Jaina Art and Architecture Vol 03

Author(s): A Ghosh
Publisher: Bharatiya Gyanpith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011014/1

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JAINA ART
AND ARCHITECTURE
Volume III

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Victoria & Albert Museum
TIRTHANKARA SANTINĀTHA, A.D. 1168
Rajasthan

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JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Published on the Occasion of the 2500th Nirvana Anniversary of Tirthankara Mahavira
EDITED BY
A. GHOSH
Former Director General, Archaeological Survey of India
IN THREE VOLUMES VOLUME III
BHARATIYA JNANPITH
NEW DELHI

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PRICE OF THE COMPLETE SBT
Rs. $50.00
1975
BHARATIYA JNANPITH
Published by Shri L.C, Jain, Secretary, Bharatiya Jnanpith, B/45-47 Connaught Place,
New Delhi 110001 (India) Printed by Shri Om Prakash, Director, Caxton Press Private Limited, 2E Rani Jhansi Road,
New Delhi 110055 (India)

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PREFACE
WITH THE PUBLICATION OF THIS THIRD VOLUME OF JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE', one phase of our contemplated programme of research and publication in this field, particularly that part which relates to the commemoration of the 25th century of the Nirvåga of Bhagawan Mahăvira, achieves fulfilment by the mid-Mahotsava year.
In my preface to the first volume of this work, I dwelt on the difficulties encountered because of the magnitude of the work and the time-limit which we had to set for ourselves in view of the celebrations of the Nirvāṇa Year. That was only one part of the story. The other part relates to the technical side of the problems-types with diacritical marks involving extremely patient and careful proof-reading, quality of the paper commensurate with the cost that would not make even the concessional price prohibitive, or printing of the blocks, neat enough but not too fastidious to raise costs. A mean had to be struck. That naturally reflects itself in the production. But for the generous approach of the Trustees of Bharatiya Jnanpith, the price of each volume would have been, under the present market conditions, what it is for the entire set of three volumes.
If we have been able to stick to our schedule by overcoming formidable difficulties, it is because we had the support of Shri Shanti Prasad Jain, Founder Trustee, and the guidance of Shrimati Rama Jain, President, of Bharatiya Jnanpith.
Our mainstay in the execution of the project has been Shri A Ghosh, the Editor of these volumes in English. It is not only his hard work and meticulous care that have bestowed upon the work its quality, but his long experience in the art and science of editing such publications has solved many an eleventhhour difficulty.
Beholden as we are to all our contributors, we are more so to those who came forward to bridge the gaps that arose due to certain foresaken or uncovered assignments. With all our contributors, it has been a labour of love because they were aware of the fact that in the long run, this project would

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PREFACE
enrich the entire circumspect of Indian Art and Architecture with material, old and new, that never took such a coherent form. They have given us not only co-operation but also accommodation in other ways. I have all the praises for the staff of Bharatiya Jnanpith which felt completely involved in this publication. I am thankful to them. I also thank Dr Mallar Ghosh of the Jawaharlal Nehru University for preparing the Corrigenda and Shri V.K. Jain for the Index.
The three volumes together make a total of 664 pages, excluding the Index, over 670 illustrations in black-and-white and about 50 colour-illustrations. This publication, first of its kind, is like a banner held aloft in the honour of all those institutions and authors who will tread this path henceforth championing the cause of Jaina Art and Architecture and will bring it greater glory. May their number be legions !
New Delhi 20th May 1975
LAKSHMI CHANDRA JAIN Secretary Bharatiya Jnanpith
ya

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CONTENTS
PAOB
PREPACE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PART VII PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
Concluded) CHAPTER 31 MINIATURE PAINTINGS
By Shri Karl Khandalavala, Chairman, Lalit Kala Akademi, and Dr (Shrimati) Saryu Dashi, Bombay
393
428
CHAPTER 32 WOOD-CARVINGS
By Dr V.P. Dwiwed). Deputy Keeper, National Museum, New Delhi
PART VIII EPIGRAPHIC & NUMISMATIC SOURCES
441
CHAPTER
33 INSCRIPTIONS
By Dr G. S. Gai, Chief Epigraphist, in collaboration with Shri P. R. Srinivasan and Shri K. G. Krishnan, Superintending Bpigraphists, and Dr S. Sankaranarayanan and Dr K. V. Ramesh, Deputy Superintending Epigraphists, Archaeological Survey of India, Mysore
456
CHAPTER 34 SYMBOLS ON SOUTH-INDIAN COINS By Miss R. Vanaja, Deputy Keeper, National Museum, New Delhi
PART IX CANONS & SYMBOLISM
465
CHAPTER 35 ICONOGRAPHY
By Dr U.P. Shab, former Deputy Director, Oriental Institute, Baroda
404
CHAPTER 36 ARCHITECTURE By Shri Gopilal Amar, Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi
PART X
ART-OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS CHAPTER 37 MusBUMS ABROAD
British Museum, London By Dr B. N. Sharma,'Keeper, National Museum, New Delhi
537
537

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CONTENTS
Victoria and Albert Museum, London By Dr B. N. Sharma Musée Guimet, Paris By Dr B. N. Sharma Museum für indische Kunst, Berlin-Dahlem By Editor Some Jalna Bronzes fram American Collections By Pratapaditya Pal, Curator of Indian and Islamic Art, Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles
CHAPTER
555 $S5
566
370
573
38 MUSEUMS IN INDIA
National Museum, New Delhi ... By Dr B. N. Sharma, Keeper, and Shri H. K, Chaturvedi and Shri S.P. Tiwari, Technical Assistants, National Muscum, New Delhi Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay By the late Dr Moti Chandra and Shri Sadashiv Gorakshakar, Director, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay Museums in Rajasthan By Shri R. C. Agrawala, Director of Archaeology and Museums, Rajasthan, Jaipur Museums in Andhra Pradesh ... By Shri Mohd Abdul Waheed Khan, former Director of Archacology and Museums, Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, and Shri D. N. Varman, Keeper, Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad Museums in Madhya Pradesh ... By Shri Balchandra Jain, Deputy Director of Arcbaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh, Jabalpur, Shri Satyandhar Kumar Sethi, Vjjian, and Dr Surendra Kumar Arya, Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Vikram University, Ujjain, and Shri Niraj Jain, Satna Collections at Deogarh By Dr Bhagchandra Jain, Assistant Professor and Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Government College, Damoh Museums in Tamil Nadu By Shri K.R. Srinivasan, former Superintending Archaeologist, Archaeological Survey of India, Madras
377
596
598
603
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
By Shri Krishna Deva, former Director, Archaelogical Survey of India, New Delhi
INDEX
613
By Shri Virendra Kumar Jain, Bharatiya Jnanpith, New Delhi
(vili)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The source, which also holds the copyright, of each illustration (photograph or linedrawing) is indicated against it within brackets. The following abbreviations have been used: ASI (Archaeological Survey of India); BM (British Museum, London); NM (National Museum, New Delhi); PWM (Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay); VAM (Victoria and Albert Museum, London).
PLATES
Frontispiece
Victoria and Albert Museum: Tirthankara Santinatha, A.D. 1168, Rajasthan (VAM)
Chapter 31
265 A. Śri and Kamadeva, illustration from a palm-leaf MS., A.D. 1060 (Jaisalmer Bhandara) B. Vidya-devi and female worshippers, part of an illustrated book-cover, A.D. 1126-54, Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
266 A and B. Illustrations from a book-cover, late eleventh or early twelfth century (see text for earlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
267 A and B. Illustrations from a book-cover, early twelfth century (see text for earlier date). Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
268 A. Illustration from a book-cover, early twelfth century (see text for earlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
B. Part of an illustrated book-cover, early twelfth century (see text for earlier date), Gujarati of west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
269 A and B. Animal-drawings from an illustrated book-cover, first half of the twelfth century (see text for an earlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
270 A. Lustration of a Jina, illustrated book-cover, late eleventh to early twelfth century
(see text for earlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian style (L.D. Institute, Ahmedabad)
B. Elephant, from an illustrated palm-leaf MS., first quarter of the twelfth century (formerly Muni Jinavijayaji Collection)
C. Sarasvati, illustration from a palm-loaf MS., A.D. 1127, Gujarati or west-Indian style (Santinatha Bhandara, Bombay)
271 A to D. Illustrations from a palm-leaf MS., thirteenth century, Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
272 A and B. Lustration of a Jina and birth of a Jina, illustrations from a palm-leaf MS., A.D. 1370, Gujarati or west-Indian style (Ujhamphoi Dharmasala, Ahmedabad) 273 Colophon of a MS., Vikrama-aha 1509 (A.D. 1452), containing colour-illustration 26 (National Museum, New Delhi)
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
274 Colophon of a MS., Vikrama-vaimet 1474 (A.D. 1417), containing colour-iltration 27
(National Museum, New Delbi) 275 A. Birth of a Jina, illustration from a MS., A.D. 1367, Gujarati or west-Indián style
(formerly Muni Finavijayafi Collection) B. Jina's pafca-musti-loca, illustration from a MS., circa late fourteenth century, Gujarati
or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara) 276 A. King Yasodhara welcomed by his wife, illustration from the Yatodhana-carita, A.D.
1494, Gujarat, probably Sojitra (Private Colleotion) B. Border-decoration in the Yasodhara-carlta (see above) 277 A and B. Border-decoration in the Yabodhara-carita (see plate 276A) (Private Collection) 278 A. The sixteen dreams of Maru-devi (detail), from the Adi-purana, A.D. 1404, Yoginipuna
(Delhi), north-Indian style (Private Collection) B. Kamala-bri awaits Bhavisayattha's return, from the Bhavisayastha-kahd, circa A.D. 1430
(see text for later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection) 279 A. Musicians and dancers, from the Mahd-puräna, circa A.D. 1420 (see text for later date),
probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Digambara Jain Naya Mandir, Old Delhi,
Collection) B. Bharata's army on the march, from the Mahd-purana (see above) 280 A. Indra holding court, from the Påsandha-carlu, A.D. 1442, Gwalior, north-Indian style
(Private Collection) B. King Yasodhara entertained by a dancer and musicians, from the Jasahara-cariu, circa
1440-50, probably Gwalior, north-Indian style (Private Collection) 281 A. Såntinātha's army, from the Såntindha-cariu. circa A.D. 1450-60 (see text for later date),
probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection) B. Yasodhara born as a goat, from the Jasahara-carlu, A.D. 1454, probably Delhi, north
Indian style (Private Collection) 282 A. Sahasrabala renounces life, from the Idi-purdra (group I), circa A.D. 1450 (see text for
later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection) 282 B. Celebrations at Rşabha's birth, from the Adi-purana (group 2), circa A.D. 1475 (see text
for later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection) 283 A. City of Ayodhya, from the Adi-purana (sec plate 282B) (Private Collection) B. Yasodhara born as a fish, from the Yasodhara-carita, A.D. 1590, Amer (Private Collec
tion) 284 Bharata's army advances towards the Mleccha kingdom, from the Mahd-purana, A.D. 1540,
Palam, north-Indian style (Private Collection)
Clapter 32
285 Gujarat: wooden window-frame (NM) 286 Gujarat: polychrome wooden mandapa, outer part (NM) 287 Gujarat: polychrome wooden mandapa (plate 286), detail of elephant-rider (NM) 288 Gujarat: polychrome wooden mandapa (plate 286), ceiling (NM) 289 Gujarat: polychrome wooden mandapa (plate 286), dotail of ceiling (plate 288) (NM)

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1,
OF ILLUSTR.
200 Galaret; wooden door mene (NO 3:291 Gutarati door of a woddion Romanabrina NM)
" 292 Ganjarnets door of a wooden boroshorine plate 291) detail with suspicious dreams and
Gaja-lakom (NM) Gujarat: wooden mandapa (PWN 294 A Gujarat: wooden mandape (plate 293), frieze of dance, music and other scenes (PWM)
B. Gujarat: woodos manidapa (plate 293), celling (PWM) . 295 A. Gajerat: a bowo-shrine, detail of a royal procession (Baroda Museum)
" B. Gujarats a house-shrine, an Acarya welcomed by devotees (Baroda Museum) 296 Patan Wadi Parsvanatha temple, Jharokka (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) ;' 297 Patan: Wadi Parkvanátha temple (plata 296), detail (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York) 298 Gujarat: polychrome wooden danserse (NM) 299 A. Gujarat: wooden nymph (NM)
B. Gujarat: wooden nymph (NM) 300 AGujarat: frieze depicting welcome of Jains monks (NM)
B. Gujarat: frieze depicting a royal procession (NM) C. Gujarat: frieze depicting a royal proccasion (NM).
Chapter 33
301 A. Mathura: inscription of the rolga of Sodisa, year 72 (ASI)
B. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi templo-inscription, Vikrama year 1378 (AST) 302 Karikyal: rock-cut Cakro vart with inscription below (ASI) 303 Aihole: Meguti temple-inscription, Saka year 556 (ASI) 304 A. Tirthatharkunru: Vaffeluttu inscription (AST)
B. Sravanabelgola: inscriptions on the sides of the Gommata status (ASI)
Chapter 34
305 Pāndyan coins (NM) 306 Pandyan coins (NM)
Chapter 35
307 Nadol: marble Pafica-Paramesthins in Svetämbara temple (ASI) 308 South India: bronze Patica-Paramesthin, Digambara (Samantabhadra Vidyalaya, Delhi)
(U.P. Shah). 309 A. Baroda Museum: Siddha-cakra, Svetambara (Baroda Museum)
B. Tirapparuttikuntam: bronze Nava-devată in Trailokyanåtha temple (ASI) 310 A. Gwalior fort: & caumukha (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya ' . Pradesh) . . . B. Surat: bronze caumukha with seventy-two Jinas in Digambara temple (U.P. Shab) 311 A. Karanja: trompe sahasra-kura in Digambara Jaina temple of Balätkäragana (PWM,
courtesy Saryu Dosht) R. Indian Museum: bronze caminokha with twenty-four Jinas (Indian Museum)

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
312 A. South India: Jina under caitya-tree (Samantabhadra Vidyalaya, Delhi) (U.P. Shah) B. Baroda: brass tablet of asta-mangala in Svetimbers temple (U.P. Shah) 313 Kumbharia: scenes of Mahavira's life on temple-ceiling (U.P. Shah) 314 Mudbidri: bronze fruta-skandha-yantra (ASI)
Chapter 37
315 A. British Museum: bust of a Tirthankara (Mathur) (BM) B. British Museum Yaksi Sulocană (central India) (BM) 316 A. British Museum: Yakşi Dhati (central India) (BM) B. British Museum: a couple (central India) (BM)
317 A. British Museum: Yaksi Padmavati (central India) (BM) B. British Museum: Sarasvati (south-west Rajasthan) (BM) 318 A. British Museum: Rabhanatha and Mahavira (Orissa) (BM) B British Museum: Yakşi Ambikä (Orissa) (BM)
319 A. British Museum: Tirthankara Pärsvanatha (Karnataka) (BM) B British Museum: bronze Sarasvati (Karnataka) (BM)
320 British Museum: bronze Tirthankara Pärivanatha (south India) (BM) 321 A. Victoria and Albert Museum: a Tirthankara (Mathura) (VAM)
B. Victoria and Albert Museum: Tirthankara Pärivanatha (Gyaraspur) (VAM) 322 Victoria and Albert Museum: a Tirthankara (west India) (VAM) 323 A. Victoria and Albert Museum: Tirthankara Pärsvanätba (the Deccan) (VAM) B. Victoria and Albert Museum: Tirthankara Pärivanatha (Gulbarga) (VAM) 324 Victoria and Albert Museum: Yakşi Ambika (Orissa) (VAM) 325 A. Musée Guimet: Tirthankara Rşabhanatha (Orissa) (Musée Guimet)
B. Musée Guimet: Tirthankara Mahavira (the Deccan) (Musée Guimet)
326 A. Museum für indische Kunst, Berlin-Dahlem: a bronze Tirthankara (provenance unknown) (Museum far indische Kunst)
B. Museum fur indische Kunst, Berlin-Dahlem: a bronze Tirthankara (south India) (Museum für indische Kunst)
327 A. Private Collection, New York: bronze Tirthankara Pärsvanatha (central India)
B. Private Collection, New York: Tirthankara Sambhavanatha (?) (Karnataka)
328 A. Los Angeles County Museum of Art (Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection): a bronze Tirthankara (south India) (Los Angeles County Museum of Art) B. As above: a bronze Buddha (Nepal) (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
329 A. Atkms Museum (Nelson Fund, Nelson Gallery): a Tirthankara (south India) (Atkins
Museum, Kansas City)
B. Los Angeles County Museum of Art (gift of Mr and Mrs J. J. Klejman): a bronze tri-tirthika (Gujarat) (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
330 Same as plate 329A, detail (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
331 Seattle Art Museum (Eugene Fuller Memorial Collection): Yaksa Dharanendra (the Deccan) (Seattle Art Museum)
332 Paul E. Walter Collection, New York: a bronze tretirthika (the Deccan) (Paul F. Walter) 333 Angeles County Museum (gift of Paul E. Manheim): palloa-rthika of Vimalanatha (west India) (Los Angeles County Museum of Art)
(xii)

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."
nal Museum
Patha) (NM)
in (Bihar) (NM)
and Managin) caturolinchati-posta af Santinātha (wast India) (Los Angeles County Museum of Arty 9 ,
Chapter 38 335 National Museum: Tirthakkare Parsvanátha (Rajasthan) (NM)
A National Museum: Tirtha kara Pariyantha (Uttar Pradesh) (NM) : B National Museum: Tirthadkara Nonindtba (Narhad) (NM)
, 337 National Museum: Sarasvati (Patha) (NMY
A. National Musetihe: Tisthankara Rrabbatstha (Bihar) (NM)
B. National Museum: Yds Ambiki (thir) (NM). :: 339 A National Museum: parents of Tirthadkart (West Bengal)
B. National Museum: a Tirthadkara (the Decian) (NM) 340 A. National Museum: Tirtha kara Parsvangtha (south India) (NM)
B. National Museum: Tirthankara Supargyapátha (south India) (NM) 341 National Museum: metal Tirthaikara Rsabhanátha (Madhya Pradesh) (NM) 342 A. National Musouin: a metal Ththaakata (Karnataka) (NM)
9. National Museum: a metal catánukha (Rajasthan) (NM) 343 A. National Muscum: metal Cakrekvart (Uttar Pradesh) (NM)
B. National Museum: metal Ambika (east India) (NM) 344 National Museum: metal Ambika (Akota) (NM) . 345 National Museum: metal parikura of a Tirtha kara (Rajasthan) (NM) 346 National Museum: metal palica-tirthike (West India) (NM) 347 A. Prince of Wales Masoum: tri-irthika of Jina (Ankai-Tankai) (PWM)
B. Prince of Wales Museum: pañcauffrthika of Jina (Apkai-Tapkai) (PWM) 348 Prince of Wales Museum: Yaksa Dharanendra (Karnataka) (PWM) 349 A. Prince of Wales Museum: Matavira (Karnataka) (PWM)
B. Prince of Wales Museum: eka-irthika of Mahavira (Virwah) (PWM) 350 A. Prince of Wales Museum: cauri-bearer (Rajasthan) (PWM)
B. Prince of Wales Museum: bronze Tirthaakara (Vala) (PWM) 351 Prince of Wales Museum; bronze cafurvinsati-paffa of Rsabhanātha (Chahardi) (PWM) 352 Prince of Wales Museum: bronze Gommatosvara (Sravanabelgola) (PWM) 353 A. Prince of Wales Museum: bronze Yaksi (Karnataka) (PWM)
B. Prince of Wales Museum: brase. Tirthankara Rabhanitha (west India) (PWM) 354 A. Prince of Wales Museum: tri-tfrihlka of Pärsvanātha (probably Vasantgarh) (PWM)
B. Prince of Wales Museum: brass caitya-grha (Gujarat) (PWM) 355 Bikaner Museum: bronze Tlzthankara Pärsvanātha (Amarsar) (Department of Archaeology
and Museums, Rajasthan) 356 A. Ahar Museum: torso of a bronze Tixthankara (Ahar) (Department of Archacology and
Museums, Rajasthan) , B. Udaipur Museum: Kubera (Bansi) (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Rajasi than) 357 A Jodhpur Muwma: Ivantasyilmin Department of Archaeology and Museums, RajasB. Bharatpur Musoums sarvarobhaiden (Department of Archacology and Museums,
(Rajasthany ."
DH

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
358 A. Bharatpur Museum: Tirthankara Nominatha (Department of Archaeology
Museums, Rajasthan) B. Jaipur Museum: Tirthadkars Munisuvrata (Narbad) (Department of Archaeology and
Museums, Rajasthan) A. State Museum, Hyderabad : Gommatesvara (Patancheravul (Department of Archaeology
and Museums, Andhra Pradesh) B. State Museum, Hyderabad: Tirthadkara Mahavira (Patancheruvu) (Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Andhra Pradesh) 360 State Museum, Hyderabad: Sarasvati (Patancheruvu) (Department of Archacology and
Museums, Andhra Pradesh) 361 A. Stato Museum, Hyderabad: caturvitsati-patta (Dharmavaram) (Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Andhra Pradesh) B. Khazana Building Museum: parikara of an unfinished Tirthadkara (Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Andhra Pradesh) 362 A. Salar Jung Museum: patica-Iirthika of a Tirthankara (Salar Jung Museum)
B. Salar Jung Museum; Tirthankara Parsvanatha (Salar Jung Museum) 363 A. Salar Jung Museum: Tirthaikara Pássvanátha (Kupbal) (Salar Jung Museum)
B. Salar Jung Museum: a bronze panica-tirthika (Salar Jung Museum) 364 A. Salar Jung Museum: a bronze caturvirksatl-pajja (Salar Jung Museum)
B. Salar Jung Muscum: a bronze caturvimšati.pofta of Parsvanātha (Salar Jung Museum) 365 A. Dhubela State Museum: Tirtha kara Reabhanátha (Mau) (Department of Archaeology
and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) B. Dhubela State Museum: Tirthadkara Santinātha (Mau) (Department of Archaeology
and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) 366 A. Dhubela State Museum: Yaksi Cakreśvari (Khajuraho) (Department of Archaeology
and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) B. Dhubela State Museum: miniature temple (Nowgong) 367 A. Dhubela State Museum: caturvinnsati-parfa (Jaso) Department of Archaeology and
Museums, Madhya Pradesh) B. Dhubela State Museum: Tirthankara Neminātha (District Shahdol) (Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) 368 A. Dhubela State Museum: sarvatobhadra (Rewa region) (Department of Archacology
and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) B. Dhubela State Museum: Yakşa Brahmâ (Rewa region) Department of Archaeology
and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) 369 Shivpuri Museum: pedestal of image of Tirthankara Candraprabha (Department of
Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh) 370 A, Shivpuri Museum: a dvi-mūrtika (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya
Pradesh) B. Shivpuri Museum: a Tirthagkara (Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Madhya Pradesh) 371 A. Shivpuri Museum: a Tirtha kara (Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Madhya Pradesh) B. Shivpuri Museum: Tirtha kara Pärsvanatha (Department of Archacology and Muscuma,
Madhya Pradesh) 372 Shivpuri Museum: an architectural piece (Department of Archaeology and Museums,
Madhya Pradesh)
Abaca
(xiv)

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373
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONE
Raipur Museum: Tirthankara Mablvira (Karitalai) (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh)
Raipur Museum: Thebatkarus Ajitathe and Sambhavantha (Kasitalai) (Depart ment of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh)
a
Raipur Museum: & arvatobhadrik (Karitalai) (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh)
B. Raipur Museum: Yakat Ambika (Karitalal) (Department of Archaeology and Museums, Madhya Pradesh)
375 Jahn Collection, Khajuraho: general view (Niraj Jain)
376 A. Khajuraho Museum: Tirthankar Rabbanatha (Niraj Jain, courtesy AST) B. Jaina Collection, Khajuraho Tirthankara Pärsvanatha (Ni Jain)
377 A. Khajuraho Museum: Tirthankara Pärvanatha (Niraj Jain, courtesy ASI)
"
B. Jaina Collection, Khajuraho: a torana (Niraj Jain)
378 A. Khajurabo Musturh: Yaksi Ambika (Niraj Jain, courtesy ASI)
B. Khajuraho Museum: Tirthankara sabhanatha (Niraj Jain, courtesy ASI) 379 A. Deogarh: a Tirthankara (Bhagebandra Jain)
B. Deogarh: a Tirthankara (Vipin Kumar Jain, New Delhi)
C. Deogarh: part of a lintel with tri-martika, other Tirthankaras, Navagrahas and Yakşis (Bhagchandra Jain)
380 A. Deogarh: Tirthankara Babhandtha (Bhagchandra Jain)
B. Deogarh:Tirthankara Partyanatha and Rṣabhanatha (Bhagchandra Jain)
C. Deogarh: Yakaf Cakredvarl (Bhagchandra Jain)
381 A. Deogarh: an Upadhyaya (Bhagchandra Jain)
B. Deogarh: Bahubali (Bhagchandra Jain)
C. Deogarh: a pillar (Bbagchandra Jain)
382 Deogarh: Cakravartin Bharata (Vipin Kumar Jain)
383 A. Government Museum, Madras: bronze Tirthankara Sumatinatha (Kogali)
B. Government Museum, Madras: bronze Tirthankara Mahavira (Kogali)
384 A. Government Museum, Madras: bronze Tirthankara Mahavira (Singanikuppam)
B. Government Museum, Madras: bronze Yakşi Ambika (Singanikuppam)
COLOUR-ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter 31
22 Jinadatta-sari with Jinaraksita, part of a painted wooden book-cover, A.D. 1122-54, westIndian or Gajarati style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
23 A. Part of a wooden book-cover, A.D. 1122-54 (see text for earlier date), west-Indian or Gujarati style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
B & C, Back view of the book-cover at col.-ill. 23A, showing roundels, birds and animals D. Same as col.-ills. 23B, C
24 Detail from the park of the Deva-sri-Kumudacandra disputation, circa A.D. 1125, westIndian or Gujarati style (Private Collection)
25 A. Kajaka and disciples
B. Army of Gardabhilla on the march
3

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
C. Kalaka and the Sahi chier D. Capture of Gardabhita Folios from the Klakdodrya-kathd, west-Indians or Gujarati style ('Collection of B.C." Main,
Bombay) 26 Gardabht-widya, folio from the Kalpa-sütre-Kalakdodrya-karhd, A.D. 1452, west-Iteding of
Gujarati style (National Museum, New Delhi) 27 Mahävira's renunciation, folio from the Kalpa-sútra, A.D. 1417, xest-ladian or Gujarati
style (National Museum, New Delhi) 28 A. Penance of Bahubali, folio (obverse) from the Devas!-no pado Bhandara Kalpa-ara
Kalak dedrya-katha, circa A.D. 1475 (sce text for lator date), west-Indiary or Gujarati
style (National Museum) 28 B. Border-decoration, folio (reverse) from same as col-ill. 28A 29 Indra and Indrāni greet queen Maru-devi, folio from the Mahd-purdna, circa A,D. 1420 (80€
text for later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Digambata Jala Mandir,
Old Delhi, Collection) 30 A. The porcupine kills the snake and is in turn attacked by an animal, folio from the
Yasodhara-carita A.D. 1494, Gujarat, probably Sojitra (Private Collection) B. King Māridatta makes preparations for sacrifice to the Devi, folio from same as col.
ill. 30A 31 Bhavisayattha sails across the seas, folio from the Bhavisayartha-kahd, circa A.D. 1430 (see
text for later date), probably Delhi, north-India style (Private Collection) 32 Pārsva with his entourage, folio from the Pasandha-carlu, A.D. 1442, painted at Gwalor,
north-Indian style (Private Collection) 33 Candramati shows Yasodhara the sacrificial cock made of flour, folio from the Jasahara
caris, circa A.D. 1440-50, probably Gwalior, north-Indian style (Private Collection) 34 On meeting monk Sudatta, Abhayamati and Abbayaruci lose consciousness, folio from the
Jasahara-cariu, A.D. 1454, probably Delhi, Dorth-Indian style (Private Collection) 35 Santinātha with attendants, folio from the Santinäha-carlu, A.D. 1450-60 (see text for later
date), probably Dolhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection) 36 A. Vidyadhara Atibala, folio from the Adi-purana (group 1), circa A.D. 1450 (see text for
later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection) B. Śrepika extrols the beauty of the samavasarana, folio from the Adi-purana (group 1),
circa A.D. 1450 (see text for later date), probably Delbi, north-Indian style (Private
Collection) C. Musicians celebrating the wedding of Srimati and Vajrajangha, folio from the Add
purana (group 2), circa A.D. 1475 (sce text for later date), probably Delhi, north
Indian style (Private Collection) D. Dancer, folio from the Adi-purdna (group 2), circa A.D. 1475 (see text for a later date)
probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection) 37 King Yaśodhara with his entourage, folio the Yasodhara-carita, A.D. 1596, probably north Gujarat, west-Indian style (Private Collection)
TEXT-ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter 32 Fig. XXVI. Gujarat: wood-carving, female musician (NM, sketch by Mohan Lal) Fig. XXVIL Gujarat: wood-carving, a nymph putting on anklets (NM, sketch by Mohan Lal)

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LIST OR HLUSTRATIONS
"
The XXVIH Vatraipur akta (After beingirandas Jain) Fig. XXX Same-data prasada (After Bhagwandas Sain) . FB XXX Plan of a teapple (Ane Blagwandus Jain) Fe XXX Alphe (After Phagwandas Jala). : Fin X X Picha with live storas (After Bhagwanda Jain) Fil. XXXIV Types of mundowara (After Bhagwandas Jain) Fig. XXXV Sikhate of rekha mandira (After Bhagwandas Jaim) Fig. XXXVI : Amala-sdra (Aftet Bhagwandas Jain) Fig XXXVII Kalaia (After Bhagwandas Jaial). Fig. XXXVIII Dhwaja (After Mhagwandas Jain) ! Fig. XXXIX : Dvara-idkhas (After Bhagwandas Jain) Fig. XL Varieties of Jina-praadida (After P.O. Somapura) Fig. XLI Catumukha mahd-prdshida (After P.O. Somapura) Fig. XLII. Kamala-bhišana prasdda (After P.O. Somapura) Fig. XLII. Mahadhara-Ytra-vikrama prasáda (After P.O. Somapore) Fig. XLIV Triloka, the cosmos (After Muktyanand Singh Jain) Fig. XLV Bharata-ksetra (After Muktyanand Singh Jain) Fig. XLVI Astăpada (After P.O. Somapura) Fig. XLVII The Meru (After P.O. Somapura) Fig. XLVIII Nandzsvara-dvipa-prdsöda (After P.O. Somapura) Fig. XLIX Variants of Nandisvara-dvipa-prdsdda (After P.O. Somapura)
Arte Meru Calipe-prasad
.
xvii)

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Part VII PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
(Concluded)

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14%
CHAPTER 31
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
(On Pattas, Palm-leaf and Paper)
INTRODUCTION
IN THE FIRST FEW CENTURIES AFTER THE NIRVANA OF MAHAVIRA THE KNOWledge of the Jaina canon was preserved only in the memory of the Jaina monks and was transmitted orally from preceptor to disciple. But often famines and epidemics claimed the lives of these learned men and with their death some knowledge of the religious doctrine was irretrievably lost. In course of time Jaina theological teaching began to suffer from irreparable gaps in its continuity as well as many aberrations from the original text. Recognizing these inherent dangers in the system of oral transmission, and fearing that unless some remedial steps were taken the holy word would disappear forever, the Jaina community made attempts in the direction of saving the sacred lore. A conference of monks was held at Pätaliputra, where the canonical literature was systematically compiled and put into written form. Later, in the fifth century, according to the Svetämbara tradition, a council of monks assembled at Valabhi in Gujarat and agreed that all religious texts be committed to writing. Apart from these conferences, individuals, too, strove to translate the oral tradition into a written one. Two Digambara monks-each independently of the other -in the early years of the Christian era collected the floating body of religious knowledge and reduced it to writing."
Curiously enough, despite the efforts of the Jaina monks to transcribe their religious texts no Jaina manuscript written earlier than the tenth century is known to exist. What could have been the cause of this hiatus between the earnest resolves of the Jainas to write their texts and the actual appearance of the written scriptures? Possibly, the Jainas, in spite of their sincerity of purpose, were not fully able to implement their decision as enthusiastically as they had made it. Besides, it is more than likely that the early manuscripts have
Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India, Ahmedabad, 1949, pp. 2-3. * Kasliwal, Jain Grantha Bhandaras in Rajasthan, Jaipur, 1967. p. 2.
H. Jain in his Introduction to Satkhondägima, Amaravati, 1947.
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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS
[PART VII
perished' as there were no grantha-bhandaras (monastic libraries) where they could be safely stored. For the institution of Bhandaras as repositories of manuscripts merged and crystallized after the office of the Bhattaraka as the temporal head of the community was established. This development in the history of Jains religion appears to have taken place some time in the eighth century. Erudite and dedicated, these Bhattarakas were conscious of the importance of learning and urged their followers to donate manuscrips to the temples. Much religious merit was attached to such sastra-dana, which was performed as an atonement for past sins or as a celebration for the successful completion of a vrata. Sometimes a pious donor would have many copies of a particular text made and these copies would then be distributed far and wide to various Bhandaras. Occasionally, a manuscript with illustrations would be commissioned.
Whether or not manuscript-illustration was practised before the eleventh century is one of the most vexed problems pertaining to the history of Indian miniature painting. That other forms of painting such as murals and painting on boards and cloth were practised from quite ancient times is well-known. Concrete evidence of wall-painting as early as the first century B.C. is provided by the Satavahana paintings in Caves 9 and 10 at Ajanta, while literary references, the correctness of which need not be doubted, inform us about painting on wooden boards, cloth and even on shields made of hide.
Of particular interest to us are the references by Jaina writers. Uddyotana-Sari, a pupil of Virabhadra, who again was a pupil of the Jaina scholar-monk Haribhadra-Süri, in his Kuvalayamala-kaha, a Prakrit work composed in 778-79 at Jalor in Rajasthan, refers to a sarhsära-cakrapata, evidently a painting on prepared cloth depicting the futilities and miseries of human life as opposed to the joys of heaven. Its execution was regarded
1 Scholars versed in Jaina literature have come across early manuscripts with colophons that mention that the manuscript was copied from an older one which was in a state of disintegration.
V. Johrapurkar, Bhattaraka Sampradaya, Sholapur. 1958, Introduction in English. K. Kashiwal op. cit., pp. 4-7.
If the Pala king Mahipala mentioned in the colophon of the illustrated Buddhist text Astasahasrika-Prajñdpdramitd in the Asiatic Society, Calcutta (MS. G 7413), is Mahipala I, then the year 6 of his reign, in which it was written, would be approximately 992, ie, the late tenth century. It has twelve illustrations on palm-leaves.
Silappadikáram, ed. V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar, Madras, 1939, p. 206, canto XIII,
168-79.
Umakant P. Shah, Presidential Address to the All-India Oriental Conference, Fine Arts Section, XXIV Session, Varanasi, October 1968.
394

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MINIATURE PAINTINOS ses pairworthy. So also Jinasena I (circa 830) in bis Adth-punderea mentions
mane ale in a Jaina shrine, while Jarasittihanandin (circa seventh century) in his wanting the carita refers to a Jaina temple in which were displayed peppakas depicting the lives of tho Tirthankaras, famous Faina monks and Cakravartins (great kings). The last two references, it may be noted, pertain to south-Indian Baina, temples, and we may nocordingly conclude that the practice of painting patraka was widespread amongst the Jainas. Though the word patraka can mcan a wooden board as well as a propared cloth, it seems appropriate to give it the latter meaning and regard those early patas as the precursors of the numerous Jáina cloth pafas of later datet which are well-known to #cholars of Jaina painting "Those later pafas, in conjunction with the earlier references quoted above, could thus indicate a long unbroken hieratic tradition of producing such paintings on cloth.
But, interestingly enough, all early references, though they mention painting on the walls of shrines and pafas, are significantly silent, as far as we are aware, on the existence of manuscript-illustration being in vogue prior to the eleventh century.
ŚVETAMBARA MANUSCRIPT
BEGINNINGS OF PAINTED MANUSCRIPTS The earliest illustrated Jaina manuscript, which is on palm-leaf, contains two texts, viz. Ogha-niryukti and Data-valkalika-lika, both having colophons which mention the same donor, the same donee, who was a monk, and the same scribe. But the first colophon also has a date, viz. the Vikrama year 1117 (A.D. 1060). This manuscript has an illustration of Sri, a lively Kámadeva loosing an arrow and some really well-drawn elephants (plate 265A). The superior quality of the drawing need not surprise us once we appreciate the fact that the painting of paffas on cloth by skilful artists was prevalent long before the eleventh century. Of course the extremely-limited area for painting, circumscribed by the narrow format of the palm-leaves, may in the beginning have occasioned some difficulty to illustrators accustomed to paint larger figures on cloth.
But the question of immediate concern is how it happened that Jaina palm-leaf manuscripts, with their very limited format for painting, came to be illustrated only from the second half of the eleventh century. There can
* Moti Chandra op. cit, . 46.
* This manuscript is in a Jaina Bhandara at Jaisalmer. Satya Prakash first referred to it in Akru (Hindi journal) and later Shah thentioned it, ap. cit.

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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS be no doubt that several Jaina texts on palm-leaf must have been written Before the eleventh century even if they do not survive today, but the available evidence indicates that the beginning of the art of palm-Icaf manuscript-illustration is a later development, of which the earliest known example is the above-mentioned Jaisalmer manuscript of 1060. Without being dogmatic, certain possibilities can be suggested. One is that there existed a common heritage of manuscript-illustration for both literary and religious texts even before the late tenth century and that the earliest Buddhist and Jaina illustrated manuscripts, which exist today, were derivod 'from the self-same source without one faith borrowing the idea from the other. But we have no evidence of this common source. The earliest illustratod manus cript known to us pertains to the Buddhist faith. It was executed in the sixth year of the Pala king Mahipala. If this ruler is Mahipala I, it belongs, as already stated (above, p. 394, n. 4), to some date near about 992. The style derives from a lingering classical Ajanta tradition but in the context of a more static and formal presentation. It was written at the great Buddhist centre of Nalanda. It may be that manuscript-illustration was not practised in India before the tenth century because of the narrow format of the palmleaves on which the text was written. However, in the tenth century it would seem that some Buddhist monks accustomed to making sketches of Buddhist images and versed in the painting of religious subjects on banners felt the need for illustrating several of their religious texts by the introduction of miniature illustrations in the palm-leaf manuscripts despite their narrow format. What led to this need we cannot say, but it may be observed that even in the early fifth century the Chinese pilgrim Fa-bsien, who stayed in a monastery at the port of Tämralipti for two years before his departure to China, made not only copies of the sütras there but also drawings of Buddhist images, no doubt for veneration but also as a permanent record always available to view. It is possible that the idea of illustrating Jaina religious texts was derived by the Jaina clergy from the early illustrated Buddhist palm-leaf texts made during the Pala rule in Bengal. These texts were illustrated with deities of the Buddhist pantheon and also with incidents from the life of the Master. What exactly were the circumstances in which the Jaina clergy came to be acquainted with the Buddhist practice of illustrating their palm-leaf manuscripts is not known. But various ways in which this could have happened can be envisaged because Jaina communities existed in many parts of the country. Moreover, Jaina preachers must have constantly travelled to and fro between Gujarat and other distant areas: 'It may
A Record of Buddhist Countries by Fa-hsion, tr. Chinoso Bolivalente Ansociation, Peking, 1997, p. 77.
396

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MINIATURE PAINTINGS further be surmised that the monastic orders of the Jainas with their intelleotual attainments were unlikely to remain oblivious of the developments in
ligious art and literature in the Buddhist and Brahmanical folds. This is emphasized by the fact that we know that their Bhandaras possessed texts dealing with other religions. Though it may be merely a matter of coincidence, it should be noted that the earliest Jaina illustrated manuscript on palm-leaf, namely the Jaisalmer MS. of 1060, is about three-quarters of a century later than the earliest known Buddhist example. The story of Indian wall-painting is a sharp pointer to the fact that the artistic activities of these great religions followed similar lines of expression. The possibility suggested herein, namely that the early Pála period Buddhist illustrated manuscripts may have provided the inspiration for a similar practice amongst the Jainas, is not entirely without a tangible foundation.
WOODEN MANUSCRIPT-COVERS
In the famous Jaina Bhandara of Jaisalmer there are two painted pațiis (wooden manuscript-covers) depicting the Vidya-devis of the Jaina pantheon. These Vidya-devis are plainly derived from some illustrated Päla Buddhist manuscript, probably of Ramapala's reign in the late eleventh or early twelfth century. In one of the panels of these Vidya-devi patlis (plate 265B) two female worshippers are seen and they unmistakably provide the key to the date of these patlis, namely the period of the famous Jaina teacher Jinadatta-Suri, who died in 1154. Almost identical female worshippers are seen in another beautiful patli, also in the Jaina Bhandara at Jaisalmer (colour-illustration 22), which was almost certainly painted when Jinadatta-Stri went to Marukotta (Marot) in Marwar on the occasion when a great temple was consecrated there. The construction of this shrine had been inspired by the Suri's preachings and he performed the consecration-ceremony of the image of this temple. In this pali, Jinadatta-Süri, who was known to be of dark complexion, is depicted as brown-skinned and is seen delivering a sermon on the life of Mahavira to his disciple Jinarakşita and to three śravakas (lay-desciples) and the two wives of one of them. In the centre of the patli is Mahavira enthroned, and on the right again is Jinadatta preaching to his disciples Gunacandra-Sari and Somacandra-Suri. The patli, which forms the
1 It is difficult to accept the earlier dating to the second half of the tenth century proposed for these Vidya-devis by U.P. Shah, see Munipunyavijays and U.P. Shah, 'Some painted wooden book-covers from western India', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art (Special Number on Western Indian Art), March 1966, pp. 34-44, and plates XXV and XXVII.
* Mori Chandra, op. cit., fig. 191, where the complete paff is reproduced in monochrome.
397

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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS
{PART VI
wooden cover for a text called Ogha-niryukt! on the rules of conduct for Jaina monks, must have been presented to the Sari, maybe along with this very text or another text, by one of his followers on the occasion of the consecration of the Mahavira image. The donor was probably the iravaka who is portrayed in the pall with his two wives. As this part can safely be regarded as being contemporary with this well-known Jaina Acarya, its date is capable of fairly accurate ascertainment. Jinadatta-Sari was a native of Rajasthan. He was born in 1075 and died in 1154. The labels on the part indicate who are the personages depicted therein. Jinadatta-Sari became an Acarya in 1122 and as the parli could have been painted only after that event it belongs to the period 1122-54. The reverse of the patlt has only floral decoration on it. A significant feature of this path is the portrayal of the two wives of a iravaka. It is evident that in the representation of these two ladies we have a survival, however stylized and mannered it be, of the Bagh-Ajanta tradition of painting the female face and form. But it is the last flicker because thereafter it is not seen again. The bearded fravakas in this parli are reminiscent of somewhat similar bearded figures in certain wall-paintings in the Kailasa temple at Ellora which are usually ascribed to the twelfth century but which may be somewhat earlier. That they are done during the rule of one of the Paramāra kings is now disputed. It is thus not unlikely that the Ajanta tradition as well as the later Ellora manner of painting had continued in Gujarat, though in an increasingly stylized form.
We may accordingly surmise that the early pattakas and paintings in Jaina shrines, of which now only literary references of the eighth and ninth centuries exist, may have been executed in this rapidly vanishing tradition. The convention of the farther projecting eye which is seen in the JinadattaSari pal is first noticed in Cave 2 at Ajanta, but only in a few figures, and thereafter it is observed again in the Kailasa temple-paintings at Ellora. More than one explanation for this extraordinary cliche, which become a marked characteristic of Jaina painting, has been suggested, but perhaps the one advanced by Muni Jinavijayaji is most plausible. He surmises that there grew up a hieratic or guild aversion to depicting the face of a deity or the human face, even when shown in profile, with only one eye, and the farther eye was consequently projected. Other explanations also exist. Two more pailts which depict Jinadatta-Sari and his disciples have also been published' and are contemporary with this famous teacher. All the
1 Report of the Archaeological Survey of Hyderabad, 1927-28, plates D and E.
P. Bhatia, The Paramdras, New Delhi, 1967, p. 350.
One is published in Apabhrahka-kavyatṛayi, Gaekwad Oriental Series, 37, 1927, and the other in Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art, March 1966, plate XXII.
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MINIATURE PAINTINGS
Tinadatta-80ri patlis must have been painted in Rajasthan and are datable to the period 1122-54. They have a characteristic border of foliated loops and are very rich in colours (col.-ill. 22).
The hearkening back to the Ajanta tradition observed in the early patlis is seen not only in female faces. There are several patlis of this period with decorative meandering creepers forming roundels which enclose elephants, ducks (singly and in pairs), mythical aquatic creatures and other animals and birds (col.-ills. 23B, C, D). In one beautiful patir the roundels are absent but in the curves of the meandering creeper of flowering lotuses in a stream are seen an elephant, a leopard, a monkey, fishes, tortoises and men in running postures (plate 266A, B). This is perhaps the earliest of all the Jaisalmer pailis but not likely to predate the late eleventh century. In two other parlis, of which one is now very well-known and which also belongs to the Jaina Bhandara of Jaisalmer, we see a giraffe and a rhinoceros in the roundels of the meandering creepers, birds, aquatic monsters and bare-breasted girls in alluring poses (plate 267A, B and 268A), as also antelopes, a boar and a fluteplayer (plate 268B). The giraffe is not an Indian animal but an inhabitant of the African plains. It was no doubt seen by the illustrator of the parli when it passed through Rajasthan with a trading caravan from a foreign country or was sent as a present to some Indian potentate. We know that rare animals and birds were included as ambassadorial gifts. It may even have come by sea to one of the Gujarat ports in a big merchant-vessel. The inclusion of such a novelty in the parli indicates the freedom of expression which the painters enjoyed before their art became more formal in later times. The single-horned rhino is, however, found in India and though now cofined to the Terai it was in those days known to exist in other parts of the country, and a specimen, probably in captivity, must have been seen by the painter.
In yet another patli from the same Bhandara we see elephants, birds with foliated, tails and heraldic lions, all shown in roundels placed in squarish compartments (plate 269A, B). These decorative paintings take us back to the spirit of the painted ceilings at Ajanta with their wealth of floral, animal and foliage designs. Here again we have evidence of a lingering Ajanta tradition of decorative motifs as practised in Gujarat and Rajasthan where such patlis were painted. An inscription on this parli reads Nisthā-bhāsyapūjā Śrī-Vijayasimhäcärjānam. This would indicate that the patli, and probably
1 Sarabhai Nawab, Oldest Rajasthani Paintings from Jain Bhandars, Ahmedabad, 1959, plates 3A to 8A."
* Ibid, plates W and Y. • Ibid., plates 1 and 2.
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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS also the text for which it was meant as a book-cover, were got prepared and presented to Sri-Vijayasinhācārya by one of his followers. This Acirva was a well-known Jaina teacher who lived during the reign of Siddharaia Jayasirha of Gujarat (1094-1144) and was a contemporary of Sri-HemacandraSüri and Sri-Vādideva-Suri, both famous and learned Jaina divines. There appears to be no reason, linguistic or otherwise, to regard this papir as having been painted as early as the mid-tenth century before the time of Sri-Vijayasimhācārya and having later come into his possession after which event the inscription was written thereon. This inscribed patit affords quite valuable material, based on stylistic characteristics, for dating other patlis in which clephants, similar mythical lions and birds with foliated tails appear. Since it belongs to the first half of the twelfth century, there is good reason to ascribe most of the Jaisalmer Bhandara decorative patlis to the same period or the late eleventh century at the very earliest. Though a much earlier date, namely the tenth century, has been suggested for some of these patlis, a careful stylistic analysis tends to negative such early dating. In fact if it is acceptable that the very idea of illustrating these palm-leaf manuscript-texts and providing them with painted wooden covers was derived by the Jainas from the practice of the Buddhists, then this influence itself is not likely to be of a date earlier than the mid-eleventh century. The method of seeking to date Jaina manuscript-paintings by reference to sculptures in Gujarat and Rajasthan, when used as an absolute norm, may prove to be fallacious. But it can be employed to a limited extent bearing in mind that the painting and sculpture of a particular region, despite certain affinities, may not belong to the same period. We have the classic example of the Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda sculptures which have parallels in the Vākātaka paintings of Ajanta and yet the latter are separated from the former by well over two centuries. However, one damaged pafli of fine quality from the collection of Muni Punyavijayaji (plate 270A) depicting the lustration of Mahavira is not unlikely, on the basis of stylistic comparison with the Jinadatta group of patlis, to be somewhat earlier than the latter. It can accordingly be ascribed to the late eleventh century. Morcover, too much stress should not be laid on the circumstance whether the cliche of the projecting farther eye is pronounced or not. The Jaisamler Bhandara has a palm-leaf manuscript of Tilakácărya's Dasa-vaikalika-sutra and other
1 Muni Panyavijaya and Shab, op. cit., p. 41, n. 12, where the carlier date is suggested.
Ibid., p. 41. Presumably U.P. Shah would also give an earlier date to the patit col.-itl. 23A, B, C, D) that than suggested by us.
• Ibid., plate XXIII (in colour).
400

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.
SINIATURE PAINTINGS fragmentary, texte illustrating a number of scene from the lives of Plakva nathasand Nominatha in which the convention of the projecting farther eye is for the most part almost amoticeablo (plate 271A, B, C, D), and yet the izietrations can hardly be earlier than the thirteenth century, One must also tever forget what is 180 frequently overlooked, namely that different artists belonging to one and the same period need not all have painted in the same style. Thus, a difference in style does not necessarily connote a difference in date or provenance. The well-known payt showing the war between Bahubali and Bharata, formerly in the possession of Sarabhai Nawabs and now in the collection of Kusum and Rajeya Swall of Bombay, has on its reverse the decorative motif of the meandering creeper with clephants, birds and mythical lions in roundels (col.-ills. 23A, B, C, D), It also belongs to first half of the twelfth century, though it is probably a little earlier than the inscribed paph, already referred to (plate 269A, B), which was made for the Jaipa pontiff Vijayasimhäcārya in the reign of Siddharaja Jayasimha (1094-1144). The provenance of the Bahubali parli is also likely to be Rajasthan, the main field of Jinadatta-Sari's activities, where, it seems, most of these early paflis of the Jaisalmer Bhapdāra were painted in the first half of the twelfth century. The Bahubali pafli is said to have originally been in a Jaisalmer Bhandara.
One more patir of high importance and excellent workmanship remains to be considered in the group which forms the masterpieces of this form of Jaina painting and to which we have perforce restricted ourselves as the space at our disposal must be devoted to the most outstanding examples of Jaina painting on paflis, palm-leaf and paper. This pafli (col.-ill. 24), said to have come from a Jaina Bhandara, was formerly in the possession of the Jaina scholar Muni Jina vijayaji. It is now in a private collection. It depicts the famous disputation between the great Svetambara logician Vadideva-Süri and a well-known Digambara scholar Kumudacandra, at the court of Siddharaja Jayasimha in 1124 in which the former vanquished the proud Digambara savant. We have no doubt that it is to all intents and purposes a contemporary production and must have been painted within a year at the most from the date of the famous disputation which lasted six months and the story of which is not only recorded in Svetāmbara canonical literature but is also the plot of Yasascandra's drama Mudrita-kumudacandra. Yašaścandra was a dramatist of the time of Siddharāja Jayasimha (1094-1144) and the drama was written on the
1 Sourabhai Nawab, op. cit., plates O, P and Q fin colour).
• Moti Chandra, op, els., figs. 199-203.... .:. fbido, flgs. 193-98.
i. in
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(PART VD
PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS occasion of the contest, the author having been present at the disputation. Its date accordingly should be circa 1125, and the excellence of its workmanship accords well with the period of the finest pajlis belonging to the JinadattaSari group painted in Rajasthan. The Deva-Säri-Kumudacandra parh was most probably the work of a painter at the capital city of Patan which was the scene of the contest. In this metropolis, where the art of manuscriptproduction was greatly patronized, this event must have remained very much to the fore in the minds of the Svetāmbara community and the pathi was no doubt commissioned for being presented, also with some canonical text, to the triumphant Deva-Sari by one of his admiring followers. The difference in style between this pafli and those of the Jinadatta group is best accounted for by reason of the fact that they were painted in different areas resulting in the employment of different guild-artists. The processionscene in the parli depicting dancers and musicians, with their lively elongated figures, who accompany the ceremonial chariot with the image of Mahavira, is also indicative of high technical excellence in the production of painted Jaina book-covers at Patan in the first half of the twelfth century.
There are several other paflis of later periods, namely the late twelfth and the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but they tend to be increasingly hieratic and formal and lack the joie de vivre of meandering creepers with birds, animals and lotus-flowers, or the sedate charm of the Jinadatta group or the brilliance of the Deva-Sūri-Kumudacandra disputation.
PALM-LEAP PERIOD
Turning to the illustrations on the palm-leaf texts themselves, we have already noted that the earliest known example is dated 1060 (plate 265A). Thereafter we have a leaf of the Pinda-niryukri (a text on monastic rules) with a single well-drawn elephant, though the colour is rubbed (plate 270B). It is flanked by a formal lotus-medallion on either side. This manuscript was got written by one Ananda, son of a merchant, and presented to Yasodeva-Suri (1093-1123), a disciple of Muni Candra-Suri. It was a very common and esteemed practice for the Jaina laity to have canonical texts prepared and presented to the Jaina Acāryas who usually kept them in their Bhandaras. The very rich bankers and merchants donated even temples to the community, but both kinds of donations were equally efficacious in giving pious merit to the donor. Such a credo projects an interesting form of socialism which existed in the Jaina faith. The offerings of all devotees, whether humble or munificent, were equally meritorious. The writer of the manuscript is
402

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TA
A. Śri and Kamadeva, illustration from a palm-leaf MS., A.D. 1060 (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
1996
B. Vidya-devi and female worshippers, part of an illustrated book-cover, AD. 1122-54,
Gujaratı or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandára)
PLATE 265

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A and B. Illustrations from a book-cover, late eleventh or early twelfth century (see text for earlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhapḍāra)
[PART VII

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CHAPTER 31)
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
the
KL
A and B.
Illustrations from a book-cover, early twelfth century (sce text for carlier date),
Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandāra)
PLATE 267

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(PART VII
PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
A. Mustration from a hook-covei, carly twelfth century (sco text for carlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian style
(Jaisalmer Bhandara)
3
B. Part of an illustrated book-cover, early twelfth century (see text for earlier date), Gujarati
or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
PLATE 268

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CHAPTER 31]
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MINIATURE PAINTINGS
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A and B. Animal-drawings from an illustrated book-cover, first half of the twelfth century (see text for earlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
PLATE 269

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[PART VI
PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
ws
A. Lustration of a Jina, illustrated book-cover, late eleventh to early twelfth century (see
text for earlier date), Gujarati or west-Indian Style (L.D. Institute, Ahmedabad)
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B. Elephant, from an illustrated palm-leaf MS, first quarter of the
twelfth century (formerly Muni Jinavijaya Collection)
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C. Sarasvati, illustration from a palm-leaf MS, A.D. 1127, Gujarati or west-Indian style (Santinātha
Bhandara, Cambay)
PLATE 270

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CHAPTER 31)
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
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A to D. Illustrations from a palm-leaf MS., thirteenth century, Gujarati of west-Indian
style (Jaisalmer Bhandara)
PLATE 271

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
(PART VII
.
PUF
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A. lustration of a Jina
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B. Birth of a Jina Illustrations from a palm-leaf MS., A.D. 1370, Gujarati or we t-Indian style
(Ujhamphoi Dharmaśālā, Ahmedabad)
PLATE 272

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CHAPTER 31]
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
mentioned as one Somapala. Even if it belongs to the last year of YasodevaSari it cannot be later than 1123. The reverse has a design consisting of a circle of petals and a circle of harhaas (swans) between two lotuses. The use of the haksas as a decorative motif in the early-twelfth century patlis is in keeping with the same feature on this palm-leaf illustration itself of about the same period. It is, however, in a poor condition. It was once in the collection of Muni Jinavijayaji..
The manuscript of the Jäta-Sutra, which has only two miniatures, in the Santinatha temple Bhandara at Cambay, is famous because of its early date, namely 1127, and the attractive standing figure of Sarasvath in one of its two paintings where the projecting farther eye is absent. It is not in the style of the contemporary Jinadatta-Suri patlis where the womenfolk are painted in a lingering Ajanta tradition which fades out thereafter. This Sarasvati miniature (plate 270C) is the precursor of the characteristic Jaina style which hereafter dominates manuscript-illustration. This manuscript is followed by the Data-valkalika-laghu-vṛtti with a single miniature of two monks and a layman, dated 1143, also in the same Bhandara. It is only of antiquarian interest. But in the same Santinatha Bhandara is a Neminathacarita, dated 1241, with four miniatures including an attractive painting of Ambika seated. Here we find that the Jaina palm-leaf illustration-style is now fully developed with the excessive mannerisms which were to remain for centuries. In these early palm-leaf manuscripts the number of illustrations is generally few, but this is not an invariable rule particularly from the second half of the thirteenth century. An illustrated palm-leaf manuscript of the Ogha-niryukti in the Jaina Bhandara at Chhani, near Baroda, has a large number of illustratrations of Vidya-devis. The workmanship is good but the repeated depiction of female deities is apt to become monotonous. They evidence the same style as the Ambikä figure of 1241 referred to above and belong to the second half of the thirteenth century, though they have been erroneously dated by some writers as 1161. A palm-leaf manuscript of the Savaga-padikkamaṇa-sutta-cuni in the collection of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, was executed near Udaipur in Mewar in 1260. It contains six miniatures, some of which are badly rubbed. Stylistically, the paintings show no difference from the paintings in manuscripts from Gujarat. It thus becomes evident that the Gujarati or west-Indian style was current in southern Rajasthan also.
Ibid., fig. 16 (in colour).
Ibid., fig. 46 (in colour). * Ibid., figs. 39 to 42 (in colour).
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Another development in the late thirteenth century is that the illustrators, even in the limited format at their disposal, began increasingly to give expression to the subject matter of the text in a parrative form and with greater from dom than before. The single deities, with and without attendants, are now sometimes replaced by scepes from the lives of the Tirthankaras. There are two such notable examples. The first is a manuscript of the Subahta-katha and other stories in the collection of the Sanghvi Bhandara, Patan, dated 1288. It depicts incidents from the life of Neminátha and there are as many as twentythree illustrations. Rudimentary landscape is introduced in the form of rocks, trees and animals of the forest, while incidents are at times unfolded by employing the method of continuous narration in which the different events which comprise an incident are all placed in the picture-space of a single illustration. This method as well as the treatment of landscape must have been known to the painters of the early Jaina pattas (on cloth) and of the walls of Jaina shrines prior to the eleventh century. But apart from the wooden patlis, such innovations had hitherto not been attempted on the restricted format available for illustration on the palm-leaves themselves which bore the text. These departures from bare iconographic representations indicate a realization of the possibilities of miniature painting and the utilization for compositional purposes of even the most limited space.
The second manuscript belonging to this category is undated but it is obviously to be ascribed to the same period. It depicts episodes from the lives of the Tirthařkaras Pārsvanätha and Neminătha. It is in the Jaina Bhandara at Jaisalmer (plate 271A, B, C, D) and has twenty miniatures. The illustrations of both these manuscripts possess a rare charm and a more spontaneous approach than the earlier manuscript-illustration of single deities. However, certain conventions for depicting the stock events in the life of a Tirthankara can already be observed and were probably derived from similar conventions which had grown up before the eleventh century in the paintings on paffas and on the walls of Jaina temples. Though paper had come into use in Gujarat as early as the twelfth century for preparing manuscript-texts, it did not become a vehicle for manuscript-illustrations till about the mid-fourteenth century and even then it was somewhat tardily adopted round about 1400 employing a rather narrow format in imitation of the palm-leaves. Accordingly,
Ibid., figs, 50 to 53. • Sarabhai Nawab, op, cit., plates J to S (in colour).
* In the L. D. Institute, Ahmedabad, there is a folio of a paper manuscript Santindtha-boli, dated 1294. A Jaina manuscript, with a twelfth-century date, was in the posscanion of Muni Jinavijayaji.
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MINIATURE PAINTINGS We find that illustrations on palm-leaf continued to be painted in the fourteenth and even in the fifteenth century. A dated example of this later priod is a Kalpa
tra and Kalakdodrya-katha in the Bhandara of the Uitasploi Dharmasti. Ahmedabad," which was commissioned in 1370 (plate 272A, B). It follows the older tradition of having only a few illustrations, namely six, but these are of superior workmanship though static and formal. But one factor which emerges from an examination of these paintings is a growing appreciation amongst illustrators that a miniature art to be fully effective demands fine drawing and skilful brushwork. To the same period or slightly later belong the thirty-four miniatures illustrating a well-known Kalpa-sutra palm-leaf manuscript in the
ndji-Mangalji-ni Pedhi-ni Jhän Bhandara at Idar, where the use of gold is scen to highlight the colour-effects. The idea of using gold may have been derived from Persian manuscript-illustrations. Gujarat was at this time under the rule of the Muslim governors of the Delhi Sultanate, and cultural intercourse with Persia was greatly favoured by the ruling Muslim aristocracy. Jaina illustrators may have had occasions to soc Persian manuscripts. There are also some palm-leaf illustrations in the Baroda Museum where gold has been used. There has been some controversy about the date of this Idar manuscript, but on grounds of style it can be ascribed to about 1370 or preferably a little later.
In view of the fact that the production of illustrated palm-leaf manuscripts seems to have been fairly extensive in the thirteenth and fourteeth centuries, a uniform quality of work in the illustrations belonging to a particular period cannot always be expected as artists varied in their skills. This factor must always be borne in mind in assessing departures from the best work produced at that time.
THE PAPER PERIOD
Though the employment of paper for Jaina manuscripts in Gujarat was as early as the twelfth century, its use for illustrated manuscripts, on the available evidence, does not pre-date the fourteenth century. The reason for this not clear. It may be due to the scarcity of this material. Whatever the reason be, the fact remains that the production of manuscripts during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and up to the mid-fourteenth century continued to be on palm-leaves. They were used on an extensive scale if we are to give credence to well-known traditional accounts about the large number of scribes in the employ of the Caulukya rulers of Gujarat, Siddharāja Jayasinhha (1094-1144) and Kumārapdla (1144-72) and the famous banker-ministers Vastupala and
1 Mot Chandra, op. cit., ligt. 54 to 58, • told., figo. 59 to 78.

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(PART VE Tejabpila of the Vaghela kings, and Pethad Shah, minister of the Paramäta ruler Jayasimha in the second half of the thirteenth century.
U.P. Shah maintains that the earliest illustrated Jaina manuscript on paper is a Kalpa-sútra-Kalakdcarya-katha dated Vikrama-sarhvat 1403 (A.D. 1346). The format is narrow, namely 28 cm. x 85 cm., and the text is only six lines to a page. But this date cannot be accepted as authentic. For one thing, the date 1403 appears in the margin of one of the folios and not in a colophon and seems to be a later addition. The ond of the Kalpa-sútra section states it was deposited in the Mahävira Bhandara in Vikrama-sarvat 1505 (A.D. 1448). The latter dato is in all probability also the date of the execution of the manuscript, it being deposited in the Bhandāra in the very year in which it was prepared. On stylistic grounds the date A.D. 1346 is much too early, and this conclusion is reinforced by another manuscript in the National Museum, also of the Kalpasitra-Kalakdcarya-katha (accession no. 51-53), which is very similar in style and format (col-ill. 26). Both manuscripts are 28 cm. x 8.5 cm. and have only six lines to a page. Moreover, the style of the paintings in both manuscripts is the same and the sizes of the illustrations are also alike. The National Museum manuscript bears a date in the colophon (plate 273) which is Vikrama-samvat 1509 (A.D. 1452). There can be no doubt about this date as it is in the colophon itself and is not a later addition. Thus, the manuscript published by U.P. Shah bearing the date 1346 is in fact is a mid-fifteenth-century one and the date of its being deposited in the Mahāvira Bhandara, namely 1448, fits in most suitably with the suggested period of its execution. The two manuscripts are obviously very close to each other in point of time. The National Museum manuscript, incidentally, indicates that even if the format is somewhat narrow in imitation of the palm-leaf manuscripts and the text is only in six lines, nevertheless, such features are by no means conclusive factors in favour of a very early date such as the middle of the fourteenth century or the second half thereof.
In the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, there is a manuscript of the Kalakacārya-katha bearing the date of A.D. 1366 and, interestingly enough, executed in Yoginipura (Delhi). The manuscript has only three illustrations depicting a deity seated in a frontal pose. The style of the painting is identical
Moti Chandra and U.P. Shah, 'New documents of Jains paintings', Shri Mahdvira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, pp. 375, colour-plate fig. 1 and figs. 1-3. Moti Chandra differed and regarded it, and rightly, as a fifteenth-century menuscript.
IS. V. Gorakahkar, 'A dated manuscript of the Kalakdcharya-kathd in the Prince of Wales Musoum', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, 9, pp. 56-57, figs. 69-71.
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CHARTER 31]
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with that prevailing in Gujarat, which would indicate that the same styles prevailed in the northern and western regions during the fourteenth century. However, hieratic poses and the limited number of illustrations show that the idiom in this manuscript was still very closely linked with the styles seen in palm-leaf manuscripts.
Another manuscript on paper which was in the possession of Muni Jinavijayaji bears a colophon stating that it was written in Vikrama-sarhvat 1424 (A.D. 1367) and was presented by one Deheda to Sanghatilaka-Sari in Vikramasarhvat 1427 (A.D. 1370) (plate 275A). It is 7-5 cm. in width and has seven lines to a page. The paintings which total only eight in number cover 7.5 x 5 cm. Muni Jinavijayaji regarded it as the earliest-known illustrated Jaina manuscript on paper. The present author saw it many years ago and it being no longer available for further examination, no more can be done than to state the facts noted then. It is possible, however, that the date is correct. The workmanship is not of a high order, but that may be due to the fact that the painter was one of mediocre ability. Even amongst the palm-leaf illustrations the quality varies a great deal. However, it is not without significance that there are only eight miniatures in the manuscript, whereas in the later paper manuscripts the number of illustrations is considerably increased.
In the collection of the L.D. Institute of Indology at Ahmedabad is a Santinatha-carita' which bears the date 1453 (A.D. 1396). But the colophon appears to be a later addition and on stylistic grounds it is not possible to date it earlier than the second half of the fifteenth century.
One of the finest early paper manuscripts is the Kalpa-sūtra-Kälakācāryakatha of the Prince of Wales Museum, which, we would venture to suggest, belongs to the last quarter of the fourteenth century. It may be noted that in the Kalakacārya-katha we find that the Sähis who support Kalaka are based on Mongoloid types derived from fourteenth-century Persian paintings. The reason for this is that the Sähis were foreigners and the Mongoloid types in Persian paintings were regarded as eminently suitable for depicting those Sähis. To the same period we may ascribe an undated Kalpa-sutra-Kalakācārya-katha of the Bhandara at Jaisalmer for which Sarabhai Nawab suggested the early fifteenth century. The illustrations are of small size, approximately 8 x 8 cm.,
Moti Chandra and Shab, op. cit., pp. 378 ff., fig. 6.
Mou Chandra, 'An illustrated manuscript of the Kalpasūtra and Kalakacharya-katha”, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, 4, 1953-54, pp. 40 ff., plates VII-XIV.
• Sarabhai Nawab, op. cit., figs. 20 to 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 78, 83 and 86 (in colour).
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(PART VII
against red grounds and both gold and silver are used. The workmanship is of good quality. The size of the miniatures is thus closer to the format of the palm-leaf illustrations than to the later-day miniatures on paper which usually tend to be larger. The number of illustrations is thirty-three and in this respect it is in keeping with the increase in the number of illustrations. It appears to be slightly earlier than the Prince of Wales Museum manuscript and should also be ascribed to the last quarter of the fourteenth century (plate 275B).
Such a large number of illustrated paper manuscripts exist that it is only possible in the present chapter to take note of a few of them which have a direct bearing on the development of the manuscript-illustration style in Jaina painting. One of the most important of the early-fifteenth-century illustrated manuscripts is a Kalpa-sūtra-Kalakācārya-kathā dated 1415. The Kalpa-sütra portion is in the collection of Shri Birla of Calcutta, while the Kalaka-portion is in the possession of Shri P.C. Jain of Bombay (col.-ills. 25 A, B, C, D): The workmanship is of a high order and several of the illustrations are indeed very attractive. Its provenance is not known but it could be Patan. Close to it in date and of quite good workmanship (col. ill. 27 and plate 274) is a Kalpa-sútra in the National Museum, which is dated 1417. Even at this early date, conventions such as sharp pointed noses, small pointed double chins and marrionette-like appearances and gestures have crystallized. The India Office Kalpa-sūtra* dated 1427 is elaborately decorated and the writing is in silver and gold ink. Though the majority of the highly-decorated manuscripts written in gold and silver ink on coloured pages belong to a later date the India Office manuscript affords evidence that at least the beginnings of this 'opulent styles are to be found in the second and third decades of the fifteenth century.
Though it is not advisable to make a categorical statement it may generally be said that the late-fourteenth and early-fifteenth-century illustrated paper manuscripts are of good quality. The main centres for the production of these manuscripts were the towns of Gujarat such as Patan, Ahmedabad, Broach, etc., and various places in Rajasthan, but the style of painting was not confined to these areas. At Mandu during the period 1435-40 two excellent illustrated manuscripts were produced in a local variant which certainly equalled if not surpassed the best Gujarati work of the period. A Kalpa-sūtra dated 1439 painted
1 Karl Khardalayala and Moti Chandra, New Documents of Indian Paintlaga Reappraisal, Bombay, 1969, p. 15, figs. 5-8.
A Coomaraswamy, Notes on Jaio Art', Journal of Indian Art and Industry, 16, no. 122. 28, 1913, plate 1, 8g. 5.
• Karl Kbandalavala, 'Leaves from Rajasthan', Märg, IV, no. 3, p. 10.
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N
;
OHARRAK: 311
MINIATURE PAINTINGS at Manda is now in the National Museum, while the Kalakhodrya-katha in the collection of the late Muni Punyavijayaji can be ascribed to approximately the same date. We find that wherever there were prosperous Jaina communities a demand for illustrated Jaina manuscripts came into being. Though adhering to tradition and hieratic requirements both these Mandu manuscripts evidence innovations and a mastery over brilliant yet suave colouring. In the Kalpa-sūtra of 1439 the stereotyped female costume of the Gujarat manuscript-illustrations occasionally gives way to the contemporary mode of dressing adopted by ladies in Mandu. The Kalakdcarya illustrations are even more effective than those of the Kalpa-sütra and are amongst the finest examples of Svetämbara Jaina painting. .
Another provincial development is seen in an elaborate Kalpa-sūtra datod 1465 painted at Jaunpur during the reign of Husain Shah Sharqi. It is evident that there was a rich Jaina community in Jaunpur and the manuscript is the work of local illustrators. Contemporary costumes are worn by some of the female figures and the characteristic method of draping the odhni over the breasts in a broad band, seen in the Mandu Kalpa-sutra, is also to be observed in several folios of the Jaunpur manuscripts. Musicians are shown wearing dhotis and turbans. The winds of change were slowly but surely eroding the traditional practices of a hieratic art. In Gujarat itself, at Gandhar Bundar near Broach a most sumptuous manuscript was produced, namely the famous Kalpa-sütraKälakācārya-katha of the Devasd-no Pädo Bhandara at Ahmedabad. A folio from it is in the National Museum, New Delhi (col.-ills. 28A, B). Several of the panels which comprise the border-decoration of the folios are obviously the result of the influence of the Persian Timurid school of painting, though it is very likely that costumes and turbans do reflect the sartorial fashions of the Sultanate court and its followers in Gujarat. The manuscript can be dated circa 1475 and is no doubt the most sumptuous and interesting of that group of elaborate manuscripts which belong to what is termed the 'opulent period of Jaina manuscript-production which ranges approximately between 1427 and 1550. The introduction of numerous vignettes and a variety of decorative patterns, under the influence of Persian painting and also perhaps of Persian carpets, textiles, pottery, etc., indicates a new outlook. Even landscapes and seascapes
1 Karl Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, 'A consideration of an illustrated Ms. from Måndapadurga (Mandu), dated 1439 A.D.', Lalit Kald, 6, pp. 8 ff.,col.-plates and plates V.VII.
• Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1969, p. 21.
• Karl Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, 'An illustrated Kalpasúira painted at Jaunpur is A.D. 1465', Lalit Kala, 12, pp. 9-15, col.-plates and plates 1.V.
Kbandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1969, pp. 29-43, where the manuscript is dealt with in considerable detail.

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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS
make their appearance. This movement had been heralded as carly as 1451 with the Vasanta-vilasa scroll,' now in the Freer Gallery, Washington. Here the theme is no longer hieratic being a phägu in old Gujarati which deals with love in the advent of spring. So also the Bala-Gopala-stuti manuscripts deal with the Krsna legend with a freedom which indicates that though the illustrators of all such manuscripts had not departed from the Jaina style they were refusing to be bound by hieratic shackles. A single folio in the National Museum (col.-ill. 28C) is also, it seems, from the Devasi-no Pido manuscript and can accordingly be dated circa 1475. A manuscript rather similar to that of the Devasã-no Pado Bhandara was painted at Patan in 1501. Judging from photographs and colour-slides of this manuscript, seen by us, the Devasa-no Pado manuscript appears to be somewhat earlier. Much secrecy surrounds its present whereabouts. Maybe the new trend of Persian influence in the borderdecoration was first started by the Devasá-no Pädo manuscript about 1475 in the coastal area of Broach and was adopted later at Patan at the end of the fifteenth century. Some writers however prefer to regard the Devasã-no Pado manuscript as belonging to the early sixteenth century and would support that viewpoint by reference to the Patan manuscript of 1501.
Among other important manuscripts of the 'opulent period' is a Kalpasutra in the Hamsa vijayaji collection of the Atmānanda Jaina Jääna Mandir, Narasimghji-ni-Pol, Baroda. It is elaborately decorated with floral and animal patterns.
An unusually fine manuscript with illustrations rather different in style from the general run of illustrations of this period is the Kalpa-sutra in the collection of Upadhyāya Sohanvijayaji of Vijayānanda Sūriśvaraji-nă Sanghäda. It is dated 1466. A little later comes a Kalpa-sütra from Mandu in the collection of Muni Kantivijayaji, also in the above-mentioned Atmānanda Jñana Mandir, Baroda. It may be noted that though this manuscript hails from Mandu and though quite attractive it is not in the style of the Mandu Kalpa-sūtra of 1439 and the Muni Punyavijayaji Kalakācārya-kathas which also is unmistakably
1 W. Norman Brown, Vasanta Vilasa, Connecticut, 1962.
2 W, Norman Browo, 'Early Vaishnava migiature paintings from western India', Eastern Ari, II, 1930, pp. 167-206.
Moti Chandra and U.P. Shab, op. cit., 1968, p. 364, figs. 12, 13. • Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1949, figs. 139 to 147. . Ibid, figs. 148 to 154.
. Pramod Chandra, 'A unique Kalakachăryakatha MS. in the style of the Mandu Kalpasūtra of A.D. 1439', Bulletin of the American Academy of Benares, 1, pp. 1-10, figs. 1-20.
410

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CHAPTER 31)
उनक
PLATE 273
NESIA
Colophon of a MS., Vikrama-sarrat 1509 (A.D. 1452), containing colour-illustration 26 (National Museum, New Delhi)
MINIATURE PAINTINGS

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PLATE 274
मीणां मनाया जा रहा amya =नावमा कमिसन
सुत्राम यांसवारामदास अहमंदसाउथरकंघाचे १६ तिमिसंवत् ४७४वामी
॥मूलः सुधम्मदिकगणधर कं 'लश्चारुचारित्र दाना धिनी र हारे।।
वाघासणाकोणासम
दिशा
धबंधा तिराम, कूजन श्री संघवा रवः छविश्वरद सकल सुरवारा संतत सिमानः॥सायापासून ॥श्रीमदंध लगाना जिन वे मा स्वमूरयः। भूरेः सुम [दवास्यालयसिद्धि तिमूरयरितासमुद्रश्व रि बलूच दातिवाअटमस डायनादे ताम्रा महान निको नाम मिकां श्री मास खड़ा स्वरित्यादः ॥
या शिवगतिफलदः कलाकला माव तिमिदश्वपद्मदिवस घागुरुः। दास। मणि काऊंडरः श्रीश्रीमाल देखाव वलादवना मात्रा पवित्रा किल तस्व संतिसादापादईयो माता इक्कारहवी प्रसिद्धा सि७चचः सप्ततिवर्षे साकार यतू का
SUC
Colophon of MS. Vikrama-samat 1474 (A D. 1417), containing colour-illustration 27 (National Museum, New Delhi)
PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
[PART VII

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MINIATURE PAINTINGS
--mile
तालाकलगार ERRAILEसटामववामान यानिडाडाalMATIMA समियामोदर
मणिपरिकलातादेष
मामाणिजावदाना
बालसावेविलायर स्वलारया
विसविस्मातास भावदशेतणकालपोत
MAAN
LAR
.
A. Birth of a Jina, illustration from a palm-leaf MS., A.D. 1367, Gujarati or west-Indian
style (formerly Muni Vijayaji Collection)
Searly
.
B
Jina's panca-musti-loca, illustration from a MS, circa late fourteenth century, Gujarati west-Indian style (Jaisalmer
Bhandara)
PLATE 275

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
A. King Yasodhara welcomed by his wife, illustration from the Yasodhara-carita, A.D. 1494, Gujarat, probably Sojitra (Private Collection)
B. Border-decoration in the Yasodhera-carita (see above)
[PART VII
PLATE 276

Page #51

CHAPTER 31)
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
Gure
V
25
Tic DE
.
SOS
B
Border-decorations in the Yasodharc-carita (sec plate 276A) (Private Collection)
PLATE 277

Page #52

PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
नय॥ध॥ यासपि
B
A
The sixteen dreams of Maru-devi ( detail), from the Adi-purána, A D. 1404, Yoginipura (Delhi), north Indian style (Private Collection )
1
ན་ལ་་-༤་བར་
दियङ्गतदोसशज हिमोस रहसुसा
ammill
PLATE 278
HID
TEEEEE
किलेमाघरालियम
Kamala-śri awaits Bhavisayattha's return, from the Bhavisayattha-kahā, circa A.D. 1430 (see text for later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style
(Private Collection )
[PART VIL

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CHAPTER 31]
साविचीममिहि देविलाल घा सियारवियश्ता सियहो । सरल विवाखपयासिया जनहिया। लम्प्रप्रसाद
A. Musicians and dancers, from the Mahā-puraṇa, circa A.D. 1420 (see text for later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Digambara Jain Naya Mandir, Old Delhi)
KYABASIYIQIGANT][CO A/HGLENFIGDICATSUI
उदासमविजयर
बदल बिंदि
सैन्यं
रायपाट
X
索
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
www
PLATE 279
कराया। अधुपणवा म
B. Bharata's army on the march, from the Mahā purāna (see above)

Page #54

PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
[PART VII
दा
alwa
A
तदिजाति गादत्तति
KORE
GO
A. Indra bolding court, from the Pāsanāha-cariu, AD. 1442, Gwalior, north-Indian
style (Private Collection)
पहलवणाममणिधरिताविसहायकमममकावा सादापाया पशिविछविणामामविविस्मितहमागाठाबरक्याशेषमाया उसमय गलकदतिघासमताहाकाकरितयोस्तुतिक्षाप्रकाछियासहिषमलिमिरायधिवाविवाह हालवावाहचरिकहर्णिकाणीपायडिय होसिधालबाणिवथहउपासात्रामा सपरिवद वरपणा नामावणामपामिव पनि पायदानासंगतिजपा की
MARA...
B. King Yasodhara entertained by a dancer and musicians, from the Jasahara-cariu, circa
1440-50, probably Gwalior, north-Indian style (Private Collection)
PLATE 280

Page #55

CHAPTER 31]
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
त्राणापडिशियामाग्रज यादवरत
REENERONTL..
ASNAMAU
-
- Dire
momपटानदार
A. Santinātha's army, from the Santināha-cariu, circa A.D. 1450-60 (see text for
later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection)
KRITER
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anemovaway anant
पावटा
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समलोरात
सहगल
M/ AnvamvSANE
B. Yasodhara born as a goat, fiom the Jasahara-carnu, A.D. 1454, probably Delhi,
north-Indian style (Private Collection)
PLATE 281

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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
(PART VII
R ECRET नालायरमाटीको मानिसमा
पार मनायानिमिधाबारनपट यामानIMERAVAN
गुणाविनासमपासाधनातालतमणारयमाणप्रधानपदेशनद्यार Y IYE '--KAमानातामपानरान्नामानिरवानाक्षणानगरपानमदापात्रानामा
मुननिरखलनारनवा मानण्यरानामांकन Pahanaiमानातहटाना माना गया है खाजा पसीनयानक:4VARTA nानमनश्यानमांजटाधानाप्रशमनय पानादकबहातमाह THANTERAN
" प्रेमाक्रियकालवतानाताकासा VEMBASTRY"पदा-या मदनिधिURTINESतिपतीनमालामा ' BRARY अनिताटात विमामालिमव्यालाSANS
मिटनाinानदारठगनारवटोच्छादिततनामनामनालयामासपरममिवरमा Hदममताप्रमितापनमतांतरापनानातिनहाकावादिनीमीद मदEननमा नागुणमालबिगितामामागगनक अनामिज
पाना
.
A. Sahasrabala renounces life, from the Adi purana (group J), circa AD. 1450 (sce text for
later date), probably Delhi, north- Indian style (Private Collection)
AREERSTAN
HTTE
*
B
Celebrations at Rsabha's birth from the Adi-purāna (group 2), arca AD 1475 (see text
for later date), probably Delb', north-Indian style (Private Collection)
PLATE 282

Page #57

CHAPTER 31]
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
EMNAMEETHALAN
D
.:
.
Marurtamanna
E
C
.
तो
मनपनापागालालधुरामसकताइटरपरकाया सनिकतावानातमिहरसाहाताकडबाह साकासलविवरखातिसामानिराखोरानाबिनीमान मोक्तिीत निवासामताgaiलाकामालानाविनिध्य छायमानानिलकदिक्षतविभिनीन्भूतngresयालयमुहये। दीनपलमरवातिकातहव्येतबारासति दायितपुरमा एमव्यहनिम्।
बालयोगगुनादयामायायाधणातत्रपुरा अनुमादिताबसमानदानपिनम्तमय मेमदाहकोदिपतीपरमानंदाबालमपरंपाराम मानि- नाaas .
A. City of Ayodhya, from the Adi purana (group 2) (see plate 282B) (Private Collection)
1-विना
my, utarv - Bifrain - 'रावररिवणारादियमछक्षिणादनासडगवरस्य नसभवनात साता
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B. Yasodhara born as a fish, from the Yasodhara-carnta, A.D. 1590, Amer (Private Collection)
PLATE 283

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PANCHKA
PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
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PLATE 284
-
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पहिरायाभरिगएeriend लामिसबुकिला
atheis
Bharata's army advances towards the Mleccha kingdom, from the Mahā-purāna, A D. 1540, Palam, north-Indian
style (Private Collection)
[PART VIL

Page #59

CHAPTEX 311
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
in the same Mandu style of 1439. The Muni Kantivijayaji manuscript from Mandu has reverted to the usual Jaina style practised in Gujarat. It would thus appear that there were different groups of illustrators at Mandu in the fifteenth century, some working in the usual Gujarati style and some who were more progressive evolving the characteristic Mandu idiom seen in the Kalpa-sútra of 1439.
One point of some importance to note is that considerations of style must prevail when it is not possible to reconcile the date of an illustrated manuscript with the style of the paintings. This is amply borne out by an example in the National Museum. It is a Kalpa-sitra-Kalakdcarya-katha (accession no. 51.21), bearing the date Vikrama-samvat 1321 (A.D. 1264). But this is obviously not possible as the illustrations not only belong to the last quarter of the fifteenth century but no illustrated paper manuscript of the thirteenth century exists. It is thus plain that the manuscript including the colophon was copied from a palm-leaf manuscript of 1264 in the late fifteenth century and embellished with paintings in the contemporary style.
DIGAMBARA MANUSCRIPTS.
The tradition of illustrated manuscripts of the Digambara Jainas can be traced back to the twelfth century. In the centuries that followed it appears to have enjoyed a fairly widespread prevalence in parts of southern, western and northern India, but its production is very limited compared to the vast production of Svetāmbara illustrated manuscripts.
THE PALM-LEAF PERIOD
Three palm-leaf manuscripts--the Sat-khand ägama, the Maha-bandha and the Kasdya-pähuda in the collection of Jaina Siddhanta-basti at Mudbidri (Karnataka) appear to the oldest illustrated texts of the Digambara Jainas (col.-ills. 12-21 in chapter 30 above). They deal with the karman philosophy and have the original Prakrit text written in the Kanarese script. The number of illustrations in these manuscripts is limited: there are two in the Saf-khandägama, seven in the Maha-bandha and fourteen in the Kaşaya-pähuda. The paintings in all these manuscripts consist of decorative medallions with a geometrical
1 This section is based largely on the material discovered by Saryu Doshi and discussed in her doctoral dissertation, ia addition to the Digambara manuscripts which were already known.
3 These manuscripts are also known as Dhavald, Jaya-dhavald and Maha-dhavald. S. Dosbi, Twelfth century illustrated manuscripts from Mudbidri', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, 8, 1962-64, pp. 29-36; C. Sivaramamurti, South fndtan Painting, New Delhi, 1968. pp. 90-96. (Also above, chapter 30.-Editor.)

Page #60

PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS
[PART VI
or a floral pattern and portrayals of divinities, monks, donors or devotees. The illustrations have a black outline and are painted in white, yellow and blue against a red background. Though they follow the west-Indian or Gujarati style in its characteristic angular rendering and the depiction of the protruding farther eye, they possess a distinctive southern flavour of their own.
Only one of these manuscripts--the Sat-khandägama-is dated and bears the date of A.D. 1112. That the other two manuscripts must have been also executed at approximately the same time, that is circa 1112-20, is attested by the close affinities that exist among these three manuscripts in terms of their subject-matter and their style of painting. These manuscripts with their linear technique, their restricted palette and their limited number of illustrations reveal that they follow the stylistic tenets prevalent at that time. Their similarity to manuscripts executed during that period is again underlined in the rendering of the human figures where the plasticity of form is suggested by a wash of colour along the outlines. The iconographical representations of gods and goddesses here serve the same purpose as that of Tārā in Pāla art or the Vidyadevis in Svetāmbara manuscripts: their intent is magical' and their value esoteric rather than aesthetic.
An interesting aspect of these paintings is that even though they fall into the same pattern as that observed in other contemporaneous illustrated manuscripts, they are also marked by a regional idiom, as already stated. They show a direct relationship to the coeval Hoysala sculpture in the delineation of the female form as also in the decorative treatment of the floriated tail of the goose.
THE PAPER PERIOD
Western India
Of the Digambara manuscripts from Gujarat none belonging to the period prior to 1450 seems to have survived. A manuscript of the Tattvärtha-sūtra dated 1469_--now lost-is known only from a reproduction of one of its illustrations. This manuscript was written in golden ink, and the illustration portrays
1 Douglas Barrett and Basil Gray, Painting of India, Cleveland, 1963, p. 55; Moti Chandra, op, cls., 1949, pp. 28-32; W. Norman Brown, The Story of Kalaka, Washington, 1934, pp. 13-20.
? Moti Chandra, Studies in Early Indian Painting, Bombay, 1974, 40. : S. Doshi, op. cit., figs. 29a and 29b.
M. Kapadia, Surat aur Surat Jilla Digambara Jain Mandir Mürti-lekha sangraha, plate facing p. 192.
412

Page #61

CHAPTER 31)
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
Bhattáraka Vidyanandin with his followers. The Bhattáraka is shown as being of heroic proportions and is seated on a cauki with a spired back. Facing him are seated, in three registers, male and female devotees and nuns. Above the monk is a ceiling-canopy patterned with interlinked eight-petalled flowers; above the devotees is a crenelated balustrate with panels of jali-work.
This painting, in its principles of composition in the rendering of human figures, their postures and their dress, as also in its architecture and furnishings, is indistinguishable from other paintings executed in western India during that period.1
The only other example of painting among the Digambaras from this region is a manuscript of the 'opulent style' practised in western India. It is written in golden ink on folios that are coloured red, purple, black or white (col. ill. 30A). It is complete and features the text of the Yasodhara-carita, also known as the Jasahara-cariu, written by Bhattāraka Somakirtti in Sanskrit. Its twenty-nine illustrations are approximately of the same size and are placed on the right or the left side of the folio: two illustrations cover the whole folio (col.-ill, 30B; plate 276A). Along the four sides and the centre of each folio are panels of decorative designs.
The illustrations are composed in full or partial registers and painted in a combination of red and precious colours like lapis blue and gold. The conventions of the linear technique determine the rendering of the human figures. They are angular, have the farther eye and are depicted in exaggerated postures. The men wear a dhoti, an uttartya that is draped across the chest and a tiara. The women also wear a dhoti, a coli, with long sleeves, an odhni that covers the head and occasionally a tiara. The fabrics are patterned with geometrical designs, rows of geese or floral árabesques. The trees have thin trunks and curve inwards into the painting: the mountains are depicted as a pile of colourful boulders with trees growing out of them (col-ill. 30A). The architecture takes the form of structures with jali-work panels or multistoreyed buildings (plate 276A). The furnishings consist of patterned ceiling-canopies and beds with curved legs.
This manuscript, like the preceding one, in its compositions, its colours and its rendering of human figures and landscape, adheres to the conventions that
Seo col.-ills. 25A, B, C, D; Moti Chandra, op. cit. 1949, figs. 89, 90, 149-50; U.P. Shah, Story of Kalaka, Ahmedabad, 1949, figs, 22, 32, 43, 64, 66; W.Norman Brown, Miniature Painting from the Jain Kalpasätra, Washington, 1934, figs. 7, 46, 48; W. Norman Brown, Manuscript Illustrations af the Uttarddhyayana Sutra, Conn., 1941, figs. 32, 51, 149.
413

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PAINTINGS AND WOOD-CARVINGS
[PART VI
prevailed in the painting of western India during the fifteenth century (cf. col.ills. 30A, B, with col.-ill. 27). Certain cliches of that style can be recognized in the iconographic portrayal of the Devi (col.-ill. 30B), the toilet-scene of a man having his long hair combed by female attendant (plate 276B) and the marriage-pavilion. Only in the depiction of a multistoreyed palace is encountered an unusual motif.
In the border-decorations of this manuscript are displayed floral meanders, geometrical patterns and ornamental motifs adopted from Persian tiles and carpets (plate 277A). Some panels have charming depictions of squirrels and birds in the foliage of creepers as well as of decorative trees, of dancing women and musicians (plate 277B), of wrestlers and, lastly, of processions of animals. The borders invite a direct comparison with those in the manuscripts of the Uttaradhayana-sutra of 14722 and the Muni Hamsavijayaji Kalpa-sutra." Though this manuscript bears considerable resemblance to the Devasā-no Pädo KalpaSūtra, it is clear that the borders herein possess neither the imaginative rendering nor the variety of the latter. Nor do they feature figures in the Persian or Sultanate period costumes as seen in the Devasā-no Pädo Kalpa-sūtra and the Jamnagar Kalpa-sütra."
Generally the borders of illustrated manuscripts function as decorative adjuncts to the illustration, but in some of the folios of this manuscript they act as supplements to the illustration placed either on the same folio (col.-ill. 30B) or the folio that follows immediately afterwards--an arrangement that works very well as both these folios would be seen together while the manuscript is being read. On one occasion, an entire episode is illustrated in the border-panels only, there being no illustration to accompany it. This method of portraying episodes through the borders only is rare but not new: it is also seen in the Patan (Shãmalāji-ni Pol) Kalpa-sutra dated 14596 in Patan.
1 Cf. col.-Il. 30B with M. R. Majumdar, 'Earliest Devi mahatmya miniatures with special reference to Sakt worship in Gujarat', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, VI, 1938, plate XXVIII, tige. 3-4; cf. plate 276B with Brown, op. cit., 1934, plate 12.
. Brown op. cit., 1941, figs. 27, 32, 76, 91, 127, 137, 141, 148, 149, 150, where the date is not mentioned. The date is given by Khandalavala in Leaves from Rajasthan, Märg, 4, no. 3.
Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1949, figs. 139, 142-46.
• Cl. plates 276B, 277A, B, with Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1969, plates 6, 7, figs. 49-50, 59-96.
Moti Chandra and Shah, op. cit., 1968, figs. 12, 13.
Sarabhai Nawab, 'Jain Jatakona Citraprasangoväli Kalpasūtrani Suvarnäksari Prata', Acarya Vijaya-vallabla-Suri Smáraka-Grantha, Bombay, 1956, pp. 161-67.
drya Vijava-wanawab, Jain labi u., 1968, figs. 12
414

Page #63

CHIALI 31)
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
22 Judatta suri with hnaraksta part of painted woonkın book-cover, AD 1122-54,
Wis Indian or Gujarati 13 le (laismur Bhandara)
CNC
234
Part of a wooden book cover, AD 1122-54 (suc tuxt for carlar date),
west-Indian or Gujarati styl (Jaisalmer Bhandara)

Page #64

PUNUINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
3
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PARI VII
23 B&c. Bach view of the book over at col-l] 231. showing roundels, birds and animals

Page #65

23D Same as col ills 23B D
CHAPTER 31]
MINIATURE PAINTINGS

Page #66

PAINTINGS & WOOD)- ARVINGS
24
Detail fron, the pulli of the Dev-SUIT-Kumudacandra dipuiation, circu AD 1125
West-Indian or Gujarati style Private Collection
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Page #67

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25 A halaka and disciples, B army of Giri abhilla on the march, (, Kalaka and the Sahi chief, D, capture of Gardabhilla, folo from the Kalakácārya-katha, west-Indian or
Gujarati style (Collection of PC Jain, Bombay)

Page #68

IPARI VII
CARVINGS PAINTINGS & WOOD
6 Gantuntirdå jolio from the hclpc-sutra-Kalah uru-hatha AD 1452. west-Irdiar
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Page #69

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e Gujarati stucational Vu-eum New Delhi)
MINIATURE PAINTINGS

Page #70

[PART VII
WOOD-CARVINGS PAINTINGS &
KA
Penance of Bahubali, fohotobverse) from the Devasa.no Pado Bhandara kalpa-sur... Kalsh derina-luthu. AD 1475 (see text for later date). west-Indian or
Gujarat -tule (National Museum, New Delbu)
SOTRISCLASH
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अहिदायाचा भाउबात

Page #71

प्रदीरामनाएं विदिगामाय लावाणमागायासमा ग्राक्का सिमाविद्या
लमश्एाऊसलाधारम
दरसाव सत्ताया
नामावाईmamaठान
सरस्कार तामिमदस्मा सिहासनाला साहसमिक्षामा
2018तावीससस्त्रावाणा
2SB Berder-decorations folio (reverse ) from same as col-ill. 28A
PAINTINGS
MINIATURE
CHAPTER 311

Page #72

2NC
Gird abhilla and Kalaka, tolio with ar inial and bird panels probabi, from the Devasa-no Pado Bhandara, circa 14 West Indian or Gujarati style (National Mo-com
रिसाहाय वमाहियत
ताकि
सविदाथ
साइतिदाय
from Kraka ana-katha (see text for later date). New Delhn
काडमाण
गाउअचंदन परीक्षा
PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
[PART VII

Page #73

29
Indra and Iruri (see text 1
grect qu en M ru devi to from the Maha-purana circa AD 1420 tr date probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Digambara lain Mindir Ol! Della Colection)
CHAPTER 311
MINIATURE PAINTINGS

Page #74

301
The porcupine kills the snake and is in turn at.cked by an animal, folo from the Yasodhar-curia, AD 1494 Gujarat, probably Soptra (Private Collection)
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PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
PART VII

Page #75

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PAINTINGS MINIATURE
CHAPTER 31)

Page #76

PAINTINGS & WOOD-CARVINGS
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Collection)
33 Candramati shows Ya odhara the sacrificial cock made of flour, folio from the Jusahara-cariu, arca ID 1740-50, probably Gwalior, north-Indian style
(Private Collection)
[ PARI VII

Page #77

MANAVANE
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CHAPTER 31 )
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34. On meeting monk Sudatta. Abhayamat and Abhavaruci lose consciousness, folio frmte Jusaura-curl, ID 1454.
probably Delhi, north Indian styl (Puvate Collection)
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35. Santināth a with alteridants, folio from the VintimidCarnu, cho ID 1450-60 ince text for later date probably
Delhi, the sth-indian style Private Collection)

Page #78

[PART VII
WOOD-CARVINGS PAINTINGS &
361. Vidyadharaitubala. foto fron theidi.prerana group D. ormaA.D. 1450 (see teufai
later datei. probably Delhs, orth Indian styre Private Collection)
ASTRATHIS
मलाबालबमानस्फुरहानशिकालिमा याणवविकाई प्रमदानवतारुतादवदेवधर धानिनाद
वाकवलामालापपरिनालाई बयकातस
याकोनापक्तियमान कर एईमारतासहबासकायोसपुरीतिलकायतराय
क
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RAKHAND
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Vus
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36B
Sienika extols the beauty of the sumavusuram, folo from the Adi-purina (group 1), (irca A.D. 1450 (see text for later date), probably Delhi.
north-Indian style (Private Collection)

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36C. Musicians celebrating the wedding of Srimati and Vajrajangha. folio from the Adi-purana (group 2). circa A D. 1475 (see text for later date), probably Delhi, north-Indian style (Private Collection)
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MATEUSE SOF UraiaZur EMAM
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Dancer, folio from the a-purana (group 2), circa probably Delhi, north-Indian
THEMAHANDWERKW
A D. 1475 (see text for later date) style (Private Collection)
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King Yasodhara with his entourage, folo from the usodl:ari-curita. ID 1596. probabk
north Gujarat, west-Indian style (Private Collection)
8.
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CHAPTER 31),
MINIATURE PAINTINOS ..". The colophon of this manuscript informs us that it was executed in the
Vikrama year 1551 (A.D. 1494). No mention is made of the place where it was executed, but the marked stylistic affinities to the Uttaradhyayana-sutra of 1472 and the celebrated Devásá-no Pado manuscript of circa 1475 in its style of painting, its colour-scheme including the cluster of three white dots in the background (cf. col.-ill. 30A with col.-ill. 28C) and its border-decorations leave little doubt that the provenance of this manuscript is western India. Its entire conception is characteristic of the 'opulent style' that existed in that region during the fifteenth century.
Northern India
An Adi-purāna executed in Yoginipura (Delhi) and dated 14041 is the earliest illustrated manuscript on paper known to the Digambara tradition. Though not fully completed, this manuscript makes a valuable contribution towards the understanding of the variants that developed in west-Indian or Gujarati painting during the fifteenth century. The manuscript consists of two hundred and fifty-seven folios and has three hundred and seventeen spaces demarcated in the text for purposes of illustration. Unfortunately only one the first one of these spaces is painted (plate 278A); the rest are blank. The illustration is executed in the linear technique which employs angular rendering and shows the human figures with the protruding farther eye. The palette is mainly limited to primary colours. In the treatment of various motifs like the ceiling-canopy patterned with a floral design, the bed with curved legs and the decorative floral sprays one can recall the style of painting as practised in western India.
In its scheme of illustrations the number of illustrations, their format and their placement on the folio--this manuscript presents a concept that is quite different from the formal organization evident in the manuscripts from western India. The illustrations are not only much greater in number than in the manuscripts from western India, but also reveal a much greater variation in their formats. Their sizes range from full folios-a scale as yet unattempted in westIndian manuscripts-to panels that are long and horizontal or rectangular or square. Although the general preference is to place the illustration on the right and/or left side of the folio as in the case in the west-Indian or Gujarati manuscripts, it is not unusual to see more than two illustrations--all of different sizes--on the same folio. On the whole this manuscript exhibits a remarkable
* S. Doshi, 'An illustrated Adipuråpa of A.D. 1404 from Yoginipura', Chavi, Värāgasi, 1972, pp. 383-91. * Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1949, figs. 59, 89, 90.
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; (PART VI flexibility in the manner in which it arranges its textual and painted matter on the folios-a flexibility that is found missing in the rigidly-conceived framework of the contemporary manuscripts from western India. Perhaps this new attitude may have resulted from an exposure to Persian tradition of painting. So, even while the style of painting of this manuscript maintains the same conventions as those in western India, in its scheme of illustrations it moves away from them.
Envisaged on the same lines as this Adi-purana of 1404 in its scheme of illustrations as well as its style of painting is the manuscript of the Maha-purana in the collection of the Digambara Jaina Naya Mandir, Old Delhi. The numerous illustrations of the Maha-purāna, however, show lesser variation in their formats and tend to conform to certain set sizes. This conservatism is again reflected in its reluctance to place more than two paintings on the same folio. The illustrations, as a rule, are situated on the left and/or the right side of the folios. Even so, the character of this scheme of illustrations is dissimilar to that of western India.
In the style of painting of this manuscript the affinities to the Adi-purāna of 1404 are particularly evident in the rendering of the female figures (cf. plate 279A, B, with 278A). In both, they are characterized by an extremely narrow waist and are attired in a dress that is patterned by similar stripes. The colourschemes, in their preference for primary colours, are again comparable, but, because the paintings of the Maha-purāna are covered by a coat of yellowish lacquer-varnish, the tonal values of the two manuscripts do not quite match each other.
The many paintings of this manuscript reveal that even though they employ the linear technique, they have assumed an expression that is at variance with that prevalent in western India (cf. col.-ill. 29 with col.-ill. 25). For at that time the style in western India was pre-occupied with achieving refinements in draughtmanship and enlarging its palette. The compositions, thus, became more complex, the rendering detailed and the palette enlarged and enriched by colours like lapis blue, gold and silver. Here, instead, can be noticed a move towards simplicity. The compositions are spread out over larger areas and are less complicated. There is a lack of elaborate ornamentation in architecture or on articles of furniture or on textiles. The colourscheme is restricted to primary colours which is in direct contrast to the variegated palette generally employed in contemporaneous manuscripts from
Moti Chandra, 'An illustrated MS. of the Mahd-purdna in the collection of Sri Digambara Jain Naya Mandir, Delhi', Lalit Kald, 5, pp. 68-81.
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. MINIATURE PAINTINGS western India. Also the forms of clouds and trees are abbreviated versions of those noticed in the tradition of painting in western India.
. And yet, the style of this manuscript does not impress us as being an impoverished version of the style practised in western India. It has a sense of exuberance and vitality: its figures are lively and imbued with action (plate 279A, B). Also, in this manuscript, can be discerned two formulas that not occur in paintings from western India. One is the architecture of the pavilions (plate 279A) and the other the design of the chariot (plate 279B). The former, unlike its counterparts from western India, is not surmounted by balustrades of jali-work panels but fluted domes. The chariot-motif is shown with a flat base and a perpendicular front mounted with a monster's head. These forms appear to portray local tradition' at least as far as the domes are concerned.
It is clear from this evidence that even though the style of this manuscript, with its stress on line and angular rendering, is within the framework of of the west-Indian or Gujarati style, it presents a solution that is quite different from that developed in western India. On the other hand, its stylistic approach, in its rendering as well as its scheme of illustrations, finds parallels in that of the Adi-purana of 1404-all of which leads towards the probable conclusion that Nayā Mandir Maha-puräna was written and painted in or around the region of Delhi in circa 1420. The date favoured by some writers like Moti Chandra, namely circa 1450, cannot, however, be ruled out as styles in Jaina painting continued over long periods of time without change.
Almost identical in style to the Nayā Mandir Mahd-purāna is an incomplete but profusely-illustrated manuscript of the Bhavisayatta-kaha (col.-ill. 31, plate 278B). It deviates from the former manuscript only in the greater conservatism it shows in its scheme of illustrations which does not include any paintings that cover the full folio, and shows even lesser variation in format. The compositions, though animated, are simpler and have a defined tendency to arrange their constituent elements in a row on the same ground plane. The slightly drier style of this manuscript would suggest that it is derived from, rather than contemporary with, the style of the Nayā Mandir Maha-purāna and thus can be ascribed to the region of Delhi, circa 1430, on the assumption that the Nayā Mandir Mahd-puräna can be dated circa 1420 and is not mid-fifteenth century.
1 Cf. plate 279A, B, with Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1949, figs. 90, 150, and 156 respectively.
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That the same tradition of painting existed in Gwalior is provided by a manuscript of Pasandha-cariu dated 1442, executed in Gopacala-durga (Gwalior). It is a text written by the prolific poet Raidha who lived in circa 1380-1480 and spent much of his life in the city of Gwalior. During the fifteenth century Gwalior was a centre of intense Jaina activity: colossal statues were sculptured in the rocky cliffs and numerous Jaina texts were copied. This illustrated manuscript of the Pasandha-cariu must have been made soon after it was composed.
The scheme of illustrations in this manuscript is conceived along the same lines as those noticed in the Bhavisayatta-kahā. Here also most of the paintings are in the form of rectangular panels that conform to two or three set formats and are situated on the left and/or right side of the folio but not broad enough to cover it fully.
Although the style of painting of this Pasandha-cariu shares features like its colour-scheme and its delineation of form with the Bhavisayatta-kahā, its compositions are less accomplished and its line has lost much of its vigour. Its poorer drawing and execution notwithstanding, the style of this manuscript retains its sense of movement. Moreover, in the depiction of the human figures and their postures, as also in the introduction of new styles in their dress, a further stage in the growth of the tradition in the north is discernible. The men continue to wear the traditional outfit of dhoti and uttariya, but the women, in addition to the old dhoti-dupatta outfit, now wear a sari which is draped in a broad flaring band across the chest (plate 280A). New outfits like the jama and the päijämä and the short tunic-päijämä are worn by soldiers, who do not represent a different ethnic type as is the case with the Sähis in manuscripts from western India but are natives of the soil (cf. col.-ill. 32 with col.-ills. 25, 26). The textiles, if patterned at all, have a dot-design: nowhere are seen the elegant floral meanders and spiral patterns that were current in western India. The motif of the seated male figure with the yoga-patta around his knees was not unknown in the Bhavisayatta-kahd; here, however, it is seen often enough for it to be considered as a feature of this style.
1 Rajaram Jain, Raidha Sahitya-ka locandtmaka Parisllana, Vaisbali, 1974, plates 1-9. * Ibid., p. 120.
Ibid., p. 130-31; Rajasthan ke Jaina Sastra Bhandaron kl Grantha Süel (Hindi), 5 vols., ed, K.C. Kasliwal, Jaipur, 1949-62, 1, p. 192, no. 137, p. 208. no. 245; II, p. 140, no. 171, p. 227, no. 1144, p. 233, no. 1223, p. 241, no. 1320, p. 46, no. 501; III, p. 196, no. 119; IV, p. 172,
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Though the sky is occasionally shown as a band as in the foregoing manuscripts, it is now reduced further to being shown as triangular patches in the upper corners of the painting, or as semicircular loops along the top. Occasionally both forms are combined. The palm-tree continues from the earlier tradition, but the tree with the curving trunk and ovaloid foliage has been replaced by a tree with a straight trunk and round or triangular-shaped foliage-its leaves arranged in rows. Water is conventionally depicted as before in overlapping concentric curves. The architecture consists of structures with low domes surmounted by a finial. Flowering sprays that were formerly used as space-fillers have been discontinued here; a large empty area is enlivened by a decorative circular medallion. An unusual feature of this manuscript is that above the hands of some persons appear objects that look like lotus-buds.
A manuscript of the Jasahara-cariu, again a text composed by the author Raidha, is analogous to the Pasandha-cariu in its scheme of illustrations and its style of painting. It is obvious that both the manuscripts are governed by the same stylistic conventions in their choice of colours-including the ubiquitous coat of yellowish lacquer-and their compositions: only occasionally here the frame of the painting is broken by the fluttering end of a scarf or a figure situated outside it (plate 280B). The affinities between the two manuscripts extend to the rendering of the human figure also (cf. plate 280B with 280A). The women are generally attired in säris and the men in dhotis and uttariyas (col.-ill. 33). Only the hunters are clad in jämās and pāijāmās. In the treatment of landscape there is no noticeable change between the two manuscripts, but the architecture of the pavilion in this manuscript is suggested mainly by a superstructure with three or five domes having a wash of red colour along their ribs. On the basis of the close relationship that this manuscript bears to the Pasandhacariu it can be assigned to a date circa 1440-50 and its provenance to Gwalior, though of course the style may also have been prevalent in the Delhi area.
Slightly different in style from the two preceding manuscripts but nevertheless within the same tradition is an incomplete manuscript of the Santinähacartu featuring yet another text written by the poet Raidhü. In its scheme of illustrations and its style of painting, including the cliche of having an object like lotus-bud placed above the hands of some persons, this manuscript abides by the conventions already noticed in the other two Raidho manuscripts. The colour-scheme however, appears to prefer lighter tonal values but it is difficult to be certain about this as these paintings are not lacquered like the other manuscripts of this tradition. Executed carelessly, this manuscript portrays badly-proportioned human figures with large
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heads and bulging eyes but in animated gestures (plate 281A). The most. striking element in this manuscript is its costumes. The women wear särts or dhotis and dupattas, but the men are, by and large, dressed in Persianized attire, no doubt in favour in the contemporary Sultanate period, like the long jāmā or a short tunic worn with a tight päijämä (col. ill. 35). With these are worn a parka and an uttariya. On their heads they wear tiaras. In their essentials, though not in their details, these outfits resemble the ones seen in the Sikandar Näma, the Bharat Kala Bhavan Laur-Canda and the Tübingen Hamzd Nama."
The style of this manuscript appears to represent a further stage in the progression of the tradition of painting in north India and seems therefore to belong to a period circa 1450-60. But a somewhat later date cannot be ruled out. While it is possible that it was written and painted in Gwalior, the heavy accent on Persianized Sultanate costumes would indicate that Delhi may well have been its provenance, as both these centres practised the same tradition of painting.
There is one more copy of Raidhü's Jasahara-cariu. It is dated 1454. The first forty-two folios of this manuscript are lost but from the rest of the folios it is obvious that stylistically this manuscript belongs to the same tradition as the three foregoing manuscripts. Its paintings are mannered and stylized. An unsual feature about this manuscript is the use of red colour for outlines (col.-ill. 34). Its palette, too, like that of the preceding manuscript, is on the lighter side and the paintings are devoid of any lacquer. The human figures are pert and are clad in the same sort of attire as is observed in the other manuscripts featuring Raidhū's compositions. But unlike the Säntināha-cariu the preference for jāmās and păijāmás is not evident here: only one solitary figure is in the tunic-päijämä outfit. The women are dressed dressed in saris; their folds project stiffly forward and are sometimes patterned differently from the sări. Most of the fabrics are white or plain in colour and if patterned at all they show a dot, striped or chequered design. In the landscape-elements the sky is treated dramatically in wavy bands with the outermost layer being white and the innermost being dark blue (plate 281B). The sky frequently takes the form of a curving band or a scalloped loop or occupies an upper corner of the painting. The tree with its trunk bending inwards and its ellipsoidal foliage is reminiscent of the trees in the Nayā Mandir Mahd-purana rather than the other manuscripts that feature Raidhū's texts. The foliage is sometimes shown as having a large cluster of leaves.
Cf. col.-ills. 35 and plate 281A with Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1968, plates 99, 101-15, 117-23
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Of the two places-Gwalior and Delhi-where this manuscript may well have been executed, the latter appears to be a greater possibility as certain features of this manuscript, like the preference for fabrics with a stripe or a chequered pattern and the motif of the tree arching into the composition, are nearer those observed in the Naya Mandir Maha-purana.
As a group, these four manuscripts that deal with the compositions of the poet Raidho not only portray the tradition of painting as it evolved in north India but also reveals some stylistic parallels to other manuscripts of the period such as the Mandu Kalpa-sutra and the Jaunpur Kalpa-sutra in the rendering of their human figures and the manner in which the men wear their dhotis and uttariyas and the women their saris. More evident parallels than these are those that are recognizable in the group of manuscripts like the Sikandar Nama, the Bharat Kala Bhavan Laur-Canda and the Tübingen Hamza Nama. They are particularly evident in the costume-types of the long jamas, the tunic-paijama outfits and the manner in which the pleats of the säris project stiffly forward. In the treatment of the figure representing a Hindu, this latter group of manuscripts shows an ethnic type which has similarities to the figures seen in the manuscripts of Pasandha-cariu and the undated Jasaharacariu. The analogies between these two groups support the premise that this group of manuscripts, such as the Sikandar Näma, etc., may have been executed in and around Delhi. It is also possible to suggest that the date of their execution may be circa 1450, rather than the late fifteenth century, though this is controversial. The entire group of manuscripts such as the Sikandar Nama, etc., as well as the well-known Caura-pañcāšikā group, have been classified by Khandalavala and Moti Chandra in their recent publication, An Illustrated Aranyaka Parvan of the Asiatic Society, Bombay, 1974, as belonging to what they term the Lodi school of painting. They would prefer a dating for the Sikandar Nama, the Tübingen Hamza Nama and the Laur-Canda of the Bharat Kala Bhavan in the last quarter of the fifteenth century but at the same time would suggest that any date in the second half of the fifteenth century may approximate to the truth.
Another manuscript of the Adl-purana possessing an individualistic style of its own also belongs to the tradition of painting in north India. The manuscript is complete but towards the latter part the illustrations have not been
Cf. col.-ills. 33, 34 and plate 280A, B, with Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1968, plates 2, 4, and figs. 11, 15-18, 33, 36, 39, 43, 44.
* Cr. col.-ills. 32, 34, 35, with ibid., figs. 90, 101, 102-04, 109, 117, 118, 125. Cf. col.-ill. 33 and plates 281A, B, with ibid., figs. 99, 101-03, 108. Ibid., pp. 50, 53.
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executed--the spaces reserved for them are left blank. Its scheme of illustrations, like the other manuscripts of the northern tradition, contains numerous illustrations of varying formats. While most of its folios have paintings on the left and/or the right side of the folio, others have the paintings placed in interesting arrangements which show an integrated relationship between the textual and the painted matter and reveal an approach like that noticed in Persian manuscripts (col. ill. 36A and plates 282A, B, 283A). The paintings appear to be composed in small panels added to one another (plate 282B).
Stylistically, the folios of this manuscript fall into three groups. The first group comprises folios 1-39, the second folios 40-160 and the last folios 161-77. The second and the third groups possibly represent an attempt to complete the illustrations at some date subsequent to the first group.
The style of painting in the first group conforms to the northern idiom except that its colour-scheme is more extensive than before and the drawing is becoming incrcasingly stylized and mannered. The figures are elongated and their faces are more angular (col.-ill. 36A, plate 282A). In the male figure the faces have a wash of colour along their jaw-line suggesting the down of the beard (plate 282A). They wear short dhotis, an uttariya draped in an unusually low loop and a tall tiara. Only occasionally are they attired in a jāmā and high boots. The female figures are dressed in sāris with the pleats projecting outwards and the end passed diagonally across the chest in a flaring band. The textiles, when not plain, have a striped or a crude pattern. The landscape is imaginatively handled (col.-ill. 36B). For example, the trees are shown with creepers entwined around their trunks and birds or monkeys seated in their foliage: their leaves are veined in red or yellow and are generally arranged in rows or in a circular pattern. The forms for mountains have usually some variation on the basic formula of slabs with voluted tips but sometimes are reduced to circular boulders piled one upon another or stretched along a plain. Clouds are enlivened with lightening. For the first time in this tradition panels of pure landscape are introduced. The architecture of the pavilion shows a superstructure which consists of a low pitched roof and wall with latticework,
It is apparent from these illustrations that within the definitions of the northern tradition, the style of this manuscript is distinguished by vitality and inventiveness. What is even more intereresting is that certain of its features can be aligned with the style of the controversial Caura-pañcâsika group of
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paintings. Amongst these can be cited the wider spectrum of the palette, the occcurrence of the cliche of the wash of colour along the jaw-line of the faces of the male figures, the motif of the man seated with a yoga-patta around his knees and the veining of the leaves in the trees in red and yellow." But no far-reaching conclusion can be drawn therefrom.
The style of painting of the second group of illustrations in this manuscript stands somewhat apart from that of the foregoing group despite several generic similarities. The range of colours employed in it is narrowed down to mainly blue, white and dull green. The drawing is more accomplished and has an agitated rhythm and beauty not yet observed in this tradition (col.-ills. 36C, D). The most significant change, however, is the manner in which the human figures are portrayed. The faces of these figures are rendered in true profile-without the farther eye-and have assumed a distinct squarish cast. They are shown in various attitudes; and the seated man with the yogapatta around his knees has by this time become a pronounced feature of this style. The men are clad either in the old traditional type of outfit comprising the dhoti and the uttariya or the new Persianized Sultanate attire of the jama and the paijāmā (col.-ill. 36C). With these outfits is worn either a tiara placed in front of a high spiked headgear or a turban that is wound around a plain or a latticed kuläh (plate 282B). The women wear the säri in a manner that corresponds to that of the preceding manuscripts. The only new element in their ensemble is the peg-earring (col.-ill. 36C). The textiles employed here generally appear to be of a thick coarse variety and are usually white in colour without any patterns whatsoever thereon. The landscape is in accordance with the formulae of the northern tradition-the tree with a large cluster foliage is identical to that seen in the Jasahara-cariu of 1454-but its rendition is more sensitive and elegant. Sometimes the foliage of the trees is surrounded by little white and yellow stars. The pavilion continues to have a superstructure of striped or fluted domes or kiosks with pitched roofs. Quite often, along
1 This group consists of the Caura-pañcášikd series (Municipal Museum, Ahmedabad), the Laur-Canda divided between the Museums of Lahore and Chandigarh, scattered folios of a Bhagavata-purana series, the Mirgdvat of the Bharat Kali Bhavan, the Laur-Canda of the Rylands Library, Manchester, the Laur-Canda of the Prince of Wales Museum, the Mahd-purāņa of 1540, the Aranyaka-parvan of 1516 in the Bombay Asiatic Society, the Vijayendra-Sari Ragamald and the Gita-Govinda of the Prince of Wales Museum. All these manuscripts have been analysed by Khandalavala and Moti Chandra in op. cit., 1969, pp 64-109, and more recently in An Illustrated Aranyaka Parvan of the Aslastic Society, Bombay, 1974, where this group is given the nomenclature of the 'Lodi School of Painting'.
* Cf. col-ills. 35A, B, and plate 282A with Khandalavala and Moti Chandra op. cit., 1969, plates 16, 20, 21,
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the edge of the roof is a row of battlements. The interior of the pavilions is decorated with a canopy tied to the ceiling in loops. Below it is depicted a bed with or without long diagonally-placed cushions (plate 283A). A noticeable development in the style of this manuscript is a tendency to interpret the hieratic subject-matter in genre terms.
The group better manifests several features that are identifiable with the Caura-pañcasika group of paintings. Predominant among these is the conception of the human figure. They exhibit the same squarish faces with long large eyes; the same postures are employed including the man seated with a yogapatta around his knees. Certain similarities in costumes include little details like the peg-earring worn by the women. The tree with stars around its foliage, the shape of the chariots and the pavilions with their domes and battlements as well as their interior furnishings are common occurrences in this manuscript as well as in the Caura-pancasika group of paintings.'
The third and last group of folios in the Adi-purana must have been painted centuries later and are very poorly executed.
Though groups 1 and 2 are somewhat divergent stylistically, both are easily identifiable with the northern idiom of painting: each has its own set of analogous features. Again, both reveal certain similarities to the Caura-pañcātikā group of paintings, though in different motifs-the second group much more than the first. Through this manuscript, then, can be established an interconnexion between the style of painting employed in the Caura-pañcasika group and that existing in northern India.
The more sophisticated style of this Adi-purana in relation to the other manuscripts from the northern region would indicate a metropolitan centreprobably that of Delhi-as the place where it was painted. In its date the first group seems to the earlier than the second group judging from the fact that its similarities lie in the direction of the style of the Pasandha-cariu of 1442 and the Jasahara-cariu of 1454. It was probably painted in circa 1450. The second group, in addition to being closely connected with the northern style in its conception of motifs and its palette, is related to the manuscript of the Aranyaka-parvan of 1516 in its treatment of the human figure, the landscape and the architecture. On the basis of these affinities it can be ascribed to a date of circa 1475. Stylistically, the two groups of this manuscript appear to
1 Cf. col.-ills. 36C, D, and plates 282B, 283A, with Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1968, plates 16, 20, 21, 23, and figs. 187, 189, 191, 194, 199.
Cf. col,-ills. 15C, D, and plates 282B, 283A, with ibid., plates 13-16.
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:: MINIATURE PAINTINGS be separated from cach other by a period of twenty-five years at the most. Khandalavala, however, regards the two groups as quite distinct and done at Tather widely-separated periods of time. He suggests for the first group the late fifteenth century, that is circa 1475-1500, and for the second group a date near about that of the Maha-purdina of 1540 (to be mentioned below). Thus, the
up would according to him be of some time between 1520 and 1540.
A direct continuation and advancement of the stylistic trend prevalent in northern India and as seen in the preceding Adi-purana (group 2) is evident in the Mahā-puräna of 1540 written and painted in Palam (near Delhi). It is apparent in its scheme of illustrations, though now the scale has become much more ambitious. Many of the paintings cover the full folio or extend across it in the form of long horizontal panels. Most of them are situated on the left and/or the right side of the folio or occasionally even in the centre. A certain deterioration is evident in the drawing which has lost its former fluidity of line. Even so, the paintings are accomplished and are imbued with a sense of movement (plate 284). The palette employs a greater number of colours and a coat of lacquer is applied to the illustrations. The larger compositions are constructed in additive panels. The subject-matter of the paintings is viewed increasingly in a secular context.
The treatment of the human figures and their costumes are consistent with what has been observed before in the northern tradition. The faces of many of the male figures reveal a wash of colour along their jaw-line and upper lips as in group 1 of the Adi-puräna. Except for the postures which have changed from sitting to squatting positions the treatment of the human figure has not been altered. The textiles are more elaborately patterned. The landscape, the architectural motifs, the chariots and the thrones continue to be in the same style as in the older manuscripts; only the mango-tree and the walled city with its inhabitants seated in pavilions are new (plate 284).
This manuscript represents a culminating-point in the development of the northern idiom. At the same time it can be considered as belonging to the Caura-pañcāśikā group in its style since like that group it uses a varie-coloured palette, its human figures are drawn in true profile and their postures and gestures are also comparable. The depiction of landscape and architecture including the decorative device of the arrow-head pattern is in agreement with what is seen in the Caura-pancasika group.*
1 Ibid, pp. 69-78. • Ibid, plate 21 and figr. 190, 191, 195.
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[PART VII The earlier manuscript of the undated Adi-puräna, too, had evoked certain parallels to the Caura-panicăsikā group. The cumulative evidence of these two manuscripts-the Adi-puräna and the Mahd-purdiņa of 1540-suggests that both of them are examples, amongst others also, of an emergent style which efloresces into the Caura-pañcasika style. They indicate, furthermore, ** that the origins of the Caura-pancasika style lie in the painting that was practised in northern India.
A survey of all these manuscripts executed in Delhi and the neighbouring regions gives us a fair idea of the style of painting as it developed in that region in the pre-Akbar period during the Lodi rule. It establishes, besides, that this style was related to and yet distinct from the style coeval in western India. For, when the style in northern India is compared to that of western India, the former reveals that it includes much greater number of illustrations in its texts--often to the extent of being needlessly repetitive. Again, in the organization of its textual and illustrated matter on a folio, the northern idiom is less inhibited and more inventive than the western idiom which has a very formal arrangement. The compositions are energetic and in costumes, architecture and furnishing the two idioms appear to portray local peculiarities.
As a style, the northern idiom presents a steady progression in its development by introducing new forms and experimenting with novel methods of composition. By contrast, the style in western India, though more sumptuous and elegant, tends to develop inwardly within its own framework and as a result becomes effete and static.
In 1556 Akbar ascended the throne of Delhi and the cultural ferment that characterized his reign seems to have had a very decided repercussion on the pictorial expression of the period. On the west-Indian style of painting, the effects can be observed in the treatment of human figures and their attire in many manuscripts amongst which can be counted the Sangrahani-sütra of 1583, executed in Matar' and a Yasodhara-carita of 1596 (col.-ill. 37). The same trend is also reflected in another Yasodhara-carita of 1590 executed in Amer, the capital of the Kacchwāhā Rājputs (plate 283B).
Though the Digambara manuscripts are outnumbered by the Svetămbara ones, there is no reason to believe that the Digambara community was copying the Svetăm bara for propaganda value. The real reason may well be that the Svetämbara Jainas were oriented towards this form of religious expression
* Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1974. • Moti Chandra and Sbah, op. cit., 1968, pp. 367-68. * Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, op. cit., 1969, p. 69.
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MINIATURE PAINTINGS more than any other community. The Hindus, the Buddhists, the Digambara Jainas, the Muslims-none of them can singly or collectively match the prolific output of the Svetämbaras.
Aside from the divergence in the number of manuscripts commissioned, the Svetambara and Digambata traditions differ a lot in the texts they to illustrate. The lives of the Tirtharkaras is a popular theme with both sects, but in the Svetāmbaras it generally takes the form of the Kalpa-sútra and in the Digambaras that of the Mahd-puräna. Again, the Svetämbaras illustrate the Uttaradhayana-sutra, while the Digambaras select the Yasodhara-carita. Apparently their choice was determined by sectarian values. Also each sect repeatedly illustrated the same texta trait which is shared by other communities as well: for instance, the Hindus preferred the story of the Bala-Gopala-stuti and the Sultanate Muslim tradition illustrated the Sikandar Nama and the Hamzá Näma.
Despite these differences, when it came to choosing a style with which to illustrate their manuscripts both sects depended upon the style that existed in that particular region at that time. Thus, the Digambara manuscript of the Yasodhara-carita of 1494 is indistinguishable from other Svetambara manuscripts of the 'opulent style' from western India. If this Yasodhara-carita of 1494 departs from the other manuscripts of the Yasodhara-carita, it is because they belong to different areas. For it is clear from a study of these Digambara and Svetāmbara manuscripts that during the fifteenth century the west-Indian or Gujarati style had begun to diversify into regional trends. While it retained its essential and distinguishing characteristics, local influences asserted themselves in the depiction of architecture, furniture, chariots, decorative designs on textiles and other objects. And, it was this local style that served as the vehicle of expression for illustrated documents from the region, regardless of whether the text was Islamic, Hindu, Jaina or Buddhist. Therefore, the Hindu Bala-Gopala-stutis are painted in the same style as the Svetämbara Kalpa-sūtras in Gujarat, while in northern India the Digambara manuscripts are stylistically comparable with what has been termed the Sultanate Lodi group.
Together, these Svetambara and Digambara Jaina manuscripts provide valuable clues towards the understanding of the trends that existed in the painting of the pre-Mughal period. They help to project the various developments and ramifications of those trends into a sharper focus and thereby contribute significantly to the history of Indian painting.
KARL KHANDALAVALA
SARYU DOSHI
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INTRODUCTION
SOME OF THE MOST INTRICATE AND CHARMING WOOD-CARVINGS WHICH HAVE survived the ravages of time are found in Gujarat and Rajasthan and mostly belong to a period ranging from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. The best examples out of these owe their origin to Jainism. The dry climate of Gujarat and Rajasthan, in which the wooden things could last much longer than the other parts of the country, must have provided the incentive for the extensive use of wood in this region. Another important reason of its patronage could have been its heat-resistant quality. Moreover, wood was readily available in the forests of the neighbouring Madhya Pradesh and could be transported easily. The artist-carver must have realized that it was easy to carve figures, lattices, perforations and other minute details in wood and its embellishment took less time than other media like stone. Wooden balconies of the houses of Gujarat and Rajasthan not only looked elegant but provided more air also. The use of wood had another advantage, namely, that of reducing weight without affecting the strength of the structure which was amenable to elaborate ornamentation on diverse parts not possible in brick or stone.
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE AND FURNITURE
A Jaina domestic house usually has either a Tirthankara image or mangala-cihna (fourteen dreams, etc.) carved on its door-lintel or window-frame to give it an auspicious aspect. Other decorations on the frame include depiction of the aşta-mangalas, floral and creeper patterns, dvåra-palas, etc. A wooden façade is a quite common characteristic of a Jaina house. The structure is usually erected on a raised plinth and has a small ottà in front, where pillars supporting the upper storey stand on stone bases. The front wall is divided into various sections of wooden bands filled in between by brickwork. The various parts decorated in a dwelling-house are pillars, window- and doorframes, door-lintels, brackets, arches, ceilings, wall-panels, etc. Any person of
H. Goetz, The Art and Architecture of Bikaner State, Oxford, 1950, p. 150, fig. 24.
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some means would have some carving at least either on the pillar or on the door or window frames of his house, the extent of the elaboration increasing with the financial status of the builder.
The large number of parts whercin wood was used in a Jaina house in Gujarat and its neighbourhood made it possible for the wood-carver to devise various artistic forms and designs, which were, from time to time elaborated and refined under the impact of various styles that influenced the art and architecture in this region. The stone-carver has assimilated all the various motifs formerly worked in wood ; conversely, domes and arches which are the special features of constructive art in stone and brick have been successfully adopted and executed in wood. The really unique feature, however, where the wood-carver has had the greatest play because of the possibility of deep undercutting, which is possible in wood alone, has been the madal or bracket which is the most notable speciality of a Jaina house. A fanciful combination of floral scrollwork, animals, birds, human figures and deities intermixed with intricate geometrical designs is the distinctive feature of wood sculpture, as expressed in the carving of brackets. The brackets are, no doubt, utilized in temples also but there the subjects treated are limited only to figures which portray heavenly musicians and dancers, carrying musical instruments and standing in different poses of classical dance.
The entire construction was so devised as to combine art with utility, regulated by climatic conditions, the mode of living and social and economic status of the people. Doors, windows, pillars, beans and brackets were the main parts on which the wood-carvers lavished their skill. The door is divided either into square or rectangular panels enclosed by thick wooden frame running vertically and across-wise. The door-panels are either plain, carved or perforated with jāli-work. The windows are either built in or projecting. The window-frames on the ground floor are done in a comparatively simple style, but on the upper storey the ornamentation is profuse and varied. In some cases, we get windows of the usual type, having two plank-leaves which can be opened and closed at will. But in most of the cases the upper-storey windows are without leaves to let in air and light directly. When jali or screen is worked in wood, it has exquisite floral designs carved with interstices left for air and light. Such windows were quite popular in and around Patan.
Muslim influence infiltered into Jaina architecture as well, and we often find arched windows in houses. One such example (plate 285), belonging to
1 R.K. Trivedi, Wood Carving of Gujarat, Baroda, 1965, plates XXII to XXVII.
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the nineteenth century, is displayed in the National Museum, New Delhi (siz 180x128 cm.; accession no. 60-1152). The window-frame has a running flora and scroll design interspersed with human and animal figures. The uppe band shows a Tirthankara in a shrine towards which a number of peopl are going to pay their homage. The arch has winged figures, another Muslin feature. The beaded decoration on the top band is a common feature o this period.
The pillars which support the upper storey either stand on a raised off (platform) or are built into the wall. They are generally square but not infre quently round and fluted, sometimes tapering as they go upwards. In th elegant tapering pillars, we have a reminiscence of Mughal architecture The architraves and beams which support the upper storey are decorate with festooning, lotus-flowers, string-frieze and foliated designs. Most o the houses have a balcony, which helps relieve the monotony of plain wall and thus provides distinctiveness to the storey to which it belongs. Th lower storey is marked by the greatest simplicity, except for stringed friezes o some fluted supports or lightly-ornamented brackets. However, the leaves and frames of the ground-floor doors are usually heavily worked and compensate for the other simplicity.
Followers of ahimsa, the Jainas can be often seen feeding pigeons o taking care of wounded birds. This is why quite often we find that Jaina establishment in Gujarat has a parabad! or pigeon-house made of wood which serves as a watering and feeding place for domesticated birds-pigeons sparrows, parrots, peacocks, etc, Some of these are exquisitely carved and ornamented with statuettes worked in wood.' These pigeon-houses are influenced by Muslim architecture and have domes and brackets, of course on a much smaller scale.
Pat, bajoth or bedstead and jhula or hammock are some of the commor wooden objects used in Jaina houses. Decorative furniture that came into use was restricted to articles limited in number. Some of these, viz., the tran-khania, the nav-khania (built-in cupboards), paniard for keeping water-jars. pataras (chests), etc., are exquisitely carved.
TEMPLE-ARCHITECTURE
Jaina temples can be divided into two distinct categories: (i) gharderasars or home-shrines, and (ii) stone and wooden temples. The former
1 Ibid., plates LXXXII, LXXXIII.
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Gujarat: wooden window-frame
PLATE 285
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Gujarat polychrome wooden mandapa, outer part
PLATE 286
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Gujarat : polychrome wooden mandapa (plate 286), detail of elephant-rider
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Gujarat : polychrome wcoden mandupa (plate 286), detail of ceiling (plate 288)
PLATE 289

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Gujarat wooden door-frame
PLATE 290
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Gujarat door of a wooden house-shrine
PLATE 291
TESTU!
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is a special feature of the Gujarati Jaina community and almost every house of any means has a shrine of its own. Although in Gujarat and south India even Hindu houses have home-shrines, the Jaina derasars have their own distinct characteristics. Those are the exact small replicas of their wooden and stone prototypes which are reproduced in a miniature form for familyworship. Most of these are embellished with minute carvings which varied with the richness of the family.
One of the earliest dated derasar is the Santinatha derasar in Haja Patel's Pol, Kalupur, Ahmedabad. According to a stone inscription, the temple was completed in Vikrama-samvat 1446 (A.D. 1390) by one Sheth Somji. The entire temple is a wooden structure with a mand apa enclosed by a dome, 3.35 m. square, which has seventeen concentric layers of carvings, made of two hundred and forty-eight pieces. Though the pillars supporting the dome are plain, they are adorned by brackets and architraves which are richly carved with animals, chariots, Dik-pālas, celestial musicians and dancers in classical poses. Many more early derasars exist in Jaina houses in Gujarat, but most of them are unpublished so far and their exact date is not known. In fact, periodical repairs bar any guess on their exact date. The Sri Pārsvanatha derasar in Śri-Sameta-Sikharaji's Pol, Mandavi Pol, Ahmedabad, is said to be about three hundred years old, i.e. of the seventeenth century. Ahmedabad, being the hub of the Jaina community, has several noteworthy derasars: Śri-Ajitanatha derasar in Vaghan Pol, Zaverivad; Cintamani Pārsvanatha and Sahasra-phapa Pārsvanatha derasars in Nisha Pol; Śri-Väsupūjya-svāmi and Sri-Sitalanatha-prabhu derasars in Shekhpada, Zaverivad; Śri-Supārsvanatha derasar in Sri-Ramji's Pol; and Haja Patel's
Pol.3
Ghar-derasars are known from other parts of Gujarat as well. Patan is an important city having many Jaina residents and the family-derasar of Śri-Lalubhai Danti at Maniati Pada and Sri-Ṛşabhadeva-svami's derasar at Kumbharia Pada are famous examples of house-shrines in that city. Similar examples exist at Palitana, Ralhanpur, Cambay and other cities of Gujarat.
The National Museum, New Delhi, has an intricately-carved mandapa (accession no. 60-148) of some home-shrine which was, in all probability, made at or in the vicinity of Baroda, as is evident from th: Maratha influence on its
1 Ibid., p. 46.
* Ibid., p. 46. > Ibid., pp. 45-48.
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[PART VII carvings, specially seen in the elephant with riders with typical pagri (turban) on its four outer corners, which are carved in the round (plates 286 and 287). Like all other mandapas, this is of several pieces joined together. Two of the four other sides of the main beams show seven seated Tirthankaras (plate 286). The perforated jali as well as the curved niche show Muslim influence, The elephant, covered with a nicely-decorated jhula and howdah, has ghanta, headgear, necklace and anklets and has a natural air about it.
The ceiling of the octagonal mandapa reminds us of the famous Mount Abu temples (plate 288). Sixteen apsarases adorn the dome. From its centre hangs a piece with a decorated floral pattern. The lowermost bearer of the dome shows a continuous procession which terminates at a Tirthankara shrine (plate 289). The procession gives a glimpse of the contemporary social life. The apsarases, other figures, the elephants with riders, etc., point to a sixteenth-seventeenth century date and a provenance around Baroda. Another example of interest in the National Museum is a door-frame (caukhat) of some Jaina household-shrine (accession no. 60-1153), evident from a seated Tirthankara figure in the centre of the top panel (plate 290). The flywhiskbearers, one on each, flank him and nine garland-bearers on each side are seen carrying garlands forming an interesting pattern. The two side-posts, besides showing the four-armed figures of dvara-palas, one on each side, show four niched figures attending the Tirthankara. Creeper-motifs run through the whole door-frame. Although badly damaged, the figures point out to a seventeenth-century date and an Ahmedabad provenance.
Yet another example in the National Museum is a small door (accession no. 47-111/1; size 100x60 cm.) of a household-shrine (plate 291). Though smaller in size, it has all the details which a large door usually has. It has a two-leaf doorway which can be opened and closed. Both the leaves are carved with beautiful floral patterns set in big and small squares. The top lintel shows fourteen auspicious dreams (plate 292), a typical feature of the Jaina carvings. Below this panel is seen a four-armed seated Laksmi flanked by standing female cauri-bearers. The bottom panel shows two elephants and the two side-posts show a dvara-päla flanking the shrine on each side. Above the dvara-päla are seen peeping human heads from niches giving the impression of a multistoreyed building. A similar miniature doorway exists in the Baroda Museum: it shows intricate and minute carvings
1 H. Goetz, 'The post-medieval sculptures of Gujarat', Bulletin of Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, Baroda, 1947-48, V, parts I-II, fig. 2.
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and has been dated to the sixteenth century. The National Museum doorframe, however, can be dated to the eighteenth century, as its execution of floral patterns and figures is much bolder and lacks the fine quality of the Baroda Museum specimen,
The Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, Bombay, has yet another wooden mand apa of a house-shrine' (plate 293). Standing on a double-stepped platform, 188 cm. long, 156 cm. wide and 39 cm. high, the mandapa is supported by four elaborately-decorated and slighly-recessed pillars which were once painted. These pillars These pillars have miniature niches enshrining the dancing-figures of heavenly musicians and male and female deities. The bottom of these pillars shows figures of Visņu and Brahma with attendants. The capitals are profusely carved with Mughal and indigenous motifs including the figures of birds and musicians in niches and recessed ornamentation. Of the three surviving bracket-figures two show female heavenly musicians and the third a mrdanga-player. The female musicians are dressed in a short coli, a tight skirt, päijämä and a long thin brocaded scarf which comes down the shoulders in a loose knot between the legs. The mrdanga-player also shows a Mughal-period costume-jämd with six points, paṭkā and atpați turban.
On the top of the capitals are fixed four entablatures which support the dome. The mandapa being Jaina, the carver has embellished it with stories of Tirthankara's lives. The friezes represent processions with elephants, horses and riders, footmen with palanquins, chariots driven by horses and oxen, male drummers riding camels and horsemen blowing trumpets vigorously (plate 294A). An Acarya preaching to the monks is also a favourite theme.
Above the friezes rises an octagonal dome (plate 294B) reaching a height of 46 cm. decorated with concentric circles from inside. Externally, the dome has the appearance of a receding stepped pedestal with simple ornamentation consisting of the figures of Gaja-Laksmi and pūrṇa-kumbhas in miniature niches. Fourteen dreams and other auspicious symbols also occur. The mandapa can be safely assigned to the Akbar period, i.e. about 1600, on the basis of the costumes and the style of carving.
The Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, Baroda, also has an excellent example of a wooden house-shrine. Goetz believes that it once formed a part of the house of a rich Jaina merchant of the Broach area. The mandapa is
S.K. Andhare, 'Painted wooden mandap from Gujarat', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, 7, Bombay, 1959-62, pp. 41-45 and plates 29 to 33c.
* H. Goetz, 'A monument of old Gujarati wood sculpture', Bulletin of the Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, VI, parts I-II, Baroda, 1950, p. 2.
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6-6 m. long, 3.3 m. broad and 3.1 m. high. It is supported by six columns and two pilasters, and, at present, is open in every direction. The central dome rises from an octagon on top of a square supported by four architraves measuring 33 m. The two wings have flat ceilings. The columns rise from very late Mughal bases and go over into late Gajarati capitals. The pillasters are decorated merely with rich friezes of lotus-roundels. The architraves around the central dome are covered with relief-panels showing some Jaina legends, those around the lateral ceilings with ornaments of various types and times, one with peacocks, others with single figures or panels representing Laksmi or Ambika. The central dome, rising on top of two circles of stylized lotuspetals, is covered with multitude of single figures and relief-panels, some originally belonging to it, more, however, added at later dates. These show the usual figures of godlings playing musical instruments, females, processions (plate 295A), Dik-pälas, apsarases and heavenly dancers, Jaina saints being worshipped (plate 295B), etc.
The mandapa, however, does not form one uniform work, but is the product of successive alterations, repairs and additions, most of which have developed organically one from the other. The whole structure can be reduced to two main phases, an older shrine of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, and a reconstruction in the sixties or seventies of the nineteenth century during the times of the Mahārājās Khande Rao (1856-70) and Malhar Rao (1870-75) of Baroda.
The Jaina stone and wooden temples are generally enclosed by a wall, the inner side of which has niches for the various Tirthankaras. The main temple is thus well-protected from rain and water. This peculiarity has tended to protect some of the wooden structures of Jaina temples to the present times by sheltering them from the onslaught of weather.
A Jaina shrine, like any Hindu temple, consists of two essential parts, namely, the mand apa where the devotees congregate and the principal shrine where the deity is installed. It is the former of the two which shows profusion and details of carving and has given the greatest scope for expression in wood and stone. George Watt is of the opinion that 'a grammar of decorative art might, in fact, be written from the study of wood-carving alone, and the circumstance that the wood and stone-carvers belong to one and the same caste may be accepted as an additional evidence in favour of the gradual production of the one from the other and that at no very ancient date."
1 George Watt, Indian Art at Delhi, Delhi, 1903, p. 100.
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PLATE 293

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A. Gujarat: a house-shrine, detail of a royal procession
B. Gujarat: a house-shrine, an Acārya welcomed by devotees
PLATE 295

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Patan : Wadi Pārśvanātba temple (plate 296), detail
PLATE 297

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Gujarat polychrome wooden danseuse
PLATE 298
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A. Gujarat : wooden nymph
B. Gujarat : wooden nymph
PLATE 299

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A. Gujarat : frieze depicting welcome of Jaina monks
B. Gujarat: frieze depicting a procession
C. Gujarat : frieze depicting a royal procession
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Most of the Jaina temples are the gifts of single wealthy individuals of the middle class and that is why these buildings are generally small and deficient in that grandeur of proportion that marks the buildings undertaken under royal command. It may, however, be also owing to this fact that their buildings are more elaborately finished than those of greater importance.
The mand apa is erected on a series of pillars which support a beautiful and exquisitely-carved dome on architraves and beams, all of which are elaborately ornamented. Every inch of the mand apa-portion is full of rich carvings. The dome is made circular by the arrangement of pillars, twelve in number, erected equidistant and bridged by architraves. Bracketed capitals and struts were further devices, which, while meeting the architectural needs of the edifice, provided a very fertile field for the presentation of the most ornate features of wood-carving.
One of the most exquisite examples of a wooden Jaina temple is provided by the Wadi Pārsvanātha temple from Patan, now housed at the Metropolitan Museum, New York, Built in 1594, it was in Patan's Zaverivad locality when Burgess and Cousens' carried out their survey of the architectural antiquities of northern Gujarat about the year 1890 but was later on acquired by the Metropolitan Museum. Its roof is in the form of a dome rising to the height of 3-4 m. and with a diameter 3.3 m. It is decorated in concentric circles with figures and bands of ornament and has a lotus-shaped pendant hanging from the apex. Eight large bracket-figures are placed at equal intervals round the inside. There are female musicians and dancers, and between each pair of these is a seated male figure with two attendants. There are the eight Dik-palas under the dome and helping to support it are four balcony-windows, projecting inwards from each side of the apartment, which are very delicately worked (plate 296). Lower still is a dado running round the four walls and carved with musicians and dancers in niches, with rows of geese and other ornamented carvings below. The rosettes in the spaces between the brackets below the window-sills are rich and effective (plate 297).
SCULPTURE
The Jainas believe that a sandalwood portrait-sculpture of Vardhamăna was carved in his life-time when he was meditating in his palace about a year
1 James Burgers and Henry Cousens, The Architectural Antiquities of Northern Gujarat, Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series, IX, London, 1903, p. 49.
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prior to his renunciation. In spite of the tradition, no wood-carvings in the round depicting Tirthankaras have been found so far. At what time the transformation from wood to stone or bronze took place it is difficult to say. But those who are conversant with the ritual of Tirthankara worship will immediately understand the reason for abandoning the wood-sculptures. The daily washing of images by water and milk, the application of sandal-paste, etc., do not allow the use of wooden sculptures for worship. However, subsidiary and allied carvings as part of architecture have a better continuity in wood and quite a few of these can be seen in different museums and private collections.
Most of such sculptures which once formed part of the architecture of Jaina mandapas, home-shrines and temples belong to the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, earlier examples having disappeared long ago because of the perishable nature of the material. All such examples share the following. common features: (i) they are smaller in size when compared to their counterparts in stone; (ii) once detached from the structure, most of these look as if carved separately and independently; (iii) they are carved in such a way that one side, which was earlier attached to the architectural piece, is not finished properly; (iv) usually they are coloured; and (v) they come from one or the other parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan, thus inheriting the characteristic features of that region. The dry climate of the region helped in preserving these sculptures. To illustrate these points we will discuss here some of the Jaina wooden sculptures.
Almost all the Jaina mandapas have several beautifully-carved female figures, either playing on various musical instruments (fig. XXVI) or in various dance-poses (plate 298). Charming figures putting on anklets (payal) is yet another motif seen among these nymphs (fig. XXVII). Sometimes a miniature figure is seen imitating a bigger figure at its footsteps (plate 299A) or a mother is seen carrying her child in the typical Indian way (plate 299B). As already stated, almost all these examples were once coloured, some still retaining traces of paint. Although they were meant to be seen as part of mandapas (these come from more than one mandapa), they have been carved in round. However, their back lacks the finish of the front.
1 U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, pp. 4 and 5. The Buddhists too have a similar tradition, A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, New York, 1965, p. 43. (See above, pp. 4, 86.-Editor.]
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FIG. XXVI. Gujarat : wood-carving,
female musician
FIG. XXVII. Gujarat : wood-carving,
a nymph putting on anklets
Rectangular panels, once part of wooden shrines, are still more interesting as they provide us a peep into the contemporary life. One such panel shows Jaina monks (with cloth-pieces tied on their mouths) being greeted by villagers who are offering them numerous things (plate 300A). An equestrian figure, in the lower right corner, supervises the ritual and many other followers are seen bowing to the saints with folded hands. While one man is holding a garland, another stands by his side holding a pūrņa-kumbha and rosary. A pair of dogs, seen in the lower right corner, provides a realistic touch to the whole soene.
It is interesting to note that Jaina wooden panels often depict bullockcarts in their procession (plate 300B). These carts are always carved with an utmost care and show bullocks in walking-posture accompanied by figures in front and back. Yet another mode of travel in the ancient days, especially for the royal persons the palanquin-also finds depiction on these panels. The example illustrated here (plate 300C) shows a royal couple seated in the
Shab, op. cit., pp. 5 and 8.
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palanquin accompanied by elephant-riders in front and horse-riders in the rear, making it clear that the figures are royal indeed. The way the male figure has tightly held a support to hold his balance is noteworthy and shows the minute observation of the wood-carver. The pole-bearers have also been depicted with a rare sense of realism.
Another very interesting frieze showing the marriage-procession of Tirthankara Neminatha has recently been acquired by famous art-connoisseur of Bombay, Shri Haridas K. Swali. It is 2:28 m. long and 25 cm. high and still retains a thick coating of paint. From left to right, it shows two equestrian figures and a bullock-cart, trumpet-blower and drummer, a royal figure holding garlands in both hands accompanied by female figures, marriage-mand apa, house-scene, animals and a scene showing preparation of sweets for marriage. The mand apa scene showing piled-up pots, festive hangings and sacred fire is quite interesting and gives us a glimpse of sixteenth-seventeenth-century Patan (Gujarat), its probable date and place of carving. The other scene showing preparation of eatables is quite amusing. While two figures are busy stirring up some thing in a large bowl on fire, a figure is seen quietly picking up some sweets unnoticed from the rack near by.
CONCLUSION
The foregoing discussion shows the wide range and variety of Jaina woodcarvings. They not only help us to reconstruct the social history of the period but also fill up the lacunae of art-history. All these carvings, though small in size, reflect the tastes of their rich Jaina patrons who believed in embellishing every inch of space available on their house-shrines or temples. As a medium, wood lent its support to the carvers to carve highly decorative scenes, thereby preserving a rich heritage for posterity. Though mostly religious, these carvings provide us with interesting social gleanings of the contemporary life. In wood-carvings, the Jaina patrons took a lead over their Hindu or Buddhist counterparts.
438
V. P. DWIVEDI

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THE EARLIEST IMPORTANT EPIGRAPHIC RECORD IN THE HISTORY OF JAINISM in east India, which was the birth-place of the faith, is the Hathi-gumphā caveinscription on the Udayagiri hills near Bhubaneswar, which says, inter alia, that the Cedi king Kharavela (second or first century B.C.) brought back to his capital the Kalinga-Jina that the Nanda king had taken away t Other inscriptions on the same hill say that the ruler and other royal personages of his family excavated cave-dwellings at the place for Jaina monks." Two inscriptions assignable to the same period from Pabhosa in Alahabad District refer to the excavation of a cave-dwelling for the Kåśyapiya Arabamtas (i.e. Jaina monks who were followers of Kaśyapa or Vardhamāna) by Aşādhasena.
Mathură in Uttar Pradesh was a centre of Jainism in the early centuries of the Christian ora. In fact, an area called the Karkali-tilá of the city originally contained a number of Jaina structures including a Jaina stupa. Several images and architectural pieces found in the area are inscribed. An inscription
te 301A) on an important sculpture of this group, with a lady attended by a pair of women, says that in the year 72 of Mahaksatrapa Sodasa, this piece was donated by a certain Amohini. If the year 72 is ascribed to the Vikrama era, the date of the sculpture is A.D. 15. The lady in the sculpture is identified as queen Trišala, the mother of Tirthankara Vardhamāna.? Another beautiful sculpture with an inscription dated in Saka year 54 or A.D. 132 represents the goddess Sarasvati - perhaps the earliest representation of the goddess. A
1 D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions bearing on Indian History and Civilization, I, Calcutta, 1965, pp. 213 ff.
See above, chapter 7.--Editor.) * Epigraphla Indica, II, 1893-94, pp. 242-43. * See above, p. 10, n. 4.--Editor.]
See above, chapter 6.--Editor.) • H. Lüders, List of Brahmi Inscriptions, 1912, no. 59.
* V.S. Agrawala, A Short Guide book to the Archaeological Section of the Provincial Museum, Lucknow, Allahabad, 1940, p. 5.
• Lüders, op. cit., no. 54. [See above, p. 67 and plate 20.-Editor.)

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(PART VIII number of images of Tirthankaras, particularly Vardhamana,' with inscriptions dated in several years of the Saka era were found in the stupa-area. Their iconography is stereotyped, with only a wheel carved on the pedestal. Another class of antiquities consists of dyāga-patas or tablets of homage,' of which quite a few are also inscribed.
During the Gupta period Jainism was not much encouraged in northern, eastern and south-eastern parts of India. Nevertheless, it continued to have votaries amongst the people of these regions. Three stone images of Tirtharkaras recently discovered at Durjanpur near Vidišā, with inscriptions saying that they were caused to be made by Mahārājādbirāja Rāmagupta, testify not only to the historicity of this early Gupta ruler but also to the local prevalence of the religion patronized by royalty. These images representing the Tirthankaras Candraprabha, Puspadanta and Padmaprabha, being in the typical Gupta style of sculpture, are interesting examples of this art belonging to the end of the fourth century.
The next important epigraph throwing light on Jaina works of art of this period is the inscription in Cave 20 in the Udaigiri hill near Vidiša. It is dated in the Gupta year 106 (A.D. 425-26) in the reign of Kumāragupta and records the installation of the image (now missing) of Pārsvanātha (JinavaraParsva-sarjñikar Jin-akstim) at the mouth of the cave, endowed with serpent's hoods. Another inscription dated in the Gupta year 113 (?) of the same
period is on a Jaina image discovered in Mathurā and now in the Lucknow Museum. A grey-sandstone column with five beautiful figures probably representing the five Tirthankaras, Adinătha, Säntinātha, Neminátha, Pārsvanātha and Mahăvira, was discovered at Kahaum in Gorakhpur District. It bears an inscription' dated in the Gupta year 141 (A.D. 460-61) in the reign of Skandagupta. It records that a certain Madra set up five stone images of Adi-kartęs or Tirtharkaras, apparently the five images in the niches of the column. A copper-plate inscription from Paharpur in Rajshahi District (Bangladesh), dated in the Gupta year 159 (A.D. 479), reveals that there was a
Ibid., nos, 16, 17, 18, 28 and 74.
Sec above, plates 1, 2B, 14, 15 and 16.-Editor.] * G.S. Gai in Epigraphia Indica, XXVIII, part 1, Jan. 1969, pp. 46-49. [* See above, chapter 12.-Editor.)
J.F. Fleet, Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, III. Calcutta, 1888, p. 258.
• D.R. Bhandarkar, List of North Indian Inscriptions, no. 1268.
Fleet, op. cit., pp. 66-67. • K.N. Dikshit in Epigraphia Indica, XX, 1929-30, pp. 59-64.
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Jaina a ry at Vata-Gohali, to which a Brahmaņa donated some land for the worship of the divine Arhats there and which was presided over by the Sramanācārya Guhanandin belonging to the Pañca-stöpa-nikaya of Kasi (i.e. Våräņasí).
eogarh, in Jhansi District, possesses a rich collection of Jaina works of art, many of them inscribed. About forty Jaina temples and as many as four hundred Jaina epigraphs bearing dates ranging from the ninth century onwards are known from this place. The earliest of them dated in Vikrama year 919 and Saka year 784 (A.D. 862) is a pillar-inscription belonging to the time of the Pratthāra king Bhoja, recording the creation and erection of the pillar in question in front of the temple of Santinātha on the Lacchagira (modern Deogarh). From other records of the place we come to know that the temples there contained dvåras (entrances), stambhas (pillars), salas (halls) and mand apas (court). There were also pădukas (footprints) of both Tirthankaras and Acāryas, set up by individuals. In front of the temples of the Jinas were set up mana-stambhas or pillars of homage bearing miniature figures of Tirthakaras or other deities of Jainism.
Most of the Deogarh inscriptions are found on the pedestals of images, Often they are associated with the lanchanas or distinguishing-marks of the respective Tirthankaras, like the deer of Santinátha, kalasa of Mallinātha, horse of Sambhavanātha, lotus of Padmaprabha, bull of Adinatha and so on. At times, the inscriptions themselves contain the names of the Tirthankaras like Rşabha, Pārsva, Candraprabha, etc. A sarvatobhadra-pratima or caumukha is labelled as caturmukha-sarva-deva-sangha. Among the other images bearing labels mention may be made of those of Purudeva, Gobhata, Cakresvari, Padmāvati-devi, Sarasvati and Malini.
Jaina scriptures associate each of the Tirthankaras with his own Yaksa and Yakṣi whose names are specified. In the figures of the Jinas on the wall of the main temple (12) at Deogarh, the Yakşis are represented and labelled. Interestingly, however, their names as given on the labels do not always follow either the Digambara or the Svetămbara canons. This feature makes these figures all the more useful for the purpose of the study of Jaina iconography, particularly in view of the fact that a label-inscription bears the date of Vikrama year 1126 (A.D. 1069-70). The names of the Yaksis according to the labels are
[ See above, chapter 14.-Editor.)
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy 1955-56 to 1959-60, and 1970-71 (unpublished); Annual Progress Report, Archaeological Survey of India, Northern Circle, 1915, 1916, 1918.
For the list according to the Digambara and Svetämbara traditions, sec above, pp. 14-16.-Bditor.]
harma circles to see more on
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as follows: Bhagavati Sarasvati (of Abhinandana); Sulocana (of Padmaprabha); Mayuravahini (of Supärsvanatha); Sumalini (of Candraprabha); Bahurupi (of Puspadanta); Sriyadevi (of Sitala); Vahni (of Śreyamsa); Abhangaratina (Abhogaratna ?) (of Vasupujya); Sulaksana (of Vimala); Anantaviryä (of Ananta); Surakṣitā (of Dharma); Sriyadevi (of Santi); Ardrakarabbi (of Kunthu); Tärä-devi (of Ara); Himavati (of Malli); Siddhai (of Munisuvrata); Hayavai (of Nami); and Aparajita (of Vardhamäna). The other names, however, follow the canonical ones.
Jainism flourished to some extent during the time of the Kacchapaghātas of Gwalior. This is testified by an inscription' dated in the Vikrama year 1034 (A.D. 977) engraved on the pedestal of a Jaina image from Gwalior in the reign of the king Vajradaman. On a pillar in a Jaina temple at Bayana in Bharatpur District, now used as a mosque, there is an inscription" belonging to the Vikrama year 1100 (A.D. 1044) of the time of the king Vijayādhiraja (Vijayapala?). At Dubkund, District Morena, is an inscription dated in the Vikrama year 1145 (A.D. 1088) in a ruined Jaina temple. Belonging to the time of Vikramasimha, the last-known prince of the Kacchapaghata dynasty, it describes the temple as very tall and whitewashed with thick lime-solution (varasudha-sandra-drav-apaṇḍuram). It further states that the moon is the cihna of Tirthankara Candraprabha and refers to Śruta-devata or the goddess of learning as pankaja-vāsini or 'residing on lotus' (compare Brahmanical Sarasvati described as sveta-padmāsanā).
That the Jainas in the Kalacuri kingdom had their own temples and images is testified to by the colossal standing Santinätha image at Bahuriband in Jabalpur District. The inscription on it, of the time of king Gaya-Karņa of the first half of the twelfth century, records the erection of a beautiful temple of Santinatha and the creation of a very beautiful and excessively white canopy (vitäna), obviously over the image.
The inscription of the Candella king Dhanga in the Parsvanatha temple at Khajuraho does not furnish any particulars for our study. But the one on the
1 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, XXXI, 1882, p. 393.
'Indian Antiquary, XIV, 1885, p. 10.
⚫ Epigraphia Indica, 11, pp, 237 ff.
V.V. Mirashi, Inscriptions of the Kalachuri-Chedi Era, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarnm, IV, Ootacamund, 1955, pp. 310-11.
⚫ Epigraphia Indica, I, 1892, pp. 135-36.
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INSCRIPTIONS on the installed image makes it likely that it was of Tirtharkara Sambhava. Numerous late medieval Jaina images bearing dated inscriptions on their pedestals have been discovered in various places in Madhya Pradesh. The inscriptions record the installation of the different Tirthańkaras. For example, an epigraph from Gudar in Shivpuri District, dated in the Vikrama year 1206 (A.D. 1149), refers to tho installation of the images of Såntinatha, Kunthunatha and Aranatha. Several Jaina images, each bearing on its pedestal an inscriptions mentioning its installation on the same date, viz. the Vikrama year 1390 (A.D. 1333), Caitra su. 15, Thursday, are known from Dhanaicha in Morena District. Jainism flourished during the rule of the later Tomara dynasty of Gwalior. This is known from inscriptions on the pedestals of Jaina images found in Gwalior dated in the Vikrama year 1510 (A.D. 1453) in the time of the king Düngarasimha, and others dated in the Vikrama year 1525 (A.D. 1468), etc., in the reign of Kirttisimha.
An inscription on the pedestal of a broken Jaina image found in the Siva Vaidyanatha temple at Kira-grāma in Kangra District is dated in the Vikrama year 1296 (A.D. 1240) and records that the image referred to as the müla-bimba was placed in the temple of Mahāvira at Kira-gråma itself.: Since the premises where the pedestal is at present found are of a Siva temple, it was probably brought from its original shrine, not found now.
Gujarat and Rajasthan were also great centres of Jainism and many examples of Jaina works of art are found in this region. The Junagadh inscription of Rudrasimha of the second century A.D., found in a cave bearing peculiarly Jaina symbols like the svastika, bhadrdsana, mina-yugala," and the seventh-century Jaina caves at Dhank with sculptures of Tirtharkaras Rsabha. Pårsva. Mahāvira and others,' point to the early prevalence of Jainism in the Gujarat region. The Pratihära king Kakkuka is known to have built a Jaina temple at Ghatiyala near Jodhpur in the Vikrama year 918 (A.D. 861).
* H.V. Dwivedi, Gwalior Rajya ke Abhilekha (in Hindi), Gwalior, 1947, no. 72.
Ibid., nos. 196-210. • Ibid., pp. 276-77.
Ibid., pp. 291-302. * Epigraphia Indica, I, pp. 97 ff., 119.
• A.M. Ghatge in the Age of Imperial Unity, ed. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker, Bombay, 1960, p. 418.
See above, chapter 8 - Editor.) Ghatge, op. cit. (See above, chapter 13.--Editor. • Journal of the Royal Astatic Society, 1895, p. 516.
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Nevertheless, it was only from the beginnings of the eleventh century that Jainism began to strike deep roots in these regions, chiefly through the patronage of the Caulukya rulers and their officers. And thenceforward, down the centuries, there cropped up in that wide region a bumber of important Jaina strongholds, among them Mount Abu, Achalgarh, Satrunjaya, Sarotra, Taranga, Girnar, Jalor, Udaipur, Jaipur, Palitana, Pali, Nadlai and Ranakpur being well-known for their architectural wealth. In these and in other centres possessing Jaina monuments, there exist hundreds of inscriptions, ranging in date from the beginning of the eleventh to the eighteenth centuries, which, when studied together, provide an almost complete picture of the history of Jaina monuments and sculpture in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
The above statement cannot be better substantiated than by instancing the famous Jaina temple complex of Mount Abu, fittingly known by the causal name of Dilwādā (from Deva-kula-vățaka). The five famous temples here, of the Svetāmbara sect, viz., the Vimala-vasati, the Lūna-Vasati, the Pittalhara temple, the caturmukha or Kharatara-vasati and the Mahavira-svāmin temple contain numerous inscriptions which give us detailed and dated information pertaining to the founding of these temples, to renovations carried out, to additional structures put up and to the installation and consecration of images therein.
Thus, we learn from inscriptions in situ that the Vimala-vasahikā was built and dedicated to Adinātha in the Vikrama year 1088 (A.D. 1031-32), that the Adinātha-samavasarana in the Hasti-śālā of the temple was put up in the Vikrama year 1212 (A.D. 1155-56), that the vasahika was renovated in parts, once in the Vikrama year 1206 (A.D. 1149), again in the Vikrama year 1308 (A.D. 1251-52) and for a third time in the Vikrama year 1378 (A.D. 132122, plate 341B), and that a number of subshrines, niches and single and groups or panels of) idols were installed in the different parts of the temple through the centuries.
An inscription in the Lūņa-vasahikā, which refers to the consecration of that temple in the Vikrama year 1287 (A.D. 1230-31), describes the architecture of the temple in the following words:
Sri-Arbuda-Präcina-Jaina-Lekha-Sandoha. II, no. I. * Ibid., no. 229. • Ibid., nos. 72, 184, 36. • Ibid., no. 250.
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A. Mathura inscription of the reign of Sodása, year 72
CHAGRAFEN
YAPICA
+4
B. Mount Abu: Vimala-vasahi temple inscription, Vikrama year 1378
PLATE 301
INSCRIPTIONS

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Kurikyal: rock-cut Cakreśvari with inscription below
PLATE 302

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CHAPTER 33)
SANDAKAR 12mmare
** TC DES TERRA These are are 25 Page
PLATE 303
the seront
tosa Prepare
Rui Barver what
Anhole : Megut temple inscription, Saka year 556
INSCRIPTIONS

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Tirunatharkunru : Vartelutlu inscription
Sravanabelgola : inscriptions on the sides of the Gommata statue
PLATE 304

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Tejahpala iti kṣithdra-sacivaḥ samkhojvalābhiḥ śilāśrenibhih sphurad-imdu-kuṁda-ruciram Nemiprabhor mahdiram uccatr-mandapam agrato Jina-var-äväsa-dviparcasatam tat-pārsveşu balānakaṁ ca purato niṣpādayāmāsivān||
INSCRIPTIONS
We learn from another inscription' that the Neminatha-mahātīrtha of this temple-complex was built by the minister Tejaḥpala in the Vikrama year 1257 (A.D. 1200-01), and other inscriptions reveal that he was responsible for the construction of a number of subshrines and niches in that temple. According to a third inscription, in the Vikrama year 1293 (A.D. 1236-37) a number of subshrines, niches and idols were added to the Luna-vasahikā. The same record informs us of similar additions made to the Jaina temples at Satrunjaya, Jāvälipura, Taranagarh, Anahillapura, Vījāpura, Lāțapalli, Prahlādanapura, Nagapura and Arbudacala itself.
Again, an inscription" at Jalor informs us that the Kuvara-vihāra, built in the Vikrama year 1221 (A.D. 1164) by Caulukya Kumārapāla, was renovated in the Vikrama year 1242 (A.D. 1185) by Cahamana Samarasimha, that in the Vikrama year 1256 (A.D. 1199) a golden flagstaff was installed on the mulaSikhara and that in the Vikrama year 1262 (A.D. 1205) a golden kalasa was installed in the madhya-mandapa.
While referring to the temples by such synonymous terms as caitya, vasati, harmya, mandira, veśma, vihāra, bhuvana, präsāda, and sthāna, these inscriptions provide useful and reliable data, mostly dated, on the construction and renovation of shrines or subshrines either singly (deva-kulikā, caturmukha-deva-kulikä, älaya-rupa-deva-kulikā, mahā-tirtha, tīrtha, dehari) or in groups (deva-kulika-dvayam, deva-kulika-trayam, etc.), in some cases highlighting their architectural features (bimba-danda-kalaś-ädi-sahitā deva-kulikā). Quite a number of these records give information on the repairs carried out to these temples either in full or in part (vihāra-jirṇoddhāra, tīrtha-samuddhāra, tirthoddhāra, caitya-jirnoddhāra, etc.). The construction of hundreds of niches, either singly (khattaka) or in groups (khattaka-dvayam, etc.) is alluded to in a number of these inscriptions. Most of the inscriptions, however, pertain to the making, installation and consecration of images, either singly (pratima,
1 Ibid., no. 260. Ibid., no. 352.
* Jaina Inscriptions, collected and compiled by Puran Chand Nahar, part I, Calcutta, 1918,
p. 239.
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mürti, bimba) or in groups (Jina-yugalark, Jina-yugala-dvayarh, Jina-yugalayugman, Jina-yugmarh, mirti-yugmarh, tri-tirthika, panca-tirthika, caturythsaripatta, cauvisi-patta, dvasaptatl-Jina-patrikd, dvi-saptati-Tirtharkara-parfa, 96Jina-patrika, etc.). In many instances these images are described as endowed with parikara (i.e. asta-mahaprātiharya) attributes. In quite a few cases, the material and size of the images are also specified (e.g., 108-mana-pramdnan sa-parikaram prathama-Jina-bimbam, pittala-maya-41-angula-pramāna-prathamaJina-müla-nayaka-parikare Sri-Sitalanåtha-birbam, nava-phana-Parsvandthabimbam, etc.). Inscriptions also record the making of holy footprints (paduka, păduka-stūpah, stūpa-sahitah pädukāb) siddha-cakra, etc.
Quite a few inscriptions also reveal the names of the architects and sculptors who were responsible for the construction of the temples and the making of the images. For instance, we are told in an inscription that the Trailokyadipaka-caturmukha-vihåra built at Ranakpur in the Vikrama year 1496 (A.D. 1439) was the work of sūtra-dhära Depāka. The famous image of Rşabhanåtha in the Pittalhara shrine was the work of sūtra-dhāra Deva, son of sūtra-dhara Mandana. The large bronze image of Adinātha in the caturmukha shrine at Achalgarh was made in the Vikrama year 1566 (A.D. 1509) by sutra-dhara Haradāsa, son of sütra-dhāra Arbuda.
To sum up, it may be safely asserted that the Jaina inscriptions found in hundreds all over Gujarat and Rajasthan are an essential aid to the proper understanding of the history of Jaina art and architecture of western India, particularly from about the beginning of the eleventh century.
Southwards, in Andhra Pradesh, Jainism did not find a congenial soil for thriving. Though in different parts of this region ruins of some Jaina temples and specimens of sculpture, especially those representing Tirtbankaras, are met with, they are not interesting from the point of view of art or iconography. Only a few inscribed monuments and images are known from this part. However, from at least the seventh century, the religion did have votaries here, who built
1 Sri-Arbuda-Prdcina-Jaina-Lekha-Sandoha, II, nos. 408, 410, 449, 454, 455. . Arbuddcala-Pradaksina-Jaina-Lekha-Sandoha, Abu, V, nos. 258 ff.
Epigraphia Indica, II, p. 77. • Nahar, op. cit., pp. 165-66.
Śri-Arbuda-Pracina-Lekha-Sandoha, II, no. 408. • Told., no. 473.
* S. Gopalakrishnamurthy, Jain Vestiges in Andhra, Andhra Pradesh Government Archaeological Series, Hyderabad.
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INSCRIPTIONS temples to the Arhats. Thus, a copper-plate inscription of the time of the Eastern Calukya king Vişnuvardhana III records the renewal of the grant of the village of Musinikonda which had been earlier granted to a Jaina temple called Nadumba-vasadi at Vijayawada by Ayyana-mahadevi, the queen of Kubja-Vispuvardhana, the founder of the dynasty.
Danavulapadu in Cuddapah District was a centre of Jainism, and there were Jaina temples and images noted for their beautiful workmanship. Some of these images and a few pieces of architecture from this place are on show in the Government Museum, Madras. Two pillars, a water-chute and some nifidika-stones are inscribed. One of the epigraphs of the time of the Rāstrakata king Indra III records that the king caused a water-chute to be made for the ablution of Santinátha. The outer edge of this chute bears a series of bas-relief sculptures notable for interesting movements and beautiful depiction of men and animals, representing some contemporary event.
Of about the middle of the tenth century, belonging to the time of the Vemulavāda Calukya feudatories of the Răstrakūtas, some Jaina sculptures were found near a place called Kurikyal in Karimnagar District. One of them represents the image of Yakşi Cakreśvari, the attendant of Adinātha. Below this image is an inscription of Jinavallabha, brother of the famous Kannada poet Pampa (circa A.D. 950), stating that these images were caused to be made by this Jina vallabha (plate 302).
The time of the Eastern Cåļukya Amma II witnessed a significant growth in the building of Jaina temples. One such Jaina temple called KatakäbharapaJinalaya was built by Durgarāja at Dharmavaram, and he granted to it a village to provide for worship in it, as is known from a copper-plate inscription. Another copper-plate grants of this king's time records that some gifts were made to two Jaina temples of Vijayawada. Another Jaina temple called Sarvalokāśraya-Jina-bhavana was also erected during this kin due to the efforts of a lady. At Ujjala in Mahbubnagar District, there is an inscription" recording gifts to Cenna-Pārsvadeva of the Baddi-Jinalaya in the
1 Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1916-17, copper-plate 9. . Ibid., 1905, no. 331. * Prabuddha Karnataka (in Kannada), 53, 4, pp. 73-83. • Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1906-07, copper-plate 7. * Ibid., 1908-09, copper-plate 8; Epigraphia Indica, XXIV, 1937-38, p. 268 • Epigraphia Indica, VII, 1902-03, p. 177
Telangana Ingriptions, Hyderabad, II, Do. 35.

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[PART VIII fort at Ujjili. This temple, which was probably made of brick, appears to be now used by Virasaivas.1
Jainism was popular in the early part of the history of the Vijayanagara empire. Several temples of Jaina Tirthankaras and mana-stambhas of beauty were put up then. At Hampi (ancient Vijayanagara), the capital of the empire itself, there are quite a few Jaina temples. One of them may be the one erected, according to an inscription dated Saka 1289 (A.D. 1367), by Irugapavodeya in the reign of Bukka I. Probably the same individual constructed another temple called caityalaya in Saka 1307 (A.D. 1385) in the reign of Harihara II according to an inscription. Irugapa's brother Immadi-Bukka, a mantrin under the same ruler, constructed a caityalaya with an image of Kunthu-Tirthankara, at Kurnool in 1395. Devaraya II himself is stated to have built a caityagara of Pārsvanatha in Saka 1348 (A.D. 1426) at Vijayanagara. These temples are noted for their superstructure which is of the shape of a stepped-pyramid. Besides, the doorways in them have a pot-bellied Yakşa at the bottom of the jambs on either side. There is usually a Gaja-Laksmi figure as lalaja-bimba on the lintel of their doorways. No figure-sculptures or friezes of sculptures are seen adorning the walls of these temples.
In Tamil Nadu the earliest Jaina monuments are those which consist of dressed beds with raised pillow-like mouldings or merely dressed surface on the ground under an overhanging rock in the numerous natural caves and caverns in the inaccessible areas, mostly in the southern Districts. These beds and some of the brows of the caves contain Brähml inscriptions in Tamil language which make mention of pali, aditṭānam, etc., and they range in date from the third century B.C. to the third century A.D. We do not come across any Jaina vestiges in Kerala during the period. The next epigraphical reference to a Jaina monument is afforded by the Tirunatharkunru (South Arcot District) inscription' of about the sixth century (plate 304A). It states that it is the nifidikai of Candranandi-äśiriyar (acārya) who died by fasting for fifty-seven days. There are twenty-four rock-cut sitting Jaina images, probably representing the Tirthankaras, on top of the rock at the place.
1966.
1 Gopalakrishnamurthy, op. cit., p. 61.
Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1918, p. 66.
Ibid., 1889, Feb. 3.
Ibid., 1936, p. 32.
[See above, chapter 9.-Editor.]
1. Mahadevan, Corpus of Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions, Seminar on Inscriptions, Madras,
"South Indian Inscriptions, XVII, 1, frontispiece.
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INSCRIPTIONS In the interval Jainism was favoured by the Kalabhras and later under their political successors, the Pallavas and the Påndyas. The most important and perhaps the earliest extant monument is in the famous city of Kanci, known to have been a centre where all the religions flourished. This monument is a temple dedicated to Vardhamāna to which the people of the district made a grant of land in the reign of Pallava Simhavarman (early sixth century), the father of Simhavişnu. Various parts of this temple, except the central shrine, of which the date of foundation is not recorded, are referred to in later inscriptions."
One of the earliest full-fledged monuments belonging to this period is referred to in the inscription from Kil-Sattamangalam in Wandiwash Taluk in North Arcot District. The monument, another temple, is no longer extant, but it existed in 743-44 in the fourteenth year of Nandivarman Pallavamalla. Another inscription from the same place belongs to the time of Pallava Kampa. varman (second half of the ninth century). It records the renovation of the palli and the pali, the construction of a mukha-mandapa for the paffi and a shrine for Iyakki-Padāri (Yakși-Bhajäri) and the gift of a big bell to the pallihall by Mädevi, the wife of Kadakadiyaraiyar, a feudatory of the Pallava king. The differentiation between palli, which was the name of the entire complex, and pali which is obviously derived from ancient pali of the Brāhmi inscriptions and should refer the resting-place of the ascetics, i.e. the monastery-a sophisticated development from the simple remote cave-dwelling of the early Jainas-is noteworthy. This palli is called Vimalasri-Arya-Tirtha-palli in an inscription of Cola Rājarāja I, from the same place. A similar instance can also be noticed in the Jaina Appăpdanātha temple at Tirunarungondai in South Arcot District. In the absence of the monument, the nature of the mukha-mandapa or the shrine (koyil) of Iyakki (Yakşi) cannot be known. The provision of a separate shrine for Yakşi-worship is, however, known from the Tiruppamalai (Pancapandavamalai, Walajah Taluk, North Arcot District) inscription referring to the cutting of the figure (pad imam) of the Poppiyakkiyar (Sanskrit Hema-Yakşi) in the fiftieth year (A.D. 780) of Nandivarman Pallavamalla. This is a rock-cut image, whereas the one from Kil-Sattamangalam is a structural temple. There is a still earlier reference to the
Transactions of the Archaeological Society of South India, 1958-59, pp. 41 ff.; Annuat Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1958-59, appendix A, no. 10.
South Indian Inscriptions, IV, nos. 363 and 368; Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1923, no. 98.
* Annual Report on Indian Epigrapky, 1968-69, dos. B 219-25. • Epigraphia Indica, IV, 1896-97, pp. 136-37.
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[PART VI
installation of a Yakal image on the hill at Tirumalai in Polur Taluk in North Arcot District. One of the inscriptions there refers to the Yakal installed by Adigaiman Elini and renovated by his descendant in the twelfth century. Since the date of Elini is difficult to know, the date of the original installation cannot be ascertained.
With the arrival of the Jaina Acarya Ajjanandi on the scene in the ninth century, there was a notable revival of Jaina activities all over Tamil Nadu. He traversed the length and breadth of the country as attested to by records mentioning his authorship of several sculptures of Jaina Tirthankaras at Karungalakkudi (Madurai District), Tiruvayirai (Madurai), Anaimalai (Madurai), Kurandi (Ramanathapuram), Alagarmalai (Madurai) and Vallimalai (North Arcot). Western Ganga inscriptions of the reign of Racamalla (A.D. 820) found in the rock-cut cave at Vallimalai record that this monk caused the carving of the figures of his preceptors. There are here the figures of good workmanship on the rock referred to in the inscriptions. These caves also possess paintings considered to be contemporary with the epigraphs or to be dated to the tenth century. Of the sculpture, though the Tirthankara images are serene-looking and devoid of ornamentation (cf. the name aniydd-alagiyär given to the Jaina Tirthankara image in the Arhat temple at Odalavadi, Polur Taluk, North Arcot District), the figures of Yaksas, Yaksis and camara-dharas are endowed with embellishments. Since all these bear inscriptions, it is possible to make a study of the evolution of the sculpture on the basis of the decorative details. This study might help in throwing light on the Jaina bronzes housed in the Jaina temples in the villages. Some of the bronzes are also inscribed; for instance, a bronze image of Mahavira from Kidangil, Tindivanam Taluk, South Arcot District, now housed in the Government Museum, Madras, bears an inscription in Tamil alphabet of about the twelfth century.
That images of all the twenty-four Tirthankaras singly or separately were installed by donors is known from the appellation caturviśati-sthapaka of the donor Vasudeva-siddhanta-bhațărar met with in a Grantha inscription near a niche containing the elevation of a Jinalaya with a sculpture of Supārsvandtha on a boulder in the block called Nagamalai at Veralur in Madhurantakam
1 South Indian Inscriptions, I, nos. 66-67.
• Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1911, no. 562; South Indian Inscriptions, XIV, nos. 22, 107-19; ibid., nos. 99-106; Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1910, nos. 61-69; Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1954-55, no. 396; Epigraphia Indica, IV, pp. 140 ff.
Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1895, no. 10.
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CHAPTER 33)
INSCRIPTIONS Taluk, Chirigleput District." In a few cases only the names of the Tirthankaras are mentioned in the inscriptions, like Vardhamana from Tirupparuttikkunram, Vimala-śr-Arya-Tirtha i.e. Vimalanatha) from Kil-Sattamangalam, Parkvanátta from Aivarmalai and Ponpur, Kunthunatha from Karandai and Adlávara from Ponnur.
An inscription of the time of the Pandya king Srimāra Śrivallabha (ninth century), engraved on the rock to the right of Sittannavasal cave, District Tiruchchirappalli, refers to the addition of a mukha-mand apa to the cave and to the renovation of its interior, including probably the provision of a fresh layer of paintings, which are considered a remarkable specimen of art from the points of view of technique, design, colour-scheme and depiction of human, animal and vegetal forms.'
The introduction of Yakşi, Yakşa, etc., in Jaina iconography as attendant deities slowly paved the way for the preponderance of worship of these deities as against the worship of the main Tirthankaras. A noteworthy instance in point is the Bhagavati temple at Tiruccarapattumalai near Chitaral in Vilavangode Taluk in Kanyakumari District. The only inscription in which a deity is referred to belongs to the reign of the Ay king Vikramaditya Varagupa (last quarter of the ninth century). It records the grant made for the worship of the Bhatari, which evidently refers to the image of Padmavati-devi by the side of Pārsvanātha or Ambikā (with a lion) by the side of another Tirtharkara. A more glaring instance of this type is available at Nagercoil, where the serpent-hood symbol of the Tirthankaras of the original Jaina temple gained prominence only to become absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as Anantā vär.. There are of course instances where Jaina temples continued to retain their individuality, as those of Tirupparuttikkunram in Kanchipuram and Tirumalai.
The two sculptures of Mahăvira and Pārsvanātha found at Godapuram (Alatur), District Palghat, coupled with an inscription on a slab in Tamil language and Vatteluttu characters of about the tenth century, point to the existence of a large monastery and a temple where probably these sculptures were housed.
Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy, 1973-74 (in press), under Veralir. • Manual of Pudukkottal State, II, ii, pp. 1093 ff.
See above, chapter 30,--Bditor.] * See above, chapter 19.-Editor.) * Travancore Archaeological Series, I, pp. 193 ff. • Ibid., VI, pp. 159 ff.
Journal of Indian History, XLIV, 1966, pp. 537-43; Journal of Kerala 1973, pp. 27-32.
Studies, 1, no. 1,
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[PART VI Karnataka State may be said to be the second home of Jainism. This is testified to not only by the existence of several important Jaina centres like Sravanabelgola, Mudabidure (Mudbidri), Karkala and Bhatkal possessing a mass of interesting works of art but also by the numerous epigraphs discovered in different parts of this State. Jainism was the state-creed in the time of the Gangas, of some of the Kadamba rulers, of the Råştrakūtas and Kalacuryas and of the Hoysalas, as also of the rulers of the minor states of Punnāta, the Säntaras, the early Cargalvas, the Kongaļavas and Aļupas, as testified by their inscriptions. From at least the fifth century, the followers of this religion began to use works of art for the propagation of their cult. This is known from a number of copper-plate charters issued by the early Kadamba kings registering grants to Jaina institutions like temples. A copper-plate charter dated in the eighth regnal year of Kadamba Mrgeśavarman (circa fifth century) records the construction of a Jaina temple by the king in memory of his father. The credit of having created a beautiful and an early example of temple in the Dravidian style goes to the Jainas of this State; this is the Meguti temple at Aihole. In this temple there is an inscription of the Calukya king Pulakesin II dated in 634-35 (plate 303). The author of the record was Ravikirtti, who arranged for the construction of the temple. During the period of the Rāştrakūtas several Jaina monuments were erected, although only a few of them contain inscriptions.
To the Western Gangas we owe some of the important Jaina works of art. As early as the time of Sripuruşa, temples were built, to which he made grants as known from an inscription. The famous Gommateśvara statue at Sravanabelgola bears a label in four different scripts (plate 304B). There are several other monuments like temples at that place, some of them bearing inscriptions.
The Hoysala period of the history of Karnataka is distinguished for the creation of marvellous pieces of architecture. Though most of them are dedicated to Brāhmanical deities, there are some interesting specimens of Jaina temples also of this period. One of them is the Jaina temple of Lakkundi (ancient Lokkigundi) near Gadag in Dharwar District. This temple also is in
1 B.L. Rice, Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions, London, 1909, p. 203. * Indian Antiquary, VI, 1877, pp. 1 ff.
See above, chapter 18.-Editor.] * Epigraphia Indica, VI, 1900-01, pp. I ff. . Rice, op. cit., p. 39. • Guide to Sravanabelgola, Department of Archaeology, Mysore, 1957.
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INSCRIPTIONS the Dravidian style and bears an inscription dated in Saka year 1094 (A.D. 1172).
! As an example of figure-sculpture, belonging to the medieval period, the huge image of Santinātha at Ellora may be cited. It bears on its pedestal an inscription speaking of its carving in 1234-35 by a person named Cakreśvara.
The custom of dedicating pillars called nisidhi to the memory of the deceased was prevalent in medieval Karnataka. One such inscribed pillar is found at Chandakavate, Bijapur District, stating the that nisidhi-pillar was set up in memory of the death of Māghanandi-Bhattāraka of the Sürasta-gana.'
When this region, especially its southern part, came under the sway of the rulers of the Vijayanagara empire, Jainism continued to flourish, some of the feudatory chiefs of the empire being staunch supporters of the religion. Naturally, in the territories of these feudatory chiefs quite a number of Jaina works of art were created. An early example of a basti or Jaina temple at Mudabidure was the Gurugaļa-basti, to which grants were made according to inscriptions dated in A.D. 1390. To the time of the Vijayanagara emperor Devaraya II belongs the construction (A.D. 1430) of the Tribhuvana-cadāmani-mahă-caitya at Mudabidure, a beautiful example of architecture in the west-coast style, with an impressive and monumental pillared hall (A.D. 1451)." The feudatory chiefs of Karkala were responsible for the creation of the two colossal monolithic images of Gommateśvara, bearing inscriptions, one at Karkala in 14326 and the other at Venur in 1604. The Caturmukha-basti of Karkala and the mana-stambha at the place called Hiriyangadi in the same village are other noteworthy examples of Jaina art belonging to the Vijayanagara period.
G. S. GAI
in collaboration with P. R. SRINIVASAN, K. G. KRISHNAN
S. SANKARANARAYANAN & K. V. RAMESH * H. Cousens, Chalukyan Architecture, Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series, Calcutta, 1926, pp. 77 ff.
: P.B. Desai, Jainism in South India, Sholapur, 1957, p. 99. * Annual Report on South Indian Epigraphy, 1936-37, appendix E, no. 15. « South Indian Inscriptions, VII, Do. 299. 5 lbid. no. 197. 4 Epigraphia Indica, VII, 1902-03, pp. 109-10.
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CHAPTER 34 SYMBOLS ON SOUTH-INDIAN COINS
EVIDENCE OF JAINA INFLUENCE ON SOUTH INDIAN COINS COMES FROM A series of issues attributed to the early Pandyas, viz. the rectangular cast or die-struck copper coins datable to a period between the third and fourth centuries A.D. Scholars have generally failed to recognize this influence evidently on account of the fact that symbols on early Indian coins, especially of the punch-marked series, have an obvious Buddhist significance. Hence studies on such coins have invariably looked for Buddhist influences and associations. While it is true that Buddhist symbols are common on the early punch-marked coins of the south as well, there are some varieties of local issues which exhibit unmistakable Jaina associations.
To take up a few of these instances. Such influence can be traced on some of the rectangular copper coins of the early Pandyas which depict on their obverse certain symbols, usually seven or eight in number, i.e. the astamangala symbols, along with an elephant. Writing about these coins, T.G. Aravamuthan said: 'they bear symbols on the obverse which appear to be representations of some assortment of objects of auspicious import such as the sun or the wheel, the flowing vase, and the crescent moon usually included in the lists of așța-mangalas.' The object in front of the elephant might be, according to him, a lamp, which is one among the objects in the lists of the mangalas. Another series of early Pěndya coins bears symbols such as the mukkud al or triple umbrella above a horse. The triple umbrella has definite Jaina associations as it is generally represented above the heads of Tirthankara images. Scholars have not taken any serious notice of their Jaina affiliations and the general tendency has so far been to classify them as Buddhist along with the punch-marked and other varieties of the copper series of the third
The copper coins referred to have all along been taken to be a Pandyan issue of coins on the basis of the reverse symbol, the fish. Since there is no legend, but only symbols, the possibility of their being the issues of mercantile communities with Jaina loanings cannot be ruled out.
A Pandyan issue of Punch-Marked Purapas', Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, VI, 1944, p. 3 a.
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SYMBOLS ON SOUTH-INDIAN COINS and fourth centuries A.D., without any attempt at explaining the nature of these symbols, their meaning and their association.
The Pandyas adopted the fish, usually the double fish or carp (mina-yugma or mina-yugala), as the emblem on their flag,' coins and seal. Tamil literature of the Sangam period refers to them as minavar. The exact significance of the symbol has not been as yet explained satisfactorily. Yet the suggestion may be offered that the mina-yugala, one of the asta-mangala symbols, could have inspired the representation of the double fish (carp) invariably on the Pandyan coins, not only on the early ones but continuously on all their coins and seals. It may be pointed out here that this type of fish-representation, the carp (kayal in Tamil), is peculiar to the Pandya coins.
The history of Buddhism and Jainism in south India would show that Buddhism never reached the height of popularity that Jainism did in the Tamil country, particularly in the early centuries of the Christian era. Early Tamil society, its thought and culture were influenced to a great degree by Jaina ideals and ethics as revealed by a number of early Tamil literary works, most of which have been attributed to Jaina authorship.
The spread of Jainism in south India, particularly in the Karnataka region and Tamil country dates back to the third century B.C. Indisputable evidence of the presence of Jaina ascetics and lay adherents in the Tamil country comes from the early Brahmi inscriptions in the Päpdya region and also in the Cera country of the Sangam period, assignable to a period. between the second century B.C. and the third century A.D.
Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas, and the surrounding regions teemed with Jaina population in the early centuries of the Christian era. A number of Jaina settlements survived in this area down to about the eleventh century, although Jainism suffered serious reverses during the seventh-ninth centuries --a period of religious conflict between the Saiva and Vaisnava creeds on the one hand and Jainism and Buddhism on the other.
This period of religious conflict is particularly important for the history of Jainism in the Pandya country, for, according to Saiva religious literature, one of the early Pandya rulers known as Kūn Päpdya (670-710) or Nedumarän
1 N. Subramanian, Sangam Polity, New York, 1966, p. 77, 78.
* See I. Mahadevan, Corpus of Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions, Madras, 1966.
• Periya Puranam-Story of Jääna-Sambandar.
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[PART VIII was originally a Jaina. He was converted to Saivism by the Saiva saint Tirujñāna-Sambandar, who is said to have defeated the Jainas in religious disputes and proved the 'superiority of Saivism by a series of miracles. In spite of the setback that the Jainas received in the Pandya court at the hands of the Saivas, a number of Jaina settlements survived in this region until the eleventh century and some of the successors of Kup Påndya, such as Srimāra Sri Vallabha (815-62) and Varaguna II, figure in their epigraphs as patrons of Jaina institutions like temples and monasteries.
It would therefore be reasonable to suppose that the asfa-mangala symbols on the early Pandya coins mentioned before may directly relate to the hold that Jainism had over this region. The coins fall into two categories :
(1) Elephant series Obverse : (a) Elephant to right, with a lamp with shaft in front of the
elephant. (b) aşta-margala symbols, seven or eight or less in number,
above the elephant. Reverse : fish.
(2) Horse series Obverse : (a) Horse to right. Triple umbrella above.
(6) Tree-in-railing, etc. Reverse : fish.
The aşta-mangalas or eight auspicious objects familiar to the Jainas are the svastika, Srivatsa, nandyāvarta (nandipada), varddhamanaka (powder-flask), bhadrâsana (throne-a particular type of seat), kalasa (full vase), darpana (mirror), matsya or matsya-yugala (pair of fish). They are usually represented as decorative motifs on architraves and on bali-paštas. Such symbols are also seen on some of the Jaina āyāga-patas of the Kushan age from Mathurā," though the set of aşta-margalas was not yet finalized. These symbols are also represented in miniature paintings of manuscripts and in scroll-paintings.
The Pandya copper coins are perhaps the only examples of coins with aşta-mangala symbols, and what is particularly interesting in them is that they are depicted in a row in much the same manner as is found on the lintel
1 See U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, pp. 109-12. * Above, pp. 63 ff., plate 15.
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SYMBOLS ON SOUTH INDIAN COINS
Pandyan coins. For details see text
PLATE 305

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[PART VI
10
Pandyan coins. For details see text
PLATE 306

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•
CHAPTER 34]
SYMBOLS ON SOUTH-INDIAN COINS
of the Bawa-Pуärä Math Jaina caves, at the entrance to Cave K in Junagadh.1 The significance of these symbols is mentioned in the Acara-dinakara The kalafa is worshipped as a symbol for the Jina; the mirror is for seeing one's true self; the bhadrasana is worshipped as it is sanctified by the feet of the blessed Lord; the highest knowledge has manifested itself from the heart of the Jina in the form of frivatsa-mark; the svastika signifies anti or peace; the nandyavarta with its nine points stands for the nine nidhis; and the pair of fish is the symbol of Cupid's banners and represents Cupid worshipping the Jina after defeat. There are lists of asta-mangalas given in different Svetämbara and Digambara texts. (The series found on some of the Pandya series are mentioned in these texts.)
Among them some are represented in Jaina art. While describing the Tirupparuttikkunram (Jina-Käñcl) Jaina temples, T.N. Ramachandran speaks of the following set-a golden vase, a vessel, a mirror, an ornamental fan, a flag, a flywhisk, a parasol and a banner. Another series of auspicious marks which he mentions is a parasol, a camara, a flag, svastika, a mirror, a kind of vase, a powder-flask and a throne-seat. He also refers to a third set of asta-mangalas mentioned in the Triloka-sära."
The golden age of Jainism in Karnataka was under the Gangas who had made Jainism their state religion. The Gangas were great patrons of Jainism in the period between the sixth and eleventh centuries. The Jaina Acarya Simhanandi was not only instrumental in laying the foundation of the Ganga kingdom but also acted as adviser to Kongapivarman I, the first Ganga king. These Western Gangas have left a number of interesting monuments both in the Tamil districts and the Kannada areas under their occupation, the most remarkable of these monuments being the Gommata colossus at Sravanabelgola erected by Cămundaraya, the famous Ganga general of the Hoysalas (above, chapter 19).
The Hoysalas whose kingdom included modern Karnataka were staunch Jainas. The first historical member of this dynasty Vinayaditya II (1047-1100)
1 J. Burgess, Report on the Antquities of Kathiawad and Kutch, Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series, II, London, 1876; above, p. 89, fig. V.
Shah, op. cit., p. 111. [Also below, chapter 35.-Editor.]
T.N. Ramachandran, Tirupparuttikunram and its Temples, Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, New Series, General Section, I, 3, Madras, 1934.
Ibid., p. 190.
* Triloka-sára, v. 989.
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1.
BPIORAPHIC AND NUMISMATIC SOURCES
(PART VIL came to power with the help of a Jaina ascetic named Santi-deva. BittigaVispuvardhana's wife Santala-devi was a lay-disciple of the Jaina teacher Prabhācandra. Some of his ministers were promoters of the Jaina faith.' There seems to be no doubt that the early Hoysaļas were Jainas, till Bittiga was converted to Vaişpavism by Rāmānuja. Bitti, the greatest ruler of this dynasty, was a fervent Jaina down to the time when he was converted. His wife Santalā-devi remained a Jaina even after his conversion. Bitti was the first Hoysaļa ruler to issue coinage in gold after wresting Talakad from the Cola governor in 1116. The maned lion on his coins and the figure of Yakşi Ambikā on lion, identified wrongly earlier,' would vouchsafe for his Jaina leanings before his conversion. On his conversion he is said to have issued coins with the figure of Rāmānuja.
The Hoysala coinage are double-die-struck issues and are of better execution than the Calukyan coinage. Two well-known types of Hoysala coinage are the two gold issues of Vişnuvardhana celebrating his conquests of Talakad and Nolambavādi. The Talakādu-gonda and the Nolambavādiganda series are as follows:
Talakādu-gonda series Obverse : In linear circle maned lion to right with left forepaw raised and
face turned backwards. Above it is another similar smaller lion to right with sun and moon. The lion is turned towards a pillar
on which is a discus. Reverse : Three-line legend in Kannada--(1) Sri-Ta- (2) lakādu- (3) gonda. Nolambavadi-ganda series Obverse : Linear border--maned lion to right represented by pellets; on
his back is the figure of a goddess, four-armed, holding a sword
and discus with a small figure on one side. Reverse : Three-line legend in Kannada--(1) Sri-No- (2) nambavddi
(3) ganda It was hitherto surmised that the figure depicted on the obverse of this coin was Câmunda, but on a closer examination the figure is found to be
1 Bombay Gazetteer I, part II, p. 492. Archaeological Survey of Mysore, Annual Report, 1929. W. Elliot, Coins of Southern India, London, 1886, p. 82.
Ibid., plate III, 90; also Archaeological Survey of Mysore, Annual Report, 1929, p. 24, plate IX, 2.
Elliot, op. cit., plate III, 91; Archaeological Survey of Mysore, Annual Report, 1929, p. 24, plate IX, 2.
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SYMBOLS ON SOUTH INDIAN COINS that of Yakni Ambika, with her attributes. Also called Dharma-devi in Digambara tradition and known as Kosmåndini (Yakst of Tirthankara Neminatha) the goddess has on her left a small figure, evidently representing her child. The lion is her vahana. Yaksi Ambika is a very popular subject in the south-Indian Jaina art and her similarity to Durgå is remarkable and may not be accidental.
The above survey of south-Indian coins with Jaina influences is by no means exhaustive. On the other hand, it is only a pointer to the possibilities of utilizing Jaina sources for the study of coins and thereby to a better understanding of the historical context in which the coins were issued.
The illustrated Pandya coins are described below:
(1) Obverse : Horse to right, mukkudai (the triple umbrella) in front of
the horse, traces of the tree-in-railing symbol visible on top
of the horse. Caitya of three arches at the right corner. Reverse : Angular lines--fish.
Plate 305, 1. (2) Obverse : Horse to right, the triple umbrella in front of the horse.
Tree-in-railing symbol above the horse. Reverse : Traces of fish'. Plate 305, 2.
Platese: Angular list. Caitya of the Worailing symh
(3) Obverse : Elephant to right with a lamp in front. Seven symbols above.
Tree-in-railing, nandipada (taurine), kumbha (vase), crescent,
þrivatsa, darpana (mirror) and cakra (wheel). Reverse : Angular lines-fish. Plate 305, 3.
(4) Obverse : Elephant to right with a lamp and a goad in front. Six
symbols seen above--nandipada,'kumbha, crescent, srivatsa,
darpana and wheel. Reverse : Traces of "fish'. Plate 305, 4.
(5) Obverse : Elephant facing right with a candelabra (lamp) in front and
another symbol which is not clear. Reverse : Blank. Plates 305, S.
See Ramachandran, op. cit., p. 209, for the iconographic features of this Yakşi.
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(PART VII
erse : Elephant facing right with a lamp and goad in front.
Kumbha, crescent, srivatsa, mirror and wheel visible above. Reverse : Angular 'fish'. Plate 306, 1.
(7) Obverse : Elephant to right with nandipada, mirror and wheel above.
Lamp with shaft in front of the elephant. Reverse : Fish, not very clear. Plate 306, 2.
shaft
in
front).
(8) Obverse : Elephant to right with lamp (with
Nandipada? and wheel above. Reverse : Fish. Plate 306, 3.
(9) Obverse : Elephant with lamp in front. Svastika, mirror, taurine, fish
in circle above. Reverse : Fish. Plate 306, 4.
(10) Obverse : Elephant to right with lamp in front. Svastika, kumbha,
taurine and wheel above. Reverse : Traces of fish. Plate 306, 5.
R. VANAJA
HOND HOW MUCOCITO
ASOV
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CANONS & SYMBOLISM

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CHAPTER 35
ICONOGRAPHY
CANONS
LITERARY SOURCES FOR A STUDY OF JAINA ICONOGRAPHY DATE FROM THE earliest known Jaina texts, namely, the Jaina canonical literature of the Angas and Upangas (but excluding later commentaries thereon). But no definite canon about the iconometry or iconography of Jaina images is found. Of course we have references to Jaina images and shrines in the stock descriptions of the Siddhāyatanas. These descriptions include other items of Jaina worship such as the stūpas, the mana-stambhas, etc. It is difficult to say whether the very few references to images and shrines of Arhats, obtained in the Bhagavati, the Uvasaga-dasão and the Nayadhamma-kahão are as old as the age of Mahavira or his immediate successors. Nowhere is it mentioned that Mahāvira and his ganadharas visited any Jaina shrine. It is therefore not possible to expect any reference to Tirthankara images and shrines in the older strata of the Jaina canons which were re-edited in early fourth century A.D. at Mathură as well as Valabhi in two separate councils and again in a council at Valabhi in about A.D. 470. However, the torso and legs of a Tirthankara sculpture, with Mauryan polish on it,' obtained from Lohanipur, an extension of the site of Pāšaliputra, shows that at least in the age of Samprati, the grandson of Asoka, worship of Tirthankara images had already come into vogue. Jaina traditions speak of Samprati being converted to Jainism by Arya Suhasti.
1 The following references may be ooted : (a) nanattha Arihante vd Arthanhta-celyäni vå bhdviyappanosisde uddham uppayari java sohammo kappo...(Bhagavatf-sutra, 3, 2, sütra 145, p. 175), (b) ta enam Anande Gandval.. evan vaydsi no khalu me bhante kappai aljappabhiyim anna-utthie vå anna-utthiya devayáni vá anna-utthiya-parlggahiyāni Arihanta-ceiyaim va vandittae vă namam-sittae va (Uvasaga-dasão, Bhavnagar ed., p. 14). Abbayadeva-Sari, commenting, says : anya-yüthikadalvatant vd Hari-Haradini. anya-yrithika-parigrhitänivå Arhac-caityani. Arhat-pratimdlaksanāni yatha bhauta-parigrhitant maha-kala-laksanani. Ibid., p. 15. It will be seen that this passage of the Uvdsaga-dasdo refers to a later stage in Jaina history when Jaina shrines came to be appropriated by other sects. (c) The Naya-dhamma-kahdo refers to the worship of Jina images by Draupadi in her house-shrine (grha-caltya). But in its existing form, the text scems to post-date the division into Svetämbara and Digambara texts.
* See above, p. 71, plate 21.-Editor.]
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РАхт х. Samprati is spoken of as a great patron of Jainism, in the Bhasya and Cürni works and in the Vasudeva-hindi. This conversion took place at the time of ratha-yatra festival of the Jivantasvāmin image, either at Vidisa or at Ujjain, very probably at Vidiśā. The Jivantasvămin image, representing Mahavira meditating in käyotsarga-posture (standing) and with dhoti, crown and other alarkāras on his person-is so called because it was fashioned as a wooden portrait-sculpture when Mahavira used to meditate in his palace some time prior to bis renunciation. Thus at least a contemporary portrait-sculpturo scems to have been fashioned in the life-time of Mahăvira and worshipped by not only some people but by the whole sargha by the age of Samprati, the grandson of Mauryan emperor Asoka. This image could have served as a prototype or model for other later images of Mahāvira. But the Jina image, as a cult-object, is the same in form for worship of all the Tirthankaras (except Päráva and Supārsva who have snake-hoods overhead). Canons for the cultimage could have come into existence at least by about the beginning of the Christian era; this is suggested by the large number of Jina images (in sitting as well as standing postures) found from Kankäli-tilā, Mathură, and the hoard of Jaina bronzes from Chausa, near Buxur in Bihar.
The earliest datable evidence laying down standards for a Tirthankara image, so far known, is supplied in the Brhat-sarhità (58, 45) of Varahamihira: 'The god of the followers of the Arhats is to be represented as young and beautiful, having a peaceful countenance and the frivatsa-mark on his chest, With arms reaching his knees (i.e. when standing in meditation) his body is covered by only the quarters of directions (i.e. he is to be shown naked, with no garment on his person)."
Obviously this formula refers to Digambara Jaina images. Either the worship of images with a dhoti had not been started by the age of Varahamihira, or at least it had not been very well-known (i.e. perhaps of a relatively recent origin) in that age. It is well-known that none of the Tirtharkara images of the Kushan age from Mathurā and Chausa shows any garment on their persons.
i For all references to Samprati and the Jivantasvāmin conception and images, see U.P. Shah, 'A unique image of Jivastasvām!', Journal of the Oriental Institute, I, 1951-52, pp. 72-79.
[ Sec above, chapters 6 and 7.-Editor.) [The text has been quoted above, p. 37, n. 1.-Editor.)
• For a detailed discussion on this problem, sec U.P. Shah, "The age of diffetentiation of Svetāmbara and Digambara images', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, 1, 1950-51, pp. 30 ff.
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ICONOGRAPHY The Mänasära (LV, 71-95), a text on architecture, assigned to circa sixth century A.D., supplies some more information about Jaina iconography. It says about the Jaina image that it should have two arms, two eyes, and the head should be clean-shaven and there should be a top-knot.' And again: *There should be no ornaments and no clothes on any part of the body of the Jina figure which should be attractive (beautiful). The srivatsa-mark should be set in gold over the chest.'
The Mänasära further says that the Jina figure should be in a straight, erect or sitting posture. The legs should be uniformly straight, and the two long bands should be in the same posture. In the sitting posture, the two feet are placed on the lotus-seat, the whole image being in a stiff attitude and bearing a meditative look on the supreme soul. The right and the left hands should be placed with palm upwards. The image should be placed upon a throne in an erect or sitting posture. At its top (back ?) should be a pinnacle and a crocodile-arch. Above that should be the kalpa-tree together with the royal elephant and such other images.
According to the same text, the image should further be accompanied by Nārada and other sages as well as the assembly of gods and goddesses in a praying-attitude. The Yakşas and Vidyadharas and other demi-gods and kings except Cakravartins should also be carved in the same attitude. It should also be shown as being worshipped by Nägendra and the lords of the quarters together with the Yakşas. The Yaksa and Yakşeśvara are placed on the side serving with raised cauris.
The limbs of the Jaina deities should be measured in the largest types of daśa(ten)-tāla system. So also are the images of the Tirthankaras, according to the Mänasära (LV, 71-95).
The Mānasära refers to the Digambara image, but except the nakedness other characteristics are common to both the Svetāmbara and the Digambara images. All the attendant gods, Närada especially, are not represented in the parikara of any Jina image known hitherto, but cauri-bearing Yakşas, Nāgas, elephant-riders, drum-beaters, Gandharvas or Vidyadhara-pair, etc., are wellknown in the advanced stage of the Jina image with a full parikara. The chief characteristics of a Jina image are the same, namely, long arms, a beautiful young figure, eyes centred on nose-tip in meditation and the srivatsamark on the chest.
Haribhadra-Sori, the famous Svetambara author of the seventh century, praises the Jina form in the following well-known verse : pradama-rasa-nimagnam drsti-yugman prasannar vadana-kamalam ankah kamini-sanga-Sünyah) kara-yugam api yat te sastra-sambandha-vandhyarh tad ast jagati devo vita-rdgas tvam evall
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(PART IX The Digambara text Pratisha-säroddhāra (1, 61-62) of Ašādhara (1228) enjoins that the eyes of the Jina image should be centred on the tip of the nose and that the image should be free from faults like a terrific countenance. It should also be accompanied by the eight prätihāryas and the Yaksas.
Vasunandi Saiddhāntika, whom Āsādhara has referred to and who may be assigned to circa twelfth century (or earlier ?), gives the iconometry of a Jina image in his Pratiştha-sära-sarngraha. He refers to the measurement of the uşnişa on the Jina's head. He also says that the Jina image is void of hair on the body or the beard and has the śrivatsa-mark on his chest. The arms are long, reaching the knees. The soles of the feet show marks of the conch, the disc, the goad, the lotus, the yava (oat), the chatra, etc. Images of Tirthankaras are either in the standing (kāyotsarga) or in the sitting (paryarikāsana or padmasana) postures. The images of Jinas are further said to be accompanied by cight prātiharyas.?
Al Tirthankara images, so far known, are either in the standing or in the sitting postures. Most of the south-Indian images of Jinas, in the sitting posture, represent them sitting in the ardha-padmasana, while similar images from north India show full padmāsana, with both legs crossed. But no distinction is found in the selection of postures of different Tirthankaras : all the Jinas are found represented in both the postures. However, Jaina texts have noted postures of various Jinas at the time of their nirvāna. Twentyone Tirthankaras are said to have obtained nirvana while engaged in meditation in the kāyotsarga-posture (also Bharata and Bahubali according to the Digambara view), while three Tirthankaras-Rşabha, Nemi and Mahaviraobtained nirvāṇa while sitting in the dhyāna-mudra. The suggestion that these should be the respective postures of Tirthankaras in images is not adhered to in actual practice, even though an early text like the Avašyaka-Niryukti (gätha 969) also suggests that the Jinas are represented in this world in the postures in which they left it.
Both the sects note the complexions of the Tirthankaras of this avasarpini in the Bharata-kşetra. According to the Digambara view,' sixteen Tirthankaras,
Pratisha-sära-sangraha (in MS.), chapter IV, verses 1, 2, 4, 64, 69. Also see Vasubindu (Jayasena), Pratisha-patha, 70.
Ciyavandana-muhabhäsa, 80-81, p. 15. The Tiloya-pannatti, 4, 1210, p. 302, and the Varanga-carita of Jaţăsimhanandi (circa sixth century), 2, 7, 90, p. 272, say that Rşabba, Vasupujya and Nemi obtained Siddha-hood in sitting postures, while the rest were standing when they obtained nirvana.
Tiloya-pannatti, 4, 588, p. 217; Pratishd-sdroddhára, 1, 80-81; Padma-purăra, parvan 20, verses 63-66.
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• ICONOGRAPHY except the following, were golden in complexion : Candraprabha and Puspadanta were white, Suparsva and Päráva were greenish (harita), Munisuvrata and Neminátha were dark-blue and Padmaprabha and Vasupujya were red like coral or lotus. The same view is expressed by the Svetāmbara Avasyaka-Niryukti, and it may be safely presumed that this tradition dates at least from before the age of final separation between the two texts regarding image-worship
The different Tirtharikaras are identified with the help of lanchanas carved on or below their seats. Both the sects give lists of these recognizing symbols. However, they are not available in any early texts. None of the Aagams, por even the Kalpa-sūtra which gives the lives of the Jinas, the Niryuktis and the Cūrnis give a list of these cognizances. The Vasudevahindi (circa A.D. 500 or a little earlier), which gives accounts of several Tirtbankaras, makes no mention of these cognizances. Amongst the Digambaras, earlier works like the Varänga-carita (sixth century), the Adi-puräna of Jinasena (circa 750-830), the Uttara-purāņa of Guņabhadra (840), the Padmacarita of Ravişeņa (676), etc., do not give these lists. The Tiloya-pannatti does give a list, but the text, as it is available today, seems to have been tampered with by later authors.
A comparison of list of lanchanas of both sects shows that the points of difference are with regard to the cognizances of (1) the fourteenth Jina Ananta, who has the falcon-symbol according to Hemacandra but the bear according to the Digambaras, (2) of the tenth Jina Sitala, who has the srivatsa (Hemacandra) but the svastika (Tiloya-pannatti) or the śri-druma (Pratishasäroddhāra) according to the Digambaras, and (3) of Aranātha, the eighteenth Jina, who has the fish-symbols according to the Digambaras but the nandyävarta
Avašyaka-Niryukri, gdthās 376-377, Abhidhana-cintamani, 1, 49. The apparent difference in the complexions of Munisuvrata and Neminātha who are dark according to the Svetambara view and of Supäršva and Pārsva who are dark-blue according to the same sect is, to my mind, a negligible one since in different paintings the sbades selected differed, and the dark-blue of the Ay-Nir. could be harita in the Digambara sect, or dark could be dark-blue. As I have shown in my paper Vršākapi in the Rgveda', Journal of the Oriental Institute, VII, 1958-59, haria was used for various shades and the terminology for various finer shades was not known.
• The occurrence of the name of Bālacandra Saiddhantika at one place is one of the reasons for holding this view.
Tagara-kusumd according to the Tiloya-pannatti, 4, 605, tagara according to the Pratıştha-sároddhára. The editors of the former text have takep tagara-kusuma to mean 'fish' which is supported by the table of symbols based on the Kannada Digambara sources pubhished by T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, New Series, General Section, 1, 3, Madras, 1934, pp. 192-94.
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(PART IX according to the Svetämbaras. Amongst the Digambara writers themselves there are a few differences the Tiloya-pannatti gives the nandyavarta for the seventh Jina, while the Pratistha-säroddhāra gives the svastika (agreeing with Hemacandra's Svetämbara tradition). The cognizance of the tenth Jina is the svastika according to the Tiloya-pannatti, but śri-druma according to the Pratisha-säroddhāra.
The earliest literary source for lāñchanas in either of the two sects is later than the Digambara-Svetämbara separation. We must, therefore, take the help of archaeological evidence for the origin and development of the various lañchanas. Without going into much detail, it will be enough to state that no Jina image of the Kushan period shows any lañchana. The first datable and the earliest-known sculpture with a lañchana is the partly-mutilated sculpture of Neminātha from Rajgir, with a Gupta-period inscription referring to Candragupta. In the centre of the pedestal is the beautiful figure of a standing cakra-puruşa with the wheel on his back, and on either side of the wheel is a conch, the cognizance of Neminātha.
The position of the lāñchana, according to Asādhara' (and all Jaina writers), is to be in the centre below the păda-pitha, while the attendant Yakşa and Yakşi are to be on the right and left sides respectively (of the pedestal).
A noteworthy feature in Jaina iconography is the complete agreement in both the sects about the names of all the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Lists of the Tirthankaras are found in Agamas, e.g. the Kalpa-sūtra, the Logassasutta of the Avas yaka-sūtra and the Bhagavati-sūtra (16, 5). The Acărāngasūtra (sūtra 126) and the Niryukti thereon refer to the Tirthankaras of the past, present and future ages. The Sthānānga-sūtra (2, 4, 108) gives the complexions of the Jinas. The Digambara sect regards the nineteenth Jina Mallinātha as a male, while the Svetāmbaras believe that Malli was a female. The difference is due to the fact that the Digambaras believe that females cannot obtain mokşa. This belief seems to have grown because they cannot move about naked and practise the highest type of penance--the Jina-kalpa
1 First published by Ramaprasad Chanda in Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1925-26, Calcutta, 1928, plate LVI b; U.P. Shah, Studies in Jalna Art, Baparas, 1955, fig. 18. (Above, p. 123, plate 53.-Editor.)
Pratisha-sdroddhara, 1,77 : sthiretarárcayak padu-pithasyddho yathayatham, lachanam daksine päráve Yaksarh Yaksim ca vamakell
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ICONOGRAPHY
Thus, the question of the sex of the nineteenth Jina is based upon the main point of Svetämbara-Digambara difference, namely, the acelakatva.
Images of Tirthankaras were made of costly gems, metals, stones, wood or clay. The Acara-dinakara lays down certain injunctions on the selection of any of these materials. According to this text, one can prepare images of gold, silver or copper but never of bronze, kämsya, lead or tin. Sometimes brass (reti) is used in casting images, though as a general rule mixtures of metals are prohibited. When the material is wood, wood of śri-parni, candana, bilva, kadamba, rakta-candana, piyala, udumbara and occasionally Simsima is allowed but never of any other tree. When the image is made of stone, the material should be free from various defects and it may be of white, greenish, red, black or green colour. In preparing a terracotta image, cow-dung should be collected without letting it fall on the ground and is to be mixed with clay obtained from pure soil. In the preparation of lepya (stucco) images various colours are utilized. It is further enjoined that images of iron, stone, wood, clay, ivory or cow-dung or paintings should not be worshipped in private homes by persons desirous of welfare."
Vasunandi in his Śrāvakācāra says that images of Jinas and others (Siddhas, Acaryas and others) should be made according to iconographic formulac (padima-lakkhaṇa-vihi)," the materials used being gems, gold, jewels, silver, brass, pearls, stones, etc. Vasubindu in his Pratisthā-patha adds crystals and says that the wise praise such images as are accompanied by (a representation, below the Jina, of) a big lotus-seat.
Defective images, images which are broken and repaired or those which have been highly worn out are not to be installed. One should worship in the
1 As shown elsewhere by the author, the real and final crisis on this point arose in the late fifth century A.D., when the canonical texts also were re-edited and adjusted to suit the requirements of each sect. The history of the Jaina church, with lists of heads of Aryikäs (nuns) of various Tirthankaras, carefully maintained by both the sects, and the figures of monks and nuns on the pedestals of Tirthankara figures of the Kushan period from Kankali-tra, Mathura, suggest that at the beginning there was possibly no such bar against women, the discarding of garments being optional even for the monks.
• Acdra-dinakara, part 2, p. 143, verses 4-11.
* Does he here refer to a lost text called Pratima-lakṣaṇa-vidhi ?
• Vasunandi-Śrávakácāra, verse 390; cf. Varubindu-pratistha-påțha, verse 69, p. 17: also cf. Jina-yaja-kalpa, quoted in Jaina-sidhanta-bhaskara, II, p. 12: sauvarnarh rajatar cápi palttalam kárisyajan tathā prāvälyam mauktikaṁ caiva vaidūryādi-suratnajam citrajam kvacie candanajam...
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[PART IX house an image more than a vitasti in height. The Acara-dinakara prohibits the worship of images of less than twelve argulas in height in public shrines and adds that images higher than twelve angulas should not be worshipped at home if one desires happiness. Images cast in metal or stucco images deserve to be repaired and continued in worship, but those of wood or stone, once mutilated, should not be repaired for worship. But if they are more than a hundred years old or if they are consecrated by the best of men they deserve worship, even though mutilated. But they should be placed in public shrines and not in gsha-caityas."
Though references to temples of the Tirthařkaras in the Jaina Agamas are extremely rare and their genuineness is often questioned, and even though no image of a Tīrthankara on this earth is described in the Agama texts, we are able to obtain a fairly early conception of the Jina image from the stock descriptions of sasvata-Jina-pratimās. Jaina traditions of both sects refer to Siddhāyatanas (shrines of Siddhas, also called säsvata-caityas or eternal shrines) containing images of Tirthankaras known as śāśvata-Jinas. These images are of four Tirtharkaras, namely, Candránana, Vārişeņa, Rşabha and Vardhamana.' They are called sāsyata-Jinas because in every utsarpini or avasarpini ārā the names of these four Tirthankaras are always repeated. Belief in Siddhayatanas, or in sāśvata-Jina-pratimas in various heavens and on mountain-peaks is found in several Agamas. It is said that in the centre of the extremely beautiful Siddhāyatana a devacchandaka is erected on a big mani-pithaka. This sanctum of the gods has one hundred and eight images of the Jinas installed therein. A poetic and exaggerated description of the various parts of the body of the Jinas follows. Then it is said that at the back of these idols
1 Pratistha-säroddhara, 1, 83, p. 9. Pandit Manoharlal, the editor of this text, adds in a foot-note : athatah sampravaksydmi grha-bimbas ya laksanam/ ekangular bhavec chrestham dvyangulum dhana-näsanam/ tryangule jdyate vddhih pida syac caturangule) parcarigule tu vrddhih sydd udvegus tu sadangulell saptangule gavam vddhir hånir asfangule maral navdigule putra-vrddhir dhana-naso dasdrigulell ekádasángular bimbam sarva-kamartha-sddhakam/ etat pramanam akhydtam ata ürdhvaṁ na karayet// iti granthäntare'py uktam.
Acara-dinakara, II, p. 142.
3 Ibid., p. 142, verses 4-7, also verses 13-27, for various mishaps attendant on defective images.
• Sthananga-sútra, 4, sūtra 307; Pravacana-sdroddhara, 491, p. 117. For a very early list, see Jivajivabhigama-sūtra, sūtra 137, p. 235. For Siddhayatanas at various places according to the Digambara tradition, see Harivarśa-puräna of Jinasena, parvans 5-6, pp. 70-140.
5 In any of the fifteen karma-bhūmis.
* The Nandiśvara-dvipa of Jaina cosmographical accounts has fifty-two such såśvataJinalayas. For the stock description of Siddhayatanas, see Jivajivabhigama-sūtra, sūtra 139, pp. 232-33.
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ICONOGRAPHY of the Jinas are figures of umbrella-bearers, gracefully holding white umbrellas, wreaths and garlands of koranta-flowers, extremely white and lustrous, like silver, the moon, etc. On each side of the image of the Jina are two figures of the flywhisk-bearers; in front of the Jina is a pair (one on each side) of Nāga figures, of Yaksas, Bhutas, and of the kunda-dharas (holding water-jars or vessels) bowing and falling at the feet of the Lord. In front of the images of the Lord are placed bells, candana-kalasas (same as margala-kalašas or pots of sandal-wood paste?), bhringdras (jars), mirrors, dishes, vessels, seats, boxes of jewels of variegated hues, necks of horses, elephants, men, Kinnaras, Kimpurusas, Mahoragas, Gandharvas, bulls, caskets (cangert) of flowers, garlands, powders, imguents, etc., mops of peacock-feathers, baskets (patalaka) of flowers, one hundred and eight cach of lion-thrones, umbrellas, flywhisks, oil-pots, pots of kostha, coyaka, tagara, haritala, hingula, manahsila, collyrium, and one hundred and eight banners.
The above is possibly an account of standing images, as the description of Jina's limbs, etc., suggests. Though the set of asta-maha-prătiharyas prescribed for images of Tirtharkaras by both Svetambara and Digambara pratişthă-texts of the medieval period and by silpa-works is not given above, some of the elements of the eight prätthāryas, constituting the parikara of a Jina image, do figure in the above account. The account is a poetic and exaggerated mixture of description of Jina figures plus accessories of Jaina worship seen by the author or authors of such accounts. On the whole, on a comparison with available archaeological material, this account does not appear to reflect an age earlier than the early centuries of the Christian era. On the Jina figures of this period obtained from Mathura, we do find on each side of a Jina an attendant cămara-dhara, or a Nāga figure with folded hands, and occasionally a mala-dhara (garland-bearer) on each side at the top of the sculpture, an umbrella above the head of the Jina. Kunda-dharas, according to commentators, are minor gods who carry out orders (of Indra?), but if kunda is understood as a type of water-vessel, then we have a parallel in Mathură where the attendant figures sometimes carry a water-pot.
The above account makes no mention of the lanchanas of Jinas, nor of figures of Sasana-devatás (attendant Yakşa and Yakşi protecting the śåsana or church of a Jina). These motifs are also absent in Mathură during the Kushan period. Especially noteworthy is the Srivatsa-mark mentioned by the
1 This Svetämbara conception may be compared with a conciso description in the Digambara Hari-vanta, parvan 's, verser 361-65, giving the parivdra of the Siddha-akstrima or Hivata images in the Siddhdyatana.
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[PART LX
canons and almost invariably obtained on Tirthańkara images of the Kushan age, but not on the polished (Mauryan) torso from Lohanipur or the standing early Pārsvanatha bronze in the Prince of Wales Museum, which I have assigned to a period before Christ (see above, pp. 87-88, plate 37).
It seems that marks on soles of feet and palms of hands and the srivatsamark on the chest, etc., taken from traditions of maha-puruşa-laksanas, came to be regarded as chief characteristics of a Tirthankara image. The texts describing the śāśvata-Jinas do not refer to garments on the figure of the Jina. No early Jaina texts refer to the lists of mahā-puruşa-laksanas so common in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit texts and other Buddhist works. However, the Aupapātika-Sutra, an Upānga Agama text, giving the stock description (varnaka) of Mahāvira's body, which is to be regarded as common to all Agamas, gives a very interesting description of Mahāvira's body, which agrees, often in similar phraseology, with the mahā-puruşa-laksanas of early Buddhist texts.
According to the Aupapātika description of Mahāvira's body," Mahāvira's height was seven cubits, and the frame of his body as strong as the vajra, his breath fragrant like the lotus and he was handsome to look at. The body was free from sweating and such other defects. The front of his head (agrasiras) was strong and high like the peak (kūtākära)," the hair on the head being dark and of thick growth, lying in schematic curls (pradakşināvartta). The scalp of the Lord, resembling a bunch of pomegranate-flowers, was pure and smooth like gold; his head was shaped like an umbrella (chattrakāra); his unsullied forehead (lalāța) possessed the lustre of the new moon, being clear and even; the face was perfect and shining like the moon, ears lovely, proportionate and good, the cheeks healthy and full. His eye-lashes, thin, dark and smooth, looked beautiful like a bent bow, the wide eyes resembled the full-blown white lotus, each eye-lash having a white hair; his nose was long, straight and uplifted like that of an eagle; his lower lip looked lovely and red like the coral, the cherry or the bimba-fruit; the rows of teeth, lustrous like the white moon, conch, milk, etc., were complete, unbroken, indistinct and smooth; his palate and tongue shone like red-hot
1 A paper giving analysis of the Jaina wid Buddhist descirptions was read by the author before the International Congress of Orientalists which met in New Delhi in 1964, and was sent for publication in the Vogel Commemoration Volume, which has unfortunately not yet been published. A free translation of the Aupapărika account is therefore added above becausc of its obvious importance.
Aupapatika-sūtra, sūtra 10, and commentary of Abhayadeva, pp. 26-42. * Does this include the conception of usnisa?
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ICONOGRAPHY gold; his beard and moustache were well-dressed and grown in proportion to his age. His chin was well-set and well-developed like that of a lion; his neck, four angulas in length, looked like the conch (kambu-griva). His shoulder was broad and rounded (pratipürna) like that of the buffalo, the bull, the lion, the boar and the elephant; his round, well-developed muscular arms, with steady joints, were long like the latch of a city-gate; his hands, big and strong, looked like a cobra with expanded hood; his palms were soft and muscular, red and endowed with auspicious marks and had webbed fingers with no intervening space in between (acchidra-jala-pani), a typical trait found on Buddha images of the Gupta period, not yet available on any image of the Kushan age; the fingers again wero both thick and soft with nails red and shining like copper. His palms showed marks of the moon, the sun, the conch, the cakra and the svastika, etc. He had a broad chest well-developed and even, shining like a bar of gold, and having the mark of the Srivatsa; his back was strong with bones invisible under the muscles. He had a beautiful healthy body shining like gold.
His sides were well-developed, beautiful and symmetrical; the hair on his body was pure, soft, slight, oily, delicate and charming. His abdomen was strong and well-developod (pina) like that of the fish and the bird, his belly like that of the fish, all the organs of his body pure and defectless; his navel, deep and developed like the newly-blossomed lotus, was spiral (pradaksinavartta) inside like the whirling wave of the Gangā. The torso or the middle of his body was like the tripod, the pestle, the mirror or the thunderbolt, broad at ends and narrow in the middle; his hips were like those of the best horse or the lion, his privies like those of a horse, clean and well-formed. He had the gait of the best of elephants; his thighs were shaped like the trunk of an elephant: his knee-joints were invisible as if under the lid of a spherical box; his shanks were like those of a deer; his ankles were well-set and invisible under muscles; bis feet, beautiful and well-built like those of tortoise, looked beautiful with close-set fingers having copper-red nails. The soles of his feet, soft and red like the lotus-leaf, showed marks of a mountain, a city, crocodile, ocean, disc, etc. Brilliant like a glowing fire, the lightning-flash or the rising sun, Mahāvira possessed all the one thousand and eight marks of the best of human beings.
All the Tirthankara or the Buddha images are based on the fundamental concept of maha-purusa-laksanas. The Jaina description seems to suggest, indirectly, the unisa but not the ürna. Hardly half-a-dozen Tirthankara images So far known or published would show the ürnă. The uşnisa is almost invariably seen, but images without it are also known from Mathurā and
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other sites. A circular tilaka-mark on the forehead is rarely seen; one such specimen is from Mathurā. (See above, p. 110 and fig. VI, from Vārāṇasi. -Editor.)
The Jaina description wonderfully agrees with the conception of the Buddha figure in the Ratna-gotra-vibhäga of Sthiramati. An ideal abridged description of the Jina body is also obtained in the Vasudeva-hindi, which is also a work of the Gupta age.
According to Jaina traditions, the Tirthankaras have certain extraordinary qualities (arisayas). But the group of eight mahā-prätihäryas, well-known as the parikara of the 'Jina image, is not separated in the list of the atiśayas given in early texts like the Samavāyānga-sütra. The emphasis on only eight atisayas treated as mahā-prātihāryas came with the emergence of the full-fledged parikara on images of both the sects. The process was gradual as can be seen by comparison of Tirthankara sculptures of the Kushan and Gupta periods with those of the post-Gupta and medieval periods.
The Jaina pantheon, so far as iconography and available remains are concerned, grew considerably after the Gupta period. Tantric influences developed in Buddhism and Hinduism from the early medieval period. Jainism could not escape this trend and we have texts like the the Jvalämálinikalpa of Indranandin, the Bhairava-Padmāvati-kalpa of Mallişena and the Ambika-kalpa of Subhacandra. The Jaina rituals are elaborated with strong influence of Hindu rites as is evident from the Pratişthă-săroddhara of Ašādhara (Digambara), the Nirvana-kalikā of Pädalipta and the Acāradinakara of Vardhamana-Süri (Svetämbara). The height of Tantric trends, with non-Jaina influences, was reached in the work called Vidyānusāsana of Matisāgara (circa sixteenth century), still in manuscript form. These works and a number of pratisha-works of both the sects contain a mine of information on later Jaina iconography.
The Jaina Puräņas, in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa, Kannada, Tamil, etc., are another rich source for a study of Jaina iconography. Again, stotraworks, and incidentally some story-books, also supply further information.
1 Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, XXXVI, pp. 1-119, and chapter III, verses 17-25; V.S. Agrawala, 'Thirty-two marks of the Buddha-body', Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1, no. 1, pp. 20-22.
? See C.R. Jain, Outlines of Jainism, pp. 129-30; Mahd-purana of Puspadanta, 1, 18, 7-10; Samavayanga-sūtra, sūtra 34, pp. 59-60; Abhidhdna-cintamani of Hemacandra, 1, 57-64; Tiloya-pannatri, IV, 896 ff., 915 fr.
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ICONOGRAPHY Šilpa-works like the Aparăjita-prccha, the Devata-mürti-prakarana, the Rupamand ana and the Vastu-sära of Thakkura Pheru, besides earlier works like the Manasära, are other very important sources for the study of Jaina iconography.
SYMBOLS
There is no Creator-god in Jaina philosophy and strictly speaking image-worship is not absolutely necessary for the attainment of emancipation. It is the bhāva-worship (mental attitude) and not dravya-worship (physical worship, idol-worship) that really matters as shown by Kundakundācārya Jaina worship is, therefore, regarded as a worship not of a god-head or a deity but of a human being who has reached perfection of the soul freed from all bondage. And again it is not hero-worship in its usual sepse but is the aggregate of qualities of the Perfect Man, of the Liberated Soul that is remembered, adored and developed in one's own self by the worshipper by worshipping the idol of the Jina. The idol therefore serves more the purpose of a symbol of the aggregate of certain qualities than of a portrait of a Tirthankara or a maha-puruṣa. Emancipated souls or Siddhas or Tirtharkaras (those Siddhas who establish tbe Jaina Tirtha constituted of śrāvaka, śrāvika, sådhu and sådhvi) are souls freed from attachment (råga) or jealousy (dveşa) and therefore neither favour nor frown upon the worshipper of their idols. In worshipping the idol, the devotee remembers the qualities or virtues of the Jina and tries to imbibe them in one's own life and being.
It is therefore obvious that idol-worship was introduced and sanctioned in Jainism only because the common man or the lay-worshipper could not do without it and was possibly already accustomed to some sort of imageworship. Worship of Yakşas, Nāgas, Bhūtas, Mukunda, Indra, Skanda, Vasudeva, trees, rivers, etc., is often referred to in the Jaina canons. These deities were invoked with various desires for reward, for obtaining children and so on. Naturally, therefore, Jainism imbibed elements of this type of worship while it began worshipping Tirthankaras, Siddhas and monks in various stages of spiritual progress and sect-hierarchy. It is also possibly an attempt to replace and eliminate or undermine worship of elements of nonJaina character and association. It was but natural that in the beginning was introduced and enjoined worship of image of the Arhats (Tirthankaras), Siddhas, Acāryas (heads of a particular group of monks, nuns and their devotees a gana or a gaccha or a kula), Upadhyāyas (monks who read out and explain the scriptures to others) and Sädhus (ordinary monks). These are called the Five Supreme Ones...the Pasca-Parameşthins.
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The Jaina nayakära-mantra or the namaskara-mantra, the highest and the most revered invocation and incantation, is constituted of formulas making obeisance to Arhats, Siddhas, A căryas, Upadhyāyas and Sådhus who are the Five Dignitaries.
In a lotus-symbol, four dignitaries would be conceived or represented on four petals of the lotus (one in each direction) with the Arhat or Tirtbankara in the centre. Though no such early representation has been discovered it seems that from very early times these five were the supreme objects of Jaina worship
At some later stage, four more objects were introduced on the lotuspetals intervening the lotus-petals of the four concerns of the eastern, southern western and northern directions. These are, according to the Svetämbara sect, the conceptions of jñāna (Right Knowledge), darśana (Right Faith), căritra (Right Conduct) and tapas (Right Penance), and according to the Digambara sect, the caitya (the Jina image), the caitydlaya (temple enshrining the Jina image), the fruta (scripture) and the dharma-cakra (or the Wheel of Law). These were represented as a diagram on stone or in metal or were painted on canvas or paper. The Svetāmbara diagram is called the Siddhacakra (plate 307, on stone, from Nadol; plate 309A, in bronze, in the Baroda Museum), while the Digambara one (plate 309B, in bronze, from Tirupparuttikkunram) is called the Nava-devată. In paintings of this diagram each of these five Parameşthins has a particular complexion. Thus the Arhat, the Siddha, the Acārya, the Upadhyāya and the Sadhu are respectively white, red, yellow, blue and black in complexion. The colour of the remaining four members of the Svetāmbara Nava-Pada is to be visualized in meditation as white according to Nava-Pada-Arādhanā-vidhi.' The Digambara diagram of Panca-Parameşthins is illustrated in a south-Indian bronze in the collection of the Samanta Bhadra Vidyalaya, Delhi (plate 308). Digambara tantra has two more diagrams, the Laghu-Siddha-cakra and the Brhat-Siddhacakra, which are widely different from the Digambara Nava-devatā or the Svetāmbara Siddha-cakra.
1 Ramachandran, op. cit., plate XXXVI, 2. . For further details, see Shah, op. cit., 1955, pp. 97-103. * Also Siri-Striväla-kaha, verses 1185-91.
• Piaristha-sdroddhara, chapter 6, Siddha-pratişthd-vidhi, verses 10-14; Jina-sarhita of Ekasandhi (MS.), chapter 9, verses 88 ff.; Pratisphd-kalpa-tippanam (MS.) of Vädi-Kumudacandra, Yantra-mantra-vidhi section.
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Nadol : marble Panca-Parameşthins in Svetambara temple
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South India: bronze Panca-Parameşthin, Digambara
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A. Baroda Museum : Siddha-cakra, Svetāmbara
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B. Tirupparuttikunram : bronze Nava-devată in
Trajlokyanātha temple
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A. Gwalior fort : a caumukha
wa
B. Surat : bronze caumukha with seventy-two
Jinas in Digambara temple
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A. Karapja : bronze sahasra-kuta in Digambara Jaina temple of Balātkāra-gana
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B. Indian Museum : bronze cauniukha with
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A. South India : Jina under caitya-tree (Samantabhadra Vidyalaya, Delhi)
B. Baroda : brass.tablet of asia-mangala in
Svetambara temple
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Kumharia: scenes of Mahavira's life on temple-ceiling
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Mudbidri: bronze śruta-skandha-yantra
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ICONOGRAPHY Hemacandra refers to the Siddha-cakra as a diagram brought to light by Vajrasvamin from the last Vidyānupravdda-pūrva in the early centuries of the Christian era. In the commentary Brhannyåsa on his own Sabdanusasana, Hemacandra refers to the Siddha-cakra as a samaya-prasiddha (famous traditionally) diagram. No earlier reference to the worship of the Siddha-cakra diagram is found, but in the Nitya-sandhya-kriya-vidhi of the Jina-sarhhita* ascribed to Indranandi (circa tenth century) the Nava-devatās are invoked. It seems that from an early stage the Pañca-Parameşthins were worshipped and invoked.
Archaeological evidence of the Kushan period, obtained from the excavations at Kankālī-tilā, has not revealed any Siddha-cakra or Navadevată diagram or the Panca-Parameşthins in one group, even though individually some of the Five Dignitaries like the Tirthankara, the Ācārya, the Upadhyâya and the Sädhu are found represented. As regards the Siddha, it is difficult to say whether some of the unidentified statues of Tirthankaras were regarded as representing Siddhas. The Siddha is aśarīrin, free from the bondage of even the human body, and as such his image was possibly not worshipped in the earlier stage. It is only in the very late bronzes in the Digambara shrines that we see the worship of the Siddha, whose figure is stencil-cut on a metal plate, and we also find the Siddha figure in the medieval sculptures and paintings of the Siddha-cakra and Nava-devatā diagrams.
But the Mathurā finds of the Kushan period do show that in the earliest stages the caitya-stúpa, the caitya-tree and the āyāga-pajas were worshipped. Tree-worship is very ancient not only in India but also in other countries. The Christmas Tree is one such example. Existence of tree-worship in Indus civilization is evidenced by representations on several seals and sealings. One of seals from Chanhu-daro depicts the pippala-tree. Some sealings from Harappa show trees enclosed by a wall or railings. "It cannot at present be stated definitely whether tree worship pertained to trees in their natural state or to their indwelling spirits. *4 The Taittiriya-Brāhmana (1.1.3) speaks of seven holy trees. In the Rgvedic Apri-Süktas, vanaspatis are invoked."
1 Yoga-fastra, 8, 74-75. * Incomplete MSS, of this work are available in Digambara Jaina Bhandāras.
• John Marshall, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, London, 1931, 1, p. 312; N.G. Majumdar, Explorations in Sind, Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, no. 41, Delhi, 1934, plate XVII.
* The Vedic Age, ed. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker, London, 1951, p. 188. * A.A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Strassburg, 1897, p. 154.
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[PART IX Osadhis are called 'mothers' and goddesses' and are invoked chiefly with waters and mountains. Caitya-vsksas are mentioned in the AtharvavedaParisista, LXXI, where large trees are addressed as deities; they are connected with human fertility and nymphs inhabiting them are asked to be propitious to passing wedding-processions. Souls or spirits were supposed to dwell in trees and to haunt them and were looked upon as gods. Offerings are made to these tree-spirits, who are pleased when garlands are hung upon the branches and lamps lighted on all sides, and bali-offerings made at the foot of the trees. Both Manu and Yājñavalkya ask a snataka to circumbulate sacred trees (asvattha, etc.) on his way.
The Mahabharata forbids even the felling of trees that are known as cait yas. Kane interprets caitya as 'trees like the asvattha that have a platform (caitya)s built for them. The stone dias, throne or platform was regarded as Yakşa's haunt (bhavana) as pointed out by Coomaraswamy, who also says : 'Most of the Yakşa cetiya referred to in Buddhist and Jaina literature may have been sacred trees.'? The Vasudeva-hindi of Samgha-dāsa-gani (circa fifth century A.D.) shows that there was an udyana (park) called Manoramā in Săliggāma in Magadha Janapada. Therein was the Jakkha Sumano, whose stone plaque or platform (silā=filā) was placed under an aśoka-tree, the fila being known as Sumanā. There the people worshipped the Yakşa. A certain person called Satya spent a night in meditation in this area of the Sumanā-sila, standing in the kāyotsarga-pose, in order to propitiate the Yakşa. It seems that sila is here used in the sense of a plaque or relief deposited under the aśoka-tree (revered as caitya-tree) on a platform (sila-paesa) where Satya could stand in meditation.
Thus, by the time of Buddha and Mahavira, possibly somewhat before their age, some of the caitya-trees that were formerly only enclosed in a
1 Ibid. Rgveda-Samhita, X, 97, 4 which is the same as Yajurveda-Samhita, XII, 78, and Taittiriya-Saṁhita, IV, 2, 6, 1.
* A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, London, 1927, p. 41. : Chåndogya-Upanişad, VI, 11; Jätaka, IV, p. 154.
Jätaka, V, pp. 472, 474, 488; IV, 210, p. 353; III, p. 23; IV, 153. Also Manu-smrti, III, 88; Brhad-Gauiama, Jivananda Vidyasagara's collection, part 2 p. 625.
For the origin and evolution of the meaning of citya and caitya and for three kinds of caityas mentioned in Jaina canonical literature, see Shab, op. cit., 1955, pp. 43-45.
• P.V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, II, 2, p. 895. ? Coomaraswamy, op. cit., p. 7, o. 4, and 47. & Vasudeva-hindi, pp. 85 and 88.
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small railing (as in the Indus seals and in the Mathura dyaga-patas), now had sila-patas installed under them, besides a stone (or brick) platform around their trunks. Not all the trees had these fild-patas but only those that were worshipped as haunts of spirits. Some caitya-trees possibly had platforms but not sila-patas and some continued to have only railings. But in some reliefs of Bharhut we see that stone plaques placed on stools or asanas and installed near the trunks of caitya-trees are worshipped by devotees."
It is possible to infer a stage in which the object of worship was carved in relief on the surface of the fila-pata itself and offerings placed on it. We see on some of ayaga-patas of Mathura the figure of a Tirthankara carved in the centre. Also the name ayaga-pata itself suggests that offerings were placed on or near them.
The stock-description (varnaka) of a caitya (Jakkhayāyaṇa-Yakṣa-caitya according to commentators) in the Jaina canons is the description of the Purṇabhadra-caitya obtained in the Aupapatika-sūtra, sūtras 2-5. According to it, the Pūrṇabhadra-caitya in the Amraśāla-vana situated to the north-east of the city of Campå was very old in age (ciratīta), recognized by people of old as ancient (porana) and famous. On all sides of it was a big forest-grove having a central big aśoka-tree with a prthivi-silä-patta under it, slightly reclining against the stem and placed on a simhasana. It was black like collyrium, dark-blue like nilotpala, shining (reflecting) like the surface of a mirror (ayamsayatalovame), soft to the touch like butter, cotton, etc. Incidentally, as I have shown before, this is the description of a highly-polished (Northern Black Polished Ware) terracotta plaque (prthivi-silä-paffa) existing in the sixth century B.C.'
It is this prthivi-sila-patta which is the precursor and prototype of the ayaga-patas from Kankali-tilä. This is further supported by the inscription on the ayaga-pata set up by Vasu, daughter of Lonasobhika, where the tablet
1 V.A. Smith, The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathurd, Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series, XX, Allahabad, 1901, plate IX, p. 16. The inscription on this tablet is highly defaced, Epigraphia Indica, II, plate Ib, pp. 311-13.
B.M. Barua, Bharhut, Calcutta, 1937, book III, figs. 26, 28, 30, 31, 32; Coomaraswamy, op. cit., figs. 41, 46, 51.
* Foundations of the Ghoşitäräma monastery have yielded the Northern Black Polished Ware of different colours. The medieval commentators were unable to understand the significance and quietly omitted to explain the word prthivi attached to fila-patta. It was not a tablet of the mother-goddess, Prthivi, as some scholars tried to explain. This was the shrine of Pūrṇabhadra and not of the mother-goddess Prthivi. The plaque (patta) was of a prthivi-silā
(terracotta).
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is actually called fild-pato. It is expressly stated in the last line that this tablet was meant for worship of (offering to) Arhats (Arahata-päjäye).
Hemacandra refers to ball-pattas, with figures of asta-mangalas in Jaina shrines. These are certainly the ayaga-patas since each of the ayaga-patas discovered hitherto at Kańkäll-tilä (except the tablets of ascetic Kapha and Aryavati, above, plate 19) has, as its central prominent motif, one of the aşta-mangala symbols. Thus, we have dyaga-pata with svastika, tri-ratna, stúpa, dharma-cakra, sthäpanācārya (or Indra-yaşti as identified by V.S. Agrawala), etc. Some of the tablets have figures of all the eight auspicious symbols on them, for example, the ayaga-pata which is the gift of Sihanädika, the ayagapaja of the wife of Bhadranandi and the ayaga-pata of an unknown donor from Mathură. The list of eight auspicious symbols of the age was somewhat different from the lists now current with the Svetämbara and the Digambara sects.
The practice of installing objects of worship on platform under caityatrees continues to this day in India, and we find loose broken or intact images and stones placed on such platforms under trees in villages and towns. An interesting evidence of about first century B.C. is obtained in a relief-panel from Mathura which has the representation of a Siva-linga under a tree, both enclosed in a railing."
In the Aupapatika-sütra description of the caitya of Parnabhadra (a wellknown ancient Yakşa), there is no mention of a structural shrine, and here possibly the tree itself with silä-patta is the Yakşa-ayatana as in the case of Suciloma-Jataka (Samyutta-Nikaya, 11, 5) where a tankite mañco is stated to be the Yakkha's haunt (bhavana). It seems that the carving of a figure (of the Yaksa or any deity) on the sila-patta or of installing a sculpture of a deity
1 V.S. Agrawala, Catalogue of the Mathura Museum', Journal of the U.P. Historical Society, XXIII, parts 1-2, pp. 69 ff. For a fuller description of the passage from the Aupapātika. süira, see Shah, op. cit., 1955, pp. 67 ff.
* See the remarks of U.P. Shah in 'Varddhamana-Vidya-Pata', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, IX, 1941. Hemacandra, in his Trişaşti, I, 3,422 ff., describing a samavasarana says: The arches were adorned with flags and white umbrellas and eight auspicious symbols below looked like those on offering slabs (bali-pottas)."
Smith, op. cit., plates IX, VII; above, plate 3. For a fuller description of and discussion on dydga-patas, see Shah, op. cit., 1955, pp. 77-84, figs. 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 14A, 14B, etc.
Shah, op. cit., 1955, fig. 67.
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under a cattya-tree was a later stage, but it must be remembered that even this stage might have been reached in the age of Mahavira if the shrine of Maggarapani Yakşa of Rajagṛha, referred to in Jaina canonical literature, can be regarded as dating from Mahavira's times.
Both Buddha and Mahavira and many other thinkers and sages of old used to meditate under such trees, on these platforms. This practice of meditating under trees is what Buddha seems to have resorted to, as suggested by Rhys Davids when at the end of some earnest dialogue Buddha used to close it with an appeal: 'Here are the trees: think this matter out"."
Another stage in the worship of the caitya-tree can be easily imagined in the erection of a pitha with sila-patta on each of the four sides of a tree. This served as the fundamental conception of the early caltya, open on four sides, the caturmukha shrine, also in the conception of pratima sarvatobhadrikā from Kankali-tilă, in which a Tirthankara is standing (above, plate 18) or sitting on each of the four sides. This inference is confirmed by the elaborate account of caitya-vṛksas in the samavasarana of Adinatha, described by Jinasena in his Adi-purana. They are called caltya-vrksas because at their roots are placed, on four sides, four images (caityas) of the Jinas. The caitya-trees of the Bhavanavāsi class of gods are described in a similar way by the Tiloyapannatti.
The original conception of a caturmukha-pratima (image facing four directions, fourfold image), so far as the samavasarana is concerned, is based upon the belief that in the circular auditorium in which the Jina delivers his sermon sitting on a dais in the centre, with the audience sitting on all sides, three images of the exact likeness of the Jina were installed by Indra for facing the three directions except the one which the Tirthankara himself was facing, so that all beings sitting in the different directions would be able to face the Jina. Thus, in this conception it is the figure of one and the same Jina that is to be seen facing each of the four different directions. Thus, in a fourfold image of Mahavira one should find four of images of Mahavira facing the four directions. But almost all the fourfold images found at Kankali-tilä disclose
1 Cf. Odette Viennot, Le Culte de l'Arbre dans l'Inde ancienne, plate VIIID, from the Amaravati stúpa.
2 Cf. Bhagavati-sutra, 3, 2, sutra 144, which describes Mahavira as meditating under a tree on a prthivi-la-patta.
T.W. Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, pp. 230-31.
• Adi-purana, 22, 184-204, 1, pp. 524-27.
• Tiloya-pannatii, 3, 33-39, I, p. 115.
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(PART IX figures of four different Tirthańkaras facing the four quarters. At least two of them can be identified-one, Rşabhanātha with hair-locks falling on his shoulders, and the second, Pārsvanātha with snake-hoods over his head. The third must have been Mahāvira, being the last Tirthankara, while the fourth might have represented Neminätha. This is inferred because in the Kalpa-sūtra lives of the remaining twenty Jinas are treated in an identical stereotyped fashion.
It is, therefore, possible that the fourfold images from Mathura, known as pratimd sarvatobhadrika from inscriptions on their pedestals, are not based on the conception of the gandha-kuți (sitting in which the Tirthankara delivers his sermon) of a samavasarana but perhaps has its origin in the concept of Yaksa-caityas under trees. In the stock-descriptions (varnaka) of the Siddhayatanas in the Jaina Agamas, we find that such a shrine had three entrances. In front of each entrance was a portico (mukha-mand apa) adorned with aştamangala motifs. In front of these were the prekşā-grha-mandapas or assemblyhalls. Facing them was a caitya-stupa on a mani-pishika. On four sides of each stūpa were mani-pithikas, each platform surmounted by Jina figures facing the stūpa. This shows the conception of Jina figures facing four sides.
The Adi-puräna of Jinasena: describes a type of pillars known as the māna-stambha in the first rampart of the samavasarana. At the base of these pillars on four sides were placed four golden images of Jinas. Such pillars are also described in the Tiloya-pannatti' which says that the Jina images were placed on the top of a pillar. The Kahaun pillar with an inscription of the Gupta ages shows four Jinas on four sides at the top and one at its base. Such figures are usually enshrined in a square pavilion, on top, open on four sides. This practice remains popular even today amongst the Digambaras. At Deogarh are certain pillars which show variations in this older tradition of māna-stambha. Sometimes, besides the four Jina figures on the top, four figures of subordinate deities, Yakşis, kşetrapālas, etc., were shown at the base, while on the top sometimes a ganadhara or an Acārya replaced one of the four Tirtharkara images. An elaboration of the same conception is the famous Jaina stambha at Chitor in Rajasthan.
1 For the evolution of the caitya, see Shah, op. cit., 1955, pp. 43 ff., esp. pp. 56-57, 94-95. ? Jivdjivabhigama-sūtra 3, 2, 137 ff. Also see Bhagavati-sūtra, 20, 9, sūtras 684-794. . Adi-purana of Jinasena, 22, 92-102, pp. 515-16.
• Tiloya-pannarti, 4, 779 ff. It would be worthwhile checking up if any of the fourfold images from Karkāli-tilā was a part of either the base or of the top of a pillar.
J.F. Fleet, Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, m, Calcutta, 1888, pp. 66-68.
. See Shah, op. cit., 1955, fig. 56, for a pillar in the compound of Temple 12 of Deogarh, and ibid., fig. 82, for the stambha of Chitor (also above, plate 219).
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ICONOGRAPHY Mention may be made here of the conception of caturmukha (caumukha) Jaina shrines where the sanctums have doors facing four sides, and the chief image in worship is a fourfold Jina image with a Tirthankara (not necessarily the same) facing each direction. A very early famous shrine of this type is the famous Paharpur temple in Bengal which has disclosed Hindu reliefs. difficult to say whether it was originally a Jaina shrine or not, but the find of a copper-plate dated in the year 159 (A.D. 478), referring to the Jaina Pañca-stupanikaya, obtained from Paharpur is noteworthy. However, there are several famous Jaina caumukha shrines in India, a unique example being the Trailokyadīpaka caturmukha-präsåda at Ranakpur, Rajasthan; another famous example is the Kharatara-vasahi temple (circa fifteenth century) in the Dilwädā group of shrines on Mount Abu.
We have referred to the practice of installing fourfold images at Mathurā. The Sonbhandăr cave at Rajgir has a post-Gupta caumukha in stone having on each of the four faces a different Jina-Rşabha, Ajita, Sambhava and Abhinandana. An earlier sculpture from Sarnath in the Bharat Kalā Bhavan, Vārāṇasi, is a fourfold stone image. Quite a large number of fourfold images in stone and metal installed in different periods of history are still being worshipped in several Jaina temples all over India. For a further elaboration of this concept in the medieval age, see plate 310A, from the Archaeological Museum, Gwalior.
Perhaps some time in the medieval period, worship of groups of twentyfour Tirthankaras or of seventy-two Tirthankaras--twenty-four each of the past, present and future ārās or aeons (plate 310B-from a Digambara Jaina temple, Surat) or of one hundred and seventy Tirthankaras of different regions and of one thousand Tirthankaras (plate 311A) of one thousand peaks of Jaina cosmographical accounts (having Jaina shrines) became popular. These groups, excepting the last one, were often represented on relief-slabs. The last one, for convenience, was preferably represented as a fourfold image with miniature images on all sides. Even the groups of one hundred and seventy or seventy-two were more conveniently represented as fourfold (caturmukha) images. But caumukha images with a total of twenty-four Jinas distributed over four sides are not rare. Again, in such representations artistic variations are found such as by distributing the twenty-four figures in three tiers (plate 311B), or in cases of larger groups the whole sculpture is shown as a miniature shrine with a top.
To revert to the caitya-trees. Tree-worship, popular from very ancient times, noticed on Indus seals and in Vedic and Smrti literatures, formed an
Soe above, chapters 21 and 28, for Paharpur, Ranakpur, etc.--Editor.]
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important aspect of the religious cults of the masses with whom Buddha and Mahavira were mainly concerned in their opposition to Vedic priestly class and its rituals. Mahavira stayed in such shrines both before and after kevala-jñana. The belief that Buddha and Mahavira obtained enlightenment under such caitya-vrksas might have been based on facts, and when lists of other Buddhas and Tirthankaras grew their caitya-trees were recorded by both the sects.
But since in early Buddhist art Buddha was not represented in human form, the bodhi-tree attained greater importance, while the Jainas were satisfied with recording of the list of caitya-trees of different Jinas and by giving them secondary importance in worship and art. But the caitya-tree had to be introduced on relief-sculpture of Tirthankara, by showing its foliage spread over his head, because of the great popular appeal the tree had in ancient India. Both Jainism and Buddhism gave a new meaning to this tree-worship. The caitya-trees were worshipped and represented in art, not because they were haunted by spirits and godlings, but because they were associated with the enlightenment of Buddha and the Tirthankara. Originally perhaps the Jina image was placed under a caitya-tree. The bronze figure of a caitya-tree obtained in the Chausa hoard of Jaina bronzes (above, plate 22C), now in Patna Museum, was perhaps worshipped in such a way, with a separate small Jina placed near its trunk. With the growth of shrines, the practice almost died out gradually, but still we can see a tree (rāyaṇa-tree in Gujarati) associated with Rṣabhanatha being held sacred and worshipped on Mount Satrunjaya. That the caitya-tree was given special importance due to the tree-cult of the masses is best illustrated by a type of Tirthankara images where the Jina is shown sitting under a big prominent tree (plate 312A), almost all other prätiharyas (elements of parikara of a Jina image) being either eliminated or subdued.'
The earliest reference to the caitya-tree of Mahavira is perhaps in the account of Mahavira's life in the Acaränga, book II, which is regarded later in age than book I. The Kalpa-sutra, which speaks of the lives of the twenty-four Tirthankaras but gives details of the lives of only four, Ṛsabha, Nemi, Pārsva and Mahavira, does not mention the caitya-trees of the remaining twenty Jinas. The Samavayanga-sutra, which, though incorporating much earlier material, is obviously a later compilation, gives a list of the Past, Present and Future Tirthankaras, as also of Tirthankaras of the Airavata-kṣetra and further records a list of caitya-vrksas of all the twenty-four Tirthankaras of the present age (ard)
1 Cf. Shab, op. cit., 1955, fig. 72, from Kalugumalai, Tinnevelly District; fig. 73, from Palcasara temple, Patan; fig. 75, from a Digambara Jaina shrine, Surat.
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in the Bharata-kşetra. This last list, being common to both the Digambara and the Svetambara sects, was evolved before the Digambara-Svetämbara differences were aggravated in the fifth century.
The Jainas have assigned the spirits connected with the tree-worship to the class of Vyantara gods. The Vyantaras are subdivided into eight groups, Pisacas, Bhutas, Yaksas, Rākṣasas, Kinnaras, Kimpurusas, Mahoragas (Nagas) and Gandharvas. Each group has on its crest the symbol (of a tree) in the following order-the kadamba, sulasa, vata, khatvänga, aśoka, campaka, naga and tumburu according to the Svetambara tradition. The Digambara list substitutes the badari-tree for the khatvänga. Khatvanga alone does not seem to be a tree in the Svetämbara list.
The Sthananga-sütra gives a list of caitya-trees worshipped by the ten classes of Bhavanavasi gods; a different list is supplied by the Tiloya-pannatti. This signifies the association of caitya-tree or the tree-cult with the area of Jaina shrines.
Along with the conception of caitya-trees may be noted the conceptions of the Tree of Life and the Wish-fulfilling Tree (kalpa-druma) in Brahmanical and Buddhist texts. Jaina texts also speak of ten kalpa-drumas. These are described in detail in the Jambudvipa-prajñapti. Hemacandra describes ten kinds of kalpa-trees in the Uttarakurus as follows: The ten kinds of wishingtrees, madyangas, etc., always give to people whatever they desire without effort on their part. Among these, the madyangas give wine, the bhrigas dishes, the turyangas choice musical instruments... The dipa-fikhās and jyotiskas give wonderful light, the citrängas furnish ornaments, the citrarasas, in turn, food. The manyangas furnish ornaments, the gehakäras houses and the anangas various kinds of divine apparel."
1 Samavaydiga-sätra, 159, samavdya, p. 152. Also see Jivajivddhigama-sutra, sūtra 127, p. 125, and sutra 142, p. 251, for caltya-trees.
2 Ramachandran, op. cit., pp. 192 ff., gives a list of caitya-trees of all the Jinas of this age which seems to be incorrect. For Digambara lists, see Pratisthd-sároddhara, 4, 106, p. 101; Tiloya-pannatti, 4, 916-13, 1, p. 264.
• For lists of both the traditions with sources, see Kierfel, Die Kosmographie der Inder pp. 273 ff.
• Sthänänga-sütra, 10, 3, sutra 766, II, p. 487. The commentator says that these trees were worshipped near the Siddhayatanas.
Tiloya-pampatti, 3,136, I, p. 128.
• Especially see A.K. Coomaraswamy, Elements of Buddhist Iconography, Cambridge, Mass.,
1935.
• Jambudvipa-prajnapti, 20, pp. 99 ff; also see Pravacana-sároddhára, 1067-70, p. 314; Hari-vanda of Jinasena, I, pp. 146-47.
• Trisasti-baldka-purusa-carlid, I (Gaekwad Oriental Series), tr. Helen Johnson, pp. 29-30.
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[PAT IX Belief in auspicious dreams is very ancient in India as evidenced from a reference to the effect of such a dream found in the Chandogya-Upanisad, V, 2, 7, 8. When a would-be Tirthankara descends from heaven into his mother's womb, the mother sees certain dreams which are regarded as auspicious. According to the Svetämbara belief the mother sees fourteen different objects in the dream, while according to the Digambara sect the dreams are sixteen in number. The fourteen dreams seen by the mother of Mahāvira are described in detail in the Kalpa-sūtra :(1) a white elephant, large and beautiful, with four tusks, (2) a white bull surrounded by diffusion of light, with a charming hump and horns greased at lips, (3) a sportive lion, white and beautiful, with a flapping tail and protruding tongue, (4) the goddess Sri, four-armed, adorned with ornaments, carrying the lotuses and lustrated by elephants, (5) a garland of various flowers, (6) the full moon, (7) the red sun, (8) a wondrous beautiful banner fastened to a golden staff, with a lion on top, (9) a full vase, filled with water and lotuses, the abode of fortune, (10) a large lake full of lotuses and aquatic animals, (11) the Ocean of Milk, with agitated waters, full of aquatic animals, (12) the celestial palace (deva-vimāna) of numerous columns, with hanging garlands, decorated with pictures or sculptures, (13) the jewel-heap (ratnarasi) with all sorts of jewels, and (14) smokeless fire with flame in constant motion.
Kalpa-sutra miniatures show representations of these dreams either in a group, as in Brown's fig. 19, or singly, as in his figs. 20-33. The most common type of Kalpa-sútra miniatures (cf. Brown's figs. 6, 18) represents the mother of Jina sleeping on a cot in the lowest panel and in two or three panels above are shown, in different rows, smaller figures of the fourteen dreams. Dreams are also represented in stone reliefs of the lives of different Jinas. Plate 313 illustrates such a group from the life of Mahāvira on a ceiling in one of the temples at Kumbharia.
Belief in auspicious dreams, though very old in ancient India and common among all sects, entered into descriptions of lives of Jinas at some later stage. The Kalpa-sütra description, which perhaps is the earliest available,
1 For an interesting discussion on and interpretation of some of these prognostic dreams, sce A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Conqueror's Life in Jains Paintings', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, III, no. 2, December 1935, pp. 125.44.
W. Norman Brown, Miniature Paintings of the Kalpasūtra. For other illustrations, see Jaina Citra-Kalpa-druma, I, 8g. 73; Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Boston Museum, IV, figs. 13, 34; Brown, op. cit., fig. 152, p. 64; Muni Punyavijaya, PavitraKalpa-Sutra, figs. 17, 22.
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ICONOGRAPHY contains a referen.ce to dinara-mala. This shows that this portion of the text post-dates the introduction and popularity of the denarius coins in India. No earlier representations of the dreams are available. Lists of dreams seen by mothers of Cakravartins, Vāsudevas and Baladevas may be still later.
According to the Digambara tradition, the sixteen dreams of the Jina's mother are: (1) Airāvata, the elephant of Indra, (2) the best of the bulls, (3) lion, white in colour with red manes, (4) the goddess Padmā (Sri) seated on golden lotus and lustrated by elephants, (5) pair of garlands of best flowers, (6) the moon, (7) the sun rising from the Udayacala mountain, (8) pair of full vases with lotuses placed on their mouths, (9) pair of fish, (10) celestial lake, (11) agitated ocean, (12) a lofty golden lion-throne, a celestial car (vimana), (14) a palace of the king of snakes (nagendrabhavana), (15) heap of jewels, and (16) smokeless fire,
Representations of the sixteen dreams are popular amongst the Digambara Jainas and are often carved on door-lintels of shrines, an early specimen of these being available on the door-frame of the Santinātha temple at Khajuraho. There are some more representations of the dreams on the doorframes of different Jaina shrines at Khajuraho.
Jaina traditions speak of a fewer number of dreams seen by the mother of other Salākā-purusas like the Vasudevas, the Baladevas and Cakravartins. They are not known to have found a place amongst the paintings or reliefs discovered hitherto.
The asta-mangalas, familiar to both the sects, are known to Jaina worship from ancient times. There a few variations in the Svetämbara and Digambara lists of these objects, noted below. According to the Svetāmbara canonical text Aupapātika-sütra, they are : svastika, srivatsa, nandyavarta, vardhamanaka (powder-flask), the full vase, darpana (mirror) and matsya (or matsya-yugma, a pair of fish). These are often referred to in Jaina texts, including canonical works, as decorating tops of architraves or ramparts, or
1 Muni Sri Punyavijaya, in his Introduction to his (critical) edition of the Pavitra-Kalpasutra, p. 10, says that the detailed description of the fourteen dreams of the Kalpa-sätra is not referred to in Agastya-simha-Sari's Cürni on this work and that it is difficult to say whether this part is genuine. According to him, both the Niryukti and Cūrni on the Dasasrutaskandha (of which the Kalpa-satra is the eighth adhyayana) date from circa A.D. 350 or earlier.
Adi-purana of Jinasena, sarga 12, verses 101-19; Hari-varnsa of Jinasena, sarga 8, Verses 58-74.
* Such beliefs are common to both sects but the differences in their lists show that they have grown after the final crisis between the Svetämbaras and the Digambaras in the Gupta age.
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[PART IX placed on caitya-trees and platforms, or painted on walls and so on. Hemacandra also notes that the eight auspicious symbols were represented on bali-patsas or offering slabs.* In modern Jaina temples we have offering-stands with low legs made of wood or metal, to hold offering in temple-worship. They have eight auspicious symbols or the fourteen or sixteen dreams, carved or embossed on the sides. Often Jaina ladies prepare in the hall of worship such eight symbols on platters with uncooked husked rice. Small 'metal platters with the aşta-mangalas cast or engraved are also seen in the sanctums along with other metal images (plate 312B). Most of these small platters are hardly older than a century or two.
But the reference by Hemacandra to bali-paffas with aşta-mangala symbols is interesting since this is supported by the evidence of asta-mangalas on dyaga-patas of the Kushan age, obtained from Mathurā. The tablet set up by Acala, wife of Bhadranandi (fig. XI of Smith, op. cit.), shows four symbols in the upper panel and eight more in the lower one. In the lower panel, the partly-mutilated first symbol from the right end was possibly the śrivatsa. The second is the svastika, the third a half-open lotus-bud, the fourth a pair of fish, the fifth a water-jar, the sixth either an offering of sweets or a heap of jewels (ratna-rāśi). The seventh secms to be a cross-stand with a scripture on it, perhaps the sthāpanā, but it could have been the bhadrâsana. The eighth symbol seems to be a defaced tri-ratna. The uppermost central rectangular panel shows the śrivatsa, another type of svastika with bent ends and two unidentified symbols, the first of which may be an asana (bhadrāsana ?). A betterpreserved set of eight symbols is obtained on the dyāga-pata set up by Sihanādika (J. 249 of the Lucknow Museum). This, as well as the tablet of Acalā, show in the central square four composite tri-ratnas. In the uppermost central rectangular panel, the tablet of Sihanädika shows a pair of fish, a heavenly car, a srivatsa-mark and a powder-box. In the corresponding part of the lowermost panel are shown a tri-ratna symbol, a full-blown lotus, a symbol which Agrawala recognized as Indra-yaşti or vaijayanti and a mangalakalasa."
The ayāga-pața set up by an inhabitant of Mathurā (J. 248 of the Lucknow Museum) has in the centre a sixteen-spoked wheel, the
Trişasti, I, pp. 112, 190; Adi-purana, parva 22, verses 143, 185, 210, etc.; Rayapasenasyam, ed, Pandit Bechandas, p. 80; also Jambūdvipa-prajslapti, I, p. 43.
Trisasti, I, p. 190 and note 238. * Shah, op. cit., 1955, p. 82, fig. 10; J. 252 of the Lucknow Muscum. * Ibid., fig. 13, p. 79.
6 V.S. Agrawala, A Guide to Lucknow Museum, p. 2, fig. 5, and his Harga-carita ek Sāńskrtika Adhyayang (Hindi), p. 120; Smith, op. cit., plate VII, p. 14.
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ICONOGRAPHY dharma-cakra. The tablet set up by the wife of Sivaghosaka (J. 253 of the Lucknow Museum) has four composite tri-ratnas (with a Jina in the centre)." The tablet set up by an unknown donor (J. 250 of the Lucknow Museum) has in the central bigger circle an ornamental svastika, enclosing in its four arms the svastika, the srivatsa, a mina-yugala and the Indra-yaşti (vaijayanti ?, sthāpand ?) symbols. The central smaller circle has composite tri-ratnas with an inset Jina figure. The lowermost panel of the tablet has some defaced symbols where a water-jar, a half-open lotus, a tri-ratna and a svastika can be easily recognized. The dyaga-paga set up by Sivamitra, recovered in a fragmentary form, shows in the centre the leg of a big cross-legged stand which, in the tablets noted above, has been referred to as a sthapana (?) or an Indra-yaşți (?) etc. This analysis suggests that besides having small representations of a few or all the eight aşta-mangalas, each of the ayāga-pafas mentioned above has at least one bigger or major representation of one of the aşta-mangalas. Possibly there existed dyāga-pațas with such representations of the remaining symbols of the aşta-mangalas acknowledged by the Jainas of Mathura in the Kushan period. This shows that Hemacandra had with him the knowledge of a genuine old tradition regarding bali-pastas with representations of asta-mangalas."
Aşta-mangalas are represented in miniature paintings of Jaina manuscripts or in paintings on canvas of different patas, and in scroll-paintings of the vijñapti-patras.' Small metal platters of these aşta-mangalas are also dedicated n Jaina temples and worshipped along with other Jaina metal images in the sanctums (cf. Shah, op. cit., 1955, fig. 60).
The aşta-magalas are worshipped in Jaina rites. The Acara-dinakara, Svetāmbara text of the fourteenth century, attempts to explain the conception
1 Shah, op. cit., 1955, fig. 14, p. 77; Smith, op. cit., plate VIII, p. 15; Bühler in Epigraphia ndica, II, pp. 200, 313.
? Shah, op. cit., 1955, fig. 12, pp. 76-77; Smith, op. cit., plate X, p. 17. 3 Shah, op. cit., 1955, fig. 11, p. 81; Smith, op. cit., plate IX, p. 16. • Shah, op. cit., 1955, p. 80; Smith, op. cit., plate XIII, p. 20.
* It must however be remembered that the worship of these dyaga-pafas was not limited o that of the eight symbols. It was extended to the worship of the stūpa, the caltya-tree, the harma-cakra, the Jina, Aryavati (perhaps mother of Mabavira), learned great Acaryas like be ascetic Kanha and, so on, as we have ayaga-patas with such chief representations. All the yaga-pafas taken together seem to provide us with all the chief elements of Jaina worship a the Kushan age at Mathură.
• Jaina Citra-Kalpa-druma, I, figs. 82, 59. * Johnson's translation of Trisasti, I, plate IV.'
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behind each of these symbols. According to it, the kalasa is worshipped because the Jina is verily like a kalasa in his family. The mirror is for seeing one's true self. The bhadrâsana is worshipped as it is sanctified by the feet of the blessed Lord; the vardhamanaka is suggestive of increase of wealth, fame, merit, etc. It is said that the highest knowledge has manifested itself from the heart of the Jina in the form of the Srivatsa-mark on his chest. Svastika, according to this text, signifies svasti, śānti or peace. The nandyävarta diagram with its nine points stands for the nine nidhis (treasures). The pair of fish, the symbol of Cupid's banner, is said to come to worship the Jina who has defeated the god of love. Obviously the above explanations are to be regarded as the Jaina conceptions behind the various symbols which seem to of ancient Indian stock common to all sects.
The Digambara tradition gives the following set of aşta-mangalas : (1) bhrngāra, a type of vessel, (2) kalasa, the full vase, (3) darpana, the mirror, (4) câmara, the flywhisk, (5) dhvaja, the banner, (5) vyajana, the fan, (7) chatra, the parasol, and (8) supratistha, the auspicious seats.
The full vases or the purņa-kalaśa of the Vedic literature is the Indian symbol of fullness of life, of plenty, of immortality. Svastika, common to different ancient civilizations of the world, is a symbol whose origin and conception are not easy to comprehend. Recently P.K. Agrawala has discussed the symbolism of srivatsa which appears as a mark on the chest of Vişnu, just as it appears as a mark on the chest of the Jina. The original shape of the śrīvatsa-symbol, obtained on the Jina figures of the Kushan period, was forgotten, at least in the early medieval period, and was replaced by a symbol looking like a rhizome, though it is called a srivatsa.
Acara-dinakara, pp. 197-98.
? It may be ooted that on a red sandstonc umbrella of circa second century A.D. from Mathurā are carved the following eight auspicious symbols : (1) nandipada (same as triratna), (2) matsya-yugma, (3) svastika, (3) puspa-dāma, (5) pürna-ghata, (6) ratna-pdtra, (7) srivatsa, and (8) sankha-nidhi, V.S. Agrawala, 'A new stone umbrella from Mathura', Journal of the U.P. Historical Society, XX, 1947, pp. 65-67. For the Jaina evidence and description of umbrellas from the Praśna-vyákarana-sútra, see U.P. Shah, 'A further note on stone umbrellas from Mathura', ibid., XXIV.
* Tiloya-punnarti, 4, 738, I, p. 236.
. For the full vasc sec A.K. Coomaraswamy, The Yaksas, part II (first ed.), pp. 61-64; V.S. Agrawala in Journal of the U.P. Historical Society, XVII, pp. 1-6. The vardhamanaka and frivatsa-symbols are treated by Coomaraswamy in Ostasiatische Zeitschrift, 1927-28, pp. 181-82, and E.H. Johnson in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1931, pp. 358 ff., ibid., 1932, pp. 393 ff. For the svastika, see W.N. Brown, The Svastika.
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Belief in auspicious objects is very old, common to all the three main secte-Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism. V. S. Agrawala has already Teferred to the mangala-mala of Sanchi reliefs. The Mahabharata, Drona-parva, 82, 20-22, mentions numerous objects which Arjuna looked at or touched as auspicious when starting for battle, amongst which maidens are also mentioned. The Vamana-puräna, 14, 35-36, mentions several objects which are auspicious. The Brahmavaivarta-purana also gives lists of animate and inanimate o regarded as auspicious. Belief in mangalas and mangala-dravyas is also known to the Ramayana..
Several yantras or tantric diagrams on metal are found worshipped in Jaina shrines. Also, several patas or paintings on canvas or on paper of the diagrams of the sūri-mantra, the hrithkara-yantra, the Vardhamāna-vidya-pata, the siddha-cakra, the rşimandala-yantra, etc., are worshipped by Jaina monks and the laity. Of these, the śrutaskandha-yantra, very popular with the Digambaras, is especially noteworthy. Rarely it has also a figure of Srutadevată, the goddess of learning, also carved on it. The diagram lists the twelve Agamas with the grantha-pramäņa of each of them according to Digambara traditions. A specimen of such a yantra from Mudbidri, Karnataka, is illustrated on plate 314.
U. P. SHAH
1 V.S. Agrawala, Harsa-carita etc., op. cit., p. 120.
* Also see Kanc, op. cit., II, p. 511. He cites the following verse from a manuscript of the Sakuna-kárika, which speaks of eight auspicious objects : darpanah pürna-kalasah kanya sumanaso'akstah/ dipa-mala dhvajd läjäḥ samproktam castamangalam
Quoted in Sabda-kalpa-druma, III, p. 564. The same lexicon, I, 148, quotes from the Byhannandikesvara-purana : mrga-rajo viso nägah kalaśo vyajanam tatha/ vaijayanti tatha bheri dipa ity asfamangalar|| Again from the Suddhi-tattva : loke'smin mangalány asfau brähmano gaur hutdšanah/ hiranyaṁ sarpir aditya apo rdja tathdspamahl/
Råmdyana, II, 23, 29. Also see V.S. Agrawala, 'Asfa-mangala-mäla', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, II, pp. 1 ff.
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ARCHITECTURAL TRADITIONS AND CANONS
WHILE SEVERAL WORDS WERE ANCIENTLY CURRENT TO DENOTE WHAT IS known as architecture, a common and appropriate word was vastu-sästra. Though the word filpa-śästra has very much the same meaning, it has a distinct leaning towards sculpture and iconography. The word sthāpatya has a more restricted connotation, viz. a house or school, gharānā, relating to some particular type of architecture or an architectural or sculptural workshop. Apart from the traditional gharānās, there are several other classes of architects. The Vaiśyas, the Mewāds, the Gurjaras, the Pañcolis, and the Pañcālas, all spread over west India, include experts in wood-carving, traditional engineering, etc. The Gauda-Brāhmaṇas of Jaipur and Alwar are famed for marble-carving. Some specialize in metalcraft and painting. The Jangadas are known for wood-carving and traditional engineering; they are known in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi.?
While the gharānās are hereditary bearers of the ancient architectural tradition, such tradition is also recorded in a vast number of available texts. These treatises generally follow one and the same canon throughout, but they differ considerably inter se, both objectwise, leading to the gharānas mentioned
Satradbāra Virapāla, Präsåda-tilaka, ed. P.O. Somapura, Ahmedabad, 1972, pp. 6 ff., enumerates the following sharänås : (1) Somapurā gharānå well-known in West India, specializing in traditional architecture and possessing a rich collection of architectural treatises; (2) the Mahapatra gharana of Orissa; (3) the Pancānana gharana, spread over large parts of the Deccan, at present divided into five professional classes, viz. silpi, suvarna-kara (goldsmith), kårhsya-kara (worker in bell-metal), kastha-kära (carpenter) and loha-kära (ironsmith); (4) the Telengana gharänd of Andhra Pradesh, with the same professional classes; and (5) the Virăța-ViśvaBrāhmaṇācārya gharánd of the Dravida region, named after their gotras Agastya, Rajyaguru and Şanmukha-Sarasvati,
Ibid., p. 8.
*P. K. Acharya enlists with available details two hundred and seven names of such treatises, Dictionary of Hindu Architecture, Allahabad, 1927, appendix II, pp. 805.14.
h the enter and supi, opread o vechitectu
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ARCHITECTURE above, and subjectwise, by putting architecture into various types of failis like Någara, Vesara, Dravida, etc.
While some of these texts, like the Dipärnava of Visvakarman,' the Rupa-mand ana* and Präsåda-mandana, both of Mandana, the Vastu-manjari of Nathaji," etc., deal inter alia with Jaina architecture, perhaps the only book independently written on Jaina architecture is the Vatthu-sara-payarana in Prakrit," with three chapters devoted respectively to residential houses, iconography and temple-architecture. The treatise, with two hundred and seventy-three gåthås was completed on the Vijayā-daśami day of Vikrama-samvat 1372 (A.D. 1315) during the reign of 'Alau'd-Din Khilji in Kalyānapura by Pheru, son of the Jaina Sri-candra in the Dhandha-kalaśa-kula. In the same year, in Delhi, he completed another treatise the Ratna-parikşā, which is perhaps published in the Thakkura-Pheru-Granthăvali."
SOME DIRECTIONS ON BUILDINGS
The upakaranas or tools and instruments basically needed for measurement, etc., according to the Vatthu-sära-payaraņa, are eight in number; drști-sütra or the thread of sight, meant for judging the exact measurement only by the sight; hasta, literally a cubit or a measure generally equal to twenty-four angulas or 45 cm.; mauñja or a cord made of muñja grass; kārpāsaka or the stringmade of cotton; avalamba or the plumb-line; kāştha-kona or the trying-angle; sādhani, corresponding to the present-day spirit-level; and vilekhya or a pair of dividers. Besides these, there might have been in use many more instruments, references to which could be found in various sources.
The samagri or material, right from the brick and wood to gold and precious stones, should be of the best quality. Fresh and not second-hand
1 Ed. P. O. Somapura, Palitana. ? Ed. Bal Ram Shrivastava, Vārāṇasī, 1964. 3 Ed. Bhagwan Das Jain, Ahmedabad, 1961.
Ed. P.O. Somapura under the name Prasada-man jari, Ahmedabad, 1965.
* Ed. Bhagwan Das Jain, Jaipur, 1936. Parts of the present chapter are based on this text unless otherwise stated. (For the importance of this text, sce above, chapter 28.-Editor.]
Bhagwan Das Jain, op. cit., says that a manuscript of this book, with the first folio missing, was acquired by him through Muni Darsanavijaya from Sri-Caritravijaya of the Jaina Jiana Mandira, the founder of the Yasovijaya Jaina Gurukula.
Edited by Bhanwar Lal Nahata and mentioned in Muni Sri Hazarimala Smrti-grantha (Hindi), Benwar, 1966, p. 105 (Lekhaka-paricaya).
Generally based on the Vatthu-sära-payarana.
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material would bring prosperity. The type of material, like wood or stone, might vary according to the rank or caste of a person or to the nature of the building or the purpose.
To test the density of the soil a pit of twenty-four angulas may be dug and filled up with the same clay. The more the pit remains unfilled even with all that clay, the less dense is the soil. On the other hand, the more the clay overflows the pit, the denser is the soil. Or the pit may be filled up with water and then be observed just after walking over hundred steps, to and fro. The less soaked is that water, the denser is the soil. After either type of test the quality of the soil may be judged to be of maximum, medium or minimum density. A particular colour of the soil may bring prosperity to a particular varna or caste, namely white to the Brāhmaṇa, red to the Kşatriya, yellow to the Vaisya and black to the Südra.
The selection of the site is to be done with every caution. Any kind of defect in the soil or even in the site may bring various troubles like poverty, disease, etc., to the owner. A spot where the shadow of the flag of a temple near by falls during the second and third quarters of the day should never be selected. Salya or extraneous matter of any type, as bone, coal, etc., whether on the surface or under the ground, should be removed, even if excavation is needed, that too even down to man-height. The extraneous matter can be inferred by the help of the seșa-naga-cakra. The excavation may, if necessary, be done in parts and with gaps of time according to the astronomical codes like the seșa-nāga-cakra or the vrşa-västu-cakra.
The line-plan should be accurate in accordance with the compass. The direction-line may well be assessed with the help of the dik-sädhaka-sarku or direction-peg. Likewise, the sama-catuskoņa-sthiti or quadrangular prism should also be utilized. Moreover, the level of the spot must be ascertained, specially in the case of temples and palaces. The construction as such may be started during some particular months, the rāśi or the signs of the zodiac, the nakşatra or star, the graha or planet, etc. ; better if they all happen to be favourable. But exception can be made to this in the case of a house to be built of wood, grass and so on. This code of astronomy should also be followed in the putting of the first foundation-stone, or at the time of the first entry into the built-up house, these being the two occasions when prescribed rituals may be performed and the architect may be felicitated.
The measurement of the building and the component parts thereof must, before it is accepted, be confirmed by a set of ayadi-sad-varga or the six
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formulae. The dya is the area which remains after a division by 8 of the area of the house or an apartment thereof. Each of the eight kinds of āya, namely dhvaja, dhūmra, simha, sväna, visa, khara, gaja and dhväriksa, is of a different nature astronomically and situation-wise, and varies in bringing fruit to its owners of various professions, ranks, castes etc. The naksatra of the house, that is the serial number, can be known by the multiplication of the square area by 8 and then by the division of the number so obtained by 27. Coherence between the nakşatra of the house and that of the owner is compulsory for prosperity. The rašī also is responsible for the prosperity of the landlord. To get the serial number of the rāśi of the house, the serial number of the nakṣatra of the house may be multiplied by 4 and the number so obtained be divided by 9. A coherence also between the nakastra and the rāfi is required for prosperity. The vyaya is the number obtained as the remainder after the division by 8 of the serial number of the naksutra of the house. Both the nakşatra and the vyaya should be in coherence for the good of the owner. The arśa or share is the remainder obtained after the division by 3 of the number which may be obtained by adding the number of alphabets composing the name or type of the house and the number obtained as vyaya to the qumber of square cubits measuring the house. The share would go to Indra, Yama and the rājan or king respectively in case the remainder is 1, 2 and 3. The tārā, the star again, is the influencing factor in case of prosperity of the owner. The serial number of the tārā is the difference between the serial number of the nakşatra of the house and that of the nakşatra of the owner.
The necessity of this formula seems to be due to the fact that in most instances where the measurement of any object is concerned, the works on architecture quote more dimensions than one. Out of these different and varying measurements which is to be selected would be determined by the application of this formula. To be followed also in sculpture in addition to architecture, this şad-yarga formula could hardly be grasped in the abstract form. It need not be neglected even if its correct interpretation is not possible.
The văstu-puruşa-cakra is another type of formula for the proportionate layout of the component parts of the building, i.e. the base or adhisthana, the column or påda or stambha, the entablature or prastara, the ear or karna, the dome or stüpi and the spire or śikhara. Fig. XXVIII gives a general idea of this formula which has some more variants. The column may not be erected where the lock of hair, the head, the heart and the navel of the vastu-puruşa fall in the drawing; and likewise are the instructions under this formula.
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[PART 1X
3hs.
r46
36] 38
33
| 32
31
30
29
28
27
26
34
FIG. XXVIII. Vastu-purusa-cakra. (Aster Bhagwandas Jain.) 1, Caraki, a Räksasi: 2, Pilipicha; 3&4, Isa; 5, Parjanya; 6, Jaya; 7, Indra; 8, Sürya; 9, Satya; 10, Bbssa; 11, Akāśa; 12, Vidärikā; 13, Savitā; 14, Jarghā; 15, Agni; 16, Pūşan; 17, Vitatha; 18, Gphakşata; 19, Yama; 20, Gandharva; 21, Bhsnga: 22, Mrga; 23, Pūtanā; 24, Skandā; 25, Jaya; 26, Pits; 27, Nandin; 28, Sugriva; 29, Puspadanta; 30, Varuna; 31, Asura; 32, Sesa; 33, Pápa-yakşman; 34, Pāpā; 35, Pāpa-yakşman; 36, Aryaman; 37, Roga; 38. Nāga; 39, Mukhya; 40, Bhallāta; 41, Kubera; 42, Saila; 43, Aditi; 44, Diti; 45, Apa and Apavatsa; 46. Aryaman; 47, Savitra and Savită; 48, Prthvidhara; 49,
Brahman; 50, Vaivasvata; 51, Rudra and Rudradāsa; 52, Maitra: 53, lodra
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS AND PALACES
The Jaina texts give comprehensive accounts of residential houses, palaces and even towns like Campā, Rājagsha, Srävasti, etc., in mythology and Kacchā and numerous pătăla-nagaris in cosmography, but they all are mostly stereotyped and the elements of the art of construction or architecture appearing there have seldom any value. What is remarkable there is the architectural and sculptural terms which can be taken for consideration in the study of the gradual development and application of the canons of art and architecture in various parts of the country. This very fact leads us to think
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ARCHITECTURE that the Jaina writers of old were interested more in depicting the day-to-day life than in painting the canvas merely in a cartographical manner.
In the basic principles of architecture, the residential building would not differ much from the temple. What, therefore, is uncommon will be mentioned here. Both the direction and situation of the main entrance or sirhha-dvāra should very strictly be in accordance to the architectural and astronomical codes. Vedha or obstruction of seven kinds, namely tala, kona, tālu, kapala, stambha, tula and dvāra, must by all the means be avoided from the house. The narrower the front portion in proportion to the back portion of the house, the better it is; also the higher the back portion in comparison with the front one, the better it is. The front of a shop may, however, be broader and higher.
The main entrance should be in the east, the kitchen or rasavati or päkaśālā in the nairstya or the south-west corner, the bed-room or sayanāgara in the south, the lavatory or nihara-sthāna in the south-east, the dining-room or bhojana-sala in the west, the armoury or āyudhāgāra in the north-west; the treasury or koşagăra in the north and the room for performing rituals or dharma-sthana in the north-east. In case the house does not face east, the direction, whatever it be, should be taken to be the east so as to maintain this order.
The alinda is the outer corridor close to the entrance. The patta-sala or the main hall and close to it the kakşa-śālā or smaller room and the other parts of the house may all be treated as the parts of the main house. The alinda may measure 107 angulas in height and 85 angulas in length. To the width of the house may be added 70 hastas and then the total be divided by 14 to get the width of the sala and to that of the śālā may be added 35 hastas and the total be divided by 14 to get the width of alinda, says Rājavallabha, whereas, according to the Samarängana-sutradhāra the width of alinda in all types of houses is half the size of the Salā. An alinda, if situated at the back or at the extreme right or left of the house, is called gujāri, the word probably being a local one.
The house may comprise even a single room. The pasta-sälä may be adjunctive of an alinda or two or even three. It may have the two walls with jālikas or the latticed windows, and a mandapa or open hall. The jalaka is a small door, that is a jälika without lattice. The gavākṣa and våtāyana may hardly differ from the jalika if they are perforated or latticed. Şad-daru is a
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[PART IX stambha or pillar made generally of wood. Bhāravata, also known as pitha or dharana in Sanskrit and kadi in Hindi, is a wooden lintel.
A window or even a small hole in the rear wall may not be made at all. The window may be built at a height so that it comes not lower than the one in the wall of the neighbouring house. In multistoreyed buildings a door having two doors above it and a column having a door above it are not advisible. The angana or courtyard may not be planned with three or five Cattle may be kept in a separate room outside the house.
corners.
The amplitude or vistara of the house may accord with the status of the owner. The king, the commander-in-chief, the prime minister, the heir-apparent or yuvaraja, the younger brother of the king, the queen, the astronomer, the physician and the priest may have their houses built respectively measuring 108 by 135, 64 by 743, 60 by 671, 80 by 106, 40 by 531, 30 by 33, 40 by 46}, 40 by 46 and 40 by 463 hastas. This amplitude can be reduced by the prescribed number of hastas. A Brāhmaṇa, a Ksatriya, a Vaiśya, a Śūdra and an Antyaja or Candala may have their houses respectively of 32 by 355, 28 by 31, 24 by 28, 20 by 25 and 16 by 20 hastas. By adding 4 hastas to a sixteenth of the width can be had the height of the ground floor or prathama-tala of the house.
The houses, because of the variety and number, etc., of the parts and apartments, may be put into sixteen thousand, three hundred and eighty-four classes. Summarily, the houses may be given only one of the sixteen attributive names: dhruva, dhanya, jaya, nanda, khara, känta, manorama, sumukha, durmukha, krūra, supakṣa, dhanada, kṣaya, akranda vipula and vijaya.
The houses, on the basis of their dimensions and situations, may again be classified under the sixty-four names, all being attributive: (1 to 8) santana santida, vardhamana, kukkuta, svastika, hamsa, vardhana, karbura; (9 to 16) Santa, harṣaṇa, vipula, kurala, vitta, citta or citra, dhana, kala-danda; (17 to 24) bhadraka, putrada, sarvänga, kāla-cakra, tri-pura, sundara, nila, kutila; (25 to 32) śāśvata, sastrada, sila, kotara, saumya, subhaga, bhadra-māna, krūra; (33 to 40) śri-dhara, sarva-kamada, puṣṭida (a), kīrtti-nasaka, śṛngāra śrī-vāsa, śri-Sobha, kirtti-sobhanaka; (41 to 48) yuga-śri-dhara, bahu-labha, lakṣmi-nivāsa, kupita, udyota, bahu-tejas, sutejas, kalahävaha; (49 to 56) viläsa, bahu-nivāsa, puştida (b), krodha-sannibha, mahānta, mahita; duḥkha, kulaccheda; (57 to 64) pratäpa-vardhana, divya, bahu-duḥkha, kanthacchedana, jangama, simha-näda, hastija and kantaka.
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The houses may, yet again, be classified under eight types: surya, vasava, virya, käläksa, buddhi, suvrata, präsäda and dvivedha. Each of these eight has sixteen varieties, and as such, the total number comes to one hundred and twenty-eight.
ARCHITECTURE
Apart from these, there is one more type of classification of houses specially meant for kings. It is the king only who is allowed to have a house round on plan, if he so likes.
CONCEPT OF THE TEMPLE
The Sanskrit words mandira and alaya, both denoting something like a shelter, specify the temple particularly in Jaina references, where, however, more ancient than these two is the word ayatana dating back to the time of Mahavira who often used to stay in Yakşayatanas in the course of his viharas; later it joined the compound word Jinayatana and was still later replaced by the words mandira, ǎlaya, geha, grha, etc.
The concept behind the temple in Jainism is perhaps nowhere indicated. Essentially dedicated to one of the Tirthankaras, the temple, if it is taken to be a memorial, may win some logic, but surely not if is taken to be a funeral relic structure. But more logical does it seem to interpret the temple as the symbolic representation not of the Meru but of the samavasarana (below, p. 529) or the fascinating auditorium of the Tirthankara who, as one of those to be bowed before any one of the other Parameşthins, would deliver a sermon only inside the samavasaraṇa, whose idol was the first to appear and whose iconic symbol in the form of the mula-nayaka or main deity must be installed in the temple. Many a temple, whether ancient or modern, has in front the manastambha which is one of the component parts of the samavasarana (below, p. 530). The samavasarana, thus once symbolized as an architectural composition, even if a miniature one, lost its chance to be symbolized otherwise. Erroneous will it be to include the samavasaraṇa, which is absolutely indigenous to Jainism, amongst the funeral relic structures like stupa or aidūka, or even the jārūka or jālūka and ziggurat. Caitya, if it at all be referred to in this connexion, would support this contention. Both the words ayatana and caitya have the same meaning. The samavasarana being too complicated to be represented literally
1 'It can hardly be doubted that there exists some connection between temples and tombs', A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, New York, 1927, p. 47.
Bhagavati-drådhand, Sholapur, 1935, p. 46.
⚫caityam ayatanamh tulye, Amar-akoşa, II, 2, 7.
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according to the plan described in the texts, the temple appeared, though with ; a number of canonical peculiarities, and with majestic dimensions, because of
which fact the holy building came to be called more as dyatana or caitya or so than as samavasarana. Mahavira often used to stay during his vihāras also in the caityas which might have been nothing but ayatanas or temples, the places ethically prescribed for the ascetics to stay in. The word caitya later on or perhaps simultaneously came to have many connotations. It also restrictedly meant an idol housed in a ternple and, as such, originated words like caityavihära, caitya-grha, caityalaya, etc., all of them with the same meaning, namely the temple.
The Jaina temple then, with this very idea behind its origin, went on having a parallel and simultaneous evolution, though with paces up and down, with the temples of co-traditions. Differentiating a Jaina temple from other temples, therefore, requires a thorough scrutiny, unless it is favoured by a clear evidence like epigraphical or literary or at least a traditional record or any aspect of iconography. It is because of this fact, decidedly unlike the case of plastic art, that very few works were composed separately to deal with Jaina architecture.
COMPONENTS AND TYPES OF TEMPLES:
A garta-vivara or foundation-pit for the prāsāda may be excavated down to the layer where rock or water is found. In the centre of such a pit may, under proper rituals, be placed a kūrma-sila or the slab with a tortoise and other things carved on it, and also in the four directions and the four subdirections eight khura-siläs or the slabs with an object carved on each of them (fig. XXIX) may, each one, be placed under proper rituals. The pit may then be filled, closely pressed and hardened.
The pitha or adhişthūna, the plinth, is then to be erected on the tala or the ground so prepared (figs. XXX and XXXI). The pithà may be a simple one (fig. XXXII, p. 505) or with friezes called tharas or prastara-galas, one to five in number, on it (fig. XXXIII, p. 506). Koņa or karna, pratirutha, ratha, bhadra and mukha-bhadra are all one type or the other of moulding of the püha and hence the parts of the präsāda, whereas nandi, karņika, pallava, tilaka and tavanga, all of them also being mouldings of the pitha, are the decorative elements of the präsāda.
1 Mainly based on the Vatihu-sara-payarana.
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12
Fio. XXIX. Kurma-fild. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 9, tortoise : 7, wave; 8, fish; 1, frog; 2, crocodile; 3, grása; 4, full vessel: 5, soake: 6, conch; 16, vajra; 17, fakti; 10, danda; 11,
sword; 12, någa-paša; 13. fag; 14. gada; 15, trisüla
22
1
1
1
09046
FIG. XXX. Sama-dala prdsdda. (After Bhagwandas Jain. 1, garbha-grha; 2-5, karna-rekha: 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, nandT; 7, 15, 18, pratikarna; 9, 13, 20. uparatha; 11, bhadra
::: natha; 22, bhadno-rathika
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'' The mandovara with its thirteen members placed in order is shown in
(fig. XXXIV, p. 507). The word mandovara seems to be a local one current in western India and a corrupt form of Sanskrit mandapa-vara or mand apa-dhara. The mandovara actually is the bhitti or the outer wall supporting the roof which covers the mandapa or the mandapas in the präsdda (fig. XXXIV, 1). Satradhåra Mandana describes four types of mandovara, namely the någara, meru (fig. XXXIV, 2), sämänya (fig. XXXIV, 3) and prakāräntara,
OO
OD
1
17
IP
o
4
(DEE"
0 0 21 00
FIG. XXXI. Plan of a temple. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 1, balánaka; 2, śrngåra-catuski; 3, ranga-mandapa; 4, nava-caruski; 5, dvara; 6, catuṣki; 7, güdha-mandapa; 8, jagati;
9. garbha-grha; 10, dvåra
The sikhara is the spherical roof rising like an inverted cup over a building. Above the dome it comprises the sikhara, Sikha, sikhänta and Sikhāmani (fig. XXXV), or it can otherwise be divided as chádya, Sikhara,
1 P.K. Acharya, Dictionary of Hindu Architecture, London etc., 1927, p. 588.
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ARCHITECTURE amala-sdra or åmalaka (fig. XXXVI, p. 508) and kalata (fig. XXXVII, p. 508), in which karna-wekhas, pratikarnas or the uparathas and the urt-órrigas can also be seen. The amalaka comprises the gata, and aka, candrika and amala-sárika. Kalaša is a term applied generally to the summit of a tower. Its component parts are the gala, andaka, karnika and bijapuraka. The Suka-näsa or śuka-nasika
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FIG. XXXII. Pitha. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 1. grása paffi; 2, kevala; 3, antara.palra;
4, karna; 5, jadya-kumbha; 6 to 8, bhini
is a part of the dome, looking like the parrot's beak. The dhvaja, the banner or flag with danda, the staff, should be put at the top of the Sikhara (fig. XXXVIII, p. 508).
The dvara, door, should in width be half its height which may vary from sixteen angulas to seven hastas. On the door-frame may be carved Tirthankaras, pratikára-couple, madanikas, etc., at their appropriate places (fig. XXXIX, p. 509). The main entrance of a temple under repair should be neither shifted nor altered.
The jagati is a moulding of the pitha or base. Or, to define otherwise, all the area covered by the temple as such is jagati (cf. fig. XXXI). It is actually the jagati that proportions the plan of the präsåda or the main sanctuary and all the component parts of the temple. Seen as the surface of the picha, the jagati must be walled along with a gate in each direction.

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FIG. XXXIII. Picha with five staras. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 1 to 3, bhitti; 4. jadyakumbha; S, karna; 6, antara-patra: 7, keväla; 8, grdsa-pati; 9, gaja-stara; 10, aśva
stara; 11, simha-stara; 12, nara-stara; 13, harsa-stara
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FIG, XXXIV. Types of mando vara. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 1, mandovara of twenty-five divisions; 2, meru-mangovara; 3, sämánya-mandovara (1, khura, 2, kumbha; 3, kalaša; 4. kerala: 5, manici; 6, Jangha: 7, chajji; 8, uru-janghd; 9, bharani; 10, sirdvali; 11, chajja; .
12, riddu; 13. prahdra) :
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F10. XXXVII. Kalasa (After Bhug. wandas Jain.) 1, pljha and gala; 2. andaka: 3, karnikd; 4, bijapuraka
2
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FIG. XXXV. Stkhara os rekha-mandira. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 1, chádya; 2, śikhura; 3, amala-sára; 4, kalasa: 5. and 9, karna-rekha; 6 and 8. pratikarna uparatha; 7. uru-śrriga
FIG. XXXVI. Amala-sára. (After Bhagwandas Jaio.) 1, gala; 2. andaka; 3. candrika; 4, dmala-sarika
Fig. XXXVIII. Dhyaja. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 1, donda; 2, parvan; 3, granthi; 4, dhvaja-müla;
5, dhvaja- purusa; 6, dhvaja
61
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ARCHITECTURE
The mandapa, pavilion, is comprised of the präsåda-kamala or garbha-grha or the main sanctuary, güdha-mand apa or the covered pavilion, trikamand apa or the mand apa with three passages cut across, rarga-mand apa or the auditorium and sa-torana balanaka or the arched platform. The width of the mand apa may be 1, 1.5 or 1.75 times that of the main sanctuary. The stambhas or the columns may in height be half the diameter of the mandapa, but, what seems to be more practicable, à column may generally be four times the base, and the pedestal twice or thrice the base and the 'entablature equal to or double the base. The course of the jala-pranalikås or the drainage may be towards the left or the south.
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FG. XXXIX. Dvdra-sakhds. (After Bhagwandas Jain.) 1, 7, 11, three sakhds; 2, 8, 12, five sdkhas; 3, 4, 5, 9, 13, seven såkhds; 6, 10, 14, nine sdkhas; 15, dehali of the door
(1 and 3, alankarana; 2, Sankhid veft; 4, ardha.candra; 5, 7grdsa; 8, dehali)
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FIG XL. Varieties of Jinu-prasadas. (After P.O. Somapura.) 1. sarvatobhadra; 2. nandana,
3, nandu-salin; 4, nandiša; 5, mandara
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FIG. XLI. Caturmukha mahā-präsäda. (After P.O. Somapura.) 1-1 to 1-5, caturmukha präsädas (1-1, samavasarana präsäda; 1-2, meru-präsäda; 1-3, Nandisvara-dvipa präsäda; 1-4, sahasra-kūta prāsāda; 1-5, Aştăpada präsāda); 2, the five kona prasadas; 3, the eight mahādhara prāsādas; 4, the four megha-nāda mandapas; 5, open catuşkas; 6, catuskas: 7, thirty-six mandapas; 8, balanakas

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.
FIG. XLII. Kamala-bhūsaņa präsåda dedicated to Rşabhanātha. (After P.O.
Somapura.)
FIG. XILII. Mahadhara-vira-vikrama prasdda dedicated to Mahåvira. (After
P.O. Somapura.)
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ARCHITECTURE - Sri-vijaya, maha-padma. nandyavarta, laksmi-tilaka, nara-veda, kamalaharsa 'and kunjara are the seven types of präsådas said to be the best for the Jinas. But Vibvakarman speaks of innumerable types of the prasādas (figs. XL, XLI), out of which only twenty-five may here be named : kefarin, sarvatobhadra, sunandana, nandi-sala, nandića, mandira, fri-vatsa, amstodbhava, hemavanta, himakūta, kailasa, prthvi-jaya, indra-nila, maha-nila, bhu-dhara,
küta, vaid ürya, padma-råga, vajranga, mukutoijvala, airāvata, raja-hansa, garuda, vrsabha and meru. The first of these präsådas has four and akas or cupolas around its śikhara, then every next präsåda has more four andakas than the earlier one, the twenty-fifth being with a hundred of andakas,
Viśvakarman in the Diparnaval describes fifty-two Jina-prāsādas, out of which twenty-five are dodicated, one each, to the Tirtharkaras, with Neminätha having two and the rest twenty-seven collectively to all the twenty-four Tirthankaras. Thus, (1) kamala-bhūşana (fig. XLII), (2) käma-dayaka, (3) ratna-kopi, (5) kşiti-bhūsana, (6) padma-rāga, (7) pusya-danta, (8) supäráva, (10) sitala, (12) stu-rāja, (13) śri-fitala, (16) śreyårsa, (19) väsu-pujya, (21) vimala, (23) ananta, (24) dharmada, (27) śri-linga, (29) kumuda, (32) kamala-kanda, (35) mahendra, (38) mana-santuști, (40) nami-srnga, (41) sumari-kirtti, (47) pärsvavallabha, and (50) vira-vikrama (fig. XLIII) are each dedicated to one of the Tirthankaras serially starting with Rşabhanātha; (44) naimendra to Neminātha again; (4) amstodbhava, (9) Sri-vallabha, (11) śri-candra, (14) kirtti-dayaka, (15) manohara, (17) sukula, (18) kula-nandana, (20) ratna-sanjaya, (22) mukti, (25) surendra, (26) dharma-vskșa, (28) käma-dattaka, (31) harsana, (33) śri-saila, (34) ari-näsana, (36) mänavendra, (37) pāpa-nasana, (42) upendra, (43) räjendra, (45) yati-bhüşana, (46) supuşya, (48) padma-ysta, (49) rūpa-vallabha, (51) aştāpada and (52) tusti-pussi to all the Tirthankaras; (30) Śakti to Lakşmi-devi; and (39) sri-bhava (gaurava) to Brahma, Vişnu and Siva.
DOMESTIC AND PORTABLE TEMPLES Provision for a dharma-sthāna or the temple to be built within a residential house has also been made in the canons. Situated in the north-east corner of the house, the temple, though owned and maintained privately, must be kept open to all. Such temples may follow the general code of templearchitecture. They may be made of wood with an upapitha and a pitha or the two bases and other component parts. A column at each corner, a door and a balcony in each direction and at the top a śikhara with four smaller
1 Viśvakarman's Diparnava, tr. (in Gujarati) P.O. Somapura, Palitana, pp. 317-18 (pp. 9-10 of the reprint of Uttara-khonda),
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oncs are the component parts of this type of temple, but a flag on the top is '. not allowed. Moreover, above all, the expenses incurrod must be met out of legitimate earnings. Likewise, a temple made of wood may also be allowed only if it is a miniature, such as a portable one, to be carried along a journey after which it may be preserved in the ratha-fald or in the temple, for further use.
COSMOGRAPHY AND ARCHITECTURE
Literary sources no doubt provide us with a lot of information regarding the canons and symbolism of architecture, but the cosmographical literature is much fuller of such information and various suggestions. A brief sketch of Jaina cosmography would, therefore, be helpful in this context.
Cosmogony has been altogether refuted in Jainism, whereas ,both cosmology and cosmography occupy a fairly large place in mythological scriptures. The cosmos, eternally existent by nature, is comprised of six types of dravyas or the substances categorized as fiva (living) and a-jiva (non-living). The faculty of knowing and perceiving and the sensations of pleasure and pain, which can inhere only in something and cannot be the function of pure non-entity, must be regarded as states of something which exists, and it is this something which may be called the jiva substance. The non-living continuum comprises dharma or the medium of motion, a-dharma! or the medium of rest, akāśa or the space, pudgala or the matter and energy and kālas or the time.
The cosmos, materially too mathematical and geometrical in the whole as well as in parts, is shaped like a man standing akimbo with the legs spread sidewards (fig. XLIV). The space inside the cosmos is called the lokākāśa and outside a-lokākasa wherein the cosmos is supported by three zones of air or the våta-valayas, the inner zone being humid (tanu), the middle dense (ghana)
Dharma and a-dharma have in Jaina cosmography been used in a technical sense entirely different from their ordinary meaning.
. For an analytical study of this substance, see G.L. Amar, 'Darsana aur vijñāna ke aloka men Pudgala Dravya', Muni Sri Hazarimala Smrti-grantha (Hindi), Beawar, 1965, p. 368-88.
3 The Svetāmbaras regard this substance as a modification of fiva and a-jiva, and not as an independent one.
*This and the following paragraphs are based on the Tattvartha-sürra with Rajavärttikälarhk dra (Sanskrit Hindi), Kasbi, 2 parts, 1953-54.
5 The universe is denoted by the word loka in Jainism where the words visva and brahmunda, though virtual synonyms of loka, are not much common.
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ARCHITECTURE
FIG. XLIV. Triloka, the cosmos. (After Muktyanand Singh Jain.) 1, adho-loka, the lower world; 2, madhya-loka, the middle world; 3, ardhva-loka, the upper world; 4, Ghanodadhi-vara-valaya; 5, Ghana-vita-valaya; 6, Tanu-vdta-valaya; 7, Nigoda; 8, via-valayas; 9, seventh hell; 10, sixth hell; 11, fifth hell; 12, fourth hell; 13, third hell; 14, second hell; 15, first hell with three parts; 16, Sudariana Meru; 17, Saudharma svarga; 18, Aiśāna svarga; 19, Sânat-kumāra svarga; 20, Mahendra svarga; 21, Brahman svarga; 22, Brahmottara svarga; 23, Läntava svarga; 24, Käpistha svarga; 25, Sukra and Mahasukra svargas; 26, Satara and Sahasrara svargas; 27, Anata and Pranata svargas; 28, Arana and Acyuta svargas; 29, nine Graiveyaka svargas: 30, nine Anudiśa svargas; 31, the five Anuttara svargas; 32, Siddha-silă

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FIG. XLV. Bharata-kşetra. (After Muktyanand Singh Jain.) 1, part of the eastern hemisphere; 2, Arya-khanda; 3, Mleccha-khanda; 4, Vijayārdha mountain; 6, river Gangā; 5, river Yamuna;
7. Hima vat mountain; 8, Padma lake; 9, river Rohitåsvă
and the outer rarefied gases (ghanodadhi). The Siddha-filā or the space of the liberated souls is the summit of the cosmos in the form of a bi-meniscus convex lens with its concavity downwards. The portion, thence to the bottom, as broad as the waist-like part of the cosmos, is only inhabitated by trasa-jīvas or the mobile beings and is called, therefore, the trasa-nali, measuring 14 raijusa in height and 7 in depth as the loka itself and 1 rajju in width as against the loka which measures in general 7 rajjus. The cosmos,
1 The transmigrating souls, within which are not included the Siddhas who are emancipated, are either mobile (trasa) or immobile (sthāvara). Earth, water, fire, air and plants are immobile beings, all with the only sense of touch. The mobile beings, having a gradual increase in the senses of taste, smell, sight and hearing, may be termed as twosensed and onwards. The five-sensed ones are all the celestial, human and hellish beings and partly the animals.
Literally a rope, the rajju is a linear astrophysical measure, being the distance which a male celestial being flies in six months at the rate of 2,857,152 yojanas in one samaya or the sbortest unit of time, though all this cannot be subjected to any mathematical computations.
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ARCHITECTURE which is 343.rajju cubes in volume, kas in the central 100-yojana portion the manusya-lokia accommodating all but the heavenly celestial beings who inhabit the syarga-loka above the manusya-loka and the hellish beings who are distributed in the seven-earth naraka-loka below the manusya-loka.. .
The central part of the cosmos, i.e. the manuşya-loka, consists of innumerable continents or dvipas, each encircled by an ocean or samudra. These are of double the diameter of the preceding ones and are circular in shape:
Jambu, the first dvipa, is the only continent which does not encircle any ocean or continent and is the only one round in shape. One hundred thousand maha-yojanase in diameter, the Jambu has Mount Sumeru at the centre like the navel in the body. This continent has seven regions named Bharata (fig. XLV), Haimavata, Hari, Videha," Ramyaka, Hairanyavata and Airāvata divided by six mountains, namely Himavat, Maha-himavat, Nişadha, Nila, Rukmin and Sikharin, all running east to west. Padma, Mahā-padma, Tigincha, Keśarin, Mahā-pundarika and Pundarika are the lakes situated on the top of these mountains respectively. It is these lakes that accommodate
These earths or the narakas are situated one below the other, cach surrounded by three kinds of air and space. The word carth is intended to indicate the particular nature of substratum which is solid like the earth. The infernal regions are not like the layers of heavens, which rest without any substratum like the carth.
Jambů, the first continent, is encircled by Lavaņa ocean which itself is encircled by Dhätaki-khanda continent, the encircling ocean here being Kāla, which is in turn encircled by the continent Puskaravara, which, i.e. the predecessor's name, has been taken by the encircling ocean, as has been done by all the occans onwards.
The fourth and onward continents are Väruņi-vara, Kşira-vara, Ghsta-vara, Kundalavara, Sankha-vara, Nandiśvara, Aruņa-vara, Arunabhäsa-vara, Kundala-vara, Sankha-vara, Rucaka-vara, Bhujaga-vara, Kusa-vara, Krauñca-vara, etc. And, to begin from the last backwards, the continents are Svayambbu-ramaņa, Ahiadra-vara, Deva-vara, Yakşa-vara, Bhutavara, Näga-vara, Vaidurya-vara, Vajra-vara, Suvarna-vara, Rūpya-vara, Hingulika vara, Aõjanaka-vara, Syama-vara, Sinddra-vara, Haritala-vara, Manah-sila, etc.
AA measure of distance. 24 angulas or finger-tips, each equal to an inch in general, make 1 hasta or cubit, 4 hastas make a dhanus or capa, literally a bow, 2,000 dhanuses make 1 kroša, which may equal 2 miles, 4 krošas make a yojana in general, whereas 2,000 krosas make the mahd-yojana.
* For details, see below, page 521,
• The names in cosmography may significantly correspond 10 those in art and architecture.
This region is divided into three parts called Deva-kuru, Uttara-kuru and Videha.
This region, just like Bharata, is divided into six horizontally by a mountain called Vijayardha and vertically by the two rivers; the division in the outer centre is Arya-khanda. whereas the other five are Mleccha-kbandas.
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[PART IX lotus-shaped islands inhabited by celestial families, which respectively are headed by celestial nymphs named Sri, Hri, Dhști, Kirtti, Buddhi and Lakşmi. Across the seven regions flow in pair, with the first flowing eastwards and the next westwards, fourteen great rivers having thousands of tributaries each.
Dhätaki-khanda, the second continent, is divided into East and West by two mountains running from north to south with the ends touching the high shores of the two oceans Lavana and Käla. Each of the East and the West divisions has all the arrangement as there is in Jambũ, i.e. there are two sets of regions, mountains, Merus, etc. The mountains here run midway between the regions as the spokes in a wheel and the regions are of the shape of open space in the wheel,
Puskara-vara, the third, is the only continent divided into two halves by a circular mountain Mānuşottara running around the continent and called so because human beings are found only up to it. In the inner half, there are, just as in Dhātaki-khanda, two Bharatas, two Himavats, two Merus, etc., whereas, in the outer half and also in the continents onwards there is no division into regions, etc. All this means that human beings reside only in the two-and-a-half continents in the centre of the middle world and also of the cosmos. This also means that there are five scts, each with seven regions, six mountains, fourteen rivers, one Meru, etc.
It is worth mentioning that the Bharatas, Videhas (excluding the Deva-kuru and Uttara-kuru parts) and Airavatas, five each, are the Regions of Labour or karma-bhūmis where one has to adopt any of the six kinds of occupations to lead his life, whereas the Haimavatas, Haris, Deva-kurus, Uttara-Kurus, Ramyakas and Hairanyavatas, five each, are the Regions of Enjoyment or bhoga-bhūmis where the objects of enjoyment are provided by the kalpa-vrksas or desire-fulfilling trees.
Kșira-vara, the fifth ocean, is remarkable for its waters, vesselfuls of which are accustomed to be taken by Indra for the abhişeka or the ceremonial bath of the baby Tirthankara, and wherein is deposited the hair of the Tirthankara after he plucks it out on the occasion of his dikşā or renunciation. Nandiśvara, the eight (below, p. 524), Kundala-vara, the tenth, and Rucakavara, the thirteenth, are known for their akstrima caityålayas (below, p. 526)
1 They are Ganga, Sindhu, Rohita, Rohitäsyä, Harit, Harikāntā, Sita, Sitoda, Näri, Narakanta, Suvarna-kūlā, Rūpya-kala, Rakta and Raktoda.
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ARCHITECTURE or the natural temples. . Some continents, including the second, Jambut have pdidla-nagaris or underground cities inhabited only by the celestial ones.
The celestial beings or Devas are of four orders, namely Bhavanaväsin* or the residential, Vyantaraor the peripatetic, Jyotiska or the stellar and Vaimnānika or the heavenly ones. Of these, the Bhavana-väsins have their residence in the manusya-loka and partly in the naraka-loka. They have Jina-caityälayas as a component part of their mansions, which are akstrima or natural and fasvata or eternal. The Vyantaras have their dwelling-places in the upper hard part of the first earth beyond the innumerable islands and oceans, but the Raksasa class of them resides in the parka-bahula or muddy part of the same earth. The stellars are characterized by incessant motion around the Merus, whereas outside the Mānuşottara they are stationary. Out of these, the suns and the moons have Jina-caityalayas in their vimanas.
The Vaimānikas are the only celestial beings to reside in the upper world called svarga-loka which comprises sixteen kalpa-vimänas, nine graiveyakavimänas,' nine anudiśa-vimānasa and five anuttara-vimänas," altogether thirtynine. Most of those residing in the kalpa-vimānas and the graiveyaka-vimānas and all the rest are, by nature, Jinendra-bhaktas or devoted to the Jina.
The one hundred Indras or the chiefs10 comprise only the celestial kings, except the two, i.e, one of the human beings and one of the animals,
1 For the detailed study of the socond Jambû, see G.L. Amar, Dvitiya Jambu-dvipa', Anekanta (Hindi quarterly), XXII, 1, Delhi, 1969, pp. 20-24.
They are of ten classes : Asura, Någa, Vidyut, Suparna, Agni, Väta, Stanita, Udadhi, Dvipa and Dik, each with the suffix kumara.
• They are of eight classes : Kinnara, Kimpuruşa, Mahoraga. Gandharva, Yakşa, Raksasa, Bbūta and Pisaca.
* They are of five classes : suns, moons, planets, constellations and scattered stars.
Those which make the beings residing in them feel as possessing merit are called vimänas, and those who live in the vimanas are called Vaimäaikas: the word vimana does not mean here a chariot or a car moving in the air or in the sky; it is an absolutely fixed abode, shaped like a vimana as anciently conceived
• Saudharma, Aisina, Sanat-kumăra, Mahendra, Brahman, Brahmottara, Läntava, Kāpistha, Sukra, Maha-śukra, Satara, Sahasrāra, Anata, Prapata, Arana and Acyuta.
Sudarsana, Amogha, Subuddha, Payodhara, Subhadra, Suvisala, Sumanas, Saumanasa and Priyankara.
Lakşml, Lakşmi-malika, Vairevaka, Rocanaka, Soma, Soma-rupya Anka, Palyanka and Aditya.
Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvärtha-siddhi.
10 The one hundred Indras are enumerated as : Bhavanälaya-cālisa Vyantara-devána hornti bartisdi Kappdmara-coubisa Cardo Süro Haro tiriyo.
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L PANT IX namely the lion. The Yakşas, Yakşis, Śāsana-devas, Sasana-devis, Dik-palas, Ksetra-pālas, Bhairavas, Vidya-devis, Sarasvati, Lakşmi, Ganga, Yamuna. apsarases, dundubhi-vădaka, câmara-dhärins, camara-dhärin is, etc., all being the celestial ones, and the human figures like Vidyadharas, Bhaktas, etc., can be seen depicted as attendants to the Tirtharkaras or in various parts of the temple.
SYMBOLIC TEMPLES
The temple in itself is a symbol, though in a general sense. In particular the temple can be seen in various architectural formations like those of Nandiśvara-dvipa, Astăpada (fig. XLVI), etc., but some of the formations are only described in the canons and are nowhere physically represented.
Some of the formations like stūpa, caitya-vāsa, nişidhikā, etc., may or may not be taken directly into the category of temples as such, but, after all,
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ARCHITECTURE being the places of Worship they could be dealt with under the present heading. '
CATURVIMSATI-JINĀLAYA
The caturvinnsati-Jinalaya is a set of twenty-four deva-kulikäs or devakosthas (fig. XLI. p. 511), literally the small sanctuaries, each with a Tirthankara serially installed in it, starting from the southern jamb of the eastern gate and ending with the same jamb of the western gate, so as to form three rows of eight each, the central one facing the main sanctuary in the temple. The Tirthankara, whoever he is in the main sanctuary, would not be repeated but be replaced by Sarasvati, the goddess of learning.
This type of temples has been very popular right from the medieval period to this day, though the arrangement of the small sanctuaries can be seen varying on plan. The caturvinnsati-pata or a panel depicting the twenty-four Tirtharkaras may be taken to be a miniature caturvirśatiJinalaya, which can be seen also in the rock-cut form.
THE MERUS
There are five Merus, named Sudarśana, situated in the centre of the Jambu continent. Vijaya in the east and Acala in the west of Dhāta and Mandara in the east and Vidyun-målin in the west of the inner half of the Puskara-vara. All the five are situated one each in the Videha-kşetras and have one and the same characteristics, except slight differences in height, the one in the Jambu being the highest and as such called Sumeru instead of Meru.
The Sudarśana, being 1,000 yojanas under and 95,000 yojanas above the ground level, touches the upper level of the lower world and lower level of the upper world. Its diameter decreases from 10,090 yojanas and the eleventh of a yojana at the lowermost level to 10,000 yojanas at the ground level where it is encircled here by the Bhadra-sala forest. Therefrom at the height of 500 yojanas it again decreases by 500 yojanas to make the Sumeru encircled here by the Nandana forest. Then at the height of 60,500 yojanas the decrease again is the same and the encircling forest here is Saumanasa. Thence at the height of 36,000 the decrease is of 494 yojanas, where the encircling forest is Panduka, and, whereform rises the 40-yojana cūlikā or
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[PART IX crest with the diameter of 4 yojanas at the top. Full of jewels called haritala. vaidurya, sarva-ratna, vajra, padma and padma-räga, the circumference.of the Meru changes successively at the height of every 16,500 yojanas. At the bottom the Meru bas four Vaksara-giris in the subdirections. Shaped like gaja-danta or the tusk of an elephant, these mountains touch the larger ones called Mahă-śaila, Nilādri, Nişadha-parvata and Nandana-śaila.
Each of the four forests has four caityālayas, each one in the four directions; a Meru, thus, has sixteen, and the five Merus eighty caityalayas all being akstrima or natural as well as śāśvata or eternal, as are the Merus themselves. The Bhadra-śāla forest has five divisions called Bhadra-śāla, Mānuşottara, Deva-ramaņa, Nāga-ramaņa and Bhūta-ramana, whereas the Nandana, the Saumanasa and the Panduka have only two each.
The Pāņduka forest is encircled by an edge-railing embellished with flags and flanked by multistoreyed mansions. Having jewelled gopura structures, the railing is 2 krošas in height and 500 dhanuses in width. The forests of Pānduka are full of various trees, animals and excursionist couples of Vidyādharas and celestial ones. They have in the four directions crescentic slabs, each one 100 yojanas in length, 50 yojanas in width and 8 yojanas in height. The one in the north, called Pāņduka-šila, placed north-south in length and made of gold, is otherwise said by Saggâyani' to be 4 yojanas in height, 500 yojanas in length and half the length in width. At the centre of this slab is placed a resplendent simhasana flanked by a bhadrāsana on either side, all the three äsanas or seats being furnished with the auspicious equipments like white parasol, flywhisk, etc. It is this Pāņduka-sila where on the simhasana the baby Tirthankara from the Bharata region is given abhişeka or the lustral bath by the Indras-Saudharma and Aiśāna seated on the bhadrâsanas respectively in the south and north. Placed in the āgneya subdirection with east-west length and made of silver, the Pandu-kambala-silā is occupied by the baby Tirthankara from the Apara-videha Region. Made of gold, the Rakta-silā is placed in the nairstya with north-south length, whereas the blood-red Rakta-kambala-silā is placed in the vāyavya with eastwest length, both having the baby Tirthankaras respectively from the regions called Airāvata and Purva-videba. In the east of the Pāņduka forest near the cũlika there is a 30-krosa circular präsāda facing the east. Lohita, this prāsāda, is well-furnished and has in its central part a pleasure-mountain or krida-śaila. The Lohita is occupied by Soma, the Loka-pāla guarding the eastern horizon. Likewise are the prāsādas named Añjana in the south,
Tiloya-pannatti, IV, 1821.
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Haridra in the west and Panduka in the north, respectively inhabited by Yama, Varuna and Kubera, the Loka-palas guarding the respective horizons each. The Panduka forest also has in each direction four Jinendra-prāsādas, each 100 krosas long and 75 krosas high.
The Saumanasa forest, 36,000 yojanas downwards from the Panduka forest, is the third from the bottom. This forest, 500 yojanas in width, is provided with the great railing, etc. Here are four präsādas named Vajra, Vajra-prabha, Suvarna and Svarna-prabha, which are of the dimensions double that of the prasadas in the Panduka forest and are occupied by the same Loka-pālas respectively. In this forest in the subdirections there are sixteen puskariņis or lotus-pools, each accommodating in the centre a vihara-prāsāda or mansion for recreation. A vihāra-prāsāda, 125 krosas in height and half that in width, has in the centre a grand simhasana for Saudharma Indra or the lord of the heavenly celestial ones, which is flanked by other simhasanas, four for the Loka-palas, one for the Pratindra, eight for the agra-mahişis or the chief consorts of Indra, thirty-two thousand for the pravaras or the elder ones, eighty-four hundred thousand for the sämänikas or those equal in status but not in authority, twelve hundred thousand for the păriṣadas or courtiers, fourteen hundred thousand for the madhyamapāriṣadas or courtiers of the second rank, sixteen hundred thousand for the bāhya-pāriṣadas or courtiers from outside, thirty-three for the trāyastrimas or ministers, six for the mahattaras or chamberlains, one for the mahattari or lady chamberlain and eighty-four thousand for the anga-rakṣakas or body. guards. The sixteen lotus-ponds are named as Utpala-gulmā, Nalinā, Utpalā and Utpalotpala in the agneya, Bhṛngã, Bhṛnga-nibhā, Kajjalā and Kajjalaprabha in the nairṛtya, Śri-bhadra, Sri-kāntā, Śri-mahitā and Śri-nilaya in the vāyavya and Nalina, Nalina-gulmā, Kumudā and Kumuda-prabha in the aiśāna. This forest also has four Jinendra-prāsādas like those in the Panduka forest. Here each direction and subdirection have a küța or peak, one 100 yojanas high and the same in width at the bottom. On these kūtas reside respectively the eight Kanya-kumāris named Meghankara, Meghavati, Sumegha, Meghamālini, Toyandhara, Vicitra, Puspamālā and Anindita.
The Nandana forest is again of the same characteristics in general, except that the dimensions are double those in the Saumanasa forest. The Bhadrašála forest also resembles those situated upwards. The dimensions here are four times those in the Panduka forest.
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[PART IX
FIG. XLVII. The Meru. (After P.O. Somapura.) 1, plan of the Meru: 3, 4, 6, and 7, four simha-pithas called siddha-dllás; 5, eternal Jina-caityas or the four-fold image of Tirthankara on the culika; 2, side-elevation of the Meru; 8, Bhadraśāla forest; 9, Nandana forest; 10, Saumanasa forest; 11, Panduka forest; 12 to 14, pithas of the Tirthankara; 15, as 5 above
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ARCHITECTURE Depiction of Meru was perhaps nowhere done in architecture, but occurs in plastic art and painting. It is actually the caityalayas and the Påpduka forest with the four silas which make the Meru significant.
The word Meru may mean here a mountain (fig. XLVII), but in most of the canons of achitecture it is described as a type of prāsāda, mostly multistoreyed. According to the Brhat-sanhita (LVI, 20)• a type of hexagonal buildings has twelve storeys, variegated windows and four entrances and is 52 cubits wide and of forty-five kinds. There are some Jaina records, both epigraphical and literary, which mention temples having been made and called after the Meru, but no traces of this particular type of building have as yet been seen. Again, Buhler suggests that the suffix mer seen in the nomenclature of quite a few cities in Rajasthan, e.g. Ajmer, Jaisalmer, Barmer, etc., represents the meru-type of präsada, i.e. the Jaina temple which might have been built by someone whose name prefixed to meru gave the name to the concerned city. The suggestion is plausible, but the suffix may have come from maru, 'desert.
NANDISVARA-DVĪPA
Nandiśvara-dvipa (above, p. 518), the eighth continent in the middle world, is the most significant out of the innumerable continents except the two-and-a-half ones. Just in the middle of the two rims of the circular continent are mountains, black in colour, therefore called Afijanas, named Devaramapa in the east, Nityodyota in the south, Svayamprabha in the west and Ramapiya in the north. Each of the Aõjanas has again in each direction a square lake which accommodates a mountain called Dadhi-mukha. White as curd and circular in shape, it has on its top tafa-vedis or edge-railings and parks. In each of the two outer corners of the four lakes is a golden circular mountain called Ratikara. That is, there are four Añjapas, sixteen
1 U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, pp. 117-18. He incorrectly names one Meru as panica-meru in fig. 78, as he does also in the text.
• Acharya, op. cit., pp. 512-15. * Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, New Series, VI, p. 318.
• G. Bohler in Indian Antiquary, XXIV, p. 164. In addition to many examples given by Bühler may be meationed Jaya-meru. Śri-Karana-mangalam, E. Hultzsch, 'Inscriptions of Rajarāja P. no. 50, South Indian Inscriptions, III, p. 103.
Not the Inst, as U.P. Shah saya, op. cit., p. 118.
The Nandisvara-kalpa in the Vividha-tirtha-kalpa of Jinaprabba-Sori, Santiniketan, 1934, pp. 48-49, slightly differs in saming the mountains, etc...
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Dadhi-mukhas and thirty-two Rati-karas, together numbering fifty-two. Each. lake has its name : Nanda, Nandavati, Nandottarā and Nandi-ghosā in the cast; Arajā, Virajā, Asoka and Aparăjită in the south; Vijayā, Vaijayanti, Jayanti and Aparājitã in the west, and Ramyā, Ramanujā, Suprabhā and Sarvatobhadrã in the north.
Each of the lakes in each direction has a forest respectively of asoka or Jonesia Asoka Roxb, saptacchada (saptaparna) or Alstonia Scholaris, campaka or Michelia Campaka and ämra (cūta) or Manglifera indica. The forests make a total of sixty-four. Peripatetic or the Vyantara-Devas with their families reside in the sixty-four präsādas or abodes which are situated one each in the central part of the forest. The prāsādas are square on plan and twice the length in height.
On the top of the fifty-two mountains are, one each, the dväpancāśat akrtrima-caityālayas. Each of these natural temples is 100 yojanas in length, half as wide and 70 yojanas high and has a door in each direction. Within the temples are mani-pithakas or jewelled platforms, 16 yojanas in length and width and 8 yojanas in height. On the platforms are devacchandakas or the diases of jewel with their length and width exceeding those of the platforms. On the diases are placed one hundred and eight eternal images of the Tirthaökaras seated in paryanka-posture. Made of jewels, the images are flanked each by two Nāgas, two Yakşas, two Bhūtas, two pitcher-carriers and an umbrella-bearer. On the diases are also incense-burners, wreaths, bells, the eight mangala-dravyas or auspicious symbols, banners, festoons, baskets, boxes and seats as well as sixteen ornaments as full pitchers, etc. There are mukha-mandapas or entrance-porches, prekşd-mand apas or theatrepavilions, akşa-vățakas or arenas, mani-pithakas, stūpas, statues, caitya-trees, Indra-dhvajas and lotus-lakes in succession.
In the fifty-two caityalayas assemble numerous Devas to celebrate the eight-day function or aştähnika-parvan thrice a year; the custom even today prevails amongst the Jainas. This function falls on the last eight days of bright fortnight of the months Aşadha, Kārttika and Phālguna. The Nändīśvaraparkti-vrata, referred to in the Brhat-Jaina-sabdarnava,* seems to be the same
1 The number is fifty-two only and not more, as Shah suspects. His 'Central mountain, which also has "Sasvata-Jinālayas on it,' is nothing but the Aðjana without the inclusion of which the total cannot come to fifty-two. The early texts referred to by him in this context also do not support his suspicion. See Shah, op. cit., p. 120.
* Brhar-Jaina-Sabdarnava, II, Surat, 1134, p. 512.
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FIG. XLVIII. Nandiśvara-dvipa.prasdda. (After P.O. Somapura.) as the eight-day function falling thrice a year. A similar Nandisvara-tapas practised by the Svetāmbaras along with půjd of the Nandiśvara-pata is referred to in the Pravacang-säroddhāra.
Thakkura Pheru does make a provision for the dväpañcasat Jinalaya type of temple which is a set of fifty-two small sanctuaries (fig. XLVIII) including of course the main one which would find its place in the centre (fig. XLIX), with seventeen cach on its both the sides and eight on the front and nine in the back sides. This number, fifty-two, resembles that of the Jinalayas in the Nandiśvara which has, unlike this one, its own design according to cosmography and likewise to the architectural tradition, but
Spocial reference to the commentary by Siddhasena-gapi, Bombay, 1952, 8&tha 1915.

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26
22 231.24 25
27 28 29 30 L
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50 49 48
ID
FIG. XLIX. Variants of Nandisvara-dvipa-präsåda. (After P.O. Somapura.) 1, distribution of
Afty-two sanctuaries; 2, simplified presentation of the fifty-two sanctuaries
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ARCHITECTURE there is no other go but to conclude that this type of temple is a simplified form of the Nandkvara-dvipa type of temple.
Nandi-gála and Nandisa, along the twenty-five types (above, p. 513), suggest an architectural representation of this type of temple, though, with no description available, it hardly serves any purpose. Also (above, p. 513) are listed fifty-two Jina prasadas which may be taken to be the ones in the Nandiśvara-dvipa; then only could be known the names with a few details of these caityälayas. ..
Nandiśvara-dvipa has various representations in art by way of models in stone or bronze, mosaic work and painting, but in architecture as such it seems to have taken shape only in the last century when two temples of this type were built on the Satrunjaya hill in Gujarat. These are interesting as they have, in addition to the fifty-two, one more sanctum in the centre to represent the Satrunjaya hill. Recently has been built up by the Digambaras a large Nandiśvara-dvipa Jinalaya at Madhuban near Parasnath hill in Bihar. So far as the miniature representations are concerned, the Digambaras put fifty-two small figures of the Tirthařkaras on a four-tiered vedi or platform or in a miniature shrine, both the types being four-faced, whereas the Svetāmbaras represent miniature shrines in four groups of thirteen each, carved in relief on a stone plaque or in metal and arranged in different artistic ways.
THB SAMAVASARANA
The Tirthankara# would lay a sermon only inside the samavasarana or an auditorium fascinatingly planned by Kubera under the orders of the Indra of Saudharma Heaven. The samavasarana must vanish with the Tirthankara shifting to another place, where a fresh samavasarana would be built structure, better called a vast park-cum-auditorium, is circular like the solar disc and spreads over 12 yojanas..
1 T.N. Ramachandran refers to a miniaturc Nandiśvara dvipa in stone, which is shaped like a vimäna superimposed on a square base, and has for each side an arched niche. The finial surmounts the whole giving it the dignified appearance of a Jina-prasada. Soe Tiruparuttikunram and its Temple, Madras 1934, p. 181, plate XXI, fig. 4.
J. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (revised edition), Delhi, 1967, II, pp. 29-30, fig. 279. A full description of the temples is given there.
* The Tirthařkaras must be born only in the karma-bhümis and not in the bhoga-bhümis.
The spread goes on reducing gradually in the case of every succeeding Tirthenkara, except in the Videhas.
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Its lofty plinth is reached by circular flights of two thousand steps, each step 1 cubit high. On reaching the top one would find wide avenues with railings on both the sides. All the four avenues start with each point, cross the ground of blue gems and lead towards the centre. The railings are made of crystal and provided with doorways, above which arches and flags and festoons produce a pleasing effect.
Then comes the compound-wall called dhūli-śāla, with four gates, Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta and Aparăjita, one each in the four directions; they are three-storeyed structures, adorned with the auspicious symbols, the nine jewels and large effigies carrying incense-burners. The gates have the makara-torana at the exterior and ratna-torana at the interior; at the middle of each side is a theatre-hall; the Devas or celestial ones holding rods of jewel guard the gates.
Enclosed by the dhūli-sala compound is the region called caitya-prasddabhumi, 1 kroša by five-sixths of a krośa in dimensions. This is the wide band that lies between the first circle and consists of palaces between the first circle and the railing on the inner side. The caitya-prāsāda-bhūmi, attributive of its name, consists of palaces with a Jinalaya placed between every fifth of them. The four avenues continue here too and are flanked by theatres and dancinghalls. At each of the four places where the avenues reach this region, there is a huge column called māna-stambha, literally the pride-pillar, which rises up on a platform comprised of three terraces. They are reached by a flight of sixteen steps, eight for the lower terrace and four each for the intermediate and the top ones. The platform is surrounded by three enclosures with doors facing the four cardinal points and opening on to four beautiful lakes filled with crystal-clear water. A railing provided with gates, steps made of jewels and two appended pools are the prominent features of each lake. The height of a māna-stambha is twelve times the height of the body of the Tirthankara concerned and is divided into three segments, the basal segment with vajradvāras or the doors too hard, as a thunderbolt, to be perforated, the circular second one made of sphatika or crystal and the top one of vaidurya or cat'seye. All round there are flywhisks, bells, rattles, string of gems, banners, etc. On the top of the māna-stambha there is a Tirthankara image in each direction brought by Indra for this casual installation specially from some akstrima caityālaya, all of them with eight prātihāryas or attending symbols, namely the aśoka-tree, sirhhäsana, triple parasol, halo, divya-dhvani, heavenly shower of flowers, sixty-four cămara-dhări Yakşas and drum-beaters. The railing bounding this region on its inner side is provided with four gates, one for
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ARCHITECTURE cach cardinal point. Within this railing there is a region of water known as khatika-bhümel. Full of crystal-clear water and wator-lilies and water-beings, the khatika-bhumi is provided with steps made of precious stones.
Bounding the region of water on its inner side, there is again a railing which encloses a forest called valli-bhimni, This, the third region, with dimensions twice those of the first region, is full of pleasant scenery and wooded bowers and raised seats in the midst of clear spaces. The forest is bordered by a compound-wall, second in the structure, which is provided by tower-like gateways, one facing each cardinal point and decorated with paintings of animals and female figures and guarded by Yaksas.
Enclosed by the second compound-wall is a garden or upavana-bhumi. With wooded avenues of aśoka, campaka, cūta and saptaparna, this region, fourth in the structure, has the dimensions twice those of the first region. Here too are theatros where dances and music are a permanent feature. The caitya-vsksas or tree-shaped structures also are the very prominent features here. The third vedikā or compound-wall borders this region inside.
With a row of fluttering flags along its four gates, like those of the earlier one, this wall gives the region encircled by it the name dhvaja-bhūmi or the region of flags, the dimensions of which again are twice those of the first one. Numbering in millions the flags bear specific marks of lion, elephant bull, garuda, peacock, moon or a piece of cloth, sun or a garland, swan, lotus and cakra. The compound-wall bordering the interior here resembles the dhūli-sala for the provision of gates and music-halls but is double in dimensions.
Then the spectator's gaze falls on the illuminating wish-trees scattered about in the wood in elegant confusion, all along the kalpa-vȚksa-bhūmi, the sixth region in the structure. The ten kinds of these trees or the kalpa-vokşas are significantly called pānārga, türyanga, bhūsanārga, vastrăriga, bhojanānga, alayānga, dipanga, bhajanänga, malyanga and jyotiranga. Recessed by theatres and music-halls the wish-trees shelter golden platforms on which are installed the images of the Tirthankaras. This region, of dimensions twice those of the first region, is bordered inside by the fourth vedikd, the four gates of which are guarded by Näga-kumāras.
Now one would get into the region of mansions called bhavana-bhūmi, the seventh and last of this type which has the same dimensions as those of the first one. Consisting of innumerable mansions and other habitations
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(PART IX built of precious stones and metals, this region has in each of the four cardinal avenues a line of nine stüpas named loka, madhyama-loka, mandara, graiveyaka, sarvärtha-siddhi, siddhi, bhavya, moha and bodhi respectively. In the stūpas are enshrined images of the Tirthankaras and the Siddhas; they have a hundred makara-toranas between every two of them. The compound-wall at the interior here is called akaśa-sphafika-sala because it is made of white crystals. It resembles in all the ways the dhūli-sala, but here the four gates are guarded by Kalpa-vāsins or the heavenly ones.
Further up, one would step into the clean open place of 1 yojana by 1 yojana, where in the middle is situated the circular auditorium called Sri-mand apa or laksmisvara-mand apa. The heart of the samavasarana, this auditorium is divided into the twelve koşthas or compartments of equal dimensions, following a clock-wise order and falling three each in between the four cardinal avenues, the dividing walls, therefore, being sixteen in number. Made of crystal, the walls are supported by golden pilasters. The audience is supposed to have seats compartment-wise, i.e. respectively, all the saints including the ganadharas or main disciples of the Tirthařkara; fernale Kalpavāsins; women including the aryikās or nuns; damsels of the stellar celestials; female peripatetics; female Bhavana-väsins; male Bhavan-vāsins; male peripatetics; stellar celestials; male Kalpa-vāsins; men including the kings, chieftains, etc.; and animals.
Right in the centre of the samavasarana is the cottage of fragrance known as gandha-kuți, separated from the circular śrī-mandapa by a railing which is the fifth and last and similar to the fourth compound-wall in the structure. Supposed to be a lofty platform for the preaching Tirthankara, the gandha-kuți, itself being square, stands on three circular pithas or podia placed one above the other. Resembling those of the mana-stambhas referred to above, these podia are made of gems and decorated with various motifs and auspicious symbols and have in all in the four directions Yakşendras standing with dharma-cakras on their heads. The basal podium has sixteen flights of sixteen steps each. Four of the flights start from the cardinal avenues, whereas the rest begin from the twelve compartments wherefrom the listeners like ganadharas get on this podium and after circumambulating on it and offering worship to the Tirthankara return to their respective compartments. The intermediate podium is embellished with gemmy staffs having at the top the banners with emblems of lions, bulls, lotuses, cakras, garlands, garud as and elephants. Artistically placed here are the incense-vases, nine nidhis or treasures, objects for worship and the auspicious symbols. This podium, like
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ARCHITECTURE the top one, has an eight-step flight facing each cardinal point. It is the third podium over which is centrally placed the gandha-kuți itself, which, attributive of its name, is ever fragrant with many kinds of incense, e.g. gasirsa, malaya-candana, kälāguru, etc. Flywhisks, rattles, strings of gems, banners and lamps are some of the decorative members of the gandha-kuti. On a grand sinhasana placed right in the centre of the gandha-kufi and embedded with all the precious stones and gems of the world and the heavens put together, sits the Tirthankara on a blossomed thousand-petalled lotusflower, without however touching it, but suspended in the air about four fingers above it. Shown near him is the asoka-tree and above him three white parasols. Sixty-four Yaksas attend on him with flywhisks in hand. Behind him shines the resplendent halo. In the sky rises the sound of celestial drums. He now fully deserves the epithet Tirtharikara to appear to be looking in all the four directions, though he only sits facing the east. When he speaks, he speaks in Sarvärtha-māgadhi language which resembles the roar of surging oceans. His speech is distinctly heard by every one present because it is produced independently of the movements of the glotis and is for that reason termed anakşari or without letters. The ganadharas, who interpret the speech to all assembled, arrange all his teachings under twelve main heads called dvadasānga or dvādasāra, the last of which, named pūrva, has fourteen sections. After the speech is over Saudharmendra summons his retinue of dancers to express his feelings. And, then the Tirtharkara proceeds on his divine mission, and the samavasarana is dispersed, to be planned afresh wherever his next halt is to take place.
The mythological symbols like samarasarana, māna-stambha, gandha-kutī, Astăpada, etc., the cosmographical ones like the Meru, Nandiśvara-dvipa and so on, as well as those of iconographic nature, do meagrely correspond to the canons, even to the classical texts which actually serve as canons particularly in the case of symbolism for some reason or the other. As a matter of fact, symbolizing even in a large structural form the vast and complex area like the samavasarana or Nandiśvara-dvipa is more or less impossible for an architect or a sculptor to achieve.
GOPILAL AMAR
* The line drawing illustrations in this chapter have been adapted from : Vatthu-sárapayarana, ed. Bhagwandas Jain (above, p. 495, n. 5); Dipärnava by Visvakarman, ed. P.O. Somapura (above, p. 495, n. 1); and Brn. Maktyanand Singh Jain, Moksa-sastra-kaumudi, Muzaffarpur, 1957. :
Sommpeca ce to Bhagwandas vali jad one thie
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CHAPTER 37
MUSEUMS ABROAD
BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON
THE EARLIEST JAINA SCULPTURES IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM ARE FROM Mathurā and belong to the Gupta period, circa fifth century. Among them there are three heads of the images of Tirthatikaras carved out in white-spotted red sandstone. In all these the hair of the Tirthankaras is arranged into spiral curls and twirled towards the proper right. The almost round face, bow-shaped eye-brows, broad cheeks and the full lips reveal the artistic genius of the Gupta craftmen of the Mathurā region. In a single example the hair of the Jina is arranged in receding tiers demarcated by lines. In the beautiful bust of a Tīrthankara image the hair of the deity is arranged in schematic curls (plate 315A). He bears a Srivasta-mark on the chest as is found in the contemporary Gupta sculptures from Mathura and elsewhere. The elaborate lotus-halo behind the head of the god, surrounded by a beaded border and scalloped design on its outer rim, indicates the lingering of the Kushan traits in Gupta sculpture.
Central-Indian Jaina sculpture of the medieval period is well-represented in the collection. In one image an eight-armed Yakşi is shown seated in lalitäsana-pose on a lotus issuing from an inscribed pedestal (plate 315B). She holds a garland of flowers in her uppermost hands held behind her crowned head. In one of her right hands she holds a disc with a fluttering tassel and her two hands are held in abhaya- and varada-poses. In her left hands she carries a circular mirror, a conch and probably a cup, now partly damaged. She is flanked by a female attendant on either side. A våmanikå playing on vină stands on the right, and an elephant, the vähana of the Devi is shown on her left near the knee. Two garland-holding damsels are depicted flanking her
An almost similar attitude of holding the garland in the upper hands is also shown in the image of Yoga-Nårāyana from Didwaga. See S. Singh and D. Lal, Catalogue and Guide to Sardar Museum, Jodhpur, Jaipur, 1960-61, p. 8, plate 6.
*Cf. the image of Jaina Kubera from Bansi in the Udaipur Museum, P. Solanki, Handbook to Victoria Hall Museum, Udaipur, Jaipur, Pp. 17-18, plate VI.

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lotus-halo. An image of the Tirthankara seated in meditation on a lotus and flanked by a cauri-bearer is shown at the top. The base in front bears the name of the goddess as Sulocanã. The image is a sublime product of circa ninth century.
Another contemporary image hailing from the same region and labelled as Dhrti is seated at ease on her mount, probably Garuda, shown in alidha-pose with hands joined near the chest in adoration (plate 316A). She holds in her right hands a bunch of flowers, a rod-like object, a rosary and again a flower, while her left hands carry a few lotuses, a serpent and a battle-axe. Her two lowermost hands, now broken and lost, were probably held in abhaya- and varada-poses. The hair of the goddess is arranged in a big bun decorated with flowers, as also shown in contemporary sculptures from central and eastern India. A female attendant stands in tri-bhanga-pose on either side of the goddess and vind-player is depicted flanking her lotus-halo in a graceful attitude. An image of a Tirthankara with an attendant on his either side is shown in dhyana-mudra at the top in the centre. The image, though now badly damaged, is of much iconographic importance."
A composite image from the same region and of the same date shows a Yakşa and a Yakşi seated side by side in a niche between two decorated pilasters (plate 316B). The figures are two-armed; their right hands, though partly broken, are held in abhaya-mudra, while the left carry a citron (damaged). An interesting feature in this image is that three dwarfs are depicted as supporting the panel having the figures of the semidivine couple. The female musicians playing on vind-like instruments are depicted on either side of the central figure. The top of the main panel has a niche with a seated image of Tirthankara and crowned by the finial of a spire including the ribbed amalaka showing on either side a pair of garland-holding Vidyadharas flying towards it. The base bears a one-line inscription Anantavirya, probably used for the Yakşa figure.
An image of Jaina Yakşi, probably representing Padmavati, holds clockwise the hilt of a sword (damaged), a cobra, a shield and a lotus in her
1 Garuda, when he carries Visnu or Laksmi-Nārāyaṇa, Vaisqavi (one of the Sapta-Matka) and the Jaina Yakşi Cakreśvari is always shown seated in the alidha-pose.
B. N. Sharma, 'Unpublished Pala and Sena sculptures in the National Museum, New Delhi', East and West, XIX, 34, pp. 413-14, figs. 1 and 2.
Stylistically, the two Devi images probably belong to the Sohagpur region in Madhya Pradesh, from where several inscribed images are displayed in the Dhubela Museum. Cf. S.K. Dikshit, A Guide to the State Museum, Dhubela, Nowgong, 1957, fig. XA.
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MUSEUMS ABROAD :: four hands (plate 317A). She stands in triflex pose under a three-hooded
oobra with the head shightly inclined towards right. The higti karanda-mukuta, necklace and waist-band and the delicate modelling of the body-contours suggest that the image was fashioned by a gifted Paramära artist in the Malwa region in the tenth-eleventh century. A snake, the mount of the Devi, is depicted as crawling near her feet. The attending figures shown on either side of the goddess are completely damaged. A miniature image of a Tirthařkara with attendants is depicted above the central hood of the Yaksi.
The worship of Sarasvati was equally popular among the Brāhmapists, Buddhists and Jaipas. In Jainism she is the Yakşi of Padmaprabha, the sixth Tirthankara. Some medieval images of the goddess have been found at Pallu," Ladnun* and Deogarh. A white marble image of Sarasvati, probably from south-western Rajasthan, is shown standing gracefully in tri-bhanga-pose on an inscribed padma-pitha (plate 317B). Her right hands are lost, while in her left hands she holds a rosary and a book of knowledge. The elaborate karandamukuta, the charming jewellery and the diaphanous sarī secured with a girdle reminds us of the famous Pallu image of Sarasvati displayed in the National Museum of New Delhi (below Chapter 38). She is flanked by two DhyaniTirthankaras on her either side. A miniature figure of Padmaprabha along with garland-holding flying couples is shown above the image of the Devi. Two standing images of female attendants and the donor-couple are depicted near her feet. The image can be assigned to the Paramāra period, twelfth century.
Though under the Caulukyas of Gujarat and later countless metal images of Tirtharkaras and other Jaina divinities were produced, most of them are stereotyped, because they were made in great numbers for worship by the Jaina devotees mainly of the Svetāmbara sect, and hence no emphasis was given on their beauty and aesthetic appeal. A pañca-tirthika of Mahāvira in the collection shows him seated cross-legged in dhyana-mudrd on a cushion-seat mounted on
R. P. Chanda, Mediaeval Indian Sculpture in the British Musenm, London, pp. 41-42, plate IX
Compare this image with the famous Sarasvati sculpture from Dhara in the British Museum, London. B. N. Sharma, Social and Curwal History of Northern India (c. 1000-1200 A.D.), Now Delhi, 1972, plate IX.
* H. Goetz, Art and Architecture of Bikaner State, Oxford, 1950, plates IX-X.
•D. Handa and G. Agrawala, 'A new Jaina Sarasvati from Rajasthan', East and West, XXII, 1-2, pp. 169-70 and plate.
B. C. Bhattacharya, Jaina Iconography, Delhi, 1974, plato XLI.
W. Rothenstein, Examples of Indian Sculpture in the British Museum, London, 1923, plate VI. .
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a sihhdsana. He is flanked by a Tirthankara in kayotsarga-pose along with. an attendant on either side; while two other images of Tirthankaras are shown in meditation around his halo. The niche above the head of the main figure has an elephant and is crowned by an umbrella. Lion, the cognizance of Mahavira, is depicted in front between the two crouching lions supporting his seat. The seated figures of Mätanga and Siddhayika, the Yakşa and Yaksi of the Jina, are depicted on either side of the lion-throne. The base in front has a dharma-cakra symbol in the centre with a deer and the Nava-grahas on its either side. Two human figures, representing the donors of the image, are seated at extreme ends with their hands held in anjali-mudra. The big protruding eye, flat nose, rounded and heavy limbs and flattened torso suggest a late date for this image, probably the fifteenth century.
A crudely-executed image of Tirthankara, probably hailing from Bihar, shows him seated in dhyana-mudrd under an umbrella and attended by a caurlbearer on either side. The middle panel of the sculpture shows a male and female probably representing the Yakṣa and Yakşi of the Tirthankara seated side by side. The male holds a child in his lap and carries a flower in the left hand. The female, whose right hand is partly damaged, has her one son seated on her right and the other in the left lap. In the absence of any positive evidence it is not possible to identify these figures. The lowermost panel depicts five dwarfish figures in different mood and poses. An image from eastern Uttar Pradesh, now displayed in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Vārāņasī, would be a good example for a comparative study with this image. Stylistically, the image can be assigned to the early Päla period, circa eighth century.
A badly-damaged metal sculpture, probably hailing from Bihar, also shows Tirthankara seated in dhyana-mudra on a rectangular pedestal. Though the cognizance of the deity is not visible, his identity with Rsabhanatha is certain from his locks of hair flowing on the shoulders. The plain circular halo with flames emanating on its border suggests the date of the image as the Pala period, ninth-tenth century.
Four images from Orissa of Eastern Ganga tradition, taken out of India in the last century, now form part of the famous Bridge collection of the Department of the Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum. A finely-executed stone image shows nude Ṛşabhanatha and Mahävira standing side by side in kayotsarga-pose with hands hanging along the sides (plate 318A). Rabhanatha wears a high jată-mukuta and his locks are trailing on the shoulders. Mahavira has his hair nicely arranged into small spiral curls and surmounted by a cranial
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protuberance. The nimbate figures have elongated ears, long cylindrical arms reaching down to the knees and well-proportioned bodily contours and their down-cast eyes reveal serenity and compassion. A couchant bull, the symbol of Rṣabhanatha, and a lion, the cognizance of Mahavira, are depicted on the base along with the tiny figures of Indra on his elephant Airavata in the centre and the donor-couple on the extreme right. An attendant holding a cauri stands on either side of the Jina. The image is an excellent example of Eastern Ganga period, eleventh century.
Among the images of Parsvanatha, one illustrates the deity as standing in kayotsarga-pose against the coils of a serpent with its seven hoods shown above his heavily-modelled limbs. The hair of the deity is arranged in spiral curls and has a protuberance above the head. The nude deity is flanked by a cauribearer and also the four planets on each side. The image is datable to the
twelfth century.
Another contemporary image of Pārsvanatha, though slightly damaged at places, is a fine sculpture and shows a beautiful modelling of the central figure standing against the horizontally-arranged coils of serpent in the background. Planets are absent in this image.
Ambika, the popular goddess, invariably under a mango-tree and with children, is represented on plate 318B as a charming damsel standing gracefully in a flexed pose with the miniature figure of Tirthankara Neminatha depicted above. Creepers carved on both sides of the goddess depict monkeys, etc., in different jovial poses. She wears a chignon, a broad necklace and an uttariya covering her left breast and passing under the right arm. The transparent sārī reaching above the knees is secured with a jewelled mekhala. Her elder son, Subhankara, standing on her right, is trying to pluck a mango from the bunch of the fruits held in the right hand of the goddess, while with her left she is supporting her younger child Prabhankara. A couchant lion and the figure of a donor of the image are shown on the base in front. The image, which is assignable to about the eleventh century, recalls to our mind an almost contemporary image of the Devi from Orissa, now preserved in the Stendahl Galleries, U.S.A.
From south India comes a caubist of Adinatha showing the Tirthankara in käyotsarga-pose on a pañca-ratha pedestal. The images carved on the
1 J. LeRoy Davidson, Art of the Indian Subcontinent from Los Angeles Collections, Los Angeles, 1968, plate 36.
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[PARTX upper right portion are damaged and lost and the part that still remains depicts the seated images of the Tirtharkaras in dhyana-mudra. The halo with a beaded border and locks flowing on the shoulders prove it to be a figure of Rşablanatha. The pedestal in front has the seated figures of his Yaksa and Yaksi carrying the usual attributes in their four hands. It is interesting to note that unlike the images of the Tirthaakaras of north India (excluding Bengal), the sculptures from south India and the Deccan are invariably shown without a srivatsa-mark on the chest; and this can also be noted in all such images mentioned below. The image bears a dedicatory inscription of about the twelfth century.
Another caubisi of a Tirtharkara shows the miniature figures of the twenty-three Tirtharkaras inside ornamental scrolls executed on both sides of the main image. The nude figure with rounded limbs, a flat torso and prominent knee-joints lack the vitality and grace of many of the Jaina images from the Deccan. His Sāsana-devatās are seated on his either side. The piece can be assigned to twelfth-thirteenth century.
A Cālukyan image of a nude Tirthankara from the Deccan shows him standing in the usual pose under a triple umbrella crowned by a kirttimukha at the top. The attributes of his attending Yaksa and Yakşi figures are lost. A stylized makara-rider is depicted on either side of the deity. The image bears an obliterated inscription of circa twelfth century on the front base.
A nicely-executed image of Pārsvanātha shows him seated in meditation with his hands resting in the lap and palm facing upwards (plate 319A). He is shaded by the seven hoods of a cobra. Above the hoods are shown a triple umbrella and a kirttimukha emanating flowery scrolls and thus forming a decoration for the stele of the image. The facial expression of the Jina reveals that he is above all worldly attachments. A male attendant holding a flywhisk is standing near his head on either side offering him a fruit-like object. Dharapendra and Padmāvati, his Yakşa and Yakşi, are seated under a threehooded cobra on their respective vāhanas, an elephant and a cobra. The image may be regarded as a very fine piece of Calukya period, circa twelfth century.
Among several images of the Jaina deities from south India and the Deccan, an image of Pārsvanātha, wrongly published as Mahavira, shows him
1C. Sivaramamurti, 'Geographical and chronological factors in Indian iconography, Ancient India, 6, 1950, pp. 44-46.
* W.S. Hadaway, Notes on two Jaina metal images', Rūpam, Calcutta, 17, Jan. 1924, p. 48, fig. facing p. 49.
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B. British Museum: Yakşi Sulocană
(central India)
PLATE 315
MUSEUMS ABROAD
A. British Museum: bust of a Tirthankara (Mathura)

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A. British Museum : Yakşi Dhști (central India)
2.
sta
B. British Museum: a couple
(central India)
PLATE 316

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"
.
we
B. British Museum: Sarasvati
(south-west Rajasthan)
A. British Museum : Yakşi Padmavati (central India)
PLATE 317

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A. British Museum : Rşabhanatha and Mahāvira (Orissa)
B. British Museum : Yakşi
Ambika (Orissa)
PLATE 318

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B. British Museum: bronze
Sarasvati (Karnataka)
.
TA
.
AR
A. British Muscum: Tirtbankara Pārsvanatha
PLATE 319

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British Muscum bronze Tirthankara Pärsvanatha (south India)
PLATE 320
[PART X

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A. Victoria and Albert Museum: a Tirthankara (Mathură)
1
day
B. British Muscum: Tirthankara
Pārsvanātha (Gyaraspur)
PLATE 321

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Victoria and Albert Museum : a Tirthankara (west India)
PLATE 322

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MUSEUMS ABROAD seated in dhyana-mudra under a seven-hooded cobra with a three-tiered umbrella over it (plate 320). Like the earlier image of the deity, here too be is flanked by a cauri-bearer and by Dharapendra and Padmavati on his sides. His frizzled hair is nicely arranged. The decorated back-frame supported on two round pilars has floriated makara-mukhas issuing ornamental scroll and flames on the outer rim. The back of the image bears an inscription in Kannada characters of the tenth-eleventh century.
A beautiful image of Sarasvati, probably found in the Karnataka region, stands in an elegant manner with her weight taken on the right leg, the left slightly forward and bent at the knee (plate 319B). With a lotus-bud in the right hand and a manuscript in the left, she is looking downwards in the attitude of disseminating knowledge to her devotees. A small Tirthankara sits above her in meditation. This inscribed image reminds us of a contemporary
nage of Ambikå from the same region, now displayed in Los Angeles County Museum of Art. It is datable to circa tenth-eleventh century.
Besides the above images some miniature Jaina bronzes, mainly from the Deccan, are also displayed in Indian Section of the British Museum. Among these, the nude image of a Tirthankara in kayotsarga-pose is a fine example. Though the left arm of the deity is damaged, yet the high finish makes it a good example of circa eleventh century. In another sculpture Suparsvanātha is seated on a high throne under the five hoods of a cobra. The figures of his Yaksa and Yaksi, viz. Matanga and Santā, are depicted seated on the pedestal in front. The personified eight planets are shown in a row standing on the base. The image is datable to the tenth-eleventh century.
Among other Jaina images from the Deccan, the most notable example is a bronze sculpture showing a couple, probably representing the parents of Jina, standing on a pedestal depicting eight nude figures on its base. The male figure holds a lotus in his right hand and a citron in the left, while his consort also carries a lotus in her right hand and a fruit in the left. Both wear the usual jewellery of the period. A small figure of a Jina in dhyana-mudra is shown at the top of the decorated back-frame of this image of circa twelfth century. Besides these, there are a few other images of the Tirthankaras, which are quite late and crude, and simply show them standing or seated in the usual postures and do not need attention.
B. N. SHARMA
1 P. Pal, The Sacred and Secular in Indian Art, Los Angeles, 1974, fig. 26. *Cf. U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955, plate XVII, fig. 45.
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VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, LONDON
The earliest example related to Jainism housed in the Victoria and Albert Museum is the headless image of a Tirthankara, standing erect in käyotsarga-pose, with arms hanging along the sides (plate 321A). The image, carved out in white-spotted red sandstone, is nude and also bears a frivatsamark on the chest in early Kushan tradition. The image has been wrongly identified as Neminātha, the twenty-first Tirthankara, in the Museum-records. In fact, the locks of hair trailing on the shoulders of the deity reveal his identity as Rşabhapatha. The lotus-halo, which is still there, although the head is missing, has a scalloped border. The right hand of the deity is lost. The image, which lacks finish, is a second-century specimen of Kushan workmanship
An image of Rşabhanātha from Mirzapur, of the late Gupta period, sixth century, though headless and badly damaged, is a noteworthy example for its delicate modelling and high finish. He is seated in dhyāna-mudra on a simhasana supported by two crouching lions on either side. The hair of the deity is flowing on the shoulders and he bears a śrivatsa-mark on the chest. His cognizance, the couchant bull, is carved in the front. The figure of a headless attendant is shown on the right, while that on the left is now lost. The damaged figures of Yaksa and Yakşi are carved near the knees of the deity.
A finely-executed image of Pārsvanātha (plate 321B), once enshrined in a Jaina temple at Gyaraspur, District Vidisha, shows the deity seated cross-legged on a simhasana, attended by the cauri-bearers on either side. An unusual feature in this image is that he is seated under the dhätaki-tree practising the 'exposure to all weathers' austerity, at which time Megha-kumāra (cloud-prince) attacked him with a great storm. The serpent-king, Naga Dharanendra, spread his seven boods above Jina's head and his consort Nägi Padmăvati held a white umbrella over him. On either side of the cobra-hoods are shown the garlandholding celestials hovering in the sky, and at the top are the hands beating the drum, which represent the thunder of the storm. The base in front shows a dwarf holding up a wheel in his hands. The image shows the continuance of the Gupta style in an elegant manner and suggests its date as the seventh
1 A. K. Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1923, p. 86, plate XLIII, and Bhattacharya, op. cit., frontispiece, have also wrongly identified the images of Rsabhanātha as Mahavira.
Mark H. Booth, Victoria and Albert Museum, Indian Sculpture, A Travelling Exhibition, London, 1971, fig. 14.
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century. Another contemporary image of almost the same type, though standing in käyotsarga-pose and hailing from Bihar, is now displayed in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.
The popularity of metal images in West India under the Caulukyas has been mentioned above (p. 539). A tri-irthika shows an unidentified Tirtharkara seated in dhyana-mudra on a cushioned seat, flanked by a Tirtharkara in kāyotsarga-pose and a cauri-bearer on either side (plate 322). Spiral curls of his hair are nicely arranged into plaits. The frivatsa-mark and eyes of the figures are inlaid with silver, as in most of the bronze icons of the Tirthankaras of this period. The broad faces with prominent chins, the karanda-mukutas of the attendants and the Yakma and Yakşi figures suggest the hand of a Paramăra artist of circa tenth century. From the attributes held in the hands of Yaksa and Yakşi figures, they can be identified with Gomedha and Ambika, the Sāsana-devatās of Neminätha, whose symbol, a conch, is, however, absent in the present image,
A superb example of Cähamana art is an elegantly-cast bronze image of Santinātha, probably hailing from Rajasthan, which shows him seated in dhyāna-mudrä on a cushioned seat (see frontispiece of this volume). His hair is arranged in schematic curls and he bears a prominent srivatsa-mark resembling the ones carved on the chest of the two other Tirthankaras, Neminātha and Munisuvrata, from Narhad, near Pilani in Rajasthan. The elongated ears, sharp eye-brows and nose, tapering fingers, the beautiful modelling of the human figures, and also the decorative designs, so skilfully delineated in this colossal bronze, remind us of the famous images of the Jaina Sarasvati from Pallu, Rajasthan, in the National Museum, New Delhi," and the Bikaner Museum. Besides the elephant-riders and celestial musicians, a number of human figures are carved on the back-frame of the image. The image bears a dated inscription of Vikrama-sarhvat 1224 (A.D. 1168).
Bhattacharya, op. cit., plate XXVIII. Dasharatha Sharma, Early Cauhän Dynasties, Delhi, 1959, plate facing p. 228.
*B. N. Sharma, Some medieval sculptures from Rajasthan in the National Museum, Roopa-Lekha, New Delhi, XXXV, 1 and 2, p. 31, plate I.
*V. S. Srivastava, Catalogue and Guide to Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner, 1960-61, p. 13. plate III. (See also above, plate 154.-Editor.)
A colossal back-frame of a Tirthankara image (now lost) from Rajasthan, datable to the Cahamāna period, twelfth century, was published by the present writer in his “Jaina Bronzes in the National Museum, New Delhi', Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda, XIX, pp. 275-78 and plates.
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The Museum has two outstanding examples of Tirthankaras executed during the Calukya period. The first of these shows Pārsvanatha standing in kayotsarga-pose under the coils of a serpent with its hoods above his head (plate 323A). His cognizance, a snake, is depicted on the pedestal in front. The image can be regarded as an example of the Western Calukya period, circa twelfth century. Another image of the same deity also depicts him standing as above and under the seven hoods of a cobra (plate 323B) and with cauris on either side of his head and a triple umbrella above the hood of the serpent. Yaksa Dharanendra and Yakşi Padmavati, holding a goad, noose, etc., in their hands and seated under a cobra-hood, flank the deity on either side of his feet. The base in front bears an inscription, which records that the image was made for a Jaina shrine of Pärsvanatha at Gulbarga when it was restored in the twelfth century after a period of persecution of the sect.
Of Ambika there is a stone sculpture from Orissa (plate 324). Here she is shown seated at east on a double-lotus pedestal with her left leg doubled and the right pendent and resting on a decorated base. Her curly hair, arranged into a big bun at the back, is decorated with jewelled chains. She wears fine ear-ornaments, a necklace of four strands and with a central pendant and a diaphanous sari secured with an elaborate girdle at the waist. The smiling countenance, full breasts, attenuated waist and broad hips characterize the feminine charm as conceived by Indian artists and poets. Of her two sons, one is shown in her left lap and the other near her right foot. Her vahana, a couchant lion, is depicted in front. An image of Neminatha with a big halo behind his head is shown seated in dhyana-mudra under an umbrella. The deity is flanked by an attendant and a Vidyadhara. The image is very much stylized. Stylistically, it can be assigned to the late Eastern Ganga school, twelfth-thirteenth century.
B. N. SHARMA
MUSÉE GUIMET, PARIS
The earliest Jaina piece in Musée Guimet is the head of a Jina image carved in white-spotted red sandstone of the Mathura region. The hair of the Jina is indicated by a line above the forehead, but there is no ürṇa-dot. The cars and nose are broken and lips slightly injured. The almost round face with broad cheeks indicates a Kushan date.
From Orissa, of the eleventh century, is a stone nude image of Rṣabhanatha standing in kayotsarga-pose with hands hanging along the sides (plate 325A). The deity wears an elaborate jaja-mukuta with locks arranged in
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tiers, as is seen in an image of the same Jina in the British Museum, London." His hair falls on the shoulders and lobes of the ear are elongated. There is a plain circular prabha behind his head, and above it are shown a triple umbrella and the leaves of a banyan-tree, under which the Jina attained enlightenment. There is a miniature bull under the lotus-pedestal. The base in front shows a donor-couple on one side and naivedya-offerings on the other. The central figure is flanked by a flywhisk-bearer standing in devotional pose. Eight planets (Ketu missing) carrying their usual attributes are depicted on either side of the deity. The image can be assigned to the twelfth century. The figure is stiff and lacks delicacy.
A lintel of some Jaina images in the Musée Guimet shows in the upper central panel a Tirtharkara seated cross-legged in a niche, with palms resting on the lap. On either side of the main figure are executed two Tirthankaras standing in kayotsarga-pose. Below them are seated seven Tirthankaras in meditation in a row. Two other Tirtharkaras in the same pose are shown within the niches flanking the group of the Jaina deities. On either side of the lintel, a warrior with a sword in hand is shown fighting with a makara-a motif common in the late medieval sculptures. The figures are crude and stylized and remind us of the Jaina bronzes executed in western India during the medieval period. Of Rajasthan provenance, the image, carved in sandstone, can be dated to about the thirteenth century.
An image of Mahavira seated in dhyāna-mudră on a lion-throne is an important example for the study of Jaina art of the Deccan (plate 325B). The Tirtharikara is seated under a triple umbrella with the figure of a cauri-bearing attendant flanking his plain nimbus. His cognizance, lion, is depicted in front. On his right, Pārsvanátha stands in kāyotsarga-mudră against the coils of a serpent with its hoods shown over Pārsvanātha's head. It is interesting to note that the figure to the left of Mahavira is of Bahubali, a prince who later became an ascetic, with creepers entwining his body-a rare representation of the ascetic in a group. The figures of Yakşa and Yakşi of Mahavira are shown seated on lotuses issuing from the sides of the pedestal. The base in front depicted a dharma-cakra and the Nava-grahas symbolically represented by dots. The back-frame in the centre shows hands beating a drum, a
1 Shah, op. cit., fig. 35.
9 M. N. P. Tiwari, 'A note on the Bahubali images from north India', East and West, XXIII, 3-4, pp. 347-53.
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garland-holding Vidyadhara and a kirttimukha in the centre above. The image can be of the Calukya period, ninth-tenth century.1
B. N. SHARMA
MUSEUM FÜR INDISCHE KUNST, BERLIN-DAHLEM
Dr Klaus Fischer of the Seminar of the Oriental Art-history, University of Bonn, has kindly brought to our notice the following outstanding Jaina sculptures in the Museum für indische Kunst, Berlin-Dahlem, and has also sent us their photographs, two of them reproduced here. He says that the photographs were sent to him by Professor H. Haertel, Director of the Museum, and the sculptures were partly described to him by Dr V. Moeller, Assistant Director.
(1) Red sandstone head of a Jina. Mathura region. Early Kushan." (2) Bronze standing Jina under a decorated tree, in two parts. Findspot unrecorded. Plate 326A.
(3) Bronze standing Jina surrounded by seated Jinas, with inscription on socle. South India. Medieval. Plate 326B.
(4) Stone Mahavira in kayotsarga, adoring and attending figures below and eight planets above. South India. Medieval.
(5) Stone Rşabba in kayotsarga, with attendant figures below and with four groups of three standing Tirthankaras on either side. Palma, District Manbhum. Medieval.
EDITOR
SOME JAINA BRONZES FROM AMERICAN COLLECTIONS
By and large the collection of Jaina images in American collections does not reveal the rich variety that may be seen in Indian collections. Nevertheless, there are a number of interesting and a few outstanding Jaina bronzes in America, and these will form the subject of discussion here.
[This section on Musée Guimet is based on the information very kindly supplied to the Bharatiya Jnanpith and the Editor by Mademoiselle M. Deneck, Curator of Musée Guimet, and Madame Odette Viennot. formerly of the National Research Centre, Paris. The latter also obliged the Jnanpith by sending photographs of the Jaina pieces in the Museum.-Editor.]
H. Haertel, Indische Skulpturen, Teil I, Die Werke der frühindischen, klassischen and frühmittelalterlischen Zeit, Berlin, 1960, p. 60, plate 19.
For a Palma sculpture, see above, plate 158B.
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A. Victoria and Albert Museum: Tirthankara Parsvanātha (the Deccan)
B. Victoria and Albert Museum: Tirthankara Parsvanātha (Gulbarga)
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Victoria and Albert Museum: Yakşi Ambikā (Orissa)
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Both the Buddhists and the Jainas employed the same stereotyped figure of an ascetic in their representations of a Buddha or of a Tirthankara. This becomes quite evident when one compares an image of a meditating Buddha (plate 328B) with that of the Los Angeles Tirtharikara (plate 328A), Both are seated in almost identical postures and both reflect the inner calm appropriate for a true yogin. In both the forms are delineated as ideal mental constructs; but while the Buddhas's asceticism is tempered by sensuous grace, that of the Tirtharikara is unearthly in its severe expression.
The difference between the representations of a Buddha and a Tirthaakara typically reflects the doctrinaire difference between the two religions. To begin with, the Buddhists discouraged the representation of Buddha in human form. However, once the theory of the Buddha's transcendental nature became acceptable, it was casier to portray him in anthropomorphic form. But essentially, to his followers, Buddha remained a teacher who was easily approached and with whom one could enter into a direct and personal relationship. His image was regarded as a symbol of his presence by virtue of the concept of tri-kāya.
The Jaina Tirthankara, however, has remained a far more detached figure. As Zimmer has stated, 'the Jaina saviors...dwelt in a supernal zone at the ceiling of the universe, beyond the reach of prayer; there is no possibility of their assistance descending from that high and luminous place to the clouded sphere of human effort. The Makers of the River Crossing are beyond cosmic event as well as the problems of biography; they are transcendant, cleaned of temporality, omniscient, actionless and absolutely at peace."
It is against such a theological background that one must view the drastically simplified form of the Jaina Tirtharkaras. Whether the figures are shown seated or standing, they are purely products of the intellect rendered with mathematical exactitude and devoid of sensuous charm. Essentially the body remains that of a superman whose shoulders are as broad as those of a bull (vrşa-skandha), whose torso is comparable to that of a lion and whose chest expands from within, suggestive of his tremendous inner vitality. When he stands the Tirthankara is a veritable embodiment of immovable strength
1 As a result of the doctrine of tri-kaya Buddha is said to have three bodies : dharma-kaya sanıbhoga-kdya and nirmana-kaya. It is the last kåya that is represented in art.
* H. Zimmer, Philosophies of India, New York, 1953, pp. 181-82.
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and indestructible power, not unlike the tall and dignified sala trees (Salaprašu). "The image of the released one seems neither animate nor inanimate but pervaded by a strange and timeless calm." Indeed, the image of the Tirtharkara is visually and spiritually most moving when viewed in isolation, as in the Los Angeles example (plate 328A).
An appropriate companion piece to the Los Angeles Tirthankara is a similar figure in the Nelson Gallery 'in Kansas City (plate 329A). Except for the differences in their facial shapes and in their physiognomical features, the two bronzes are almost identical and appear as if they were cast from the same mould. It seems that the eyes of the Kansas City figure no longer retain thoir original shape and the tip of the nose is slightly damaged. Nonetheless, both bronzes are definitely of the same period and may even be works of the same atelier.
If the Los Angeles and Kansas City bronzes reflect the ascetic simplicity and the noble elegance of the Jaina tradition, the elaborate shrine from Broach dedicated in the year 988 (plates 329B, 330), indicates the affluence and the luxurious taste of its merchant-donor. The central figure here represents Parsvanätha, but except for the serpent-canopy, there is no perceptible iconographic difference between this figure and those of the two south-Indian Tirtharkaras. Sitting in serene contemplation on a lotus pedestal, whose petals are inset with agate chips, Pārsvanātha is accompanied by a host of other figures. He is immediately flanked by two other Tirtharkaras, thus making this a tri-tirthika shrine. Both figures are framed by elaborate flame aureoles, and each stands on a separate lotus-pedestal in the käyotsarga-posture. Beside each of them stands a goddess in graceful tri-bhanga displaying the sensuous charms of their abundantly endowed bodies. Very likely they represent Padmavati and Sarasvati. There is yet a fifth female figure seated with a child; she is Ambikā, the most popular of the Jaina goddesses. In addition, two flying Vidhyadharas appear on either side of the central canopy, bringing garlands for the Tirtharkara. The base of the throne displays two spirited lions and is further embellished with two deer which confront a wheel. This, of course, symbolizes the dharma and was also popular with the Buddhists.
More curious is the row of ninc heads depicted across the front of the pedestal. These must represent the Nava-devatās of the Siddha-cakra, a popular symbol of the Jainas which reflects Tantric influences. The cult
1 Ibid., p. 211.
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ritual of the Siddha-cakra is considered to be a late development of Jainism and, if indeed, these nine heads do symbolize the Siddha-cakra or the Nava-devatäis, it becomes evident that the ritual had some currency as early as the tenth century.
A gilt bronze of striking brilliance, this sculpture is remarkable both for its richness of texture and for its details. It is amazing how successfully the sculptor has harmoniously balanced the decorative elements and the figurative forms. Each figure is freed from its background and thereby retains its prominence as a modelled mass. The ornamentation and the inlaying create a rich and varied surface-texture, but in no way do these decorative techniques overwhelm the figures. The simplified forms of the Tirthankaras offer a striking contrast to their exuberant surroundings. Indeed, this sumptuous setting only accentuates the detachment of the Tirthankaras who exude the effulgence of gold, but remain untouched by its glitter.
A somewhat earlier bronze of exceptional quality, although not sumptuous as the Los Angeles Parsvanatha, is the well-known example in the Seattle Art Museum (plate 331). It shows a richly-bejewelled male figure seated in sattva-paryankāsana on a lotus which rests on a tiered pedestal. The right hand of the figure is broken, but the left holds a vija-pūraka. A multiheaded serpent-canopy serves as a halo as seen in images of Pārsvanatha. The figure itself is framed by pilasters surmounted by capitals; from these springs an ornate arch, the apex of which terminates in a striking kirttimukha.
Some years ago Douglas-Barrett made the very plausible suggestion that this image may represent Dharanendra, the attendant Yaksa of Pārsvanatha." The process of elaboration of the Jaina pantheon followed the same principle as that of both the Buddhists and the Brähmapists. Each principal deity, or for that matter each individual Tirthankara, was provided with a female and at least one Yakşa attendant. In the Los Angeles Pärsvanatha shrine (plate 329B) we have already encountered two female attendants of the Tirthankara. That the figure of the Seattle bronze must be related to Pärsvanatha is evident from the additional serpent-canopy, which is a distinctive emblem of Pārsvanatha. Moreover, Jaina Yaksas are definitely known to hold a vija-pūraka in a similar fashion."
As to the provenance of this bronze, Barrett's suggestion of the Deccan seems also plausible. But one cannot altogether rule out the possibility of this
1 Shah, op. cit., pp. 97-103.
D. Barrett, 'A group of bronzes from the Deccan', Lalit Kala, 3-4, 1956-57, pp. 44-45. Shab, op. cit., plates XV, fig. 40, XVII, fig. 47.
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bronze being from the Akota area, for its face is not unlike that of the beautiful Hvantasvamin from Akota. The crowns of both of these figures are definitely of the same type, although that of Jivantasvämin is far more elaborately adorned. Whatever the provenance of this bronze, it does remain a rare, if not unique, representation of a Jaina Yaksa attendant.
It has already been pointed out that the Los Angeles Pārsvanatha shrine (plate 329B) is of the tri-tirthika variéty. Another such image is now in the Paul Walter Collection (plate 332). Here also three Tirthankaras are represented together although all the three are standing. Except for the inlaid Srivatsa-mark on each of their chests, these figures are completely naked. The stiffness of their postures and their column-like appearance are somewhat relieved by the sinuous animal-forms on the throne-back and by the more animated attendant figures. From the inscription on the back the bronze may be dated to A.D. 1020.
Further elaborations, purely of an iconographic nature, may be made with regard to two other bronzes from the Los Angeles collection. In one of these (plate 333) five Tirthankaras are grouped together and such shrines are known as pañca-tirthika. Yet in the other (plate 334) all the twenty-four Tirthankaras are arranged in a strictly geometrical composition. In the pancatirthika shrine of A.D. 1430, the central figure is that of Vimalanatha, while in the other the central figure represents Santinātha. It is evident, therefore, that the same idealized, stereotyped figure was employed not only to represent the different Tirthankaras, but was also persisted with for almost two nillennia.
In general, it may be concluded that while a proclivity towards abstraction has always remained basic to the Jaina aesthetic tradition, the bronzes produced after the twelfth century reveal a stronger predilection for geometrical formalism. A severely linear arrangement with an emphasis on strict symmetry characterizes the overall composition of these bronzes. No longer do the figures reflect the mellifluous contours of the earlier forms; rather, they display an increasing tendency towards angularization.
In the final analysis what impresses us is not the fact that there are similarities between these bronzes, but the fact that they are so different from
1 S. Kramrisch, The Art of India, London, 1965, fig. 56. [Above, plate 68B.-Editor.] It may be pointed out that the inscription at the back refers to this image as caturvilati-patta.
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one another. Despite the persistence of certain basic formulae, it is remarkable how each bronze remains the creation of an individual artist, even if he was constrained to work within the limitations of both style and iconography.
PRATAPADITYA PAL
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STONE SCULPTURES
THE RICH COLLECTION OF JAINA SCULPTURES IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM covers almost all parts of the country. With the exception of an dyāga-pata, which is datable to the Kushan period, all the sculptures belong to the medieval period.
Uttar Pradesh
ĀYAGA-PATA (J. 2491; height 63 cm.): The earliest phase is represented by an āyāga-pata which shows a Jina seated in dhyana-mudra with a chatra above head in the central niche of the four composite tilaka-ratnas. The panel above the Jina head shows a pair of fish, a heavenly car, a frivatsa-mark and a powder-box. The corresponding panel on the lower side shows a tilaka-ratna, a full-blown lotus, vaijayanti and a mangala-kalasa. On either side of the votive tablet occurs a pillar surmounted by dharma-cakra and an elephant-capital. An inscription, anterior to the date of Kaniska, is carved on the plaque.
PĀRSVANATHA (59 202; height 1 m.): An image of Pārsvanātha shows him standing in kāyotsarga-pose against the coils of a serpent, which is providing shade to him with its seven hoods. Nāgis are depicted on both sides of the Jina
in a reverential attitude. The deity bears a srivatsa-mark on the chest. The image is a product of the Gahadavāla period, twelfth century. Plate 336A.
Rajasthan
PĀRSVANATHA (62.434; height 30 cm.): An image of Pārsvanātha shows him seated on a cushioned seat, placed on a simhasana under a canopy of seven hoods of a serpent. Above, on either side of his head, appear divine musicians and Tirthankaras standing in kāyotsarga-pose. Pārsvanatha is flanked by Yaksa Dharanendra holding cobra in his hand and Yakşi Ambika
1 This and the following such numbers indicate the accession-number of the Museum
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[PART X with a bunch of mangoes in her right hand. The image is carved out in buff sandstone and is datable to the Pratihāra period. Plate 335.
NEMINĀTHA (69:132; height 1.18 m.): From among two images of Munisuvrata and Neminātha, unearthed some years ago at Narhad near Pilani in Rajasthan, the latter was acquired by the National Museum. The image is in käyotsarga-pose and shows cauri-bearing attendants standing near his feet on either side. The deity wears a śrivatsa-mark of four lotus-petals on his chest, He wears a transparent dhoti. A conch, the cognizance of the Tirthankara, is carved on the base in front. The image is made of kasauți-stone, on which gold is tested. It is an excellent example of the Cahamāna school, twelfth century. Plate 336B.
SARASVATI (1/6-278; height 1.48 m.); A white marble image of Sarasvati, originally from Pallu, Bikaner, shows the goddess standing gracefully in tribhanga pose on a full-blown lotus and holding in her various hands a rosary, a white lotus, a palm-leaf manuscript tied with a silken string and a watervessel. She wears an elaborate tiara and other ornaments, a diaphanous sari secured with an elaborate girdle, with its pearled tassels and festoons falling on her thighs. On either side she is flanked by female attendants playing on vīna held in their hands. Behind the head, near the lotus-halo, appears the miniature image of a Tirthankara. The donor and his wife appear on the pedestal on the left and the right sides. A swan, the vāhana of the Devi, appears on the pedestal in front. The image represents the high watermark of Cahamāna art of the twelfth century. Plate 337.
Madhya Pradesh
NEMINĀTHA (73.23; height 69.5 cm.): An image of Neminātba stands in kāyotsarga-pose on a rectangular pedestal. His hair is arranged in small ringlets and he bears a śrīvatsa-mark on his chest. A conch, the cognizance of the Tirthankara, is carved on the pedestal. The image resembles the Khajuraho sculptures and can be stylistically assigned to Candella school of art, though it lacks the usual finish.
Gujarat
A TĪRTHANKARA (50-277; height 54:4 cm.): A marble image of an unidentified Tirthankara from Ladol, District Mehsana, shows him standing in käyotsarga-pose. He wears a dhotī, which proves that the image was made for the worship by the Svetāmbara Jainas. A cauri-bearer is shown on the right and
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MUSEUMS IN INDIA a makaransardala above it. The image is datable to the Caulukya period (twelfth century) East India
REABHANATHA (60-1479; height 52 cm.): An image of Rşabhanātha shows him standing in kāyotsarga-pose. He wears a jasa-mukuta and is flanked by an attendant and a flying Gandharva on either side. The image. hailing from Bihar, is carved in black basalt and is datable to the eleventh century. Plate 338A.
A PANCA-TIRTHIKA (60 594; height 50 cm.): Another contemporary image in black basalt from the same region shows a panca-tirthika of Tirthankara Candraprabha standing in kāyotsarga-pose. His cognizance, a crescent-moon, is carved on the pedestal in front.
AMBIKĀ (63-940; height 67 cm.): The Yakși of Neminātha is shown here standing under a mango-tree on a lotus-seat. In her right hand she holds a bunch of mangoes, while a child holds the forefinger of her left hand. Her other son is standing near her right leg. The goddess wears a tiara, necklace, armlets, bracelets, sacred thread and the lower garments. Two dancing figures are shown on her either side. An image of Jina, with two lotus-flowers, is carved above the head of the deity. Her vāhana, the lion, is carved on the base in front. The image of the Devi is a product of Pala artists from Bihar. Plate 338B.
PARENTS OF JINA (60-1204; height 46 cm.): This Påla image, of the tenth century, shows the parents of the Jina, seated at ease under a tree. A monkey is shown on one of the branches of the tree. The female figure is holding a child in her lap. They wear crown and other ornaments which are characteristic of the Pāla school. Seven devotees with folded hands are shown on the base in front. Two ganadharas appear on either side of the tree. Another beautiful specimen depicting the same theme (60-153; height 36 cm.) comes from Bengal. The image shows the couple seated in the same manner. Both the male and the female figures hold a child each in their laps. The couple wear jewellery and transparent lower garments found usually in the sculptures of Bengal. Two
res are depicted on the tree and five figures are carved on the base in front. The shape of the image is oblong and pointed at the top and suggests an eleventh-century date. Plate 339A.
RŞABHANATHA (7465; height 57 cm.): This image, from Orissa, shows the Jina seated in dhyana-mudra over a block of pedestal. He has elaborate jajamukuga and curly locks of hair falling on both sides. A full-blown lotus is
1
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[PART X carved on either side of the deity. The sculpture is datable to the twelfth century.
A TIRTHANKARA (74-87; height 48 cm.): This excellent sculpture of the Orissa school depicts an image of Tirthankara, which is broken below the waist. He is standing in kayotsarga-pose, under a triple umbrella against a trefoil arch, decorated with floral designs. His hair is arranged in small ringlets, forming a protuberance over his head. The deity is flanked by flying Gandharvas, musicians and Nava-grahas. The image is datable to the twelfth century.
The Deccan
ṚŞABHANATHA (1353; height 91-5 cm.): This sculpture, carved out in black stone, depicts him seated in dhyana-mudra. His curly locks of hair are falling on the shoulders and he wears a close fitting antariya. Coming from Warangal, it is datable to the tenth century.
ARCHITECTURAL SLAB (58-9/1; height 89 cm.): Tapering at the top, it depicts a sahasra-kūta, consisting of a pavilion, surmounted by diminishing tiers and an amalaka. The pavilions on all the four sides each show a Tirthankara, standing in kayotsarga-pose. Above this occur horizontal panels showing four, three and one Tirthankaras seated in dhyana-mudra on all the four sides. The slab is inscribed and is carved in dark-grey stone. It is datable to the Câlukya period, tenth century.
A TIRTHANKARA: This image (59 153/146, height 1:59 m.) shows a halo around the Tirthankara, who is seated in dhyana-mudra on a sirkhasana. The Srivatsa-symbol occurs on the right side of the chest of the deity. The prabhamandala behind the deity is carved with cauri-bearing attendants standing under a spiral arch and makara-head above rampant lions on either side of the Tirthankara. The image is datable to the Vijayanagara period, fifteenth century. Plate 339B.
South India
TIRTHANKARAS: An image (59-153/173; height 2:19 m.) shows Pārsvanatha standing in kayotsarga-pose against the coils of a serpent, which provides shade with its hoods. Above the head of the Tirthankara are carved five concentric semicircular bands and floral carvings. The image is datable to the Cola period. Plate 340A, tenth century. An image (59-153/2; height 1.38 m.), of the same period, shows a Tirthankara seated on a cushioned throne, the
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prabha-mandala of which is decoratod with a makara-head. On either side of the throne appears a rampant leogryph with a rider. There is a semicircular halo round his head, issuing from the mouth of the floriated makara. The deity is flanked by a cauri-bearer on either side, standing under the foliage and adorned with karanda-mukuta. A Supārsvanātha is shown in an image (59-158/177; height 1.19 m.) as standing in käyotsarga under the canopy of five hoods of a serpent coiled up behind him. The frivatsa-mark is carved above the right nipple and a conch is depicted above the right shoulder of the Tirthankara. The image is datable to the early Cola phase, tenth century. Plate 340B. Apother contemporary sculpture (59.153/321; height 35 cm.) shows a haloed Tirthankara seated in dhyana-mudra. He is flanked by attendants standing on either side.
H.K. CHATURVEDI
METAL SCULPTURES
The National Museum possesses a fine collection of Jaina bronzes. Most of them, from western India, are quite late and stereotyped and show a Tirtharkara seated cross-legged in dhyāna-mudrä on a lion-throne mounted on a rectangular base. The Titharkaras are generally shaded by a triple umbrella crowned by a divine minstrel with an elephant on either side. In some images the figures are surrounded by a makara-torana supported by two standing attendant figures. The decorated arch is crowned by a pürna-ghafa with festoons and has a beaded moulding on the border. The pedestal in front has Nava-grahas, two deer flanking the cakra and a seated devotee at either extreme. The images are made of brass or copper and in some cases the eyes, srivatsamark and the seat in front are inlaid with silver. They are sometimes dated and bear dedicatory inscriptions.
RŞABHANATHA (70-42): Seated in dhyāna-mudrā on a siṁhäsana, he has his hair dressed upwards with the side-locks flowing on the shoulders. He has long ears and bears a srivatsa-mark on the chest and is flanked by a standing Tirthankara and an attendant. Garland-holding Vidyadharas, elephant-riders and the drum-beaters to announce kaivalya of the master are shown at the top. The bovine-headed Yaksa Gomukha and Yakşi Cakreśvari riding on mount Garuda are depicted on either side of the lion-throne. A couchant bull, the cognizance of the Tirthankara, is shown in the front. The typical halocs behind the heads, the schematic folds in the lower garments of the attendants and the modelling of the figures suggest it to be a product of the Cedi art of
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[PART X the eleventh century. The pedestal of the image bears a dedicatory inscription dated samvat 1114. Plate 341.
AJITANATHA (48-4/19): He is seated in meditation on a cushioned lionthrone mounted on a terraced pedestal and with a rayed halo behind the head. He is shaded by a triple umbrella with an elephant on its either side. The deity is flanked by two seated and two standing Tirthankaras and an attendant on either side. Yaksa Mahāyakşa and Yakşi Ajitabala are shown on the pedestal, and an elephant, the emblem of the deity, is depicted on the front. The nine planets and two devotees are also shown. The figures are surrounded by a makara-torana having a beaded border and crowned by a pūrṇa-ghata. The inscription on the back of the image is dated samvat 1471.
SAMBHAVANATHA (48-4/26): A caubisi has Sambhavanatha seated in the centre with figures of two standing and twenty-one dhyani-Tirthankaras all around. Trimukha and Duritäri-devi, the attendant Yaksa and Yakşi, are shown on either side of the pedestal. A horse, the emblem of Sambhavanatha, is depicted between the lions. The back support has a rampant lion on either side and is surrounded by a trefoil makara-torana. The inscription, dated samvat 1507, on the back of the image mentions the names of its donors along with their preceptors.
ABHINANDANA (48-4/58): Seated cross-legged on a cushioned lion-throne, mounted on a rectangular pedestal, the Jina has his eyes, śrivatsa-mark and seat in front inlaid with silver and copper. He has a rayed halo around the head. He is shaded by a triple umbrella, crowned by a divine minstrel, with an elephant on either side. He is flanked by two seated and two standing Tirthankaras and Gandharvas. The simhasana, also supported by two elephants, shows a monkey, the cognizance of Abhinandana, on an inlaid panel. The simhasana is flanked by the Yakşa Iśvara and his consort Kali. On the pedestal in front are shown the Nava-grahas, two deer flanking the cakra, a standing devotee with hands joined in adoration at either extreme, and a seated female figure enclosed in a niche, besides four cut-out arches. The figures are surrounded by a makara-torana supported by two standing cauribearers. The arch is crowned by a pūrna-ghata with festoons and has a beaded border and cut-out floral and petal decoration. The inscription engraved on the back of the image is dated samvat 1610.
SUMATINATHA (48-4/44): The Jina, seated in dhyana-mudra, has his eyes, Srivatsa-mark, breast-nipples and seat in front are inlaid with silver and copper. He has a rayed halo behind his head. He is flanked by two seated and two standing Tirthankaras. On either side of the simhasana are seated attendants
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Yaksa Tumburu and Yaksi Mahäkäll. Between the lions is shown his cognizance, a goose. The pedestal in front has four cut-out arches, Nava-grahas, the deer Blanking the cakra and a seated devotee at either extreme. The figure is surrounded by a makara-torana supported by two standing figures. The back of the image bears an inscription dated samvat 1532.
PADMAPRABHA (48-4/18): Seated on a cushioned lion-throne, mounted on a pedestal having a triangular design in front, the Jina has his eyes and frivatsamark inlaid with silver. He has a rayed halo behind the head. He is shaded by a triple umbrella flanked by elephants and celestial beings. Kusuma and Syamā, the attendant spirits, are shown on the pedestal. A (red) lotus, the cognizance of the Jina, is depicted between the lions. The back bears an inscription of sarhvat 1423.
SUPARIVANATHA (60-836): Seated cross-legged on a cushioned pedestal with hands placed in the lap in dhyana-mudra, he is shaded by a canopy of nine serpent-hoods. The features are rubbed off. The pedestal-inscription is of Bhava-samvatsara 1256.
CANDRAPRABHA (48-4/55): The Jina is seated in dhyana-mudra on a lionthrone, mounted on a pedestal, having four cut-out arches in front. The details are rubbed out. The Srivatsa-mark and the seat in front are inlaid with silver. A rayed halo is around the head. He is flanked by two seated and two standing Tirthankaras. The lion-throne is flanked by Yakşa Vijaya and Yakşi Bhṛkuţi. In front of the pedestal is marked a crescent-moon, the Jina's cognizance. Nava-grahas and devotees are also depicted as in other images of this period. An elaborate makara-torana surrounds the figures. The inscription incised on the back of the image is of samvat 1612.
STTALANATHA (48.4/46): The Jina is seated in dhyana-mudra on a lion-throne. His eyes, frivatsa-mark and the seat in front are inlaid with silver and copper. He has a rayed halo around the head. Between the lions is depicted the śrivatsa, which is his cognizance. The sinhasana is flanked by Yakşa Brahma and Yakşi Atoka. On the pedestal are depicted the Nava-grahas, two deer flanking the cakra and a seated devotee at either extreme. The makara-torana arch is crowned with a pūrṇa-ghata with festoons and has a beaded moulding on the border. The inscription on the back of the image is dated sarhvat 1542.
VIMALANATHA (48-4/25): Seated on a lion-throne under a four-tiered umbrella surmounted by a divine minstrel and flanked by a pair of elephants, he has eyes, the Srivatsa-mark, the seat in front, etc., are inlaid with silver.
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the Tirthankaras stand on his either side in kayotsarga-pose. A boar, the emblem of the Jina, the Nava-grahas and a cakra flanked by two deer are depicted in the front. The inscription on its back records that it was installed
in samval 1502.
ANANTANATHA (48-4/52): Seated in dhyana-mudra under a triple umbrella with an elephant on either side on a lion-throne, the eyes, frivatsa-mark, etc., of the Jina are inlaid with silver and copper. A rayed halo is around the head. Yaksa Patala and Yaksi Anantamati flank the simhasana. Nava-grahas, etc., are depicted on the pedestal in front. A makara-torana surrounds the figure. The inscription on the back of the image gives the name of the image, its donor and date as 1507.
DHARMANATHA (48-4/50): The Jina is seated in meditation on a lion-throne with eyes, Srivatsa-mark, etc., inlaid with silver and copper. He has a rayed halo around the head. He is flanked by two Tirthankaras in dhyana-mudra and two in kayotsarga-pose. Between the lions on an inlaid panel is depicted the vajra (thunderbolt), his emblem. The Yakşa and Yakşi shown as serving him are Kinnara and Kandarpā. Nava-grahas and two deer with a cakra, etc., are depicted in the front. The other features are similar to those as shown in other figures. The inscription on the image is of sarhvat 1572.
ŚANTINATHA (48-4/40): Seated in dhyana-mudra on a lion-throne, the Jina has his eyes, Srivatsa-mark, etc., inlaid with silver and copper. On either side, in a rectangular niche is a seated Tirthankara, below which is another standing one. The simhasana is flanked by seated Yakşa and Yakşi figures while the Nava-grahas and two deer flanking the cakra are depicted in front. Between the lions in front of the throne is a deer, the Jina's emblem. The inscription at the back of the image is dated sarhvat 1524.
KUNTHUNATHA (48-4/24): The Jina is seated in dhyana-mudra on a lionthrone mounted on a pedestal under a triple umbrella which is flanked by two elephants. His eyes, the śrivatsa-mark and the seat in front are inlaid with silver. Another Tirthankara with an attendant stands on his either side. A goat, his emblem, is shown in the front. The throne has the figures of a Yakşa couple Gandharva and Bala. The frame has a beaded border and triangular design. The back bears a dated inscription of samvat 1507.
MALLINATHA (47-109/170): Seated cross-legged in dhyana-mudra on a lionthrone placed on a terraced pedestal, the Jina has elongated ears and an uşnişa on the head, over which is a triple umbrella, with a perforated design, flanked on either side by an elephant and surmounted by a divine minstrel blowing the
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National Museum : Tirthankara Pārsvanatha (Rajasthan)
PLATE 335

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B. National Museum : Tirthankara Neminātha (Narhad)
ED
A National Museum. Tirthankara Pārsvanātha (Uttar Pradesh)
PLATE 336

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3
National Museum : Sarasvati (Pallu)
PLATE 337

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B. National Museum: Yakşi Ambika (Bihar)
A. National Museum: Tirthankara Rsabhanatha (Bihar)
PLATE 338
[PART X

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B. National Museum: a Tirthankara
(the Deccan)
P
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
A. National Museum: parents of Tirthankara (West Bengal)
PLATE 339

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ART-OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS
A. National Museum : Tirthankara Pārsvanatha (south India)
B. National Museum : Tirthankara
Supraśvanātha (south India)
PLATE 340

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S
.
National Museum: metal Tirthankara Rşabhanatha (Madhya Pradesh)
PLATE 341

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A. National Museum : a metal Tirtbankara (Karnataka)
LE
Nath
GR
B. National Museum : a metal
caumuk ha (Rajasthan)
PLATE 342

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B. National Museum : a metal Ambika (east India)
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
A. National Museum: a metal Cakresvari (Uttar Pradesh)
PLATE 343
:

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National Museum: metal Ambika (Akota)
PLATE 344
[PART X

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62. W
National Museum : motal parikara of a Tirthankara (Rajasthan)
PLATE 345

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O
Nas
SM
National Muscum : metal pañco-dirthika (west India)
PLATE 346

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conch. On either side of his head is a Tirthankara in a rectangular niche seated in dhyana-mudra, beyond which is another niche containing Gandharvas. Below these are two Tirthankaras in kayotsarga-pose and two attendant figures at extreme ends. On either side of the simhasana are Kubera and Dharanapriya, the Yaksa couple attending on him. Nava-grahas, etc., are shown as usual. The inscription at the back is dated samhvat 1531 (Vikrama) and sarhvat 1427 (Saka).
MUNISUVRATA (48-4/27): Seated in meditation on a lion-throne, he is shaded by a triple umbrella flanked by two elephants and two seated Jinas. On his either side stands a Tirthankara in käyotsarga-pose. The Yakşa couple attending on him are Varuna and Naradattă. His emblem, a tortoise, is badly mutilated. The back of the image bears an inscription of samvat 1509.
NEMINATHA (48-4/36): This is a rubbed figure, seated in meditation on a lion-throne under a triple umbrella. He has a rayed halo behind his head. On his either side is a seated Tirthankara enclosed in a rectangular niche and another standing one. The simhasana. is flanked by Yakşa Gomedha and Yakşi Ambika. His emblem is a conch-shell. Other features are the same as in other figures. A dated inscription of samhvat 1518 is engraved at the back of the image.
PĀRSVANATHA (48-4/20): The Jina is shown seated cross-legged in dhyanamudra on a lion-throne under the canopy of a seven-hooded serpent. His hair is arranged in small schematic curls and he wears a necklet and armlets. The eyes, śrivatsa-mark and the seat in front are inlaid with silver and copper. He is flanked by two seated and two standing Tirthankaras. Over the snake-hoods and on the base in front is an elephant on his either side. The simhasana is flanked by Yakşa Dharanendra and Yakşi Padmavati and the Nava-grahas are depicted in the front. His emblem is a snake. The back bears an inscription of samvat 1487.
MAHAVIRA (48-4/17): Seated cross-legged in dhyana-mudrā on a lionthrone under a triple umbrella with elephants and Gandharvas on either side, the Jina has his eyes, śrivatsa-mark and the seat in front are inlaid with silver and copper. Two cauri-bearers stand on either side and the throne is flanked by Mätanga and Siddhāyika, the Yaksa and Yakşl. His cognizance is a lion. The inscription on the back of the image is of samvat 1392.
A STANDING JINA (64-444): A rare Călukyan bronze image shows the Jina as standing erect in kayotsarga-pose on a lotus-pedestal with his hands hanging along the sides. His hair is nicely arranged into spiral curls over the head.
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(PART X The $rivatsa-cthna is absent. On stylistic basis it can be assigned to the tenth century, Plate 342A.
CAUMUKHIS (63.1187) : One of them is small in size, with the miniature figures of Tirthankaras seated in dhyana-mudra on all the four sides. The upper part is decorated with a caitya-window with a kalasa at the top. It is smallsized and belongs to circa tenth century. Plate 342B. Another caumukhi (47.109/207) has four Tirthankaras seated between two pilasters in four niches of a common pavilion, facing the four directions. It is square on plan and has a terraced base and a Sikhara, the latter being crowned by a kalasa or finial. It is damaged at places and is hollow inside.
CAKREŚVARI (67:152): Seated in lalitäsana on a lotus-seat mounted on a rectangular pedestal, she is cight-armed and carries discs in her six hands. Her front right hand is in gift-bestowing attitude and the corresponding left carries a citron. She wears a high crown, circular ear-rings and a garland. The back-frame showing the figure of Adinātha in meditation is crowned by a triple umbrella. Garuda, the vāhana of the Devi, is depicted in front. The facial features of the figure have been rubbed off. The image is a fine specimen of the Pratihāra art of the tenth century. Plate 343A.
TWO-ARMED AMBIKĀ (68-190) : She sits at ease on a couchant lion carrying a branch of a mango-tree (damaged at top) in her right hand and holding her child with the left. Her other son stands on her proper left. The back-frame is supported by gaja-vyālas depicted on either side of the goddess. A lotus-halo behind her head has flames emanating on all sides. A miniature figure of Neminātha in ardha-padmāsana is shown at the top of the image. The image is a west-Indian product of the ninth century. Plate 344.
FOUR-ARMED AMBIKĀ (484 11): Seated in lalitåsana on a couchant lion, mounted on a rectangular pedestal, she holds in her upper hands, a cluster of mangoes, in the front right a fruit and in the front left the child resting on the thigh. Another child stands to her proper right. She wears a karanda-mukuța, ear-rings, a necklace, bracelets, anklets and the lower garment. Around the head is a semicircular lotus-patterned halo. The back support is crowned by a pürna-ghata and also has a seated figure of Neminātha enclosed in a rectangular niche above the head of Ambikā. The typical crown, the broad face with prominent chin and the modelling of the figure suggest the hand of a Paramara artist. The image bears an inscription dated sarhvat 1203.
A GILT AMBIKÄ (49.12/3): Standing gracefully under a fruit-laden mangotree on lotus-pedestal mounted on a decorated rectangular base, she holds a
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bunch of mangoes in the right hand while the left supports a child in her lap. Another naked child (hands damaged) stands on her left. She wears circular rings, a necklace, numerous bangles and a sarl and the anklets. Her mount, a lion, is depicted on her left. The elegant modelling of the figure suggests a tenth-century date and Päla workmanship. Plate 343B.
PADMAVATI (48-4/273): Seated cross-legged on a lotus-seat with a rectangular pedestal projecting in front, she' is shaded by a canopy of a three-hooded serpent, on which is seated Pārsvanatha in meditation. In her upper right hand she holds a fruit, the lower right is in varada, in the upper left is a lotus and in the lower left a water-vessel. A scarf is worn around her shoulder and she wears the usual jewellery. A damaged cock, her cognizance, is depicted to the proper left. The trefoil arch on top, supported on two columns, has a beaded border and is surmounted by a kalala. The image, fashioned in western India, appears to belong to circa seventeenth century.
PADMAVATI (47-109/124): Seated in lalitäsana on a circular pedestal, mounted on a square base, the four-armed Devi holds a goad in her rear right hand, and the front right is in gift-bestowing attitude; the rear left hand (now lost) held a noose and the front left carries a pomegranate-like fruit. She is shaded by a canopy of five-hooded cobra. A seated figure of a Tirthankara is shown above her head. The image is assigned to circa eighteenth century, but the provenance is unknown.
A PARIKARA (67-103): This is the back-frame for a Tirthankara image, the main figure of which is missing. In the centre, it has a big rayed halo composed of lotus-leaves and other ornamental designs. On its either side is a crocodileface from which emanate beautiful scrolls of lotuses. Above these, a pair of Vidyadharas, bull-faced flying figures and elephant-riders, bringing garlands and offerings, and moving towards the deity, have been most remarkably illustrated. The umbrella in the centre has flying celestials on either side and at the top. Two of them are playing on bugles and the one in the centre at the top is blowing a conch to announce the kaivalya of the Tirthankara. The elegant modelling of the figures wearing typical karanda-mukutas and showing prominent facial features and the lotus-designs carved in the lower half of the parikara remind us of two contemporary images of Jaina Sarasvati from Pallu, Bikaner (above, pp. 257 and 556). Stylistically it is a great masterpiece of the Cahamäna art of the twelfth century. Plate 345.
PANCAVIMSATI-PATTA OF PARSVANATHA (63-73): Pärsvanatha stands in kayotsarga with two other Jinas on either side. The torana over the figures is
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Teminiscent of the gateways of the late medieval west-Indian temples. The back bears an inscription of sarhvat 1500 (A.D. 1443). Plate 346.
B.N. SHARMA S.P. TIWARI
PRINCE OF WALES MUSEUM, BOMBAY TRI-TIRTHAKA OF JINA (113; height 89 cm.; stone, Ankai-Tankai, District Nasik). Under a three-tiered parasol the nimbate Digambara Jina stands in kayotsarga flanked by a Jina on either side. All the three have hair-locks falling on their shoulders. The müla-nayaka is also flanked by a cauri-bearer on either side and what seems to be a donor-couple squatting at his feet. On the top of the parikara are represented the prātihäryas, while a row of musicians is depicted along the top edge. The leaf-pattern behind the nimbus may represent their bodhi-vrkşas. It may be observed here that the hair-locks falling on shoulders, which generally helps in identifying Rşabhanātha, appear as a cliche in the Ankai sculptures, for even Pārsvanātha has been depicted with hair-locks falling on the shoulder. Circa ninth-tenth century. Plate 347A.
PANCA-TĪRTHIKA OF JINA (114; height 88.5 cm.; stone; Ankai-Tankai). The Digambara Jina standing in kāyotsarga is flanked on either side by a seated Jina in a niche at the top and a standing Jina in kāyotsarga below. The müla-nāyaka is flanked on either side by cauri-bearers. The stele, however, is more elaborate with architectural pilasters supporting the attendant Jinas and the miniature shrines above. The gaja-vyala motif appears on either side. Inscription on the pedestal. Plate 347B.
YAKSA DHARANENDRA (119; size 43.5 x 76 cm.; grey stone; Karnataka region). The four-handed Yaksa is seated in lalitāsana on a cushion, with right leg pendent. Highly ornamented with a big tapering crown, the figure holds a lotus, a mace (?) and a pāśa in three of his four hands, and his original left hand is in varada-mudra. He is seated against an elaborate prabhävalī decorated with a floral scroll with a crest of kīrttimukha. Though the placement of emblems in his hands does not corroborate any iconographic requirement, the three-hooded serpent-canopy over his crown helps in identifying this figure as that of Dharanendra. The ornate carving of the figure reflects influences of the Hoysala style. Circa twelfth century. Plate 348.
Yaksi PADMAVATI (121; size: 48 x 78 cm.; grey stone; probably Karnataka). A companion figure of Yaksa Dharanendra, the Yakşi holds her emblems identically with those held by the Yakşa except that her left hand is broken at the wrist. Her crown is surmounted by a single-hooded cobra.
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A. Prince of Wales Museum : tri-tirthika of Jina (Ankai-Tankai)
B. Prince of Wales Museum : panca- tirthika
of Jina (Apkai-Tankai)
PLATE 347

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09
Prince of Wales Museum: Yakşa Dharanendra (Karnataka)
PLATE 348

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MUSEUMS IN INDIA
A. Prince of Wales Museum : Mabāvira (Karnataka)
B. Prince of Wales Museum : eka
tirthika of Mahāvira (Virwah)
PLATE 349

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(PART X
ART-OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS
4,
1
A. Prince of Wales Museum : cauri. bearer (Rajasthan)
B. Prince of Wales Museum : bronze
Tirthaskara (Vala)
PLATE 350

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મો
PLATE 351
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
Prince of Wales Museum: bronze caturvimsati-patta of Rsabhanatha (Chahardi)

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Prince of Wales Museum: bronze Gommateśvara (Sravanabelgola)
PLATE 352
[PART X

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MUSEUMS IN INDIA
A, Prince of Wales Museum : bronze Yakşi (Karnataka)
B. Prince of Wales Museum : brass Tirthankara
Rşabbanātha (west India)
PLATE 353

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(PART X
ART-OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS
A. Prince of Wales Museum: bronze tri-tirthika of Pārsvanatha (probably Basantgarh)
w
SA
AM
Y
.
w
To
#
NATA Wt.
2
B. Prince of Wales Museum : brass
caitya-grha (Gujarat)
PLATE 354

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MAHAVIRA (116; size 43×116 cm.; schist; Karnataka). The Digambara Jina, recognizable by his cognizance, the lion, on the pedestal, stands in kayotsarga, on a lotus resting on a tri-ratha pedestal. He is flanked by Yakşa holding a citron in his left hand and the Yaksi holding a pustaka in her left hand. The Srivatsa-mark is absent. The stele is an architectural composition of two pilasters each supporting a makara (?) on which is seated an unidentifiable deity. The oval prabha has a scroll-pattern with a kirttimukha crest. A peculiar feature, noticeable in the Karnataka sculptures, is the three-tiered chatra over Mahavira's head. Plate 349A.
EKA-TIRTHIKA OF MAHAVIRA (117; marble; size 51x143-5 cm.; Virwah, Thar and Parkar District, Sind). The Jina stands in kayotsarga on a pañca-ratha pedestal. He wears an undergarment indicated by a broad waist band fastened by a kirttimukha-clasp while a stylized zigzag pattern between his legs indicates an end of the dhoti. On his chest is the śrivatsa-mark, while the nipples of his breast are marked by a dotted circle (suggesting flower?). He is flanked by a cauri-bearer on either side, while the donor-couple is seated in añjali-mudrā at his feet. His parikara is ornately carved representing four seated and one standing Vidya-devis on the vertical column on either side. On the chatra around are represented the prätihāryas. On the upper edge of the parikara are represented the musicians. Inscription dated samvat 1139 (A.D. 1080). Plate 349B.
CAURI-BEARER (118; height 87 cm.; marble; Rajasthan). Evidently a part of a Jina's parikara, the figure stands in tri-bhanga holding the flywhisk in his right hand and the left hand in katyavalambita posture. The figure is richly decorated with an ornamented kirita-mukuja, pearl necklaces, hāra, kundalas, bracelets, armlets and anklets. He wears a dhoti fastened to the waist with ropeband and pearl strings and also wears a paryastikā across his thighs. Circa twelfth century. Plate 350A.
DONOR (?) (127; size 38×55.5 cm.; marble; Rajasthan). The bearded male figure with sharp features is seated in lalitäsana on a cauki with right leg pendent. His hair is combed back and tied in a bun seen on his left shoulder, while his nimbus comprises an elaborate lotus. He is clad in a dhoti and a scarf passes over his arms with its ends hanging down. In his two hands he holds stylized lotuses. The pilasters on the stele support two miniature shrines enshrining a Yakşa and a Yakşi; above it is a trefoil torana with an enshrined Jina at the crest. The inscription, dated samvat 1242 (A.D. 1185), on the pedestal mentions that the image was got made by one Šaktikumāra. Above, plate 200.
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PĀRSVANÄTHA (32; height 21.5 cm.; bronze). The nude Jina stands in küyotsarga with the right forearm missing. Behind his head is a five-hooded snake, his lanchana, whose recoiled body is visible between his two legs. The features are very archaic. His broad shoulders, the modelling of the torso and the elongated legs compare with Kushan features visible in some of the early bronzes from the Chausa hoard, now in the Patna Museum. The broken tenon below the feet indicates that it must have been mounted on a pedestal which is now missing. Circa second century A.D. Above, plate 37.
JINA (122; height 22 cm.; bronze; Vala, Gujarat). The Jina wearing a lower garment stands in kāyotsarga on a circular beaded pedestal with a square base. His face is oval with long perforated ear-lobes; his hair is done in schematic curls with an usniņa at the top. The frivatsa is conspicuously absent. A lug at the back of the image and a broken tenon on the back side of the pedestal must have been for a chatra, now missing. The features and the modelling of the torso, as also the pattern of the dhoti, suggest its proximity to the Gupta tradition visible in the cave-sculptures of the Deccan. Ti is plain and unmodelled. Circa sixth century. Plate 350B.
JINA (34; height 18 cm.; bronze; Vala). The Jina stands in kāyotsarga on a square pedestal. He wears only a dhoti modelled on the front side while the back is plain. The head seems disproportionately bigger than the torso. The oval halo behind the Jina supports a plain circular nimbus and is cast along with the image. Circa sixth century,
CATURVIMŠATI-PATTA OF RŞABHANATHA (42; size 34 x 58.5 cm.; bronze; Chahardi (Chopda), District East Khandesh). On a double lotus supported by a tri-ratha pedestal stands the müla-näyaka in kayotsarga attitude. He is clad in a plain dhoti tied at the waist by a girdle with looped knot. His shoulders are rather flat but broad in contrast to his rounded waist and bulging hips. The face is broad, the features well-modelled. His hair is done in schematic curls with tapering usnīşa and curled locks falling on the shoulders have led scholars to identify him as Rşabhanatha. His eyes are inlaid in silver and the srivatsamark on his chest is inlaid in gold. His pedestal is supported by two lions facing in opposite direction; in the centre is the wheel flanked by a deer on
hips. The
snīsa and curled locks failed. His hair is done in a
[ For the view of U.P. Shah on the date and provenance of the bronze, see above pp. 87-88. The present writers, however, observe: 'It is Becessary to re-assess the dating of the bronze on the basis of the evidence provided by the Jaina bronzes of the Kusban period from the Chausa hoard. The broad shoulders and elongated limbs of our bronze have a closer affinity to those of the Chausa images.' ---Editor.]
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either side. At the base of the tri-tirthi are represented half-bodied Nava. grahas. It is his parikara, however, which is worth noting. On his either side are three seated nimbate Jinas arranged vertically that the rest are represented in four horizontal rowe. In the topmost row in the centre is depicted Pārsvanätha seated in a niche. On either side of the vertical row of Jinas is a flywhiskbearer standing on a floral pedestal emanating from the tri-ratha pedestal. On a lower level, on lotuses emanating from the pedestal, is seated in lalitásana to his right his Yaksa holding a citron in his right hand and a mongoose in his left, while on his left is seated the Yakşi holding a mango-branch in her right hand and supporting a child in her left lap. At the farthest ends are gaja-vydlas and along the upper edge of the parikara is a row of musicians. At the crest is a three-tiered chatra done in the Karnataka style. There is an inscription on the back of the pedestal. Circa ninth century. This image stylistically belongs to the Rästrakata tradition. Plate 351.
BAHUBALI (105; size 17x51 cm.; bronze; Sravanabelgola). The nude figure of Bahubali stands in kayotsarga on a round base apparently detached from a bigger pedestal. His shoulders are rather broad but the torso and the limbs are naturalistically modelled. His face is oval with full cheeks, prominent nose, and well-marked lips and the eyebrows are slightly raised. The ears are long and perforated. His hair is combed backward in thick incised pattern and thickly curled hair locks can be seen prominently over his shoulders. A meandering creeper in high incised relief entwines his legs and arms. Eighth-ninth century. Plate 352.
YAKşi (65-2; height 22.5 cm.; bronze; Karnataka). The bare-breasted female figure clad only in a lower garment stands with flexed body on a square pedestal, holding a câmara in her right hand and resting her left hand on a column of what appears to be ten kalasas (?) or sacred-water jars. Her features are archaically modellod with a flat nose, thick lips and thick eyebrows. Her coiffure is elaborate. Her lower garment is indicated by an end of the garment done in high relief on her left thigh and chord-like girdles around her waist. She wears armlets and anklets. Plate 353A.
UNIDENTIFIED JINA (67.7; height 15 cm.; brass; west-Indian school, Akota style). The Jina is seated in dhyana-mudrä on a cushion resting on a sirnhäsana.
The figure, though defaced, shows an oval face, long perforated ear-lobes and - and a prominent uşnisa. The neck is kambu-grīva. He is flanked by nimbate
Yaksa and Yakşi, the Yak a holding a mongoose and a citron and the Yakşi the branch of a mango-tree. His circular prabha with a beaded pattern rests on two plain pilasters with a cross-bar. The dharma-cakra flanked by a donor on
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[PART X
either side appears prominently on the pedestal. The frivatsa-mark on the chest and the Nava-graha on the pedestal are absent. Dated sarvat 994 (A.D. 887).
RŞABHANĀ THA (67 6; size 23.3 cm.; brass; west-Indian school, Akota style) The Jina is scated in dhyana-mudrä on a cushion resting on a carpeted simhdsana. Partially defaced, the eyes are inlaid in silver, long perforated earlobes and prominent uşnişa. Srivatsa-mark on the chest. While the Yaksa and Yakşi figures are as in the previous image, the parikara needs special mention. The cámara-dharas flanking the Jina and the ganadharas flanking the nimbus owe their origin to the Deccan-Karnataka tradition. Late ninth or early tenth century. Plate 353B.
TRI-TİRTHIKA OF PĀRSVANATHA (67.12; height 15:5 cm.; brass; west-Indian school, probably from Vasantagarh). The Jina is seated in dhyāna-mudrā on a vis va-padma done in openwork lotus-scroll. The face is squarish, the elongated ears touch the shoulders and the usnisa is prominent. He is flanked on his right by Rşabhanātha and on his left is Mahāvīra, both standing in kāyotsarga against oval prabha. The other figures of the parikara are those of Yakşa Dharanendra and Yaksi Padmavati. On the pedestal is the wheel flanked by a deer on either side. Circa 1050. Plate 354A.
CAITYA-GRHA (57.14; size 20 x 12 x 33 cm.; brass; Gujarat). It is a rectangular shrine with a base, walls and Sikhara surmounted by a kalasa. In the niche in the centre of the base is a Yakşi, while a donor figure appears at each end. Nava-grahas are depicted on the base. The präkära has two doors, while on the dome is enshrined Sarasvati flanked by an elephant on either side. Such portable shrines have been a common feature of household-worship meant to enshrine the kula-deva of the family. Circa seventeenth century. Plate 354B.
MOTI CHANDRA SADASHIV GORAKSHAKAR
MUSEUMS IN RAJASTHAN
JAINA TRUST, SIROHI
The earliest hoard of Jaina bronzes in Rajasthan, now with the Jaina Trust, Sirohi, comes from Vasantagarh near Pindwada, Sirohi District. It has vielded two big free-standing Tirthankara images in kāyotsarga-pose. One represents Adinātha with traces of hair-locks falling on the shoulders. It is
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ALL! A
Bikaner Museum: bronze Tirthankara Parsvanatha (Amarsar)
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A. Ahar Museum : torso of a bronze Tirtharkara (Ahar)
thi
B. Udaipur Museum : Kubera
(Bansi)
PLATE 356

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B. Bharatpur Museum:
sarvatobhadra
X
AUW
A. Jodhpur Museum : Jivantasvamin
PLATE 357

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A. Bharatpur Museum : Tirthankara Neminātha
B. Jaipur Museum : Tirthaikara
Munisuvrata (Narhad)
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about 1:06 m. in height. The other image bears an inscription of Vikramasarhvat 744 on the pedestal, which records that it was cast by Sivanaga... for the spiritual benefit of acquiring right knowledge, right action and right faith.' The Vasantgarh group also contains some other bronzes, noteworthy among which is one of Sarasvati who holds a lotus-stalk in her right hand and a manuscript in the left. Her crown is elaborate, with a sun-disc atop and makara-head on either side. The halo, in the form of a dotted rim, reminds us of similar haloes from northern and western India. The hoard also contains some Jaina bronzes of the eighth-ninth centuries.
BIKANER MUSEUM
There are a dozen bronzes from Amarsar, now preserved in the Bikaner Museum. This group includes a cauri-bearer, which, from the artistic point of view, is highly attractive. A sitting Pärsvanatha is illustrated here (plate 355). The collection also includes one of the two famous marble Sarasvatis, discovered at Pallu in Bikaner District, a superb specimen of Cahamana art (above, plates 154 and 337).
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
AHAR MUSEUM, UDAIPUR
Ahar (Aghāṭapura, near Udaipur) seems to have been a centre of Jaina art during the early medieval period. An early medieval Jaina bronze was unearthed about thirty years ago. Now preserved at the Museum at Ahar, it is more than life-size in height and shows a seated Tirthankara in a meditative pose (plate 356A).
PRATAP MUSEUM, UDAIPUR
The Pratap Museum has in its collection a fifth-sixth century headless statue of Ambika carved out of local greenish-blue schist (pärevä). Its findspot is Jagat (District Udaipur). The goddess carries a bunch of mango-twigs in the right hand and holds a baby on her lap with the left. There is, however, no Jaina emblem as such on the image. This collection has also a rare statue of Jaina Kubera (plate 356B). Datable to the eighth-ninth century, it is carved out of greenish blue schist. Its findspot is Bansi in Chitor District. The seated deity holds a citron in the right hand and a money-bag (nakulaka) in the left. A couchant elephant is shown below. Above the curly hair of Kubera is an attractive crown studded with the miniature figure of a Jina and another similar figure still above.
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JODHPUR MUSEUM
A very fine specimen of Jivantasvamin image (plate 357A), datable to tenth-eleventh century, is on display in the Jodhpur Museum. It comes from Khimvsar, Nagaur District. The sculpture is well-preserved and the execution is superb. The museum has also a twelfth-century image of Jaina Mahisamardini. The white-marble image of the Devi is mentioned as that of Saccika in the inscription (Vikrama year 1237) on its pedestal, which also records that it was installed by the chief of the Jaina nuns. It is interesting to note that according to the Upakeśa-gaccha-paṭṭāvalī, the Jaina Acarya Ratnaprabha-Suri converted Mahişamardini to the Jaina pantheon under the name of Saccikā, who is none else but Saciya-Mātā still worshipped in a contemporary temple at Osia. [Cf. above, p. 252.-Editor.]
BHARATPUR MUSEUM
An image of sarvatobhadra Adinatha, preserved in this Museum, is important from the iconographic point of view. The standing nude Tirthankara (plate 357B) is to be seen on all the four sides, in strict accordance with the Jaina tradition of samavasarana. He has matted locks on the head. The collection includes also an image of Neminatha, with a conch-mark on the pedestal (plate 358A).
DUNGARPUR ART-GALLERY
Among the exhibits in this Gallery is an early medieval (seventh-eighth century) statue of seated Adinatha, carved out of local pareva stone.
AJMER MUSEUM
An important exhibit in this collection is a colossal bust of Adinatha, datable to the sixth-seventh century. Its findspot is Shergarh (Dholpur, Bharatpur District). The hair-locks falling on the head, curls surmounted by matted locks, oval halo at the back, etc., show the skill of the artist in executing the image. A headless image in the Museum, appearing to be of the early medieval period, is of Parsvanatha.
CENTRAL MUSEUM, JAIPUR
This Museum preserves an elegant early medieval statue of black stone, showing a standing Munisuvrata in kayotsarga-pose. It was found, like another image in the National Museum, New Delhi (above p. 556), at Narhad near Pilani (plate 358B).
R.C. AGRAWALA
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STATE MUSEUM, HYDERABAD Some eleven bronzes from Bapatia, Ongole District, are now preserved in this Museum. The bronzes belong to the ninth century. The important pieces are the following:
A Vardhamana is seated in meditation between a Yaksa and a Yakşī. while cauri-bearers are carved above. He has a prabha surmounted by a triple parasol. The inscription on the image, written in Kannada script, dates to the ninth century. In another piece, Neminātha is seated on an elaborate simhasana with a prabha behind his head. The mango-foliage is very elaborately carved. His Yakşi Ambikā with her child is carved just below. The triple parasol is above the prabha. There is another Neminátha in the group. Other pieces include another of Vardhamāna, a Pārsvanatha, and a Vidya-devi. Not much of artistry can be seen in these images, except in that of Vidyā-devi who wears a Decklace and a thick yajñopavita. The left hand holds a lyre, while the right hand holds the plectrum. Her hair is arranged like a fan. Special mention may also be made of the image of Ambikā, which is very realistically carved. Neminātha is represented on the trefoil arch. The mango-tree is very artistically represented, and Ambikā holds a bunch of mangoes. She wears several ornaments of the typical Rāştrakūta style.
A good number of images in the Museum-collection come from several important Jaina centres. We may mention here a beautifully-carved Bahubali (plate 359A) coming from Patancheruvu. The image, in käyotsarga with creepers entwining his legs and ending in twirls at the top on either side, encasing Yakşis (or sisters of Gommata?), is powerful and elegant. The stems are held by Yaksis in one hand and the other hand is katyavalambita. The svastika-mark is decoratively carved as a diamond; the prabha is in the form of a lotus. The image is dated to circa twelfth century. Another important piece is that of Mahāvira, with twenty-three other Tirtharkaras carved around him (plate 359B). The Kannada inscription on the image puts its date in the twelfth century. An Ambika image, though its head is lost, is very important. The goddess is seated in bhadrâsana and wears a long chain, necklace, valayas, etc. She holds a bunch of mangoes. Another important icon is that of Sarasvati (plate 360). It is endowed with a suppleness of form and flexibility of bharigas. She is bedecked with all sorts of ornaments. The minor icons in the complex, the prabha and the Tirtharkaras above are all left without polish, while the main image is highly polished. The inscription in Devanagari script is dated
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[PART X 1178 (twelfth century). Patancheruvu has also yielded a caumukha with a Sikhara.
An important centre of Jainism was Nizamabad. A Parsvanatha image endowed with all the mahd-purusa-lakṣaṇas comes from this place. The place has also yielded several other figures.
Gulbarga was another centre. The Museum has a Pārsvanatha figure in kayotsarga from this place. Besides the five-hooded snake-canopy the image includes cauri-bearers and a triple chatra. The inscription, which refers to the image as that of Parsvanatha (Parsvadeva), is palaeographically assignable to the twelfth century.
A number of sculptures were found at Dharmavaram which had a Jaina temple. The Museum has a caumukha from this place. Each of its facets is divided into three panels, each panel showing two Tirthankaras. The total number thus comes to twenty-four, thus making it a caturvimsati-patta (plate 361A). The images are cut in low relief. Traces of a much-faded inscription are to be found on the image.
Some beautiful Jaina sculptures are exhibited in the premises of the office of the Director of Archaeology and Museums. They include a Pärsvanatha, about 92 cm. in height, standing nude in kayotsarga with a seven-hooded coiled serpent covering his head. A three-tiered chatra crowns the snake-hood. Twenty-three Tirthankaras in yoga-mudra are represented over the frame; two attendants, one male and one female, bearing cauris stand at the bottom on either side. Two more male cauri-bearers, standing on makaras, are carved near the shoulders of the main figure.
An image of Candraprabha, about 70 cm. in height, shows him seated in padmasana with hands in yoga-mudra. His hair is shown in tiny ringlets; he has elongated ear-lobes. The moon is incised on the middle of the base. On the basis of an inscription in Telugu-Kannada characters the image can be assigned to the eleventh century.
KHAZANA BUILDING MUSEUM, GOLCONDA
Among the collection is an unfinished slab with two cauri-bearing attendants standing on either side at the bottom (plate 361B). Due to some unknown reason, the main figure in the middle was not carved. Tirthankaras seated in padmasana are shown at the top of long stalks in the cusps of trefoil
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MUSEUMS IN INDIA creeper-design issuing from the mouths of makaras. Three Tirthankaras are shown seated in padmasana in the middle of the makara-torana. An image of Adinatha, about 1.53 m. in height, shows him standing in kayotsarga. He has a canopy over his head raised by two elephants on either side. There is a prabha behind his head which is shown with elongated ear-lobes carrying makara-kundalas. The hair is shown in tiny ringlets. There is a Srivatsasymbol on the chest. Two attendants and two kneeling devotees are shown on either side at the bottom. The image belongs to the twelfth century.
A black basalt image shows Pärsvanatha standing in kayotsarga with a seven-hooded serpent covering his head as a canopy. Two attendants carrying flywhisks are represented on either side at the back of the makaras. Another image of Pārsvanatha, also in kayotsarga, 1-5 m. in height, is carved in dolerite. A seven-hooded snake covers his head as a canopy. The Yaksa and Yakşi are at the bottom on either side. A similar image of Pārsvanatha in black basalt, 1.63 m. in height, is assignable to the twelfth century. A huge figure of Mahavira, seated in padmasana and with hands kept in dhyana-mudrā, is carved on pink sandstone. At the back of the head is a plain prabhd-mandala. Its height is 1.73 m. The image probably belongs to the tenth century. An image of Supārsvanatha, 75 cm. in height, shows him in kayotsarga. A coiled serpent is shown in relief at the back. Other Tirthankaras are shown on either side in vertical rows. The Yakşa and the Yakşi are shown at the bottom. The image is datable to the twelfth century. A black basalt image of Gommatesvara or Bahubali shows him standing in kayotsarga with a creeper coiled round his legs. The height is 1.73 m. Mallinatha, carved on highly-polished black basalt, is shown standing in kayotsarga. His two attendants are on either side. There is a prominent frivatsa on his chest. He is shown with ringlets of hair, and his elongated ear-lobes carry sankha-kundalas. The height of the image is 1.43 m. It is datable to the twelfth century.
A colossal figure of Parsvanatha, 3.25 m. in height, standing in kayotsarga, is reported to have been brought from Chilukuru, a famous Jaina basadi, about 20 km. from Hyderabad. The image is carved on sandstone. The modelling of the face is exquisite. He is shown with curly hair and elongated ear-lobes. Over the head is a snake-hood canopy. The left arm of the image is damaged. Another beautifully-carved image, that of Mahavira, shows him seated in padmāsana with his hands in dhyana-mudra. The image is carved on highlypolished black basalt and is about 1 m. in height. Two cauri-bearers, each about 75 cm., are carved separately for installation on either side of the main image. They carry fruits in the right hand and flywhisk in the left. On their
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They
heads are beautiful mukutas bedecked with precious stone and tassels. also wear cakra-kund alas,
There are, in the collection, some inscribed rectangular granite slabs with figures of Mahavira, Pärsvanātha and other Jinas carved at the top. The inscriptions mention the gifts of land and garden.
MOHD ABDUL WAHEED KHAN
SALAR JUNG MUSEUM, HYDERABAD
In the small but interesting collection of Jaina images in the Salar Jung Museum, one, carved in black stone, represents five Tirthankaras, including the main figure of a large standing nude in centre in kāyotsarga-pose (plate 362A). Two Jinas sit on the top of an inscribed pedestal, on two sides of the feet of the central standing figure, and two on the sides of his shoulders. They are all carved in relief on the plain oblong stela. The central figure is cut in relief in the middle of the slab and has a halo behind the head. A flywhisk appears on each side of the head of the central Tirtharkara. On the top of the central figure is the umbrella (chatra) with its front circular side (rim) ornamented with festoons. The two small Tirthankaras near the legs also have umbrellas overhead. The sculpture dates to circa twelfth century and bears an inscription in Kannada on its pedestal, The sculpture is reported to have hailed from Karnataka.
The next stone sculpture is elaborately-carved sculpture (plate 362B), from Kupbal, Mysore State, of circa twelfth century. The front sides and the tip show miniature figures of twenty-three Tirtharkaras, who are seated in the centre of circles formed of a winding creeper. The central figure is a nude Pārsvanātha against a coiling serpent, whose seven hoods appear over its head. On the front side of the pedestal is an inscription in Kannada characters, and over the pedestal is a small figure of Dharanendra Yaksa on the right of the Jina, of Padmāyati Yakşi on the left.
A metal image of standing Pārsvanātha, with a nine-headed cobra holding a canopy over the Jina's head (plate 363A), seems to be earlier in age than the above two stone sculptures. Probably it comes from Maharashtra. The stiff broad shoulders, the face with thick lips and the long nose with a broad bridge suggest an age around circa eighth century or somewhat later.
A pañca-firthika image (plate 363B) with an inscription on the back bears the date samvat 1453 (A.D. 1396) and is said to have been installed by certain
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1.; MUSEUMS IN INDIA sanghapatis of Prligvata caste. The (central) image is said to represent Mahavira. There are two standing Tirthadkaras by the sides of Mabávtra, and on cach end is a standing flywhisk-bearer. By the sides of the halo are two sitting Tirtharkaras. The fifth Jiba is represented by the central figure of Mabăvira. On the right and left ends of the lion-throne of the Jina are shown respectively the figures of the attendant Yakpa and Yaksl. In the centre of the lowermost end of the pitha on which the lion-throne is placed is a worn-out figure.
A caturvinnsari-paffa is represented in a bronze (plate 364A). The central and larger figure is seated in the centre on a cushion placed on a lion-throne. In the centre of the broad platform is a dharma-cakra flanked by two deer, below which is the figure of Santi-devi. Celestial musicians and dancers are shown by the side of the Yaksa and Yakşi on each end of the throne. On the top is a mangala-kalasa. An inscription on the back says that it was installed in sarvat 1530 (A.D. 1473).
A much later caturvimbati-paffa has the central image representing Pārsvanátha, sitting under a canopy of seven hoods of a cobra (plate 364B). The arrangement of the Tirthankaras in various arched niches in horizontal panels, one above the other, and having a semicircular arched superstructure suggests a southern type of vimăna. The bronze is dated to circa eighteenth century.
D.N. VARMA
MUSEUMS IN MADHYA PRADESH
STATE MUSEUM, DHUBBLA The State Museum in Dhubela Palace near Nowgong in District Chhatarpur has over fifty images of Jaina Tirthankaras and their Sāsana. devatäs of the Candella and Kalacuri periods. The sculptures representing
e art of the Kalacuris were originally collected from various places in the former Rewa State in Baghelkhand. Most of the Candella sculpture are from Mau, about 1 km. from the site of the Museum itself. Some were collected also from the Jagatsagar tank near by. The other exhibits are from Tikamgarh. Mohangarh, Nowgong. Garoli and Jaso.
Sculptures from Man and Nowgong
The images acquired from Mau and the Jagatsagar tank are of granite. Some of them have short records incised on the pedestals which give information about the donor and the date. The inscriptions are datable between Vikrama-samvat 1196 (A.D. 1139) and 1220 (A.D. 1163).
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TIRTHANKARAS: There are two images (11, size 51 by 47 cm., and 26, height 1-12 m.) of Rsabhanatha in padmasana (plate 365A) and kayotsarga respectively. The pedestal-inscription, dated sarhvat 1223 (A.D. 1141), of the seated image, says that it was worshipped by Alhana, probably of the Komce-gotra, and by Rūpā perhaps his wife. Säntinätha is represented in an image (24, height 160 cm.), where the Tirthankara stands in kayotsarga with the frivatsa-symbol on the chest (plate 365B). The hands of the figure are broken. The image, which is said to have come from the Jagatsagar tank, has on the pedestal a four-line inscription, dated samvat 1203, with two verses followed by a prose-portion which states that the image was installed by Devasvämin of the Golāpūrva-kula and his two sons Subhacandra and Udayacandra. We are further told that the image was regularly worshipped by Lakşmidhara of the Dumbara family. The statue was installed in the reign of Madanavarman, who can be safely identified with the Candella ruler of that name. A black granite image represents Munisuvrata (42, size 28 by 56 cm.) seated in padmasana, the upper part being damaged. The pedestal contains a three-line inscription in Sanskrit, saying that the image was installed in sarhvat 1119 (A.D. 1062) by one Sulhana of the Golāpūrva-kula. A grey granite image (29, size 1.15 m. by 39 cm.) having the lanchana, (blue ?) lotus, on its pedestal perhaps represents Neminatha who is shown standing in kayotsarga with the śrivatsa-mark on the chest. Another image (7), of Neminatha, is headless and is broken into four pieces. The inscription on the pedestal says that the image was installed by Malhana of the Golāpūrva-kula in samvat 1119 (A.D. 1062). The are two other images of Neminatha which belong to sarhvat 1196 and 1220 respectively. A headless seated image (8, size 77 by 64 cm.) of some unidentified Tirthankara has an inscription on the pedestal which mentions the Paravada-kula in which the donor of that image was born. The other seated or standing Tirthankara images from Mau (9, 10 25, 30, etc.) cannot be identified. A piece (14) is the broken head (53 cm.) of some huge image.
YAKSIS: The Museum has three images of Cakreśvarf and one of Ambikā. One of the Cakreśvari images (46, height 67 cm.) is said to have been found in Mau; it is, however, likely that it comes from Khajuraho. The richlyornamented image shows the four-armed Yakşl seated in lalitäsana on her vähana Garuda. In her upper hands she holds cakras while there are an aksamälä and a fruit in her lower right and left hands respectively (plate 366A). The other image (17) of Cakreśvari shows a sankha in her lower left hand and two cakras in her upper hands. The third image (41) is similar to the second but is better executed. An image of Yakşl Ambika (45, height 67 cm.) shows the two-armed goddess seated under a mango-tree with her children and the vähana. Above her head is a miniature representation of Neminatha.
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CHAPTER 38)
A. State Museum, Hyderabad : (Palancheruvu) Gommateśvara
1.
B. State Museum, Hyderabad: Tirtha kara Mahavira (Patancheruvu)
PLATE 359

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db
.
t
uliduscheln
State Museum, Hyderabad : Sarasvati (Patancheruvu)
PLATE 360

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Rṣabhanatha is represented by an image (118, height 72 cm.) found in the Fort area. It shows the Jina as seated in padmasana in dhyana-mudra on a pedestal supported on two lions. Another piece (384) is perhaps the broken pedestal of some Rṣabhanatha image. Sambhavanatha is represented in an image (30, height 92 cm.). His symbol, horse, is seen on the pedestal. The lower part of an image of Padmaprabha (116, height 83 cm.) is interesting as the pedestal contains an inscription dated samvat 1552, according to which the image was installed at Gopacaladurga (Gwalior) during the reign of Mahārājādhirāja Mānasimha (of the Tomara dynasty). The inscription gives information regarding the Bhattaraka of Gwalior who belonged to the line of Bhattaraka Padmanandi of Sarasvati-gaccha of Balatkara-gana of Mulasangha.
A pañca-tirthika (125, height 1-42 m.) having Candraprabha as the mulanayaka, acquired from Gwalior Fort, shows the Tirthankaras, the main figure standing in kayotsarga on a semicircular pedestal supported by two lions. The symbol of the Tirthankara is seen below. In addition, there are four small figures of Tirthankaras, two standing and two seated.
The image of Neminatha (117. height 2 m.), also from Gwalior Fort, shows the Jina as standing on a lotus resting on a pedestal and attended by the Indras. The pedestal of the image contains a conch-symbol, a dharmacakra and a female devotee. Another important sculpture of this period is the lower part of a Parsvanatha image. The pedestal of the image shows Yakşa Dharanendra and Yakşi Padmavati seated on the right and left corners respectively. Both have serpent-hoods on their heads. The goddess is seated on a serpent but the vahana of the Yakṣa is a kukkuța. The inscription incised on the pedestal of the image bears the date samvat 1476 (?) of the reign of Vikramaditya, a Tomara ruler of Gwalior. The inscription also mentions Bhattaraka Sahasrakirtti of Puşkara-gana and Mathura-anvaya of the Käṣṭhāsangha. Another piece (306, size 67 by 57 cm.) is the broken head of a large Pārsvanatha image.
Another seated image (126. height 71 cm.), from Gwalior Fort, represents an unidentified Tirthankara seated in padmasana in dhyana-mudra. The findspot of another unidentified seated Jina image (683, height 1.26 m.) is not known, besides two other (133 and 174) seated Tirthankara images. A patta (size 35 by 51 cm.) showing eighteen Tirthankaras in three rows is datable to fifteenth century.
The Museum has two sarvatobhadrikā images (261 and 263, heights 1.16 and 1.21 m.) of the Tomara period, with the representation of Tirthankaras
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op all four sides. On the latter, the figure of Pārsvanatha only can be recognized, while on the formor the two Tirthankaras, Rşabhanatha and Pārsvanatha, are identifiable. The Museum has a mana-stambha (260, height 1-09 m.) which shows one hundred and thirty-nine small images of seated Tirthankaras, of which only Rşabhanätha can be identified.
BALCHANDRA JAIN SHIVPURI MUSEUM
The Museum has an interesting collection of Jaina sculptures, mainly frora Narwar (ancient Nalapura). Only the more interesting images are described here.
CATURVIMŠATI-PATTA : The sculpture (167, size 1.06 m. by 46 cm.) shows miniature figures of all the twenty-four Tirtharkaras along with their symbols carved below their feet in a row. It has an inscription stating that the patta containing the images of the twenty-four Tirthankaras was installed in sarhvat 1063 (A.D. 1006).
TIRTHANKARAS: There are a number of standing Tirthankara images in the Museum. Most of them are ascribable to the twelfth century, as is evident from a short inscription incised on the pedestal of one of the images (146) of Candraprabha (plate 369). It tells us that the image was installed in sarvat 1241 by Jayacandra along with his wives, Suhana and Monă, and his son, Ašādhara. Another image (2, height 2 m.) represents Ajitanatha who is shown standing in kayotsarga under a triple umbrella with amalaka and kalasa at the top. Above the umbrella is a decorated niche with the figure of a Jina scated in dhyana-mudra. On both sides of the main figure were two standing cauri-bearing Indras who are now missing. The pedestal of this figure is beautifully decorated with lions. It also shows a niche with the miniature figure of a seated Jina, above which are carved a makara-torana and kirttimukha. The symbol of Ajitanātha, elephant, is just below the pedestal flanked by two devotees on either side. The next image (3, height 1.55 m.) is of Sambhavanatha with his symbol, horse. The chatra of the image is flanked by two elephants having lotus-buds in their trunks. The pedostal shows a couple of devotees. The images of Abhinandananātha (4, height 2:05 m.) and Padmaprabha (5, height 1.95 m.) are more or less similar to the image of Ajitanatha described above excepting their respective symbols. The other Tirthankaras are similarly represented in various other standing images. Of these, one of the most beautiful images (19, height 1.35 m.) of the collection, bearing an excellent polish, cannot be identified in the absence of any symbol.
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Besides these the Museum has also some dvi-mürtika-pratimas in its collection in which two Tirthankaras are represented on each slab. One of these (16, height 140 m.) shows Ajitanătha and Sambhavanātha with their usual symbols (plate 370A), while another (17) is the eka-mürtika of Sambhavanátha and Neminātha. All of them stand in kāyotsarga. Yet another image (18, height 1.10 m.) represents Santinātha and Mahāvīra; it has a short record inscribed on the pedestal which says that it was installed by one Jasahara.
The images showing the Tirthankaras in padmāsana are better executed. One of these (1, height 1.85 m.) shows an unidentified Tirtharkara seated in padmasana in dhyāna-mudrä, with a beautifully-carved śrivatsa-symbol on the chest and an ornamented halo behind his head. The right hand and the knee of the Tirthankara are damaged (plate 370B). Another sculpture (6, height 95 cm.) belongs to Supārsvanātha who is seated on a lion-throne in dhyanamudră under five serpent-hoods and a triple umbrella. Both the hands of this beautiful image are broken. An image (24, height 1.35 m.) of some unidentified Tirthařkara (plate 371A) is interesting because of its decorated seat and halo. An image of Pärsvanātha (27, height 1.35 m.) shows him (plate 371B) seated in padmāsana on the coils of the serpent whose seven hoods are seen above the head with the cauri-bearers standing on either side, flying figures with garlands, elephants holding kalašas with their trunks above the chatra and the drummers. Yet another interesting image (55, height 1 m.) is carved in the round. Of the other padmāsana images of the twelfth century, there are three examples (29, 39 and 43). The Museum also contains lower portions of some black-stone images which were installed in sarhvat 1329, 1334, 1341, 1344 and 1346, as known from the inscriptions incised on their pedestals. All these images are in padmasana but their upper parts are broken and lost.
DECORATED ARCHITECTURAL PIECES : The decorated architectural pieces in the Museum, from Narwar, are beautiful examples of the excellent craftsmanship. They are parts of miniature toranas. In one of them (47), the central image is that of a six-armed Yakşi seated in lalitāsana on a high cushion in a pillared niche with a sikhara above. On the left and right are seated Tīrthařkaras with chatras above. In the extreme right and left pillared niches, crowned by śikharas, is a Jina seated in dhyāna-mudrā. On the extreme right and left were figures of makara, of which the one on extreme left is now damaged. The second piece ((plate 372) shows Yaksis and Tirthankaras in niches. There are altogether three Yakşis. The central one, sitting on Garuda and holding cakra and gadā in her upper hands, may be identified as
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B. Dhubela State Museum : Tirthankara Neminātha (District Shahdol)
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A. Dhubela State Museum : caturvimbati-paffa (Jaso)
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A. Dbubela State Museum : sarvatobhadra (Rewa region)
B. Dhubela State Museum : Yaksa Brahmā (Rewa region)
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Shivpuri Museum: pedestal of image of Tirthankara Candraprabba
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B. Shivpuri Museum : Tirthankara
Parsvanatha
A. Shivpuri Museum: a Tirthankara
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Shivpuri Museum: an architectural piece
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A. Raipur Museum: Mahavira (Karitalai)
FERONE
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B. Raipur Museum: Ajitanātha and
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A. Raipur Museum: a sarvatobhadrika (Karitalai)
B. Raipur Museum: Yakşi
Ambikä (Kartialai)
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Cakreśvari. Above the Yaksis, in the central niche, is the figure of a seated Jina in dhyana-mudra having on either side a Jina in smaller niches. The figure in the central niche is flanked by flying garland-bearers. The third piece (51) shows a Tirthankara seated in dhyana-mudra in a niche centred in a miniature temple, the row of columns of which is decorated with gaja-sardula-motifs. The tiered sikhara has an amalaka on it but no kalasa. On either side of the miniature temple are carved makara-motifs. Two pieces (210 and 235) are miniature temples, of which the first shows a Jina seated in padmāsana in a niche, while the niche of the other miniature is occupied by an eight-armed Yaksi seated on her vehicle, bull. The sikhara of the second is highly ornate.
The pedestals in the collection are also important artistically as also for bearing symbols of the Tirthankaras whose images were originally installed on them.
A PILLAR: This piece (91), which has an inscription of samvat 1517 and Saka year 1382, contains, besides the images of the Tirthankaras, images of an Acarya with his kamandalu and picchika who can be identified with Acarya Pratapacandra, a disciple of Acarya Kşemakirtti of the Mathura-anvaya of the Kāṣṭhā-sangha on the basis of the information given in the inscription. The sadhvi seated in padmasana with kamandalu and picchikā may be Aryikā Sanyamaśri, who is also mentioned in the inscription on this pillar.
BALCHANDRA JAIN
JAISINGHAPURA JAINA ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM, UJJAIN
The Museum has over five hundred pieces collected from various sites in the Malwa region. Of these, ninety-six images are inscribed. The collection consists of Tirthankara images, images of Jaina goddesses, sarvatobhadrikās and caumukhas. The largest number in the collection are images of Pārsvanatha, of which the Museum has sixty-four pieces, while there are thirtyseven images of Rṣabhanatha, twenty of Candraprabha and twelve of Ajitanātna. The other Tirthankara images are variously represented.
Among the inscribed images the important ones are: an image (30) of Rṣabhanatha from Dhar bearing an inscription of Vikrama-samvat 1626; marble images (47 and 50) of Rsabhanatha from Jawas dated samvat 1416; an image (71) of black stone from Nagda (Dewas) of samvat 1222; an image (176) of Abhinandananatha which gives samvat 1118 as the date of its installation; two images of Santinatha mentioning sarhvat 1222 and 1231; an
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[PART X image of a goddess containing a three-line inscription of sarhvar 1224; and two black-stone images (49 and 56) of Suvratanātha from Ashta and Karcha, with inscriptions in twelfth-century characters.
Particularly interesting in the collection is an image of Pärsvanätha from Guna wherein the Jina is shown as sitting in padmāsana under the canopy of a seven-hooded serpent and Yaksa Dharanendra and Yaksi Padmavati to his left and right respectively.
Among the Jaina Devis, one of the finest is a fragmentary image of Cakreśvari from Badnawar. From the same place were also acquired images of Mahāmānasi, Rohini, Ambikā and Nirvāņa-devi which are important from the point of view of art.
One of the stone reliefs (141) in the Museum shows figures of six Jaina goddesses with a child on the lap of each and the name of each goddess. Another relief (156) contains the figures with their names, Deva-dāsi, Rasadgupa-devi, Vimäravati and Trisalā-devī, inscribed below.
The Museum also has twenty-two metal images and a samavasarana in its collection, most of them inscribed.
SATYANDHAR KUMAR SETHI
SURENDRA KUMAR ARYA
RAIPUR MUSEUM
The Mahant Ghasidas Memorial Museum at Raipur has an interesting collection consisting of forty stone images of Tirtharikaras, attendant gods and goddesses, caumukhas and sahasra-küțas belonging to the reign of the Kalacuri rulers, excepting an image of the times of the Somavamšīs of South Kosala. Out of the thirty-nine Kalacuri sculptures thirty-three represent the art of the Kalacuris of Dāhala or Cedi who had their seat at Tripuri (modern Tewar near Jabalpur). The remaining six images are from the territories occupied and ruled over by their younger branch having its capital at Ratnapura (modern Ratanpur in District Bilaspur). The single image of the Somavamsi period is assignable to circa A.D. 890 and is said to have come from Sirpur or ancient Sripura, the ancient capital of South Kosala. The Dahala sculptures, all collected from Karitalai in District Jabalpur, belong to the tenth and eleventh centuries. Out of the images collected from Chhattisgarh, four were found at Ratanpur, while two broken images are from Arang in District Raipur, all assignable to the twelfth century.
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Sculptures front Strpur
PĀRSVANATHA: The image of Parsvanátha (0003, height 1.08 m.) is seated in padonasana in dhydna-mudra under the seven-headed hood of a serpent whose body is rendered into a couple of parallel coils and seemingly serves as a cushion at the back of the Tirthankara. At the extremities makaras forming the back seat of the Jina are also visible. The face, hands and knees of the figure are damaged. The Jina has the Srivatsa and the cakra in the centre of his chest and palms respectively. His curly hair is adorned with an uşnisa in the centre. The pedestal of the image is much mutilated. Sculptures from Karitalai
Karitalai was an important contre of the Jainas during the Kalacuri period. A large number of Jaina images have been found at that place, out of which thirty-three have been acquired by the Raipur Museum.
RŞABHANĀTHA : The Museum has in its collection six stone images of Rsabhanātha. Of these an image (2537, height 1.35 m.) shows Rsabbanātha seated in padmasana and dhyana-mudrä on a high ornamental pedestal. The head, right hand and left knee of the image are broken. On the chest is the śrivatsa and behind the head a prabha-mandala is the triple chatra, flanked by an elephant and rider on either side. Above the chatra is a drummer. Below the elephants are shown a couple of Vidyadharas carrying garlands. Below the Vidyadharas are shown the Indras of the Saudharma and Išāna heavens with cauris in their hands. The pedestal shows a bull and below it a representation of the dharma-cakra flanked by a lion on either side. The right corner of the simhasana is occupied by Gomukha, the Yakşa, and Cakreśvari, the Yaksi, seated in lalitasana on the left corner. The second image (2576, height 1.32 m.) of Rsabbanātha is similar to the image described above. Both the hands and knces of the figure are damaged. Yakşi Cakreśvari is shown seated on Garuda. The remaining four images (0033, 2525, 2548, and 2594) show Rsabhanātha seated in padmasana and in dhyana-mudra. The pedestal of one of the images (0033, height 74 cm.) shows on the left corner the goddess Ambika in place of Cakreśvari, while the sirnhäsana of another image (2548) has a pair of elephants in addition
SANTINĂTHA : An image of Sāntinātha (2538) which shows him standing in kayotsarga-posture has on the pedestal a deer, the lanchana of Santinātha, besides flanking lions and miniature representations of Garuda and Mahamānas, the Yakga and Yaksi of Santinātha respectively.
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(PART X, PARSVANATHA : All the five images of Pārsvanatha in the Museum are from Karitalai. Of these, two (0035, height 1.04 m., and 2577, height 1.37 m.) are in fact caturvtrhati-pattas with Pārsvanåtha as the mūla-näyaka. The first shows him seated in padmasana in dhyāna-mudrä on a serpent which is shown sheltering with its seven-headed hood the figure of Pārsvanātha; the image has miniature representations of nine Tirthankharas to the right and eight to the left; the remaining six, originally represented in the top row above the chatra, are now missing. The pedestal of the image has miniature representations of seated Dharanendra and Padmăvati, both having serpent-hoods over their heads. The remaining two Pārsvanātha images (2553 and 2551) are damaged.
MAHĀVĪRA : One of the best sculptures in the Raipur collection is a fine white-sandstone image of Mahāvira (0036, height 1.01 m.) seated in utthitapadmasana in dhyāna-mudrä on a high pedestal (plate 373A). His hair is curly with an uşnişa in the centre. He has the srivatsa on his chest. Unfortunately, the top and right portions containing the prabhā-mandala and representations of other prātihäryas are broken and lost; however, miniature representations of some of the Jinas, still visible on the proper right of Mahāvira, suggest that tbe image was intended to be a caturviṁsati-patta. The pedestal of the image shows a cakra and a lion, the lanchana, in the centre between the lions representing the simhasana. Just below the cakra and the lanchana is the figure of a reclining lady,who may, perhaps, be the donor of the image. The pedestal also contains miniature representations of Mātanga and Siddhāyikā, the Yaksa and Yakși of Mahāvira, at its extremities. Below them is a devotee on either side.
OTHER TĪRTHAŃKARAS : There are four Tirthankara images in the Museum-collection which, however, are not identifiable. Of these, the redsandstone image (2523, height 1.37 m.), in kāyotsarga-posture, is one of the best sculptures in the collection and is datable to circa tenth century. On the pedestal of the image are shown the eight planets. The other two pieces (2604 and 1609) are the broken heads of Tirthankara images, while another (2580) is the part of some pillar containing representation of a Tirthankara standing in käyotsarga.
DVI-MÜRTIKĀS ETC. : The collection contains five dvi-mûrtikas of different Tirthaakaras, all standing in kāyotsarga on a low pedestal. One or two of these images have short inscriptions incised on the bottom of the pedestals
fi For a reclining female (Yakşi Bahurupiņi) below a Jina (Munisuvrata). see above, p. 163, with references, and plate 90.-Editor.)
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MUSEUMS IN INDIA which are unintelligible. A red Kaimur sandstone dvi-mürtika (2557, height 1.38 m.), represents Ajitanātha and Sambhavanātha (plate 373B), while the images of Rsabbanātha and Ajitanátha, Puşpadanta and sitalanatha, Dharmanātha and Santinatha, and Mallinātha and Munisuvratanātha (height of cach 1:07 m.). are of white sandstone. Triple umbrellas, haloes, flying Vidyadharas, caurl-bearers, Indras and the respective Yaksas and Yaksis are depicted in all these images. Two other dvi-mürtikas (2605 and 2610) are badly damaged. On the basis of these images it may not be wrong to conjecture that dvi-mürtikas of perhaps all the twenty-four Tirthaikaras were installed in the Jaina temples at Karitalai. Another piece in the Museum (2595, width 61 cm.) is perhaps the upper part of a tri-mürtika, representing three unidentified Tirthankaras standing in kāyotsarga.
SARVATOBHADRIKA : A caumukha sculpture (2555, height 68.5 cm.) represents four Tirtharkaras seated in padmasana on the four sides of a pillar (plate 374A). Of these, Pärsvanātha is identified by the serpent-hood. The others may perhaps be Rşabhanátha, Neminātha and Mahavira.
SAHASRA-KÜTAS : There are four examples of sahasra-katas in the collection. The tallest (2519, height 89 cm.) has one hundred and sixty small images in seven tiers. The second example (2537, height 76 cm.) contains one hundred and forty-four images in six tiers. The remaining two (2541 and 2540) have representations of one hundred and sixteen and one hundred and sixtyfour Jinas respectively in five tiers. Cf. above, plate 99.
AMBIKĀ : The Sasana-devi of the twenty-second Tirthankara Neminātha, Amra or Ambika, is represented in three sculptures. One of these (0097, height 40.5 cm.) is a white-spotted red-sandstone image of Ambikā seated in lalitäsana on a lion (plate 374B). The two-armed goddess is shown holding an amra-lumbi in her right hand. Her younger child Priyankara, sitting on the lap, is supported by the left hand, while the elder son Subhankara is seen below the right leg of the Yakşi who is also attended by a female attendant on either side. The ornamentation of the image is rich and the expression smiling and blissful. The top portion of the image is broken. The second image (0034, height 91.5 cm.) represents Ambikā standing in tri-bhanga under a mango-tree on a plain pedestal with Priyankara on the lap and Subhankara standing bepeath the bunch of mangoes held by Ambika in her right hand. A small seated figure of Neminātha is seen overhead amidst the flowering tree. To the left and right of Ambikă are standing a bearded devotee with folded hands and a female worshipper respectively. The vehicle of the goddess, a lion, is seen behind her legs. A third piece (2681, height 48 cmn.), appearing to
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(PART X be a broken part of a doorway, represents Ambika and Padmavati seated below ..an arch.
SARASVAT . A much-damaged red-sandstone sculpture of Sarasvati (2524, height 79 cm.) represents the four-handed Vidyā-devi seated in lalitasana. Her head and hands are broken, but a vina, held in her lower right and left hands, is visible.
Sculptures from Ratanpur
RŞABHANATHA : The Museum has two images of Rşabhapătha which were originally found at Ratanpur in District Bilaspur. One of them (0001, height 1.04 m.) represents the first Tirthankara seated in padmasana in dhyanamudra under a triple umbrella on an ornamental seat. His nose and lips are damaged. Behind his head is the prabha-mand ala and on his chest a frivatsa. To either side of the umbrella is an elephant with a rider on its back. In the panel below the elephants on each side are flying male and female Vidyadharas carrying garlands. Below them are the Indras of Saudharma and Isana heavens on the right and left sides of the Tirthankara respectively. The ornamental seat shows a bull, the lanchana. In front and at the back of the bull are represented a male and a female devotee who are worshipping the main figure. On the pedestal is a dharma-cakra in the centre flanked by a couchant lion. On the right and left corners of the pedestal are carved respectively small figures of Gomukha and Cakreśvari, both seated in lalitāsana. Another image (0002, height 81 cm.) is similar to the image described above but is much damaged; it has a single umbrella above the head.
CANDRAPRABHA : The black granite image of Candraprabha (0007, height 73.5 cm.) is shown seated in padmasana in dhyana-mudra. The figure is damaged; however, it can be recognized on the basis of the crescent, his lanchana, carved on his ornamental seat, and the Yaksa and Yakşi at the extremities of the pedestal.
Sculptures from Arang
The sculptures (0104 and 0105) from Arang, District Raipur, are all broken. Both these pieces perhaps represent some Tirthankaras standing in kāyotsarga-postures.
BALCHANDRA JAIN
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MUSEUMS IN INDIA COLLECTIONS AT KHAJURAHO Apart from the sculptures on the façades of the temples, there are hundreds of Jaina pieces, complete or mutilated, lying scattered at Khajuraho, indicating that the number of Jaina temples at Khajuraho was much larger than what is now extant (above, chapter 22). On the inner face of the compoundwall of the Jaina group of temples are fixed over three hundred sculptural and architectural pieces (plate 375), awaiting removal to a proposed museum. In addition, a few Jaina pieces are displayed in the Archaeological Museum at Khajuraho, established in 1967, to house the material at one time collected in an open-air museum. The following is a survey of the more important pieces in both the collections, the first called here the Jaina Collection and the second the Khajuraho Museum.
TIRTHANKARAS: The majority of the Tirtharkara sculptures represent Rşabbanátha, the more remarkable of them in the sitting-posture. The largest of them, now in the Khajuraho Museum (1667), was acquired from near the Ghantai temple; it has the word Ghanfai inscribed at the corner of the high simhasana, which shows a dharma-cakra flanked by a lion and Yaksa Gomukha on the right and again by a lion and Yakşi Cakreśvari on the left. On the elegant pedestal are depicted the Nava-grahas, starting with Sürya. Around the Tirthankara are two flywhisk-bearing Indras, elephants, vyālas, makaras, etc., occupying the appropriate places. The presentation of the eight prätihāryas and the lotus-shaped halo is remarkable. The locks of the artistically-combed hair of the main deity fall on his shoulders. Another seated Rşabbanātha in the Jaina Collection (103) also shows Gomukha and Cakreśvari on the pedestal. The latter is shown in lalita-pose on her Garuda-mount, with her upper hands having a mace and conch and the lower ones varada-mudra and a conch. The pedestal shows a humped bull flanked by a male and a female, evidently the donors of the image. The Indras in tri-bhanga have lotuses in their hands, but the usual flywhisks are missing. The halo is flanked by a couple of running elephants with vessels over them and also a Vidyādhara-couple carrying garlands. Further above this are two each of Gandharvas with garlands and parasol, over which are a sūci, an amalaka and a kalasa. The udghoşakas have on either side Gandharva maidens with vina in their hands. Two more images, also in the same Collection (8 and 27), deserve mention even though they are fragmentary, So are three others (1612, 1712 and 1642) in the Khajuraho Musenm, all representative pieces of medieval art. The most beautiful representation of Rsabhanatha in the Museum (1830, plate 376A) shows the
Abridged from a chapter contributed by the author.--Editor.]
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Tirthankara as seated on a deeply-carved simhasana, with a string hanging from the frīvatsa on his chest. The halo consists of seven roundels. A string
ning out of the mouth of the kirttimukha touches a horse-rider, Below the overhead parasol is a lotus. Each of the three Vidyadharas is shown as flying through clouds.
A remarkable Parsvanātha (plate 376B) recovered by the present writer in 1966-67 from a field near the Ghantai temple is now in the Jaina Collection (100). The tail of the serpent, the lanchana of the Jina, dangles over the carpet of the throne. Its coils form the seat of Pārsvanatha and end in forming the canopy over his head. Dharanendra and Padmavati, also with snake-hooded canopies, are shown seated in padmāsana on Pārsvanātha's seat, on either si of which is an Indra with lotus in one hand and flywhisk in the other. The slab depicts on an outer panel on either side an elephant, vyāla, makara, etc. On either side of the canopy, above the Yakşas, are elephants, whereas the parasol is flanked by gods and Vidyadharas with musical instruments and garlands. The limbs of the Tīrthankara are proportionate. The design of the hair is of uşnişa-type. A remarkable Pärsvanātha in the Khajuraho Museum (1654. plate 377A) is in the standing-pose, with the usual Yaksa and the Yaksi. What is remarkable there is the depiction of all the nine Grahas, whereas only Sarya is mostly associated with Parávanātha who is worshipped particularly on Sundays. Perhaps this image could be taken to have been made for some particular ritual.
Though Sāntinātha is also represented at Khajuraho, neither of the two collections houses any important image of this Jina. Mahāvira images are not common, their number being hardly twenty. The Khajuraho Museum houses a Mahavira (457) inscribed with the words pranamati Viranātha-deva. The other incription rūpakāra Kumāra-siha may be taken to record the sculptor's name. Mahāvira is represented by some other images (1631, 1637, 1689 of the Khajuraho Museum and some unnumbered ones in the Jaina Collection). If the tradition that all images without any symbol represent Mahāvira is accepted, then there would be over one hundred images of the Tirthankara.
A piece in the Jaina Collection (102, plate 377B) seems to be the upper part of a torana, the centre of which is a seated Jina for whose worship are coming kings on elephants holding lotuses with their trunks. The upper panel shows two Vidyadharas holding garlands and lotuses in hands and a row of eight Gandharvas engaged in playing on musical instruments on either side. The scene may represent the birth-lustration of the Jina.
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Ang
AD
Mw5KASAMA
A.
44
Jaina Collection, Khajuraho : general view
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B. Jaina Collection, Khajuraho : Tirthankara Parsvanatha
A. Khajuraho Museum : Tirthankara Rsabhanatha
PLATE 376
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A. Khajuraho Museum : Tirthańkara Pārsvanātha
B. Jaina Collection, Khajuraho: a torana
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A. Khajuraho Museum : Yakşi Ambtka
18
B. Khajuraho Museum : Tirthankara Rşabhanātha
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12
A. Deogarh: a Tirthankara
B. Deogarh : a Tirthankara
C. Deogarh : part of a lintel with tri-mürtika, other Tirthankaras,
Nava-grahas and Yaksis
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A. Deogarh: Tirthankara Rṣabhunatha
14
B. Deogarh: Tirthankaras Pārsvanatha and Rsabhanatha
C. Deogarh: Yakşi Cakreśvari
PLATE 380
[PART X

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A. Deogarh: an Upadhāyāya
C. Deogarh: a pillar
PLATE 381
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
B. Deogarh Bahubal

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Deogarh : Cakravartin Bharata
PLATE 382

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who wears a thick set of necklaces, an elbow-ornament and a series of bangles. The drapery is loose with flowing ends and bows on the sides with a looping sash with festoons and tassels banging in front. On the karanda-mukuta is a miniature Tirthankara figure. The piece belongs to circa thirteenth century. (Plate 384B).
BRONZES IN THE GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, PUDUKKOTTAI
Among the bronzes in the Museum, all from Kalasakkadu, a locality in Pudukkottai town, are: two Pärávanāthas (heights 20-3 and 10 cm.), one in the early and the other in the late style, both having a serpent-hood over the head and standing on a pedestal; a Mahăvira (10 cm.) seated in ardha-paryarikasana in dhyána over a pedestal; and a catur virtati-patta (37 cm.), a relievo of twenty-three Tirthankara arranged in the frame of the prabha-mandala around the mula-ndyaka RşabhanAtha standing on a pedestal.
K. R. SRINIVASAN
30
WANIT
27
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MUSEUMS IN INDIA projections support the Jina's Yakşa and Yakşi. The elaborate but broken prabhävalt bears representations of twenty-three Tirthankaras with Parsvanātha on the top. Caurīs appear on either side of the main figure, which has a triple umbrella over it. The image is of fine finish with curly locks of hair on the head and longer tufts of hair hanging on either side of the head. (Plate 383B.) Another Mahavira (36-3/35, height 13.3 cm.) from the same hoard is seated on a pedestal surmounted by a perforated āsana with the lion-lañchana between two kneeling devotees. The seat supports a prabhă depicting Gandharvas and Vidya-devi with a hook in her hand. The Yaksas stand on either side of the main figure. Another (damaged) Mahāvira (36-4/35, height 29 cm.) is seated on a sinhäsana, the front of which bears three lions, the central one being the lanchana. A fragment of the prabha has the triple umbrella and another the bha-mandala. The Kannada inscription on the pedestal gives the name of the female donor.
Amongst the finds from Singanikuppam, District South Arcot, are two Mahăvira figures. The first (389/57, height 84 cm.), well-proportioned and of smooth and pleasing workmanship, stands in kayotsarga on a padmasana, with the right hand broken. It may belong to the mid-fourteenth century. (Plate 384A). The other (390/57, height 19 cm.) stands on a circular metal plate, which was perhaps inserted into a pedestal, now missing. There are a few other Tirthankaras from the place, but they cannot be identified and are generally featureless. A Tirthankara (height 39 cm.) from Sivaganga, District Ramanathapuram, is seated in ardha-paryarikāsana on a simple but nicelymoulded high bhadrâsana. Behind the asana are two cauri-bearers standing symmetrically in tri-bhanga and wearing karanda-mukutas. "The Tirthankara is well-proportioned. The lion-motifs at the extreme of the back of the seat, though much conventionalized, indicate the simhasana. Two more rampant lions, facing out on either side of the pedestal, carry short pins above their heads intended for the attachment of the prabhā. The drapery and ornaments of the cauri-bearers indicate a late Påndya date, circa 1200.
Mention may also be made of a seated Candraprabha with two attendants (8/27) from Tirumalai, District North Arcot, and of a thirteenth-century Rşabhanatha recently acquired from Gidangil, District South Arcot.
AMBIKA : In a piece from Singanikuppam (321/57, height 87.7 cm.) Ambika is seen standing in graceful tri-bharga on a finely-moulded padmasana placed over a bhadrâsana which has a projection in front. The Yaksi rests her left hand on the head of a pretty-looking ceri (maid) who also stands in tri-bhanga and holds a garland. A small boy stands to the right of Ambikā.
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ART-OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS
(PART X
A. Government Museum, Madras . bronze Tirthankara Mahavira (Singanikuppam)
3
SAN
B. Government Museum, Madras: bronze Yakşi Ambika (Singanikuppam)
AMAR
PLATE 384

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CHAPTER 38]
F
B. Government Museum Madras: bronze Tirthankara Mahavira (Kagali)
All
"",
PLATE 383
1.
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
A. Government Museum, Madras: bronze Tirthankara Sumatinatha (Kagali)

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ART-OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS
(PART X
There are a large number of images of Dharanendra-Padmavati (sometimes identified as the parents of Jina). These are of two types. Of the first type are those images in which Padmavati is shown with a child on her lap; in the other, she is shown either by the side of her consort or sitting on his lap.
A figure of a Jaina teacher (Upadhyāya) (plate 381A), now kept in the Jaina temple at the back of the Sahu Jain Museum, is another important piece. Bearing a five-line inscription dated Vikrama-sarhvat 1333, it shows the Paramesthin seated in padmdsana. In the Sahu Jain Museum is kept another fine piece showing the Parameşthin in ardha-paryankasana.
Another important piece in the Sahu Jain Museum is the figure of Bharata (plate 382) in käyotsarga-posture shown along with the nine treasures depicted in the form of nine vases. Among the earlier examples is a Bahubali (plate 381B) image, kept on display in the Sahu Jain Museum, which shows him fully, lost in meditation, while two female figures are shown removing the creepers which has entwined his body.
BHAGCHANDRA JAIN
MUSEUMS IN TAMIL NADU
BRONZES IN THE GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, MADRASI
TIRTHANKARAS : Sumatinatha is represented in a bronze (36-1/35, height 32.5 cm.) from Kogali, District Bellary. The Jina is seated on padmasana attached to a simhasana with the cakra at the centre. To the pedestal is attached an elaborate prabhavali in the shape of a vimana presenting other deities. The Yaksa and Yakşi, the latter with a dwarf by her side, and two female cauri-bearers appears on either side. The main figure has a bhamandala and triple umbrella. A Kannada inscription on the pedestal gives the name of the sculptor filpin (plate 383A). In the hoard from Kogali, to which this piece belongs, there are other Tirthankara images. Of them, &
anātha' figure (36-1/35, height 23:5 cm.) stands on padmasama with a five-hooded cobra over the head, attached by hooks behind. The board has also Mahävira images. One of them (36-2/35, height 36°3 cm.) stands on a padmasana attached to a rectangular base supported by four legs. Two lateral
1 Information kindly supplied to the anchor by Shri V. N. Srinivasa Designs, Curator for Art and Archaeology, Government Museum, Madras, who has been preparing a catalogue of the bronzes in the Museum.
"Supårsvanátha 2-Editor.)
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CHAPTER 38)
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
The loose sculptures from the site have been collected and are either fixed in the modern compound-wall around the temples and the recently-constructed Sahu Jain Museum at Deogarh; in addition, there is a Government collection. The State Museum, Lucknow, and the Samantabhadra Vidyalaya, Delhi, have some Deogarh pieces in their collections.
The sculptural art of Jaina affiliation at Deogarh can be seen in a variety of Tirthankaras, Sāsana-devis, caturvinnsati-paffas, Vidyadharas, sarvatobhadrika images, sahasra-kūtas, Acāryas and Upādhyāyas måna-stambhas and pillars and frävakas and śråvikas, besides other sculptural representations. In these sculptures can be seen the influence of the post-Gupta, Pratihāra and the Candella styles.
The largest number of images from Deogarh are of the Tirthankaras; mostly images are of Adinātha (plate 380A, B), Pärśvanātha (plate 380B), Neminátha, Sumatinātha and Mabāvira. Most of the Tirtharkara images are carved on sila-pattas and caturvithéati-pattas, besides in the form of dvi- and tri-mürtikas (plate 379C) and as sarvatobhadrika images. One of the pillars has representations of one hundred and seventy-six figures of Tirthankaras carved on it (plate 381C), apart from a sahasra-kūța.
Among the Tirthankara figures, the following are important:
(1) Tirthankara seated in padmāsana on a lion-throne with the figures of a lion on each side of the throne and a dharma-cakra in the centre. This muchdamaged piece is perhaps the oldest among the Tirthankara images from Deogarh and may be attributed to the Gupta period. The image is now fixed in the compound of Temple 12.
(2) An image of Tirtharkara (Santinatha ?) in käyotsarga-posture with the lion on its pedestal on the left and deer on the right, which seems to be an unusual feature.
There are two images of the goddess Cakreśvari (plate 380C) which are on display in the Sahu Jain Museum. One of these, which was originally in the antarala of Temple 12, is a very fine piece. It shows the twelve-armed goddesses seated on her mount, Garuda, and holding a rosary and a sarkha in two of her hands and cakra in seven bands; the remaining hands are damaged. Another important piece is an image of Ambikä at the entrance to the garbha-grha of Temple 12.
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ART-OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS
.
(PART X
Khajuraho Museum (820, which has a couple and cdmarandharinis on the pedestal and holds a lotus in her hands, 1467, plate 378A, and 1608, which is not remarkable) and in the Jaina Collection (96).
The Khajuraho Museum displays a beautiful door-lintel (1467) with Ambika, Cakreśvari and Padmavati having all their usual parikara (plate 378A) - a good example of Candella art. Seated in lalitasana are shown the nine Grahas and below a vyantara-sakha. A simhasana in the Jaina Collection has an attractive Cakreśvari carved on it (85). With all the hands and legs broken, the twelve-armed deity, seated on Garuda, has, besides a Tirthankara at the top, two other Tirthankaras, both broken, probably Rşabbanatha and Parsvanátha, one on each side. A doorlintel in the same Collection depicts a Cakreśvari flanked by an Ambika on either side within a central compartment. Most of the Rşabhanātha images have on their pedestals Gomukha and Cakreśvari in diminutive sizes. A sculpture of some Săsana-devi (perhaps Cakreśvari on account of the presence of the nine Grahas at the top) in the Khajuraho Museum (1601) is notable for its height. In the same Museum there is a beautiful Rsabbanātha (1651), the pedestal of which is remarkable for the replacement of two usual lions by the same number of goddesses, and for the fine presentation of Gomukha Yakşa and Cakreśvari, both partly broken (plate 378B).
DIK-PALAS : The collections at Khajuraho have images of Dik-pålas also. It is to be noted that while in the Pārsvanātha temple the Dik-pālas occupy their normal positions, in the Adinātha temple they are replaced by Yaksa Gomukha.
TORAŅAS ETC.: Many toranas, probably used as the architraves of the vedis or of huge images, are found at Khajuraho. The Jaina Collection houses five such toranas. Also housed in the Museum is a lintel (1724), deserving mention for the presence of Bharata and Bahubali in addition to some Tirthaikara figures.
NRAJ JAIN COLLECTIONS OF DEOGARH Famous for its Brahmapical and Jaina temples, Deogarh, District Lalitpu, is also well-known for its sculptural wealth datiаg mainly from the seventheighth to the twelfth centuries. However, it is also believed that the period of activity at the site had earlier beginnings during the Gupta perioda (plate 3798) and continued till about the Mughal times.
Abeid ged from a chapter contributed by the author-Editor:)
The author says that there is a Mauryan inscription at Drogurt and some sculptures (eg a Tirthadkara, plate 379A) sbow Gandhara influencer Editar]
$96

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CHAPTER 38]
MUSEUMS IN INDIA
YAKŞAS AND YAKŞis : Of the number of Dharanendra-Padmavatis at Khajuraho, the most beautiful one (above, plate 163) can be seen built into the north-west corner of the inner courtyard of the Säntinātha temple, sometimes identified as the parents of Jina. Each, seated on a finely-carved separate seat, has the left foot bent and the right one placed on a lotus. Dharapendra wears a dhoti coming down to the knees, and his uttariya hangs from the shoulders to the legs. He has a coconut in the right hand and a lotus in the left which is now missing. The embroidered säri of Padmavati touches the feet and the uttariya touching her arms comes down to the feet. Richly ornamented, she holds a coconut in her right hand and a baby in her left. Both the Yaksa and Yaksi have a halo each at the back and between them is shown a tree with a Tirthankara on the top. The Tirthankara is flanked by the usual figures of Vidyādharas, etc., all very finely carved. On either side of the pedestal below are depicted a câmara-dharini and two male figures. In the middle is shown a seated Devată with two attendants having their hands folded. Another Dharanendra-Padmavati group in the Khajuraho Museum (1609) is not so artistically carved. The tree with its geometrically-carved leaves is unimpressive; so are the pedestal and the parikara of the deities which have roughly chiselled dress and ornaments.
The Khajuraho Museum houses a beautiful Ambika (1608) in dark-red sandstone. The deity stands below a tree laden with mangoes and with Neminatha on the top. Her three hands are broken and a finger of the fourth is held by Subhankara, her elder son, standing by the side. Her second son Priyankara and the mount-lion are shown on the left. A group of five goddesses attends on Ambikä on either side. With a well-proportioned body, the deity is heavily ornamented with jewellery and has an attractive arrangement of her hair. A larger Ambika is built into the wall of the well inside the Jaina compound. Standing in tri-bhanga below a mango-tree with a Tirthařkara in padmasana, the deity has an oval halo behind and an elaborate crown on her head and the usual ornaments on her person. All the four hands are, however. broken. A son and the lion on the left and a couple below attend on her. On the pedestal is engraved a three-line indistinct inscription in which the year (Vikrama-samvat) 1219 can be read. The same panel on the other side has another inscription, reading perhaps rūpakara-lat suggesting the name of the sculptor. The Jaina Collection has another important Ambika (42) standing in tri-bhanga under a mango-tree. In one of her right hands she holds the amra-lumba (the other right hand is missing), in the upper left hand a lotus and in the lower left her son Subhankara. The second son Priyaókara stands on the side with a fruit. Some additional Ambikās are represented in the
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abhaya
adhisthana
agra-mandapa
anarpita-hāra
andaka
antarala
antarapatra
ardha
mand apa arpita-hara
asana-patta
Aṣṭāpada
asva-thara
atibhanga
äyäga-pata
bandhana
bhadra bhadra-pitha
bhamati
bharani
bhiffa
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
hand-gesture (mudra) of offering protection. moulded basement of a temple, synonym for vedi-bandha. same as mukha-mandapa; entrance-porch.
a hara standing free from the main wall of the vimāna. turret-design.
intermediate compartment between shrine and mandapa.
a recessed moulding coming between two projected mouldings. pillared hall of one bay usually at the entrance; same as mukhamandapa.
a hara attached to the main wall of the vimāna.
a flat moulding of the kakşasana or balconied window.
the eight-terraced mountain (or its representation) where Adinatha attained nirvana.
frieze of horses.
with exaggerated flexion.
slab carved with sacred Jaina figures and symbols.
a projected moulding dividing the jangha into the upper and lower sections.
central projection of a shrine.
a variety of south-Indian moulded pedestal.
colonnaded passage of a medieval Jaina temple.
pillar-capital.
sub-base of a temple.
caitya-window same as kūḍu or caitya-dormer design.
candra-sila
lowest step shaped like half-moon.
caturmukha
same as caumukha(i) or sarvatobhadra; a type of shrines or shrine or shrine-model with openings on all the four sides.
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GLOSSARY OF TBCHNICAL TERMS
Tirthankara
comitatipatra catuski caumukha(7) chádya
a stela, frieze or image with the twenty-four
figures. bay; space between four pillars; same as cauki. same as caturmukha. eave-projection.
danda-chädya deva-kostha deva-kulika
straight ribbed awning or eave-projection. aiche containing image. small shrine; subsidiary shrine facing bhamati.
gaja-prsthakrti gajatalu gaja-thara garbha-gsha ghafa-pallava gopura gräsa-paffi
shrine shaped like elephant-back; apsidal. a component of ceiling resembling a coffered cusp. frieze of elephants. sanctum sanctorum or shrine-cell. design of pot-and-foliage. main gateway; structure over the entrance. a frieze of kirttimukhas. constriction below the finial of the superstructure.
griva
hära
string of miniature shrines comprising kūtas, salas and panjaras
decorating each storey of the south-Indian vimana. attic storey; attic portion of a south-Indian vimana.
harmya
jad ya-kumbha jagati jalaka jarigha
lowest moulding of the pitha (socle) of a medieval temple. platform, usually moulded. trellis-work, usually on the window or the Sikhara. middle portion of a temple above the basement and below the
śikhara. standing image of Mahavira wearing crown and ornaments.
Jivantasvāmin
kaksasana
principal moulding emulating a sloping back-rest of the
balconied window. torus-moulding often resembling a pitcher; lowermost member of the south-Indian pillar-capital.
kalaka
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kaffu
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS kapata ; 'cornios-like sexed moulding usually crowning the basement
(adhisphina or vedi-bandha). karna " quoin or corner; corner-projection. Karrea-keto shrine or turret raised over the karpa or corner. karno-driga turret rising over the karna or corner. karnika i knifo-edge moulding; thin fillet-like moulding.
intervening octagonal portion between the bottom and top
squares of a pillar. käyotsarga same as khadgasana or the posture adopted by standing
Tirtharkaras. khattaka elaborately-carved projecting niche resembling oriel-window. khajvárga human skull placed on a bone (attribute of a terrific divinity). khura
lowest moulding of the basement (vedi-bandha). kicaka atlas; stunted figure supporting a load or superstructure. kirttimukha lion-like head constituting an art-design of symbolical
significance. kşipta-vitāna a concave ceiling. kūdu (Tamil) an arched opening projecting from the flexed cornice (kapota);
same as caitya-window. kumbha
a moulding of the basement (vedi-bandha) coming above the
khura; upper member of the south-Indian pillar-capital. kumbhika
ornamental base of a pillar. küța-chädya carved eave-projection or awning.
lalața-bimba lalitäsana
figure carved on the middle of the lintel or architrave. easy posture with one leg flexed and placed on the seat and the other gracefully suspended from the seat.
madhya-bandha band with a relief or frieze at the middle of a member such as
jangha or pillar. maha-mandapa central pillared hall of a medieval temple with openings on the
lateral sides. makara-torana entrance-decoration or festoon issuing from the mouths of
makaras (crocodiles). mäna-stambha 'free-standing pillar-standard crowned by Jina images.
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GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS malica a variety of south-Indian adhişthāna. mahcika pafrika-like top moulding. mandapa generic term for a hall which may be open or closed, pillared
or astylar. mandaraka ornamental door-sill. mandovara architectural term of western India comprising the pitha, vedt
bandha and fargha. mukha-catuski entrance-porch or frontal bay at the entrance. mukha-mand apa frontal mandapa or entrance-porch. müla-näyaka principal enshrined divinity. müla-prasada sanctum proper.
ndbhicchanda an elaborate ceiling carved with the design of coffered cusps. nala-mand apa same as valánaka or covered stepped entrance. Nandjśvara- the last island-continent of the Jaina cosmography.
dvipa nara-thara frieze of human figures. näsikā
(literally nose) projected arched opening of a southern vimana.
Alpa-näsikā or ksudra-näsika is small, while mahd-ndsika is
large. nava-ranga maha-mandapa with four central and twelve peripheral pillars
so arranged as to enclose nine bays. nirandhära- shrine without ambulatory.
präsāda nişadya, Jaipa memorial-pillar or slab. nişedika, nisedhika nrtya-mandapa same as ranga-mand apa; peristylar assembly-hall.
padma
padma-bandha
padma-sila pañcāyatana pasca-meru
lotus-shaped moulding or member; capital-member shaped
like a lotus for supporting the south-Indian phalaka. decorative band separating the south-Indian pillar-shaft from
the capital. elaborately-carved lotus-shaped pendant of a ceiling. a temple surrounded by four minor shrines. representation of the five Merus of the Jaina tradition.
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pasa
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS patica-ratha 'temple with five projections. puntoa-fékha door-frame with five ornate jambs. panca-tirahka image with five Jina figures. paitara miniature apsidal shrine: same as nida. parikara '
subsidiary figures of an image.
hoose. patra-lata a frieze depicting creeper with foliage.' . patra-sakha jamb of a doorway carved with foliage. parta
plain or ornamental band. paffika
slab-like moulding; a top-moulding. phalaka abacus. phänsand architectural term from western India for a superstructure of
horizontal tiers (pid has); same as Orissan pidhd-deul). pitha
socle or pedestal-base. prabhāvali nimbus round an image. pradaksina circumambulation. pradakşina- circumambulatory passage.
patha präkära
enclosure-wall of a temple. prāggrīva porch-projection, same as agra-mand apa. prastara
entablature of the south-Indian vimåna. pratiratha projection coming between the bhadra and the karna.
räjasenaka lowest moulding of a kaksäsana or balconied window. ranga-mandapa a pillared hall open on all sides. ratha
projection of a shrine. ratna-fakha jamb of a doorway carved with diamond-pattern. rupakantha a recessed course carved with figures or a frieze. rūpa-sakha jamb of a doorway carved with figures.
sabhd-mand apa same as ranga-mand apa. sabha-marga an elaborate ceiling comprising multiple coffered cusps. daduram (Tamil) square section of a south-Indian pillar.
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sahasra-kita
bakha
sala
jamb of a door-frame.
oblong shrine with barrel-vault roof.
salitäntara
vertical recess.
sama-caturasra square in design.
sama-kşipta a variety of concave ceiling.
samatala-vitana ceiling of flat uniform level, usually adorned with friezes in
samavasarana
samvarana
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
pyramidal shrine-model with a thousand (numerous) figures of Jinas.
sändhäraprāsāda
sapta-sakha
door-frame with seven ornate jambs.
sarvatobhadra same as caturmukha; a shrine with four faces; a shrine-model with images on the four faces.
sarvatobhadrika a shrine-model with image on the four faces. siddhasana
sikhara
fukanāsa, Jukanäsika
registers.
representation of the preaching hall of a Jina built by gods with seats apportioned for gods, men and animals to hear the sermon which a Jina delivers after enlightenment.
roof comprising diagonally-arranged members crowned by bell-finials.
temple with ambulatory.
tādi (Tamil) tala
stambha-sakha jamb of a door-frame simulating a pilaster. stūpi, stūpika fiinal of a south-Indian vimäng.
same as dhyānāsana; posture adopted by seated Tirthankara. superstructure or roof of a temple. A north-Indian Sikhara is normally curvilinear, while a southern sikhara is domical, octagonal or four-sided.
antifix attached to the front face of Sikhara of a northIndian temple, showing a large caitya-window.
cushion-shaped member of the south-Indian pillar-capital. storey of a shrine, vimana or gopura; same as bhumi. The south-Indian vimana may have one storey (eka-tala), or two storeys (dvi-tala), or three storeys (tri-tala) and so on. The ground-floor is called adi-tala and the intermediate storey madhya-tala.
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GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS taranga 'weave-design resembling the Western reed-moulding, tarariga-potik corbel-bracket with roll-moulding. tilaka
a variety of turret-design. torana
ornamental entrance of numerous varieties and designs. trika-mand apa mandapa with three canapkis or bays of a medieval temple,
normally of the Jaina faith. tri-küta three viminas erected on a common basement or placed round
a common mand apa. tri-ratha temple with three projections. tri-säkcha door-frame with three ornate jambs. tri-tirthika an image with three Jina figures.
udgama
upāna
pediment of caitya-arches, usually employed as a crowning
decoration of a niche. lowermost part or the footing of the south Indian adhisthana
corresponding to the north-Indian khura. sub-base below the south-Indian adhisthåna. turret attached to the central projection. principal beam.
upapitha urah-śrnga uttira (Tamil)
valänaka varada varandika
covered stepped entrance. hand-gesture (mudra) of bestowing boon. the member or set of mouldings separating the jarigha from the
sikhara. see adhisthana
vedi-bandha
KRISHNA DEVA
009

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INDEX

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INDEX
1. The Index comprises al terms and subjects included in this book, together with terms of art and Architecture, historical name, place-ames (ancient and modern with appropriate cross Deference index entries), names and works of classical authors and names of modern authors all arranged alphabetically.
2. The index number in each entry is the murder of the page on which the item occurs in the book. References to plates, colour-illustration# and figures (text-illustrations) are preceded respectively by 'pt', 'col-itt' and 'fig.
3. The names of all the Tirthankarás have been alphabetically indexed under the generic heading "Jina'.
4. Names of individual Jaina Devas and Devis have been generally indexed under the generic headings Yaksa", "Yaksi'.
5. The following contractions have been used : col-il] =colour-illustration; cw compared with: def - defined; filg figure (text-illustration): pl-plate; rirt referred in relation to.
6. Persons consulting the Index may remember that :
(i) volume I contains pp 1-204, pis 1-12and figs I-IX; (ü) volume II contams pp 205-390, pls 127-264, col-ils 1-21 and figs X-XXV; and (iii) volume III contains pp 391-610, pls 265-384, col-ills 22-37 and figs XXVI-XLIX.
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shacus 221, 222 Abhi 252.
Abhayadeva(-Sari) 148, 241, 465n abhayoded 57, 67, 151 Abhidhana-altamani 307, 409n, 476 Abla 89
abhiseka-marti 213
Abu, Mount 31, 44, 45, 301, 301n, 303, 307, 308, 360, 362, 466
Acara-nakara 459, 471, 471, 472, 472, 476, 491, 4920
Mearanga-stre 16, 72, 72, 470
Acală 490
Acarya (Parameşthin) 42 Acacia Sirissa 63 Acchuptä 146
acelakatva 471
Achalgarh 446, 448
Acharya, P K 494n, 504n, 525m
Aciyakka 317
Acyutariya 387
Adbbudji temple, Nagda 343 Adhai-din-ka-Jhorbpdä, Ajmer 249, pls 146,
147
a-dharma 514, 514n
adhisthana 101, 210n, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 233, 279, 281, 289, 298, 356, 357, 497, 502
Adigaiman Elini 452 Adigal, Hango 95 Adinatha-basti, Basti-hall: 318; Lakshmeswar 314
Adinatha temple, Chitorgarh 357: Dholaka 305; Jaisalmer fort 340, 341; Khajuraho 279, 288-93, pls 171, 172; Nadlai 306n; Prabhisa 305; Ranakpur 357, 358, fig XXIII, pls 235, 236, 239, 240, 241; Sa trunjaya 304
Adl-purdna 395, 415, 416, 417, 421, 424, 425, 426, 469, 483, 4830, 484, 484n, 489, 490n; illustrations from-pls 278A, 282A-B, 283A, col-ills 36A-D
Adi-Sankara 326
Adifesa of Visnu 234
adidam 450
Adoni 320
Afghanistan v-vi of vol 11, 223 Agama 469, 470, 472
Agastya-sithba-Sari 489
age, period, times-Asokan 25; Calukya 546, 558; Caulukya 309, 557; Cola 226, 228, 323, 558; Gahadavala 555;
early Gupta 70p: Gupta 4, 6. 55, 68, 72, 114, 115, 116, 118, 128, 129, 130, 131, 134, 165, 168, 170, 192, 355, 442, 470, 475, 476, 484, 537, 544, 581 late Gupta 138; post-Gupta 149, 355, 476, 485; pre-Kanika 55, 59, 64, 65; Kaniska 553; pro-Kushan 57, 72; Kuskan 64, 65, 66, 72, 107, 109, 114, 115, 116, 126, 128, 130, 136, 170, 458, 466, 470, 471, 473, 474, 475, 476, 479, 490, 491, 492, 555; post-Kushan 66, 72; Mauryan 3, 5, 86, 87; medieval 4, 5, 7, 9, 158, 476, 581; Nayaka 332; Pala 153, 540; Pallava 226, 381; Pandyan 381; Pratthara 149, 150, 556; Rastrakata 320, 331; Sultanate 335; Tomara 170; Vijayanagara 212, 323-329, 332, 377, 389
Aghora 252
Agni 283, 331 Agra 345 agra-mandapa 212 Agrawala, G 539 Agrawala, P K 492 Agrawala, R C 363n
Agrawala, V S 64n, 83n, 88, 91n, 109, 126n, 356n, 441n, 476n, 482, 482n, 490n, 492, 493, 493n
agriculture, orginator of-19 ähära-däna 43
Ahar Museum, Udaipur 571, pls 180, 356A Ahar, Tikamgarh, 298n, 350, 352 Ahicchatra, Bareilly 16, 126, 242 Ahicchatta see Ahicchatra ahimsa 17
614
Ahmedabad 342, 408, 423n, 431 Ahmedpur, Vidisha 583
Aiholr, Bijapur, 32, 129, 188, 195, 196, 197, 312, 313, 372, pls 116A-B, 120B Aiññurrava Perumpalli, Tiruvennayil 213 Airavata, elephant 283, 522 Airavata-kşetra 486
Aivarmalai 99. 229, 453 Aivarsanai 102
Alyampalaiyam 99
Aiyangar, K 270
Ajaigarh, Panna 353
Ajanta 38, 138, 394, 396, 398, 399, 400
Ajätaiatru, Ajätasattu 69
Ajayameru see Ajmer
Ajayaraja 239
Ajimganj, Murshidabad 347 Ajitanatha temple, Taranga 304 Ajite-pandpa 310

Page #356

malam hari al-D Alacebo
Atvik 23, 25, 7073 Albanandi , 97, 98,452
Aghii-din-ka-Jhonbrda. 146, 147;
Medlewo $721 Akaona brust, Sravanabelgota 317 * 205A Akbar 426, Akota bronzes, board 134, 135, 138, 139, 180,
181, 368, 553, 570, pls 65, 66, 67, 68,
109, 110, 111, 112 Akrti 395# akrinima cattydoyas 518, 519, 522, 526 Alagarmalai, Madurai 98, 452 Alagiya Pallaveg 324,327 Alaka 650 Alarh bhika 22 alasa-kanya 5 "Alau'd-Din Khilji 355, 356, 495 Alavi see Afathbhika Albana 578 Alhapadeva 240 alinda 499 Alirajpur, Jhabua 352 Allahabad Museum 245, figs XIII, XIV alocana 21 alligator rirt lañchana 15 Altekar, AS 32n, 121n Aluara, Dhanbad (?), Manbhum (?) 166,
263, pl 157B Alūpa-devi 322 Alūpas 454 Aluruttımalai 101 Alvars 185, 207 Āma 170 amalaka 154, 157, 174, 178, 263, 266, 267,
282, 283, 290, 355, 356, 505, 538, 558,
587, fig XXXVI amalaka-bhūmi 290 Amalakappa, Vaishali 16 dmala-sdra see dmalaka amanan 101 Amar, Gopilal 12, 514n, 5190 Amarapurrm, Anantapur 320, 322, 367 Amaravati 400 amdrhghosand 240 Amba-Kasmandini see Yaksi, Ambika Amblid.kalpa 476 Ambikanagar, Bankura 155, 157; temple
pl 83B
armbulatory 143, 145, 171, 174, 178, 211,
219, 246, 304 sce also circumambulatory,
pradaksid patha Athda (Andhra) 26 Amer 241, 249, 426 Amitagati 278 Amma IT 449 Ammachatram hill 101 Amoghavarga 32, 386 Amohini 4416 Amra ser Yakst, Ambika Amnabhasta 304 Amasala-vana 481 Amrol, Gwalior, 170 Apabila ada, Anahillapura, Anhilvad
Patan 170, 183, 447 anagdrarva 20 Anaitalai, Madurai 96, 208, 452 Ananda 118 Ananda temple, Pagan 269, fig XX Anandji-Mangalji-ni Pedhi-nā Jaan Bhan
dära, Idar 405 Anandpur, Keonjhar 159, 160 anangas 487 Ananta-gumphā, Khandagiri, Puri 77, 81,
82, pls 26, 27 Anantálvar 453 Agantavarman Rājarāja 323 anarpita-hdra 219, 220 andaka 302, 513 Andar-madam cavern 101 Andhakāntaka 252n Andhaka-vrsi 17 Andhra, Andhradeśa 184, 311 Andhra Pradesh 10, 93, 320, 321, 330, 331,
377, 448 Andhare, S K 433n Andimalar 103 Anegondi 376 Anga 69 angas 26, 340, 385, 465 ariga-fikhara 336, 343, 357 anlydd-alagiyar 452 afjali-mudrd 158, 281, 294 Anjaneri, Nasik 319, 373 Ankai-Tankai, Nasik 566, pl 347B Arkottaka-vasatika 181 Appalvayi 209 antarala 145, 171, 220, 221, 279, 280, 281,
615

Page #357

* 285, 286, 288, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295,
321, 336, 340, 343, 368, 373 antara-patra 145, 281, 286 Antariksa-Pärsvanātha 373 aruratha 311, 313, 314 Apabhramia-kavyatray 398n Apardjita-prochd 273, 2730, 477 ape rint lachana 14 Appara 33 Apraticakra 146 apsaras-bracket(8) 282 apsarases 5, 143, 144, 279, 285, 286, 294,
298, 300, 308, 340, 350, 363, 382, 432,
434, pl 198A apee 89 arabesque 337 Araikkogil 329 Arang, Raipur 5, 297-299, 588, 592, pl 177 Aranyaka-parvan 421, 423n, 424 drds 307 Arāsaņa see Kumbharia Aravalli hills 245 Aravamuthan, TG 456 Arbudăcala 447 arch(es) 77, 78, 82, 117, 120, 428, 429, 530;
caltya- 61, 145, 147, 171, 283, 290; en
grailed 337 archaism 122, 126 Archchalur, Coimbatore 101, 102 architects, classes of 494 architecture, civil 117; domestic 428-430;im
pact of Indo-Islamic art on 337, 338, 341; Indian 3; Jaina 3, Mughal 337, 338;
temple-39, 430 ardha-mandapa 210, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216,
217, 234, 235, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 288, 295, 296, 313, 314, 315, 316, 318, 320,
321, 323, 326, 342, 368, 369, 381 Ardhanaripalaiyam 102 architrave(s) 54, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 77, 80,
107, 144, 147, 162, 168, 174, 213, 279, 286, 313, 331, 430, 431, 434, 435, 458, pl
also Jina Arhatāyatana 63 Arikeśari-Märavarman 208, 211 Arikesari-Paränkusa 381 Arisibă 240 Aristapemi see Jina Neminatha Aristanemi-bhaţåra of Tiruppånamalai 226 Arittapatti, Madurai 96, 209 Arivar-kovil 209 Arjuna 225 Arjunavarman 31 Armamalai, North Arcot 185, 226 Arnorāja 239 arpita-hdra 220 Arsa 157 art, Burmese 269; Candella 257, 277, 278-295,
593-596; Caulukya 306; Cedi 559; Cola 230; Gandhåra 596; Gupta 122, 123, 124,127, 131, 132, 134, 137, 152, 295; Gurjara 259, Indian 3; Jaina 3, 35-40; Jaina--as ethical object 37,38; Răstrakūta 331; Kalacuri 297-299; Pala 412; Para
māra 295-297; plastic 152; metier 332 Arugar temple, Birudur 329 Arugar temple, Venkunram 329 Arunattar hill 101, 102 Arun-kulam 185 Ašādhara 31, 37n, 468, 470, 476, 585 Aşadhasena 10n Asalladeva 351 ásana 124 dsana-paffa 144, 146 Asarăja-Vihara, Junagarh 305: Patan 305 asceticism 19, 20, 21; Brāhmanic 20; Jaina 20 Ashta 588 asi 19 Asia, south-east 7, west 49 Asiká 241 Asoka 25, 70, 73, 223, 388; inscription of 7 aśoka-grove 288 asoka-tree 59, 72, 150, pls 8A, 22C Aśramanagara see Keshoraipatan Assam 10, 167 asja-dhatu 353 astáhnika-parvan 526 asta-mahd-prätthāryas 473, 476 asfa-mangala(s) 44, 64, 228, 428, 456, 457,
458, 459, 482, 484, 489, 490, 491, pl 312B;
Digambara 492 Asta-mangala-mdla 64n, 493n Aştāpada 3, 14, 154n, 305, 520, fig XLVI
9B
Ardhanåriśvara 252n ardha-padmasana 468 ardhaparyanka-posture 150 Ardha-phālakas 26 arghya-pattas 64 Arhadbalaya Acārya 118n Arhadbali 185 Arhat(s) 26, 42, 52, 56, 70, 73, 74, 88n, 119,
356; Kasyapiya 10n; Nandiävarta, 53; see
616

Page #358

INDEX
Ayodhya 14, 15, 242, 257, 344, pis 221B,
283A Ayudhagdra 449 Ayyumpalaiyam 229 Ayyana-mabadevi 448 Ayyavole, svdmins of 199, 313
Agtapada-prinkda 182 Astapada-prasda, Prabhdaa 305 astapada-ritha pl 82A dutaraka 124 Appasdhasrikd-Prajndpăramita 394n asfa-tri-tirthika 180 afla-varga-pemana 215 Asta-vasus 283, 293 Asthikagrama 22 Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, Calcutta
154n, 166, 263, 265, 275 pls 15SA-B,
156A, 158A, 159A-B, 160B Asvartja 240 atva-thara 297, 300 Asvavabodha 307 Ataradjiya see Atranjikhera Atharvaveda 480 Atibala 252, col-ill 36A atisaya-kşetras 349 atit-anam 101 Atkins Museum pls 329A, 330 diman 19, 35, 42, 45 Atmånanda Jaina Jhana Mandir, Baroda 410 afpari 433 Atranjikhera 251 attendants rirt laachana 116 Auboyer, Jeannine 5n audience-halls 117 Aupapatika-sutra 474, 482, 482n, 489 Auwa 144 avalamba 495 Avalinad 366 Avanipa-sekbara Sri-Vallabha 210 Avanti 27, 86, 87, 138 dvarana-devatás 293 avasarpini 468, 472 Avasyaka-Cürni 86, 86, 89n Avašyaka-Niryukti 86, 89n, 91, 91n, 119n,
468, 469, 469n Avasyaka-Sutra 470 Avasyaka-Vrti 86n, 91 Avinita 27 Ay (rulers) 230, 231, 232, 234 dya 497 dyddi-sad-varga 496 dydga-patas 28, 44, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60,
61-65, 81, 89, 91, 107, 108, 270, 442, 458, 479, 481, 482, 490, 491, 555; foreign in
fluence on 64; pls 1, 2, 14-16 dydga-rabhd 32
båda 156, 157 Badami 32, 184, 186 Badami Calukyas 92 Badami cave-temple 188, pls 113A-B, 114A
B, 113 Badnawar 588 Badoh, Vidisha, 171, 352, 354, 582, pl 233A Badridas temple, Calcutta 347 Badwani 351 Baghelkhand 577 Bägh-gumpha, Udayagiri, Puri, 78 Bagunjisime 366 Bahali-adambilla 910 Bahasatimitra see Bphaspatimitra Bahmanid Sultáns 310 Bahubali (Gommateśvara) 37, 44,91,98, 159,
160, 187, 189, 199, 222, 223 224, 228, 253, 312, 339, 352, 374-375, 401, 455, 459, 468, 569, 573, 575, 596, 598, pls. 114A, 118B, 131, 132, 135B, 215, 352, 359A, 381B,
col-ill. 28A Bahulara, Bankura 263 Baburiband, Jabalpur 298n, 350, 444 Bairampalli 378 Bairat, Jaipur 85, 355 bajoth 430 Balabhadra 108, 150 Balacandra Saiddhantika 469n Baladeva 389, 489 Bala-Gopala-stuti 410, 427 Balabastini, Sravika 61 Balarama 50, 66, 67, 150, 346 Balarampur 157 Balatkāra-gana 278 Bajpai, KD 53 bala-yatis 354, pl 231A balcony 77, 144, pls 71, 75, 192 bali-paffas 64, 458, 482, 490, 491 bali-pitha 217, 233, 311 Balkh-Bactria 910 BaHAla II 317, 318; III 371 balustor, balustrade 55, 56, 59, 301, 331

Page #359

INDEX
Bamblasira Seniya see Bimbisara bandhand-mouldings 286, 289, 311, 316, 321
Bandyopadhyaya, A K 117n, 263n "Bandyopadhyaya, Banerji, R D 73n, 128n,
297n Banerjea, J N 152, 153n, 1550 Banerji-Sastri, A 71n Bangalore 224 Bangarh, West Dinajpur see Koțivarsa Bangladesh 10, 153 Baniawadi, Dhar 351 Bankura, WB 155 Banpur, Orissa 159, 161, 274, 350, 352, pl
160B Bansi, Chitorgarh 571, pl 356B Bappabbasti-Säri 50, 182 Bapparam 185 Barabar caves, hifts, Bihar Ton, 79, 119, 223 Barabhum, Midnapur 155 Barabudur 383 baranda 156 Bare Baba, Kundalpur, Damoh 168 Bareilly 16 Barhala, Narsinghpur 350, 352 Batipada Museum 274, pl 162A Bas kola, WB 155, 156 Barli, Ajmer 85 Barmer 525 Baroda 431, 432, 434, pl 312B; Museum and
Picture Gallery 405, 432,433, pls 109,
110, 111, 112, 309A Barrett, Douglas 412n, 552, 552n Barua, BM 481n Basadis 33 Basarh see Vaiśāli bas-relief(s) 39, 70n, 209, 225, 226, 228, 229,
230, 234 Basti-halli, Hassan 317 Basukund see Kundagrāma Bateshwar, Agra 17, 150, 244, 251, 344, 345 Baula hills 159 Băwa-Pyară cave 29, 89, 90, 459, pl 38, fig V Bayana, Bharatpur 147, 148 Beal, Samuel 4n, 8n, 118n, 119n, 152n, 159n
164n beams 429, 430 Beccam 321 Bechandas 490n Beglar, JD 118, 167n, 244n Behara, KS 117n, 159n, 162n
Belgaum 32, 269 Belugula 369 Belur, Hassan 214, 386 Bellur, Mysore 319 Belvalkar, S K 19n Bengal 261-265, 273 Benisagar 166 Berlin 548 Besnagar, Vidisha 6, 129, 168, 581 Betana 322 Bhaddalpura 278 bhadra 143, 145, 146, 147, 172, 178, 179, 219,
286, 287, 288, 289, 304, 311, 313, 314,
315, 322, 502 Bhadrabāhu 25, 26, 69, 73, 92, 185, 214 bhadraka-type 282 bhadra-mandapa 367 Bhadranandi 482, 490 Bhadrapura 15 Bhadra-śālā forest 522 bhadra-salas 211, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221 bhadrusana 89, 221, 445, 458, 490, 492, 522 Bhadravati 305 Bhadriká see Monghyr Bhagavad-Gita 37n, 549 Bhägavata 49 Bhagavata-Purāņa 18, 423n Bhagavati 232, 465 Bhagavati-drädhana 128, 501n Bhagavati. Sutra 87, 470, 483n, 484n Bhagavati temple 233 Bhagavati temple, Singikulam, Tiruccaranat
tumalai 453 Bhagera 249 Bhaillasvāmin 86 Bhairarasa Odeyars 366 Bhairava-Padmavali-kalpa 476 Bhairavakonda 192 Bhaktamar (-sloira 252n, 256 Bhakti cult 94 bhamati 307, 308 Bhāndāgärika Dhāndhu 308 Bhandari-basti, Sravanabelgola 317 Bhandāri Dasādha 249 Bhandarkar, DR 121n, 135, 249, 250, 251,
442n
Bhandasar temple, Bikaner 341 Bhāņd-Dewal temple, Arang 297, pl 177,
178 bhandira-tree 63, 64
618

Page #360

INDEX
Bhandira-sydna 50, 64; Bhanpura, Mandsaut 351 bharap! 295, 300 Bharata 18, 19, 154n, 159, 160, 401, 468,
596, 598, pls 279B, 284, 382 Bharata (brother of Rama) 233 Bhanta-setra 487, 517, fig XLV Bharatosvara, mani 225, 233 Bharatiya Jnanpith, see Jnanpith, Bharatiya Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi 420, 421, 423n
485, 540 Bharatpur, Rajasthan 147, Museum pls 153,
357B, 358A Bharavi 195 Bharhut 51, 55, 56, 60, 82, 83 Bhatáriyår 232 Bhatewar 181, 182 Bhatia, P 398 Bhatkal, North Kanara 367, 372, 376, 454,
pl 253 Bhattacharya, BC 50a, 149n, 253, 253n,
257n, 539n, 544n, 545n Bhattāraka 394 Bhaffäraka Sampradaya 394n Bhavadeva 271 Bhavana väsi gods 483 Bhāvibhúşana 241 Bhavisayatta-kahd 417 418; illustrations from
-pl 278B, col-ill 31 Bhavya-cudamani 317 Bhelupura, Varanasi 345 Bhillamäla see Bhimmal Bhimadeva 31 Bhima-devi 366, 369 Bhima-Sáha 362 Bhinmal (Srimäla), Rajasthan 85, 180, 181, bhiffa 145; courses 143, 281, 285, 289 bhinti-stambhas see pilasters bhoga-bhümis 518, 529n Bhogapuram 320, 323 Bhoja 31, 278 bhojana-saia 499 Bhojpur, Bhopal 278 bhrngas 487 Bhubaneswar, Orissa 80, 441 Bhubaneswar, State Museum 160, 161, pls
160B, 1618; see also Orissa State
Museum bhujanga-trdsitaka 382 Bhata(s) 473, 477, 487
biasa-bracket 281, 282, 284, 291, 292, 296 Bhotabali 90, 134 Bidmur 366 Bihar 10, 24, 70, 245, 261-265, 273, 540, 545 Bijapur 32 Bifjala 32, 323 Bikaner 250, 256, 257, 339, 341; Museum
545, 571, pls 151, 154.355 Bilogi, North Kanara 367, 372 Bimbisåra 24 Bina-Barha, Sagar 352 Bindusara 25 Birudur, North Arcot 329 Bitti 460 Bittiga-Visquvardhana 460 Bloch, T 10n, 119, 121n, 348n boar rirr Idfichana 15 Bodbisattva 67, 166; see also Jinagattva Bodhisattva, images of 115 bodhl-Yoksa 486 book.covers, painted Jaina 402; illustrations
from-pls 266A-B, 267A-B, 268A-B,
269A-B, 270A, col-ills 22, 23A-D Booth, Mark 544n Boram 157 border-decorations col-ill 28B Boston 403 bracket(s) 60, 61, 82, 143, 144, 168, 428,
429, 431, pls 10, 11A; -figure 52 Brahma 252n, 433 Brahmacārins 19 Brahmadeva 311 Brahmadeva-stambha 373, 374, pl 254A Brahma-Jinālaya, Lakkundi 310, 312, 313,
pl 203A-B; Thailagiri fort 322 Brahmaņas 23, 70 Brāhmaṇasvămin temple, Varman 144 Brahmapism 3, 7, 29, 94, 107, 117, 152,
272, 330 Brahma-Sastă 208 Brahmå temple, Khajuraho 272 Brahmavaivaria-Purana 493 Brahmi lipi 19 Brentjes, B 254 Brhannyasa 479 Brhat Jalna-Sabdarnava 526, 526n Byhai-Kalpa-Bhagya 85, 85n, 86, 86, 87n,
88, 88, 91n Brhat-Kalpa-sútra-Bhasya 26 Brhatkatha 92, 135
182
619

Page #361

INDEX Bharkatha-Kosa 541, 135 arhuat-samhita 37n, 135, 466, 525 British Museum, London 537-543, pls 315-320,
321B Broach, Gujarat 89, 133, 138, 408, 433, 551 bronze(s), Jaina 71-72, 87, 88, 124-125, 134,
135, 136, 330, 548-554, pls 22A-C, 216,
fig XV Brown, Percy 340, 340p, 361, 361n, 367n,
368n Brown, W Norman 410n, 412n, 413n, 4141,
488, 488n, 492 Bruhn, Klaus 122n, 124n, 131, 1318, 170n Bucchimayya 318 Buddha 4, 24, 67, 118, 131, 134, 272, 486,
550. pl 328B Buddhagupta 29 Buddhisagara 278 Buddhist 7, 94, 107, 117, 118, 152, 275; riri
art 3, 4, 6; Council 118; sites 96 Budhi Chanderi, Guna 277 Bühler, G 63n, 64n, 65, 66, 525, 525n buffalo rirt läfichana 15 Bukka 365, 450 Bukkaraya II 327, 368, 388; 111 324 bull rint lañchana 5, 14, 44, 130, 152, 159,
160, 164, 263, 283 Bundelkhand 10, 30, 277, 350, 579 Burdwan, WB 154n; University of Museum
and Art Gallery 155n Burgess, James 11n, 29n, 74n, 89n, 90n, 435,
435n, 459n Burma 268
218, 311, 313, 315, 329, 460, 542, Eastern
33; of Kalyani see Kalyani Cafukyas cámara 459; see also flywhisk cámara.dhara(s) 129, 149, 150, 151, 452, 473
530; see also cauri-bearer cdmara-dharini (s) 180, pl 112 Cambay 403, 431. pl 199 Campā(puri) 141, 15, 22, 69, 481, 498 Cámundaraya 183, 213, 224, 375, 460 Cámundarāya-basti, Sravanabelgola 219,
221, 312, pl 130B Cámundaraya-purana 224 Canakya 24 Canda 227 Capdaka 249 Candellas 30, 277, 278, 297, 352, 578 Candra 88 Candragiri, Sravanabelgola 225, 317 Candragupta (Maurya) 25, 26, 28, 69, 70,
73, 92, 214, 470 Candragupta II 123, 128, 134, 164 Candragupta-basti, Sravanabelgola 214, pl
1298 Candra-Ksamācārya-ksamana-Sramana 127,
128 Candra-kula 137, 181 Candramauli 317 Candránana 472 Candranandi-āsiriyar 450 Candranāthasvāmi temple, Sangitapura 372 Candranātha temple, Mettuppudur 212;
Vijayamangalam 327, pl 212A-B Candranātheśvara-basti, Bhatkal 372, pl 253 Candraprabha temple, Jaisalmer fort 341;
Tirupparutuikkunram 211, pls 127B, 324 Candrapuri 15 candra-sala 367 Candra-sala cave 90 candra-sila 187 Candra Süri 239, 402 Candråvati 182. 308 candriká 283, 290 Cangālvas 366, 454 Cangarāya 317 Căranti Math, Aihole 197, 199, 312, 313 Carlleyle, A C 244, 2440 Cattala-devi 319 caturmukha 157, 161, 265, 270, 274, 303,
483, 484, pl 159A-B; see also caumukha,
sarvatobhadra Caturmukha-basti, Karkala 312, 455
Cahamăna(s) 239. 241, 242, 243, 246, 248,
249, 250, 253, 306n, 447, 545, 571; of
Nadol 240 caitya-grha 79, 80, 502, pl 354B caitya-prasada-bhumi 530 caitya-vasa 520 caitya-vrksa 41, 58, 64, 479, 480, 481, 483,
485, 486, 487, 487n, pl 6B caityas, Arbat- 39 caltya-window 136, 154 cakra 67, 123, 124, 172 cakra-purusa 470 cakravartin 113, 209 Cakreśvara 455 Calukya(s) 32, 184, 192, 198, 199, 200, 201,
620

Page #362

INDEX
catarmukha-linga 272, 273 Caturmnkha Mahadeva templo, Nachna 273 Caturmukha shrine, Ranakpur 337 Caturmukha-vimana shrine. Ellora 194, pl
125 caturalisati-Jinalaya 302, 521, fig XLI caturvindasika 116; see also canviar caturvittati-patta 170, 180, 181, 235, 287,
568,574, 571, 579, 585, pls 111, 173, 334,
351, 361A, 364A-B, 367A catusk281, 285, 302, 311, 340 Caubart-Dert 2 temple, Un 295, 297 caubist 116, 314, 321, 323, 542 caufjama-dhamma 16 Caulukyas 31, 86, 183, 240, 241, 250, 295,
300, 405, 446,447, 539, 545; see also
Solanki caumukhal) 6, 116, 154, 154n, 245, 312,
323, 331, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, pls 52, 217B, 257A-B, 310A-B,
311, 342B; see also caturmukha caumukha-pratima see sarvatobhadrika Caumukha-basti, Karkala 368, 371, 372, pl
252A Caura-pañcäfiká 421, 422, 433n, 424, 425,
426 caurl(chowry)-bearer(8) 109, 119, 123, 124,
127, 153, 158, 159, 160, 161, 169, 170, 216, 218, 226, 227, 228, 2998, 316, 331, 332, 378, 386, 387, 467, 538, 540, 543, 544, 545, pls 45, 46, 47, 350A, see also cámara-dhara, câmara-dharini, flywhisk
bearer caverns 94, 95-100, 101, 102, 103, 185, 207,
225 227 328; see also atiffanum, kärtcanom, kūra, mūsagai, pali, pali, pina-ū; Aivarsunai, Pancapandavamalai, Pancapindavar tippa, Pancapandavar kuttu,
Pancapāņdavar padukkai cave-temple(s) 6, 38, 98, 101, 102, 186-192,
208, 209, 373 caves, rock-cut 119n Cavundarāya see Camundarāya Căvundaraya-basti see Camundarāya-basti Cāvunda Gåvunda 310-311 Cedis 297, 588 ceiling(s) 77, 82, 305, 307, 316, 336, 337, 341,
342, 350, 359, 364, 373, 428, 432, 434, pls 165, 169, 183, 186A-B, 190, 193, 195
A-B, 197, 234B, 240, 241, 288, 289, 294B cella 209, 212, 268, 273 Collana 69 Cella Pilla 322
Celukşamaga 127 Cenampa-basti, Sravanabelgola 370 Cenkāyapan 101 Cenkäyapan 230, 231 Coukayapan ke 100 centaur 60 Cera 230, 231, 233; country see Kerala;
dynasty, kings 28, 101 Cetaka 23,69 Coti dynasty 24, 26, 74 Ceylon 7, 98, 184 chádya 146, 336, 340 Chahardi, Dhulia 181, 568, pl 351 Chakravarti, D K 117n Champakalakshmi, R 13, 225n Champaner 342 Chandakavate, Bijapur 455 Chandakedi, Kota 343 Chanda, Ramaprasad 120a, 123, 123n, 124n,
130n, 164, 1650, 470n, 539n Chanderi, Guna 277, 359 Chandigarh 423n Chandogya Upanişad 480n, 488 Chandor, Nasik 373 Chandpur, Lalitpur 277, pl 179 Chandrabetta hill, Sravanabelgola 317 Chandragiri hill, Sravanabelgola 185 Chandwar, Agra 251, 252 Chanbu-daro 479 Chaosma, Gujarat 181 Chara 157 Charampa, Balasore 160. 161 chatra 55, 150, 156; see also parasol, um.
brella; absence of min Gupta age 115 chairdvali 115, 332 chatra-traya 115 Chattopadhyaya, B D 13 Chaturvijaya, Muni 8ón Chaubiā-pada 63n Chausa, Bhojpur 71, 121, 124, 466; bronzes,
hoard pls 54, 55, 56, Chausath-Khamba mosque, Kaman 148 Chausath-Yogini temple, Khajuraho 1180 Chettipatti, Tiruchchirappalli 213, pl 128B Cheyyar Taluk 102 Chhani, Baroda 403 Chhattisgarh 588 Chiada 155, 157 Chidambaram 389 Chikkabetta, Sravanabelgola 214
621

Page #363

Coragasarhnivesa 22 Coreya, Bengal see Coragasannivesa corridor 313, pls 186A-B, 188, 193 Cosmography, Jaina 514-20 cosmos 514, fig XLIV costumes rirt miniature painting 43 Council, Jaina 70, 135 Cousens, Henry 343n, 367n, 3697, 372n 373n,
435, 435n, 455n Cranganore 95 cross-bars 52, 55, 57, 58, 139, pl 6 crown 137 Cūdamani 137 Culagiri 351 Cunningham, Alexander 30n, 52, 118. 1199,
120, 120n, 121n, 241n, 251n, 280, 281,
2810 Cupid 459, 492 cupola 177 Cuttack 163 cymbals 154, 158, 162
INDEX Chitaral, Chitral 98, 232, 234, pls 139A-B Chitongarh) 241, 250, 336, 339, 340, 355,
3.56, 357, 361, 363, 484, pis 219, 220,
221A, 222 Chittamur, South Arcot 228, pls 135B, 136A Chittoor District 103 Chillukuru 575 China 371, 396 Chingleput 95 Chippagiri, Bellary 320, 321, 323, 331, 366,
578 Chitgiri, WB 155, 156 Chivalapperi see Marukaltalai Chota-Kailasa, Ellora 188, 191, 193, 194 chowry-bearer, see eauri-bearer Chunar, Mirzapur 23 Cilappadikdram 95; see also Silappadikäram Cintamani Rao Bikāji temple, Bikaner 342 Cintamani temple, Sirohi 342 circumambulatory 271, 342, fg XXI; see
also ambulatory, pradaksiņd-patha cire perdue 88 Cirupāvil 101 Citrakarapuli 381 Citrakuta 339 Citrångas 487 Cifra-stūra 383 citra-torana 215 Ciyayandana-mahabhasa 468n Cleisobora (Krspapura) 49 cognizance see idhchana Coimbatore 94, 101, 212; District 102 coins 456-62 coins denarius 489; elephant series 458;
horse series 458; Nolambavādi-ganda series 460; Pandyan 461,462, pls 305, 306;
Talakādu-gonda series 460 Cola(s) 184, 185, 192, 213, 324, 325, 328,
329, 382, 460; bronzes 549; country 95,
128, 135 Colgong, Bhagalpur 192 coli 413, 433 colophop-illustration pls 273, 274 conches rirtlafchana 124 conch-shell rire larichana 161, 44, 130n Conduct, Right 35 Coomaraswamy, A.K. 4089, 436n, 480,
480n, 481n, 487n, 4880, 492n, 5010, 544n coping-stones 52, 57, 107, pl 7 copper-plate grants --inscriptions 73, 30,
31, 32, 118, 270
Dabhoi 305 Dacca, Bangladesh 346 Dadhabhumi 22 Dähala 277 Dakşiņāpatha 25, 89 Dalavanur, South Arcot 209 Dalbhum, Singhbhum see Dadhabhumi Damayasada see Rudrasimha 1 Dambal 200, 314 Damila (Dravida) 26 Damodar valley 157 Däna-cintamani Attiyabbe 310 Danavulapadu, Cuddapah 230, 331, 449, pls
217A-B, 218A dancing-pose 212 danda-rasa 144 danseuse, wooden pl 298 dargah 220 darpana 458 Darsana-sára 278 Darsanavijaya 88n, 495n Dasaratha 25, 223 Daśa-Srdvaka-caritra 341 Dasasruta-skandha 489n Dasa-Vaikalika-laghu-vrtti 403 Daśa-Vaikalika-Sutra 400 Dasa-Vaikalika-fika 395
622

Page #364

INDEX
Dadávatāra temple, Deogarh 131 Dasgupta, cc 126m Das Gupta, PC 154, 154n Dash, Mahesh P 160, 1607, 167 Disoja of Balligrama 214 Daulatabad, Aurangabad 311 Davide, T W Rhys 19, 483, 483a Davidson, LeRoy 541n Davvasamgahagähts 42 Dayapala 213 Deccan 133, 184-201, 310-319, 365-378, 558 doer nire iconography, features of 4 deer rirt lanchana 15, 128n, 130, 161, 265,
274
Deheda 407 deity 5; Brahmapical 3, 5; Tantric 5 Delhi 244, 252, 335, 339, 345, 355, 356, 421,
426, 495; Sultanate, 405 demi-gods 114, 121, pl 174B Denock, M 54&n Deo, S B 24n, 28n, 30n, 32n, 33n, 34n, 113n,
118n Deogarh, Lalitpur 30, 44, 122, 122n, 131,
137, 175-179, 277, 278, 350, 352, 443, 484, 4849, 596-598, pls 105, 106, 107,
108, 379-382, fig IX Deogiri 319 Deoli, Purulia 157 Deopara, Rajshahi 264, pl 157A Depāka 357, 448 derasars 431 Desai, P B 455n Deshpande, MN8, 12 Desi-gana 162 Deulbhira, Bankura 155 Deussen 19 Deva 271; dynasty 448 deva-dundubhi 150 Devagiri see Daulatabad, Aurangabad;
Yadavas of 32 Devaki 65, 582 deva-kosthas 209, 212, 216, 217, 218 deva-kulikas 145, 147, 1479, 150, 171, 245,
246, 280, 301, 302, 305, 307, 337, 341,
343, 359, pl 235, fig XIN, XV Devakunjari, D 368, 369n Devalabdhi 278 Devangudi 228 Devananda, Brahmani 65 deva-nirmita rir stúpa, Mathur: 7 Devapala 262
Devapada Soni 251 Devariya I 366; 01 366, 369, 450, 455 Devarddhi-gapi KpamAsramapa 133 Devasi-no Pado 410, 414 Devasena 278 Deva Sari 402 Devasvamin 578 Deratd-murit-prakarana 477 deva-yimdna 488 Devendra-kortti, Bhattaraka 351 Dewl-Candragupta 128 devikula 52 Dey, Sudhin 158n Dhaky, MA 145, 145n, 242n, 243, 247,
247, 248, 300n, 306, 339, 339n, 340,
340n Dhamaghosd 52 dharmilla 228 Dhamnar, Mandasor 192 Dhanaicha, Morena 445 Dhanapala 278 Dhanbad, Bihar 157 Dbandhuka 303 Dhanesvara 278 Dhanga 277, 444 Dhangarāja 30 Dhank, Gujarat 136, 445 Dhanpur 297 Dhar, Dhara, Dhārå, MP 278, 351, 5390,
587 Dharanaka 357 Dharani-vihara, Ranakpur 303, 306 Dharapat, Bankura 263 Dharasena 90, 385 Dharasinva, Dhäräsiva caves, Osmanabad
Iln, 32, vi of vol II dharma 42, 514, 514n dharma-cakra 4, 44, 64, 66, 72, 91, 111, 113,
127, 128, 128n, 130, 131, 138, 149, 164, 274, 478, 482, 491, 532, 540, pls 22C,
46, 47A-B Dharma-cakra-Jina-vihăra, Sarnath 241,
245 Dharmagboga-Sürı 239 Dharmaghosa-Sari-stutt 239 Dharma-mahamätras 70 Dharmanathadeva 240 Dharmapala 117, 262,270 Dharmarája, Sailodbhava 159 Dharmasagaragapi 88n
623

Page #365

INDEX
Dharmavaram 449, 574, pl 261A Dharpal, Bankura 117 Dharwar 32 Dhati-pañcaka 330 Dhataki-khanda 517, 518 Dhauli, Puri 23, 25 Dhavald 90, 182, 303, 385, 386, 411n; see
also Sat-khapdagama Dhillika 241 Dholaka 302, 305 dhoti 137, 138, 151, 162, 413, 418, 419, 420,
421, 422, 423, 466, 556 Dhruva, K H 270 Dhubela, Chhatarpur 353, 557; Museum
538n, pls 365-368 dhult-sdla $30, 532 Dhumar-lena, Ellora 118, 312 dhwaja 505, og XXXVIII dhraja-bhumi 531 dhvaja-stambha 6, 227, 311 dhyana-mudrd 66, 72, 123, 125, 127, 139,
468 dhydnásana 144, 161 Didwana 537n Digambara Jainism 26, 32, 33, 133 Dik-pāla(s) 143, 146, 171, 216, 217, 293,
296, 307, 318, 331, 340, 349, 434, 435,
596 Dikshit, K N6n, 117n, 118, 121n, 442n Dikshit, Moreshwar 135, 135n Dikshit, S K 538n Dikshitar, V R Ramachandra 394n Dilwadā temple, Mt Abu 360, 362, 363,
446 Dinajpur 267 dindra-måla 489 Dipdrnava 495, 513, 513n, 533n dipa-sikhas 487 Div 303 Divyavadana 72, 73n dome 54, 55, 57, 336, 340, 343, 368, 369, 433,
434, pl 187A-B donor-couple pl 199 door-frame 62, pl 290 door-jamb 71, 77, 120, 323 doorway pls 170, 185 doorway, pañca-säkhu 286, 287 door, wooden pls 291, 292 dormitory 76 Doshi, Saryu 411n, 412n, 415n Dostatikā 182
drapery, use of --by Jaina monks 135 Draupadi 465n Dravida 215, 216, 217, 219 Drávida-sangha 94, 185, 321 dream-scenes, sixteen--of Mahavira's mother
292, 489 Dronācārya 181 Dropagiri, Chhatarpur 350, 352, 353 Drstasaka-stotra 259 drsfi-sūtra 495 drum 55, 56, 57, 154 Dubkund, Morena 444 Dudhai, Lalitpur 277, 278 Dulādeo temple, Khajuraho 289 Dulmi 157 Dumarleņā see Dhumar-leņa Dungarpur, Rajasthan 362, 363; Art Gallery
572 Dungarasimha 445 dupaffà 418, 420 Durga 346, 461 Durgadeva 148 Durgarāja 449 Durjanpur, Vidisha 127, 168, 442, pls 57,
58, 59 Duşyanta 83n dvädaśanga 44, 553 Dvddašara-Nayacakra 89, 89n, 135 dvård-palas 82, 282, 283, 284, 291, 292, 340,
428, 432 dvára-sakhas fig XXXIX dvesa 42 dvi-mürtikas 590, 591, 597, pl 370A Dvivedi, H V 445n Dvivedi, Haribarnivas 252n Dvyasraya-kavya 303 Dwarabat, Almora 245, 337, 344 dwarf 59, 60, 132
ear-sings 137 East Dinajpur, Bangladesh 153n Eastern Ghats 93 Edakkal hill, Kozhikode 234 edicts-Asoka 70, 85 Egypt 223 Ekašata Prabuddhacandra 159 Ekasandhi 4782 ekávali 128, 129, 132, 137, 139, 140 Eladipattam cavern 101
624

Page #366

INDEX
Elpura see Ellora Elephant rin tatichana 14 Elephanta cave 312 Elliot, W 460g Ellora, Aurangabad 32, 38, 185, 191, 193,
224, 227, 312, 319, 384, 455, pls 117, 118A-B, 119, 120A, 121, 122, 123, 124,
col-ills 6-11 Enöru 375 cpigraph see inscription Etadukatte-basti, Sravanabelgola 317 Erode Talpk 102 Eruminatu 101 Eruvadi, Tirunelveli 229
Fa Hien, Fa-hsien 8n, 396, 396n Faith, Right 35 falcon rirtlafichana 15 Fatehpur 245 Fawcett, F 234n Fergusson, James 8n, lin, 740, 118n, 223,
223n, 337n, 357, 359, 359n, 37in, 374n,
529n festoon 332, 530 Ficus Indica 63 finials 154, 157, 214, 266, 368 Firozabad, Agra 344, 345 Fischer, Klaus 118n, 129n, vi of vol II, 376n,
548 Flect, / F 290, 128n, 442n, 484n flywhisk 154, 162, 232, 265, 368, 459, 473,
553, 542; see also cámara, cauri; -bearers, 114, 129, 131, 309, 432, 547, pl 202;
see also camara-dhárini, cauri-bearer Freer Gallery, Washington 410 frieze 82, 83, 123, 144, 146, 214, 216, 219,
221, 282, 283, 288, 334, 433, 438, pls 31,
32A-B, 33A-B, 300A-C Führer, A 10n, 52, 53 furniture, domestic 428
Gai, GS 127a, 4420 saja-connica 248 Gaja-Laksmi 146, 197, 220, 433, 450, pl 28 sala-pretha 325; -prethakti 220 Gajapura 15 reja-Sardila(s) 284 safatahe(s) 144, 147, 282, 340 gaja-thara 295, 297 repa(8) 20, 28, 52, 73, 134, 286, 291 Gañácărya 20 garadharas 23, 24, 114, 129, 131, 465, 484,
533 Gañadhipa 252n Ganapati-vattam see Edakkal hill gandha-kuti 352, 484,532, 533 Gandhåra 8, 80, 137; -art 113 Gandharvas 143, 144, 146, 350, 467, 473,
487; flying 158, 159, 160, 161, 190, 557, 558: mdladhari. see mdladhari-Gan
dharvas Gandhawal, Dewas 169, 298n, pls 98B, 182A gandhika 51 Ganesa 4, 150, 162, 174, 253 Garcia-gumpha, Udayagiri, Puri 77, 83n,
84, pl 33B, 84 Ganga 168, 284, 286, 287, 291, 340, 475 Ganga(s) 27n, 184, 459; -art 212, 218, 219,
272, 227, 330, 454; -kings, 33 Gangarāja 224, 385 Gangaraya 316, 317 Gadgă valley 257 Gadgå-Yamunā valley 245, 251, 259 Ganigitti-Jinalaya, Hampi 327, 368, pl 247 garbha-grha 45, 154, 186, 221, 234, 235, 246,
279, 280, 281, 285, 288, 301, 313, 314, 318 321, 323, 328, 336, 340, 342, 343, 352, 356, 358, 362, 368, 369, 370, 373,
509 Gardabhilla 10, col-ills 25B, D, 28C Gardabhi-vidyd col-ill 26 garbha-muda 156 Gärgi-Samhita 49 Garha 353 Garh Jaipur, Purulia 263, pl 156A garland-bearers 129, pl 61; see also mdlddhart
Gandharvas Garoli 577, 579 Garuda 149, 172, 283, pl 78 Garuda-pillar, Besnagar 6 garudasang 120 gaukha see balcony
gacchas 185 gada 67, 168, 172, 284, 287, 291 Gadag 200, 314 Gadarmal temple, Badoh 582 Gadd-yuddham 310 gagárakas 284 Gahadavala(s) 30, 239, 240, 241, 242, 244,
245, 251, 253
625

Page #367

INDEX Gautama-rpi shrine 229
andksas 357 avanika-fashion 212 Gaya-Karna 444 Gerasoppe 366, 372 Ghanerao, Pali 143 Ghanesvara-Suri 148 ghanta 146 Ghantai temple, Khajuraho 20, 279-284, pls
164, 165 ghar-derasang 430, 431 Ghasidas Memorial Museum Jee Raipur
Museum ghafa 56; pallava 146, 147, 168.256 Ghatge, A M23, 900, 445n Ghatiyala, Jodhpor 182, 445 Ghosh, A 6n, 70n, 78n, 117, 118, 119,
119a, 120n, 123n, 124n, 164n Ghositiirama monastery, Kaušámbi 48In Ghumli 304 Ghuri, Muhammad 34 Girinagara Kathiawad 14n, 90; see also
Girnar and Junagadh Girnar, Junagadh 31, 85, 89, 90, 133, 303.
305, 357, 360, 361, 446, pt 238 Gita-Govinda 4230 Glasenapp, H V 30n Goa 310 goat rirt lachana 15 Godapuram, Palghat 232, 233, 453 Godāsa 73 Godhara 305 Goetz, Hermann 253, 253n, 338, 338n, 342,
342n, 428n, 432n, 433, 433n, 539n Golakot 353 Golakyäntya 127 Golconda 574 Gold, use of-for painting 405, 407
Gopikrishna Kanoria Colloction, Patna 124 Gopinatha Rao, T A 231n, 232n, 234, 234n gopura 212, 217, 322, 325, 328, 388, 522, pls
207, 212B, 214 Gorakshkar, S V 88n, 406n Gordon, DH 87n Gosala Mankhaliputta 23 gosthis 28 Gotama 16 Govideva, Mahasamanta 318 Govindacandra 240, 241 Govinda-Suri 182 grha-caityas 472 graha, Nava. 153, 286, 298n, 349, 350,
353, 562, pl 179 gråma-devatas 64 grantha-bhandaras 394 gräsa-patrika 282, 289, 292, 295, 298, 300 Gray, Basil 412n Greek ambassador 49 griva 212, 215, 328, 368 ground-balustrade 55 Growse 52 güdha-mandapa 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 247,
250, 295, 296, 300, 301, 302, 305, 340,
341, 362, 509 Gudar, Shivpuri 445 Guerinot. A 28n Guhanandin 73, 118, 443 Guhila(s) 355; Bhatsbhata 1 182 guild see nigama Gujarat 10, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 86, 88, 133,
136, 241, 257, 308, 309, 355, 360, 393, 396, 398, 399, 404, 405, 409, 410, 412, 415, 428, 431, 436, 445, 556-557; wood
carvings of -pls 285-300, figs xxvi, xxvii Gulbarga 546, 574 Guna MP 588 Gunabhadra 469 Gunacandra(-Säri) 239, 397 Gunadhara 385 Guņādhya 92 Gunaratnasuri 88n Gunavāyirkottam 95 Guntur, AP 321 Gupta, Parmeshwari Lal 72n, 121n, 264n Guptas 29, 30, 49, 52n, 107, 108, 110, 111,
113 Gurjara-desa 243, 310; Pratihāras 138 Gurjara(8) 494; shrines 243 Gurugala-basti, Mudbidri 455
Gommața cult 350 ore 375
Karkal 374, pl
Gommatagiri, Mysore 375 Gommateávara, Ellora 384; Karkal 374, pl
255; see also Bahubali Gondal see Rajkot Gondwana 350 Gopacala-durga, Gwalior 418 Gopagiri 182 Gopāladeva 351 Gopalakrishnamurty, S 368, 369n, 377n,
448n, 450n Gopanandin 33 Gopana Odeyar 370
626

Page #368

INDEX
Gurupar wakrama 88n. Guruvayankori 374 Gwaleswar temple, Un 297 Gwalior 131, 132, 170, 192, 350, 353, 354,
418, 419, 420, 421, 444, 445, pls 60,
229A-B, 310A; Mascum, 580 Gyaraspur, Vidishe 144, 544, pls 100A-B,
101, 102, 103, 104, 171. 321B
Hadaway, W S 542n Haduvalli see Saagttapura Haertel, H 548, 5480 Haihayas 30 hair, locks of-falling on the shoulders of
Rabhanatha rirt lañchana 65, 72, 125, 134, 138, 160, 484; falling on the shoulders of Parsvanātha 566; -style rirt
lanchana 116 Halder, R R 850 Halebid, Hassan 33, 44, 318, 332, 385 Hallakarasu 321 Hallur 197 halo 66, 67, 114, 124, 127, 129, 137, 138,
139, 151, 159, 162, 168n Hampi 332, 366, 367, 368, 376, 450, pis 247,
248, 249A harsa-valabhi 216 Hamsavijaya 414; collection, Baroda 410 Handa, D 539n Handiqui K K 53n Hangal 310 Hansi 250 Hanuman 288 Hanamkonda-Warangal area 311 Hanumakonda 320, 322, pls 205B, 206A-B hára 212, 216, 217, 218, 219 hårántara 220 Harappa 87, 479; times rirt Jainism 21 Hardinge 52 Hardwar 251, 252 Haribhadra(-Sûri) 86n, 91, 91n, 182, 467n Harihara 365, 387; II, 329, 366,368, 450 Harinaigameşin 65, 121 Harişena 54n, 135 Hariti figures 151, 153, 170 Harivarhóa 50 Hari-varsa 487n, 4890; -purdna, 182, 472n,
473 harmya-prastara 216 harmya-wall 216, 219, 220, 221
Harsavardhana 30, 184 Harsukh Rai 345 Haryana 241, 259 Hassan, Karnataka 330 Hastinapura, Meerut 15, 16, 242, 251 Hastisala, Mt Abu 308, 446, pl 201 Hatadiha, Cuttack 163 Hathi-gumpha, Udayagiri, Puri 26, 74, 80,
81, 82, pl 34 Hethtas, Aligarh 87 Hathundt 1824 Hatthinaura see Hastinapura Havell, E 30 head-dress, Kushan 128, 129 Hellenistic culture 49 Hemacandra-Sori) 31, 85, 86, 87, 241,
303, 400, 469, 470, 476n, 479, 482, 487,
490, 491 Hemadpanthi 311 Hemadri 311 Hemakūtam hill, Hampi 368, pls 248, 249A Hemarāja 339 Heracles 49 Heragu 318 heron rirt lanchana 14 Himalayan hills 245, 250 Hinduism, Purānic 275 Hiranyakaśipu 307 Hiravijaya 34 Hiriyangadi, Karkal 371, 455 Hiuen Tsang 4n, 8n, 118, 119, 152, 159, 164 Hmwaza, Burma 268, fig XIX horse riri läichana 14 Hosa-basadi, Mudbidri see Tribhuvana-Cuda
mapi-basadi house, classes of 500-501 Hoysala(s) 33, 200, 201, 207, 311, 313,
315-319, 329, 330, 331, 385, 454, 459, 460 Hulli Dandanāyaka 385 Humcha, Shimoga 319 Hultzsch, E 525n Hwui-Li 4n Hyderabad, State Museum 573-574, pls
359A-B, 360, 361A
iconography 24, 122, 123, 252; concepts of
4; Jaina-45, 65, 127, 136; source-material
01-465-93 Idar 303, 405
627

Page #369

ÍNDEX lanka 159 Imk 19, 385 Yan-Gautaman 210, 211, 381 Tango Adigal 231n Ilayar 101 Ilyapadăran 103 Immadi-Bukka 450 India-central def 10; 140, 28, 29, 30,
168-179, 245, 277-299, 336, 349;Deccan dej 10; 14n, 28, 32, 34, 184-201; cast def 10; 29, 152-167, 261-276, 346-348, 357-558; north def 9-10; 28, 29, 30, 143-151, 23960, 335-345, 415-427; south def 11; 7, 11, 13, 14, 207-235, 431, 558-559; west def 10; 2, 14, 28, 29, 133-140, 300-309, 355-364,
412-415, 426 Indianization rire development of Indian art
336 Indian Museum, Calcutta 155, 166, 169, 275,
545, pls 160A, 311B India Office 408 Indirakula-grha 316 Indore 353; Museum 296 Indra 38, 136, 169, 208, 477, 483, 518, 519,
322, 529, pl 280A, col-ill 29 Indra III, IV, Răstrakūta 32, 449 Indrabhuti Gautama 385 Indragiri, Sravanabelgola 222, pl 131 Indra-mandapa, Satrunjaya 305 Jadranandin 476, 479 Indra-sabhá cave, Ellora 188, 189, 190, 312,
384, pls 117, 118A Indra-yastt 482, 490, 491 inscription(s) 53, 109, 118, 123, 127, 135,
136, 138, 139, 140, 161, 162, 207, 209, 211, 213, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 234, 240, 241, 248, 255, 278, 299n, 316, 317, 319, 320, 324, 327, 363, 367, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 381, 387, 399, 401, 431, 441-455, 484,542, 543, 548, 555, 560, 561, 562, 563, 567, 576, 578, 587, 588; Abu (Mount) pl 301B; Adur (Dharwar) 32; Ainole (Bijapur) 32; Akota 139; Amohini 67; ayaga-pata 55, 57; Barli (Ajmer) 85; Bayana (Bharatpur) 148; Belur Taluk 33n, Bhinmal 85; Bijoli 248, 249, 253; Brāhmi 93, 94, 96-99, 101, 102, 225, 457, p. 39A; Bukka 1 365; Bundelkhand 30, Cera 230; Gunanandin 177; Hathi-gumpha cave 74, 82, 441; Kahaum pillar 29, 107; Kalyāņi Calukyas 32; Kaniska 66; Kannada 188; Kankálitila 134; Khåravela 24, 26, 74, 76, 78,82; Kumaragupta I 128; Kurikyal pl 302; Lakshmeshwar (Dharwar) 32;
Mangulam l 39A; Marakattai 100; Mathura 29, 73, p. 47B; Meguri temple (Ainole) pl 303; Mungthala 85; Pabhosa (Allahabad) 100, 441; Pabarpur (Bangladesh) copper-plate 118; Pala (Poona) 88n; Pulakekin II 195, 196; Pandya 208; Rāmagupta 127n, 442; Sodasa pl 301A; Sonbhandar cave 89n, 119; Sravanabelgola 92, pl 304B; Tamil 225; Tirunatharkupru pl 304A; Udayagiri cave (Puri) 29; Uddyotakesarin 163; Vatteluttu 228, 229, 232, 233; Vikrama Cola 326; Vikramaditya IV 313; Viranandin 169; palaeography of-137; rirt
lañchana 116 lonia, rirt Rşabhanātha 4n Irattaipottai rock 229 Iringalakuda, Trichur 233 Irivabedanga 310 Iruga 368 Irugapavodeya 450 Irugappa 324, 327, 366, 388 Irukkuvels 184 Irungonadeva-Cola 367 Irunkunram see Alagarmalai Isana 240, 252n Islam 346, 365; Islamic invasion 310
Jabalpur 169, 297 Jacobi, Hermann 22n, 72n, 73n jádyakumbha 143, 281, 286, 289, 295, 298,
300 Jagaddbara 341 Jagadušā 305, 306 Jagannatha-sabha, Ellora 189, 190 Jagat, Udaipur 145, 571 jagati 233, 278, 281, 289, 295, 302, 311, 312,
314, 316, 362, 505, fig XXXI;- picha 356 Jagatsagar 577, 578 Jahangir 34 Jahangirnagar see Dacca, Bangladesh Jaina Councils 133 Jaina institutions, conversion of _-98 Jain, Bhagwan Das 495n, 533n Jain, Balabhadra 345n Jain, Chhotelal 118n, 386 Jain, C R 4760 Jain, Hira Lal 7n, 10n, lln, 17, 17, 18, 70n,
90, 90, 129n, 393 Jain, Jagdish Chandra 86, 87, 88n
628

Page #370

Jain, Jyoti Prasad 12, 40, 58, 65, 67. 119n
Jain Kailash Chand 148n, 249, 341, 343n Jain L. C 12
Jain, Muktyanandsingh 533n
Jain, Niraj 129a Jain, PC 408
Jain, Rajaram 418
Jain, Shrimati Rama 13
Jain, Shri Shanti Prasad 13
Jain, Virendra Kumar 12
Jaipur 343, 446; Museum 572, pls 152, 358B
Jaisalmer 255, 336, 340, 342, 362, 395n, 397, 399, 400, 401, 404, 407, 525, pl 223 Jaita 363
Jaitugi 311
Jakkhayayatana 481
jala-kridd 61 jala-prandlikda 509
Jaleswar, Balasore 161
jall-pattern 56
Jalor 86, 182, 303, 394, 446, 447 jdmd 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 433 Jambo-dvipa 517, 518, 519
Jambusarhda 22
Jambavijaya, Muni 89n Jamnagar 414
Janaka 17
Janakpur, Nepalese Tarai 23, 24 Jananathapuram, Thanjavur 228 jangha 143, 144, 146, 156, 171, 172, 178, 243, 247, 279, 285, 286, 287, 289, 294, 296, 298, 300, 303, 336, 340, pl 104 Jasahara-coriu 413, 419, 420, 421, 423, 424; illustrations from-pls 280B, 281B, colills 33, 34
Jaso 577, 579, pl 367A jajā, jaja-bhāra, jaja-mukuja 5, 153, 155, 158, 160, 161, 164, 263, 293, 557
Jataka 480n;-Jaina 308
Jatasimhanandin 395, 468
Jattappa Nayakana Candranätheśvara-basti, Bhatkal 372
Jaunpur 241; 421
Javälipura 447
Javäri temple, Khajuraho 289
Jayscandra 585
Jayadiman 29, 90
Jaya-dhavald 385, 411a; see also Mahabandha
Jayantavijaya, Muni Set 85
Jayasha 31 Jayasihha-Sari 182 Jayaswal, K P 71, 85 Jayavarman 277
629
INDEX
Jaya-Vijaya-gumph, Udayagiri, Puri 81 Jayavira Perilamaiyan 213
Jejakabbukti ser Bundelkhand
jerkaj lines 363 Jerosoppa 312 Jhinjhana 351
Jhewari, Chittagong 267, pl 160A Jholika-vihara 303
Jiaganj, Murshidabad 347
Jina, Arhat, Tirthankara 14, 161, 162; Abhinandananatha 343, 485, 560, 585, 587, pls 87, 94A; Adinitha see Reabhanatha; Ajitanatha 14, 110, 149, 157, 160, 161, 162, 166, 180, 264, 265, 328, 332, 431, 485, 560, 580, 582, 587, 591, pls 158B, 373B, fig VI; Anantanatha 15, 316, 469, 562; Aranatha 15, 66n, 157, 298, 371, 445, 469; Aristanemi see Neminatha; Candraprabha 15, 44, 125, 151, 154, 154n, 157, 163, 166, 212, 213, 233, 264, 275, 288, 320, 329, 353, 370, r442, 443, 444, 469, 561, 574 585, 587, 5 92, 599, pls 54A-B, 92A, 161B 162B; Dhamanatha 15, 169, 562, 591, pl, 97A; Kunthunatha 15, 158, 264, 298, 343, 445, 450, 453, 562; Mahavira 3-4, 14, 16, 21-24, 44, 50,65-67, 69-70, 72, 73, 85, 86, 87, 90, 97, 100 113, 119, 123, 124, 130, 133, 136, 154, 154n, 158, 160, 161, 165, 166, 170, 187, 188, 193, 198, 199, 213, 216, 217, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231, 232, 234, 264, 265, 266, 274, 313, 325, 326, 327, 328, 331, 340, 353, 376, 385, 386, 388, 397, 398, 400, 402, 435, 442, 445, 451,452, 453, 465, 466, 468, 472, 474, 475, 480, 483, 484, 486, 488, 491, 501, 539, 540, 541, 547, 563, 567, 570, 573, 575, 576, 577, 580, 590, 594, 597, 598, 599, 600, pis 62, 136A, 313, 318A, 325B, 349A-B, 359B, 373A, 383B, 384A, col-lil 27; Mallinatha (Dig.) 15, 227, 371, 443, 470, 562, 575, 591; Mall (Sve.) 15; Munisuvrata 7, 16, 53n, 66n, 70, 151, 162, 165, 371, 469, 469n, 545, 563, 572, 578, 588, 591, pls 90A, 152, 358B; Naminatha 16, 265; Neminatha 14n, 16, 17, 44, 50, 66, 108, 113, 114, 122, 123, 124, 128, 130, 134, 148, 150, 154, 158, 162, 164, 166, 218, 220, 227, 229, 240, 264, 303, 318, 326, 328, 329, 389, 401, 403, 404, 438, 442, 468, 468, 469, 469n, 470, 484, 486, 513, 541, 544, 545, 556, 563, 564, 572, 573, 578, 579, 580,

Page #371

INDEX
595, 597, pis 47A, 53, 86, 149, 193, 336B, 367B; Padmaprabha 15, 123, 124, 326, 442, 443, 469, 539, 561, 584; Pärevanåtha 16, 17, 21, 22, 23, 29, 30, 43, 44, 50, 65-66, 72, 83n, 87, 97-99, 109, 113, 117n, 121n, 123, 124, 128, 129, 130, 131, 144, 147, 149, 150, 153, 154, 154n, 155, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166, 169, 180, 181, 182, 187, 189, 190, 191, 198, 209, 213, 214, 218, 221, 222, 225-232, 234, 239, 248, 249, 250, 252, 255, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 274, 275, 287 289, 303, 314, 317, 318, 320, 322, 326, 327, 340, 346, 360, 369, 377, 387, 401, 404, 431, 435, 442, 445, 453, 466, 469, 469n, 474, 484, 486, 541, 544, 546, 547, 549, 551, 552, 553, 555, 558, 563, 565, 568, 569, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 580, 582, 583, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 594, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, pls 37, 55B, 64, 84B, 86, 94B, 110, 115, 118A, 135B, 148B, 153, 161A, 181B, 196, 206A, 217A, 246. 319A, 320, 321B, 323A-B, 327A, 335, 336A, 340A, 354A, 335, 362B, 371B, 376B, 377A, col-ill 32; see also Naugajā; Puspadanta 15, 150, 157, 170, 318, 326, 442, 469, 591, pl 80A; see also Suvidhinatha; Rşabhanātha 4n, 14, 18, 19, 30, 43, 44, 63-66, 72, 91, 108, 109, 113, 125, 130, 134, 135, 138, 139, 147, 152, 153, 154, 154n, 155, 157, 158-159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 166, 169, 170-171, 180, 181, 182, 218, 225, 229, 251, 257, 262, 263, 264, 265, 274, 279, 287, 292, 314, 316, 317, 318, 323, 327, 329, 337, 340, 351, 353, 376, 389, 431, 442, 443, 445, 453, 468, 468, 472, 483, 484, 485, 486, 540, 541, 542, 544, 546, 548, 557, 558, 559, 566, 568, 570, 572, 575, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 587, 589, 591, 592,593, 596, 597, 600, pls 22B, 46, 47B, 55A, 56, 63 65A, 66A, 67B, 81A, 83A, 84A, 88, 90B, 114B, 158A, 160B, 282B, 318A, 325A, 338A, 341, 351, 353B, 365A, 376A, 378B, 380A-B; Sambhavanātha 14, 66, 161, 162, 329, 340, 443-444,485, 584, 591, pls 87,327B, 373B; see also Sobhanath; Santinātha 15, 44, 66n, 113, 148, 149, 151, 153, 156, 157, 158, 160, 161, 163, 166, 169. 170, 178, 182, 218, 240, 251, 262, 265, 274, 278, 296, 298, 298n, 309, 316, 318, 331, 340, 352353. 366, 367, 442, 443, 445, 449, 455, 545, 553, 562, 578, 582, 587, 589, 591, 594, 595, pls 84A, 85B, 281A, 334, 365B, col-ill 35; Sitalapätha 15, 431, 469, 561, 591; Sreyamsanātha 15; Sumatinătha 14, 148, 170, 189, 190, 560, 597, 598, pl 383A; Supārsvanātha 15, 50, 161, 163, 229, 251, 318, 329, 331, 377, 387, 431, 452, 466, 469, 4691, 543, 559, 561, 575, 598n, pl
340B; Vardhamana see Mahavira; Vasu. pdjya 15, 317, 320, 325, 326, 431, 468n, 469; Vimalanatha 15, 264,319, 453, 561, pl 333; birth of -pls 272B, 275A; images of-3, 4, 6, 37, 65, 119, 122, 123, 127, 140, 254, 199n, 330, 331, pls 17, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 50, 51B, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66B, 67A, 76, 77, 92B, 133, 135A, 136B, 137A-B. 138, 139B, 142, 150, 178, 181A, 198B, 202, 206B, 216, 218B, 227, 228, 229, 256B, 257A, 312A, 315A, 322, 326, 328A, 329A, 339B, 342A, 350B, 370B, 371A, 379, fig XVI, XVIII; lustration ofm-pl 272A; pañcamusti-loca of-pl 275B;
parents of-pl 163 Jinabhadra-gani kşamāśramana 138-39,
139n, 140 Jinabhadra, Vācanācārya 138, 181 Jinacandra-Sori 252 Jinadasa 86 Jinadatta(-Sarı) 239, 319, 397, 398, 399-403,
col-ill 22 Jinadeva-Suri 335 Jina-kalpa 470 Jina Kaici see Tirupparuttikkunram Jina-Kasi see Mudbidri Jinapăla-Sūri 249 Jinapati-Súri 240, 250 Jinaprabha(-Sūri) 50, 50n, 107, 107n, 335,
525n Juparakṣita col-ill 22 Jinasattva 136; cf. Bodhisattva Jinasena, Jinasenācārya 32 182, 252n, 395,
469, 472n, 483, 484, 484n, 487n, 489n Jinavallabha 449 Jinavara-vihara, Dhar 278 Jinavijaya, Muni 50n, 107, 335, 398, 401,
403, 404, 407, pl 275A Jinesvara-Suri 278 Jivananda Vidyasagar 480n Jivantasvåmin 4, 86, 136, 137, 180, 466, 553,
572, pls 65B, 68B Jivapaesiya 24 Jnanpith, Bharatiya 3, 8, 9, 12 J ñana-Sambandar 208, 457a; see also
Tirujñana-Sambandar, Sambandar Jnata-sútra 403 Jodhabai Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri 337 Jodhpur Museum 572, pl 357A Jogīmāra-Sītābengā caves 10, 3810 Johnson, E H 491n, 492n Johnson, Helen 487n Johrapurkar, V 394n
630

Page #372

Jorapakur, Puralia 157Joshi, Arjan 159, 159 Joshi, E B 50
Joshi, M C 12, 245 Joshi, N P 115m
Junagadh, Gujarat 17, 29, 89, 133 Jvdidmalini-kalpa 476
kacana 98
Kaccha 389, 498
Kacchapaghatas 30, 277, 444
Kadakadiyaraiyar 451
Kadalaya-basadi, Hanumakonda pl 205B,
322
kadamba-flowers 59, pl 8B Kadambas 27, 310, 454 Kādara 324
Kadwaha 177
Kagali pl 383A-B
Kahaum(n), Gorakhpur, pillar 29, 442, 484
Kailasa 14
Kailasa, Brahmagical temple, Ellora 188, 193, 194, 398
Kajangala 22
Kajulur 377
Kākandinagara 15
Kakatiyas 310, 311, 319-323, 331
Kakatpur, Puri pl 162B, 275
Kakkuka 445
Kakkukaraja 182
kaksa-ala 499
Lakásana 144, 193, 198, 200, 315, 317, 323 Kakutsthavarman 27
Kalabhras 451
Kalacuris 32, 169, 277, 297, 310, 311, 454, 577,579, 588
Kalakācārya 10, 10n, 27, 28, col-ill 25A, C,
28C
Kalakacarya-katha 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 411; illustrations from-col-ill 25A-D, 28C
kala-makara 218
kalala 143, 158, 220, 290, 298, 458, 459, 461, 462, 505, fig XXXVII
Kalidasa 195
Kalika 14
Kalinga 25, 26, 27, 73, 74; -Jina 74, 441 Kalinjamalai see Arittapatti
Kallil, Ernakulam 232, 234, pl 140A-B
631
Kalpa-Carl 860
kalpa-druma, vyksa 124, 153, 160, 467, 487, 518, 531
Kalpa-ra 16, 65, 73, 134, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 414, 427, 469, 470, 484, 486, 488; illustrations from-col-ill 26, 27, 28A-B
Kalpa-sutra-Sthaviravali 88n, 91 Kalpaväsi-devas 385
Kalpetta 234
Kalugumalai, Tirunelveli 97, 209, 486n, pls 137A-B, 138, 234
Kalyāpadevi 159
kalyanakas 253
Kalyanapura 495
Kalyanavijaya, Muni 86, 89n
Kalyani Calukyas 32, 310, 311, 312, 315, 320, 321, 322
Kamadeva 395,pl 265A Kamakoti-pitha 326
Kämäksi temple, Siva-Kafici 326
Kamala-iri pl 278B
Kaman 147, 148 kamandalu 287, 288 Kamatha 43
INDEX
Kambadahalli 220, 221 Kambadur 320, 321
Kämbalika- tirtha 135
Kāmesvara temple, Auwa 144
Kampil (Kampilyapura), Farrukhabad 15, 16
kampas 233
Kampavarman 451 Kamasa 65n Kamyaka-gaccha 148 Kapa see Kapha
Kanakamuni, stupa of, 7 Kanakasena Bhattaraka 321 Kanauj 138, 170, 182, 240
Kañci, Kanchipuram 33, 184, 211, 451, 453
Kane, P V 480n, 493n
Kangra fort 250
Kangsavati river 155, 157
Kanha 57, 482
kani see karniká Kani-Nanta 97
Kanişka 49, 52, 56
Kankali-tila, Mathură 6, 28, 39, 52-61, 130, 252, 257, 441, 466, 471n, 479, 481, 482, 483, 484n, figs XVII, XVIII Kankjor, Santhal Parganas see Kajangala Kannangarakkudi 214

Page #373

INDEX
Kannikapuram, Chittoor 103 Kanpur 245 Kantabenia 153, 262 kantha 233 Kantisagar, Muni 4n, Sn, on Kaativijaya, Muni 410, 411 Kinyakubja 242 Kanya-kumaris 523 Kapadia, M 4120 Kapardin 302 kapota 145, 146, 186, 212, 214, 219, 281,
286, 289, 290, 299, 300, 314 Karandai, North Arcot 98, 325, 326, 453 karanda-mukuja 168n, 282, 293, 539, 545,
559 Karanja pl 311A Karcha 588 Kardama 148 karl-makara 284, 292 Karitalai, Jabalpur 588, 589, 591, pls 373A-B,
374A-B Karkala 224, 312, 366, 368, 370, 371, 374,
375, 454, 455, pls 252A, 254A, 255 Karkarāja Suvarna varsa 31 karma-bhumts 472n, 518, 529n Karmans 41, 42, 44 Karma-Simha 361 karna 143, 145, 146, 311, 314, 502 karna-küfa 146, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221 karna-ratha 290 karna-sragas 340 Karnataka 10, 18, 32, 34, 92, 94, 181, 214-230,
314, 321, 454, 455, 457, 459 Karnāvati 305 karnika 281, 282, 283, 286, 289, 295, 298,
300, 314 Kärttikeya 198 Karungalakkudi, Madurai 99, 452 Karuppannasami, Uttamapalaiyam 229, pl
136B Karur Taluk 101 Kaşdya-påhuda 385, 411, 4110; see also
Mahd-dhavala Kasi 73, 118, 241 Kasyapiya Arhats See Arhats, Kasyapiya Kasliwal, KC 393n, 394n, 418n Katakabharana-Jinalaya, Dharmavaram 449 Katara pl 149 Kathiawar 27, 29 Kathmandu, Nepal 371 kapi-hasta 232
katula-patrdvali 151 Katjhuri (river) 163 Kattafe-basti, Sravanabelgola 214, 317 kattu 220, 235 Katukarāja 240 Katyuri räjās 343 Kaula-Pasupatism 6 Kausâmbi, Allahabad 4, 15, 16, 22, 150, 241,
242, 251 kaustubha-mani 294 Kavadidvipa 310 Kaveri 95, 184 Käverippimpattinam 95 Kävuti-Itcp 101 kåyotsarga-pose, khadgdsana 21, 37, 66, 71,
72, 87, 112, 124, 131, 137, 138, 150, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160,
161, 222, 232, 255, 262, 263, 274, 468 Kemla, Bulgaria 254 Kendua, WB 155, 157 Kerala 10, 95, 230, 231-235, 388, 450, 457 kesa-vallari 125 Kesavayya Setti 313 Keshoraipatan 278 Kesin 16, 18 kevala-jñana 29, 44, 90 kevala-tree 67 Kevalin 17 khadgasana see käyotsarga-pose Khajuraho, Chhatarpur 5, 30, 118n, 272, 273,
277, 278-295, 489, 578, 593, 594, 595, 596.
pls 375, 376,377, 378 Khala Subhacandra 162 Khambhat 182, 300, 305 Khanda giri caves, Puri 4, 77, 81, 93, 161,
162, 165, pls 26, 27, 28, fig 3 Khandalavala, Karl 408, 409n, 414n, 420n,
421n, 423n, 425, 426n Khande Rao 434 Khandesh 311 Khapuţa, Arya 89 khara-sila 289 Kharatara-vasati, Mt Abu 446, 485 Khāravela 10n, 74, 76, 83, 441 khatika-bhūmi 531 khattaka 145, 240, 302, 305 Khazana Building Museum, Golconda 574 Kheda, Marwar 339 Khiching Museum pl 161A, 274 Khilji(), 'Alau'd-Din 34, 310 Khimvsar, Nagaur 572
632

Page #374

khura 156, 281, 282, 289, 292 klakar 143, 145
Kidangil, South Are 452 Kilakkudi 97 Kilavalava, Madurai, 99 Kil-Sattamangalam,
North Arcot 451, 453 Kimpurusas 473, 487 Kinalur, Kozhikode 231 Kinnaras 350, 473, 487 kiosk 338,423
Wandiwash Taluk,
kirija-mukuja 284, 286, 287, 293 Kirttigiri see Deogarh
kirttimukha(s) 146, 147, 174, 281, 282,283, 290, 291, 292, 542, 552
Kirttisichha 445
kirtti-stambha 250
Kirtti-stambba, Chitorgarh 339, pl 219
Kirttivarman 278
Kishangarh, Rajasthan 343 Klatt, Johannes 28n
Knowledge, Right 35; infinite 43 Ko-Atap Ceral Irumporai 230 Kodanda-Rama 216
kodugal-ribbings 313, 328 Kodungallar 95
Kogali, Bellary 598
Kotha, Mandsaur pl 234B Kollam 234
Kolhapur 32, 33
Kollipaka, temple 320, 323 Kondivate, Maharashtra 79 Kongalvas 366, 454
Kongapivarman 1 459 Kongar Puliyangulam 97 Kongu country see Coimbatore Kongu-mandalam 212 Kongunivarman 27
Konow, Sten 119 Kopperujinga 324, 327 Koraput, Orissa 161 Korta 182
Kosala, South 588
Kosam, Kosambi see Kausambi
Kota, Rajasthan 343
Kotivarsa, Kotivarslye 73 Kottiyye-gana 29
Kotyārya 139 Kovilangulam 214 Kozhikode 231n
633
Kramrisch, Stella 126, 181, 553 Krishna, AP 321
Krishna river 321; -Tungabhadra valley 310,
Krishna Deva 121, 126n, 247
Krishnan, K. G 230
Krishna Rao, MV 27n
Kripa 17, 49, 66, 150, 307, 388, 410, 582, pl 186A
Krsna 11 32; 1, 193, 227 Krypa-Baladeva 114 Kadevaraya 366, 388 Kairamapa, Arya 133 Ksatrapa 29,,133 Ksatriya 16
Ksemakirtti 587
kpetra-palas 38, 349, 350, 484, 583 kipta-vidna 144, 286, 296, 302, 318 kaudra-ndsikäs 220, 221
Kubera 146, 147, 149, 153, 529, 537m
Kubja Visnuvardhana 184, 449
Kudalmanikkam temple, Iringalakuda 233
Kodepa 76
kudmala 318
Kudukka (Coorg) 26
Kudumiyamalai Siva temple 210m
kādu) 214, 219, 281
Kuhur, Thanjavur 228 Kukkutahi 172
kukkuta-sorpas 222 Kulacandra 162
Kula-devatās 44 kuläh 423
kulas 28, 52, 73, 88, 134 Kulittalai Taluk 100
INDEX
Kulottunga I 324, 326, 327
Kumaradevi 240
Kumaragupta(1) 29, 128, 135, 442
Kumarapala 31, 86, 87, 241, 295, 303, 304,
307, 308, 405, 447 Kumarapala-carita 241 Kumarapala-pratibedha 303 Kumara-vihara 303
Kumari hill see Udayagiri caves
Kumārila 33
Kumari-parvata 74
Kumari (river) 155
kumbha, -moulding 145, 156, 220, 281, 292,
295
kumbha-mandi-kalaša type 189, 190 Kumbhanagara zee Kaman

Page #375

INDEX
kiumbha-puruşa 144 Kumbha, Räpä 338, 339, 343, 356, 357 Kumbharia, Banaskantha 302, 307, 308, 488,
pl$ 189, 313 kumbhika 281, 282 Kumrahar 121, 126 Kumudacandra 401, 402 Kumular 101 Kunala 25 Kupavay 95 Kupavāyiskottam 95n kunda-dharas 473 Kundagrāma, Vaibak 16, 22, 69 Kundakundācirya 185, 477 Kundala-vara 518 Kundalpur, Damoh 168, 352, pls 93A-B,
94AB Kimiya see Ajatajatra Kunnakkudi 99 Kunnattur 98 Kün Pandya 208, 457 kungu 102 Kupbal, Mysore 576 Kuppalnattam 99 Kuppatur 366 Kura 97 Kuraishi (Quraishi), MH 70n, 117n, 118n,
119, 119n, 120n, 121, 123n, 124n, 164n Kurandi, Ramanathapuram 98. 452 Kurcaka 27 Kurikyal, Karimnagar 449 Kurkihar, Gaya 161 kurma-sila fig XXIX Kurnool 321, 450 Kushan 28, 29, 49, 51, 52, 57, 59, 62, 128 küfachadya 295, 296, 300 Kutch 88 Kuvalaya-mala(-kahá) 182, 394 Kuvara-vihara 447 Kyanzittha, Burma 269
Lakha, Räpā 356 Lakhanadon, Seoni pl 181A-B, 2980 Lakkundi, Dharwar 200, 310, 312, 313, 314,
454, pl 203A-B Lakshmeshwar, Dharwar 310, 312, 314, 377 Lakşmaņa 14 Lakşmana temple, Khajuraho 272, 277 Laksmana-vihāra, Jaisalmer 341 Lakşmi 292 Lakşmidhara 578 Laksmi-mandapa, Laksmisvara-mandapa 322,
367; see also Sri-mandapa Lakşminivāsa 148 lolata-bimba 145, 235, 286, 287, 315, 322, 340,
450 Lalātendukesari see Khandagiri caves Lal, D 537n Lal-Darwaza Masjid, Jaunpur 241 Lalitakirtti 365 lalitásana 264, 288, 293 Lal-Mandir, Delhi 345 Lal-Shab-kk-Mandir, Amer 249 lañchanu 4, 14, 65, 66, 72, 116, 128, 443, 469,
470; absence of-in Gupta a ge 115 Lāțăpalli 447 Lathondungri 157 lattice 97 Laukåntika-devas 389 Laur-Canda 420, 421, 423n Lavana-samudra 517n layanas 208 ledge 76, 94,96 Lohuizen-de Leeuw, J E van 52n Lefmann, S 115n Lemaythna, Burma 268, 269, fig XIX Lepā 363 libraries, monastic 394 Library, Central Archaeological, New Delhi
13
LD Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad 404n,
407 Lachbagiri, Allahabad 150, 443 Ladha 72 Lạc Khăn temple, Aihole 372 Ladol, Mehsana 556 Laghu-dravya-sarigraha 278 Lahore 4230
Licchavis 69 linga 5, 138, 331; see also Śiva-linga Lingăyat 207 lintel 77, 156, 291, 428, 429, 432, 458 lion rirt lañchana 16, 44, 130, 283 lion-capital 61 Lister, E 348n Logassa-Sutta 470 Lohaggata see Lobardaga Lohanipur, Patna 3, 4, 5, 26, 71, 87, 465, 474 Lohardaga, Ranchi 23, 276
634

Page #376

lahasana 173 Lokaditya 209 lokakan 514 Loka-svartipa 43 Laliga 248, 249
Lollaka see Loliga
Lopalobbika 12,91
Longhurst, A H 40n, 367a, 368
Los Angeles County Museum of Art 543, 549, 550 551, pls 328 A-B, 3298, 333, 334
lotus 132; blue rirt lanchana 16;: flower, rirt läfichana 15;-scrolls 168
Lucknow, State Muscum 9, 54, 55, 56, 107, 149, 150, 490, 491, pis 2A, et passim Lüders, H 51n, 52n, 53n, 61n, 63, 65, 66n, 67n, 44in
lumas 281
Lumbă 363
Luna-vasahi, Mt Abu 305, 309, 362, 446, pls 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 201, 309
lustration 331
Lutherva temple, Jaisalmer 362
Macdonell A A 4790 Macikabbe 316
Mackay, EJ 87n
Madanavarman 30, 277, 278, 578
Madanpur 277, 278
Maddingudi, Aihole 199 Madevi 451
madhavi-creeper 222
Madhuban, Bihar 529
madhya-bandha 281, 289
Madhyadesa 49, 51; def 242; 243, 259
Madhyamikä see Majhamikā
Madhyama-Pävä see Päväpuri
Madhya Pradesh 10, 428, 445, 556 Madra 29, 442
Madras Museum 230, 331, 332, 449, 452, 598-600, pls 383, 384
Madura 33
Madurai, Tamil Nadu 93, 94, 101, 184, 381, 457; District 96-99; Taluk 96-98 Madurai Astriyan see Ilag-Gautamag madyarigas 487
manyargas 487
Magadha 25, 26, 69, 70, 133, 441, 480; empire 49; king of 10n
Maghanandi-Bhattaraka 455
635
Mahabalipuram 190, 220, 225 Mahd-bandha 411
Mahabharata 17, 20, 480, 493
Mahadeva 311
Mahadevan, I 100n, 230n, 450m, 457
Maka-dhavala 385
Mahajanaka-Jataka 17 Mahakaocha 389 Mahakali 14
Mahakosala 277, 297 Mahakuteswar 895
maha-mandapa 173, 186, 212, 234, 235, 279, 280, 281, 282, 284, 314, 315, 322, 323, 327, 328, 367, 368, 369 Mahämeghavahana 74, 76 Mahanandi 321
maha-nāsiká 212
Maha parinibbana-suttanta 39 Mahapatra, RP 163
Mahaprabhus 366
Mahd-purdna 416, 417, 420, 421, 423n, 425, 427, 466n; illustrations from-pis 279, 284; col-ill 29
mahd-puruşa 140; -laksana 134, 474
Maharashtra 32, 365, 366
Maharatta (Mahārāṣṭra) 26
Mahasahaniya Uppalaraka 240 Mahāsena 278
Mahasthängarh, Bogra, Bangladesh see Pundravardhananagara
Mahavamsa 7
INDEX
Mahavira see Jina
Mahavira cave see Khandagiri caves
Mahavira Bhandara 406
Mahavira temple, Ghanerao 306n, pls 69-73; Kumbharia 302, 307, 308, pl 196; Mt Abu 446; Osia 145, 181, 246, 247, 248, 306, pls 74, 75, 143, 144, fig XV; Nandia, Sirohi 181; Sachore 182; Sewadi 306; Siddhapura 31; Tirupparuttikkunram pl
211
Mahiyaksa 14
Mahendravarman 100, 102, 381
Maheśvarasuri 148
Mabeth, Bahraich 16, 23; see also Sravasti
Mahipala 394n, 396
Mahigamardini 572
Mahoba, Hamirpur 30, 277
see
Mahodayapuram
Trichur
Mahorages 487
Tiruvanchikulam,

Page #377

INDEX
Mailamadevi 322, 323
Mainamati hills, Comilla, Bangladesh 121, 271
Maity, P K 12la Majhamikä 85
Majjaganna-basti 316 Majumdar, N G 479 Majumdar, MR 414
Majumdar, RC 6n, 23, 69, 70, 73, 90, 152n, 153n, 155n, 170n, 270n, 445, 479m makara 61, 62; -head, 139; -kundala, 137; -mukhas, 125; -pranali 281; -śärdüla, 557; -terama, 144, 211, 315, 322, 331, 367,1376, 530, 532, 559, 560, 561
Maksi, Ujjain 351
Malidevi temple, Gyaraspur 144, pls 1008, 101, 102, 103, 104, 171 mälädhäri-Gandharvas 114
Malaiyadikkurichi, Tirunelveli 100, 208, 228; cave-temple 211
Malaya see Nirgaya Malhana 578
Malhar 297
Malhargarh, Guna 354, pl 234A
Malhar Rao 434
Malkhed, Gulbarga 92, 184, 375
Mallavādi 89, 135
Mallikarjuna Immadi Devaraya 370
Mallikarjuna temple 322 Mallisena 327, 476
Mallisena Maladhāri 317
Malvaniya, D D 139n
Malwa 31, 86, 87, 92, 277, 278, 295, 350,
351
Mamandur, North Arcot 102, 209
Margayi-basti, Sravanabelgola 366, 369) Mammata 182
Manasa 346
Mänasära 37, 37n, 467, 477 Mänasimha Tomara 351
mana-stambha 6, 39, 41, 45, 116,
227, 242, 315, 318, 319, 322, 367, 368, 370, 373, 374, 443, 465, 484, 530, 532, 577, 578 Manatody 234
Manatunga 252n, 256
Mapava-gana 91
Manbhum 166, 265, pl 158A
matica-bandha 329
mañcaka 233 Mañcanda 227
178, 210, 327, 352, 450, 455,
636
Mañcapurl see Udayagiri caves mancika 295
Mandana 338, 351, 356, 362, 448, 495 mandapa 171, 208, 209, 215, 279, 286, 288,
300, 301, 304, 316, 318, 327, 328, 336, 340, 342, 343, 356, 357, 360, 362, 367, 431, 432, 433, 434, 436, 509, pl 239; wooden-pls 286-289, 293, 294 Mandapadurga 409
mandara 316
mandaraka 284, 287, 290, 291
Mandavapura see Mandu, Dhar
Mandhata, East Nimar pl 182B, 299n Mandoil 262, pl 155A
Mandor 138, 182
mandovara 300, 356, 504, fig XXXIV
Mandu, Dhar 305, 351, 408, 409, 409, 410, 411, 421; Sultans of-350
Mandya, Karnataka 330
mangala-cihna 428;-kalasa, 89, 490;-mdla 140
Mangalesa 186
Mangaih(t)evanpatti 214, 230
Mangrol 303
Mangu, Arya 88
Mangulam, Madurai 94, 97 mani-bandha 115
Manimekalai 95
Māņikka Vācākar 33
mani-pithaka 472, 484, 526 Maniyar-Math, Rajgir 121, 121n Mannama Nayaka 323 Manoharlal 472
Manoharpur 52n Manu 480
manuscript(s), beginnings of painted Digambara-395, 411-427; Svetambara-395; Pala Buddhist-397; palm-leaf-396, 400405, 411-412; wooden covers of-397-402 Manyakheta see Malkhed; Rästrakutas of -32
Manya temple, Dwarahat 245, 344 Märan Sendan 211
Mārasimha 222 Maridatta col-ill 30B Marimata cave pl 231B Markuli 318
Marmunagala 321
Marot see Marukotta
Marotha 343
marriage, institution of 19

Page #378

INDEX
Marshall, John Sn, 87, 91A, 4792 Maru-devi pl 27RA, Col-ill 29 Marulotta, Marwar 397 Marukaltalai, Tirunolyedi 100 Maruttuvalkudi 228 Marwar 249, 306, 342 masi 19 mason set racan Masrur, Kangra 192 Matangesvara temple, Khajuraho 273 Matar 426 matha(s) 242 matha-patts 32 Mathuri 4, 5, 6, 14n, 28, 49-68, 72, 81, 87,
89, 91, 107-116, 128, 129, 130, 131, 136, 147, 170, 241, 242, 245, 251, 252, 257, 441, 442, 458, 465, 466, 473, 475, 476, 479, 481, 482, 485, 490, 491, 537, 546, pl 321A; Archaeological Museum (AMM), 9, 52, 107, 110, 149; pls 1 et
passim Matisāgara 213, 476 Mátskās 349 Matsyadesa 148 Mauryas 49 Maya 165 Mayta, Midnapur 263, pl 155B Mayurbhanj 163 medallion 57, 58, 59, 63, 144, 208, 256, 402,
pls 4A, 8D Medapāța (Mowar) 145 Megasthenes 25, 49 Meghasenācārya 251 Megha-Kumāra 544 Megudi temple, Hallur 197 Meguți temple, Aihole 188, 195, 197, 312,
454, pl 120B Meister, Michael W 170n Melaka-Vasahi, Girnar 357, 361 Melgudi see Meguti Melkote 329 Melur Taluk, Tamil Nadu 98, 99 Menabasti Jaina cave-temple 187, pl 116A-B Menon, A Sreedhara 233n, 234n Meru 41, 316, 501, 518, 521-25, 6g XLVII Meru, Mudbidri pi 258 meru-prdsdda 304 Metropolitan Museum, New York 435 Mettupatti, Nilakkottai Taluk 99 Mewada 494 Mewar 182, 355, 356, 357, 403
Midnapur, WB 155 Mihirabhoja 182 mina 115 minavar 457 mina-yugala 89, 445, 491 miniature painting, west-Indian, influencing
bronze image, Tamilnadu 330 miniature srpa, Buddhist 6; Jaina, 5 Mirashi, V V vi, vin of vol II, 4440 Mirzapur 544 Mishra, Vijayakanta 1210, 126n Mithila 15, 16, 17, 50, 69 mithuna(s) 5, 281, 282, 286, 287, 315 Mitra, Debata 74n, 151n, 155, 155n, 156,
157, 1621, 163n, 165n Mitra, Rajendralala 74n, 83n Modbera, 170, 302 Mocller, V 548n Mobangarh 577, 579 Mohenjo-daro 3, 87; stcatile seal from--fig 1 Mokala, Raņā 356 moksa 42, 260 monastery 62, 207; Jaina-rirt schools and
universities 30; 7, 61, 62, 63, 94, 98, 117,
118, 271 Monghyr, Bihar 22 monolithic templo-form 189, 190, 191, 192 moon, half rirt lanchana 15 Morasunad 366 Moraes, M 270 Morkhapa, Bikaner 339 Mosakudi 230 Moti Chandra 88n, 393n, 395n, 397n, 4010,
405n, 406, 407n, 408, 409, 410n, 412n, 4130, 414n, 4150, 416n, 417, 417n,
420, 421, 4210, 423n, 426n motif 109, 114, 117, 156; animal 58, 82, 338,
399, 401, 431, pls 6A, 6C, 6D, 7C; anklets 436, figs XXVI, XXVII; bullock-cart 437; caltya-yrksa 58, pl 6B; chariot 417, 425, 431; creeper 58, 62, 399, 401, 428, pl 7; cudamani 128; decorative 49, 458, pl 100B; deer 149; deer-andwheel 4, 113, vii of vol II; Dikpālas 431, floral wreaths 114; flowers 58, 138, pl 7; flower-gatherers 382; Garuda 60, p1 9A-B; gavdksa 137, 139; ghangá 280; harsa 58, 403, Hellenistic 60; honeysuckle 55, 56, 58, 82; leaf-border 114; lions (mythical) 401; lotus 58, 60, 114, 137, 478, makara 58, 60; makaratorana 328; merlon 82; scalloped border 114; scroll-work 114; Srivatsa 58; throno
637

Page #379

INDEX
425; Jaina-compared with Buddhist and
Brahmapical 82, 83 mouldings 156, 157 mrdango-player 433 Mrgadava 4
Mrgelavarman 27, 454
Mudbidri (Mudabidure), South Kanara 367, 370, 371, 376, 378, 385, 386, 411, 454, 455, 493, pls 249B, 250, 251, 254B, 256B, 257, 258, 314, col-ill 12-21
Mudra-raksasa 24
Mudrita-Kumudacandra 401 Mugad, Dharwar 310 Mugunda 311
Muhammad Tughluq 335
mukha-bhadra 502
mukha-catuki 143, 144, 145, 247, 295, 341 mukha-mandapa 45, 145, 171, 186, 210, 211, 247, 284, 285, 300, 301, 313, 318, 323, 326, 328, 340, 381, 451, 452, 484, 526 Mukherji, S C 117, 118, 157 mukkudal 376, 378, 456
Mukunda 477
mukuja 136, 139
müla-gabhāra see garbha-grha Molanatha-Jinadeva temple 183 mala-prädda 245, 249, 441, 343 Malaraja I 183
Malasanghas 31
Mulgund, Dharwar 365
munda-prasada 371, 372
Mundasthala, Sirohi 85
Mungthala see Mundasthala
Municandra 249
Municipal Museum, Ahmedabad 423n
Munisuvrata temple, Dholaka 303
Muniväsa 327, 367 Mulja 31, 278
Munugodu 320
mural paintings, west-Indian-influencing bronze images Tamilnadu 331 Murshidabad 347, 348n Muruga 98
mulagal 97
Musée Guimet, Paris 546, 548n, pl 325 Museum für indische Kunst, Berlin-Dahlem
548, pl 326
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 403
Museums, Andhra Pradesh 573; Madhya Pradesh 577-98; Rajasthan 570; Tamil Nadu $98-600
638
musician, wooden fig XXVI Musinikonda 449
Muslim(s), advent of-rirt Jainism 33;-rule
310
Muttaraiyars 184, 213, 214, 215 Muttuppatti, Madurai 94, 97 Mysore 313, 315, 330, 549 mysticism, Indian 18 mythology, Jaina 3
nåbhicchanda-order 144, 147, 286, 296 Nachna, Panna 129n, 130, 131, 169, 273 Naddúla 306n
Nadlai 306n, 446
Nadol 240, 241, 306n, 478, pl 307 Nadumba-vasadi, Vijayawada 449
Nāga(s) 64, 121, 129, 144, 282, 283, 291, 350, 352
Nagabhata I 182; II 170, 182
Naga Dharana 253
Naga dynasty 49 Näga-hoods 149 Naga-kumaras 531
Nagamalai, Chingleput 99, 452 Nagamalai hill, Madurai 229 naga-pāśa 147
Nagapattinam, Buddha from 386
naga-phana 149 Nagapura 447
Nagara order 215, 216, 217, 265, 266 Nägurāja temple, Nagercoil 234 Nagarch, BL 299
Nagari, Chitogarh 103, 355; see also Majha.
mika
Nagarjuna, Arya 89, 133, 135
Nagarjunakonda, Guntur 400
Nagarjuni hill, caves, Gaya, 70n, 119, 223
Nagar Tiruvamantālvän 234
Nagasarikä see Navsari
Nagasena 128
Nagaur, Rajasthan 182, 241, 339 Nagda, Dewas 587
Nagda, Rajasthan 336, 342, 343 Nagendra 88
Nagendra-bhavana 283, 284 Nagercoil, Kanyakumari 234, 453 Nagl(s) 121, 352 Nägiśvart 137

Page #380

INDEX
Nagpur 353; Museum 169 Nahar, Bijoy Singh 165, 947n Nahar, Puran Chand 346n, 447 Nahata, Bhanwar Lal 495n Nahta, Agarchand 3397 Naigamesa, Naigameşin 126, 158 Nainagiri 350, 353 nála-mandape 303 Nalanda, Bihar 23, 69, 161, 396; Museum
166 Nalapura see Narwar . Nalgore, 24-Parganas 153 namakara mandapa 234 Nami 389 Nandana forest 521, 523, 525 Nandas 24, 25, 26, 49, 74 Nandi.gona 319 Nandighoşa 63 nandipada 56, 61, 63, 81, 115 Nandi-sala 529 Nandi-Sūtra 134 Nandiśvara 316, 377, 518; from Kolhapur
364 Nandiśvara-bimbas 43 Nandīśvara-dripa 3, 41, 42, 170, 253, 302,
472n, 520, 525 Nandiśvara-dvipa-pafta, Ranakpur 364, pl
245 Nandiśvara-dvipa-prasada 527, 529, figs
XLVIII, XLIX Nandivarman Pallavamalla 451 nandyavarta 458 459, 462, 469, 470, 489,
492; rirtlafchana 14n, 15 Nannarāja-vasari 182 Nanna Säri 182 Nannol 213 Narabhata see Narhad nara-courses, -tharu 248, 295, 297, 300 Närada 467 Naraina 249 Narasimha 208 Narasith ha I 317, 319; III 33 Narasimhavarman I Mamalla 184, 192 Naravara 249 Narayanan, MG S 95n, 231n Narhad, Pilani 148, 545, 556, 572 nariaka 56 Narttamalai 101, 209 Narwar 350, 351, 586, pt 230B Nasik 311 ndstika 288
Nataputta, Nätiputta see Mahavira Nataraja 382 Nátha 363 Nathajt 495 Nat Hraung Kyaung temple, Pagan 270, 272 National Museum, New Delhi 163, 166, 255,
406, 409, 410, 411, 430, 431, 432, 433,
539, 545, 555-566, 572, pls 335-346 Naunia, Narsinghpur 353 nara-cauki 340, 362; see also trika-mandapa Nava-devata 43, 319, 478. 479, pl 309B Nava-graha 38; see also graha Navalakhá temple, Ghumli 304 Nava-Pada 478 Nava-Pada-Aradhana-vidhi 478 nararariga 315, 318, 323; mendapa 311 Navasari 31, 305 nay-khania 430 Navyāvakašika 118 Nāyaka rulers 33 Nawab, Sarabhai 399n, 401, 401n, 4046, 407,
407n, 414n Nayadhamma-kahds 465 Nayakalli 320 Nayaka(3) 363 Näyaka rulers 328 Nayakitti 318 Nayanandi 278 Nayanmärs, Saiva 185, 207 näyik ä(s) 5, 294, 308 Nedunjeliyan 97 Nelson Gallery, Kansas City 551 Nelveli 97 Nemem 320 Nemicandra 278 Neminátha-mabātirtha, Mt Abu 446 Neminātha temple, Mt Abu see Luna-vasahi
temple Mt Abu; Dholaka 305; Girnar 303, 361, Kumbharia pl 189; Tirumalai
pl 134 Nemi Setti 316 Nenur 378 Nepal 273, 367 New York, Collection in-pls 327A-B, 332 niches 66, 76, 91, 125, 143, 144, 145, 146
147, 156, 172, 209, 227, 330 nidas 219 nidhis 459 Nidugallu 367 nthara-sthåna 499 nigama 97
639

Page #381

INDEX
Niglava, Nepal saral 7 Nilakkottai Taluk 99 Nilakantha, Alwar 148, 250, pl 148A
Nilanjana 65
Nindra, A P 378 Ninnaya 182, 301 Nigradirneḍumarap 381
mirandhara-prdadda 288 Nirgaya, Bihar 23
Nirgrantha Arhatayana 52; Nirgranthas
25, 27, 70, 118
nirvana 3, 22, 44, 50, 70n
nipedhikās 242, 251
nisidhi(ka) 43, 102, 455, 520 Nirvana-kalika 307, 476
Nitha-Curl 85, 85, 89 Nittur, Tumkur 318 Niviti-kula 138
nivrtti 20, 88 Niyogi, Roma 241 Nizamabad 378, 574
Nolambas 184
Nojambavadi 460
North Arcot District 95. 102, 328, 329 North Kanara District 372
Nowgong, Chhatarpur 577, 579, pl 366B
Nrsimha 307, pl 186B
nrtya-mandapa 301, 304, 305
Nuggehalli 366
nunneries 207
nyagrodha 63
nymph pl 229A-B, fig XXVII
Odalavadi. North Aroct 452 ohl 413
Ogha-niryukti 395, 398, 403
Ojha, G H 85n
Om 42
O'Malley, LSS 830
Orambakkam, Chingleput 225
Orchchha 350
Orissa 7, 10, 73, 74-84, 93, 158-164, 261, 273275, 540, 546; State Museum, Bhubaneswar, 274, pl 160B, 161B
osadhis 480
Osia, Jodhpur 30, 118n, 143, 145, 181, 246, 247, 252, 253, 257, 572, pls 143, 144 Osmanabad 11n
oria 428, 430
640
pábhága 156, 157
Pabhosa, Allahabad 10n, 441 Padalipta, Arya 89, 476 padma-kesara 144 padma-patra-sakha 144 Padampur, MP 297 Padari, Iyakki 451 Paddatumbalam 321
Padhavall, Morena 582, 583 padma 314
Padma-carita 469
Padmakshi, AP 321
padma-mouldings 282, 283, 284, 290
padma-pitha 216
Padma-purana 468n
padmasana 113, 127, 131, 153, 154, 292, 293, 326, 468
Padmasenācārya 251
padma-dila 296, 301, 304, 305, 340 Padmaväsi temple see Kadaliya-vasadi Padmavati-basti, Sravanabelgola 317 Padmavatt-Mandir, Nagda 342 pádukās 443
Pagan, Burma 269, 270, 272, fig XX pagas 154
pagri 432
Pahlagas 91
Paharpur, Rajshahi, Bangladesh 6n, 73, 117, 121, 126, 270, 271, 272, 442, 485, fig XXI; copper-plate grant 29
pdijmd 418, 419, 420, 421, 423, 433 painting(s) 227, 328, 329; geometrical-328; -of Lodi school 421, 423n; miniature40, 393-427: mural-40, 381-389
Pajnari, Sagar 352, 353, 354, pls 228A, 233B
paka-śälä 499
Pakbira, Purulia 5, 157
palace 117
Palaiyarai 228
Palam, Delhi 425
Palani, Madurai 99 Palas 152, 262, 557
Palghat, Kerala 233, pls 141, 142
păli 96, 98, 99, 221, 450, 451
Pali, Rajasthan 306n, 446
Palitana, Gujarat 31, 89, 361, 431, 446 Pallava-Jinālaya 321
Pallavas 33, 100, 184, 207, 211, 214, 218, 323, 324, 451
palli 96, 98, 100, 229, 451

Page #382

INDEX
Pattikkudam 229 Pallimadam 214 Pallo, Bikaner 241, 545, 556, 565, pls 154,
337 Palma, Manbhum 137, 548, pl 158B palm-lorf manuscripts 43; illustrations from
pls 270B-C, 271A-D; painting on402405 Pal, P 543n palyopamas 140 Pampa 449 panca-küta-basti 312; Kambadahalli 215,
219, pl 130A; Markuli 318 Paficklas 494 Patica-Meru, Surat 364 Pañcapandavamalai 98, 99, 103; Orambak
kam 225; Vilappakkam 226 Pañcapandavarkuttu 99 Pañcapāndavarmalai, Kilaiyur-Kilavalavu
229
Pañcapāndavar-padukkai 97 Pañca-Paramesthins 42, 319, pls 307, 308 Pañcapura see Pinjaur panca-ratha 171, 172, 243, 340 Pancasăra Pārsvanātha temple, Patan Anhilvad
182, 301 486 panca-sikkhlyo 16 Pafica-stupa-nikdya, Kasi 73, 118, 443, 485, Pailca-stupanvaya 118 pañica-tirthika 553, 557, pis 333, 346, 347B,
362A, 363B pancavimsati-paffa 565 paßicâyatana (temple) 157, 248, pl 89A Pancendras 113 Panchamukhi, R S 376, 377n Panchavarnappadukkai, Madurai 99 Pafcika figures 151, 170 Paficolis 494 Påndava 96 Pande, B M 12 Pandukabhaya, Ceylon 7 Panduka forest 521, 522, 523 Pandyas 33, 95, 97, 98, 102, 184, 207, 209,
213, 218, 451, 456, 457, 458, 459 paniard 430 panidalabhoi 128 pdpipdtrika 127 pafijara 219, 220, 221, 313, 314, 317 Papanasanam, Kurnool 321 Papaura, Tikamgarh 352 paper, painting on 405-411, 412
pardhachi 430 Paramaras 30, 31, 277, 278, 297, 311, 351,
398, 3983 paramdtman 35, 42, 45 Paranagar see Nilakantha, Alwar Parintaka I 226, 227 Parannath, Bijnor 244, 251 Paraspath fill, Hazaribagh 140, 16, 275,
347n, 360 parasol 154, 263, 459; see also chatra parafu 292, 293 Pareshnath, Bankura 155, 157 pari 342 parikara 124, 132, 169, 178, 252, 287, 308,
309, 354, 467, 476, 565, 567, 569, pls 151,
182, 230, 345, 361B Paris 546 parisutra 322, 367 Paramarddin 30 Paramesthin see Pancapariva-devata en Parsvanatha-basti, Heggere 318; Hosabolalu
319; Sravanabelgola 317, pl 204 Parsvanātha temple 5; Bijolia 240; Bikaner
Jee Bhandasar temple; Dhar 278; Ghumli 304, 305; Jaisalmer fort 341; Khajuraho 277, 279, 284-288, 444, pls 167, 168, 169, 170, 173, 174, 175, 176, fig XXII; Kumbharia 362; Pali 3060; Phalodhi pl 145; Ranakpur pls 242, 243; Sadri 306n;
Trilokpur pl 225 paryarikásana 326 pada 172, 291 pdsdda 51, 52;-torana 51; see also prasdda Pasandha-caris 418, 419, 421, 424; illustra
tions from-pl 280A, col-il 32 Pasupati 21 Pasupatinátha temple, Nepal 273 Pat 430 para(3) 395 Patadkal, Bijapur, 195, 198, 310, pl 126 Pataini Dei temple, Pithaora, Satna 168, pls
95A-B, 96 pdtala-nagaris 498, 519 Petaliputra 24, 25, 69, 70, 71, 393 465 Patan, Gujarat 87, 302, 303, 304, 402, 408,
410,414, 435; Anbilvad 301 Patancheru, Hyderabad 320 Patancheruvu 573, 574, pls 359, 360 Pathari, Jhabua 352 papkd 420, 421, 433 papli(i) 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, col-ill 24
641

Page #383

INDEX
pillary 56, 60, 77, 78, 89, 94, 107, 117,
144, 147, 168, 174, 208, 250, 27 301, 303, 304, 307, 316, 317, 327, 330, 331, 336, 341, 343, 350, 363, 364, 369, 370, 373, 374, 375, 428, 429, 430, 431, 435, 455, 543, pis 11B, 119, 191, 254B, 381C; Brahmadeva - 222; capitals 52; ghaja-base of-56; kalasa-topped-189, pl 119; torana- 60, 61, pl 11B; see also
mana-stambha pina-u 97 Pinda-Niryukti 89n, 402 pindi 217 Pinjaur 241, 250 Pippala cave, Rajgir 118 Pi-pu-lo mountain, Rajgir 120; see Vaibhára
Patna, Bihar 347; Museum 166, 486, 568, pls
157B, 158B; Sagar, 394, pl 228B Patodi's shrine, Jaipur 337, 343, pl 224 patra-lata 221, 290, 296; -torana 215; -fakha
144 paffaka(s) 395, 398; on cloth 404 Patjana 241 parfa-sala 395, 499 Paffdvali-amuccaya 88n pafrika 143, 233, 281, 282, 286 Pattipikkuratti 226 Pauma-cariyu 91 Păvă see Pávăpunt Pavagadh 305 Pavagiri 350 Pavapandi 213 Pavāpuri, Patna 16, 22, 23 pavilion, pillared 61 Pavitra-Kalpa-sūtra 488n, 489n Pechchipallam 97, 98, 229 Pecochipparai, Tirunelveli 208; cave-temple
211 Poddatumbalam, AP 320, 331, 332 pedestal 5, 66, 81, 87, 111, 112, 113, 114,
123, 124, 125, 130, 131, 138, 145, 149, 150, 151, 154, 222, 232, 286, 306, 307, 377, pl 369, fig Vil; inscribed-110, 127, 128, 136, 137, 145, pl 57B; lotus- 159; sapta
ratha-158; stepped-pyramidal-56 Penugonda 320 period see age Periya-Puranam 4570 Persian manuscript-illustrations influencing
Indian manuscript-illustrations 405, 409,
410, 414, 416, 420, 422, 423 Pothada, Pethad Shāh 305, 306, 339, 351,
406 phagu 410 Phalavardhika see Phalodhi phallus, Saiva 158; see also liriga Phalodi, Rajasthan 249, 343, pl 145 phänsand-roof 146, 147, 302, 305, 312 Phenu, Thakkura 495, 527 piccha 322 pidhas 290 pilasters 62, 78, 82, 144, 156, 169n, 208, 209,
211, 212, 226, 232, 250, 282, 283, 285, 286, 291, 292, 294, 315, 317, 328, 434,
pl 127A, fig XI pilgrim def rirt Jainism 35 Pillai, Elankulam P N Kunjan 2340 Pillaiyarpatti, Ramanathapuram 99, 209
Pisaca 487 pitcher rirt láñchana 15 piha 64, 139, 143, 145, 171, 213, 232, 235,
247, 289, 298, 300, 331, 336, 340, p!
217B, figs XXXII, XXXIII Pithaora, Satna 168 pls 95A-B, 96 Pittalbara temple, Mt Abu 362, 446 planets 114; see also Grahas Pocchive 317 Podasingidi, Keonjhar 159, 160 Pomburca see Humcha Poona (Pune), Maharashtra 28 Ponnamaravati-simā 322 Ponniyakkiyar 451 Ponnur 453 Poravāda Ropimuni 249 Potlaceruvu see Patancheru Potanapura 91 Poygaimalai, Kuppalanatham 99, 229 Poysala Setti 316 Prabandha-cintamani 241 Prabhācandra 92, 278, 460 prabhd-mandala 559; see also prabhavali Prabhankara 541 Prabhāsa 182, 303 prabhāvali 83n, 187, 287, 293, 319, 332, 376 Prabhus 366 pradakşind-patha 143, 147, 337; see also
ambulatory, circumambulatory Pradyota 86 Pradyumnácārya 181 Pragatur 369, 320, 321 prägbhara 74 prág-griva 302 Prahladanapura 447
642

Page #384

INDEX
Prajapati (Prajtlapti) 169n Prajtapti 14 prakara 212, 218, 245, 302, 305, 321, 324,
328, pl 214 pråkdra-bandha 328 Prakhara, 149 Prambanan, Indonesia, Siva templo aten „Pramod Chandra 1510, 168n, 245n, 410n prandydma 20 prapå 52 prdedda 242, 315, 356; Jipa- 502, figs XL,
XLI, XLII, XLIII, XLVIII Prasdda-mandana 356, 495 Prdsdda-mafjari 495n prdsdda-pitha 356 Prdsdda-tilaka 494n Prasad, Hari Kishore 72n, 121n Prašna-vyákarana-sutra 492n prastara 212, 314, 329 Pratāpacandra 587 Pratap Museum, Udaipur 571 pratibandha 319 Pratihäras 30, 170, 171, 243, 245, 246, 248,
286, 287 prätthårya 468 pratima-yoga 227 praliratha 145, 502 pratışthd 44 Prarispha-kalpa-tippanam 478n pratishana 58n Pratisthāna, Pratişthanapura 27, 88, 133 pratishd-pdfha 468n, 470, 470n Pratiştha-sára-sargraha 468, 468n Pratisthd-sdroddhara 37n, 468, 468n, 469,
469n, 470, 470n, 472n, 476, 478n, 487 Pravacana-sdroddhara 472n, 4870, 527 pravrajyd 20 ratik ramana 21 Prayåga (Allahabad) 23 prekşd-grha-mandapas 484 preksd-mandapas 526 Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay 87, 135,
308, 309, 384, 406, 407, 408, 423n, 433,
474, 549, 566-570, pls 1983, 347-54 Priyakariņi 388 Priya kara 595 Prola I 311, 322 Prome, Burma see Hmwaza, Burma Pythvipala 304, 307 Pythviraja I 239; II 240
priku (pudhands-fille-parfa 64, 481, 483n Pudukkottai, Tiruchchirappalli 94, 549;
Muncang 230, 600 Pudur, AP 320, 321, 377 Pugalur, Tiruchchirappalli 101, 230, 231;
cavern pl 42 Pulakesin II 184, 454 Pullappa 213 Pundravardhana(nagara), north Bengal 72,
73, 118, 1180, 152 Pundravardhanlyā-jdkha 73 Pure District tuePoona Punnata 454 Punyavijaya 86n, 3970, 400, 4000, 409, 410,
488n, 4890 Parimatăla see Purulia; see also Prayaga Pärnabhadra-caitya 481, 482 Parpacandra-Sûri 85 purna-ghafas 322, 323 púrpa-kumbhas 433, 437 Purulia, WB 23, 157, pl 159B Purusadatta 14 pūrvaśrama 225 Pusalkar, A D 6n, 69n, 70n, 90n, 170n, 270n,
445n, 479 Puşpadanta 90, 476 puspa-kansha 300 Puşpagena 327 Pusyamitra Sunga 49 Puttambur, Tiruchchirappalli 230 pyramidal superstructures 367, 450
Quwwatu'l-Islām mosque, Delhi 250
Rāca ja malla 1 227, 452; IV 219 Radhala), WB 23, 72, 85; see also Rära råga 42 Ragamala 423n Raghusena 182 Raidhu 418, 419, 420, 421 Raikrishnadasa 10n Raipur 353; Museum 170, 588-590, pls 99,
373, 374 railing 55, 57, 58, 60, 63, 78, 80, 81, 82, pl 8;
balustrated-57; corner-post of -55, pl 5; cross-bars of --pl 6; -pillars 28; -posts 5,
52, 67, pls 4, 9A Rai Singh 342 Rai-vihdra 303

Page #385

INDEX
Raja-gaccha 148 Rajagtha see Rajgir Rajanialla Satyavākya see Rācamalla Rajanpur-Khinkhini, MP 169 Rajaraja I Cofa 213; 111 324, 327 Rajaraja-Jinalaya, Bhogapuram 323 rdjasenaka 144, 146, 315 Rajanithha 211, 214 Rajasthan 10, 30, 31, 32, 86, 88, 133, 241,
242, 243, 244, 245, 247, 257, 259, 309 335, 336, 338, 339, 355-364, 401, 402, 408,
428, 436, 445, 448, 555, 556 Rajavallabha 499 Rajavallabha-mandana 356 Rájavdrttikalarkdra 514n Raja-vibāra 249 Rajgir, Nalandă 16, 22-24, 70, 89n, 117-122,
128n, 1300, 131, 132, 133, 134, 164, 347n,
470, 483, 498 Rajkot (Gondal) 29 Rajorgarb see Nilakantha, Alwar Rajputana see Rajasthan; -Museum, Ajmer
pl 150 Rajshahi, Bangladesh 263 Rajulamatt 17 Rakkasa Ganga 319 Råkgasas 487 Ralhanpur 431 Rāma rirt Jina, Muni Suvrata 7 Ramachandran, TN 121n, 324n, 377n, 389n,
459, 459n, 4610, 469n, 478n, 487n, 529n Rāmagupta 29, 127, 128, 131, 168, 442 Ramanathapuram District 99, 100, 214 Raman, K V 97n Ramanuja 207, 316, 330, 460 Råmapāla 397 Ramdyana 64n, 388, 493 Ramesh, K V 37in Ramgarh hill, Surguja 10 Ramsen, Gujarat 182 Ranade, R D 18n, 19n Ranakpur 44, 267, 303, 337, 341, 357, 358,
359, 360, 362, 363, 446,448, 485, 485n,
pls 235, 236, 239-246, fig XXIII Ranathambhor 239, 241 ranga-mandapa 143, 248, 302, 313, 341, 509 Rāni-gumphā, Udayagiri, Puri 76, 80, 82, 83,
84, pl 25 Rani-ki-mandi 52n Ranjuvula 51 Ranna 310
Ranod 177 Rao, 8 27a Rara see Rādha(d) Räraka rit Jaina monk 73 Rästrakojas 31, 32, 92, 182, 184, 185, 192,
218, 227, 313, 324, 328, 375, 449, 454 Ratanpur, Bilaspur 297, 588, 592 ratha-offsets 154, 285, 286, 290, 296, 311,
313, 340, 502 Ratha-vasatika 181 ratha-yatra 86 rathika 146 Ratna-gotra-vibhäga 476 Ratna-pariksa 495 ratna-paffa 290 Ratpaprabha-Säri 572 Ratnapura see Ratanpur, Bilaspur Ratnapuri 15 ratna-rási 488, 490 ratna-sák há 144 Ratna-siri ha 361 Ratnatraya-basadi, Bilagi 367 Rattas 32 Ravalagudi 187 Ravikirtti 195, 454 Raviprabha 239 Ravişena 469 Ravivarman 27 Rayadurgam 320 Rayagiba see Rajgir Rayalaseema 320 rayana-tree 486 Rāyapāla 240 Rayapasenaiyam 490n Razgrad Museum, Bulgaria 254, 255 rebirth, theory of 43 Rehli, Sagar 352, 354 rekha-pråsåda 321; -type 154, 157 relief 59, 62, 66, 76, 81, 82, 99, 100, 119, 120,
122, 123, 124, 128, 129, 131, 136, 150. 162, 282, pls 29, 51B, 60, 79; Buddhist
62; stūpa- 56 retreats, monastic 76 Revanta 331 Rewa 350, 579, p. 368 Rgveda-sanhita 18, 480n rhinoceros rirt läfchana 15 Rice, B L 366n, 454 Rietberg Museum, Zürich 308 Risley 276
644

Page #386

rivers, in Jamba-dvipa 518, 518m rock-cut cavos 32-temples 192-194, 207-211; -shelters 105, 225, 230, 231, 234, pls 139A, 140
Robiol 14
Rohtak 253
Rothenstein, W 539n
Roy, Sitaram, 121, 126
Babhanatha temple, Dhanka 305 Raigupta 91 Ra-samuccaya 148 Rucaka-vara 518
Rudradiman 90
Rudrasena 90
Rudrasirhha I 90n, 445
nipa-kapha 146
Ripa-mandana 477, 495
ripa-daha 144; -stambhar 145
Rupbas 51
Rupnagar, Kishangarh 251
Rylands Library, Manchester 423
Sabda-kalpa-druma 493n Sabdánulásana 479
sabha-mandapa 300, 305, 308, 313, pls 195A
B, 311
sabhd-marga 144
Saccikādevi, Saccikāmātā, Osia 252, 339
Sachor 182 Saci 388
sad-dāru 499
Sadhadeva 309, pl 200
sädhani 495
Sadhu 42
Sadri, Rajasthan 118n
sadurams 220, 235 Sadyojāta 252n
Sagadala 24
Sägara 109 sdgaropama 140 Sägeya see Saheth Saggayani 522
Sahajanandanatha 99, 100
Sahakara 319
Sahasrabala pl 282A
Sahasra-kirtti 365
sahasra-kija 170, 177, 242, 558, pl 311A; Patan 364; sarvatobhadra- 352
sahasra-phana Parsvanatha, Ranakpur 364, pl 246
645
Sabeth, Gonda 16, 23; see also Śrāvasti
Sähis 407, 418
Saivas 33, 94, 100, 102, 117, 207, 329;
Saivism 33
INDEX
Sajjana, Danda-nayaka 303 Saka 27
Sakalacandra 259
Sakala-tirtha-stotra 246 Sakambhart 239, 241
sakhds 28, 52, 73, 91, 144, 283, 290, 291
Sakkaramallur, Tamil Nadu 332
Sakkayar Bhagavati temple, Godapuram 232 Saktikumāra 567.
Sakuna-karika 4930
Sakunik-vihara, Broach 304, 308
Sakuntala 83n
idlabhajikas 60, 279, 286, pl 10
Salahana see Sälivahana Salaka-purusa 17n, 150, 489
Salakṣaṇapura 305
Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad 576, pls 362-364
śālās 443
Salban Vihara 271
Saletore, B A 33n, 366, 370n
Säliggama 480 saliläntaras 285
Saliuka 27
Salivahana 27
sallek hana 25, 38, 43; see also saṁlekhand Šāļuvas 366
sama-bhanga 225
sama-dala-prasáda Big XXX
samakşipta-vitana 174
Samanarmalai, Madurai 94n, 97, 98, 228
Samantabhadra Vidyalaya, Delhi 478, 597
Samanta, S N 155n
sama-pada 67
sama-paryanka 226
Samarangana-sütradhara 499
Samarasimha 447
Samarasizhha temple, Girnar 357, 361
Samasgarh, Bhopal 352
samatala-vitāna 144, 318
Samatata, south Bangladesh 152
samavasarana 3, 39, 41, 118n, 191, 302, 328, 342, 382, 483, 484, 501, 529-533, col-ili 36B Samavayanga-arra 476, 476n, 486, 487 Sambandar 33

Page #387

INDEX
Sambhavanatha temple, Jaisalmer fort 340, 341; Kumbharia 305 sambhogas 28
Sametalikhara 14, 16, 305, 347 Sarbgha 70
Sarhgha-dasa-gapi 480
Sangrahapi-stra 426
salekhand 20
Samprati 25, 26, 27, 70, 85, 86, 88, 465, 466 Samprati-RAJA temple, Gitnar 357, 361 sarhadra-cakra-paja 394 Samudra 109; Arya-88
Samudravijaya 17, 50
sarkvarand-roof 300, 302, 341 Sathyukta-ratakara-caityalaya 311 Samyurta-Nikdya 482
Sanchi 5, 6, 51, 55, 57, 58, 60, 82, 83 sanctum 80, 81, 143, 145, 147, 154, 168, 171, 174, 212, 227, 243, 286, 296, 300, 304, 305, 320, 330; see also garbha-gṛha; -doorway, 145, 147, pl 73
sandhára 220; garbha-gṛha 317; -prasāda 143, 171, 284, 303; -vímána 200 Sangam literature 95; --period 457 Sanganer 241, 250
Sangaraka 109
Sanghvi Bhandara, Patan 404
sanghardmas 152
sangita-mendapa 324, 326, 327, 388, pl 210 Sangitapura, Haduvalli 366, 372, 376 Sangramasithha Soni 351
Sanka 157
Sankalia, H D 27n, 28, 29n, 88n, 89, 900, 136, 136n
Sankaracarya 33, 115
Sankha 283, 288, 291
Sankha-basti, Lakshmeswar 377; -Jinālaya 312, 314
Sanghatilaka-Süri 407 sanny dsa 19
Sanoli, Alwar 255
Santala-devi 316, 386, 460 Santara(s) 319, 454
santa-rasa 44
Santi-deva 460
Santigatta, Bangalore 319 Santikabbe 316
Santinatha-basti, Basti-halli 318
Santindtha-boli 404
Säntinatha-carita, 407; Santinaha-cariu 419,
420, pl 281A, col-ill 35
646
Santinatha derasar, Ahmedabad 431 Santinitha temple Bhandara, Cambay 403 Santinatha temple, Jaisalmer fort 340, 341;
Kaman 148; Khajuraho 489, pl 163; Kheda 339; Kumbharia 302; Rajyapura 148
Santi-parvan 17
Santipura see Bayana
Säntisena 278
Säntisvara-basti, Nittur 318; Venur 368,
372, pl 252B
sapta-marka, Brähmanical 5, 174, 307 Saptaparni cave, Rajgir 118
sapta-ratha 286, 340 Sarāk 276
Sarasvati 38, 43, 52, 67, 108, 146, 169, 180, 253, 256, 257, 284, 286, 318, 319, 403, 545, 556, 592, pls 20, 154, 174A, 270C, 317B, 319B, 337, 360 Sarasvati-garcha 278 Sarasvati-Tirtha 98 Sarasvati, B 117n
Sarasvati, S K 6n, 70n, 89n, 119, 154, 155n, 270n
saravasampuja 58n Sarayaghat, Etah 149 sardulas 340
sări 420, 421, 422, 423, 546 Sarmanes see śramana
Sarnath 122, 122n, 131, 241, 485 Sarotra 446
Sarppasena Ksamaņa 127, 128 särthavdha 51
Sarvalokasraya-Jina-bhavana 449 Sarvärtha-magadhi 533 sarvatobhadrikd 6, 43, 45, 66, 108, 116, 148,
149, 150, 151, 250, 253, 266, 269, 270, 271, 272, 343, 443, 483, 484, 580, 582, 591, pls 18, 227, 357B, 368A, 374A Sasana-basti, Sravanabelgola 316 Sasana-devată 108, 116, 149, 157, 293, 297, 306, 307, 349, 350, 473; -devi 108, 149, 162, pl 232B Sastra-Bhandaras, Juina 336 Sastri, Paramananda 252n sasvata-caityas 472
Satavahana 10, 27, 92, 394
Satbakhra see Khandagiri caves
Sat-Deulia, Burdwan 154, 155n, 265, temple pls 82B, 159A
Şarkhandagama 385, 393n, 411, 412 Satbis-deodi, Chitorgarh 340, pl 220

Page #388

Satna 169
sat-patra 43
sap-trihika 180
Satrapal dynasty, Saka 49, 51
Satrunjaya 31, 303, 360, 361, 364, 446, 447,
pls 237, 244
sattva-paryak dana 232, 552 Sattviks Sri-Vaisnavism 365 Satya Prakash 395a Satyavolu 321
Saumanasa forest 521, 523 Saundatti, Rattas of-32
Saurastra 27, 28, 89, 91
Sauriyapura, Surapura, Sauripura, Surajpura, Suryapura see Bateswar, Agra Sauvira 86, 87
Savaga-padikkamaṇa-gutta-cupņi 403 Savaneru 317 Savata 148
Savatthi see Sabeth, Maheth, Srivasti Sayangdra 499
Scythian king 28, 49; see also Saka
seal(s) 3; Harappan 14n
Seattle Art Museum 552, pl 331 Sedam, Gulbarga 376 Sedarampattu, North Arcot 102 Semarkhedi, Vidisha 353
Sembattur, Tiruchchirappalli 214, pl 129A
Sena 31
Sendalai, Thanjavur 228
Sendamaram, Tirunelveli 100 Senera 157
Seniya Bambhasara see Bimbisăra sepa-naga-cakra 496
Settippodavu cavern, Madurai 97
Seuna III 320;-deśa 319; -Yadavas 310, 311
Sewadi, Sevadi 240, 305, 306
Seyaviya 23
Shah, Ambaial Premchand 347n
Shabdol, MP 580, pl 367B
Shah, UP 10, 50n, 64n, 65n, 70, 86, 87, 89n, 91n, 118, 1190, 121n, 123, 123n, 124, 125n, 128, 129n, 130, 132, 135, 136n, 138n, 140n, 154n, 169n, 180n, 181n, 250, 250n, 255n, 362n, 364n, 394n, 3950, 397n, 400n, 406, 406n, 407n, 410n, 413n, 414n, 426n, 436, 437n, 458n, 459n, 466n, 470n, 482n, 484n, 486n, 490, 491n, 492n, 525n, 526n, 543p, 547n, 549n, 552n. 568
Shahu, L N 163n
647
Sharma, B N 255n, 538n, 539n, 545m Sharma, Dasharath 148n, 239n, 545n Sharma, RC 520,
Shastri,, HG 135 shell-inscriptions 120
Shergarh, Bharatpur 572
Shivpuri 2980, pl 232A; Museum 585, pls 369-372
Shougal Chand Jagat Seth 348
shrine 62, 74, 76, 120, fig XIV; apsidal-82 325, pl 34; brick-5; details of woodwork pl 295; Jaina-3, 61-63; monolithic -157; miniature-212; see also pdadda, deva-kullka
Shrivastava, Balram 495 Shrivastava, VS 545
INDEX
Siddha 26, 42, 74, 349; image of 44 siddha-cakra 478, 479, 551, 552; bronze pl
309A; -kjetra 349 Siddhanagar, Birbhum 23, 351 Siddhanta-basti, Mudbidri 411 Siddhapala 304
Siddhapala-vasati, Patan 304 Siddha-pratistha-vidhi 478n Siddhapura 31, 303
Siddhara-basti, Sravanabelgola 369
Siddharaja Jayasirhha 302, 303, 400, 401, 405
Siddharmalai, Madurai 99
Siddharthapura see Siddhanagar
Siddhasenadiväkara 28
Siddhasena-gapl 527
siddhasana-pose 213 Siddhasena-Süri 246 siddha-silä 516 Siddha-vihara 303
Siddhayatanas 465, 472, 484
Siddheśvara temple, Bahulara 263
Sthanädika 482, 490
Sikandar-Nama 420, 421, 427
Sikara, Rajasthan 343
Sikhanatha-svami temple, Tiruchchirappalli
2010
khara 5, 146, 154, 172, 193, 212, 215, 243, 247, 265, 266, 267, 270, 271, 283, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 300, 302, 305, 311, 317, 320, 321, 322, 328, 329, 336, 337, 340, 342, 343, 344, 352, 356, 357, 359, 367, 369, 497, 504, pl 103, 225, fig XXXV: Bhamija- 297; caturafra- 313, latina Nagara 171; pañca-paga- 157

Page #389

INDEX
Sikri 51 Silahāras 32, 33, 310 sila-pata 52, 35, 481, 482, 483, Stlappaditanam 95, 231a, 233, 394 Silpa-text 5 silver, use of-for painting 408 Simandhars 302 sinhhandvåra 499; -karpa 146; -lalata 331 Simhanandin 27, 459 Sixthapura 15 stanhasana 123, 130, 149, 150, 151 Sich havarman 324, 451 Sistihavienu 324, 351 Simuka 92 Sind 88, 308, 567 Sindhurija 31 Sindhu-Sauvira 86, 87, 133 Sioganikuppam, South Arcot 599, pl 384 Singhana 311 Singhbhum, Bihar 166 Singh Jhuntārām temple, Jaipur 343 Singhiji-ka-Mandir, Sanganer 250 Singh, S 537n Singikulam 229 Sinha, BP 121n, 126n Sira Pahari, Panna 130, 131, 169, pls 62,
63, 64 diras-cakra 125 Sircar, Dines Chandra 74n, 85, 85n, 441n Sirl-Strivdla-kahi 478n Sirkap, Taksasila 8n, 91 Sirohi, Rajasthan 342 Sironj, Vidisha 351 Siron Khurd, UP 277 Sirpur, Raipur 297, 373, 588, 589 Sirukadambur see Tirunatharkunru Sisupalgarh, Puri 74 Sità 288 Sitābenga cave, Surguja 10 Sitala-ghati, Mathura 52n Sittamur, South Arcot 325, pls 207, 208 Sittanpavasal, Tiruchchirappalli 100, 101,
185, 209, 322, 381, 383, 453, 549, pls 39B 40, 127A, 259, 260, figs XXIV, XXV,
col-ills 1-5 Śiva 190, 249, 252, 273, 346, 382, pl 175 Sivabbati 26, 133 Siva-devi 309 Sivaganga, Ramanathapuram 599 Sivaghosaka 491
Siva-linga 33, 272, 340, 482; see also kinga Sivamära 27 Sivamitra 491 Sivandga 571 Sivaramamurti, C 8, 12, 383, 4119, 5420 Sivaratri 240 Sivărya 128 Siva temple 8, 208; Bhojpur 278: Kinalur
231n Siva-Vaidyanatha temple, Kira-grima,
Kangra 445 Sivayam, Tiruchchirappalli 100 Sivayasa 56 Siwalik 241 Siyamangalam, North Arcot 209 Skanda 477 Skandagupta 29, 108, 442 Skandila, Arya 133 slab 56, 63, 64, 78, 80, 81, 89, 113, 150, 155,
158, 160, 163, 226, pl 3 Smith, V A 38n, 50n, 61n, 62n, 373, 374n,
375n, 385n, 4810, 4820, 490n, 491n snake rirt lafchana 16 Sobhnath temple, Srāvasti 244, 245, 251, flg
XII socket 71, 119, 226; lenticular--58, 59 Sodasa 51, 67,441, pl 301A Sohagpur, Shabdol 297, 538 Sobanvijaya Collection 410 Solanki, P 5370 Solanki(8) 240, 357; see also Caulukya Solavandipuram, South Arcot 103 Somacandra-Süri 397 Somadeva 53 Samakirtti 413 Somapāla 403 Somaprabbăcărya 303 Somapura, -vihara 270 Someśvara I 310 Somesvara temple, Lakshmeswar 314 Somji 431 Sompura, PO 494n, 495n, 533 Sonågiri, MP 350.352, 353 Sonamukhi, Bankura 263 Sonbhandar caves, Rajgir 70, 71, 89n, 118,
119, 120, 122, 123, 485, pls 51A-B, 52 Sondása see Sodasa Sondni 129 sopdnas 303 Sopara, Maharashtra 85, 88; see also
648

Page #390

INDEX
Sihindriga-Sura 487 shopand 42
thupandedrya 482 Sthavirdvali, Sthavirdvali-carita or Parikipta
paryan 85n, 119n, 134 Sthiramati 476 Sthalabhadra 24 structure, apsidal 62, 78; 81, 82; pl 34, fig
у
Sarparaka Sorapthiya-stha 98 Sourasonoi 49; see also Stran South Arcot District 95, 102. South Kanasa. District 331, 370-372 framana (Sarman) 20, 25, 37 frdraka 260, 276,397, 398 Sravakacana 471, 4710; Sravanabelgola, Hassan 37, 14. 185, 214,
219, 310, 316, 317, 320, 329, 330, 350, 366, 369-370, 376, 378, 384, 454, pls 204,
205A Sravasti 14, 23, 150, 241, 242, 244, 251, 257,
498, pl 148B Srepika-Bimbisära 69, col-il 36B; we also
Bimbiatra Srephin 51 Sri 395, pl 265A $rt-Citrakufiya-sllaphata 249 Sri-devi 283, 292 fri-druma 469, 470 Stikara 161 Srimala 89; see also Bhinmal sri-mandapa 532; see also Laksmi-mandapa Srimära Srivallabha 453, 458 Srinivasan, K R 211n, 225n, 226n Srinivasan, PR 368n, 3710 Sripala 304 Sripathā see Bayana Sri-purdna 325 Sripurusa 454 srivatsa 141, 15, 56, 66, 72, 81, 88n, 89, 115,
116n, 125n, 127, 138, 162, 255, 291, 294, 376, 458, 459, 461, 462, 466, 467, 468, 469, 473, 475, 489, 490, 491, 492, 537,
544, 545, 560, 561, 562 śrriga(s) 146 fragára-cauri-mandapa, Brahma-Jinälaya,
Lakkundi 313 Śrugara-cauri temple, Chitorgarh 340, pls
220, 221A sruk 291 Sruta-devata 43, 444 fruta-skandha-yantra pl 314 Srutdvatåra 118 stadia 117 staircase 55, 59, 144, 328 stambha-cattya 107; -mandapas 350; -sakhas
168, 292, 296 Stendahl Galleries, USA 541 Sthanakavasin 34
stúpaly) 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62-64, * 66, 70, 81, 91, 154, 157, 192, 388, 465, 482, 520, 526, 532; brick - 28, 53; Buddhist-5, 6, 7; caitye-479, 484; deva-nirmita-55, 64; Jaina-5, 7, 39, 41,
50; jewelled-28; Vodva-53 stúpi 212, 222, 317, 322 style 407; baroque 7; Bhumija 311, 336;
Cihamana 556; Cola 227, 327, 385; Bastern Ganga 540, 541. 546; Ganga 169, 212, 317; Ganga-nolamba 315; Gupta 159, 160, 164, 169, 262, 544; Gurjara 336; Hemadpanthi see style, sikhara; Hoysala 315-319, 369; Jaina palm-leaf 403; Kadamba 319; Kadamba-Alupa 315; Kadamba-Nāgara 312, 314, 320; Kakatiya 378; Konkan-Kapara 312; Kushan 537, 544, 546, 548; Maha-Gurjara 243, 306n; Maha-Māru 243, 341; Māru 336; Maru-Gurjara 145, 146, 243, 336; Mathura 4; Mongoloid 407; Nagara 337, 350, 352, 355, 356, 357, 360, 362; northIndian sculpture 138; opulent 408, 409, 410, 413; pagoda 367; Pala 262; postGupta 147, 175; Pratihāra 169, 174; pyramidal 367, 369, 371; Rāştrakūta 569, 573; Rekha-Nāgara 315; Sikhara 312, 350, 355, 373; viddha-citra 383; Vijayanagara 235, 312, 385; Western Calukya
331; west-Indian 138, 139 Subdhu-katha 404 Subbhabhimi see Suhma Subbarayalu, Y 97n Subhacandra 476, 578 Subhankara 541, 595 Subrahmanya 98; -temple 227; see also
Muruge, Karttikeya Subramanian, N 457n Suciloma-Jaraka 482 Sudāmå cave, Barabar hills, Gaya 79 Sudarsana-carita 278 Sudartana Moru 521 Sudatta Vardhamana 33n Sudrapta 65n Suhastin, Arya 26, 86, 465
649

Page #391

INDEX
Suhma, Suhmabhomi, West Bengal 23, 72 Jukandsd, fukandsi Sukandaika 45, 130, 193,
218, 288, 290, 292, 293, 294, 313, 318,
319, 320, 321 Sultanganj, Bibar 134 Sultanpur, UP 245 Sumangala 19 Suthsumärapura 23 Sumatinatha templo, Jaisalmer fort pl 223 Sumeru parvata 517 Sunanda 19 Sundakkaparai boulder, Tiruchchirappalli
100 Sanga 49, 85, 86, 87 Sun temple, Modhera 302 Supernas 59 Suparáva stund, Mathura 50 Surajpabar, Goalpara 167, pi 92B Sorasene dynasty 148; Mahājanapada 49 Sorasta-gana 455 dura-sundari 5, 294, pl 176 Surat 485, 486n, pl 310B Surohor, Dinajpur 152, 262 Sarparaka, 88, 133; see also Sopara Surwaya, MP 177 Surya 240 Subāni shrine, Morkhana, Bikaner 339 Sutrakstänga 22, 22n, Suttala 224 sutradhdras 356, 362, 363 Svetambara canonical works 133; Jainism
26,31 Svetapata 27 Swali, Kusum and Rajeya, Collection 401 Symasil, Kurnool 321 symbolism, architecture, Jaina 494-533;
iconography, Jaina 477-93; philosophic
330; Tantric 252 syncretism, iconographic 3 Suvarnarekha river 157, Suvarnavarsa 31 svadhyāya 270, 880 Svargapuri see Udayagiri cave Svarndk pari-Kalpa-sūtra-prasasti 339 svastika 14n, 15, 81, 89, 115, 445, 458, 459,
461, 462, 469, 475, 482, 489, 490, 491, 492
tagara nint lahchana 15 tagara-kusumd 469n Taila II 322, 1 Talttiriya-Brahmana. 479 Taksasila 46, 8, 49, 91 tala-bhitti 3127., Talakad 460 Talakkavu, Cannanore 231 Tamil Nadu 10, 92, 93, 94, 98, 185, 211-214,
222-230, 315, 323-329, 450, 452 Tamil Sangam 230 Tamluk, Midnapur see Tamralipti Tamrkliptika) 73, 396 tankle mahco 482 Tantpur 51 - Tantricism 6, 476, 493 Sri-Tapagaccha-Paffávali 88n Tărana: 'Tarana-ji 353 Taranga, Gujarat 31, 446 taranga-brackets 146 Tarangarh 447 Tattvartha-sütra 41, 412, 514n Tawa cave, Udaigiri, Vidisha 192 Taxila see Takşašila Tejahpāla 276, 304, 305, 306, 308, 406, 466;
temple of, Mt Abu 360 Telengana 320, 366 temple(s) 5; -architecture 184; brick-built
326; Brahmapical-5-6; cave- 186-92; cities of --39; concept of-501-02; Jaina ---5, 6, medieval 336-338; masonry 195201; plan of-fig XXXI, rock-cut--192194, 207-211; structural--336, 355; types of-502-14;-of west India 7; for synony
mous terms used in inscriptions see 447 Teniinalai, Tiruchchirappalli, cavern 101, pl
41, 101 tenon 59, 60, 125 Tenür 102 Tenumalai see Tenimalai Terahi 582 Terapantha 34 Terina-basti, Sravanabelgola 316 terracottas 87, 121, 122, 126 Tevan Cattan 102 Teváram 102, 225 Tewar, Jabalpur 169, 297, pis 97B, 98A Thailagiri fort, Anantpur 322 Thakkura Pheru 356n, 477 Thanjavur 184, 228 thara 502
tacan 102 tadi 220
650

Page #392

INDEX
Therad, Chujarat 182, 3413, 305 Tharu Sahr 362 phatma 580 Theyatkhettaya, Barma 268 Therakappiya 26 Thubon, MP 332 Tibet 371 Tigiria, Orissa 161 Tikamgarh, MP 577, 579 tlaka 248, 286 Tilakácărya 400 tilaka-mapi 110 Tilaka-mahfari 278 Tuloyo-papani, Triloka-pradhapti 119n, 468n,
469, 469, 470, 483, 483n, 484, 484n,
487, 487a, 492n, 522n Timmaraja 375 Tirakkol, North Arcot 185, 226, pl 133 cirtha, de 36 Tirthankara see Jina Tiruccarapattumalai, Kanyakumari 230, 231,
232, 453; see also Chitral Tiruchchirappalli 94, 95, 100-102, 209 Tirujñāna-Sambandar 381, 458; see also
JKäna-Sambandar, Sambandar Tirukkattāmpalli 98 Tirukkupavāy temple, Cannanore 231 Tirumalai, North Arcot 185, 227, 324, 325,
327, 328, 385, 599, pls 134, 213, 214, 215,
Tiruvatavur, Madurai 99 Tiruvayirai, Madurai 452 Tiwari, N P 5479 Todaraisiagh 249 Tomaras 351, 445, 583, 584 Tondaima dalam 95, 213 Tonti 99 torana 28, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62. 117. 145,
147n, 247, 300, 301, 302, 362, pls 184, 377B; -architrave 150, pl 80B; makara
$5, 56 tortoise rit lachana 16 Tosali see Dhauli Tosalika 25 Trailokyadipaka (Caturmukha-vihara),
Ranakpur 488,485 Trailokyanatha temple-complex, Tirupparut
tikkuaram 325 tran-khaald 430 trasa-rali 516 Trayambakesvara, Aihole 199 Tribhuvana-cadamani-basadi, Mudbidri 370,
371 Tribhuvana-cudamani-mahi-caitya, Mudbidri
455
452
Tirumalaipuram, Tirunelveli 100 Tirumangalam Taluk 99 Tirumayam Taluk 101 Tirunurangondal, South Arcot 325 Tirunatharkunru, South Arcot 102, 450 Tirupāvukkarasu 381 Tirunelveli District 100, 192 Tiruppamalai, North Arcot 451 Tiruppanmalai see Paficapándavamalai,
Vilappakkam Tirupparankunram, Madurai 98, 208 Tirupparuttikkunram, Chingleput 324, 325,
326, 327, 377, 388, 389, 453, pls 128A,
209-211, 261-264, 309B, 459 Tiruppattur Taluk 99 tiruváci 191, 221, 228 Tiruvalur 389 Tiruvanchikulam, Trichur 231 Tiruvannur tempte, Kozhikode 231n Tiruvafangalam 382 Tiruvdstriyan 209
Tribhuvanamalla, Vikramaditya VI 199 Tribhuva da pala 303 Tribhuvana-vihana 303 Trichur Museum 232 trl-gupal 20 Irika-mandapa 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 295,
296,301, 302, 303, 341, pl 191 tri-kdya 550, 550n tri-kūta 314; -crown 137 tri-küta basti 312 tri-kūdcala 215, 320, 321, 368 triloka 514, fig XLIV Triloka-Prajaptt see Tiloya-pannatti Triloka-sára 459, 459n Trilokpur, Barabanki 344, pl 225 Trimukha 14 tri-mürtikas 597 Tringalvadi, Nasik 373 Tripathi, L K Sn tripaffa-kumuda 233 Tripuri see Tewar, Jabalpur tri-puruşa-prasada 178 tri-ratha 150, 156, 157, 217, 283 tri-ratna 482, 490, 491; see also nandipada Tribala, Ksatriyapi 65, 67, 441 Trisasti-salaka-purusa-carita 86, 86, 307,
651

Page #393

INDEX
4871
Trisula ase Khandagiri caves
tri-trihika 180, 545, 551, 553, pls 329B, 332,
347A. 354A
Trivandrum 98 Trivedi, R K 429n Tughlaqe 310
Tulasi Ashram Museum, Ramban 169 Tumain, Guna 351
Tumburu 14
Tungabhadra 321, 365, 376
Turumalai, North Arcot 452 turpareas 487
Tuticorin, Tirunelveli 230
tympanum(a) 52, 54, 56, 57, 62, 63, 64, 67, 82, pls 12, 13, 27, 28
uccdlaka 282, 292
Udaigiri (Vidisa) caves cw Sonbhandar caves 119n; 128, 129, 131, 168, 442, pl 60A Udaipur 403, 446
Udaipur Muscum 537n, pl 356B Udayabhadra 69
Udayacandra 578
Udayagiri (Puri) caves 29, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 93, pls 23 (cave 9), 24 (cave 9) 25 (cave 1), 29, 30, 31, 32A-B, 33A-B, 34, 35, 36, figs III, IV
Udayamart tandavarman, Bhútalavira 234 Udayana 4, 830, 302, 303 Udayana-vibra 303
Uday! 24
Uddiyana 4, 86, 87
Uddyotakesarin, Somavatháin ruler 162
Uddyotana-Sari 182, 394
udgomas 145, 146, 178, 283, 291, 292, 295,
300
Ugrasna 17
Ujani, Burdwan 153, 262
Ujjain 25, 26, 27, 28, 86, 133, 278, 351, 354, 466, pls 227, 230A, 231A, 232B; Museum 587-588
Ujjala, Mahbubnagar 449
Ujjamphoi Dharmasala Bhandara, Ahmedabad 405
Ujjayini see Ujjain
Ujjili 450
Ukha-masjid, Bayana 148
Ulokadittan 209
umbrellas 52, 55, 57, 65-67, 81, 115, 155,
652
160, 162, 209, 228, 229, 232, 368, 473, 543, 547; see also chatra, parasol
Un, West Nimar 295-97, 298 Una, Gujarat 182
Undan-kallu boulder, Vikkiramangalam, Madurai 99
Undavalli, Vijayawada 192 Upadhyaya 42, pl 381A Upadhye, A N 54n, 135m
spagriva 221 Upakela see Osia
Upakela-gaccha-pajjavall 572
updna 156, 217, 233, 322 Upangas 465, 474
papisha 281, 282,283, 284, 292, 295 Upendra 169
urah-Irigar 146, 286, 342
urah-ritra 139, 140 uru-drigas 505
ürnd-mark 109, 166, 475 Urvi-tilakam 319
aisa 66, 125, 135, 138, 159, 256, 468, 474, 485, 562, 581
sarple 472
Uttamapalaiyam 99, pl 136
uttanna-pajja 249
Uttaradāsaka 51
Uttaradhyayana-Sutra 16, 17, 414, 427
Uttaiakurus 487
uttaranga 187, 315
Uttarapatha 91
Uttara-purana 50, 469
Uttar Pradesh 10, 24, 30, 555
uttariya 413, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423,
541
uttira 219, 328
uitiranga 218
uttunga-torana-prdadda 248 Uvadukha see Vadukha Uvdsaga-dosdo 465
vadakkirutial 368
Vadasama 183
Vaddamani 320, 321, 369 Vadideva-Sori 249, 303, 400, 401 Vadi-Kumudacandra 4780
Vadiraja 213 Vadisithha 241 Vadukha 76

Page #394

INDEX
Vägade fanghe 148 Vägbhatta 304 Vág-devi se Sarasvati Vaghelas 31, 304, Vaibharagiri, Rajgir 117, 119, 120, 122, 123,
124, 132, 164; tomple pl 89B Vaidya, PL 50n vaijayanti 490 valjayanti-mata 294 Vaikävur 227 Vaikuntha 272 Vaira, Arya see Vajra, Arya Vaira, Muni 70n 89n, 119 Vairasena 890 Vaisal 7, 22, 23, 39, 69, 70, 121, 126 Vaişpavas 29, 33, 94. 120, 207, 329 Vaişpavism 316 Vaisya 51, 494 Vajjabhumi 72 Vajji country 39 vajra rirt läñchana 15, 172 Vajra, Arya 88, 89, 890, 120; see also
Vairadeva, Vairasena Vajrabhūmi see Valjabhumi Vajradăman 444 Vajrakumära 53 Vajranandia 94, 185 vajraparyanka-pose 233, 235 Vajrasankhala (Vajraśşakhala ?) 169n Vajrasena 88, 89, 89n Vajrasvåmin 479 Vākāfaka 400 Vakradeva see Kadepa Vaksāra-giris 522 Valabhi 29, 133, 134, 135, 180, 181, 393,
465, 568: Council, 89 valának a 145, 147, 1470, 302 Valli 228 Valli-bhumi 531 Vallimalai, North Arcot 227, 452, pl 135A Vallimalai, Chingleput 185 Vāmadeva 252n Vámara-puranu 493 Vamana temple, Khajuraho 288, 289 Vamsapura see Venupura Vanarija Cåpotkata 182, 301 Vanarāja-vihăra, Patan 182, 301, 304 vandana-mdli(malikd) 305, 367 Vangiya Sahitya Parişad Museum, Calcutta
133
Vanija 51 Vānijyagräma 69 Varaguna II 458 Varagupavarman Pandya 229 Varahamihira 37n, 135, 135n, 466 Varaha-papel 129 Vårānasi 15, 16, 23, 116, 149, 240, 241, 242,
245, 273 varandika 144, 146, 286, 300, 344, 345, pl
226 Varanga-carita 395, 468n, 469 Varänga-Tulava 366 Varavan, Thar Parkar 308, 309, pls 198B,
200 Vardhamāna 182, 305 Vardhamana-basti, Santigatta, Bangalore
319 vardhamdnaka 458, 489, 492 Vardhamanapura see Vaddamani Vardhamana-Söri 476 Vardhamana temple, Tirupparuttikkunram
388 Varendra Research Society Museum, Raj
shahi 263, pls 156B, 157A Varichchiyur, Madurai 98 varimāna 313, 314, 329 Värişeņa 472 Varman 144 varşavasa 69 Varuņa 331 Vasantanandin 164 vasanta-paprika 145, 286 Vasanta-vilása 410 Vasantgarh, Sirohi 180, 181, 363, 570, 571 Vasavadatta 83n Våstu-mañjari 495 Vastupala 276, 304, 306, 308, 405; with his
wives, pl 201 Vastupala-vihāra, Girnar 304, 305 Vástu-purusa-cakra 497, fig XXVIII Vastu-sára 356, 477 Väsu (Vasu) 52, 55, 63, 91 Vasubindu 46&n, 471n Vasudeva 17n, 65, 66, 150, 477, 489 Vasudeva-hindi 86, 86, 91, 466, 469, 476,
480, 480n Vasudeva-Krsna 50, 66, 67 Vasudeva Siddhanta-Bhatára 225, 452 Vasunandi 471, 471n, Vasunandi Saiddhantika 468 vafa see nyagrodha
653

Page #395

INDEX
Vata-Gohali 73, 118, 443 Vatapi see Badami wataradana-munis 18 Vatesvara-Sori 182 Vatsarāja, Pratihära 30, 145, 147, 182, 246 Vatsaráya 320 Vatfeluttu script 94, 94n, 96, 97 Vatrhu-sara-payarana 495, 502n, 533n Vav, Gujarat pl 202 Vayu 146, 147 Vodánta-Desika 330 vedha 499 vedi 64, 65, 315 vedi-bandha 143, 145, 146, 285, 288, 289, 295,
296, 300 vedi-courses 329 vediká 144, 146, 340; -stambhas 107 Vel-arai 97 Vollanır 214 Velnāti-Cola 320 Vemulavada 321, 368, 449 Venbunadu 98 Vengi Calukyas 184, 185, 192 Venkataramayya, M 11n Venkataramanayya, N 33n Venkudrama, North Arcot 329, 330. pl 216 Venupura, South, Kanara 370 Venur, South Kanata 368, 370, 371, 374,
375, 376, 455, pl 252B Vesara 215, 217, 495 vetasa, leaves of 67 Vettuvankovil 192 Victoria and Albert Museum, London 309,
544-546, pls 321A, 322, 323 Vidagdbarāja 182 Videhas 69, 518 Vidića 6, 86, 128, 351, 466, 582, pl 61 Vidya-devis 144, 145, 146, 170, 293, 296, 298,
307, 308, 349, 363, 397, 403, 412, pls 195,
197, 265B Vidyadhara 53, 62, 88, 146, 150, 151, 190,
281, 284, 289, 331, 363, 467, 548, pl 231;
flying-216, 226, 232, 263, 286 Vidyadhara-gaccha 301 Vidyadhara-torana 216 Vidyānandin 413 Vidyanupravada-purva 479 Vidyānusasana 476 Viennot, Odette 483n, 548n Vigraha-rāja IV 239, 249 vihdra 52, 62, 73, 76, 117, 118, 501, 502
Vijāpura 447 vija-püraka 552 Vijayadeva 319 Vijayamangalam, Coimbatore 212, 325, 327,
pl 212 Vijayanagara dynasty 33, 328, 329; empire
330, 365, 366, 387, 450, 455 Vijayananda Sörisvara 410 Vijayasith bācārya 400, 401 Vijayawada 192, 321, 449 Vijayacandra-Söri 423n vijfapti-parras 491 vikaccha-fashion 140 Vikkiramangalam, Madurai 99 Vikramaditya 10, 28 Vikramaditya VI Tribhuvanamalladeva 313,
321; see also Candragupta II Vikramāditya Varaguna 232, 453, Vikramasimha 444 Vilappakkam, North Arcot 226 vilekhya 495 Villivakkam 232, pl 218B Vimala 31, 182, 301 Vimalanatha-basti, Bellar 319 Vimala-Saha 276 Vimala-vasahi, Mt Abu 31, 301, 303, 304,
307, 308, 362, 466, pls 183-88, 19
198A vimana 117, 188-201, 208, 211, 212, 214, 217,
218, 283, 328, pls 125, 126; miniature
313;--order 325,-tower 311, 313, 329 vind 287, 294 Vinami 389 Vinayaditya 319; II 459 Vindhya region 352 Vindhyavalli 248 Vindyagiri, Sravanabelgola 360 Vinitanagara 14 Vira(s) 85, 349 Vira Ballala I 33 Virabhadra 174, 394 Viradeva 119n Virapala 494n Vira-Pandya 374 Virašaiva(8) 450; shrine 322 Vira-Saivism 365 Virasena 385 Virasenācārya 90 Virasíkhamani, Tirunelveli 100, 209 Viravarman 353
654

Page #396

INDEX
Viropäikea temple, Patadkal 198 Virwah, Thar and Parkar 567 Vila hacirya 92 Visakhadatta 128 Videsdvakyaka Mahabhazya 139, 139n Vippu 66, 98, 117, 120, 136, 137, 150, 225,
2520, 270, 272, 294, 340, 433,492, 538n Vienusuri 148 Vippuvardhana 207, 222, 224, 316, 385, 386,
449 Visvalarman 495, 513, 533n Vigysnátha temple, Varanasi 273 Visvešvara 241 Vitabhayapattana 4, 86, 87 vitána 243, 244 Vita-räge 44 Vivdgasuya 50, 50n, 63n Vividha-Kalpa-Sutra 107 Vividha-tirtha-kalpa 50, 50n, 335n, 525n Vogel, J Ph 62n, 91n, 136n, 251n Voliyan, Chalivan Atanap 97 votive tablet 67; see also dydgapata votive temple, bronze pl 160A Vratapura, South Kanara 370 Veji 69 Vrsa-vastu-cakra 496 vptta-kumuda 233 vydla(s) 143, 144, 281, 282, 286, 290, 294,
298, 300, 314; -malá 216 vydlavori 219, 314 Vyantara-dova 487, 519, 526 vyantara region 121 Vyasarpadi 332 Vyavahara-Bhasya 25, 28, 880, 107
Yadavas 17, 32 33, 311, 319-323, 329, 331,
332; dynasty 140 Yajaniyadevata 64n Yajflavalkya 480 yaj opavita 151 Yajurveda-Samhitd 480n Yajvapila 351 Yaka 51, 64, 66, 138, 139. 315, 328, 330,
352, 468, 473, 480, 487, pl 187B; rirt Idhchana 4; Ajita 15, 387; Bhrkuti 16; Brahmå or Brabmesvata 15, 143, 189, 561, pl 368B; Dharanendra 16, 149, 172. 187, 216, 229, 319, 387, 542, 543, 544, 546, 552, 555, 588, 590, 594, 593, 598, pls 331, 348; Gandharva 15, 562; Garuda 15; Gobhata 443; Gomedha 16, 251, 253, 563, 580; Gomukha 14, 143, 264, 316, 318, 377, 559, 579, 592, 593; Isvara 15; Kaparddin 307; Kendra 15; Kimpurusa 15, 318; Kinnara 15, 562; Kubera 15, 186, 189, 190, 191 208, 220, 292, 293, 306 563, pls 121, 356B; Kumära 15; Kusuma 15; Maggarap&pi 483; Mahämänasa 318; Mahāyaksa 560 Mätanga 15, 16, 255, 387, 540, 543, 590; Nayaka 14; Parsva 146, 253; Patala 15; Purudeva 443; Şapmukha 15; Sarvāhna 16; Sarvānubhäti 138, 139, 147, 180, 306, 318; Saudharmendra 388; Sudarśana 50, 64; Salapani 307, see also Kaparddin; Syäma see Vijaya; Tumburg 561; Varanandin 13; Varuna 16, 147, 563; Vijaya 15; Yaksendra 15; Yakset
15; statues of-3 Yaksa-dyatana 482; -caitya 484 - Yakşadatta-gani 182 Yakşeśvara 14 Yakşi 4, 138, 139, 218, 220, 221, 226, 227,
293, 307, 315, 328, 330, 352, 484, pls 36, 91B, 135A, 136A, 137B, 162A; Acchupta 144, 180; Ajitá 15, 98, 173; Ajitabala 14, 560; Ambikå 16, 98, 136. 139, 144, 147, 153, 155, 156, 160, 161, 166, 168n, 170, 172, 180, 189, 190, 191, 228, 229, 251, 253, 262, 265, 288, 306, 307, 339, 346, 350, 353, 354, 403, 434, 453) 460, 461, 541, 543, 551, 555, 557, 563 564, 573, 578, 580 581, 582, 588, 595 597, 599, pls 79, 81B, 91A, 109, 122, 157A, 318B, 324, 338B, 343B344, 374B, 378A, 384B; Amrā 162; Abhangaratina 444; Anantamati 15; Adkuša 15; Aparajita 15, 444; Apraticakrá 253; Ardrakarabbi 444; Aryavati 67, 482, 491, pl 19; Asoka 15, 161, 561; Bahurupiņi 16, 162, 165, 444, 590, pl 90A; Bala 15, 562; Bhatāri 451; Cakreśvari 14, 143, 145, 146, 149, 162, 172, 174, 253, 255, 264 283, 286, 292 298n, 316, 318, 353, 377,
Wadhvan see Vardhamåpa Wadi Pårsvanátha temple, Patan pls 296,
297 Wandiwash, North Arcot 329 Warangal 377, pl 256A Watt, George 434n Weiner, Sheila L 122n West Bengal 10, 24, 72, 73 West Dinajpur. WB 153 Williams, Joanna 130, 131, 1310 window (-frames) 62, 428, 430; wooden
pl 28$ wood-carvings 428-438 Wynad, Kozhikode 234
656

Page #397

INDEX
443, 449, 538, 559, 564, 578 579, 580, 587, 588, 589, 592, 593, 597, pls 78, 180, 182A, 343A, 366A, 380C; Camundi 16; Candi 15; Deva-dast 588; Dhana 15; Dharanapriya 15, 563; Dharmadevi 227, 326, 461, pl 215; Dhrti pl 316A; Duritari 14; Gandhari 15, 16, 162, 253; Gauri 15, 146, 253; Hayavai 444; Hema 451; Hima vati 444; Jvälint 253; Jvalamalini 15, 186, 319; Kali 15, 147, 253, 386; Kandarpā 15, 174, 562; Küşmandini 16, 214, 227, 318, 461; Laksmi 434; Mahäjvälä 145; Mahakäli 15, 146, 561; Mahlaksmi 144, 147; Mahāmānasi 15, 145, 147, 253, 307, 387, 588; Mahavidya 308; Malini 443; Manasi 15, 145, 147; Manavi 15, 146, 161, 253 307; Manovega (Manogupta) 15, 173; Mayuravahini 444; Naradatta 16, 253, 563; Nirvän! (Nirvanadevi) 15, 143, 144, 145, 588; Padmavati 16, 121, 143, 144, 149, 162, 166, 172, 173, 187, 214, 220, 228, 229, 231, 232, 233, 234, 253, 319, 323, 339, 353, 377, 387, 443, 453, 538, 542. 543, 544, 546, 551, 555, 566, 580, 588, 590, 594, 595, 598, pl 317A; Prajnapti 144, 145, 162; Puruşadatta 172; Rasadguna-devi 588; Rohini 145, 147, 162, 253, 329, 588; Säntä 15, 543; Siddhai 444; Siddhayika 16, 96, 196, 228, 255, 540, 590; Sulaksana 444; Sulocaná 444, pl 315B; Sumalini 444; Surakṣitā 444; Sutaraka 15; Sriyadevi 444; Sruta-devi 387; Syämä Acyută 15; Tärä(devi) 412, 444; Trisaladevi 588; Vairoti 15; Vairotya 144, 145, 146, 147, 253; Vajränkusa(1) 144, 145, 253. 308, pl 197; Vajraśṛnkhala 14, 144, 162, 253, Vimaravati 588; Viditä 15; Vijaya 15
Yama 331
656
Yamună 168, 286, 287, 291, 340 yantra(3) 493 Yantra-mantra-vidhi 478 Yapanlya-sangha 128 Yarrör 101 Yasascandra 401 Yasoda 582 Yašodeva 240 Yalodeva-Sari 402, 403
Yasodhara pls 280B, 281B, 283B, col-ill 37 Yasodhara-carita 413, 426, 427; illustrations from-pls 276-277, 283B, col-ills 30,
37
Yasovarman 277, 278
yasi 57
Yati-raja see Ramanuja
Yavana(Indo-Greek) 49; country, see lonia Yelleswaram, Nalgonda 321
Yeniyavärgudi temple, Aihole 197, 199
yoga-potta 418, 423, 424 Yoga-idstra 479n
Yogi-Narayana, Aihole 197, 537n Yogin(s) 349
Yoginipura (Delhi) 406, 415, 4150 Yonakas 910
Yugo-Purana 49 Yugadiśvara temple, Ranakpur see Adinatha temple, Ranakpur
Zannas, Eliky 5n
Zimmer, Heinrich 37, 38, 38n, 550, 550n Ziggurat 154n, 501
Zürich 308

Page #398

CORRIGENDA

Page #399

CORRIGENDA
Page 98, line 26. Page 99, line 10. Page 100, line 11. Page 101, line 17. Page 101, line 27.
Page 127, line 27. Page 131, line 19.
Insert 'or' after 'school'.
For 'Trinmangalam, read 'Tirumangalam. For 'the', read 'in'.
Page 114, line 9. For '36', read 'VII'.
Page 116, caption of fig. VIII. insert 4-6,' after 'and'.
Page 116. Insert 'N.P. JOSHI' at the bottom as the author's name.
Chapter 12
Page 143, line 22. Page 148, line 23.
Delete 'known' and insert known as' after 'is'. For 'Ceriklyapap', read "Cenkäyapan'.
Chapter 10
Insert of' after 'pupil'. For 'Jhansi', read 'Lalitpur".
Page 190, last line. Page 195, line 17.
Chapter 14
Delete stop-mark after "bhadra', and read 'containing' for 'Containing". Delete 'found'.
Plate 90. Transpose captions of A and B.
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Plate 98B, caption. For 'Gandharwal', read 'Gandhawal".
Chapter 18
For '125', read '124'. For 'of', read 'on'.
VOLUME II
Contents
Page ix, line 8. For 'Shri Krishna Deva Bajpai", read 'Shri Krishna Datt Bajpai".
List of illustrations
Page xiii, line 31. For '182', read '182A', and insert as the next line: 182B Mandhata: brass parikara, central figure missing (ASI)'. Page xvi, line 21. For Tirthankara', read 'Gommatesvara".
Chapter 19
Page 214, last but one line. For kopota, read kapota. Page 215, last line. For 'a', read as". Plate 130B, caption. For 'baati', read 'basti".
660

Page #400

CORRIGENDA
Page 226, line 22 Delato 'a' atter its". Page 227, line 28. Insert of' after 'one'. Page 229, last but four lines. For on', read 'or'.
Chapter 21 Page 271, line 3. Insert 'an' before 'image'. Page 274, line 19. Delete 'in' after 'occasionally'. Plate 159. Read captions of the left-hand illustration as: 'A. Purulia : caturmukha (Asutosh
Muscum)' and of the right-hand illustration as ; B. Deuliya : catur mukha (Asutosh Museum)'.
Chapter 22
Page 287, line 31. Insert 'of' after 'image'. Page 293, line 26. For 'is', read 'in'. Page 294, line 4. Insert 'on' after 'Srivatsa-lañchanas'.
Chapter 23 Page 303, last but five lines. For Kamara-vibäras', read Kumāra-vihāras'. Also for 'as', read
'at'. Page 307, line 18. For 'chose', readclose'. Page 307, line 22. For ‘region', read 'reign.
Chapter 24
Page 311, line 12. For the of', read 'of the'. Page 313, line 22. For 'in', read 'is'. Page 314, line 2. Insert 'at' after 'seen'. Page 314, line 26. Delete 'to' before 'which'. Page 314, line 31. For 'are', read or'. Page 318, line 9. Delete large after 'large'. Page 329, line 23. For 'plated', read placed. Page 329, line 30. Delete 'of' after 'relative,'
Chapter 25 Page 337, line 18. For pronounced by', read “pronouncedly'.
Chapter 27
Plates 228, 229, 230, 231, 233, and 234. Insert A.' and 'B.' before the upper and lower captions
respectively.
Chapter 28 Page 361, last but one line. For Mekala-vasahi', read "Melaka-vasahi',
661

Page #401

. CORRIGENDA
Chapter 29
Page 368, line 13. Delete Jaina' at the end. Page 368, line 14. Dolete temple' at the beginning. Plate 249. Insert A.' and B.' before the upper and lower captions respectively. Plate 257A, caption. For "Tirthankara', read "Gommateśvara.
Chapter 30
Plate 262, caption. For 'tempel', read 'temple'. Page 388, line 27. For 'in', read 'is'.
VOLUME III
Chapter 31 Page 400, note 2, line 2. For that than', read 'than that'. Page 405, line 29. Insert 'is' at the end. Page 411, line 25. Insert "be' after to'. Page 417, line 15. Delete 'of' at the end. Plate 275, caption of A. For Vijayaji', read Jina-vijayaji'. Page 420, line 20. For "unsual', read 'unusual. Page 420, line 26. Delete "dressed after dressed'. Page 421, line 8. For 'reveals', read 'reveal'. Page 424, line 27. For the', read be'.
Chapter 33
Page 445, line 1. Delete 'on the before installed'. Page 455, line 8. For the that', read that the'.
Chapter 34
Page 456, line 23. For 'mukkudal", read mukkudai.
Chapter 35
Page 479, line 28. Insert 'the' before 'seals'. Page 489, line 24, Insert 'are' after 'there'.
Chapter 36
Page 518, last but one line, For 524', read “525'.
Chapter 38
Page 562, line 1. For 'the', read 'The'.
662

Page #402

ज्योतिर्व्यन्तर- भावनामरगृहे मेरो कुलाद्रौ तथा
जम्बू- शाल्मलि चैत्यशाखिषु तथा वक्षार-रूप्याद्रिषु । इष्वाकारगिरौ च कुण्डलनगे द्वीपे च नन्दीश्वरे
शैले ये मनुजोत्तरे जिनगृहाः कुर्वन्तु ते मंगलम् ।।
'Abodes of the Jinas that exist in the dwellings of the Stellar, Peripatetic Residential and Heavenly Celestials, on the Jambu, the Salmali and other Caitya-trees, on the Vakṣāra and Rupya mountains, on the Işvākāra and Kundala mountains, on the Nandisvara Continent, on the circular Manuşottara mountain may all these Abodes bring bliss to you.'

Page #403
_