according to Alsdorf, because Leumann studied certain paragraphs of Vattakera's (or according to another South Indian tradition Kundakunda's) Mülâcāra (in the following referred to as Māc), too, of which then only parts were accessable. Vasunandin is a monk reknown
characteristics of the ideal Jain layman afford several definitions of which some are listed in Williams 1963:36ff.
10 For the Skt.-English glossary of technical terms in Jaina Yoga see Bollée 2008. See for the contents of Vasunandin's Sr Table 1 and 2, below.
11 See Dundas 1997:501; Alsdorf 2006:120.
12Cf. for the Dig. manuscripts Leumann 1896 (1998); for the synopsis of the Avasyakasections, see Leumann 1934:16ff.
viii

Page #11

2.4
The Time
2 INTRODUCTION
strict sense, especially the learned.com
for his commentaries on Jain ritual. In the 11th century CE and the following centuries he has been regarded as a representative of scholarly Jain education. His works belong to the secondary canon of the Jains in the strict sense, especially the learned commentary on the treatise for mendicants, Vattakera's Māc. Since segments from Vasunandin's commentary were quoted in Asadhara's auto-commentary on his compilation on ethics for laymen, the Sagara-dharmâmrta, we have an indication of the century, in which the works assigned to Vasunandin were completed and in circulation. But, more exhaustive material on ritual for the Dig. laity is associated with the monk Vasunandin, too. The colophon of Sr (540ff.) refers to a affiliation of Kundakunda. 13 In the strict sense, the Dig. compilations which are credited to different monks such as Samantabhadra, Kundakunda, Nemicandra, or Vasunandin, do not count for the "primary" canon of the Jains, but make out the body of the "secondary" or "substitute” canon of the Jains.14
2.4 The Time According to Williams the "medieval period" of Jain literary production extends from the fifth to the end of the thirteenth century CE. Williams holds that the literary genres for laymen are a creation of the period of formation of Jain schools, sects and religious cults, in which Jains accomplished their greatest achievements in art and literature". 15 Some medieval Srāvakâcāras in Pkt. are not credited to Vasunandin, but to Kundakunda. One predecessor of Vasunandin mentioned in the colophon is Nayanandin. 16 In some of the manuscripts of Sr verses are quoted that are also credited to Kārttikeya's and Devasena's works. Mendicants in Central and South India might have followed traditions of Umāsvāmin and Kundakunda. 17 Before
13 Kundakunda, Nemicandra, Nayanandin and Vasunandin, these four mendicants are mentioned in the colophon of Sr (Prasasti 540ff.).
14 See for instance Williams 1963:1ff. for a list of authors counting to the "substitute" canon of the Jains. The few pieces of information on Vasunandin are summarised in the introductory essay of Hirālāl Jain's edition in 1952. An English evaluation is found in Williams 1963:25. Kundakunda is dated to the early centuries of CE (Williams 1963:18; Dundas 1997:501).
15 For the periodisation of Jain literature cf. also Butzenberger 1989:7ff. For the tentative chronology of Srāvakácāras see Williams 1963, Introduction, pp. XIIff.,1ff. For an outline of Jain patterns of purification in English cf. Sogani 1967 and Jaini 1979.
16 Nayanandin could be identified with the author of the poem Sudarsana-carita (dated V.S. 1100). V.S. 1100 corresponds to the middle of the eleventh century. See Jain's edition of Sr. Prastavanā, pp. 18-19, and Premi 1956:300-302, 368. For the calculation of Indian calendary systems see Jacobi 1892:403-460. I am grateful to Dr. Karl-Heinz Golzio for enhancing my knowledge of the systems of calculation of astronomical dates in Asia.
In his introduction of a catalogue of Dig. manuscripts Hirālāl 1926: p. III comments on scribes and their traditions in the region of Kārañjā in Central India. If I understood it correctly, there seems to be evidence for the fact that Jains in this region connected the ancient Kundakundânvaya with the Mūla-sangha on the one hand, and the Balātkära-gana on the other hand. Hiralal refers to a legend, in which we find a genealogy of

Page #12

2.5
The Contents
2 INTRODUCTION
with vaiyavrtiya, which is
I decided to study a section of a Jain manual on ritual, I collected pieces of information in India. I had the chance to observe for instance some of the daily activities of Jain laypeople. In course of time I became aquainted with vaiyāurttya, which is otherwise known as atithi-samvibhāga: "sharing with the guests". It is characterised well very by Williams 1963:150, 243 with the explanation: sharing with a houseless monk on his almsround, a person who has no tithi, i.e. is "unfettered by fixed dates that are important in secular life". In order to find a literary approach to Jain ethics I asked laypeople and mendicants to recommend books and papers in English and Hindi, which are used for religious instruction. A list of those pieces of reference literature is now presented which has not been included in my bibliography.
1. Jaina-siddhānta-praveśikā.18 2. Jaina-siddhānta-darpana.19 3. Chahadhāla.20 4. Bhagavān Mahavira kā buniyādi chintana.21 5. Paramātmaprakāśa.22 6. Dhyāna-sataka.23 7. Dhyāna-stava 24 8. Samādhi-Tantra.25
2.5
The Contents
My introduction to the Jain patterns of purification is mainly based on the English translation of Ts, Jain's long introductory essay to the edition of Sr, and Williams' and Sogani's monographs. For a better understanding of the philosophical framework of Sr (57-205) a synopsis of the whole manual is presented below (Tables 1-2). With regard to the Jain doctrine Vasunandin outlines the Tattvas in Sr (1-56ff.) which corresponds to the Ts of Umāsvāmin, chapters II, VI, VIII-IX. The rules of ethical conduct (Ts VII) which are based on the Jain categories have a parallel in Sr (206ff.), while the
that branch which stands in relation to the ancient Mūla-sangha. But this branch has not been continued until today under this designation, since it was replaced by other schools and sects. The evaluation of the Caranánuyoga-section in Devasena's voluminous treatise Bhāva-samgraha which is older than Vasunandin's manual, and modern commentaries inclusive the related didactic literature of Central Indian Jainism, is still a desideratum. We find some pieces of information on genealogies of Dig. authors in epigraphical sources and colophons discussed in Premi 1956. Okuda (1975:13-15) who examines the fifth chapter of Vattakera's Māc holds that there must have existed a younger commentary tradition related to Kundakunda's works in South India.
18 By Pandit Gopāladāsa Baraiyā. Bombay, 1928. (Anantakirti Digambar Jain Granthamālā Samiti).
19 An English summary has been published: Short Reader to Jaina Doctrines. Translated by Hemachandra Jaina. Sonagadh, 1979.
20By Daulatarāma. Mathura, 1948; Indaur, 1980: Delhi, 1993.
21 By Jayakumāra Jalaj. English translation: The Basic Thought of Bhagavan Mahavir. Jaipur/ Mumbai, 2005/ 2006.
22By Yogîndudeva. Mumbai, 2007. (Pandit Nāthurāma Premi Research Series). 23 By Jinabhadragani. Bangalore, 2002. 24 By Bhāskaranandin. New Delhi, 1973. 25 By Pujyapāda. Mumbai, 2006. (Pandit Nāthurāma Premi Research Series).

Page #13

2.5
The Contents
2 INTRODUCTION
cosmological patterns described in Sr (130ff.) match with Ts, chapters II-IV.
Generally speaking, we might assume that Pkt. /Skt. jiva is one of the most important words in Indian religious thinking. It denotes either the "sentience", the "consciousness" of a sentient being, the "personality", the "essential principle of human nature", and the base of the "continuous" mundane existence as individual. Let us agree with Howard Smith that few words are more "ambiguous" than the words "soul" and "self"26 "In its primary meaning it ["soul") seems to designate an entity distinct from the body, the principle of life, thought and action in man, the source of the psychical activity of the individual person. The soul is assumed to exist as a spiritual substance in antithesis to material substance. Thus soul and body are contrasted and thought to be separable." In the Jain doctrine we find a concern for the principle of sentience, which is examined under several aspects or standpoints. One Jain approach to define jiva relates to another term, Skt. upayoga.
Jain authors consider upayoga to be the cognitive function, the function of consciousness of the sentient being.27 In Ts II.9 upayoga is reflected with respect to two sub-categories, knowledge and intuition. The innate qualities of the jiva are more or less identified with the cognitive function. Moreover, its natural qualities are mentioned together with three other terms: the control of the activity of speech (vag-gupti), the control of the activities of the body (kāya-gupti), and the control of the activities of the mind (manoqupti). These kinds of restraint are not reserved for the mendicants, but are applied to the ethics of the layman, too (Williams 1963:32). Vasunandin mentions uvaoga in Sr (15) as one category of the substance (jiva-davva). This category is explained in the Dig. commentaries with the help of the fourteen-fold patterns of the mārgana-sth. (See Chapter II, below).
The second approach to define sentience stands in relation to the Jain categories, the seven Tattvas. In Jain texts, Pkt. jiva denotes a "sentient being", a "living entity", a "principle of life" (MW: p. 422 "living, existing"; "personal soul"), and especially in Jainism, jiva has been often translated into English soul, but Tatia 1994:6 renders Ts 1.4 jivajiva into English "souls [sentient entities and non-sentient entities". The authors of the medieval
26 Howard Smith 1958:165 discusses the concepts of personal identity and transmigration in some exemplary passages in Chinese classical literature.
27 See for instance in Umāsvāmin's Ts, chapter II. The term upayoga has been translated various times. For instance cf. the English translation: "attention" (Jaini 1920:58 on Ts II.8-9); "cognition" (Jaini 1979:104); "sentience" (Tatia 1994:39 on Ts II.8-9); "sentient application" (Tatia 1994:44 on Ts II.19) and German: "geistige Funktion" (Jacobi 1906 on Ts II.8-9). See also Butzenberger 1989: 209-216, 306, note 300; Varni 2004:, Vol. III, p. 298. The special problem of sentience of plants in Indian thinking is discussed in Wezler 1987; Schmithausen 1994a; Hara 2003.
xi

Page #14

2.5
The Contents
2 INTRODUCTION
Table 1: Synopsis of Śr (1-169)
Dig. Patterns (English Captions) Benedictory Stanzas and Introduction (1-3) Eleven stages of purification (4) Orthodoxy and Jain principles (5-47) Limbs of True Insight (48-56) Purification of insight (57) Suppositions of purification: basic restraints (58) Description of the seven vices or transgressions (59-124) Gambling (dicing) (60-69) Drinking liquor (70-79) Using honey (80-84) Eating meat (85-87) Sexual relations with prostitutes (88-93) Hunting (94-100) Intentional theft (101-111) Adultery (112-124) Examples and results of faults (125-133) Yuddhisthira (125) Yādavas (126) Kubera's servant Bakarakṣa (127) Cārudatta (128) Brahmadatta (129) Sribhūti (130) Rāvana (131) Rudradatta (133) Suffering in the four destinies (134-204) Suffering in the destiny in the infernal regions (134-176) Rebirth in hell (134-137) Description of the hot and cold infernal regions (138-139) Natur of the field (140-141) Pitiful lamentations of the sentient being (142) First fiery hell (gambling, lying) (143-150) Second hell of grinding (theft) (151-153) Third hell of drinking heated metal (honey and liquor) (154-155) Fourth hell of being devoured by beasts Eating one's own meat (156-160) Fifth hell of Entering the river Vaitarani (161-162) Sixth hell of embracing A heated metal puppet (163-165) Seventh hell of being wallowed (166-169)
Skt. Terms mangala eka-daśa-sthana tattvas samyaktva samyaktva-visuddhi mula-gunas sapta-vyasanas dyūta-dosa madya-dosa madhu-dosa māmsa-dosa veśyā-dosa pāraddhi-dosa caurya-dosa para-dārā-dosa vyasana-phala dyūta madya māmsa veśyā-sarga pāraddhi caurya para-dārā sapta-vyasana catur-gati
naraka-gati-duhkha nirayộtpatti sitôsna ksetra-svabhāva karuņa-pralāpa dyūta-dosa caurya-dosa madhu-madya-dosas
māmsa-dosa veśyā-dosa
para-dārā-dosa pāraddhi-dosa
xii

Page #15

2.5
The Contents
2 INTRODUCTION
Table 2: Synopsis of Sr (170-546)
manasa-duhkha sapta-prthivis
tiryanca-gati-duhkha manusya-gati-duḥkha
Description of the mental suffering of the Asura-kumāras (170) Description of the seven grounds of earth (171-176) Suffering in the rebirth as animal (and plant) (177-182) Suffering in the human world (183-190) Suffering in the destiny of the lower celestial beings (191-204) Refrain: purification of insight (205) Twelve vows/ stages of the laity (206-313) Self-mortification (fasting) (314-381) Worship of teachers, scriptures and idols (382-458) Contemplation (459-480) Result of pious deeds (481-518) Stages of destruction of karma (519-539) Epilogue (540-546)
deva-durgati-duhkha samyaktva-visuddhi vratas/ pratimās tapaḥ pājā bhāva-puja / dhyāna śrāvaka-dharma-phala ksapaka-śreņi prasasti
Srāvakācāras such as Amitagati or Vasunandin commence their treatise by introducing the seven Jain categories, the tattvas. The soteriological background of the section of Sr (57ff.), which is discussed in the following, is clearly based on the seven Jain categories of truth, which are explained in the first section of Sr of Vasunandin in brief. The term jiva is mostly used as equivalent to Skt. ātman and denotes the “nature of soul" or the "self" 28 I use either the English translation "sentient being", or "soul". The classification of beings with less than five senses in Jain philosophy affords to give more details and various definitions. Jain authors such as Umāsvāmin and Vasunandin explain transition and rebirth by distinguishing matter and the "pure nature" of sentient beings.
The different conditions of the "sentient being" are sometimes characterised with the help of the technical terms: "field" or "bodies", such as for instance the taijasa-, vaikriya- and kārmana-bodies etc. in Ts II.37.29 In the
28Skt. ātman 1. "soul, principle of life", 2. "self" (reflexive pronoun) 3. "essence, nature, character" (MW). See also Jaini 1920:6ff.; Jaini 1979:338, 343; Tatia 1994:5ff.; Butzenberger 1989:11ff.; 1998:21, 67ff.
24See Tatia 1994:54. The theory of the five bodies is not explicitly mentioned in Vasunandin's Sr, but in (140) our author evokes the idea of a "karmic field". This seems to refer to the conditions of the sentient being in samsāra (Pkt. khetta-sahāvena in the Instrumental, "by the nature of the field", Skt. kşetra-svabhāvena). The author's intention
xiii

Page #16

2.6 Human-Animal Studies
2 INTRODUCTION
Pañcâsti-kāya (126), a text of unknown age attributed to Kundakunda, the doctrine of transmigration is explained in a well-rounded and uniform way. When the prevalent karma, which determines the conditions and the lifetime of the sentient being, perishes, the being enters into another rebirth. This one has a different duration of life-time effected by the condition in the last state and its aspiration 30 or lustre (leśyā).
2.6 Human-Animal Studies Human-Animals Studies 31 are a new academic field concerned with the relationships between non-human and human animals. The researcher focus their attention on the religious significance of animals throughout human history, the symbolism af animals and plants in literature and art, the understanding of mind and sentience in non-human and human animals, the examination of early written and oral sources of environmental ethics, the origins of movements such as vegetarianism and eco-feminism, or the origins of the idea of the non-property status of non-human and human animals in law, etc.32 My interpretation is based on the observation that the author depicts creatures in suffering in the chosen section Sr (59ff.). The non-human animals, human animals and other creatures designed by Vasunandin are shrieking and crying 33 With regard to the Jain medieval karma-theory
is to persuade the reader that simultaneous actions and modifications of the subtle bodies take place in the moment when facing death, while the life-functions of the physical body still work, but begin to cease, or have already ceased. The sentient being is believed to enter its "natural field" corresponding to the conditions of mind.
30 For the doctrine of the "lustre" in the post-canonical Svet. karma-theory see Glasenapp 1942:58. Cf. also Ts III.5. For the origins and interpretation of this theory cf. Basham 1951:245; Tsuchihashi 1983:199. Outside Jainism the identification of states of mind with colourful lustres of the death spirits" is convincingly expressed in the folk motifs in the Catur-dvāra-Jataka (439).
3 For definitions, methodological approaches, and ideological pretexts of the field of Human-Animal Studies I refer to the Introduction in Balbir /Pinault 2009 and DeMello 2010. I am thankful for pieces of information on recent developments in the field of Human-Animal Studies obtained by Dr. Mieke Roscher in Düsseldorf in May 2011.
32 See for the last subject for instance Kelch 1997-1998.
33 The sentient being in the wheel of mundane existence is characterised by Vasunandin by the term jiva kilissamāno in (177-178), "the sentient being in suffering" (I follow here a suggestion of Prof. Balbir, p.c.). The Pkt. stem kilissa- derives from KLIŚ "to be defiled; to be miserable"; "to undergo pain"; "to distress" (Whitney 1885 [1945]:27; Ratnachandra 1923 (1988), Vol. II, p. 450). Outside Jainism Skt. klesa denotes 1. "torment, trouble, affliction" 2. "committing evil" in deeds: (murder, theft, adultery); in words (lying, slander, abuse, unprofitable conversation); in mind: (covetousness, malice, scepticism), cf. MW: p. 323. In some Indian philosophical systems, five klešas are acknowledged: "ignorance", "egotism", "desire","aversion", and the "tenacy of mundane existence". For the term in Buddhist scholastics cf. Weeraratne/ Malalasekera 1996:213.
xiv

Page #17

2.7 Acknowledgements
2 INTRODUCTION
Johnson34 argues that an outline of its ideas occurs in the Ts and some works assigned to Kundakunda. The Jain karma-theory might have provided a "rationale", which could serve for further practical instructions. In Ts IX.35 Umāsvāmin states that beings in the stage of non-abstinence or partial abstinence, partial self-restraint, laxity, etc. may fall for harmful meditation or mourning (Tatia 1994:238). In Sr (198ff.) Vasunandin expresses the idea that possessions, relatives, and even the lower and higher divinities do not help when one faces death. The non-human and human animals described by Vasunandin are always in fear. They have no refuge, no shelter in the moment when facing death.
2.7 Acknowledgements The Vasunandi-Srāvakâcāra is a religious scripture composed by a Jain mendicant in the eleventh century CE. For the following chapters I selected verses (57-205) for examination, since this section illustrates the Jain doctrine in a comprehensive way. It is a great pleasure for me to thank Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger for supervising my thesis. From the beginning 35 he has taken interest in my work. He always encouraged me in my endeavour to cope with problems of various kinds and size. Furthermore, I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Nalini Balbir for acting as second supervisor. She enhanced the outcome of my work with her kindness and expert skills. With regard to the translation of the Prākrt of the Srāvakâcāra I am indepted to Prof. Dr. emer. Adelheid Mette and Prof. Dr. emer. Willem Bollée for many helpful suggestions.36 Prof. Bollée's comments in his English translation of Samantabhadra's Ratna-karanda-Srāvakâcāra and his indices on Richard Williams' Jaina Yoga which were both kindly given to me in the run-up of publication, were a great help for my work, too.
With respect to my first research in Kerala and West Bengal in 2003 I am much obliged to Mr. Ravi Mooss and family, and to Dr. Raj Sethia and family. My second research in Mumbai, Bhopal, and Guna in 2006, would not have been successful without the kind support of Prof. Dr. Annakutty
34 See Johnson 1995:51,87 and the review of his monograph in Dundas 1997:500-501. Cf. further Schubring 1935:113; Schubring 1962:180-181; Dixit 1973; Jaini 1979:97, 102, 111-115; Bruhn 2003; Wiley 2006.
35 In the time leading to the translation of the text I was stimulated by discussions and written communication with Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger, Prof. Dr. Konrad Klaus, Prof. Dr. emer. Willem Bollée, Dr. Dorothée Kehren, Drs. Luitgard and Jayandra Soni, Dr. Raj Sethia, Mr. Peter Wyzlic, Mr. Manish Modi, and participants of the workshops at the "Centre of Jain Studies" in the Department of Religious Studies at the SOAS, London, organised by Dr. Peter Flügel, in 2006 and 2007.
36 Prof. Dr. Nalini Nalbir, Prof. Dr. emer. Adelheid Mette, Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger, Prof. Dr. emer. Willem Bollée, and Mr. Barry Stevenson, kindly spent their time to read sections of the different versions of the English translation.
XV

Page #18

2.7 Acknowledgements
2 INTRODUCTION
Findeis, Prof. Dr. Hans Findeis, Dr. Nisha Jain, Dr. Jitendra Jain, Mr. Manish Modi, Mr. Nikunj Jain, and Mr. Subodha Kumara Jain. Others from which I took a profit remain unnamed. I would like to thank especially Nisha, Manish and Nikunj. They organised my trip to Madhya Pradesh in March 2006, where I had the only chance to consult Muni Mahārāja Kşamasāgaraji and Muni Mahārāja Abhayasāgaraji.
I am further indebted to the staff of the Bibliothèque Nationale in France, the staff of the University Library in Tübingen, and the staff of the Regional Library of Rheinland-Pfalz in Koblenz.37 I am especially obliged to Mr. Peter Wyzlic for introducing me to the electronic data processing. However, the present work would not have come about without the encouragement of my family and friends. Finally, I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Irmgard MännleinRobert, Prof. Dr. Achim Mittag, Prof. Dr. Konrad Volk, and Prof. Dr. Günter Kehrer who participated as members of the board of oral examiners at the Department of Indology and Religious Studies in Tübingen. I would like to thank also Dr. Heike Moser and Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger who kindly arranged the oral examination.
37 Moreover, Dr. Anja Mohrdiek, Dr. Dagmar Wujastyk, Dr. Vrushali Deshpande, Dr. Monika Zin, Dr. Rajendra Sethia, Dr. Jayandra Soni, Dr. Felix Erb, Dr. Peter Flügel, Dr. Jitendra Jain, Dr. Karl-Heinz Golzio, Mr. Manish Modi, Mr. Nikunj Jain, and Mr. Peter Wyzlic, supported my research during different stages of my work. I would like to thank all of them.
xvi

Page #19

3 Self-Purification
Jain Patterns of Self-Purification
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
In Śr (49) Vasunandin classifies the state of "true insight" (sammatta)38 in two groups of eight ornaments each. In (57ff.) he connects those virtues which he associates with the state of "true insight" with practical rules in terms of the mula-gunas (mgs.). Pkt. uvasama appears not only as one of the main characteristics of "true insight", but the author mentions this term in (191) in the context of the rebirth or destiny as devine being. In the following I try to outline some aspects of the terms uvasama and bhava as introductory notes to the Jain "doctrine of transmigration".
In Umasvamin's Ts II.1 aupaśamika is defined as a condition of the sentient being with respect to various other aspects of sentience. Skt. aupaśamika stands in close relation to another technical term, bhava. In this context Skt./ Pkt. bhāva refers to the definition of the "condition of mind" or "disposition of sentience" which leads to final emancipation. These concepts can be regarded as the theoretical foundation for the Jain doctrine of transmigration. The patterns of self-purification, which Vasunandin explains in Śr (57ff.,136ff.) are based on the fundamental idea of various dispositions of mind.
3.1
Dispositions of Mind
In Ts II.1ff. Umasvamin defines the term bhava 39 with relation to the five conditions of sentience:
aupaśamika According to Tatia's translation of Ts II.1 (1994:33) this is the fundamental condition due to the partly supression of the deluding karmas. It refers to the activities of mind and body which rise and sink due to partial supression and partial self-control.40 Jaini 1920:7 translates the term into English: "subsidential", i.e. that which rises from the subsidence of a karma of the deluding kind. It refers to a
38 In a pattern of eight qualities of "true insight" in Śr (49) the technical term uvasama is mentioned together with other qualities, such as the desire of emancipation (samveya), the disgust with worldy life (nivveya), the censure of one's faults and errors (nimdā), repentence (garaha), devotion (bhatti), friendliness (vacchalla), and compassion (aṇukampā). See also my notes on sammatta in the translation.
39 Skt. bhāva denotes 1. "becoming, being, birth" 2. "the disposition of mind, intention" 3. "purpose, meaning, sense" 4. "the seat of feelings and affections". Cf. MW: p. 754. 40 Skt. aupaśamika derives from Skt. upasama, upa +✓ SAM: "to sink down; to calm down; to cease"; causative: "to soothe" (MW: p. 207).
1

Page #20

3.1 Dispositions of Mind
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
state of mind characterised by tranquility. Dixit 1974:75 explains it as "freedom from the gross passions". This Aupaśamika-condition is considered as a state of non-attachment, directed towards emancipation. Upasama is also mentioned as the sixth item in another Dig. classification of darśana in the commentary of the Sat-khandagama.41 In (191) Vasunandin points out that the sentient being attains the rebirth in the celestial abodes by the operation of certain karmas due to the effort to diminish evil. It endures mental joy and suffering depending on the results of those deeds which have been acquired due to the virtues and vices.
Upadhye on KA (435ff.) defines uvasama as the mental condition in which the mind resides in the "pure self". It seems to be reasonable that this state of mind is caused by the attitude of someone who does not allow her or his mind to strive for sensations. The repetitions and clichés in the context of the stories in the canonical Aupapātikasūtram (Leumann 1883b) seem to indicate that the Jains credit the partly diminishing of evil and suppression of the deluding karmas to penance.42 Umāsvāmin states that the sentient beings possess by nature the quality to "eliminate and suppress” some of the karmic particles". 43 The mental conditions caused by uvasama "imply the stilling of the kasāyas" (Williams 1963:42). The world-view which is directed toward final emancipation goes side by side with a strong mental effort to diminish all karmas by asceticism, compassion and, especially for laymen, by acts of charity. kṣāyika This condition results from the destruction of karmic matter. According to Jaini 1920:7 it is "purified" and at the same time "destructive", i.e. relating to the four types of ghātiya-karmas. With Tatia 1994:33 it is a mental state caused by the elimination of eight types of karma. These are the two knowledge and insight-covering, the two sensation-producing and deluding, the life-span- and statusdetermining, the body-making and the obstructive types.
• ksāyôpaśamika This complex term relates to a state that results from
41 Cf. Sat-khandagama 1.1.1., verse 144, cited according to Varni 2003-2004, Vol. IV, p. 366. The seven aspects of darsana are: 1. miccha- (mithya-drsti); 2. samma-miccha(samyag-mithya-drsti); 3. sāsaņa- (sāsvādana-drsti); 4. khaya-(kşayika-drsti); 5. vedaga(vedaka-drsti); 7. uvasama- (dvitiyopasamika-drsti).
42 See further Ts II.1ff.; Dixit 1974:75; Ratnachandra 1923 (1988), Vol. II, pp. 294-295.
43 Cf. Tatia 1994:37 on Ts II.5: "The karmic particles that are eliminated and suppressed are those which are capable of covering totally the properties of the soul such as knowledge, intuition, the enlightened world-view, enlightened conduct, and the potentials (beneficience, etc.). [...] Non-destructive karma (sensation-producing, body-making, status-determining, lifespan determining) is not subject to partial elimination or partial suppression."

Page #21

3.1 Dispositions of Mind
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
the combination of the first two conditions. It denotes with Jaini 1920:7 the effects that arise from the partial diminishing and destructing of karmic matter and at the same time from the operation of the remaining destructive karmas. According to Tatia 1994:33 this state is due to the partial elimination and suppression of the four destructive karmas.
• audayika This is a prosperous” state of mind with regard to the ac
tions which arise from intense thinking and harmful meditation (MW: p. 237). With this term Jains describe merely the condition of the fruition of karmas. Jaini 1920:7 explains it as "operative". According to Tatia 1994:33 it is due to the rising of the eight types of karma.
pāriņāmika The pure sentient being possesses a condition of its own, a particular bhāva. This condition results from the natural appearance. It means that the sentient being is subjected to transformation, "eternal", but "continually changing" (MW: p. 594). Jains assume that this condition has nothing to do with the process of the diminishing the karmas by penance. According to Jaini 1920:79 it is the a priori-category of thought-activities. These might be understood as changes pertaining to location and time. Tatia explains it as the state. which constitutes the "innate nature" of the sentient being.
The term bhāva denotes in the context of Jain karma theory the "essence", the spiritual aspect, as opposed to the substantial one (dravya). As a technical term bhava is often employed with regard to the nayas, partial expressions of the truth or certain "standpoints". Jains assume that a personal opinion or judgment would become false, if one is "self-opinionated", thinking that one's view possesses the absolute or exclusive validity. The term sarva-naya is defined either as the "theory of propositional paradigms", or as the methods of representing an object", or as the "modes of contemplation". 14 With regard to Jain ritual bhāva is also understood as the "true inspiration", i.e. what serves to encourage and enrich the spirit of the Jain community.
In several Jain communities the element of image worship (mūrti-pujā) became an elemental part of the rituals.45 Since bhāva has been identified
44 See for instance Ts 1.34; Schubring 1962:75,159; Jaini 1979:93; Bhatt 1984:281ff.; Van den Bossche 1995:429. Butzenberger 1989:304, note 274, renders the term into German: "Aufzählungs- und Kombinationsfiguren". For the doctrine of Anekânta-vāda (translated into English: "Non-One-Sidedness" or "Comprehensiveness") see Jaini 1979:53; Van den Bossche 1995 and 1998.
45 Babb 1996:28 observes with reference to the Svet, rituals in Jaipur and Ahmedabad that the communities perform a repertory of songs and prose stories for special occasions to celebrate, for instance, the five auspicious episodes in the life of the Tirthankaras. See also

Page #22

3.2 Contemplation
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
with contemplation46, it is considered as a means of purification. As result of Indian religious movements that are called Tantrism and Neo-Tantrism bhāva-pujā became itself a topic of śrāvakâcāra literature.
3.2 Contemplation Jain religious poetry comprises verses and hymns which cover different topics of contemplation, for instance the auspicious events in the life of a Tirthamkara. The term employed by Dig. authors for "contemplation" is Pkt. aṇuvekkhā (Skt. anupreksā), while the Svets. use the designation bhāvanā "instructions to right understanding" 47 Handiqui explains Pūjyapāda's commentary on Ts IX.2. He renders the definition of anupreksā into English: "pondering on the nature of the body and other substances". 48 In Ts IX.7 Umāsvāmin mentions twelve topics as Anuprekşās.49 The collections with formulas or sayings on the twelve topical features haved been developed to a literary genre, particularly compiled for self-study.
Jains believe that by continual training with the aim of knowing the verses by heart someone suppresses (sam + ✓ VR: "to ward off; to restrain") the inflow (āsrava) of the karmic matter, which obstructs true insight and right knowledge. Contemplation on the hardships, on the "separation from the agreeable" and the "union with disagreeable objects" have become topical, as well as the "world" 50 The contemplation is sometimes called "analytic meditation" or "white meditation". In Ts IX.20 "scriptural study" and "meditation" (Tatia 1994:232) are considered as internal austerities. Some
Kapashi 2007 for poems used in worship. For the origin of Jain ritual and its intertwining with Hindu and Islamic religious thinking see further Williams 1963, Introduction, pp. XIff.; Menski 2006. For related rituals outside Jainism i.e. in the Saiva-Agama-tradition) see Bharati 1977.
46 See the verses Śr (456-480) in which we find contemplation outlined in terms of bhāvapāyā and jhāna. Cf. further Williams 1963:124, 207, 214, 239; Bronkhorst 1993:151-162: Bruhn 2003:6, 41.
47 For the sacred recitations, which glorify the auspicious events in the life of the Jain teachers see the collection of selected poems by Kapashi 2007. According to Bhatt (1994:182) the term bhāvanā was borrowed from Brahmanism. Cf. also KA, Introduction, pp. 6ff.; Ts IX.20ff.; Schubring 1962:301ff., 313-314; Williams 1963:239-245.
48 Cf. Pūjyapāda's commentary on Ts IX.2: sariradinām sva-bhāvanucintanam anuprekşā, cited according to Handiqui 1949:295ff. The noun anupreksā derives from anu + pra + IKS: "to follow with the eyes; to reflect". Cf. Sheth 1923:49; MW: p. 36.
49 Williams 1963:244 translates the Skt. terms into English: 1. impermanence (anitya); 2. helplessness (asarana); 3. wheel of mundane existence (samsāra); 4. solitariness of the "soul" (ekatua); 5. separateness of soul" and body (anyatua); 6. foulness of the body (aśucya); 7. influx of karma (āsrava); 8. checking of karma (samvara); 9. elimination of karma (nirjara); 10. universe (loka); 11. difficulty of enlightment (bodhi-durlabha); 12. preaching of the sacred law (dharma-svākhyātatua)
50 Cf. also Glasenapp 1942:65. For the themes of "separation from the agreeable" and "union with the disagreeable" see (183-184) and Māc VIII.711.

Page #23

3.2 Contemplation
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
of the principles of Jainism (Tattvas) are topics of Jain contemplation. Bhatt 1994:182 proposes that the topics of contemplation derive from the ancient loga-vicaya ("reflection on the world"). By comparison of the verses Śr (59ff.) with the chapter on loga in KA we could easily attribute Vasunandin's poems in the chosen section to this genre.
According to Handiqui 1949:295 the earliest collection of Anuprekṣās, which is composed in Skt. Ślokas, occurs in the second chapter of Somadeva's Yt. But related themes of contemplation are inserted as strayed verses in Jain narrative literature, too, for instance in the Kuvalaya-mālā, or in the Dānâṣṭa-katha.51. In the Dig. scriptures which are often considered to be the "secondary canon of the Jains" the poems with topics of contemplation that have come down to us are composed mainly in the new Ārya. They definitely belong to a younger layer of Jain literature.52 Outside Jainism related topics are found in the Buddhist Sutta-nipata and in the poems of the Thera-gatha (for example 1127ff.). According to the Jain tradition particular scriptures which are suited well for the study with a preceptor or the self-study, are called Pkt. ajjhayana (Skt. adhyayana / adhyayana) or Skt. sutra. Those verses that are designed for self-study could be memorised daily or at certain times of the religious year of the Jains (kālika).
Since no English standard translations of the Anuvekkhās is available, I refer for the technical terms to the standard literature in English.54 Jainism has always been regarded as a "book religion".55 In Śr (213d) Vasunandin refers to the term uvāsaya'jjhayana, a scripture which contains rules of conduct for the layman.
Moreover, in a reknown commentary of the Digs. the Upasakâdhyayana is
51Cf. Kuvalaya-mālā 98.26-30; II 311, the stories in the commentary of Yt, the stories in the commentary of Prabhacandra on Rk, and the stories and verses in the Dānâṣṭa-kathā 52 See for instance the analysis in Denecke 1922 and in Alsdorf 1966, 1968. Compilations such as Māc, Mul, and KA contain hundreds of memorial verses composed in the new Arya. We find in those poems the kernel of the Jain doctrine.
53 One Buddhist poems illustrates the hardships of houseless monks who have been captured by villains: "I know that nothing is mine, not today, not yesterday, not tomorrow. What can be discriminated, will perish, what should I complain?" (Thera-gāthā, 715, Song of Adhimutto, English translation according to Norman).
54 Schubring, Lehre der Jaina (in English: The Doctrine of the Jainas, 1962); Ratnachandra, Illustrated Ardha-Magadhi Dictionary, 1923; Glasenapp, Die Lehre vom Karman in der Philosophie der Jainas, nach den Karmagranthas dargestellt, 1915 (in English: Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, 1942); Von Kamptz, Über die vom Sterbefasten handelnden älteren Painna des Jaina-Kanons, 1929; Williams, Jaina Yoga, 1963; Umāsvāmin, Tattvartha-sutra (in English: That Which Is, 1994); Samantabhadra, Ratna-karandakaśravakacāra (English translation by Willem Bollée, 2010).
55 See Bruhn 2003:9. For the term svadhyāya cf. Ts IX.20.
5

Page #24

3.3 Märgana-sthāna
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
mentioned as a scripture consisting of eleven parts.56 For "self-study" and "study [and memorizing) scriptures", L.e. scriptural study" (Tatia 1994 on Ts IX.20) Jains employ the term Skt. svůdhyaya. It might be primarily one of the six types of asceticism or internal penance (tapas), but it is regarded as one of the duties (kriyās) of the laity. There are only three extant texts which serve as specimen of the type of Upasakâdhyayana in the strict sense: Samantabhadra's Ratna-karandaka57, the extract of Somadevasūri's poem Yasas-tilaka-campu, chapters VI-VIII, and the Śr of Vasunandin. In the stanzas of Śr (133-203) Vasunandin is concerned with the attitude towards dying, s
58
3.3 Märgana-sthāna
Some of the technical terms which are closely related to the Dravyânuyoga (see the section Anuyoga) form together the pattern of the margaṇa-sthāna (in brief marganas). This pattern comprises fourteen items or members respectively. In the following it is merely skimmed over, since the number of works that would be necessary to be referred to is too large. 59 We might take a note that several current strings of this pattern were developed in accordance with other patterns such as the Guna-sthāna (gsth.). With the marganas Jains classify the conditions of the sentient being: (I) "class of existence" or "destiny" (gati); (II) "[number of] sense organ[s]" (indriya); (III) "body" (sarira); (IV) "activity" (yoga); (V) (three kinds of] "feeling[s]" or "female, male and hermaphroditic dispositions" (veda); (VI) "cardinal pas sions" (kaşaya); (VII) "types of knowledge" (jana); (VIII) "self-discipline" (samyama); (IX) "perception" (darśana); (X) "lustre" (lesya); (XI) [the fact of] "deserving emancipation" (bhavya-tva); (XII) "true insight" (samyaktva); (XIII) "ratio" (samji); (XIV) "nourishment" (ahara). For the interpretation of Śr (57-205) the marganas are to be taken into consideration, because technical terms such as "destiny", "body", "cardinal passions", "selfdicipline", etc. are referred to by Vasunandin. But I would like to point out that Vasunandin's exposition is not organised according to the sequence of the marganas. Besides, the items darśana and samyaktva are treated separately in this list, but Vasunandin applies the terms as synonyms. A
56 See the Dhavala-commentary on Puspadanta's Sat-khandagama IV.1.45: p.200. 57 See for instance the alternative designation Upasakâdhyayana for the Rk in the catalogue of the manuscripts collected by Leumann, No. 173, compiled by Tripathi 1975:230231.
58 For the samlehaṇā- or ārāhaṇā-sections in other works see Mül (18-19), Mac, chapter II, V.279, VIII.993; Von Kamptz 1929; Oetjens 1976:117ff., 165; Jain 1999:115-118; Bollée 2002:173-174; Bollée 2010a on Rk V.1-9. The process of voluntary fasting to death is prescribed for someone who wants to vanquish the passions. Generally, Jains regard fasting to death as the termination of a monk's career. But according to Caillat 1977:53, this ritual cannot be resorted to "except after a long, progressive training".
59 See for instance Śr (M): p. 24; Denecke 1922:76 on Mac, chapter V; Jaini 1979:115, 124; Jain 2000:95-96; Varni 2003-2004, Vol. III, p. 297.
6

Page #25

3.4 Guna-sthāna
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
reason for that might be the fact that the marganas have been conceived as a numerical pattern comparatively late. In the following I understand sammatta, samma-ithi, and damsana (translated into English; "true insight" or "enlightened attitude") as closely related terms. They include the "belief in the principles" of Jainism.
3.4
Guna-sthāna
The religious thinking of Vasunandin which is outlined in the section of Śr (57ff.) is constructed in the way of the theory or greater conceptualisation of the fourteen Guna-sthānas (gsths.). For better understanding this pattern with its fourteen items or stages shall be introduced briefly. The stages nos. I-III are concerned mainly with the condition of false and mixed insight. They refer especially to the rebirth in non-human animal bodies. While in the stages nos. IV-V we find the outline of the ethics of the Jain layman, from the stages nos. VIIff. onwards there are some characteristics of the ideal mendicant and the path to final emancipation. By taking to account canonical scriptures such as Uttarajjhāyā, chapters V and XXXVI, and post-canonical scriptures such as Mac II.59ff. we might come to the conlusion that those concepts were motivated to a great part by the aim to develop a method to control the "death against one's will". In the above mentioned scriptures there appears only a very rough classification of the "death of the fool" and the "death of the wise" and the preventive measure to avoid an "unlucky rebirth". The death of the layman, in general, is defined as being two-sided, bala-pandita, the combination of "foolish and wise" attitudes and behaviour. In Śr (59ff.) there are instructive examples of ordinary people who fail in true insight, right knowledge and conduct. And in (125ff.) Vasunandin refers to stories known from the Dig. Puranas, which give accounts of the life of evil-doers who attained a miserable rebirth. The stage of "mixed attitudes" can be described more precisely as the "mixed taste of right attitude" in the stages I-III. In (125-133) With regard to the Dig. "doctrine of transmigration" the following pattern of the gsths. might have served well to explain the difference in biological species, classes and the difference in terms of social hierarchies.
With the fourth and fifth stages Jain authors refer to the human birth. Those stages concern the minor and greater vows of non-possession or nonpossessiveness (aparigraha) and non-violence (ahimsa). Williams 1963:307ff. discusses also the supplementary rituals, for instance the pratyakhyānam, the "avoidance of what is unfitting in order to prevent" evil deeds in the future. It is possible to relate those rituals directly to gsths., i.e. no. IV and V. The fifth stage, deśa-virata, prescribes for the layman to take the minor vows.60
60 See also Śr (209ff.). Samantabhadra states in Rk, chapter V.4ff. that the stage of
7

Page #26

3.4 Guna-sthāna
mithya-drsti
(1) Stage of errors, false belief
and partial obstruction of True Insight (II) Stage of Mixed Taste
First taste of True Insight
samyag-mithyatva (III) Stage of True Insight and
partly obstruction of True Insight
(IV) Stage of True Insight
(V) Stage of the layman who takes the minor vows
(VI) Stage of the mendicant vows
(VII) Stage of contemplation without negligence
sâsvādana
upasanta-moha
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
Table 3: Guna-sthāna
samyag-drsti deśa-virata
sarva-virata apramatta-virata
apūrva-karana
anivṛtti-karapa
sukṣma-samparāya (X) Stage of contemplation,
ksina-moha
sayoga-kevalin ayoga-kevalin
(VIII) Stage of contemplation,
when one overcomes the sub-passions
(IX) Stage of contemplation,
when one overcomes the gross passions such as greed
when one overcomes the subtle veils
of obstruction of right knowledge, etc.
(XI) Stage of contemplation,
when one suppresses passions such as deceit
(XII) Stage of contemplation,
when one eliminates the subtle passions
(XIII) Momentary Stage of embodied omniscience (XIV) Stage of omniscience
without activity
8

Page #27

3.5 Mula-gunas
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
In practical use the restrictions for advanced laywomen and laymen imply the renunciation of food, water and sexual intercourse for certain periods of time, or for life-time. The practise of non-injury concerns mainly mobile beings, but with respect to the idea of self-purification and the ritual of feeding of the mendicants Jain authors prescribe vegetarian diet, boiling water etc. According to the commentaries the uttara-gs. concern the renunciation for the layman. They cover fourteen internal objects and ten external objects (Williams 1963:93; Norman 1991:31). Within the understanding of gsths. we find here a ranking. The human conditions described in the text imply the idea of downfall from the higher stages to the mixed stages, when insight and knowledge is partly obstructed. But possible is also the sudden advancement as result of the ksāyôpasamika-conditions. In Ts II.2, 26, Umāsvāmin states that the sentient beings make "one or more turns" after death. The only activity is that of its karmic body (Tatia 1994:47). Jaini 1920:68 explains Ts II.25ff. as follows: "In vigraha-gati transmigration, i.e. the passage of the soul from one incarnation to another, there is only) karmic body vibration (karma yoga), (by which the electric and karmic molecules are attracted by the soul)."
3.5 Mula-gunas Under the designation mula-gunas (in the following mgs.) we understand a set of dietary restrictions that appear in medieval treatises for the Dig. layman. This designation is mainly referred to by Dig. authors as "basic virtue(s)" or "basic restraint[s]". And the practical rules, which are associated with this designation correspond with the "five vows" and partly with the "three jewels". According to Williams 1963:50 for Svets. the term is connected only with the anu-vratas (though "sometimes a single müla-guna - ahimsā is mentioned"). But for the Digs. it denotes the "category of interdictions which must be respected if even the first stage on the ladder of the pratimās is to be attained”. Dig. authors develop sets of items or members in analytical lists, by means of which the "stage of true insight" (Skt. samyaktua) could be put into practice. According to Vasunandin this stage is identified with eight virtues or ornaments (49ff.), and the observance of certain dietary restrictions and occupational ethics (57ff.). To say it with other words, the Digs. from Samantabhadra onwards add to the avoidance of the infringement of the "stage of true insight" a second requirement, the observance of the mgs. Vasunandin in particular stresses the eschewing of seven vices (vyasanas), while Asadhara insists in more general terms on the purity of moral conduct. The author of the Srāvaka-dharma-dohaka charac
taking the vows implies the observance of the anu-vratas, the guna-vratas, the siksā-vratas, and the rituals of atonement. In Sr (2), Vasunandin uses the terms sāyāra and sāvaya which both refer to the Jain layman. This stage is associated with the idea of partly self-control. We find many intersections with gaths, and the Srāvaka-pada.

Page #28

3.5 Mūla-gunas
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
terises the first pratimā as "refraining from eating the udumbara fruits". 61 The concept of mgs. seems to have been dynamic according to Sogani 1967: 88-89.
Dig. mendicants (except Asādhara, who was a layman) modified the mgs. dependent from the situation: time, place and the nature of disciples. The earliest formula of the eight-fold restraint is found in the Rk III.38, 66ff. But Vasunandin defines the mgs. differently: as the renunciation of the seven vices and the avoidance the five fruits of the fig trees. Williams maintains (1963:110) that the definitions of what is not fit to be eaten are given considerable prominence particularly in later Jainism". 62 Jaini argues that Jains are notorious for their restraints, which are dietary in nature. He observes that the renunciatory aspect in the "stage of true insight" is eightfold. The mgs. are regarded as a matter of course by the members of the Jain community. Thus, the Jain must never partake of meat, alcohol, honey, or any of the five fruits of the fig trees. "The Jaina will of course be asked why these particular substances came to be considered unfit for human consumption" (Jaini 1979:166).
Noteworthy are the mgs. with regard to the occupational ethics explained in Vasunandin's Sr. (57ff.). Our authors speaks in reproof of the collecting, exchanging, touching, selling, eating, and using meat in ritual and the same goes for honey (80ff.). In Sr (59ff.) he gives examples of harmful actions and explains their results. Williams 1963:247 justly states that the moral teaching with regard to the seven vices in Jainism is "clearly sited in a social context". And this morality is that of the "common man who adheres to the conventions of the world, avoiding anything that can evoke obloquy or derision from his neighbours". 63 In the Dig, ritual of the eightfold worship of the Tirthamkaras the eight purified substances do not consist of ingredients of animals, such as meat or animal products such as milk and honey. Jains instead use scented or pure water, uncooked rice, coconut, almonds, flowers, burned incense, etc.64
61 See Williams 1963:174ff.
62It should be mentioned that the mgs. in the sense in which they are understood by Jain authors from Samantabhadra onwards do not appear in the Ts of Umāsvāmin.
3 For the roots of vegetarian diet in India see for instance Bruhn 2003:84-85 and Alsdorf/ Bollée 2010:8ff.
64Cf. for the Dig. eightfold worship of idols Śr (434ff.) and the commentary of Śr (M) on (434-442). See also Williams 1963:53; Sogani 1967:88-89; Babb 1996:89-91. I am very grateful to Mr. Nikunj Jain for enhancing my knowledge on the eight-fold-worship which plays a role in some Dig. rituals in 2006. For schools and sects outside Jainism, which possess "vegetarian" rituals of giving see for instance Bharati 1977:210ff.

Page #29

3.6 Srävaka-pada
3.6 Śrävaka-pada
Samantabhadra and Vasunandin acknowledge the pattern of eleven, i.e. eleven stages of self-purification for the laity. This pattern differs from the Śvet. pattern known as the "duties of the householder in twelve parts" (Pkt. duvalasa-vihāgara-dhamma). The so-called śravaka-pada corresponds to the third, fourth and the fifth stage of the gsths.65 In the Rk, chapter V, the conduct of the laity is explained within the framework of eleven rungs or stages. Thoses eleven stages of the layman are called pratimās, śrāvakapada, or eka-dasa-sthāna. 66 The Rk is considered as the prototype of manual for the Dig. layman, while the Śravaka-prajñapti is the fundamental Śvet. text, which contains rules for the laity.67 The patterns in these two manuals are different and they seem to be modifications of the rules of conduct for mendicants. The eleven stages might have been brought into a standardised sequence in the time of Samantabhadra and Virasena, latest around the 7th century CE. The first stage of the śravaka-pada, damsana, and its transgressions, are the fundament of the description we find in Śr (57-205).
samyag-drsti deśa-virata
sümüyika
pausadha
sacitta-tyāga rātri-bhojana-virata
brahmacārin
arambha-tyaga parigraha-tyäga anumati-virata utkysta-érävaka
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
Table 4: frävaka-pada
(I) Stage of True Insight (mula-gunas) (II) Receiving the minor vows
(III) Practising equanimity
(IV) Abstinence every half month
(V) Abandoning nourishment endowed with life
(VI) Abandoning enjoyment at night
(VII) Practising celibacy/ being content with one's own wife
(VIII) Renunciation of household life
(IX) Renunciation of possessions
(X) Renunciation of specially prepared food (XI) Stage of excellence
The starting-point of the eleven-fold pattern is "true insight" or right belief,
65 For the evaluation of Vasunandin's rule of conduct see for instance Śr, prastavanā,
pp. 21ff.
66 The eleven members of eyarasa-thāna are mentioned in Śr (4): damsana-vaya-samaiya-posaha-sacitta-rai-bhatte ya /
bambharambha-pariggaha-anumana-uddittha-desa-virayammi //
The list of the eleven stages (see Table 4) is mentioned in the Dhavala commentary on
the Sat-khandagama IV.1.45, p.201.
67 See Williams 1963: preface, pp. 1,19.
11

Page #30

3.7 Anuyoga
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
damsaņa.68 Jaini (1979:186) translates the term darśana-pratimā into English "stage of right view" and describes this as the mental condition which characterises the beginning of a spiritual progress. In the Rk, chapter V, we find the following definition of the first stage: "He who is purified by the true Doctrine and is disgusted by physical pleasures in the samsāra; who has sought refuge at the feet of the five kind of guru-s; who sticks to the path of truth is a darsanika". 69 It is obvious that these eleven rungs are not the framework used in the canonical Uvāsaga-dasão. This text is organised according to another concept. The description of twelve vows is embedded into narrative prose with a few proverbial stanzas inserted. 70 In practical use this means the renunciation of sexual activities, food, cleansing material, perfums, drugs, etc. for a certain period or for lifetime. According to Jain, Sr, prastavanā, p. 21, the concept of renunciation for laymen was first outlined by Samantabhadra. The renunciation of certain substances such as liquor, meat, honey, for lifetime seems to have been prescribed for new followers of the Dig. communities by Samantabhadra, Amitagati and Vasunandin. We can conclude that the mgs. had the function of a initiation into the Jain belief from Samantabhadra's time onwards.
3.7 Anuyoga With respect to canonical and post-canonical scriptures Skt. anuyoga is the technical term which denotes scriptures regarded as authority by Jains.
They consist of the sacred law based on the contents of the teaching of Mahavira and his pupils.71 In Rk II.1-5 Samantabhadra defines anuyoga as the body of Jain teachings. The Dig. scriptures are categorised as the four limbs of knowledge, of which each can be considered as valid method to describe reality: Prathamânuyoga, Karanânuyoga, Carañânuyoga, and Dravyânuyoga.
68 Cf. Pkt. damsana, abbreviated for "true insight"; "right belief". Skt. samyagdarśana is translated into English "true insight"; "stage of right view": "right attitude": "enlightened worldview". See Leumann 1905 (1998]; Williams 1963:174; Jaini 1979:186; for the three jewels, "true insight", "true knowledge" and "right conduct", cf. Williams 1963:32ff. Cf. also the enumeration damsana-vaya-sämäiya-posaha-sacitta- in Sr (4).
69 Cf. samyag-darsana-buddhah [...) darśanikas. I have quoted the English translation of Rk V.15 in Bollée 2010a.
The pattern of this canonical text is called duvalāsa-vihågāra-dhamma. It is a modifications of the five vows of the mendicants. But Schubring (1962:285-286) identifies passages in the Svet. canonical sources, which refer to the eleven stages of the laity. The first rung or step of the damsana-sāvaga is explained by Schubring as pertaining to "one who approves of the regulations for laymen in theory without having realized them in practise yet."
71 Anuyoga is translated into English "gateway of investigation", "exposition", or "introduction to a systematical method". Sometimes authors mention veda or jāna ("knowledge") as equivalent terms. Knowledge is often discussed under two aspects, mundane or wordly, and supra-mundane or spiritual. See Ts 1.9: Gs, Introduction, pp.10-11; Williams 1963:137; Jaini 1979:337: Mette 1980:85.
12

Page #31

3.7 Anuyoga
3 SELF-PURIFICATION
The Prathamânuyoga, the "First Exposition", consists of rebirth-stories of illustrious men and women, the "carriers of a rod", salaka-purusas, such as the twenty-four Tirthankaras and the twelve legendary rulers of the world (Cakravartins).72 Jain Puranas are placed in this category, for instance the Pauma-cariya of Vimalasuri (6th century or earlier), Jinasena's Adiand Maha-purana, the Padma- and Harivamsa-purana, and Gunabhadra's Uttara-purana (8-9th century CE). In the rebirth-stories of the Jains we find the positive and negative characters in the biographies of teachers, wordly heroes, and their opponents. The kings Brahmadatta and Ravana, for instance, have been mentioned in Śr (129ff.) in order to illustrate human vices.
In the Karanânuyoga, the "Exposition of Instrumental Cause", we find the definition of the Jain universe and non-universe and the description of the dimensions of the cosmos. The Dravyânuyoga, "the Exposition of Substance", enumerates and discusses the Jain principles: substance such as sentience and the non-sentient matter, the relation of the sentient being with matter, the "inflow" of matter into the sentient being, the "stoppage of that inflow", the "bondage", the "shedding off the bondage", and "final emancipation". These principles form a "minimal consensus" of the Jain doctrine, which is acknowledged by several schools and sects.
The Caraṇânuyoga, "the Exposition of Conduct", embraces the topics of ethical conduct and ritual for mendicants and laymen. The texts contain mainly religious poems designed for self-study or taught by the preceptors. In the commentaries we find many pieces of narrative literature, too. Obviously, there are intersections with those texts which are otherwise classified as Prathamânuyoga. Samantabhadra's and Amitagati's Sravakācāras, Devasena's Bhava-samgraha, the Upasakadhyayana-section of Somadeva's Yasas-tilaka, and Vasunandin's Śravakâcāra are to be placed in this category. 73 Moreover, the reflections on the world, on bondage, pious death, and final emancipation, rituals for atonement for monks and the laity belong also to this literary genre, for instance the Mulâradhana of Śivârya (Mūl), Vaṭṭakera's Mulácara (Mac) and Kärttikeya's Anupreksäs (KA).74
72 See Winternitz 1927 [1977], Vol. II, p. 504. For genres of Jain fiction see Balbir 1994a:223-261.
73 See the lists of post-canonical scriptures in the bibliography and appendix of Schubring 1935, the tables in the Introduction of Wiley, 2004, and the bibliography in Śr (M), pp.
651ff.
74 See Mül (1559ff.); Mac, sections II and VIII. Śvet. verses related in style and contents to the Anuprekṣās are in Maraṇa-vibhakti (635ff.) and in Hemacandra's Yogaśāstra.
13

Page #32

4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
4
Style of Śr (57-205)
In the first part of Vasunandin's Sr (3ff.) the author discusses Jain principles and gives an outline of the pratimās, the stages of purification for laymen, beginning with the first one. The author begins his instructions with the exposition of the doctrine of "sentient being and non-sentient matter" (jivajiva). While introducing Jain principles (or categories) he defines the qualities of true insight (48ff.). He shows a concern for the dangers of transgressions and the evil that a person earns when he goes astray out of negligence. We find in Sr (190ff.) intersections with topics that are explained in the appendix of the Uttarajjhāyā XXXVI.249ff. Also in the Dig. compilations KA, Rk, Māc, and Mül, Jain authors discuss the meaning of "true insight", "right knowledge", "right conduct", final self-mortification, and "reasons for inauspicious rebirth", etc. In a publication of 196675 Ludwig Alsdorf compares the contents and the style of certain verses in the appendix of the canonical Uttarajjhāyā XXXVI with those of the post-canonical Mül and Māc. The comparison in synoptic tables leads us to the conclusion that in the chosen sections of those scriptures verses of the Bhāvanā- or Anuprekşā-type are arranged with nearly identical phrases and same ritual function. They might have served to explain" reasons for an inauspicious rebirth".
In the first quarter of the twentieth century Ernst Leumann was a pioneer in the comparison of parallels of selected rituals sections of Jain scriptures. Alsdorf states that "admittedly later than the Svetāmbaras, the Digambaras have found the connection with modern developments, and with surprising rapidity have largely caught up with the Svetāmbaras. Their manuscript libraries, too, which were in part an object of particularly anxious protection, have been opened [...) and there has appeared an unexpected wealth of literary treasure". His studies were "far ahead of his time" and the number of manuscripts collected by Leumann can be regarded as an "extraordinary performance” for the time.76 Upadhye writes in his Introduction to the collection of stories written for Jain laymen, the Punyâsrava-kathā-kosa", that it is necessary to study the rules of the Srāvakácāras in the background of
Passages of the appendix of the Uttarajjhāyā XXXVI, Mūl, and Māc, have been analysed in style and contents in a short monography by Alsdorf in 1966. I have tried to point out in the notes of my translation of Śr that the stanzas of (190ff.) might belong to a kernel or repertory of verses meant for contemplation. They show similarities in style and contents with those in the Uttarajjhāyā XXXVI, Mül and Māc.
See Alsdorf 2006:120-121. The manuscripts acquired by Leumann are now deposited in the collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Strasbourg, France. Leumann's list of 1896 (reprinted 1998) has been the starting point for the catalogues edited by Wickersheimer 1923 and Tripāțhi 1975.
77See the Punyâsrava-katha-kosa, p.12. I am indepted to Prof. Bollée for this reference.
14

Page #33

4.1 Elements of Style
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
the narrative literature, prose tales that are collected in the kośas.78 The section with religious poems Sr (57ff.) seems to belong to a repertory of verses that were learned by heart by laypeople and mendicants. The poems were arranged into a efficient system of topics as means of contemplation. Some of those verses might have been originally composed in Slokas, and were later adapted to match with the Aryā. The verses Sr (190ff.) which are related in contents and style to Māc and Mül are found in "Pratyakhyānasamstara" or in the Anupreksā-section of the above-mentioned works. Alsdorf (1966:176) observes that the formulas used for meditation are called Bhāvanās by the Svets. They "[...] do not belong to the oldest layers of Jain doctrine; they make an impression of being younger inventions, with a popular tinge, perhaps even slightly beside or outside the official' dogmatic system". 79
4.1 Elements of Style 4.1.1 Vasunandin's Prākrt Vasunandin composes his manual in the literary Prakrt of the Jains, which is one of the Middle Indo-Aryan dialects.80 As the name implies, Sauraseni refers to the ordinary language of the region Sūrasena (with the former capital Mathurā). The Jain-Sauraseni is generally considered to stand closer to classical Skt. in terms of the assimilations of vowels, consonants and consonant clusters, and the grammar and syntax, if compared with Māgadhi. There are some peculiarities in the Pkt. of the manuscripts of Vasunandin's Sr, which these share with other Dig. scriptures written in the same Jain Devanāgari ligatures.81 There are for example peculiar spellings of consonants, mixed consonants, and vowel clusters. Those Dig. scriptures cannot
78 See also the stories in the commentary of Prabhācandra on Rk in the English translation of Bollée 2010a.
79For the Āvasyaka-type of literature and the analysis of topics and style see for instance Leumann 1934:16ff.
80 The literary Pkt. of the Digs. has often been called Jain Sauraseni. For the languages of the Digs. we find the denotations Jain or Dig. Pkt., Dig. Ardha-māgadhi, Daigambari, Jain Sauraseni. For designations and characteristics of the languages see the introductory chapter in Denecke 1922:2ff.; Schubring 1935:16; Pischel 1957 (1965):21ff.; Von Hinüber 1986:43; Caillat 1979; Van den Bossche 1999:14. I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Felix Erb, Hamburg, for putting at my disposal a copy of Denecke's dissertation.
81 For the transliteration of the Pkt. text of the section Śr (57-205) in Roman script see Appendix 1. Some popular verses of the Sr have been reprinted in a compilation called Tacca-viyāra of Vasunandin. Verses from other works, KA and Bhāva-samgraha, have been quoted in some manuscripts of Sr. In the copies of the manuscripts of Sr which are today in the collections of the Jain libraries and temples in the former Central Provinces in Karanja / Berar in the Akola district (cf. Hirālāl 1926) and in L (collected by Leumann) topical headings in Skt. have been written between the Pkt. lines. It is probable that those glosses are phrases taken from Amitagati's and Gunabhadra's Srāvakácāras and Ašādhara's Sâgāra-dharmâmsta.

Page #34

4.1 Elements of Style
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
be regarded as belonging to the Jain canonical scriptures in the strict sense, but they are sometimes referred to as belonging to the Caranânuyoga secondary canon.2 Generally, the ways in which a word is spelt in a Dig. manuscript may differ depending on the age of the manuscript and the regional traditions of the scribes.
The outstanding features of the Daigambari manuscripts of Kundakunda and Vattakera have been discussed by Denecke 1922:3ff. in his introductory chapters of his text edition. The characteristics of the manuscripts and some stylistic elements of the Pkt. Aņuvekkhās have been analysed by Upadhye in the edition of KA.83 Some distinctive characteristics of those manuscripts also go for those of Vasunandin. The changes of t- and -- to -d- and -d-, the changes of -th- and -th-to-dh- and -dh-, typical for the region, in which Sauraseni was spoken, appear in Dig. manuscripts, but it can be observed that this does not apply to for all instances of Daigambari. We should take into consideration that medieval scribes allowed themselves to use many variants and standard abbreviations. This concerns the way of writing aspirated, non-aspirated, retroflex and non-retroflex dentals, especially when these occur between two vowels.84 Sometimes, the voiceless representatives are retained, or retroflexes in consonant clusters are represented by spirants.85 Denecke remarks that the grammatical rules cannot be applied strictly to all the Dig. manuscripts, and only with certain reservations.
82 Senior texts" is a term coined only for Svet. texts (German: "Senioren des Siddhanta" in Schubring 1935:57-58). It is a term which refers to the oldest layers of Jain scriptures. This division is based on Jacobi's analysis of the style and contents of the oldest sections of the Svet. canon. According to Jain, who analyses some patterns of Vasunandin's Śr in the Hindi Introduction to the Indian printed edition, Vasunandin's manual is younger than KA and Rk. For the division of Jain scriptures see Bollée 1977, Preface, VII; Schubring 1962:58-59; Alsdorf 1966:11; Tatia 1994, Foreword. XII; Jaini 1979:78-81; Kulkarni 1980, Introduction, pp. IIff.; Bruhn 1987, 2003:6ff., 82: Folkert 1993:22; Schubring 2004:13, Foreword, note 39; Wiley 2004: Fujinaga 2007:2.
83 Denecke 1922:3ff. describes the important features of the Pkt. in the manuscripts of the Samaya-sära and Chap-pāhuda assigned to Kundakunda and the manuscript of Māc, chapter V, assigned to Vattakera. He comments on Pischel's observations on the changes of consonants and consonant clusters in some Middle Indo-Aryan dialects (Pischel 1957 (1965), Paragraph 21ff.).
84 Different forms of representations of -t-, -, -d-, -d-, -th-, -th-, -dh-, and -dh- are applied in the manuscripts, especially in consonant and vowel clusters.
Those features are discussed in Denecke 1922:10ff. They are based on the manuscripts of the above-mentioned scriptures, which do not always show those changes of intermediate consonants. According to Van den Bossche 1999:14ff. the Dig.-Sauraseni preserves more peculiarities of the Ardha-Māgadhi and Skt. than the Jain-Māhārāstri, the language used for texts in some of the Svet. commentaries.

Page #35

4.1 Elements of Style
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
4.1.2 Metre of Śr (V) The verses in the section Sr (57-205) are composed in the metre Aryā in uniformity. With regard to this type of metre we find here the common or new Aryā.86 As Alsdorf 1966:158ff. points out for the Uttarajjhāyā, most of the material of the Aryā stanzas in the collections of the Anuprekşās show the mixed features of compositions in classical and new metres. This means, if I understood Alsdorf rightly that the metrical structures of the new Aryā might have developed in course of time out of shorter segments and phrases composed in Slokas. Some of the segments of verses analysed by Alsdorf could be regarded either as element of the Sloka, or as an element of the Aryā. But, with regard to Sr (57-205), which is much younger than the canonical Uttarajjhāyā, at least a quarter of the Aryās seems to be corrupted. The metre and style of Vasunandin is not that of Apabhramsa, the literary language common in the eleventh century poetry of Dig. Jains. Besides, Vasunandin's language shows similarities with Kārttikeya's composition of unknown age), Devasena's compositions (9th century CE), and the Skt. manuals of Samantabhadra (of unknown age) and Amitagati (eleventh twelfth century CE).87 Okuda maintains in his Introduction to the fifth chapter of Māc (1975:10ff.) that this chapter owes a lot to the commentary tradition of the Svets., especially the Nikkhevas. 88 It is possible that verses which appear in the Nikkhevas and in the Aņuvekkhās go back to a common source.
4.1.3
Alterations in Spelling
With respect to the vowel alterations and euphonic combinations we find in the manuscript of Sr L the writing um for o (Nominative sg. masculinum).89 Diphthongs, long vowels, and semi-vowels, are sometimes mixed up, alterations of short -j- and -a- and long and short vowels are prominent.90 Ty
86 The new Aryā is characterised by a ceasura after the third gana. If the verse lacks the caesura it is called vipula. Variations of the new type of Aryā are possible, for example the composition with two lines with a shortened sixth gang, which is called Giti. For the Aryā and its variations see Jacobi 1886 [1970]; Alsdorf 1968:251ff., and Balbir's comments in DĀK (73) on the Aryā and other kinds of metre in medieval texts.
87 There is only one Srāvakâcāra composed in the Apabhramsa Dohās, the Sävayadhamma-doha. For the Apabhramba and its metrical peculiarities see the Introduction in the Sāvaya-dhamma-dohā (in Hindi); further Denecke 1922; Alsdorf 1933:33; Alsdorf 1937 (1966):32; Chopra 1974:299ff.
88 Ņikkheva is a dialectic technique employed in the early Jain commentary tradition. Several topics are treated under different viewpoints. See Bhatt 1978 and 1992:15-53.
*9 Cf. (57d) sāvao bhanio vs. L sāvaum bhanium.
90Cf. (65a) cora v.l. L caura. In (860) we find vannie dose) vs. L viņae dose). The author of the commentary of L suggests that vinae denotes the numeral two of two (faults]"), but in Śr (M) the word is rendered differently into: kahe gaye (dosom ko): "of the faults previously described". Cf. also in (950) -tina vs. -tana. For noun suffixes corresponding to Skt. -tuana see Van den Bossche 1999:71. In (96) tina-cāri occurs v.l.
17

Page #36

4.1 Elements of Style
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
pical scribal variants are due to the alteration of the spelling of - - /-1-/e- in verbal and noun-endings, pronouns, and compositions derived from original -in-stems. When writing ligatures scribes often allow themselves alterations in the spelling of vowels with intervocal consonants, especially dentals and labials, but also gutturals, palatals, linguals, or complex consonant clusters. Representations of historical voiceless consonants by a voiced consonant or by the ya-śruti are common.92 Furthermore, there is confusion with respect to the representation of graduated semi-vowels.93 With regard to conjunct groups of consonants and vowels one can observe that single consonants are sometimes written for geminated consonants and conjunct groups (consonant clusters), since the native teachers of grammar allowed certain abbreviations. In Śr (L) the geminated nasals -nn- and -mm- are repesented by a single nasal.94 In some variants the sonant group -ddhaappears as a single sonant spirant.95 In times, the sibilant s is retained or simple nasals, nasal and spirant groups are confused: -nh-, -hn-, -mh-, -hm; -mh-, -nh-, -n-. Also the consonant clusters -ccha-, -ttha- , -ttha-, -dda-, and-tta- are confused or shortened into -da-96
4.1.4 Past Tenses In Vasunandin's Sr the action of the past is usually expressed by the past participle with or without an auxiliary verb.97 Of the Aorist and Perfect stems of the Indo-Aryan conjugation systems only some relics remain such as
L tana-cāri. In (134a) appears visana v.l. L vasaņa. In verse (58ab) we find pimpariya v.l. L pampariya. And in (138a) there are the readings usina v.l. L usana, in (164) para-'tthi v.l. L pari-'tthi, in (141a) jāyamatte v.l. L jāyamitte, again in (185a) balattane v.l. L balattena.
Cf. (184a) koi v.l. Sr (M) koi v.l. L kei. See Denecke 1922:27ff.; Van den Bossche 1999:60ff. Generally, the manuscripts show the confusion of -i/ -1 at the end of a Pada in the present tense third person sg. For instance, in (1840) occurs marai v.l. L marai. Besides, in present tense first person pl. the shortened form -ami stands optional in place of the correct form -āmi, for instance in (1972) kim karami. Other typical variants are the formations of the third person pl. from different present stems of KR, i.e. in 65b) Ba L karamti v.l. kunamti. See Denecke 1922:8, 36.
92 For example in (592) occurs bhūdāni v.l. L bhūyani. 9 See for example paurammi v.l. L pavarammi in (61b) and jūva- vs. L juya- in (63c).
94 See for the occurrence of geminated nasals as singles (184a) uppannam v.l. L upanam; (660) sampunna- v.l. L sampuna-; (73c) sannam v.l. L sanam; (61c) -avattammi v.l. L -avattami.
95 This phenomenon is described in Upadhye, KA, pp. 3ff. Cf. in Śr (57a) visuddha v.l. L visuha; (95a) datthūņa v.l. L dahuna; (58c) L samsihāi v.l. Pa samhiddhāi v.l. Śr (M) samsiddhāim.
96 See for example in (117c) nibbhacchijjamto vs. L nibbhadijato. Cf. also Denecke 1922:9. For the unhistoric spellings of -ttha- in Pāli see Norman's notes on Thg (1100), p. 273.
97 See for instance (143d) ramio pi jam āsi. Cf. also Denecke 1922:39ff.; Van den Bossche 1999:63. The middle voice has disappeared and the dual has been lost in the Pkts.

Page #37

4.1 Elements of Style
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
nittharasi in (165d).98 In general, the syntax with regard to the participles, gerunds and verbal phrases in Sr follows the rules of classical and epic Skt., as described for instance in Speijer 1886 [1993].
4.1.5
Infinitives and Gerunds
The alterations in the construction of participles and gerunds in the manuscripts of Vasunandin go also with those of other texts written in Dig. Pkt. such as KA, Mül and Mac.99 Infinitives are sometimes used in the function of gerunds and the reverse. In Sr (187) the infinitive cittheum from STHA "to stop; to hold on" is constructed with the auxiliary verb of LABH and a participle, which expresses negation, similar to the syntactical patterns in Skt.100 In one case in Śr (159a) the infinitive is constructed with a middle participle and the alpha privativum. The infinitive is applied here as a compliment to the main verb and serves to indicate an aim or a direction, just as the dative of the purpose which provides the indirect attribute to a noun phrase. 101 In Sr (159a) bhottum102 serves as an adjunct in the phrase Pkt. bhottum anicchamanam niya-mamsa. From my opinion, there are two possibilities for the translation and interpretation of the phrase. The infinitive could either be translated similar to a gerund denoting the action which has already taken place: "when it = the sentient being has unwillingly eaten its own flesh.103 Comparable to the function in epical Skt. the infinitive denotes a wish, fear, hope, or a purpose in the future: the sentient being is "not willing to eat its own flesh". 104 With Speijer 1886 (1993):306 the infinitive stands in "some degree outside the common system of declension and conjugation, it may be called the counterpart of the Lat. supine. It has no voices, no tenses."
In Vasunandin's Pkt. the gerunds seem to function similar to the absolutive
98 Pkt. pittharasi is derived from nih + TR: "to get out; to escape"; "to overcome; to clear oneself from an accusation or guilt"; "to pass" (Whitney 1885 (1988):64). Another example of the use of the Aorist stem referred to by Van den Bossche 1999:63, note 123, is AMg akāsi (Skt. akārsit).
99 Some peculiarities in the formation and the syntactic use of infinitives and gerunds have been discussed in Denecke 1922:43-44 and Van den Bossche 1999:69.
100Cf. the phrase (1870) Pkt. na lahai cittheum: "it = the sentient being in the grounds of hell is not able to stand/ to stay", i.e. it is not able to find a hold. For Pkt. forms derived from STHA see Denecke 1922:43; Ratnachandra 1923 (1988), Vol. II, p. 722. 101 Cf. Speijer 1886 [1993]:300. 102 Pkt. bhottum is the infinitive to BHUJ "to enjoy" (Whitney 1885 (1988):112). 103 In this interpretation I follow a suggestion of Prof. Balbir (p.c.). This is possible because the grammatical function of the infinitive in Pkt. corresponds roughly to that of a gerund.
104Śr (159) refers to the idea of a "field of reward and punishment". It is conceived as a spindle of layers of earth, in which one finds no hold. Having entered this field the sentient being is forced to eat the flesh of the limbs from its own body cut off by other fiendish dwellers in the infernal region.

Page #38

4.1 Elements of Style
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
of a verbal participle in classical Skt.105 This is the case for instance with Pkt. chamdiūna106 in (116b) and āhāreuna in (136b).
In (136b) the gerund āhāreūņa107 occurs in the phrase Pkt. to tesu (niraesu samuppanno (jivaāhāreūna poggale asuhe. It serves as a verbal adjunct modifying the participle samuppanno and denoting here the prior of two actions. In some cases the gerund could signify a simultaneous or concurrent action. In this phrase the author refers to the act of "fetching" or "drawing near” karmic matter for oneself or to oneself. Thus, if we are to understand ahareuna as expressing the distant past, we might conclude that Vasunandin intended to express previous action, i.e. we find the idea that the sentient being had already "attracted" impure matter (asuha-poggala). In the commentary of Sr (M) the phrase is translated by Sunilasāgara into Hindi aśubha pudgalom kol grahana karake. There is another Hindi paraphrase of (136b) in the commentary of Sr (M): (2) janma grahaņa karake. The noun Pkt. poggale is rendered into Hindi aśubha padartha: "impure object" / "impure matter". The editor of the reprint of Śr equates two things: "impure matter" and "rebirth". The commentary of L substitutes the gerund āhāreūņa by the Skt. verbal noun ākarşanam: "drawing near; pulling up; attraction" (MW: p.127).108 Vasunandin suggests in (135ff.)
105 With Speijer 1886 (1993):296 the gerund "holds a place somewhat intermediate between the infinitive and the participle. As to their etymology, they are petrified nouncases, and for this reason they are not declinable”. For the formation in Dig. scriptures see Denecke 1922:44.
108 The origin of Pkt. chamdiuna remains obscure to me. The gerund occurs as verbal adjunct in the phrase Pkt. lajja-kula-kammam chamdiūna. A translation of the phrase (116b) is: "after having given up = having broken with the peculiar duties of one's family and modesty [...". In the commentary of Śr Jain translates the phrase into Hindi lajjā aur kula-maryādā ko chorkara. In the commentary on Sr (M) Sunilasāgara considers this gerund to be a substitute of the corresponding form of the defect stem of another verb (V MUC). Likewise, the participle Pkt. chamdia is explained as being substitute for the participle of MUC in Sheth 1923:333-334. There are different opinions with regard to the etymological roots of Pkt. chamdiūna. With following Monier-Williams (MW: pp. 406-407) one could suppose that it derives from ✓ CHO: "to cut off". According to Whitney 1885 (1988):50 one considers ✓ CHA "to cut up" and ✓ CHID "to cut off". Cf. also Turner 1966: Nos.4970; 5013. Neither the root, nor the present tense of the verb, are discussed in Ratnachandra 1923 (1988). The Hindi formations of this stem are: chamtanā/ chamtkānā "to sort out; to take out" (Gatzlaff-Hälsig 2002:462).
107 With discussing the gerund āhāreuna in Śr (136b) I follow a suggestion of Prof. Butzenberger (p.c.). The gerund āhāreūna derives from the prefix a + ✓ HR: 1. "to take, to accept, to bring, to collect"; 2. "to bring near; to fetch for oneself; to receive" (cf. the third person sg. of the present stem Pkt. āhārei). See MW: p. 162; Ratnachandra 1923 (1988], Vol. II, p. 116.
108 As Umāsvāmin explains in the Ts the "consciousness" or "sentience of the embodied beings in the conditions of aupaśamika and ksāyôpaśamika effects that it is subjected to several modifications. The "operating karmas" work, i.e. effect the spontaneous type of rebirth. In Ts II.25-26 Umāsvāmin states that if the sentient being makes "one or more turns" after death, the only activity is that of the karmic body (Tatia 1994:47).
20

Page #39

4.1 Elements of Style
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
that the sentient being arrives in the "grounds of earth" in a very short period. It seems to be a state of consciousness that is transitory. We might assume that it is our author's intention to persuade the reader that the sentient being "incorporates” impure matter which effects a new rebirth due to a certain state of mind. This condition is also explained by the term bondage. In Ts, chapters VIII and IX, Umāsvāmin explains in detail why human beings have the tendency to "bind karmic particles" and how the insight-deluding and knowledge-obstructing karmas could be suppressed and fully eliminated.
4.1.6 Exclamation Particles Typical for section Śr (57ff.) are predicates which denote the act of crying and mourning complemented by adverbs and particles. By those means the author expresses the idea of affliction and suffering of creatures. With (137ff.), for example (142b), he characterises the utterance of the beings in suffering as high-pitched or deep-voiced. The sounds are pitiful (kaluņam / karunam; karuņa-palāva). He applies the adverbial adjunct karunam in the phrase (149d) karuņam puno ruvai: "it mourns pitifully". Sentient beings tortured in the grounds of earth are mourning with sorrow. This mourning is expressed by the phrase ha-ha-kāram pakuvamta (in 1620). Vasunandin applies other interjections and some particles of exclamation too. These are not uncommon in the style of narrative texts in medieval Pkt. and Skt, in which we find fixed phrases of direct speech and religious sayings in stanzas.
For instance, the inclinable particle ha expresses the feelings of sorrow and grief. This particle has a function similar to aho. The interjections are sometime added to predicates derived from KRAND, RUD, or LAP (see my notes in the Analysis). With those particles the author stresses the impression of the very deep or high sounds of mourning or deep sighs which are heart-rendering. Likewise, Vasunandin applies particles such as bho bho and hāhā to emphasise the astonishment and pain felt by the individual. With those particles combinations with KR and pra + KR occur, see, for instance, the phrase ha-ha-karam pakuvvamto in (162d).109 Another
Jaini 1920:68 explains Ts II.25ff. as follows: "In vigraha-gati transmigration, i.e. the passage of the soul from one incarnation to another, there is only) karmic body vibration (karma yoga), (by which the electric and karmic molecules are attracted by the soul)". In this context the noun āhāra might be understood as "nourishment". It is one of the primordeal functional bodies. Jains explain it as underlying the effect of multiplication of different factors, i.e. its functions are due to the operating of different karmas and other preconditions. That means that it is determined by healthy and unhealthy dispositions of mind on the one hand, and by other natural circumstances on the other hand.
109 With interjections such as hā, ha-hā, bho bho, etc., Indian poets express the feelings of surprise, joy, pain, or sorrow. See Speijer 1886 (1993):326ff. For some onomatopoeic expressions in the narrative sections of Jain kõvya see also Kuvalaya-mālā, Vol. I, p. 111,
91

Page #40

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
particle, aho, implies the painful or joyful utterance because of surprise, reproach, or praise, in the same way as hā or its accumulative variant hā-hā. The phrase "shame on your"/ "fy fy!" (Pkt. dhig atthu, Skt. dhig astu) is peculiar to the fluent and expressive style of Vasunandin (for example 189d and 203d). The author wants to point out that the human being is disgusted with something, feels ashamed, expresses her or his feelings of displeasure and anguish. The phrase (144b) alam hi ruyanena denotes a prohibition or the demand to put an end of the action of crying. Vasunandin employs the interjection alam hi exactly in the way it is used in epical Skt. 110 In means of style Vasunandin's Śr stands close to the post-Christian Skt. language.
But, we should consider that similar constructions with verbal phrases and adjuncts occur in other Jain scriptures, too, for example in the Ti Pa IV.613: tivvāu vedação palavamto vilavadi, “It cries mournfully because of vehement [painful] sensations". There appears a slightly different formula in the canonical Suya-gada II.5.1ff. in the section Niraya-vibhatti. The foolish evil-doers in the infernal regions shriek day and night (räimdiyam [...] thanamti),111
4.2 Numerical Patterns
Numerical patterns are a device by means of which religious instructions can be organised. Because technical terms are learned by heart easily with the help of analytical patterns they appear in various ritual texts in religious traditions. We find numerical patterns in Jain religious literature, especially in the theoretical analysis (the categories or tattvas) and cosmology.112 In an article of 1936 Stein comments on the pattern of eighteen1 113 in Indian literature: "Among the numerals by which a multitude of concrete objects, a line of abstract ideas, a number of traditional texts or parts of a discipline are summed up, the numeral eighteen is often used in Indian literature. Without asserting any hidden sense behind that fact or calling
note 38.
110 Cf. for the idiomatic use of the instrumental case with the particle alam Speijer 1886 [1993]:56, 300ff., especially pp. 302, 312ff. This particle stands with the infinitive or gerund. See also the entries in MW: pp. 126, 516,1296, with various examples from epical and classical Skt.
The predicate used in this text is derived from ✓ STAN: "to thunder" (Whitney 1885 [1945]:191). I owe this reference to Prof. Bollée.
112 See my notes on anuyoga. For the introduction to the Jain cosmology based on canonical scriptures and Ts, see Kirfel 1928:IVff.; Schubring 1935:135; Glasenapp 1942:60ff.; Caillat/ Kumar 1981; Tatia 1994:50ff.,70ff. For an interpretation of the numerical patterns in early Vedic literature see Weber 1861 and Miyakawa 2003. For technical terms in early Buddhist thinking (German: "buddhistische Begriffsreihen") I refer to the Introduction in Eimer 2006. For cosmological identifications and their religious implications in the edicts of Asoka cf. Schmithausen 1991:138. For the symbolism of the five-fold category of restraint in Indian ascetic traditions cf. Hara 1994:332ff. See also Schmithausen 1994b for an analysis of early Indian philosophical strings of thought.
113 Cf. Stein 1936 [1985]: 780. See also my notes on pavāṇi in (59).
22

Page #41

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
18 a "holy number, in any case it may be interesting to view the material as far as possible. It is not easy to find a convenient arrangement to satisfy the chronological point of view as well as the subject or sphere of science."
There are certain numbers that bear a symbolic meaning in Vasunandin's Sr, since the chosen section refers to concepts such as the idea of postmortem "reward and punishment" and the "doctrine of transmigration". With respect to the Jain doctrine our author teaches that the cosmos consists of seven upper continents and seven corresponding grounds of earth (Skt. sapta-prthivis, cf. verses Sr 171ff.). The Asuras, mentioned in (170) stand between heaven and hell. Jain authors assume that the intense agreeable and non-agreeable sensations are the effect of the individual's activities of mind, speech and deed and that those are modified by the conditions of the sentient being. 114 The commentary on Sr (M):143 connects the term asura with the state of affliction (samklesa-pariņāma). We could assume that Jains define this state of mind as conditioned by harmful thoughts and feelings due to intense passions such as rage, enmity, etc. (see Śr 170ff.). Some instructive Jain scriptures teach that beings are reborn alternately in infernal and celestial realms, and in non-human and human shape. 115 The lower world as depicted by Vasunandin in (171ff.) corresponds to the description in Umāsvāmin's Ts, chapter III.
4.2.1 Multiples of Four
The concept of "seven grounds of hells", which is outlined in Ts III.1ff. and Sr (133ff.) differs from the Buddhist concept of eight hells, which finds expression in post-Christian Buddhist texts, respectively in Tibetan and Chinese translations (see Feer 1892-1893). The pattern of eight (Buddhist great hells and sixteen supplementary sub-regions of hell) seems to be justified as serving as the counterpart of the sixteen virtues in which the illustrious man, the mahā-purusa, excels. Outside India we find a reference to the concept of eight in a mythological passage, the Appendix (X) of Plato's Politeia. 116 The numbers four, eight, sixteen, and thirty-two, appear as pattern in the fanciful description of the celestial regions in the Catur-dvara-jataka (439). In this Jataka there is an episode where the male "death spirit" spends
114 See my notes on bhāva in Chapter II. For the concepts of mental activities and their results see Bronkhorst 1993:151-162; Bruhn 2003:63.
115 See the episodes of the king Yasodhara (for instance in the Brhat-katha-kośa of Harişena No.73, Hardy 1993:121-124). The historical and psychological background of these stories seems to be man-slaughter and animal sacrifice. Outside Jainism we find in folk belief the idea of Asuras being associated with darkness and the state of mind devoid of knowledge. Some passages refer to those ideas in Jai Br 1.179 (Bodewitz 2002:215). I owe this reference to the late Dr. Kehren.
116 Cf. the "Myth of Er" in Politeia X (617c), p.180. Here we find an allegory. The celestial bodies or heavenly abodes relate to the number eight.

Page #42

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
some time in the celestial sphere. It is described as an ocean with spindles of light, an idea which is consistent with the concept of four, eight, sixteen, etc. palaces or vehicles, the abodes of heavenly maidens or "female death spirits". Miyakawa 2003:217 assumes that there must have been a Vedic concept on the base of four ("typische Viererbündelung [...] unter den Zahlen 4,8,12,16"). But likewise, in the Politeia X (617c), the celestial sphere is depicted as a spindle of thundering light with eight coloured whirls, the dwelling place of fairies who could be identified with abstract principles such as Moira (fate etc.), or with the seven planets and the pole star.
Besides, the kind of dark lustre which is sometimes associated with the Asuras and their so-called "blind darkness" has been identified with a certain time quality and a function in ritual. It was imagined to be determined by a course of time somewhere "beyond the Agnistoma" which is identified with the year. The medieval Buddhist text Pañca-gati-dipanam (cited according to the primary edition of Feer, 1884 [1983], verses 60-69) mentions the class of lower celestial beings, the kumbha-'ndas, besides the Asuras. 117 But the function of those classes of celestial servants in ritual is not specified in this text.
4.2.2
Multiples of Ten
Word numerals such as "Hundred Thousands" (bhava-saya-sahassa in 65) denote cosmic time dimensions. Multiples of ten118 appear in Śr (137ff.), as our author expresses the idea that the sentient being is manifested in the uncountable layers of earth grounds with 100 x 1000 x 84 cells. This numeral represents a great number - which is not specified - of small hells (nirayas). In Vasunandin's Śr (171ff.) the terms "Eighty-four Hundred Thousand" and sayarôvama ("ocean-measured") occur in the descriptions of time or space in the celestial and infernal kinds of rebirths. Complex numbers are combinations of different multiples and exponents with the base of ten. 119 Multiples of ten which denote a mythological quality of space or time are not of specific Jain origin.
117 Cf. Skt. kumbhanda or kuşmânda "having testicles shaped like a gourd"; "a class of demons in the service of Rudra", MW: p. 293.
118 With regard to the declension of numerals cf. Denecke 1922:33-36; Van den Bossche 1999:62. The authors maintain that they are used without distinction of gender in medieval Pkts. The numbers 19-58 are stems in -a or -a, the numbers 59-99 are stems in -im. One Hundred (Pkt. saa or sada, Skt. sata) and One Thousand (Pkt. sahassa, Skt. sahasra) are stems in -a.
119 For instance 10; 100; 1000; 10 000; 100 000; 8 400 000 etc. The symbolic value of full and complex numbers in Indian ritual literature, especially in the Vedas, is examined in Weber 1861:132-140 and in Miyakawa 2003:75ff.,181,225. See also the Vedic example quoted from the Atharva-veda by Whitney 1924 [1977]:183, satam sahasram ayutam nyarbudam jaghana śakro dasyūnām: "the mighty Sakra (= Indra) slew a hundred, a thousand, a myriad, a hundred million, of demons".
24

Page #43

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
In the Markandeya-purāna XIII 20 we find a description of the regions of the fiery grounds of earth. The idea expressed in this passage is that of the "death spirit" of evil-doers spending hundred years in a hell with flames of fires, where they are attacked by other creatures in the shape of birds with iron beaks. Additionally, one could refer to the Pāli Sutta-Nipāta III.10. There are allusions to a great amount or inexhaustible mass of time. The measure of time, which a evil man has to spend in the post-mortem sphere or field called "Padma", is counted by seeds. It is compared to a Kosalan cart filled with sesame seeds. All together, it adds up to five myriads of crores. The number "Eighty-four Hundred Thousand" appears not in Jain sayings only, but also in Buddhist poems in the context of the description of small hells, the niray-ussadas.121 Some of these numerical patterns occur in passages of pre-Islamic Persian religious scriptures, which could be called Zoroastrian "Wisdom Dialogues". 122 In a section of "Fargard III", 3.25ff. we find instructions of Zoroaster by the mythical teacher Ormazd (Ahura Mazda, the creater of the world). Zoroaster asks, what kind of food it is by which "righteousness" is accomplished. A song is taught to Zoroaster. A man, who sews corn, also sews righteousness, and he should nourish religion as much as he could ... with the feed of a hundred men, with the breast of a thousand women, with ten thousand sacrificial ceremonies [...]". When barley was created, the demons became startled and as it grew, the demons became depressed. When the corn started to blossom, the demons groaned, and when the corn ripened, the demons were forced back. In the house where demons dwell wealth decays. But if there was a store of grain (= righteousness), it would be, as if red hot iron were thrown into the throats of those demons.
Another scripture, Bundahis IV, 1,4, contains a song of lament in which we find related patterns in a different religious contexts. This ritual song is the lamentation of the ox. In primeval times the "spirit” of the ox leaves its
120 Markandeya-purāņa XIII quoted according to Pargiter 1904:74.
121 See the entries in Rhys Davids/ Stede 1921-1925:103. In the Mārkandeya-purāna, chapter LIV.15 (quoted according to Pargiter 1904:276), the number 8 400 000 refers to space, to the height of the range of the mountain Meru in the middle of the mythical continent Ilāvsta.
122 According to Eliade's entry 1987 (Vol. 15, pp. 400-403) the scriptures which are called "Wisdom Literature" are heterogenous. They are concerned with reflections about the nature of reality. Those texts consist mainly of dialogues, prose poems, stories, and rhythmical lyrics. For instance, two examples of Jain Wisdom Dialogues", are translated in Bollée 2002:364. Mainly, they contain elementary instructions, which derive from reflections or from experience. With regard to the Zoroastrian scriptures I refer to the English summaries in Dawson 1931, especially pp. 4ff., 130ff., 168ff. As suggested by Prof. Butzenberger (p.c.) it might be fruitful to examine related patterns in religious strings of thought beyond the range of South Asia. I refer to the bibliographies in Butzenberger 1996 and 1998.
95

Page #44

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
body. It stands up in front of the body and implores Ormazd. The penetrating sounds which are produced in this moment resemble the howling of a thousand men, when they all sustain a cry at the same time. Besides, in Persian literature there are similar patterns related to those in Plato's Appendix (X) to the Politeia. It seems to be rationable to agree with Halliwell that multiples of ten convey a "sense of cosmic order" in oriental literature."
123
4.2.3 Number Twelve
We should bear in mind that a great variety of Indian concepts regarding death and transition existed in Vasunandin's time. Because of the variations of religious pattern associated with the number twelve, I will give only an outline of the assumptions regarding the origins and some of the strings of the historical development. 124 In our text (verses 73-74) we get the impression that the god Yama is the wrathful king of the Southern direction. The rather vague idea expressed by Vasunandin does not require that the belief in Yama's "Southern realm" has its origin in Jain religious thinking. Moreover, with the idea of "grinding" (in 151ff.) which corresponds to meanness Vasunandin refers to the goddess Nirṛti (see my notes on verse 84). This idea could be easily connected with common features of Indo-Iranian religious thinking, if we consider scriptures such as the Märkandeya-purana and the Śiva-purana, where we find more details in the ritual section. 125 Miyakawa 126
123 See for instance Plato's Politeia X (614ff.), pp.171; Biesterfeld 1970:22, 40ff., 112ff. Greek critics in the first centuries CE supposed that Plato's vision was "pseudoZoroastrian". Some striking parallels in the patterns could go back to a Persian protoype. But, with contemporary literary critics, Plato's myth is regarded as an original creation of its time. It is acknowledged that this philosophical text might be influenced by Orphism, Pythagorean, Egyptian, Middle Eastern, and early Indo-Aryan strings of thought. On the pre-Islamic dualism in Zoroastrism see the article of Gnoli in Eliade 1987, Vol. I, p.157. For Greek eschatological text passages see for instance Nilsson 1947; Morford/ Lenardon 1977.
124 For the symbolic value of the number twelve see also Spellmann 1962. This number does not appear in Vasunandin's Śr (57ff.), but it occurs in some of the ancient texts concerned with individual judgement and death ritual.
125 In the Markandeya-purana, chapters X-XII, there is a description of the path to the Southern region of Yama. One interesting element that occurs in this context is the flock of servants of Yama (yamya) who throw the "evil-doers" into pitchers, where the mourning ones are stirred up and churned with a spoon. In the Siva-purana (Umasamhita, chapters VII-X) we find a "catalogue of crime" and detailed descriptions of the hardships on the transitory path which lasts roughly one and a half week.
126 Miyakawa 2003:119-20 supports the idea of Indo-Aryan generic relationship. To be more precise this means that certain days were added to a common lunar year at the time of the winter solstice. Miyakawa cites parallel accounts in the poem of Homer and in the Ṛg-veda. We find in those sources the idea expressed that some gods are idle on twelve days of the year. In the Rg-veda IV.33 (cited according to Miyakawa and MW: p. 226) the Ṛbhus, deities (which serve as embodiment of "craftmenship", "cleverness" and "wellbeing"), are idle on twelve days of the year and prefer to spend their time outside. In the introductory chapter of Homer's Iliad (A 423-425) it is Zeus who is idle and spends
26

Page #45

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
discusses different sources in and outside India, in which we find the concept of the twelve days which occurs in specific ritual contexts. He refers to an ancient calendar which is based on the insertion of intercalary days.
Generally, following Bennedik 2007 (Introduction) we can start out on discussing the origins of those rituals by considering the fact that the Indian luni-solar calendary system was not at all uniform. It either commenced with the month Kārttika (corresponding to the constellation of the Pleiades) in autumn, or with the month Caitra (Taurus) in spring. Bennedik calls the Indian calendary system the "construct of Oriental and Greek elements". There must have been more than one system in use. The first one prescribed to insert from time to time a 13th month or a seventh time of the year. And, in some ritual texts, the knowledge thereof was associated with Rudra and his fierce servants. In another system it was necessary to add twelve days to each lunar year.127 The theme of the Wild Hunt" occurs in various folk songs and stories. The "howling" and "yelling" of "death spirits" is associated with the rising of the dead in the time of winter or in the time of the summer (especially in the ritual calendar of the East Asian Buddhists).
4.2.4 Geography of Death It is generally known that the Geography of Death is a distinctive characteristic of eschatological literature determined by certain cultural factors. For example, the abode of the dead can be represented in literature more or less as a copy of the world of the living. We find a tendency of anthropomorphism in the afterlife (post-mortem) scenaries and visions. There are landscapes and countries of the dead, and authors describe the features and shape of their inhabitants. Holding different dogmatic positions, the authors of those texts give religious instructions by referring to certain spiritual entities in animal, male, female or androgynous physical form. 128 At first, we should take to account that Vasunandin depicts life and transition under certain ideological pretexts and theoretical reservations in acknowledgement
twelve days abroad with the Aethiopians. Some common elements may remind us of rituals of the urâtyas in the twelve darkest nights which take place in Winter after the solstice. See also the folk motifs of the Wild Hunt" in Cavendish 1983:3032: Falk 1986:15, 62, 65, 89-95; Eliade 1987, Vol. I, p. 303, Vol. XV, p. 417.
127 "Die in Taittiriyabrāhmana 1.1,9,10 als Abbild des Jahrs bezeichneten 12 Nächte könnten dagegen ein Hinweis auf eine jährliche Schaltung an 12 Nächten bzw. Tagnächten sein, die das rund 354 tägige Mondjahr mit einem grob 366 tägigen klimatischen oder einem siderischen Sonnenjahr koordinieren." (Bennedik 2007:277-279). The twelve intercalary days seem to compensate the difference of the lunar with the solar year.
128 Anthropomorphism denotes the "practically universal tendency to experience the divine, the holy or numinous in the "categories and shapes most readily available to human thinking - namely the human ones." Cf. the entries: Afterlife; Anthropomorphism; Animal in Eliade 1987, Vol. I, pp. 116ff.; 291ff.; 316ff.
27

Page #46

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
of the concept of the "impersonal law of cause and effect". 129 Jains for example assume that the contact of the pure sentient being with matter is the origin of rebirth and death and takes place as long as the being is in the condition of bondage. Vasunandin refers in Sr to classifications of life with the help of complex patterns that denote different faculties or potencies, and refer to the conditions of the "soul" or "self". These are also called varganās. The faculties are determined by (1) conveyance (or nourishment) (ahāra) 130, (2) body (sarira), (3) sense organs (indriya), (4-5) breath and perspiration (nihśvāsôcchvāsa), (6) speech (bhāsa), and (7) mental organ (manas).131 In Jain strings of thought the "transitory field" is referred to with the help of certain numerical patterns. High numbers or the so-called "full numbers" bear a symbolical value. Vasunandin tries to persuade the reader that false attitude, lack of self-knowledge and negligence have an effect on the condition of the "soul" or "self".
In my Analysis the reader finds critical notes on the verbs which denote the acts of shrieking. Although this seems to be the central motif in Śr (57-205), this idea is not specific Jain. We find parallels in oriental literature, especially in songs and poems of “mourning spirits” or “admonitions". 132 One ancient Indian evidence of the genre is the lamentation of the gambler in Rg-veda X.133 In Indian tribal rituals gambling might have been associated with singers and their songs which had their fixed place in life during the
129 For an Introduction to the Indian concepts of the "impersonal law of cause and effect" (including Buddhist and Jain) see the introductory entries in Eliade 1987, Vol. I, pp. 116ff., Vol. V, pp.149-155, Vol. VIII, pp. 261ff., Vol. XII, pp. 427; Bowker 2005:179: for an evaluation of the doctrine of transmigration see Butzenberger 1996 and 1998. Eschatology, in the strict sense, is a branch of theology. In the field of comparative religious studies eschatological texts are concerned with the end of the world and the universal judgement of mankind after death (Cowie 1989:407). In a broader sense this kind of literature treats topics such the individual (post-mortem) judgement and the idea of reward and punishment.
130 In the description of the bodily and mental functions we find numerous references to ideas taken from folklore. See for example the entry in MW, p. 163: āhāraka (“conveyance body"). These mythological and religious features (i.e. in the depiction of lower celestial beings which could also function as goblins in the earth regions etc. in 170ff.) are not specific Jain. We find these elements in other religious texts in India, Persia, Greece, Central Asia, and China. See for instance Kehren 1998/1999; Laut 1996; Laut (et. al.) 1998.
131 I refer to the Hindi commentary of Upadhye and Šāstri on Gs Ji (665); Māc XII.1047. The concept of five bodies ist outlined in Ts II.37. Outside Jainism we should take to account the linga-sthūla-sarira-theories in the classical Sāmkhya (Garbe 1896:26).
132 We have to consider with parallels their different ideological pretexts, notwithstanding the generic origin of the details in contents and style.
133 Here the individual poet appears as dice-player and expresses his feelings of anguish and sorrow. As soon as a dice player is unsuccessful with his profession, he is abandoned by his relatives. They would rather see him in chains. For prayers or implorations to the Vedic god Varuna we find examples in Rg-veda I.23 and VII.88-89.
28

Page #47

4.2 Numerical Patterns
4 STYLE OF ŚR (57-205)
winter solstice.134 Some of those mourning songs or references to those poems appear in pre-Islamic Zoroastrian texts such as Yasht XXII (fragments), Videvdat XIII, Dadistan-i-Dinik XVI, and the Ardā Wirāz Nāmag.135 We find poems incorporated into greater textual bodies which have become standardised or "canonical". Elements of the Asian "Wisdom Literature” are concerned with the wheel of life and death, death and transition, body and "soul". We find also expressed an anthropocentric view of nature in those scriptures. Moreover, most of these poems contain also moral instructions. To give only some examples of the occurrence of the religious element outside India I summarise the contents of a passage in the Zoroastrian Videvdat XIII. 8-9. In this instructive passage a mourning song is taught to Zoroaster by Ormazd. Zoroaster asks what would happen to the "spirit" of a wicked man who has just died. He wants to know, where the "spirit" has its abode in that very night after physical death. Ormazd replies that the "spirit" rushes and sits near the skull until the end of the third night singing the "Kima Gātha". Zoroaster is bestowed with the word-for-word-account of this song and its hidden meaning. It consists of a set of lamentations, to name only a few: "To what land shall I turn?" "To whom shall I go with my prayer?" Zoroaster learns that the "consciousness" or "spirit" remains outside the body near the corpse in the three nights after physical death. Because of evil thought and actions the dead man earns as much of the sufferings as the "whole of the living world can taste". 136 Outside IndoIranian traditions admonitions and lamentations are constituents of several literary genres which seem to have served different aims. The famous song of lamentation of an Egyptian, the sage Ipu-wer, is directed to the gods. His lamentations appear here in a religious context which differs considerably from that of Vasunandin's poems. 137 In the following138 translation selected words that refer to the Jain "doctrine of transmigration" are discussed.
134 See for instance Falk 1986:89-95, 99ff. (some of the terms applied in the context are urātyas, kitava etc.). Cf. also the introductory essay in Eliade 1987, Vol. VIII, p. 261.
1351 refer to Dawson 1931: 231ff., 250ff. I am grateful to Prof. Butzenberger for pointing out the relevance of pre-Islamic Zoroastrian literature for means of comparison. Those texts show related features in contents, style and symbolism.
136 The philosophical background of the pre-Islamic Zoroastrian scriptures is determined by contrasting pairs or opposite entities such as "light s. darkness", "knowledge vs. ignorance/ false attitude”, "life vs. death", "heaven vs. earth", "descending vs. falling". Traces of the Geography of Death appear in poetical passages in the Videvdat XIII, 8ff., Yasht XXII.2.1-36, (fragments), Dadistan-i-Dinik XVI.7, chapter XXXII, Ardā Wirāz Nāmag.
13 The sage Ipu-wer is in doubt whether the gods determine the fate of man, or rather verify and ratify man's moral choice. See for the evaluation of this literary genre Fecht 1972:137ff., 158ff.
138I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Nalini Balbir, Prof. Dr. emer. Adelheid Mette, Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger, and Prof. Dr. emer. Willem Bollée for many useful comments on early versions of my translation. For all errors that have been overlooked I take full responsibility.

Page #48

5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
5
Translation: Śr (57-205)
5.1 The Stage of True Insight 57) Whoever abstains from the seven vices and the fruits of five fig trees and whose mind is purified by true insight is called "listener in the stage of true insight".
pamc-umbara The fruits and other parts of the five fig trees (Skt. pañcôdumbara) such as Ficus indica and other species of the Mulberry family have had and still have significance in Indian religious life. Figs were associated with the ancestors and regarded as "food for the ancestor spirits". 139 Celestial beings are believed to dwell in those trees. It is noteworthy that figs played a role in ancient fertility rites, such as the picking of a branch of the tree, the kicking of a stem of the tree in order to stimulate the tree deities (= to increase the fertility of the woman who wants to have male offsprings), or the sprinkling of the pounded shoots of the fig trees together with Soma stalks and twigs of Kuśa grass into the right nostril of a woman in the hope that she would give birth to a son. Figs were then classified as belonging to several (symbolic) social classes: Pipala or Asvattha (Ficus religiosa) is associated with the ksatriyas, while Udumbara is connected with the Brahmins. 140 Vasunandin maintains that figs should not be eaten or used in ritual. Dig. authors who prescribe the rituals for the Jain laity such as Samantabhadra, Amrtacandra, or Vasunandin, substituted the five or eight substances which were employed as offerings in
ritual by the mgs. • visana The "catalogue” of human vices141 in Sr (59ff.) does not
differ widely from that in the Srāvakâcāra of Amitagati, chapters 139 There is reason to suppose that the ingredients from several figs were important in the pre-Christan ancestor cults. See Meyer 1937 I: 99, note, II:45 (I owe this reference to Prof. Bollée). See further the remarks of Bollée in 2010a on Rk, chapter III. Several parts of the Indian figs, such as the bark, the juice, the fruits, and the leaves, possess specific proteines, for example Serotonin. Figs are considered to be auspicious and their vital forces relate to human well-being and prosperity. Some ingredients of the figs have a proven effect on the human hormonal and blood system. See Stachelberger, H. / Bancher, E. / Riederer, P. / Gold, A. 1977.
140 See for Vedic customs Gonda 1985b:5, 30-32. Ingredients of figs were sometimes crushed and offered as substitute of Soma. For the association of figs with social classes see Hara 2003:480.
141 Skt. vyasana 1. "moving to and fro; wagging“ 2. "vice; attachment; addiction" 3. "passion" 4. "misfortune”. The noun derives from vi + ✓ AS: 1. "to throw; to cast asunder" 2. "to expel; to remove". See the entries in Sheth 1923:935; MW: p. 1035;
30

Page #49

5.1
The Stage of True Insight
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
V.1ff.- XII.41ff. Seven vices in number are mentioned in Śr (59): gambling, drinking liquor, eating meat, sexual relations with prostitutes, hunting, stealing, and sexual relations with married women. But in fact, Vasunandin treats the additional fault of eating and drinking honey as the eighth item (Sr 80-84). This pattern of eight might have served as the counterpart of the eight virtues or ornaments of the laity (see sammatta). With the categories of the vices we find intersections with the definition of typical transgressions of the twelve vows and with classifications from outside Jainism. A corresponding list, Pāli satt-ussada, occurs in early Buddhist thinking. 142 In contrast to the patterns in Sr the Manu-smrti VII.45ff. refers to an enlarged pattern of eighteen. 143 The items of the pattern of Vasunandin's list which correspond to that of the Manu-smrti are not more than six.
1. gambling; playing dice (jūya) = Manu-smrti VII.45ff. (aksa) 2. drinking liquor (majja) = Manu-smrti VII.45ff. (mada) 3. having sexual relations with prostitutes (vesā) = Manu-smrti
VII.45ff. (striyah) 4. hunting (pāraddhi) = Manu-smrti VII.45ff. (mrgayā) 5. stealing (cora) = Manu-smrti VII.45ff. (artha-dūsana) 6. having sexual relations with wives of other men (para-dārā) =
Manu-smsti VII.45ff. (striyah)
The faults of eating meat and honey do not appear in the list of Manusmrti, chapter VII. It is obvious that Jain food restrictions have no parallels in the list of vices in Manu's book of law. Generally, I dare say that Jains developed the mgs. to be observed by the laity to promote the idea of non-violence.144 In Jain manuals we find the strong concern for the forming of mental qualities that make out the person's moral strength (sila), since alchemy, applying mantras and yantras, matchmaking, astrology, etc., were considered as professions unsuitable for Jains by Haribhadra, and others (Balbir 1992:135). There are allusions to those types of heretics who live from prognostics etc., and those are bound to take rebirth as lower gods and miserable destinies (see my notes on Śr 194ff.).
Boethlingk/ Roth 1855-1875. (1990), Vol. VI, p. 1458. For the catalogues of vices see Williams 1963:247-251.
142 See Rhys Davids/ Stede 1921-1925:112, 157 "The patterns connected with the number eighteen in Indian literature are discussed in Stein 1936 (1985); see also Wilhelm 1987:350-351; Krottenthaler 1996:23-27; cf. the eighteen pāpa-sthānas and my notes on pāvani in (59). 144 See for the origins of vegetarianism in India the study of Alsdorf/ Bollée 2010.

Page #50

5.1
The Stage of True Insight
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
• sammatta Vasunandin defines the characteristics of sammatta 145 in
Sr (48ff.). There are two sets of patterns with overlapping qualities or ornaments. The pattern in (48) contains the following eight limbs:
1. rissamkā unshakable faith, steadiness; absence of suspicion 2. nikkamkhā freedom from greed and misguided conduct 3. nivvidigiccha freedom from doubt and hesitation 4. amūdha-ditthi freedom from delusion and false inclination 5. uvagūhaņa strong conviction, repudiation of false attitudes 6. thidi-karaņa firmness 7. vacchalla friendliness and preference for the path taught by a Jina 8. pahāvaņā belief in the doctrine of the Jina; patronage
The second list in Sr (49) stands in accordance with the list of Devasena's Bhāva-samgraha (263)146.
1. samveya desire of emancipation 2. nivveya disgust with worldy life 3. nimdā blame, censure (of one's fault) 4. garahā repentence, confession, corresponding to Skt. alocană, see
the commentary in Sr (M), p. 58 5. uvasama tranquillity of mind 6. bhatti devotion to the Tirthamkaras and teachers 7. vacchalla friendliness 8. anukampa compassion
Dig. authors discuss the soteriological aspects of samyaktva with respect to the first śrāvaka-pada and to the mgs. 147 The characteristics of sammatta
145 Pkt. sammatta (Skt. samyaktua) denotes 1. "true insight, right attitude or inclination" 2. "orthodoxy, right belief". Samyaktva is considered by some Jain authors as a synonym of samyag-drsti. This term is translated into English "faith in the path to final liberation indicated by the Jina" by Williams 1963:41. The idea of "faith" is closely related to the Jain concept of the "Three Jewels": right knowledge, (true) insight and right conduct.
146 For alternations see also Rk 1.11-18. I am indepted to Prof. Bollée for providing me with additional literature and critical notes with regard to the patterns of samyaktva in Jain literature. One of the Svet. lists which seems to be dependent of Asādhara's commentary appears also in the Yoga-śāstra of Hemacandra II.15ff. (cited according to Williams 1963:43).
147Cf. Ts II.3: samyaktua-cāritre. Umāsvāmin relates true insight to the conditions (bhāva) of sentient beings; see for the discussion of different aspects of their definition for instance Dixit 1974:73-74; Wiley 2006:440.
32

Page #51

5.1
The Stage of True Insight
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
are also referred to as damsana-gunas. In the Subhasita-ratna-samdoha, chapter VII, Amitagati uses the variant visuddha-darsana four times, but he does not cite word for word those items of the patterns of eight. In Ts VI.23-24, we find the compound darśana-viếuddhi which is translated into English: "purity of world-view" by Tatia 1994:161. Jain interprets this sūtra in the way that samyaktva is one of the "sixteen causes of body karma that leads to the life of a Jina". 148 Since the item vacchalla ("kindness") appears twice in Vasunandin's patterns in Śr (48) and (49) respectively, it might be reasonable to assume that the pattern of eight was developed out of lists of three, five, seven, or more limbs.
58) He [= the listener to the Jain doctrine in the stage of true insight] should avoid (using, preparing, eating or asking anyone to prepare) Udumbara, Vata, Pipala, Pimpariya, and the flowers of trees whose parts are used for pickles, because these are always the abode of mobile beings.
• umbara-vada-pippala-° The Udumbara or Gūlara (Ficus glome
rata) is regarded as the representative of those trees whose fruits, fibres, leaves or seeds are the dwelling-places of other organisms. 149 It is assumed that some fruits are the abode of innumerable tiny insects, or invisible living organisms (see also kimi in 85, connected with figs and particularly with meat). Otherwise, we find the argument that the fruit consists of many seeds. Pimpariya is also known as Kathūmara or Pakar, the "Wild or Common Fig tree" (Ficus infectoria).150
samdhāņa-taru We find the argument that the fruits of the figs and other plants are dwelling-places of sentient entities (bahu-bija- or ananta-kaya-jivas). The term denotes those trees whose parts serve as ingredients for sweet-sour pickles and relish. For instance Aubergines, Bael (Bhilvā), Marking-nut (bhallataka), the flower from Drona (Leucas linifolia), parts of the Kalinga (Holarrhena antidysenterica), and Madhūka 151 A list of plants which should not be consumed covers also the bahu-bija-classes with fruits like figs and pomegranates.
• tasa-samsiddha Substances such as earth, water, plants and animals
148 Skt. samyaktva: cf. the chapter The Inflow of Karma" (Ts VI.2ff.; 23); Dixit 1974:243, who renders this term into English "purity of inclination".
149 See Kohl 1953: Williams 1963:53. In AP XXXVIII.122 for instance we find also a formula of the mgs., in which the author refers to the abstention from figs. 150 Cf. the commentary of Śr (M), p. 74, for details.
151 Extended lists of plants appear in the Srāvakácāra of Amitagati VI.80ff. and Dharmâmrta-sāgara of Asādhara III.11ff., partly analysed in Williams 1963:53, 110ff.; further explanations in the commentary of Sr (M), p. 74. Pkt. samdhana is rendered into Hindi acāra: "sweet-sour relish from vegetables" ("süss-sauer eingelegtes Gemüse" in Gatzlaff-Hälsig 2002:22).

Page #52

5.1
The Stage of True Insight
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
etc. are considered as serving as the abode of mobile (Skt. jangama or trasa) sentient beings. The vegetables used for relish, juices under the bark of the tree or in the stalk of a bush which might consist of animals such as small worms, insects etc., should not be consumed. See also Śr (209)
The Vice as Cause of Suffering
59) Gambling with dice, consuming or selling liquor, consuming or selling) meat, sexual relationships with prostitutes, hunting, adultery, and thieving: these kinds of] wickedness are reasons for a miserable rebirth.
• jūya Gambling (Skt. dyūta) is treated in detail by authors such as Amitagati, Vasunandin, Asadhara, Sivakoti and Medhāvin. Williams (1963:248) maintains that the terms for the faults are nearly identical, so that they must have been taken from a common source. Dicing is said to engender anger, delusion, pride, and greed in their most intense forms. 152 But outside Jainism the dice player and the thief appear as ambiguous characters. Authors of Jain narrative literature sometimes distinguish the positive and negative attributes of gamblers. There have been several lists of faults in gnomic literature, for example their addiction to prostitutes and liquor. But we find also the view that the gambler and the thief could live up to the moral standard of their own class and represent the counterpart of the king. Since the king should be guided by royal duties (rāja-dharma) or (-niti), he is attacked by the gambler or trickster if he lacks moral quality. 153
. majja The term Pkt. majja (Skt. madya) refers to various intox
icants distilled from coconut, palm, honey, rice, barley, and shoots of trees. 154 The addiction to drugs is considered as a serious fault due to negligence or carelessness (pramatta-yoga). Negligence and
152 See Amitagati's Subhāṣita-ratna-samdoha, chapter XXV. 153 See Bloomfield 1913:616-650 (Mūladeva): Johnson 1920:160-195 (Rohineya). Cf. for parallels outside Jainism Manu-smrti IX.34 and Kşemendra's Deśôpadeśa, chapter VIII (transl. in Sato 1994:58-59).
154 Madya is classified as one of the distorted substances (mahā-vikytis). This pattern is discussed in Bruhn 2007:48; cf. also Sr (88; 99). There are different types of vinous or spirituous liquor, of which some are mentioned in the canonical Uttarajjhāyā XIX (cited according to Jacobi's translation). Surā, for example, is a kind of beer that is associated with tribal rituals of dicing. It is made out of ripe substances, corn or shoots from trees. Sidhu, also called Dārā (associated with the tree Bakula, Mimusops elengi), is distilled from molasses, the same as Maireya (or Maireyā) which seems to be identical with Asava ("Toddy", "distilled juice", rum) made from molasses, the juice of the Palmyra tree (Borassus flabelliformis) and hot water. These and others are mentioned in the Vedas (Hillebrandt 1891:244-256; MW: pp. 160, 779, 834, 1218,1235; Sheth 1923:826, 1143).
34

Page #53

5.1
The Stage of True Insight
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
its effects are explained in Umāsvāmin's Ts VI.16 and TS VII. 13. It is regarded as the primary cause of himsā. In the vow of abstention from harmful activities which do not serve a purpose we find a "reinforcement of the ahimsa-vrata" (Williams 1963:229). Amitagati devotes a special section to carelessness and the results of drinking liquor, unprofi-table conversation, gambling etc. (Subhāşita-ratnasamdoha XX). More than one Jain story illustrates the fault of drinking alcohol. In an episode told by Somadeva we find the account of the solitary monk Ekapāda who is forced by tribal hunters to share their meals (Handiqui 1949:418). This story seems to be a proper illustration for the whole context of life-time abstention from wordly enjoyments. Generally, the abnegation of enjoyments is distiguished by the twofold complex of yama and niyama. The first means the life-long renunciation and the latter denotes a vow that extends over a limited period. The renunciation of liquor is an integral part of the mgs. It is a life-long restraint of the yama-type. 155
mamsa Meat "should not be touched, even less consumed" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.. on Sr 85). Jain authors such as Amrtacandra and Amitagati maintain that there lies a fault in slaughtering goats or other animals in order to "satisfy the duties of hospitality". The contentions that "religious life stems from the gods and therefore to them all things are to be offered" or that it is better "to kill one higher animal than to destroy a great number of lower forms of life" are refuted by Jain authors. They argue that the "carcass will inevitably be full of minute organisms called nigodas" (Williams 1963:65). Vasunandin regards eating meat and destroying life in order to procure meat as two separate severe faults (85ff., 94ff.). In his arguments he follows Samantabhadra (Rk III.20 = 66). The layman should abstain from eating meat, figs and some other vegetables, drinking liquor, and consuming honey. He should not hire professional men who kill animals for the sake of ritual.156 As has been pointed out by Williams authors such as Samantabhadra, Amrtacandra, Vasunandin and others argue that layfollowers should not injure living beings in order to take their products such as meat, honey, skin, etc.) because it is a harmful act. Monks developed rituals of atonement for the laity. 157
155 Cf. further Rk III.20, 41; Handiqui 1949:267, 285; Williams 1963:51, 250; Sogani 1967:91; Dundas 1985:161-198.
156 There is evidence that the strict dietary regulations were developed by ascetics from various traditions. The problem of the "reanimation of meat" is discussed in Bruhn 2003:84-85. For an evaluation of textual sources with respect to the roots of vegetarianism see Alsdorf / Bollée 2010.
157 See for instance the fourth āvasyaka or pratikramana discussed in Williams 1963:203ff. The alocanā, the sixth pratyakhyāna, comprises the avowal of past and future transgressions. These are regulations for the laity concerned with the vows of ahimsā and anartha

Page #54

5.1
The Stage of True Insight
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
vesā The prostitute and the courtesan (Skt. veśyā / ganṇikā) are often described as the embodiment of fickleness in gnomic literature, but in some narrative texts they are the leading female characters. There are examples of their wickedness in Amitagati's Subhāṣita-ratna-samdoha, chapters XXIV and XXXI. We find in Jain manuals also intersections with the transgressions (aticäras) against the vow of chastity for the laity, 158
• pāraddhi In early Jain religious thinking we find the idea of animosity (vaira) in relation to the injury of five-sensed beings. 159 The Skt. term for hunting (Skt. papa-rddhi) is often explained as "evilthriving" in gnomic literature. 160 Outside Jainism there are various and contradictory views with respect to hunting. The authors of the Śastras describe hunting as the royal pasttime per se, as a mental and physical training of the warrior classes. 161 Hunting is reflected with regard to non-injury of life in the Maha-bharata, for example in chapter XVI, in the story of Dasaratha who kills a young man, because he mistakes him for an antelope with the result that a curse is bestowed on him. Of this legend many variants are known such as the account of Pandu who kills a Ṛsi while enjoying hunting (Maha-bhārata I.109). Sometimes, this sport in the wilderness is associated with sexual excitement as referred to in the Maha-bharata 1.36. Generally, in some of the Vedic texts "wilderness" or "forest" are contrasted with "village", and hunting is associated with "wilderness". "The civilisation of the Brāhmaṇas and Aranyakas or 'Forest books' is certainly sedentary but illustrates at the same time that forest continued to be contrasted with village." (Staal 2008:147). The idea of contrasting village and forest life is prevalent in Śr, if we take to account the distinction of "wilderness" / "forest life" (126-127), (195-196), "village life" (83), and "town life" (126-127), (195-196). But, to my point of view, our author maintains that the injury of five-sensed living beings out of carelessness is always a harmful act which effects evil.
• cora Earning one's means of livelihood in honesty is a key element of the "Three Jewels" of Jainism. Thieving, i.e. exploiting others, taking
damda. See also Jaini 1979:231; Bollée 2010a on Rk I.6, V.4.
158,
See Williams 1963:85ff., 131, 250. Outside Jainism there are also various stanzas and stories that describe the virtues and vices of prostitutes. See Kṣemendra's Samaya-mātṛkā (Meyer 1904), the Kala-vilasa of the same author, chapter III, summarised in Meyer 1904, Introduction, p. XLV, and the Deśôpadeśa, chapter III, of the same author (Sternbach 1961:8-19). For examples in Buddhist narrative literature see Kirde 2004:41-65.
159 See my notes on puvva-vera in Śr (170) and Dixit 1973.
160 Cf. MW: p. 618, on hunting; Williams 1963:251 presents the analytical list of the fifteen forbidden trades and harmful activities, which include hunting, selling meat or other substances of non-human and human animals.
161 See for instance Krottenthaler 1996:16ff.
36

Page #55

5.1
The Stage of True Insight
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
goods of others dishonestly or with violence, trading counterfeit or stolen objects like the man in the example in Sr (130), and robbery, are typical transgressions against the four vows: ahimsa-, asteya-, satya- and aparigraha.162
• para-yāra Vasunandin holds that the layman should be content with his own wife (sva-dāra-santosa). Having illicit relationships with "the wife of somebody else" is regarded as a transgression against the vow of chastity. 163
• pāvāni Vasunandin assumes that a person who commits evil acts out of negligence and does not repent earns an inauspicious reward (= rebirth) as retribution for his actions. Evil and wickedness are called pāva (Pl. pāvāņi; Skt. pāpa). This term is used as a synonym of dosa, "fault", or vyasana, “vice” 164 In Ts VI.21 the term aśubha occurs in the place of pāpa.165 In Jain canonical scriptures, too, a list of eighteen faults or prohibited actions (atthā-rasa parihāra-tthāna) is often mentioned.166 We find a kernel of instructions for mendicants and the advanced layman summarised in the formula of the "Three Harmful Stings" or the "Three Thorns" in Ts VII.13. Umāsvāmin explains that "one who is free of any thorns is an observer of the vow" (Tatia 1994:176). Williams 1963:48 assumes that the "Three Harmful Thorns" are those thoughts and actions which "distract" a person from the state of true insight, such as deceit, hankering for wordly pleasures and fame, foolish assumptions relating to the Jain doctrine, gods, teachers. The same author asserts that those concepts are employed mainly by Digs. 167 Generally, one can observe that the Svet. list of "eighteen faults” occurs in medieval scriptures, and in those pattern we find intersections with the nine attributes of the quasipassions, which are referred to in the commentaries on Ts VII.12 and in Ts VIII.10. The renunciation of eighteen pāpa-sthānas is prescribed
162 See also TS VII. 10, 22: Williams 1963:78-81.
1631 owe many improvements of my translation of this paragraph to Prof. Balbir. See further Williams 1963:85-90; Jaini 2000b:137-141; Shāntā 2001:117-134. Outside Jainism the faults of cohabitation with one's daughter-in-law, friend's wife, a woman of high caste, a drunkard woman, the wife of the preceptor, are dealt with in the Siva-purana, chapters V-VI. 164 See Sheth 1923:731; MW: p. 618. 165 Cf. Ts VI.21: Crooked and misleading actions attract inauspicious body-making karma (Tatia 1994:160).
16 See Stein 1936 (1985). The list of eighteen faults may have derived from ancient analytical lists and numerical patterns which consist of a minimal set of instructions for mendicants. Those instructions are concerned with the protection of mind, speech and action in order to avoid intentional harm (mithya-vacana, ārambha-parigraha, etc.).
167 In the canonical literature we find passages in formulas and numerical patterns, discussed for instance in Bollée 1990; Mette 1974 and 1991; Bruhn 1983 and 2003.

Page #56

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5
TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
in the Jain Pratikramana ritual.168 Vasunandin clearly connects the fundamental dietary rules with the mgs. and stresses the idea of noninjury, but in this section he does not teach a ritual of atonement. According to Bruhn 2003:43, 86, the list of eighteen appears in the canonical literature under the heading kiriya-thana. As a counterpart to the papa-sthānas eighteen virtues or ornaments of the "liberated souls” are mentioned in Śr (8-9).
he heading kiriga-tighteen appears in
duggai-gamaņa In Śr (134ff., 170ff.,199ff.) Vasunandin refers to the idea that sentient beings after having "attracted impure matter" due to the passions attain endless miserable rebirths. The author wants to persuade the reader that the human vices illustrated in the following verses (Sr 60ff.) derive from lack of self-knowledge and negligence and lead to harmful results. The inauspicious sensations which are described in Sr (60ff. 134ff.,180ff.) are also referred to briefly in Ts III.3-4. The sentient beings are depicted as being tortured by cold, heat, hunger and thirst. They possess a dark lustre, bodily defects and ugly physical features. They inflict pain on each other. Jain authors distinguish mostly four "destinies" or classes of existence: non-human animals (including plants) and human animals, infernal and celestial beings. From the cosmological standpoint, some authors put forward that there are two other classes of beings which are not subjected to the wheel of existence. 169
5.2 Catalogue of Vices The Fault of Gambling (jūya-dosa)
60) Somebody who is in the habit of playing dice is certainly possessed by wrath, deceit, pride and greed. Due to these passions), when they are obstinate, he attains much evil.
• koha Wrath is considered as one of the cardinal passions, the others
being pride (māna), deceit (māyā), and greed (lobha). The vice of gambling is associated with wrath in the third Vetāla story.170 Passions are described with reference to their intensity (see also Sr 70, 77). Control of the passions is regarded as the device for entering the
168 See Williams 1963:206. 169 See for instance Schubring 1935:69; Bollée 1977: 68-69; Jaini 1979: 108-110; Osier 2009.
170 See the recension of Sivadāsa, in Uhle 1914:10-14.

Page #57

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
stage of final emancipation.171
61) Because of this evil, it (the sentient being] wanders, moving to and fro], in the wheel of the four destinies: the ocean of mundane existence. Its water is suffering, and its many waves are [birth), wane and death.
• himdai: According to Ts II.10 the sentient being is classified in two
ways. It is either in the condition of samsāra, or in the state of the "liberated soul". The mundane beings are depicted as wandering, when they are in the condition of helplessness. Because of the lack of knowledge and insight they are considered as being "unprotected". Sometimes Jain authors compare this state of mind with that of a boat in the ocean which is leaking. We find the illustration of this idea in several rebirth stories of the Jain elders and universal emperors, the salāka-purusas. 172
62) Due to the results of the vice of) dicing, the helpless sentient being attains endless suffering, i.e. the experience of the cutting, breaking and mutilating of its limbs.
. cheyana-bheyaņa-vikattaņâ- Pkt. chedana-o is repeated in an ex
tended list of physical pain in (180-181). A parallel list appears in Mül (1577-1578).
63) Blind out of lust) for gambling he neither treats his best friend with respect, nor the spiritual parent, nor his mother and father, for he commits a lot of indecent, reproachable deeds.
•ņa ganei Cf. the parallel structure of (63a) and (104a).
64) Someone who is addicted to gambling behaves indecently everywhere: towards his family, towards the members of other people's families, and towards his country. Even his mother may not trust him.
65) In this world, fire, poison, thieves and snakes cause intense suffering, but gambling causes a man's suffering in Hundred Thousand future destinies.
171 See also Amitagati's Srāvakācāra, chapter XI; Glasenapp 1942:9; Schubring 1962:180ff., Sogani 1967:52: Williams 1963:33-42, 69, 93; Jaini 1979:112ff., 157ff., 272-273.
172 See for instance Winternitz 1927 [1977] Vol. II: 504; Williams 1963:34; Varni 20032004, Vol. IV, pp. 12ff.

Page #58

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
⚫aggi-visa-cora-sappă In Jainism we find a standard catalogue of types of fear, since fear (bhaya) is considered as a theme of contemplation. Moreover, it is regarded as the fifth category of the "quasipassions" or "subsidiary passions" (no-kaṣāyas or akaṣayas). The nine quasi-passions are laughter, relish, ennui, grief, fear, abhorrence, the female, male and hermaphroditic dispositions.173 Fear is one item in the pattern of eight faults in Uttarajjhāyā XXIV. These faults should be controlled by the cares (samitis).174 Vasunandin does not apply the bi-nominal compound "fear and hatred" (Pkt. bhaya-dosa).175 The author points out that the amount of evil that one earns by the habit of dicing is enormous.
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
⚫ bhava-saya-sahassa The word numeral "Hundred Thousands" denotes a cosmic time dimension. Cf. my notes on numerical patterns in the third chapter and on satt'eva aho-loye in (171).
66) A man who is deprived of his eye-sight does not recognise anything. He experiences [the world] by means of the remaining senses. But a man who is blinded by his fascination for dicing, how should he come to a full understanding of something, even if he possesses all the faculties of sense?
● karaṇa There is a pun on akkhehi and karaṇa.176 Vasunandin illustrates the character of the gambler who is misled by his passions by a simile. He alludes to the idea of 1. "lack of the eyes of dice" (the unlucky throw) and 2. "lacking of human sense" due to "dice-blindness". The author evokes the impression that the gambler is deprived of all his common sense because he is led by his passions only.
67) Blinded by wrath he [= the gambler] does not speak the truth, utters a curse, spreads false accusations, is being caught in a trap. Even worse, he injures his sister, his mother, and his child, too.
68) He [= the gambler] does not enjoy eating, and no sleep comes to him by night or by day. He is not engaged in anything pleasurable, but is always worried by severe [mental or physical] pain.
173 See Tatia 1994:195-196 on Ts VIII.10.
174 See Bollée 1977:129.
175 In (103ff.; 195ff.) bhaya-vittho appears instead of the compound bhaya-dosa, cf. the parallel phrase in Mül (1591) and the list in Williams 1963:43.
176I owe helpful comments for a better understanding of the stanza to Prof. Balbir and Prof. Butzenberger. The meanings of Skt. karana are: 1. "devices, power, instruments"; 2. "sense organs" 3. "instruments" [of destruction of karmic inflow]. See Sheth 1923:286; MW: p. 257.
40

Page #59

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
• ajjai Pkt. ajjai derives from a + V R: "to fall into misfortune; to
be afflicted" (MW: p.149). Prof. Balbir (p.c.) proposes the following translation: "A gambler is always troubled by worries".
69) One should know that these and many other faults are attached with the addiction to dicing. Someone who possesses the virtue of true insight should abstain from it = from gambling] by all means.
• dosa The term dosa (Skt. dosa) is employed by Vasunandin as a
synonym of visana.177 In the following verses Vasunandin illustrates the eight faults as the counterparts of the eight qualities or ornaments of true insight. Otherwise, those vices could be considered as the transgressions against the eight mgs. or against the five minor vows. 178
The Fault of Taking Liquor (majja-dosa)
70) Under the influence of liquor a man commits deeds which are indecent and for which he is to blame. In this and in the yonder world he experiences eternal suffering.
71-72) Someone intoxicated [by liquor), having offended the rules of good conduct, unable to control his movements, falls down on the square of the street crossing. The dogs lick his face with their tongues.
[The dogs) urinate on his body, but his mind is stunned, and when he falls down he utters: "This liquor is sweet, give me more!"
• vilihamti jibbhāe Straining dogs (sārameya) lick the face of the
drunkard and pass their urine on his hand. 179 Other evil acts committed by drunkards are summarised in the Subhasita-ratna-samdoha of Amitagati, chapters XX and XXXI: a man under the influence of liquor sleeps with his mother, sister, and daughter. Men have sex with a prostitute after having eaten meat and drunken brandy. The drunkards deliver impure things on her body.
177 Skt. dosa denotes: 1. "fault; vice; deficiency; error" 2. "offence; transgression" 3. "affection by one of the three humours of the body". German: "Grundsäfte oder Grundstoffe des Körpers" (Jolly 1901:39-41). See further MW: p. 498; Sheth 1923:593.
178 See also Māc XII.1232-1233 and TS VIII. 1ff. For a detailed catalogue of human errors and crimes outside Jainism see Mārkandeya-purana XV.26-33 and Siva-purana (Umāsamhitā), chapter VII-XII.
179 There is a parallel passage in the Yoga-śāstra of Hemacandra, chapter III. For dogs, their characteristics, and symbolic meaning in Indian folk belief see Bollée 2006:10,39.

Page #60

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
surā miṭṭho puno vi me dehi "This liquor is sweet, give me again [more of that]!" The sentence lacks the grammatical congruence between the noun sura and the adjective mittho. Variant readings do not appear in L, it could be a stylistic device of our author who might have intended to imitate the incoherent language of the drunkard. 180
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
73-74) Unwittingly [if someone has lost consciousness due to drinking liquor] his belongings are plundered by other people. When he somehow becomes again aware of the things around him, he is stumbling and runs here and there.
"Because of some villain who has stolen my property today the lord of the underworld is wrathful" [yells the drunkard]. "Where is he gone? I will cut his head alive with a knife!"
• jama kuddho Yama, the lord of the underworld is mentioned by Vasunandin as the embodiment of wrath. The author conveys to the mind of the reader the idea of the power and wrath of this deity. Prof. Balbir (p.c.) proposes the following translation of the phrase (74b): "Yama has been made angry by this villain who has taken my money today! [...] I will cut his his head alive with a sword!". This is spoken by a drunkard who has been deprived of his possessions by a thief and wants to take revenge. The idea of the post-mortem "punishment" is here associated with Yama. This is not specific Jain. It is outlined for instance in the Manu-smrti XII.1ff., the Märkandeya-purana, chapter X-XI, and the Siva-purana X.35ff 181
75-76) Yelling in this way after having entered his home he suddenly takes a club and furiously breaks the dishes.
Violently he attacks his own son and his own sister. Someone whose mind is intoxicated says words which should not be said. He does not possess
common sense.
⚫ sahasa The adverbial adjunct sahasa denotes violent and sudden actions. 182 In Varni 2003-2004, Vol. IV, p. 318, we find the entry
180I follow a suggestion of Prof. Balbir (p.c.). In Daigambari nouns and their attributes do not always correspond in the endings of the declensions. See Denecke 1922:26 for the irregularities in the nominal declensions in the Dig. manuscripts.
181 See also Bollée 2006:105 for passages which describe the servants of Yama and their mythology. Persian "Yima" and the various symbols attributed to him (as "god of light", "first mortal", "good shepherd") are dealt with in Hertel 1927:40ff.; See also Dawson 1931:5; Biesterfeld 1970:139; cf. my notes on the Geography of Death in Chapter III. 182 Pkt. sahasa is derived from sahas "powerful, mighty"; "strength, force" (MW; p. 1193). I owe this reference to Prof. Balbir (p.c.).
42

Page #61

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
sahasă referring to the transgressions against the vows of the laity (aticāras). There is a concern to avoid sudden actions which result in the injury of life, such as the placing or putting down of harmful objects on the ground, using fire and poison, joining, mixing or putting together objects which can be used as weapons, and the trade with harmful objects. Sahasa relates to harmful thoughts, words and deeds (himsadana or arambha-parigraha) in Śr (106b), (121b), (137d), (139c), (141b), (151c), (158b). Outside Jainism we find in Meulenbeld 1999 I A:29 and I B:110 a summary of some results of sudden action (translated into English: "inconsiderate behaviour") as described in the Caraka-samhita, Nidāna-sthāna. In the aetiology sudden action is assumed to be a cause of "wasting disease" (soṣa).
• ajampanijjam Vasunandin regards the intoxication due to taking liquor and the results thereoff as a severe evil. The drunkard causes many kinds of harmful actions (himsâdāna), since the effect of intense passions can arise all of a sudden. Someone who is intoxicated by inebriety says things that should not be said (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). 183
77) By committing those faults [and misdeeds) under the influence of liquor - shameful in many ways - someone engenders much evil.
⚫ anubamdhai By the term Skt. bandha ("binding" or "bondage") Jain authors characterise one of the conditions of the sentient being. 184 In Ts V.44 Umāsvamin states that the "activities and modes of sentience in souls have a beginning" 185 True insight, right knowledge and conduct, these three are considered as the path leading to the suppression of inflow. For avaraim cf. (146).
78-79) Due to this evil he attains many kinds of never-ending suffering, being lost in the wilderniss of the ocean of mundane existence, which is filled with the beasts of birth, old age and death.
Knowing the faults attached to drinking liquor in all its varieties he should abstain from it by [the three ways of] mind, speech and deed. And he should
183 In the commentary of Śr (M) the participle is translated into Hindi na bolanā yogya
vacana bolata hai. In these stanzas Vasunandin describes the behaviour of a drunkard who comes back home after having drunk. Outside Jainism we find in the Buddhist rules of conduct (sila) in the Digha-Nikaya 1.71 the abstention from taking drugs and alcohol. Cf. also Hara 1986:21-45; Bone 1996:17-42; for Vedic customs cf. Bodewitz 2002:215. 184 See Ts I.4; V.44. "Bondage" is one of the fundamentals of Jain karma theory discussed in Ts VIII.1ff., especially Ts VIII.9. See also KA (414ff.); Dixit 1974:7-8; Jaini 1979:82, 112; Wiley 2006.
185 See Tatia 1994:145.
43

Page #62

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
neither animate others to drink, nor approve someone's addiction to drinking liquor.
186
maṇa-vayaṇa-kaya The triple formula of mind, speech, and deed can be enlarged to the pattern of nine (nava-koți), when combined with kaya-kāridanumoya or the variant of the verbal phrase na karemi na kāravemi karemtam pi annam na samanujāṇāmi. The nine-fold formula is regarded as even more auspicious when it is extended by the combination with the threefold pattern of renunciation of the intention, preparation and commission of an act (Skt. arambha, samrambha and samārambha) and the four cardinal passions. This combination of terms amounts to 3 x 3 x 3 x 4 = 108 permutations." Vasunandin suggests in (146ff.) that the sentient being experiences two kinds of suffering: mental pain caused by intense passions and physical pain caused by the intense feelings of heat, cold, hunger, thirst, terrible sounds, sights and smells, mutilation of limbs, illness, physical defects and an ugly body. There are certain regulations designed for the protection of mind and body in order to prevent those intense senations. These regulations for mendicants are categorised as guptis, samvaras, samitis, and the pentad. 187
The Fault of [Drinking] Honey (mahu-dosa)
80-82) Same as [taking] liquor, [taking] honey leads to severe evil in a man. It is impure, blamable and he [the layman] should abstain from it with all effort.
After he has seen that a insect has fallen into his food he spits [it] out. Now, how can a pitiless man drink the juice that has been secreted from the womb of insects?
Alas, alas, you should reflect on that astonishing fact that some [people] call honey, the juice of a small worm or an insect: "purifying", for they are eager for the [enjoyments of the] sense of the tongue!
⚫ asui The impurity of the substances of the body (Skt. aśucitva) is a topic of contemplation in Jain literature. The fault of taking honey (Skt. madhu) is treated by Vasunandin as a separate fault, but it is embedded into the concept of the mgs. In his arguments for eschewing honey Vasunandin follows his predecessors such as Samantabhadra
186 See (93), (124); Ts VI.8-9; Williams 1963:63-64; Bollée 1977:37; Bruhn 2003:86; Bollée 2008 (Glossary on Williams 1963); Rk III.26.
187 See Jaini 1979:60, 82, 151, 351; Bollée 2002:213; Mette 2003.
44

Page #63

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
(Rk III.20, 38). We find the same arguments in Amitagati's Subhāṣitaratna-samdoha, chapter XXII: (1) honey is compared to the mythical poison and leads to eternal misery. (2) Meat and honey are both tasty and means of prolonging lust (madana-vrddhi). (3) Honey is considered as an impure object, because it is believed to come from the spittle or eggs of insects. 188 Otherwise, Jain authors describes honey coming from the eggs and pressed out by female insects. (3) Honey is regarded as a "distorted substance".189 (4) Honey is collected by the tribal people in the forest and mountains. When they gather honey, people destroy the bee-hives or smoke out the combs. 190 Vasunandin's argument is based on the idea that bees collect 191 the nectar out of every single flower with diligence. Taking their products and destroying their comb due to greed is regarded as an evil act. One peculiarity of the Jain ritual is the fact that honey is not used in the pūjā. See (94) and (434-435).
⚫ bho bho jibbh'-imdiya-luddhayaṇam With the exclamation particles bho bho: "alas, alas!" Vasunandin illustrates his argument in this verse with a contradiction. While suggesting on the one hand that honey is the product of the womb of insects and is impure by its nature, he recalls to our mind that some people employ honey in ritual for it is also the embodiment of sweetness. "Alas, alas, see that astonishing [behaviour] of those who are eager in their tongue, for they
188 Cf. Pkt. nitthivai (81). Vasunandin stresses his arguments with a contradiction. If an insect falls into the food, it is something disgusting, so it is from the point of view of the author even more disgusting to drink a product coming from its eggs (Prof. Balbir, p.c.).
189
89 Honey is compared to the resin or sweet juice under the bark of certain trees, which are used in ritual (Pkt. nijjāsa, Skt. niryasa, see 81). The idea that honey is harmful is found in Mac, chapter V. Vaṭṭakera states that someone who consumes distorted substances (vikritis) stimulates his sexual desire and pride, etc. These substances are categorised either as products coming from the cow (go-rasas) or as oily and glutinous substances (snehas). Honey is assumed to belong to the second group. See for instance Alsdorf 1962:13-14; Okuda 1975:136-137 on Mac V.353; Marana-vibhakti (647); Williams 1963:39, 52, 212; Bruhn 2007:48, Bollée 2010a on Rk III.38ff.
90 Cf. Pkt. nigghina (81) "cruel". With the pattern of renunciation of intentional and occupational injury of life Vasunandin follows ideas that are explained by Samantabhadra (Rk III.20, 38-39), also with respect to honey. The same thoughts occur in Amitagati's Subhāṣita-ratna-samdoha XXII.1ff. People who take honey from the bee-hives and eat or drink it have no compassion. Taking life of the bees and destroying their combs are types of intentional injury. Gathering and exchanging honey (for barley, rice etc.) was an important part of the barter-economy of the tribes. There are mainly two types of high-quality honey from the rock bee (Apis dorsata) or from the forest bee. The honey of A. dorsata is of a high quality and is used in the worship of ancestral deities, where it is mixed with other ingredients to an intoxicating drink (Zvelebil 1979:577-581).
191 The Skt. term used for bees, flies and other insects is makṣikā derived from ✓ MAKS /MRAKS: "to collect; to heap" (MW: p. 771).
45

Page #64

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
qualify honey, juice coming from worms and bees, as 'purifying!" 192
pavitta Vasunandin's verses call to mind that some ritual specialists call honey a "purifying substance)" (Skt. pavitra). The ancient Vedic Soma festival was called prāyasiya or pavitra. It was a kind of ritual which lasted several days consisting of certain kinds of purifications for the man who performed the sacrifice. According to some sources it took place during the change of the old year into the new on new-moon, probably in the beginnning of spring in the month Phalguna or Caitra. Special vows had to be observed and items of the sacrifice included the offering of a porridge (isti), the sap of the Soma plant, and the double animal sacrifice. In this context pavitra was understood as the "means of purifying". It might have stood in relation with the rituals of the inauguration of the year (Heesterman 1957:3, 7-13). According to some Vedic ritual, honey is mixed (samprkta) with milk and offered to Indra. It is also associated with the cult of the Asvins. Their vehicle is called madhu-vähana and these gods are identified with the bees. Otherwise, mixed with ghee, curd and roasted barley, madhu-parka was given to guests, often together with meat. Some of these liquid substances were poured on the hands of the guest, or given as a drink. In recent centuries the donation of honey, ghee, etc. has become a integral part of the marriage ritual in India. The trade with salt, honey, meat, liquor, brandy, Soma und lacquer was considered not appropriate for certain brahmin castes. 193
83) But in the world it is common knowledge that a cruel man who destroys (the hives of bees filled with honey, [attains more evil than someone who burns down twelve villages.
• bāraha gāmāi With employing the simile of the twelve village, Va
sunandin strengthens Amitagati's argument of the "burning of seven villages" in the Subhāṣita-ratna-samdoha, chapter XXII. The authors might have intended to persuade the reader that people in the villages and cities should not consume honey, because the destruction of the
19 I owe this reference to Prof. Balbir, p.c. Honey serves as the symbol of sensual pleasures in the parable of the "The Man in the Well", also known as the “Drop of Honey" (madhu-bindu). Cf. Vasu-deva-hindi VIII.3-23; Dharma-pariksă of Amitagati II.5-21; Hemacandra's Sthāviravali-carita II. 191ff.
193 See for instance Hillebrandt 1891:238-256; Schmidt 1911:671, 683; Gonda 1985a:102: Williams 1963: 29,51-52, 247; Kane 1968ff., Vol. II, Part 1, p. 54 and Vol. II, Part 1, p. 128. For the meaning of the bees in traditions of the Middle and Near East see Engels 2008. I owe this reference to Prof. Bollée. Honey is known for its antibacterial and antioxidative qualities. Cf. "Honey as an antibiotic: Scientists Identify a Secret Ingredient in Honey that kills Bacteria". In Science Daily, July 12,2010.
46

Page #65

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
honey-combs done by the tribals in the wilderness is a harmful act and should be avoided.
84) He who always licks honey is manifested in the regions of the hells without doubt. Knowing this he (the layman should abstain from honey.
. nirayam With the term niraya194 Vasunandin alludes to various con
cepts of "man's destiny after death" which derive from folk traditions, too. By means of illustrations with effectful descriptions of the "law of cause and effect" that works in the "natural field" of the "soul" he might have intended to provoke the reader.195 The difference in the connotations and the origin of the nouns naraya (Skt. naraka) and riraya (Skt. nirrta) and nilaya is not noticed by Vasunandin.
Vedic texts convey different images of the underworld which are skimmed over in the following196 in brief. The associations with the underworld are: a place of "anxiety or distress (amhas)", "dissolution, decay", "the earth's evil aspect", and the personified representation of the cover of the embryo", which is interpreted as the double aspect of the "year and the sacrificer" by Heesterman 1957:16-17. Bodewitz 2002:220, note 19, discusses different Vedic concepts of after-life and points out that “clear distinctions between the destinations of demons and enemies as well as of sinners and other persons are hardly found as far as the underworld is concerned." We get the impression that "life after death" means for someone who had committed evil acts and did not repent that he fell down and had his new abode in a "deep, dark, and unhappy world". Bodewitz comments on the absence of the idea of punishment in early Vedic literature. He remarks that the ancient texts are "quiet", i.e. do not give accounts of details of cruelties. In Vedic sources the inhabitants of the Southern infernal regions are referred to as Skt. nairrtikas. 197 The compound adho-nilaya (cf. aholoye in 171) means "lower abode". Skt. nilaya derives from ni+ LI
194 We find the alternative reading naraya in the manuscripts. Vasunandin describes with neraya derived from niraya the inhabitants of the regions of hell in (153ff.).
195 For early concepts of "man's destiny after death" see for instance Sherman 1892; Shinn 1974; Butzenberger 1998; Bodewitz 2002. In early Jain texts there is no concept of seven hells or grounds of earth, but there are accounts, which refer to the idea of uncountable small hells. Cf. for instance Uttarajjhāyā, chapter XIX, and Sūya-gada 11.5.1-2; Schubring 1935:136-147. I owe many pieces of reference literature to the late Dr. Kehren, Prof. Bollée, and Prof. Butzenberger.
1961 use the verb "to skim over" in the sense of "to move or glide lightly over a surface, only occasionally touching it" (Cowie 1989:1193). I am indepted to Miss Andrea Dohm (p.c.).
197 The noun Skt. niryti is derived from the prefix nih + V R: "to destroy" (MW: p. 554). One could assume that Skt. naraka is related to Indo-Aryan nouns that convey the
47

Page #66

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
"to settle down"; "to rest" (MW: p. 20).
Entirely different is the concept of Nirsti. As a Vedic goddess she is regarded as a natural force, which is otherwise invoked as the earth. She is believed to seek the man who does not sacrifice.198 The indications of the Vedic sources point to some "sort of Hades". In late Vedic texts such as the Dharma-sūtras the term naraka occurs several times. Bodewitz argues that the “lateness of these texts does not imply lateness of the concept". A common understanding of the types of hell associated with Nirrti relates to the idea of thieving and being stingy (not generous). The corresponding aspect of "grinding" is treated by Vasunandin in Sr (151ff.).
The Fault of Eating) Meat (māmsa-dosa)
85) (Rotted meat is similar to excrements filled with lots of worms. It is ugly-smelling and disgusting. It should not be touched and consumed.
kimi-. The compound Skt. ksmi-kulakula mostly refers to the corpse. The reflection on the dead body filled with lots of worms has often served as an effectful device for attaining the attitude of nonattachment. Pkt. kimi is related to meat, but is also mentioned by some Jain authors in connection with ripe fruits of the figs. In the context of (57; 161; 196) figs imply fertility, germination, the cycle of
rebirth and death. 199 meaning of "narrowness" and "deepness". See also Mayrhofer 1963, Vol. II: p. 138 who quotes Charpentier (referring to the Uttarajihāyā and its commentaries).
198 Cf. the Taittiriya-Samhita IV.2.5.4, cited according to Bodewitz 2002:215. Nirrti is called upon by the priests for that she should spare a person and seek another victim. Her realm is below, the underworld, the deep layers of the grounds of earth. The path which she follows is that of thieves and robbers. In Vedic rituals there was one instruction to build a special altar for Nirrti in the South-west of the sacrificial ground, where the soil was saline or cleft. According to this instruction isti was offered to Nirrti. People provided an offering for the new year, and this symbolises the means which bring forth the year, as well as the rebirth of the person who performs the sacrifice. See Heesterman 1957:15-16. The procedure to obtain the porridge or cake for Nirrti goes as follows: when the grains of rice are ground for a cake offered to the goddess Anumati, some of the rice is allowed to fall behind a wooden peg serving as a support for the millstone. The fallen rice is taken and baked as an offering to Nirrti. The idea of the deep hollows or grounds of earth, which are identified with the Southern destinies or post-mortem resting places of the evil-doers is not uniform in Indian ritual literature.
199 The idea of decay and transitoriness of life is well illustrated with the phrase kimisamkula-sayala-tanu in the episode of Sanat-kumāra-caritam 51,91 (679), cited according to Jacobi 1921. In this account a king attains non-attachment after having observed the decay of the corpse of his beloved wife in the wilderness.

Page #67

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
86-87) By consuming meat, [the vice of] haughtiness is increased [in him); due to haughtiness he takes to liquor. And if he also becomes a slave of dicing due to this [fault], he is prone to all the faults that have been mentioned.
In a secular book it has been described how brahmins went to heaven, but had fallen to earth, because they had eaten meat. Therefore, meat should not be consumed.
⚫ padiya Eating food, especially meat, is considered as an act which feeds passions.200 Due to the rising of the passions such as pride, wrath, and rage, sexual urge is increased. Cf. also (195).
The Fault of [Sexual Relations with] Prostitutes (vesā-dosa)
88) Whoever spends but one night with a prostitute consumes the rubbish of the Kärutas, Kirātas, Candālas, Domras, and Parsis.
• käruya-kiraya-camdala-domba-pärasiyāṇam ucchiṭṭham Vasunandin assumes that someone who has sexual relations with prostitutes eats the "rubbish", because the prostitute is familiar with various men without any discrimination, even the lowest ones. She also eats with them. Being with prostitutes amounts to become as impure as they are. The author mentions some low castes: Kāru(ta)s, craftsmen and artists, Kirātas, day workers associated with the tribes of the Bhils (Bhillas) in Central India, Canḍālas, offsprings from parents from mixed tribes or castes, Dombas and Parasas, merchants and workers from North Africa and Persia.2
201
89-92) Having realised someone who is passionately fallen in love [with her] the prostitute deprives the man of all belongings with hundreds of dirty
200/ "The attitude towards food is discussed in Dundas 1985. I owe this reference to Prof. Bollée. For the discrimination of religious and secular fields of knowledge see Mac VIII.857. There is a parallel for the myth of the "fallen brahmins" outside Jainism in the Mahavastu, Raja-vamsa, p. 285. When the world began to be illuminated by creatures, some manifested themselves by the power of will only. They left heaven when the universe began to evolve. Self-luminous, able to move in the sky, they fulfilled every wish. From the moment when some of them started to eat a mouthful of the essence of the earth, they became heavy and rough. They were deprived of their divine qualities.
201 Cf. Sheth 1923: 300, 308, 392, 464, 729; MW, p.275, 461, 620. Outside Jainism Pali ucchiṭth'-itthi denotes an "impure woman" (Trenckner/ Andersen 1924-1948:351). In Kṣemendra's Deśôpadeśa III.13ff., translated by Sato 1994:24-25, we find some illustrations of the life of a prostitute: "The harlot has never stopped since childhood her indiscriminate business of sexual union. Though she never desired it. Whose could that wanton woman be?".
49

Page #68

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
tricks. When he [has been transformed into a begger] is not more than only skin and bones, he is abandoned [by her].
[At the beginning] she proclaims to one or the other admirer that he is her only master, nobody else. [One moment later having abandoned this one] she speaks [the same pleasing words] to another admirer and courts [that one] with many flatteries.
A conceited person, well-bred, even a hero, makes himself a slave of low people. Someone blinded by desire has [to endure] various [feelings of] contempt for the sake of a prostitute.
By having sexual intercourse with a prostitute he indulges himself with all the other faults, such as eating meat amd drinking alcohol. For sure, he obtains always the worst evil which is the result of this [fault] augmented by that of the others.
je majja-mamsa-dosa vesi-gamanammi All the faults which are inherent to liquor and meat are inherent to sexual intercourse with a prostitute. He gets even lower being engaged with those women. As a rule, evil is increased in the case of sexual relations with a prostitute. 202
93) Because of this evil, he attains suffering in the dreadful ocean of mundane existence. Therefore, he should give up sexual relations with prostitutes with mind, speech and deed.
The Fault of Hunting (paraddhi-dopa)
94) Because compassion is regarded to be fundamental for true insight, someone whose fancy is the love of hunting does not possess true insight.
⚫ aṇukamvā Compassion is regarded as the fundament of true insight (sammattassa pahāno aṇukamvā). Hunters are to blame, for they are pitiless and cruel (nigghana) in (96c). Vasunandin suggests that compassion should be applied consequently to all living beings in (97): savvesim jivānam dayde. See Wiley 2006.
95-96) After they have noticed a young male with hair standing on end out of fear, which is running, turning away [from the hunters), possessing teeth to gnaw herbs, virtuous men do not kill [such an animal], even if it
202] owe to Prof. Balbir (p.c.) improvements of the translation of Vasunandin's Pkt.
text.
50

Page #69

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
has accidentally caused an offence.
It is always on the run, living on grass, and moreover, it caused no offence. How could the savage shunter take the life of the antilopes, though they are dwellers of the forests!
mukka-kesam In the commentary of Sr (M) the compound is rendered into Skt. keśa-mukta: "someone whose hair is untied". The same commentary renders the compound into Hindi bhayake (darake) māre jinake romgate (bāla) khare hue (ho gaye) haim: "hair [of someone shivering standing on end out of horror"; i.e. "someone raising one's hackles out of fear". The author evokes the impression of a terrified young animal, a deer or an elephant.
ņiccam palāyamāṇo tiņa-cāri [...] āraṇna-șivāsiņo There seems to be an inconsistency in the grammatical structure of (96) (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). Notwithstanding the fact that adjectives and nouns do not always correspond in terms of the declension in the Daigambari, we might assume that the grammatical change (sg. to pl.) could be a means of style. The author might have intended to point out that nonhuman animals and human animals in the wilderness are subjected to fear. The hunters should spare the life of the deer due to compassion. For avarāha "offence" see (146).
97-98) If it is someone's religious duty to spare the life of cows, brahmins and women, why is this not generally applied to all living beings due to compassion?
In the same way that taking the life of cows, brahmins and women is considered as an act of evil, the inflicting of injury to all creatures is evil without doubt.
dhamma The sacred Jain law is what “puts the soul in the place of salvation" (Williams 1963:34). In early Jain scriptures authors are concerned with knowledge and right conduct of mendicants. A sage is somebody who always vanquishes his passions. He correctly expounds the law (dhamma).203 The ten categories of dharma listed in Ts IX.6 are considered to inhibit karmic inflow (Tatia 1994:221).
203 See Jacobi's translation of Sūya-gada 1.2.2.6ab quoted in Bollée 1988:8,52. The meaning and history of the term Pkt. dhamma / Skt. dharma is discussed in Schmithausen 1991 and Olivelle 2006:171ff.

Page #70

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
99-100) A man who is addicted to hunting attains in one day the same dreadful evil as he earns slowly by indulging to honey, liquor and meat.
Due to this evil he attains never-ending suffering in the wheel of rebirth and death. Therefore, he = the follower of the doctrine of Mahāvirakeeping the vows partial should abstain from hunting.
• mahu-majja-sevi [...] cirena The idea of Vasunandin is that the
amount of evil, which one who is addicted to honey, liquor and meat attains day by day, is earned by someone being engaged in hunting in one day only (Prof. Balbir, p.c.).
The Fault of Theft (caurya-dosa)
101) Someone in the habit of taking the possession of others attains many kinds of mischief in this and in the other worlds. He never enjoys one lucky
day.
102-103) A thief after having stolen another man's possession trembles with all his limbs. Having left his home tormented (in his mind) he runs (forward] and strays taking backways.
Tormented by fear with his heart beating with repeated heavy strokes, he does not know (and asks himself): "Did anybody see me?". He lurks and hides, leaves the road), and staggers. Sleep does not come to him.
uppahena Vasunandin refers to the state of mind of the thief who strays from the straight and narrow. He moves to and fro hiding his stolen goods and never finds peace. Prof. Balbir (p.c.) comments on (102): The thief runs taking side paths. To save his life and escape the people chasing him he has only one solution: to run and take whatever paths he can without any possibility to choose.
lhukkai palāi pakhalai With this sequence of predicates the author might have wanted to evoke the idea of hasty movements. The thief's actions are motivated by fear: he “lurks and hide, runs away, and stumbles". These verbs are repeated in Sr (121).204
104) A thievish) man neither respects mother and father, teacher and friend, nor the head of the family and the family's spiritual guide. With
204 For examples of thieving see Bollée 2010a on Rk III.11; Williams 1963:79ff. For the stylistic means of repetition in Jain narrative literature I refer to Bruhn 1983. I owe this reference to Prof. Butzenberger.

Page #71

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
violence and malice he takes their belongings.
⚫ pabalena chalena With the binominal phrase in the instrumental case "with violence and malice" the author explains the accompanying circumstances as caused by the emotional impulses of the thief. The two nouns express one single notion (hendiadys). The robber takes deliberately and violently other people's goods.205
105) Nothing is of value for the thief, neither shame, self-esteem, the ruin of fame and virtue, his own destruction, nor the fear of [punishment in this world and in] the other world. He commits deeds involving violence.
• lajjā tahâbhimāņam. There is no congruence in the syntax of this verse, which is not uncommon in Daigambari. Following a suggestion of Prof. Balbir (p.c.) we assume that Pkt. lajja should be understood as accusative sg., for which no reading occurs in the manuscripts. Cf. the notes on (72): surā miṭṭho.
106-110) When he has been observed by the watchmen, while taking the belongings of others, he is bound with a rope and tied eightfold with his hands behind his back.
While he [the thief] is bound, put on the back of a donkey - reversed with his face turned backwards - and driven through the streets around the gambling stalls, it is announced among the people "This is the robber!
And someone who takes the property of another man attains the same results [of corporal punishment] in the way declared earlier!" Then he is driven out of the city in haste.
At first, his eyes are gouged, then, his hands and feet are mutilated. [Then] he is executed [with a sword], or he is impaled alive by the executioners.
Although they have observed this, thieves and other [villains] nevertheless take away other people's possessions. They do not know anything about happiness [the welfare of others and their own]. Look this greatness of delusion!
53
-
205 For the function of the instrumental case in classical Skt. see Speijer 1886 [1993]:42ff. Theft is often illustrated in connection with other severe faults in Jain narrative literature. Cf. the episode of Revai in the Uvasaga-dasão, Chapter VIII.3, 233ff. In this story a woman kills her co-wives and takes whatever belongings they have piled up (stri-dhana in form of cattle, clothes, etc.).

Page #72

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
• mora-bamdhena The commentary of L renders the compound into Skt. aṣṭakâdi-bandhena: "a tie [of the hands] with eight and more knots".
⚫ timţe ratthāsu The etymology of the noun Pkt. temța / timtā is doubtful. In the commentary of Śr (M) Sunilasagara renders the phrase himdavijai timte ratthasu in (107a) into Hindi timță arthat jua-khane ya galiom mem ghumate haim: "they drive him through the by-streets or alongside the gambling quarters" [= the stalls of the dice-players]. The stem of Hindi temt refers to the "pleat or crease of the Dhoti" folded in the way that the cloth has small coverings, in which a man carries some money.2
206
⚫ pura-bahire Robbers and murderers were driven outside the city to the place of execution207 situated near the cemetaries, the crematory grounds. The criminal was sometimes made to sit on the back of a donkey and was taken through the streets. Vasunandin describes the procedure: It is announced amids the people that those were the robbers. Any other man who would take someone's property would attain the same results. Upon these words they were immediately led to the execution outside the city. The point is that the punishment should serve as an example for the public (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). A story that illustrates the faults of thievishness and adultery appears in the episode of the royal elephant trainer and the queen in Av Cu 461,13465,6: here the king's spouse has an affair with the royal elephant driver, but she leaves him after enjoying a love affair with him. We find outside Jainism in the Kanavera-Jātaka (318) another story that describes the fickleness of human emotions: A thief is caught and driven through the city. A famous courtesan who observes him falls violently in love with him. She bribes the executioners. The thief is exchanged for another person. But the thief soon becomes aware that her deeds are motivated by sexual passion and leaves her in disgust.
111) Also in the hereafter the thief, being submerged in the ocean which is the wheel of the four destinies, attains endless suffering. Therefore, he [the man of common sense] should abstain from theft.
206 See Gatzlaff-Hälsig 2002:543.
207 For the types of corporal punishment (danda) see the examples in Mul (1589ff.), further Kane 1968, Vol.I.1, p. 351, note, 371; Vol. IV, p. 167, and the chapter "Suppression of Criminals" in the Artha-sastra, cf. Kangle 1972:281ff.
54

Page #73

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
The Fault of Attachment to Other Men's Wives (para-'tthi-gamanadosa)
112) A stupid man who has observed another man's wife and is driven by desire, earns something evil, nothing else.
• datthūna For lack of self-control with respect to women see for in
stance the following examples: Amitagati's Subhāṣita-ratna-samdoha, chapter XXXI; No.1 in Hertel 1922; the commentary on Yt, chapter VII (Handiqui 1949:426-427); the legend of Yama and Chāyā in
Amitagati's Dharma-pariksa XV.66-95:182-187. 113-114) He sighs, cries, and implores (her). He strikes his own head, falls down on the bottom of the earth: a man who is not able to attain the wife of somebody else also tells lies in order to charm the birds out of the trees
He ponders: "Does she long for me, or not", "What devices are suitable to court her]?" "Should I speak to somebody else, or not?". These are [his) permanent sorrows.
115-116) [The man who wants to enjoy somebody else's wife never attains sweetness. Moreover, sleep does not come to him, he remains tortured by desire.
Having given up modesty, the duties of his family, having exposed himself to the enjoyment of liquor, he begins to court them (other men's wives), though he is not aware of their feelings.
• para-mahilānam cittam amunamto patthanam kuņai Vasunan
din characterises the mental suffering of the man who wants to have sexual intercourse with somebody else's wife. He does not find pleasure in anything. He does not even enjoy sweet dishes. Having lost shame, the sense of honour for the family, and having taken alcohol, he begins romantic relationships without understanding the minds of the wives
of other men (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). 117-118) When they married women are not willing to i.e. to make love), he takes also to the device of hundreds of flatteries. But, being rebuked by them again, he becomes weak and stays in a depressed mood.
Alas, if a man enjoys somebody else's wife who is unwilling to make love with him), after having seized her with violence, how could there be happiness? On the contrary, what he earns is suffering.

Page #74

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
• paccelliu If a man enjoys a woman belonging to another man against
her will, having taken her with violence, how could there be happiness? All what he earns by this act of violence is suffering. With the particle Pkt. paccelliu Vasundandin emphasises the contradiction. In the commentary of Sr (M), p.111 Pkt. paccelliu is rendered into Skt. pratyuta: "but; on the contrary; rather; even" (MW: p. 677).
119-120) Moreover, some bad woman, being untrue, having destroyed her own virtue inflicted by calamities), having exposed herself driven by the force of the circumstances,
if she gives herself (secretly to a man somewhere in an empty house or a temple, which is abandoned, how could he with his heart in fear and trembling attain happiness in this situation?
• asai "Suppose some non virtuous woman full of evil, having destroyed
her own virtue, presents herself spontaneously under the pressure of insistence, even if she gives herself (to a man somewhere in an empty house [...], how can he attain happiness in such circumstances? On the contrary, he earns suffering. (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). The author wants to point out that the intercourse with a woman belonging to another man does not lead to happiness. An illustration of the distress of a passionate woman who wants to have secret intercourse with her stepson is told in the episode of Jinakirti's "Pāla and Gopāla" 208
121-122) And when he has heard some noise, trembling with all his limbs, he lurks, runs away and stumbles. Struck by terror he is looking at all four directions.
And if he is noticed by someone once again, he is brought after having been bound to the royal officer's palace. There he attains the many forms of punishments given to thieves.
• corassa niggaham For the description of the corporal punishment
in case of illicit sexual relations see Samaya-mātskā VI.28; Hitôpadesa II.5b; the third Vetāla story, recension of Sivadāsa, Uhle 1914:10-11; Jolly 1901:116.
123-124) Look! People, misled by false belief: A bad man, although having seen this fault (happen straight before his eyes, nevertheless desires someone else's wife, crooked-minded!
208 See Hertel 1917:33-36. For examples outside Jainism cf. Desópadeśa, chapter VIII.8-9, translated by Sato 1994:56.

Page #75

5.2
Catalogue of Vices
5
TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
In the yonder world he attains suffering endless times, here he attains suffering in the ocean of mundane existence. He [thus should avoid (the attachment to any woman who is married to somebody else in the three ways.
Examples of the Seven Vices
125-133) Being deprived of his kingdom King Yuddhisthira attained the state of being disgraced because of gambling. He lived twelve years in wilderness.
While enjoying themselves in the outskirt of the city the Yādavas were tortured by thirst, and thinking, "[this is water!", they died after having drunk the dried up (= foul] liquid.
In the town Ekacakra Bakarakṣa who was greedy for eating meat lost his kingdom. Fameless he died and entered the region of hell.
Also the sharp-witted Cārudatta after having spent his property to make love to a courtesan attained suffering and went to a foreign country.
Brahmadatta, although he possessed the best among the fourteen jewels and in spite of his being ruler of the world, died and attained the seventh ground of hell due to his passion for hunting.
Because of the fault of embezzling property entrusted upon him) Sribhūti attained punishment. After he had died while being engaged in harmful thinking he wandered around in the cycle of rebirth and death for a long time.
Though he was the lord of the half-world and the king of the sky-movers the splendid lord of Lanka Rāvana went to the regions of hell after his death because of his rapture of another man's wife (Sitā).
These famous persons attained evil by clinging to each of the vices. But with someone who has the fault of doing again the seven (evil deeds, how is it possible to describe the results of the evil which he attains)?
In Sāketa Rudradatta indulged in all the seven vices. After his death he went to the regions of hell and then moved around again and again in the vast ocean of mundane existence.
• Lamk'-esa In Jain narrative literature Rāvana appears as the eighth

Page #76

5.2 Catalogue of Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
Prati-Vasudeva209, a demon endowed with supernatural faculties.210
⚫ Carudatta Carudatta is a merchant's son who loves a beautiful cour211 tesan. His adventures make up a favourite plot in Indian literature. 21 Brahmadatta is the name of a legendary ruler of Pañcala and a notorious character in the stories of the Jains. He is assigned to be the twelfth legendary ruler. Because of his cruelties he is destined to attain rebirth in the seventh hell.212 Śri-bhūti is the sixth future Cakravartin in Jain mythology.213 Embezzlement is regarded as a fruit of negligence and harmful meditation. Its results are misery and pain. For Rudradatta see AP LXX.152ff. In this version he is a brahmin addicted to women and gambling.
134) In a few brief words I will explain the various kinds of sufferings which the sentient being attains as result of the seven vices in the ocean of mundane existence.
209 See Mehta 1972, Vol. II, p. 631; Jaini 1993:210. As king of goblins Rāvana is also mentioned in the episode of "Pala and Gopala" of Jinakirti (Hertel 1917:23; 47). In the poem Pauma-cariyu by Vimalasuri, the oldest Jain version which narrates the adventures of Rama, Rāvana is beheaded by Vasudeva with his own disk.
210 For the fourteen attributes of a legendary ruler see Norman 1983-1985:183ff. and Varni 2003-2004, Vol. IV, p. 13. Leumann 1883a [1998]:541 (if I understood him correctly) assumes that Jain medieval authors borrowed characters and plots from several oral and written traditions and incorporated them into their epics. But see also my notes in the Analysis on the "substrat theory", especially in the revised version of Seyfort Ruegg 2008, and Bollée 2009:135, note 1.
211 One version which is set in Campa in the reign of Surasena is summarised in the commentary of Śr (M), pp. 119-124; see also Mehta 1972, Vol. I, p. 258; Mayrhofer 1983:163-173.
212 See for instance the Brahmadatta episode in Mehta 1972, Vol. II, p. 493. Another version occurs in the Uttarajjhaya, chapter XIII; cf. also AP LXXII.287; Meyer 1909:3-62; Jaini 1993:207-249. For another character of the same name see Bollée 2002:357ff.
213 In a story summarised in AP LIX.147-152 the thief is the brahmin Satyaghosa, the minister of the king Simhasena. Cf. the story in the commentary of Prabhacandra on Rk. III.12 (Bollée 2010a:68ff.). When a merchant came to the minister, he bestowed him with his jewels. After many years the merchant's son wanted them back, but the minister could not produce these gems. See also the examples in the Kuvalaya-mālā, Vol. II, p. 315, note 1020, and verse 100.15ff.
58

Page #77

5.3 Wheel of Rebirth and Death
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
5.3 Wheel of Rebirth and Death
135-137) Having arrived in the [upper] regions of the hells which are the places of rebirth with awful sensations, always possessing impurities such as pus und blood, an intolerable [bad] smell [etc.],
after having attracted impure matter it [= the sentient being] completes its faculties there in the time period corresponding to 48 minutes at the most.
When it has completed its faculties, it is comparable to a staff [falling] on the ground. It does not endure (staying in this place]. It jumps up all of a sudden and falls down [into the lower and darker grounds of the hells].
⚫uvavãyão Corresponding to Skt. upapada the Jain term denotes the "generation" of heavenly and infernal creatures. 214 In Jain religious doctrine the term "birth by descent" relates only to the beings of the heavenly and infernal abodes. Beings which are born in a womb of nonhuman or human animals and beings, which are generated by coagulation, are referred to as "formed in the womb" or "formed by agglutination" (Ts II.46). By that Jain authors understand the subtle bodies, for instance the "conveyance body" and "karmic body", as vehicles for the emanation of the karmic particles which effect the auspicious and inauspicious types of rebirth.215 With the phrase uvavāyāo nivaḍai in (137a) Vasunandin describes a verbal action of moving downwards. The commentary Śr (M) explains the phrase with Hindi upapada-thāna se: "from the places of rebirth".216
samuppanno [....] pajjattio samānei In the commentary on Śr (M) (136-137) Sunilasägara renders the past participle samuppanno into Hindi utpanna hone vala: "having arrived; having reached" and the phrase pajjattio samanei into Hindi paryaptiyom ko sampanna kara
leta hai, i.e. paryaptiyom ko purna kara leta hai: "it [= the sentient
214See the entry uvavaya in Sheth 1923:224; Ratnachandra 1923 [1988], Vol. II, pp. 289-290: 1. "being born or produced"; "ability for birth" 2. "origin, acquisition" 3. (as a Jain technical term): "sudden manifestation in the celestial and infernal regions", i.e. "birth of heavenly and infernal beings by sudden manifestation".
215 See Ts II.46-47; Tatia 1994:59. Ratnachandra 1923 [1988]: Vol. II, p. 122. 216 See also Schubring's German translation 1935:93: "Zur Existenz gelangt ein Wesen physisch auf drei Arten: durch Manifestation, durch Verdichtung (Koagulation) oder durch Zeugung. Manifestation (uvavāya) ist das Entstehen ohne materielle Grundlage mit blitzartiger Plötzlichkeit; so treten die Götter und Höllenwesen ins Leben. Verdichtung (sammucchana) geschieht spontan aus vorhandenem Stoff; sie ist den ein- bis viersinnigen Wesen eigen. Die fünfsinnigen, höheren Tiere und Menschen, entstehen teils ebenso (s.u.), teils durch Zeugung (gabbha-'vakkanti) [...]." See also Gs Ji (90).
59

Page #78

5.3 Wheel of Rebirth and Death 5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
being has fully attained/ developed the faculties",217 The phrase Pkt. amto-muhutta-kāle serves as an adjunct to the predicate samānei with a temporal function. According to the Jain doctrine sentience, when being subjected to mundane existence, generates several bodies by attracting matter. The bodies of the mundane existence undergo several modifications and adapt themselves to new conditions. The time period mentioned by our author lasts three quarters of an hour at the most .218
• pūi-ruhirai Vasunandin wants to point out that matter due to the activities of the sentient being effects the rebirth in various bodies. One simile by means of which the author in Śr (137-142; 177ff.) illustrates his idea of reproduction is that of the "womb". With the compound pai-ruhina the author conveys the impression of something disgusting. "The 'soul' that arrives there, having attracted impure matter in a time period lasting not longer than 48 minutes, enjoys it." (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). In the commentary of Śr (M) on (135-136): p.129, Sunilasagara mentions in detail how Jain authors conceived the "inhabitants of the grounds of earth"'s shape. They are described with respect to their functions only, serve as receptacles or serfs for gods: vessels, bellows, vaults, barges, trees, pack mules, oxen or elephants. In the deepest ground of the earth the beings are believed to exist as shape-, form-, and colourless matter. They are compared to an abyss, an endless field, a voluminous cup, or a trimming.
Rebirth in the Cold and Hot Regions of the Hells (tatta-siyanirayas)
138-139) If a heated iron ball which is in size equal to the cosmic mount Meru is thrown by someone into the hot hell, it does not arrive at the bottom of earth, but is destroyed in the intermediate space.
217Cf. for Pkt. pajjatti also the tabular list and the comments on the Pkt. declensions of the short and long i-stems by Van den Bossche 1999:48-49. Pkt. pajjatti, "completion"; "faculty"; "sufficience", is used as a technical term in Jain literature. By means of the term Jain authors classify the stages in the gradual development of the life functions of animals and plants, for instance with reference to their metabolism, the number of sense organs, and the number of other physical faculties. One set of categories by means of which Jain authors refer to these life functions is for instance "taking food" (ahāra), "body" (sarira), "sense organ" (indriya), "respiration" (ana-prāna or śvāsôcchvāsa), "speech" (bhāṣā), and "mind" (manas). Those faculties are further categorised under the four headings (1) parināma, (2) deha, (3) vedana, and (4) vikriya. See Gs Ji (665); (682-683) with the commentary. Cf. also the commentary of Śr (M), pp. 129 on (136); Ratnachandra 1923 [1988], Vol. III, pp. 401-402; Varni 2003-2004, Vol. III, p. 39.
218 See my notes on bhava in the second chapter, on ahareuna in the third chapter. Cf. also Jaini's note on the "Jain path of purification" in 1979:90, 355.
60

Page #79

5.3 Wheel of Rebirth and Death
ith
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
Alas, and when the heated iron ball is all of a sudden flung to the ground of the cold hell, not being able to reach (this ground of the earth it breaks into small pieces.
• tatta-siya-naraya If somebody throws a heated iron ball of the size
of the mount Meru into the hot hell, is does not attain the bottom of the earth. It will dissolve itself in between; alas, if one throws the heated iron ball into the cold region of hell, it will be cut into pieces, unable to reach the ground of earth (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). Vasunandin might have intended to explain the effect of intense passions by means if comparison.219
140-142) Such a intense sensation of cold and heat in the regions of hell stands in relation to the nature of the field. This being endures it lifelong as the result of the vice.
Then, after the inhabitants of hell have seen it just taking rebirth (at this place, the whole of them attack it all of a sudden by taking the shape of al projectile, hammer, trishul, club or knife.
When its body is dismembered while it wails pitifully with a depressed face, the furious ones [ = the inhabitants of hell] scold at him, "Hey, evil guy, why do you cry?
• khetta-sahāva The nature of the field (Skt. kşetra-svabhāva) is char
acterised as being the effect of a karmic location or field. It is compared to the human body. Outside Jainism we find related strings of thought in the Manu-smrti, chapter XII. The authors of the Smộtis speak of the karmic bodies with regard to the "knower of the field" (ksetrajña). Greed is here regarded as the origin of the human faults and some consider it to be the main reason for suffering 220
satti-muggara-tisūla-ņārāya-khaggehim Vasunandin wants to point out that evil arises from Occupational injury of life and intentional harm. The author conveys the idea of fierce creatures, which are reborn by mere thought-power in the shape of weapons (sastra-vikriyā).221
219 For further comparisons see Mül (1558). The cold hells are described as an abyss, in which fire, sun-light, and extension of space and time do not exist.
220 See for instance the notes on kşetra and the retribution of giving (dāna-ksetra) in MW: p. 332; Hara 1999:49-66; Heim 2007:199ff., for the results of giving, generosity and compassion as the means of auspicious rebirth cf. also the stories and verses in Danastakatha and (186).
221 See for instance (170), the Sarvartha-siddhi and Akalanka's commentary on Ts II. 4647, and chapter Ts III.1ff.; Śr (M): p.134; Mül (1566).
61

Page #80

5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
In the Jain Purāṇas weapons are associated with warriors, the Vasudevas and Prati-Vasudevas, chiefs or warriors. Their seven gems are mainly weapons (attributes designed to cause physical harm) with supernatural powers: the wheel (su-darśana-cakra), the mace (kaumudi-gadā), the sword (sau-nandana-asi), the missile (amogha-sakti), the bow (sarga-dhanu), the conch (parca-janya-sankha), and the diamond (kaustubha-mani), which corresponds to Indra's vajra. The Vasudevas and their arch-enemies are believed to take rebirth as Asuras in the grounds of earth; in due course they are reborn as non-human animals, and at last, their reincarnation in the human body leads to final emancipation.222
5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
Result of the Fault of Gambling (Fire Kettle)
143-144) "Intoxicated by the wantonness of youth in previous life, inflamed by passions such as greed, having disobeyed the words of the teacher [and parents], he just enjoyed this gambling!
Rascal! The result of this [evil deeds = gambling, etc.] has come [now] into being. That does it! Stop crying! You have to endure it! By crying you can never free yourself from the deed [= the results of the harmful thoughts and acts] you have committed in previous life!"
145-146) After having heard such words, various kinds of intense] pain come forth in the mind. While being burned by two kinds of pain it exclaims furiously:
"When I enjoyed gambling under the influence of liquor in a previous existence, what is the fault towards you, because of that you beat me violently?"
• avarāho "What is the fault towards you (= what wrong have I done to you) that you beat me?" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). For the semantic value of apa + √ RADH: "to wrong; to offend; to fall short off" see for instance MW: p.51 and Norman 1990:43.
147-149) After this has been told [to the sentient being] it is thrown into the kindled pan by the infuriated ones. When it has been cast [into the
222
22 Cf. for the genre of Jain Puranas and the prominent characters in epic literature Jaini 1993:212ff. The disapprovement of weapons with regard to occupational injury is expressed, for instance, in the vow of anartha-danda. See Handiqui 1949:268-269; Williams 1963:123ff.; Bollée 2010a on Rk III.31, 34. For parallels outside Jainism cf. Märkandeyapurāņa XII; Sutta-nipata III.10 (Kokāliya).
62

Page #81

5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
burning coals) it burns (there) limb by limb.
While it is about to escape from there and is observed by the other inhabitants of hell], after having been tortured pitiless by them with swords and spears, they hurl the mourning one into them (=fire kettles).
[The sentient being cries pitifully, "Alas, let me go! Don't seize me! I will not commit such evil deeds) again!". It grabs the fingers with the teeth.
150) But the evil ones = the inhabitants of hell] do not release it (utteringl: "Now look! As if it was just a game the sentient being committed evil. Mourning it (now) endures those kinds of suffering!"
Result of the Fault of Theft (Dismembering and Grinding)
151-153) After it escaped somehow from that place with all the limbs of its body burned, it suddenly enters the cave of a mountain thinking: "A refuge!"
But then crumbles of rocks fall down from the top. It is ground by them. With a stream of blood running down (its body ) it cries and runs away from there.
When the body of the inhabitants of the infernal regions is reduced to small pieces of the size of sesame granules, it is like mercury. It is joined together with other liquids and elements and does not perish until the appropriate time period in the hell (which it is assigned to has been accomplished.
• pārada-rasu'vva laggai Pārada, also termed rasa, is mercury (quick
silver), a silver-coloured metal. Vasunandin draws a parallel with mercury and some qualities of the "subtle karmic body". The body of the inhabitants of hell is believed to dissolve quickly, it is then joined or mixed with other particles of matter. Mercury often changes its physical state. It stands for other metals and metallic salts in the state of fusion, such as the mahā-rasas tourmaline, pyrite, red ochre, realgar or red arsenic which are active chemical agents. Otherwise, the term rasa refers to the juicy substance of a bush or tree, for instance the sap of sugar cane, which can be mixed with other substances.223
223 See MW: pp. 620,869; Caraka-samhita, Vol. 1.1.68; Meulenbeld 1999 I A: 104, 630, I B: 231.
63

Page #82

5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
Result of Taking Liquor and Honey (Drinking Heated Metal)
154-155) Leaving this place it is observed by other inhabitants of hell who put a stop to it. While it is crying in distress it is forced to drink the liquid heated metal of iron and copper.
It would be scolded: "Take the terrible iron liquid, as result of the evil which you have attained: you enjoyed liquor and honey in previous life!"
paccārijjai Vasunandin tries to persuade the reader that drinking liquor and honey "pollutes" the "pure nature of the "self". "You had consumed liquor and honey in previous life. The result of this evil has come forth: drink this awful iron liquid!" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). Pkt. paccārijjai is regarded as the passive voice of paccārai and serves as the substitute of upa + a + LABH.224 The author describes a type of corporal punishment by incorporation of heated metal. The fire in which the intestines are melt may symbolise the emotion when memory is brought back to mind. Pkt. kala-yala (Skt. kala-kala) is a nominal compound, by means of which the author might convey the idea of rattling, tinkling or murmuring of the draught of liquid
metal.225
Result of Consuming Meat (Forest of Daggers)
(156) When it has somehow left this place the frightened being enters a forest which possesses (trees with] dagger-shaped leaves. Incessantly, these sharp blades of the dagger-leaves fall down on this very ground and cut its limbs).
• asi-patta-vana One detail of the Geography of Death is the "forest
of dagger-leaves". This concept does not seem to be a genuine Jain idea, because it occurs in several Indian ritual texts. The descriptions of the details in those texts and the specific interpretations relate to "catalogues of crime" and differ considerably. According to some sources, the forest is associated with the passions of greed, wrath and
224See upa + a + LABH/LAMBH: "to touch"; "to slaughter of a sacrificial animal)"; "to censure". Cf. MW:p. 214; the commentary of Sr (M) renders the predicate into Hindi ulāhanā dete haim (yāda dilāte haim): "they censure it"; "they reproach it".
225See MW: p. 260 and the parallel in Mül (1564 and 1569 with the commentary): the evil-doer is placed on a blue podest and forced to embrace a puppet or idol made of iron. He is made to drink an acrid and bitter liquid: cf. further Subhasita-ratna-samdoha, chapter XX. Outside Jainism see the Jātaka-mālā, chapter XXIX, and Siva-purāna IX.18ff.
64

Page #83

5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
rage. According to others, it is just a topographical detail of the region of death with the river, the sharp diamont banks at her side, the mountain Samghāta, the volcanoes, etc. In the Uttarajjhāyā, chapter XIX, we find a description of a creature fastened with fetters on a huge tree of the genus Sālmali. Hanging upside down, it is pushed up and down in the regions of hell.226 We find in another stanza in the same chapter of the canonical scripture the idea expressed that creatures take revenge for the cruelties, which men have afflicted upon them. This idea also implies the vision of a wheel of never-ending suffering. When the body of the inhabitant of hell is cut into pieces by the daggers which fall from the huge trees and its limbs, when its flesh has been eaten by wild beasts, the body comes to life anew.227 Buddhists might have conceived the "forest of dagger-leaves" either as the third hell or the thirteenth small hell.
In the Buddhist Mahā-vastu, part I, 5ff. we find the kind of Geography of Death in which the inhabitants of the hells are running to or drawn into and there deprived of their limbs, flesh and skin by trees. Their limbs are bleeding and are then devoured by wild animals. When only the bones are left, skin and flesh always grow anew. Furthermore, we find a reference of Iriya that in the Chan tradition there is a concept of three classes of hells.228 Outside Buddhism in the Markandeyapurāņa XII the forest is mentioned as the sixth hell. In the details of punishment it relates to the patterns in the Buddhist descriptions. We might assume that the forest of dagger-leaves" is a genuine Indian concept, since the thicky and thorny bushes with red flowers 229 are widespread in Central and South India. But the idea of never-ending punishment occurs in Greek mythology, too.
157-160) While the leaves are falling down, its hands and feet are cut, its back and head are mutilated. Possessing streams of blood running down
226I owe this reference to Prof. Bollée. 227 See also the explanation of Tatia 1994:72 on Ts III.4: The sources of the infernal beings' suffering are twofold: their conspicuous enmity towards each other and the terrible physical surroundings. In extreme cold and heat they suffer from insatiable hunger and thirst. They wish to devour everything and drink the oceans dry, but their environment prevents any satisfaction of their desires.
228 See for Buddhist concepts Feer 1892:200ff. In the context of Chan poems of enlightment I refer to Sasaki/ Iriya/ Fraser 1971:83, note. One of the three inauspicious destinies of an evil-doer is the abode, in which "leaves and grasses are swords". "If it's said that 'bodhi' is difficult, bodhi' is also not difficult. Wanting little and knowing content, the least is ample. Forever free from wealth and lust, the spirit of itself is at ease. 'I clearly perceive the Three Road's Pain and am not concerned with worldy fame!'".
229 For the Silk Cotton Tree (Kūda-Sāmari/ Sālmali, Bombar heptaphyllum or Salmalia malabarica), a thorny bush with red flowers, see Pischel 1957 [1965]:81; Syed 1990:550ff.; MW: p. 1068.
65

Page #84

5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
[from the wounds] it moves along, crying.
When it is about to escape quickly the cruel inhabitants of hell, having grasped it with force and cut its flesh, they stuff bits of it into its mouth.
Then they shout, because it is unwilling to eat its own flesh: "Hey, rascal! You have once eaten something [= the flesh of other beings] saying: 'How tasty!"
Hey, why have you forgotten this, and how can you [now] turn your face away!" Scolding it in that way they stuff burned grass into its mouth.
⚫ pagalamta-ruhira-dharo This phrase is repeated with some alterations in the same context in (152) and occurs also in Mul (1574).
⚫ bhottum anicchamāṇam niya-mamsam Vasunandin might have intended to point out that the action is repeatedly performed or in progress by employing the middle participle. The compound verbal phrase has been otherwise translated into English as: "[...] to it that has unwillingly eaten its own flesh [...]" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). By translating the participle present medium with past tense we emphasise the repeated and simultaneous actions.230
• kusi Pkt. kusi (Skt. kusa) is a grass with broad sharp tips of leaves. 231 Small pieces of the stalk of kusa and twigs from the Aśvattha, Udumbara, or Palāśa, were taken for the Vedic animal sacrifice. Strings could be made of the elastic fibre (kausi raśana). They could easily support begging bowls of the mendicants and were used to bind victims at posts. In their symbolic value, both, Darbha and Kusa grasses, represent a purifyer. They appear in recipes, sometimes cut and boiled or burned and afterwards mixed with water. In regional custom those mixtures are believed to increase the vital energy.
230 A description of the tortures of hell occurs in Uttarajjhāyā XIX.69. The passage has been recently discussed with alternative readings in Alsdorf/ Bollée 2010:14, note 37. Miyaputta who wants to become a monk explains the dangers of wordly life to his parents. He exclaims that he remembers a vision, in which he entered the regions of hell. While uttering horrid shrieks, he was forced to drink molten copper, iron, tin, and lead (corresponding to the amounts of brandy, rum, liquor, and honey, which he consumed in previous life). "(In hell) I was forced to eat my own fire-coloured (i.e. bloody raw) flesh again and again". For the gerund bhottuna see also Sheth 1923:659.
231 Cf. Skt. kusa: 1. "piece of wood" 2. "holy grass" (Eragrostis cynosuroides). See MW: p. 296; Gonda 1985b:29, note 2, 35, 46-47; Hara 2003:183.
66

Page #85

5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
The River Vaitarani
161-162) Then, when it has been tortured by the ardent burning and tormented by the sensation of thirst, it enters the river Vaitaraņi, which is filled with impurities such as worms, pus, and blood.
And as soon as it has entered this place all of its limbs are burned by the acid hot liquids. Immediately it escapes from there crying "alas!".
• veyaņā Vasunandin employs this term (Skt. vedana) to illustrate the
"law of cause and effect" with regard to the auspicious and inauspicious sensations. 232 In Ts III.3 Umāsvāmin states that the inhabitants of hell are possessed of inauspicious colours, modifications, bodies, sensations and disfigurement due to the agitation caused by the passions. Those horrible and awesome qualities are increased by the sequence of the number of the grounds of earth until the being attains the seventh hell. 233 In Ts VI.12 the inauspicious sensations are characterised by the sub-categories pain, sorrow, heart-burning, crying, injury of life, and bewailing 234
vaitaraņi-naim In Vasunandin's Geography of Death the mythical river is conceived as a topographical detail of the lower regions of earth, a landscape with mountains, forests and volcanoes. In Sr (161ff.) the creatures are assigned first to enter the forest of dagger-like leaves, and then they come to the river. Although the symbolic value of the river remains obscure in Jain literature, it might be reasonable to identify it with the sexual urge, the body liquids, especially semen.235 Outside Jainism in the Sutta-nipāta III.10 passions are regarded as the obstacle on the path to emancipation. They are compared to the Vaitarani, filled with sharp blades, razors and difficult to cross. In a
232 Cf. the ideas outlined in Ts III.3 and TS VI.12. 233 Jacobi 1906:310 translates Ts III.3 into German: "In den Höllen sind Leśyā, Zustand, der Körper, die Empfindung, und der Erfolg immerwährend schrecklich, und um so schrecklicher (je tiefer die betr. Hölle liegt)".
234 In Ts VI.12 inflictions are explained as referring to oneself and to other beings (ātmaparôbhaya), cf. Tatia 1994:156ff.; Dixit 1974:242, 305. See also the parallel in Mül (1557ab).
235 The river is either described as filled with acid liquids, or it is inhabited by snakes, water dragons, worms etc. In Amitagati's Subhāsita-ratna-samdoha, chapter XXI, the impurities are associated with body liquids such as blood and sperm (rakta-reto-mala). These are conceived as the vehicles of the energy or life-force (virya), which constitute the physical body. The idea that is common to all images is that the river is difficult to cross (duttarā). The authors of the Süya-gada associate the Vaitarani with sexual clinging and attachment. The mental energy of giving up the clinging to women is compared to the difficulty of crossing the Veyarani. Sexual desires are like an impassable river. See Süya-gada 1.3.4.16, cited according to Bollée 1988:20,137.
67

Page #86

5.4 Result of Each of the Vices
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
passage in the Maha-vastu, part I, p.8, the wounded creatures jump into the river filled with acid water. A variant occurs in the Jātakamālā XXIX: the creature enters the river, where it comes into touch with a corpse and its bones are eaten by worms. In the Siva-purana, chapter XVI, various rivers of hell are mentioned, of which each one differs in its characteristics: the Vaitarani, the Puya-vahā, and the Krmi-bhojana.
Result of Sexual Activities with Wives of Other Men and Prostitutes (Embracing the Iron Virgin)
163-165) Having noticed it the inhabitants of hell seize the mourning one violently and force it to embrace puppets of heated iron on a blue pavilion.
"Having neglected the words of the teacher, he was in the habit of enjoying himself with wives of other men and prostitutes! Now, why could he not endure this time that result of evil, which he now bemoans!
The action [done] in previous life by the sentient being, which was laughing under the influence of [pleasures of the] five sense organs, is [now] bound. Now, how should the mourning one get rid of this [result of evil deeds]?"
pila-mamdave Our author refers to the punishment of adulterers, the iron virgins (tatta-loha-paḍimão). It is conveived as a hollow metal column made hot to burn the evil-doer.236 By mentioning the colours "dark-blue" Vasunandin alludes to the theory of lustres. The dark lustres correspond to the inferiour stages of the sentient being in the state, where it inflicts evil to oneself and others. Dark colours are associated with the gross passions.
⚫ hasamāṇeṇa [...] nittharasi: "That [evil] deed that was done by the soul laughing because it was under the influence of the five sense organs is bound. How can you escape from it by crying?" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). The sentient being committed crimes in previous life laughing, as if it was just a game.237 The author wants to point out that humans do not reflect on the consequences, when committing evil deeds.
236 See MW: p. 1244. The idea that the evil-doer is assigned to enter a blue mansion appears also in Mül (1563-1564). Outside Jainism in the Siva-purana, chapters X-IX, we find a passage which describes this kind of torture. The adulterer is forced to embrace the red heated image of that woman who was the object of his desire. Moreover, the Taptasūrmi, one of the 28 hell regions mentioned in the Bhagavata- and Viṣṇu-purana, seems to relate to this punishment. See Feer 1893:125ff.
237 Cf. lilae in (150). For hasya and its relation to the harmful and beneficial karma-types see T's VIII.26.
68

Page #87

5.5
Suffering of the Asuras
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
Result of Hunting (Piercing by Iron Birds)
166-169) And then, after they have assumed the form of cocks, vultures, crows and herons, the inhabitants of hell attack [it] pitiless with beaks, sharp as diamonds, and cutting claws.
After they have grasped it, turning it upside-down, some split it up with arms which have the shape of rotating saws. Others grate it continuously with arms which have become mortars and sharp knives.
And some other inhabitants of the hell region cut fits tongue, push through [its head), crush it with their teeth, and cut the body) into pieces of the size of sesame granules.
And again, others wallow the mourning one, after they have placed it on a plain with hot sharp pieces of sand. They beat it and rub it on the ground.
kalamva-vāluya-thala Vasunandin conveys the idea to the mind of the reader that the man who has injured living beings out of carelessness without repentence experiences now that he is wallowed by enraged dwellers of the hells in the hot gravels of sand and chaff. In an other sequence it is assigned to walk on a plain spread with sharp blossoms of the Kadamba tree, turmeric or diamond sand. This kind of torture (walking naked on a hot and sharp ground) is associated with the bank of the river Vaitarani.238
5.5 Suffering of the Asuras Description of the Asura-Kumāras
170) The Asuras which attained evil, which is terrible, have come exactly to this place when they remember other creatures being their enemies in previous life. They are in the habit of fighting against each other.
• asura According to Vasunandin the Asura-kumāras are a class of
demons, which are embodied in the grounds of the hell because of wrath and hostility, but could render service to sentient beings in other regions of the cosmos. Also the authors of KA (529) and Ts III.4ff. give expression to the view that those sentient beings take rebirth due to mental suffering. Those beings which are called "Asuras" in the
238 In Mül (1572) we find the construction with the participle jam lodido 'si. See also Mül (1563cd).

Page #88

5.5
Suffering of the Asuras
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
scriptures inflict pain on each other. These are either categorised as demons, or as lower classes of semi-gods with extreme mental powers and a black, blue, grey, or fiery lustre. The Asuras are conceived as the attendents or opponents of some of chiefs or Indras, as "fiendish youths" or "fiery youths". 239 With regard to Jain explanations for the main reasons for inauspicious rebirth in (194), the rebirth as Asuras is considered to be manifestation among those classes of celestial beings which can fall down to the lower earth regions. Related ones are the Kalpa-, Vyantara-, and Bhavana-vāsins.240 Asuras are described as demons that take rebirth in the shape of a hammer in the canonical Uttarajjhāyā XIX.241 While the Kumāras are associated with fire, the Vyantaras seem to have been connected with earth, because they are depicted in the shape of snakes as protectors of the jewels in the chasms of the earth.242 Vasunandin alludes to a hierarchical structure in the "transitory kingdoms" of the regions of hell. The limbs of some of the dwellers of the lower regions of hell serve as food for the others which occupy this place since ancient times. Outside India, the idea of blacksmiths who work in the chasms occurs in Plato's Politeia X, Appendix: pp.169ff.
• puvva-veraim Vasunandin wants to point out that harmful reflec
tions and evil deeds towards oneself or one another person effect even more evil. It is assumed that the beings do not suffer from physical pain only, but experience intense mental suffering, too. Therefore, the Jain layman should cultivate pity and forbearance. The author of the Hindi commentary associates puvva-vera with evil (pāva). Jacobi translates vera into English "iniquity” in a passage of Suya-gada 1.9. Caillat 2007:93 renders the term into German "Feindschaft" in Suya-qada 1.10. And in the same scripture 1.8.7 we find the phrase (translated into German): "Wenn man törichterweise die [Lebewesen schädigt, schlägt die Tat zurück und man steckt in schlechtem
239 Cf. Tatia's translation 1994:98 of the Sarvártha-siddhi on Ts IV.3-11: the creatures act as chiefs or attendants of the lords of the celestial regions. The forest gods and the fiery demons are believed to live partly in the higher realms of hell in mansions. They are regarded as classes which inhabit the multi-coloured, uppermost regions of hell (ratnaprabhā etc.), cf. also TS V.11; Sr (172). 240 See the parallels analysed and translated in Alsdorf 1966:166ff. 2411 owe this reference to Prof. Bollée (p.c.). We get here the impression that the authors describe a post-mortem "transitory body" of the evil-doer, which is treated like heated iron with the hammer and anvil. Jacobi translates the term kumāra into English "blacksmith". He suggests that the word derives from the compound Skt. karma-kāra. See also Māc II.68; XII.1119; XII. 1153; Pischel 1957 (1965):75; Hummel 1960. The idea that the Asuras, notwithstanding their extreme mental power and fierceness, could protect a Jain mendicant is expressed well in Uttarajjhāyā XII in the legend of Harikesa (cited according to Caillat 1994:255-265). 242Cf. the summary of Caritra-sundara's Mahi-pāla-caritra in Hertel 1917:75.

Page #89

5.5
Suffering of the Asuras
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
Karman" 243 Outside Jainism we find the idea of "reward and punishment" expressed in a popular saying. Someone who takes the life of an animal will suffer in every new rebirth by being killed as many times as the animal has hairs.244
In the Lower World (aho-loya)
171-172) In the lower world there are supposed to be seven layers of earth with eighty-four hundred thousands of miscellaneous hells with a series of presiding kings.
You should know the particular names of the grounds of earth according to their sequence: Rayaņa-ppahā, Sakkara-, Bālusya)-, Pamka-, Dhūma-, Tama-, and Tama-tama-ppahā.
• satt' eva aho-loye pudhavio In the stanzas (171-172) our author
refers to the lower world. The structure of the cosmos is described by Vasunandin as a well ordered system. He explains the concept of the seven continents and the seven corresponding lower grounds of earth in agreement with the statements of Umāsvāmin in Ts, chapter III.245 The grounds of earth (Pkt. pudhavis/ Skt. pệthivis) are believed to form the lower part of a three-dimensional corpus of floating layers. Each of the layers has a wider base than the one above. Jains assume that in these lower regions of the world the demons have their resting-place, while the non-human and human animals and the celestial beings reside in the seven continents and the higher regions.
• rayana- Vasunandin mentions seven layers of earth according to their sequence and intensity of the lustre. They are called Ratna-, Sarkarā-, Vālukā-, Panka-, Dhūma-, Tama-, and Tama-tama-prabhā. Ratnaprabhā means "gem-hued". Sarkarā and Vālukā both denote gravel of indefinite colour and form. These designations seem to refer to the
243 When one injures living beings foolishly the action "strikes back" and one possessed by wrath is stuck in evil. In Ayār 7.16 (= I1,2; II.15 cited according to Dixit 1973:1-13) we get the impression that the Jain author regards occupational injury as a form of evil which effects bondage. See also Jaini 2000a; Bruhn 2003:3-8,18-19. There are parallels in Mül (1572-1577).
244 Cf. Boehtlingk 1873:5490. The idea of retribution of action appears in SatapathaBrāhmana XI.6.1 and in JaiB I, 42-44, pp. 99-109; cf. also Feer 1893:134ff.; Sherman 1892; Shinn 1974:78-96; Glucklich 1994:213-263
245 See Kirfel 1928:IV, IX; Schubring 1935:135; Glasenapp 1942:60ff.; Jaini 1979:114; Caillat/ Kumar 1981:20ff.; Ts, chapter II-III, translated in Tatia 1994:48ff.69ff., Bruhn 1983:59; Ratnachandra 1988 (1923), Vol. II, p. 735; Babb 1996:48.

Page #90

5.5
Suffering of the Asuras
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
colours and the intensity of the lustre. 246 In the Jain descriptions of the first three grounds of earth the details do not differ considerably. The texts convey the idea of unconfortable and untouchable grounds filled with sharp points of jewels, glas, hot gravel, sand, chaff, stones, etc. The effect on the mind of the reader is that of horror. Physical obstacles make walking very difficult for the barefooted traveller. The feet of the dweller of these abodes rest on shaky foundation. It reminds us of the hardships of mendicants described in details in Ts IX.8-9. Besides, when taking to account the symbolism of the River Vaitarani, the jewels, glas, gravel, pricks, etc., which torture the legs of the naked wanderer, could be interpreted as her ground.
o-pamka-dhūma-° The layer of earth which is called Pamka-ppabhā ("mud-hued") does not possess a specific symbolism. It corresponds to the intermediate space of the lower world being situated in the fourth floor.247 The seventh layer of hell is the most difficult to describe. Some sources refer to this place as having the structure of seven cells or sub-layers. From the various accounts which we find in Jain scriptures it might be regarded as the "unhealthy place". It is impossible to depict its shape. Generally, it is believed to be the darkest layer of the grounds of earth, associated with the darkest lustre, an amorphous structure, its shape prone to constant change. It seems to be obscure, but the heading such as "Tama-tama-prabhā" speaks for itself.248 The seventh layer of the seventh hell may serve as a symbol for a state of mind devoid of knowledge 249 Jain authors associate the rebirth in the last four grounds of the earth with "bondage" and the gsths. nos. I-III, i.e. the stages, in which the sentient being acts under the influence of the gross passions.250 The state of mind in which insight and knowledge are partly obstructed is convincingly il
246 For the theory of the lustre (leśyā) and the interpretation of the "subtle bodies" see for instance Tatia 1994:54ff.; Gs Ji (529); Basham 1951:245; Tsuchihashi 1983:199. The dark colours range from grey to dark blue and black.
247 For parallels in the structure of the lower world with the numerical scheme of four, eight, sixteen, and thirty-two, or seven, twenty-one, and twenty-eight see Feer 1892-1893 and the Catu-dvāra-Jätaka (439). In the Sutta-Nipāta III. 10, a specific abode of the lower world is mentioned, in which darkness spreads out like mist ("Padma").
248 We find reference to the vices of Brahmadatta and the seventh layer of the lower world (129). The seventh hell is further mentioned in the Av Cū I 470, 91-461,13 summarised by Balbir in Granoff 1993:17; cf. also AP LXXIV.388 with the Seniya episode; Gs Ka (539)ff.: Sr M: p. 145; Jaini 1979:128ff.
249 I owe this reference to Prof. Mette. This state of mind is otherwise referred to as Skt. apratistha "having no solid ground"; "fluctuating"; apratisthā "instability". See MW: p. 58. For an evaluation of the psychological concepts in Buddhist and Jain canonical scriptures see Mette 1994:161-167.
250 For negligence (pramada) being regarded as a cause of bondage see Ts VI.16; VII.8; VIII.1-3.

Page #91

5.6 Suffering of Animals and Plants 5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
lustrated in an episode of Hemacandra's Parisista-parvan VI.251 The monk Annikaputra instructs a queen who is tortured by nightmares. The royal woman perceives the suffering of creatures in the hell every early morning in her dreams. She observes those beings weeping and mourning in the darkness. The monk who had been called upon to interpret her dreams explains to her the categories of truth and the means to attain final emancipation. At last, the woman realises her errors and repents.
173-175) According to the scriptures of the best of the Jinas, the shortest period [of the minimum of life-time] in the first hell can last 10 000 years, the longest is one period "measured by oceans".
You should know that the longest [life-time period], beginning with the first ground of earth, rises in the amount with the number of periods "measured by oceans", successively from the second hell onwards to three, seven, ten, seventeen, twenty-two and thirty-three [myriads].
⚫ sayarôvama Vasunandin employs the term "measured by oceans" for the cosmic period of time, sagarôpama. The term stands for a "myriad", an immeasurable, uncountable period. Especially in this context it denotes the longest time-sequence of the life-time when the sentient being takes rebirth in lower regions. "The [number given for the] maximum duration for the first hell is, with an increase, the [number for the] minimum duration concerning the second [hell] and the others; [you should] know that the maximal duration for the second and other hells has been taught by the Jinas to increase successively: 3. 7, ..., 33" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.).252
176) In this way this sentient being endures the intense suffering in manifold ways with body and mind as the result of vices. This corresponds to the duration of the life-time-periods [to spend in the grounds of earth already described].
5.6 Suffering of Animals and Plants
Suffering when being reborn as Animal and Plant (tiriya-gadidukkha)
177-178) But also [when having left the lower world] it [= the sentient being] dwells in the various types of bodies of stationary beings in the rebirth
251 See the story of Annikaputra in Hemacandra's Parisiṣṭa-parvan VI (Hertel 1908:164). 252 Cf. also Ts III.6 with nearly the same numerical set and Mac XII.1116.
73

Page #92

5.6 Suffering of Animals and Plants
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
as animal and plant, wandering along in myriads of wombs uncountable periods of time.
And when it has escaped somehow from the body of the stationary creatures) it comes to life again in the body of beings with incomplete senses. It resorts there suffering in uncountable periods of time.
• tiriya-gaie Vasunandin characterises in the following verses the suf
fering of animals or plants which move in the "horizontal" level (Skt. tiryancah).253 Life is classified by Jain authors in several ways: with respect to the development of the faculties (pajjattapajjatta), with regard to the number of the sense organs, with respect to the movement of the species (mobile and stationary). Furthermore, they could be examined with respect to their dwelling in water-, earth-, fire-, airbodies, etc.254 In Sr (179ff.) our author mentions harmful acts against five-sensed beings.255 In the list of cruelties appear for instance the separation of the cow from its calf pillaya-vioya) and the depriving of animals and humans from food and water. In another list in the Subhāṣita-ratna-samdoha, chapter III, Amitagati enumerates various sufferings of creatures: separation from parents and offsprings, captivity, branding, burning, milking, pain caused by cold, wind, heat, lack of water, lack of food, injury, illness, etc.256 The tiryañcah are assumed to occur in all fourteen jiva-sths.257
• thāvara-kāyesu Jain opinions differ regarding the question how to
define mobile and stationary beings.258 The twofold category of mobile and stationary sentient beings, which is for instance outlined in Ts
253 For Skt. tiryan "going or lying crosswise"; "going horizontally" see MW: p. 447. 254 See Ts II.13; Ts II.23-24. In Ts IV.28 Umāsvāmin defines the tiryancah as those remaining when the beings which dwell in the celestial and infernal abodes and the humans are excluded.
255 This list corresponds to a great extend to the list of cruelties which appear in Mül (1576-1582).
256 A compound, which occurs frequently in this context is si-unha-bhukkha-tanhâdi, which denotes bodily suffering: "[pain caused by] cold and heat, hunger and thirst, among others". This appears also in the pattern of hardships (parişahas) in Ts IX.9ff. See further Marana-vibhakti (647); Mül (1591); Māc II.82; Dixit 1974:331. In Jain narrative literature we find episodes in which the human behaviour of people suffering by hunger is described. Cf. for instance the phrase kim pāpam bubhuksārtā na kurvate ("What misdeed is not done by somebody suffering from hunger?", quoted from an episode of "Pāla and Gopāla" of Jinakirti, Hertel 1917:17, 41, verse 98). Likewise, in an episode in Prabhācandra's commentary on Rk III.1ff. there occurs the saying: "Someone who is hungry is capable of every deed." (Bollée 2010a:75).
257 See further Schubring 1935:133-134; Glasenapp 1942:51-53; Jaini 1979:108ff., 124ff. Outside Jainism we find analytical lists of characteristics of human conception and the rebirth as plants and animals in the Markandeya-purāna XV.10-33 (Pargiter 1904:86ff.). 258 I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Butzenberger and Prof. Bollée for helping
74

Page #93

5.6 Suffering of Animals and Plants
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
II.12ff, and discussed in the commentary traditions, could be modified easily. Some plants have the faculty to react to several sensual stimulations, others even change their position. The Indian grammaticians made observations with regard to the sense organs and movements of plants, such as the Lotus of the class Nelumbium speciosum or the Sirişa. Some of these ideas are discussed in Wezler 1987.259 According to Vasunandin's Sr (12), mobiles beings are all creatures except those, which live from earth-, water-, fire-, wind-bodies and plants.
regard to the sense orkans and moveme
Suffering of the Five-Sensed Being (pamc-imdiya)
179) By its activities of moving to and fro the sentient being is born among the five-sensed animals). From there it wanders around in thousands of wombs for uncountable periods of time.
180-181) You should know that violence against five-sensed beings means) the cutting, breaking, beating, terrifying, the gelding, taming, mutilating [of parts of the body), crushing, pounding, burning, the injury of the limbs,
keeping in captivity, overloading with heavy burdens, marking, the causing of] lack of water and food, cold and heat, hunger and thirst, and the separation from the offsprings.
cheyana-bheyana-o "Cutting" and "breaking of the limbs are examples of cruelties against living beings. In the commentary of Sr (M) Sunilasāgara mentions that similar patterns occur in Mül (1578a, 1577a). Three items in the pattern of Mül (1578a) are nearly identical with those of Vasunandin's list, i.e. chedana-bhedana-, but the list in Mül (1577a) differs slightly from that of Śr beginning with tādanatasana-bamdhana-o. The first and second members of the compound tādana-tasaņa-o correspond to the third and fourth members of the list in Sr (180). In other manuals such as Rk III.8 chedana is mentioned as one example of the five transgressions (aticāras) against the vow of ahimsā. The compound chavi-ccheda is cited in the context of the transgressions against the minor vows which denotes various forms
me to improve my understanding of the Jain classifications of life. I follow a suggestion of Prof. Butzenberger (p.c.) to translate Pkt. thāvara into English "stationary". It is reasonable because most species of plants, such as flowering trees, bushes, herbs, and grasses, do not change their position.
2591 owe this reference to Prof. Butzenberger. The problem of thāvara-tasa-bheya is treated in the commentary of Akalanka on Ts II. 12-14. More reference to the classifications of life in Jain canonical literature is found for instance in Uttarajjhāyā, chapter XXXVI. See also Gs. Ji, Introduction; Kohl 1953:91-95; Jaini 1979:241; Ohira 1982:16.

Page #94

5.6 Suffering of Animals and Plants
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
of injury of the skin of five-sensed beings: 1. "dismembering" (for instance in corporal punishment of crime, danda-niti); 2. "mutilation" (= "cutting of skin and flesh of the body with sharp instruments", i.e "branding and ear-piercing").260 These items are otherwise referred to as exemplary transgressions against the bhogôpabhoga- or anartha-danda-vows (Williams 1963:120ff.). In the commentary of Sr (M) Pkt. nikkhalana is translated into Hindi nāk chedana: "cutting of the nose" 261
o-tādana- "Beating" appears in the list of the five aticāras against the ahimsa-vrata. In some texts vadha is substituted for tādana. It is explained as "thrashing", "beating" with "rods, whips or withies" (willow twigs) and “merciless flogging". There are semantic intersections with malana (Skt. mardana) and yantra-pidana, which are explained as "pressing" or "crushing" (of seeds from sesame, mustard and castor).262
paulaņa "Burning" (Skt. prajvalana) comprises the brandmarking of cattle, as well as the injury of wild animals by burning down the open fields or woods. It occurs as item in the catalogue of the fifteen forbidden trades in pattern of the bhogôpabhoga-vrata. Burning, i.e. setting meadows alight or setting forests and woods on fire (davágnidāna), is regarded as a harmful act which involves violence against beings with five and less senses (Williams 1963:120).
• bamdhana-bhārârovana- According to some Jain authors human
actions caused by greed and negligence such as keeping cattle and human servants in captivity and over-loading of five-sensed beings (i.e. human animals and non-human animals) are considered as intentional harm. They are referred to as transgressions against the ahimsā-vrata and the anartha-danda-vrata (Williams 1963:66ff.). Pkt.
-bamdhana-."binding", occurs as the third member in the compound tādana-tasaņa-bamdhana- in Mül (1578a, 1577a). A similar term appears in this context as bhārârovana, "over-loading" of (non-humans or human) animals with heavy burdens (Sheth 1923:148). A synonym, Skt. ati-bhārâropana, denotes the "loading of an excessive weight of goods such as betel nuts on the back, the shoulders, or the head" of a
260 See Williams 1963:68. Pkt. lamchana can be regarded as a synonym. It is either explained as "branding", or "marking" or more precise as "docking"; "nose-piercing", and "cutting of ears and dewlaps" of lifestock (Sheth 1923:894; MW: p.900 / LANCH "to mark").
261 For examples outside Jainism see also the analytical list in Sutta-Nipāta (242), "Amagandha-sutta", vadha-cheda-bandhana: "sevil acts are ...) taking life, cutting, binding [...]" and in the Jātaka-māla XXIX.45: "striking, cutting, beating [etc.]" (vadhavikartana-tādana-). 262 See Williams 1963:67,120.

Page #95

5.7 Suffering of Human Beings
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
non-human or human animal. To say it more precisely the authors understand this term as the loading of a burden greater than the animal (oxen) or the human (child, adult) can bear. A different term, Skt. ativāhana, is mentioned in the list of the five transgressions against the vow of limiting the possessions (parigraha-parimāņa-vrata). It is explained either as "driving oxen or other beasts of burden for a greater distance than they can comfortably go", or as "overloading beasts of burden through greed of gain" (Williams 1963:68, 97).
182) In this way it (the sentient being experiences many kinds of suffering in the womb of the animal.
5.7 Suffering of Human Beings Suffering when Being Reborn among the Human Beings (manuyattadukkha)
183-184) In the rebirth in the human body sentient beings experience intense suffering of many kinds caused by the union with disagreeable things and the separation from agreeable things.
When it has attained a human body it = the newborn child is separated from the womb of the mother at the first instant, and then, acted on by circumstances, it dies suffering physical pains from cold and heat, hunger and thirst.
• vijoya-samyoya Vasunandin touches here some topics of contem
plation, for instance the "union with disagreeable things" and the "separation from agreeable things" 263 With the proverbial bi-nominal compounds like viyoga-samyoga and tiņa-kamcaņa ("grass and gold" in Sr 276) our author refers to the attitude of non-attachment to wards wordly objects. With regard to grass or gold, grain and cattle, women, snakes and enemies, one should be detached and in control of his feelings and thoughts. The commentary on KA (49) explains that ittha means "grain and cattle" (= movable property, corresponding to dhana-dhānya) and "relations" (son, wife, grandson, and friends). Examples for disagreeable objects (anittha) are snakes, thorns, and
the arch-enemy. "See also the phrase samyoya-vippayoya in Māc VIII.711; further Mül (1583-1585): Śr (276). For vijoya see also Ratnachandra 1923 (1988), Vol. IV, p. 409. The topics of impermanence and non-attachment are not specific Jain. See for instance Maitri Upanisad 1.3; Markandeya-purāna, chapter XI, and the Skt. poetry of Kşemendra.

Page #96

5.7 Suffering of Human Beings
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
185) But even in childhood the sentient being is separated from mother and father. It lives sorrowfully by eating what remains of other people's meals in the houses of strangers.
. bālattane Even in childhood some soul that may be deprived of its
father and mother lives in suffering eating the remains in the house of strangers (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). For (185b) māyā-piyarehi kovi parihiņo cf. the parallel construction in KA (46) piyara-catto.
186) If once in previous life) someone has given a donation to a man according to his might he is wealthy in this life. Afterwards, someone who is deprived of wealth (= not having practised the virtue of giving) is begging, and he does not get anything, not even a handful of cooked rice.
dāna Vasunandin explains the rules of giving in Sr (225ff.). Norman 1991:32 discusses the relation of possessiveness and giving for the laity: "Wealth permeates religious practices, for often people cannot participate fully in the religious life of the community unless they are wealthy and can make generous gifts (dana). In this sense aparigraha is interpretated as the layman donating his excess wealth. Although this should be done in secret, it is in fact a matter of ostentation" 264
187-189) Another one is tormented by chronical] illness due to previous evil and sits in a place outside the city without assistence. He does not [even attain the chance of] dwelling in his own house.
"I am thirsty, I am hungry, son, give me something to drink and to eat!", although crying in that way, nobody gives even a word of comfort to him.
"Then, overcome by sorrow and the burden of illness, causing others trouble with everything, he dies suffering, and after his death human life is [censured as worthless: 'What a shame!"".
• pāva-royena The author of the commentary Śr (M) understands
pāpa-roga as a kind of leprosy and translates the term into Hindi kusta-rogena pidita). The suffering from poverty, illness, old age, and slavehood is explained as being due to the effects of the asāta-vedaniyakarmas in Mül (1585-1586).265 Outside Jainism one statement seems
264 See further Williams 1963:117, 220-235; Dānasta-kathā, Introduction, pp. 1-4, 23-39, 85-99; Gonda 1970-1972; Heim 2007.
265 For the categories of chronical illness in Jain canonical literature see Bollée 2004. For impermanence (anitya) as topic of contemplation see Māc VIII.696 and Williams 1963:244.
78

Page #97

5.8
Suffering of the Gods
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
to be that of time (kāla) being the cause of misery and suffering. Time is thus often referred to as important factor in the law of cause and effect". In this context the relation of cause and effect has also been termed samprāpti.266
savvesim savv'-ahiyāu dāūna "Having caused much distress for all people, he dies in pain and then complains): 'What a shame! Human birth has no value!"" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). The commentary of Sr (M) translates the phrase into Hindi sab logom ko nānā prakārake kaşta de karake (= sabhi prakāra ke ahitom kastom ko dekara): "causing every kind of distress/ all sorts of difficulties".
190) These and other similar kinds of sufferings can be observed in the human world. This sentient being attains them as a result of a vice.
5.8 Suffering of the Gods Suffering in the Destiny of Celestial Beings (deva-gadi-dukkha)
191) Because of the diminishing of evil it [= the sentient being) has somehow attained the rebirth in the celestial realm, but it nevertheless endures suffering, when the results of those deeds have come forth, which have been acquired due to the vices.
192-193) After it has observed the majesty of divine powers originating from the position of a god (= the state of those who attained divine faculties, it feels dejected, because it possesses only few mental energy, and it is burned by suffering of the mind.
[While staying in the abode of the gods the sentient being laments:) "Alas, having taken birth in the existence as human being I obtained also selfdiscipline and self-mortification, but since I committed deeds out of deceit I have earned a miserable existence as [inferiour) god!"
• thii-jja-riddhi-māhappam Vasunandin assumes that the classes of
celestial beings correspond to states of mind and differ in position and mental powers.26 The reader gets the impression that the sentient
266 On chronical illness see for instance the explanation of the disfunction of one's intellect, and in particular, the disfunction of memory in Meulenbeld 1999 IA 39.
267 Pkt. riddhi / Skt. rddhi denotes 1. "wealth; prosperity" 2. "mental faculties" 3. "divine faculties", i.e. superhuman powers (also called maha-siddhis). See MW: p.226. The pattern consists of the power to "change one's form”, to become "as small as an atom" or "as large as the mount Meru", to become "heavy and light", to attain "every desired
79

Page #98

5.8 Suffering of the Gods
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
being suffers in the celestial region: Pkt. visurai: "it feels bewildered, dejected; it is perplexed”. 268 According to Vasunandin man earns the divine faculties due to penance in previous life. But, according to our author the condition of a sentient being who has partly diminished karmic matter might be impaired by subtle passions.269
194-195) It (=the sentient being] dwells among the Kamdappa-, Kibbhisa-, Asura-, Vāhana-, and Sammoha- etc. classes of gods and endures mental suffering in this place.
[Among those destinies of the inferiour classes of gods), when a life duration of six months remains, the clothes and ornaments of the celestial being) are covered with dirt. Knowing the time of its downfall, it cries violently out of sorrow.
• kamdappa-kibbhisâsura-vāhana-° Vasunandin assumes that the
rebirth among the classes of celestial beings such as Kandarpa, Asura etc. is a “miserable one" (cf. deva-duggaya in Śr 193ff.). Alsdorf 1966 analyses a parallel which appears in the Appendix of the canonical Uttarajjhāyā XXXVI.270 While the inhabitants of the higher world in this religious context are classified with reference to their dwellingplaces as Bhaumeyikas, Vyantaras, Jyotiskas, and Vaimānikas, in the Ts IV.3ff. we find nearly the same designations, only the Bhavanavāsins stand in the place of the Bhaumeyikas. Following another Dig. scripture, Māc II.59ff., we learn to know some examples of miserable rebirth. The first group of Kamdappas etc. are clearly associated with love-making and entertainment. We find this illustrated by the stories of men who had become mendicants, practised ascetism, but then attained an unhealthy rebirth due to their initiation in rituals, where they consumed meat, honey, wine and had sexual intercourse with tribal women (Handiqui 1949:418). The stories illuminate the type of man who would not act whole-heartedly in accordance with
object", to move "everywhere according to one's wishes”, to "control matter", to "read the mind of other people". The commentary of Sr (M) on (346) mentions eight primary and 64 sub-categories of divine faculties. In Sr (510-513) we find a reference to the eight divine faculties (attha-gunas). For the classification of celestial beings with superhuman powers see Grafe 2001:206ff.
268 Cf. Pkt. visurai is explained to be the equivalent of KHID: "to be depressed"; "to be worried”, see Sheth 1923:807; MW: p.339.
269 See also the definition of the extraordinary qualities of a Jina which are mentioned for instance in the ritual prescriptions of the Samavasarana. Those characteristics of the "pure self are different from the divine faculties of the gods. See Balbir 1994b:90; further Schubring 1935:199; Kapashi 2007:50: Aupapātika-sutram LVIff. (Leumann 1883b). In Ts IX.8, self-control and self-mortification are described as qualities of mendicants. 270 Cf. Uttarajihāyā XXXVI.198ff., cited according to Alsdorf 1966:166ff.
80

Page #99

5.8
Suffering of the Gods
5
TRANSLATION: SR (57-205)
the Jain rules of conduct.
The Vāhanas and Abhiyogikas are believed to serve other beings of high status in heaven.271 The Vāhanas are considered to be life-time servants of the lords of heaven (Indras). They are grouped between the Asuras and the Sammohas and correspond to the Abhiyogikas.272 Due to Māc II.65 the characteristics of this class of rebirth are the practise of spells (mantā-joga), the desire for power and magic control of others. Those who possessed the described faults were assigned to be reborn in the shape of animals such as elephants, horses, rams, and buffaloes. The Sammohas, if they could be identified with the Mohas in Uttarajjhāyā XXXVI.255ff., are believed to be lower gods, because they were inclined to strong ascetism, but devoid of true insight. They committed suicide.273
271 For the idea of service and the hierarchical structure of celestial beings and its function in ritual see the notes in Balbir 1994b:82ff. Outside Jainism classes of sub-human beings are mentioned in the Buddhist Panca-gati-dipanam (Feer, 1884 (1983), verses 60ff., cf. the French summary of its contents published in "Extraits du Kandjour", Annals of the Museée Guimet, Vol. V, 514-528). Krishan 1983:199ff. assumes that this text is from the 12th century CE, or even later. In the place of the Kamdappas etc. other classes of mythological beings appear, such as Yakşas and Rākşasas.
272 The idea of slavery is well illustrated in the Sanat-kumāra-caritam (689ff., cited according to Jacobi 1921). Haribhadra refers in this very gruesome episode to the hierarchies in the celestial abodes". The servants (Abhiyogikas) bridle up Agniśarma who has taken rebirth after death in the shape of an elephant. He has to render life-time service to Indra, because he was cruel in his last life. The elephant is dressed up, and has to blow up and minimalise its shape according to the wish of his master. It cries out of pain, when it transforms its body.
273 For types of suicide and classification of foolish death see also Ti Pa III.205. Ritual death in fire, burning oneself for the gain of future merits, the offering of one's body to a deity, throwing oneself from a mountain, or taking poison etc., are called loka-mudhas. See Bollée 2010a on Rk 1.6-34ff.; Māc II.59 and 74. People speak in three ways of foolishness concerning life and death. Worldly foolishness such as killing oneself, foolish customs such as veneration of the products of the cow, serving idols, following teachers who are heretics etc., are believed to have the effect of bondage. For parallels in Brahmanism and outside India cf. Kölver 1971:161-172.

Page #100

5.8
Suffering of the Gods
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
• cham-māsâuya-sese [...] cavana-kāla In this context Pkt. cavana 274 denotes the termination of the life-time of a sentient beings which "dwell" in heaven. In the Introduction to Gs KK, p.41, and in the annotations in the same book on stanzas (228ff.) it is stated that the downfall takes place because gods are agitated in their mind due to the operations of the passions. The mental process of transformation of the four greater "error-feeding" passions into the less vigorous passions by one's own effort is technically referred to as Pkt. visamyojana or Skt. udvelanā. The dwellers of the higher world are bestowed with the knowledge of their hour of death and start to lament, when they feel the end to come: "Knowing the time of its downfall (to be close) (...), when six months of life duration among these classes of gods) remain ..." (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). According to Ts I.32-33 the three types of cognition, mati, śruta and avadhi, are prevalent in a distorted form in the "rebirth" in the lower and higher worlds. The avadhi-knowlege is believed to derive from the ksāyôpaśamika condition.
196-197) The sentient being which dwells in the higher world laments: "Alas, nine months I have to stay in a womb in the human rebirth. This is a bad-smelling place], filled with flocks of small insects and worms, pus and blood!
What shall I do? Where can I go? Whom shall I submit my wishes to? Where to go for a refuge? Isn't there a relative who prevents me from falling?"
198-201) (It is mourning:) “The splended king of the gods with Eravan as his vehicle, whose projectile is the Vajra, even he Indra does not support me, although he has been served by me) life-long!
If there will be death, it might happen! But there is my next rebirth. If I come into life among the one-sensed beings, I will hardly take rebirth in the human world!
[It is wailing:) "Moreover, how to act in the case that the result of my thought and previous action has now come into fruition? When even Indra does not possess the power to protect himself at this time of falling from heaven]!"
274Cf. Skt. cyavana "moving; falling from divine existence" (MW: p. 403). See also Śr (87cd); Māc II.66ff.; Mül (1596); Ratnacandra 1923 (1988), Vol. II, p.710; Kuvalayamālā, Vol. I, p. 383, Vol. II, p. 593, 212.4ff. The idea is well illustrated by the story of Vikramayasa's downfall in the Sanat-kumāra-caritam (683, quoted according to Jacobi 1921).

Page #101

5.8 Suffering of the Gods
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
Being helpless in manifold ways it cries vehemently. Having died it is reborn among the one-sensed beings due to the strong feeling [raised in the moment of death).
• eg'imdiesu jäijja no The negative particle po in (1994) follows directly after the caesura in the third quarter of the Arya. The author might have intended to emphasise the contrast (Prof. Balbir, p.c.).
⚫ purâjjiyammi udayâgayammi kammammi The commentary of Śr (M) renders the phrase udayagayammi [...] kale into Hindi purvapärjita karmake udaya anepara Indra bhi maraṇa-kāla mem: "In the time of Indra's death, when the [result of] action assigned to him previously comes up". Prof. Mette (p.c.) proposes the translation of the phrase into German: "[....] wenn sein früher erworbenes Karman aufgeht [...]”.
⚫ niyāṇena We could translate the instrumental phrase niyāṇeņa into: "due to the intense wish raised at the time of dying" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.) or "with the intense emotion raised in the moment of death". The mode of the predicate hojjau, optative future, denotes a wish or fear that a certain event could take place. 275 Skt. nidana in this religious context refers to the desire or strong wish for sensual pleasures in the next life. It is sometimes explained as a mental agitation, agony, or strong wish for the next rebirth.276 In the phrases (199-200) Vasunandin clearly expresses that someone is disappointed because hopes and wishes remain unfulfilled. One gets the impression that the sentient being thinks that human birth is not worth the effort, and even a god cannot protect himself from evil. It seems reasonable that the creature in suffering does not want any more for the next birth, it feels desolate and even the existence as human being has become doubtful (Prof. Balbir, p.c.).
202) In this way the sentient being in suffering bears severe pain countless times. Someone who lacks true insight what suffering might he not endure?
⚫ micchatta-samsaya-mai "Someone, whose mind resorts to false insight [...]" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.).277 Tatia 1994:74 gives a summary of Pujyapada's commentary on Ts III.6 referring to mental suffering
275 See Von Hinüber 1986:181.
276 Cf. Skt. nidana "band; hope; halter"; "primary cause"; "claiming the reward of penitential acts" (MW: p. 548). Prof. Mette (p.c.) suggests the German translation: "mit dem Stachel des heimlichen Wiedergeburtswunsches" (with the thorn of the secret wish to attain rebirth).
277 Pkt. samsiya, the reading of the printed edition is translated into "leaning on, having resorted to; being attached to" but L reads -samsaya-°. I owe this reference to Prof.
83

Page #102

5.8 Suffering of the Gods
5 TRANSLATION: ŚR (57-205)
and the chance for a rebirth: "The gods and infernal beings cannot be immediately be reborn in hells because they are not capable of the virulent aggression and excessive possessiveness which cause birth in infernal regions. [...] After completing their lives in the infernal lands, souls are born either as subhumans (animals, plants) or as human beings. In the next life, those from all seven hells are capable of attaining the enlightened world-view [...]".278 Vasunandin explains in (192) that mental suffering is caused by a lack of mental energy or strength (appa-'dhiya). Hardships are described in Ts IX.6ff. by means of which one practises self-purification. Only in the rebirth as human being the spirit of forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity, renunciation, detachment and continence can be accomplished.
203) Look, how the sentient being, after having enjoyed heavenly bliss in the celestial world, is reborn among the one-sensed beings! What a shame! It is [yet] subjected to the wheel of rebirth and death!
204) In this way the sentient being helplessly attains many kinds of suffering in the terrible ocean of mundane existence as result of the vices.
205) Who abstains from those seven vices and [from the fruits of] the five fig trees], whose mind is purified by true insight, is called "listener [in the stage] of true insight".
⚫ pariharei Vasunandin finishes this section with the refrain of (57). Śr (205b) reads pariharei instead of vivajjei in (57b).
Balbir. In Ratnachandra 1923 [1988], Vol. V, p. 595, appears samsaya, which denotes a category of mixed and deluded insight. Vasunandin argues that the man who lacks enlightened worldview endures all types of suffering. In the Marana-vibhakti (651) occurs the compound māṇa-samsiya-".
278 With regard to the affliction (kilesa) of sentient beings cf. also Mul (1579ff.).
84

Page #103

6 ANALYSIS
6
Analysis
In the following I would like to discuss the section of Śr (57-205) as an unity of form and contents. In this section the author explains certain rituals of "self-purification of the Jain layman and refers to the "law of cause and effect". There is some evidence for the fact that this section consists of semantically and stylistically connected verses which were learned by heart in self-study and contemplation. The section is separated from the rest of the textual body by the introductory verse (57) and the repetition in the nearly identical refrain (205).279 When our author instructs the Jain laity he makes use of certain means of style in order to give thought-provoking illustrations of human faults and their results.280 Vasunandin conveys the idea to the mind of the reader that the mgs. are the prerequisite for a healthy life in accordance with the Jain doctrine (dharma/ dhamma). Our author maintains that happiness is a natural condition of the sentient being and depends on the state of mind. He refers to qualities such as sincerity, purity, and tranquility of mind (sammatta-visuddha-mai). The condition in which the individual experiences bliss is caused by "self-knowledge" and the enlightened world-view (or "true insight").
It is noteworthy that we find likewise descriptions of the sufferings of creatures in the four destinies, especially of five-sensed beings, in two other treatises of the Digs., Mūl and Māc, but there is no emphasis placed on the verbs of "shrieking" 281 With his peculiar choice of words our author clarifies his diction. This is of vital importance for the evidence of the substance of Vasunandin's religious poetry. Vasunandin's Sr could be regarded together with Mūl and Māc as belonging to the "secondary canon" or "Caranânuyoga" of the Jains. Concludingly, it seems reasonable to maintain that the key motif and the numerical patterns are not peculiar to Jain literature, but derive from various Indo-Aryan religious traditions.
In order to convince the reader to adopt the mgs. Vasunandin relates his arguments to certain complementary views or standpoints. The first stand
279 For the means of style in Jain literature such as repetitions and recurring phrases cf. Bruhn 1983:30ff. Although there are no narrative passages in Śr, some of the didactic stanzas clearly refer to stories. Cf. the Hindi summaries in the commentary of Sr (M). They consist of the nuclei of stories taken from the Purānas, the Katha-kośas, and oral traditions. For instance in (125-133) Vasunandin illustrates human vices by referring to characters known from the AP.
280 For other analytical lists of the human virtues and vices see for instance Handiqui's Introduction to Yt, and in the same book (1949), pp. 255ff.; Williams 1963:50; Sogani
1967
28 The English noun "shrieking can be defined as a kind of "loud and high-pitched crying" (Harrap 1987:468). To "shriek out with something" or to "shriek out" means to "utter a shrill scream" (Cowie 1989:1178). "Shrieking" and "crying" are not attributes of human animals alone, but also of non-human animals.
85

Page #104

6 ANALYSIS
point is the social view, i.e. an attitude that concerns social relations, the relationship of non-human and human animals. The second aspect is the soteriological one. It refers to the ultimate reality or the "knowledge of the self". Our author follows the patterns of Dig. ethics, which have been outlined earlier, in manuals such as Samantabhadra's Rk. Those patterns have been thoroughly analysed in Williams 1963. The decision to instruct the reader might have been guided by the consideration that Jain dharma in the tradition (see Chapter 2.7 Anuyoga) is a valid means of knowledge. The authority becomes evident due to the repetition of sayings of the excellent teachers (āptas) and their pupils.282 By referring to the sacred doctrine Vasunandin's voice is bestowed with authority. Our author provides the readership with three means of purification: the essence of the Jain doctrine, the rules of conduct, and the topics meant for contemplation. With regard to the contents and stylistic elements of the poems in Sr (57-205), the key motif seems not to be originally Jain. Therefore, I will outline in brief some terms by means of which the key motif could be isolated and related to strings of thought in Asia.
The following definitions are based on considerations of Panofsky 1962, Wu 1987, and Seyfort Ruegg 2008. Let us understand "motif' in the strict sense in that it denotes the subject-matter of visual representations.283 "Motif is a pattern or an abstract idea which is developed and repeated in the work by the author. "Theme" denotes an abstraction from a motif, or, in an extended sense, a generalisation about related literary and artistic motifs. Although there are no comparable Jain representations of the theme of "transmigration" and "post-mortem purgation" in visual art, we find some in Buddhist Central Asian and South East Asian sculptures and wallpaintings.284 In the chosen section of Vasunandin's manual we find many examples of human wickedness determined by ideological sets, or - to say it
282 The Digs. possess patterns of virtues of the excellent Jain teachers who are called "liberated souls" (siddhas). Those virtues are mentioned in Śr (6-8). For the concept of āpta see Rk 1.6; Fujinaga 2006:107-111.
2831 employ the terms "motifs" and "themes" in the way defined by Panofsky 1962:5ff. and Wu 1987:86 with slight modifications. One should take into account that Vasunandin describes the suffering of the beings in the four destinies in an impressive, imaginative style. With his stylistic means he intends to exhort the reader. Therefore, I consider the term "motif to be adequate in this case.
284 In the Buddhist traditions there are texts concerning ethics and death rituals which consist of a "catalogue of crime" comparable to that of Vasunandin. The idea to describe (and depict) human faults and the corresponding punishments, human virtues and their rewards, was transferred into new social and psychological contexts. We find for instance in South East Asia and China medieval textual and visual representations. Texts such as the Karma-vibhanga served as the source of adaptions in visual art, for instance in the reliefs in the Borobudur ("Hidden foot"). I owe this reference to Prof. Dr. Willem Bollée and Dr. Monika Zin. See further Gonda 1970; Zin 2006; for Chinese representations cf. Kehren 1998/ 1999.
86

Page #105

6 ANALYSIS
more precisely - a religious framework. We might suppose with Noël Caroll 1990:31-35 that the idea of what constitutes horror is to some extent a matter of reacting to specialised cultural constructs such as the categories which people regard as compelling.
In the case of the chosen section of Vasunandin's Sr the means of style should be taken as a deliberate choice of the author. In this case we could consider the term "substrat model" 285 in the way it is employed in Seyfort Ruegg 2008:VI, and 42, note 65, because it helps to classify the central theme. The usage of the term "substrat model" in the discipline of religious studies is different from its linguistic use in the strict sense. I would rather say that the term denotes patterns and motifs which occur in different religious and ethnic contexts in geographically close or adjoining cultural centres. The similarities neither result from external facts only, nor have they been introduced only from outside. They arise more or less from changes, adaptions and modifications of internal structures in natural communities.
As stated by Seyfort Ruegg several motifs, namesakes and counterparts appear at certain levels in Buddhist, Hindu and Jain religious strings of thought. A way of explaining the presence, for example, of certain celestial and daemonic divinities in the mythology of what we call today "Jainism", "Hinduism", and "Buddhism", is to assume that they belong to a "common ground", a "substratum" which was in a great part shared by different religious schools and sects.286 In the following we take up one motif that has been introduced already in the third section, "Geography of Death", in order to classify some semantic features of the verbs of "shrieking” and "mourning". Obviously, this motif occurs with various connotations in religious texts in and outside Asia. It might have appealed to medieval authors, because it serves didactic aims. This motif was easily transferred to diverse ethnic and psychological contexts. We can conclude that the key motif could not be exclusively Jain, because it occurs in Persian, Indian, Central Asian, Chinese, and Greek strings of thought, too. I would prefer to speak either
285I use "models" of explaining patterns as a device for developing some categories for the interpretation of the text. Thereby, I follow some suggestions put forward by Bruhn 1991 in "Models in Indology", Sectional Studies of Jainism, and the "substrat model theory" by Seyfort Ruegg 2008, which is used in a related religious context. Bruhn 1991:40-42 maintains that "concentrating once more on models", if we are concerned with classification etc., we might feel that a "given model c may serve various purposes but that it cannot be construed so as to serve a fixed set of purposes. [...] In fact, one and the same passage embedded into tert r may have one, or more than one of the following relations to other texts: (i) textual relations (parallels in the usual sense), (ii) content relations, (III) structural relations."
286 Seyfort Ruegg, if I understand his thesis rightly, refers to observations of local cults in Brahmanism/ Hinduism/ Buddhism/ Jainism, in which divine beings are conceived from a mundane view and are worshipped by laymen or trainees of certain schools and sects. See Seyfort Ruegg 1964 and 2008:33ff.

Page #106

6.1
The Sound of Shrieking
6 ANALYSIS
of "cross-cultural parallels", or of "mutual inference" 287 In the following, I give a preliminary, but no definitive evaluation of some of the semantics of the root which denotes the act of "shrieking", for instance ✓ KRAND, and its substitutes.
6.1 The Sound of Shrieking In Śr (750), (105d), (106b), (121b), (1370), (139c), (141b), (1510), (158b) Vasunandin is concerned with the problems which arise from sudden and violent actions (sahasā/ sahasam).288 He gives manifold illustrations for the evil resulting from harmful thought and deed. The thief, for instance, commits acts involving intentional harm and physical violence (105ff.). Our author argues that intense mental affliction and physical pain could be the result of unrestrained activity. "Activity" (yoga) in this context denotes the mental and physical actions caused by lack of self-knowledge and the operation of the gross passions. In Sr (170ff.) Vasunandin applies several verbs by means of which he describes the acts of "shrieking", "crying", "wailing", and "lamenting". Generally speaking, the activities of "shrieking" and "crying" are not only attributes of human animals, but also non-human animals can utter noises out of pain, while "lamentations" are reserved to human animals only. Especially dogs and other predators289 are described as having the ability to howl and wail in Indian literature. The idea of the lamentation of the creature in suffering has also been transferred to the elephant. It appears in a narrative passage of the Sanat-kumāra-caritam.290 Vasunandin applies more than one verbal root in order to describe the suffering of creatures. The origin of some of these verbal roots seems to be onomatopoeic. Let us now examine KRAND.
287 The concepts which we find outlined in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain eschatological literature relate to the idea of the lamentation of the "hungry ghost" in the strict sense. There are different religious contexts in which Skt. ātman, Skt. /Pkt. jiva, or Skt. preta/ Pkt. peta are used in the sense of a "spirit". With "spirit” we could understand either 1. "soul thought of as separate from the body"; 2. "ghost"; 3. "supernatural creature" (Cowie 1989:1233). 288 I owe this reference to Prof. Balbir (p.c.). 289 For examples of crying and howling of dogs in Indo-Iranian literature see the study of Bollée 2006, for instance p. 43.
290 In Vasunandin's description of mental sufferings of celestial beings (198) the elephant is also mentioned. Haribhadra illustrates this idea in an exquisite narrative episode of the Sanat-kumāra-caritam (689-702, cited according to Jacobi 1921). The celestial being is forced by its lord Indra to blow up its body, to enlarge and condense its own form entirely according to the will of his master. The elephant is suffering immensely during these stages of transformation. The regions of heaven resound with its scream (cikkāra). The idea of shrieking of plants is rare, but we find some examples in the classical Kāvya literature of the Buddhists. (See Hara 2003:466, note 1). Poetical texts are not short on the anthropomorphism of nature, because the poets depict nature to be animate.
88

Page #107

6.1 The Sound of Shrieking
6 ANALYSIS
Vasunandin employs the participle and the present tense from ✓KRAND291 with kamdamto (157d) and kim kardasi re (142d). In the first case the present participle is used to describe a creature in suffering. The sentient being is crying when it is injured again and again by the sharp leaves of the trees and bushes falling down on it (asi-patta-vana). In the second case, with kim kamdasi 're in Śr (142d), the author describes the situation of an infernal being, which is approached and scolded for its wailing by other creatures of hell: "Hey, why do you cry?". The fierce inhabitants of hell could be identified with the Asuras of (170), in other texts they are designed more or less as servants29 s292 of the lord of the lower world.
We find a slightly different passage in the canonical Uttarajjhāyā XIX.293 In this passage the creature is described as helpless. It is crying, when it is dissolved in the fire, producing shrieks during the process of being burned by the flames in the regions of hell. In another Jain text, Ts VI.12, occurs the verbal action noun derived from a + √ KRAND. The category ex-amined in this chapter is "affliction". It is divided into sub-categories, such as pain, sorrow, heart-burning, crying, injury of life, and bewailing.294 In the commentary Sarvârtha-siddhi on Ts VI.12-13 Pujyapāda states that it is the "evil motive" behind the infliction of pain, which causes the inflow of the specific kind of karmic matter.
We find more instances for the use of KRAND outside Jainism in the same context in medieval texts such as the Buddhist Pañca-gati-dipanam. 295 But 291 Cf. KRAND and a + √ KRAND: 1. "to roar; to make sounds like wind and water; to creak" 2. "to call out piteously; to cry with sorrow; to weep; to lament"; 3. "to shout, to invoke, to cry for help". Generically, ✓ KRAND is related with Latin clamor: "shouting; screaming". See Whitney 1985 [1945]:75; MW: pp.128, 319; Sheth 1923: 266. In the Buddhist Pali canon present tense forms from KRAND appear several times, for instance in the commentary of the Peta-vatthu (43, 160, 262, cited according to Rhys Davids/ Stede 1921-1925:14). These forms refer to the wailing of "hungry ghosts". For a translation see Hecker 2001, especially 371. Furthermore, Abegg 1956 mentions a legend in the Garuda-Purana ("Preta-Kalpa" VII.17ff.) which contains the key motif of the Indian "ghost story". A "death spirit" appears in front of a faithful man and asks for help. See Abegg 1956:103, note 3, also: "Babhruvahana and the ghost".
292 See also Ruben 1939.
293 The verses in Uttarajjhāyā XIX.49-50 describe the suffering of creatures in the grounds of hell. The author of this text places emphasis on crucial words and phrases by making use of alliterations. The choice of words suggests a hissing sound which imitates the noises of liquids and seeds cast into the fire. In Uttarajjhāyā XIX.51 rasamto stands in the place of kamdamto.
294 See Dixit 1974:242, 305. Skt. akrandana derives from a +✓ KRAND and is translated into English "crying" by Tatia 1994:156. As stated by Jaini 1920:17 this verbal noun denotes the act of "weeping". Jacobi 1906:520 translates the term into German "Schluchzen".
295 See the primary edition in Feer 1884 [1983], (38-39). The predicate in the third plural present tense, Pāli: kandanti, denotes here the weeping of the beings in the infernal
89

Page #108

6.1
The Sound of Shrieking
6 ANALYSIS
in another text, which is probably more than 500 years older than the Pancagati-dipanam, the Mārkandeya-purāņa VII, we find the motif of "crying for help to a superior" expressed by a participle derived from KRAND. The context refers to the renunciation of the righteous king Hariscandra.296 In the legend Hariscandra incites the anger of the sage Viśvamitra. One day, when he is chasing a deer, he hears a sound, which reminds him of a female crying in terror. He promises that nobody needed to cry in his kingdom. But, in the course of events, the king's mind is disturbed. He becomes possessed by an evil spirit, Raudra Vighna-rāj, the "opponent of every undertaking". Hariscandra's story of renunciation begins and ends with lamentations.297 Besides, we find in another section of the same Purāna, chapter XII, the description of a creature in suffering in the fierce wilderness similar to the forest of daggers depicted in Vasunandin's sixth hell.298 The image of never-ending pain which is here conveyed to the mind of the reader reminds us of parallel examples of punishment in the Greek mythology.
Vasunandin determines suffering as one characteristic feature of sentient beings in the four destinies, when they are in the condition of helplessness (Sr 62; 201; 204). In this stage or condition the creatures produce very high or deep, penetrating sounds.299 Other verbal roots are employed by Vasunandin in the same context. These roots may serve in the same religious context as equivalents of KRAND and KUJ. For instance LAP and
regions.
296 See the translation of the legend in Pargiter 1904; Rückert 1858 and 1859. 297 In the Epic literature Skt. ākranda denotes "invocation" or "imploring" directed to a superior, elder, or king (MW.p.128).
298 The description of this hell resembles very much that of the Buddhists in the SuttaNipāta III.10, or in the Mahā-vastu, pp. Iff. The limbs of the dwellers of this hell are cut off by plants and being devoured by beasts of prey, while the victims are crying for help in vain. The limbs grow anew and are destroyed again and again.
299 Cf. also KŪJ: “to hum; to make a buzzing sound"; pra + ✓ KŪJ: 1. "to make an inarticulate noise; to make a monotonous or indistinct sound"; 2. "to utter a cry as a bird"; 3. "to moan; to groan"; see Whitney 1885 (1945):20; MW: pp. 299; 653; Sheth 1923:618. Vasunandin employs once KŪJ in (188c) evam kūvamtassa (of a man: "crying thus for help"). Some authors place emphasis with KŪJ (also with prefix pra + KUJ) on the high-pitched mourning of the creatures. The root seems to imitate the resounding voice of nature, similar to an echo. Cf. also Norman 1990a:39-41 who discusses Pkt. kuva: "call for help". According to Norman, the present participle kuvamta, which occurs in Uttarajjhāyā XIX.54, has been explained as a participle from KŪJ in the Svet. commentary traditions. Otherwise, the verbal form may derive from the related KŪ: "to cry; to scream”. Norman points out that it is not always to possible to distinguish the Skt. and Dravidian roots, but both might be independent and onomatopoeic in origin. The connotations in the literary contexts show the semantic development: "to coo/ cry" (of the bird): "to cry out" (of the mammal and human); "to call for help" (in a figurative sense). See also the notes on sam + V KUJ: "to make a noise" (of a grunting-fish or sea-cow) in Norman 1967:30 (1990b:72].

Page #109

6.1
The Sound of Shrieking
6 ANALYSIS
✓ RAT.300 VDIV/DEV/DIV does not occur in Vasunandin's text.301 Outside Jainism, we find some instances for the use of DIV in the context of death rituals. In Pāli present tense, gerunds, and participles deriving from DĪV occur numerous times in the Sutta-Nipāta.302 Instead of DIV and KRAND we find the substitutes RAT303, LAP and RU/ RUD. In (142b) the lamenting of the sentient being in suffering is characterised as pitifully or heart-rendingly (karuna-palāvam ruvei). In the phrase of Sr (142b), palāvam ruvei, with the alteration karunam puno ruvai in (149d), the predicate and the adjunct derive from LAP and RUD. We should take to account the semantical relation of RU /RUD304 and the designation for hell in Buddhist and Hindu eschatological texts: "Raurava". In Vasunandin's Śr ruvai/ ruyai occur in (113a), (149d), (1950), besides we find the phrases alam hi ruyanena (144b), and the participle rovamto (165d).
With the phrase (144) alam hi ruyanena our author depicts fancifully the situation of purgation: in the grounds of the earth some cruel inhabitants of hell (identified with the Asuras in 170) scold the sentient being. It is a reproach, now it is enough of crying!". In (149d) we get to know that the creature while suffering in the grounds of earth pitifully cries again and again. The phrase is constructed with the adverbial adjunct karunam puno ruvai.505 Outside Buddhism and Jainism this motif appears some
300 LAP and vi+ LAP are applied by Vasunandin in (2016) in vilavamāņo, (150c), (154c) vilavamto. Cf. LAP / RAP "to chatter"; "to prate" (Whitney 1885 (1945):136) and pra + LAP: "to utter moaning sounds; to wail; to lament; to bewail"; MW: pp. 689; 896).
301 For DEV/DIV / DIV, also with the prefix pari: "to lament; to bewail; to moan; to groan"; "to complain", see MW: p. 478; Whitney 1885 [1945]:75. In Ts VI.12 appears paridevanam. It denotes in Ts VI.12 the type of affliction caused by intense inauspicious sensations. It is translated into English "lamenting" in Tatia 1994:156. Jaini 1920:17 explains it as "piteous or pathetic moaning to attract compassion". Jacobi 1906:520 translates the verbal noun into German: "Wehklagen".
302 See Sutta-Nipāta (582-583), (774), (969-970), cited according to Rhys Davids/ Stede 1921-1925:49, for instance paridevaneyya: a monk should give up the mental attitude which is the origin of sadness: the concern about what and where to eat, the mental grief about the whereabouts of spending the last night, and the reflection about where to sleep the following night. He should cultivate wisdom. The author of a verse in the Thera-gāthā, (1110: paridevitena kim cited according to Norman), suggests that "seeing all objects as being unstable", what would be the use of lamentation at the time of putting on arms? The mendicant goes forth in order to attain the "undying state".
303 Vasunandin employs the gerund and participle (radiūna, (152c), and radamtam (148c; 169c) derived from RAT: 1. "to howl; to wail; to yell"; "to shout"; 2. "to roar"; "to ring as a bell"; 3. "to proclaim: to implore (a superior)" (Whitney 1885 (1945): 135; MW: p.863; Mayrhofer 1976, Vol. III, p. 36).
304Cf. RU/ RUD 1. "to howl; to roar"; 2. "to weep, to yelp; to cry aloud”; 3."to lament", Whitney 1885 (1945):141-142; MW: p. 883; Sheth 1923:713, 715.
305 Outside Jainism Buddhist poems composed in the post-Christian period appear with showing nearly the same semantic contexts of this verbal root, for example in the Jātakamāla XXIX:38. There is a passage, in which the crying of the inhabitants of hell is

Page #110

6.2 Cross-Cultural Parallels
6 ANALYSIS
times in medieval Purāņas. For example, we find this motif occurring in a ritual section of the Siva-purana, chapter VIIff. In these chapters there is a "catalogue of crime" and geography of death similar to that described by Vasunandin. The path that the naked creatures are designed to walk on is full of obstacles. When they move to the abode of the god of death some of the creatures lament (rudanti) while entering the unpleasant Southern door. The being is mourning (rodamāna) being punished in the Rauravaand Maha-raurava 306 regions. In (97-98) Vasunandin places his emphasis on compassion (anukampa / daya / ghrna). It is associated with the jewels of Jainism and is defined as a virtue of "true insight" in Śr 49ff. Besides, compassion is the foundation of abhaya-dāna, "giving fearnessless" to other beings.
6.2 Cross-Cultural Parallels
In this subsection we point out particular aspects regarding the relation of the central motif in Śr (133-204) to other Asian literature concerned with post-mortem "reward and punishment" and death ritual. In the present context it is helpful to isolate some structural elements and connect them with other theories or models. At first, it is noteworthy to mention the great variety and the geografical distribution of the motif in sources from Europe to Central Asia and China. We should consider those strings of thought a genre per se, which is often called "Wisdom literature", consisting of mourning songs, mythical narrative elements, instructive dialogues, descriptions of death rituals. Secondly, we should take to account that Vasunandin's attitude is deliberate. It mirrors a religious consciousness. Vasunandin makes
described by the poet. The creatures are crying pitifully (rudante/ dina-virutā), when they are attacked by black and spotted dogs, flocks of ravens, greedy jackals, vultures and crows. In the hells referred to in the Pañca-gati-dipanam the creature "cried" (roruva, cf. Feer 1884 [1983], verse 13). Moreover, in the Buddhist legend of "Kunjara-Karṇa" appears an allusion on the topic of "shrieking". A Yakṣa visits the infernal regions at command of Vairocana. The creatures which inhabit the hells have the shape of vessels, oval objects, and other vehicles. They weep and sobb pitifully, call for their fathers and mothers (Cf. Kern 1901).
306 Also the description of the sufferings in the hell which is called "fire-kettle" (aggikumda) reminds us of the prototype of the fiery and dark Raurava or Maha-raurava. Some related concepts of self-purification are discussed in Feer 1892-1893; Law 1925 [1973]:106107, 118. In the Ṛg-Veda VII.104 and IX.73.8-9 (cited according to Bodewitz 2002:215) there are indications of a post mortem-"field" of purgation. This was designed for those who committed evil deeds. Indra and Soma were invoked to push people who misbehaved in ritual or who failed in preparing Soma into the dark pit. But those concepts of "darkness", "narrowness", and "falling" were clearly associated with "lack of knowledge" in ritual on the one hand, and the amorph female goddess of the Southern region on the other hand. Another ancient tradition connects death ritual with the Vedic god Varuna. Notwithstanding the Vedic and Iranian generic relations the symbolic meaning of "fire" in the pre-Christian ritual texts is not homogeneous. The ideas in the Avestan and the Vedic textual sources differ considerably.
92

Page #111

6.2
Cross-Cultural Parallels
6 ANALYSIS
an earnest request to let Jain religion come into view as a separate cultural entity. With regard to the idea of non-violence toward living beings our author is inclusive. He reflects the divine under certain metaphysical categories or presuppositions. Vasunandin's tendency is to describe nature and its creatures as helpless, but in the same time as embodiment of sentience. One gets the impression, as if the non-human and human animals apply to a superior for help (180ff.).
Williams 1963:255 states that the "incarnation in a ku-bhoga-bhūmi resulting from alms-giving (dana) to a ku-pātra is less desirable". The inhabitants of these regions have no clothes and ornaments or houses and live underneath the tree feeding on leaves, flowers, and sometimes a jaggery made of earth. In these destinies instead of human heads they may have heads in the "shape of lions, elephants or other beasts." The description of the "spiritual entities" in human, animal, plant, hybrid and amorph shape (of which we find parallels in related texts such as KA, Mül, Mac or the Pāli Panca-gati-dipanam) clearly shows the tendency of the authors' "secondary anthropomorphism" 307 From my point of view Vasunandin considers the question of autonomy and heteronomy of non-human and human animals, but his position seems to be rather dogmatic. Concludingly, I give into consideration that in the image conveyed in Sr (133ff.) we discern a threefold structure of post-mortem "transition", "purgation", and "dissolution". The key motif seems to be that of beings devoured by the fire. The creatures shriek when being suspended over a kettle, wallowed, cooked and toasted in great heat. They are going into dissolution in the fire like butter, seeds or other ingredients of sacrifice.
While they are devoured by the fire creatures utter inarticulate sounds. In this context we should say a few words about the meaning of the designation "Raurava".308 Outside Jainism the Mārkandeya-purāņa, chapters XIIff., consist of a long description of the post-mortem "reward and punishment". Creatures destined to hell are bound to be wallowed in the hot Mahā-Raurava regions. Sherman 1892:23-46 analyses the parallel features in the Markandeya-purana and Buddhist scriptures, but Feer seems to be the first translator who compares the accounts in Hindu and Buddhist sources dealing with the "catalogues of crimes", especially in Tibetan and Chinese
307 The term "secondary anthropomorphism" is applied here with regard to the deliberate ideological pretexts of authors of religious texts. An outline of theoretical categories and ideologies in religious scriptures is found in Eliade 1987, Vol. I, p.317ff.
308 Skt. raurava belongs to or comes from the "skin of the Ruru class of deer or antilope" or to something unsteady,dishonest, fearful" (MW: p. 891). It seems to be connected with RU / RUD (MW: p.883). For the types of hot hells with other designations such as Tāpana, Sampratāpana, Agni-kunda see Feer 1892:197ff., and for some Chinese designations of Buddhist hells and their etymology cf. also Demoto 2009.
93

Page #112

6.2
Cross-Cultural Parallels
6 ANALYSIS
translations. It is not possible to say something reliable on the age of composition of those ritual sections in the Purānas. According to Pargiter 1904, Introduction, pp. Xff. and Rocher 1986:192 among the Indian Puranas the Markandeya is regarded as the oldest specimen of the genre. We find here embedded into the text corpus the legend of Vipascit's descent to the infernal regions. We should take to account that the fiery hell is called "Raurava" in some passages of the Purānas, whereas in Vasunandin's text we do not find this designation. Feer concludes by comparing Pāli, Skt. Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources that the authors of passages concerning death rituals and rituals of atonement refer to different hells, i.e. places of transitory post-mortem punishment bearing different designations.309 We find in Buddhist texts especially in Central Asia and China specimen of hells, which bear the same characteristics as the hell of the type of Raurava, but have other designations.
The hell called Samghāta reverberates with the sound of "shrieking" and "wailing" 310 In Samjiva voices are heard, which call upon the suffering creatures "buck up, buck up!". In Pratāpa the creatures which are churned in the dark chasms yell all the time out of fear.311 We get a slightly different impression of the "transitory field" with the same emphasis of sound in a Chinese mourning song from a collection of Buddhist verses found in Dunhuang 312 Smith (1958:169) summarises some of the traditional Chinese concepts of "death and transition" as follows: As the earth was thought of as the earliest home of the dead, the "souls" or "soul spirits" were supposed to stay a certain period with or near the corpse, "which had been for a long time its home". But when the corpse disintegrated the "soul" was inevitably forced to leave it, to merge again in that mysterious source of creative energy down in the earth which is referred to in later literature as the 'Yellow Springs'. It was, therefore, a kindness both to the living and to the dead to do everything possible to preserve the corpse from dissolution; to the dead, because only thus could the vital spirit continue to live on and retain its identity; to the living, because only thus could the ancestor spirits continue
309 A ritual section from another Purāna composed between the seventh and eleventh century CE contains a ritual section. One of the stories in this section deals with death and transition. We find here the idea that the messengers of Yama" tear out the purusa ("soul") after the physical death. It is conceived to have the height of a thumb. It remembers the sentiments and habits of the deceased owner of body. It is then forced to enter ("pressed" into) a new body apted to endure the tortures (yātana-deha). The being on the path to the city of Yama is longing for its relatives, friends and home and utters loud cries (Abegg 1956:38, see also note 5). I owe this reference to Prof. Bollée. Cf. for the interpretation of Hindu death rituals also Sprockhoff 1985. 310 «Ständig hört man Jammer- und Klagerufe", see Laut (et. al.) 1998:116. 311 Stimmen, die sagen, "belebt euch wieder!". "Es brüllen die Höllenwesen ständig", cf. Laut (et. al.) 1998:115,120. 312 See the German translation of Wang Fanzhi's poem in Kehren 1998/1999:89ff.
94

Page #113

6.3
The Mystic Pattern
6 ANALYSIS
to interest themselves in the affair of their descendants".
Vasunandin does not employ STAN313 in Sr, what we would like to expect, but instead the equivalents KRAND, VRAT, LAP, and RU/ RUD occur. Those verbal roots convey the idea of repeated acts of crying or mourning to the mind of the reader. Not always the strict sense of something "crackling", when it is cast into the flames, but in the sense of a large number of shrieks reverberating and thus producing echos. It is noteworthy that the names of the hells in Buddhist religious texts are all more or less designed with reference to the sounds of their inhabitants. This means that the designations of the hells bring to mind the yelling, bellowing, howling, mourning, clapping of teeth, and shrieking of the inhabitants. "Atata" reminds us of a clapping sound, a vibration, or an echo of a voice. It might evoke the association of shivering with cold. "Hahava" and "Ahaha" refer to the bellowing of the voice of the inhabitants of these hells, and the same do the names of the hells "Huhuva" and "Ababa". The Chinese transliterations of these names are for instance "Hou-Hou", "Xiu-Xiu", etc. Besides, the hell with the designation "Raurava" is sometimes transliterated into Chinese "Lo-lo-po" which calls to mind the resounding of frightening voices of the inhabitants of that hell.314 The sound of "shrieking" recalls to mind the shrieks of the injured creatures which are wallowed and burned alive. In Vasunandin's text all creatures are depicted as sentient beings crying for help (karuņam puņo ruvai and karuņa-palāva pakuvamta). In some Jain ritual texts we find also the intersections of the mgs. with the idea of the "five fires" of purification.315 In the Jain interpretation of this idea the requirements of Vedic ritual are identified with virtues such as self-control, compassion, etc. Fire stands as a symbol of the whole complex of selfpurification and purgation.
6.3 The Mystic Pattern If we want to evaluate the key motif in the verses of Sr (57-205) we should make evident the author's standpoint and give some suggestions how this standpoint differs from the views and attitudes of other philosophical schools and sects. The views of Indian philosophers are different in defining the ultimate truth based on sets of theoretical categories and the practical ethics res-ulting there-upon in the time of Vasunandin. By quoting examples from
313 STAN “to thunder"; "to roar"; "to reverbarate". Cf. Whitney 1885 (1945):191; for Pkt. thanamti see Ratnachandra 1923 [1988], Vol. III, p. 93. Present tense derived from ✓ STAN occurs in the canonical Suya-gada II.5.1 (kalunam thanamti).
314 See Nos. 3294-3297; 3307; 3317 in Chen 2004. Further Bang, W./ Rachmati 1935, Laut 1996; (et al.) 1998; Demoto 2009. 315See further Handiqui 1949:288 on Somadeva's Yt, chapter VIII.
95

Page #114

6.3
The Mystic Pattern
6 ANALYSIS
other religious texts I wanted to point out that our author approves motifs from folklore and numerical patterns, which are typical for texts concerned with religious instruction. But, notwithstanding the different standpoints regarding the conception of the ultimate truth, it might be useful to give a brief outline of what Vasunandin might have had in mind, when giving the reader instructions on ethics. Primarily, I would like to draw the attention to the Jain "mystic pattern", which is explained in a philosophical text of unknown date assigned to Kundakunda 316, the Samaya-sára.
According to Kundakunda someone gains reliable knowledge about reality by making use of two complementary patterns or attitudes regarding truth. One attitude concerns the world and from this standpoint interaction between the sentient being and non-sentient entities is regarded as reality. This is the wordly view. The other standpoint concerns final emancipation, it aims at "self-realisation". It is the standpoint of ultimate truth. From the standpoint of ultimate truth one regards "the world samsāra) to be an apparent reality like the reflection of an object in a pure crystal" (Bhatt 1984:281). By taking into consideration these two standpoints we evaluate Vasunandin's dietary and occupational restrictions. The arguments brought forward in Sr (59ff.) by our author show on the one hand that he reflects human behaviour, the perfect propriety of the individual, the morality of gender, family, caste and class. And on the other hand he promotes knowledge that aims at "self-realisation". Vasunandin cites phrases and technical terms associated with the topics of the twelve contemplations. But in the same text we will also find also a concern for structured life in a set system of ranks and the relation of man and nature. This is conveyed to the reader by a vivid description of possible "destinies" of non-human and human animals. Due to the spirit of time in Sr (97ff.) women and animals (and brahmins, standing for other mendicants, too!) are not given the full subject-status. And one might assume that the idea of the non-property status of non-human and human animals is not thoroughly reflected by the author. But Vasunandin places his emphasis on sound. Sound is peculiar to the condition of suffering of all sentient beings. The sound of terror is identified with a state of mind due to self-deceit, fear, passion, and lack of self-knowledge. We find here the notion that animals are always full of fear (Śr 94-96).
316 The authority of Vasunandin was confirmed by referring to a linkage to early predecessors, because it is mentioned that Vasunandin is affiliated to Kundakunda in the colophon of Sr. Cf. siri-kumdakumda-samtāne in Sr (540). I have decided to quote the vyavahārastandpoint and the paramartha-standpoint as found in Kundakunda's Samaya-sāra and summarised in Bhatt 1974:280, note 1-2, and 281-282. The vyavahāra-standpoint is concerned with the understanding of worldly affairs, while the paramartha-standpoint relates to the ultimate reality.
96

Page #115

6.4
Conclusion
6 ANALYSIS
According to Jaini 1979:108 the categories of animals and plants constitute a "special case" in Jain cosmology. Plants and classes of other elementary organisms are considered as possessing the lowest status of the possible destinies. In Sr (142ff.) Vasunandin describes the lamentation of various types of sentient beings. He alludes to the fear of rebirth as a non-rational being with incomplete sense organs.317 Our author's concern is to upset the reader and direct him to abstain from evil.
6.4 Conclusion Vasunandin's Srāvakācāra is a specimen of medieval literary instruction in India. It is a manual written for the Jain layman. The author gives an outline of dietary restrictions and occupational ethics in the chosen section of Sr (57-205). He defines the attitude of "true insight”. By definition of its characteristics and ornaments sammatta might be understood as the right inclination or attitude towards the ultimate reality, which finds another expression in the Jain seven principles, the Tattvas, and the five vows. Various ideas and strings of thoughts are connected with the transgressions.318 Moreover, as I tried to show in my notes, the religious poems of Vasunandin are related in contents and style with those analysed by Alsdorf (1966:176ff.). They consist of segments or phrases, which appear otherwise in compilations called Bhāvanās or Anuvekkhās.
In Mül (1577ff.) occurs nearly the same catalogue of suffering of the fivesensed beings. This passage relates in style and contents to Vasunandin's Sr (180ff.). There are two explanations for the intense sufferings in Mül (1579). One reason is that the sentient being is unprotected (attāno). The second reason is that suffering is due to the condition of partial obstruction of true insight and knowledge. This means that human beings show a tendency to commit evil acts out of negligence, ignorance, without self-restraint, and without repentence (nippadiyammo). Outstanding in Vasunandin's Śr is the emphasis of sound.319 In Sr (57ff.) the repetition of the motif of "shrieking" might serve well to illustrate Vasunandin's standpoint.
317 For the concept of the non-rationality of the nigodas and their role in the Jain dogmatics see Dundas 2006 and Osier 2009.
318 As has been discussed earlier by Schubring 1935:187ff., Williams 1963:41ff., 172ff., Jaini 1979:186, Wiley 2006, the stage of "true insight" could be defined as the attitude of someone who cultivates compassion and destructs the effects of evil thoughts and deeds caused by the gross passions.
319 In the Jain doctrine we find sound defined in relation to the function of the senses in Ts II.20; see also Varni 2003-2004, Vol. IV: 2. Moreover, there is also the idea of a special perception of sound associated with the heavenly sphere (divya-dhvani. See for instance AP XL.50ff; Jaini 1979:35, 42; Balbir 1994b: 67ff., 88ff.; Kapashi 2007:48-55, 67). Outside Jainism seem to exist related concepts, for instance Schmithausen 1991 mentions sound as the symbol of the divine in the oldest Pāli texts such as the Digha-nikāya.
97

Page #116

6.4
Conclusion
6 ANALYSIS
More generally, the thoughts in the chosen section of Vasunandin's poem concern the attitude towards dying. We might assume that Vasunandin intends to persuade the reader that "self-purification" is a process which depends on the minute control of one's thought and action. But, the reflection on individual welfare cannot be separated from the reflection on nature 320 For sure, there are certain ideological pretexts which should be taken to account when reading and discussing Vasunandin's Sr (57ff.).
There is the paradigma of anthropomorphism, especially when regarding the ideas of autonomy and heteronomy of creatures. There is the paradigma of compassion that embraces life as a whole. Besides, we find in this text few hints regarding the subject-status of women (related to the eco-feministic debate); another theorem is concerned with the sentience of animals, plants and microorganisms. Vasunandin teaches that the layman should spare life and cultivate compassion, especially with regard to the five-sensed beings. He should not kill, steal, or earn his living by gambling. He is content with his own wife. Compassion is regarded as an ornament of true insight. Vasunandin holds that the layman should observe special dietary rules, by which he also practises the virtue of "giving of fearlessness" to other beings (abhaya-dāna), i.e. giving up occupational hunting, slaughter to fulfill religious ambitions, searching for honey, etc. By vivid illustration our author tries to persuade the reader that self-knowledge is the key to enlightment.521 Vasunandin suggests that the layman should act with self-restraint.322 Self
320 We find some striking parallels to Vasunandin's vivid depiction of post-mortem "purgation" in the narrative passages in the Pāli Catu-dvāra-Jātaka (439). A merchant's son who has been disobedient and cruel is condemned to suffer in the city of Yama. At the end of a long journey he substitutes a creature in suffering which supports a razor-wheel. The being in suffering utters groaning sounds (pari-devana-sadda). But in the state of illusion Mittavindaka mistakes this sound for a sweet song (madhura-gita-sadda). In this context it is noteworthy mentioning Kehren's (1998) translation of Buddhist eschatological poems from a Chinese collection of Wang Fanzhi found in Dunhuang (8th century CE). In this poems we find the depiction of post-mortem journeys, related numerical patterns, and a "Geography of Death". Emphasis is placed on sound, too. Kehren maintains that those poems might have had a fixed place in the life of men and were sometimes accompanied by visual material, i.e. painted scrolls or wall paintings in the Buddhist caves. But, even in the Appendix of Plato's Politeia, which is credited to the 5th century BCE, related numerical patterns appear. The motif of "shrieking souls" occurs, although no visual adaptions of this legend have come down to us.
321 In Buddhism we find several metaphysical traditions based on self-knowledge. Some early concepts are associated with the term pañña-vimutti ("emancipation by knowledge") or samadhi. For the Buddhist patterns see for instance the introductory essay in Eimer 2006 and Eimer 2006:76ff. For the developments of Buddhist strings of thought in Central Asia and China cf. Buswell 1989:3, 186ff. See Bruhn 2003:69 for parallels with Manichaeism.
322 In Sr (193) appears the compound tava-samjama: "self-discipline and selfmortification". Virtues such as compassion, self-mortification, forebearance, and purity of mind, are clearly associated with the rules of the mendicants. We could assume that in origin they stand related to the "cares" (samitis). See Bollée 1977:129. Schubring
98

Page #117

6.4 Conclusion
6 ANALYSIS
knowledge, self-restraint and compassion lead to tranquility of mind.
Repetitions and variations have a specific religious function in our text. Although the motif of "Shrieking Souls" is common in Indian religious literature, we find traces of it in various ritual texts outside India, for example in Central Asia, Persia, and China. With his poems Vasunandin follows the genuine Indian tradition. This type of Jain instructive literature is called "religio-ethical verse" by Handiqui 1949:291. Alsdorf (1966:159) explains the way Jain authors might have treated the material they knew by heart: the learned monks made ad-hoc compositions by adding to the ancient patterns the minimum that would "create a self-sufficient poem intelligible without reference to a fuller prose tale". According to Handiqui these collections of stanzas are important because of the "place they occupy in Jaina literature and religious thought".
1962:304 points out that the threefold renunciation with regard to intention, preparation and performance of harmful acts relates to the code of conduct of the ascetics. Moreover, the parallel structure of stanzas of Śr (134ff.) and (191ff.) and the corresponding chapters of KA, Mul, and Mac, make it obvious that those verses are connected with the Aradhanaand Pratyakhyāna-traditions.
99

Page #118

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
7
Bibliography
7.1 Main Work Titles Main Works in Samskrt and Prakrt, some with Abbreviations of Titles
AP: Adi-purana of Jinasena. Adipurāņa of Jinasena. Edited by Pannālāl Jain. Kasi, 1963. (Jnanapitha Mūrti-devi Jaina Granthamālā No. 8). See also: Mahā-puraņa.
Artha-śāstra. See Kangle, 1972.
Astā-prābhrta of Kundakunda. Edited by Pannālāl Jain. With the Commentary of Srutasāgara. Sonāgir, Datiyā, 1990.
Aupapātika-sūtram(=Uvavõiya-suttam). See Leumann, 1883b.
Av Cu: Avasyaka-cūrni of Haribhadra Sūri. Srimad-āvasyaka-sūtram. Vol. I-II. Edited by Anandasāgara Sūri. Ratlam/ Indaur, 1928-1929. (Rsabhadeva-ji Kesari-mālā-ji Svetāmbara Samsthā).
Āyār: Ācārânga-sūtram. Ayāramga-suttam. Edited by Muni Jambūvijaya. Bombay, 1976. (JĀS).
Bhagavati Ārādhanā. See Mülārādhanā of Sivârya.
Bhagavati Sūtra. See Viyāha-pannatti.
Bharataka-dva-trimsikā. See Hertel, 1922.
Caraka-samhitā. Agniveśa's Treatise Refined and Annotated by Caraka and redacted by Drdhabala. Text with English Translation. Edited by Priyavat Sharma. Varanasi, 1981-1983.
Devasena's Bhāvasamgraha. Edited by Jinadāsa Sastri P. Phadkule. Solapur, Vira Nirv. Samv. 2454 (1927], Sridhar Press.
Harişeņa's Brhatkathākosa. Edited by A.N. Upadhye. Bombay, 1943.
Chap: Chap-pāhuda of Kundakunda. See Astā-prābhyta.
Dānástakathā. Recueil Jaina de huit histoires sur le don. Introduction, Édition Critique, Traduction, Notes par Nalini Balbir. Paris, 1982. (Publi
100

Page #119

7.1 Main Work Titles
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
cations de l'Institut de Civilisation Indienne, Fasc. 48).
The Digha-Nikāya. Edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and J. Estin Carpenter. London, 1890-1911. (The Pāli Text Society).
Dharmāmrtasāgara of Āsādhara. Edited with a Jñanadipikā Sanskrit Commentary and Hindi Translation by Kailasacandra Šāstri. New Delhi, 1978. (Bhāratiya Jñānapitha Mürtidevi Jaina Granthamālā).
Amitagati's Dharmapariksā. Edited with the Hindi Translation by Bālacandra Šāstri. Solāpūr, 1978. (Jivarāja Jaina Granthamālā No. 32).
Gs Ji: Gommata-sāra of Nemicandra, Jiva-kānda. Gommatasāra (Jiva-Kānda) of Nemichandra Siddhānta Chakravarti. Edited with the Karnāṭaka-Vrtti, the Sanskrit Tikā, Jiva-Tattva-Pradipikā, the Hindi Translation and Introduction by A.N. Upadhye and Kailash Chandra. New Delhi, 1978-1979. Vol. I-II. (Jñānapitha Mūrtidevi Jaina Granthamālā, Prākrit Grantha 14-15).
Gs Ka: Gommata-sāra of Nemicandra, Karma-kānda. Gommatasāra (Karma-Kānda). (Part II). Edited with Introduction, Translation and Commentaries by Sitala Prasada Ji and Ajita Prasada. Ajitashram, Lucknow, 1937. (Sacred Books of the Jainas, X).
Homerus: The Iliad. Edited with Apparatus Criticus (etc.) by Walter Leaf. London, 1900-1902. Reprint: Milano, 2002)
Jai Br: Jaiminiya Brāhmaṇa. Jaiminiya Brāhmaṇa. 1, 1-65. Translation and Commentary by Hendrik Wilhelm Bodewitz. Leiden, 1973.
Jātaka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Birth. Translated from the Pali by [...] E.B.Cowell. Cambridge, 1895-1913.
Jātaka-Mālā. Stories of Buddha's Former Incarnations. Otherwise Entitled Bodhisattva-Avadāna-Mālā by Aryaśūra. Critically Edited in the Original Sanskrit by Henrik Kern. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1943.
KA: Kattikeyanuvekkha. Twelve Anupreksās of Svāmi Kārtikeya. Svāmi Kumāra's Kārttikeyānupreksā. (Kattikeyāņupekkhā). An Early Treatise on Jaina Doctrines, Especially Anupreksās. (...) Edited along with the Sanskrit Commentary of Subhacandra, with Various Readings, Introduction, Appendices etc. by A.N.Upadhye. Bombay, 1960. (Srimad Rājachandra Jaina Šāstramālā).
101

Page #120

7.1 Main Work Titles
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kuvalayamālā: roman jaina de 779, composé par Uddyotanasuri. [Edited and translated by] Christine Chojnacki. Vol. I. Ètudes. Vol. II. Traductions et Annotations. Marburg, 2008. (Indica et Tibetica 50).
Maitrypanisad. Edited by Omprakash. Benares, 2001.
The Maha-purana of Jinasena. Edited by Pannalal Jain. Kāśī, 1951. (Jñanapitha Murti-devi Jaina Granthamālā).
The Mahabharata.[...]. Critical Edited by Vishnu S. Sukthankar. Poona, 1933ff.
The Mahāvastu. Vol. I-III. Translated from the Buddhist Sanskrit by J.J.Jones. London, 1949.
Manu-smrti (= Manava-dharma-sastra).
The Laws of Manu. With an Introduction and Notes Translated by Wendy Doniger with Brian K. Smith. London, 1991.
Marana-samadhi-prakirnakam (= Marana-vibhakti, Gāthās 635ff.). Marana-vibhakti. In: Agama-sudha-sindhuh. Astamo Vibhaga. Edited by Vijayakarpurasuri and Vijayamṛtasuri. Santipuri, 1975. (Harsa-puspamṛta Jaina Grantha-mālā): pp. 86-125.
The Märkandeya Purana. Edited by K.M. Banerjea. Calcutta, 1862. (Bibliotheca Indica 29). [Reprint: Osnabrück, 1980]. See also Pargiter, 1904.
Mac: Mulâcara of Vaṭṭakera.
Vattakerācārya's Müläcära. With Acaravṛtti, a Sanskrit Commentary of Acarya Vasunandi Siddhantacakravarti. [With the Hindi Tikā of Jñänamati edited by Kailasacandra Sastri [...], and Pannalal Jaina. 2 Vols. New Delhi, 1984-1986. (Bharatiya Jñānapiṭha Mūrtidevi Jaina Prākṛt Granthamālā No. 19).
Mal: Maláradhana of Śivȧrya.
Sivarya's Bhagavati Aradhana. With the Samskrit Tikā Vijayōdaya of Aparajita Sūri. Edited along with the Hindi translation by Kailasacandra Sastri. 2 Vols. Solapur, 1978. (Jivaraja Jaina Granthamälä Nos. 36-37).
Pañca-gati-dipanam. See Feer, 1884. [1983].
Panchastikaya Samayasara of Kundakunda. Edited [with the English Translation and] with a Historical Introduction by A. Chakravarti and S. C.
102

Page #121

7.1 Main Work Titles
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ghoshal. Arrah, 1921. (Sacred Books of the Jainas, III).
Parisista-parvan of Hemacandra. See Hertel, 1908.
Peta-vatthu with the Dipani of Dhammapāla. See Hecker, 2001.
Politeia (= The Republic of Plato, X, Appendix 614b-621d). Plato's Republic X. With Translation and Commentary by S. Halliwell. Oxford, 1988. Reprint: 2005).
Prakirnakam. See Marana-samadhi-prakirnakam.
Rāmacandra Mumuksu's Punyásrava-Kathakosa. Critically Edited with Introduction, Appendices et. by A. N. Upadhye and H.L.Jain. Solapur, 1964. (Jivarāja Jaina Granthamālā 14).
Puruşartha-siddhy-upāya of Amrtacandra. Purushartha-Siddhyupaya. (Jaina-Pravachana-Rahasya-Kosha). By Shrimat Amrita Chandra Suri. Edited with an Introduction, Translation, and Original Commentaries in English by Ajita Prasada. Ajitashram, Lucknow, U.P., 1933. (Sacred Books of the Jainas, IV).
Rg-veda. Der Rigveda. Aus dem Sanskrit ins Deutsche übersetzt und mit einem laufenden Kommentar versehen von Karl Friedrich Geldner. Cambridge, 1951-1957.
Rk: Ratna-karanda-śrāvakácāra of Samantabhadra. Samantabhadra-svāmi-viracito Ratna-karandaka-śrāvakācāraḥ. With the Tikā of Prabhācandra. Edited by Nāthurāma Premi). Bombay, Samv. 1982. (1926). (Māņikacandra Digambar Jain Granthamālā, No. 24). See also Bollée, 2010a.
Sagara-dharmâmrta of Asadhara. See Dharmâmrta.
Samaya-mātrikā of Kşemendra. See Meyer, 1903.
Samayasāra of Kundakunda. Delhi, 1958. (Ahimsā Mandira Prakāśana).
Sanat-kumāra-caritam. (= A section from Nemi-nāha-cariu 443-785 of Haribhadra). See Jacobi, 1921.
Şat-khandâgama of Puspadanta. Puspadanta-Bhūta-bali pranita Satkhandāgama. With the Commentary of
103

Page #122

7.1 Main Work Titles
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Virasenācārya edited by Phūlacandra Siddhānta Šāstri. Part IV. Solāpūr, 1990. (Jivarāja Jaina Granthamālā Dhavalā 9).
Sāvaya-dhamma-dohā. An Apabhramsa Work of the 10th Century. With Introduction, Translation, Glossary, Notes and Index Edited by Hirālāl Jain. Karanja, Berar, 1932. (Karanja Jain Series No. 2).
Subhāṣita-ratna-samdoha of Amitagati. Amitagati's Subhāṣitasamdoha. Sanskrit und Deutsch. Herausgegeben von Richard Schmidt. Leipzig, 1908, pp. 265-340, 523-577, 88-137, 299-341, 543-582, 875-908. (Separate Edition of ZDMG LIXff., Leipzig, 1905ff.).
The Siva Mahā-purāna. (Umā-samhitā). The Sivapurana. Vol. 1-4. Edited by Arnold Kunst and J.L.Shastri. Translated by a Board of Scholars. Delhi, 1970. See also Nagar, 2007.
Śr: Srāvakâcāra (= Upāsakâdhyayana) of Vasunandin. Vasunandi-Srāvakācāra. With Hindi Translation Edited by Hirālāl Jain. Benares, 1952. (Jñānapitha Mūrtidevi Jaina Granthamālā, Prākrit Grantha No. 3).
Śr (M): Śrāvakācāra of Vasunandin (= Mumbai Reprint). Vasunandi-Śrāvakācāra. (Edited with the Tikā of Sunila Sagara by Bhāgacandra Jaina and Vimalakumāra Saumrayā. Mumbai, 2006. (Hindi Grantha Kāryalaya).
Sutta-Nipāta. New Edition by Dines Andersen and Helmer Smith. London, 1948. (PTS). See also Nyanaponika, 1955.
Sūya-gadamga-suttam. See Jacobi, 1895, pp. 235-435. See also Bollée, 1977/ 1988/ 1990.
Thera-gātha. See Norman, 1969/ 1978.
Ti Pa: Tiloya-pannatti of Yativrsabha. Jadivvasaha's Tiloyapannatti. (An Ancient Prākrit Text Dealing with Jaina Cosmography, Dogmatics etc.) [Edited by A. N. Upadhye and Hirālāl Jain with the Hindi Paraphrase of Bālacandra. Vols. I-II. Solapur, 1956.
Ts: Tattvartha-sūtra of Umāsvāmin (with the Sarvārtha-siddhi of Pujyapāda and the Raja-vārtika of Akalankadeva). Tattvārthavārtika (Rajavārtika). Of Sri Akalankadeva. Part 1-2. Edited and Translated by Mahendra Kumar Jain. Kashi, 1953-1957. (Mürtidevi Jaina Granthamālā, Sanskrit Grantha No. 10). Seventh edition: New Delhi,
104

Page #123

7.1 Main Work Titles
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
2004.). See also Jacobi, 1906; Jaini, 1920; Dixit, 1974; Tatia, 1994.
Tacca-viyāra. (= Vasunandin's Srāvakâcara, extract). Tacca-viyara of Vasunandin. In: Sramaņa-Vidyā. Vol. 1. Edited by K.C.Jain/ J.Upadhye/ R.S.Tripathi/ P.Jain. Varanasi, 1983, pp. 141-201.
Uttarajjhāyā (= Uttaradhyayana-sūtram). See Jacobi, 1895.
Uvāsaga-dasão. Edited in the Original Prakrit with the Sanskrit Commentary of Abhaya Deva and an English Translation with Notes by A.F.Rudolf Hoernle. Vols. I-II. Calcutta, 1888-1890.
Viyāhapannatti (Bhagavai). The fifth Anga of the Jaina Canon. With Introduction, Critical Analysis, Commentary and Indexes by Jozef Deleu. Brugge, 1970.
Yt Yasas-tilaka of Somadeva. (Part VI-VIII = Somadeva's Upāsakadhyayana). [Upāsakadhyayana of Somadeval. In: Srāvakācāra Samgraha. (Ratnakarandaka ādi). Bhāga 1. Edited by Hirālāl Šāstri. Solapur, 1988. (Jaina Granthamālā, Hindi Vibhāga 27). Pp. 123-234. See also Handiqui, 1949.
Yoga-śāstra of Hemacandra. See Qvarnström, 2002.
105

Page #124

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
7.2 Reference Literature
Abegg, E. 1956. Der Preta-Kalpa des Garuda-Purana. Eine Darstellung des hinduistischen Totenkultes und Jenseitsglaubens. Wiesbaden. Zweite, unveränderte Auflage. Berlin.
Alsdorf, L. 1933. "Bemerkungen zu Pischels Materialien zur Kenntnis des Apabhramsa", in: Festschrift Moriz Winternitz, 1863-1933. Herausgegeben von O. Stein u. W. Gampert. Leipzig, pp. 29-150.
- 1937. [1966] Apabhramsa Studien. Leipzig. [Reprint: Nendeln].
--. 1962 [1998]. Beiträge zur Geschichte des Vegetarismus und der Rinderverehrung in Indien. Wiesbaden (Abhandlungen der Geistes - u. Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Jg. 1961, Nr. 6). [Reprint: Stuttgart, 831-899. (Glasenapp-Stiftung 35)]. See also for the English translation: Alsdorf/
Bollée 2010.
--. 1966. The Arya Stanzas of the Uttarajjhāyā. Contributions to the Text History and Interpretation of a Canonical Jaina Text. Wiesbaden. (Abhandlungen der Geistes - u. Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Nr. 2).
--. 1968. Die Arya Strophen des Pali-Kanons. Metrisch hergestellt und textgeschichtlich untersucht. Wiesbaden. (Abhandlungen der Geistes - u. Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Nr. 4).
-. 2006. Jaina Studies: Their Present State and Future Tasks. Translated into English by B. Patil. Revised and Edited by W. Bollée. Mumbai. (Pandit N. Premi Research Series, 1).
/ Bollée. 2010. The History of Vegetarianism and Cow- Veneration in India. By Ludwig Alsdorf. Translated from German by B. Patil. Revised by N. Hayton. Edited with Additional Notes, a Bibliography and Four Appendices by W. Bollée. London/ New York.
Babb, L.A. 1996. Absent Lord. Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture. Berkeley/Los Angeles / London. (Studies in Religion and Society).
Balbir, N. 1992. "La fascination jaina pour l'alchimie", in: Journal of the European Ayurvedic Society 2, pp. 134-150.
1994a. "Formes et terminologie du narratif jaina ancien", in: Genres littéraires en Inde. [Edited by] N. Balbir. Paris, pp. 223-261.
106

Page #125

7.2
Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
--. 1994b. "An Investigation of Textual Sources on the Samavasarana", in: Festschrift Klaus Bruhn. Edited by N.Balbir and J.K.Bautze. Reinbek. (Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik), pp. 67-104.
-- / Pinault, G.-J. 2009. Penser, dire et représenter l'animal dans le monde indien. Paris. (Bibliothèque de L'Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sciences Historiques et Philologiques).
Baldissera, F. 1999-2000. "Sinister Fluids. The Evil Juices of Love, Writing and Religion", in: BEI XVII-XVIII, pp. 153-172.
Bang, W. / Rachmati, R. 1935. "Uigurische Bruchstücke über verschiedene Höllen aus der Berliner Turfansammlung", in: Ungarische Jahrbücher XV, pp. 389-402.
Basham, A.L. 1951. History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas. London.
Bennedik, S. 2007. Die Siebenplanetenwoche in Indien. Bonn. Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades im philosophischen Fachbereich).
Bharati, A. 1977. Die Tantra- Tradition. Mit einem Vorwort von Detlef-Ingo Lauf. Freiburg.
Bhargava, D. 1968. Jaina Ethics. Delhi.
Bhatt, B. 1974. "Vyavahāra-naya and Niscaya-naya in Kundakunda's Works", in: XVIII. Deutscher Orientalistentag vom 1. bis 5. Oktober 1972 in Lübeck. Vorträge. Sektion VII: Indologie. Herausgegeben von W. Voigt. Wiesbaden, pp. 279-291.
-- 1978. The Canonical "niksepa": Studies in Jaina Dialectics. Leiden.
--. 1992. "Study of the Word: niksepa and other Derivatives in the Svetāmbara Jaina Canon", in: Akten des Melzer-Symposiums 1991. Herausgegeben von W. Slaje und C. Zinko. Graz, pp. 15-53.
- - 1994. "Twelve Anuvekkhās in Early Jainism", in: Festschrift Klaus Bruhn. Edited by N.Balbir and J.K.Bautze. Reinbek. (Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik), pp. 171-193.
107

Page #126

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Biesterfeld, W. 1969. Der platonische Mythos des Er (Politeia 6146-621d): Versuch einer Interpretation und Studien zum Problem östlicher Parallelen. Münster. Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades im Philosophischen Fachbereich).
Bloomfield, M. 1913. "The Character and Adventures of Mūladeva”, in: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. LII. No. 212, pp. 616-650.
Bodewitz, H. 1994. "Life after Death in the Rgvedasamhitā". In: WZKS XXXVIII. Orbis Indicus. (Festschrift Gerhard Oberhammer). Herausgegeben von R.Mesquita and C. Werba, pp. 23-42.
-- 2002. "The Dark and Deep Underworld in the Veda". In: JAOS 122.2, pp. 213-223.
Boehtlingk, O. 1873. Indische Sprüche. Sanskrit und Deutsch. Zweite und verbesserte Auflage. St. Petersburg.
-- / R. Roth. 1855-1875. [1990]. [Petersburger Sanskrit-Wörterbuch Herausgegeben von der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. 7 Bde. (Reprint: Delhi).
Bollée, W. 1977. Studien zum Sūyagada. Die Jainas und die anderen Weltanschauungen vor der Zeitenwende. Textteile, Nijjutti, Übersetzung und Anmerkungen. Teil 1. Wiesbaden. (Schriften des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg, Bd. 24).
- 1988. Studien zum Sūyagada. Teil 2. Wiesbaden. (Schriften des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg, Bd. 31).
-- 1990. "Āyāramga 2,16 and Sūyagada 1, 16". In: JIPh XVIII, pp. 29-52.
- - 2002. The Story of Paesi. (Paesi-Kahānayam). Soul and Body in Ancient India. A Dialogue on Materialism. Text, Translation, Notes and Glossary. Wiesbaden. (Beiträge zur Kenntnis südasiatischer Sprachen und Literaturen, Bd. 8).
-- 2004. "Notes on Diseases in the Canon of the Svetāmbara Jains". In: Studia Asiatica IV-V, pp. 163-198.
- 2006. Gone to the Dogs in Ancient India. München. (Sitzungsberichte der Phil.-hist. Klasse, Heft 2).
108

Page #127

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 2008. "Glossary of Robert Williams, Jaina Yoga". In: IJJS 4,3, pp. 1-53.
-- 2010a. Samantabhadra Deva's Ratnakarandaka Śrāvakācāra. [With Illustrative Stories from Prabhācandra's Commentary edited with Samskrt Text, Translation and Notes. Hanumanthanagar, Bangalore, Sundara Prakashana.
- - 2010b. See Alsdorf / Bollée 2010.
Bone, G.C.D. 1996. "Theravada Buddhism's two Formulations of the Dasasila and the Ethics of the Gradual Path”. In: Pāli Buddhism. Edited by F.J. Hoffman and M. Dugalle. Richmont, pp. 17-42.
Bowker, J. 2005. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Reissued by J. Bowker. Oxford.
Bronkhorst, J. 1985. "On the Chronology of the Tattvārthasūtra and some Early Commentaries". In: WZKS XXIX, pp. 155-184.
--. 1993. "Remarks on the History of Jaina Meditation", in: Jain Studies in Honour of Jozef Deleu. Edited by R. Smet and K. Watanabe. Tokyo. Pp. 151-162.
Bruhn, K. 1983. “Repetition in Jaina Narrative Literature”, in: IT XI, pp. 27-75.
--. 1987. "Das Kanonproblem bei den Jainas”, in: Kanon und Zensur. Herausgegeben von A. und J. Assmann. München, pp. 100-112.
--. 1991. "Sectional Studies in Jainology", in: Panels of the VIIth World Sanskrit Conference. Leiden, Kern Institute, August 23-29, 1987, pp. 36-54.
- - 2003. "The Mahāvratas in Early Jainism”, in: BIS XV-XVII, pp. 3-98.
--. 2007. "Die Ahimsā in der Ethik des Jaina-Autors Amrtacandra”, in: BIS XVIII, pp. 1-78.
Buswell, R.E. 1989. The Formation of Ch'an Ideology in China and Korea. The Vajrasamādhi-Sūtra, a Buddhist Apocryphon. Princeton, New Jersey.
Butzenberger, K. 1989. Beiträge zum Problem der personalen Identität in der indischen Philosophie. Die jinistischen Beweise für die Existenz eines jiva im Višeşāvasyakabhāsya. München. Dissertation zur Erlangung des
109

Page #128

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Doktorgrades der Philosophischen Fakultät].
--. 1996."Ancient Indian Conceptions on Man's Destiny After Death". The Beginnings and the Early Development of the Doctrine of Transmigration I, in: BIS IX-X, pp. 55-118.
-- 1998. "Ancient Indian Conceptions on Man's Destiny After Death". The Beginnings and the Early Development of the Doctrine of Transmigration II, in: BIS XI-XII, pp. 1-84.
Caillat, C. 1977. "Fasting unto Death according to the Jain Tradition", in: Acta Orientalia XXXVIII, pp. 43-66.
-- . 1979. "Quelques observations à propos d'une publication nouvelle sur le Mūlācāra”, in: WZKS XXIII, pp. 155-162.
--. 1994. "The Beating of the Brahmins (Uttarādhyayana XII)", in: Festschrift Klaus Bruhn. Edited by N. Balbir and J.K.Bautze. Reinbek. (Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik), pp. 255-265.
- - 2007. "Ahimsā - cur et quomodo? Eine vierfache Antwort in einem alten Jaina-Text", in: BIS XVIII, pp. 79-100.
-- / Kumar, R. 1981. The Jain Cosmology. Basel/ Paris/ Delhi.
Carroll, N. 1990. The Philosophy of Horror or Paradores of the Heart. New York.
Cavendish, R. 1983. Illustrated Encyclopedia of Mythology, Religion and the Unknown. New York London.
Chen, C.-C. 2004. Das Fan Fan-Yü. Sanskrit-Chinesisches Wörterbuch aus dem Taisho-Tripitaka. Bonn. Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades)
Chopra, T.R. 1974. "Zur Apabhramsa-Metrik”. In: XVIII. Deutsche Orientalistentage. Vom 1. bis 5. Oktober 1972 in Lübeck. Vorträge. Herausgegeben von W. Voigt. Wiesbaden. (ZDMG Supplement II), pp. 299-312.
Cort, J. 1993. "An Overview of the Jaina Purānas”, in: Purāņa Perennis. Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Edited by W. Doniger. New York, pp. 185-206.
110

Page #129

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
- - 2006. "A Fifteenth-Century Digambar Jain Mystic and his Followers Tāran Taran Svāmi and the Taran Svāmi Panth", in: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London, New York, pp. 263-311.
Cowie, A.P. 1989. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Oxford.
Dawson, M.M. 1931. The Ethical Religion of Zoroaster. New York.
Demello, M. 2010 (ed.). Teaching the Animal: Human-Animal Studies Across the Disciplines. New York.
Demoto. M. 2009. "Die 128 Nebenhöllen nach dem Saddharmasmrty-upasthāna-sūtra". In: Pāsādikadānam. Festschrift für Bh. Pāsādika. Edited by M. Straube, R. Steiner, J. Soni [et al.]. Marburg. (Indica et Tibetica 52), pp. 61-78.
Denecke, W. 1922. Digambara-Terte. Eine Darstellung ihrer Sprache und ihres Inhaltes. Hamburg. Dissertation an der Universität Hamburg).
Dixit, K.K. 1973. "The Problem of Ethics and Karma Doctrine as Treated in the Bhagavati Sūtra”, in: Sambodhi 2 (3), pp. 1-13.
-- 1974. Pt. Sukhlalji's Commentary on Tattvārtha Sūtra of Vācaka Umāsvāti. Ahmedabad. (Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Series 44).
Dundas, P. 1985. "Food and Freedom. The Jaina Sectarian Debate on the Nature of the Kevalin”, in: Religion 15, pp. 161-198.
-- 1997. "The Laicisation of the Bondless Doctrine: A New Study of the Development of Early Jainism". A Review of W.J.Johnson, Harmless Souls, 1995. In: JIPh XXV, pp. 495-516.
- - 2006. "The Later Fortunes of Jamāli”, in: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London, New York, pp. 33-60.
Eimer, H. 2006. Buddhistische Begriffsreihen als Skizzen des Erlösungsweges. Wien. (Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde, Heft 65).
Eliade, E. 1987. The Encyclopaedia of Religion. Edited by E. Eliade [et al.]. London 1987
Engels, D. 2008. "Hierin ist ein Zeichen für solche, die nachdenken. Bienensymbolik im vorderen Orient", in: Ille operum custos. Kulturgeschichtliche
111

Page #130

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beiträge zur antiken Bienensymbolik und ihrer Rezeption. Herausgegeben von D. Engels u. V. Nicolaye. Zürich/ New York, pp. 21-39.
Falk, H. 1986. Bruderschaft und Würfelspiel. Untersuchungen zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Vedischen Opfers. Freiburg.
Fecht, G. 1972. Der Vorwurf an Gott in den Mahnworten des Ipu-wer' (Pap. Leiden I 344 recto, 11, 11-13,8; 15,13-17,3). Heidelberg. (Abhandlungen der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse 1).
Feer, L. 1884. (1983). "Panca-Gati-Dipanam”, in: Journal of the Pāli Text Society, pp. 153-162. Reprint: Sramana-Vidyā. Vol. 1. Edited by K.C.Jain/ J.Upadhye/ R. Tripath/ P. Jain. Varanasi, pp. 125-139.
--
1892. "L'Enfer Indien [i]", in: Journal Asiatique, 8, pp. 185-232.
- - 1893. "L'Enfer Indien (ii)", in: Journal Asiatique, 9, pp. 112-151.
Flattery, D.S./ Schwartz, M. 1989. Haoma and Harmaline. The Botanical Identity of the Indo-Iranian Sacred Hallucinogen 'Soma' and its Legacy in Religion, Language, and Middle Eastern Folklore. Berkeley /Los Angeles/ London. (University of California Publications. Near Eastern Studies 21).
Flügel, P. 2006. "Demographic Trends in Jaina Monasticism", in: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London/ New York, pp. 312-398.
Fohr, S. E. 2006. "Restrictions and Protection: Female Jain Renouncers". In: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London, New York, pp. 157-180.
Folkert, K. 1993. Scripture and Community. Edited by J. Cort. Georgia.
Frauwallner, E. 1927. "Zur Elementenlehre des Sāmkhya", in: WZKM 34, pp. 1-5.
Fujinaga, S. 2006. "Why must there be an Omniscient in Jainism?", in: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Ed. by P. Flügel. London/ New York, pp. 107-116.
-- 2007. "Digambara Attitudes to the Svetambara Canon”, in: IJJS, Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 1-11.
112

Page #131

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Garbe, R. 1896. Sāmkhya and Yoga. Strassburg. (Grundriss der IndoArischen Philologie u. Altertumskunde III.4).
Geiger. W. 1886. Civilisation of the Eastern Iranians in Ancient Times. Translated from the German by Dārāb Peshotan Sanjānā. London.
Glasenapp, H. v. 1942. The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy. Translated from the Original German by G.Barry Gifford and Revised by the Author. Ed. by Hiralal Kapadia. Bombay.
Glucklich, A. 1994. The Sense of Adharma. Theories of Karma in the Dharmaśāstra. Oxford.
Gonda, J. 1970. "Karman and Retributive Justice in Ancient Java". In: Journal of Oriental Research Madras XL-XLI, pp. 1-13.
-- 1985a. Puşan and Sarasvati. Amsterdam/ Oxford / New York. (Verhandelingen Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, 127).
--. 1985b. The Ritual Functions and Significance of Grasses in the Religions of the Veda. Amsterdam/ Oxford / New York. (Verhandelingen Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, 132).
Grafe, J. 2001: Vidyadharas. Früheste Zeit bis zur kaschmirischen Brhatkathā. Frankfurt/M.
Granoff, P. 1993. The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories. Delhi.
Hälsig, M. 2002 (ed.). Handwörterbuch Hindi-Deutsch. Herausgegeben von Margot Gatzlaff-Hälsig. Hamburg.
Handiqui, K.K. 1949. Yasastilaka and Indian Culture or Somadeva's Yaśastilaka and Aspects of Jainism and Indian Thought and Culture in the Tenth Century. Solapur. (Jivarāja Jaina Granthamālā 2).
Hara, M. 1994. "Pasupata Studies II”. In: Orbis Indicus. Festschrift Gerhard Oberhammer. Herausgegeben von R. Mesquita and C. Werba. (WZKS XXXVIII), pp. 323-335.
--. 1999. "A Note on the Phrase dharma-ksetra kuru-ksetra", in: JIPh XXVII, pp. 49-66.
--. 2003. "A Note on the Concept of Plants and Trees", in: Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini. Edited by Olle
113

Page #132

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Qvarnström. Fremont, Cal., pp. 465-488.
Hardy, F. 1993. "The Story of King Yasodhara". In: The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories. A Treasury of Jaina Literature. Edited by P. Granoff. Delhi, pp. 118-139.
Harrap, F. 1987. Compact English Dictionary. London.
Hecker, H. 2001. Peta-Vatthu. Das buddhistische Totenbuch. Ein Text aus der kürzeren Sammlung des Pāli-Kanons. Stammbach-Hernstrot.
Heesterman, J.C. 1957. The Ancient Indian Royal Consecration. The Rājasūya Described According to the Yajus Texts and Annotated. 'S-Gravenhage.
Heim, M. 2007. "Dāna as a Moral Category", in: Indian Ethics: Classical
Traditions and Contemporary Challenges. Edited by P. Bilimoria, J. Prabhu and R. Sharma. Aldershot, pp. 191-209.
Hertel, J. 1908. Ausgewählte Erzählungen aus Hemacandras Parisista-parvan. Deutsch mit Einleitung und Anmerkungen. Leipzig.
- -. 1917. Die Legende von Pāla und Gopāla des Jinakirti. Leipzig.
--. 1922. The Thirty-Two Bharataka Stories. Edited [...] by Johannes Hertel. Leipzig. (Forschungsinstitut für Indogermanistik, Indische Abteilung, Nr. 2).
-- 1927. Die Sonne und Mithra im Awesta. Auf Grund der awestischen Feuerlehre dargestellt. Leipzig. (Indoiranische Quellen und Forschungen).
Hillebrandt, A. 1891. Vedische Mythologie. Soma und verwandte Götter. Erster Band. Breslau.
Hiralal, R.B. 1926. Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts in the Central Provinces and Berar. Nagpur.
Hummel, S. 1960. "Der göttliche Schmied in Tibet”. In: Folklore Studies XIX, pp. 251-272.
Jacobi, H. 1886 (1970). "Zur Kenntnis der Arya”, in: ZDMG XL, pp. 336342. Reprint: H. Jacobi: Kleine Schriften. Wiesbaden, pp. 198-204).
114

Page #133

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
--. 1892. "The Computation of Hindu Dates in Inscription etc.", in: Epigraphia Indica I, Calcutta, pp. 403-460.
-- 1895. Gaina Sútras. Pt. II. Uttaradhyayana. Sûtrakritânga. Translated by Hermann Jacobi. Oxford. (Sacred Books of the East, XLV).
-- 1906. "Eine Jaina-Dogmatik. Umāsvāti's Tattvārthādhigama Sutra". (German Translation by H. Jacobi], in: ZDMG LX, pp. 287-325, 512-551.
-- 1921. Sanatkumāracaritam. Ein Abschnitt aus Haribhadras Nemināthacaritam. Eine Jaina Legende in Apabhramsa. München. (Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophische und Philologische Klasse XXXI.2).
Jain, H. 2000. Satkhandagama ki Šāstriya Bhūmika. Delhi.
Jaini, J. L. 1920. Tattvārthādhigama Sutra. A Treatise on the Essential Principles of Jainism. Edited with Introduction, Translation, [...] by J.L. Jaini assisted by S. Prasada. Arrah. (Sacred Books of the Jains, Vol. II).
Jaini, P. S. 1979. Jaina Path of Purification. Berkeley.
-- 1993. "Jaina Purāņas: A Purāņic Counter Tradition", in: Purāņa Perennis. Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts. Edited by W. Doniger, New York, pp. 207-249.
- - 2000a. "Ahimsā: A Jaina Way of Spiritual Discipline". In: Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Edited by P. Jaini. Delhi, pp. 3-19.
- 2000b. "Dhik Stritvam: Wailing of Women in the Jaina PandavaPurāņa", in: Harāmaņdalahari. Volume in Honour of Prof. Minoru Hara on his Seventieth Birthday. Edited by R. Tsuchida, Reinbek, pp. 135-141.
Johnson, H.M. 1920. "Rāuhineya's Adventures, The Rāuhineyacaritra". In: Studies in Honor of Maurice Bloomfield. Edited by a Group of his Pupils). New Haven, pp. 159-195.
Johnson, W.J. 1995. Harmless Souls. Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umäsväti and Kundakunda. Delhi. (Lal Sundarlal Jain Research Series, 11).
Jolly, J. 1896. Recht und Sitte. Strassburg. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, Bd. 2, H.8).
115

Page #134

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1901. Medicin. Strassburg. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, Bd. 3, H.10).
Kane, P.V. 1968-1974. History of Dharmasastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law). Vol. I; Vol. II, Part 1 and 2; Vol. III-IV. Poona. (Government Oriental Series).
Kangle, R.P. 1972. Kautilya's Arthaśastra. An English Translation with Critical and Explanatory Notes. Bombay.
Kapashi, V. 2007. Nava Smarana. Nine Sacred Recitations of Jainism. Mumbai.
Kehren, D. 1998/ 1999. "Materialien zu einer kritischen Ausgabe der Wang Fanzhi-Texte aus Dunhuang (am Beispiel von juan 1)". In: Oriens Extremus, 41, 1-2, pp. 73-104.
Kelch, T.G. 1997/ 1998. "Toward a Non-Propery Status For Animals". In: New York University School of Law, pp. 531-537.
Kern, H. 1901. De legende van Kunjarakarna volgens het oudst bekende handschrift, met oudjavaanschen tekst. Amsterdam. (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen). NR D1 III, No.3.
Kirde, S. 2004. "On the Courtesan in Buddhist Literature with Selected Examples from Kṣemendra's Bodhisattvavadanakalpalata", in: Aspects of the Female in Indian Culture. Edited by Ulrike Rösler [et al.]. Marburg. (Indica et Tibetica 44). Pp. 41-65.
--. 2008. "History and Culture of Jainism in North India: Glimpses from Vasunandin's Manual Uvāsayajjhayana" In: Jaina Studies. Newsletter of the Centre of Jaina Studies, Issue 3, March, pp. 30-33.
Kirfel, W. 1920. Die Kosmographie der Inder nach den Quellen dargestellt. Leipzig.
1928. Die Religion der Jainas. Leipzig.
- 1959. Symbolik des Hinduismus und des Jinismus. Stuttgart.
Klimkeit, H.-J.. 1996. "Zum Inhalt der alttürkischen Maitrisimit". In: Festschrift Eimer. Herausgegeben von M. Hahn, J.-U. Hartmann und R. Steiner. Swistal-Odendorf. Pp. 111-119.
116

Page #135

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kohl, J.F. 1953. "Pflanzen mit gemeinsamem Körper (sādhārana-sarira) nach der Lehre der Jainas". In: Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 78.1, pp. 91-95.
Kölver, B. 1971. Textkritische und philologische Untersuchungen zur Rajatarangini des Kalhana. Wiesbaden. (Verzeichnis der Orientalischen Handschriften in Deutschland, Supplementband 12).
Krishan, Y. 1983. "Karma-Vipaka”. In: Numen XXX.2, pp. 199-214.
Krottenthaler, R. 1996. Die Jagd im alten Indien unter Berücksichtigung des 'mrgayāvinoda-Kapitels im "Mānasolläsa". Frankfurt.
Kulkarni, K. 1980 (ed.). Jainasamgraha. An Anthology of Jain Texts. New Delhi.
Laidlaw, J. 2003. Riches and Renunciation. Religion, Economy, and Society among the Jains. Oxford.
Laut, J.-P. 1996. "Höllische Fehler". In: Festschrift Eimer. Hg. von Michael Hahn, Jens-Uwe Hartmann und Roland Steiner. Swistal-Odendorf. Pp. 121-136.
-- / Geng, S.-M./ Klimkeit, H.-J. 1998. Eine buddhistische Apokalypse. Die Höllenkapitel (20-25) und die Schlusskapitel (26-27) der Hami-Handschrift der alttürkischen Maitrisimit. Wiesbaden. (Abhandlungen der NordrheinWestfälischen Akademie der Wissenschaften).
Law, B. C. 1925. (1973). Heaven and Hell in Buddhist Perspective. Calcutta. (Reprint: Delhi).
Leumann, E. 1883a (1998). "Beziehungen der Jaina Literatur zu anderen Lite-raturkreisen Indiens". In: Actes du sixième congrès international des orientalistes. Leiden, pp. 469-564. Reprint: E. Leumann: Kleine Schriften. Herausgegeben von Nalini Balbir. Stuttgart, 1998, pp. 29-124].
- - 1883b. Das Aupapātikasūtra. Herausgegeben von Ernst Leumann. Leipzig. (Abhandlungen der Kunde des Morgenlandes 8.2).
-- 1896. (1998): "A List of the Strassburg Collection of Digambara Manuscripts". In: WZKM XI, pp. 297-312. Reprint: E. Leumann: Kleine Schriften. Herausgegeben von Nalini Balbir. Stuttgart, pp. 279-294).
- - . 1905. (1998) "Zum Siebenten Kapitel von Amitagatis's Subhāşitasamdoha". In: ZDMG 59, pp. 578-588. Reprint: E. Leumann: Kleine
117

Page #136

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Schriften. Herausgegeben von Nalini Balbir. Stuttgart, pp. 304-314).
--. 1934. Übersicht über die Avaśyaka Literatur. Aus dem Nachlass herausgegeben von Walther Schubring. Hamburg. (Alt-und Neuindische Studien).
Mayrhofer, C.M. 1983. "Tradition and Innovation in Jain Narratives. A Study of Two Apabhramsa Versions of the Story of Cārudatta" In: IT XI, pp. 163-173.
Mayrhofer, M. 1963-1976. Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen. A Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary. Pt. II. D-M. Pt. III. Y-H. Heidelberg.
Mehta, M.L.1972. Prakrit Proper Names. Edited by M. L. Mehta, K. R. Chandra and D. Malvania. Vols. I-II. Ahmedabad.
Menski, W. 2006. "Jaina Law as an unofficial Legal System". In: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London/ New York. Pp. 419-437.
Mette, A. 1974. Pind'esaņā. Das Kapitel der Oha-Nijjutti über den Bettelgang. Wiesbaden. (Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz. Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Nr.11).
- - 1980. "Ein musiktheoretischer Traktat im Jainakanon", in: WZKS XXIV-XXV, pp. 83-97.
-- 1991. "The Synchronism of the Buddha and the Jina Mahāvira and the Problem of Chronology in Early Jainism", in: The Dating of the Historical Buddha. Die Datierung des historischen Buddha. Part 1. (Symposion zur Buddhismusforschung, IV, 1). Edited by Heinz Bechert. Göttingen, pp. 132-137
--. 1994. " Apratisthānam - der äusserste Ort". In: Orbis Indicus. Festschrift Gerhard Oberhammer herausgegeben von R. Mesquita and C. Werba. WZKS XXXVIII, pp. 161-167.
--. 2003. “Waste Disposal (paritthavana-vihi) in Ancient India". Some Regulations for Protection of Life from Rules of the Order of Jain Monks. In: Essays in Jain Philosophy and Religion. Edited by P. Balcerowicz. Delhi, pp. 213-226.
Meulenbeld, G.J. 1999-2000. A History of Indian Medical Literature. Vol. IA. Text. Vol. IB. Annotations. Groningen.
118

Page #137

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Meyer, J.J. 1903. Ksemendra's Samayamatrika. (Das Zauberbuch der Hetären). Ins Deutsche übersetzt von Johann Jakob Meyer. Leipzig. (Altindische Schelmenbücher 1).
- - 1909. Hindu Tales. An English Translation of Jacobi's 'Ausgewählte Erzählungen in Māhārāshtri'. London.
-- . 1937. Trilogie altindischer Mächte. Zürich.
Miyakawa, H. 2003. Die altindischen Grundzahlwörter im Rigveda. Dettelbach.
Monier-Williams, M. 1899. (1983). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Etymologically [...] arranged. New Edition, Greatly Enlarged and Improved. Oxford. (Reprint: Tokyo).
Morford, M.P.O./ Lenardon, R.J. 1977. Classical Mythology. New York.
Nagar, S.L. 2007. Śiva-Mahāpurāņa. With an Exhaustive Introduction, Sanskrit Text, English Translation, Photographs of Archaeological Evidence. Vol. III. Delhi.
Nilsson, M.P. 1947. Greek Popular Religions. New York.
Norman, K.R. 1967. (1990b). "Notes on Asoka's Fifth Pillar Edict". In: JRAS, pp. 26-32. Reprint: Norman 1990c, pp. 68-84).
-- 1969/ 1978. The Elders' Verses. Translated with an Introduction by K.R.Norman. Vols. I-II. London.
--. 1983-85. "The nine Treasures of a Cakravartin". In: IT XI, pp. 183-193.
--. 1990a. "Middle Indo-Aryan Studies IV". In: Collected Papers. Vol. I. Oxford, pp. 36-41.
- - . 1990c. Collected Papers. Vol. I. Oxford.
- - 1991. "The Role of the Layman according to the Jain Canon". In: The Assembly of Listeners. Jains in Society. Edited by M. Carrithers and C. Humphrey. Cambridge, pp. 31-39.
Nyanaponika. 1955. Sutta-Nipāta. Früh-buddhistische Lehr-Dichtungen aus dem Pali-Kanon. Mit Auszügen aus den alten Kommentaren übersetzt, ein
119

Page #138

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
geleitet und erläutert. Konstanz.
Oetjens, K. 1976. Sivāryas Mūlārādhanā. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Sterbefasten-Literatur des Jainas. Hamburg. (Dissertation des Fachbereichs Philosophie).
Ohira, S. 1982. A Study of Tattvārthasūtra with Bhāsya. With special Reference to Autorship and Date. Ahmedabad. (L.D. Series 86).
Okuda, K. 1975. Eine Digambara-Dogmatik. Das fünfte Kapitel von Vattakeras Mülācāra. Herausgegeben, übersetzt und kommentiert. Wiesbaden. (Alt- und Neuindische Studien 15).
Olivelle, P. 2006. "Exploration in the Early History of the Dharmaśāstra". In: Between the Empires. Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE. Edited by P. Olivelle. New York, pp. 169-190.
Osier, J.-P. 2009. "On a toujours besoin d'un plus petit que soi ou les animalcules (nigoda) au service de l'équilibre cosmique.". In: Penser, dire et représenter l'animal dans le monde indien. Edited by N. Balbir and G.-J. Pinault. Paris, pp. 309-328.
Panofsky, E. 1962. Studies in Iconology. New York.
Pargiter, F.E. 1904. Mārkandeya Purāņa. Translated with Notes. Calcutta. (Bibliotheca Indica).
Pischel, R. 1957. (1965) Comparative Grammar of the Prākṣit Languages. Translated from the German by Subhadra Jhā. Varanasi. Second Edition: Delhi).
Premi, N. 1956. Jain Sahitya aur Itihāsa. Second Revised and Enlarged Edition. Bombay. (Hindi Grantha Ratnakara).
Qvarnström, 0. 2002. The Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra. A Twelfth Century Handbook of Svetāmbara Jainism. Translated by Olle Qvarnström. Cambridge, Mass. London.
Ratnachandra [et. al.) 1923 (1988). An Ilustrated Ardha-Māgadhi Dictionary. Vols. I-V. Indore. (Reprint].
Reynell, J. 2006. “Religious Practice and the Creation of Personhood among Svetāmbar Mārtipūjak Jain Women in Jaipur", in: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London, New York, pp.
120

Page #139

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
208-237.
Rhys Davids, T.W./ Stede, W. 1921-1925. The Pali Text Society's PaliEnglish Dictionary. Chipstead, Surrey.
Rocher, L. 1986. The Purānas. Wiesbaden. (A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II.3).
Ruben, W. 1939. Eisenschmied und Dämonen in Indien. Leiden. (Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie 37).
Rückert, F. 1858. "Der gute König in der Hölle". Mārkandeya-purāna XV.47-79). In: ZDMG XII, pp. 336-340.
--. 1859. “Die Sage von König Hariscandra". Mārkandeya-purāņa VII). In: ZDMG XIII, pp. 103-133.
Salter, E. 2006. "Rethinking Religious Authority: a Perspective on the Followers of Srimad Rājacandra". In: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London, New York, pp. 241-262.
Sasaki, R.F./ Iriya, Y./ Fraser, D.R. 1971. The Recorded Saying of of Layman P'ang. A Ninth-Century Zen Classic. Tokyo/ New York.
Sato, H. 1994. The Desopadeśa of Kşemendra. (Instruction for the Country). Translated from the Sanskrit. Calcutta.
Schmidt, R. 1911. Beiträge zur indischen Erotik. Das Liebesleben des Sanskritvolkes nach den Quellen dargestellt. Berlin.
Schmithausen, L. 1991. "A Attempt to Estimate the Distance in Time between Asoka and the Buddha in Terms of Doctrinal History". In: The Dating of the Historical Buddha. Part 1. Ed. by Heinz Bechert. Göttingen, pp. 110-147.
-- 1994a. "On the Status of Plants in Earliest Buddhism". In: Buddhism in the Year 2000. International Conference Proceedings. Bangkok, pp. 4965.
- - 1994b. "Zur Textgeschichte der Pancāgnividyā". In: WZKS XXXVIII. (Orbis Indicus. Festschrift Gerhard Oberhammer ed. by R. Mesquita and C. Werba). Pp. 43-60.
121

Page #140

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Schubring, W. 1935. Die Lehre der Jainas. Nach den alten Quellen dargestellt. Strassburg. (Grundriss der Indo-Arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, III.7).
1962. The Doctrine of the Jainas. Described after the Old Sources. Translated from the revised German edition by W. Beurlen. Delhi.
- 2004. Mahavira's Words. Translated from the German with much added material by W. Bollée and J. Soni. Ahmedabad. (L.D. Series 1939).
Seyfort Ruegg, D. 1964. "Sur les rapports entre le bouddhisme et le 'substrat religieux' indien et tibétain". In: Journal Asiatique, pp. 77-95.
- 2008. The Symbiosis of Buddhism with Brahmanism/ Hinduism in South Asia and of Buddhism with 'Local Cults' in Tibet and the Himalaya Region. Wien. (Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Klasse der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 774).
Shanta, N. 2001. "Women Ascetics in the Jaina Tradition", in: Vasantagauravam. Essays in Jainism. Felicitating [...] M.D.Vasantha Raj of Mysore. Ed. by Jayandra Soni. Mumbai, pp. 117-134.
Sherman, L. 1892. Materialien zur Geschichte der Indischen Visionslitteratur. Leipzig.
Sheth, H.D.T. 1923-1928. Paia-Sadda-Mahannavo. A Comprehensive Prākrit Hindi Dictionary with Sanskrit Equivalents, Quotations and Complete References. Calcutta.
Shinn, L.D. 1974. "Death and the Puranas", in: Death and Eastern Thought. Edited by F. D. Holck. Nashville, Abingdon, pp. 78-96.
Smith, D.H. 1958. "Chinese Concepts of the Soul". In Numen V, 1-4, pp. 165-179.
Sogani, K.C. 1967. Ethical Doctrines in Jainism. Solapur. (Jivarāja Jaina Granthamälä).
Speijer, J.S. 1886 [1993]. Sanskrit Syntax. Leiden. [Reprint: Delhi].
Spellmann, J.W. 1962. "The Symbolic Significance of Number Twelve in Ancient India". In Journal of Asian Studies XXII, pp. 79-88.
122

Page #141

7.2
Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sprockhoff, J.F. 1985. "Die feindlichen Toten oder der befriedete Tote. Die Überwindung von Leben und Tod in der Entsagung". In: Leben und Tod in den Religionen. Symbol und Wirklichkeit. Herausgegeben von G. Stephenson. Darmstadt. Pp. 263-283.
Staal, F. 2008. Discovering the Vedas. Delhi.
Stachelberger, H. / Bancher, E. / Riederer, P. / Gold, A. 1977. "Quantitative Bestimmung einiger biogener Amine in Bananen, Datteln und Feigen". in: Plant Foods for Human Nutrition XXVII, 3-4, pp. 287-291.
Stein, O. 1936 (1985). "The Numeral 18", in: Poona Orientalist I, pp. 137. Reprint: 0. Stein: Kleine Schriften. Herausgegeben von F. Wilhelm. Stuttgart, pp. 515-542).
Sternbach, L. 1961. "Descriptions of Prostitutes (Kşemendra's Desopadeśa III)", in: Poona Orientalist XXV, 1-4, pp. 8-19.
Strauss, O. 1912. Ethische Probleme aus dem Mahābhārata. Firenze.
Syed, R. 1990. Die Flora Altindiens in Literatur und Kunst. München. (Universitäts-Dissertation).
Tatia, N. 1994. That Which Is. Tattvārtha Sūtra of] Umāsvāti/ Umāsvāmi. With the Combined Commentary of Umāsvāti/ Umāsvāmi, Pujyapāda and Siddhasenagani translated with an Introduction by Nathmal Tatia. New York. (Harper Collins Sacred Literature Series).
Trenckner, V./ Andersen, D./ Smith, H. 1924-1948. A Critical Pāli Dictionary. Begun by V. Trenckner. Rev. [ised ...) by D. Andersen, H. Smith, and H. Hendriksen. Vol. I. Copenhagen.
Tripāthi, C. 1975. Catalogue of the Jaina Manuscripts at Strasbourg. Leiden.
Tsuchihashi, K. 1983-85. "On the Literal meaning of leśyā". In IT XI, pp. 195-202.
Turner, R.I. 1966. A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages. London.
Uhle, H. 1914. Die Vetālapañcavimsatikā des Sivadāsa nach einer Handschrift von 1487 (samu. 1544). Halle. (Sitzungsberichte der Phil.-Hist. Klasse LXVI).
123

Page #142

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Van den Bossche, F. 1995. "Existence and Non-Existence in Haribhadrasūri's Anekānta-Jaya-Patākā". In: JIPh XXIII, pp. 429-468.
--. 1998. "Jain Arguments against Nyāya-Theism". In: JIPh XVI, pp. 1-26.
-- 1999. A Reference Manual of Middle Prākrit Grammar. The Prākrits of the Dramas and the Jain Texts. Gent. (Bijdragen uitgegeven foor de Faculteit van de Letteren en Wijsbegeerte 3).
Varni, J. 2003-2004. Jainendra Siddhānta. Vol.1-4. New Delhi. (Mürtidevi Jaina Granthamālā, Sanskrit Grantha No. 44).
Von Hinüber, 0. 1986. Das ältere Mittelindisch im Überblick. Wien. (Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse, Sitzungsberichte 467, Heft 20).
Von Kamptz, K. 1929. Über die vom Sterbefasten handelnden älteren Painna des Jaina-Kanons. Hamburg/ Glückstadt.
Weber, A. 1861. "Vedische Angaben über Zeittheilung und hohe Zahlen", in: ZDMG XV, pp. 132-140.
Weber, M. 1996. Die Wirtschaftsethik der Weltreligionen. Hinduismus und Buddhismus 1916-1920. Herausgegeben von Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer in Zusammenarbeit mit Karl-Heinz Golzio. Tübingen. (Max-Weber-Gesamtausgabe, Abteilung I: Schriften und Reden, Bd. 20).
Weeraratne, W.G./ Malalasekera, G.P. 1996. Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Vol. VI. Colombo.
Wezler, A. 1978. Die wahren Speiseresteesser? Mainz. (Abhandlungen der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, 5).
--. 1987. "Bemerkungen zu einigen von Naturbeobachtung zeugenden Textstellen und den Problemen ihrer Interpretation", in: StII XIII-XIV, (Festschrift Wilhelm Rau), pp. 321-345.
Whitney, W. D. 1885 (1945). Roots, Verb-Forms, and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language. A Supplement to his Sanskrit Grammar. Leipzig/ London.
- - 1924. (1977). Sanskrit Grammar. Including both, the Classical Language and the older dialects of Veda and Brāhmana. Leipzig. (Delhi).
124

Page #143

7.2 Reference Literature
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wickersheimer, E. 1923. Catalogue Général des Manuscrits des Bibliothéques Publiques de France. Départements. Tome XLVII. (Strasbourg). Paris.
Wiley, K.L. 2004. (ed.) Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Lanham, Maryland/ Toronto.
--. 2006. "Ahimsā and Compassion in Jainism”, in: Jaina History and Culture. Disputes and Dialogues. Edited by P. Flügel. London, New York, pp. 438-455.
Wilhelm, F. 1987. "Die Falkenjagd als Sanskritwissenschaft”, in: StII XIIIXIV, (Festschrift Wilhelm Rau), pp. 347-361.
Williams, R. 1963. (1991). Jaina Yoga. A Survey of the Mediaeval Srāvakācāras. Oxford. Reprint: Delhi.
Winternitz, M. 1927. (1977). A History of Indian Literature. Vol. II. (Translated from the German by S. Ketkar and H. Kohn). Calcutta. Reprint: Delhi).
Wu H. 1987. "The Earliest Pictorial Representations of Ape Tales". An Interdisciplinary Study of Early Chinese Narrative Art and Literature, in: T'oung Pao LXXIII, pp. 86-112.
Yamamoto, C. 1990. Mahāvairocana-Sūtra. Translated into English from Ta-p'i-lu-che-na-ch'eng-fo shen-pien chia-ch'ih-ching, the Chinese Version of Subhākarasimha and l-hsing (A.D. 725). New Delhi. (Sata-Pitaka Series, Indo-Asian Literature, Vol. 359).
Zin, M. 2006. "The Story of Conversion of Nanda in Borobudur”, in: Vanamālā. Festschrift Adelbert Gail. Edited by K. Bruhn and G.J.R.Mevessen. Berlin, pp. 265-275.
Zvelebil, K. 1979. "The Honey-Gathering Skills of a Nilagiri Tribe”, in: Anthropos 74, pp. 577-581.
125

Page #144

8 APPENDICES
8 Appendices 8.1 Śrāvakâcāra (57-205)
The Pkt. text of Sr (57-205) is presented here for the first time in romanised letters. In principle, I follow the Indian printed edition of 1952.323 In some cases I have quoted the variants of the readings of manuscripts I, Jha, Da, Dha, Pa, Ba, to which Jain's critical notes often refer. In various cases I have consulted readings of the manuscript of Leumann (L).324 L is augmented by explanations in Skt., which are written between the lines. Most of these glosses are blurred, and some of the readings in L are damaged, too, or show great discrepancies. The Mumbai reprint of Sr (M) with the Hindi commentary of Sunilasāgara has also been consulted. There are some misprints in this new edition, but the Hindi commentary is very extensive and can be regarded as a independent source of research, especially on Jain ritual. Numerous Skt. and Pkt. verses are quoted from various manuals in this commentary and the editors prepared many Hindi summaries of stories taken from Skt. commentaries of Prabhācandra on Rk and others. I refer to the verses quoted in the commentary in the Appendix.
The oldest dated manuscripts of Sr seem to be those called Ba and Pa in the Indian edition.325 The manuscript L appears to be related to another manuscript which is called I (=Indore) in the Indian edition. Some variants of I are printed in the notes of the edition by Hirālal Jain. For the facility of better understanding the Pkt. transcription I included hyphens to separate the words in compounds. The numbers in round brackets refer to the stanzas in the printed edition of Sr. The numbers in square brackets typed in bold script refer to the beginning of the folios of L.
323 Vasunandi-śrāvakācāra. Edited by Hirālāl Jain. 324 A copy of Manuscript L is deposited in the Ernst-Leumann-Collection in the French National Library in Strasbourg. For the early lists of Digambar manuscripts in the Collection see Leumann 1896:297-312 (1998:279-294) and Wickersheimer 1923. The lists are reprinted with a critical appendix in the catalogue compiled by Tripāthi, 1975. I am grateful to the staff of the French National Library for kindly preparing the microfilm of the copy of L. It is a pleasure to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Nalini Balbir, Prof. Dr. emeritus Adelheid Mette, Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger, and Prof. Dr. emeritus Willem Bollée, for many helpful suggestions which improved my understanding of the readings of Vasunandin's Prākrt. For all remaining errors I take full responsibility.
325 Ba and Pa are dated V.S. 1654 and 1662 (if I understand Jain's Prastavanā in Sr, pp. 13-15, correcty). The Indian dates correspond to the end of the sixteenth century and the first quarter of the seventeenth century of the Christian era respectively.
126

Page #145

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
326
pame'-umbara-sahiyain 35 satta vi visaņai 27 jo vivajjei/ sammatta-visuddha-mai 28 so damsana-savao bhanio29 // (57)
8 APPENDICES
umbara-vada-pippala-pimpariya.samdhana-taru-pasūņāim / niccam tasa-samsiddhai tai parivajjiyavväim // (58)
jūyam majjam mamsam vesā pāraddhi-cora-para-yaram/ duggai-gamanass' edāni heu-bhūdāņi pāvāņi // (59)
juyam khelamtassa hu koho maya ya mäna-lohä33 ya / ee havamti tivvā pāvai pāvam tado bahugam // (60)
pāveņa tena jara-marana-vici-paurammi333 dukkha-salilammi/ cau-gai-gamanavattammi himdae334 bhava-samuddammi // (61)
tattha [10] vi dukkham anamtam cheyana-bheyana-vikattanainam / pāvai sarana-virahio jūyassa phalena so jivo // (62)
na ganei ittha-mittam na gurum na ya maya-piyaram 335 vä/
vā/
326 (57a) [pamc'-umbara-sahiyaim] Dha Pa iya pame'-umvara-sahiyaim. There is a refrain of (57) in verse (205), which closes this section. The finite verb vivajjei in (57b) is replaced by pariharei in (205b).
327 (57b) [visanai] L vasanaim. Pkt. visana and vasana are scribal variants in the manuscripts of Śr, for description of variants in other Dig. scriptures cf. Prof. Upadhe's Introduction in the edition of KA, pp. 3ff.
328 (57c) [sammatta-visuddha-mai] L samatta-visuha-mai. Simplifications and abbreviations of geminated consonants and consonant clusters occur particularly in Daigambari manuscripts. For the alterations in the spelling of sibilants and simplification of aspirated consonant groups see also Denecke 1922:9ff.
329
29(57d) [-savao bhanio] L°-savaum bhanium. L always has -um for the Nominative sg.
masculinum.
330
30 (58a) [-pimpa-] Da-pampa- L-pipa-. For alterations in the spelling of vowels and the writing of the Anusvara in Dig. manuscripts see Upadhye's Introduction, KA, pp. 3ff.
331 (58c) [-samsiddhai] Pa -samhiddhaim L°-samsihai
332 (60b) [-loha] Jha°-loho
333 (61b) [-paurammi] L°-pavarammi
34 (61d) [himdae] Śr (M) himdai. For vowel alterations in the present tense third person singular see KA, Introduction, pp. 3ff. The metre is otherwise not correct, but one can add the syllable hu after the caesura.
35 (63b) [ṇa ya māya-piyaram] Śr (M) māyaram piyaram. I prefer the reading L m.c.
127

Page #146

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
jūva-mdho336 vujjāim kuņai337 akajjāi bahuyāim338 // (63)
sa-jane ya para-jane vā dese savvattha hoi nillajjo / māyā vi ņa vissāsam vaccai jūyam ramamtassa // (64)
aggi-visa-cora-sappā dukkham thovam kuņamti339 iha-loe/ dukkham janei jūyam narassa bhava-saya-sahassesu // (65)
akkhehi naro rahio na munai ses-imdiehi veei / jūya-'mdho na ya keņa vi jāņai sampunna-karaṇo vi // (66)
aliyam karei savaham jampai mosam bhanei aiduttham / pāsammi bahiņi-māyam simsum pi hanei koha-'mdho // (67)
na ya bhumjai ahāram niddam na lahei ratti-dinnam pi340/ kattha vi na kunei raim ajjai341 cimtāuro342 ņiccam // (68)
icc' evam āi bahavo dose343 ņāūņa (11) jūya-ramanammi / parihariyavvam niccam damsaņa-guņam uvvahamteņa // (69)
majjena naro avaso kuņei kammāi nimdanijjāim / iha-loe para-loe anuhavai anamtayam dukkham // (70)
ailamghio vicittho padei ratthấyaya-'mgaņe344 matto/ padiyassa sārameyā vayanam vilihamti jibbhāe // (71)
336 (63) jūva-'mdho] L juya-'mdhe 337 63cd) (vujjāim kuņai) L na manaie jaha. Pkt. vujjāim seems to be adjunct to the predicate derived from KR. The commentary of Sr (M) renders the phrase into Hindi svacchanda hokara [...] karata hai: "he does many evil acts according to his own wish" = he commits evil deeds out of negligence). Whether the stem of vujjaim is 'vujja and can be connected with avajja (corresponding to Skt. avadya: "low, inferiour") is doubtful.
338 (63d) (akajjāi bahuyāim L avajjai bahugam. All the readings of (63cd) show discrepancies.
339 (65b) [kuņamti] Ba L karamti. For the Pkt. variations of the conjugation of KR see Pischel 1957:508; Denecke 1922:37. 340 (68b) ratti-dinnam pi] L ratti-divaham vi Śr (M) ratti-dinnam ti 341 (68d) (ajjai) L accai Śr (M) atthai 312 (680) (cimtāuro Jha cimtāvaro 343 (699) (dose) Jha dosah 344 (71b) ratthâyaya-'mgane) Pa ratthāeya-'mgane Ba ratthāiya-'mgane L ratthaya amgane. All readings of (71b) seem doubtful to me. Folio 11 of L has shortcomings due to dirt and water. The metre requires in the sixth foot one short syllable or one long syllable and two short syllables. Pkt. ratthā might be considered as a Middle-Indian equivalent of Skt. rathyā: "relating to a carriage; a course; a street or highway" (MW: p. 866). The commentary of Sr (M) renders the phrase into Hindi caurāhe par gir paratā hai): "he falls down the cross roads".
128

Page #147

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
uccāram passavanam tattheva kuņamti to samullavai / padio vi surā mittho puno vi me dehi345 mūdha-mai // (72)
jam kimci tassa davvam ajāņamāṇassa hippai parehim / lahiūņa kimci sannam ido tado dhāvai khalamto // (73)
jena 'jja majjha davvam gahiyam dutthena se jamo kuddho / kahi jāi so346 jivamto347 sisam chimdāmi khaggena // (74)
evam so gajjamto kuvio gamtūna mamdiram niyayam/ ghittūņa348 laudi sahasā ruttho bhamdāi phodei // (75)
niyayam pi suyam bahiņim anicchamānam balā vidhamsei/ (12) jampai ajampanijjam na vijānai kim pi maya-matto // (76)
iya avarāim bahuso kāūņa bahūņi lajjanijjāņi349/ aņubamdhai bahu pāvam majjassa vasam-gado samto // (77)
pāveņa tena bahuso jāi-jarā-marana-sāvayâinne / pāvai anamta-dukkham padio samsara-kamtāre // (78)
evam bahu-ppayāram dosam nāūņa majja-pāņammi / mana-vayana-kaya-kaya-karidầnumbehi vajjjjjo || (79)
jaha majjam taha ya mahū janayadi 50 pāvam narassa aibahugam/ asui 'vva nimdanijjam vajjeyavvam payatteņa // (80)
datthūņa asaņa-majjhe padiyam jai macchiyam pi nitthivai / kaha macchia-'mdayānam nijjāsam 5 nigghiņo pibai // (81)
bho bho jibbh-imdiya-luddhayāņam accherayam352 paloeha353 / kimi-macchiya-nijjāsam mahum pavittam bhanamti jado // (82)
345 (72d) (dehi) Śr (M) dei. I follow a suggestion of Prof. Balbir (p.c.) to adopt the reading of L dehi, which has the present tense imperative sg.
346 (74c) (kahi jāi so L kahi jāyase Śr (M) kahim jāi so. I prefer to read jāi with the third person present sg. 347 (74c) (jivamto) In Sr (M) L we find jivamto m.c. for jivamto. 348 (75a) (ghittūņa L chittuna 349 (77b) [lajjanijjāni] L lajja-kajjāni 350 (80b) (mahu janayadi] L mahu janei 351(81d) nijjāsam Jha niyasim niscotanam nibodanam Dha niryāsam Pa nihpilanam 352 (82b) (accherayam Jha Dha accheyara Sr (M) achareyam. I follow a suggestion of Prof. Balbir (p.c.) to read with L accherayam corresponding to Skt. āścaryam. See also Ratnacandra 1923 (1988), Vol. I: p. 93. 353 (82b) (paloeha) L paloehim
129

Page #148

8.1 Śrāvakácāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
loge vi su-ppasiddham bāraha gāmāi jo dahai354 adao / ta[13]tto so ahiyayaro pāvittho jo mahum haņai // (83)
jo avalehai niccam ņirayam355 so jāi natthi samdeho/ evam ņāūņa phudam vajjeyavvam mahum tamhā // (84)
mamsam amejjha-sarisam kimi-kula-bhariyam dugamdha-bibhaccham / pāeņa chiveum 356 jam na tirae tam kaham bhottum // (85)
mamsasaņeņa vaddhai dappo dappeņa majjam ahilasai / jūyam pi ramai to tam pi vannie357 pāuņai dose // (86)
loiya-358 satthammi vi vanniyam jahā gayaņa-gāmiņo369 vippa/ mamsāsaņeņa360 padiyā tamhā na paumjae361 mamsam // (87)
kāruya-kirāya-camdala-domba-pārasiyānam ucchittham / so bhakkhei jo saha vasai eya-rattim pi vessāe362 // (88)
rattam ņāūna naram savvassam harai363 vamcaņa-saehim/ kāūņa muyai364 pacchā purisam camma-'tthi-parisesam // (89)
pabhanai purao eyassa sāmi365 mottūna na 'tthi366 me anno / uccai367 (14) annassa puno karei cādūņi bahuyāni // (90)
māņi kula-jo sūro vi kunai dāsattanam pi nicānam / vessa-kaeņa368 bahugam avamāņam sahai kāma-'mdho // (91)
354 (83b) dahai] L dahai 355 (84b) (nirayam Jha niyam L narayam 356(850) (pāeņa chiveum) L pāeņavi na'tthi cciveum 357 (860) vannie) L vinae 358 (87a) (loiya-) Ba loiye L loiyan 359 (87b) gayaņa-gāmiņo) L gayana-gamano vi bhuvi. In L, bhuvi is inserted in (87b). In some readings we find it added to the beginning of (87c). The readings are doubtful. 360 (87c) (mamsasaņeņa) Śr (M) bhuvi mamsasanena 361 (87d) na paumjae) I na vajjae L Jha na pavajjae. Pkt. paumjai derives from pra + ✓ YUJ. See Ratnachandra 1923 (1988], Vol. III, p.360. 362 (88d) vessel Jha Ba L vesãe 363 (89a) savvassam harai) Ba savvam saharai 364 (89c) muyai) L mumcai 365 (90b) (sāmi) I prefer to read sāmi m.c. for Śr (M) sāmi 366 (90b) na 'tthi] Jha Ba L tam na 367 (900) (uccai] Jha vuccai 368 (91c) (vessa-kaena) Jha Ba L vesā-kaena
130

Page #149

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
je majja-mamsa-dosā vessā-gamanammi369 homti te savve/ pāvam pi tattha 'hittham pāvai niyamena sa-visesam // (92)
pāveņa tena dukkham pāvai samsāra-sāyare ghore / tamhā parihariyavvā vessā370 mana-vayaņa-kāehim // (93)
sammattassa pahāņo aņukamvā vannio gumo jamhā / pāraddhi-ramana-silo sammatta-virähao tamhā // (94)
datthūņa mukka-kesam palāyamāņam tahā parā-huttam371 / rada-dhariya-tiņam372 sūrā kayâparāham vi na hanamti // (95)
niccam palāyamāṇo tiņa-cāri373 taha niravarāho vi / kaha nigghaņo hanijjai374 āranna-șivāsiņo vi mae // (96)
go-bambhan-itthi-ghāyam pariharamānassa hoi jai375 dhammo / savvesim jivā (15) na dayāe376 tā kim na so hujja377 // (97)
go-bambhana-mahilānam vinivāe havai jaha mahā-pāvam/ taha iyara-pāņi-ghāe vi hoi pāvam na samdeho // (98)
mahu-majja-mamsa-sevi pāvai pāvam cirena jam ghoram/ tam eya-dine puriso lahei paraddhi-ramaņeņa // (99)
samsārammi anamtam dukkham pāunadi teņa pāveņa / tamhā vivajjiyavvā pāraddhi desa-viraena //(100)
para-davva-harana-silo iha-para-loe asāya-bahulão /
369 (92b) vessā-gamanammi] Jha Ba vesā-gamanammi L vesä-gamanam pi 370 (93d) (vessā] Jha Ba vesā 371 (95b) (parā-huttam L para-hutam
372 (950) [rada-dhariya-tiņam Jha damta-dhariya-tinam Ba rada-dhariya-tanam. The commentary of Sr (M) renders the compound into Hindi dāmtom mem se trna arthāt ghāsa ko dabe hue "antilope) holding grass in the teeth" i.e. "herbivore". For radana: "teeth" see Sheth 1923:706. Cf. also (96a). 373 (96a) (tiņa-cāri] Ba tana-cāri 374 (96c) hanijjai] Jha Ba hanijja. There are two variants of optative third person sg. in Daigambari, a long and a short form. For the verbal declension see Denecke 1922:39; Van den Bossche 1999:68. In Dig. manuscripts the "long" optative is mainly used, for example jānijjai, cited by Denecke. Denecke might have considerd this form as the prototype. The commentary of Sr (M) renders the predicate into the plural: mārate haim: "they (= antilopes, dwellers of the wilderness) end their lives".
375 (97b) jai] L jaha v.l. jahi. I follow a suggestion of Prof. Balbir (p.c.) to adopt the reading jai, which denotes conditional ("if-clause"). 376 (97c) (dayāeBa dayāyi L dayālu 377 (970) hujjā] L hujjai
131

Page #150

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
pāuņai jāyaṇão na kayā vi suham paloei 378 // (101)
hariūņa parassa dhanam coro parivevamāna-savva-'mgo / caiūņa ņiyaya-geham dhāvai uppaheņa samtatto // (102)
kim kena vi dittho 'ham na vetti380 hiyaena dhagadhagamtena381/ lhukkai palai382 pakhalai niddam na lahei bhaya-vittho383 // (103)
na ganei māya-vappam guru-mittam säminam tavassim (16) vā / pabalena 384 harai chaleņa kimcinnam385 kim pi jam tesim // (104)
lajjā tahâbhimāņam jasa-sila-viņāsam āda-nāsam ca/ para-loya-bhayam coro aganamto sāhasam kunai // (105)
haramāņo para-davvam datthūņā 'rakkhiehi to sahasā / rajjūhim bamdhiūņa ghippai so mora-bamdhena // (106)
himdāvijjai timte ratthāsu cadhāviūna khara-putthim / vitthārijjai coro eso 'tti janassa majjhammi // (107)
anno vi parassa dhanam jo harai386 so irisam387 phalam lahai / evam bhaņiūna puno nijjai pura-bāhire turiyam // (108)
nett'-uddhāram388 aha pāņi-pāya-gahanam nisumbhanam ahavā / jivamtassa vi sūlâvarohana kirai khalehim389 // (109)
evam picchamtā vi hu para-davvam coriyai genhamti / na munamti kim pi sahiyam pecchaha'ho moha-māhappam390 // (110)
(17) para-loe vi ya coro cau-gai-samsāra-sāyara-nimanno /
378 (1010) (paloeil L viloei 379 (102c) niyaya-geham Ba niyaya-prageham 380 (103b) na vetti L na vedi 381 (103b) hiyaena dhagadha ) L hinna-dhagadha382 (103c) (palai) Ma palāyamano L palāya 383 (103d) bhaya-vittho] Jha bhaya-ghattho Ba jhaya-vaccho L bhaya-bhiyo 384 (104c) pabalena Jha Ba pacceliu 385 (1040) kimcinnam L kimcinam Jha kim ghanam Ba kim vanam 386 (108b) harai] Jha L harei 387 (108b) (irisam Sr (M) erisam. Pkt. irisam is the abbreviation of the demonstrative pronouns Pkt. ime 'risa corresponding to Skt. idrsa: "of this sort; that kind of". See Ratnachandra 1923 [1988], Vol. II, p.149.
*** (109a) nett-uddhāram L ne'- uthāram. The commentary of L renders the compound into Skt. netrôtkhatanam: "tearing out, cutting off eyes".
389 (109d) (khalehim Ba khilehi 390 (1100) moha- Ba mohassa
132

Page #151

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
pāvai dukkham anamtam teyam parivajjae tamhā // (111)
datthūņa para-kalattam nibbuddhi jo karei ahilāsam / na ya kim pi ca tattha pāvai pāvam eme'va ajjei // (112)
nissasai ruyai gāyai niyaya-siram hanai mahi-yale padai / para-mahilam alabhamāņo391 asap-palāvam pi jampei // (113)
cimtei mam kim icchai na vei sā392 keņa vā uvāena / annemi393 kahami394 kassa' vi na ve'tti395 cimtāuro sadadam // (114)
na ya kattha vi kunai raim mittham pi ya bhoyanam na bhumjei / niddam pi alahamāņo acchai virahena samtatto // (115)
lajjā-kula-kammam 396 chamdiūņa majjâi-bhoyaņam kiccā / para-mahilanam cittam amunamto patthanam kunai // (116)
necchamti jai vi tāo uvayāra-sayāņi [18] kunai so taha vi / nibbhacchijjamto397 puna appānam jhūrai vilakkho // (117)
aha bhumjai para-mahilam anicchamānam balā dhareūņam/ kim tattha havai sukkham paccelliu pāvae dukkham // (118)
aha kâvi pāva-bahulā asai ninnāsiūņa niya-silam/ sayam eva pacchiyao398 uvaroha-vaseņa appānam // (119)
391 (113c) (para-mahilam alabhamāno] L para-mahila na labhamano 392 (114b) na vei sā] L na vei isā
393 (114c) (annemi) L anemi Śr (M) annesi v.l. annemi. The commentary of L renders the predicate into Skt. anayāmi. In the commentary of Sr (M) the phrase kena vā uvāena annemi kahami kassa vi na ve'tti is translated into Hindi maim use kisa upāya se lāüm (dusare se = anya kisi se) kahum athavá nahim (kahum): "What device is apted to win her love)? Should I talk to someone else, or not?' 394 (114c) kahami) L om. For variants in the declension cf. Denecke 1922:8ff. 395 (1140) (na ve'tti] L na ve na vetti 396 (1162) - kammam Sr (M) -majjāyam Dha Ba L-kkamam 397 (117c) (nibbhacchijjamto) L nibbhadijato. The present participle derives from nir + ✓ BHARTS: "to scold; to mock; to threaten" (MW: p. 555).
*** (119c) (sayam eva pacchiyão] Jha sayam evam pacchiyão L sayam eva picchiyāu. I assume with Sunilasāgara in the commentary of Sr (M) that the participle derives from upa + VSTHA: “to approach; to apply to; to attend on; to accomplish" (MW:p. 211). In the commentary of the manuscript Dha Pkt. pacchiya is related to Skt. pra + STHA: "to proccess; to stand forth; to expose oneself; to rise up" (MW: p. 699).
133

Page #152

8.1 Srāvakácāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
jai dei tattha399 sunna-hara-khamda-deulaya-majjhammi 400 / saccitte bhaya-bhio 401 sokkham kim tattha pāunai // (120)
soūņa kim pi saddam sahasā parivevamāņa-savva-'mgo / lhukkai 402 palāi pakhalai cau-ddisam niyai 403 bhaya-bhio // (121)
jai puna keņa vi disai nijjai to bamdhiūņa niva-geham / corassa niggaham so tattha' vi pāunai savisesam // (122)
pecchaha moha-viņadio404 logo datthūņa erisam dosam / paccakkham ta[19] ha vi khalo paritthim ahilasadi duccitto 405 // (123)
para-loyammi anamtam dukkham pāunai bhava-samuddammi 406 / para-yārā para-mahilā tamhā ti-vihena vajjijjā // (124)
rajja-bbhamsam vasaņam bāraha samvaccharāni vana-vāso / patto tahavamānam jūena Juhitthilo rāyā // (125)
ujjāņammi ramamtā tisâbhibhūyā jala'tti 407 ņāūņa / pibiūņa junna-majjam natthā te408 Jādavā teņa // (126)
mamsâsaņeņa giddho 409 Vagarakkho ega-cakka-nayarammi / rajjão pabbhattho ayaseņa muo gao narayam // (127)
399 (120a) jai dei tattha) L jai devi tattha Śr (M) jai dei taha vi tattha. In the commentary of Sr (M) the phrase is rendered into Hindi aur saumpa bhi deti hai: "but even when she entrusts herself to him that way". 400 (1206) [-majjhammi) Jha L -majjhayārammi 401(120c) (saccitte bhaya-bhio L saccimte bhaya-bhite 402 (121c) lhukkai] L lukkai. Pkt. lukkai may be derived from LUP/ RUP (MW: p. 904). The commentary of L renders the predicate into Skt. chipayati. In the commentary of Sr (M) Sunilasāgara translates the phrase into Hindi idhara-udhara chipată hai (= lukatā hai): "he hides here and there". See also the compound Hindi lukā-chipi: "secret", in Gatzlaff-Hälsig 2002:471, 1187-1188.
403 (121d) niyai) The commentary of Sr (M) renders niyai into Hindi dekhata hai: "he looks; he observes". In the dictionaries Pkt. niyakkai and niyacchai are considered to be substitutes of the present stem of DRS. See Sheth 1923:388.
404 (123a) moha-vinadio L moha-vidamvinaum. The commentary of L renders the compound into Skt. moha-vitamdinām. In the commentary of Śr (M) the second member of the compound is explained with vidambanā: "disguise; mockery". The participle of the reading of L derives from vi + DAMB: "to imitate; to mock" (MW: p. 962). It is plausible to connect the participle vinadio with vi + NAT: "to move to and fro; to go hither and tither" (MW: p. 968). 105 (123d) (duccitto Jha Ba bho cittam L to cittam 406 (124c) [bhava-samuddammi) Śr (M) iha-bhava-samuddammi 407 (126b) jala'tti] L jalatti 408 (126d) te Jha Ba to 409 (127a) giddhoMa luddho. In the commentary of L the adjective is rendered into Skt. lubdhaka.
134

Page #153

8.1 Śrāvakácāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
savva'ttha nivuna-buddhi vesā-samgena Cārudatto vi / khaiụna dhanam patto dukkham para-desa-gamanam ca // (128)
hoūņa cakka-vatti cau-daha-rayanâhio410 vi sampatto / mariūņa Bambhadatto ņirayam pāraddhi-ramanena // (129)
ņāsâvahāra-dosena damdanam pāvi[20]ūņa Siribhūi / mariūņa atta-jhāņena himdio diha-samsāre // (130)
hoūņa kha-yara-nāho viyakkhaņo addha-cakka-vatti vi / mariūņa gao narayam11 par'-itthi-haranena Lamkeso // (131)
ede mahanubhāvā dosam ekk ekka-visaņa 12-sevão / pattā jo puna satta vi sevai vannijjae kim so // (132)
sākete sevamto satta vi vasaņāim413 Ruddadatto vi / mariūņa gao nirayam14 bhamio puna diha-samsāre // (133)
sattanham visaņāņam415 phalena samsāra-sāyare jivo / jam pāvai bahu-dukkham tam samkheveņa vocchāmi // (134)
aiņiţthura-pharusāim pūi-ruhirāi aiduggamdhāim / asuhâvahāi niccam ņiraesu 'ppatti-thāņāim // (135)
to tesu samuppanno āhāreūna poggale asuhe 416 / amto-muhutta-kāle pajjattio samāņei // (136)
uvavāyāo nivadai pajja[21]ttayao 417 dada'tti418 mahi-vidhe419/ aikakkhadam asahamto sahasā uppadadi puna padai420 // (137)
410 (129b) (-rayanâhio Ba -rayanîhio 411 (131c) narayam) L nirayam 41 (132b) [P-visana-o] Jha Ba L°-casana413 (133b) (vasanāim L visanāi 414 (133c) nirayam Sr (M) narayam 415(134a) (visanānam L vasanāna 416 (136b) asuheBa asuho 417 (137b) pajjattayao] L pajjattaum. The commentary of L gives the explanation Skt. paryāpto: "accomplished"; "completed". The verbal noun derives from pari + AP: "to reach; to obtain" (MW: p. 608). 418 (137b) dada'tti) Śr (M) damda'tti Jha Ba L read m.c. dada'tti 419 (137b) (mahi-vidhe] Ba Pa mahim-vatte 420 (137d) (uppadadi puna padai] L uppadidi puna padai. In the commentary of Śr (M) the phrase is translated into Hindi upara ki aur uchalata hai girata hai: "it jumps up and tumbles down", i.e. rolls to and fro in a restless way.
135

Page #154

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
jai ko vi usina-narae421 meru-pamanam khivei loha-'mdam/ na vi pavai dharani-talam vilijjatam 422 amtarale vi // (138)
8 APPENDICES
aha teva-'mdam 423 tattam khivei jai ko vi siya-parayammi / 424 sahasa dharanim apattam sadijjatam khamda-khamdehim // (139)
tam tārisa-sid-unham khetta-sahavena hoi niraesu / visahai jāvaj-jivam vasanassa phalen' imo jio // (140)
to tamhi jaya-matte425 sahasa daṭṭhūņa ṇārayā savve/ paharamti satti-muggara-tisula-nārāya-khaggehim // (141)
to khamdiya 126 savva-'mgo karuna-palāvam ruvei diņa-muho/ pabhapamti tao ruttha kim kamdasi're durāyārā // (142)
jovvana-mana-matto loha-kassena ramjio puvvam/ guru-vayanam lamghitta juyam ramio pi jam asi427 // (143)
tassa phalam udayam agayam [22]alam hi ruyaneņa visaha're duttha
421 (138a) [usina-narae] L usana-narae
422 (138d) [vilijjatam] I vilayam Jha vilajjam v.1. vilijjam L vilayajjam. In the commentary of Śr (M) the predicate is translated into Hindi vilā jāyegā (arthāt gal jātā hai): “it will be dissolved; it will be dispersed". I interpret this formation as to be derived from the stem of vi+LI: "to dissolve; to melt" (MW: p. 985) augmented by a gerundival suffix. The form serves as the adjunct to pavai from pra + √ AP. In the commentary of Śr (M) we find a referrence to Mul (1559) with the readings vilijja v.l. vilaijja. In the commentary Vijayôdaya Aparajitasuri renders the form into Skt. dravatām upayāti: "it enters the state of fluidity". Moreover, a noun Pkt. vilayam denotes a particular hell, in which its inhabitants are designed to go into liquefaction. See Van den Bossche 1999:66,68; Ratnachandra 1923 [1988], Vol. V, p.552. Cf. the parallel construction in (139d), where the formation sadijjatam is explained as the passive voice in the commentaries.
428
423 (139a) [teva-'mḍam] Jha teva- 'dam Ba teva-'ttam L teva-'ddam. The synonym loha'mda occurs in (138b) and Mul (1558). In the commentary Vijayôdaya on Mul (1558) the compound is rendered into Skt. loha-pinda: "iron ball".
424 (139d) [sadijjatam] Jha samdejja L sarejja. In the commentary of Śr (M) the phrase is translated into Hindi bikhar jata hai: "it is dispersed; it is torn into pieces" (passive voice). The form serves as the adjunct to apattam from pra +✓ AP. There is a parallel in Mul (1559). In the commentary Vijayôdaya appears the Skt. equivalent visiryate derived from vi+ŚR: "to pierce; to crush; to smash" (Whitney 1885 [1945]:176).
136
425 (141a) [jaya-matte] L jāya-mitte
426 (142a) [khamdiya-] Ba khamdaya- L khamdhiya-°
427 (143d) [ramio pi jam asi] Śr (M) ramio jam asi I L ramium si jam mamsi. In the commentary of Śr (M) the phrase is translated into Hindi jua khela hai "he is playing dice". The phrase jam si appears also in Mul (1563b). In the commentary Vijayôdaya on Mul (1563b) it is rendered into Skt. yad asi. For periphrastic compounds with the perfective aspect see Von Hinüber 1986:193. These verbal compositions seem to be typical for the younger Prakṛts in narrative texts.
428 (144b) [alam hi ruyanena visaha're duṭṭha] I visaha nam duttha Jha Ba alam hi

Page #155

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
rovato vi na chuttasi kaya vi429 puvva-kaya-kammassa // (144)
evam soūņa tao māṇasa-dukkham visesam uppannam/ to duviha-dukkha-daddho rosaittho imam bhanai // (145)
jai vā puvvammi bhave jūyam ramiyam mae mada-vasena / tumham 30 ko avaraho kao balal jena mam hanaha 432 // (146)
evam bhanie ghittuna sutthu rutthehi433 aggi-kumdammi / pajjalayammi nihitto dajjhai so amgam amgesu // (147)
tatto nissaramāņam datthüna jjhasarehim 434 kumtehim/ pilleūņa radamtam tatth'eva chuhamti435 adayae // (148)
hā muyaham ma436 paharaha puno vi na karemi erisam pāvam / damtehi amgulio dharei karunam puno ruvai437 // (149)
na muyamti taha vi pāvā pecchaha liläe kunai jam jivo /
runnena visaha tam duttha L ala hi ruyanena visaha tam duttham Śr (M) vilaha're duttha.
I follow a suggestion of Prof. Balbir (p.c.) to adopt the reading with the verbal noun in the instrumental, ruyanena, which is more plausible than the reading Ba alam hi runnena with the instrumental of the past participle. In the commentary of Śr (M) Sunilasagara translates the phrase alam hi ruyanena into Hindi rone se bas kara!, which denotes a prohibition: "Stop crying!". "The result of this [deed] has come forth. Enough of crying! You rascal! You have to endure it!" (Prof. Balbir, p.c.). In the commentary of Śr (M) the phrase is rendered into Hindi re dur-acari [...] use sahana kara: "Hey evil-doer, you should endure that!" i.e."Rascal, you have now to suffer from the result of evil thoughts!". 429 (144cd) [na chuṭṭasi kayâ vi] Ba na chuttasi kayaim L na chuttasi kayai. In the commentary of Śr (M) the phrase is translated into Hindi [purva-kṛta-karma se] kabhi bhi nahim chuṭega: "you will never escape from it" [= the deeds you have committed previously]. The author of the commentary of Śr (M) suggests that Pkt. chuṭṭai derives from✓CUT/CHUT (MW: p. 400). Cf. Hindi chuṭna / choṛna: "to get free from; to come free from"; "to leave". See also Turner 1966: No. 3707.
430 (146c) [tumham] I L tumhe Jha tomhi Ba tohitam. For the declension of Pkt. pronouns see Van den Bossche 1999:53ff.
431 (146c) [kao bala] L koha-balā
432 (146d) [mam hanaha] I maham hanaham Ba ma hanaham L ma hamnaha
433(147a) [sutthu ruṭṭhehi] I L muddha rutthehim v.l. mudha rutthehim. Pkt. sutthu is the adverbial adjunct, which is rendered in the commentary of Śr (M) into Hindi atirusta hue: "very much enraged". Cf. Sheth 1923:914.
434 (148b) [jjhasarehim] I tase hi ahava L jhasehi ahava. In the commentary of Śr (M) jhasarom is rendered into Hindi sastra-visesa: "certain kinds of knives".
435
5(148d) [chuhamti] cf. also (158d) v.l. chuhimti (160c). In the commentary of Śr (M) the predicate is translated into Hindi dala dete haim v.1. dalate haim: "they [= the inhabitants of the regions of hell] push it [pitilessly]. According to Sheth 1923:340 chuhai derives from ✓ KSUBH / KSIP: "to stir up; to excite; to shake; to push".
436 (149a) [muyaham ma] Śr muyaha mam mā
437
37(149d) [karunam puno ruvai] Jha Ba kalunam puno ruvai L karunam puno puno ruvai
137

Page #156

8.1 Śrāvakácāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
tam pāvam vilavamto eyehim dukkhehim nittharai438 // (150)
tatto pa[23]lāiūņam kaha vi ya māena439 daddha-savv'-amgo / giri-kamdarammi sahasā pavisai sarana'tti mannamto // (151)
tattha vi padamti uvarim silāu to tāhi cunnio samto / galamāņa-ruhira-dhāro radiūņa440 khanam tao nii441 // (152)
neraiyāņa sariram kirai jai tila-pamāna-khamdāi/ pārada-rasu vva laggai142 apunna-kālammi na marei // (153)
tatto palāyamāņo rumdhai443 so nāraehi datthūņa / pāijjai444 vilavamto aya-tambaya-kala-yalam 445 tattam // (154)
paccārijjai jam te446 piyam majjam mahum ca puvva-bhave/ tam447 pāva-phalam pattam pibehi aya-kala-yalam ghoram // (155)
438 (150d) eyehim dukkhehim nittharai) Pa eyehim dukkhehim niccharaim Ba eyaham dukkhehim nittharai L eyeha dukkhehim niccharo ham ho. In the commentary of L the phrase is rendered into Skt. [...] nistarano bharati: "it (somehow carries on bearing those kinds of sufferings)" i.e. it overcomes the pain. In the commentary of Śr (M) this phrase is translated into Hindi vaha uparyukta duhkhom se bhogata hai: "it enjoys these kinds of sufferings". Cf. the Aorist third person sg. nittharasi in (165d) and Sheth 1923:398; Ratnachandra 1923 [1988], Vol. II, p.949, Vol. III, p. 306.
439 (151a) (vi ya māenal Jha va ya māena Ba L va pamāena 440 (152d) [radiūņa] L rahiūna 441 (152d) nii) L nieya. In the commentary of Sr (M) the phrase is translated into Hindi (cillātā huā] ksana-mātra mem vahām se nikala bhāgatā hai: "Mournfully) it runs away from there in a mere moment". See also the repetition of the phrase in (157d): kamdamto
412 (153c) (pärada-rasu vva laggai] L pāraya-rasavvam va llagãi. In the commentary of Śr (M) the phrase is translated into Hindi pārā-rasa ke (pāre ke) samāna turamta) apasa mem mila jāte haim (= jura jātā hai): "[the Vaikriya-bodies of the inhabitants of the hell] are mixed with other matter as qickly) as mercury".
443 (154b) rumdhai) Sr (M) rumbhai. In the commentary of Sr (M) the predicate is translated into Hindi roka liyā jātā hai: "it is obstructed"; "it is hindered" by other dwellers of the hell regions). For the passive voice see rubbhai in Sheth 1923:714.
444 (154c) pāijjai) Ba paijjai In the commentary of Sr (M) the predicate is translated into Hindi pilāyā jātā hai: "it is made to drink (iron liquid]",i.e. it is force-feeded.
4.45 (154d) aya-tambaya-kala-yalam I aya-vayam kala-yalam. Cf. the repetition in (1550).
4.46 (155a) spaccarijjai jam tel Ba paccārijjai jam to L pacchādijjai jam te. In the commentary of L there occurs the gloss Skt. smaranam. The commentary of Sr (M) translates the phrase into Hindi ulāhanā dete haim (yāda dilate haim): "they reproach [it]: they scold [it]", i.e. they remind it of having consumed liquor and honey etc. in previous life. Pkt. paccārijjai denotes the passive voice. The present stem Pkt. paccarai is explained as being the substitute of upa + a + LA(M)BH: "to scold"; "to obstruct"; "to make trouble" (MW: p. 214). See Sheth 1923:509. 447 (1550) (tam Ba tava
138

Page #157

8.1 Srāvakâcara (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
kaha vi tao jai chutto asi-patta-vanammi visai bhaya-bhio / nibadamti tattha pattāi khagga-sarisāi anavarayam 18 // (156)
to tamhi patta-padaņeņa chiņņa-kara-carana-bhiņņa-puţthi-siro / pagalamta-ruhira-dhāro kamdamto so tao [24] nii449 // (157)
turiyam palāyamānam sahasā dhariūna närayā kurā / chittuna tassa mamsam tumdammi chuhamti tass' eva // (158)
bhottum anicchamāņam niya-mamsam to bhanamti 're duttha / aimittham bhaniūņam bhakkhamto asi jam puvvam// (159)
tam kim te vissariyam jena muham kunasi 're parā-huttam/ eva bhaniūņa kusim chuhimti tumdammi pajjaliyam // (160)
aitivva-dāha-samtāvio tisa-veyanā-samabhibhūo kimi-püi-ruhira-punnam vaitarani-naim tao visai // (161)
tattha vi pavittha-mitto 450 khār'-unha-jalena daddha-savv'-amgo / nissarai tao turio hā-hā-kāram pakuvvamto // (162)
datthūņa nārayā nila-mandave tatta-loha-padimão / ālimgāvimti tahim dhariūņa balā vilavamāņam // (163)
aganittā guru-vayanam par-itthi-vesam 51 ca asi sevamto / enhim tam pāva-phalam na sahasi kim ruvasi 52 tam jena // (164)
puvva-bhave jam ka[25]mmam pamc-imdiya-vasa-gaena jiveņa / hasamāņeņa vi baddham tam kim nittharasi rovamto453 // (165)
448 (1560) (anavarayam L anāvarayam. In the commentary of Śr (M) the adverbial adjunct is rendered into Hindi hamešā = nirantara (uske upara parate haim): "leaves fall] incessantly down on it)". The adverb is derived from an + a + ✓ VR: "to obstruct (not); to conceal (not)" (MW: p. 156).
449 (1570) nii] I niyai L naya 450 (162a) (pavittha-mitto Ba pavittha-satto 451 (164a) (par’-itthi-vesam) L para-tthi-vesam 452 (164d) na sahasi kim ruvasi] It is possible to explain sahasi and ruvasi as relics of the Aorist stem. For the ancient Indo-Aryan stems with modal function see for instance Van den Bossche 1999:63. Cf. also (165d).
453 (1650) tam kim nittharasi rovamto] Pa tam kim nirasi rovamto Jha Ba tam kim niccharasi rouamto L to kim niccharasi rouamto. In the commentary of Sr (M) the phrase is translated into Hindi so kyā rote hue dūra kara sakata hai?: "how could the mourning one get rid of this?" = How could the sentient being become free of the result of the evil?). I translate nitthara.si as third person sg. Aorist stem derived from nih + ✓ TR: "to cross; to overcome", MW: p. 564.
139

Page #158

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
kika-vāya-giddha-bāya-sarūvam dhariūna nārayā ceva / paharamti454 vajja-maya-tumda-tikkha-naharehi 455 daya-rahiya456 // (166)
dhariūņa uddha-jamgham kara-kaca-cakkehi457 kei phādamti / musalehim muggarehi ya cunni-cunni-kuņamti pare458 // (167)
jibbhā-ccheyana nayaņāņa phodanam damta-cūranam dalanam459 / malamam kunamti khamdamti kei460 tila-matta-khandehim // (168)
anne kalamva-vāluya-thalammi tattammi pādiūņa puno / lottāvimti radamtam nihaņamti ghasamti bhūmie // (169)
asurā vi kūra-pāvā tattha vi gamtūņa puvva-verāim / sumarāveūna tao 461 juddham lāyamti anno 'nnam"62 // (170)
satt'eva aho-loye pudhavio tattha saya-sahassāim / nirayānam culasii sedhi-'mda-painnayāņa have //(171)
rayana-ppaha-sakkara-paha-bā[26]lu-ppaha-pamka-dhūma-tama-bhāsā / tama-tama-pahā ya pudhaviņa jāna auvattha-nāmāim 463 // (172)
padhamãe pudhavie vāsa-sahassāi daha jahannāū / samayammi vaņniyā sāyarovamam hoi ukkassam //(173)464
padhamâi jam ukkassam vidiyāisu sāhiyam jahannam tam/ tiya satta dasa ya satta-rasa dusahiyā bisa tettisam // (174)
sāyara-samkhā esā kamena vidiyâi jäna pudhavisu / ukkassâu-pamānam niddittham jina-var-imdehim // (175)
454 (166c) spaharamti] Pa L pahanamti. In the commentary of Sr (M) the predicate is rendered into Hindi prahāra karate haim (= nocate haim): "they pinch [it]"; "they prick [it]". 455 (166c) [-tikkha-naharehi] Io-tikkha-nahim Lotikha-nahir adehim 456 (166d) [daya-rahiya) L dayā-rahie 457 (167b) kara-kaca-cakkehi L kara-kaya-cekehim 458 (167d) [cunni-cunni-kunamti pare) L cunnē-kuvuamti pare narayā Sr (M) cunni-cunnikunamti pare. The readings of (167d) show discrepancies with regard to the metre.
459 (168b) (dalanam) L jalanam. In the commentary of L appears Skt. juālanam. 460 (168d) kei] Śr (M) kei; I prefer to read kei m.c. 461 (170c) sumaräveūna tao Sr (M) sumarāviūna tao L sumaraviūna taum 462 (1700) (anno 'nnam) L ano nam 463 (172) Januvattha- I anuttatha-L anuvaccha-o. In the commentary of Sr (M) the adverb is rendered into Hindi anvartha-nama (= sarthaka-nama): "particular; according to their sequence" 464 (173) L om.
140

Page #159

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
ettiya-pamāna-kālam sariram mānasam bahu-payāram / dukkham sahei tivvam vasanassa phalen imo jivo // (176)
tiriya-gaie vi taha thāvara-kāesu bahu-payāresu / acchai anamta-kālam himdamto joni-lakkhesu // (177)
kaham avi nissariūņam tatto viyal-imdiesu sambhavai / tattha vi kilissamāṇo kālam asamkhejjayam vasai // (178)
to khilla-villa-joeņa kaha vi pamc-imdiesu uvavanno / tattha vi asamkha-kālam joni-sahassesu paribhamai // (179)
[27] cheyana-bheyaņa-tādana-465tāsaņa-nillamchanam466 tahā damanam/ nikkhalaņa-malana-dalanam paulana ukkattanam ceva // (180)
bamdhana-bhararovana-lamchana-pāņa-'nna-467 rohanam sahaņam/ si'-unha-bhukkha-tanhâdi jāņa taha pillaya-vioyam // (181)
icc'evam āi bahuyam dukkham pāuņai tiriya-jonie168/ visanassa 469 phalena jado vasanam parivajjae tamhā// 470 (182)
maņuyatte vi ya471 jivā dukkham pāvamti bahu-viyappehim / itthâņiţthesu sayā viyoya-samjoya-jam tivvam// (183)
uppanna-padhama-samayamhi koi 172 jananii chamdio samto / kārana-vasena ittham73 si-unha-bhukkha-tanhâuro marai // (184)
bālattane474 vi jivo māyā-piyarehi ko vi parihino / ucchittham bhakkhamto jivai dukkhena para-gehe // (185)
165(180a) (tādana-] L om. 466 (180b) (nillamchanam L nilamcchanam jaha 467 (181b) pāņa-o] L pāṇassa 468 (182b) [tiriya-jonie) Dha Pa tiriya-jāie L tiriya-joie 469 (182c) visanassa) L vasanassa
470 (182) In the manuscripts Jha and Ba two verses are inserted from KA (41-42). They are omitted in L. Cf. KA (41): tiriehi khajjamāno and KA (42): anno innam khajjamtā. The verses are quoted from the section "Samsārânuprekşā" of KA, chapter III. My tentative translation into English goes as follows: "Being devoured by (other) beasts and killed by evil men it (the animal] is frightened nearly everywhere. It endures the pain, which lies in [the state of] being in fear. While devouring each other the creatures attain intense suffering. Even the mother eats in this case her own brood): which being protects another one under these circumstances?" Sr (182ab) corresponds to Mül (1582ab). 471 (183a) (manuyatte vi yal Jha Ba L manuyattena vi. Cf. (185a). 472 (184a) koi L kei Sr (M) koi 473 (1840) Littham) L om. 474 (185a) [bālattane L bālattena
141

Page #160

8.1 Śrāvakácāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
puvvam dāņam dauna ko vi sadhano janassa jaha-jogam / pacchā so dhana-rahio na lahai kūram pi jayamt[28]o // (186)
anno u pāva-roeņa bāhio nayara-bajjha-desammi / acchai sahāya-rahio na lahai sa-ghare vi cittheum // (187)
tisao vi bhukkhio475 'ham puttā me dehi476 pānam asanam ca/ evam kūvamtassa 477 vi na koi vayanam ca se dei 478 // (188)
to roya-soya-bhario savvesi savva'-hiyāu479 dāūņa / dukkhena marai pacchā dhig atthu manuyattanam asāram // (189)
annāņi evam āiņi jāņi dukkhani manuya-loyammi / disamti tāņi pāvai vasaņassa phalen' imo jivo // (190)
kimc' uvasamena pāvassa kaha vi devattanam vi sampatto / tattha vi pāvai dukkham visana-jjiya-kamma-pagena || (191)
datthūņa maha-'ddhiņam devāņa thii-jja-riddhi-māhappam480 / appa-'ddhio visūrai māṇasa-dukkheņa dajjhamto // (192)
hā maņuya-bhave uppajjiūņa tava-samjamam vi laddhūņa/ māyāe jam kaya481 -deva-duggayam482 tena sampatto // (193)
kamdappa-kibbhisâsu(29) ra-vāhana-sammoha-deva-jāisu / jāva-jjivam ņivasai visahamto māṇasam dukkham // (194)
cham-māsayuya-sese vatthâharanâi humti maliņāim / ņāūņa cavana-kālam ahiyayaram ruyai sogena // (195)
hā hā kaha nil-loe kimi-kula-bhariyammi aidugamdhammi /
475 (188a) (vi bhukkhioDha pabhukkhio 476 (188b) dehi] Ba L deha 477 (188c) (kūvamtassa) The editor of Śr suggests the reading kujamtassa. 478 (188d) (vayanam ca se dei) L vayanam sa huhadi 479 (189b) savva'-hiyāu Ba sava-'hiyāu. In the commentary of Ba the compound is rendered into Skt. sarvahitan. In the commentary of Sr (M) it is translated into Hindi saba logom ko nānā prakāra ke kasta: "[causing many kinds of distress for everyone"; "embarrassing for all".
480 (190a) (thii-jja-riddhi-māhappam L thiya-jja-riddhi-mahappam. In the commentary of Sr (M) the phrase is rendered into Hindi sthiti-janita rddhi ke māhātmya ko: "[having observed the majesty of supernatural powers due to the position (of being a god)". 481 (193c) (jam kaya-o] Śr (M) jam vi kayam I kam kappam Jha L bi jam kayam 482 (193cd) (deva-duggayam] L deva-duggai
142

Page #161

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
nava-māsa pūi-ruhirâulammi gabbhammi vasiyavvam // (196)
kim karami 483 kattha vaccāmi 484 kassa sāhāmi 485 jāmi kam saraṇam / ņa vi atthi ettha bamdhū jo me dhārei ņivadamtam // (197)
vajjauho mahappā erāvana-bahaņo sur'-imdo vi / jāvaj-jivam so sevio vi na dharei 486 mam taha vi // (198)
jai me hohihi487 maraṇam tā hojjau488 kimtu me samuppatti / eg-imdiesu jāijja489 no maņussesu kaiyā vi // (199)
ahavā kim kuņai purâjjiyammi udayagayammi kammammi / sakko vi jado na tarai appāņam rakkhium kā[30]le // (200)
evam bahu-ppayāram sarana-virahio kharam vilavamāņo / e' imdiesu jāyai mariūna tao niyānena // (201)
tattha vi anamta-kālam kilissamāno sahei bahu-dukkham / micchatta-samsaya-490 mai jivo kim kim491 na pāvijja492 // (202)
picchaha divve bhoye jivo bhottūna deva-loyammi / e-imdiesu jāyai dhig atthu samsāra-vāsassa // (203)
evam bahu-ppayāram dukkham samsāra-sāyare ghore / jivo sarana-vihiņo493 visanassa phaleņa pāunai // (204)
483 (1972) karami) I karammi. For the variations in the formation of the first person present tense sg. and pl. see Denecke 1922:8; Van den Bossche 1999:63, note 126. 484 (197a) (vaccāmi) Śr (M) vaccami 485 (197b) (sāhāmi) L sāhemmi 486 (1980) (dharei) L udhare 487 (1992) hohihi] L hohai In the commentary of L the predicate is rendered into Skt. bhavati. I regard Pkt. hohihi to be the contracted third person sg. future tense derived from BHŪ. See Denecke 1922:41 who cites hohidi and hohi as variants in the manuscript of the Samaya-sāra of Kundakunda. Cf. also Van den Bossche 1999:67, note 148.
488 (1996) [hojjau] L hojjai. In the commentary of L the predicate is rendered into Skt. bhavisyati, while in the commentary of Sr (M) it is translated into Hindi (to bhale] hi ho: "let it be!". See for the formation of optative and future Von Hinüber 1986:181; Van den Bossche 1999:66, note 139. Prof. Balbir (p.c.) suggests the translation of the phrase into English: "If my death comes, it will be that way, but there is my rebirth (...)".
489 (1990) (jāijja L jāyaja Śr (M) jāijja. In the commentary of Sr (M) the predicate is translated into Hindi hove. Prof. Mette (p.c.) suggests to read jāejja/ jāijja m.c. 490 (202c) (micchatta-samsaya-°) Śr (M) micchatta-samsiya-o 491 (202) [kim kim Śr (M) kim kim dukkham 492 (202d) pāvijja Jha pāvijjā Pa pāpija L pāvāvijjai 493 (204) [-vihino Lo-virahium
143

Page #162

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
pame'-umbara-sahiya¡494 pariharei jo iya 495 visanaim/ sammatta-visuddha-mai so damsana-savayo bhanio// (205)
494 495,
(205a) [pamc'-umbara-sahiyai] Pa Dha iya pame'-umbara-sahiyāim
5(205b) [jo iya] Śr (M) iya jo satta Pa Dha jo satta. This phrase is merely a refrain of stanza (57).
144

Page #163

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
8.1.1
Pāda-Index
aiņitthura-pharusāim pūi-o (135) aitivva-daha-samtāvio tisa-o (161) ailamghio vicittho padei (71) akkhehi naro rahio na munai (66) aganittā guru-vayanam par-itthi-o (164) aggi-visa-cora-sappā dukkham thovam (65) animā mahimā laghimā pāgamma (513, with 192-193) annāni evam aiņi jāņi (190) anne kalamva-vāluya-thalammi tattammi (169) aņņo u pāva-roeņa bāhio (187) anno vi parassa dhanam jo harai (108) attā dosa-vimukko puvvâpara-dosa-vajjiyam (7), 86 attâgama-taccānam jam saddahanam (6), 86 aliyam karei savaham jampai mosam (67) asurā vi kūra-pāvā tattha vi (170), 36 aha kävi pāva-bahulā asai (119) aha teva-'mdam tattam khivei (139) aha bhumjai para-mahilam (118) ahavā kim kuņai purâjjiyammi (200) āu-kula-joni-maggana-guna-jiv'uvaoga-o (15), 7ff. asi sa-samaya-para-samaya-vidū siri-kumdakumda- (540), IX, 96 icchu-rasa-sappi-dahi-khira-gamda-jala-o (82; 434), 10, 57-58 icc'evam āi-bahavo dose nāūņa (69) icc'evam āi bahuyam dukkham pāuņai (182) iya avaraim bahuso kāūna (77) uccaram passavanam tatth'eva (72) ujjāņammi ramamtā tisâbhi-o (126) uppanna-padhama-samayamhi koi (184), 4 uvavāyāo ņivadai pajjattayao (137) umbara-vada-pippala-pimpariya-o (58), 11 ettiya-pamāņa-kālam sāriram (176) ede mahanubhāvā dosam (132) eyārasa ţhāņāim sammatta-vivajjiyassa (5), 11 evam picchamtā vi hu para-davvam (110) evam bahu-ppayāram dukkham (204) evam bahu-ppayāram dosam (79) evam bahu-ppayāram saraņa-virahio (201) evam bhanie ghittūna sutthu (147) evam so gajjasto kuvio gamtūņa (75) evam soūna tao mānasa-dukkham (145)
kaha vi tao jai chutto asi-patta-vanammi (156)
145

Page #164

8.1 Srāvakâcara (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
kaham avi nissariūnam tatto (178) kāu-'ssaggamhi thio lāhâlāham (276), (cited with 183) kāūņa'namta-cautthayāi-guna-kittanam (436), 10 kauņa tavam ghoram laddhio (511, cited with 192-193) kāruya-kirāya-camdāla-domba-o (88) kim karami kattha vaccāmi kassa (197) kim kena vi dittho 'ham na vetti (103) kimc'uvasamena pāvassa kaha (191), 15ff. kika-vāya-giddha-bāya-sarūvam (166) kamdappa-kibbhisâsura-vāhana-° (194) go-bambhan-itthi-ghāyam (97) go-bambhana-mahilānam (98)
cimtei mam kim icchai na vei sā (114) cham-māsayuya-sese vatthaharanai (195) chuha-tanhā bhaya-doso rão moho jarā (8), 86 cheyana-bheyaņa-tādaņa- (180) jai ko vi usiņa-narae meru-pamānam (138) jai dei taha vi tattha sunna-hara-o (120) jai puna kena vi disai nijjai to (122) jai me hohihi maranam tā hojjau (199) jai vā puvvammi bhave jūyam ramiyam (146) jallósahi-savvôsahi-akkhiņa-mahā-o (346, cited with 192) jaha majjam taha ya mahū janayadi (80) jibbhā-ccheyana nayaņāna (168) jivajivâsava-bamdha-samvaro (10), VI-VII, 1ff. jūyam khelamtassa hu koho māyā (60) jüyam majjam mamsam vesā (59), 10 je tasa-kāyā jivā puvv'-udditthā ņa (209, cited with 58), 7, 34 je majja-mamsa-dosā vesā-gamanammi (92), 10 jeņa 'jja majjha davvam gahiyam (74) jo avalehai niccam nirayam so jai (84) jovvana-maeņa-matto loha-kasāeņa (143) jam kimci tassa davvam ajānamānassa (73) jam parimānam kirai dhana-dhanna-o (213), VII, 5 na ganei ittha-mittam ņa gurum (63) na ganei māya-vappam guru-mittam (104) na muyamti taha vi pāvā pecchaha (150) na ya kattha vi kunai raim mittham (115) na ya bhumjai ahāram niddam (68) ņāsâvahāra-dosena damdanam (130) niccam palāyamāno tina-cari (96) şiddā tahā visāo dosā eehim (9), 86ff. niyayam pi suyam bahinim (76)
146

Page #165

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
nissamkā ņikkamkhā nivvidigiccha (48; cited with 57) nissasai ruyai gāyai niyaya-siram (113) necchamti jai vi tão uvayāra-sayāni (117) nett-uddhāram aha pāņi-pāya-gahanam (109) neraiyāņa sariram kirai jai tila-pamāņa-o (153)
tatto nissaramānam datthūņa (148) tatto palāiūnam kaha vi ya māena (151) tatto palāyamāņo rumbhai so ņāraehi (154) tattha vi anamta-kālam kilissamāno (202) tattha vi dukkham anamtam cheyaņa-o (62) tattha vi padamti uvarim silāu to tāhim (152) tattha vi pavittha-mitto khār'-unha-jalena (162) tassa phalam udayam āgayam alam hi ruyanena (144) tiriya-gaie vi taha thāvara-kāesu (177), VIff., 1ff. tisao vi bhukkhio ham putta me dehi pāņam (188) turiyam palāyamānam sahasa (158) to khamdiya-savva-'mgo karuna-palāvam (142), 21,91,95 to khilla-villa-joeņa kaha vi pamc' -imdiesu (179) to tamhi jāya-matte sahasā datthūna (141) to tamhi patta-padaņeņa chinna-kara-o (157) to tesu samuppanno ahāreūņa (136), 20 to roya-soya-bhario savvesim savv'-ahiyāu (189) tam kim te vissariyam jena muham kuņasi (160) tam tārisa-sid'-unham khetta-sahāveņa (140) datthuna asana-majjhe padiyam (81) daţthūņa ņārayā nila-° (163) datthūņa para-kalattam nibbuddhi (112) datthūņa maha-'ddhinam (192) datthūņa mukka-kesam palāyamānam (95) damsaņa-vaya-sāmāiya-posaha-sacitta-(4), 11 dhariūņa uddha-jamgham kara-kaca-° (167)
pabhaņai purao eyassa sāmi mottūņa (90) paccarijjai jam te piyam majjam mahum (155) padhamâi jam ukkassam vidiyaisu sāhiyam (174) padhamãe pudhavie vāsa-sahassāim (173) para-davva-harana-silo iha-para-loe (101) para-loe vi ya coro cau-gai-samsāra-o (111) para-loyammi anamtam dukkham (124) pāveņa tena jara-marana-vici-paurammi (61) pāveņa tena dukkham pāvai (93) pāvena tena bahuso jāi-jarā-o (78) picchaha divve bhoye jivo bhottūna (203)
147

Page #166

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
puvva-bhave jam kammam pamc-imdiya-o (165) puvvam dānam dauna ko vi (186) pecchaha moha-viņadio logo datthūna (123) pamc'-umbara-sahiyāim pariharei (205) pamc'-umbara-sahiyāim satta vi (57), 10ff. bamdhana-bhārârovana-lamchana- (181) bālattane vi jivo māyā-piyarehi (185) buddhi tavo vi ya laddhi viuvvana-laddhi (512, with 192-193) bho bho jibbh' -imdiya-luddhayāna- (82) bhottum anicchamānam niya-mamsam (159) bhottūņa maņuya-sokkham passiya veragga-o (510, cited with 192-193) majjena naro avaso kunei kammāni (70) manuyatte vi ya jivā dukkham pāvamti (183), 4 mahu-majja-mamsa-sevi pāvai pāvam (99) māni kula-jo sūro vi kunai dāsa-ttanam (91) mamsam amejjha-sarisam kimi-kula- (85) mamsásaņeņa giddho Vagarakkho (127) mamsasaņeņa baddhai dappo (86)
rajja-bbhamsam vasanam bāraha (125) rattam ņāūna naram savvassam (89) rayaņa-ppaha-sakkara-paha-bālu-ppaha-pamka-o (172) rupaya-suvaņņa-kamsai-thāli-ņi-o (435, cited with 81-82) lajjā tahâbhimāņam jasa-sila-viņāsam (105) lajjakula-majjāyam chamdiūna (116) loiya satthammi vi vanniyam jahā (87) loge vi suppasiddham bāraha gāmāi (83) vajjauho mahappa erāvana-° (198)
sa-jane ya para-jane vā dese (64) sattanham visaņāņam phalena (134) satt'eva aho-loye pudhavio tattha (171) sammattassa pahāņo anukamvā (94), 6, 92 savvattha nivuņa-buddhi vesā-samgena (128) sākete sevamto satta vi vasaņāim (133) sāyara-samkhā esā kamena vidiyâi (175) sāyāro ņāyāro bhaviyānam jena (2), 9 souņa kim pi saddam sahasā (121) samveyo nivveo nimdā garahā (49; cited with 57) samsāra-tthā duvihā thāvara-tasa-bheyao (12; 177-178) samsārammi anamtam dukkham (100) haramāņo para-davvam datthūņa-o (106) hariūņa parassa dhanam coro (102) hā maņuya-bhave uppajjiūņa tava-o (193)
148

Page #167

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
hā muyaha mam mā paharaha puno vi (149) ha ha kaha nil-loe kimi-kula-bhariyammi (196) himdāvijjai timte ratthāsu cadhaviana (107) houna kha-yara-näho viyakkhano (131) houna cakka-vatti cau-daha-rayanahio (129)
149
8 APPENDICES

Page #168

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
8.1.2 List of Quotations
The list of quotations from Jain scriptures refers to the notes in the translation of Vasunandin's Sr (57-205) and in the introductory chapters. The stanzas which appear in the Hindi commentary of Sunilasāgara on Vasunandin's Śr (M) are cited according to the reference literature in this printed edition.
Ātmânuśāsana of Guņabhadra netā yatra brhaspatiḥ praharanam (Atmânusasana 32), (cited with 199-200 in Sr M) vyāpat-paramayam virāma-virasam (Atmânuśāsana 81), (cited with 190 in Śr M)
Upāsakâdhyayana of Somadeva = Yt udbhrāntarbhaka-garbhe 'sminn (Yt 294), (cited with 84 in Śr M) svabhāva-suci-durgandham anyápāyam (Yt 279), (cited with 87 in Sr M)
Uttarajjhāyā kamdamto kamdu-kumbhisu (Uttarajjhāyā XIX.49), 89-90 tuham piya surā sihū (Uttarajjhāyā XIX.70), (157-160), 89-90 tuham piyāi mamsai (Uttarajjhāyā XIX.69), (157-160)
Kattikeyâņuvekkhā = KA anno'nnam khajjamtā (KA 42), (182), (cited with 182 in Śr M) asurôdiriya-dukkham sariram (KA 529), (170), (cited with 135-136 in Śr M) itthânitta - (cited in Subhacandra's commentary on KA 49), (184) jiva-daya dhammo janne (KA 414), (77; 83) tiriehi khajjamano duttha-manussehi (KA 41), (182) (cited with 135-136 in Sr M) bālo vi piyara-catto para-ucchitthena (KA 46), (185, cited with 185 in Śr M) mudha-trayam madā câstau (cited in Subhacandra's commentary on KA 306) (cited with 205 in Sr M) rai-bhoyana-virao mehuna-sarambha
150

Page #169

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
(KA 306) (cited with 205 in Śr M) sammad-damsana-suddho ruhio (KA 305) (cited with 205 in Śr M)
Gommata-sära of Nemicandra aharadi sariranam tinham
(Gs Ji 665), (135-137), 28)
āhāro pajjate idare khalu hodi tassa
(Gs Ji 683), (135-137)
uvavādā sura-niraya gabbha-ja
(Gs Ji 90), (135-137)
kan kan nila nila ya
(Gs Ji 529), (cited with 135-136 in Śr M) na ramamti jado niccam davve khette (Gs Ji 147), (cited with 135-136 in Śr M) diveamti jado niccam gunehi atthehi (Gs Ji 151), (cited with 191 in Śr M) mannamti jado piccam manena (Gs Ji 149), (cited with 183 in Śr M) veguvvam pajjate idare khalu hodi tassa (Gs Ji 682), (135-137)
Caritra-prabhṛta of Kundakunda dyutam mamsam sura-vespa
(Śrutasagara on Caritra-prabhṛta 21), (cited with 205 in Śr M)
Caritra-sara of Camundârya
himsåsatya-steyad abrahma-parigrahic (Caritra-sara 3), (cited with 205 in Śr M)
Tattvârtha-sūtra of Umāsvāmin
ato 'nyat papam
(Ts VIII.26 [27]), (163-165) atuityasarana-samsaraikatványatváśucitvá
(Ts IX.7), (171; 177; 193; 202), 4
adattadanam steyam
(Ts VII.10), (59)
avrata-kaşayendriya-kriya pañca-pañca-catuḥ (Pujyapada's commentary on Ts VL6),V
uttama kṣamā-mardavarjava-sauca-satya-samyama
(Ts IX.6), (97-98; 202)
upayogaḥ sparsadigu
(Ts II.19), XIff. upayogo laksanam
8 APPENDICES
151

Page #170

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
(Ts II.8), XI audārika-vaikriya-āhāraka-taijasa-kārmana(Ts II.37), (135-137), XIV,28 aupapātika-manuşyebhyaḥ seşās tiryag(Ts IV.28), (177-178) aupaśamika-kṣāyikau bhāvau misras (Ts II.1),1ff. kāya-van-manah-karma yogah (Ts VI.1), VII krmi-pipilika-bhramara-manusyādinām (Ts II.24), (177-178) kşut-pipāsā-sitosna-damsa-masaka(Ts IX.9), (171-172, 177-178; 180-181) garbha-sammūrchana-jam adyam (Ts II.46), (135-137) jivajivásrava-bandha-samvara-nirjarā-moksās (Ts I.4), (77), VI-VII, XI jñānājñāna-darśana-danadi-labdhayas (Ts II.5),1-2 tad avirata-desa-virata-pramatta-samyatānām (Ts IX.35),XV tejo vāyū duindriyâdayaś ca trasāḥ (Ts II.14), (137) teşv eka-tri-sapta-dasa-sapta-dasa-dvā-vimsati(Ts III.6), (157-160; 173-175; 202) trayas-trimsat-sagarôpamānyayuskasya (Ts VIII.18), (69) darśana-cāritra-mohaniya-kaşāya-no-kaşāya(Ts VIII.10), (59) darśana-viếuddhir vinaya-sampannatā sila-vrateņu (Ts VI.23), (57) dasasta-pačna-dva-dasa-vikalpah (Ts IV.3), (170; 194-195) duhkha-soka-tāpakrandana-vadha-paridevanâny(Ts VI.12), (161-162), 89 devās catur-nikāyah (Ts IV.2), (170; 194-195) dvi-navastā-dasaika-vimsati-tri(Ts II.2), 9 [nārakah] nityaśubha-tara-leśyā-parināma(Ts III.3), (59; 161-162; 181-182), 35, (cited with 135-136 in Sr M) naigama-samgraha-vyavahāra-rju(Ts I.34), 15 niņsalyo vrati )
152

Page #171

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
(Ts VII.13), (59; 135-137) paras-paródirita-duḥkhaḥ
(Ts III.4), (59; 156;170; 204) purvayor dvindräḥ
(Ts IV.6), (170)
prthivy-ambu-vanas-patayaḥ sthavarāḥ
[v.l. prthivy-ap-tejo-vayu-vanas-patayaḥ sthāvarāḥ
(Ts II.13), (177-178)
pramatta-yogat prāṇa-vyaparopanam
(Ts VII.8),(171-172)
prayaścitta-vinaya-vaiyāvṛttya-svâdhyāya-vyutsarga
(Ts IX.20), 4
bahe-arambha-parigrahateam ca narakasya-"
(Ts VI.16), (59; 171-172)
bhavana-vasino 'sura-naga-vidyut-suparnagni-"
(Ts V.11), (170)
mati-áratávadhayo viparyaras ca
(Ts 1.32), (195)
mati-áratávadhi-manah-paryaya-"
(Ts 1.9), 12
margacyavana-nirjarártham parisodha
(Ts IX.8), (171-172; 192-193) mithya-darśanavirati-pramada-kaşaya-yoga bandha
(Ts VIII.1), (69; 77; 171-172)
mürecha parigrahaḥ
(Ts VII.12), (59)
yoga-vakratā visamvadanam câśubhasya
(Ts VI.21), (50) gogopayogan jiveşu (Ts V.44), (77)
ratna-sarkarā-valuka-parka-dhuma-tamo(Ts III.1), (84; 140-142; 170-173), 23 vayv-antānām ekam
(Ts II.23), (177-178)
vigraha-gatau karma-yogaḥ
(Ts II.26), 9, 21
viparitam subhasya (Ts VI.22), (50; 194-195) vedaniye seṣaḥ
(Ts IX.16), (177-178; 202) vaikriyam aupapātikam
(Ts II.47), (135-137; 142)
sarirâdinām sva-bhāvânucintanam
(Pajyapada's Sarvârtha-siddhi on Ts IX.2),4
153
8 APPENDICES

Page #172

8.1 Śrāvakácāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
sa asravah (Ts VI.2), (57) sa gupti-samiti-dharmanupreksā parişahajaya(Ts IX.2),4 sa dvividho'sta-catur-bhedah (Ts II.9),XI sa bandhah (TS VIII.3), (171-172) sakasayatvāj jivah karmano yogyān pudgalāno (Ts VIII.2), (171-172) sakasāyakasayoḥ sāmparāyikêrya(Ts VI.5), V sad-asator aviseşād yadrcchôpalabdher (Ts I.32), (195) sad-asad-vediye (Ts VIII.9), (77) sad-vedya-samyaktva-hāsya-rati-puruşa-veda-subhâyur(Ts VIII.26), (165) samklistâsurôdirita-duḥkhās (Ts III.5), (170), XV samjninah samanaskah (Ts II.25), 21 samyaktua-caritre(Ts II.3),(57) samyag-darśana-jnana-caritrāni (Ts I.1), (57) samsāriņas trasa-sthāvarāḥ (Ts II.12), (177-178) samsāriņo muktās ca (Ts II.10), (61) stena-prayoga-tad-āhstâdāna-viruddha(Ts VII.22), (59) sparśana-rasana-ghrāna-caksuh-śrotrāņi (Ts II.20), 97 hāsya-raty-arati-soka-bhaya-jugupsā-stri-pum(Ts VIII.10), (59; 65)
Tiloya-pannatti of Yativrsabha uppaha-uvaesa-yarā vippadivannā (Ti Pa III.205), (194) tivvāu vedanao palāvamto vilavadi (Ti Pa IV.613), 22
Pañca-dhyāyi of Rājamalla
154

Page #173

8.1 Śrāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
etāvatā vinâpy esa śrāvako nâsti (Panca-dhyāyi 725), (cited with 205 in Sr M) tatra mula-gunas castau gļhiņām (Panca-dhyāyi 723), (cited with 205 in Sr M) nisargād vā kulämnāyād āyātās te (Pañca-dhyāyi 724), (cited with 205 in Śr M) madya-māmsa-madhu-tyāgi tyaktôdumbara(Panca-dhyāyi 726), (cited with 205 in Śr M)
Pañca-vimsatikā of Padmanandin bhavanam idam akirttes caurya-vesyâdi sarva(Pañca-vimsatikā 1.117), (cited with 69 in Śr M) tyajyam māmsam ca madyam ca madhu(Pañca-vimsatikā VI.23), (cited with 205 in Sr M)
Pañcâsti-kāya of Kundakunda kheni puvva-nibaddhe gadi-name (Pancastikāya 126), XIV
Puruşartha-siddhy-upāya of Amrtacandra artha nama ya ete prānā ete (Puruşârtha-siddhy-upāya 103), (cited with 111 in Śr M) madyam māmsam kşaudram pañcôdumbara(Puruşartha-siddhy-upāya 61), (cited with 205 in Śr M) madhu-sakalam api prāyo madhu-kara(Puruşârtha-siddhy-upāya 69), (cited with 84 in Śr M) svayam eva vigalitam yo grhņiyad (Puruşârtha-siddhy-upāya 70), (cited with 84 in Sr M)
Bhāva-prābhrta of Kundakunda sisu-kāle ya ayāṇe asui(Bhāva-prābhrta 41), (cited with 185 in Śr M)
Bhāva-samgraha of Devasena samkâi-dosa-rahiyam nissadmkai-guna(Bhāva-samgraha 279), (57) samveyo nivveo nimdā garahā (Bhāva-samgraha 263), (57)
155

Page #174

8.1 Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
Marana-vibhakti (=Marana-samādhi-prakirnakam) asui sariram rogā jammana-sayasahanam (Marana-vibhakti 647), (80-82; 177-178) teņa u iha-loga-suham mattunam (Marana-vibhakti 651), (202) barasa vi bhavanao tam (Marana-vibhakti 635), 13
Mahā-purāna of Jinasena madhu-mamsa-pari-tyāgah (Mahā-purāņa XXXVIII.122) (cited with 205 in Śr M)
Mūlâcāra of Vattakera abhijumjai bahu-bhāve sāhū hassāiyam (Māc II.65), (194-195) asattam ullāvimto pannāvimto ya (Māc II.64), (194-195) asuresu sāgarovama tipalla pallam ca ņāga(Māc XII.1119), (170) asurāņam asamkhejjā kodi joisiya (Māc XII.1153), (170) ā pamcam itti siha itthio jamti chatthi(Māc XII.1156) (cited with 135-136 in Sr M) ārādhaņa-nijjutti maraña-vibhatti (Māc V.279), 6 ahāra-nimittam kira macchā gacchamti (Mac II.82), (177-178; 181) āhāre ya sarire taha imdiya āņa-pāna (Māc XII.1047), 28 itthi-kahā attha-katha bhatta-kahā kheda(Māc VIII.857) (cited with 86-87) kā deva-duggaio kā bohi kena na (Māc II.62) (cited with 194-195) khuddi kohi māņi māyi taha (Māc II.68). (170) cattāri mahā-viyadi ya homti (Māc V.353), (80) je puņa paņatta-madiyā pacaliya(Māc II.60), (194-195), 7 tinniya duveya solasa nava-bheda (Māc XII. 1233), (69) titthayarāņam padiņio samghassa (Māc II.66), (194-195), 7 tiviham bhanamti maranam bālāņam
156

Page #175

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
(Mac II.59), (198-201),7
devesu nārayesu ya tettisam homti
(Mac XII.1116), (173-175)
padhamam pudhivim asanni
(Mac XII.1155), (cited with 135-136 in Śr M)
marane virähie deva-duggai dullahā
(Mac II.61), (194-195), 7, 96-97
sattha-ggahanam visa-bhakkhanam ca jalaṇam
(Mac II.74), (198-201)
sadam asadam duviham vedaniyam
(Mac XII.1232), (69)
samamagimdiya-rivam madi-jovana
(Mac VIIL696), (187-189) siddhe namamsidanam ya jhana (Mac VIII993),6 samjoga-vippaogä lähälähm suham (Mac VIIL711), (183),4)
Mülȧradhana of Śivarya aggi-visa-sattu-sappádi(Mül 1591), (65, 177)
asi-patta-vanammi ya jam jam (Mül 1562ed), (65)
ārāhaṇāe kajje pariyammam
(Mal 19),6
icc'eram adi dukkham anamta-khutto
(Mal 1582), (182, cited with 182 in the Appendix)
unhe bhumim apatto nimisena
(Mil 1558cd), (138-139), 13)
kadamba-prasanákärä välukácita-"
(Vijayôdaya Tika on Mul 1563) (cited with 166-169 in Śr M) kala-loha-ghatita-mamdape
(Vijayôdaya Tika on Mul 1569) (cited with 163-164 in Śr M)
kuttakuttim cunndcunni
(Mul 1566), (cited with 140-142)
chedana-bhedana-dahanam
(Mul 1578), (180-181), 97
jadi pavayanassa sāro marane ārāhaṇā
(Mal 18), 6
jadi koi meru-mattam loh' undam pakkhivijja
(Mul 1558ab), (cited with 138-139 in the Appendix)
jam attāno nippadiyammo bahu-vedanu
(Mul 1579), (180-181, 202), 97
jam gabbha-väsa-kunimam kupimāhāram
8 APPENDICES
157

Page #176

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
(Mūl 1596), (194-195) jam nila-mamdave tatta-loha-padima(Mül 1564), (154-155; 163; 169) jam lodido 'si simghadhesu tikkhesu (Mül 1572cd), (166-170) jam pāido 'si khāram kaduyam tattam kala-- (Mül 1564cd) (cited with 155) niraesu vedanao anovamão asāda-bahu(Mül 1557), (161-162) tatta-kāla-loha-padimäule (Mūl 1563), (cited with 143 in the Appendix, cited with 163-164 in Sr M) tādana-tasaņa-bamdhaņa(Mül 1577), (180-181), 97 tiriya-gadim anupatto bhima-mahā-vedanaulam (Mül 1576ab), (170; 177-178) tāmra-sisaka-tila-sarja-rasa-guggula(cited in the Țikā of Āsādhara on 1569) (cited with 154-155 in Sr M) diņatta-rosa-cimtā-sogâmarisa(Mül 1586), (189) damanam ca hatthi-pādassa nigala(Mül 1589), (cited with 110) dukkhāņi kilesā vi ya anamta-khutto (Mül 1583cd), (183-184, 202), Iff., 1ff. devatta-mānusatte jam te jaena (Mūl 1583ab), (183-184) pagalamta-rudhira-dhāro palamba-cammo (Mül 1574), (157-160) patto kayamba-baluga(Mül 1563cd), (169) paribhiccadāe jamte asabbha-vayaņehim (Mül 1585), (187-189) piya-vippaoga-dukkham appiya-samvāsa(Mül 1585), (186) sāma-savalehim dosam vaitaranie ya pāvio jam si (Mül 1563ab), (143; 162; 169) side bhūmim apatto nimiseņa sadhijja (Mūl 1559cd), (139, cited with 138-139 in the Appendix)
Ratna-karanda-śrāvakâcāra of Samantabhadra alpa-phala-bahu-vighātān mülaka(Rk III.39 = 85), (81) anyānam anatiriktam yāthatathyam vina (Rk II.1 = 42), (81), 12 anta-kriyâdhikaraṇam tapah-phalam
158

Page #177

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
(Rk V.2 = 123), 11 ālocya sarvam enah kota-kāritam anumatam (Rk V.4 = 125), 11 āharam parihāpya kramasaḥ snigdham (Rk V.6 = 127), (194),11 upasarge durbhikṣe jarasi rujāyām ca (Rk V.1 = 122).11 ksiti-salila-dahana-pavanarambham viphalam (Rk III.34 = 80), (142) kşut-pipāsā-jarā-tarka-janmântaka-bhaya(Rk 1.6 = 6), (177-178) khara-pana-hāpanām krtvā (Rk V.7 = 128), (194), 11 grha-mehy-anagārānam caritrātpatti(Rk II.4 = 45), 12 caura-prayoga-caurârthâdāna-vilopa(Rk III.12 = 58), (103; 130) chedana-bandhana-pidanam (Rk III.8 = 54), (180-181) jivajiva-su-tattue punyâpunye (Rk II.5 = 46), 12 jivita-maranasamse bhaya-mitra(Rk V.8 = 129), 11 trasa-hati-pariharanartham kşaudram (Rk III.38 = 84), (81-82),10 nihitam vā patitam vā su-vismộtam (Rk III.11 = 57), (103) nihśreyasam abhyudayam nistiram (Rk V.9 = 130), 11 na samyaktua-samam kiñcit trai-kālye (Rk I.34 = 34) (cited with 202 in Sr M) niyamo yamas ca vihitau dvedhā bhogôpabhoga(Rk III.41 = 87), (59) pancānām pāpānām himsādinām (Rk III.26 = 72), (79) parasu-krpāņa-khanitra-jualanäyudha(Rk III.31 = 77), (142) prathamânuyogam arthakhyānam (Rk II.2 = 43), 12 madya-māmsa-madhu-tyāgaih (Rk III.20 = 66), (59, 80-82, cited with 205 in Sr M), 9ff. lokaloka-vibhakter yuga-pariurttes (Rk II.3 = 44), 12 sokam bhayam avasādam kledam
159

Page #178

8.1 Srävakácära (57-205)
(Rk V.5 126), (194),11) śrava-padani devair ekadasa desitgni (Rk V.15 136), 12
sneham vairam sangam parigraham (Rk V.3 = 24), 11
Ratna-mālā of Śivakoti
madya-mamsa-madhu-tyaga-samyuktā=" (Ratna-mälä), (cited with 205 in Śr M)
Śrävakácära of Amitagati madya-mamsa-madhu-rätri-bhojanam
(Amitagati's Sr V.1), (cited with 205 in Sr M)
yo'ti nama madhu bheṣajecchaya (Amitagati's Śr V.27), (cited with 84 in Sr M)
Śrävakácära of Gunabhūṣaṇa
dyuta-madhvamisam veśyā
(Gunabhüsana's Śr 14), (cited with 50 in Śr M)
Sanat-kumara-caritam (= Nemi-nātha-caritam of Haribhadra, Sec
tion 443-785)
kimi-samkula-sayala-tanu
(Sanat-kumara-caritam 51,91 = 679), (85), 88
Sagara-dharmamṛta of Asadhara
kanya-daşana-gandharva vivähädi
(Sagara-dharmamṛta II.23), (cited with 124 in Śr M)
madya-pala-madhu-nisāsana-pañca
(Sagara-dharmamṛta II.18), (cited with 205 in Śr M) sthane'snantu palam hetoh (Sagara-dharmamṛta II.6), (cited with 87 in Śr M)
Suya-gada
te dajjhamāṇā kaluṇam thanamti
(Saya-gada II.5.1.7), 22, 95
te tippamānā [...] räimdiyam tattha thanamti (Saya-gada II.5.1.23), 22, 95
8 APPENDICES
160

Page #179

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
8.1.3 Index of Prākṛt Terms
The numbers in round brackets indicate the verses of Śr. The numbers without brackets indicate the page.
aggi, (65)
aggi-kunda, 90ff.
ajampanijam, (76) ajjai, (68)
ahayana, 5.
attha-guna, (192-193) anamta-kaya, 44
anicchamanam, (159-160), 31
anuoga, 22
apukama, (57; 94), 6, 92
anubandhai, (77)
anuvekkha, (80); 4ff., 97 anuhavai, (70)
atta (atman), XII-XIII attāno, 97
appa-'ddhiya, 98
abhaya-dāṇa, 92 amudha-ditthi, (57) alam hi, (144), 34 avaraho, (95-96; 146) asai, (119) asarana, 5ff.
asi-patta-vana, (156), 89 asui, (80)
asura, (170; 194), 5ff., 20ff., 89ff. asuha-poggala, (136), 20ff.
aho-loya, (171-172), 20ff, ācāra, VIII
drappa, (95-96)
arambha, 11
arahana, 6, 99
alocană, (57)
āhāreūṇa, (136), 20
ittha, (184)
ucchittham, (88)
udaya, (144; 200) uppatti-thanaim, (135) uppahena, (102)
8 APPENDICES
161

Page #180

8.1 Sravakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
uvaoga, XI uvagūhana, (57) uvavāya, (135-137) uvasama, (191), 2 uvāsaya'jjhayana, (213), VII, 5 umbara-vada-pippala, (58) eyā-rasa-tthāna, 11
kamma, (66; 116; 144; 165; 191; 200ff.), 1ff., V-VIff. kaya-kāridâņumoya, (79) karaṇa, (66) karuna, (149; 162), 91,95 karuna-palāva, (162), 21, 91,95 kala-yala, (154-155) kalamba-vāluya, (169) kasāya, V, 6 kaga, (79) kāruya-kirāya-camdāla-, (88) kāla, (195; 198-201) kibbhisâsura, (194) kimi, (82; 85; 161; 196), 47 kiriyā-thāna, 49-51 kilissamāņo, (178; 202), XIV kilesa, (178; 202), 8 kuddho, (74) kula-kammam, (116), 32 kumbha-'nda, 35-36 kusi, (160) koha, (60) kamdappa, (194) kamdasi kim, (142), 20ff.,90ff. kamdamto, (157), 89ff. khaggehim, (141) khajjamano, (182) khajjamtā, (182) khetta, (140), XIII gai, (59; 177-178), 6 ganei, (63; 104) gabbha, (with 135; 196) garaha, (57) gamai, (83) guna, 9
cau-gai, (111)
162

Page #181

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
cavana, (195), 96 cittheum, (187), 19 cora, (59; 65; 122) cimtāuro, (68) cham-masâuya, (195)
chalena, (104)
cheyana, (62; 168; 180-181)
chamdiuna, 20
jama, (74), 98
jibbh'-imdiya, (82)
jibbhāe, (71; 168)
jiva, (57; 165; 177-178; 199ff.), IVff., 2ff.,
jivaji, V, XI
jaya, (59)
jonyi, (182) jhana, 13
timte, (107)
thi-ja, (192-193) thidi-karana, (57)
na karemi na karavemi karemtam, (79)
nava-koti, (79)
nikkamkha, (57) nikkhalana, (180-181) nigoda, 35, 97
niggaham, (122)
nigghana, (81), 62-63 pijäsa, (80-81), 59-63
nitthivai, (81) pittharasi, (165), 19 nippadiyammo, 97
niyāneṇa, (201)
piraya, (84), (135ff.), 32-34, 100ff.
nivvidigiccha, (57)
niveeya, (57)
pissaramaņam, (148)
nissamka, (57)
pila-mamdave, (148) nimda, (57; 81)
tacca, Vff., 97
tatta, (138)
tama, (172) tava, (192-193), 98 tasa, (58)
163
8 APPENDICES

Page #182

8.1
Srāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
tādana, (180-181) tina-kamcana, 90 tiņa-cāri, (96) tiriya, (177-178; 182) tiriya-yoni, (182) tisula, (141) thanamti, 95 thāvara, (177-178) datthuna, (112) daya, (94), 63 davua, (73-74); IVff. dāņa, (135-137; 186) duggai, (59) dukkha, (62; 65; 93; 100; 124; 145; 182-183; 204) duttarā, 79 duvalāsa-vihagara-dhamma, 11 dosa, (69; 79; 92; 123; 132) damsaņa, (57-58; 205), 6, 11 dhamma, (97; 145-146), 4, 21ff., 85, 98ff. dhig atthu, (189; 203), 20ff. dhuma, (172)
paulaņa, (180-181) pakuvvamto, (162), 34 pakhalai, (103) pagalamta, (157) paccārijjai, (155) paccelliu. (118) padiya, (87) padimão, (163) pajjatta, 86 pajjattayao, (137) pañña-vimutti, 98 patthanam, (87) pabalena, (104) para-dāra, (59) pariharei, (205) palai, (103) pavitta, (82) pahāvaņā, (57) parada-rasa, (153) pāraddhi, (59; 94-100), 88ff. palayamāņo, (96) pāva, (59; 187)
164

Page #183

8.1 Srävakācāra (57-205)
pudhavi, (171-175) puggale (poggale), 20 pura-bahire, (108)
puvva-veraim, (59; 170) pui-ruhirai, (135) pāyā, 13
poggale, (136), 20
parka, (172)
pare'-umbara, (57-58; 205)
bandha, (106)
bandhana, (180-181)
bāraha, (83)
balattane, (185)
bhatti, (57)
bhaya, (65; 95: 103; 105; 120-121;156) bhava-saya-sahassa, (65), 35ff. bhāva, 1-3
bhukkha-tanhâdi, (177; 181; 184)
bheyana, (62; 180-181)
bho bho, (82), 21
bhottum, (159-160), 19
mai, (202)
majja, (57; 59; 70-80; 92; 99; 154-155),10 mana-vacana-kāya, (79)
mahu, (80-84; 99; 155)
mahappam, (192-193)
micchatta, (202)
mittho, (72) muggara, (141)
mula-guna,(57-59; 205), 9ff.
moha,(110)
mamta, 94
mamsa, (59; 99; 159), 31,60, 63
radiuna, (152), 91-92
ramio, (143), 18
rayana, (172)
rasa, (153; 434), 58 rasanto, 101
riddhi, (192-193)
ruyaneṇa, (144), 91-92
ruvai, ruvei (113; 142; 149; 195), 95
ruhira, (152; 157; 161)
rovato, (165), 91-92
165
8 APPENDICES

Page #184

8.1 Śrāvakâcāra (57-205)
8 APPENDICES
laggai, (153) lajja, (105; 116) lahai, (187) lank'-esa, (131) lilae, 81 lodido'si, 81 loga, 5 loha, (163) lhukkai, (103) vacchalla, (57) vaya, 11 vāhana, (194) vaitarani, (161) viyal-imdiyesu, (178) viyoja-samyoya, (183) vilāvamāņo, (201), 90-91 vilavadi, 34 vilihamti, (71) vivajjei, 98 visa, (65) visaņa, (57; 205) visamyojana, 94 visuddha, 46ff., 99ff. visūrai (192-193) veyanā (161); 33ff., 100ff. vesā, (59; 92)
satti, (141) sacitta, 11 sadda, 98 sappa, (65) samuppanno, (136), 20 sammatta, (49; 57; 94; 205); 1, 6, 97 sammucchana, 71 sammoha, (194) saya-sahassa, (65); (171), 37 saraņa-vihiņo, (204) saraņa-virahiya, (62) sahasā, (75; 106; 121; 137, 139, 141, 151, 158), 88ff. sāyāra, 9 sāyaróvama, (173-175), 24 sārameya, (71) sāvaya, VII, 9 si’-unha, (177-181; 184)
166

Page #185

8.2 Abbreviations
siya-paraya, (139) sūra, (72)
samdhana-taru, (58) samyama, (192-193)
samvara, (57)
samveya, (57)
samsaya, (202) hasamanena, (165)
ha-ha-kāram, (162), 21 himdai, (61; 107)
8.2 Abbreviations
Abbreviations of Series Titles and Others (except Work Titles in Pkt. and Skt.)
8 APPENDICES
AMg: Ardha-Magadhi.
Ba: Manuscript of Vasunandin's Śrāvakâcara deposited in the Ailaka Pannālāl Digambar Jain Sarasvati Bhavanam, Jhalawar Plateau, Rajasthan, India.
See the printed edition, Prastavanā, pp. 13-15.
BEI: Bulletin d'Ètudes Indiennes.
BIS: Berliner Indologische Studien.
BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies.
Cu: Cürni (Pkt. Cunni).
Dig.: Digambar.
Dha: Manuscript of Vasunandin's Śravakâcara deposited in the Dharmapura Digambar Nayamandir in Delhi, Uttara Pradesh, India, see the edition, Prastavana, pp. 13ff.
gsths.: guna-sthänas
I: Manuscript of Vasunandin's Śrāvakâcāra deposited in the Udāsin Āśrama, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India, see the printed edition, Prastavana, pp. 13ff.
IJJS: International Journal of Jain Studies.
IT: Indologica Taurinensia.
JAOS: Journal of the American Oriental Society.
JĀS: Jaina Agama Series.
Jha: Manuscript of Vasunandin's Śr, deposited in the Ailaka Pannālāl Digambar Jain Sarasvati Mandir, Jhalawar Plateau, Rajasthan, India, see Śr, Prastavana, pp. 13ff.
JIPh: Journal of Indian Philosophy.
L: Transcript of Śravakâcara of Vasunandin in the Leumann Collection in
167

Page #186

8.2
Abbreviations
8 APPENDICES
the French National Library, Strasbourg. Leumann's copy is written in Jain Dig. Nāgari. See Leumann 1896:297-312 (1998:279-294); Wickersheimer 1923:787, No. 4498 (Sanscr. 412); Tripathi, 1975:229, No. 171. A microfilm of this copy was kindly prepared by the staff of the Library. L.D.: Lalbhai Dalapatbhai Series. m.c.: metri causa. mgs.: mula-gunas. MW: Sanskrit-English Dictionary of Monier Monier-Williams. See MonierWilliams, 1899. numbers (in round brackets): refer to verses of the Srāvakācāra of Vasunandin, if not indicated otherwise. om.: omitted. p.: page. p.c. information obtained by oral or written communication. Pa: Manuscript of Vasunandin's Srāvakâcāra deposited in the Pancāyati Mandir, Delhi, Uttara Pradesh, India. See the edition, Prastavanā, pp. 13ff. Pkt.: Prākrt. pl.: Plural. PW: Petersburger Sanskrit-Wörterbuch. See Boehtlingk / Roth, 1855-1875.
1990. sg.: Singular. Skt.: Samskrt. StII: Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik. Svet.: Svetâmbara. v.l.: Variants in the readings of manuscripts and editions of Srāvakâcāra vs.: Versus. (mainly: Variants in the readings of manuscripts). V.S.: Vikrama Samvat. To convert a date to the Christian era add 56/57 years. Vira Ni. Sam.: Vira Nirvāna Samvat. For the calculation of the Christian era subtract 527 years. WZKM: Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. WZKS: Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens. ZDMG: Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. [ ] Supplement to the text of the editor.
168

Page #187
8.3 Epilogue 8 APPENDICES 8.3 Epilogue The Sravakacara of Vasunandin is a religious poem concerned with Jain ethics and rituals. It is written in one of the literary languages used by Digambars in medieval times. Vasunandin gives instructions to the Jain laity in the chosen section, verses (57-205). He illustrates the theoretical categories based on the doctrine of Mahavira and his disciples by many examples of human vices and explains the results of evil. The ideal conduct of the laity has its foundation in non-violence (ahimsa), compassion (anukampa) and non-possessiveness (aparigraha). Vasunandin recommends dietary restrictions that are embedded into the so-called mula-gunas, a pattern of self-purification. As it has been outlined by Robert Williams in his monography, Jaina Yoga, 1963, Vasunandin promotes the idea of the individual progress of morality. "Shrieking" is a kind of utterance that could be described as a loud and high-pitched crying. Generally speaking, shrieking is an attribute of non-human and human animals. In the Sravakacara the act of "shrieking" characterises the sound of sentient beings in suffering. This collection of memorial stanzas of Vasunandin is representative for the genre of Jain religious poems called Anupreksas (Anuvekkhas) or Bhavanas. The English translation of the section Sravakacara (57-205) is accompanied by notes on selected technical terms, an outline of the Jain patterns of self-purification, a romanised version of the Prakrit text, an index, and a list of verses cited in the Hindi commentary of Sunilasagara in the Indian reprint of this text. The author of the study in hand, Signe Kirde, born in 1964 as the first child of Nora Kirde, nee Schafer, and Kalju Kirde, in Gottingen, studied at the Department of Philological Studies at the Philipps Universitat in Marburg (Prof. Dr. Monika Ubelhor, Prof. Dr. Michael Hahn, Bhikkhu Pasadika, Prof. Dr. Frank Heidermanns). After visiting India and Sri Lanka she continued with Prof. Dr. Konrad Klaus in Bonn and Prof. Dr. Klaus Butzenberger in Tubingen. The thesis "Vasunandin's Sravakacara (57-205)" was accepted for doctorate examination in the Department of Philosophical Studies at the Eberhard Karls Universitat, Tubingen, Germany, in 2009. Keywords: Jain Ethics; Digambar Prakrit; Indian eschatological Literature; Karma Theory; Human-Animal Studies. 169