Jaina Religion Historical Journey of Evolution

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: Parshwanath Vidyapith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001731/1

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical
Journey of Evolution
An English rendering of "Jaina Dharma Ki Aitihāsika Vikāsayātrā"!
by
Prof. Sagarmal Jain
Translated by Dr. Kamla Jain

www.ainelibrary.org

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"about the book" The present book contains a detailed account of the origin and chronological development of Jaina tradition. While describing the various phases of the development, the author has very honestly accepted the impact of other contemporary religious traditions on Jainism. Apart from the causes and the historical background of the emergence of the various sects, the book also discusses all the twists and turns that have been a part of the evolutionary process of the Jaina religion right from the distant past to the present day.

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Series NO. 154
JAINA RELIGION: ITS HISTORICAL JOURNEY OF
EVOLUTION
(An English translation of "Jaina Dharma Ki Aitihāsika
Vikäsayātrā" by Prof. Sagarmal Jain)
Translated by
Dr. Kamla Jain Former Associate Professor
Dept. of Philosophy Jesus & Mary College, Delhi
Publisher Parshwanath Vidyapeeth IT I Road, Karaundi Varanasi -221005
(INDIA)

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PV Series No. 154
Book: Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
(An English translation of "Jaina Dharma Ki Aitihäsika Vikāsayātrā" by Prof. Sagarmal Jain)
English rendering by: Dr. Kamla Jain
First Edition
: 2007
ISBN
: 81-86715-89-4
Parshwanath Vidyapeeth
Price: Rs. 100.00
$
5.00
Published by:
Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Secretary Parshwanath Vidyapeeth
ITI Road, Karaundi, Varanasi-221005. (India) Phone: 91-0542-2575890, 2575890. Composed by: Add-vision and
Printed by: Vardhaman Mudranalay, Varanasi

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Publisher's Note
Jaina tradition has a very long history from mythological era to the historical era of the last Tirthankara Mahāvīra i.e sixth century BC and then after from Mahāvīra to present day. During this period Jaina tradition has witnessed many twists and turns but continued to develop and flourish affably along with other religions prevalent in India.
The present book is an English rendering of "Jaina Dharma Kī Aitihāsika Vikāsayātrā" authored by Prof. Sagarmal Jain, which he had written as the first chapter of his book "Sthānakavāsī Jaina Paramparā Kā Itihāsa" published by Parshwanath Vidyapeeth in 2003. In his book, Prof. Jain has given a detailed account of the origin and chronological development of Jaina tradition in a very lucid manner. While going through the book Dr. Kamla Jain, Former Associate Professor, Dept. of Philosophy, Jesus & Mary College, University of Delhi, was so impressed with the rich contents of the book that she decided to translate the same in English for a larger readership. Prof. Sagarmal Jain was happy to learn her desire to translate the work.

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Hence Dr. Kamla Jain quickly set to begin its translation, and completed it in a very short time. We are very thankful to Dr. Kamla Jain for her beautiful English rendering. She has been very close to Vidyapeeth and its activities. She has got her two books published by Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, which have been very popular among the general readers and scholars.
We hope the present title will be able to throw ample light on the History of Jaina Tradition and will be very useful for researchers and English readers.
We are thankful to Dr. S. P. Pandey, Asst. Director at Vidyapeeth and Dr. Vijay Kumar, Publication officer for managing the book through the press.
Our thanks are also due to Add-vision and Vardhaman Mudranalaya, Varanasi who composed and printed this book well respectively.
Secretary Parshwanath Vidyapeeth

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Translator's note
The job of translation is not perfect, equally so is the translator, but the usefulness of translation surpasses these imperfections; more so when the translator genuinely sees the need and importance of it and feels that by his or her effort an important work is able to reach out to larger readership. As a student of Jaina philosophy I felt that this long essay is extremely informative on the history of Jaina religion, which aroused my interest in its translation. There is always some history in philosophy and also some philosophical concepts behind the shape of its historical progression. Philosophy makes a more interesting study in historical perspective. Thus the two are interlinked and therefore supplementary. Hence the significance of this essay by an erudite scholar of Jainism - Prof. Sagarmal Jain. This essay is for both laymen interested in Jaina religion as well as for scholars. This translation has truly been a labour of love for me.
I thank the authorities of Parshwanath Vidyapeeth for adding this book to its large stock of valuable publications.

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I sincerely acknowledge the help rendered by Ms. Indira Menon in editing this translation. My thanks are also due to Dr. S. P. Pandey, Asst. Director at Vidyapeeth who checked its proof and managed the book through the press. Hope this work successfully reaches out to genuinely interested readers of Jaina studies.
Kamla Jain
Delhi

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CONTENTS
Chapter-1 Jaina Religion: Its Historical
Journey of Evolution
1-43
Chapter-2 History of Nirgrantha tradition
44-66
Chapter-3 Impact of Vedic tradition on
Jainism
67-89
Chapter-4 The contribution n of Jainas in
the field of Art and Literature during medieval period
90-116

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Chapter-1
Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
(From the beginning till today)
Jaina Religion is a living faith and no living faith can remain untouched by the changes of time and place. Whenever we talk about the history of any religion we should understand that we are not talking about a static religion, because no static religion can have a history. Only that religion which has changes and movement can have a history. Those who believe that Jaina faith has remained unaltered since beginning are only living in a world of illusion. In the following discussion on the history of Jaina religion, I would like to discuss the twists and turns that have been a part of the evolutionary process of the Jaina religion right from the distant past to the present day.
Though from the point of view of population statistics of the world there are only six Jainas among one thousand people, still in the history of world religions Jaina religion occupies a distinctive place, because of its significant contribution from the point of view of intellectual liberality, philosophical depth, earnest desire of world

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
solidarity, vast literature and superb art and architecture. Here, we would attempt to see the Jaina tradition in the mirror of history.
Ancient Śramana or Ārhat tradition
2
Broadly speaking, the religions of the world can be divided into two major branches: Semitic religions and Aryan religions. Judaism, Christianity and Islam come in the Semitic category, while Parsi, Hindu (Vedic), Buddhist and Jaina religions come in the Aryan category. Then, there are religions of the Far East as those of Confucianism and Shintoism of China and Japan.
In the category of Aryan religions, Vedic or Hindu religion is considered to be predominantly pravṛtti (action) centered while Jaina and Buddhist religions are nivṛtti (renunciation) centered. This renunciation- centered tradition was known as Śramaṇa tradition or Arhat tradition. Both the Jaina and the Buddhist religions belong to the Śramana tradition. The main characteristic feature of Śramaņa tradition is that it highlights the essential sufferings of worldly life and existence, and with the medium of renunciation and detachment the ultimate goal or Summum Bonum or Mokṣa or Nirvana is achieved. This tradition of the path of renunciation with its focus on spiritual

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 3
endeavor and establishment of moral values in the names of śīlas and Vratas has given its special contribution to the history of basket of Indian religions. The ancient Šramaņa tradition includes not only the Jaina and the Buddhist streams but also the Upanişadic and the Sāmkhya-Yoga streams, which have become a part of broad Hindu religion. Besides these, there were some other streams that are lost today in antiquity such as Ajivakas. Today, among the living religions of Śramaņa tradition the Buddhist and the Jaina traditions have kept their identity. Though Buddhism originated, grew and developed in India it spread and got a foothold in the Far East countries, and remained lost in India for about one thousand years. But it is heartening to note that it is re-establishing itself in India. As far as the Jaina stream of Arhat or Śramana tradition is concerned, it has kept its identity in the Indian soil from very ancient times till today. In the following pages we will venture into an historical discussion on this.
In the early period of Indian history, we find signs of the existence of Śramaņa culture; in the archeological remains from Harappa and Mohenjodaro and the ancient and oldest literary document- the Rgveda. On the one hand, we find a number of seals of the yogis in meditative postures

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
excavated from Mohenjedaro and Harappā, and on the other there are clear references to Arhals, Vrātyas, Vātarasanā recluses or Munis in Rgveda. All these are evidences of the existence of Śramana or Arhat tradition in the ancient times.
It should be known that historically speaking today's current term “Jaina dharma’ is not very old. It has been in currency only since the 61 or the 74 century AD earlier, the term used for Jaina-dharma was Nirgrantha-dharma or Arhat-dharma. Even in these two, the term Nirgrantha is mainly used to denote the traditions of 23rd and the 24" Tīrthankara Pārśva and Mahāvīra. But as far as the term
Arhat' is concerned, it is essentially used in a broader sense. It is used to denote the follower or devotee of Arhat or Arhanta. And all the Sramanic traditions as the Jaina, the Buddhist or the Ajīvakas have been followers of Arhanta. Thus, all these traditions were included in Arhat category. In the Rgvedic era both Arhat and Bārhat (i.e. Śramaņa and Vedic) were in the existence. And Arhat or
Vrātya' was denotative of śramana stream. But with the passage of time, some of the sub-classes of Śramana tradition got absorbed in the broader Hindu religion; and streams like the Ajivaka and others got lost while the Buddhist tradition remained only in name in India, in spite of having a significant identity in many foreign lands. The

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
5
denotation of the term Arhat thus got restricted to Jaina tradition. Thus terms like ‘Arhat', ‘Vrātya' and 'Śramana' have denoted Jaina dharma from very early times. And for this reason Jaina dharma is called Arhat dharma, Śramaņa dharma, or Nivstti-mārga dharma. But we should keep in mind that terms like ‘Arhat, ‘Vrātya' and 'Śramana etc. have also denoted other streams of renunciation including the Jaina stream, while terms like 'Nirgrantha' and 'Tñātaputriya' have denoted Jaina ·śramaņas' (monks) only. Now we would like to discuss the origin, evolution and salient features of the Sramanic cult of renunciation of which Jaina cult is a part. The origin of the Śramaņa Stream
Human existence is bi-dimensional and filled with self-contradictions. By nature it is centered on two different and contradictory poles. It is neither body alone nor consciousness alone instead it is a unique combination of the two. Consequently it has to function on two different planes. At the bodily level, it functions on the basis of passions and desires and is controlled by mechanical laws. But at the conscious or rational level, it is governed by conscience where there is freedom of will. At the bodily level it is bound and dependent, but at the conscious level it is independent and free. In the

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
language of psychology, on the one hand it is governed by Id and on the other; it is influenced by Super Ego. Id or Ego is an effort for the expression of the bodily needs or desires and the Super Ego is its spiritual nature, its basic nature that expects a conscientious unity and equality without any conflicts and disturbances. It is impossible for a human being to completely ignore one or the other. And the success of his life lies in creating a balance between the two. Human's present identity consists of these two ends; and the life-stream touches both these and runs in between them. And because of these two aspects of human existence, in the field of religion too these two streams originated: the Vedic and the Sramaņic. Psychological basis of the origin of śramaņic Tradition
Bodily evolution or growth gives birth to desires and instincts and rational growth to conscience. Ignited desires expect to be satisfied by their respective objects of enjoyment and pure conscience expects self-control and detachment for its existence. Conscience with attachments is unable to take the right decision. In fact, desires live on their objects and conscience on detachment from objects. It is here, that the two different perspectives of life develop simultaneously. The basis of one is desires and their satisfaction and that

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
7
of the other is conscience and self-control or detachment. In Sramaņa tradition the former is described as wrong views (mithyādssti) and the latter as right views (samyagdrsti). In the Upanişads they are called the paths of śreyas and preyas respectively. In the Kathopanişad the sage says both of them i.e. śreyas and preyas present themselves to a human being. An ordinary man chooses physical well-being or preya, and a conscientious person selects 'good' or śreya. For the satisfaction of desires, the availability of their objects and the action related to them is expected. It is from this enjoyment-oriented philosophy of life that commitment to action has evolved; on the other hand for conscience, self control and for selfcontrol awareness of spiritual values i.e. the priority of soul over the body is required. It is this that has led to spiritualistic philosophy of life or the evolution of the path of renunciation.
The first stream has led to the origination of pravstti-mārga and the second stream to nivrttimärga. The goal of the former has been worldly enjoyment and therefore the goal for its ethical endeavor has been to acquire comforts. In the worldly life, it has been prosperity, wealth, children etc, whereas in the other- worldly life attainment of heaven- the highest state of material well beingwas declared as the ultimate goal of human life. Further, when man through his own experience in

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
life saw that supra-mundane and natural powers can make his attempts for material comforts, success or failure, he cultivated a belief that material comforts and conveniences are not due to his own efforts but are because of the grace of these natural powers. Thus on the one hand he started eulogizing them, and singing invocations for them, and on the other hand he started pleasing them by yajñas and sacrifices. And thus pravartakadharma grew and developed into two main branches: (i) faith dominated bhakti-mārga (ii) and sacrifice dominated karma-märga.
On the other hand Śramaṇa culture in its enthusiasm of living a life of purity, free from sins and independence made mokṣa or complete freedom from material prosperity or possessions its main goal of life, and for this reason it gave importance to knowledge and detachment. But the life of knowledge (jñāna) and detachment was not possible in social and familial preoccupations. Thus, Śramana culture took man to distant forests, mountains and caves. And thus it emphasized the negation of desires and body-related values and worldliness, which led the origination of the path of tapas rooted in detachment, while on the other side, in this kind of life rooted in renunciation, the doors for discussions and reflections, with a serious desire to know, opened. This in fact, led to

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
9
origination of jñāna-mārga dominated by thought, discussions, and reflection. Thus, Śramaņa religion or nirvartaka religion developed into two main branches: (i) jñāna-mārga and (ii) tapa-mārga. The following table clearly explains the evolution of these two religions based on bodily and rational aspects of human nature.
Man
(Pravartaka)
(Nirvartaka)
Body
Body
Consciousness Consciousness Conscience
Desires
Enjoyment Abhyudaya (Preya)
Heaven
Action
Detachment Niḥśreyas (Śreya)
Moksa Renunciation Renunciation of action
Nivartaka dharma Realization of self
Indulgence
Pravartka dharma
Worshiping extra mundane power
Surrender Yajña Reflection Body torture based
based dominated dominated Bhakti-mārga Karma-mărga Jñana-mārga Tapa-mārga

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Philosophical and Cultural components of Šramanic and Vedic Religions
The evolution of pravartaka and nirvartaka religions is based on different psychological aspects. Therefore, it is natural that their philosophical and cultural components are different. On the basis of the differences of components their mutual differences can be understood with the help of the following table: Pravartaka Dharma Nirvartaka Dharma 1. 1. Life related values 1. Spiritual values are are given
given importance 2. Action-oriented
2. Denial-oriented philosophy of life
philosophy of life (Do's)
(Don'ts) 3. Universalistic
3. Individualistic approach
approach 4. Emphasis on action but 4. Emphasis on still belief in
renunciation of action supernatural powers
and individual's effort
for spiritual welfare 5. In-belief in God 5. Non-belief in God 6. Faith in mercy of God 6. Faith in individual's
own effort and acceptance of karma
theory 7. Emphasis on external 17. Emphasis on purity of
means of meditation inner Self

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 11
8. The aim of life: Svarga (heaven) or nearness to God
8. Attainment of mokṣa (liberation) as the goal
9. Approval of varṇa and jāti on the basis of birth
10.Importance of gṛhastha (family-life)
11.Emphasis on social life
12. Approval of sovereign power
13. Worship of the powerful, importance of karma-kāṇḍa
14. Evolution of the class of Brahmins(purohitas)
9. Opposition to caste system and belief in varna only on the basis of profession

10. Importance of renunciation (saṁnyāsa)
11. Emphasis on individualistic life
12. Approval of democracy
13. Worship of good conduct importance of meditation and tapas
14. Evolution of the institution or cult of Śramaṇa
15. Worship-oriented
15. Meditation-oriented
Initially in the pravartaka-dharma life-related values occupied prominence. In the Vedas also satisfaction of life-related necessities and prayers related to them were prominently expressed such as, "we live for a hundred years, our children are healthy, our cows give more milk, and we grow more vegetables" etc. On the contrary, nirvartaka

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12 Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
dharma adopted an indifferent attitude towards lifcrelated values and over played the sufferings of worldly life. In their opinion the body is bondage for self (ātman) and the world is an ocean of suffering. The main aim of life is liberation from both the world and the body. Negation of bodily desires, non-attachment or detachment, and selfsatisfaction is the Summum Bonum of life.
The result of the importance given to liferelated values of pravartaka-dharma on the one hand is that it developed a positive approach towards life which has to be respected and defended from all quarters; but on the other hand, the negation of life related values by nirvartakadharma led to the development of the view which rejected bodily demands and further made bodytorture its philosophy of life and also the symbol of spiritualism, tapas and renunciation. Since pravartaka-dharma laid emphasis on life related values, it naturally became society-oriented, because fulfillment of bodily desires, which include sexual desire, too, is possible only in society and in social life, whereas nirvartaka-dharma became individualistic and withdrawn from society. Although action or karma was necessary for satisfying bodily needs, but when man saw that satisfaction of his bodily desires or their fulfillment or non-fulfillment depends on some other powers besides his own individual efforts, he became a

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 13
believer in the divine and godly powers. Man conceived different gods and thc Almighty as controllers of cosmic order and natural powers and started expecting their mercy and grace. On the contrary, nirvartaka-dharma supported passivity in practice and because of its faith in karma philosophy started believing that the individual himself is responsible for his bondage and liberation. Thus nirvartaka-dharma began to have faith in philosophy of puruşārtha or individual's own efforts. Atheism, puruşārtha, and karma philosophy became its central features. In the field of sādhanā, pravartaka-dharma evolved a philosophy of pleasing supernatural powers through rituals (karma-kāņda) yajñas and sacrifices, whereas nirvartaka -dharma emphasized self-purification and good conduct. And it considered performance of rituals for pleasing the divine powers unnecessary. Śramaņic religions and their evolutionary journey
Indian culture is a confluence of both Vedic and Śramanic streams and both have played an important role in its creation. The Vedic stream is mainly action-dominated and Sramanic stream is renunciation oriented. Present day Hinduism is representative of the Vedic stream while Jaina and Buddhist religions represent the Sramaņa stream.

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14 Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
But it would be erroneous to think that present day Hindusim is an offshoot of pure Vedic culture. It has absorbed many of the ingredients of Śramanic culture in it. In fact present day Hinduism is a combination of both the traditions. And again, it would be equally improper to say that both the Jaina and the Buddhist cultures have remained uninfluenced by the Vedic stream or Hinduism. Both of them have taken a lot from Vedic tradition in the process of time.
It is true that Hinduism has been activitydominated. Yajñas, sacrifices and rituals have been predominant in it. Nevertheless, it does not lack in the concepts of renunciation, liberation and nonattachment. The elements of spirituality, renunciations etc. have not only been taken from Śramana culture but have been fully absorbed in it. Even though in the beginning of the Vedic period these elements were totally absent in it, in the Upaniṣadic period these elements of Śramaņa tradition were fully recognized by it. Iśāvāsyopaniṣad is the first attempt at amalgamation of the Vedic and Śramaņa streams. The existence of the concepts of saṁnyasa, tapas, renunciation, meditation and mokṣa in today's Hindu dharma proves this point. Furthermore, present day Hindu dharma has taken a lot from Śramanic culture; infact Upaniṣads are the meeting

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 15 point of Vedic and Śramanic cultures, Vedic Hinduism takes a new form in them. Similarly, with the passage of time Šramaņa stream has also taken a lot from Vedic stream knowingly or unknowingly. Not only rituals and worship-style have come from the Vedic stream but also many Hindu gods and goddesses have been subsumed in Śramana culture. Before we begin our discussion on the confluence of these two streams in Indian culture we should keep in mind as to how these two streams independently developed and what were the psychological reasons and circumstances behind this, and how with the passage of time it became important for them to mutually amalgamate or synthesize. The confluence of Vedic and Śramanic cultures
We have discussed earlier the main characteristic features of Vedic and Śramanic cultures and their cultural and philosophical elements but it would be erroneous to assume that today's Vedic and Áramanic streams have retained their original identity. It was impossible for both these streams belonging to one country and the same boundaries to remain untouched by the influences of one another. Thus where Vedic stream allowed the elements of Śramaņa stream to enter into it, the Śramaņa stream, likewise did the

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
same (i.e. allowed the elements of Vedic stream or pravartaka dharma into it). Thus, in this age no religious tradition is nurturing pure renunciation (nivstti) or pure action (pravrtti).
A one sided view (ekānta) is neither practically viable nor psychologically acceptable in the context of nivịtti or pravrtti. We must remember that man is a combination of body and spirit, and a social animal; as such any talk of pure renunciation and pure action is just a mirage. Therefore, it is imperative now, to understand reality and try to find a life-style of a desirable combination of both pravịtti and nivịtti, which is for the welfare of both individual and society; and that can give mental solace to man and liberate him from desire-related mental frustration and social fear. Thus, it was necessary for the two different cultures to coalesce. In this attempt Jaina religion alongwith propounding the code of conduct of monks also propounded the Vratas for the householder which are a mix of both pravartaka and nirvartaka dharma.
Such attempts have been going on in India from ancient times. The best examples of this synthesis in Hindusim are the representative scriptures of pravartaka-dharma such as Išāvāsyopanişad and Bhagvadgitā. Both these
ncient Hindusim
are thema such
as

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 17
scriptures have made a commendable effort of this synthesis of pravṛtti and nivṛtti. Similarly, in the Śramana stream the elements of pravṛtti have been introduced later. Buddhism, another important form of Śramana culture, has absorbed so many elements of pravartaka form that in its journey from Mahāyāna to Tantric Buddhism it has gone further away from its main essence. In the history of evolution of Indian religions we cannot overlook the mutual exchange of this kind with the passage of time. And because of this mutual give and take these traditions come very close to each other.
In fact, Indian culture is a culture of synthesis. We cannot understand and study it in separate compartments. Just as the functions of the body cannot be understood by dividing it into its various parts, like wise a piece meal study of Indian culture will destroy its essential from. We can understand Indian culture in a holistic manner only if its different components such as Jaina, Buddhist, Hindu religion and philosophy are studied rightly and in their colligated form. Without this the knowledge of the components alone is incomplete. To understand the functions of an engine we are not only required to study just its parts or components but also how they function by being together or as collocation of parts. Therefore this fact should be borne in mind that a study of

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
Indian culture would be incomplete without a proper study and research of other traditions and their mutual relationships. Religion and culture do not grow or develop in a vacuum. They assume their status with the influences of the country, place, time and contemporary traditions. If we have to study and understand Jaina, Buddhist, Vedic or any other Indian cultural tradition we have to study it in its various aspects, time, space and related persp-ective in an authentic and objective manner. Whether it is a study of Jainology or any other branch of Indology we have to know other traditions as well, and we must see how it is influenced by other contemporary traditions and how it has influenced others. Such interactive forces have to be taken into account without which no study is complete.
It is true that we find traces of Śramanic and Vedic cultures in the history of Indian culture right from the very beginning, but we should remember that in Indian culture both these streams are merged with each other and cannot be separated. The two streams have mutually influenced each other right from the very beginning of Indian history. Though we can see them separately at the intellectual level on the basis of their own individual characteristics, however, on the practical plane they cannot be separated. Rgveda is the oldest of Indian scriptures.

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 19
On the one hand it mentions Vedic society and Vedic rituals, on the other; it not only mentions Vratyas, Śramaņas and Arhats but has also expressed reverence for Tirthankaras of Jaina tradition such as Rṣabha and Aristanemi etc. This shows that in the very beginning of historical period these two cultures were concurrently prevalent. Śaivism and Samkhya-Yoga traditions, which belonged to nirvartaka, or Śramana tradition, originally got merged into the broader Hindu tradition.
The
excavations of Harappa and Mohenjodaro reveal that there existed a very high level of culture in India even before Vedic culture which laid great emphasis on tapas, meditation etc. The discovery of the seals of mendicant yogis from these excavations and absence of yajñaśālās prove an important point - that it represented the culture of tapas and dhyāna or in short Śramaņa culture or culture of Vratis. It is certain that the arrival of Aryans and the beginning the Vedic period showed both the streams flowing simultaneously and influencing each other substantially. The low esteem shown for Vratyas in the Ṛgveda has changed into high esteem for them in the Atharvaveda, which is a symbol intermingling of two streams.
of the

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The concepts of tapas, renunciation, detachment, meditation concentration, liberation, non-violence etc. that did not exist in early Vedic hymns and ritualistic Brāhmaṇa literature, came into existence in later literature like Aranyakas and post-Vedic literature specially the Upanişads. It appears, therefore that these concepts came into the Vedic stream because of the influence of the path of renunciation of Śramanic culture. Mahābhārata of which Gītā is a part does not represent pure Vedic ritualism. On the one hand, Upanişads, Mahābhārata and Gītā with their re-examination of Vedic ritualism and combining it with spiritualism have tried to re-define it and on the other hand a clear acceptance of tapas, renunciation and liberation etc. prove the fact that these scriptures indicate a confluence of Vedic and Sramanic thought-streams or they are the meeting point of these two cultures.
The Upanişads and Mahābhārata of which Gītā is a part do not represent pure Vedic ritualism. It is a combination of Śramanic nivstti-mārga and Vedic pravstti-mărga. Where Upanişads, Mahābhārata and Gītā have given considerable place to spiritualistic elements of Śramanic culture on the on the one hand, they have given new definitions to yajñas and other Vedic rituals on the other hand. The meaning of yajña, for example has

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 21
changed from animal sacrifice to sacrifice of selfinterest, social upliftment or social service. We have to remember that today's Hindu religion is infact, a combination of Vedic and Sramanic cultures. The voice raised by Upanişadic seers against Vedic ritualism has only been forcefully raised by Jaina and other Sramanic traditions. It should not be forgotten that the Upanişadic seers have been the pioneers in raising their voices against Vedic ritualism; they are the ones who first said that the boats of sacrifices or yajñas lack solidity and cannot be instrumental in spiritual growth. Yajñas and Vedic ritualism are defined in a new light of spiritualism by these Upanişadic secrs and the author of the Gītā. The Buddhist and Mahāvīra's Jaina traditions have only followed and moved on the path laid down by Upanișadic seers; they are only echoing the voices of the Upanisadic seers against Vedic ritualism, casteism by birth and other beliefs. This is clearly proved by the fact that Upanișadic sages are accepted as Arhat sages in the Jaina and Buddhist traditions.
It is true that Śramaņa traditions rejected the authority of the Vedas, animal sacrifice and caste by birth and thus, they presented themselves as reformers of Indian culture. It should not, however, be forgotten that while refining and purifying Indian culture and eradicating these deformitics

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they themselves got influenced by the same deformities. Now, Vedic ritualism entered the Buddhist, the Jaina and other Śramanic traditions in their worship style along with the new forms of tantric practices and became a part of their Meditational process. Thus, meditation meant for spiritual purification came to be used for material gains. On the one hand Sramanic tradition has given the concepts or tapas, tyāga, renunciation and moksa along with spiritual philosophy of life, on the other hand the culture of worship and tantric practices of meditation entered in both Jaina and Buddhist tradition because of the influence of Vedic tradition, as early as 3" or 4th century AD. Many Hindu gods and goddesses were accepted in Jaina and Buddhist religions. The concepts of yakșa and yakșinis and the concept of the caretaker gods are nothing but Jainization of Hindu gods and goddesses in Jaina religion. Many Hindu goddesses such as Kālī, Mahākālī Jvālāmālini, Ambikā, Cakreśvarī, Padmăvati etc. were accepted as caretaker-goddesses in Jaina dharma and became a part of Jaina culture. Similarly Sarasvati as goddess of learning and Lakşmi as goddess of wealth started getting worshipped in Jaina tradition. The Ganesa of Hindu tradition as Pārsva-yaksa became the god of universal welfare. Jaina temples began to have yajñas etc. due to the influences of the

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution 23 Vedic tradition. And in the worship rituals Tīrthankaras were invited or summoned and were relinquished (visarjana) like Hindu gods. Jainas accepted the rituals of worship of the Hindus with some verbal changes in expressions of the mantras. This is how tapas, meditation and samādhi became secondary, and worship and its ritualistic practices became primary. The result of this mutual influence was that the Hindu tradition accepted Rşabha and Buddha as avatāras and the Jaina tradition recognized Rāma and Krşņa as salākāpurusas. Thus both streams got merged with each other.
Today, we should attempt to understand this mutual influence in an objective and impartial manner, so that the gaps that have been created between different religions could be bridged and their nearness could be understood in the right perspective.
Unfortunately, some foreign elements are trying to create a divide not only between Hindus and Muslims but also between Jainas, Buddhists, Hindus and Sikhs which are all parts of the broader Indian tradition; and generally it is being publicized that Jaina and Buddhist religions are not only independent religions but are also opponents of Vedic or Hindu tradition. Jaina and Buddhist

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religions are generally painted as those who revolted against Vedic religions. It is true that Vedic and Sramana traditions have some basic issues on which they differ. This is also true that Jaina and Buddhist traditions openly opposed those deformities of Vedic tradition which emerged as perpetrators of religious exploitations of lower classes by the Brahmins through priesthood, ritualism and castism. But we should understand this not in the form of revolt but in the form of reform in Indian culture. The Jaina and the Buddhist traditions have acted as medical practitioners in cleansing Indian culture and making it healthy. It has to be kept in mind that a doctor is never an enemy, but a friend. Unfortunately, Indian thinkers influenced by western thinkers and to an extent Jaina and Buddhist thinkers also, started believing that Jaina and Vedic religions are mutually opposed but it is a wrong notion. Even though in their original form Vedic and Sramanic cultures might have been different from each other, today, neither is Hindu tradition completely Vedic in that sense nor are Jaina and Buddhist traditions completely Śramanic. Today, Hindu religion or Jaina and Buddhist religions in their present forms are mixed forms of both Vedic and Áramana cultures. It is a different matter that they still have pravịtti and nivrtti

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aspects predominant in them. For example, it can be said that Jaina religion is nivetti-dominated even today, and Hindu religion is pravịtti-dominated; still, it would be proper to accept that both of them are the outcome of the combination of pravrtti and nivștii. Even according to Jainism Rşabhadeva before he renounced the world, expounded pravsttimārga or duty towards family, society or state. It has already been clarified earlier that this mutual exchange is first attempted in fśāvāsyopanişad. Thus, today when Upanişads need to be understood from the perspective of the Sramaņa tradition, Jaina and Buddhist traditions need to be studied from the Upanişadic perspective. Just as desire and conscience (preya and śreya) though different, are essential aspects of human personality, Sramanic and Vedic streams are both essential parts of Indian culture. In fact, none of these cultures are based on any one single foundation. Jaina and Buddhist traditions are as much inseparable from Indian culture as Hindu tradition is. If Upanişadic stream though different from Vedic stream is considered inseparable from Vedic or Hindu tradition then why are Jaina and Buddhist traditions not considered inseparable parts of it? If Sãmkhya and Mimārsakas in spite of being atheistic are accepted as parts of Hindu religion and philosophy then why are Jaina and Buddhists considered

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26 Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution
separate by being called atheists? In fact, Hinduism is not a single religion or philosophy but is the name of broader tradition or is a collection of traditions of different thoughts and different ways of moral or spiritual endeavour. This includes all, such as theism-atheism, dualism-non-dualism, pravṛtti-nivṛtti, and knowledge-action. It assembles together all these i.e. right from the initial characteristics of Nature-worship to the great heights of non-dualistic thought. Thus Hinduism in that sense is not a dharma as Judaism, Christianity or Islam is. Hinduism is a composite tradition or a cultural stream, which includes many other tributaries.
Thus, Jaina and Buddhist religions cannot be understood as absolutely different from Hindu tradition. The Jaina and the Buddhist traditions are followers of the same spiritual thought as that of Upanisadic sages. The distin-guishing characteristics of these is that they worked for the upliftment of the down-trodden classes of Indian society, and paved the way for liberating Indian society from caste by birth, ritualism and priesthood. They expounded a religion for the masses of India, established it on moral values rather than on rituals. And they liberated Indian society from the religious exploitation by the priestly class. They are not outsiders. They are sons of the Indian soil. The

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Jaina, the Buddhist and the Upanişadic streams have all evolved from one source, and this has to be understood in this context.
The study of Indian religions especially the Upanișadic, the Buddhist and the Jaina, and their mutual influence are very important today. And for this study the ancient Jaina Āgamas such as Ācārānga, Sütrakṛtānga Rşibhāșita and Uttarādhyayana can guide us. I am confident that the study of these scriptures can give new directions to the scholars and students of Indology; and the misconception that the Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu religions are opposed to one another will be removed. There are many sūtras (aphorisms) available in Ācārānga, which are very close to the Upanișadic sūtras in their meanings, essential vocabulary and linguistic style. The description of Ātman and its essence given in Ācārānga found in exactly the same manner as in Māndūkya Upanişad. The concepts of Śramana and Brāhmaṇa in Ācārānga appear not as rivals but as companions or associates. Though Ācārānga and Uttarādhyayana etc. condemn yajñas or rituals involving violence, they accept Brahmins as followers of the same moral and spiritual path, which is followed by Śramaņas. In their view a Brahmin is one who is a living symbol of morality or good conduct and in many places the terms Śramana and Brāhmaṇa have been mentioned

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together. Similarly, though, Sūtrakītānga presents an evaluation of contemporary philosophers and their opinions, it also mentions many sages of Upanişadic period such as Videhanemi, Bāhuka, Asitdevala, Dvaipāyana, Parāśara etc. with great respect. Sūtrakņtārga clearly accepts that the code of conduct of these sages was different from their traditional code of conduct, but still the sūtra accepts them as venerable persons of its own Arhat tradition. It talks about them as great or eminent people and rich with tapas, and accepts that they have attained the highest goal of mokşa. According to Sūtrakrtānga, these sages, though, following a different path of conduct were sages of their own tradition. In Sūtrakstānga the recognition of these sages as great ones who had achieved the highest goal, and also Uttarādhyayana accepting the identities of other (anyalinga) siddhas suggest that in olden times Jaina tradition was liberal enough to accept that not only those following its own code of conduct but also those following a different culture or code of conduct are capable of attaining liberation. The only condition, however, is that they be of steadfast mind and free from desire, attachment and hatred.
In this context it is necessary to mention the name of Rşibhāṣita, which is the oldest Jaina scripture of 4th century BC. In the Jaina tradition, this text was probably written when Jaina religion

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was not fully developed. This text mentions a list of about forty five sages which include sages like Nārada, Asitadevala, Angirasa, Parāśara, Aruņa, Nārāyaṇa, Yajñavalkya, Uddālaka, Vidura, Sāriputta, Mahākaśyapa, Makkhali Gośāla, Sañjaya Velatthiputta, etc. and all of them are called Arhatrşis, Buddha-rșis or Brāhmaṇa-rșis. Rşibhāṣita contains a collection of their spiritual and moral discourses. The writing of this text in Jaina tradiţion clearly indicates the fact that the tradition of Upanişadic sages and that of Jaina sages have a common source. This text not only indicates the religious open mindedness of Jaina tradition but also points to the fact that all Indian spiritual traditions have one and the same source. All the streams, Upanişadic, Buddhist, Jaina, Ajīvakas, Sāṁkhya, Yoga etc. are just different streams from one and the same original source. Just as Rşibhășita of Jaina tradition contains the discourses of different traditions, so also Theragāthā of Buddhist tradition contains the teachings of sages (sthaviras) of different traditions. It, likewise, includes the names of many Upanișadic and other Acāryas of śramaņa tradition while including the name of Mahāvīra. All these descriptions are pointers to the fact that Indian thought has been magnanimous and tolerant right from ancient times. This magnanimity and tolerance is running through

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every stream of Indian culture. Today when we are entangled in communalism attachments and mutual conflicts, a comparative study of these streams of our culture can give a new vision. If we study these steams of Indian cultural thought as separate identities, we would not be successful in understanding them fully and correctly. Just as in the study and understanding of Uttarādhyayana, Sūtrakrtānga, Rşibhāṣita, and Acāränga we need to study the Upanişadic literature, similarly we cannot study the Upanişadic literature and the Buddhist literature without studying the literature of Jaina tradition. The discovery of truth with objective and comparative approach by overcoming sectarian attachments is the only option today which can liberate man engulfed in sectarian conflicts, and can clearly underline the interrelatedness of Indian religions. The contribution of Jainism to Vedic religion
The main problem of the Upanişadic period and Mahāvīra's period was that many traditions prevalent in those times thought that their own one sided view was absolutely true and thus they stood in opposition with each other. There were four main categories of thinkers (i) Kriyāvādins (2) Akriyāvādins (3) Vinayavādins (4) Ajñānavādins. Mahāvīra was the first to attempt a synthesis of

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these. First Kriyāvādins emphasized more on the outer aspects of conduct. Theirs was a predominantly ritualistic category. In the Buddhist tradition this concept is called 'śīla-vrataparāmarśa'; the second is Akriyāvāda. The essential bases of Akriyāvāda or Jñănavāda were either different kinds of fatalistic viewpoints or those who nourished the philosophical concept of Ātman as unchanging and imperishable and inactive reality. These traditions were exponents of Jñāna-mārga. For Kriyāvādins, karmas or rituals are everything in spiritual endeavour, for Jñänavādins or Akriyāvādins knowledge is everything for spiritual endeavour. Kriyāvāda propounded action or ritual and Akriyāvāda promulgated knowledge as ultimate. A third category of Ajñānavādins was of the view that the realm beyond sensible and the mundane world is just unknowable (ajñeya). Its philosophy took two forms: (i) mysticism (ii) skepticism. Other than these three there was a fourth tradition called Vinayavāda, which is accepted as the prior form of bhakti-mārga. Vinayavāda is another name of bhakti-mārga. Thus, in that period the traditions of Jñāna-märga, Karma-mārga, Bhakti-mārga and Ajñeyavāda were established in different forms.
Mahāvīra tried to explore a synthesis of the above

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32 Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution with his non-absolutistic (anaikāntika) approach. First of all he propounded a three-fold principle of right attitude, right knowledge and right conduct, which represented a balanced combination of Jñāna-mārga, Karma-mārga and Bhakti-mārga. Thus, Mahāvīra and Jaina philosophy made the first attempt to balance and synthesize these one sided traditions of jñāna, karma, bhakti and tapas etc. Whereas the Gītā treats jñāna-yoga, karmayoga and bhakti-yoga as three different paths to liberation, Jaina religion professes an integrated approach where all the three jointly form the path of liberation
Jaina religion not only opposed the yajña related ritualistic tradition propounded by Vedic sages, but also opposed the tāpasic style of torture of body. Probably, before Mahāvīra till the time of Pārsvanātha dharma was related only to external aspects. It is because of this, the Brahmin class considered the end of dharma only in yajñas and their related rituals. Probably, Pārsvanātha emphasized internal aspects of spiritual endeavour, in place of external aspects. Consequently, in other Śramanic traditions like the Buddhist etc. also began to emphasize the inner aspects of dharma. But till the time of Mahāvīra, the emphasis on external aspects was not fully over, rather the

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culture of yajñas, śraddhā etc. spread even more in the Brāhmaṇa tradition. On the other hand, the thinkers who were emphasizing on internal aspects started ignoring the external aspects of spiritual endeavour completely; with the result, they also reached an extreme form of one-sidedness. Therefore, Mahāvīra tried to establish a synthesis of these two and said that religious endeavour is connected with life as a whole; and in that the internal inspirational force is even more important than external action or rituals in conduct.
Thus, Mahāvīra emphasized on both (i) the inspirational aspects of conduct (2) the consequences of conduct in religious life. He established a harmony between both knowledge and action. In Narasimhapurāņa (61/9/11) also, like Avaśyaka-niryukti (p. 15-17) the combi-nation of both knowledge and action has been described in many ways with examples or allegories. This proves that this thought-process of the Jaina tradition has influenced the Hindu tradition. Proclamation of equality of Man
Among the social problems of that period the institution of Varna was a major or significant problem. It was birth that was considered as the basis of Varna rather than one's station and one's personality traits or talent. With the result the

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34 Jaina Religion: Its Historical journey of evolution institution of Varna got distorted and led to the division of society into higher and lower castes, and that in turn led to a disharmony in social health. Jaina thought-process was opposed to this kind of caste system, and proclaimed the equality of mankind. On the one hand Harikesibala of lower caste was ordained and on the other hand the aspirant like Gautama who was a Brahmin by birth was initiated in the spiritual order with the same sense of equality. Not only were caste differences considered meaningless, economic disparity was also disapproved of. For example, in their viewpoint the Emperor of Magadha and Puniā an ordinary householder, were regarded as equals in Jaina tradition. Thus, Jaina tradition by rejecting the concept of higher and lower class structure emphasized on equality of man. This also had an influence on Hindu tradition, and thus in the postGupta Bhakti period there was an opposition to the institution of varņa and the supremacy of the Brahmin class. In fact, the influence is evident during the period in which the Mahābhārata was written (i.e. about 4h century AD). Liberation from subjugation to God and independence of Man
The other problem of that period was that man's independence was being ranked low in the

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eyes of people and society. On one side were theistic thinkers and on the other were eternalists or fatalists who began to reject the independence of man. Jaina philosophy understood this difficulty and revitalized the spirit of human independence. It proclaimed that neither God nor any other divine power is the determining force of human being; it is only man himself who is the creator of his own being. Thus, it liberated him from the concepts of creatorship of God, which was taking away human independence, and established that the staunch faith in human independence alone can become the true basis of religion and philosophy. This view of the Jainas did not have as much influence on Hindu religion as was expected, but still, along with the acceptance of theistic philosophy the voices about human supremacy did resound simultaneously. Freedom from obscurantism (Orthodoxy)
Jaina religion liberated man from obscurantisms. It made an effort to free human society from many orthodox practices of that period such as animal-sacrifice, priesthood and performance of rituals to please the ancestors etc. and therefore it openly opposed such practices. The Brahmin class, which called itself, the representative of God, began social exploitation,

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which the Jaina and Buddhist traditions tried to stop. The most important contribution of the Jaina and the Buddhist Ācāryas was the re-defining of the notions of yajñas etc. Some new definitions given to terms like 'Brāhmaṇa', 'yajña' etc by the Jaina Dharma are given below. New meaning of Brāhmaṇa
Jaina tradition always accepted good conduct as the standard of greatness or smallness in human life, and that was called the basis of Brahminhood. In the 25th chapter of Uttarādhyayana and in the "Brāhmaṇa' chapter of Dhammapada detailed discussions on the true meaning of Brāhmaṇa are available. We will stop this discussion by just presenting only two verses, as it would be too lengthy a discussion if taken in detail. Uttarādhyayana says, “A true Brāhmaṇa is one who is not attached to enjoyments of life, though born with objects of enjoyment like the lotus though born in water remains detached from it.“ “One who is completely free from attachment, hatred and fear and is pure at heart is a true Brāhmaṇa”. Similarly, Dhammapada also says, "Just as a lotus leaf remains untouched by water, and mustard seed stays on the tip of the cutter similarly one who remains unsmeared by desires

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and passions and who has seen the fears of sufferings here itself, one who has rid himself of the pangs of birth and death who is totally detached, who is gifted, who is able to differentiate between right and wrong path and who has reached the highest state of Nirvāṇa is one whom I call a true Brāhmaṇa.” Thus, we see that both the Jaina and the Buddhist traditions have presented a new definition of the term “Brāhmaṇa' by accepting the superiority of Brahminhood, which is quite in accordance to the śramaņa tradition but even the great epic of Mahābhārata of Hindu tradition has also given this definition of Brāhmana. Uttarādhyayana of the Jainas, Dhammapada of the Buddhists, and Santiparva of Mahābhārata give a description of a true Brāhmaṇa, which is not only conceptually similar but also has great verbal similarity. It is very significant from the point of view of a comparative study and also clarifies their influences on each other. The spiritual meaning of Yajña
Just as the term Brāhmaṇa has been given a new definition, yajña' has also been defined with a new connotation. Mahāvīra not only expressed his views against yajñas involving violence but he also presented new spiritual and self-control based

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definitions of yajñas. Uttarādhyayana has discussed and elucidated the spiritual essence of yajñas and has said, "Tapas (self-control) is fire Atman is the altar, the activities of mind, speech and body are the ladles and the burning of karmas the oblation. It is this yajña replete with self-control that brings peace and happiness; the sages have praised this kind of yajña". As a result not only the Jaina tradition, but the Buddhist and the Vedic tradition also have denounced the outward sacrificial aspect of yajña and presented a spiritual picture of it in the same way in which it is discussed in Uttaradhyayana. In Anguttara-nikāya while describing the spiritual nature of yajña, Buddha says, "Oh Brāhmaṇa! These three fires are worth renouncing and worth changing; they should not be in use. Oh Brāhmaṇa! Following three fires should be respected, worshipped and they should be fully and happily taken care of. Which are these fires? - Āhvānīyāgni, Gārhapatyāgni and Dakṣiṇāgni. Parents should be respected and adored like Āhvānīyāgni. Śramaṇas and Brāhmaṇas should be respected like Dakṣinägni. This fire of wood needs to be burnt sometimes and sometimes needs to be ignored while at another time needs to be extinguished. But these fires are always and everywhere respected and worshipped. Likewise

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Buddha also highlighted the spiritual and social meaning of yajñas in place of yajñas that involve violence. Not only this, he emphasized that true yajña means cooperation in social life. The Upanişad and the Gītā also, condemn the prevalent ritual of yajñas etc., which is quite similar to the viewpoint of Śramanic tradition, and they have also explained yajña from the social and spiritual point of view. In social context yajña has been interpreted as social service. Social service without attachment is recognized in the Gītā as yajña. The Gītā however, has shown the spiritual aspect of yajña as well. It (the Gītā) says: the yogis put the objects of their senses such as those of hearing etc as oblations in the fire of their self-control. Yogis put all their activities of senses and activities of expansion and contraction of prāna-tattva (life essence) as oblations into knowledge -illuminated and self-controlled fire of yoga, which has the purity, and brightness of dhāranā, dhyāna and sarādhi. In this fire of yoga the activities of prāņa (life-essence) and senses disappear. It resembles the fire that spreads by adding oil or ghee. Thus, this spiritual interpretation of yajña propounded by Jaina dharma is appreciated in Buddhist and Vedic traditions. This is the main contribution of Sramaņa to Hindu tradition.

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The spiritual interpretation of rituals like bathing etc.
Jaina thinkers have given a new vision to thoughts related to external rituals. Outer cleanliness and bathing etc. which were considered the main form of dharma and prayer or worship, was also given a new spiritual outlook. Uttarādhyayana says: Dharma is river, Brahmacarya is the bank of the river or a tirtha and bathing in it purifies the Atman and makes it serene and tranquil. Similarly, in Buddhist philosophy true bath means attainment of true virtues of mind, body and speech. Not only in the Jaina and Buddhist traditions but also in the Vedic tradition this outlook became prominent that real purity lies in the development of spiritual values. These concepts of Sramaņas influenced Vedic or Hindu tradition also.
Similarly, donations (dakşiņā) given to Brahmins were given a new meaning and it was said that self-control (samyama) is better than dāna or donation. It is said in Uttarādhyayana that a person who observes self-control and does not give donations is better than the one who donates thousands of cows every month but does not practice self-control. Dhammapada also says that a

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man who serves a good human being even for a short while is anytime better than the one who gives thousands in donations and performs yajñas every month and even for years. Thus, Jaina dharma gave a new vision to prevalent beliefs on performance of rituals and gave them a spiritual interpretation. Along with it, the outward approach to religious endeavour was made inward-looking by giving it a spiritual touch. And this led to a revolutionary change in the Vedic thought of that period. Thus the credit of changing Vedic culture goes to śramanic tradition in general and to Jaina tradition in particular. Respect for other faiths in Ārhat tradition
Rsibhāsita in Prakrit literature and Theragäthä in Pāli literature are those important texts that substantiate the fact that even in very ancient times in spite of the existence of differences in code of conduct and thought there was a rich tradition of Arhat rșis who had mutual respect and friendliness towards each other.
Rşibhāșita which is comparatively older among the Jaina Agamas and the Buddhist Pāli Pitakas and which was once accepted as a very significant scripture of Jaina tradition indicates the mutual friendliness and pleasant relationship of

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oneness of the spiritually dominated Śramaņa stream. This text was written around 4th century BC and is earlier than all Prakrit and Pāli literature but later than the first śrutaskandha of Acārānga. This text contains the teachings of forty-five Arhat sages such as Nirgranthas, Buddhist, Upanisadic seers, Ājīvakas etc. of different Śramaṇa traditions; Similarly, Theragatha of the Buddhists is a collection of the teachings and spiritual experiences of different sages of Śramanic stream. By studying it from a historical angle with unprejudiced approach it becomes clear that Rṣibhāṣita does not have the sages only of the Jaina tradition, nor does Theragāthā mentions the sages only of Buddhist tradition. In Rṣibhāṣita, the names of Sariputra, Vātsiputra and Mahākaśyapa are from Buddhist tradition, while Uddālaka, Yajnavalkya, Aruṇa, Asitadevala, Nārada, Dvaipayana, Angirasa, Bharadvaja etc. are from Upaniṣadic tradition, while still others such as Sañjaya Vellaṭṭhiputta, Makkhali Gośāla, Ramaputta etc. belong to other independent Śramanic traditions. Like-wise in Theragāthā the personal experiences of Vardhamana etc. from Jaina stream and Narada etc. from Upanisadic stream are contained. It is generally believed that the Śramanic stream is born as a reaction to the Vedic stream, but this is only

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partly true. It is true that the Vedic stream was action (pravstti) dominated and the Śramanic stream was renunciation (nivstti) oriented. They had a conflict between the values of desire and conscience or between enjoyment and renunciation. But from a historical perspective the origin of Śramanic stream is from an attempt to re-establish the moral and spiritual values and the purification of human personality, in which all Sramaņas and Brāhmaṇas were partners. The epithet of Arhat for these sages and regarding them in tune with its own tradition in Sūtrakrtānga is a clear indication of the mutual friendliness of these sages in ancient times.

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Chapter-2 History of Nirgrantha tradition
The 7th-8th century BC was a period when the masses used to listen to the teachings of Śramaņas, yogis, mendicants and thinkers with great respect and used to connect life with spiritual and moral endeavour. But still they were not attached to any particular group or class or the followers of any particular individual. In other words no religious tradition or sect was born in that period. Gradually a circle of like-minded disciples of these sramaņas came into being that continued into the following generations and started establishing their own identities. And in this process the Nirgrantha tradition originated. Those who followed the tradition of Pārsvanātha called themselves Pārsvanirgranthas and the followers of Vardhamāna Mahāvīra's tradition called themselves Jñātaputriyanirgranthas. The Bhikkhu Sargha of Gautama Buddha came to be known as Sākya sargha.
The combined tradition of Pārsva and Mahāvīra came to be known as Nirgrantha. The ancient name of Jaina religion is Nirgrantha religion. The term “Jaina' came into existence about one thousand years after Mahāvīra's Nirvāna. The edicts of Asoka (3N century BC) and of Khārvela (2ml century BC) mention Jaina dharma as Nirgrantha Samgha.

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History of Nirgrantha tradition
45
The Tradition of Pārsva and Mahāvira
From the texts of Rșibhāṣita, Uttarādhyayana and Sūtrakrtānga etc. it is known that sages like Nami, Bāhuka, Kapila, Nārāyaṇa (Tārāyaṇa), Angirasa, Bhāradvāja, Nārada etc. who were actually not sages of this tradition, have occupied a highly respectable place in Nirgrantha Dharma. They were also called Arhats like. Pārsva and Mahāvīra, but when Nirgrantha sect got centered on Pārśva and Mahāvīra these sages were given a respectable place with the epithet of 'Pratyekabuddha'. But were considered different from their own tradition in a manifest form. Thus, we see that by 5th century BC Nirgrantha-samgha got limited to the tradition of Pārśva and Mahāvīra only. Further, it has to be kept in mind that the traditions of Pārśva and Mahāvīra were also separate in the beginning. Though from the informations available from the texts of Uttarādhyayana and Bhagavati we come to know that some of the Sramaņas of the Pārsva-tradition joined Mahāvira's Samgha, having been impressed by Mahăvira's personality in his lifetime. But in Mahävīra's lifetime the two traditions did not fully merge with each other. From the description in Uttarădhyayana it seems that soon after Mahāvīra's Nirvāṇa, his chief disciple Gautama and his contemporary Acārya

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46 Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution Keśī of Pārsva's tradition met in Śrāvasti and prepared the groundwork for the merger of the two Sarnghas. Though, today we do not have single evidence available on the basis of which it could be said that the Pārsva tradition fully merged into Mahāvīra's tradition, however, this much is certain that a major portion of monks of the Pārśva tradition joined Mahāvīra's tradition and Mahāvīra's followers also recognized Pārśva as the initiator of their own tradition. The term "Puruşādaniya" used for Pārśva proves this point. In the process of time by recognizing great Tīrthankaras such as Rşabha, Nemi and Aristanemi of pre-historic times, Nirgrantha tradition proved its identity as of great antiquity.
From the Vedas and other ancient texts of Vedic tradition it is at least clear without any doubt that Śramaņa stream was in existence in the form of Vātarasanā monks and ascetics, whose pioneer was Rşabha. But still, it is difficult to say on the basis of historical evidence as to what were the philosophical and conduct-related ideologies of Rşabha and how close they were to Jaina tradition of the present day; however it is certain that Rşabha was the founder of the path of renunciation and laid emphasis on meditation and tapas. However, the

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J

13
B
Tirthankara Pārśvanatha Deccan, 12th Century A.D.

The
the

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Tirthankara Mahāvīra

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 47
ancient Jaina texts have accepted without any controversy that Rşabha like Mahāvīra was a propounder of five Mahăvratas, and the code of conduct he laid down resembled that of Mahāvīra. The account of Rşabha is available right from Rgveda to Purāņas. Dr. Radhakrishnan says "the names of Ajita and Aristanemi along with that of Rşabha are also found in Yajurveda. The biographical data of Rsabha available in Purānas and Bhāgavat is very close to that of Jaina tradition. Anguttara-nikaya of the Buddhists mentions the names of the early seven Tīrthankaras, which also includes Araka (Ara). Similarly, Theragāthā mentions the name of Ajita Thera who is called Pratyeka-buddha. However, we do not have much historical evidence regarding the middle twenty-two Tīrtharkaras. Our faith in them is only based on the Jaina Āgamas and the narrative. Mahāvira and Ājivaka Tradition
After having given a brief sketch of the early history of Jaina dharma, we come back to the time of Mahāvīra and we find some informative hints in Kalpasūtra and Bhagavati-sūtra on the basis of which we are able to ascertain a relationship of Mahāvīra with Ajivakas besides his relation with post Pārsva monks.

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
It is accepted in Jaina Āgamas and their commentaries that only in the second year of Mahāvīra's renunciation Makkhali Gośāla came in close contact with him, and stayed together for a few years. But on the issues of fatalism and the concept of Puruşārtha they had differences and thus they drifted apart from each other. Hermann Jacobi has even surmised that nakedness etc. and the stringency in the code of conduct in the Nirgrantha tradition of Mahāvīra is due to the influence of Ajīvaka tradition. This is true that there was a tradition of Ajivakas, which had Acāryas such as Arjuna etc. However, due to lack of historical evidences it is difficult to say that the rigour of conduct in Mahāvīra's tradition came from Ajīvaka tradition or it was the other way round i.e. it went from Mahāvīra's tradition to the Ajīvaka tradition. Because there is no factual evidence as to whether Gośāla got attached to Ajivaka tradition after separating from Mahāvīra or he had already joined Ajīvaka tradition before, and came to Mahāvīra later. Still, it is certain that the Ajivaka tradition retained its identify till the 1" and 2nd century AD. This was a rival Šramaņa tradition against the Nirgranthas and the Buddhists, whose monks used to live naked like those of the Digambara sect of Jainas. Jainas and Ajīvakas despite being rivals used to be more respectful towards each other than with other sects of Sramaņa tradition. This is

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 49
substantiated by the account of the six-fold classification of heretics in the Buddhist Pitaka literature where Nirgranthas are placed above other kinds of Sramaņas but below the Ajivakas. Thus, Ajivakas joining the Nirgranthas and then separating from them is an important event in Nirgrantha tradition; and also, a comparatively respectful and liberal attitude for the Nirganthas is a sign of partial proximity of the two samghas. The division in the Nirgrantha tradition during the Lifetime of Mahāvira
Another important event during Mahāvīra's lifetime is the differences of views with Jamāli, considered to be his son-in-law, who then left the samgha along with his five hundred disciples. In Bhagavati, Avaśyaka-niryukti and later literature a detailed description is available of this event. Besides, the occurrence of the division in the Nirgrantha-sargha another event is mentioned in the Buddhist Pitaka literature according to which, soon after Mahāvīra's nirvāņa a strong controversy emerged among the monks of his Order and his white-robed disciples. This controversy in the Nirgrantha-sangha also reached Buddha. But there is no discussion in the Pitaka literature of the reasons of this controversy. One possibility is that this controversy could be on the issue of

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50 Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
succession. Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras have difference of opinion about the first successor of Mahāvīra. Digambara sect considers Gautama as the successor of Mahāvīra, while Svetāmbaras regard Sudharmā as Mahāvira's successor. The event of Gautama having been sent to the nearby village on a mission to give a spiritual awakening to one Devaśarmā Brahmin is also worth considering in this context. But the other possibility is that by the time of writing of Pitaka literature, the later controversy of Digambaras and Śvetāmbaras was linked to the event of Mahāvīra's nirvāņa. According to me, if there was any controversy at that time it could be among the Śramaņas of two kinds: those with clothes and those without clothes i.e. Acela and Sacela sects of Mahāvīra, because at the time of merger of disciples of Pārśva and Mahāvīra's Nirgranthasamgha, the samgha must have got divided into two classes, (i) those without clothes and (2) those with clothes. These two groups of Śramaņas might have been formed by Mahāvīra in accordance to the levels of conduct called Sāmāyika-cāritra and Chedopasthāpanā-cāritra. The cause of the conflict must have been only these two groups themselves. In my opinion, in the Buddhist tradition those who were referred to as white-robed śrāvakas were in fact Śramanas; because in Buddhist tradition even

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 51
Śramaņas (bhikkhu) are called śrāvakas. In this context, however, more serious thought and deliberation is required. The journey by Nirgrantha-samgha for spreading its Religion
Bihar, eastern U.P. and nearby areas around this region were the areas of influence of Nirgrantha-samgha during Mahāvīra's time. But after his nirvāṇa these boundaries extended further. However, till the time of writing of the Agamas and Niryuktis and the early period of evolution of Jaina religion, Nirgranthas were permitted to travel only in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and eastern Rajasthan (of the present day India). And the sacred places of importance associated with Tīrthankaras were also limited to these areas only. Aristanemi is the only Tīrthankara who is also shown as connected to Saurashtra besides Sūrasena (the region close to Mathura) and it is believed that he attained nirvāņa at Mount Girnar (in Gujarat). But the description given in Āgamas about the proximity of Girnar and Dwarika is different from reality. Perhaps, the fact that Aristanemi and Kṛṣṇa were close relations is the reason for Aristanemi's association with Dwarika. Historical evidence in this context, however, is lacking.

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52 Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
Scholars are expected to engage themselves in research in this direction.
From the historical evidence available it looks that Nirgrantha samgha went in two directions from its place of birth i.e. Bihar, in its mission to spread Jainism. One group went to south Bihar and Bengal then to Tamil Nadu via Orissa and from there it travelled to Srilanka and Java, Sumatra etc. Around 2ma century BC with increasing influence of the Buddhists Nirgranthas were ousted from Srilanka and consequently they came back to Tamil Nadu. Many Jaina records of around 1* century BC in Brāhmi script are available in Tamil Nadu, which prove the fact that Nirgrantha-sargha reached Tamil Nadu as early as two or three hundred years after Mahāvīra's nirvāņa. It is also believed that Ācārya Bhadrabāhu after having ordained Candragupta Maurya went to the south, though its historical authenticity cannot be proved without some controversy because the documents or records that mention this belong to 6 or 7th century AD. Today also there is a vast number of Tamil Jainas who represent the oldest followers of Jaina tradition. They are known as Nayanars and Panchamvarnis. Though with the passage of time the ancient Jaina tradition has disappeared from Bihar, Bengal and Orissa there are remnants of this tradition in the form of a caste

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 53 or class called 'Sarāka'. The term “Sarāka' is a distorted form of Srāvaka, and this caste customarily avoids meals after sun set, and the prohibition of words such as cut, kill etc., which indicate violence. These are some remnants of the sarskāras that are prevalent even today. Because of the efforts of Upadhyaya Jnanasagarji and some other Svetāmbara monks these Sarākas have returned to the Jaina fold. The difference in code of conduct of Nirgranthas of the North and South
The Nirgrantha-sargha that had gone to the south could not take much of Jaina texts or literature along with it since enough Jaina literature was not written till that time. It only carried with it the philosophical thoughts and its strict path of conduct from its oral tradition, which the samgha preserved for a very long time. The predecessor of today's Digambara tradition is the southern Acela Nirgrantha-samgha. In this context some other issues need more deliberation and research from historical perspective. During Mahāvīra's own time the region of his influence was only southern Bihar, which had its centre at Rajgir. While the area of influence of the Buddhists and that of Pārsva's descendants was North Bihar and north-eastern U.P. whose centre was Śrāvasti. The groundwork

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54 Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
of the meeting of the Acela Nirgrantha-samgha of Mahāvīra and the Sacela-samgha of Pārsva's descendants was prepared under the leadership of Gautama and Keśī in Śrāvasti. The fact that the greatest number of 'rainy season retreats' (cāturmāsas) of Mahāvīra were held at Rajgir while those of Buddha were held in Śrāvasti, is proof of this. South India being climatically warmer in comparison to the north, it was not difficult for the monks of Nirgrantha-samgha to observe the practice of not wearing clothes (i.e.acelakatva). The Nirgrantha-samgha of the north could not retain its original practice of acelakatva and started to cover their body with one piece of cloth, partly because of the climatic conditions of the north and partly because of the influence of the descendents of Pārsva. Besides, North-Indians are more comfortloving by nature than the Southerners. In the Buddhist tradition also the request for conveniences was made by the Vatsiputra Bhiksus who belonged to Terai region of the north. The Pitaka literature of the Buddhists talks of Nirgranthas as Śāṭaka i.e one who has clothing and Ājīvakas as naked. This also indicates the fact that the north-Indian Nirgrantha-samgha had started keeping at least one piece of cloth serving a two fold purpose (i) protection from cold and (ii) to avoid the stigma of nakedness.

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A Digambara Nun (Āryikā)

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A sculpture form Mathura depicting Jaina monks with a piece of cloth in their hands

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History of Nirgrantha tradition
55
The 15 century AD idols of Jaina Sramanas available in Mathura are shown with one blanketlike cloth. They generally used to live naked, but while going out on begging rounds or on meeting people they would carry that piece of cloth or blanket in hand in order to hide their nakedness, and also to cover themselves in excessive cold conditions. In the first part of Acārānga and its eighth chapter there is a reference to Acelakaśramaņas along with śramaņas who kept one, two and three pieces of cloth.
It is absolutely certain that Mahāvīra ordained himself without a begging bowl. According to information available from Ācārāngasūtra, he first used householders' bowls but he gave this up and soon started taking alms in his own hands. Later because of the ban on the use of fresh (sacitta) water, Nirgrantha-sargha probably allowed the use of a bowl for water for cleansing purpose (sauca). When the number of monks increased and when they were unable to get sufficient food from one household, the practice of using and keeping these begging bowls for food may have started. Besides this, the practice of taking and bringing alms for the sick and aged bhikkhus while tending or serving them might have started. In one of the findings of Mathura an idol

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Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
of a Jaina Šramaņa of about I" or 2nu century AD is found who is carrying a bag (jholī) with a bowl in one hand and a broom (rajoharana) in another. The bag looks very similar to the one prevalent in Śvetāmbara tradition specially that of the Sthānakavāsī or Terāpantha tradition. Though, in the engravings of Mathura an open bowl (i.e. without the bag) in the hand of the bhikṣu is also exhibited. Further, in these engravings the monks and nuns carrying the mouth cloth piece and broom (rajoharana) in their hands are also seen. The engravings' of broom are of both the kinds prevalent in Śvetāmbara tradition (i.e. rajoharaṇa) and Digambara's tradition (i.e. mayūrapicchi). Though, it is difficult to say without clear literary and archeological evidence that these brooms were made of mayūrapicchi or of some other material. The recognized Digambara texts Mūlācāra and Bhagavati-ārādhanā describe the quality and importance of the broom but do not make it clear as to what material it is made of. Thus, before rst century AD, clothes, bowls, bags, mouth-cloth piece and broom were prevalent amongst the Nirgranthas of North India. Monks generally used to live naked while nuns used to wear sāris. Monks used to use cloth in special circumstances such as cold weather conditions or to avoid stigma. It was

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 57
not customary for monks to cover themselves always. Similarly in the engravings the mouth-cloth piece is shown in the hand only, unlike present day Sthānakavāsī or Terāpanthi tradition of tying it on the mouth. The ancient Svetāmbara Agamas also substantiate this fact. The fourteen articles of use mentioned in Svetāmbara tradition were probably decided by the 2nd or 3rd century AD. The division in Post-Mahāvira NirgranthaSamgha
In the history of 500 years between Mahāvīra's nirvana and Mathurā's records we get some very important information about Nihnvas which are related to their philosophical and conceptual differences, their different characteristics, branches, classes and their divisions based on mutual relationship. Āvaśyaka-niryukti talks about seven nihnvas, among them Jamāli and Tişyagupta were of Mahāvīra's time, and the remaining five, viz. Aşādhabhūti, Aśvamitra, Ganga, Rohagupta and Gosthāmāhila existed between 214 years and 584 years after Mahāvīra's nirvana. These Nihnvas had differences on some philosophical issues with the conventional beliefs of Nirgrantha-samgha. But we do not have any information available to us about their forming or starting any new sect as such. In this period

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different ganas and branches emerged in the Nirgrantha-samgha, but what were the philosophical or conduct-related reasons for their differences is not known. In my opinion they may have split up for administrative convenience and due to the formation of groups and sub-groups by different disciples. Though, in Kalpasūtra the list of patriarchs (sthavirāvali) mentions that Şadulaka Rohagupta had led the Trairāśika branch. Rohagupta is considered to be a Nihnva who is the representative of the Trairāśika sect. Thus, it is clear that these ganas and branches must have had differences in their beliefs, but we have no means of knowing this today.
The Sthavirāvali of Kalpasūtra talks of two disciples of Arya Yaśobhadra: (i) Sambhūtivijaya and (ii) Bhadrabāhu. Kalpasūtra also talks of origin of ganas and branches, which at the one end begins with the disciple of Bhadrabāhu named as Godāsa of Kāśyapa-gotra and at the other end with the disciples of Sthūlibhadra. From Godāsa originated Godāsagaña having further branches called tāmraliptikā, kotivarsīyā, poundravardhanikā, and dāsīkarkpaţikā. How did Bhadrabāhu's tradition grow later? This is not indicated in the Sthavirāvali of Kalpasūtra. The names of these branches suggest that Bhadrabāhu's tradition of his disciples went

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 59
towards south India via Bengal and Orissa. A document of Godāsagaṇa is also found in the South. Thus, it seems proper to believe that the Acelaka Nirgrantha tradition of south developed from Bhadrabahu's tradition.
According to Svetambaras at the time of Pāṭalīputra vācanā Bhadrabahu was in Nepal, whereas according to Digambaras Bhadrabahu proceeded southwards after having ordained Candragupta Maurya into the Order. It is possible that he went to the South in the last stage of his life. The Nirgrantha tradition of North India went ahead with the disciples of Sthūlibhadra. Except Godāsagaṇa and its four branches described in the Kalpasūtra all other ganas, families and branches are related to the tradition of Sthulibhadra's disciples and then their disciples and so on. Thus, the Acelaka Nirgrantha-samgha of south followed from Bhadrabahu and the Sacela Nirgrantha tradition of the North developed and continued from Sthūlibhadra. In this samgha Uttara Balissahagaṇa, Uddhehgaṇa, Kotikagaṇa, Caraṇagaṇa, Mānavagaṇa, Vesavāḍiyagaṇa, Uḍḍavāḍiyagana etc. are the main ganas. These ganas had many branches and sub-branches. The sthavirāvalī of Kalpasūtra mentions all of them but in its last part it mentions only one tradition of ācāryas of Vajri branch belonging to Kotika-gana These

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branches continued till the time of Devardhi Gani Kşamāśramaņa (Vira Nirvāṇa Sarvat 980). We come to know about the tradition of Acārya Sthūlibhadra from Sthavirāvali of Kalpasūtra, its numerous ganas, branches, subs-branches etc. that is further substantiated from the records of Mathura, which authenticates the Sthavirāvali of Kalpasūtra. The Pattāvali (genealogical list) of Digambara tradition up to 1000 years of Mahāvīra's nirvāna is certainly later and secondly it dose not have any ancient literary or documentary evidence to substantiate it except mentioning Bhadrabāhu's name. And the evidence related to Bhadrabāhu is also new. Thus, from a historical perspective their authenticity can be questioned. The significant changes that have taken place in the Nirgrantha-samgha of north India after Mahāvīra's nirvāṇa up to 1" and 2m century AD can be understood with the help of Agamas in Ardhamāgadhi and with the art and documents of Mathura. The special feature of Mathura art is that the Tīrthankara's idols are naked, but they hide their nudity with a cloth or a blanket. Besides cloth and blanket all such objects such as bowl, bag, mouth-cloth piece and broom (pratilekhana), are included in the requisites of the monks. The names of monks their gana, branch, family name etc. can be found in Sthavirāvali of Kalpasūtra of

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 61
Svetāmbaras. Thus, they are indicators of the prior conditions of Svetāmbaras. Mathura art reveals that in Jaina religion there was also a tradition of building stūpas besides idols of Tirthankaras. The origin of Yāpaniya or Boţika Sangha
In the second century AD i.e. six hundred and nine years after Mahāvīra's nirvāṇa there was another event of a division in Nirgrantha-samgha, with the result the north Indian branch of Nirgrantha-samgha got further sub-divided into two groups of Acelaka and Sacelaka. With the influence of Pārsva's descendents, the cloth meant for protection from the cold and the begging bowls meant to be used in exceptional circumstances became objects of regular use and started becoming indispensable for the monks. On the subject of stopping this increasing tendency for possessions Arya Krsna and Arya Śivabhūti had disagreement with each other. Ārya Krsạna discarded the jinakalpa code and emphasized that the cloth and bowl are indispensable objects of a monk's life, while Arya Śivabhūti emphasized the observance of the jinakalpa code and the renunciation of these objects. According to him jinakalpa code should not be discarded for the competent ones and the cloth and bowl should be meant only for

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exceptional circumstances. Infact, the normal path is only acelakatā.
The Acela tradition of Arya Śivabhūti in North India was described by Svetāmbaras as Botika (distorted). But later on this tradition came to be popularly known as the “Yāpanīya'. Because of its growth and spread in the region of cows it became known as Gopya-samgha. In the commentary (tikā) of : Saņdarśana-samuccaya Ācārya Gunaratna says that the terms Yāpyasargha and Yāpaniya-samgha are synonyms. The special features of Yāpaniya-samgha were (1) like the Svetāmbara tradition it recognized the Ardhamāgadhi Agamic literature like Sütrakrtānga, Acārānga, Uttarādhyayana, Daśavaikālika etc., which they got as inheritance (2) it accepted the liberation of sacelas (those with clothes), liberation of women, and even those who belonged to other faiths. It believed that the mention of clothes, bowls in the Agama literature was only in the context of sadhvis (nuns), and monks only in exceptional circumstances. On other hand, however, it laid emphasis on nakedness and disallowed clothes and bowls. Yāpanīya monks used to live naked and used to take meals only with hands (i.e. did not use begging bowls). Their ācāryas wrote many texts in Sauraseni Prakrit by taking stanzas from Agamas, which they got in

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inheritance of which the famous ones are Kaşāyaprābhrta, Şaçkhandāgama, Bhagavatiārādhanā and Mūlācāra.
The history of Acela Nirgrantha tradition in South India till 3rd - 4th century AD is shrouded in obscurity. In this context, we have neither literary nor epigraphical evidence. Though, we do get some written documents in Brāhmi script of a slightly earlier period in Tamil Nadu, they do not give us any information except about the names of monks or of the makers of the caves. The caves with their records in Tamil Nadu probably were the places where Nirgranthas attained samadhi. The Tamil literature of Sangama period, however, reveals that Jaina Śramaņas have contributed a lot to the growth and enrichment of Tamil literature. According to a view 'Tirukurala', the famous Jaina literature in Tamil, is written by a Jaina Acārya. In the 4" century AD țhis Nirgrantha-samgha of Tamil region proceeded North wards via Karnataka. While the Nirgrantha-samgha of north branch into Sacela (Svetāmbara) and Acela (Yāpaniya) and proceeded south wards. Sacela Svetāmbara tradition travelled to north Karnataka via Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Western Maharashtra, while Acela-yāpaniya tradition travelled to North Karnataka via Bundelakhand, Vidisha, Vindhya, Satpuda and East

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64 Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
Maharashtra. The inscriptions of Mrgeśa Vermā of 5th century AD in north Karnataka inform us of the existence of five samghas of Jainas- (1) Nirgranthasamgha (2) Müla-samgha (3) Yāpanīya samgha (4) Kūcarka-samgha and white clothed Mahāśramaņasaingha. In the same period a copper plate discovered in northeast India reveal the existence of Pañca-stūpānavaya. The white clothed Mahāśramana-samgha of this period was divided in many families and branches, whose complete description is available in Kalpasūtra and the documents of Mathura.
In the long time span of about 1000 years i.e. between the nirvāņa of Mahāvīra and Sin century AD, Ardhamāgadhi Agama texts were continuously written and compiled. Today, the Agamas, which are available to us, are neither written by one single person nor at a particular time. Not only this, infact, one single scripture contains a collection of the material from different periods. The first and the foremost in this period was the assembly (vācanã) of Pāțalīputra in 3rd century BC.
The Agamas called Arigas and the Pūrva literature of Pārsva's descendents were probably compiled in this assembly. The issue of compilation of Pūrva literature became significant as the tradition of Pārsva's descendents was

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History of Nirgrantha tradition 65
disappearing. After that, under the leadership of Arya Skandila in Mathura and under Arya Nāgārjuna in Ballabhi, parallel assemblies were held in which Angas and Upangas were compiled. Then, 980 years after Mahāvīra's nirvāņa i.e. in 5th century AD, the last vācanā took place in Ballabhi under the leadership of Devardhi Gani Kṣamāśramaṇa. Modern Agamas are the products of this vacanā. However, Devardhi is only a compiler of these Agamas not the original writer. He only systematically organized these scriptures; the material was already there before. In the Ardhamāgadhi Āgamas Ācārāṁga, the first chapter of Sūtrakṛtānga, Rṣibhāṣita, Uttaradhyayana and Daśavaikälika etc. are ancient and are of preChristian era. There are others such as Samavāyānga, Praśnavyākaraṇa etc, which are of much later period, i.e. around 5th century AD. Sthānāṁga, Antakṛtadasā, Jñātādharmakathā and some parts of Bhagavati are of much earlier period i.e. of pre-Christian era and some others of much later date. In the Upangas scriptures such as Suryaprajñapti, Rājapraśnīya, Prajñāpanā, are of earlier period. Chedasūtras are undoubtedly older in comparison to Upangas. Similarly, in the Prakirṇaka literature there are many texts, which are even older than some Angas and Upangas. But still, the entire Ardhamāgadhī Agamic literature got its final shape around the first half of 6th century

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AD although, even after this, there have been many interpolations. After the 6th century AD up to the middle of 10th and 11th century AD, was the period when interpretations and commentaries of Agamas in the form of Niryuktis, Bhāṣyas, Cūrṇis and Ṭīkās were written though some of the Niryuktis are rather ancient. In this period, some independent texts were also written, besides the Agamic commentary literature. Among the famous ācāryas of this period, some ācāryas such as Siddhasena, Jinabhadra Gaņi, Śivarya, Vaṭṭakera, Kundakunda, Akalanka, Samantabhadra, Vidyānandi, Jinasena, Svayambhū, Haribhadra, Siddharṣi, Śīlānka and Abhayadeva are the prominent ones. In the Digambara tradition various commentaries on Tattvärtha and the Purāṇas were written in this period.

(3)

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Chapter-3
Impact of Vedic Tradition on Jainism (A) The influence of Hindu Caste and Varna
system on Jainism
Basically, śramana tradition and Jaina tradition were opposed to the Hindu Varna system but with the passage of time and with the influence of larger Hindu society the concepts of varma and caste entered into this tradition. The origin of jāti and varņa systems and the description of their historical evolution are found for the first time in Acārārga-niryukti (around 3rd century AD). According to it, in the beginning, there was only one human society. Administrative systematization started by Rşabha led to its compartmentalization into two (i) the ruler (ii) the subjects; later with the development of art and commerce, these evolved into three: (i) Kșatriya (ruling class), (ii) Vaisya (the farmer and the business class), (iii) Sūdra (the menial class). Later, with the establishment of śrāvaka-dharma (the code of conduct for the householders), the people who were non-violent, virtuous and of good character were being called Brahmins. Thus the four varnas came into being one after the other; then, from these four varnas and the mixed marriages amongst them there emerged sixteen

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varņas. Seven of them were called varnas and the remaining nine were called antarvarņas. Out of the seven varņas the union of man with a woman of the same varņa led to four basic varnas; the union of Brahmin man and Ksatriya woman, Ksatriya man and Vaišya woman and Vaiśya man and Sūdra woman led to the creation of other three varņas. Ācārānga-cūrņi, while classifying this, says that the child born out of the union of a Brahmin man and Kșatriya woman is called the best Ksatriya, pure Ksatriya or sankara Kșatriya; this is the fifth varņa. Similarly, the child born from Ksatriya man and Vaiśya woman is called best Vaiśya, pure Vaisya or sankara-Vaiśya. This is the sixth varņa. And the child born from the union of Vaisya man and Śūdra women is pure Sūdra or sankara-śüdra. This is the seventh varna. Further, on the basis of relationships between similar and dissimilar varņas nine antarvarņas evolved. From the relationship of Brahmin man and Vaisya woman Ambaşta-varņa originated which is the eighth varņa. The union of Kșatriya man and Sūdra woman led to the creation of Ugra-varņa, which is the ninth varna. From the relationship of Brahmin man and Südra woman evolved the tenth varņa called Nişāda. Eleventh varņa evolved out of the union of Kūdra man and Vaisya woman. This is called Ayoga-varna. Then Sūta-varņa evolved from Ksatriya man and

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Brahmin woman; this is the thirteenth varņa. The union between Śūdra man and Ksatriya woman led to the origin of Kșatrā (khannā) varņa the fourteenth varņa. The union of Vaiśya man and Brahmin woman led to the origin of fifteenth varna called Vedeha. And finally from Śūdra man and Brahmin woman was born the sixteenth varṇa called Cāņdāla. In the process of time such unions between these sixteen varņas (anuloma and pratiloma) led to the emergence of several different castes.
The above description reveals that with the passage of time, Jaina Ācāryas accepted the institutions of jāti and varņa of Hindu tradition in its own amended form. Around 7th century AD, Ācārya Jinasena of the south, out of fear of social controversy and also for maintaining the identity and social respect of Jaina dharma, absorbed the caste and varņa system of Hindu tradition in such a manner that the distinctiveness of the Jainas almost got lost. Ācārya Jinasena, for the first time, said, that the first creator Rşabhadeva, after having propounded six kinds of karmas (actions) created three kinds of varmnas i.e. Kșatriyas, Vaiśyas and Śūdras. Later, in the same text it is said those who serve Kșatriya and Vaiśya are sūdras. Sūdras are of two kinds: (i) kārus (ii) akārus. Kārus are of two kinds: (i) touchable (ii) untouchables; washermen, barbers etc are touchable sūdras and Cāņdālas etc.

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of
who live on the outskirts of the city are untouchables. The distinctions of Kärus and Akārus and touchables and untouchables are made for the first time only in Purāṇa period by Jinasena. None of his predecessors Jaina Acaryas accepted such distinctions. But later Jaina Acaryas who were influenced by the Hindu social system had by and large accepted this. The commentator Satprabhṛta, Śrutasāgarji has discussed the 'touchable' and 'untouchable' concepts though the writer of Purāṇas recognized the rights of Śūdras to be initiated as Kṣullakas. But later Digambara ācāryas have reduced their right so much so that Śūdras were not allowed to be ordained as monks; they were not even allowed entry into a Jaina temple. In the main text of Sthānanga-sūtra of Śvetāmbaras only the sick, mentally deranged or those obsessed by fear and eunuchs were not allowed to be ordained. But later commentators prohibited both categories of Śūdras such as Cāṇḍālas (birth or jāti related) or hunters (profession-related) from being initiated into monkhood. Though all this was against the original Jaina tradition but still this got accepted because of the influence of Hindu tradition. This reached such a state that the followers of the same Jaina tradition started abstaining from taking food touched by another caste, inter-dining, and taking water from a

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person of low caste. Also Sūdras were not allowed entry into a Jain temple. In one of the sects of Svetāmbara tradition, it became a practice that an Oswal alone should be ordained as a monk, and in another sect of this tradition, the idea of giving the post of ācārya only to a monk of the Bisā Oswal community originated.
Though in olden times people from all four varņas and castes were fully accepted and were entitled to worship in temples, observe the vows of the householder and the vows of the monks and were even considered capable of attaining the highest state of Nirvāņa. In the 7th - git century AD, Jinasena for the first time declared Sūdras as unworthy for monkhood and for attainment of liberation. The Svetāmbara canons however, do not forbid initiation of Sūdras into the Order. The Sthānānga-sūtra only prohibits the initiation of sick, mentally deranged and eunuchs etc. into the Order. But later on, even low-castes such as cāņdālas and professionals such as butchers etc were prohibited from initiation into the Order: But this is only the influence of the powerful Hindu tradition and was clearly against the main principles of Jaina tradition. Jainas gave recognition to this only to maintain their social status and dignity, though the Agamas mention many cases of Cāņdālas such as Harikeśabala,

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Metārya, Mātangamuni etc. being ordained as monks and later attaining moksa. Idol-worship in Jaina Religion and entry of Ostentatious Ritualism
Though the tradition of temple building and image worship began in Jaina dharma just about 100 years after Mahāvīra's nirvāņa during Nanda period, it is difficult to ascertain as to whether an excavated headless figure from Harappa is Jaina or not, but a Jaina-idol of Maurya period found in Lohanipur in Patna is indicative of the fact that the culture of idol-worship was there in Jaina religion and that there had been an influence of the contemporary traditions.
Ritualism and spiritual endeavours are indispensable parts of every religion. Ritualism is its body and spiritualism its life-essence. Both these kinds of tendencies are clearly visible in Indian religions right from ancient times. Whereas the original Vedic tradition was mainly ritualistic, the ancient Sramanic traditions were Meditational. But still, it is difficult to completely separate both these tendencies from one another. The code of spiritual and religious sādhanā of Śramanic tradition gradually developed into expressions of different forms of ritualism. It is proved from various internal and external evidences that most of

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the rituals have come from the influences of either Brāhmanic, Vedic or other traditions.
Jaina tradition basically is a part of śramanic tradition and therefore, in its original form it was against rituals and was mainly spiritualistic. The denunciation of rituals like yajña, oblations and bathing etc. in older scriptures like Uttarādhyayana proves this point. As we have mentioned earlier, the special feature of Uttarādhyayana is that it gave a spiritual form to the rituals or other ceremonies performed in the name of religion. Jaina tradition has openly opposed the acts of social exploitation by the Brahmin class in those days in the name of religious rituals and ceremonies such as yajñas, śrādhha and tarpaņa.
As a matter of fact, the followers of bhaktimārga who were opposed to Vedic rituals started the practice of worshipping idols while the śramanic tradition believed in tapas and meditation.
Jaina scriptures also mention the prevalence of yakşa-worship in the society. The devotional practices prevalent among the masses had an influence on the Jaina and Buddhist religions also, and the people developed an urge for worshipping Jina and Buddha along with the practices of penance, self-control and meditation. It first began with symbol-worship of stūpas and caityas and then

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temples started (siddhāyatanas) coming up, where the idols of Buddha and Jina were worshipped. Thus idol-worship, dāna (charity) etc began to be considered as the primary duties of the householder. In Digambara tradition the place of the ancient șadāvaśyakas (six-essential duties of the householder) is taken over by six daily duties of Jina-worship, serving the guru, study of scriptures, penance, self-control and charity. We do not find a clear account of Jina-worship in earlier scriptures of Ācārārga, Sūtrakrtānga, Uttarādhyayana and Bhagavati in Svetāmbara tradition. In comparison, later scriptures like Sthānanga etc do mention Jinaidol and Jina-temple but there is no discussion of any ceremony or service related to worship. However, in Rājapraśniya Süryābhadeva and in Jñātādharma-kathā Draupadi worshiping Jina- idol is mentioned. All this is the influence of the larger Hindu tradition on Jaina religion.
Ācārya Jinasena, in Harivaṁsapurāņa has talked of water, unhusked rice, sandal, flowers, incense, lamp and naivedya. In this description the order of the eight objects is not the same nor is there a separate reference of water in this text. It should be remembered that the ritual of idol bathing (praksälana) had developed into sprinkling water (abhișeka) which is comparatively later.

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Through the texts of Padmapurāna, Pañcavimšati (authored by Padmanandi), Adipurāsa, Harivamsapurāņa Vasunandi's Śrāvakācāra we come to know of the benefits of these eight substances used in worship. It is believed that the use of these eight objects gives the worshipper both mundane and extra mundane happiness and prosperity. Bhāvasaṁgraha also tells us that these eight different substances confer their different benefits.
The description by Dr. Nemichandra Shastri clearly attributes the gradual adoption of these articles of worship in Digambara tradition to the influence of Hinduism. In Svetāmbara tradition the eight-fold worship that later developed into seventeen types of worship is an influence of Pañcopacări worship of the Hindu tradition. This Sarvopacāri or seventeen-fold worship is only a form of Șodaşopacări worship of Vaišnavaits, a detailed account of which is available in Rājapraśniya.
In this entire discussion it seems that in Jaina tradition the first religious ritual or ceremony that evolved is şad-avaśyakas and there was a place for “prayers of adoration' in these six 'āvasyakas' and later, from this bhāvapūjā came into practice; and then came the concept of dravya-pājā (worship with objects). But the practice of dravya-pūjā was

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meant only for the householders. It is only later that the complex rules and regulations related with Jina worship extended further in both Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions; all this is the influence of Brāhmaṇa tradition. Thereafter, many rules and regulation were framed with regard to construction of temples and the consecration of Jina-symbols by following in the footsteps of the Hindus. The fact that the use of different articles of worship has been a step by step evolution has been clearly admitted by Pt. Phool Chand ji Siddhantshastri in the introduction to his ‘Jñānapīțha Pūjāñjali and by Dr. Nemichandra Shastri in the essay, 'Puspakarma-devapūjā: vikāsa Evaṁ Vidhi," in his book titled, “Bhāratiya Sanskrti ke Vikāsa men Jaina Vārmaya kā Avadāna” Part I, page 371.
Though the use of flowers in worship had been customary in ancient times but it does not quite match with the principle of extreme nonviolence of Jaina tradition. On the one hand there is a text on worship-rituals in which the worshipper talks of atonement (expiation) for violence committed even to the one-sensed living beings and on the other hand flowers, which are themselves one sensed-living being are being offered before the Jina-idol. How far is this consistent? The following passage is recited for atonement:

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iryāpathe pracalatādya mayā pramādāt / ekendriyapramukha-ji vanikāyabādhã // nidvartitā yadi bhaveva yugāntareksā / mithyā tadastu duritam gurubhaktito me //
It is to be remembered that in śvetāmbara tradition the 'Caityavandana' contains a small sūtra of ('Iriāvihi virāhanāye') which means "I atone for the violence to one-sensed beings while going for Caityavandana". On the other hand in the rituals of worship and offerings violence to other one-sensed beings such as earth, air, water fire or vegetables is committed, it is certainly an inner selfcontradiction. Probably due to the influence of Hindu Dharma many worship-related rituals and ceremonies entered in Jaina tradition by 6th-7th century AD For this reason, Ācārya Haribhadra, in the 8ih century AD had to prohibit Jaina monks from performing many of these rituals. Haribhadra, in his 'Sambodha-prakarana' prohibited Jaina monks to stay in Caityas (temples) and worship of Jina-idols with articles of worship, dancing, singing or staging of dramas etc. in front of the Jina-idol. Not only this, in the same text he describes worship with the articles of worship as impure.
Generally, in Jaina tradition penancedominated ceremonies are related to the enhancement of spiritual qualities and control on

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demonic outbursts, by eradication of the karmaobstacles. The aim of devotion to Jina or omniscient and Jina-worship related ceremonies also is the individual's own spiritual growth rather than only mundane achievements and removal of obstructions and obstacles in life. A Jaina aspirant clearly keeps in mind that all worships and prayers, eulogies, praises and invocations of Jina are only for one's own self-realization and achievement of ones own pure and inner qualities of the self.
The proclamation of Jaina tradition - 'Vande tadguņa labdhaye' i.e. the aim of salutation is to achieve the qualities of the omniscient or the perfect soul. Essentially speaking our soul and the soul of Jina are alike. Infact, the achievement of the qualities of the perfect soul means only the realization of one's owns self. Thus, basically Jaina ceremonies are meant for self-purification and self-realization. In Jaina ceremonies most of the mantras and passages are meant to make us aware of the essential nature of the worshipped or they are meant to inspire us to get liberated from the destructive tendencies in us. Though Jaina rituals by their basic nature are spiritual, but it is a natural weakness of human beings that they want to achieve mundane happiness and comforts with the medium of religion and also along with it they
expect religion to remove obstacles, which come in

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the way of his achievement. He believes that dharma is a medium of obtaining the desirable and destroying the undesirable. Because of this natural tendency of human beings Jaina tradition could not remain uninfluenced by Hindu religion, and completely stable in the spiritual form of rituals and ceremonies. It did develop some deformities. To eradicate these deformities the Sthānakavāsī sect came into existence, which disapproved of idol-worship. The truth is that, the follower of Jaina religion after all, is the same human being who is not completely free from the desire of happiness and prosperity in his mundane life. Thus for Jaina Ācāryas it became imperative to add some rituals and ceremonies in their main religion, which are helpful in the mundane well-being of their followers, and have their faith in their own religion, unhindered and secure. This was not logically consistent for a religion that had staunch belief in spiritual renunciation and the theory of karma; but still it is a historical fact that Jainism did develop this tendency and it was necessary to remove or overcome it.
The Tīrthankara of Jainism can neither be an instrument nor an obstacle in worldly well being of an individual therefore the concepts of yakşa-yaksi as sāsana-devatās or devis or as administrator gods and goddesses was introduced in Jaina worship

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ceremonies. Then, it was believed that the Tīrthankara or yakşa-yakși after being propitiated by their devotees would bestow happiness on them. Protector goddesses such as Laksmī, Sarasvati, Padmāvatī, Ambikā, Cakreśvarī, Kāli etc. and yakşas, dikpālas and kşetrapālas (bhairavas) such as Maņibhadra, Ghantākarņa Mahāvīra and Pārsvayakșa came to be accepted in the Jaina pantheon. In worshipping them many of the ceremonies of Hindu tradition were accepted in Jaina tradition with minor alterations. Texts like "Bhairava-Padmāvatīkalpa” etc. substantiate this point. In the rituals of Jina-worship and consecration of idols or images in the temples many of the elements of Vedic rituals got assimilated which are very different from the basic ideology of Jaina tradition. We clearly notice today that worshipping Cakreśvarī, Padmāvatī, Ambikā, Ghantākarņa Mahāvīra, Nākodā-bhairava, Bhomiyāji, dikpālas, kşetrapālas etc. have become very prominent in Jaina tradition. This is the other aspect of worship and devotion in Jaina traditionbasically an influence of Hindu or Brāhmaṇa tradition that has come to the fore. There are many mantras recited in Jina-worship and related ceremonial rituals which can simply be called the Jainization of similar mantras of Brāhmaṇa tradition. For example, in Brāhmaṇa tradition while

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worshipping the favourite god, (Ista devatā) he is invited or invoked and immersed or abandoned; in Jaina tradition also similar mantras of invitation or invocation and immersion are recited at the time of worship as: aum hrim namo siddhānam siddhaparameșthin atra avatara avatara sarvoșaț/ auṁ hrim namo siddhānam siddhaparameșthin atra tiştha tistha thaḥ thaḥ aum hrim namo siddhāņam siddhaparamesthin atra mama sannihato bhavabhava vaşat/ auí hrií namo siddhānam siddhaparamesthin svasthānam gaccha gaccha jah jah jaḥ/
These mantras are against the basic tenets of Jaina philosophy. In Brāhmaṇa tradition it is believed that the gods come at the invitation of their devotees and go back after immersion or abandonment whereas in Jaina tradition Tīrrthankaras, after attaining liberation, neither come on invitation nor go back after immersion or abandonment. In the introduction to 'Iñānapitha Pūjāñjali," Pt. Phool Chandji Siddhanatashastri has discussed this in great detail and he has compared Jaina mantras to Brāhmaṇa mantras pertaining to invitation and abandonment of God. Following Visarjana-śloka can be compared with next Brāhmaṇa-śloka:

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āvāhanam nājva jānāmi naiva jānāmi pājanam/ visarjanam na jānāmi kşamaśva parameśvara ///// mantrahinam kriyāhinam dravyahīnam tathaiva cal tatsarva kşamyatām deva rakṣa rakṣa jineśvara //2/1
-Visarjanapātha āvāhanam na jānāmi na jänāmi visrajanam/ pājanam naiva jānāmi kşamaśva parameśvara //1/1 mantrahinam kriyāhinam bhaktihinam janārdana/ yatpūjitar mayā deva paripūrņa tadastu me 1/211
Similarly, Pañcopacārī-pājā, Asta-dravyapūjā, the practices of yajña, Vināyaka-yantrasthāpana, Yajñopavita-dhāraṇa etc. are not in consistency with the basic ideology of the Jaina tradition. When the influence of Purānas increased, Pañcopacāra worship etc crept into the Jaina rituals. During the 10th century AD these rituals assumed so much importance that the earlier practices became subsidiary. In spite of the idol being right in front of the devotee the ritualistic practice of invitation, soliciting closeness worship and abandonment or immersion etc. came into practice to keep the five auspicious events pertaining to the life of the Tīrthankara (pañcakalyāņakas) afresh in the memory. Pūjā (worship) was considered as part of service, and in a way, it got the importance equivalent to giving

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A Śvetāmbara Mūrtipūjaka monk

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A Śvetāmbara Sthānakavāsī Muni

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alms. Thus the essential attitude towards sāmāyika and dhyāna got changed while performing pūjā. And pūjā was accepted as a part of the vow of Atithisarvibhāga (i.e. giving aims to the monks). All this is a form of imitation of Brāhmaņa tradition, though the mantras recited in these contexts were certainly given a Jaina form. Is it not ironical when there is a group of thinkers who believe that a Tirthankara does not even take food and it is they who offer naivedya in his service? Jaina tradition has also adopted the ritual of consecration ceremony (Saṁskāra-vidhi) from Hindu tradition besides the rituals of worship.
Acārya Jinasena was the first who in Adipurāņa prepared a full consecration ceremony (saṁskāra-vidhi) from the Jaina point of view by amending Hindu ceremonies of the tradition of sixteen sarskāras generally prevalent amongst the Hindus and prepared in the light of renunciationbased tradition by adding the ceremonies like the Initiation ceremony etc. In that three parts were made viz conception-related rituals, initiationrelated rituals and action-related rituals. All the rituals starting with ritual of conception of Tirthankara till Nirvāṇa have been discussed in it. It is clear, that the ceremonies or rituals that became customary in Digambara tradition are influenced by mainstream of Hinduism. No such

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account of these ritualistic ceremonies (saṁskāravidhi) is available in Svetāmbara tradition. But in their religious practice they have also adopted the prevalent ceremonies of Hindu tradition in the same form. Even today their marriage ceremonies etc. are conducted by the Brahmin priests as in Hindu tradition. Thus, it is clear that Jaina tradition has been deeply influenced by Hindu tradition.
In fact the original features of Brahmanic culture were adapted into the Jaina ceremonies related to temples and consecration of Jina idols. It is difficult for any tradition to remain completely uninfluenced by its contemporary traditions. And therefore it was quite natural that in the ceremonial rituals of Jainas Brāhmaṇa influences became predominant. But it was certainly a distortion in Sramana tradition. In fact, along with the building of temples and idols, monks started residing in temples, which meant the emergence of the Bhattāraka and Caityavāsa tradition. As a reaction to this Saṁvigna and other traditions, which did not approve of idol-worship came into being. The origin of Caityavāsa and Bhattāraka Tradition
With the creation of idols and temples the question of their protection and management arose. As a consequence around 5th century AD

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Bhaṭṭāraka sect of Digambaras and Caityavāsa tradition of Svetambaras came into existence though the archeological evidences of Jina temple and Jina-idol are clearly available during the Maurya period. In the Śakas and Kuṣāṇa period it developed further substantially. The period between 5th century AD and 12th century AD saw the full flowering of Jaina Art. Indeed this is a gift of caityavāsa and Bhaṭṭārakas. In this period in both the traditions monks stopped living in forests and started living in caityas or Jina-temples. Not only this, they involved themselves in managements and administration of these caityas. The information available from the records points to the fact that the rich and prosperous class used to donate not only for the maintenance and management of these caityas but also for the food and other physical comforts of the monks living in these caityas. Thus, during this period Jaina monks became heads of these places. But still, this class of comfort-loving monks led to the origin and evolution of Jaina philosophy, literature and art and architecture and brought it to the highest level of excellence. This cannot be denied. Though in the name of comfort and laxity in the conduct of monks was also growing and that was being opposed in both Digambara and Śvetambara tradition. In the Digambara tradition the opposition

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to Caityavāsa and Bhattārakas is available for the first time in Astapāhuda (Lingapāhuda 1-22) of Ācārya Kundakunda. And later āśādhara and Banārasi Dāsa etc. were also opposed to this. In the Śvetāmbaras the first one who penned his views against this is Ācārya Haribhadra. He openly criticized these Caityavāsis in his 'Sambodhaprakarana' and said that their conduct was against the scriptures; he even went to the extent of calling them devils in men. Criticisms of this kind against Caityavāsis further came from many other ācāryas such as Jineśvarasūri, Jinacandrasūri etc. of the Kharatara-gaccha. Kharatara-gaccha in the 10 century AD came in to being as a reaction to Caityavāsa. The original name of this was Suvihita or Samvigna-mārga. In the Digambara tradition of this period some sects like Drāvida-samgha, Māthura-samgha, Kāstā-samgha etc. were also born, which are called Jainābhāsa in the text known as Darśanasāra.
Pt. Nathu Ram ji ‘Premi' in his book 'Jaina Sāhitya Aura Itihāsa', under the title of 'Caityavāsa and Vanavāsa' has discussed this at substantial length. Still on the basis of the available evidence it is difficult to say that Jaina sargha was able to liberate itself from growing slackness or laxity of conduct of monks despite the voices of opposition to it. However, this opposition certainly became

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Impact of Vedic Tradition on Jainism 87 instrumental in the birth of some sects of Jaina samgha who were opposed to idol-worship. The Effect of Tantra and Bhakti-mārga on Jainism
From the Gupta period till 101-11th centuary AD Indian society went through a gradual moral degeneration; though this was also a period that witnessed a high level of excellence in fine arts particularly in the erotic art of Khajuraho and Konarak. Jina temples also did not remain untouched by its influence. It was also the period when eroticism in art received religious sanction with the creation of Krşņa-Rādhā - Gopis legend.
Tantra and tāntrika way of worship also spread. This was just like a fire in which Buddhist samgha got completely burnt but the Jaina samgha also could not remain unaffected by the flames of this fire. The spiritualist Jaina religion also got influenced by tāntrika practices. Many of the gods and goddesses of Hindu traditions changed into yakşas and yaksis or as caretaker gods and goddesses, they became members of big circle of Jaina gods. Many rules and regulations were framed in the tāntrika rituals to gain their mercy or to get mundane happiness and prosperity from them. A Jaina Tīrthankara being free from attachments would neither destroy his enemies nor

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grant happiness to a devotee; hence befitting the conditions of prevalent times, the responsibility of looking after the welfare of the devotees was entrusted upon the yakṣa and yakṣis.
Similarly, the Jaina samgha was also influenced by the path of devotion. The joint effect of Bhakti-märga and tantra resulted in the cult of worship and yajña etc in various forms of rituals in Jaina temples. Jina-idols were being worshipped in seventeen forms of worship like the sixteen forms of (Sodaṣopacārī) worship of Hindu tradition. Not only was the Jina-idol decorated with clothes and ornaments but fruits and naivedya etc started being offered. It was indeed ironical that the Tīrathankaras or liberated souls were being invited and abandoned after worship along with Navagrahas etc. because of the irrational imitation of the customs of worship of Hindus. Though Śvetämbaras were more influenced by this, even Digambaras could not remain uninfluenced. Different types of mantras and tantras entered in their rituals. Yajñas were performed in Jinatemples. The religious system of Śramaņa tradition, which was free from varṇa and caste system, was abandoned. On the contrary, it emphasized that a low caste Śūdra cannot attain liberation; a social taboo was also imposed upon the water offered by a Śūdra.

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Though in the 12th - 134 century AD, there were many competent philosophers and writers like Hemacandra, still it is not known that there was a powerful and meaningful attempt made to liberate Jaina tradition from the influences of other contemporary religious traditions though on the basis of attempts to reform and on the basis of differt .ce of opinions different sects and sub-sects in the Svetāmbara tradition came into existence such as Tapāgaccha, Ancalagaccha etc. but still, till around 15th century AD Jaina sarngha remained the victim of circumstances.

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Chapter-4
The contribution of Jainas in the field of Art and Literature during medieval period
Though this period was a period of laxity of conduct and love of comforts among the monks, still in the field of art and literature the contribution of Jainas is excellent. Khajuraho, Shravanabelgola, Abu (Dilwara), Taranga, Ranakpur, Deogarh etc. make Jainas feel proud of their grand heritage of art and architecture of gih-14th century AD. Many mature philosophical and literary texts were written in these centuries. In the Svetämbara tradition ācāryas like Haribhadra, Abhayadeva, Vādidevasūri, Hemacandra, Manibhadra, Mallisena and Jinaprabha, and in the Digambara tradition Vidyānandi, Sāktāyana, Prabhācandra, etc. were all compentent ācāryas belonging to this period. Along with mantra and tantras in the field of medicine also Jaina ācāryas came forward. The Bhattārakas and the Jaina Yatis contributed a lot to the literature and temple art but they did not lag behind in the field of social service with their practice of medicine. Religions revolutions prior to Lokāśāha
Indian Śramanic tradition has always been revolutionary. It has always raised its voice against

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Sarasvati in Jaina Art

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Reno
1500
A Jaina Śramana enlightens a Prince

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obscurantism and blind faith. According to it the traditional religious practices, which do not have any meaningful purpose, are just like dead bodies and dead bodies are not objects of worship. Thus a revolt against blind and obscurantic practices becomes imperative. Sramaņic religions have originated as a revolt against these very practices. Tīrthankara Rşabhadeva gave his own systematic code of law in both the worldly and spiritual fields in accordance to his time. This process of change and modification continued till the period of Mahāvīra. Lord Mahāvīra made various changes in the code of conduct and the path of morality of Pārsvanātha in accordance to his times. And the code of conduct prescribed by Lord Mahāvīra was also changed with the passage of time in accordance to changes in time, place and individual's circumstances. As a result Jaina ācāryas gave place to newer view-points in the form of apavāda-mārga based on new situations of change in time and place etc. while accepting Mahāvīra's path of spiritual endeavour and code of conduct as utsarga-mārga. With the creation of apavāda-mārga, attraction for comforts made its entry in the Jaina samgha and later, with the passage of time, it became a symbol of laxity of conduct. In view of this laxity many acāryas who
supported suvihita-mārga spearheaded revolutions

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for the improvements in their code of conduct and practices.
Jaina religion is a dynamic one. It has accepted changes in its system of rules and regulations in accordance to changes in time place and circumstances while retaining and protecting its basic tenets. Thus, it was nothing new for Jainadharma to have various significant changes by different ācāryas of various Jaina sects; it was rather an outcome of its basic revolutionary vision of thought. Even before Lokāśāha many events of such revolutions in conduct-related practices took place. Here, we are presenting a brief account of that
As has been indicated earlier Lord Mahāvīra did not accept the code of conduct of Pārsvanātha in its entirety. It is true, that there is no such difference in the basic principles of Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra but their conduct-related rules and their systems have been different, which have been indicated at a number of places in the Jaina canons. In Mahāvīra's tradition the synthesis of code of conduct of both of these extraordinary men is first of all found in the form of sāmāyika-cāritra and chedopasthāpaniya-căritra. Thus, as a consequence a two level regulatory system was created in the code of conduct of monks. This system established

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by Lord Mahāvīra continued without any major changes till the time of Bhadrabāhu; but even in that time there were partial changes according to the time, place and circumstances. In order to give acceptance to these changes caused by circumstances Ācārya Bhadrabāhu had to approve a two-leveled code of conduct in the form of jinakalpa and sthavirakalpa and utsarga-mārga and apavāda-mārga. These two systems of jinakalpa and sthavirakalpa were fully accepted in Jaina religion during the period of Arya Mahāgiri and Arya Suhasti who were disciples of Ācārya Sthūlibhadra who himself was a disciple of Acārya Bhadrabāhu. In fact, this two-level discipline or code of conduct became necessary for another reason, i.e. by following the path of jinakalpa discipline with its stringent code of conduct, though it was possible to achieve the goal of selfrealization, it was not possible to handle the work of management of sarngha, and more specifically, to preach and spread Jainism given its link with society. Thus, the monks used to follow any one of these two codes of jinakalpa and sthavirakalpa in accordance to their convenience. But still, there was no such arousal of animosity or bitterness in the samgha due to this dual code of conduct. Till the period of Arya Mahāgiri and Arya Suhasti in

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spite of this arrangement, there had been sufficiently pleasant and cordial relationships in the sargha. But later, with the passage of time, this situation could not continue. Where jinakalpis were the centre of respect and honour because of their stringent conduct the sthavirakalpis were able to keep their hold over society or sargha. Later, in their race for authority Jaina religion divided into two main sects which, with the passage of time, came to be known as Digambaras and Svetāmbaras.
The texts of Niśītha, Daśāśrutaskandha, Bệhatkalpa and Vyavahāra-sūtra all authored by Ācārya Bhadrabāhu has clearly given recognition to this dual code of conduct in the form of utsarga and apavāda mārgas or jinakalpa and sthavirakalpa. Whereas in the main Agamas there are only a few indications of apavāda, in the texts of Chedasütras we find detailed discussions on apavāda-märga. And later, the Niryuktis authored by Arya Bhadra and Viseşāvasyaka-bhāsya etc. written by Jinabhadra Gaņi Kşamāśramaņa and Cūrnis written by Jinadāsa Mahattara openly support the apavāda-märga.
It is true that no code of conduct or the process of sādhanā for spiritual upliftment can continue by completely rejecting apavāda-mārga. But there is in inherent weakness in the adoption of this path in that it can lead to an attraction towards

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material comfort, which in turn can lead to laxity in morality reaching its climax in the complete degeneration in moral values. Such conditions have emerged number of times in Jaina tradition, and Jaina ācāryas had led many reformation movements and uprisings in the areas of moral conduct.
The first controversy arose 606 or 609 years after Mahāvīra's nirvāṇa i.e. in the 1st and 2nd century of Vikrama with regard to regulations pertaining to conduct specially in context of sacela and acela ways of spiritual endeavours (sādhanā). This controversy was mainly between Arya Śivabhūti and Arya Krsņa. Arya Śivabhūti gave importance to acela point of view whereas Arya Krsna was in favour of sacela point of view. Because of the movement led by Arya Sivabhūti to reform the code of conduct a new tradition of Botika or Yāpaniya emerged in the Nirgranthasamgha of North India, which believed that the highest way of spiritual upliftment is only aceladharma even though it accepted the Agama scriptures and the concept of liberation of women.
Keeping in view the emotional and faithrelated aspects of human nature, Jaina religion eventually developed the concept of idol worship after Mahāvīra. Though, only 150 years after Mahāvīra's Nirvāņa the evidences of idol worship

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are found. The Jina idols that are found from Lohanipur in Patna and Kaňkālī Ţilā in Mathura are a strong proof of the fact that the tradition of idol-worship came into being among Jainas even before the Christian era. Instead of entering into the discussion on the point in favour or against idol worship, we will attempt to see objectively as to how, with the passage of time, other traditions were instrumental in gradual changes in the forms of idol worship of the Jainas; and how they affected the way of life of monks. Along with the building of temples and worship of idols the conduct of Jaina monks slackened rapidly. And in both Śvetambara and Digambara traditions mathas or Caityāvasī and Vanavāsī traditions emerged. For building of temples and idols and also for their management, gifts of lands started pouring in; and with this the question of their ownership also arose. The initial archival records and copper plates etc. available related to donations mention that donations were earlier given to the temple, idol or to the samṁgha, but later with the passage of time names of the ācāryas were written on donation papers. As a consequence, monks not only remained inhabitants or residents in the caityas but also got involved in the management of mathas, temples etc. This was, perhaps the reason why donations were received in their names. Thus, indulgence in comfort and the

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consequent laxity in conduct began to grow in the lives of monks. Laxity of conduct gripped both the traditions of Digambara and Śvetāmbaras. This grew in the Svetāmbaras in the form of Caityavāsīyati tradition and in Digambaras Mathavāsi Bhattāraka tradition. Though, this tradition contributed greatly in preserving Jaina religion and Jainology it also made an important contribution to the field of social service. In the field of medicine the contribution of Jaina Yatis has been very significant. But at the other end they got deviated from the essence of monastic life because of their indulgence in comforts of life and accumulation of possessions. And thus came the resonant voices of revolution from Ācārya Kundakunda of Digambaras in 6th century AD. Ācārya Kundakunda mainly focused on spiritualistic aspect of religion in place of traditional religion. Though, in his Aştapāhuda and more specifically in Căritrapāhuda and Lingapāhuda etc, he raises his resentful voice against deterioration of conduct but his voice remained unheard, because even in the later period the Bhațțāraka tradition continued to remain strong. Ācārya Amrtacandra, the first commentator on Ācārya Kundakunda made an effort to give a spiritualistic direction to Jaina sargha, which did have an impact on Jaina society but Bhattāraka tradition remained unaffected and continued to

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enjoy the same social status and power. Similarly in the Svetāmbara tradition there were voices of dissent in the form of Suvihita-mārga, Samvignamārga against the Yati-tradition, and then Tapāgaccha, Kharataragaccha etc. came into existence. But none of them remained untouched by the influence of Yati-tradition.
The opposition to Caityavāsa began from gih century AD in the Svetāmbara tradition. Acārya Haribhadra in the second chapter of his
Sambodha-prakarana' has severely criticized the slackness of conduct and the actions of Yatis living in caityas and he spearheaded a revolution against them. But even Haribhadra's voice of revolution remained unheard because of the strong prevailing conditions in that period. This class of Yatis remained absorbed in their life of comfort and accumulation of possessions. We do not have any authentic evidence available by which it could be proved that Acārya Haribhadra's zeal of revolution had any greater impact on these caityavāsi Yatis. A strong opposition against Caityavāsa came from Ācārya Vardhmānasūri of Candrakula in Śvetāmbara tradition. He was the first one who reestablished Suvihita tradition against Caityavāsa. This tradition later became known as Kharataragaccha. The period of this tradition is

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considered to be around 11th century AD. By the establishment of Suvihita-mārga the code of conduct of the monks got a new lease of life based on Agamas but the Yati tradition could not be wiped out. In a number of places these Svetāmbara Yatis had so much power that even the entry of a Suvihita monk in their territory became impossible. The Caityavāsi-yatis tradition could not be wiped out, on the contrary the Samvigna monk-tradition got repeatedly attacked and continued to be influenced by this Yati tradition, and the necessity of rejuvenating this tradition continued from time to time. Thus we see that after every 150 years in Svetāmbara tradition there were repeated revolutions for establishing Samvigna-mārga against laxity in the conduct of monks. After the religious revolutions of Kharataragaccha the ācāryas of Tapāgaccha and Ancalagaccha again worked for the improvement of the conduct of monks. And then, again efforts were made to establish the code of conduct of monks on the basis of Agamas by Acārya Aryarakṣita (Ancalagaccha) in V.S. 1169 and Arya Jagatcandra (Tapăgaccha) in V.S. 85.
A similar attempt was made with the formation of Āgamikagaccha and Tapāgaccha in V.S. 1214 and 1250. Agamikagaccha not only opposed worship of yakșas and yaksis and

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caitayavāsa but also opposed worship of Jina-idols with living substances (such as flowers, fruits etc.) Here, we see that in Digambara tradition the opposition to the use of living substances in worship began around 16th century due to the influence of thinkers like Banarasi Das. But this disapproval had already originated in the Śvetāmbara tradition about two centuries earlier. Agamikagaccha could not survive for long and died with the passage of time, but still Kharataragaccha, Tapāgaccha and Ancalagaccha kept their identity because of their influence. However, these three sects could not remain uninfluenced by Caityavā. 1yativasi tradition. They could not succeed in their mission of rejuvenating the Samvigna-monk tradition for which they came into existence. The hold of Yatis got vigorously established in Kharataragaccha, Ancalagaccha and even in Tapāgaccha. Not only this, the ostentations related with temples and idol-worship went on increasing. And the class of monks whose main aim was selfupliftment turned into a class of priests meant for performing the rituals. The path of self-purification by tapas (self control) and renunciation (tyāga) remained confined to the agamic texts. They could not be linked with real life. In such conditions a need for a holistic revolution was felt.

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Opposition to Caityavāsa and origin of Samvigna Sects
The wave of change came again in Jaina tradition in 1614 century AD when spiritualism dominated Jaina religion got bogged down in ostentatious rituals. The iconoclastic attitude of Muslim rulers was beginning to in shake people's faith in idol-worship. It is at this time the Jainas, like the Hindus came under the influence of simple and unostentatious religious practices of the Muslims. In Jaina tradition too, like Nirguņa saints in Hindu tradition many saints appeared who opposed ritualistic forms of idol-worship with fanfare. With the result a reformist movement began in both Svetāmbara and Digambara sects of Jaina religion. Among them Lokāśāha in the Śvetāmbara tradition and Tāraṇaswāms and Banarasi Das in the Digambara tradition were the prominent ones. Though, Banarasi Das belonged to Svetămbara tradition by birth his reformative movement was related to Digambara tradition. Lokāśāha opposed idol-worship and religious rituals and fanfare. This sect later came to be known as Lokāgaccha. It is this, which developed into Sthānakavāsī sect in 176 century AD, which again in 18th century AD got branched off into another sect called Svetāmbara Terāpantha based purely on the ideology of the path of renunciation;

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with its own interpretation of the prohibitive aspect of the concept of non-violence.
In Digambara sect Banarasi Das raised his voice against Bhaṭṭārakas and also denounced the worship of Jina-idols with living (sacitta) substances. But Taraṇasvāmi went a step further. He prohibited idol-worship altogether in Digambara sect; not only this, he re-established the spiritual aspect of religion. The sect pioneered by Banarsi Das grew, as Digambara Terapantha and Tāraṇasvāmī's movement became known as Tāraṇapantha or Samaiyā. In the Caityalayas of Tāraṇapantha sacred text or 'sastra' was installed in place of the idol. Thus, in 16th century AD Jaina tradition took a new turn because of the influence of Islam and new sects which did not believe in idol-worship were also born. However, old sects continued as they were.
On the one hand spiritual endeavour, which was the life-essence of Śramana culture, was not visible at all in the Yatis of those days. Religion was so much over loaded with rituals that its true essence got suppressed. The natural, simple essential form was getting lost and its place was taken over by religious rituals with increasing hold of affluent people on it. In the name of religion people started to expect mundane or worldly

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favours. On the other hand, as a result of establishment of Islam the masses got introduced to a simple, natural religion without any fanfare or pomp and show. On the third front Muslim invaders were destroying temples and idols which were the supporting pillars of religion at that time. At such a time the need of the hour for the masses, whose beliefs had been shattered by the Muslim invaders, was a religion simple and un-ostentations with tapas and renunciation as the guiding principles. The origin of the traditions of Non-believers in idol-worship
By the end of the first millennium of Vikrama, invasions by Muslims had already begun. At that time the aim of Muslim invaders was only to loot and take away India's wealth and riches; but slowly and gradually India's wealth and its fertile land became the centre of attraction and so they began trying to establish their power base in this country. With the establishment of power, Islam also started making inroads into this land. Ironically, Muslim rulers were also engaged in uprooting each other, for example, Humayun and Shershah Suri were in collision with each other. However, because of the hold of Muslim rulers over Delhi Islam got firmly established. The aim of these rulers was also to establish Islam along

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with gaining power and wealth, as they knew that their ernpire could stay only if the authority of Islam was established. Thus, for spreading Islam in this country, Muslim rulers gave sufficient amount of comforts to the people. Along with its establishment Islam came in contact with other Indian faith. Indian thinkers started paying attention to the cultural and religious aspects of Islam. As a consequence, Indian masses found Islam as a simple and natural way of devotion free from rituals. Due to this mutual contact a new class of saints appeared in this country, which liberated Hindu religion from rituals and gave it a natural and simple style of worship. We see, that in 14ih, 15th and 164 centuries, not only did Nirguņa form of worship evolve but became a prominent form of devotion or worship.
In that period not only were Indian masses seized with casteism and classism, but in the field of religion also there was so much influence of rituals that the spiritual element became subordinate and rituals became predominant. Having established their political authority the Muslim rulers blinded by fanaticism began to ruthlessly destroy temples and idols and to build mosques with the material of the broken temples.
The masses, seeing their temples and idols being reduced to rubble and the great stories woven

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around them evaporate into thin air, were disillusioned. The result was a loss of faith in their own religious practices and an attraction for a simpler mode of worship like that of the Muslim religion. As a consequence, there arose a feeling of revolt against idol-worship and rituals in Indian religions. Many saints such as Kabir, Dadu, Nanak and Raidas etc were blowing their bugle of revolution in Hindu religion. The support of rituals in the name of the religion started diminishing in the hearts of the people. This is the reason that many great men were born in Indian soil that liberated religion from rituals and gave a simple, natural unostentatious form to spiritual endeavour.
Jaina religion too, could not remain untouched by this development in the Indian social scene. From the Gupta period onwards, and from the beginning of Caityavāsa tradition ritualism was becoming predominant in Jaina religion and the essence of religion got lost in the plethora of rituals. Religion became an instrument used by the priests or purohitas for fleecing people. Ordinary people were rejecting expensive, ostentatious rituals without an iota of spiritual element. Under such conditions in both the main sects of Jaina religion three very special persons were born. These are Lokāśāha in the Svetāmbara sect and Banarasi Das and Tāraṇasvāmī in the Digambara sect.

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On the one hand iconoclastic activities of Muslim rulers and their increasing influence in this country and on the other hand natural simplicity of Islam, which was free from the burden of rituals, influenced Hindu and Jaina mind set. This can be taken to a certain extent as the cause of the origin of the sects which disapproved idol-worship in Jaina religion. Lokāśāha was born around V.S. 1475. Though Muslims were not able to establish their rule in the whole country till this period, in many parts of the country Muslim rulers did establish their authority. Gujarat also did not escape this influence. The other characteristic feature of this period was that Muslim rulers had started dreaming about the spread of their sovereign powers over the entire country. But for this, it was necessary for them to take their Hindu subjects along with them. Thus Muhammad Tuglak, Babar, Humayun etc. started employing Hindus in their administrative services, with a view to spread, preach and promote Islam. Thus, Hindu feudal lords and administrative employees came in contact with the rulers. With the result, they were able to see the better side of Islam, which was free from rituals, casteism, and full of brotherhood, which compelled them to think that if Hindu religion or Jaina religion was to be saved it was necessary to liberate it from ritualistic practices. As

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a consequence, not only did various sects of nonworshippers of idols emerge but also rapidly grew by finding favourable conditions or opportunities. In the background of origin of Sthānakavāsī sect in Svetāmbara tradition and Tāraṇapantha sect in Digambara tradition, we can notice the influence of the form of worship or prayer of Islam which is free from ritualism, even though, originally Jaina tradition had been free from rituals; Thus, it cannot be said categorically that the influence of Islam alone was behind the origin of these two sects
It is traditionally believed that Lokāśāha was not only recognized and accepted as a treasurer by his Muslim ruler, but he (the ruler) also gave a silent approval to his religious movement. The period of Lokāśāha was the period of Şhershah Suri and Babar following the reign of Muhammad Tuglak. Hindu administrators were also getting influenced by Muslim religion and its culture, besides earning their livelihood from them. It seems that while working for his Muslim ruler in Ahmedabad, Lokāśāha also got influenced by some good things about their religion. On the other hand during this period Jaina religion like Hindu religion also became predominantly ritualistic. And the spiritualistic aspect of Jaina religion was gradually disappearing. Caityavāsis or Yatis were indulging

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in fleecing money from the masses in order to make themselves richer and stronger. Lokāśāha got a chance to study Jaina Agamas when he was copying them, as his handwriting was beautiful, he saw that there was a wide gap between principles and practice of the conduct of Jaina monks. This wide gap of principles and practice in the life of the monks was raising a number of questions in the consciousness of the people. It was a good opportunity for Lokāśāha to evolve a religious tradition with spiritual element and without a ritualistic baggage.
What was the state of Jaina samgha prior to Lokāśāha? We have briefly discussed this before. Prior to Lokāśāha in 141-15th century Jaina samgha was mainly divided in three main sectsDigambara, Śvetāmbara and Yāpanīya, Even in this the Yāpanīya sect that came into existence around 54 century AD was on the threshold of extinction. Except for one or two Bhattāraka seats it did not have a proper existence. Thus, basically only two traditions Svetāmbara and Digambara were in existence. As to the question of Digambara tradition, monks and nuns did not retain their identity; only Bhattārakas were prominent in that period. But they (Bhattārakas) had mainly become

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Bhattāraka Śrī Cārukīrtijī Mahārāja

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Senior Digambara Ācārya Śri Vidyānandaji

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permanent residents (mathavasis) of monasteries or mathas even though they were representatives of the renunciates, and their main job was confined to protection and enhancement of the wealth and property of the mathas. In both north and south India there were the seats of these Bhattārakas at different places and they gradually started ruling their followers and administering their respective zones and acting like feudal lords. Even among Bhattárakas there were many sects such as Kāstā, Māthuras, Mūlas, Lādavāgada and Drávidas, which were further divided in their ganas and gacchas. As to the question of Svetāmbara tradition, Saṁvigna or Suvihita monks were not completely absent. However, here also, Caityavāsi-yatis were still in prominence and the class of Yatis had their hold on the Jaina society and their status was also quite like the Bhattārakas. The Yati class was also inclined towards mantra, tantra and medicine along with the religious rituals. It was a class of renunciates only in name but in fact, from the point of view of conduct, they had all the necessary requisites available to them for enjoyment and comforts in accordance to those times. This class of Yatis was so powerful that they were able to stop the entry of Samvigna and Suvihita monks in the areas within their jurisdiction.

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The influence of Islam, the slackness of conduct of Bhattārakas and Yatis, and the predominance of rituals in the field of religion were the conditions, which inspired Lokāśāha to revolutionize religion. Lokāśāha's opposition to idol- worship, ritualism and slackness in conduct gave a new direction to Jaina religion. His courageous crusade had such an influence that in almost the whole of northwest India lakhs of people became his followers. With the passage of time, the large number of his followers got divided into three groups-- Gujarat Lokāgaccha, NagaurLokāgaccha and Lahore-Lokāgaccha. But the influence of Yati secton Svetāmbara idolworshipper tradition gradually led to further deterioration in practical conduct, which again, took the form of Yati tradition. With the result just about 150 years after Lokāśāha's revolution in religion again a need was felt for a renewed revolution in this field. Thus, Jivarajji, Lavajirishiji, Dharmasinghji, Dharmadasji, Manohardasji and Harjiswami etc. coming from the same Lokāgaccha-Yati tradition again blew the bugle of a renewed revolution, and laid emphasis on the Agama-based conduct for monks, as a result of which the Sthānakavāsi sect emerged. The origin and growth of Sthānakavāsi sect is not the result of

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an act by one single person at a particular point of time. It is the contribution of different people at different times. Therefore, in the areas of both thought and conduct, differences remained and continued. The outcome of this was that this sect got divided into its various sub-sects at the time of its birth itself.
In the 17\h century AD, Bhikanji Swami, a disciple of Raghunathji drifted apart and came out of Sthānakavāsī sect and established a new and separate sect called Svetāmbara Terāpantha. The reasons of his separation from the original Sthānakavāsī sect were basically two. (i) the monks of Sthānakavāsī sect started getting sthānakas built for their own sect and started residing there like those of the Yati tradition. (ii) Bhikanji Swami was insistent on his view that all acts of pity or kindness and charity etc. involving some form of violence in whichever way, even if it is violence committed to one sensed living beings only, cannot be called truly religious or non-violent. With the passage of time, this sect of Bhikanji Swami grew and evolved substantially, and today it is known and recognized as an enlightened sect of Jaina religion. The ninth Acharya of this sect Acharya Tulsi and the tenth Acharya Mahaprajna has taken it to great heights. After the emergence of Sthānakavāsī and

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Terăpantha sects, the other three traditions; important from the point of view of cultural history of Jaina religion, which grew and developed in the beginning, middle and the later part of the 2014 century, are:
(i) Predominantly spiritual tradition of Srimad Rajchandra's Kavipantha, (ii) Niscayanaya dominated Kanjipantha of Kanjiswami who left Sthānakavāsī sect and joined Banarasi Das's Digambara Terāpantha and gave it a new lease of life. (iii) Dada Bhagawan's sect established by A.M. Patel. All these three sects, however, basically developed with a spiritualistic outlook. Srimad Rajchandra whom Mahatma Gandhi gave the status of 'Guru' enlightened the masses on spiritually dominated essential elements of Jainism. He was not for establishing any new sect but was purely for awakening the individual's spirituality. Srimad Rajchandra was a man full of spiritual wisdom and a natural and extempore poet. Thus the class of his followers came to be known as Kavipantha. Kanjiswami after studying Acārya Kundakunda's text like 'Samayasāra' tried to spread the spiritualistic outlook of Banarasi Das and of Srimad Rajchandra amongst the masses. But where Srimad Rajchandra gave equal emphasis on Niścaya and Vyavahāra nayas, Kanjiswami laid

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Emperor Akbar welcomes Acārya Hīrāvijaya Sūri
Shrimad Rajchandra with Mahatma Gandhi

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Śvetāmbara Terāpantha Ācārya Śrī Tulsi

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emphasis only on Niscaya-naya. This is the only basic difference, in the streams of thought of these two. The main objective of both of them is purification of the inner self and the upliftment of the spiritual element of the individual.
It is said that Shri M. K. Patel got the light of knowledge in the year 1957 and in his teaching and lectures his emphasis was only on removal of the inner impurities of the self by the individual. And whereas Kanjiswami talked about some order in the changing qualities (paryāyas), M. K. Patel who later became popular as Dada Bhagawan talked about enlightenment with no such order (akramavijñāna) the essential meaning of akramavijñāna is or that the event of spiritual enlightenment can occur any moment or any time. Spiritual enlightenment is not an instrument or machine like occurrence; it is above the laws of physical nature. The characteristic feature of Dada Bhagawan is that he experienced some sort of uniformity in both the Jaina and Hindu traditions in the field of spirituality, and on this basis where he regards Tīrthankara as his ultimate aim or object of worship; he gives equal reverence to Vāsudeva and Siva as his objects of worship. Thus, his sect is a mixture of both Hindu and Jaina spirituality. The

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special characteristic of these three traditions of 20th century AD is that all of them lay greatest emphasis on individual's growth. According to them, purification of thought is necessary and is prior to purification of conduct. Besides these new and separate traditions, many events of historical significance have occurred in the currently prevailing traditions also. One such event of great importance is that Acharya Shantisagarji revived the tradition of naked monks in Digambara tradition, which had almost disappeared for centuries in the country. Today, there is sufficient number of these Digambara monks in our country, In the Svetāmbara Mūrtipūjaka (idol-worshipping) tradition attempts were made to unite various gacchas and sects but they were not very successful. Secondly, Caityavāsī tradition of Yatis is almost extinct in this century except for some individuals Yatis left. It is present only in name, whereas in the Samvigna-monk tradition there is gradual deterioration, in the conduct of these monks. And some Samvigna monks have started living like Yatis as far as their conduct is concerned. This is an aspect that needs deliberation. From the point of view of Sthānakavāsī sect this century has special importance, as very significant efforts have been

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The contribution of Jainas in the field of Art and... 115
made to unite a broken or scattered society. Two important and big conferences were held in Ajmer and Sadari Ghanerao and which helped in making different subsects of this sect coming closer to each other. In the conference of Sthānakavāsī monks held in Sadari, barring some sects of Rajasthan and Gujarat, all Sthānakavāsi monks came together and worked together for one single samgha called 'Vardhamāna Sthānakavāsī Śramana Sargha'. But after some time some of these subsects got separated again. In this century Terāpantha Śvetāmbara sect also did a very important job of publication of literature on Jaina religion and philosophy. Generally speaking, this century has been of great significance from the point of view of writing, editing, publishing and spreading Jaina literature along with its focus on awareness in spiritual consciousness. Further, Jainism achieved a glorious status of an international religion because of the international travels of its followers.
To conclude we see that the cultural consciousness of Jaina religion has always been blooming with freshness from the very beginning of Indian culture till today. It has introduced itself as a dynamic living tradition by adjusting with the prevalent conditions of time, space and circumstances.

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116 Jaina Religion: Its Historical Journey of Evolution
References
1. Uttarādhyayana - 25/27, 21. 2. Dhammapada - 402-403. 3. Uttarādhyayana - 12/44. 4. Anguttara-nikāya, Sutta-nipăta, as quoted in
‘Bhagawan Buddha' by Dharmananda
Kaushambi Page.26. 5. “Bhagawan Buddha' by Dharmananda
Kaushambi pp.236-239. 6. Gītā - 4/33, 26-28 7. Uttarādhyayana -12/46. 8. Uttarādhyayana -9/40, 'Gītā 4/26-27. 9. Dhammapada - 106. 10. Sambodha-prakarana (Gūrvādhikāra).

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"about the translator"
Dr. Kamla Jain, Former Associate Professor, Jesus and Mary College, University of Delhi did her doctorate from Delhi University, Dept. of Buddhist Studies. She has travelled extensively in India and abroad. She has contributed many papers in Seminars, Conferences, magazines. She has authored four books. Two of her books, 'Concept of Pañcaśīla in Indian Thought' and 'Aparigraha - The Humane Solution'have been published by Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi.

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"about the author" Born at Shajapur (MP) in 1932, Prof. Sagarmal Jain did his Ph.D. on' Jaina Bauddha aura Gita ke Acara Darsano ka Tulanatmaka Adhyayana' from Bhopal University in 1969. He has been Director of Parshwanath Vidyapeeth from 1979-1997. He has authored 26 books and edited more than 65 books written on different aspects of Jainism. Prof. Jain has been recipient of many prestigious awards like Pradeep Kumar Rampuria Award (1986, 1989); Swami Pranavanand Puraskar (1987); Diptimal Puraskar (1992) and Acharya Hastimal Smriti Samman (1994). He is founder Director of Prachya Vidyapeeth, Shajapur (M.P.). Presently he is secretary to the managing committee of Parshwanath Vidyapeeth. He has visited abroad several times to attend International Seminars, Conferences and Academic Programs. For Pawale & Personal Use Only