History of Jainism

Author(s): U K Sharma
Publisher: D K Print World
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006741/1

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Reconstructing Indian History & Culture, no. 23 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura GOUGE V.K. Sharma

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As one of the world's major religions, founded on the spiritual principles of ahimsa (non-violence), truth, and righteous conduct, Jainism has today 2,600 years of a splendid living tradition -- with a well-defined world view, metaphysics and code of ethics. A leading scholar, V.K. Sharma here presents an altogether fresh, panIndian historical survey of this great religion, spelling out its beginnings, antiquity, doctrines, tirtharkaras, country-wide spread and, among other aspects, its contribution to India's culture and art heritage - in all its varied manifestations. In the latter part of the book, the author comes to focus upon Jainism in the specific contexts of Mathura - one of India's ancient cities, which not only is venerated as the legendary birthplace of Lord Krsna, but is also famed as an eminent centre of Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina art. Thus shows Dr. Sharma how this principal Vaisnava centre today had been a stronghold of Jainism: from c. second century BC to about eleventh century AD; how it has contributed to Jaina canon, literature and iconography; and how in Mathura is traceable the centuries-long, unbroken history of Jaina plastic art. Setting out a panoramic view of Jaina architecture, sculptural art, and socio-religious life over the ages, specially in the sacred city of Mathura, this study is based on wideranging authoritative sources and supplemented by a number of highly representatives illustrations. al Education International

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura

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Reconstructing Indian History & Culture (ISSN 0971-3824) 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Society in Ancient India; by Sures Chandra Banerji (ISBN 81-246-0000-7) Political Thought in Ancient India; by G.P. Singh (ISBN 81-246-0001-5) Early Indian Historical Tradition and Archaeology; by G.P. Singh (ISBN 81-246-0005-8) Vasantotsava: The Spring Festivals of India; by Leona M. Anderson (ISBN 81-246-0011-2) Ecological Readings in the Veda; by M. Vannucci (ISBN 81-246-0009-0) Vindavana in Vaisnava Literature; by Maura Corcoran (ISBN 81-246-0024-4) Social History of the Tamils (1707-1947); by P. Subramanian (ISBN 81-246-0045-7) Ancient Indian Coinage; by Rekha Jain (ISBN 81-246-0051-1) Buddhism and Socio-Economic Life of Eastern India; by Bimal Chandra Mohapatra (ISBN 81-246-0055-4) Chandragupta Maurya; by P.L. Bhargava (ISBN 81-246-0056-2) Motyu: Concept of Death in Indian Traditions; by Gian Giuseppe Fillippi (ISBN 81-246-0072-4) Yama: The Glorious Lord of the Other World; by Kusum P. Merh (ISBN 81-246-0066-X) Sacred Complex of Ujjain; by D.K Samanta (ISBN 81-246-0078-3) Vedic View of the Earth; by S.R.N. Murthy (ISBN 81-246-0091-0) Society in theAtharvaveda; by B.S. Kharade (ISBN 81-246-0093-7) Orissan History, Culture and Archaeology; by S. Pradhan (ISBN 81-246-0117-8) Education in Ancient India; by Mitali Chatterjee (ISBN 81-246-0113-5) Sura: the Liquor and the Vedic Sacrifice; by M.B. Kolhatkar (ISBN 81-246-0114-3) Human Ecology in the Vedas; by Marta Vannucci (ISBN 81-246-0115-1) Governance in Ancient India; by Anup Chandra Pandey (ISBN 81-246-0135-6) The Cultural Glory of Ancient India: A Literary Overview; by Sures Chandra Banerji (ISBN 81246-0137-2) 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Kautilya's Arthasastra in the light of modern science & technology; by Sunil Sen Sarma (ISBN 81-246-0187-9)

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Reconstructing Indian History & Culture, no. 23 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura by V.K. Sharma D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. New Delhi - 110 015

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iv Cataloging in Publication Data - DK Sharma, V.K. (Virendra Kumar) History of Jainism and contribution of Mathura. (Reconstructing Indian history & culture, no. 23). Includes bibliographical references (p. ) Includes index. 1. Jainism - India - Mathura - History. 2. Art, Jaina - India - Mathura - History. 3. Architecture, Jaina - India - Mathura - History. I. Title. II. Series: Reconstructing Indian history & culture, no. 23. ISBN 81-246-0195-X First published in India 2002 (c) Author All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission of both the copyright owner, indicated above, and the publisher. Published and printed by: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. Regd. office : 'Sri Kunj, F-52, Bali Nagar New Delhi - 110 015 Phones : (011) 545-3975; 546-6019; Fax : (011) 546-5926 E-mail: dkprintworld@vsnl.net

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Foreword DR. V.K. Sharma, the author of this excellent book on the history of Jainism, asked me to write a foreword to it. It was an immensely rewarding exercise for me to go through this book and, the author deserves my sincere appreciation for his genuine labour. Mathura enjoys a significant position in the cultural history of India, and Jainism also played a significant role to enrich the culture of this illustrious city. The author has explained that Jainism obtained a strong foothold in Mathura by the second century BC and continued to flourish in this city up to the eleventh century AD in spite of fierce foreign invasions. The erection of Jaina religious edifices at Mathura can, in fact, be assigned to a period much anterior to the second century Bc, if the inscriptional evidence regarding the construction of the at Mathura is discussed and understood in totality. Jaina art and architecture had their inception and evolution at Mathura; the remains of Jaina sculptures discovered at Lohanipur near Patna are the notable exceptions. Mathura had an unbroken history of Jaina plastic art embracing a period of more than one thousand years. No other centre of Jaina art in India has a record comparable to this. It is pertinent to note that Jaina art at Mathura did not enjoy royal patronage; the artists who produced objects of art like the images and ayaga-pattas worked on the support of the Jaina community of this city. The specimens of Mathura ateliers enjoyed demand for long and, tirthamkara images in red sandstone, a peculiarity of the Mathura school of art, were installed at distant places also. The epigraphic evidence embodied in the pedestals of the jina images and ayaga-pattas constitutes the basic and the most authentic source for the reconstruction of the early history of Jainism in Mathura. These inscriptions

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura are a mirror of the Jaina social order and religious organisation at Mathura in the early centuries of the Christian era and the period preceding it. Most of these epigraphs are dated; they bear the Kusana or the Saka samvat. Therefore, their historicity is beyond question. The great ideals of austerity, penance, detachment, compassion and non-violence have been well illustrated through the Jaina art at Mathura, but the taste of the society also finds reflection in it. We, therefore, notice scenes of music, dance and merriment even on the components of the stupas, generally built over the relics of the jina. The demise of the jina was not looked upon with grief. Nirvana or the extinction of the body of the jina was a joyous event because by attaining the kaivalya-jnana (supreme knowledge) he had become free from the bondage of the world. The transformation from the symbols to the anthropomorphic form was a hallmark of sculptural development at Mathura, and this is true of the Jaina art also. The tiny seated jina figure on the ayaga-pattas is attended by beautifully carved auspicious motifs. The jina figure is subsequently replaced by independent stone images of the jinas in kayotsarga and dhyana attitude. These postures remain fixed, but the character of the jina image changes with the passage of time. The jina images of Mathura of the Kusana period look stereotyped. But the figure becomes trim, slender and elegant in the Gupta period. The harmonious blend of physical beauty with spiritual grace in the image was an outstanding contribution of the Mathura artist during the Gupta period. The aureole carved with a number of concentric bands and the tastefully carved halo bespeak radiation of knowledge from the tirtharkaras in all directions. This was the aesthetic representation of samavasarana (preaching to all). All these aspects have been handled with great care by Dr. V.K. Sharma. The first part of the book deals with the national horizon of Jainism. It is a comprehensive survey of the development and spread of this faith to various parts of India. The association of Jainism with Mathura was not an isolated and regional phenomenon. It, in fact, was a part of a widespread movement.

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Foreword Mathura was closely associated with the compilation of the Jaina canon also. It also participated in the great literay movement designated as the Sarasvati movement in the history of Jainism. The literary output of the Jainas - religious as well as secular -- has been remarkable and Mathura had a fair share in its production. Mathura made a significant contribution to the development of Jaina iconography and the history of Indian art would remain incomplete without reference to Jaina art products of Mathura. The second half of the book profusely highlights the main subject, i.e., Jainism in Mathura, a historical and cultural survey. The author has elaborately analysed the various aspects in a judicious way. He has rightly assessed that the division of Jainism into the Svetambara sect and the Digambara sect did not originate at Mathura although the issues of difference as in view, have been discussed in detail. Dr. Sharma has, however, avoided to pronounce his judgement on those delicacies which have casually appeared in art manifestations, and which may be interpreted from various angles. He has rightly expressed concern over the circumstances in which the excavations at Kankali Tila, Mathura were conducted by Fuhrer. He has been rightly critical of his ill-conceived methodology and his sudden disappearance from the scene after the death of Buhler. The antiquity of Jainism was a hotly debated subject among European scholars in the nineteenth century, and to some extent it remains shrouded in mystery. Prof. H. Hartel of Berlin, who conducted archaeological excavations at Sonkh near Mathura from 1966 to 1974 (a work with which, I was associated for many years), told me that this controversy has still not ended. The author has gone deep in his investigations and consulted almost all original and secondary sources. For a general reader the long list of footnotes may appear as somewhat overdozing, but for the researchers these references are of utmost importance. This book is certainly a laudable contribution to the field of oriental studies, and Dr. Sharma has carved for himself a dignified niche in the galaxy of scholars by authoring a magnificent monograph on the history of vii

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viii History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jainism with special emphasis on its history in Mathura. I hope this book will be welcomed by students, researchers, scholars and faithful Jaina devotees alike. I extend my heartiest congratulations to the author for producing such a wonderful treatise. B-50 Saketnagar R. C. Sharma Varanasi Formerly Director - General National Museum

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Preface MATHURA- the heart of Braj and, described as one of the seven holy cities of India, has been sacred to the Hindus from very early times. This city was held in high esteem by the Jainas also. In fact, in the early centuries of the Christian era, Mathura became the principal centre of Jainism in northern India. This book unfolds the history of Jainism in Mathura from the earliest times. The history of Jainism in Mathura is a part of the history of Jainism as a whole. Therefore, the first four chapters of this book deal with Jainism and its early history. The remaining three chapters are devoted to the history of this faith in Mathura. Archaeological excavations conducted at Mathura in the nineteenth century have yielded immense epigraphic, sculptural and architectural material relevant to the history of Jainism in this city. I have made full use of this material in this study. The chapters dealing with the history of Jainism in Mathura have been written principally on the basis of these archaeological finds. Some information exists in Jaina literature, too, regarding the state of Jainism in Mathura. This material has also been utilised in this study. The material dealing with the history of Jainism in other parts of the country has also been drawn from both sources - literary and archaeological. Government Museum, Mathura, is a renowned institution for research and I am extremely thankful to the authorities and staff of Government Museum, Mathura, particularly to Shri Shatrughan Sharma and Shri Ganga Ram, for making adequate arrangements for my study regarding this book in the library and galleries of the museum. Shri Shatrughan Sharma's manifold co-operation in the preparation of this book deserves my praise. I am highly thankful to Dr. R.C. Sharma, formerly Director-General, @Ji Wan ix

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X History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura National Museum and presently Hony. Director/Acarya, Jnana Pravaha, Varanasi, for his encouragement, suggestions and valuable advice. I am also thankful to him for writing the foreword to this book. I also thank the scholars whose works have been utilised in this book. My wife Bishan Sharma's multiple co-operation was a source of strength to me and I am deeply indebted to her for it. I am grateful to the authorities of American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon, for providing the photographs included in this book. Last but not least, I am deeply thankful to Shri Susheel K. Mittal, Director, D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd, New Delhi - the publisher of the book - for his genuine interest in its publication, and providing it a fine get-up. Virendra Kumar Sharma 7-B Geeta Enclave Bank Colony Mathura 281 004 24 June, 2002

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Contents Foreword xiii Preface Abbreviations Transliteration Chart List of Illustrations xvii xix 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Introduction to Jainism Jaina tirtharkaras and antiquity of Jainism Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira Post-Mahavira period and the contribution of Jainism to Indian culture Jainism in Mathura (second century BC to eleventh century AD) Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura (second century BC to eleventh century AD) Jainism in Mathura (eleventh century AD to the present times) 123 6. 169 7. 235 Plates 245 Bibliography 261 Index 269 xi

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Abbreviations AANI ACHI AGI AI(M) AII AJAA AOIK AOIU An Advanced History of India, Ancient India A Cultural History of India Ancient Geography of India Ancient India Archaeology in India Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture The Age of Imperial Kanauj The Age of Imperial Unity Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, vol. III Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, vol. XVII Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, vol. XX Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1906-7 ASIAR, III ASIAR, XVII ASIAR, XX ASIAR, 1906-7 ASIAR, 1922-3 Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1922-3 CA CAI The Classical Age Culture and Art of India Census of India, 1931 Census, 1931

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura CHAI, III CHI, I CII, III CMHI, II CUHI, I Concise History of Ancient India, vol. III The Cambridge History of India, vol. I Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. III A Comprehensive History of India, vol. II The Cultural Heritage of India, Ramakrishna Centenary Memorial, vol. I District Gazetteer of Mathura, 1911 District Gazetter of Mathura, 1968 DGM, 1911 DGM, 1968 DJI EI, I EI, II EI, X EI, XX Elliot and Dowson, II Elliot and Dowson, IV Digambara Jaina Iconography Epigraphia Indica, vol. I Epigraphia Indica, vol. II Epigraphia Indica, vol. X Epigraphia Indica, vol. XX Elliot and Dowson, History of India as Told by its Historians, vol. II Elliot and Dowson, History of India as Told by its Historians, vol. IV Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. II Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. VII The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India The Geographical Encyclopaedia of Ancient and Medieval India, Part I. ERE, II ERE, VII GD GEAMI, I HGAI Historical Geography of Ancient India HIEA History of Indian and Eastern Architecture

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Abbreviations HJM HOFA HOIC, 1 HOPEW History of Jaina Monachism A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon A History of Indian Civilisation, vol. I History of Philosophy Eastern and Western Harivamasa Purana Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. II Introductory Booklet, Sri 1008 Jambusvami Jaina Siddha Ksetra, Mathura HP IGI, II Introductory Booklet India's Past IP ISP JAA, I JI JIR JISI JOLR JPV Mathura Ki Guptakalin Jain Martiyon Ka Pratima Laksana. Paper presented in the International Seminar held at Government Museum, Mathura Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I The Jaina Iconography Jainism in Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963 Jainism in South India Jainism, The Oldest Living Religion Jain Pratima Vigyan The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India Jaina Sects and Schools Mathura Museum Catalogue, V.S. Agarawala, Part III, Journal of U.P. Historical Society Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jaina Canons Mathura -- The Cultural Heritage JS JSAI JSS JUPHS, III LDJC MCH

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xvi History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura MDM Mathura - A District Memoir MI Mathura Inscriptions mJ Medieval Jainism MM no. MS NM no. Government Museum, Mathura Object Number Mathura Scultpures National Museum Object Number On the Indian Sect of the Jainas Outlines of Jainism OISJ OJ Poddar Abhinandan Poddar Abhinandan Granth RI Religions of India ROAI Religions of Ancient India SFE The Struggle For Empire SIJA Studies in Jaina Art SML no. State Museum, Lucknow Object Number TSPC, II Hemacandra, Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. II TSPC, III Hemacandra, Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. III TSPC, IV Hemacandra, Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. IV TSPC, VI Hemacandra, Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. VI Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa Jinaprabha Suri, Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa Vogel, Catalogue J. Ph. Vogel, Catalogue of the Archaeological Museum at Mathura Yasastilaka Yasastilaka and Indian Culture EWA, VIII Encyclopaedia of World Art, vol. VIII

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Transliteration Chart a a a A i i I I u u u U e e ai ai 0 o au au bo F .-5 chj . 012 E kSa tra jJa

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List of Illustrations PL. I: Pl. II : Pl. III : Pl. IV: Pl. V: Pl. VI : Akota (Gujarat): Seated Rsabhanatha (copper alloy), tenth century AD, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Sravanabelagola (Karnataka): Gomatesvara Statue, fifteenth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Cittor (Rajasthan): Jaina Kirti Stambha (Pillar of Victory), fifteenth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Sravanabelagola (Karnataka): Jaina Manstambha, twelfth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Hampi (Karnataka): General view of Jaina temples on the Hemakuta Hill, fourteenth-fifteenth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh): A view of Adinatha Temple, tentheleventh century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Kumharia (Gujarat): A view of Neminatha Temple, eleventh-twelfth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Adinatha Temple (Vimala-Vasahi Temple), eleventh century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of the ceiling of Adinatha Temple (Vimala-Vasahi Temple), eleventh century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Luna-Vasahi Temple, thirteenth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Pl. VII : PI. VIII: Pl. IX: Pl. X:

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XX 4EUR Pl. XI: PL. XII: PL. XIII: PL. XIV: Pl. XVI: History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Luna-Vasahi Temple, thirteenth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Pl. XV Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Seated tirthamkara, tenth century AD, State Museum, Lucknow (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Pl. XIX: Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Luna-Vasahi Temple, thirteenth century AD (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Seated tirthamkara, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Pl. XXI: Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Seated tirthamkara, Gupta Period, State Museum, Lucknow (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Pl. XVII Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Architrave of the gateway of a stupa (Reverse), first century BC, State Museum, Lucknow (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). PI. XVIII: Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Yaksi Ambika, ninth century AD, Government Museum, Mathura (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Ayaga-patta with svastika motif, seated tirthankara figure and pair of fish, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Pl. XX :Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Ayaga-patta donated by Vasu depicting the Jaina stupa, Kusana Period, Government Museum, Mathura (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Goddess Sarasvati, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon). Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Tympanum showing worship of a Jaina stupa, a tirthankara and a goddess by male and female devotees, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow (Photo courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon).

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Introduction to Jainism JAINISM is one of the oldest religions in India. It evolved at an early period of Indian history and has been called by numerous names. Through the ages, Jainism and its culture have been called by names and epithets like the Rsabha Cult, the Ahimsa Dharma, the Sramana Dharma, the Nirgrantha Dharma, the Yogamarga, the Vratya, the Arhat, the Syadvada Mat, the Anekanta Mat, the Samani, the Bhavya, the Saraka, the Bhavade, the Sewane, the Sravaka, the Jaina, etc., in various parts of India. It is a religion with a complete system; it has its dogma, metaphysics, philosophy, mythology, ethics and ritual. Jainism is a living religion and has got a strong hold upon an influential section of the Indian people. The adherents of this religion, now called Jainas, were known as Nirgranthas for long. These days they are sometimes called Saraugise or Saraogis' also. The majority of the Jainas belong to the trading classes, and they hold an important position in Indian society' because of their wealth and education. 10 Descar 1. ERE, VII, p. 465; CUHI, I, p. 185; ACHI, p. 100; JOLR, p. 1. 2. JSAI, Introduction, pp. 5-6. 3. Ibid., Introduction, p. 6; ACHI, p. 100; AI (M), p. 170; SIJA, p. 3. 4. AI (M), p. 170. 5. LDJC, p. 21; RI, p. 283 fn. 2; ROAI, p. 117; JI, p. 12. 6. MDM, p.13. 7. JSAI, Introduction, p. 5; DGM, 1911, p. 82; Census, 1931, p. 493. 8. ERE, VII, p. 472; OISJ, p. 1; CUHI, I, p. 222. 9. IP, p. 72; JSAI, Introduction, p. 6. 10. ERE, VII, p. 472; OISJ, p. 1; IP, p. 72. c assa essere

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Important cities of India have considerable Jaina population. 11 The principal sub-divisions of the Jainas are the Svetambara and the Digambara. The states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka have the largest number of Jainas in India. 12 The Digambara Jainas preponderate in south Maharashtra and Karnataka, and the Svetambara Jainas are more numerous in Gujarat and the Punjab. 13 As a whole, the Jainas are economically welloff. Jaina affluence is most noticeable in the celebration of festivals, construction of temples and deeds of public welfare. Jainism was a popular religion in India in the ancient and early medieval period. The period from the fifth century AD to the tenth century AD was the most flourishing in the history of Jainism, particularly in south India. Probably, one-third of the total population of the Deccan professed Jainism during this period. 14 But there has been a considerable decline in the number of the Jainas during the past ten centuries. According to the census of 1901, the Jainas numbered 1,334,140, and this strength was less than 1/2 per cent of India's population.15 The Jaina population in India was 1,178,000 in 192616 and a little over two million in 1975.17 At present Jainism is professed by more than five million in India. 18 Hermann Jacobi 19 and A.A. Macdonell20 felt that Jainism is a rigorous religion to practice; it is suitable for the upper classes and unfit for the illiterate masses, and this accounts for its small numerical strength. It is difficult to agree with this view. Jainism, undoubtedly, lays great stress on an austere and rigorous life. It, in fact, is a votary of asceticism. 11. JAA, I, p. 34; ERE, VII, p. 472; OIS), p. 1. 12. JAA, I, p. 34. 13. Ibid. 14. A.S. Altekar, Rastrakutas and Their Times, p. 310, cited in JSAI, p. 247 fn. 3. 15. ERE, VII, p. 472. 16. IP, p. 72. 17. ACHI, p. 100. 18. A.K. Mazumdar, Early Hindu India, Delhi, 1981, p. 263. 19. ERE, VII, p. 472 fn. 1. 20. IP, p. 72.

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Introduction to Jainism But India has rightly been called the homeland of asceticism.21 Tradition and legend have united to glorify the ascetic in India.22 The popularity of Jainism in ancient and early medieval India disproves the viewpoint of Jacobi and Macdonell. Jainism declined in numerical strength due to a variety of causes. With the passage of time the Jainas lost their early zeal and many evils crept into the Jaina society.23 The advent of Islam in India also delivered a cruel blow to Jainism. As a result of Muslim aggression the Jainas living in various parts of India lost contact with each other; forced conversion of the Jainas to Islam and the policy of destruction and demolition adopted by many Muslim rulers of India weakened the monastic organisation of Jainism.24 The consequent disintegration of the Jaina church destroyed the bond of unity among the Jainas and their numerical strength kept on dwindling.25 But, in spite of the small numerical strength of its followers, the contribution of Jainism to the Indian heritage has been extremely significant. Through the ages, Jainism has produced admirable monks and nuns, kings, military generals, ministers, statesmen, authors, philosophers, religious leaders, financiers, industrialists, traders, artists, scholars, etc.26 Religious instincts fostered by Jainism have created impression on many aspects of Indian life.27 Jainism has made a significant contribution in the domain of politics also. Epigraphic records of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu contain facts which reveal that Jainism made a remarkable contribution to the 21. HJM, p.1. 22. ERE, II, p. 187. 23. CUHI, I, p. 222. 24. HJM, p. 136; JIR, pp. 51-3. 25. Ibid., pp. 136-7. 26. For a detailed information on this subject one is advised to consult B.A. Saletore, Medieval Jainism; K.C. Jain, Jainism in Rajasthan, 1963; Jyoti Prasad Jain, The Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India, 1964; Jyoti Prasad Jain, Pramukh Aitihasik Jain Purusa Aur Mahilaen, 1975. 27. ACHI, p. 100. : 4 EUR 3

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura suceess and stability of the magnificent Vijayanagara empire and many other kingdoms of south India.28 Jainism has enriched Indian philosophy, art, architecture, languages both Aryan and Dravidian, literature, social life and pattern of living, and to this contribution we shall turn in some detail later in this book. Misconceptions about Jainism After the establishment of British rule in India, European scholars devoted themselves to the task of exploring the philosophy and religions of India. About the beginning of the nineteenth century Jainism attracted notice of European scholars.29 But they could not form a correct opinion about this faith for long owing to the absence of original texts which at the time were scarcely available in Europe. 30 Consequently, Jainism was misunderstood and misrepresented. Some European scholars looked upon Jainism as an offshoot of Buddhism.31 Some others viewed it as a rebellious variety of Brahmanism 32 or as a revolt against this religion.33 Jainism is not an off-shoot of Buddhism The older generation of Sanskrit scholars held two opinions on these subjects. Colebrooke, Prinsep, Stevenson, E. Thomas and some others thought that Jainism is older than Buddhism.34 But distinguished orientalists like H.H. Wilson, Lassen and Weber were of opinion that Jainism is an off-shoot of Buddhism.35 The latter view was held on the basis of some striking resemblances 28. MJ, p. 2. 29. HJM, p. 14. 30. CHI, I, p. 152. 31. ERE, VII, p. 465. 32. OJ, Introduction, xxix. 33. ROAI, pp. 111-12; E.B. Havell, History of Aryan Rule in India, p. 59; Maurice A. Canney, An Encyclopaedia of Religions, 1976, p. 195; JOLR, Preface, i. 34. CHI, I, p. 152. 35. Ibid., p. 152; OISJ, p. 23 fn. 1.

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Introduction to Jainism in the Jaina and Buddhist records of which only a small part had reached Europe at that time. 36 But thanks to the researches of Hermann Jacobi, J.G. Buhler, Guerinot and some others the view that Jainism is an off-shoot of Buddhism stands discredited. Between 1879 and 1884, Jacobi undertook the refutation of the negative thesis that Jainism arose out of Buddhism.37 In his introductions to volumes XXII and XLV of the Sacred Books of the East, Jacobi thoroughly exploded the myth that Jainism is an off-shoot of Buddhism. Jacobi wrote, Notwithstanding the radical difference in their philosophical notions, Jainism and Buddhism, being originally both orders of monks outside the pale of Brahmanism, present some resemblance in outward appearance, so that even Indian writers occasionally have confounded them. It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that some European scholars who became acquainted with Jainism through inadequate samples of Jain literature easily persuaded them that it was an offshoot of Buddhism. But it has since been proved beyond doubt that this theory is wrong, and that Jainism is at least as old as Buddhism.38 On the strength of references in Pali literature, Jacobi proved that the Jainas existed before the time of Mahavira, who was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, and that Mahavira was a reformer of the order of ascetics founded by Parsvanatha rather than being the founder of Jainism.39 Jacobi succeeded and his role is largely remembered because of this accomplishment.40 After his study of inscriptions excavated from Kankali Tila, Mathura, J.G. Buhler, another eminent German scholar, also reached the conclusion that Jainism is not an off-shoot of Buddhism. Buhler wrote, 36. CHI, I, p. 152. 37. MCH, p. 104. ERE, VII, p. 465. 39. Sacred Books of the East, vols. XXII and XLV, Introductions; also see ERE, VII, pp. 465 ff. 40. MCH, p. 104; LDJC, p. 21; RI, p. 283 fn. 2

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Old historical traditions prove the independent existence of the sect of the Jainas even during the first five centuries after Buddha's death, and among the inscriptions are some which clear the Jaina tradition not only from the suspicion of fraud but bear powerful testimony to its honesty.41 Jacobi had proved the independence of Jainism from Buddhism on the basis of literary evidence, Buhler provided epigraphical evidence to confirm it. Points of similarity and difference between Jainism and Buddhism There are, undoubtedly, some similarities between Jainism and Buddhism. Both are pessimistic and monastic religions. 42 Both consider the world as an abode of sorrow and hold that salvation is the aim of human life. 43 Both deny the authenticity of the Vedas as an infallible authority and question the efficacy of the rites prescribed in them for the purpose of salvation.44 Both ignore the conception of God.45 Both lay emphasis on a rigorous system of discipline based on a code of moral and spiritual behaviour. 46 Both advocate stress on pure and moral life rather than on worship of and devotion to God as the means to salvation.47 Both believe that nirvana can be achieved by one's own efforts. 48 But, these similarities are largely superficial in nature. In fact, Jainism and Buddhism radically differ in religion as well as metaphysics.49 Their 41. OISJ, p. 23. 42. IP, p. 68. 43. AI (M), p. 168; ERE, VII, p. 465. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. AOIU, p. 361. 47. AI (M), pp. 168-9. 48. Sital Prasad, Comparative Study of Jainism and Buddhism, 1982, p. 196. 49. RI, p. 286.

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Introduction to Jainism conceptions about soul and many other matters are fundamentally different and cannot be explained away as later additions.50 Both advocate the attainment of nirvana, but they differ in their methods of realising it. 51 Jainism advocates the possession of right belief, right knowledge and right conduct as a means to the attainment of nirvana, 52 but Buddhism suggests the eight-fold path as a means to this end.53 They differ in their concept of nirvana also. The suggested meaning of nirvana in Buddhism is extinction.54 But in Jainism nirvana means the attainment of its original pure nature or state by the soul.55 They differ in the concept of soul also. Gautama Buddha denied the existence of soul.56 Jainism, on the other hand, believes in the reality of soul.57 Jainism lays great stress on asceticism.58 But Gautama Buddha decried it59, and preached the middle path or the path of moderation that avoids extreme, 61 i.e., the mean between laxity and asceticism.62 In their doctrine of non-violence, too, Jainism and Buddhism are not in total agreement. Jainism preaches non-violence even towards inanimate things.63 But the Buddha was not averse to meat-eating, and is said to have died of dysentery caused by eating pork.64 50. AI (M), p. 169. 51. ERE, VII, p. 465. 52. CUHI, 1, p. 195; OJ, p. 53; OISJ, p.5. 53. RI, pp. 305-6; Bhikshu Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, 1957, pp. 133-5. 54. JI, p. 3; CUHI, I, p. 272; Sital Prasad, op. cit., p. 1. 55. HJM, p. 4. 56. CUHI, I, p. 259;G.F.Allen, The Buddha's Philosophy, London, 1959, p.42;A0IU, p.372. 57. Ibid., p. 224; OJ, p. 7; JI, p. 4. 58. RI, p. 287; JI, p. 4; IP, p. 71; AI (M), p. 169. 59. The World's Great Religions, 1959, p. 43; IP, p. 71. 60. Ibid., p. 43; G.F. Allen, op. cit., pp. 39-40; AI (M), p. 169. 61. G.F. Allen, op. cit., p. 39. 62. RI, p. 310 fn. 1. 63. HOIC, I, p. 162; JI, pp. 3-4. 64. RI, p. 310 fn. 1.

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura In metaphysics Jainism recognises a dualistic realism.65 Buddhism, on the other hand, emphasises the doctrine of universal void.66 The Digambara Jaina monks lay great stress on nudity.67 The Buddha, on the other hand, denounced the practice of going out naked.68 The Jaina canon is different from the Buddhist canon; it also gives an impression of greater antiquity.69 The lay community in Jainism plays a greater part in the administration of its religion. The fundamental theories of Jainism, i.e., the syadvada; the Jaina division of living beings, especially the elementary lives, are not found in Buddhism.71 In fact, Jainism and Buddhism were rival religions and had distinct historical origins.Jainism is certainly older than Buddhism. It is, therefore, not surprising that because of the greater antiquity of Jainism some scholars considered Buddhism as an off-shoot of this religion.74 Points of similarity and difference between Jainism and Hinduism Jainism has much in common with the Hindu systems of philosophy. Like Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hindu philosophy, Jainism believes in dualism of matter and soul, looks upon worldly life as bad and painful, and holds that liberation from the cycles of birth by the possession of right knowledge is the aim of human life.75 Like Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika and Purva 65. ERE, VII, p. 468; OJ, p. 7; JI, p. 4. 66. CUHI, I, pp. 261-5; JI, p. 3. OISJ, p. 2; IP, p. 69. 68. AI(M), p. 169; AOIU, p. 362. 69. ROAI, p. 120. 70. Ibid., p. 122. 71. ERE, VII, p. 465 fn. 3. 72. CHI, I, p. 151; JOLR, p. 5; SBE, vols. XXII and XLV, Introductions. 73. AI(M), pp. 168-9. 74. ROAI, p. 111. 75. ERE, VII, p. 465.

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Introduction to Jainism Mimamsa schools of Hindu philosophy, Jainism rejects the doctrine of the creator of the universe and also the theory of creation.76 Like the UttaraMimamsa, Jainism considers the world as a product of evolution." Jainism resembles the Purva-Mimamsa in emphasising the potency of karma78, and resembles the Vedanta (Uttara-Mimamsa) in maintaining that every individual soul (jiva) is potentially a parmatman.79 The atmavada of Jainism, 'though different from the Upanisadic view',80 is close to the spirit of the Vedanta.81 But Jainism has its peculiarities as well. It differs from the Samkhya and the Yoga in the methods of realising salvation.82 According to Hinduism, Jainism is heretical because it denies the authority of the Vedas.83 The Jaina doctrine of non-violence is opposed to Vedic ritualism.84 The Jaina and the Hindu conceptions of God are fundamentally different.85 Like the Samkhya and the Yoga, Jainism believes in the dualism of matter and soul, but these metaphysical principles are worked out on different lines in this religion. The Samkhya School of philosophy has adopted Brahmanical modes of thought, but Jainism which is non-Brahmanical, has adopted animistic ideas.86 The canons of Hinduism and Jainism are different. The Jainas do not believe in Hindu funeral rites; they also do not venerate sacred places of the Hindus.87 76. CUHI, I. pp. 186-7. 77. Ibid., p. 190. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. ERE, II, p. 801. 81. ROAI, p. 131. 82. ERE, VII, p. 465. 83. Ibid., p. 465. 84. CUHI, I. p. 191. 85. ACHI, p. 108. 86. ERE, VII, p. 465 fn. 2. 87. JI, p. 2. 5:0 9

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10 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Relationship between Jainism and Hinduism It is evident that Hinduism and Jainism are two different religions. But, in spite of its numerous differences, Jainism is nearer to Hinduism than Buddhism. The opposition of Jainism to Hinduism has been less pronounced, 89 and it has been more accomodating to Hinduism than other unorthodox faiths.90 Hinduism, too, has been sympathetic to Jainism, 91 and has shown respect and receptivity to it.92 In fact, a process of give and take has been a characteristic feature of the relationship between Hinduism and Jainism. 93 Hinduism and its ethics bear conspicuous stamp of Jainism.94 Similarly, considerable Hindu influence can be traced on Jainism.95 Both Jainism and Hinduism have laid stress on asceticism,96 and scholars like Jacobi, 97 Buhler88 and Charpentier99 have noticed exact similarity between the rules laid down for Hindu samnyasis and Jaina monks. Mahavira was not opposed to the brahmanas; he was opposed to the degenerate priestly class.100 The brahmana was conceived as an ideal man. In the Jaina texts dealing with the ideal qualities of the brahmanas, the sramanas are designated as such.101 Jainism 88. RI, pp. 286-7. 89. ROAI, pp. 121-2. 90. AOIU, p. 425; AI(M), p. 169. 91. JIR, p. 234. 92. HOIC, I, p. 167. 93. S.D. Jha, Aspect of Brahmanical Influence on the Jaina Mythology, 1978, Introduction, p. 13. 94. Ibid., Introduction, p. 13; ERE, II, p. 813. Ibid., pp. 235-6, Rerospect; ERE, II, pp. 802,812;ERE, VII, p.470;OISJ, pp. 15-16;AOIU, p. 362; CHI, I, pp. 150-2; ROAI, pp. 113-14; HJM, pp. 52 ff; AOIK, p. 295. 96. RI, p.287. 97. CHI, I, p. 151; HJM, p. 52. 98. OISJ, pp. 15-16; ibid. 99. CHI, I, p. 151; ibid. 100. HJM, p. 64. 101. Ibid.

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Introduction to Jainism has not been opposed to caste system. 102 The brahmana priests (pujaris) are employed in Jaina temples.103 There was no trace of pessimism in the attitude of Rgvedic Aryans, 104 and the doctrine of transmigration of soul was unknown to the early Brahmanas. 105 Probably, Hinduism adopted these features from Jainism.106 Tirthamkara Santinatha's sermon 107 sounds like a commentary on Gita.108 The Jaina and Hindu Puranic teachings are almost identical.109 The definition of dharma as given by the Mahabharata and Gunabhadra, the Jaina puranakara, is identical.110 The doctrine of non-violence on which Jainism lays great stress has found modified approval in Hinduism.111 The Jaina pontiffs like Jinasena prescribed rules and practices laid down by Brahmana dharmasastras for the Jainas.112 Naga-worship, tree-worship and yaksa-worship were common to Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism in ancient India. 113 After the adoption of idol-worship the difference between a Hindu and a Jaina became almost non-existent in ancient India.114 In fact, with the passage of time little outward difference existed in the rituals, mode of worship and religious celebrations of the Hindus and the Jainas.115 The Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist idols were often 102. JI, p. 3; AOIU, p. 425; CUHI, p. 222; AOIK, p. 295. 103. Ibid.; RI, p. 286; ROAI, p. 125. 104. ERE, II, p. 802; CUHI, I, p. 29. 105. AOIU, p. 363. 106. Ibid. 107. TSPC, vol. III, pp. 322-3. 108. S.D. Jha, op. cit., p. 257. 109. Ibid., p. 255. 110. Ibid., p. 254. 111. RI, p. 287; S.D. Jha, op. cit., p. 255; JIR, p. 234. 112. S.D. Jha, op. cit., pp. 235-6; JSAI, p. 248. 113. V.S. Agrawala, Ancient Indian Folk Cults, Varanasi, 1970, pp. 104, 116, 180. 114. HOIC, I, p. 166. 115. JSAI, p. 248. EUR 11

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12 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura installed side by side in one temple. 116 Jainism has adopted many Hindu gods and goddesses to its pantheon.117 The general way of life of a Hindu and a Jaina in Rajasthan is almost the same.118 Regarding Uttar Pradesh the Census Report of India says, The difference between Jains and Hindus is not very distinct, and in practice seems more social than religious. Closely connected as Jains are by race and profession with certain sections of the Hindu community, inter-marriages have, in the past, not been uncommon.119 The Hindus and the Jainas participate in each other's festivals also. The message of Jainism to mankind is: 'Be a man first and last, for the kingdom of God belongs to the son of man'; this very truth is proclaimed in unmistakable terms by the Upanisadic text tat tuam asi "Thou Art That'. 120 Background of Jainism To a great extent Jainism is a primitive religion. There is much in it that is pre-Aryan. But it has also been influenced by Brahmanic thought and practices. The origin and growth of Jainism was the consequence of both preAryan and Aryan influence. Before the advent of the Aryans in eastern India some recluses or primitive people held a number of ideas like a pessimistic outlook on life, the doctrine of transmigration of soul, belief in the presence of soul or life in all things.121 These ideas were later submerged in the general stream of Indian thought.122 Jainism had its origin in eastern India. Many philosophical ideas 116. JSAI, p. 248. 117. JI, p. 3; AOIU, p. 425; JIR, p. 234; OISJ, p. 61. 118. JIR, p. 234 119. Census, 1931, p. 495. 120. CUHI, I, p. 219. 121. ACHI, p. 100; AOIU, pp. 362-3. 122. Ibid., p. 100; Ibid., p. 362.

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Introduction to Jainism of Jainism were either borrowed from or were a survival of the thought currents of the primitive people of eastern India.123 This was the primitive or pre-Aryan or non-Aryan background of Jainism. But it was also influenced by the thought and practices of Brahmanism.124 This was the Aryan background of Jainism. Outlines of Jainism It is beyond the scope of this book to deal with the metaphysics, philosophy, mythology, ethics and rituals of Jainism exhaustively. We turn to these subjects succinctly. Jainism does not believe in a Creator125 or a Creator God 126 or a Supreme Being127 and also rejects the theory of creation. 128 Like the Uttara-Mimamsa School of Hindu philosophy, Jainism views the world as a product of evolution.129 Jainism holds that the world is not created or ruled by God;130 it is without beginning and end;131 it is everlasting and exists on the strength of its elements. 132 Conception of God in Jainism In Jaina metaphysics there is no room for God either as a creator or as a distributor of prizes.133 Jainism has generally been labelled an atheistic religion. In an article on atheism, Hermann Jacobi, an internationally renowned authority on Jainism, wrote, 123. AOIU, p. 363. 124. S.D. Jha, op. cit., Introduction, pp. 13, 235-6, Retrospect. 125. CUHI, I, pp. 189-90. 126. AJAA, p. 50. 127. JI, p. 4. 128. CUHI, I, pp. 189-90. 129. Ibid., p. 190. 130. ERE, II, p. 187. 131. OISJ, p. 9; ERE, II, p. 187. 132. Ibid., p. 9. 133. ACHI, p. 108. 13

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jainism is atheistical, if by atheism we understand the belief that there is no eternal Supreme God, Creator and Lord of all things; for the Jainas flatly deny such a Supreme God.134 He also wrote, Though the Jainas are undoubtedly atheistical as we understand the term, still they would probably object to being styled atheists.135 In fact, Jaina scholars hold that Jainism is not atheistical. Lakshmi Chandra Jain writes, Jainism cannot be regarded as a Nastika or atheistical religion, simply because it does not believe in a Creator God. It believes in the eternal existence of soul (Jiva) and of five other substances. . . . It believes in the potentiality of each soul to achieve Nirvana or the State of Godhood.136 J.L. Jaini writes, As compared with most other religions, it is important to notice that Jainism has a very definite and uncompromising attitude towards the conception of God. It is accused of being atheistic. This is not so, because Jainism believes in Godhood and in innumerable gods; but certainly Jainism is atheistic in not believing its gods to have created the universe. 137 But, Jainism believes in a highest deity - parama-devata 138 or parmatman.139 134. ERE, II, p. 186. 135. Ibid., p. 187. 136. JAA, I, Prefece, vii. 137. OJ, pp. 45. 138. ERE, II, p. 187. 139. CUHI, I, p. 191.

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Introduction to Jainism This highest deity is the jina;140 the jina is an object of veneration, 141 the highest object of worship. 142 The jina deserves to be worshipped, because he is the conqueror of the world and provides the ideal, i.e., salvation from the cycle of births and deaths, which are characteristic of the world. 143 Jainism also believes in innumerable gods, who are of various kinds and of various degrees of perfection.144 But these gods are not eternal.145 Like the Samkhya School of Hindu philosophy, Jainism is dualistic. It believes in the existence of the jiva (soul) and the ajiva (non-soul). 146 According to Jainism, these two exhaust between them all that exists in the universe.147 As a result of the contact between the jiva and the ajiva, i.e., the living and the non-living, energies are forged which lead to various experiences of life like birth and death.148 This process can be stopped and the energies already forged can be destroyed by following a path of descipline which can lead to salvation.149 This statement contains seven propositions, i.e., the seven tattvas or realities of Jainism.150 These seven propositions are as follows:151 1. There is the jiva or the living. 2. There is the ajiva or the non-living. 3. The jiva and the ajiva come into contact with each other. 4. This contact produces some energies. 140. ERE, II, p. 187; CUHI, I, p. 191. 141. Ibid., p. 187. 142. CUHI, I, p. 191. 143. Ibid. 144. ERE, II, p. 186. 145. Ibid. 146. CUHI, I, p. 224; JI, p. 4. 147. Ibid., p. 224. 148. Ibid. 149. Ibid. 150. Ibid. 15

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura 5. The process of this contact can be stopped. 6. The existing energies can also be destroyed. 7. Salvation can be achieved. The ethics of Jainism stands for realisation of nirvana or moksa .152 According to Jainism, nirvana or moksa means the attainment of its original purity by the soul.153 Jainism views nirvana as a highly special or transcendental condition of human soul in which it remains eternally and absolutely free from passion, hatred, birth, decay, desire, etc., because of complete destruction of all causes of sorrow.154 The nirvana or salvation can be achieved by right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.155 These three jewels or tri-ratna is the moksa marg or path of salvation in Jainism.156 None of these three jewels can ensure salvation individually; their togetherness is the essential condition for the attainment of moksa. 157 Jainism attaches supreme significance to anekantavada 158 or the theory of Indefiniteness of Being. 159 The essence of anekantavada is that reality should be looked at from many points of view.160 The anekantavada theory is upheld by a dialectical method called syadvada.161 The Jainas attach so much importance to this method that syadvada is frequently used as a synonym for Jainism. 162 Syadvada - the doctrine of 'It may be so' - is a mode of reasoning 151. CUHI, I, p. 224. 152. ERE, VII, p. 470. 153. HJM, p. 4. 154. CUHI, I, p. 273. 155. HJM, p. 4; ERE, VII, p. 470; JI, p. 7; OJ, p. 53. 156. CUHI, I, p. 195. 157. Ibid. 158. ERE, VII, pp. 467-8. 159. Ibid. 160. CUHI, I, p. 236. 161. ERE, VII, p. 468. 162. Ibid., p. 468.

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Introduction to Jainism 141 EUR which makes it possible to assert and deny the existence of one and the same thing.163 The doctrine of nayas is supplementary to the doctrine of syadvada, and in a way is the logical complement to it.164 The essence of the doctrine of nayas is that all ways of judgement are partially true.165 The doctrine of ahimsa or non-violence is central to Jainism; no religion has laid greater emphasis on it than this creed. The Jaina discipline is very hard. It preaches non-attachment, abstinence from intoxicants, adultery, gambling, hunting, taking food at night, etc.166 The rituals of Jainism are not as elaborate as Hindu rituals, but they certainly surpass those of Buddhism. 167 The Jainas worship the images of their tirthamkaras and gods in their temples, and many rites and ceremonies are observed in respect of worship. The Jainas also practise confession of sins before the teacher. 168 Jainism attaches great significance to pilgrimages, and four months in the year are specially devoted to fastings, reading of sacred books and spiritual meditation. Jaina festivals are lavishly celebrated. The Jainas have adopted some Hindu festivals also.169 Ideals of Jainism To a large extent Jainism is a direct representative of the ancient Magadhan culture or the stream that was known as Sramanic.170 This stream stands in sharp contrast to the Brahmanic current of Indian culture. The avowed aim of Jainism is the perfection of man. 171 It holds that every individual soul (jiva) is capable of achieving godhood. It preaches severe discipline, self-control, renunciation and austerity. Jainism respects and glorifies the ascetic. The Vestes les cas de sus vecostales estable des vesel 163. OISJ, p. 11. 164. ERE, VII, p. 468. 165. Ibid. 166. JI, p. 9. 167. Ibid., p. 11. 168. Ibid., p. 11; ROAI, p. 128. 169. Ibid., p. 12. 17.

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18 Wan History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura spirit of universality is a characteristic feature of Jainism. It inspires each man to become a jina or a conqueror, and believes in the potentiality of each soul to achieve moksa or salvation. Thus, its avowed aim is to lead all men to salvation.172 Man is not perfect, but he can attain perfection. Jainism holds that man is the architect of his destiny173, and he should strive to reach as near perfection or godhood as possible.174 It advocates conquest of the body, the senses and the world-stuff. A Jaina feels inspired by the moral grandeur of the jina and by the metaphysical solitude of the kevalin or the perfect. Ethics is the most glorious aspect of Jainism. According to Jainism, the highest good of the society is the highest good of the individual. 175 It stands for absolute and eternal happiness for all living beings. 176 Jainism interprets non-violence in an extremely comprehensive sense. It attributes soul to all sentient creatures. It holds that plants, air, water and minerals, too, have soul. Jainism believes that non-violence means abstinence from all thought, speech and action that can provoke discord and conflict. Ahimsa or nonviolence is the principal religious idea of Jainism. The ethics of this religion is based on the doctrine of non-violence. Accroding to Jainism, ahimsa is not a negative virtue. On the contrary, it views it as a positive quality which preaches universal love. One who is actuated by this ideal cannot be indifferent to the sufferings of others. 177 Anekantavada constitutes the philosophical ideal of Jainism. Its attitude towards other religions is determined by anekantavada, which means that reality should be looked at from many points of view. Peace and tolerance are, thus, inherent in Jainism. 170. JSAI, Introduction, p. 4. 171. JAA, I, p. 35. 172. OISJ, p. 3. 173. AOIU, p. 425; CAI, p. 78. 174. OJ, p. 5. 175. Ibid., Introduction, xxiii 176. Ibid., Introduction, xxii. HOPEW, p. 139. 177.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism THERE is a great divergence of opinion regarding the antiquity of Jainism. Mahavira is generally regarded as the founder of Jainism. But the Jaina tradition is steadfast in maintaining that Jainism is eternal, and was repeatedly revealed by twenty-four tirtharkaras, who appeared at long intervals to restore to their original purity doctrines which were darkened by evil influences, and to propagate right knowledge, right faith and right conduct to the people steeped in ignorance about reality. The title tirthakara is peculiar to Jainism; among the Buddhists it is a designation for false teachers. But in Jainism, the meaning of tirthakara6 or tirthamkara, is entirely different. We find several definitions of a tirtharkara in both Svetambara and Digambara literature according to which tirtharkara means a prophet or the founder of a religion. According to Buhler and Jacobi, the meaning of tirthakara -- prophet or 1. CHI, I, p. 153; AI (M), p. 167. 2. ERE, VII, p. 466. 3. OISJ, p. 7. 4. HJM, p. 57. 5. OISJ, p. 6. 6. ERE, VII, p. 466; OISJ, p. 6; CHI, I, p. 153. 7. JI, p. 15; CUHI, I, p. 236; AJAA, p. 2. 8. Ibid., p. 15. 9. ERE, VII, p. 466; CHI, I, p. 153; JSS, p. 9; JI, p. 15. 19

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20 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura founder of religion -- is a derivation from the Brahmanic use of the word tirtha in the sense of doctrine'.10 He is the tirthakara because he is the proclaimer or founder of the doctrine' or the founder of the ford through the ocean of the world.12 The tirthamkara is also called the jina because he is a conqueror, of the world, and of lust, anger, etc.13 He is also called the arhat because he is the holy one. 24 In Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapuruscarita and the inscriptions found from Kankali Tila, Mathura, we find repeated use of the title arhat15 for the tirthakara or the tirthamkara or the jina. In the Jaina inscriptions discovered from Kankali Tila, Mathura, besides the epithet arhat, the title bhagvata has also been frequently used for the tirthamkara.16 Although the epithet tirtharkara is pre-eminently and extensively used these days, the title used in the acaranga -- the earliest of the Jaina agamic works - is arahamta, and it is used in plural; this indicates that there were many such persons. 17 The tirtharkara is also called kevalin or sarvajna because he possesses omniscience.18 The tirthamkaras occupy the highest position in Jainism. They were exalted to the highest eminence because they performed great services for the deliverance of mankind. 19 In Jainism, the jina is the highest deity; he is the teacher of sacred law; he is free from all emotions; he possesses omniscience, and is entirely indifferent to all that belongs to the world.20 The tirthamkara typifies all that is perfect and infinite 10. OISJ, p. 7 fn 6. 11. Ibid., p. 6. 12. Ibid., p. 6; CAI, p. 77; AOIU, p. 411. 13. Ibid., p.6; JI, pp. 16-17. 14. Ibid., p. 6. 15. TSPC, III, pp. 235-40; EI, X, Appendix, no. 47, p. 9, no. 59, p. 12. 16. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 24, 26-7, p. 5. 17. AJAA, p. 2; also see EI, X, Appendix, no. 57, p. 12. 18. OISJ, p. 6. 19. JI, p. 16. 20. ERE, II, p. 187.

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Jaina Tirtharkaras and antiquity of Jainism in the soul of man; he undertakes the teaching of righteousness, faith and insight.21 The jina conquers his mind and passion through self-mortification; he emancipates himself from dependance upon the world and all its objects, animate and inanimate, and transcends his physical existence and bondage of karma. 22 He has infinite qualities; he is the conqueror of the world, and, he provides the ideal for those who desire salvation.23 The tirthaskaras are guides24 and spiritually great souls.25 They are liberated souls who go up to the top of the universe and remain there for ever in the state of absolute perfection.26 The Jainas are firm in their belief that each tirtharkara is a separate individual - a perfect soul.2" The tirthamkaras keep their individual identity even after their liberation from physical integument.28 When the tirtharkara reaches the top end of the universe after leaving his physical body, he, like other liberated souls residing in that part of the universe, is called a siddha.29 In the Jaina pantheon, even the gods and goddesses, many of whom have been adopted from Hinduism, are treated as subordinate to the jinas.30 The idea of the relative superiority of the jinas has found manifestation in the Jaina iconography also; in the early Jaina sculptures the tirthamkaras occupy practically the entire relief.31 Of the twenty-four tirtharkaras, twenty-two have been ascribed to the Iksavaku dynasty of the ksatriyas.32 But Munisuvrata, the twentieth 21. ERE, II, p. 187. HOIC, I, p. 163. 23. CUHI, I, p. 191. 24. OJ, Introduction, xxvii. 25. Ibid., p.5. 26. ERE, II, p. 186. 27. AJAA, p. 3. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., p. 4. 30. JI, p. 37; OISJ, p. 61; JIR, p. 234. 31. Ibid., pp. 37-8. 32. ERE, VII, p. 466; OIS), p. 65. 21

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22 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura tirthamkara, and Neminatha, the twenty-second tirthamkara, are said to have belonged to the Harivamsa33 or the Yadava34 dynasty of the ksatriyas. According to the Jaina tradition, nearly all tirtharkaras received consecration at their native places, and all obtained jnana or complete enlightenment at the same place. 35 The exceptions were -- Rsabha, who became a kevalin at Purimtala, 36 Neminatha, who became a kevalin at Girnar,37 and Mahavira, who became a kevalin at the bank of Kjupalika river.38 Twenty tirtharkaras are said to have attained moksa at Samet Sikhara,39 i.e., Parsvanatha hill in the Hazaribagh district of Bihar.40 of the remaining four, Rsabha attained nirvana on Astapada which is supposed to be Satrunjaya in Gujarat,41 Vasupujya at Campapuri,42 Neminatha on Mount Girnar, 43 and Mahavira at Pavapuri.44 Twenty-one tirthaskaras are said to have achieved moksa in the kayotsarga posture; but Rsabha, Neminatha and Mahavira attained it in the padmasana posture.45 Rsabha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira are the most favourite tirthamkaras among the Jainas, but images and temples of other tirthamkaras, too, are found in many parts of India. 46 33. HP, Editorial; OISJ, p. 65; ERE, VII, p. 466. 34. Ibid.;ACHI, p. 100. 35. OISJ, pp. 65-6; JI, p. 30. 36. Ibid.; JPV, p. 86; JI, p. 30. 37. Ibid.; HP, pp. 643-4; JI, p. 30. 38. Ibid.; AAHI, p. 85; CHI, I, p. 159. 39. Ibid., p. 66; JAA, I, pp. 14-16; JI, p. 30. 40. HGAI, p. 249; GD, p. 176; JI, p. 30. 41. OISJ, p. 66. 42. Ibid.; JAA, I, pp. 14-16; GEAMI, I, p. 83; GD, p. 44. 43. Ibid.; HP, pp. 798-9. 44. Ibid.; AOIU, p. 415. 45. Ibid., p. 66; MCH, p. 353. 46. ERE, VII, p. 466; JI, p. 17.

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Jaina Tirtharkaras and antiquity of Jainism Jaina worship The tirthamkaras are liberated souls and they neither care for nor exercise influence on worldly affairs.47 Yet, temples are erected to them 48 where the Jainas worship them in concrete form.49 In fact, the Jainas consider the practice of image-worship of the tirthamkaras as co-eval with the foundation of Jainism.50 This seems to have started at an early time.51 The discovery of a highly polished torso of a jina image from Lohanipur near Patna, 52 and a possible reference in the Hathigumpha inscription to the removal of a jina image from Kalinga to Pataliputra by the Magadhan King Nanda at the time of his invasion of Kalinga, 53 prove that image-worship was certainly in vogue among the Jainas in the Maurya period. 54 An inscription discovered from Kankali Tila, Mathura55 leaves us in no doubt that image-worship was an established custom among the Jainas as early as the second century BC. Jainism does not believe in a Creator-God. It also holds that idol-worship is not essential for the attainment of salvation.56 Therefore, the pertinent query is: What is the rationale of idol-worship in Jainism? The answer is not far to seek. The attitude of the Jaina devotee is expressed in the following quotation: Him who is the leader of the path to salvation, who is the dispeller of mountains of karmas, and who is the knower of all reality, Him I 47. ERE, II, p. 186; ERE, VII, p. 466. 48. Ibid., p. 187; Ibid., p. 466; IP, p. 69. 49. AJAA, p. 50; IP, p. 69. 50. AOIU, p. 425. 51. JAA, I, Editorial, p. 3; SIJA, p. 40; AJAA, pp. 50 ff. 52. AOIU, p. 425; SIJA, p. 5; JAA, I, Editorial, p. 3. 53. EI, XX, pp. 71-89; ADIU, p. 426. 54. AOIU, p. 426; SIJA, p. 5. 55. EI, II, Inscription no. 1, pp. 198-9. 56. AJAA, p. 62. 23

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24 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura worship in order that, I may realise these very qualities of His.57 In other words, it is not idol-worship; it is worship of an ideal. J.L. Jaini writes, The Jains worship the ideal and nothing but the ideal, namely, the soul in its perfect condition. . . .58 It is held that Jaina worship is not worship of a deity;59 nor does it demand favours and escape from calamities. It is worship of a perfect human being, of a soul that has freed itself from all bondage.61 The Jainas maintain that the idol is not a partrait of the jina; on the contrary, it is a symbol of his qualities, 62 and by worshipping the idol of the jina, the Jaina devotee develops in his own self the aggregate of the qualities of the Perfect Man.63 Jaina scholars opine that image-worship was sanctioned and introduced in Jainism because the common Jaina devotee was already accustomed to worship of yaksas, nagas, bhutas, trees, rivers, etc.64 Jainism made a beginning with worship of stupas, trees, ayaga-pattas, etc., and this was followed by worship of the panca-parmesthins, i.e., the tirthamkaras, the siddhas, the acaryas, the upadhyayas and the sadhus.65 The pancaparmesthins represent various states of spiritual progress and sect-hierarchy, and this group represents objects of Jaina worship.66 But worship of this group does not appear to have started up to the end of the first century AD.67 57. CUHI, I, p. 191. 58. OJ, p. 75. 59. AJAA, p. 62. 60. JAA, I, p. 41. 61. AJAA, p. 62. 62. Ibid., p. 63. 63. Ibid.; ERE, II, p. 187; JAA, I, p. 41; SIJA, p. 39. 64. AJAA, p. 63. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 42; ACHI, p. 109. 67. AJAA, p. 63.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism Real worship in Jainism, however, centres around the tirthamkaras and the siddhas, especially the former.68 Devotion to them is expressed through hymns, rituals and pujas of various kinds.69 In the hierarchy of Jainism, the siddha occupies the highest position after the tirthamkara. The siddha is a liberated soul and is a resident of the top end of the universe; therefore, he is also worshipped as a deity.70 The difference between the tirthamkara and the siddha consists in the fact that the former has physical body and the latter does not possess that."1 The next three positions in the heirarchy of Jainism in order of merit are held by the acaryas, the upadhyayas and the sadhus respectively. In Jainism these three categories of ascetics are also worshipped because they follow the path of salvation and also provide guidance to the Jaina religious order. 72 The acaryas are spiritual preceptors; the upadhyayas impart canonical teachings and also undertake activities associated with spiritual engagements.73 The sadhus are mendicants.74 Jainism has adopted many gods and goddesses from the Hindu pantheon.75 These Hindu deities, too, are worshipped because they are considered integral to the Jaina religious system.76 Introduction to the tirthamkaras The earliest reference to the twenty-four tirthamkaras has been made in the Samvaya, the Kalpasutra and the Avasyaka Niryukti." A study of Jaina works like Hemcandra's Trisastisalakapurusacarita reveals that the life of 68. JAA, I, p. 42. 69. Ibid. 70. AJAA, p. 4. 71. Ibid. 72. Ibid. 73. Ibid. 74. Ibid. 75. JI, p. 37; JIR, p. 234; AOIU, p. 426; OISJ, p. 61. 76. JI, pp. 25-6. 77. LDJC, p. 371. Wan 25

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26 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura the twenty-four tirtharkaras ran almost on identical lines.78 All tirthamkaras were born in ksatriya royal families. All were averse to worldly life. All of them had very long lives, except Mahavira. Most of them ruled for long, and subsequently renounced the world as a result of illuminations. They practised asceticism and attained moksa after founding a community of disciples. Jainism believes in two kalpas or cycles each of which has two eras named avasarpini and utsarpina; these two eras are divided into six ages or kalas. 79 According to the Jaina works the Samvaya, the Kalpasutra and the Ayasyaka Niryukti, Rsabha, the first tirthamkara, was born in the third age, i.e., the period of happiness and sorrow, and the remaining twenty-three tirthaskaras were born in the fourth age, i.e., the period of sorrow and happiness.80 Rsabha -- the first tirthamkara According to the Jaina tradition, Rsabha, called Rsabhanatha, 1 Rsabhadeva, 82 Usabha, 83 Vrsabha, 54 Vrsabhanatha,85 Adinatha,86 Adisvara Bhagvan,87 was the first jina and the first tirtharkara. He was born in the third age (susmadusma) or the period of happiness and sorrow89 at Vinitanagar,90 i.e., Ayodhya.91 His father Nabhi and mother Marudevi were the king and the 78. See the volumes of Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusacarita, tr. into English by H.M. Johnson and published from Baroda. 79. LDJC, p. 371. 80. Ibid., fn 2. 81. JI, p. 50; JAA, I, p. 14. 82. OISJ, p. 66. 83. LDJC, p. 371. 84. ERE, VII, p. 466; OISJ, p. 66. 85. JI, p.50. 86. OISJ, p. 66; GD, p. 14; GEAMI, I, p. 43; JAA, I, p. 14. 87. Ibid., p. 66. 88. LDJC, p. 19. 89. Ibid., p. 371 fn 2. 90. OISJ, p. 66; JAA, I, p. 14; HGAI, p. 67. 91. LDJC, p. 19; GEAMI, I, p. 43; HGAI, p. 67; GD, p. 14.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism queen of Ayodhya.92 According to the Jaina tradition, Rsabha was the originator of agriculture, the ceremony of cremating the dead, building of the mounds, and the festivals in honour of Indra and the nagas.93 He is also said to have taught the arts of cooking, writing, pottery, painting and sculpture for the first time.94 According to the Jaina tradition, Rsabha descended for incarnation from the heaven Sarvarthasiddha and ruled for a very long time. His height was 500 poles and he lived for 8,400,000 purva years. His complexion has been mentioned as golden.97 Rsabha became a kevalin (attained omniscience) at Purimtala under a banyan tree.99 He devoted a considerable part of his life to asceticism and sermonising. His first ganadhara (leading disciple) and arya (leader of female converts) were Pundarika and Brahmi respectively.100 Rsabha attained moksa in the padmasana posture101 on Astapada 102 which is supposed to be Satrunjaya hill in Gujarat.108 Ajitanatha Ajitanatha, the second tirthamkara,104 also called Ajitanatha Satparna, 10 - the second tirthamkara 92. JPV, p. 85; LDJC, p. 371. 93. LDJC, p. 19. 94. Ibid. 95. OISJ, p. 66. 96. Ibid. 97. OISJ, p. 66; ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 14. 98. Ibid., pp. 66-7; JPV, p. 86. 99. Ibid. 100. Ibid. 101. Ibid., p. 66. 102. Ibid.; JPV, p. 86. 103. Ibid., p. 66. 104. 105. JI, p. 52. Ibid., p. 67; JAA, I, p. 14. Ji Wan 27

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura was born at Vinita.106 His father Jitasatru was the king of Vinita (Ayodhya) and his mother's name was Vijaya Devi. 107 According to the Jaina belief, Ajitanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Vijayavimana. 108 He married at the insistence of his father and lived a happy married life.109 He renounced the world after ruling for long and resorted to a life of asceticism.110 He attained enlightenment (bodhi) under a sala tree111 at Ayodhya112 after twelve years' hard penance.113 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 450 poles and he lived for 7,200,000 purva (great) years.114 His complexion has been described as golden. 115 His first ganadhara and arya were Simhasena and Phalgu respectively. 116 Ajitanatha attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture117 on Samet sikhara. 118 Parsvanatha hill (Samet Sikhara) is situated in the Hazaribagh district of Bihar.119 It stands in a dense forest infested with wild animals and is the second highest mountain south of the Himalayas.120 It is frequently visited by the Jainas from all parts of India. 121 There is a Digambara Jaina temple at the top of this hill and some Svetambara Jaina temples at its foot. 122 106. TSPC, II, p. 28; HGAI, p. 67. 107. Ibid., pp. 28-9; JPV, p. 95. 108. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 109. TSPC, II, p. 73. 110. Ibid., pp. 89-91. 111. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 112. JPV, pp. 95-6. 113. Ibid. 114. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 115. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 14. 116. Ibid., pp. 66-7. 117. Ibid., p. 66. 118. TSPC, II, pp. 219-20; OISJ, p. 66; JAA, I, p. 14. 119.HGAI, p. 249; GD, p. 176. 120. Ibid., p. 249. 121. Ibid. 122. Ibid.

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Jaina Tirtharkaras and antiquity of Jainism Sambhavanatha - the third tirthamkara Sambhavanatha, the third tirthamkara, was born at Sravasti,123 which is Sahet-Mahet in Gonda-Bahraich district of Uttar Predesh.124 His father Jitari was the king of Sravasti and his mother's name was Sena Devi 125 or Susena.126 According to the Jaina tradition, Sambhavanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Uvarimagraiveka. 127 His childhood was full of pleasure 128 He ascended the throne at his father's behest and ruled like a benevolent king.129 Subsequently, he renounced his throne and lived the life of an ascetic and preacher.130 He attained omniscience under a sala tree 131 at Sravasti 132 after fourteen years' hard penance. 133 According to the Jaina tradition, Sambhavanatha's height was 400 poles and he lived for 6,000,000 purva years. 134 His complexion has been described as golden.136 His first ganadhara and arya were Caru and syama respectively. 136 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 137 at Samet Sikhara. 138 123. TSPC, II, pp. 232-4; JI, p. 54; OISJ, pp. 66-7; JAA, I, p. 14. 124. HGAI, p. 124. 125. TSPC, II, pp. 232-4; JPV, p. 97. 126. JPV, p. 97; JI, p. 54. 127. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 128. TSPC, II, p. 240. 129. Ibid., pp. 241-2. 130. Ibid., pp. 246-52. 131. JPV, p. 97. 132. Ibid. 133. Ibid. 134. OIS), pp. 66-7. 135. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 14. 136. Ibid., pp. 66-7. 137. Ibid., p. 66. 138. TSPC, II, pp. 252-3; JPV, p. 97; JAA, I, p. 14. 29

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30 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Abhinandananatha - the fourth tirthamkara Abhinandananatha, the fourth tirthamkara, was born at Ayodhya.139 His father Samvara was the king of Ayodhya and his mother's name was Siddharatha.140 According the Jaina tradition, Abhinandananatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Jayantavimana.141 He lived a happy married life and ruled like a noble king. 142 Subsequently, he renounced the throne and took to asceticism.143 He became a kevalin under a sala tree244 at Ayodhya after hard penance. 145 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 350 poles and he lived for 5,000,000 purva years. 146 His complexion has been described as golden. 147 His first ganadhara and arya were Vajranabha and Ajita respectively.148 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 149 on Parsvanatha hill.150 Sumatinatha - the fifth tirthamkara Sumatinatha, the fifth tirthamkara, was born at Ayodhya.151 His father Megha was the king of Ayodhya and his mother's name was Mangala.152 According to the Jaina tradition, Sumati descended for incarnation from the 139. TSPC, II, pp. 255-7; JI, p. 56; HGAI, p. 67. 140. Ibid., pp. 255-6; JPV, p. 98. 141. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 142. TSPC, II, p. 261. 143. Ibid., pp. 262-3. 144 JPV, p. 98. 145. lbid. 146. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 147. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 14. 148. Ibid., pp. 66-7. 149. Ibid., p. 66. 150. Ibid.; TSPC, II, pp. 266-7. 151. TSPC, II, p. 277; HGAI, p. 67. 152. Ibid., pp. 277-81; JI, p. 58; JPV, p. 99.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism heaven Jayantavimana.153 He married at his father's behest and lived a happy married life.154 Subsequently, he renounced kingship and resorted to a life of asceticism. He became a kevalin under a priyangu tree at Ayodhya after twenty years of hard penance.155 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 300 poles and he lived for 4,000,000 purva years. 156 His complexion has been described as golden.157 His first ganadhara and arya were Carama and Kasyapi respec-tively.158 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture159 on Samet Sikhara. 160 Padmaprabhanatha -- the sixth tirthamkara Padmaprabhanatha, the sixth tirthamkara, was born at Kausambi.161 His father Dhara162 or Dharana163 or Sridhara164 was the king of Kausambi165 and his mother's name was Susima.166 According to the Jaina tradition, Padmaprabhanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Uvarimagraiveka.167 He married at the behest of his father and ruled for long. Subsequently, he renounced the throne and took to a life of asceticism.168 He 153. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 154. TSPC, II, pp. 282-3. 155. JPV, p. 99. 156. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 157. Ibid., ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 14. 158. Ibid., pp. 66-7. 159. Ibid., p. 66. 160. TSPC, II, p. 287; JAA, I, p. 14. 161. Ibid., pp. 289-92; JI, p. 59; HGAI, p. 99. 162. TSPC, II, pp. 289-90; JPV, p. 100. 163. JPV, p. 100. 164. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 165. TSPC, pp. 289-90; JPV, p. 100. 166. Ibid.; Ibid., p. 100; OISJ, pp. 66-7. 167. OISJ, pp. 66-7. 168. TSPC, II, pp. 292-302. 31

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura became a kevalin under a priyangu tree at Kausambi after hard penance for six months.169 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 250 poles and he lived for 3,000,000 purva years.170 His complexion has been described as red.171 His first ganadhara and arya were Pradyotna and Rati respectively. 172 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 173 at Samet sikhara. 174 Suparsvanatha -- the seventh tirthamkara Suparsvanatha, the seventh tirthamkara, was born at Varanasi.175 His father Supratistha176 or Pratistha177 was the king of Varanasi and his mother's name was Prthvi.178 According to the Jaina tradition, Suparsvanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Madhyamagraiveka.179 He married at the behest of his father and lived a happy married life. He ruled for long, and subsequently abdicated his throne to live a life of asceticism.180 He became a kevalin under a siriba or a priyangu tree at Varanasi after hard penance for nine months.181 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 200 poles and he lived for 169. JPV, p. 100. 170. OIS), pp. 66-8. 171. Ibid., pp. 66-8; ERE, VII, p. 466. 172. Ibid. 173. Ibid., p. 66. 174. TSPC, II, pp. 302-3. 175. Ibid., pp. 305-6; OIS), pp. 66-8. 176. JPV, p. 100. 177. Ibid.; TSPC, II, pp. 305-6. 178. TSPC, II, pp. 305-6. 179. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 180. TSPC, II, pp. 308-12. 181. JPV, p. 100.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism 2,000,000 purva years. 182 His complexion has been described as golden 183 or emerald coloured.184 His first ganadhara and arya were Vidirbha and Soma respectively.185 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 186 on Samet Sikhara. 187 Candraprabha - the eighth tirthamkara Candraprabhanatha, the eighth tirtharkara, was born at Sravastil88 which was called Candrapuril89 or Candrikapuri by the Jainas.190 His father Mahasena was the king of Candrapuri 191 and his mother's name was Laksmana 192 or Laksmi Devi.193 According to the Jaina tradition, Candraprabhanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Vijayanta.194 He ruled for long and later abdicated his throne to concentrate on a life of asceticism.195 He became a kevalin under a priyangu 196 or a naga tree197 at Candrapuri after penance for three months. 198 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 150 poles and he lived for 182. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 183. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466. 184. Ibid., p. 68 fn 3. 185. Ibid., pp. 66-8. 186. Ibid., p. 66. 187. JPV, p. 100; TSPC, II, pp. 312-13. 188. HGAI, p. 125; GD, p. 190. 189. Ibid.; Ibid., pp. 189-90. 190. Ibid.; Ibid. 191. JPV, p. 102. 192. Ibid.; TSPC, II, pp. 315-16. 193. JPV, p. 102. 194. OIS), pp. 66-8. 195. TSPC, II, pp. 318-22. 196. JPV, p. 103. 197. Ibid.; OISJ, pp. 66-8. 198. JPV, p. 103. 33

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34 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura 1,000,000 purva years. 199 His complexion has been mentioned as white.200 His first ganadhara and arya were Dinna and Sumana respectively.201 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture202 on Samet Sikhara. 203 Suvidhinatha -- the ninth tirthamkara Suvidhinatha,204 the ninth tirthamkara, also called Puspadanta,205 was born at Kakandinagar.206 His father Sugriva was the king of Kakandinagar and his mother's name was Rama.207 His parents gave him two names, i.e., Suvidhi and Puspadanta.208 According to the Jaina tradition, Suvidhinatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Anantadevaloka.209 He ruled for long and abdicated his throne to have recourse to a life of asceticism.210 He attained omniscience under a tree at Kakandinagar after practising penance for four months.211 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 100 poles and he lived for 200,000 purva years.212 His complexion has been mentioned as white.213 His first ganadhara and arya were Varahaka and Varuni respectively.214 He 199. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 200. ERE, VII, p. 466. 201. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 202. Ibid., p. 66. 203. TSPC, II, pp. 322-3; JAA, I, p. 15. 204. OISJ, p. 68; GD, p. 190. 205. Ibid.; TSPC, II, p. 327; JPV, p. 104; GD, p. 190. 206. TSPC, II, pp. 325-6; JAA, I, p. 15. 207. Ibid.; JPV, p. 104. 208. Ibid., p. 327. 209. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 210. TSPC, II, pp. 329-34. 211. JPV, p. 104. 212. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 213. ERE, VII, p. 466; OISJ, pp. 66-8. 214. OISJ, pp. 66-8.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture215 on Samet sikhara. 216 Sitalanatha - the tenth tirthamkara Sitalanatha, the tenth tirthamkara, was born at Bhadrilapur217 or Bhadrapur.218 His father Drdhratha was the king of Bhadrilapur and his mother's name was Nanda.219 According to the Jaina tradition, Sitalanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Acyutadevaloka.220 He lived a happy married life and ruled for long.221 Subsequently, he resorted to a life of asceticism.222 He became a kevalin under a priyangu tree223 after undertaking penance for three months.224 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 90 poles and he lived for 100,000 purva years.225 His complexion has been mentioned as golden.226 His first ganadhara and arya were Nanda and Sujasa respectively. 227 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture228 on Samet Sikhara.229 215. OISJ, p. 66. 216. JPV, p. 104; TSPC, II, p. 335. 217. TSPC, II, pp. 337-9. 218. JAA, I, p. 15; OIS), pp. 66-8. 219. TSPC, II, pp. 337-9; JPV, p. 105. 220. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 221 TSPC, II, pp. 340-1. 222. Ibid., pp. 342-5. 223. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 224.JPV, p. 105. 225. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 226. ERE, VII, p. 466. 227. OISJ, pp. 66-8. 228. Ibid., p. 66. 229. TSPC, II, p. 346; JAA, 1, p. 15.

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36 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Sreyamsanatha - the eleventh tirthamkara Sreyamsanatha,230 the eleventh tirtharkara, also called Sreyasa, 231 was born at Simhapura,232 which is now called Sarnatha.233 At Sarnatha near Varanasi there is a Jaina temple dedicated to him.234 Hira Lal Jain is of opinion that Sarnatha derived its name from Sreyamsanatha.235 His father Visnuraja was the king of Simhapura or Simhapur1236 and his mother's name was Visnu Devi.237 According to the Jaina tradition, Sreyamsanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Acyutadevaloka.238 He ruled for long and abdicated his throne to pursue asceticism.239 He became a kevalin under a tinduka tree at Simhapuri after performing penance for two months.240 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 80 poles and he lived for 8,400,000 common years. 241 His complexion has been mentioned as golden. 242 His first ganadhara and arya were Kasyapa and Dharani respectively.243 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 244 on Samet Sikhara.245 230. JAA, I, p. 15. 231. OISJ, p. 69. 232. TSPC, III, pp.2-3. 233. CUHI, I, p. 220. 234. Ibid., I, p. 220. 235. Ibid. 236. TSPC, III, pp. 2-3; JPV, p. 105. 237. JPV, p. 105. 238. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 239. TSPC, III, pp. 7-60. 240. JPV, p. 105. 241. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 242. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466. 243. Ibid., pp. 66-9. 244. Ibid., p. 66. 245. TSPC, III, p. 60.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism Vasupujya - the twelfth tirthamkara Vasupujya, the twelfth tirthamkara, was born at Campa.246 His father Vasupujya was the king of Campa and his mother's name was Jaya247 or Vijaya.248 According to the Jaina tradition, Vasupujya descended for incarnation from the heaven Pranatadevaloka.249 He remained celibate and also rejected kingship.250 He led the life of an ascetic251 and became a kevalin under a patala tree252 at Campa. 253 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 70 poles and he lived for 7,200,000 common years.254 His complexion has been mentioned as red. 255 His first ganadhara and arya were Subhuma and Dharani respectively.256 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture257 at Campa.258 Vimalanatha -- the thirteenth tirthamkara Vimalanatha, the thirteenth tirthamkara, was born at Kampilya,259 which is now called Kampil,260 a place in the Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh.261 246. HGAI, p. 205; GD, p. 44; GEAMI, I, p. 83. 247. TSPC, III, pp. 65-6; JPV, p. 105; GD, p. 44. 248 JPV, p. 105. 249. OIS), pp. 66-9. 250.JPV, pp. 105-6. 251. TSPC, III, pp. 66-90. 252. JPV, p. 106; OISJ, pp. 66-9. 253. Ibid., p. 106. 254. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 255. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466. 256. Ibid., pp. 66-9. 257. Ibid., p. 66. 258. HGAI, p. 205; JPV, p. 106; TSPC, III, p. 90; GD, p. 44; GEAMI, I, p. 83. 259. TSPC, III, pp. 93-4. 260. JPV, p. 106. 261. AGI, p. 41; GD, p. 88; HGAI, p. 92. 37

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38 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura His father Krtavarman was the king of Kampilya and his mother's name was Syama. 262 According to the Jaina tradition, Vimalanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Mahasaradevaloka.263 He married at his father's behest and ruled for long.264 Subsequently, he adopted the life of an ascetic.265 He became a kevalin under a jambu tree 266 at Kampilya after penance for two years.267 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 60 poles and he lived for 6,000,000 common years.268 His complexion has been mentioned as golden.289 His first ganadhara and arya were Mandara and Dhara respectively.270 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture271 on Samet Sikhara. 272 Anantanatha - the fourteenth tirthamkara Anantanatha, the fourteenth tirtharkara, was born at Ayodhya.273 His father Simhasena was the king of Ayodhya274 and his mother's name was Suyasa275 or Sarvayasa276 or Suryasas.277 According to the Jaina tradition, 262. TSPC, III, pp. 93-4; JPV, p. 106. 263. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 264. TSPC, III, p. 95. 265. Ibid., pp. 104-8. 266. JPV, p. 106; OIS), pp. 66-9. 267. Ibid., p. 106. 268. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 269. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466. 270. Ibid., pp. 66-69. 271. Ibid., p. 66. 272. TSPC, III, p. 108; JPV, p. 106. 273. OISJ, pp. 66-9; HGAI, p. 67. 274. TSPC, III, pp. 111-12; JPV, p. 107. 275. JPV, p. 107. 276. Ibid. 277. TSPC, III, pp. 111-12.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism Anantanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Pranatadevaloka.278 He married due to his father's command and ruled for long.279 Thereafter, he resorted to a life of asceticism.280 He became a kevalin under an asoka281 or pipal tree282 at Ayodhya after penance for three years.283 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 50 poles and he lived for 3,000,000 common years.284 His complexion has been described as golden. His first ganadhara and arya were Jasa and Padma respectively.285 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture286 on Samet Sikhara 287 Anantanatha is also called Anantjit.288 Dharmanatha - the fifteenth tirthamkara Dharmanatha, the fifteenth tirtharkara, was born at Ratnapura289 or Ratnapuri.290 His father Bhanu was the king of Ratnapura and his mother's name was Suvrata.291 According to the Jaina tradition, Dharmanatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Vijayavimana. 292 He married due to the insistence of his parents and ruled for long.293 Subsequently, he led the 278. OIS), pp. 66-9. 279. TSPC, III, p. 113. 280. Ibid., pp. 114-32. 281. JPV, p. 107; OISJ, pp. 66-9. 282. Ibid., p. 107. 283. Ibid. 284. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 285. Ibid. 286. Ibid., p. 66. 287. TSPC, III, p. 133; JPV, p. 107. 288. Ibid., p. 113; OIS), p. 69. 289. Ibid., III, pp. 135-6. 290. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 291. TSPC, III, pp. 135-36; JPV, p. 107. 292. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 293. TSPC, III, p. 137.

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura life of an ascetic for long. He became a kevalin under a dadhiparna tree294 at Ratnapura after undertaking penance for two years.295 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 45 poles and he lived for 1,000,000 common years.296 His complexion has been described as golden.297 His first ganadhara and arya were Arista and Arthasiva respectively.298 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 299 on Samet Sikhara.300 santinatha - the sixteenth tirthamkara Santinatha was the sixteenth tirthamkara. According to the Svetambara tradition, he was born at Gajapura; but the Digambara tradition holds that he was born at Hastinapura.301 His father Visvasena was the king of Hastinapura and his mother's name was Acira.302 According to the Jaina tradition, Santinatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Sarvarthasiddha.303 He led a happy married life and ruled for long. According to the Jaina tradition, Santinatha was a cakravartin who ruled the whole of India for 25,000 years.304 Subsequently, he took to asceticism. He became a kevalin under a nandi tree305 at Hastinapura after one year's hard penance.306 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 40 poles and he lived for 294. OISJ, pp. 66-9; JPV, p. 107. 295. JPV, p. 107. 296. OISJ, pp. 66-9. 297. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466. 298. Ibid., pp. 66-70. 299. Ibid., p. 66. 300. TSPC, III, p. 161; JPV, p. 107. 301. JAA, I, p. 15. 302. TSPC, III, pp. 299-302; JPV, p. 108. 303. OISJ, pp. 66-70. 304. JPV, p. 108. 305. Ibid.; OISJ, pp. 66-70. 306. Ibid., p. 108.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism 100,000 common years.307 His complexion has been described as golden. 308 His first ganadhara and arya were Cakrayuddha and Suci respectively.309 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 310 at Samet Sikhara.311 Kunthunatha - the seventeenth tirthamkara According to the Svetambara tradition, Kunthunatha, the seventeenth tirthamkara, was born at Gajapura; but the Digambara tradition holds that he was born at Hastinapura 312 His father Sura313 or Vasu314 or Suryasena315 was the king of Hastinapura316, and his mother's name was Sr7317 or Sri Devi.318 According to the Jaina tradition, Kunthunatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Sarvarthasiddha.319 He married at the insistence of his father and ruled for long. Thereafter, he took to asceticism. He became a kevalin under a tilaka tree at Gajapura after undertaking penance for sixteen years.320 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 35 poles and he lived for 95,000 common years.321 His complexion has been described as golden. 322 His 307. OIS), pp. 66-70. 308. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466. 309. Ibid., pp. 66-70. 310. Ibid., p. 66. 311. TSPC, III, p. 335; JPV, p. 108. 312. JAA, 1, p. 15. 313. TSPC, IV, pp. 1-2. 314. JPV, p. 112. 315. Ibid. 316. Ibid.; TSPC, IV, pp. 1-2. 317. TSPC, IV, pp. 1-2. 318. JPV, p. 112. 319. OIS), pp. 66-70. 320. JPV, p. 112. 321. OISJ, pp. 66-70. 322. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466.

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42 SEO History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura first ganadhara and arya were Samba and Damini respectively.323 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 324 on Samet Sikhara.325 Aranatha the eighteenth tirthamkara According to the Svetambara tradition, Aranatha, the eighteenth tirthamkara, was born at Gajapura; but the Digambara tradition holds that he was born at Hastinapura.326 His father Sudarsana was the king of Hastinapura327, and his mother's name was Devi328 or Mahadevi329 or Mittra.330 According to the Jaina tradition, Aranatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Sarvarthasiddha.331 He married at the insistence of his father332 and ruled for long as a cakravartin.333 Subsequently, he abdicated the throne to live the life of an ascetic. He became a kevalin under a mango tree334 at Gajapura after undergoing hard penance for three years. 335 -- According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 30 poles and he lived for 84,000 common years.336 His complexion has been described as golden.337 His first ganadhara and arya were Kumbha and Raksita respectively.338 He 323. OISJ, pp. 66-70. 324. Ibid., p. 66. 325. TSPC, IV, p. 10; JPV, p. 112. 326. JAA, I, p. 15. 327. JPV, p. 113; TSPC, IV, pp. 12-13. 328. TSPC, IV, pp. 12-13. 329. JPV, p. 113. Ibid. 330. 331. OISJ, PP. 66-70. 332. TSPC, IV, p. 14. 333. JPV, p. 113; TSPC, IV, p. 14. 334. Ibid.; OISJ, pp. 66-70. 335. Ibid., p. 113. 336. OISJ, pp. 66-70. 337. Ibid.; ERE, VII, p. 466. 338. Ibid., pp. 66-70.

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Jaina Tirtharkaras and antiquity of Jainism attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 339 on Samet sikhara. 340 Malli - the nineteenth tirthamkara According to the Svetambara tradition, Malli, the nineteenth tirtharkara, was a woman.341 But according to the Digmbara tradition, Malli was a male.342 The Digambaras hold that a woman cannot achieve moksa and they name this tirtharkara as Mallinatha.343 The Digambara view seems to have been accepted in iconography because the images of Malli do not have feminine features.344 According to the Svetambara tradition, Malli remained celibate and attained kaivalya on the day of her consecration itself.345 Mallinatha's father Kumbha was the king of Mithila and his mother's name was Prabhavati.346 According to the Jaina tradition, Malli descended for incarnation from the heaven Jayantadevaloka.347 According to the Jaina tradition, Mallinatha's height was 25 poles and he lived for 55,000 common years.348 His complexion has been described as blue.349 Malli became a kevalin under an asoka tree. 350 His first ganadhara and arya were Abhiksaka and Bandhumati respectively.361 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 352 on Samet Sikhara 353 339. OISJ, p. 66. 340. JAA, I, p. 15. 341. Ibid., p. 15 fn. 1; JPV, p. 113; TSPC, IV, pp. 54-5. 342. Ibid., p. 16 fn; Ibid., p. 113. 343. Ibid., ibid. 344. JI, p. 77. 345. JPV, p. 113. 346. Ibid.; TSPC, IV, pp. 53-4. 347. OIS), pp. 66-70. 348. Ibid. 349. ERE, VII, p. 466. 350. OISJ, pp. 66-70. 351. Ibid. 352. Ibid., p. 66. 353. JAA, I, p. 15; TSPC, IV, p. 71. 43

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Munisuvrata -- the twentieth tirthamkara Munisuvrata, the twentieth tirthamkara, was born at Rajaglha.354 According to the Jaina tradition, Munisuvrata was a contemporary of Rama Dasarathi.355 His father Sumitra 356, who belonged to the Harivamsa dynasty of the ksatriyas357, was the king of Rajagaha, and his mother's name was Padmavati.358 According to the Jaina tradition, Munisuvrata descended for incarnation from the heaven Aparajitadevaloka.359 He renounced the throne after a long period of kingship and took to asceticism. He became a kevalin under a campaka tree 360 at Rajagrha after undergoing hard penance for eleven months.361 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 20 poles and he lived for 30,000 common years.362 His complexion has been mentioned as black.363 His first ganadhara and arya were Malli and Puspavati respectively.364 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 365 on Samet Sikhara.366 Naminatha -- the twenty-first tirthamkara Naminatha, the twenty-first tirthamkara, also called Nimi or Nimesvara,367 354. JAA, I, p. 16; OISJ, pp. 66-70; TSPC, IV, pp. 79-80. 355. JPV, p. 114; JOLR, p. 28; JAA, I, Editorial, p. 7. 356. Ibid., p. 114; OISJ, pp. 66-70; TSPC, IV, pp. 79-80. 357. TSPC, IV, pp. 79-80; OISJ, p. 65. 358. JPV, p. 114; TSPC, IV, pp. 79-80. 359. OISJ, pp. 66-70. 360. Ibid., pp. 66-70; JPV, p. 114. 361. JPV, p. 114. 362. OISJ, pp. 66-70. 363. ERE, VII, p. 466. 364. OISJ, pp. 66-71. 365. Ibid., p. 66. 366. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 16. 367. Ibid., p. 71.

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Jaina Tirtharkaras and antiquity of Jainism was born at Mithila.368 But according to another tradition he was born at Mathura. 369 His father Vijaya was the king of Mithila and his mother's name was Vapra$70 or Viprita.371 According to the Jaina tradition, Naminatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Pranatadevaloka. 372 He ruled for long and subsequently took to a life of asceticism. He became a kevalin under a bakula373 or jambu tree374 at Mithila after undergoing penance for nine months.375 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 15 poles and he lived for 10,000 common years.376 His complexion has been mentioned as golden.377 His first ganadhara and arya were Subha and Anila respectively. 378 He attained moksa in the kayotsarga posture 379 on Samet Sikhara.380 Neminatha - the twenty-second tirthamkara Neminatha, the twenty-second tirthamkara, also called Aristanemi, 381 belonged to the Harivassa382 or the Yadava383 dynasty of the ksatriyas and was the cousin of Vasudeva Krsna 384 of Mahabharata fame. Neminatha was born at 368. JI, p. 79; JAA, I, p. 16; TSPC, IV, pp. 353-4. 369. Ibid., p. 80; OIS), pp. 66-71. 370. JPV, p. 114; TSPC, IV, pp. 353-4. 371. Ibid., p. 114. 372. OISJ, pp. 66-71. 373. Ibid.; JPV, p. 116. 374.JPV, p. 116. 375. Ibid. 376. OISJ, pp. 66-71. 377. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 16. 378. OIS), pp. 66-71. 379. Ibid., p. 66. 380. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 16. 381. Ibid., p. 71; Ibid. 382. Ibid., p. 65; HP, Editorial; JAA, I, p. 50. 383. HP, Editorial; CUHI, I, p. 220. 384. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 50.

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Sauripura385 or Sauryapura.386 His father Samudravijaya was the king of Dwaraka 387, and his mother's name was Siva Devi.388 According to the Jaina tradition, Neminatha descended for incarnation from the heaven Aparajitadevaloka.389 Animal-slaughter for the marriage feast grieved him and he decided to remain celibate.390 He took to asceticism and became a kevalin under a vetasa tree391 after undergoing penance for fifty-six days.392 According to the Jaina tradition, his height was 10 poles and he lived for 1,000 common years.393 His complexion has been mentioned as black.394 His first ganadhara and arya were Varadatta and Yaksadinna respectivels He attained moksa in the padmasana posture396 on Mount Girnar.397 To the life of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirtharkara, and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirtharkara, we shall turn in the next chapter. Antiquity of Jainism Very few subjects have generated as much discussion among scholars as the antiquity of Jainism. Broadly speaking, there are three schools of thought regarding its antiquity. According to the Jaina tradition, Rsabha was the first jina and the first tirthamkara,398 and was born more than one hundred billion 385. OIS), pp. 66-71; HP, pp. 478-82; JAA, I, p. 50. 386. Ibid.; Ibid.; Ibid. 387. JPV, p. 117; JI, p. 81. 388. Ibid.; OISJ, pp. 66-71; HP, pp. 478-82. 389. OIS), pp. 66-71. 390.JPV, p. 117; JAA, I, p. 17; HP, pp. 616-34. 391. OISJ, pp. 66-71. 392. HP, p. 644. 393. OISJ, pp. 66-71. 394. ERE, VII, p. 466. 395. OISJ, pp. 66-71. 396. Ibid., p. 66. 397. Ibid., p. 66; JAA, I, p. 17; HP, pp. 644-5. 398. LDJC, p. 19.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism oceans of years ago.399 The Jaina tradition also holds that Rsabha lived for two million purva (great) years as a prince and six million three thousand purva years as a king.400 According to the second school of thought, Jainism was founded by Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirthamkara, 'who lived in the ninth-eighth century Bc'.401 According to the third school of thought, Vardhamana Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirthamkara, 'who lived in the sixth century BCdeg,402 was the founder of Jainism,403 and this view persists in some quarters 404 An overwhelming majority of historians doubt the historicity of the first twenty-two tirthamkaras. Their arguments are as follows: 1. There is no historical evidence regarding the existence of the first twenty-two tirthamkaras;405 they, therefore, belong to mythology rather than to history.406 2. The number of Jaina tirthamkaras is not original;407 it is canonically the same as given by the Hindus and Buddhists for their respective incarnations.408 3. The first twenty-two tirtharkaras were legendary figures who were probably introduced to balance the number of the jinas with the number of the Buddhas.409 399. OISJ, p. 7. 400. HJM, p. 57. 401. JAA, 1, p. 16; JOLR, p. 14. 402. GD, p. 108; JSAI, pp. 32 ff. 403. CHI, I, p. 153; AI (M), p. 167;IP, p. 69; EWA, VIII, p. 786; A.L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, 1954, p. 287. 404. JOLR, Preface, i. 405. JSS, p. 9; LDJC, p. 19. 406. ERE, VII, p. 466. 407. JI, p. 36. 408. Ibid.; OISJ, p. 8. 409. LDJC, p. 19. 47

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48 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura 4. Brahmanical ideas may have given rise to the doctrine of twenty-five Buddhas and twenty-four jinas, and these are later additions in Buddhism and Jainism.410 5. The long duration of the careers of the first twenty-two tirtharkaras and the intermediate periods between them as embodied in the Jaina tradition are unbelievable and unimaginable.411 6. The tale that the period of the first twenty-two tirtharkaras covered millions of years before Christ is unacceptable to modern historians.412 S.B. Deo writes, ... it is not possible to accept the historicity of these twenty-two tirthamkaras, for the distances between them as well as their longevity is not only given in unbelievable numbers, but also in a descending sequence which gives the whole an appearance of a deliberate planning of mythology rather than of a sound historical chronology. 413 For instance, it is held that Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirtharkara, lived 84,000 years after the death of the twenty-second tirthamkara.414 7. Jaina scholars refer to names from the Vedas which are identical with the names of some jinas; but it may be said that these are the names of Vedic rsis. 415 8. There is a reference to a person named Rsabha in the Brahmanical literature. But he cannot be identified with the Jaina tirthamkara of the same name, because according to the Jaina tradition 'tirthamkara 410. OISJ, p. 8. 411. JAA, I, p. 14 fn 1; JI, p. 36; OIS), p. 7; CHI, I, p. 153. 412. SIJA, pp. 3-4. 413. HJM, pp. 59-60. 414. Ibid., p. 60. 415. JI, p. 36.

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Jaina Tirtharkaras and antiquity of Jainism Rsabha lived millions and millions years ago? 416 9. The historicity of early tirthamkaras cannot be proved from the non Jaina literary records of the second millennium BC. 417 These arguments are extremely potent. But it would be unfair to view the first twenty-two tirtharkaras as imaginary persons. The Jainas wrote the Purana about the life of Rsabha and the Uttarapurana about the life of other jinas.418 These works were written to reveal the lives of the jinas to the followers of Jainism. It is difficult to believe that this vast literature which was produced to unfold information about the jinas dealt with imaginary persons.419 The period and the height assigned to these tirtharkaras are, undoubtedly, extremely exaggerated and unbelievable. But these should be viewed in a literal and not figurative sense. The enormous length of time and the height assigned to the jinas, were, probably suggestive of the hoary antiquity of Jainism and super human features of these pontiffs.420 We make a start with the historicity of Rsabha whom the Jainas regard as the first of the tirtharkaras. Details of Rsabha's life are embodied in both the Svetambara and the Digambara literature. Adi Purana of the Digambaras and two Svetambara works - Bhadrabahu's Kalpasutra and Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusacarita - contain an account of Rsabha's life.421 The Jaina texts Samavaya and Avasayka Niryukti also contain a reference to Rsabha.422 Rsabha's name occurs in the Brahmanical literature also. The Vedas make a mention of Rsabha,423 and some scholars opine that this person is none other than the Jaina tirtharkara Rsabha. 424 416. OIS), p. 7; HJM, p. 57. 417. JI, p. 36. 418. Ibid., p. 18. 419. Ibid. 420. JAA, I, p. 14 fn 1. 421. JI, p. 50. 422. LDJC, p. 371. 423. JAA, I, Preface, vii; JOLR, pp. 41-2; CUHI, I, p. 185. 424. Ibid., CUHI, I, p. 185.

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50 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The story of Rsabha also occurs in the Bhagavata Purana425 and the Visnu Purana.426 In the Bhagavata Purana427 and the Visnu Purana428 he is mentioned as an incarnation of Visnu or Narayana.429 Rsabha's story as given in these works is identical with his story as given in the Jaina sacred literature.430 These Puranas mention Rsabha as a great ascetic or tapasvi.131 The description of ascetic Rsabha embodied in these Puranas is closely identical with the ascetic discipline prescribed for a tapasvi or ascetic in the Jaina literature.432 The Bhagavata Purana and the Visnu Purana make a mention of Rsabha who used to wander naked and desisted from religious rites. 433 This description compares favourably with the Jaina account of the first tirtharkara Rsabha.434 In fact, the recorded traditions about Rsabha are so varied, and his images, particularly those belonging to the Kusana period, are so abundant that it seems difficult to deny his historical existence.435 Even Hermann Jacobi, who clearly doubted the historicity of the first twenty-two tirthamkaras,436 opined that there may be something historical in the Jaina tradition which makes Rsabha the first tirthamkara.437 The Brahmanical texts, although some of them belong to a later period, 425. Bhagavata Purana, 5, 3-6; HJM, p. 39; JI, p. 50; CUHI, I, p. 185. 426. Vinnu Purana, tr. H.H. Wilson, vol. I, 1980, pp. 245-7; HJM, p. 39; CUHI, I, p. 185. 427. Bhagavata Purana, 5, 3-6; JI, p. 50; CUHI, I, p. 185. 428. CUHI, I, p. 185. 429. Ibid., p. 185. 430. Ibid.; HJM, p. 58. 431. Bhagavata Purana, 5,3-6; Visnu Purana, op, cit., pp. 245-6; CUHI, I, p. 185. 432. CUHI, I, p. 185. 433. See Visnu Purana, op. cit., p. 246 and fn; ACHI, p. 100. 434. CUHI, I, p. 185. 435. JI, p. 37. 436. ERE, VII, p. 466. 437. Jacobi cited in JOLR, p. 40.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism make a mention of some other jinas also. The Bhagavata Purana makes a mention of Sumati,438 the fifth Jaina tirthamkara, and calls him the son of Bharata,439 who was the son of Rsabha.440 The Bhagavata Purana adds that this Sumati will be 'irreligiously worshipped by some infidels as a divinity'.441 There is some similarity in the Brahmanical and Jaina accounts of Sumati.442 But it is also important to note that according to the Jaina texts, tirthamkara Sumati was the son of Megha.443 The names of Ajita, the second tirthankara, and Suparsva, the seventh tirthamkara, also seem to find mention in the Vedas.444 According to some scholars K.P. Jain,445 Hira Lal Jain,446 Jyoti Prasad Jain,47 N.N. Basu,448 Fuhrer,449 L.D. Barnett, 450 H.S. Bhattacharya451 and P. Banerjee 452 Neminatha or Aristanemi, the twenty-second tirthamkara, was a historical person. P. Banerji writes, Though nothing can be said definitely about the historicity of the early tirthamkaras, yet there can hardly be any doubt that 438. Bhagavata Purana, 5, 15; Visnu Purana, op. cit., p. 246 and notes. 439. Ibid., 5, 15; Ibid., p. 246 and notes. 440. Visnu Purana, op. cit., pp. 245-6. 441. Ibid., p. 246 and notes; HJM, p. 39. 442. HJM, p. 39. 443. TSPC, II, pp. 277-81; JI, p. 58; JPV, p. 99. 444. JOLR, p. 29. 445. HJM, p. 59 fn 6. 446. HP, Editorial. 447. JOLR, p. 23. 448. Ibid., p. 20 fn 3. 449. Ibid. fn 4. 450. Ibid. fn 5. 451. Ibid., p. 21 fn 2. 452. P. Banerjee, Early Indian Religions, p. 147, cited in A.K. Mittal, Political and Cultural History of India from Indus Valley Civilisation to 1206 AD, 1992, p. 155 fn 2. All 51

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52 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Vardhamana Mahavira's two immediate predecessors were historical persons. 453 According to the Jaina tradition, Neminatha was a cousin of Krsna. The tradition associating Neminatha with Krsna appears to be very old. Several images of the Kusana and the post-Kusana period represent Neminatha in the company of Krsna and Balarama.454 Jinaprabha Suri's Vividhatirthakalpa, a Jaina text of the fourteenth century, also tells that Neminatha had a specially honoured place in Mathura.455 Hira Lal Jain opined that during the Mahabharata period Neminatha was the head of the order that ranged itself against Vedic sacrifices. 456 He probably drew this conclusion from the fact that 'Neminatha is said to have emphasised the principle of ahimsa".457 Krsna's historicity is universally accepted. 458 Therefore, some scholars opine that the historicity of Neminatha, 'who according to the Jaina tradition was Krsna's cousin',459 should also be accepted.460 In short, the tradition regarding the historicity of Neminatha is fairly strong. Some scholars hold that the Rgveda contains a clear reference to Rsabha, 461 and that Kesi of the Rgveda and Rsabha of the Bhagavata Purana is the same person. 462 It may, therefore, be reasonable to assume that probably Rsabha lived in the Rgvedic Age and that Jainism is as old as Vedic religion'.463 In other words, like Hinduism, Jainism originated in the Rgvedic Age. The dating of the 453. P. Banerjee, op. cit., p. 147. 454. JAA, I, p. 50; MM no. 34. 2488. 455. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86; MS, p. 2; JAA, I, p. 50. 456. CUHI, I, p. 220. 457. HP, pp. 616-34; JAA, I, p. 17. 458. CMHI, II, p. 380; Krishna The Divine Lover, ed. David, R. Godine, 1982, p. 104; A.D. Pusalker, Studies in the Epics and Puranas, 1955, pp. 49ff. 459. HP, Editorial; SIJA, p. 4; JAA, I, Preface, vii. 460. HJM, p. 59 fn 6; JOLR, p. 20 fn 3. 461. JAA, I, Preface, vii; JOLR, pp. 29, 41, 42; CUHI, I, p. 185. 462. Hira Lal Jain, Bharatiya Samskrti Mein Jain Dharma Ka Yogadana, 1962, pp. 13-16. Ibid., p. 17; CUHI, 1, p. 185.

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Jaina Tirthamkaras and antiquity of Jainism Rgvedic period has been a subject of much controversy. Max Muller proposed in 1859 that the Aryans arrived in India around 1500 BC, and that the Rgveda was composed between 1200-1000 BC.464 His theory was stoutly opposed by scholars like Winternitz, Buhler, Macdonell, Muir, etc., and scholars like Winternitz, Whitney, Pargiter and Goldstucker protested against this arbitrary fixation.465 Winternitz assigned the composition of the Rgveda to 2500 BC.466 But the bulk of eminent historians holds that the Rgvedic period began about 2000 BC.467 It may, thus, be assumed that Rsabha lived sometime in the Rgvedic period, which began around 2000 BC or 2500 BC. According to the Jaina tradition, Neminatha was a cousin of Krsna. In other words, Neminatha lived in the Mahabharata period. There is no unanimity among historians and archaeologists regarding the date of the Bharata War. But it is generally accepted that this war was fought between 1400 BC and 1000 BC. 468 Neminatha must have lived at some period between these two dates. The Kalpasutra gives the life of only four tirtharkaras - Rsabha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira -- and, merely provides a list of the remaining twenty tirthamkaras.469 According to the Kalpasutra, the remaining twenty tirthamkaras lived between the ages of Rsabha and Neminatha.470 Therefore, the first twenty-two tirtharkaras - from the first tirthamkara Rsabha to the twenty-second tirthamkara Neminatha - must have lived in quick succession to one another during 2500 BC and 1000 BC. The historicity 464. Historical Archaeology of India, A Dialogue between Archaeologists and Historians, ed. Amit Ray and Samir Mukherjee, 1990, p. 29 465. Ibid., p. 29. 466. D.R. Bhandarkar, Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture, 1940, p. 2. 467. R.C. Dutt, Early Hindu Civilisation, 1927, p. 1; B.N. Puri, Indian History, A Review, 1960, p. 10; H.G. Rawlinson, India - A Short Cultural History, 1952, p. 19; P.N. Bose, Epochs of Civilisation, 1913, p. 113. 468. AOIU, p. 251. 469. A.K. Coomaraswamy, Notes on Jaina Art, Peckham, pp. 2-5. 470. Ibid. 53

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura TY of Parsva, the twenty-third tirthamkara, and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth tirtharkara, is beyond doubt. The life span of Parsvanatha has been calculated as 877-777 BC,471 i.e., he lived in the ninth-eighth century BC. It is, thus, clear that there is no huge interval of time between Neminatha, the twenty-second tirtharkara, and Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirtharkara. According to the Jaina tradition, Mahavira died two hundred fifty years after Parsvanatha's nirvana, 472 i.e., in 527 BC. 473 The foregoing account makes it clear that probably the twenty-four Jaina tirtharkaras lived between 2500 BC and 527 BC. Very little infomation exists regarding the life of the tirthamkaras who followed Rsabha except Parsvanatha and Mahavira.474 But there is nothing unbelievable in the Jaina belief in twenty-four tirtharkaras.475 Probably, the influence of the first twenty-two tirthamkaras was confined to a small number of followers. 476 The followers preserved the names of these tirtharkaras, but failed to maintain a complete record of their life.477 It is certain that the Jaina tradition of twenty-four tirtharkaras is an ancient one.478 Archaeological excavations conducted at Kankali Tila, Mathura in late nineteenth century have brought to light immense archaeological material, including inscriptions and images of many tirtharkaras. It proves that as early as the first-second century AD, the Jainas not only believed in the historicity of Rsabha and some other jinas, but also worshipped them in concrete form. We shall deal with this in detail when we take up the history of Jainism in Mathura later in this book. 471. JOLR, p. 14; JAA, I, p. 16. 472. CHI, 1, p. 153;CUHI, I, p. 185;JAA, 1, p. 16; JOLR, p. 14;SIJA, p. 40;AOIU, p.411; JSAI, p. 32. 473. JSAI, p. 35; JAA, I, p. 16; JSS, p. 22; CUHI, I, pp. 220-1; JI, p. 89; ACHI, p. 101. 474. Hira Lal Jain, op. cit., p. 19. 475. JOLR, pp. 16-17, p. 17 fn 1. 476. CHAI, III, p. 274. 477. Ibid. 478. ROAI, p. 112.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira EVEN as late as the middle of the twentieth century, some eminent historians doubted the historicity of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirtharkara, and held that Vardhamana Mahavira was the founder of Jainism'.1 The historicity of Parsvanatha The historicity of Parsvanatha is now almost universally accepted. Scholars like Hermann Jacobi, Jarl Charpentier,* R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhuri, K.K. Datta, A.M. Ghatage, M.N. Deshpande,? U.P. Shah, J.C. Jain, J.P. Jain, 10 Muni Uttam Kamal Jain, 11 and numerous others 12 hold that Parsvanatha was a historical person, and some like Rhys Davids, 13 1. A.L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, 1954, p. 287; IP, p. 69; EWA, VIII, p. 786. 2. ACHI, p. 101. 3. ERE, VII, p. 466. 4. CHI, I, p. 153. 5. AAHI (AI), p. 86. 6. ADIU, p. 411. 7. JAA, I, pp. 16-17. 8. SIJA, p. 40. 9. LDJC, pp. 23-4. 10. JOLR, p. 23. 11. JSS, pp. 9, 12, 13. 12. CUHI, I, pp. 185, 220; JSS, p. 9 fn.1, pp. 12-13 fn.17. 13. JI, p. 81 fn. 3.

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56 47 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Harmsworth,14 B.C. Law15 and others 16 consider him the founder of Jainism. The historicity of Parsvanatha is not difficult to prove. Much literature has clustered around his name. The well-known Jaina text, the Kalpasutra, stated to have been written by the pontiff Bhadrabahu (perhaps somewhat before 300 BC), contains an account of the life of Parsvanatha in the chapter entitled The life of the Jinas'. We learn from the Jaina work AcarangaSutra 18 that Mahavira's parents followed the faith of Parsvanatha.19 The Jaina text Avasyaka Curni mentions the names of many ascetics belonging to the sect of Parsvanatha, who were present at the time of Mahavira's wanderings as an ascetic.20 The Jaina text Bhagavati21 contains the discussion which took place between Mahavira and a follower of Parsvanatha named Gangeya.22 The followers of Parsvanatha were known as Nirgranthas. Hermann Jacobi proved on the strength of references in Pali literature that the Nirgranthas or the followers of Parsva existed before the time of Mahavira.23 One of the arguments advanced by Jacobi to prove the historical existence of Parsvanatha deserves special notice. He has made a reference to a Buddhist sutra which mistakenly attributes to Mahavira the religion of the four vows.24 We know it that it was Parsva who propounded the religion of the four vows 14. JOLR, p. 15 fn. 2. 15. Ibid., p. 16 fn. 2. 16. CHI, I, p. 153. 17. Ibid., p. 154. 18. Acaranga-Sutra, II.3.401, p. 389, cited in LDJC, p. 20 fn.10. 19. LDJC, p. 20; SIJA, p. 40; JAA, I, p. 16; AOIU, p. 412. 20. Ibid. 21. Bhagavati, 9.32 cited in LDJC, p. 20 fn. 15. 22. LDJC, p. 20. 23. SBE, Introductions, vols. XXII and XLV; LDJC, P. 21; RI, p. 283 fn. 2. 24. AOIU, p. 412.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira or the four-point religion or the four-fold path,25 i.e., caturyama dharma26 and not Mahavira. The occurrence of this mistake in a Buddhist sutra proves that the followers of Parsva existed in the time of Mahavira.27 We learn from the Jaina text Bhagavati28 that at a place called Tungiya five hundred pupils of Parsva embraced the five mahavratas (five-point path) of Mahavira.29 The famous dialogue between Kesin, a disciple of Parsva, and Gautama or Indrabhuti, a disciple of Mahavira, which occurs in chapter XXIII of the Uttaradhyayana-Sutra, one of the earliest texts of the Jaina canon, almost conclusively proves that Parsva was a historical person.30 Parsvanatha's followers existed in the time of Mahavira and also a few centuries after the latter's death.31 The religion of Parsva was popular among some sections of society. Dharmananda Kosambi, a well-known scholar of Buddhism, is of opinion that before his attainment of enlightenment Gautama Buddha had entered the order founded by Parsvanatha for sometime.32 Gautama Buddha's own statements bear testimony to the opinion expressed by Kosambi.33 A study of Buddhist literature reveals the fact that in the early part of his ascetic life Gautama Buddha himself observed the ascetic practices which have been prescribed for a Jaina ascetic.34 The historicity of Parsvanatha is beyond doubt. There is truth in the Jaina tradition that Mahavira was not the founder of Jainism; he in fact, was a reformer of the order of the Nirgranthas founded by Parsvanatha. 35 25. AOIU, p. 412. 26. JSS, p. 10. 27. AOIU, p. 412. 28. Bhagavati, pp. 136 ff. cited in JSS, p. 19 fn. 2. 29. HJM, pp. 63-4; JSS, p. 19. 30. JAA, I, p. 16; JSS, p. 13; AOIU, p. 412; LDJC, p. 21. SIJA, p. 40. 32. JSS, p. 11. 33. Ibid. 34. CUHI, I, p. 185. 35. LDJC, pp. 22-3; AOIU, p. 412; JSS, p. 21. 57

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58 5 Background of Parsvanatha There were two principal streams of thought in ancient India. The current of thought which believed in the authority of the Vedas and the sanctity of Vedic rituals was known as Brahmanical. The stream of thought which opposed the Brahmanical thought and practices was known as Sramanic.36 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Sramana is a peculiarly Jaina term which is used to designate a Jaina monk.37 The Sramanic culture had its distinct peculiarities. The sramanas held a number of primitive views like a pessimistic outlook on life, an animistic belief in the presence of soul in all things, the doctrine of the transmigration of soul, the potency of karma, etc. Parsvanatha's ideology was Sramanic. The order to which he belonged may be called the sramana samgha.38 The doctrine of ahimsa on which Parsvanatha laid stress was not a new doctrine. It was probably as old as the Vedas.39 Neminatha, the twenty-second tirthamkara, is also said to have emphasised the doctrine of ahimsa.40 Life of Parsvanatha The life and teachings of Parsvanatha should be viewed in the light of this background. Parsvanatha was born to Asvasena, the king of Benares, and his queen Vama,41 who was also known as Brahma. 42 The name Asvasena does not occur in the Brahmanic literature. The only king of this name which finds mention in epic literature is a Naga king." Parsvanatha was married to the daughter of the king of Kosala45 or to the daughter of the king 36. JSAI, p. 4. 37. Ibid. 38. CUHI, I, p. 220. 39. Ibid., p. 188. 40. HP, pp. 616-34; JAA, I, p. 17; JPV, p. 117. 41. CHI, I, p. 154; LDJC, p. 19; JSS, p. 9; AOIU, p. 411. 42. JI, p. 82. 43. CHI, p. 154. 44. 45. Ibid.; K.A.N. Sastri, History of India, Part I, p. 45. JI, pp. 82-3.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira of Pancala. 46 According to the Kalpasutra, Parsvanatha spent thirty years of his life as a householder in great happiness and splendour; after that he renounced all his wealth and became an ascetic.47 He attained the perfect knowledge of a prophet after intense meditation for eighty-four days. After becoming a kevalin he lived for about seventy years in the state of most exalted perfection and sainthood. 49 He attained moksa on the top of Samet Sikhara.50 From the biographical details of Parsvanatha, we learn that he visited Ahicchatra,51 which is Ramnagar in Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh;52 Hathinaura5 or Hatthinapura,54 which is Hastinapura in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh;55 Sravasti,56 which is Sahet-Mahet in Gonda-Bahraich district of Uttar Pradesh;57 Rayagiha,58 which is Rajgir in Bihar-Sharif district;59 Kosambi,60 which is Kosam near Allahabad;61 Sageya;62 which is Saket or Ayodhya;63 Amalakappa," which is a place near Vaisali in Vaisali 46. JSS, p. 14. 47. Kalpasutra 6.149-69; CHI, I, p. 154; HJM, p. 60. 48. Ibid.; Ibid.; Ibid. 49. Ibid.; Ibid.; Ibid. 50. Ibid.; Ibid.; OISJ, p. 66. 51. HJM, p. 60; JAA, I, p. 16; LDJC, p. 19. 52. HGAI, p. 63; GD, p. 2; GEAMI, I, p. 8. 53. JAA, I, p. 16. 54. LDJC, p. 19; HJM, p. 60. 55. HGAI, p. 81; JAA, I, p. 16. 56. HJM, p. 61; LDJC, p. 19; JAA, I, p. 16. 57. HGAI, p. 124; GD, p. 190; ibid. 58. HJM, p. 60; LDJC, p. 19; ibid. 59. Ibid. fn. 17; JAA, I, p. 16; HGAI, pp. 254-5. 60. HJM, p. 60; JAA, I, p. 16; LDJC, p. 19. 61. HGAI, p. 99. 62. HJM, p. 61; JSS, p. 9; LDJC, p. 19; JAA, I, p. 16. 63. HGAI, p. 67. 64. HJM, p. 60; LDJC, p. 19; JAA, I, p. 16. 59

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60 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura district of Bihar;65 and Kamillapura,66 which is Kampil in the Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh.67 Systematic archaeological excavations have been made at Rajghat (Varanasi), Ahicchatra, Hastinapura and Kosambi.68 These places were in existence long before the sixth century BC.69 It is, therefore, credible that these places were associated with the activities of Parsvanatha, who lived in the ninth-eighth century BC. 71 Parsvanatha is said to have died 250 years before the death of Vardhamana Mahavira.72 The date of Mahavira's nirvana (death) is the sheet anchor of Jaina chronology; all dates, anterior and posterior, are counted from this event, which is the starting point of the current Jaina or Mahavira era.73 The Jainas are almost unanimous in holding that Mahavira's nirvana took place in 527 BC,74 and a large number of historians have expressed agreement with this date.75 Parsvanatha, thus, died in 777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the death of Mahavira. Parsva is said to have lived for one hundred years.76 It is, therefore, clear that Parsvanatha lived from 877 BC to 777 BC.77 65. HGAI, p. 203; HJM, p. 60 fn. 13; JAA, I, p. 16. 66. JAA, I, p. 16; HJM, p. 60; LDJC, p. 19. 67. HGAI, p. 92; HJM, p. 60 fn 15; JAA, I, p. 16. 68. JAA, I, p. 16. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid., pp. 16-17. 71. Ibid., p. 16; JOLR, p. 14. 72. CHI, I, p. 153;CUHI, I, p. 185;JAA, I, p. 16; JOLR, p. 14; SIJA, p. 40;AOIU, p. 411;JSAI, p. 32. 73. JSAI, p. 32. 74. Ibid., p. 35. 75. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 16; JSS, P. 22; CUHI, I, pp. 220-1; JI, p. 89; ACHI, p. 101. 76. CHI, 1, p. 154;AOIU, p. 411;JI, p.83;JSS, p. 14; LDJC, p. 19; Kalpasutra, 6.149-69; JAA, I, p. 16; JOLR, p. 14. 77. JAA, I, p. 16; JOLR, p. 14.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira The teachings of Parsvanatha Parsvanatha believed in the eternity of matter.78 His followers preached that self-control causes the cessation of karma, and penance leads to its annihilation.79 He laid special emphasis on ahimsa (non-violence).80 Parsvanatha propounded the caturyama dharma or a four-point religion.81 The four-fold path of Parsva enjoined on his followers four great vows, i.e., (1) not to injure life; (2) to be truthful; (3) not to steal; and (4) nonpossession.82 Mahavira converted the four-fold path of Parava into five mahavratas by adding the doctrine of chastity or celibacy to it. 83 It would be wrong to think that the four-fold religion preached by Parsvanatha did not include the doctrine of celibacy. In fact, the principle of celibacy is automatically implied in non-possession.84 Parsva allowed his disciples to wear an upper and an under garment; Mahavira, on the other hand, prescribed complete nudity. 85 But even this difference was outward and superficial rather than real. 86 In fact, the fundamental principles of Parsva and Mahavira were substantially identical. 87 Both Parsva and Mahavira believed that right knowledge, right faith and right conduct were essential for the attainment of moksa. The discussion between Kesin, a disciple of Parsva, and Gautama or Indrabhuti, a disciple of Mahavira, which is embodied in chapter twenty-three of the Uttaradhyayana-Sutra, is significant to note. In reply to a question by Kesin, 78. AOIU, p. 411. 79. Ibid. 80. Uttaradhyayana-Sutra, 23.12, cited in JSS, p. 10 fn.5; LDJC, p. 23; AOIU,p.411;CHI, I, p. 154; JSS, p. 10. 81. Uttaradhyayana-Sutra, 23.12, op. cit.; JSS, p. 10. 82. Ibid., 23.12, op. cit.; JSS, p. 10; LDJC, p. 23; CHI, I, p. 154; AOIU, pp. 411-12. 83. Ibid., 23.12; JSS, p. 10 fn. 9; CHI, I, p. 154; AOIU, pp. 411-12. 84. Uttaradhyayana, 23, cited in JSS, p. 14 fn. 23; AQIU, pp. 411-12; JSS, p. 14. 85. CHI, I, p. 154; JSS, pp. 10-11; LDJC, p. 23. 86. LDJC, p. 23; JSS, p. 11. 87. Ibid. 61

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62 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Gautama said that right knowledge, right faith and right conduct were the true means to liberation and not outward symbols.88 It is, therefore, not surprising to learn from chapter twenty-three of the Uttaradhyayana-Sutra that many followers of the tradition of Parsva embraced the five mahavratas of Mahavira because they felt that the doctrines of both were similar.89 The division of the Jaina Church into the Svetambara and the Digambara did not occur in Mahavira's lifetime; it, in fact, appeared long after his death. The Jaina tradition has preserved only those points of Parsva's teachings which differed from those of Mahavira; all common points in their teachings have been ignored.90 The contribution of Parsvanatha Parsvanatha divided his followers into four parts -- monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen - and also appointed ganadharas to run the organisation.91 The foundation of four orders (ganas), each having a head (ganadhara), was probably the best arrangement that Parsvanatha could make for the organisation of the Jaina Church.92 The religion of Parsvanatha was meant for all; he did not believe in distinctions based on caste and creed.93 He was a powerful religious teacher who raised his voice against caste system and merciless slaughter of animals.94 As a well-wisher of women, he gave them freedom by opening the doors of his organisation for them.95 Parsvanatha propagated his Nirgrantha Dharma among the wild tribes 88. Ibid.; JSS, pp. 11-13; AOIU, p. 412. 89. JSS, p. 11 fn. 11. 90. AOIU, p. 412. 91. HJM, p. 62; JSS, p. 9. 92. LDJC, p. 23. 93. Ibid., p. 22; JSS, p. 9. 94. Ibid. 95. LDJC, p. 22.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira of West Bengal also.96 The 'Sarakas'97 of Singhabhuma, Manbhuma and Lohardaga in the Ranchi district of Bihar still worship him.98 They belong to the line of ancient Jaina sravakas, but have embraced Hinduism. 98 Some of them still profess Jainism. The Sarakas of Manbhuma are Hindus; but they are strict vegetarians.100 They drink filtered water and do not take meals after dusk. 101 The discovery of images of Parsvanatha in Bengal and Bihar is evidence of his popularity in these regions. It is an index of his popularity that Samet Sikhara, which stands in the Hazaribagh district of Bihar, is now called Parsvanatha Hill. For unknown reasons Parsvanatha seems to be more popular than other tirtharkaras in West Bengal.102 Apparently, the Bengalis have identified Jainism with Parsvanatha.103 This confusion can be a product of their ignorance; it can also be the outcome of a persistent tradition. 104 Parsvanatha was a member of the royal family of Kasi or Benares. He was son-in-law of the king of Pancala or Kosala. Therefore, Jainism must have enjoyed some royal patronage in Parsva's time.106 Parsvanatha seems to have enjoyed a large following. According to the Kalpasutra, his followers consisted of 16,000 monks, 38,000 nuns, 164,000 laymen and 327,000 laywomen.106 96. JSS, p. 12. 97. The word "Saraka' appears to be Apabhramsa ofthe word sravaka, which is a typical word in Jainism. See JSS, p. 12 fn. 14. 98. Ibid., p. 12. 99. Ibid. 100. Ibid. 101. Ibid. 102. CHAI, III, p. 275 fn. 1. 103. Ibid. 104. Ibid. 105. HJM, p. 61. 106. Ibid.; JSS, p. 14.

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Vardhmana Mahavira Parsvanatha's successor Vardhamana Mahavira was the last of the twentyfour Jaina tirtharkaras. Before unfolding his life and teachings it is essential to study the conditions of his time, i.e., the sixth century BC Background of Mahavira The sixth century BC was a period of great intellectual and spiritual ferment.107 Freedom of religious speculation, of which we get the first fruits in the earlier Upanisads, was the special characteristic of this period. 108 Mystics and sophists of all kinds roamed through the Ganga Valley. 109 A class of wandering ascetics, freed from the obligations of prevailing religious ideas and practices, thought out anew the fundamental problems of life.110 The ascetic orders and brotherhoods multiplied;111 they questioned the sanctity of the Vedic lore, the utility of rituals and the claims of the brahmanas to spiritual superiority. 112 They leaned towards new systems of philosophy.113 Sixty-three different philosophical schools, most of which were unorthodox in nature, existed in the sixth century BC, proving thereby that the revolt against the Vedic religion had begun long before that period. 114 The ascetics advocated some form of mental discipline and asceticism as a means to salvation.115 Eastern India saw the rise of a class, which although believing in the doctrine of the transmigration of soul and karma, rejected the authority of the Vedas and of Vedic priests, denounced animal sacrifices 107. A.L. Basham, op. cit., p. 45. 108. AOIU, p. 360. 109. A.L. Basham, op. cit., p. 45. 110. AOIU, p. 360. 111. HOIC, I, p. 155. 112. K.A.N. Sastri, op. cit., p. 44. 113. HOIC, I, p. 155. 114. R.D. Banerji, Prehistoric, Ancient and Hindu India, Bombay, 1950, p. 52. 115. A.L. Basham, op. cit., p. 45.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira which constituted so large a part of the Brahmanic ritual, and even denied the existence of God, and consequently, the efficacy of divine grace.116 The Jaina Anga texts reveal the existence of a number of wandering communities, the members of which entered monkhood and gave up all contact with society. 117 The existence of these communities is corroborated by the oldest Buddhist texts, the accounts of Megasthenes and the edicts of Asoka.118 Among all the wandering communities, a place of prominence was attributed to a class of wandering mendicants called sramanas. 119 The sramanas like other wandering communities gave up worldly life; they led a wandering life and stayed at one place only in the rainy season.120 They maintained themselves by begging food, avoided injury to living beings and did not acknowledge caste barriers. 121 They declared that right conduct was the way to get out of the meshes of karma and samsara, and that right conduct also included the practice of ahimsa.122 We have already stated that Parsvanatha had established a four-fold order of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen, and many ascetics belonging to his order were active in the time of Mahavira also. The life and teachings of Mahavira should be viewed in the light of these developments. Life of Vardhamana Mahavira Some authentic facts of Mahavira's life can be collected from the ArdhaMagadhi canon, i.e., Acaranga, Bhagavati and Kalpasutra.123 The oldest existing biography of Mahavira is embodied in the Kalpasutra.124 The Jaina 116. AAHI, p. 84. 117. HJM, p.44. 118. Ibid., pp. 44-5. 119. Ibid., p. 45. 120. Ibid. 121. Ibid. 122. AAHI, p. 84. 123. AOIU, p. 413. 124. CHI, I, p. 156. 65

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66 95 100 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura texts like Uttara Purana, Vardhamancarita and Trisastisalakapurusacarita yield abundant material regarding his life. 125 Passages in some old Jaina canonical works, 126 and Buddhist scriptures also provide valuable hints about his life. 127 Mahavira was born at Kundagrama, a suburb of Vaisali, now called Basukunda, 128 in 599 BC.129 He belonged to the Naya clan which is known as Nata in Pali and Jnatri in Sanskrit. 130 His father Siddhartha was a wealthy ksatriya nobleman,131 head of a warrior clan called the Jnatrkas.132 and also chief of Kundapura. 133 Mahavira's mother Trisala,134 a ksatriya lady,135 also called Priyakarini,136 was the sister of Cetaka, an eminent Licchavi prince of Vaisali.137 According to the Jaina tradition, Siddhartha and Trisala had one daughter and two sons, the younger of whom was named Vardhamana. 138 We learn from the Kalpasutra 139 and Trisastisalakapurusacarita 140 that Mahavira's original name was Vardhamana. The tale that Mahavira was conceived by a brahmana lady named Devananda, and that his embryo was 125. JI, p. 86. 126. CHI, I, p. 157. 127. Ibid. 128. Ibid.; AOIU, p. 413; JAA, I, p. 22. 129. CUHI, I, p. 220; JSS, p. 20; JSAI, p. 53; JAA, I, p. 22. 130. AOIU, p. 413. 131. Ibid.; CHI, I, p. 157. 132. CHI, I, p. 157. 133. AAHI, p. 84. 134. Ibid.; AOIU, p. 413; CHI, I, p. 157. 135. AAHI, p. 84. 136. ACHI, p. 101; JSAI, p. 34. 137. AOIU, p. 413; CHI, I, p. 157. 138. CHI, I, p. 157. 139. Ibid.; JSS, p. 20 fn. 7. 140. TSPC, VI, p. 34.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira later transferred from the womb of Devananda to that of Trisala by Naigamesa is believed only by the Svetambara Jainas. 141 And, although a sculpture from Mathura represents this scene,142 the Digambaras treat this story as a fabrication. Vardhamana's more popular name, i.e., Mahavira is said to have been bestowed on him by gods.143 The Jaina canon gives him a number of suggestive epithets also, i.e., Nayaputta144 called Nataputta in Pali,14 meaning "a scion of the Naya clan', Kasava on account of his gotra, Vesaliya after his place of birth, and Videhadinna after his native country.146 But he is most frequently referred to as 'the venerableascetic Mahavira". 147 Trisala was related to the ruling families of Vaisali and Magadha.148 Due to his marriage with the Licchavi princess Trisala, Siddhartha became a relative of Bimbisara, the powerful ruler of Magadha, who had married Cellana, daughter of Cetaka, the ruler of Vaisali. 149 According to the Digambaras, Mahavira remained celibate.150 But the Svetambara tradition views that Mahavira was married to Yasoda, 151 who was the daughter of king Samaravira. 152 Mahavira had a daughter named Anojja or Priyadarsana from this marriage.153 She was married to Jamali,154 who later became a 141. CHI, I, pp. 157-8; TSPC, VI, pp. 25-7. 142. AOIU, p. 413; MCH, p. 354. 143. Ibid.; CHAI, III, p. 276. 144. Ibid., Ibid. 145. ACHI, p. 101. 146. CHAI, III, p. 276; AOIU, p. 413. 147. Ibid.; Ibid. 148. AAHI, p. 84. 149. CHI, I, p. 157. 150. JSS, P. 20 fn. 8; HJM, p. 66 fn. 57; CHAI, III, p. 277. 151. AAHI, p. 85; JSS, p. 20; AOIU, p. 413; CHI, 1, p. 158; TSPC, VI, pp. 35-6. 152. JSS, p. 20; TSPC, VI, p. 34. 153. AOIU, p. 413; HJM, pp. 65-6; CHAI, III, p. 277. 154. Ibid.; CHI, I, p. 158.

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68 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura disciple of Mahavira and caused the first schism in the Jaina Church.155 Jamali's name does not occur in older Jaina texts; it is mentioned only in the texts of Avasyaka tradition. 156 The absence of his name in early books of the Jaina canon may be due to the fact that he played an ignominious role by creating a schism in the Jaina Church.157 Mahavira's mind was averse to secular matters. 158 He had a reflective mind from his childhood, and although the education and training meant for the princes of his time was provided to him, consciousness dawned upon him that the world is transitory in nature. 159 After the death of his parents, Mahavira renounced his home with the permission of his elder brother Nandivardhana, and embarked upon the life of a homeless monk.160 He was in the thirtieth year of his life at that time. 161 Unlike Gautama Buddha, Mahavira had no need to wander in search of a teacher who could suggest him the true path.162 Mahavira had a predecessor in Parsvanatha to look for enlightenment,163 and he became a Jaina monk.164 Mahavira's parents and the whole clan of Nava ksatrivas are said to have been the followers of the tenets of Parsvanatha. 165 Probably, after renouncing the world, Mahavira first joined Parsvanatha's sect, but soon took upon himself the role of its reformer.166 The first book of the Jaina canon, i.e., the Acaranga-Sutra has 155. HJM, p. 79; Ibid. 156. AOIU, p. 413; CHAI, III, p. 277. 157. Ibid.; Ibid. 158. CUHI, 1, p. 220. 159. Ibid. 160. CHI, I, p. 158; AOIU, p. 413. 161. Ibid.; Ibid., CHAI, III, p. 277. 162. ERE, VII, p. 466; ACHI, p. 101. 163. ACHI, p. 101. 164. ERE, VII, p. 466. 165. Ibid., p. 466 fn. 1. 166. Ibid.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira preserved a ballad, 167 which gives an account of the years during which Mahavira led the life of hardest asceticism and prepared himself for the attainment of highest spiritual knowledge.168 This fine ballad gives us a beautiful picture of the way in which Mahavira peformed his meditation and spent his time in austerities, and also of rough treatment he received from unfriendly people. 169 Mahavira left his home at the beginning of winter; this shows his inclination towards severe asceticism. 170 Thirteen months later, also in winter, he abandoned his clothing and began to wander as a naked monk. 171 In this period his thought matured. 172 He attributed life (jiva) not only to animals and plants, but also to material objects like earth and water; assumed the real cause of worldly misery to be karma, engendered by indulgence in sensual pleasure, and the essential misery of life to be due to the endless cycle of birth and death.173 His own behaviour furnished an example to be followed by monks in their religious life.174 This ballad also suggests that after a period of two years and two months he decided on a wandering mode of existence which lasted twelve years. 175 For half of this period Mahavira lived with a mendicant friar named Gosala, who subsequently left him and became the head of the Ajivika sect.176 The Jaina tradition tells us that Mahavira was born with three types of knowledge and acquired the fourth at the beginning of his monkhood. 177 In the 167. This ballad has been translated in Sacred Books of the East (SBE), vol. XXII, pp. 79 ff. 168. CHI, I, p. 158. 169. AOIU, pp. 413-14. 170. Ibid., p. 413. 171. Ibid. 172. Ibid. 173. Ibid., p. 414. 174. Ibid. 175. Ibid.; CHI, I, pp. 158-9; AAHI, p. 85. 176. Ibid., pp. 414-15; Ibid.; Ibid. 177. Ibid., p. 414. 69

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70 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura thirteenth year of his penance Mahavira retired to the northern bank of the river Rjupalika outside Jsmbhikagrama, a little known locality in eastern India, and attained the highest spiritual knowledge called kevala-jnana.178 He was now a kevalin (omniscient), a jina (conqueror) and mahavira (the great hero).179 At this time Vardhamana, now styled Mahavira or jina, was forty-two years old; and from this age he entered upon a new stage of life, i.e., the life of a religious teacher and the head of a sect called the Nirgranthas or 'free from fetters', a designation which was later replaced by the term Jainas or the followers of the jina.180 Mahavira was a Nirgrantha monk and also a scion of the Jnatrka clan; therefore, his opponents, the Buddhist, called him Niggantha Natputta in Pali canon,181 and Nirgrantho Jnatsputrah in Sanskrit.182 This fact is now universally accepted that Niggantha Natputta of the sacred books of the Buddhists was Vardhamana Mahavira, who was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha.183 The acquisition of perfect knowledge entailed the continuation of a wandering mode of life and constant preaching of his doctrines to all kinds of men. He wandered for eight months in the year and spent four months of the rainy season in some famous town of eastern India. 184 According to the Jaina tradition, Mahavira spent one or more than one season at Campa, Vaisali, Rajgrha, Mithila and Sravasti.185 Mahavira propagated his faith for thirty years,186 and during the span of his missionary activities he moved from place to place.187 The Harivamsa Purana contains the names of the places 178. AOIU, p. 414; CHI, 1, p. 159; AAHI, p. 85. 179. CHI, 1, pp. 159-60; ibid., p. 85. 180. Ibid., p. 160; Ibid. 181. CHI, I, p. 160; ACHI, p. 101. 182. Ibid., p. 160. 183. Ibid. 184. AOIU, p. 414-15. 185. Ibid., p. 415. 186. LDJC, p. 24; JSS, p. 20; AAHI, p. 85; CHI, I, p. 160. 187. JAA, I, pp. 22-3; HJM, pp. 67-9.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira which Mahavira visited for the purpose of propagating his religion.188 Many of these places have been identified; but there are many which cannot be located.189 Some of the places Mahavira is said to have visited are - Bhadrika190 or Bhaddiya,191 which is modern Monghyr192 in Bihar; Campa, which is Campanagar or Campapur 193 near Bhagalpur194 in Bihar; Ladha, which covers a large part of West Bengal these days;195 Subbhabhumi, which is Singhabhum in Bengal;196 Mithila, which is Janakpur in Nepal Tarai;197 Purimtala, which is Purulia in Bihar198 or Prayag, i.e., Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh;199 Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh200 and Kausambi,201 which is Kosam near Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh.202 It is, thus, clear that Mahavira preached Jainism in parts of Bihar, western districts of West Bengal and eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh.203 He visited all great towns of north and south Bihar, principally dwelling in the kingdoms of Magadha and Anga.204 It appears that the fields of influence of 188. JSAI, p. 34 fn. 5. 189. JAA, I, pp. 22-3; HJM, pp. 67-9. 190. Ibid. 191. HJM, p. 67. 192. Ibid.; JAA, I, pp. 22-3. 193. Ibid.; Ibid. 194. Ibid.; Ibid. 195. Ibid., p. 68. 196. Ibid., p. 69. 197. Ibid., p. 68; JAA, I, pp. 22-3. 198. Ibid. 199. JAA, I, pp. 22-3. 200. Ibid., HJM, p. 69. 201. Ibid.; Ibid., p. 68. 202. HGAI, p. 99. 203. JAA, I, p. 23. 204. CHI, I, p. 160.

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72 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura both Parsvanatha and Mahavira were more or less the same.205 It is possible that in the intervening period between Parsvanatha and Mahavira, some religious chaos had occurred; therefore, Mahavira had to devote his entire missionary career in reorganising Jainism in the region where it had earlier been propagated by Parsvanatha 206 According to some Jaina traditions, Mahavira visited even more distant places.207 On the authority of Harivassa Purana, a late work, K.P. Jain has expressed the view that Mahavira had toured extensively in Rajputana, Punjab, south India, and north-western countries like Kamboja and Valhika.208 Nothing certain can be said about this.209 Mahavira is said to have ordained numerous kings, queens, princes, princesses, 210 tradesmen, high officials211 and others, including persons said to belong to low castes.212 Mahavira died in 527 BC at the age of seventy-two213 at a place called Majjhima Pava or modern Pavapuri in the Patna district.214 He died in the house of king Hastipala.215 This indicates that contrary to his usual practice, Mahavira probably resided inside the town at that time because of illness.216 We are told that on the night of his death the kings of Malla and Licchavi clans celebrated the lamp festival in his honour.217 The Jaina tradition traces 205. JAA, I, p. 23. 206. Ibid. 207. Ibid. 208. HJM, pp. 69-70 fn. 92. 209. Ibid. 210. JAA, I, p. 23; HJM, pp. 70-1. 211. LDJC, p. 24. 212. JSS, p. 21. 213. ACHI, p. 101. 214. AOIU, p. 415. 215. Ibid. 216. Ibid. 217. Ibid.; ACHI, p. 101; HOIC, I, p. 162.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira the origin of Dipavali, the Hindu festival, from this event.218 It is important to note that the Digambaras deny the authenticity of the details of Mahavira's life as embodied in the Acaranga, the Kalpasutra and the Bhagavati and, therefore, their account of his life is slightly different.219 Teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira Mahavira's career was one of supreme detachment; therefore, he was rightly called Nirgrantha, i.e., a person without chains, internal or external. He preached what he lived. All living beings want to live, and he believed that they have the right to live.220 Thus, the sanctity of life in all forms constituted the basis of his moral values.221 Like Parsvanatha, Mahavira believed in the eternity of matter.222 He agreed with Parsvanatha in holding that self-control is essential for the cessation of karma, and also that penance leads to its destruction.223 Mahavira agreed with the four vows enjoined on his disciples by Parsvanatha, and added the vow of chastity to them. Like Parsva, Mahavira attached great importance to the doctrine of ahimsa.224 Mahavira also believed that by following the three-fold path of right belief, right knowledge and right conduct liberation from the cycle of birth and death can be achieved 225 Contribution of Mahavira The religion advocated by Mahavira was not his creation.226 He was a 218. ACHI, p. 101; CHAI, III, p. 281, TSPC, VI, p. 351. 219. CHAI, III, p. 275. 220. ACHI, p. 101. 221. Ibid. 222. AOIU, p. 411. 223. Ibid. 224. LDJC, p. 23; JSS, p. 21. 225. Ibid., pp. 23-4; Ibid., pp. 10-11; AAHI, p. 86. 226. HJM, p. 72; ERE, VII, p. 466.

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74 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura reformer rather than the founder of Jainism.227 As a reformer of an existing religion, Mahavira added a few doctrines to those of his predecessor Parsvanatha.228 Parsvanatha had taught four vows; Mahavira taught five. Though celibacy, i.e., the vow added by Mahavira formed part of Parsva's vow of non-possession,229 Mahavira probably made it a separate vow.250 It is highly probable that confession of sin before the teacher was an innovation of Mahavira.231 Mahavira had told his disciples that it was he who laid down the principle of nudity.232 But we learn from the Jaina and non-Jaina accounts that Rsabha also lived naked in the later stage of his life.233 Mahavira made some reforms in the ethical teachings; but it is difficult to ascertain the additions he made to the ontological and psychological system of Parsvanatha.234 Most of the features of Jainism suggestive of its primitiveness were already in existence; Mahavira merely adopted them.235 Jacobi has minimised the contribution of Mahavira by stating that unlike Gautama Buddha, who was the founder of a religion, Mahavira was merely a reformer of an existing religion.236 This is an under-assessment of Mahavira's role and contribution. He organised the moral and disciplinary aspects of the existing Jaina Church.237 In all likelihood, Mahavira codified an unsystematic mass of belief into a set of rigid rules of conduct for monks and laymen.238 It 227. HJM, pp. 72-3; Ibid., p. 466; AOIU p. 412; JSS, p. 21; LDJC, p. 22; CHI, I, p. 154; GD, p. 108. 228. AOIU, p. 420. 229. HJM, p. 72; JSS, p. 14. 230. AOIU, p. 420. 231. Ibid. 232. HJM, p. 73. 233. Ibid.; Visnu Purana, op. cit., p. 246 and fn. 234. AOIU, p. 420. 235. Ibid. 236. 237. HJM, p. 72. 238. AOIU, p. 420. ERE, VII, p. 466; HJM, p. 76.

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Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira was Mahavira who showed a decided inclination for the enumeration and classification of rules of conduct.239 After attaining omniscience he expressed it to the people in their own language, i.e., Ardha-Magadhi.240 Besides the local people, Mahavira absorbed almost the entire following of Parsvanatha in his Church.241 The practical genius of Mahavira is abundantly evident from his reorganisation of the four-fold order of the followers comprising monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen.242 He led a touring life and came in contact with people belonging to various castes, creeds, etc.243 He, thus, built a strong laity which displayed extraordinary devotion towards him and went to the extent of even deifying him.244 In the system established by Mahavira both laymen and laywomen could aspire to monkhood by accepting the discipline of the Jaina Church in stages.245 Thus, unlike Buddhism, Jainism produced a succession of godly men and women through the ages who could endure the storm and stress that drove Buddhism out of India. 246 The moral injunctions prohibiting the eating of animal foods, drinking, gambling, hunting, stealing, adultery and debauchery, have produced high-souled men and women from the Jaina laity.247 Even these days the Jainas sing the praises of the ideal domestic woman, the chaste Sulasa.248 Some scholars have attributed the doctrine of Syadvada to Mahavira.249 239. AOIU, p. 42. 240. HJM, p. 77. 241. Ibid. 242. HOIC, I, p. 164; JSS, p. 21. 243. HJM, p. 77. 244. Ibid. 245. HOIC, I, p. 164. 246. Ibid. 247. Ibid. 248. Ibid. 249.JSS, p. 21. 75

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Mahavira's principal contribution was to popularise the principle of ahimsa; on the basis of this he elaborated the ethical code for both monks and householders, and to provide a background to it, he put forth the philosophy of the seven realities (tattvas).250 He admitted all aspirants to the Jaina community, irrespective of their caste and sex, and inaugurated a system of peaceful proselytisation.251 Mahavira left behind him a strongly organised religious order. He had eleven ganadharas (chief disciples or heads of schools) who seem to have kept the organisation of the Jaina Church under proper discipline. 252 The organisational skill of Mahavira and devotion of the ganadharas kept the Jaina Church in good shape. 253 Due to the incessant efforts of the religious order left behind by Mahavira, animal sacrifices lessened and the doctrine of ahimsa gained popularity.254 Mahavira appears to have enjoyed considerable following. According to Jaina tradition, at the time of Mahavira's death his followers numbered 14,000 monks, 36,000 nuns, and nearly half a million layfollowers255 - 159,000 laymen and 318,000 laywomen.256 The monks were headed by Indrabhuti; the nuns by Candana; the laymen were headed by Sankhasataka, and the laywomen by Sulasa and Revati.257 The numerical strength of the Jainas kept on increasing and Jainism spread to various parts of India.258 250. CUHI, I, p. 220. 251. Ibid., pp. 220-1. 252. JAA, I, p. 23. 253. Ibid., p. 24. 254. CUHI, I, p. 221. 255. HJM, p. 70; JSS, p. 22. 256. Ibid.; Ibid. 257. Ibid.; Ibid. 258. CUHI, I, p. 221.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture MAHAVIRA was the head of the entire Jaina community comprising the four orders, i.e., the monks, the nuns, the laymen and the laywomen." He had built-up an excellent cadre of chief disciples or heads of schools known as ganadharas. These ganadharas numbered eleven. All of them were brahmanas; two of them belonged to cities, i.e., Rajagaha and Mithila, and the rest seem to have come from small settlements in Bihar. Each ganadhara had several junior disciples under him. All of them were well-versed in the Jaina canon, i.e., the twelve angas and the fourteen purvas. Nine of these eleven ganadharas died in the life-time of Mahavira; the two to survive were Indrabhuti Gautama (Indabhui Goyama) and Sudharmana (Suhamma).? Indrabhuti Gautama died twelve years after the death of Mahavira. But Sudharmana lived for twenty years after Mahavira's death. According to one tradition, Indrabhuti Gautama became the head of the Jaina Church 1. LDJC, pp. 24-5; CHAI, III, p. 282; CMHI, II, p. 355. 2. HJM, p. 77; LDJC, p. 25; JAA, I, p. 23. 3. Ibid., p. 77; JAA, I, pp. 23-4. 4. JAA, I, pp. 23-4. 5. HJM, p. 77. 6. Ibid., p. 78. 7. Ibid.; CHAI, III, p. 281. 8. Ibid.; Ibid. 9. HJM, p. 78.

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78 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura after the death of Mahavira, 10 and held office for twelve years, i.e., till the time of his death." But according to other accounts, he never held office because he had become a kevalin.12 It appears that Sudharmana became the head of the Jaina Church after the death of Mahavira. 13 The Nirgrantha sramanas of the present time are spiritual descendants of Sudharmana.14 Sudharmana held office for twelve years; he was followed by his pupil Jambusvami, who led the Jaina community for twenty-four years. 15 Mahavira had narrated the Jaina canon to Sudharmana; it appears that the latter narrated it to his pupil Jambusvami.16 Jambusvami was the last of the kevalins;17 both omniscience and moksa were closed to the mortals after him.18 The six leaders who followed Jambusvami came to be known as sruta-kevalins; they lacked the omniscience of the kevalins, but possessed complete knowledge of the scripture. 19 They were followed by dasapurvis, i.e., leaders who knew ten purvas of the twelfth anga.20 According to an estimate Jambusvami attained moksa in 403 BC. 21 He was succeeded by Prabhava who was succeeded by Sayambhava.22 Sayambhava was succeeded by Yasobhadra.23 The next leader was 10. CMHI, II, p. 355; CHAI, III, p. 282. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid., pp. 355-6; HJM, p. 78. 14. HJM, p. 78; CHAI, III, p. 282. 15. CMHI, II, p. 356; Ibid. 16. HJM, p. 78. 17. TSPC, VI, p. 354; CMHI, II, p. 356; CHAI, III, p. 282. 18. CMHI, II, p. 356; CHAI, III, p. 282. 19. Ibid., p. 356. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid.; According to another view he died in 463 BC, i.e., 64 years after Mahavira's death. See CHAI, III, pp. 281-2. 22. CMHI II, p. 356; CHAI, III. p. 282. 23. Ibid.; Ibid.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Sambhutivijaya who was succeeded by Bhadrabahu in 317 BC.24 Spread of Jainism Available evidence tends to reveal that about 300 BC the Jainas were probably losing their position in eastern India.25 They, therefore, decided to migrate to other parts of India.26 In fact, the spread of Jainism was a product of various migrations.27 It is essential to have an idea of the original extent of Jainism before we turn to the spread of Jainism to various parts of India. The wanderings of Mahavira give us an idea of the original extent of Jainism. It included the kingdoms of Kosala, Videha, Magadha and Anga28 in eastern India. The kingdom of Kosala in Mahavira's time corresponded to modern Awadha.29 It was a big kingdom and its total extent was only a little less than that of France of present times. 30 Videha, too, was a large kingdom. Its capital was Mithila. 31 The kingdom of Magadha corresponded roughly to south Bihar,32 and consisted of the modern districts of Patna and Gaya.33 The kingdom of Anga, situated in east Bihar, roughly corresponded to the present districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr,34 and its capital was Campa.35 The six centuries which followed the death of Mahavira saw the spread of Jainism to north, west and south India. It maintained its progress and by 24. CMHI, II, p. 356; CHAI, III, p. 282. According to another view, Bhadrabahu succeeded Sambhutivijaya in 357 Bc. See CHAI, III, p. 282. 25. CHI, I, p. 167. 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid., pp. 167 ff; AOIU, pp. 417 ff; HJM, p. 577. 28. AOIU, p. 417. 29. Ibid., p. 4; AAHI, p. 56; CHI, I. p. 182. 30. CHI, I, p. 178. 31. AOIU, p. 2. 32. AAHI, p. 56. 33. Ibid.; CHI, I, p. 182. 34. ADIU, p. 3. 35. Ibid., p. 3.

Page #102
80 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura the end of the third century AD this religion took firm roots throughout India. Jainism started from its original home in Magadha, and gradually spread to Kalinga to the south-east of Magadha, to Mathura and Malwa to its west, and the Deccan and south India to its south.36 Magadha was apparently the most important seat of Jainism in the third century BC.37 But it lost its hold over Magadha and became prominent in west and south India.38 Jainism had won royal patronage in north India. But although it gradually lost kingly support in north, it continued to enjoy the patronage of the middle classes, like merchants and bankers, for a long time in north India.39 After the end of the sixth century AD, India to the south of the Vindhyas became the principal stronghold of Jainism.40 The advent of the Gupta dynasty (fourth century AD to sixth century AD) marked the beginning of decline for both Jainism and Buddhism. The paucity of epigraphic records about Jainism in this period and lack of Jaina literary evidence clearly indicate that it was not very prosperous in those days, and this is partly confirmed by the absence of any reference to it in the description of the Chinese traveller Fahien.But some inscriptions of the Gupta period indicate that Jainism continued to be popular among the middle classes. Jainism in Bihar and Bengal Jainism was a popular religion in Bihar in the time of Parsvanatha and Mahavira. But, gradually, it lost much of its influence in this land."2 Bengal seems to have come under the influence of Jainism at an early period. It seems certain that the Saraka community found in several parts of Bengal 36. CA, p. 403. 37. CMHI, II, p. 355. 38. CA, pp. 403-4. 39. Ibid., p. 404. 40. Ibid 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid., p. 405.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism originally denoted the Jaina sravakas or lay-worshippers.43 They later embraced Hinduism, but retained a few characteristic traits of Jainism.44 Mahavira was cruelly treated by the people of Ladha, which has been identified with Radha in West Bengal.45 Jainism, however, had followers in West Bengal. This is evident from the discovery of Jaina images from Bengal. 46 The Paharpur copper-plates of AD 478 furnish evidence of the existence of a Jaina vihara and Digambara Jainas in Bengal during the Gupta period. 47 The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century AD, noticed a large number of Digmbara Jainas in Bengal in the course of his visit to eastern India.48 Jainism in Kalinga One early migration of the Jaina community led it to Kalinga or Orissa. This is proved by the famous inscription of Kharvela, the king of Orissa. 49 Evidence of this is found in the Svetambara tradition also. It tells that a dreadful famine in Magadha drove the Jaina monks to Kalinga.50 Kharvela was a devout Jaina.51 He is said to have lived in the second century BC52 or the first century BC.53 Kharvela raised the status of Jainism to that of a state religion.54 Kalinga, thus, became on important seat of Jainism 55 and it 43. CHAI, III, p. 285. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. EI, XX, pp. 59-64; CA, p. 405; CHAI, III, p. 285. 48. Ibid., p. 60; Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, II, p. 195; CA, p. 405. 49. Ibid., pp. 71-89; AOIU, p. 418; CMHI, II, p. 362. 50. AOIU, p. 418. 51. EI, XX, pp. 71-89; CHI, I, p. 164; AOIU, p. 213. 52. AOIU, p. 215; CMH, II, p. 362. 53. Ibid., p.216. 54. HJM, p. 92. 81

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura flourished there for a long time.56 In fact, Kharvela's Hathigumpha cave inscription is the first definite evidence of the history of Jainism in Orissa.57 There is a reference in the Hathigumbha inscription to the removal of a jina image from Kalinga to Pataliputra by the Magadhan king Nanda at the time of his invasion of Kalinga.58 The Nanda kings ruled in the fourth century BC. It is, thus, evident that Jainism existed in an established form in Kalinga even before the time of the Nanda rulers of Magadha.59 The Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills of Orissa are strewn with caves for the monks. Some of them contain inscriptions which may go back to the Mauryan age.60 They provide sufficient evidence that Jainism was in a flourishing condition in Orissa in the second-third century BC.61 The Satghara caves in Bihar and Navmuni and Ananta caves of Orissa contain beautiful friezes and symbols pertaining to the Jaina tirtharkaras.62 The Ranigumpha cave sculptures of Orissa exhibit the procession of Parsvanatha, the twentythird tirthamkara.63 The caves of Orissa contain worn-out images of other tirtharkaras also.64 In the seventh century AD the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang found considerable number of Jainas in Orissa.65 Generally speaking, royal patronage to Jainism in Kalinga lasted up to the sixteenth century AD. 66 But it never recovered the position it enjoyed during the reign of Kharvela.67 55. CMHI, II, p. 362. 56. AOIU, p. 418. 57. HJM, p. 92. 58. EI, XX, pp. 71-89. 59. HJM, p. 93. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid. 65. CHAI, III, p. 287. 66. HJM, p. 97. 67. CHAI, III, p. 287.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Jainism in Uttar Pradesh One of the migrations of the Jaina community brought it to Mathura at an early period.68 Jainism obtained a firm footing in Mathura by the second century BC,69 and in the early centuries of the Christian era this city became the most renowned centre of Jainism in north India. We shall turn to the history of Jainism in Mathura in the following chapters of this book. Jainism in Bundelkhand Khajuraho, a village in the Chatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh," was the capital of the Candella dynasty of Bundelkhand from the ninth century AD to the thirteenth century AD.72 Eighty-five temples were constructed at Khajuraho73 between AD 950 and AD 1050.74 Nearly one-third of the extant temples at Khajuraho,75 which number twenty76 or between twenty and thirty or more than thirty,78 are Jaina temples.79 According to V.A. Smith, Khajuraho temples were erected by the order of the Candella rulers.80 But Percy Brown is of opinion that the Candella rulers merely extended patronage 68. AOIU, p. 418; CMHI, II, p.363. 69. JAA, I, p. 51; CHI, 1, p. 167. 70. CMHI, II, p. 355. 71. Vidya Prakash, Khajuraho - A Study in the Cultural Conditions of Chandella Society, 1967, p. 1. 72. ASIAR (1922-3), p. 83. 73. Marg, vol. X, p. 19; Louis Fredric, Indian Temples and Sculptures, 1959, p. 294. 74. A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, 1927, p. 109; Marg, vol. X, p. 1; N.S. Bose, History of the Candellas of Jejakbhukti, 1956, p. 162. 75. Vidya Prakash, op. cit., p. 10; N.S. Bose, op. cit., p. 163; HIEA, p. 452. 76. Marg, X, p.19; Max-Pol Fouchet, The Erotic Sculpture of India, p. 68; The Art of the Chandelas, ed. A. Goswami, 1957, Foreword. 77. HOFA, p. 28. 78. Vidya Prakash, op. cit., p. 8; HIEA, p. 452. 79. Ibid., p. 10; Ibid., p. 452; N.S. Bose, op. cit., p. 163. 80. N.S. op. cit., p. 163.

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84 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura to these temples.81 The fact that numerous Jaina temples were constructed at Khajuraho is indicative of the popularity of Jainism in this part of Bundelkhand in the early medieval period. The discovery of Jaina sculptures from Gwalior82 also furnishes proof of the existence or popularity of Jainism in Bundelkhand in the medieval period. Considerable Jaina antiquities have been discovered at Deogadh also.83 Jainism in Malwa Malwa or the region around Ujjain also became a stronghold of Jainism.85 Samprati, a grandson of the Maurya king Asoka, was the ruler of Ujjain.86 And, if we believe in the story of Samprati's conversion to Jainism, 87 the spread of this religion to Malwa must be placed as early as the second century BC.88 The famous story of Kalkacarya, the Jaina saint, implies the spread of Jainism in Malwa in the first century BC.89 Jainism appears to have been popular among the middle classes in Malwa and the region near it even in the Gupta period. The Udayagiri inscription of Malwa (AD 426), belonging to the reign of the Gupta ruler Kumaragupta, records the erection of a statue of Parsva by a private individual.90 The Kahaum inscription of the time of the Gupta ruler Skandagupta (bearing AD 461) refers to the installation of images of five 81. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, Buddhist and Hindu Periods, 2nd rev. and enlarged edn., p. 133. 82. HIEA, pp. 243-5; HOFA, p. 268. 83. JPV, p. 21. 84. AOIU, P. 418. 85. CHI, I, p. 167;AOIU, p. 418; CMHI, II, p. 363. 86. HJM, p. 91. 87. Ibid.; ADIU, p. 418. 88. AOIU, p. 418. 89. Ibid. 90. CII, III, p. 251; CA, p. 404; CHAI, III, p. 286.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Jaina tirthamkaras in the village of Kakubha, i.e., modern Kahaum. 91 Jainism in Rajasthan Scholars have discovered about 1200 Jaina inscriptions from various parts of Rajasthan.92 The earliest of these inscriptions seems to belong to the fifth century BC.93 Jainism appears to have spread to Rajasthan in the second century BC.94 Prevalence of Jainism in Rajasthan can be attested by the inscriptions of the Cahamanas, Cudasamas, Guhils, Rawals, Rathods, and the rulers of the Surya dynasty.95 Most of these rulers were devotees of Surya and Siva, but they do not seem to have obstructed devotion to Jainism. Gujarat and Rajasthan were among the notable strongholds of Jainism, particularly of the Svetambaras, and they are more numerous in these states than other regions of India. Jainism owed its popularity in this part of India mainly to the patronage of the Calukya rulers of Gujarat, whose kingdom at one time extended over the whole of modern Gujarat and a large part of Rajasthan.97 The Gurjara-Pratiharas, the earliest great royal dynasty of Rajasthan, appear to have been patrons of Jainism, because King Vatsaraja of this dynasty is mentioned in the Jaina work Kuvalayamala camposed in AD 778 and the Harivassa Purana of Jinasena composed in AD 783.98 Rajput rulers of many other dynasties are said to have patronised Jainism in Rajasthan.99 91. CII, III, pp. 65-8; CA., pp. 404-5; CHAI, III, p. 286. 92. JIR, p. 3. 93. Ibid. 94. Ibid., Preface, vii. 95. HJM, p. 114. 96. Ibid., p. 114. 97. CHAI, III, p. 292. 98. Ibid. 99. JIR, pp. 200ff. 85

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86 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jainism in Gujarat According to the Jaina tradition, the association of Jainism with Gujarat goes back to remote antiquity. Neminatha, the twenty-second tirtharkara, is said to have died on Mount Girnar in Gujarat. The migration of the Jainas from the kingdom of Magadha to western India probably began about 300 BC; they settled in western parts of India like Gujarat, and have retained their settlements to the present times.100 The famous Junagarh inscription of Rudrasimha 1101 or Rudradaman, 102 which belongs to the second century AD, contains the earliest reference to the Jaina monks claiming the attainment of perfect knowledge.103 The Bawa Pyara caves at Junagarh contain Jaina symbols like the svastika, bhadrasana, nandipada, minayugala and others, which bear resemblance with those found on the ayaga-pattas discovered from the site of the Jaina stupa of Mathura.104 Another indication of the early Jaina settlement in Kathiawad is provided by the Jaina images found at Dhank. 105 Scholars have identified these images with the figures of Adinatha, Santinatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira.106 The caves found at Dhank which contain these sculptures belong to about the second century AD.107 It, therefore, seems certain that Jainism obtained a strong foothold in Gujarat by the second century AD.108 The presence of the Jainas in Gujarat in the early medieval period is indicated by literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence.109 The early 100. CHI, 1, p. 167. 101. AOIU, pp. 418-19. 102. Ibid. 103. Ibid. 104. HJM, p. 110. 105. Ibid., AOIU, pp. 418-19. 106. Ibid.; ibid. 107. AOIU, pp. 418-19. 108. Ibid. 109. CA, p. 406.

Page #109
Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism royal dynasties of Gujarat did not show any noticeable favour to Jainism and it remained the religion of the merchant classes. Much of the work of preaching and preserving this faith was done by the monks. But due to the patronage of the kings, Jainism attained splendour in Gujarat in the eleventh and the twelfth century AD. 110 Jaina influence at the court of the Calukya kings of Gujarat can be noticed from the time of the founder of this dynasty. During the reign of Bhima I, his minister Vimala built the magnificent Adinatha temple at Mount Abu. Jainism became more dominant at the Calukya court during the reign of Siddharaja and his successor Kumarapala. Under the influence of Hemacandra (AD 1088-1172), the most learned man of his time, Kumarapala enriched Gujarat with numerous Jaina shrines. 111 During Kumarapala's reign, Gujarat became a stronghold of Jainism in respect of followers as well as institutions. 112 The secret of this success was not fanatic zeal, but the promotion of understanding between different faiths. 113 The promotion of understanding between different faiths is the corner-stone of Jainism, and it was particularly emphasised by Hemacandra in word as well as in deed. 114 The continuity of Jainism and the prosperity of its followers in Gujarat are evident from the construction of the magnificent Neminatha temple at Mount Abu by Tejpala, who was a minister of the Calukya king Somasimhadeva. 115 The temple of Adinatha at Mount Abu was completed in AD 1032 and that of Neminatha in AD 1232.116 Jainism in the Deccan and south India From the available evidence nothing certain can be said about the state of 110. CA, p. 406. 111. SFE, p. 428. 112. Ibid.; ACHI, p. 102. 113. Ibid., p. 428. 114. Ibid. 115. Ibid. 116. A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesion Art, 1927, p. 111.

Page #110
88 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jainism in the Deccan at least from the fourth century BC to the beginning of the Christian era. 117 Jaina literary evidence credits the spread of Jainism from Ujjain to the Deccan and further south to Asoka's grandson Samprati; but we have no evidence to corroborate the Jaina tradition.118 But this is certain that the ruling dynasties of the Deccan provided greater support to Jainism than their counterparts in north India. 119 It is only from the time of the Calukya rulers and their successors that we get a fairly clear picture of the state of Jainism in the Deccan.120 Epigraphic and archaeological evidence indicates that Jainism was in a flourishing condition in the Deccan from AD 500 to 950.121 Jainism enjoyed the patronage of many Rastrakuta rulers,122 some of whom were devout Jainas.123 Some feudatories of the Rastrakuta rulers also extended patronage to Jainism.124 Dr. A.S. Altekar is of opinion that probably one-third of the population of the Deccan professed Jainism between the eighth century AD and the tenth century AD. 125 The spread or extension of Jainism to south India is generally attributed to the migration of the Digambaras to this part of the country. 126 We have already stated that Bhadrabahu, the last of the sruta-kevalins, became the head of the Jaina Church in 317 Bc. Bhadrabahu predicted that a famine of twelve years' duration would ravage north India; he, therefore, decided to migrate to south India with his followers. 127 Scholars of south Indian histor have mostly accepted the late Digambara tradition that the great famine of 117. HJM, p. 114. 118. Ibid., p. 115. 119. CA, pp. 403-6. 120. HJM, p. 116. 121. AOIK, P. 287; JSAI, pp. 245-7. 122. HJM, p. 117; Ibid., p. 247; ACHI, p. 102; MJ, p. 30. 123. Ibid.;ACHI, p. 102. 124. Ibid., p. 118. 125. Dr. A.S. Altekar, cited in AOIK, p. 287 and JSAI, p. 247. 126. AOIU, p. 419; MJ, pp. 3-4. 127. Ibid., CHAI, III, p. 282; HJM, p. 81.

Page #111
Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Magadha compelled Bhadrabahu to seek shelter in south India; he along with his followers and his royal disciple Candragupta Maurya migrated to south India, and this led to the establishment of the Digambara community in Mysore, with Sravana Belgola as its centre. 128 B.A. Saletore writes, Southern tradition, which is corroborated by literary and epigraphic evidence, connects the advent of Jainism into Karnataka and south India with the immigration of the Jainas under Bhadrabahu and his disciple Candragupta Maurya. 129 According to many Jaina authors, Bhadrabahu died in Karnataka in 297 BC. 130 But many authors discredit this account, 131 and assert that Bhadrabahu retired to Nepal.132 According to the Svetambara tradition, the Jaina migration to south India began from Ujjaiyini in Malwa, and this is corroborated by the early Digambara tradition.133 Among the different sects of south India, the Senagana of the Mulasamgha may have been the first migrating group of the Jainas.134 The route of their migration is suggested to be along the western coast, from Gujarat, through Maharashtra to Karnataka, and from there to the extreme south.135 H.D. Sankalia is of opinion that it may not be wrong to suppose that the first wave of Jainism passed over Gujarat-Kathiawad when Bhadrabahu went to the south in the fourth century BC. 136 In fact, the evidence regarding the Jaina migration to south India does not lead to any definite conclusion. Some scholars hold that Jainism reached the Andhra region from the north 128. AOIU, p. 419; HJM, p. 83. 129. MJ, pp. 3-4. 130. Ibid., p. 3. 131. CHAI, III, p. 282. 132. HJM, p. 19; LDJC, p. 32; CHI, I, p. 165. 133. AOIU, p. 419. 134. Ibid. 135. Ibid. 136. H.D. Sankalia, cited in HJM, p. 110 fn. 297. Acastles 2

Page #112
90 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura as early as the sixth century BC, and that its association with the Tamil region dates from the fourth century BC.137 But this is certain that Jainism was one of the powerful influences that moulded the religious and cultural life of south India in the ancient and medieval period of its history.138 Jainism played a significant role in the political life of south India also. Epigraphic records and literature of Karnataka, Telugu and Tamil lands reveal that Jainism made a remarkable contribution to the success and stability of many kingdoms in south India, including the magnificent Vijayanagara empire.139 Karnataka was the favourite resort of Jainism in south India for nearly one thousand years; the area from Bidar in the north to Mysore in the south in Karnataka is replete with the antiquities of Jainism.140 These antiquities bear testimony to the glory of Jainism in this part of India. For nearly twelve centuries (second century AD to thirteenth century AD), Jainism guided the fortunes of some of the most powerful and well-known royal families of Karnataka.141 Many rulers of the Ganga, 142 the Kadamba,143 the Rastrakuta14 and the western Calukya145 dynasties of south India patronised Jainism. It was also patronised by the feudatories of the kings of Karnataka.146 Jainism in other parts of India We have already stated that both Parsvanatha and Mahavira had preached 137. JISI, Preface, ix. 138. Ibid., p. 1. 139. MJ,p. 2. 140. JISI, Preface x. 141. MJ,p. 6. 142. Ibid., pp. 8-30; JSAI, p. 247; CA, pp. 406-7; CHAI, III, p. 289; HJM, pp. 123-4;ACHI, p. 102. 143. Ibid., p. 30; HJM, pp. 124-6; JSAI, p. 247; ACHI, p. 102. 144. HJM, p. 117; JSAI, p. 247; MJ, p. 30; ACHI, p. 102. 145. SFE, p. 429; JSAI, p. 247; MJ, p. 42; CHAI, III, p. 289; HJM, pp. 119-20;ACHI, p. 102. 146. MJ, p. 87.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Jainism in the eastern parts of Uttar Pradesh. Subsequently, it spread to western Uttar Pradesh also. The discovery of Jaina images in large numbers from Fatehpur Sikri and Kagaraul in west Uttar Pradesh and from many places in Haryana have furnished evidence of the prevalence of Jainism in these regions also. 147 There are indications that Jainism spread to other parts of north India also, including the Punjab. 148 It is important to note that the spread of Jainism was not confined to India. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century AD, found the followers of Jainism even beyond the frontiers of India, i.e., in Kapisa.149 Schisms in the Jaina Church The tendency to form a dissenting opinion was prevalent in the lifetime of Mahavira. His disciple Gosala had separated from him and founded the Ajivika sect.150 Two schisms (nihnavas) are said to have occurred in Mahavira's lifetime. 151 The trend continued. In all, seven 152 or eight, 153 schisms occurred in the Jaina Church. According to the Svetambaras, there were eight schisms in the Jaina Church; the first of these was caused by Mahavira's son-in-law Jamali, and the eighth schism gave rise to the Digambara sect.154 But the Digambaras seem to be ignorant of the earlier schisms; they hold that it was the rise of the sect of Ardhaphalaks under Bhadrabahu which developed into the Svetambara sect in AD 80,155 It has already been stated that Bhadrabahu, who had become the head 147. Amar Ujala, Agra, April, 2000. 148. CHAI, III, p. 286. 149. S. Beal, op. cit., I, p. 63; HOIC, I, p. 167; OISJ, p. 4 fn. 4. 150. AOIU, pp. 414-15; AAHI, p. 85; CHI, I, pp. 158-9. 151 LDJC, pp. 25-6; JAA, I, p. 24; HJM, p. 79. 152. AOIU, p. 416; JSS p. 23; LDJC, pp. 25-6. 153. ERE, VII, p. 473; HJM, p. 78. 154. Ibid., p. 473. 155. Ibid. 34:0 We 91

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92 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura of the Jaina church in 317 BC, had predicted that a famine of twelve years' duration would ravage northern India. Therefore, Bhadrabahu entrusted the monks who did not wish to follow him to the charge of his colleague Sthulabhadra, and migrated to south India with 12,000 followers. 156 After reaching Sravana Belgola in Mysore, Bhadrabahu designated Visakha as his successor, and ended his life by starvation.157 It is generatly believed by the Jaina authors that Bhadrabahu died in Karnataka in 297 BC.158 But some others hold that he retired to Nepal where he spent his time in austerities.159 The famine raged in north India. The monks who had stayed back adopted some modifications in the rules of their conduct.160 They wore white robes and also a peculiar head-dress known as ardhaphalaka.161 When the famine ended and normal conditions returned, some of the monks who had migrated to the south and had remained faithful to the law of nudity, came back to north India. 162 They objected to the new modes, introduced by the monks who had stayed back in north India.163 Visakha and Sthulabhadra tried hard to keep them together; but separatist tendencies proved stronger, and this led to a definitive schism between the two groups in about AD 80.164 Those who wore white dress and the headgear called ardhaphalaka came to be known as Ardhaphalakas, and later as the Svetambaras, and those who believed in nudity came to be known as the Digambaras. 165 The story outlined above is embodied in Bhadrabahucarita of Ratnanandin, a work of the 156. CMHI, II, p. 356; CHAI, III, p. 282. 157. Ibid., p. 356. 158. MJ, p. 3. 159. HJM, p. 19; LDJC, p. 32; CHI, I, p. 165. 160. CMHI, II, p. 357. 161. Ibid. 162. Ibid. 163. Ibid. 164. Ibid. 165. Ibid.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism fifteenth century AD, and scholars like Jacobi are inclined to accept it as true. 166 The causes of dissent in most of these schisms pertained to minor points in the doctrines of Jainism. Therefore, these schisms left no permanent mark on the Jaina community. But the last schism produced serious consequences. It was a split which divided the Jaina community into two sects - the Svetambara and the Digambara -- and each of these two sects claimed greater authenticity than the other. This split left a mark on the pattern of the development of Jainism, on its regional spread, monastic practices, iconography, etc.167 After this division became well-established, the differences between the Svetambaras and the Digambaras centred around numerous subjects. Causes of the split in Jainism The Svetambara and the Digambara accounts are at variance with each other regarding the causes of this split.168 These accounts appear to be products of sectarian hatred. 169 Literary writings and early sculptures prove that70 most of the differences between the Svetambaras and the Digambaras were outcome of historical growth.171 The Jainas who lived in various parts of India remained isolated from each other for long because of the vastness of the country; they, therefore, developed different beliefs and customs, and became aware of these differences about the end of the first century AD.172 According to one tradition, this split occurred in AD 79 and according to another in AD 82.173 In view of this some date about AD 80 should be accepted 166. CMHI, II, pp. 356-7. 167. HJM, pp. 79ff., AOIU, p. 416; ACHI, p. 102. 168. LDJC, pp. 26-9; JSS, pp. 39-45; HJM, pp. 80-3; JIR, pp. 54-5. 169. AOIU, p. 416; HJM, p. 83. 170. Ibid., p.416. 171. Ibid., ERE, VII, p. 473; JSS, p. 45; LDJC, p. 28. 172. ERE, VII, p. 473. 173. GD, p. 108; CHAI, III, p. 297 fn. 4; JIR, p. 54; CMHI, II, p. 362. 93

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura as the date which divided the Jaina community into two sects, i.e., the Svetambara and the Digambara. 174 It is important to note that prior to this split the Jainas had lived together without any apparent discord. 175 It is, therefore, pertinent to ponder over the causes of this split. It has often been suggested that the divergent practice of wearing a white robe or going out naked caused this split, and this gave these two sects their names; - those who put on white robes came to be known as the Svetambaras, and those who preferred or believed in the practice of nudity were called the Digambaras. 176 This split is also assigned to differences between the practices of Mahavira and Parsva, or to the more austere life of Mahavira's pupil Gosala, and also to the events caused by the great famine in Magadha resulting in the migration of a section of the Jaina community to south India. 177 There is little substance in these reasonings. Both sects of Jainism hold that Gosala's teachings had nothing to do with this split.178 Reconciliation regarding the use of clothes and the practice of nudity had already been achieved in the lifetime of Mahavira. 179 Option allowing two modes of behaviour known as Jinakalpa and Sthavirakalpa was also open to the Jainas.180 It appears that isolated groups of Jainas who insisted on the harder course of life had existed from the very beginning.181 The split in the Jaina community possibly arose due to subsequent differences regarding ascetic practices. 182 174. CMHI, II, p. 357. According to the Svetambaras, the split occurred in AD 142. See CHAI, III, p. 282; CMHI, II, p. 362. 175. CMHI, II, p. 357. 176. HJM, p. 83. 177. Ibid. 178. Ibid.; AOIU, p. 413. 179. Ibid.; Ibid.; LDJC, p. 28. 180. Ibid.; Ibid. 181. HJM, pp. 83-4; AOIU, p. 413. 182. ACHI, pp.101-2.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism The Svetambaras and the Digambaras The points of difference between the Svetambaras and the Digambaras are numerous. 1. The Svetambaras believe in the tale that Mahavira's embryo was transferred from the womb of the brahmana lady Devananda, wife of Rsabha, to that of Trisala. 183 But the Digambaras reject this story. 184 2. According to the Svetambara tradition, Mahavira was married to Yasoda. 185 But the Digambaras hold that he remained celibate all through his life.186 3. The Svetambaras hold that a woman can attain salvation. 187 But the Digambaras believe that a woman can not be a tirtharkara.188 4. According to the Svetambaras, Malli, the nineteenth tirthamkara, was a woman.189 But the Digambaras hold that Malli was a male190 and call him Mallinatha. 191 5. The Svetambaras and the Digambaras generally agree in the details regarding the tirthamkaras. 192 But they differ in respect of the names of the yaksas and the yaksinis attached to the tirthamkaras. 193 6. The Digambaras enlist most of the sixteen vidyadevis or goddesses of 183. CHI, I, pp. 157-8. 184. Ibid. 185. Ibid., p. 158; JSS, p. 20; AOIU, p. 413; AAHI, p. 85. 186. JSS, p. 20 fn. 8; HJM, p. 66 fn. 57; CHAI, III, p. 277. 187. JPV, p. 183; JAA, I, p. 15 fn. 1; JI, pp. 14-15. 188. Ibid.; Ibid., pp. 15-16 fn; Ibid., pp. 14-15; OISJ, p. 4 fn. 2. 189. Ibid.; Ibid., p. 15 fn1; Ibid. 190. Ibid.; Ibid., p. 16 fn; Ibid. ; pp. 14-15, 77. 191. JI, pp. 14-15, 77; JAA, I, p. 16 fn. 192. OISJ, p. 64. 193 Ibid. 95

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura knowledge among the yaksinis, but the Svetambaras include only a few of them.194 7. Another belief peculiar to the Digambaras is that after obtaining kevala-jnana a saint can sustain life without nourishment.195 8. According to the present Digambara custom, a priest in a Digambara temple must be a Jaina, but in a Svetambara temple the priest can be, and usually is, a brahmana.196 9. The Svetambaras and the Digambaras also differ on the number of moveable and immoveable beings. 197 10. The Digambara images of the tirtharkaras are represented nude,198 but the Svetambaras represent the images of the tirtharkaras clothed and decorated with crowns and ornaments. 199 11. The Svetambaras are extremely careful of all animal life, but the Digambaras are moderately careful.200 12. The Digambaras bathe their images profusely, but the Svetambaras use very little water for bathing their images.201 13. The Digambaras bathe and worship their images at night, but the Svetambaras are opposed to this practice; they do not even light lamps in their temples.202 194. OISJ, pp. 64-5. 195. CHAI, III, p. 298 fn. 2. 196. Ibid., p. 299 fn. 1. 197. AOIU, p. 416. 198. OISJ, p. 65; JI, pp. 14-15; DJI, p. 34. 199. Ibid., Ibid., Ibid. 200. DJI, p. 35. 201. Ibid., p. 35. 202. Ibid., p. 36. Some Jaina customs and practices appear to vary from region to region. Some Svetambara and Digambara practices mentioned by James Burgess in 'Digambara Jaina Iconography' (DJI), are probably prevalent among the South Indian Jainas only. See DJI, pp. 34-6.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism 14. The Digambaras wash their images with the pancamrta, but the Svetambaras do not observe this practice.203 15. The Digambaras say their prayers in the Hindu fashion, but the Svetambaras close their mouth or tie a cloth over their lips.204 16. The Digambaras paint their caste-marks on their foreheads, but the Svetambaras do not.205 17. Although the Digambaras hold in high esteem the tradition about the twelve angas and the fourteen purvas, they disown the Jaina canon as fixed by the Svetambaras. 206 18. The Svetambaras assert that there are 12 heavens and 64 Indras, but the Digambaras maintain that there are 16 heavens and 100 olympian monarchs.207 19. The Svetambaras allow their teachers to eat out of vessels, but the Digambara teachers take food in their hands from their disciples.208 20. The Svetambaras use flowers, sweets, etc., in their puja; the Digambaras use spices, dry fruits, etc., for this purpose. 209 21. The Digambaras consider absolute nudity as an indispensable sign of holiness, but the advance of civilisation has compelled them to depart from the practice of nudity.210 It is difficult to ascertain as to when the present custom of wearing clothes started among the Digambaras. From the account of Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese traveller, it appears that the Digambaras were faithful to the law of nudity even up to the 203. DJI, p. 36. 204. Ibid. 205. Ibid. This is a custom among south Indian Jainas. See AOIK, p. 295. 206. HJM, p. 34. 207. JI, pp. 14-15. 208. Ibid. 209. Ibid., pp. 14-15. 210. OISJ, p. 2 fn. 2.

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98 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura beginning of the seventh century AD.211 Sub-divisions of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras The Jainas are divided into the Svetambaras and the Digambaras. These two sects are sub-divided into numerous schools and groups. 212 Some Jaina sects are opposed to idol-worship.213 For example, the Lonka sect, the Sthanakavasi sect,214 the Taranpanthi sect of the Digambaras and the Terapanthi sect of the Svetambaras do not worship idols.215 K.C. Jain is of opinion that Muslim invasions of India affected Jainism in two ways; -- these invasions united the Jainas for self-defence, and also drove away many Jainas from idolatory.216 But the fact should not be lost sight of that reform movements have been a characteristic feature of Indian life from an early period; the Jainas who opposed idol-worship had no need to look to Islam for inspiration.217 The Yapaniyas and the Dravida Samgha Another sect of Jainism was called the Yapaniya. It has been held that this sect arose in the early centuries of the Christian era after the Jaina community's division into the Svetambaras and the Digambaras.218 This sect existed for about two centuries and its influence was confined to Karnataka.219 The Dravida Samgha was another sect of Jainism and its influence was confined to the Tamil land. 220 It appears to have been an off-shoot of the Mula 211. OISJ, p. 2 fn. 2. 212. Ibid., pp. 1-2; JSS, pp. 49 ff; JIR, pp. 90-1. 213. ERE, VII, p. 466; JI, p. 15; JIR, pp. 90-3. 214. Ibid.; Ibid.; Ibid. 215. JIR, pp. 90-3. 216. Ibid., p. 90. 217. ROAI, p. 123. 218. CHAI, III, p. 299. 219. Ibid. 220. Ibid.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Samgha.221 The Dravida Samgha also proved short lived. 222 Estimate of the split in Jainism The division of the Jaina community into the Svetambaras and the Digambaras affected the monks as well as the laity.223 But the basic religious principles remained the same for both the sects.224 Almost all points of difference were minor, if not trivial.225 Consequently, although there was a split, the crack was not wide enough to demolish the edifice.226 The Jainas differed on some minor points of doctrine and discipline, but on the whole they adhered to the main principles of Jainism.227 Less serious doctrinal differences among the Christians led to prolonged bloody conflicts in Europe, but strict adherence to ahimsa prevented the Jainas from similar acts.228 In fact, the points of difference were thrashed out in a debating hall. Some minor changes occurred in Jainism, but no fundamental change is visible up to the present times.229 In spite of their differences, the Svetambaras and the Digambaras are one regarding the arrangement of their communities, doctrine, discipline and cult, at least in respect of more important points, and, thus, one can always speak of Jainism as a whole. 230 Jainism passed through many storms and upheavals from time to time. But it did not perish. It is still a living religion. This reveals the adaptability of Jainism to constantly changing environments.231 One of the chief causes 221. CHAI, III, p. 299. 222. Ibid., pp. 299-300. 223. ACHI, p. 102. 224. Ibid.; JSS, p. 141; ERE, VII, p. 473. 225. CHAI, III, p. 299. 226. Ibid. 227. JSS, p. 141. 228. CHAI, III, p. 299. 229. AOIU, p. 420. 230. OISJ,p.3. 231. S.D. Jha, op. cit., Retrospect. 99

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100 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura of the survival of Jainism is the inflexible conservatism of its followers. The Jainas have stuck to their original doctrines and institutions. The religious life of the Jainas is substantially the same as it was two thousand years ago.232 But the proverbial conservatism of Jainism has been allied to dynamism.233 It has adapted itself to changing circumstances.234 For instance, Jainism made an effective rapproachment with Hinduism.235 It is because of its power of adaptability that Jainism has preserved its entity and identity through the ages.236 Jainism did not snap the bonds between the laity and the monks. It also did not put its destiny in the hands of the monks and monastic establishments completely.237 Unlike Buddhism, Jainism insisted upon the active participation of the laity in the affairs of the Jaina Church.238 It was because of these qualities that Jainism could face occasional Hindu opposition and Muslim persecution to survive to the present times.239 The Councils and the compilation of the Jaina canon The Jaina tradition attributes the canon to the arhats.240 According to the Jaina belief, the ultimate source of all knowledge is the Dvadasanga-sruta, which was taught by the various tirthamkaras, the last of whom was Mahavira.241 The Jaina canon is divided into two parts -- the Svetambara canon and the Digambara canon. 232. CHI, I, p. 169; IP, p. 71. 233. S.D. Jha, op. cit., Retrospect. 234. Ibid. 235. HOIC, I, p. 167. 236. S.D. Jha, op. cit, Retrospect. 237. HOIC, I, p. 167. 238. Ibid., pp. 164-7; IP, p. 71. 239. HOIC, I, p. 167. 240. HJM, p. 18. 241. JSAI, p. 14.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism The Svetambara canon There is no unanimity among scholars regarding the number of books which constitute the canon of the Svetambara Jainas.242 Scholars like Winternitz and Weber hold that the canon of the Svetambaras consists of 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Painnas, 6 Cheya-suttas, 4 Mula-suttas, and two miscellaneous texts called Nandi and Anuyogdara.243 This view is generally accepted by scholars.244 The Svetambara canon together with its exegetical literature was the outcome of a literary activity which extended from the date of the Pataliputra Council245 to the seventeenth century AD.246 Scholars like Winternitz and Jacobi treat this canon as authentic because the traditions embodied in it are corroborated by the inscriptions found at Mathura and other evidence. 247 But this group of texts called "Siddhanta' or 'Agama' is disowned by the Digambaras who treat it as unauthoritative 248 Taking into consideration the researches of scholars like Jacobi, Weber, Winternitz, Charpentier and others, the Svetambara canon can be arranged in order of descending antiquity into the following manner (1) the Angas (2) the Mula-sutras, (3) the Cheda-sutras, and lastly (4) the Upangas and the rest of the canon.249 The Digambara canon The Digambara canon may be broadly divided into the Angas, the Angbahyas 242. HJM, p. 16. 243. Ibid., pp. 16-18. 244. Ibid., p. 16; LDJC, p. 31. 245. The Pataliputra Council was summoned by Sthulabhadra in the third century BC. See HJM, p. 18. 246. HJM, p. 34. 247. Ibid., pp. 22-3. 248. Ibid., p. 16. 249. Ibid., pp. 22-34. 101

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102 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura and the Anuyogas.250 The Digambaras also call the Anuyogas as the four Vedas'.251 Background of the Jaina Councils It has been already stated that according to the Jaina belief the Jaina canon was taught by Mahavira and the tirtharkaras who preceded him. It is said that either the ganadharas of Mahavira252 or his chief disciple Indrabhuti Gautama arranged and classified his teachings into twelve principal divisions called the Anga.253 The most important of these angas was the twelfth; it was called the Drsti-pravada and had five sections.254 The biggest and the most important of these five sections dealt with the purvas which were fourteen in number.255 According to the Svetambara tradition, the original Jaina doctrine was contained in the fourteen purvas or old texts, and this was taught by Mahavira to his ganadharas.256 Unfortunately, the knowledge of these texts was gradually lost257, and only a single ganadhara possessed the knowledge of the purvas.258 The work of the Jaina councils should be viewed in the light of these conditions. The Council of Pasaliputra The loss of the Jaina canon is attributed to the terrible famine which occurred in Magadha during the reign of Candragupta Maurya. It has already been stated that due to famine conditions one section of the Jaina Church migrated to south India under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, and the other preferred 250. HJM, pp. 35-8. 251. Ibid., p. 36; DJI, pp. 31-2. 252. LDJC, p. 32; HJM, p. 18. 253. JSAI, p. 14. 254. Ibid. 255. Ibid. 256. HJM, p. 18; LDJC, p. 32. 257. Ibid.; Ibid.; JSAI, p. 14. 258. Ibid.; Ibid.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism to stay in north India under the leadership of Sthulabhadra. After the end of the famine and restoration of normal conditions, a council was summoned at Pataliputa259, early in the third century BC by Sthulabhadra to collect and co-ordinate the extant portions of the canon, because famine conditions had perhaps made it impossible for the monks to recollect and study their texts properly.260 The Pataliputra Council found that the knowledge of the purvas was lost and that nobody except Bhadrabahu, who was practising austerities somewhere in Nepal, knew them.261 The council requested him to reveal his knowledge to others, but he refused to do so.262 He agreed to teach the purvas when he was threatened with excommunication. But of the five hundred monks sent to him for the purpose only Sthulabhadra learnt all the fourteen purvas from Bhadrabahu.263 But Sthulabhadra was ordered by Bhadrabahu not to teach the last four purvas to his successors; consequently, their knowledge was lost to posterity.264 The canon fixed by the Pataliputra Council was rejected by the monks who returned to north India from the south. They held that the entire group of the angas and the purvas was lost for good.265 The Digambaras, therefore, hold that the canon collected by the Pataliputra Council was not genuine. It is not possible to know the exact nature of the canon that was settled by the Pataliputra Council;266 it appears that it could collect only the angas and the ten purvas.267 259. HJM, p. 18; LDJC, p. 32; AOIU, p. 422; CMHI, II, pp. 357-8. 260. Ibid., pp. 18-19. 261. Ibid., p. 19; LDJC, p. 32. 262. Ibid., p. 19. 263. Ibid.; LDJC, p. 32; AOIU, p. 422. 264. Ibid.; Ibid.; Ibid. 265. 266. 267. Ibid., p. 19. AOIU, p. 422. HJM, p. 19. Ji Wan 103

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104 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The Mathura Council A few centuries later the Jaina canon suffered loss once again. Many Jaina monks died as a result of a great famine in the fourth century AD.268 Therefore, after the end of the famine a council was held at Mathura under the presidentship of Arya Skandila and collected available knowledge of the Jaina canon.269 The Jaina canon compiled by this council is known as Mathuri Vacana.270 The Valabhi Council According to some scholars, simultaneously another council was held at Valabhi under the presidentship of Nagarjuna Suri, who seems to have been a contemporary of Arya Skandila;271 this council compiled and carefully edited that part of the Jaina canon which had been forgotten.272 But it appears that Arya Skandila and Nagarjuna Suri could not meet for its final verification, and the difference seems to have continued.273 The Second Council of Valabhi The present form of the Svetambara canon owes its compilation and classification to another council at Valabhi which was held in the fifth century AD, 980 or 993 years after Mahavira's death.274 This council met under the presidentship of Devardhiganin Ksamasramana. In this council the entire Jaina canonical literature was written according to the version of the Mathura Council,275 and variants from the followers of Nagarjuna Suri 268. HJM; p. 20; LDJC, pp. 32-3. 269. Ibid., p. 20; Ibid., p. 33. 270. Ibid., p. 21; Ibid., p. 33. 271. Ibid.; Ibid. 272. LDJC, p. 33. 273. Ibid.; HJM, p. 21. 274. Ibid.; ibid. It was held in AD 512 or AD 525. See CA, p. 410. The popular view is that it was held in the fifth century AD. 275. Ibid., p. 33.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism and others were also recorded.276 But this council failed to trace the twelfth anga which was said to have contained the purvas.277 Review of the Jaina canon The traditional Jaina canon, thus, consists of two sets -- the Svetambara canon and the Digambara canon. The Digambaras claim to have preserved in their canonical texts most of the twelfth anga and its purvas together with fragments from the other angas.278 The Svetambaras claim that they have preserved most of the remaining eleven angas in their sutras. 279 A comparative study of the Svetambara and the Digambara canon reveals considerable similarity. Both of them inherited and drew from a common stock which existed before the split in the Jaina Samgha; this is proved by many verses and passages which are common in both sets.280 The tradition about the angas and the fourteen purvas is common to both sects of Jainism; both hold the angas in equal esteem.281 The names of some of the texts of the Angabahiras of the Digambaras and the Mula-sutras and the Cheda-sutras of the Svetambaras are similar. 282 Examples can be multiplied. 283 Contribution of Jainism In the course of its long history Jainism has made a remarkable contribution to Indian culture. The period from the fifth century AD to the tenth century 276. LDJC, p. 33; HJM, p. 21; CA, p. 411. The Jaina canon took its final shape in the Second Council at Valabhi. See CA, p. 411. 277. HJM, p. 21. 278. JSAI, p. 15. 279. Ibid. 280. Ibid. 281. HJM, p. 36. 282. Ibid. 283. For further similarity between the canon of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras see HJM, pp. 36-7. 105

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura AD was the most flourishing in the history of Jainism, at least in south India, 284 and the greatest contribution of Jainism to Indian culture was made in the period which extended from the first century BC to the tenth century AD. 285 AHINSA The most important contribution of Jainism in the cultural field is the doctrine of ahimsa. Jainism preached the doctrine of ahimsa in a more extreme form than Buddhism, but it produced no emasculating effects upon its followers.286 Jainism produced men who turned ahimsa into a philosophy of action; records exist which reveal that the Jaina kings and generals distinguished themselves on the battlefield, and also that they were not averse to warfare in pursuance of the Jaina precept of doing one's duty. 287 A.S. Altekar writes, In the face of the achievements of Jaina princes and generals of our period, we can hardly subscribe to the theory that Jainism and Buddhism were chiefly responsible for the military emasculation of the population that led to the fall of Hindu India.288 In fact, Jainism produced military generals like Kharvela in Kalinga,289 Camunda Raya and Santinatha in Karnataka,290 Kumarapala in Gujarat,291 Samsera Bahadur, etc., in Rajasthan.292 There is ample evidence of the fact 284. JSAI, p. 245; AOIK, p. 287. 285. Ibid., p. 229. 286. AOIK, p. 293; JSAI, p. 248. 287. Ibid., p. 293. 288. A.S. Altekar, cited in JSAI, p. 248. 289. AOIU, p. 213; CMHI, II, p. 115; EI, XX, pp. 71-89. 290. MJ, pp. 108ff; CHAI, III, pp. 289-92. 291. SFE, pp. 76-7. 292 JIR, pp. 218-20.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism that the Jainas used to enlist in the army in large numbers and distinguish themselves on the battlefield. 293 Gradually, the doctrine of ahimsa brought to an end the practice of animal sacrifices in yajnas and other Vedic rites.294 It also popularised vegetarian diet in a large part of India. 295 Respect for the life of living beings which the Jainas showed in their daily lives is said to have influenced the Hindus of the south; they stopped animal sacrifices in their ceremonies and rites and promulgated the cult of ahimsa in their literature.296 Ahimsa became the guiding principle and the regulating force in Rajasthan.297 The doctrine of ahimsa deeply influenced the life and thought of Akbar, the great Mughal emperor.298 Epigraphical evidence exists that a Svetambara acarya named Hiravijaya Suri299 had a great influence on Akbar.300 Akbar was keen to understand the doctrines of Jainism, and in 1582, he invited Hiravijaya Suri of Gujarat to his court.301 Hiravijaya Suri lived at his court for two years,302 and Akbar bestowed the title jagadguru on him.303 Due to Hiravijaya's influence, Akbar prohibited animal slaughter304 near Jaina holy places,305 freed these places from taxes, 306 released many prisoners, and gave 293. JSAI, p. 248. 294. AOIK, p. 294. 295. Ibid., p. 294; JIR, p. 234. 296. MJ, pp. 269-70. 297. JIR, p. 234. 298. A.L. Srivastava, Bharat Ka Itihasa (AD 1000-1707), 1979, pp. 468-9. 299. HJM, p. 135; A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 468; S.R. Sharma, Bharat Main Mughal Samrajya, 1973, p. 280. 300. Ibid., ibid.; ibid. 301. A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 468. 302. Ibid. 303. Ibid.; S.R. Sharma, op.cit., p. 280; HJM, p. 135. 304. Ibid., ibid., ibid. 305. HJM, p. 135. 306. Ibid. 107

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108 @Ji Wan History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura up meat-eating on some days in the year.3 307 Akbar also came in contact with Jaina acaryas like Jinacandra, 308 Siddhicandra,309 Bhanucandra, 310 Santicandra, Vijayasena Suri, Jayasoma Upadhyaya,11 etc. Akbar was so deeply influenced by the teachings of the Jaina monks that he gave up hunting, of which he was extremely fond of, almost gave up meat-eating and prohibited slaughter of animals and birds for about six months in the year. 312 Slaughter of animals and birds on prohibited days meant capital punishment in Akbar's time.313 Akbar issued firmans to the governors of all provinces of the Mughal empire in India and local officials to strictly enforce the orders issued by him.314 In 1582, Akbar promulgated a religion named Din-i-Ilahi; meat-eating was almost prohibited for the members of Din-i-Ilahi; they were also prohibited from the use of vessels belonging to perfessionals like butchers and fishermen.315 In 1591, Akbar invited the renowned Jaina acarya Jinacandra Suri to his court.316 Jinacandra Suri reached Lahore in 1591, and was cordially received by Akbar in that city 317 Jinacandra explained the doctrines of Jainism to Akbar. Akbar was delighted and bestowed the title yugapradhan on Jinacandra Suri. 318 Jinacandra spent caturmasa at Lahore and accompanied Akbar during the latter's visit to Kashmir in 1592.319 Both Hiravijaya Suri and 307. A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 468. 308. HJM, p. 135; A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 468. 309. Ibid.; S.R. Sharma, op. cit., p. 280. 310. Ibid.; ibid.; A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 468. 311. A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 468. 312. Ibid., p. 469. 313. Ibid. 314. Ibid. 315. 316. 317. Ibid., pp. 465-6. Ibid., p. 468. Ibid. 318. Ibid. 319. Ibid.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Jinacandra Suri left a lasting impression on Akbar.320 HUMANITARIANISM AND MORAL LIFE Jainism preaches love and compassion towards all living beings, human beings as well as animals, birds and insects. This ideal has produced a deep impress on Indian life. In Rajasthan the Jaina practice of feeding and sustaining the birds and the ants has been widely adopted by the Hindus.321 The Jainas have established a large number of animal houses called Pinjada Pol for the protection of animals.322 The Jainas in south India made it a principle to provide food, protection, medicine and education to the needy.32 Jainism has exercised a healthy influence on the moral life of the people.324 Through the ages, the Jainas have established and maintained charitable institutions of various kinds in the country.325 The Jainas have established and maintained institutions like public libraries, educational institutions,32 326 dispensaries, 327 dharmasalas,328 houses for animal protection,329 trusts for public welfare, etc. The most precious gifts of Jainism to Indian culture are profound reverence for all forms of life and the way of austerity. 330 Perhaps the greatest contribution of Jainism to the Indian culture, and to the world as a whole, is the advocacy of an ideal, i.e., perfection of man. Jainism has laid superlative A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 468. 320. 321. JIR, p. 234. 322. RI, p. 296. 323. MJ, p. 269. 324. JIR, p. 233. 325. CUHI, I p. 222. 326. JIR, p. 235. 327. CUHI, I, p. 222; JIR, p. 236. 328. Ibid., p. 222. 329. 330. HOIC, I, p. 162. RI, p. 296; CUHI, I, p. 222. 5EUR Wan 109

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110 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura stress on man's purity and on his conquest of the body and the senses.331 The moral injunctions prohibiting the eating of animal foods, drinking, gambling, hunting, stealing, adultery and debauchery produced high-souled men and women from the Jaina laity who became role models for the Indian society. 332 Numerous Jaina monks were held in admiration because of their noble, austere, selfless and scholarly life even by the Muslim rulers. It is a different matter that their lives did not inspire them. Many Svetambara and Digmbara monks were honoured by Muslim rulers like Muhammad Ghori, Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and Sikandar Sur.333 Akbar was deeply influenced by Jainism. His son Jahangir issued orders for the protection of Satrunjaya, and conferred the title mahatapa on Jaina scholar Vijayadeva Suri and the title yugapradhan on the Jaina monk Jinasimha Suri. 334 PHILOSOPHY Jainism has made a significant contribution in the field of philosophy also. In the field of philosophy the greatest contribution of Jainism is Anekantavada or the theory of Indefiniteness of Being, and a dialectical method called Syadvada, which upholds this theory. Jainism attaches such importance to this method that Syadvada is frequently used as a synonym for it.335 Anekantavada and Syadvada have elicited high praise from Indian and foreign scholars. MONASTIC SYSTEM The monastic rule is Jainism's greatest creation.336 It is a severe rule which is dominated by the conception of non-violence, a conception probably 331. HOIC, I, p. 162. 332. Ibid., p. 164. 333. HJM, p. 135. 334. Ibid., p. 136. 335. ERE, VII, p. 468. 336. ROAI, p. 125,

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism created by Jainism.337 The practical genius of Mahavira is abundantly evident from his establishment of a four-fold order of followers. In this system both laymen and laywomen could aspire to monkhood by accepting its discipline in stages.338 Thus, unlike Buddhism, Jainism could produce through the ages a large number of high-souled men and women, who could endure the storm and stress that drove Buddhism out of India. 339 The sage in Jainism could come from even the castes which were viewed as extremely low.340 There was a hierarchy of monks in the Jaina Church (samgha). Jainism insisted upon the active participation of the laity in monastic life. A layman or a laywoman could become a monk or a nun by improvement of moral standard and approximating to the ideal of conduct prescribed for the Jaina monks and nuns.341 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE The literary activities of the Jainas in a regular form commenced from about the beginning of the Christian era. 342 The Jaina literary activity, which may be called the Sarasvati movement, began sometime in the first half of the second century BC, and was an accomplished fact by the end of the first century AD.343 The period from the second century AD to the twelfth century AD may be called the golden age of the Jaina literary activity,344 and during this period numerous Jaina authors from Samantabhadra to Hemacandra, 345 enriched the religious and secular literature of India by their compositions in many languages. 337. ROAI, p. 125. 338. HOIC, 1, p. 164. 339. Ibid. 340. Ibid. 341. Ibid. 342. JSAI, p. 15. 343. Ibid., p. 101. 344. Ibid., p. 15. 345. Ibid.

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112 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The literary activity of the Jainas has embraced an extremely wide field. Jaina authors have produced religious as well as secular literature. They have written numerous books on religion and philosophy.346 They also produced narrative literature in the form of kathas, kathakosas, epics, caritas,347 Puranas,348 prabhandas and prasastis.349 They also wrote sociopolitical histories, historical biographies, pattavalis of the various Jaina ascetic congregations, commentaries on non-Jaina works, etc. 350 The Jainas also produced works on poetry in the form of kavyas, mahakavyas and small poems351 They also wrote on technical and scientific subjects like poetics, grammar, lexicography geography, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, politics, etc.352 By producing literature in many Indian languages like Ardha-Magadhi, Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, etc., Jainism has played an important role in the linguistic development of India. Prakrt languages owe a lot to Jainism. The Jainas produced rich literature in Apabhraiia,353 and most of the surviving literature in this language is the creation of Jaina authors.354 Apabhramsa is a language which is a link between the classical languages, i.e., Sanskrit and Prakrt and the modern vernacular languages of India. 355 Apabhramsa represents an important stage in the development of IndoAryan languages - a stage in which the Prakrts die and out of them the bhasas or the vernaculars are born'.356 Many modern Indian languages like 346. JIR, pp. 152-3; AOIK, p. 292. 347. CA, pp. 291ff; JIR, pp. 153-60; JSAI, pp. 20-2. 348. JIR, p. 153; JSAI, pp. 22-5. 349. JSAI, pp. 18-19. 350. Ibid., pp. 16-28. 351. CA, pp. 313-17; JIR, p. 166. 352. Ibid., pp. 317-24; Ibid., pp. 172-7; MJ, p. 266; JSAI, pp. 16ff. 353. CUHI, I, pp. 222-3; Ibid., p. 151; JSAI, p. 13. 354. JIR, p. 151. 355. CUHI, I, p. 223. 356. SFE, p. 351.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Hindi, Gujarati, Rajasthani, Marathi, etc., have developed from Apabhramsa.357 The Jainas have made a handsome contribution to the development of Gujarati and Rajasthani, and Jaina influence can be seen on Marathi and Sindhi also.358 Jainism wielded influence in the Kannada land for long. Jaina authors contributed a glorious chapter to Kannada literature. 359 In fact, the honour of creating Kannada literature and its enrichment with classics of abiding value goes to Jaina authors.360 The Jainas also made immense contribution to the development of Tamil literature. Most of the major and minor epics, which are the pride of Tamil literature, have been composed by the Jainas. 361 The Jainas also made a significant contribution to Sanskrit literature. In fact, Jaina authors gradually adopted Sanskrit as the principal medium of expression in the composition of literature, religious as well as secular. 362 Almost all early Jaina writers of south India were profound Sanskrit scholars.363 In fine, Jainism made a notable contribution to the development of the literature of many Indian languages including Tamil, Telugu and Kannada. Some of the most renowned classics in Tamil, Telugu and Kannada were penned by Jaina authors.364 The Jainas gave to the Tamil people their didactic classics like the Kural and Naladiyar, some major and minor kavyas and other works.365 Campu is an elaborate and artificial form in Sanskrit literature, calculated to afford to the poet ample opportunity to display his 357. AOIK, p. 212; JIR, p. 151. 358. JIR, p. 151. 359. CA, p. 327. Also see MJ, pp. 262-3; JSAI, p. 13; JIR, p. 151; IP, p. 77; CUHI, pp. 222-3. 360. AOIK, p. 292. 361. Ibid. 362. AOIU, p. 284; IP, p. 77; JIR, p. 151; JSAI, p. 13. 363. MJ, p. 263. 364. Ibid., IP, p. 77; JIR, p. 151. 365. Ibid., p. 263. 113

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114 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura erudition and command over both prose and poetry in a single composition.366 The Jainas gave to the Telugu and Kannada literature the Campu kavyas or poems in a variety of composite metres interspersed with paragraphs in prose. 367 ART AND ARCHITECTURE Plastic Art Jainism has made a significant contribution in the domain of Indian art, particularly architecture. In ancient India art was the hand-maid of religion.368 The Jaina temples and idols were built to satisfy the religious fervour of the devotees, and the Jainas invested immense money and labour to make them beautiful. 369 A huge mass of Jaina images, made of stone, metal and other materials, belonging to the ancient and medieval period of Indian history, has been discovered from various places in Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, like Lohanipur, Mathura, Sravana Belgo!a, Rajgir, Udayagiri, Fatehpur Sikri, Kahaum, Deogadh, Gwalior, Chanderi, Khajuraho, etc. The images of the Jaina tirtharkaras have been described as cold and frozen, 370 stiff in pose, devoid of expression and grace, 371 characterised by puppet-like rigidity, primitive bareness372 and uniformity of pattern.373 It is held that the images of the Jaina tirtharkaras present a stark contrast to the sublime gentleness and serene grace of the figure of the Buddha, and to the 366. AOIK, p. 187. 367. MJ,p. 263. 368. R.C. Sharma, Buddhist Art of Mathura, 1984, Foreword; JAA, I, p. 35. 369. JAA, I, p. 35. 370. H. Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, Vol. I, 1955, p. 15. 371. JAA, I, p. 67. 372. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 132. 373. JSAI, p. 231; HOFA, Introduction, p. 11.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism divine strength and lavish charm of the images of the Hindu gods.374 There is much truth in this criticism. But the iconography of the Jaina tirthamkaras should be judged in the light of the doctrines of Jainism. The Jaina tirtharkaras were great ascetics. In fact, the image of the tirtharkara is a vehicle of the ritual tradition of Jainism, 375 which prescribed his portrayal as an ascetic. It is because of this prescription that a cold and frozen atmosphere hovers around the images of the jinas.376 Nudity is a monastic rule for the Digambara Jaina ascetics. The Jaina sculpture is the only art in India in which absolutely unclothed figures are found. This nakedness represents a condition of absolute detachment from the world. 377 But in the representation of lesser deities of the Jaina pantheon, and in carving secular scenes from contemporary life, the artist was not bound by any prescribed formulae, and enjoyed the freedom to display his artistic genius.378 The female figures carved on the pillars of the Jaina stupa at Mathura rank among the masterpieces of the Mathura school of art.379 The figures of lively and joyful women carved on these pillars bear testimony to the fact that in spite of its rigid course of discipline the Jaina community of Mathura gave a free hand to the artist in the display of his artistic genius 380 Many Jaina sculptures discovered from Kankali Tila, Mathura possess artistic merit.381 The Jaina images of the first and the second century AD found from Mathura are stiff in pose and lack expression and grace. 382 But the tirthamkara figures of Mathura belonging to the Gupta period are 374. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 151. 375. JSAI, p. 231; JAA, I, pp. 67-8; EWA, VIII, p. 786. 376. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 15. 377. Ibid. 378. JSAI, p. 231. 379. P.K. Agrawala, Mathura Railing Pillars, 1966, p. 2. 380. JAA, I, p. 59. 381. JS, Introduction, p.5. 382. JAA, I, p. 67. 115

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116 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura masterpieces of sculptural art. Serene spiritual beauty is writ large on the faces of these tirtharkara figures.383 The Jaina ayaga-pattas or votive tablets (tablets of homage) found from Mathura rank among the most beautiful specimens of the Mathura school of sculpture; they are exceedingly wellconceived and the compositions convey the meaning of the symbolism they seek to represent. 384 The Jainas produced a different type of sculpture at Gwalior. The most striking part of the Jaina remains of Gwalior are a series of caves or rock-cut sculptures that are excavated on the rock on all sides; some of these figures are colossal - greater in size than others found in north India.385 The gigantic colossi of Sravana Belgola and other places in south India are perhaps the most artistic of the Jaina sculptures.386 The colossal monolithic Jaina statues of the south are counted among the wonders of the world. 387 The colossal Jaina statue at Sravana Belgola standing on top of a hill is 57 feet high and has been cut from a single block of gneiss.388 The aura of this statue has elicited high praise from art critics.389 There are similar colossi at Yenur and Karkala. V.A. Smith writes, Undoubtedly the most remarkable of the Jaina statues are the celebrated colossi of southern India, the largest free-standing statues in Asia --- at Sravana Belgola in Mysore, and at Karkala and Yenur or Venur in South Kanara. All three being set on the top of eminences are visible from miles around. 390 383. State Museum, Lucknow no. J. 104; Marg, Mathura No., p. 56; JAA, I, pp. 67-8; R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures of the Gupta Age in the State Museum, Lucknow, p. 152. 384. V.S. Agrawala, Studies in Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965, pp. 178-9. 385. HIEA, pp. 243-5. 386. HOFA, Introduction, p. 11. 387. IGI, II, p. 122. 388. Ibid. 389. JAA, I, p. 37.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism Reference may also be made to the five groups of Jaina images cut in relief on the face of the steep cliff below the fort of Gwalior; they were executed between AD 1440 and 1473.391 Some of these images are colossal; one of them is 57 feet high.392 Architecture In the field of architecture the contribution of Jainism has been truly memorable. Jainism did not create a separate architecture.393 It drew from and always depended on Hindu architecture.394 In the construction of temples the Jainas followed the structural pattern of the Hindus.395 The Jainas adopted the local building traditions for their edifices.396 The Hindu and the Jaina temples at Khajuraho are alike.397 But the Jaina temples were not exact carbon copies of the Hindu temples; they differed from them in some respects because the theistic requirements of Jainism are somewhat different from those of Hinduism.398 For instance, departure from the style of Hindu architecture can be seen in some Jaina temples of Karnataka.399 The Jainas had a passion for religious-building, and through the ages, they built numerous temples, some of which can be called the pride of India. The Jainas chose beautiful sites for the construction of such edifices. It was 390. HOFA, p. 268. 391. Ibid. 392. Ibid. 393. AJAA, p. 319; E.B. Havell, The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India, 1915, p. 175. 394. Ibid., p. 319. 395. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 134; E.B. Havell, oc. cit., pp. 65-6. 396. E.B. Havell, op. cit., p. 175; AJAA, pp. 319-20. 397. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, Buddhist and Hindu, 2nd edn., p. 136; HOFA, p. 23; HIEA, pp. 245-6. 398. AJAA, pp. 319-20. 399. IGI, II, p. 170. 117

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118 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura love of the picturesque that prompted the Jainas to build their temples on hilltops.400 The Jainas not only erected temples; they also built temple-cities - cities consisting of temples alone -- picturesquely situated on the hills of Girnar in Kathiawad and Satrunjaya or Palitana in Gujarat.401 Other picturesquely situated Jaina temple groups are at Ranapur in Jodhpur and Parasnatha in Bengal.402 The Jaina temples were built in an ornate style. The Jaina temples of Gujarat and Mount Abu in Rajasthan were built in an ornate style. The Jaina passion for ornamentation reached its peak in the temples of west India. The Jaina temples in Karnataka are almost equally ornate in a different fashion.403 The exquisite temples of Mount Abu, built in the western or Gujarati 404 or the Maru Gurjar style, 405 a beautiful variation of 406 the north Indian or the Indo-Aryan style407, are the most notable achievements of the Jainas in the domain of art.408 The Jaina temples at Mount Abu are deservedly famous. 409 The most outstanding of the Jaina temples at Mount Abu are the Vimal Shah and the Tejpala temples which were constructed in AD 1032 and AD 1232 respectively.410 Built entirely of white marble these temples are domed shrines with pillared halls.411 These are the finest models of this style; the beauty and delicay of carving and the richness of designs in both these temples are 400. HIEA, p. 240. 401. HIEA, pp. 226 ff; A.K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, 1927, p. 112. 402. A.K. Commaraswamy, op. cit., pp. 112-13. 403. HOFA, Introduction, p. 11. 404. Ibid., and p. 32. 405. AJAA, p. 319. 406. HOFA, p. 32. 407. Ibid. 408. Ibid., Introduction, p. 11. 409.A.K. Coomaraswamy, op. cit., p. 111. 410. Ibid. 411. Ibid.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism breathtaking. 412 The remarkable temples dedicated to Jaina worship at Mount Abu carry to its highest perfection the Indian genius for the invention of graceful patterns and their application to the decoration of masonry 413 The beauty of the ceilings, pillars, doorways, niches and panels of the Jaina temples at Mount Abu is mind boggling.414 In decorative sculpture, as distinguished from individual statuary, the Jainas encouraged work of a high order of excellence and beauty, employed to adorn with the utmost possible magnificence the pillared chambers which were their favourite form of architecture. 415 Nothing in the world can surpass for richness and delicacy of detail the marble columns and ceilings of the Mount Abu temples, and it would be easy to fill a large volume with illustrations of more or less similar exquisite work in many localities. 416 In fact, the Jaina temples at Mount Abu eclipse all monuments in India in aesthetic exuberance. 417 The whiteness of marble in these temples symbolises the passionless purity of this ascetic faith.418 The astounding profuseness of the marvellous traceries of the fairly ceilings of these temples have put to shade the pendents of the Westminster Abbey. 419 The Jaina temples of west India represent in material form the concept of the ultimate and eternity as put forth by Jainism.420 Of the Jaina temples at Palitana, Fergusson writes, It is by watching the methods still followed in designing buildings in that remote locality that we become aware how it is that the uncultivated 412. A.K. Coomaraswamy, op. cit., p. iii, H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 268; HOFA, p. 32. 413. IGI, II, p. 124. 414. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 268. 415. HOFA, p. 270. 416. Ibid. 417.O.C. Gangoly, Indian Architecture, p. 44. 418. Ibid. 419. Ibid. 420. AJAA, p. 378. 119

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Hindu can rise in archietecture to a degree of originality and conception which has not been attained in Europe since the Middle Ages, but which might easily be recovered by following the same process. 421 By this time the patronage of Jainism had passed into the hands of the merchants and the common people; therefore, the architecture of the Jaina temples of Mount Abu can be called the architecture of the people.422 Nearly one-third of the extant temples at Khajuraho are Jaina temples. Architecturally, the older temples at Khajuraho may justly be regarded as the most beautiful in form as well as the most elegant in detail among the temples of northern India; the only others that can be compared with them is the earlier group at Bhubaneswar in Orissa.423 Fergusson remarks about the Jaina temple of Parsvanatha at Khajuraho, There is nothing probably in Hindu architecture that surpasses the richness of its three-storeyed base combined with the extreme elegance of outline and delicate detail of the upper part.424 Percy Brown writes about a ruined Jaina temple at Khajuraho, In its dismantled condition one can only admire the elegance of its pillars and the richness of the carved doorway. Some of the pillars are most gracefully proportioned, tall slender shafts, octagonal below and circular above, clasped around at intervals with girdles of delicate carving and surmounted by an appropriate bracket capital.425 The Jainas also excelled in the construction of free-standing pillars called mana-stambhas which were almost invariably erected near the temples, 421. HIEA, p. 228. 422. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 266. 423. IGI, II, pp. 179-80. 424. HIEA, p. 246. 425. Percy Brown, op. cit., pp. 136-7.

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Post-Mahavira Period and the Contribution of Jainism particularly in the south. They were a characteristic feature of the Jaina temples of south India, and in no other part of the country the manastambhas were as elaborately carved as in the south.426 The Jaina freestanding pillars have been lavishly praised by connoisseurs of art. The Jainas built many free-standing pillars in Kanara in south India. V.A. Smith felt that in the whole range of Indian art there is perhaps nothing equal to the Kanara pillars as far as good taste is concerned. 427 A variation of the free-standing pillars are the commemorative towers, i.e., kirti-stambhas of north India. There are two such stambhas at Chittor in Rajasthan. One of them is the 'tower of fame' which dates from about AD 900.428 Another tower of this kind at Chittor was finished in AD 1468.429 It is a 'pillar of victory' like the column of Trajan at Rome. It is 122 feet high and consists of nine storeys, the whole being covered with ornamental sculpture.430 The Jaina kirti-stambha at Chittor is a masterpiece of carving, 431 and according to Fergusson, as an architectural object it is of infinitely better taste than the column of Trajan at Rome. 432 The Jainas also built rock-cut caves. There are two groups of Jaina rockcut caves on the Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills in Orissa. 433 These caves were built for the habitation of Jaina ascetics. 434 Of these, the Hathigumpha cave on the Udayagiri hills appears to have been built in the second century BC.435 Some others like the Ananta, Rani and Ganesa gumphas probably date 426. IP, p. 77. 427. HOFA, p. 14. 428. IP, p. 77. 429. Ibid. 430. Ibid., IGI, II, p. 124. 431. H. Zimmer, op. cit., pp. 266-8. 432. HIEA, pp. 253-4; IP, p. 77. 433. SIJA, p. 6. 434. JAA, I, p. 76. 435. SIJA, p. 6. 121

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122 Ji Wan History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura from 150 BC to 50 BC.436 The interiors of the Jaina caves of Orissa are austerely plain, but the facades of some of the caves are richly decorated. 437 Ranigumpha is the most spacious and elaborately carved of all Orissan caves.438 439 The Jainas were also associated with the construction of the stupas. Jaina traditions refer to the practice of erecting stupas over the ashes of the jinas." The prejudice that all stupas and railings must necessarily be Buddhist has probably prevented the recognition of Jaina structures as such, and upto the present day only two undoubted Jaina stupas have been recorded.440 One Jaina stupa existed at Vaisali, and this was dedicated to the jina Munisuvrata.441 The other Jaina stupa was the celebrated stupa at Kankali Tila, Mathura. To the history and architecture of this stupa we shall turn later in this book. 436. SIJA, p. 7. 437. 438. JAA, I, p. 82. SIJA, p. 7. 439. Ibid., p. 9. 440. IGI, II, p. 111. 441. SIJA, p. 62; JAA, I, Editorial, p. 7.

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Jainism in Mathura Second century BC to eleventh century AD MATHURA-- the heart of Braj -- and described as one of the seven holy cities of India in the Garuda Purana,' has been a sacred city to the Hindus from very early times. This city has been held in high esteem by the Jainas also. Tradition recorded in later Jaina texts associates Mathura with many tirthamkaras. According to Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, a fourteenth-century work made known by Buhler, a stupa was built at Mathura in honour of Suparsvanatha, the seventh tirthamkara. Another Jaina tradition describes Mathura as the birth place of Naminatha, the twenty-first tirthamkara. Neminatha (Aristanemi), the twenty-second tirthamkara, who was a cousin of Vasudeva-Krsna and Balarama, was closely associated with Mathura," and according to VividhaTirtha-Kalpa, he had a specially honoured place in this city. Many images of the Kusana and post-Kusana period represent Neminatha in the company of Krsna and Balarama.? Vardhamana Mahavira is said to have visited Mathura. 8 Jambusvami, the last kevalin, is believed to have performed penance in this city. 1. Garuda Purana, 2.28.3 cited in A.B.L. Awasthi, Garuda Purana Ek Adhyayana, 1968, p. 15; P.D. Mittal, Braj Ka Samskrtika Itihasa, vol. I, 1966, p. 22 fn. 2. 2. JS, p. 13; Yasastilaka, p. 432. 3. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 17ff; MS, pp.1-2; JAA, I, p. 50. 4. JI, p. 80; JAA, I, p. 50. 5. MS, p. 2; Ibid. 6. Ibid.; Ibid., Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, p. 86. 7. MM no. 34. 2488; JAA, I, p. 50. 8. LDJC, p. 309; MCH, p. 211. 123

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124 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The spread of Jainism to various parts of India was the consequence of numerous migrations of the Jainas from eastern India. One such migration or extension of the Jaina community brought it to Mathura at an early period. 10 Archaeological excavations have established that Jainism obtained a firm footing in Mathura by the second century BC, 11 and that from this time it had a continuous history in this city up to the eleventh century AD. 12 In fact, in the early centuries of the Christian era, Mathura became the most renowned centre of Jainism in northern India. 13 Archaeological excavations at Kankali Pila, Mathura Except the Jaina traditions which furnished some information, nothing specific was known about the state and history of Jainism in Mathura even as late as AD 1870. But archaeological excavations conducted at Kankali Tila, Mathura by Cunningham, Harding, Growse, Burgess and Fuhrer from about 1870 to 1896,14 opened the flood-gates for writing on the history of Jainism in Mathura on scientific lines. These excavations have unearthed immense Jaina antiquities like sculptures, pillars, ayaga-pattas, capitals, umbrellas, railing posts, copings, cross-bars, component parts of gateways, bracket-figures and other architectural pieces from this mound.15 These excavations unearthed a large number of dedicatory inscriptions also.16 The earliest of these dedicatory inscriptions belongs to the second century BC, 17 and the last to the eleventh century AD. 18 These dedicatory inscriptions provide a fairly clear picture of the 9. CHI, 1, pp. 167ff; AOIU, pp. 417ff; HJM, p. 577. 10. AOIU, p. 418; CMHI, II, p. 363. 11. JS, Introduction, pp. 1ff; JAA, I p. 51. 12. Ibid., Introduction, pp. 3-5; ASIAR (1906-7), p. 141; MI, p. 42; JSAI, pp. 230-1. 13. CMHI, II, p. 355. 14. MI, p. 39. 15. JS, Introduction, pp. 1ff; JAA, I, p. 52. 16. EI, X, Appendix, Luders List, pp. 2ff. 17. EI, II, p. 195 and inscription no. 1; EI, II, pp. 198-9. 18. JS, Introduction, pp. 3-5.

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Jainism in Mathura history and state of Jainism in Mathura from the second century BC to the eleventh century AD. The Kankali Tila, occasionally called Jaini Tila,19 stands between the Bhutesvara crossing and B.S.A. College in the south-west part of Mathura. This mound has derived its present name from a small modern temple dedicated to a Hindu goddess called Kankali Devi,20 who is a form of goddess Durga.21 This mound is nearly rectangular in shape; it is approximately 500 feet long and 350 feet wide.22 But Cunningham gave its dimensions as 400 feet long and 300 feet wide.23 General A. Cunningham, the first Director-General of Archaeological Survey of India, 24 excavated the western end of Kankali Tila in March and November in 1871.25 He conducted excavations at this mound in 1881-2 and 1882-3 also.26 Harding, a predecessor of F.S. Growse as Magistrate of Mathura, also made some excavations at Kankali Tila.27 F.S. Growse, who worked as Magistrate and later as Collector of Mathura district,28 conducted excavation on the northern portion of this mound in 1875.29 James Burgess and A. Fuhrer of the Archaeological Survey of India,30 conducted excavations at the eastern 19. JS, Introduction, p. 1; MI, p. 40; MDM, p. 116. 20. Ibid., ibid.; ibid., p. 117. 21. GD, p. 128. 22. JS, Introduction, p. 1. 23. ASIAR, III, p. 19; MI, p. 39; JS, Introduction, p. 1. 24. F.R. Allchin, The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States, 1995, p. 5. 25. ASIAR, III, pp. 13ff; JS, Introduction, p. 1. 26. Ibid., XVII, p. 111; ASIAR, XX, plates III and IV; JS, Introduction, p. 2. 27. JS, Introduction, p. 1; MI, p. 39. 28. Pamphlet of Government Museum, Mathura. F.S. Growse founded the museum which is now called Government Museum, Mathura. 29. JS, Introduction, p. 1. 30. DJI, Introduction; MI, p. 41; MCH, p. 108. 125

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126 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura end of Kankali Tila at different times from 1888 to 1896.31 It was Fuhrer who discovered the largest number of Jaina antiquities from this mound. Fuhrer's principal excavations at Kankali Tila were conducted in 1888-9, 1889-90 and 1890-1.32 He made some excavations at this site in 1896 also.33 Fuhrer's excavations brought to light remnants of a Jaina stupa, and of two Jaina temples also.34 But it is important to note that numerous Jaina antiquities which included inscriptions, images of the tirthamkaras and pillars of stupa railings had already been excavated by A. Cunningham.35 Excavations at Kankali Tila had stopped after Cunningham's work at this site in 1882-3. But this work was resumed in 1888, first under the direction of Burgess, and thereafter under Fuhrer,36 for the fulfilment of a specific need. This need arose because European scholars were engaged in a serious debate about the authenticity of the Jaina traditions at that time. Jainism attracted notice of European scholars about the beginning of the nineteenth century. In 1858, Albrecht Weber argued that the Jainas were Buddhist schismatics.37 Christian Lassen also theorised in the 1860s that the Jainas were descendants of the Buddhists.38 But Colebrooke, Prinsep, Stevenson, E. Thomas and some other scholars held that Jainism is older than Buddhism.39 These conflicting viewpoints led to a debate among European scholars. Between 1879 and 1884, Hermann Jacobi, one of the participants in this debate, undertook the refutation of the thesis that Jainism arose out of Buddhism. On the strength of references in Pali literature, Jacobi successfully 31. JS, Introduction, p. 1; MI, p. 40. 32. Ibid., Introduction, p. 2; Ibid. 33. MI, p. 40. 34. EI, I, p. 380; ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 141; MI, p. 40; JS, Introduction, pp. 2-3. 35. ASIAR, III, pp. 13ff; JS, Introduction, pp. 1-2. 36. MI, p. 40; MCH, p. 107. 37. MCH, p. 104. 38. Ibid. 39. CHI, I, p. 152.

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Jainism in Mathura proved that Jainism did not arise out of Buddhism, and that the Nirgranthas (the Jainas) existed before the time of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and his contemporary Vardhamana Mahavira, the successor of Parsvanatha. Jacobi's presentation was convincing, and from 1884 onwards the theory that Jainism arose out of Buddhism fell in general disrepute.40 Jacobi's arguments were based solely on literary evidence. Therefore, this debate continued. Barth, a participant in this debate, doubted the authenticity of the Jaina literary evidence prior to the fixation of the Svetambara canon in the fifth century AD. This set the stage for the entry of J.G. Buhler in this debate. He was knowledgable about Jainism and during seventeen years of his stay in India (1863-80), he had collected and sent to Europe most of the Jaina literature which was used by Jacobi and Weber in their writings.41 In the beginning Buhler had agreed with the viewpoint of Lassen and Barth.42 But in 1879, he entered this debate as an opponent of Barth.43 Cunningham had already discovered some images of the Jaina tirtharkaras from Kankali lila, and also some inscriptions which bore the words Vardhamana and Mahavira.e4 He had drawn an enthusiastic conclusion, as early as 1873, that there was tangible evidence in support of the truth embodied in the Jaina traditions.45 But Buhler wanted many more inscriptions to remove Barth's doubts about the authenticity of the early Jaina tradition. Buhler, therefore, asked James Burgess in September, 1887 to resume excavations at Kankali sila during the next working season.46 Burgess agreed and resumed excavation work at Kankali Tila in January, 1888.47 The resumption of excavations at 40. MCH, p. 104 41. Ibid., p. 106. 42. OISJ, pp. 23-5 fn. 1. 43. MCH, p. 106. 44. ASIAR, III, pp. 13ff 45. Ibid., p. 46; MCH p. 106. 46. MCH, p. 106. 47. Ibid., p. 107; MI, p. 40. 127

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128 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Kankali Tila, Mathura, first under Burgess, and thereafter under the direction of Fuhrer, should be viewed in the light of this background. Jaina antiquities kept on emerging from Kankali Tila from 1888 to 1891. Fuhrer's excavations in 1888-9 unearthed from KankaliTila oritsimmediate neighbourhood ten inscribed images of the jinas belonging to the Kusana period, four of these being most important in respect of the history of Jainism; thirty-four pieces of sculpture forming parts of a Svetambara Jaina temple of the time of the Kusana king Huviska; an image of Mahavira surrounded by the remaining twenty-three tirthamkaras,48 two colossal images of jina Padmaprabhanatha dated vs 1038 and 1134;49 four basements of Jaina images bearing vs 1134, and numerous Buddhist antiquities. 50 In 1889-90, Fuhrer excavated from Kankali Tila the remnants of a Jaina stupa and also of a Jaina temple belonging to the Digambara sect.51 During the working season of 1889-90, Fuhrer also excavated eighty images of the tirtharkaras, one hundred twenty pieces of stone railings, many miscellaneous sculptures, and numerous inscriptions, seventeen of which belong to the Kusana period. 52 Fuhrer's excavation work at Kankalililabrought to light an overwhelmingly immense number of Jaina antiquities in 1890-1.53 In the winter season of 18901, Fuhrer forwarded to the Lucknow Museum seven hundred thirty-seven fine pieces of Jaina sculptures, comprising beautifully finished panels, doorways, toranas, columns, complete railings with copings and bars, images of the tirthamkaras, etc. 54 Among the sculptures found was a torana bearing a relief which represents a stupa worshipped by Kinnaras and Garuds or Suparnas.55 The excavation work conducted at Kankali lila by Fuhrer in 1890-1 was far 48. JS, p. 52 and plate XCIV. 49. Ibid., p. 53 and plates XCV and XCVI. 50. Ibid., Introduction, pp. 2-3. 51. Ibid., p. 3. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid., p. 3 fn. 2 and plate XV.

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Jainism in Mathura more important in results than done in 1888-9 and 1889-90, and the Jaina antiquities discovered during this working season made significant addition to the extant knowledge of Indian history and art.56 Some Jaina sculptures were discovered from Sitala Ghati, Rani-Ki-Mandi and Manoharpura localities of Mathura also.57 The bulk of sculptures found from Kankali Tila were sent to Agra and were placed in the Riddel Museum which existed there at that time.58 The Riddel Museum was broken in 1875 or shortly before it, and the greater part of its holdings was removed to Allahabad.59 The reconstituted Provincial Museum at Lucknow opened on 1 July, 1884, and most of the sculptures which had gone to Allahabad from Agra were transferred to the Lucknow Museum.60 In short, most of the Jaina antiquities excavated from Kankali Tila were forwarded to the Lucknow Museum1 or placed in the grounds of the Mathura Museum.62 The excavations at Kankali Tila unearthed a large number of Jaina inscriptions. Sixty-two of the seven hundred thirty-seven sculptures discovered by Fuhrer from Kankali Tila bore inscriptions which ranged in dates from 150 BC to AD 1023.63 Fuhrer kept on sending impressions and photographs of the inscriptions discovered from Kankali Tila to Buhler. 64 Buhler translated and interpreted these inscriptions and published a selection from them in Eigraphia Indica.66 Thirty-five Jaina inscriptions discovered from KankaliTila, Mathura were published by Buhler in volume I of Epigraphia Indica under the title New 56. JS, Introduction, p. 3. 57. JAA, I, p. 52 fn. 6; ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 141. 58. ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 141. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid., MI, p. 41. 62. MI, p. 41. 63. JS, Introduction, p. 3. 64. EI, I, p. 371 fn. 2; EI, II, p. 195 fn 1; JS, Introduction, p. 4. 65. JS Introduction, p. 4; MCH, p. 107. 129

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130 Wan History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jaina Inscriptions from Mathura' and 'Further Jaina Inscriptions from Mathura'.67 Forty-one Jaina inscriptions discovered from Mathura and edited by Buhler were published in volume II of Epigraphia Indica under the title 'Further Jaina Inscriptions from Mathura'.68 The discovery of Jaina inscriptions in such large numbers from Kankali Tila, Mathura delighted Buhler. Buhler needed ammunition in the form of inscriptions to combat the arguments of Barth and others, who doubted the authenticity of the Jaina traditions. These inscriptions provided the evidence Buhler looked for. This epigraphical evidence made it clear that Jainism did not arise out of Buddhism, and also that the authenticity of some Jaina traditions was beyond question. In his book entitled On the Indian Sect of the Jainas, Buhler enthusiastically wrote, Old historical traditions and inscriptions prove the independent existence of the sect of the Jainas even during the first five centuries after Buddha's death, and among the inscriptions are some which clear the Jaina tradition not only from the suspicion of fraud but bear powerful witness to its honesty.69 Fuhrer excavated numerous Jaina inscriptions, sculptures and architectural pieces from Kankali Tila, Mathura. It was a major achievement. Buhler rendered invaluable service by translating, interpreting and editing the Jaina inscriptions discovered from Mathura. Consequently, a great deal of the history and state of Jainiam came to light. But a lot remained obscured due to the indifference and negligence of Fuhrer. Buhler needed Jaina inscriptions from Mathura, and Fuhrer's excavations at Kankali Tila were primarily and principally directed to achieve this end. Of the numerous mounds in Mathura, Kankali Tila was the only one which was completely explored, but Fuhrer 66. EI, I, pp. 371-93. 67. Ibid., pp. 393-7. 68. Ibid., II, pp. 195-212. 69. OISJ, p. 23.

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Jainism in Mathura devoted excessive importance to inscriptions, and completely ignored the architectural aspect. 70 Buhler died in a boating accident in Europe in 1898.71 Due to his sudden death the possibility of a synthetic account of the evidence from Mathura, which he alone of scholars in Europe knew thoroughly, ceased to exist.72 To make the matters worse, Fuhrer abruptly resigned from his job in the Archaeological Survey of India in 1898.73 Fuhrer had announced a monograph on the Jaina remains at Mathura.74 But he left behind only one hundred two plates, and these too without explanatory notes,76 when he resigned from service in 1898.77 Unfortunately, no record of operations was published; therefore, no proof exists as to the exact find-location of most of the objects of Karkali lila.78 Without any systematic account by Buhler, and without Fuhrer's personal rememberance of what had been done at Kankali Tila, scholars do not have any idea of the actual find-location of most of the antiquities excavated from this site, and it appears that Fuhrer did not maintain a record of his operations.79 The task to prepare a book on the archaeological material excavated from Kankali Tila was undertaken by V.A. Smith. He had not been associated with the excavation work that had been conducted at this site. Owing to Fuhrer's indifference and negligence, the materials on the basis of which he had to produce a book on the subject, were sketchy and imperfect. However, after 70. ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 140. 71. MCH, p. 108. 72. Ibid. 73. Ibid.; MI, p. 41. 74. MI, p. 41; JS, Preface. 75. Ibid. 76. Ibid., JS, Preface. 77. Ibid. 78. Ibid. 79. MCH, p. 109.

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132 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura being consulted by Sir Antony MacDonnell,80 V.A. Smith edited the plates left behind by Fuhrer in 1901.81 V.A. Smith produced a book entitled The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura in 1901 on the subject. This book was reviewed by Foucher who stated that he himself saw in the Lucknow Museum the archaeological specimens figuring on these plates.82 V.A. Smith published as plate I 'a General Plan' of the excavated part of the Kankali Tila, showing the remains of a great number of buildings.83 These, however, cannot be identified, the exception being the foundations of the Jaina brick-stupa, situated at the eastern end of the Kankali Tila.84 The material at the command of V.A. Smith was inadequate and incomplete. And, he regretfully mentioned this fact many times in the aforesaid bock.85 Therefore, the account embodied in V.A. Smith's The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura remained inadequate and incomplete. Fuhrer had maintained no record of his operations. Smith had not been associated with the excavation work conducted at Kankali Tila. It was, therefore, a case of one blind person providing light to the other blind. The fault lay with Fuhrer and not Smith. In view of these unfortunate happenings a researcher on the history of Jainism in Mathura feels handicapped. Jainism in Mathura -- the early phase According to the Jaina tradition, Mathura was a principal seat of Jainism. 86 The discovery of immense Jaina antiquities from Mathura, especially from the Kankali mound, bears testimony to the truth embodied in this Jaina tradition. 80. MI, p. 41; JS, Preface. 81. Ibid. 82. Ibid., fn 6. 83. JS, Plate 1; MI, p. 41. Sir Antony MacDonnell was the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-Western Provinces and Chief Commissioner of Oudh. See JS, Preface. 84. MI, p. 41. 85. JS, Preface, Introduction, pp. 2 ff; MCH, p. 109. 86. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, Mathurapuri Kalpa, pp.17 ff; Yasastilaka, pp. 416, 432, 433; LDJC, pp. 308-9; OISJ, p. 42.

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Jainism in Mathura Most of the Jaina antiquities excavated from this mound belong to the Kusana period.87 There is no unanimity among historians regarding the chronology of the Kusana dynasty. According to one view the Kusana kings ruled at Mathura from the middle of the first century AD to AD 176.88 On the basis of finds from Kankali lila, the Kusana period may justly be described as the golden age of the history of Jainism in Mathura. Jainism attained its peak at Mathura during the Kusana period. But its history in this city began much earlier. The exact date of the settlement of the Jainas at Mathura is difficult to ascertain. The earliest dedicatory Jaina inscription discovered at Mathura belongs to the middle of the second century BC.89 But it is certain that the Jaina community had settled at Mathura much earlier than the second century BC. The earliest Jaina antiquities excavated from Kankali Tila or any other site in Mathura, are the remnants of a stupa which appears to have existed in this city for many centuries. We, therefore, begin the history of Jainism in Mathura with the history of the Jaina stupa which was built at Kankali Tila. The Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila, Mathura The stupa was an early form of the structural architecture of the Jainas. Jaina traditions refer to the practice of erecting stupas over the ashes of the jinas.90 The excavations at Kankali Tila have provided unmistakable evidence that at least one Jaina stupa, if not more, was built at this site in Mathura. It was Fuhrer who excavated the remnants of a Jaina stupa from Kankali Tila in 1889-90.91 The General Plan of the excavated part of Kankali Tila published by V.A. Smith clearly shows the position of the Jaina stupa,92 as also its 87. See EI, X, Appendix, Luders List, pp. 2 ff. 88. R.C. Sharma, The Splendour of Mathura Art and Museum, 1994, p. 27. 89. EI, II, p. 195 and Inscription no. 1, pp. 198-9; EI, X, Appendix, Luders List, no. 93, p. 17. 90. 91. 92. SIJA, p. 9. JS, Introduction, p. 3. JS, p. 8 and Plate I. 133

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134 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura foundations.93 From available evidence it appears that there was a Jaina establishment at Kankali Tila; it grew up around this stupa, which was an object of supreme veneration for the Jainas.94 Jaina traditions are not unanimous regarding the origin of the stupa at Mathura. There are two principal accounts dealing with its origin. One of them is embodied in Somadeva's Yasastilakacampu, 'a Jaina romance composed in AD 959',95 and the other in Jinaprabha Suri's Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, 'a fourtheenth-century work made known by Buhler?.98 According to Jinaprabha Suri, a golden stupa adorned with precious stones was erected at Mathura in honour of Suparsvanatha, the seventh tirthamkara, by goddess Kubera at the desire of two ascetics named Dharmaruci and Dharmaghosa.97 In the time of Parsvanatha, the twenty-third tirthamkara, the golden stupa was encased in bricks as a safeguard against pillage, and a stone sculpture of this jina was installed outside it. 98 Thirteen hundred years after Mahavira's perfection,99 i.e., in the eighth century AD,100 it was restored by Bappabhatti Suri in honour of Parsvanatha 101 But Somadeva, who lived about four hundred years earlier than Jinaprabha Suri, has given a different account. According to him, this stupa was built by saint Vajrakumara during the reign of Putikvahana, and in his work Yasastilakacampu there is no mention that it was ever built of gold. 102 The accounts left behind by Somadeva and Jinaprabha Suri convey the impression that only one Jaina stupa was built at Mathura. But as per Digambara texts 93. MI, p. 41. 94. JAA, I, p. 53. 95. Yasastilaka, Preface, vii. 96. Ibid., p. 432; JS, p. 13. 97. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, Mathurapuri Kalpa, pp. 17 ff; JS, p. 13; Yassatilaka, p. 432. 98. Ibid., pp. 17 ff; JS, p. 13; SIJA, pp. 62-3. 99. Ibid., pp. 17 ff; JS, p. 13. 100. JS, p. 13; Yasastilaka, p. 432. 101. Ibid.; Ibid. 102. Yasastilaka, pp. 432-3.

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Jainism in Mathura like Brhat-Katha-Kosa of Harisena (AD 932), five Jaina stupas were erected in this city.103 The Paharpur Copper-Plate dated in the Gupta year 159 (AD 478) contains the term pancastupa-nikaya, which is an expression connected with the Jainas.104 It has been held that the term panca-stupa-nikaya or pancastupanvaya is connected with Mathura.105 In his work Jambusvami-caritra, Rajmalla (vs 1632) refers to the repair of Mathura stupas.106 On the basis of these references U.P. Shah opines that five Jaina stupas existed in and around Mathura, the oldest and most famous being the stupa called devanirmita, i.e., built by gods. 107 Archaeological material excavated from Kankali Tila also lends support to the view that more than one Jaina stupa existed at Mathura. There are many representations of a stupa on the antiquities discovered at Mathura.108 Debala Mitra is of the view that the reliefs and dismembered stones of gateways and railings indicate that probably more than one stupa existed at Kankali Tila, or a single stupa underwent restorations and embellishments at frequent intervals.109 Literary and archaeological evidence, thus, points to the existence of more than one Jaina stupa at Mathura. But only a single stupa seems to have been built at Kankali Tila. It was called devanirmita. It appears to have remained in existence for more than 1500 years. It was this stupa which underwent restorations and embellishments from time to time. According to Jinaprabha Suri, the stupa at Mathura was built in honour of Suparsva, the seventh tirthamkara. This view appears to be incorrect. The Jaina inscriptions excavated from Kankali mound do not contain reference to Suparsvanatha. 110 The Digambara tradition also does not specify this stupa as 103. SIJA, p. 63 and fn 1; JAA, 1, p. 54 fn 1. 104. EI, XX, pp. 59-64. 105. Introduction to Harivamsa, vol. I, pp. 20 ff, cited in SIJA, p. 63 fn 4. 106. SIJA, p. 63. 107. Ibid. 108. JAA, I, pp. 54ff and Plates. 109. Ibid., p. 54. 110. EI, X, Appendix, Luders List, pp. 2 ff; SIJA, p. 12 fn. 1. 135

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136 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura dedicated to Suparsva. In fact, Jinaprabha Suri is the only writer to say that this stupa was built in honour of Suparsva. 112 We agree with U.P. Shah's view that 'the Jaina stupa at Kankali mound in Mathura was dedicated to Parsvanatha and not Suparsvanatha'.113 This view is not without foundation. We find numerous references to this Jina in the Jaina inscriptions excavated from Kankali Tila.114 Images of Parsvanatha have also been unearthed from this mound. 115 Even Jinaprabha Suri states that a stone sculpture of Parsvanatha was later installed in front of this stupa.116 It appears that either the copyists of Jinaprabha Suri's Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa or this author himself, who belonged to a much later period, committed the error of describing the stupa of Parsvanatha as the stupa dedicated to Suparsvanatha. 117 But there is evidence of the existence of more than one Jaina stupa at Mathura. In view of this it would not be unreasonable to presume that probably a stupa dedicated to Suparsvanatha also existed in this city.118 Opinions vary regarding the antiquity of the Jaina stupa of Mathura. The exact date of its erection is difficult to ascertain. But it is certain that it was built many centuries before Christ. An inscription dated 79 (AD 157) or 49 (AD 127) on the pedestal of a missing image mentions the installation of an image of arhat Nandyavarta at the so-called vodva stupa built by gods, i.e., devanirmita.119 On the basis of this inscription some scholars have opined that this stupa was built at a very early period; it was so old in the second century 111. SIJA, p. 63. 112. Ibid. 113. Ibid., pp. 12 fn 1, 63. 114. EI, II, No. 29 and Plate; EI, X, Appendix, No. 110. 115. MCH, Plate 34.III and 34.IVa; JPV, pp. 46-9; MS, pp. 22-4. 116. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 17ff.; JS, p. 13; SIJA, pp. 62-3. 117. SIJA, p. 12 fn. 1. 118. Ibid. 119. EI, II, no. 20; EI, X, Luders List, no. 47; JAA, I, p. 53; ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 141; MI, pp. 41-2; JS, p. 4 fn. 1, p. 12 Plate VI.

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Jainism in Mathura Ad that its origin was forgotten by the people and, therefore, its construction came to be assigned by gods.120 U.P. Shah is of opinion that the original Jaina stupa of Mathura was a brick-stupa dedicated to the memory of Parsvanatha, who died two hundred fifty years before Mahavira's nirvana,121 i.e., in the eighth century BC. He, therefore, opines that the construction of this brick-stupa should be assigned to the eighth century BC.122 V.A. Smith also holds that this brick-stupa was originally built in the time of Parsvanatha.123 He opines that 'the date 600 BC for its original construction is not too early'.124 In other words, according to V.A. Smith, this stupa was built in the seventh century BC. In fact, the antiquity of the Jaina stupa built at Kankali sila, Mathura needs a deeper probe. Excavations have revealed that the Jaina stupa unearthed from Kankali Tila was a brick-stupa.125 It probably enshrined the relics of Parsvanatha, who died in the eighth century BC. 126 The earliest Indian buildings made of bricks to which approximate dates can be assigned are the stupas at Piparava and Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh, built over the relics of the Buddha, and the recently excavated stupa at Rajgir in Bihar, which also enshrines the relics of Gautama Buddha. Very strong reasons exist for assigning the stupa at Piparava to 450 BC in round numbers, 127 i.e., the middle of the fifth century BC. The stupa recently excavated at Rajgir was also built in the fifth century BC, 128 and the same is true of the Buddhist stupa built at Kushinagar. In other words, the construction of brick-stupas in northern India did not 120. JS, Introduction, p. 4 fn. 1; MI, pp. 41-2; JAA, I, p. 53. 121. SIJA, p. 63. 122. Ibid., p. 64. 123. JS, p. 13. 124. Ibid. 125. EI, I, p. 380; MI, p. 40; ASIAR (1906-7), p. 141, JS, p. 13; SIJA, pp. 63-4. 126. SIJA, p. 12. 127. IGI, II, p. 102. 128. The Times of India, 5 June, 2000. 137

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138 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura begin before the fifth century BC. It is, thus, evident that the Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila, Mathura would not have been built of burnt bricks in the eighth century BC as presumed by U.P. Shah, or in the seventh century BC as presumed by V.A. Smith. The stupa at Piparava is a product of solid masonry. 129 The same is true of the stupas at Rajgir and Kushinagar. With the exception of these three stupas, 'no kiln-burnt bricks have been found in northern India which belong to a period earlier than the fourth century BC'.130 Even the bricks used in the construction of the buildings of Asoka in the third century BC are unwieldly in size, and their inferior quality is indicative of lack of experience in brick making.131 In fact, the origin of the Jaina brick-stupa at Kankali Tila could not have been different in nature or date from the Buddhist stupas.132 The components and representation of stupas found from Kankali Tila do not reveal any characteristic that is not known in contemporary Buddhist stupas.133 Structurally, the toranas of the Mathura stupas did not differ from those of the Buddhist stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut.134 In other words, the Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila was almost similar to the Buddhist stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut in respect of style and ornamentation. It is, thus, evident that the Jaina brickstupa of Mathura would not have been built earlier than the stupa of Bharhut 'which was built in the third century BC 135 or the stupa of Sanchi 'which was originally built in the third century BC'.136 In fact, the appellation devanirmita used for the Jaina brick-stupa should not lead us very far into antiquity; it is 129. JS, p. 10; IGI, II, p. 102. 130. CHI, I, p. 617. 131. Ibid. 132. JAA, I. Editorial, pp. 6-7. 133. Ibid. 134. ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 147. 135. A. Cunningham, The Stupa of Bharhut, 1962, p. 14. Some scholars hold that the stupa of Bharhut was built in the second century BC. 136. John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918, p. 31. Some scholars hold that the stupa of Sanchi was built in the first century BC

Page #161
Jainism in Mathura probably indicative of the fact that it was held in great veneration by the Jaina devotees. 137 The foregoing discussion on the antiquity of the Jaina stupa at Kankalilila does not end at this point. It has to be discussed from yet another angle. The rough drawing of the plan of this stupa reveals that this was not a product of solid brick-work. 138 Many spaces within the framework of this stupa were probably filled in with clay. 139 It is, thus, evident that part of this brick-stupa was built of clay. The bricks used in the construction of this stupa were of many sizes. 140 Some of them were about 15" square and 6" thick; some others were long and comparatively narrow. 141 The smallest bricks were about 7" broad and 2" thic k.142 The smaller bricks were better burnt than the larger ones. 143 In view of these facts it is not unreasonable to assume that the Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila, which probably enshrined the relics of Parsvanatha, was originally built of clay in the eighth century BC. But it was converted into a brick-stupa when burnt bricks, too, became a medium of construction in north India. It is certain that the Jaina stupa of Mathura was neither built of burnt bricks nor converted into a brick-stupa in the fifth century BC. It will be shown in the next chapter that it was built on the model of the Buddhist stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi. It was, thus, a contemporary or near-contemporary of the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut. The Jaina brick-stupa at Kankali Tila was a successor of the clay-stupa built in honour of Parsvanatha in the eighth century BC. It is important to note that the stupas of solid brick-work, like the 137. 138. 139. 140. 141. 142. 143. JAA, I, Editorial, p. 7. JS, p. 10 Plate III; JAA, I, p. 53. Ibid.; Ibid. Ibid., p. 11 Plates IV and V. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid.

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140 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura stupa of Piparava, were rare.144 Prior to the fifth century BC, the stupas were built of clay; subsequently, earth was replaced by kiln-baked brick slabs to provide strength and longevity to these structures.145 The stupa at Kankali Tila, which was an object of supreme veneration for the Jaina community, and around which a big Jaina establishment had grown, enjoyed a very long life. Somadeva's Yasastilakacampu, composed in AD 959, reveals that it was in existence at the time of the composition of this text, and was even then known as devanirmita.146 Epigraphic sources reveal that this stupa termed devanirmita due to its hoary antiquity 147, continued to exist at least up to AD 979.148 Unfortunately, the stupa at Kankali Tila became an object of dispute between the Jainas and the Buddhists. 149 We learn from the Jaina tradition recorded in Vyavaharasutra Bhasya, Brhat-Kathakosa of Harisena, Yasastilakacampu of Somadeva, and Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa of Jinaprabha Suri that the Buddhists entered into a dispute with the Jainas for the possession of the stupa at Kankali Tila.150 The controversy regarding the ownership of this stupa raged for about six months, but the issue was decided in favour of the Jainas by the king. 161 We have already stated that some Buddhist antiquities also came to light as a result of excavations conducted at Kankali Tila. The discovery of some Buddhist antiquities, too, from this site needs explanation. There is no doubt that originally Kankali Tila was sanctified by the construction of a Jaina 144. JS, p. 10. 145. IGI, II, p. 102; V.S. Agrawala, Mathura Kala, op. cit., p. 79. 146. Yasastilaka, p. 433; JAA, I, p. 53. 147. SML no. J.20; MCH, p. 332. 148. Ibid., no. J. 236; Ibid. 149. LDJC, p. 309. 150. V.S. Agrawala, Studies in Indian Art, 1965, p. 167. 151. Ibid.

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Jainism in Mathura stupa.152 Subsequently, when this spot gained importance, the Buddhists who were a powerful community at Mathura during the first and the second century AD, seem to have appropriated a portion of Kankali Tila for building a monument sacred to their religion. 163 It was because of this temporary trespass that some Buddhist sculptures, too, were discovered from Kankali Tila.154 The legend of the Jaina stupa as recorded by Somadeva in his Yasastilakacampu reveals that rivalry existed between the Jainas and the Buddhists at Mathura.155 We are told that the Buddhist wife of Putikavahana tried to abolish the eight-day festival of the Jainas at Mathura, and replace it by a celebration in honour of the Buddha.156 But her attempt was foiled by Vajrakumara, and the great Jaina festival at Mathura continued without obstacle. 157 We shall turn to the architecture of the Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila in the next chapter. The Jaina temples and monasteries (viharas) at Kankali Tila As a result of Fuhrer's excavations the remnants of two Jaina temples also came to light at Kankali sila. According to Fuhrer, one of these temples belonged to the Svetambara sect and the other to the Digambara sect.168 A Jaina shrine or temple (pasada) existed at Mathura as early as the second century Bc. This is proved by an inscription incised on a large ornamental rectangular slab, which is a record of the dedication of a pasada torana by asravaka named Uttaradasaka. 159 This inscription does not contain a date. But on linguistic and palaeographic grounds it has been assigned to the second century BC.160 Another inscription 152. V.S. Agarwala, Studies in Indian Art, op. cit., p. 167. 153. Ibid. 154. Ibid. 155. Yasastilaka, p. 434. 156. Ibid. 157. Ibid. 158. JS, Introduction, pp. 2-3. 159. EI, II, no. 1 and Plate; EI, X, Appendix, Luders List, no. 93. 160. EI, II, p. 195; HJM, p. 99.

Page #164
History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura incised on the back of a broken sculptured torana records the gift of a temple by Dhamghosa, a female disciple of venerable Jayasena. 161 This inscription has been dated to about the beginning of the Christian era.162 Because two Jaina temples were discovered from Kankali Tila, the natural inference from these inscriptions is that one of them was built before 150 BC, and the other about the beginning of the Christian era.163 Most of the Jaina inscriptions which came to light in 1889 were discovered from the central temple at Kankali lila. 164 According to Fuhrer, this temple belonged to the Svetambara sect. 165 He formed this opinion on the basis of two inscribed images dated vs 1038 and vs 1134.166 The images discovered from the site of this temple are, however, nude. 167 According to Fuhrer, the second or western Jaina temple, which was excavated in 1889-90, belonged to the Digambara sect, and the finds of 1890 were discovered mainly from the site of this temple.168 Fuhrer conducted his excavations at Kankalilila in an extremely negligent manner. Therefore, no account of his researches at Kankali lila is available; the only exception is the meagre information which is embodied in his Museum Reports for those years. 169 It is because of this negligence that V.A. Smith could not indicate the spots where these temples stood at Kankali lila when he published the plan of this site in his book.170 The two Jaina temples built at 161. EL, II, no. 4 and Plate; EI, X, Appendix, Luders List no. 99; JAA, 1, pp. 51-2; SML no. J.540. 162. JS, Introduction, p. 3; JAA, I, pp. 51-2. 163. Ibid., Introduction, p. 3. 164. Ibid., p. 6. 165. Ibid. 166. Ibid. 167. Ibid. 168. Ibid. 169. ASIAR, 1906-7, pp. 140-1. 170. JS, p. 8. Plate I; MI, p. 41.

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Jainism in Mathura Kankali lila also enjoyed a long life. Epigraphic sources reveal that these temples were in existence as late as the eleventh century AD. One of the fragmentary ayaga-pattas, presently in the collection of Government Museum, Mathura, contains the word vihara.172 It is certain that viharas (monasteries), too, were built for the residence of the Jaina monks.173 Inscriptions reveal that many more Jaina shrines existed at Mathura during the Kusana period. These shrines will be outlined in the next chapter. To the architecture of these structures, too, we shall turn in the next chapter. The Jaina life at Mathura THE SPLIT IN THE JAINA CHURCH We have already stated that the remnants of two Jaina temples were exposed as a result of Fuhrer's excavations at Kankali Tila and that he described one of them as belonging to the Svetambara sect and the other to the Digambara sect. The bulk of Jaina inscriptions excavated from Kankali sila belongs to the Kusana period and has been assigned to the first and the second century AD.174 According to one view, the split which divided the Jainas into the Svetambaras and the Digambaras occurred in either Ad 79 or AD 82,175 i.e., in the first century AD, and according to the other, this split occurred in AD 142,176 i.e., in the second century AD. From Fuhrer's statements it appears that during this period the Jainas of Mathura were also divided into the Svetambaras and the Digambaras. Buhler, who translated, interpreted and edited the Jaina inscriptions sent by Fuhrer, 177 expressed the view that the inscriptions from Kankali Tila reveal 171. JS, Introduction, p. 4. 172. JAA, I, p. 52. 173. Ibid., p. 62. 174. EI, X, Appendix, Luders List, pp. 2 ff; JS, Introduction, pp. 1 ff; OIS), p. 42; LDJC, p. 28; EI, I, p. 371. 175. GD, p. 108; CHAI, III, p. 297 fn. 4; JIR, p. 54; CMHI, II, p. 362. 176. CHAI, III, p. 282; CMHI, II, p. 362. 177. EI, I, p. 371 fn. 2; EI, II, p. 195 fn. 1. 143

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144 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura that the Jainas of Mathura were Svetambaras, and that the schism which divided the Jainas into two sects occurred long before the beginning of the Christian era.178 It is necessary to make mention of three tirthamkara images excavated from Kankali Tila for an examination of Fuhrer's view. Excavations conducted at this mound brought to light two colossal images of tirthamkara Padmaprabhanatha dated vs 1038 and vs. 1134,179 corresponding to AD 981 and AD 1077 respectively,180 and an image of four-fold Vardhamana fashioned in vs 1080, corresponding to AD 1023.181 According to Fuhrer, these inscribed images of Padmaprabhanatha came from the central temple at Kankali Tila,182 and were donative gifts of the Svetambara community. 183 The four-fold image of Vardhamana was discovered from the site of the second temple, which according to Nagari inscriptions was in the hands of the Digambara community as late as vs 1080 or AD 1023.184 Buhler derived his conclusions on two grounds. The first of the two Jaina temples excavated from Kankali Tila was assigned to the second century BC, and the second to about the beginning of the Christian era. Because Fuhrer described one of these two temples as a Svetambara and the other as a Digambara edifice, Buhler thought that the split in the Jaina community occurred long before the beginning of the Christian era, and not in the first or second century AD. Inscriptions have revealed that the Jaina community of Mathura was divided into sections called gana, sakha and kula.185 Because 178. OISJ, p. 44. 179. JS, Introduction, pp. 2-3 and Plates XCV and XCVI; A. Fuhrer, North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions, 1891, p. 106. 180. Ibid., Introduction, p. 2 fn 2. 181. Ibid., p. 47 Figure 3. 182. Ibid., Introduction, p. 6. 183. A. Fuhrer, op. cit., p. 106; JS, Introduction, p. 6. 184. JS, Introduction, p. 6. 185. OISJ, pp. 42-3.

Page #167
Jainism in Mathura exactly the same division of the Jainas is contained in a list in the Kalpasutra, one of the canonical works of the Svetambaras, Buhler concluded that the Jaina community of Mathura belonged to the Svetambara sect. 186 Buhler derived many wrong conclusions from his study of the Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura. We have already stated that the earliest of Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura belongs to the second century BC, and the last to the eleventh century AD. No one of these inscriptions contains hint of the division of the Jaina community into the Svetambara sect and the Digambara sect at Mathura.187 The split in the Jaina Church was a gradual process, 188 and, if there was a split at Mathura too, it at least did not find manifestation in the Jaina inscriptions of this city. Fuhrer had stated that the inscribed images of tirthamkara Padmaprabhanatha dated vs 1038 and vs 1134 were discovered from the central temple, and this belonged to the Svetambara sect.189 But these images are nude.190 In fact, all tirtharkara images of the Kusana period discovered at Mathura are nude.191 The nudity of these images has led scholars to two conclusions. Cunningham opines that the nudity of the jina images of the Kusana period is indicative of the fact that they belonged to the Digambara sect.192 On the other hand, B.C. Bhattacharya and U.P. Shah hold that the difference between the images of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras in respect of drapery and nudity did not exist in the Kusana period.198 The Kalpasutra is believed to have been composed by Bhadrabahu around 300 BC. The Jainas were not divided into the Svetambara sect and the 186. OISJ, 42-3. 187. See EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2 ff; also see LDJC, p. 28. 188. ERE, VII, p. 473; ADIU, p. 416; JSS, p. 45; LDJC, p. 28. 189. A. Fuhrer, op. cit., p. 106; JS, Introduction, p. 6. 190. JS, Introduction, p. 6. 191. ASIAR, III, pp. 45-6; SIJA, p. 11. 192. Ibid., pp. 45-6. 193. JI, p. 42; SIJA, p. 11. 145

Page #168
146 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Digambara sect at the time of the composition of the Kalpasutra. Therefore, Buhler's conclusion that "the division of the Jainas at Mathura in gana, kula and sakha in the Kusana period on the lines of a list embodied in the Kalpasutra is evidence of the fact that the Jainas of this city were Svetambaras'194 does not stand to reason. The split in the Jaina community of Mathura, as will be seen later, occurred at a much later period. The two Jaina sects appear to have lived in harmony in this city. The inscriptions discovered at Mathura do not contain hint of the split in the Jaina Church. We find no mention of ill-will or dispute between the Svetambaras and the Digambaras at Mathura in contemporary literature also. The Jaina life in the Kusana period STATE OF JAINISM IN MATHURA Brahmanism was the original religion of Mathura. Available data proves that five or six centuries before Christ Mathura was a predominantly Hindu city.195 After the advent of Jainism and Buddhism Mathura became a multi-religious city. Brahmanism retained its popularity in this city.196 But inscriptions and sculptures bear testimony to the fact that Jainism and Buddhism were also popular in Mathura during the Kusana period. 197 Available archaeological data is a pointer that Jainism was in a flourishing state in Mathura during the Kusana period,198 and, if the number of inscriptions belonging to this period discovered from this city is made the criterion of judgement, Jainism appears to have been as popular at Mathura as Buddhism, if not more, during the period under review.199 In fact, the Jaina inscriptions 194. OIS), pp. 44-5. 195. P.V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, vol. IV, 1953, p. 689. 196. MCH, p. 64; V.S. Agrawala, Masterpieces of Mathura Sculpture, 1985, p. 1. 197. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2 ff. 198. Ibid., pp. 2 ff; JS, Introduction, pp. 1 ff; JAA, I, p. 52; HJM, p. 100. 199. ASIAR, III, p. 46; AJAA, p. 81.

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Jainism in Mathura of the Kusana period discovered at Mathura far exceed the contemporary inscriptions of other religions found from this city.200 There is no evidence that Jainism enjoyed the partronage of the Kusana rulers.201 The credit for the popularity of Jainism at Mathura during the Kusana period goes to its splendid monastic organisation and the religious zeal and fervour of its adherents. The religious policy of the Kusana rulers was tolerant. The majority of the Mathura Jainas belonged to the trading classes. The Kusana kings needed the support of the trading classes for the stability and success of their empire. Therefore, they adopted a tolerant attitude towards Jainism. The liberal religious policy of the Kusana rulers indirectly contributed to the rise of Jainism at Mathura. THE JAINA COMMUNITY AT MATHURA Jainism drew its followers at Mathura from all sections of society. The majority of the Jainas belonged to the trading classes. But some of them belonged to professions or groups which were not rated high.202 The Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura are dedicatory inscriptions. They reveal that the Jaina donors of images, ayaga-pattas, temples, etc., belonged to a wide variety of groups and professions. The inscriptions discovered at Mathura mention the Jaina donors as daughter-in-law of the ironmonger,203 wife of a caravan leader,204 wife of a dyer,205 mother of the perfumer,206 the perfumer,207 the 200. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2 ff, JPV, p. 18; AJAA, p. 81; J.E. Van Lohuizen-de Leeuw, The Scythian Period, 1949, p. 149 fn 16. 201. JPV, p. 18; Bhaskar Chattopadhyaya, Kusana State and Indian Society, 1975, p. 171. 202. EI, X, Appendix, no. 102; MM, no.Q.2; B.N. Puri, India Under the Kusanas, 1965, p. 149. 203. Ibid., no. 29. 204. Ibid., no. 30. 205. Ibid., no. 32. 206. Ibid., no. 37. 207. Ibid., no. 39. 147

Page #170
History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura banker,208 wife of the village headman,209 worker in metal,210 wife of the perfumer,211 daughter of treasurer,212 daughter-in-law of the perfumer,213 son of a vats7,214 the goldsmith,215 wife of the cotton dealer,216 son of a gaupti,217 son of a maudgali,218 wife of the dancer,219 son of a kausiki,220 the member of the committee (gosthi),221 the courtesan,222 etc. The Jaina community was pious and affluent. The monuments built at Mathura by the Jaina community provide ample evidence of its religious zeal and affluence.223 The Jainas loved to carve images and erect religious buildings. A Jaina text informs that the citizens of Mathura and ninety-six villages adjoining this city installed Jaina idols in their houses and court-yards.224 The Jaina community of Mathura had a large number of female lay-worshippers who did not lag behind their male counterparts in religious fervour and passion for producing images and religious edifices. The inscriptions exacavated from Kankali Tila are replete with the names of Jaina female lay-worshippers, who made donations in the form of images, devakulas, temples, reservoirs, stone slabs, etc. 208. EI, X, Appendix, no. 41. 209. Ibid., no. 48. 210. Ibid., no. 53. 211. Ibid., no. 68. 212. Ibid., no. 74. 213. Ibid., no. 76. 214. Ibid., no. 93. 215. Ibid., no. 95. 216. MI, p. 47 no. 15. 217. EI, X, Appendix, no. 96. 218. Ibid., no. 97. 219. Ibid., no. 100. 220. Ibid., no. 105. 221. Ibid., no. 53. 222. Ibid., no. 102. 223. JAA, I, p. 52. 224. LDJC, pp. 255, 309.

Page #171
Jainism in Mathura We learn from an inscription excavated from Kankali lila that Dhamghosa (Dharmaghosa), a female disciple of venerable Jayasena, made a donation in the form of a temple (pasada).225 Another inscription speaks of the donation of an image of Mahavira, and of a shrine (devakula) by a lady named Ujhatika. 226 An inscription incised on a sculptured slab,227 which forms part of the collection of Government Museum, Mathura,228 reveals that a courtesan named Vasu, daughter of courtesan Lonasobhika (Lavanasobhika), together with some of her relatives, made a donation in the form of a shrine (devakula), an ayagasabha, a reservoir and stone slabs (sila-patta) to the arhat temple of the Nirgranthas for the worship of the arhats.229 The Jaina inscriptions excavated from Kankali Tila contain some unusual female names like Ujhatika,230 Okharika,231 Okha,232 Ogha233 and Akaka.234 The occurrence of such names suggests that some foreigners, too, had converted to Jainism.235 Jainism stands for the salvation of all men - considered high or low.236 It opened its arms even to those aliens who were despised as the mleccha in India.237 Jainism had in its fold many foreigners, too, and they had been mainly converted from among the Scythian immigrants.238 The spread of the Digambara sect in an island in the Indian Ocean, called Jainabhadri, and, 225. EI, X, Appendix, no. 99. 226. Ibid., no. 78. 227. MM no. Q.2. 228. Ibid. 229. Ibid. 230. EI, X, Appendix, no. 78., JPV., p. 18. 231. Ibid.; ibid. 232. Ibid. 233. Ibid., no. 29; JPV, p. 18; B.N. Puri, op. cit., p. 152. 234. Ibid., no. 48; Ibid., Ibid. 235. JPV, p. 18; B.N. Puri, op. cit., p. 152. 236. OISJ, p. 3. 237. Ibid. 238. EWA, VIII, p. 787. 149

Page #172
150 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Arabia, indicates that the Jainas were familiar with the idea of the conversion of foreigners.239 Hiuen Tsang's account makes it clear that Jainism had won converts in Kapisa, i.e., beyond the borders of India in the north-west.240 Numerous foreigners lived in Mathura during the Kusana period. The females named Ujhatika, Okharika, etc., if they were foreigners, as appears from their names, probably converted to Jainism from among these immigrants. The Jainas were called Nirgranthas in Mathura even during the Kusana period. 241 The tirthaskaras and the siddhas were held in great esteem by the Jainas. The donation made by a Jaina in the form of an image was often inscribed with an invocation of a particular arhat,242 or the arhats and the siddhas.243 We do not find use of the epithets jina, tirthamkara and tirthakara in the Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura.244 The epithets used for the jina or the tirthakara were arhat245 or arahamtas (arhats)246 or bhagavata 247 The Buddhists also used the epithet bhagavata for the Buddha at Mathura.248 Construction of temples and setting up of the images of the tirthamkaras and ayaga-pattas was the most significant aspect of the religious life of the Jainas at Mathura. It was a holy task in which all Jainas - male and female, high and low - participated with pleasure. The Jaina inscriptions of Mathura reveal that the bulk of donations by Jaina lay-devotees, male and female, was made at the request or command of the Jaina preceptors belonging to the various schools. 249 The religious zeal of the Jaina monks and nuns knew no 239. OISJ, p. 4 fn 4. 240. Samuel Beal, op. cit., I, p. 263; HOIC, I, p. 167; OISJ, p. 4 fn 4. 241. EI, X, Appendix, no. 102. 242. Ibid., no. 59. 243. Ibid., no. 57. 244. Ibid., Appendix, pp. 2 ff. 245. Ibid., nos. 47, 59, etc. 246. Ibid., no. 57. 247. Ibid., nos. 24, 26, 27. 248. Ibid., no. 43. 249. Ibid., nos. 16, 18, 20, etc.

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Jainism in Mathura bounds. They either requested or issued commands to the Jaina lay-devotees to make donations in the form of images, etc., and their command or request or wish for the same was fulfilled by their male and female disciples.250 It appears certain that the Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura were composed either by the preceptors (monks and nuns), who acted as spiritual directors of the lay-devotees, or by the pupils of the preceptors.251 This fact does not find mention in these inscriptions,252 but in numerous later inscriptions of the same character we find the names of the yatis who composed them.253 The Jaina inscriptions of Mathura are replete with the names of male and female donors and their relatives; they also mention the names of the male and female preceptors along with their schools, at whose command or request the donations were made.254 The Jaina images were installed in the temples, 255 houses and courtyards.256 Probably, they were installed in open spaces also.257 It appears that the Jaina temple at Mathura had a main shrine called the devakula, an ayagasabha or a sacred hall or place, and a reservoir (prapa).258 Stone slabs called ayaga-patta or sila-patta were also installed in the temples for worship.259 The Jaina temples were probably residences of the ascetics also. 260 The Jaina images were sometimes installed at the stupa also.261 The temple of the arhats 250. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 16, 50, etc. 251. EI, I, p. 377. 252. Ibid. 253. Ibid. 254. Ibid., X, Appendix, nos. 16, 24, 27-9, etc. 255. Ibid., Appendix, no. 78. 256. LDJC, pp. 255, 309. 257. JAA, I, p. 52. 258. EI, X, Appendix, no. 102; B.N. Puri, op. cit., p. 149. 259. Ibid., ibid. 260. Ibid., ibid. 261. Ibid., no. 47. 151

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152 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura (arhatayatana) at Mathura262 appears to have been a famous or important shrine. The Jaina stupa at Kankali lila was built many centuries before Christ. The natural inference is that stupa-worship was in vogue in this city even before the establishment of the Kusana rule in the first century AD. The dedication of an image of arhat Nandyavarta (Aranatha) at the so-called vodva stupa at Mathura by a female lay-worshipper named Dina (Datta)263 provides evidence of stupa-worship among the Jainas in the Kusana period also. Imageworship was in vogue among the Jainas at Mathura even before the commencement of the Christian era. The existence of a Jaina temple in this city in the second century BC provides unmistakable evidence of this practice. Worship of the jinas was an established practice among the Jainas at Mathura in the first and the second century AD. Donation of the images of arhats Rsabha,264 Santinatha,265 Aristanemi,266 Parsvanatha,267 Mahavira,268 etc., by the Jaina lay-devotees during this period bears testimony to this fact. Male and female deities of the Jaina pantheon like Naigmesa and Sarasvati were also worshipped during this period. A Jaina worker in metal at Mathura donated an image of Sarasvati,269 the goddess of learning in Hinduism and Jainism. This image of Sarasvati, which forms part of the collection of State Museum, Lucknow,270 is the oldest image of this goddess discovered in India.271 This discovery proves that worship of Sarasvati was also in vogue among the Jainas vestest le savolles castellesse O@ 5 il 262. EI, X, Appendix, no. 47. 263. Ibid. 264. Ibid., nos. 56, 117, 121, etc. 265. Ibid., no. 27. 266. Ibid., no. 26. 267. Ibid., no. 110. 268. Ibid., nos. 18, 28, 31, etc. 269. Ibid., no. 54. 270. SML no. J.24; JAA, I, Plate 20. 271. SIJA, p. 11; JAA, I, p. 67.

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Jainism in Mathura of this city in the Kusana period. 272 The Jaina lay-worshippers donated numerous ayaga-pattas273 which, too, were objects of worship.274 Architectural and sculptural antiquities brought to light by excavations at Mathura reveal that the Jainas worshipped the images ofthearhats in the kayotsarga and the dhyanastha-mudra; they also worshipped the stupa, the dharmacakra, the ayaga-patta, the dhvaja-pillar, auspicious symbols like the svastika, the srivatsa mark, the full-blown lotus, a pair of fish, minor male and female deities, etc., in this city.275 Yaksa-worship, nagaworship and tree-worship also formed part of the religious life of the Jainas.276 THE JAINA MONASTIC ORGANISATION AT MATHURA The Jaina Church at Mathura was a splendidly organised institution. The inscriptions reveal that support for Jainism in this city came mainly from the trading classes of society like workers in metal, ironmongers, perfumers, goldsmiths, cotton dealers, bankers, etc. The Jaina Church in this city enjoyed the support of a strong, affluent and well-organised body of lay-followers. The catuvarna samgha or the community of the four orders, 277 consisting of the monks, the nuns, and the lay-followers, male and female, was in excellent shape. Donations in the form of an image were sometimes addressed to, or made to the community of the four orders.278 The Jaina monks and nuns were fired with unbounded missionary zeal. The inscriptions discovered at Mathura reveal that the majority of donations by the Jaina male and female layfollowers were made at the request or command of the monks and the nuns.279 The Jaina order of monks was well-organised, and was strongly supported also. 272. SIJA, p. 11. 273. EI, X, Appendix, no. 94. 274. SIJA, p. 11; JAA, I, pp. 63-5. 275. EI, X, Appendix pp. 2ff; SIJA, pp. 10-11. 276. V.S. Agrawala, Ancient Indian Folk Cults, 1970, pp. 104, 116, 180. 277. EI, X, Appendix, no. 57. 278. Ibid. 279. Ibid., pp. 2ff. 153

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154 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The order of the nuns was equally well-organised and supported. The role of female lay-devotees was also significant. They were requested or ordered by the nuns to make donations. And, they complied with devotion.280 Female laydevotees did not renounce domestic life,281 but remained firm in their religious belief. We learn from the Kalpasutra that the Jaina monks were divided into units or divisions called the ganas, the kulas and the sakhas.282 The gana meant the school; its sub-divisions were called the kula and the sakha.283 Some of the ganas mentioned in the Kalpasutra derived their names from the name of the originator or the originators of the gana.284 Some of the kulas and the sakhas derived their names from regions, and some from persons.285 The practice of dividing the Jaina monks into units called the gana, the kula and the sakha originated in the second century BC or earlier.286 It must have been in vogue at the time of Bhadrabahu's composition of the Kalpasutra. A large number of Jaina inscriptions of Mathura contains the names of the donors; they also mention the names of the preceptors or religious teachers at whose request or command the donations were made; the names of the ganas, the kulas and the sakhas to which these preceptors belonged also find mention in these inscriptions.287 These epigraphs reveal that the Jaina monks at Mathura were organised on the lines mentioned in the Kalpasutra. They were divided into units called the gana, the kula, the sakha and the sambhoga. We do not find mention of the unit called the sambhoga in the Kalpasutra.288 280. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 20, 22, 27, etc. 281. Ibid., appendix, nos. 24, 28, 32. 282. OISJ, pp. 42-3; HJM, pp. 515-19. 283. Ibid., pp. 42-3. 284. HJM, p. 518. 285. Ibid. 286. Ibid., p. 519. 287. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2 ff; OISJ, p. 42. 288. HJM, p. 519.

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Jainism in Mathura / Buhler, too, did not mention this unit in his writings on this subject.289 But we find frequent mention of the unit called the sambhoga in the Jaina inscriptions of the Kusana period discovered at Mathura. The fragment of a Jaina inscription in mixed dialect discovered from Kankali lila, Mathura reads: Dedication by Mittra (Mitra), first wife of ... daughter-in-law of the ironmonger ... daughter of the ... at the request of the preacher (vachaka)..., the pupil of ... the preacher, ..., who was the companion of the gamin ..., who was the pupil of ...out of the Kottiya gana, the Brahmdasika kula, the Uchchairnagari sakha, the Srigyha sambhoga.290 The statements about the Jaina religious teachers and their schools embodied in the Jaina inscriptions of Mathura are important for the study of the early history of Jainism.291 Buhler's study of these epigraphs revealed that out of the eight ganas mentioned in the Sthaviravali of the Kalpasutra, three or possibly four ganas existed in Mathura in the Kusana period. 292 He also found that out of the numerous kulas and sakhas mentioned in the Kalpasutra, twenty existed in Mathura in the Kusana period. 293 Buhler's view that the Jainas ir Mathura belonged to the Svetambara sect during the Kusana period was formed on the basis of this similarity.294 We have already stated that there is no hint of the split in the Jaina Church of Mathura in this city's inscriptions of the Kusana period. The eight ganas mentioned in the Kalpasutra are - (1) the Carana gana, (2) The Godasa gana, (3) the Kodiya gana, (4) the Manava gana,(5) the Uddeha gana, (6) the Uduvadiya gana (7) the Uttarabalissaha gana and (8) the Vesavaoiya gana.295 Out of these eight ganas, three -- (1) The Varana gana,296 289. OISJ, pp. 42-3. 290. EI, X, Appendix, no. 29. 291. OISJ, p. 58. 292. Ibid., pp. 58-60. 293. Ibid. 294. Ibid., p. 44. 155

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156 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura called the Carana gana in the Kalpasutra;297 (2) the Kottiya gana,298 called the Kodiya gana in the Kalpasutra;299 and (3) the Odehikiya300 or the Uddehikiya gana,301 called the Uddeha gana in the Kalpasutra 302 flourished in Mathura during the Kusana period.303 The Kalpasutra mentions the Mehiya kula as one of the kulas of the Vesavadiya gana.304 We find mention of the Mehika or Maighika kula in one of the Jaina inscriptions discovered at Kankali Tila, Mathura.305 This is the reason for assuming that probably, the Vesavadiya gana also existed in Mathura during the Kusana period.306 According to the Kalpasutra, Srigupta of the Harita gotra founded the Carana gana, and it was divided into four sakhas and seven kulas.307 The four sakhas of the Carana gana mentioned in the Kalpasutra are -- (1) The Gavedhuya sakha, (2) the Hariyamalagari sakha, (3) the Samkasia sakha and (4) the Vajjanagari sakha.308 Three of these four sakhas of the Carana or the Varana gana -(1) Samkasia309 (2) Hariyamalagari310 and (3) Vajjanagari:11. 295. HJM, pp. 515-18. 296. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 58, 116, etc. 297. OISJ, p. 59; HJM, p. 515. 298. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 22, 24, etc. 299. OISJ, p. 58; HJM, p. 516. 300. EI, X, Appendix, no. 76. 301. Ibid. 302. HJM, p. 517. 303. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2 ff., nos, 54, 56, 76, 58, 116. 304. HJM, p. 518. 305. EI, X, Appendix, no. 70. 306. OISJ, p. 58; HJM, p. 518. 307. Ibid., p. 59; Ibid., p. 515. 308. Ibid.; Ibid. 309. EI, II, no. 36; HJM, p. 515. 310. EI, X, Appendix, no. 42. 311. Ibid., no. 16.

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Jainism in Mathura with slight variation in name, existed at Mathura in the first and second century AD.312 The seven kulas of the Carana gana mentioned in the Kalpasutra are - (1) the Ajjavedaya kula, (2) the Hallija kula, (3) the Kanhasaha kula, (4) the Mallijja kula, (5) the Pudhammiya kula, (6) the Pusamittijja kula and (7) the Vathalijja kula.313 The kulas of the Varana gana which existed in Mathura during the Kusana period were (1) the Arya Hattikiya kula314 (2) the Praitivarmika kula,315 (3) the Pusyamitriya kula, 316 (4) The Arya Cetika kula,317 (5) the Arya Bhista kula318 (6) The Arya Kaniyasika kula319 and (7) the Nadika or Nadika kula.320 One sambhoga of the Varana gana also existed in Mathura during the Kusana period. It was the Arya Srikiya sambhoga.32 321 The Kalpasutra informs that the Kodiya gana was founded by Susthita and Supratibuddha.322 The four sakhas of this gana are -- (1) the Majjhimilla sakha, (2) the Vairi sakha, (3) the Vajjahari sakha, and (4) the Uccanagari sakha.323 The Kottiya gana is mentioned in a large number of Jaina inscriptions of Mathura.324 It was one of the oldest and most respected ganas.325 Buhler opined that this gana originated in 250 BC326 and was the only gana which 312. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2ff; HJM, p. 515. 313. HJM, p. 515; OISJ, p. 59. 314. EI, X, Appendix, no. 16. 315. Ibid., no. 31. 316. Ibid., no. 34. 317. Ibid., no. 16. 318. Ibid., no. 50. 319. EI, X, Appendix, no. 113. 320. Ibid., no. 117. 321. Ibid., no. 50. 322. OISJ, pp. 58-9. 323. HJM, p. 516. 324. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2ff. 325. HJM, p. 518. 326. EI, I, p. 379-80. 4 EUR All 157

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158 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura existed as late as the fourteenth century AD. 327 All sakhas of the Kottiya gana called - (1) the Ucchanagari sakha,328 (2) the Madhyama sakha,329 (3) the Vajranagari sakha 330 and (4) the Vairi or Vajri sakha331 or the Arya Vajri sakha332 or the Vairi Vajri sakha333- existed in Mathura during the Kusana period. The Kalpasutra mentions four kulas of the Kodiya gana - (1) the Bambhalijja kula, (2) the Vanijja kula, (3) the Panhavahanaya kula and (4) the Vathalijja kula.334 The kulas of the Kottiya gana which existed in Mathura during the Kusana period were - (1) the Brahmadasika kula,335 (2) theSthanikiya kula ,336 (3) the Vatsaliya kula,337 (4) the Sthaniya kula338 and (5) the Prasnavahanaka kula.339 This gana had one sambhoga also. It was called the Sriglha sambhoga at Mathura during the Kusana period. 340 The gana called Uddeha in the Kalpasutra341 was known as the Uddehikiya gana342 or the Arya Uddehikiya gana343 at Mathura. There are only two references to this gana in the Jaina inscriptions of Mathura. The Kalpasutra 327. EI, I, p. 379. 328. Ibid., X, Appendix, nos. 19, 20, etc. 329. Ibid., no. 73. 330. Ibid., no. 16. 331. Ibid., no. 22. 332. Ibid., no. 27. 333. Ibid., no. 28. 334. HJM, p. 516. 335. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 19, 20, etc. 336. EI, I, no. 8; EI, II, no. 29. 337. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 22, 27, etc. 338. EI, II, no. 23. 339. HJM, pp. 516-18. 340. EI, X, Appendix, no. 27. 341. HJM, p. 517. 342. EI, X, Appendix, no. 76. 343. Ibid., no. 21.

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Jainism in Mathura makes mention of four sakhas of this gana.344 Only one sakha of this gana existed at Mathura during the Kusana period. 345 It was called the Paitaputrika sakha.346 According to the Kalpasutra, the Uddeha gana had six kulas. 347 The two kulas of this gana which existed at Mathura during the Kusana period were -- (1) the Arya Nagabhutikiya kula 348 and (2) the Paridhasika kula.349 According to the Kalpasutra, the Vesavadiya gana had four kulas and four sakhas.350 One of them was called the Mehiya kula.351 Probably, this kula was called the Mehika or Maighika kula at Mathura. We find mention of the Mehika or the Maighika kula in one of theJaina inscriptions of Mathura of the Kusana period. 352 It is probable that the Vesavaliya gana, too, existed at Mathura during the Kusana period. The Jaina inscriptions of Mathura probably provide the earliest information regarding the hierarchy in the Jaina Church. We find repeated mention of the titles ganin,353 vacaka,354 sraddhacara,355 sraddhacar7,356 astevasin ,357 astevasini,358 or amtevasikn7359 in the Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura. The titles ganin, astevasin and vacaka find mention in literature also. 344. HJM, p. 517. 345. EI, X, Appendix, no. 76. 346. Ibid. no. 76. 347. HJM, p. 517. 348. EI, I, no. 19. 349. EI, X, Appendix, no. 76. 350. HJM, p. 518. 351. Ibid. 352. EI, I, no. 2. 353. Ibid., nos. 4, 6, etc. 354. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 22, 27, etc. 355. Ibid., no. 29. 356. EI, I, no. 1; EI, II, no. 11. 357. EI, X, Appendix, no. 93. 358. Ibid., no. 99. 359. Ibid., no. 67. 159

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160 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The title ganin was used for the head of the gana or the school.360 The title vacaka was used for the preacher361 or the teacher.362 The title vacaka mentioned in these inscriptions is pointer of the fact that as early as the first century AD, the Jaina Church at Mathura possessed a class of teachers who were duty bound to read and explain religious texts to the junior monks. The title vacanacarya was current in Jainism even in the vs 1677,363 and the title vacaka is in use among the Jainas even these days. 364 The acarya, or the senior monk, was called arya 365 or arrya 366 or arya. 367 Sometimes even the nuns were called arya 368 instead of arya. The ordinary monk was called samana,369 i.e., sramana. The lay-devotee was called savaka,370 i.e., sravaka. The female lay-devotee was called samana-savika,371 i.e., sramanasravika. Generally speaking, all Jaina monks were called arya. The title arya was used for the ganin also. 372 The acarya or the monk was called bhadata or bhadanta also. 373 The ordinary male disciple was called astevasi374 or sisya.375 The ordinary female disciple was called astevasini376 or 360. OISJ, p. 42. 361. EI, I, nos. 3, 4, etc. 362. OISJ, p. 42. 363. HJM, p. 514 fn 6. 364. OISJ, p. 42. 365. EI, II, no. 20. 366. ASIAR, III, no. 3. 367. EI, I, no. 19. 368. Ibid., no. 2. 369. EI, II, no. 1. 370. EI, I, no. 30. 371. EI, X, Appendix, no. 102. 372. EI, I, no. 19. 373. EI, X, Appendix, no. 99. 374. Ibid., no. 93. 375. EI, I, nos. 9, 30, etc.

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Jainism in Mathura amtevasikini77 or sisyani.378 She was also called savika,379 i.e., sravika. The nuns were called ayika 380 also. Very few Jaina inscriptions belonging to the post-Kusana period have come to light at Mathura. Therefore, it is not possible to throw light on the organisation of the Jaina Church in this city after the end of the Kusana period. An inscription of the Gupta period 381 seems to indicate that probably the ganas and their sub-divisions existed during this period also. In the inscriptions of the medieval period the titles acarya, ganin, upadhyaya, suri and bhattaraka find repeated mention.382 Probably, these titles gained currency in Mathura also. Two peculiar titles embodied in the Jaina inscriptions are sraddhacara and sraddhacari. In the inscriptions the sraddhacara is mentioned as the companion of the monk.383 It is reasonable to assume that the sraddhacara was the colleague of the monk, or his disciple. The inscriptions mention the sraddhacari as the female companion of the nun.384 The sraddhacari must have been a colleague or the disciple of the nun. Mathura in Jaina literature Jaina literature is full of stories and references regarding the state of Jainism in Mathura. These texts describe Mathura as a centre of heretical ascetics.385 According to some Jaina texts, Mathura- also called Uttara Mahura -- was the capital city of Surasena country, and this country was acceptable to the 376. EI, II, no. 4. 377. Ibid., no. 21. 378. EI, I, no. 1. 379. EI, II, no. 2. 380. Ibid., no. 21. 381. 382. 383. 384. 385. LDJC, p. 255. EI, II, no. XXXIX. HJM, p. 514. EI, I, no. 4. EI, I, no.1; EI, II, no. 11. 161

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162 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jaina monks for sojourn.386 Jainism was, undoubtedly, in a flourishing state in Mathura in the first century and the second century AD. But due to the absence of relevant data it is difficult to assign a definite period to the happenings in Mathura described in the Jaina texts. The accounts left behind by Jinaprabha Suri and Somadeva leave us in no doubt that the Jainas viewed Mathura as a sacred city. In his Yasastilakacampu Somadeva makes mention of Urvila, a queen of Mathura, who used to send the rathayatra of the jina on the occasion of the Astahika-mahotsava.387 According to Jinaprabha Suri's Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, goddess Kubera told the Jainas of Mathura to worship the jina in their homes, and therefore, the practice of placing the image of the jina over the door-way was instituted in this city. 388 Harisena's Brhat-katha-kosa tells that Mathura was full of lofty Jaina temples.389 He also mentions the Jaina rathayatra festival of Mathura, and tells that five Jaina stupas were built in this city after the defeat of the Buddhists in the controversy with the Jainas.390 Another Jaina text tells that Mathura was a great centre of Jainism, and that ninety-six villages were attached to this city.391 It also tells that people installed the images of the arhats in their homes and court-yards in this city and the villages attached to it.392 We learn from the Jaina texts that there were many gardens in Mathura, one of which was called bhamdira.393 It contained the shrine of yaksa Sudarsana.394 We are told that Mathura was renowned for pilgrimage to the temple of yaksa bhamdira.395 Parsvanatha is said to have 386. MCH, p. 210. 387. Yasastilaka, pp. 416-17; MCH, p. 210. 388. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 17ff; Ibid. 389. MCH, p. 211. 390. Ibid. 391. LDJC, pp. 255, 309. 392. Ibid. 393. Vividha-Tirtha Kalpa, pp. 17ff; LDJC, p. 255 fn 6; MCH, P. 211. 394. MCH, p. 211. 395. Ibid.; LDJC, p. 255.

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Jainism in Mathura visited the garden called bhamdira. 396 Probably, Mahavira also stayed in this garden397 in the course of his visit to Mathura.398 This garden was, undoubtedly, held in great esteem by the Jainas. A Jaina inscription excavated at Kankali Tila is a record of the installation of an ayaga-patta at bhandira by a goldsmith.399 Yaksa-worship was a feature of Jaina religious life,400 and Parsvanatha's visit to the bhamdira garden,401 which contained the shrine of yaksa Sudarsana, 402 is probably an indication of a thriving yaksa cult at Mathura.403 Some terracotta seals bearing tri-ratna symbol, which form part of the collection of Government Museum, Mathura,404 have come to light in this city. Such seals were probably built to serve as mementoes for the Jaina pilgrims to this city. In the Jaina texts we also find mention of the didactic tale of sravaka Jinadasa of Mathura whose two bulls named Kambala and Sambala also performed vrtas with him.405 The Jaina literature also makes mention of a Yavana king of Mathura who murdered a Jaina monk named Damda. 406 We are also told that this king, subsequently, became a Jaina monk to make amends for this crime.407 Two famous Jaina monks - acarya Mamgu and acarya Rakkhiya - also visited Mathura.408 Jambusvami, the last kevalin, is said to have performed penance in this city. 396. MCH, p. 211. 397. JAA, I, pp. 63-4. 398. Vivagasuya, p. 45, cited in JAA, I, p. 50. 399. EI, X, Appendix no. 95. 400. V.S. Agrawala, Ancient Indian ... , op. cit., p. 104. 401. MCH, P. 211. 402. Ibid.; LDJC, p. 255. 403. Ibid., p. 211. 404. MM no. 2462. 405. MCH, p. 211. 406. Ibid. 407. Ibid. 408. JDJC, p. 255. 163

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164 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jainism in Mathura - Post-Kusana period The Kusana period was an age of great economic prosperity for Mathura. Many important trade routes passed through this city.409 In the Jaina literature Mathura is mentioned as a thalpattan where goods were carried by land route.410 This city was a great emporium, and its people lived by trade and not agriculture. 411 The majority of the Jainas in Mathura belonged to the trading classes. It was the flourishing trade at Mathura which accounted for the affluence of the Jaina community in this city. Economic prosperity enabled the Jainas to build and maintain magnificent religious edifices in Mathura. The disintegration of the Kusana empire disrupted the political and economic patterns which had handsomely contributed to Mathura's economic prosperity, and this city gradually sank to the level of a regional town.412 The decline in the fortunes of Mathura must have affected the Jaina trading classes also. Therefore, there was a sharp decline in the building activities of the Jainas at Mathura. After the downfall of the Kusana dynasty no new Jaina religious building appears to have been constructed at Mathura up to the eleventh century AD. Excavations at Mathura have unearthed 84 Jaina inscriptions assignable to the Kusana period. 413 These inscriptions are a record of the Jaina donations in Mathura made in the form of images, temples, ayagapattas, etc. The post-Kusana period was characterised by a revolutionary decline i the number of Jaina donations in Mathura. It is evident from the fact that only 6 Jaina inscriptions of the post-Kusana period have come to light at Mathura.414 These facts are indicative of decline in the popularity of Jainism in the postKusana period at Mathura. But it would be wrong to presume that Jainism lost 409. MCH, pp. 46-54; Moti Chandra, Sarthavaha, 1953, pp. 4ff 410. LDJC, p. 309. 411. Ibid. 412. MCH, p. 54. 413. EI, X, pp. 2 ff; JPV, p. 18; Scythian Period, op. cit., p. 149 fn 16. 414. JS, Introduction, pp. 1 ff; EI, II, nos. XXXVIII-XL, XLI.

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Jainism in Mathura appealin Mathura after the second century AD. Subsequent history is illustrative of the fact that unlike Buddhism, which was almost completely wiped out of existence in this city after the seventh century AD, Jainism remained a living religion in Mathura up to the eleventh century AD. Mathura fell under the rule of the Naga dynasty after the extinction of the Kusana empire. There is no evidence that the Naga rulers extended patronage to Jainism.415 Mathura became a part of the Gupta empire after the downfall of the Nagas of Mathura.416 The majority of the Gupta rulers were devout Hindus. But they were tolerant of other religions. Neither Jainism nor Buddhism suffered at their hands. Literary and archaeological sources reveal that Hinduism was in a flourishing state in Mathura during the Gupta period. These sources reveal that Buddhism, which had become a popular religion at Mathura within a decade or two after the conclusion of the second Buddhist Council at Vaisali,417 was a fairly popular religion in Mathura in the Gupta period also. The Chinese traveller Fahien, who saw twenty Buddhist monasteries housing about three thousand monks, 418 and six Buddhist stupas at Mathura, 419 made no mention of Jainism in this city. 420 But Fahien's silence should not lead us to the conclusion that Jainism did not exist in Mathura during the Gupta period. Only three Jaina inscriptions of the Gupta period have come to light at Mathura.421 But the discovery of 59 Jaina sculptures of the Gupta period at Mathura422 is evidence that Jainism had not lost its appeal in this city. A council was held at Mathura under the presidentship of Arya Skandil for the fixation of the Jaina canon in the fourth 415. JPV, p. 19. 416. CII, III, nos. 1, 4, 63. 417. CMHI, II, pp. 82-3. 418. The Travels of Fa-Hsien, tr. H.A. Giles, 1956, p. 20. 419. Samuel Beal, op. cit., Introduction, xxxvii-xxxviii. 420. JPV, p. 19. 421. EI, II, no. XXXVIII-XL, 422. JAA, I, p. 107. 165

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166 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura century AD. 423 This is another evidence of the fact that in spite of decline in popularity Jainism continued to survive at Mathura during the Gupta period. The Huna invasions of the sixth century AD destroyed many art treasures of Mathura, and also initiated the process of Buddhism's decline in this city. 124 Buddhism was in existence at Mathura when the Chinese traveller Huein Tsang visited it in the seventh century AD.425 But by the end of the tenth century AD the vigorous cults of Hinduism, which included worship of Siva, Sakti and Visnu, absorbed Buddhism.426 It is clear from the accounts of the Muslim historians of the eleventh century AD that Mathura was a Hindu city devoted to Vaisnavism, particularly to the Krsna cult.427 Contemporary Muslim historians make no mention of Jainism and Buddhism in Mathura in the eleventh century AD. In fact, Buddhism had become non-existent in this city by this time. But archaeological material unearthed from Kankali lila bears testimony to the fact that Jainism existed in Mathura even in the eleventh century AD. The Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila was in existence when Somadeva composed his Yasastilakacampu in AD 959. It was still called devanirmita. An antiquity in the collection of State Museum, Lucknow furnishes evidence that this stupa was in existence at least up to AD 979.428 A great misfortune enveloped Mathura in the first quarter of the eleventh century AD. Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Mathura in AD 1018 and wrought havoc in this city, which was plundered, burnt and destroyed.429 But somehow the two Jaina temples at Kankali lila 423. HJM, p. 20; LDJC, p. 33; JPV, p. 19. 424. R.C. Sharma, The Buddhist Art of Mathura, 1984, p. 35; N. Dutt and K.D. Bajpai, Development of Buddhism in Uttar Pradesh, 1956, p. 391. 425. Watters, On Yuwan Chaung's Travels in India, vol. I, 1904, pp. 301-13. 426. SFE, Foreword, xxi. 427. Alberuni's India, ed. Sachau, vol. I, 1914, pp. 199, 401; Elliot and Dowson, II, pp. 44 5; John Briggs, tr. Ferishta's work, vol. I, 1908, p. 58. 428. SML no. J. 236; MCH, p. 332. 429. Elliot and Dowson, II, pp. 44-5; John Briggs, op. cit., pp. 58-9.

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Jainism in Mathura escaped destruction. The Jaina donative inscription dated vs 1080, i.e., AD 1023, and the colossal image of tirtharkara Padmaprabhanatha dated vs 1134, i.e., AD 1077, prove that the two Jaina temples at Kankala lila, Mathura - one built in the second century BC and the other about the beginning of the Christian era -- escaped destruction at the time of Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion of this city in AD 1018, and were centres of Jaina worship during the greater part of the eleventh century AD.430 Neither literature nor archaeology holds the clue to the subsequent fate of these Jaina temples. Either time took toll of them or 'they suffered destruction at some later date'.431 These temples stood in the vicinity of the Jaina stupa at Kankali Tila. The Jaina stupa, if it stood intact at the time of Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion of Mathura in AD 1018, too, would have escaped destruction. The expression mathurastupastutaya used in Jinaprabha Suri's VividhaTirtha-Kalpa, composed between AD 1307 and AD 1340, seems to convey the impression that the stupa at Kankali Tila was in existence as late as the first half of the fourteenth century AD.432 Mathura was in a state of ruin for many centuries after Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion. It appears doubtful that this stupa managed to exist as late as the fourteenth century AD. We shall turn to this in the last chapter of the book. 430. JS, Introduction, pp. 3-4; Yasastilaka, p. 433; EI, II, p. 211 fn 35. 431. Ibid., pp. 3-4; Ibid., p. 433. 432. MCH, pp. 210-11. 167

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Second Century BC to Eleventh Century AD THERE is no room for the worship of a Creator God in the philosophy of Jainism. Yet, during the course of about 2500 years the Jainas have produced innumerable images and numerous shrines in honour of the tirthamkaras in various parts of India. Mathura - the principal seat of Jainism in north India in the early centuries of the Christian eral and the oldest and most renowned centre of Jaina art? -- developed as the leading centre of Jaina art and architecture even before the beginning of the Christian era. This city played a significant role in the development of Jaina iconography.' In fact, the history of Jaina iconography is intimately connected with the history of Jaina iconography of Mathura. Character of the Jaina art of Mathura Archaeological excavations have brought to light a large number of Jaina antiquities, sculptural as well as architectural. The study of this immense archaeological material has highlighted the fact that the Jaina art of Mathura was not sectarian in character. As elsewhere in India, the Jaina art of Mathura bore a striking resemblance with the Hindu and Buddhist art.5 1. CMHI, II, p. 355. 2. ISP,p.1. 3. Ibid. 4. IGI, II, p. 110; SIJA, p. 3; JS, Introduction, pp. 1-6. 5. JAA, I, Editorial, pp. 3ff. 1691

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170 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura In ancient India all religions - Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism - used the art of the age and drew from the common store-house of symbolic and conventional devices. Therefore, no Jaina artistic or architectonic creation can be studied and described in isolation from the mainstream of Indian art and architecture.7 Jainism has its distinct religious and mythological concepts. Therefore, the Jainas produced sculptural forms which are not found in the creations of Hinduism and Buddhism. But even in the production of such sculptures the Jainas adopted the style of the region and the period. Therefore, by Jaina art is meant specimens of art which were created under the patronage of the Jainas.10 Background of the Jaina art of Mathura A large number of tirthamkara images were carved at Mathura during the period under review. But it would be wrong to assume that this city took the lead in the carving of jina images. It has been held by some scholars that the figures of the tirthamkaras were chiselled as early as the period of Harappan civilisation. This view has been held on the basis of the discovery of a nude torso from Harappa and some seals at Mohen-jo-daro which contain depiction of human figures standing in a posture, which is closely analogous to the standing meditative posture called the kayotsarga-mudra in Jainism." But there is no indisputable evidence that the figures depicted are tirthamkara figures. 12 According to Jinaprabha Suri, a stone sculpture of Parsvanatha was installed in front of the Jaina stupa at Mathura at the behest of goddess 6. IGI, II, p. 110; SIJA, p. 3; JS, Introduction, p. 6. 7. JAA, I, Editorial, p. 3. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. SIJA, p. 3. 11. 12. Ibid., p. 3 fn 1. Ibid., p. 3; JAA, I, Editorial, p. 3.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Kubera after that tirthamkara's departure from this city.13 This story suggests that a stone image of Parsvanatha was carved as early as the nintheighth century BC. But no image of Parsvanatha assignable to this period has come to light at Mathura. U.P. Shah holds that a sandalwood portrait sculpture of Mahavira was carved in that tirthamkara's lifetime. 14 Many scholars do not agree with this view. A. Ghosh writes, That the practice was prevalent at the time of Mahavira himself is not established: the legend of the queen of Uddayana of Vitabhayapattana (unknown from any other source), a contemporary of Mahavira himself, having worshipped a sandalwood statue of the tirthankara, has its counterpart in the legend of Buddha's contemporary Udayana of Kausambi having installed an image of Buddha prepared out of the same material.15 But there is unmistakable evidence that the image of the jina was chiselled in the third century BC if not in the fourth century BC. There is a reference in the Hathigumpha inscription to the removal of a jina image from Kalinga to Pataliputra by the Magadhan king Nanda at the time of his invasion of Kalinga.16 The Nanda kings ruled in the fourth century BC.17 It is, thus, evident from the Hathigumpha inscription that the practice of chiselling tirthamkara images was in vogue in the fourth century BC. A highly polished torso of a jina image has been discovered from Lohanipur near Patna.18 The Lohanipur jina image is a contemporary or near-contemporary of the yaksa statues.19 It was carved on the stylistic pattern of the yaksa statues.20 The 13. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 17ff; SIJA, pp. 62-3. 14. SIJA, p. 4. 15. JAA, I, Editorial, p. 4 fn 1; also see JPV, p. 16. 16. EI, XX, pp. 71-89. 17. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, ed., Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, 1952, p. 12. 18. Ibid., p. 425; SIJA, p. 5; JAA, I, Editorial, p. 3. 19. JAA, I, pp. 3-4. 20. Ibid. 5:0 171

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172 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura yaksa figures were chiselled in the third century BC.21 It is, thus, certain that the Lohanipur jina image, too, was carved in the third century Bc. No image of the Buddha or of a Brahmanical deity has been discovered so far which may be called as ancient as the Lohanipur jina image.22 In the light of these facts it appears almost certain that it was Jainism which took the lead in carving images for veneration.23 A study of Jaina antiquites discovered at Mathura reveals that the interest of the artists of this city and of their Jaina clientele revolved mainly round the production of the images of the tirthamkaras, and that they took negligible interest in sculptures which depicted incidents from their life. Therefore, we find an extremely limited depiction of incidents from the life of the jinas in the plastic art of Mathura.24 Predecessors of tirthamkara images of Mathura The Jaina devotees needed the images of the jinas for worship, and the artists of Mathura produced them in large numbers. But these images did not spring to life at once. Like Brahmanism and Buddhism, image-worship in Jainism was preceded by worship of symbols.25 The tirthamkara figures of Mathura had their predecessors in sacred symbols like the stupa, the pillar and the ayaga-patta or the sila-patta.26 THE STUPA The stupa was an object of Jaina worship. The depiction of stupa-worship was one of the favourite themes of the sculptors of Mathura. Excavations at 21. V.S. Agrawala, Pre-Kusana Art of Mathura, 1984, p. 17; R.C. Sharma, The Splendour ..., op. cit., p. 36. 22. JAA, I, Editorial, p. 3. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid., p. 65. 25. MCH, p. 333. 26. Ibid.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Mathura have brought to light a number of Jaina sculptures which contain depiction of stupa-worship, realistically as well as artistically. 27 THE PILLAR The pillar known as cetiya-stambha was also an object of Jaina worship at Mathura.28 Therefore, construction of pillars at Mathura was a logical outcome of the Jaina urge for pillar-worship. One of the corner uprights assignable to the second century BC discovered at Mathura, depicts a lion pillar within a railing being worshipped by a male and a female devotee.29 There is nothing specifically Jaina in this depiction. But depiction of lion pillars of this type on Jaina art objects called ayaga-pattas or sila-pattas30 is indicative of the practice of pillar-worship in Jainism in this period. The artists of Mathura also built elephant pillars for Jaina worship. This is manifest from a Jaina inscription of Mathura belonging to the time of the Kusana king Huviska, which records the setting-up of an elephant named Namdivisala for the worship of the arhats.31 THE SILA-PATTAS OR AYAGA-PATTAS The word ayaga-patta frequently occurs in the Jaina dedicatory inscriptions exposed by excavations at Mathura.32 The word sila-patta also finds mention in one of the Jaina inscriptions discovered from this city. 33 Ayaga-patta is a compound word. Patta means a slab or a tablet. The list of names embodied in the Jaina text entitled Angaviija,34 and a passage in the Ramayana of 27. MM no. Q.2, etc. 28. MCH,p. 333. 29. SML no. J.268; MCH, p. 333. 30. MM no. Q. 2. 31. EI, X, Appendix, no. 41. 32. Ibid., pp. 2ff. 33. Ibid., Appendix, no. 102; MM no. Q. 2. 34. MCH, p. 333. 173

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174 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Valmiki, make it clear that ayaga was a sacred place.35 The meaning of the word ayaga-patta is, thus, a slab or tablet installed in a sacred place. Ayagapattas were stone slabs, square or rectangular in shape. Archaeological excavations conducted at Mathura have brought to light twenty-seven stone tablets, mostly square and sometimes rectangular in shape 36 In the Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura, these stone tablets have been named ayaga-pattas37 and sila-pattas installed for the worship of the arhats.39 These ayaga-pattas form a class of their own.40 Most of them have been assigned to pre-Kusana period on stylistic and paleographic grounds.But some of them, probably, belong to the Kusana period. 42 The ayaga-pattas were handmaids of religion and their religious character is proved by the inscriptions incised on them. They clearly state that these stone slabs were installed for worship of the arhats.43 Their religious character is also evident from the depiction of the stupa,4 figures of the tirthamkaras,45 caitya-vrksa,46 dharma-cakra"7 and auspicious symbols 48 on some of them. The ayaga-pattas were installed at sacred places or spots. According to 35. MCH, p. 333; EI, I, p. 396 fn 28. 36. Ibid., p. 333. 37. EI, X, Appendix, nos. 94, 103, etc. 38. Ibid., no. 102. 39. Ibid., nos. 102, 100, 105, etc. 40. JAA, I, p. 64. 41. JS, pp. 14-21; JAA, I, p. 64; MCH, p. 333. 42. Ibid., ibid., ibid. 43. EI, II, p. 314; EI, X, Appendix nos. 102, 100, 105; MM no. Q. 2. 44. MM no. Q. 2; SML no. J.250. 45. SML no. J.253. 46. JS, Plate IX, p. 16. 47. SML no. J. 248; SIJA, p. 77. 48. SML nos. J.248, J.250, J.252; MCH, p. 333.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura V.S. Agrawala49 and Debala Mitra,50 a tympanum in the collection of National Museum,51 indicates that the ayaga-pattas were installed on high and solid platforms in slanting position in the premises of the stupa. The ayaga-pattas were not mere ornamental slabs;52 they were objects of worship in themselves.53 According to Debala Mitra, the manner in which sprinkling of flowers is depicted on two of the four ayaga-pattas in the tympanum in collection of National Museum, lends support to the presumption that ayaga-pattas were objects of worship in themselves.54 V.S. Agrawala holds that the ayaga-pattas, perphaps sixteen in number, were originally objects of worship in themselves; but subsequently, they became a medium for worship of the stupa, and flowers and other offerings were directly placed on them.55 N.P. Joshi offers a slightly different suggestion. He opines that some ayaga-pattas, i.e., SML No. J.248,56 SML No. J.25057 and NM. No. J.249 discovered at Mathura are still in mint condition, and do not show any sign that flowers and other offerings were placed on them for centuries.58 In his opinion the ayaga-pattas were probably fixed at same high spot and were meant to be seen and adored from distance.59 Inscriptions and literature throw more light on this subject. A Jaina inscription discovered at Mathura clearly states that a courtesan named Vasu donated a sila-patta or stone slab for installation in arhatayatana or the 49. V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, 1966, pp. 280-1. 50. JAA, I, p. 63. 51. 52. JAA, I, p. 64. 53. NM no. J.555; JAA, I, Plates 12, 13. V.S. Agrawala, op. cit., pp. 280-1. 54. JAA, I, p. 64. 55. V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, op.cit., pp. 280-1. 56. JAA, I, Plate 16. 57. Ibid., Plate 14. 58. MCH, p. 333. 59. Ibid. 5 175

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176 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura temple of the arhats. It is, therefore, evident that the ayaga-pattas or the sila-pattas were installed in the temples also. The ayaga-pattas were also installed in the gardens or the spots considered sacred by the Jainas. This is evdent from the Jaina inscription excavated at Kankali lila which records the installation of the ayaga-pattas in bhamdira by a goldsmith.61 We learn from Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa of Jinaprabha Suri that bhamdira was a garden in Mathura.62 This garden contained the shrine of yaksa Sudarsana63 and was visited by Parsvanatha.64 Probably, Mahavira also halted in this garden during his visit to Mathura.65 It is evident that the ayaga-pattas were installed in the bhandira garden because the visit of Parsvanatha and Mahavira had sanctified it. The word ayaga-sabha also occurs in one of the Jaina inscriptions that have come to light at Mathura.66 It appears certain that the ayaga-sabha was a sacred place or shrine. It is difficult to exactly define the Jaina shrine called the ayaga-sabha. Probably, it was akin to a later Jaina shrine called pausadhasala where a person kept fast or sat in meditation to practise some tapa or propitiate a deity.67 U.P. Shah is of opinion that probably the ayagapattas were installed and worshipped in the ayaga-sabha also.68 According to him, there was no difference between the sila-patta and the ayaga-patta; the stone slab called the sila-patta in the Jaina texts were mentioned as the ayaga-patta in some of the Jaina inscriptions discovered at Mathura.69 He 60. EI, X, Appendix, no. 102; MM no. Q.2. 61. Ibid., no. 95. 62. Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, pp. 17ff; LDJC, p. 255 fn 26. 63. MCH, p. 211. 64. Ibid. 65. JAA, I, pp. 63-4. 66. EI, X, Appendix, no. 102; MM no. Q. 2. 67. SIJA, p. 84. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid., pp. 69-70.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura opines that the sila-pattas were placed on a small platform at the foot of the vrksas sacred to the yaksas and the nagas.' Tree-worship was an ancient practice and it took the form of worship of the sila-pattas in Jainism." U.P. Shah suggests that the stone slabs called the ayaga-patta in the Jaina inscriptions of Mathura evolved from the stone slabs called the sila-patta in the Jaina canons.72 The foregoing discussion leads us to the conclusion that the stone slabs or tablets called the sila-patta in the Jaina canons and one of the Jaina inscriptions of Mathura, and the ayaga-patta in many epigraphs of this city, were objects of worship in themselves. The ayaga-pattas were installed on high solid platforms near the main stupa, probably in front of its four cardinal sides.73 They were also fixed at some high spot so as to be seen and adored from distance. 74 They were also installed in the temples, ayaga-sabhas, sacred gardens, and under trees considered sacred by the Jainas. The ayaga-pattas excavated at Mathura are splendid objects of the Jaina art of this city. These stone slabs depict beautiful carving. Except a few, the ayaga-pattas were carved on one side and not both.74 The carving on t stone slabs is luxuriant and bears testimony to the skill and zeal of the sculptors who carved them. The artists beautified the ayaga-pattas by compositions of rare excellence.76 From the point of view of art the ayagapattas from Mathura rank among some of the most beautiful specimens of the celebrated Mathura school of sculpture; they are exceedingly well-conceived and the composition conveys the meaning of the symbolism they seek to represent.77 70. SIJA, pp. 69-70. 71. Ibid. 72. Ibid. 73. JAA, I, p. 63. 74. MCH, p. 333. 75. JAA, I, p. 64. 76. Ibid. 77. V.S. Agrawala, Studies ..., op. cit., pp. 178-9. 177

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178 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The artists carved a large number of religious and secular symbols on the ayaga-pattas. Auspicious symbols called the asta-mangalas in Jainism were also carved. The asta-mangalas - svastika, srivatsa, nandyavarta (cross with circular arms), varddhamanaka (powder-flask), bhadrasana (sacred seat), kalasa (full-vase), darpana (mirror), and matsya or matsya-yugma (fish or pair of fish) --- are known to Jaina worship from ancient times, and are often referred to in the Jaina canonical and other texts as decorating tops of architraves or ramparts, or placed on caitya-trees, platforms, painted on walls, etc.78 Some of the Mathura ayaga-pattas contain total or partial depiction of the asta-mangals.79 The study of the Mathura ayaga-pattas, however, reveals that the set of eight auspicious symbols called the astamangalas was not finally settled upto the Kusana period.80 The tradition of eight auspicious symbols as depicted on the Mathura ayaga-pattas, especially on the ayaga-patta donated by Sihanadika, 81 is slightly different from the later tradition.82 It is evident that in the representation of the eight auspicious symbols, the artists of Mathura followed the older tradition, which is slightly different from the tradition recorded in the Jaina canons available these days.83 Some of the symbols carved on these ayaga-pattas are the kalpaurksa,84 the full vase, 85 the stupa,86 coiled reptiles with human bodies, 87 dragons, 88 78. SIJA, p. 109. 79. Ibid., pp. 109-10. 80. SIJA, p. 110. 81. SML no. J.249. 82. SIJA, p. 110. 83. Ibid., pp. 110-11. 84. SML nos. J.250, J.252; MCH, p. 333. 85. Ibid., no. J.252; ibid. 86. MM no. Q.2. 87. SML no. J.248, no. J.250; MCH, p. 333. 88. Ibid., no. J.252; ibid.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura creepers coming out of the jars,89 etc. The artists of Mathura used many Indian and foreign motifs for the beautification of the ayaga-pattas. Motifs like vine creepers, mangalas, winged animals, dancing figures, etc., can be noticed in the border frame of these stone slabs.90 Some sacred objects like the wheel and nandyavarta were carved along with decorative motifs in the inner field of the ayaga-pattas.91 In some slabs miniature figures of seated jinas were also depicted.92 The ayaga-pattas of this variety belong to a class of their own. They illustrate an admixture of symbol-worship and imageworship. 94 The ayaga-pattas, which are the oldest objects of the Jaina art of Mathura,93 rank among the finest creations of the sculptural art of this city. Production of these homage slabs was an innovation of the artists of Mathura and was confined to this city. Numerous ayaga-pattas were produced at Mathura during the pre-Kusana and Kusana period because these formed part of the religious donations of the Jainas. Excavations have not exposed any ayaga-patta which may be assigned to the post-Kusana period. It is clear that the era of the carving of independent stone images of the Jaina deities which commenced in the Kusana period announced the closure of the era of the ayaga-pattas. Tirthamkara images of Mathura: Pre-Kusana period The earliest representation of the tithamkaras at Mathura occurs on an architectural object which was originally a lintel in the second century BC, but was subsequently transformed into a railing pillar.95 Available portions of the 89. SML no. J.686a; MCH, p. 333. 90. MCH, p. 333. 91. Ibid., pp. 333-4. 92. MM no. 47. 49; JAA, I, Plate 15. 93. 94. 95. ISP, p. 1. Ibid. SML no. J.354 and J.609; MCH, p. 335. 5 : 179

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura lintel seem to have been divided into two parts; the first one shows apsara Nilanjana dancing in the royal court, and the second depicts two jinas seated in meditation. Subsequently, the figures of the tirtharkaras were carved on the ayaga-pattas. One of these ayaga-pattas can be assigned to 50 BC.971 This ayaga-patta depicts the nude figure of a jina who is seated cross-legged with his hands on the lap.98 This figure depicts plain hair and loose crosslegging.99 The srivatsa mark on the chest of the jinas was an innovation introduced by the artists of Mathura in the Kusana period. 100 This mark as well as the nimbus, charcteristics of the later jina figures of Mathura, are conspicuous by their absence in the aforesaid miniature jina figure.101 The lanchanas (congnizances or distinctive marks) of the various jinas had not been determined at this stage of Jaina iconography.102 But, this figure can be identified as the figure of Parsvanatha because of the seven-hooded serpentcanpoy manifest over the head of the jina'.103 Tirtharkara images of Mathura: The Kusana period The figures of the jinas were the most significant products of the Jaina iconography of Mathura in the Kusana period. The Jaina texts of the Kusana period do not contain guidelines in respect of the production of the jina image.104 But early Jaina works like Avasyaka Nirvyuha (gatha 969) suggest that the jinas are represented in the world in the posture in which they left it.105 We learn from other Jaina texts that twenty-one tirtharkaras attained 96. SML no. J.354 and J.609; MCH, p. 335. 97. Ibid., no. J.253; Ibid., Plate 34.1 and p. 335. 98. Ibid., ibid.; ibid. 99. Ibid., ibid., ibid. 100. ISP,p.1. 101. SML no. J.253; MCH, p. 335. 102. JAA, I, p. 65; JPV, p. 250; R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ... op. cit., p. 145. 103. Ibid., ibid., ibid. 104. MCH, pp. 335-6. 105. Ibid., p. 353.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura nirvana in the standing posture, and three, i.e., Rsabha, Nemi and Mahavira left this world in the sitting posture.106 The figures or images of the Buddha were carved in many postures - the earth-touching posture, (the bhumisparsa-mudra), the protection posture (the abhaya-mudra), the meditative posture (the dhyana-mudra), the turning of the wheel posture (the dharmacakra-pravartana-mudra), etc. 107 But the artists of Mathura carved the images of the jinas in only two postures - the seated meditative posture called the dhyanastha-mudra or the padmasana-mudra, and the standing meditative posture called the kayotsarga-mudra in Jainism.108 It appears that the sculptors of Mathura followed the guidelines embodied in the early Jaina texts by carving the images of the jinas in only two postures. But they did not follow these guidelines in their entirety. It is evident from many tirthamkara images of the Kusana period carved at Mathura. Among the twenty-four tirthamkaras, Rsabha, Nemi and Mahavira are said to have attained nirvana in the sitting posture. Therefore, in view of the guidelines embodied in the early Jaina texts, the images of these three tirtharkaras should have been chiselled in the seated meditative posture only. But the sculptors of Mathura carved the images of Rsabha109 and Mahaviral10 in the kayotsarga-posture also during the Kusana period. Sambhavanatha is said to have left this world in the standing posture. But the sculptors of Mathura carved his image both in the standinglil and the seated112 meditative posture during this period. Parsvanatha had attained 106. MCH;p. 353; OISJ, p. 66. 107. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures... op. cit., p. 145;N. Dutt and K.D. Bajpai, Development of Buddhism in Uttar Pradesh, 1956, pp. 384-5. 108. Ibid., p. 145; JPV, p. 48. 109. MM no. B. 36; JUPHS, III, p. 9. 110. SML nos. J.2, J.9; MCH, p. 353. 111. SML no.J.13; MCH, p. 353. 112. SML no. J.19; ibid. 181

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182 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura nirvana in the standing posture. But the sculptors of Mathura chiselled his image in the seated posture during the Kusana period. 113 It is evident that they followed a different tradition in carving the images of the jinas. Most of the jina figures in this city were produced in the seated meditative posture. This is evident from the fact that out of 119 tirtharkara figures assignable to the Kusana period which have come to light at Mathura, 93 are in the seated meditative posture.114 A principal characteristic of the jina figures of Mathura of the Kusana period is their nudity. Except for a few sculptures belonging to the Ardhaphalaka sect of Jainism, 115 all Jaina figures of Mathura belonging to the Kusana period are entirely nude.116 The depiction of partly clothed Jaina monks in all bas-reliefs of Mathura except one is indicative of the fact that a large number of Jainas in this city belonged to the Ardhaphalaka sect of Jainism in the pre-Christian period and the early centuries of the Christian era. 117 Among the tirthamkaras only Rsabha and Mahavira are said to have preached complete nudity. Therefore, the existence of the Ardhaphalaka sect in Mathura during the aforesaid period does not cause surprise. Complete nudity of the jina images of Mathura of the Kusana period led A. Cunningham to the conclusion that they belonged to the Digmabara sect.118 But we agree with the view of B.C. Bhattacharyal19 and U.P. Shah 120 113. SML no. J.25+113; ibid. 114. MCH, p. 332. 115. MS, p. 24. 116. Ibid.; SIJA, p. 11; JPV, p. 48. 117. MCH, p. 347. It may, however, be pointed out that depiction of partly clothed Jaina monks in the bas-reliefs is not a conclusive evidence of a distinct division of the Jainas into the Svetambaras and the Digambaras at Mathura in the pre Kusana and Kusana period. 118. ASIAR, III, p. 46. 119. JI, p. 42. 120. SIJA, p. 11.

Page #205
Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura that the difference between the jina images of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras in respect of drapery and nudity did not exist in the Kusana period. 121 The jina images of Mathura of the Gupta period, too, are nude. We have already stated that there is no hint of the split in the Jaina Church in the inscriptions discovered at Mathura. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that the points of difference between the images of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras are posterior to even the Gupta period. The lanchanas of the various jinas had not evolved during the Kusana period. Therefore, it is very difficult to differentiate one tirtharkara from the other in this huge mass of jina figures. Two factors have helped in the identification of some jinas. Many tirtharkara images of this period bear inscriptions. Very often the name of the tirtharkara is also mentioned in the inscription incised on the figure. 122 Such inscriptions have helped in the identification of the jinas whose images were carved at Mathura during this period. The characteristics associated with the jinas have also helped in the identification of their images. Parsvanatha has been identified on the basis of the seven-hooded serpent-conopy over his head in the figures.123 Rsabha has been identified on the basis of locks of hair falling on his shoulders in the figures.124 Neminatha has been recognised on the basis of his representation in the company of Krsna and Balarama in the figures.125 The inscriptions excavated at Mathura contain the names of arhats Rsbha, 126 Aristanemi,127 Santinatha, 128 Parsva, 129 Sambhavanatha, 130 121. JI, p. 42; SIJA, p. 11. 122. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ..., op. cit., p. 145. 123. Ibid., p. 145; MS, p. 23; JAA, I, p. 65; JPV, p. 46. 124. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 125. Ibid., ibid. 126. EI, X, Appendix, no. 56. 127. Ibid., no. 26. 128. Ibid., no. 27. 129. Ibid., no. 110. 130. MCH, p. 357; JAA, I, p. 66 fn. 1. 183

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184 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Vardhamana Mahavira131 and Nandyavarta. 132 It is, thus, certain that the images of these seven jinas were carved at Mathura during this period. On the basis of his study of the early Jaina icons of Mathura, N.P. Joshi has opined that tirthamkara Sumatinatha, too, was known to the sculptors of Mathura during the period under review. 133 Main characteristics of the tirtharkara images of Mathura: The Kusana period Available material indicates that the tirtharkara images of this period were of medium size. But colossal figures of the jinas were also produced.134 There is very little difference between the seated and standing jina figures of Mathura of the Kusana period in respect of arrangement of hair, depiction of auspicious marks on the body, carving of the neck, nimbus, etc.135 The heads of the jinas in these figures are either bald 136 or characterised by small curls.137 Facial expression is conspicuous by its absence in the tirtharkara figures of this period. 138 Smile is the only expression manifest in these figures and, this too, is rare.139 The earliest depiction of the srivatsa mark on the chest of the tirtharkara figure occurs on Mathura ayaga-pattas of the first century Bc. 140 The srivatsa symbol became an inalienable part of the bulk of jina figures at Mathura during the Kusana period. 141 The caduceus-like 131. EI, X, Appendix, no. 18. 132. Ibid., no. 47. 133. MCH, p. 357. 134. Ibid., p. 339. 135. Ibid. 136. MS, p. 23. 137. MM no. 1531; JUPHS, III, p. 15. 138. MS, p. 23. 139. Ibid.; R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ... op. cit., p. 144. 140. JPV, p. 80 fn 1. 141. JUPHS, III, MM nos. B. 71, B. 70, B. 2, B. 3, etc.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura symbol (called the srivatsa mark)142 on the chest of the jina figure was an innovation of the sculptors of Mathura. This practice became widespread. Mathura took the lead; the rest of the country followed it.143 Sometimes the sculptors of Mathura carved the sacred srivatsa symbol on the foreparts of the fingers of the jina figure also.144 The jina images of this period have open eyes;145 the eye-balls, too, can be noticed in some of the images of this period. 146 Another remarkable feature of the seated jina figure of Mathura of this period is depiction of dharma-cakra on the palms and both dharma-cakra and tri-ratna on the soles.147 In the earliest seated jina figures of Mathura cross-legging is very loose. 148 But the seated jina figures of the Kusana period display padmasana or tight crosslegging.149 The seated jina figures of this period bear urna, i.e., the round mark between the eye-brows. 150 Generally speaking, the heads of the seated jina figures of this period are either bald or characterised by small curls. But hair arrangements, like notched hair and hair combed back, can also be noticed in some of the jina figures of this period.151 The seated figure of Parsvanatha depicted on the Mathura ayaga-patta assigned to the first century BC is characterised by the absence of nimbus 152 But nimbus became a characteristic feature of some seated jina figures of Mathura during the Kusana period.153 The jina figures 142. MS, p. 23. 143.JPV, p. 80 fn 1. 144. MS, p. 23. 145. MCH, p. 339. 146. Ibid.; MS, p. 23. 147. JUPHS, III, MM nos. B. 3, B.4, B. 5, B. 27, etc. 148. SML no. J.354, J.609; MCH, p. 335. 149. JUPHS, III, MM nos. 490, etc. 150. Ibid.; MM nos. 1940, etc. 151. MCH, p. 339. 152. SML no. J.253. 153. JUPHS, III, MM nos. B. 71, B. 70, B. 16, etc. 185

Page #208
186 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura wsdeskusesse of this period are often displayed seated on the lion throne.154 This depiction is indicative of their cakravartin status.155 Generally speaking, usnisa is conspicuous by its absence in the jina figures of this period. 156 The Jaina iconography of Mathura of this period throws a hint that among the twenty-four jinas, four were held specially sacred by the Jaina community of this city.157 This is evident from the discovery of quadruple images, 168 called pratima-sarvatobhadrika in the Jaina inscriptions, 159 and caumukha-pratima in later periods.160 Twenty-eight figures of this type ranging in date from Saka year 5161, probably of the Kusana king Kaniska, 162 to the year 74, have come to light at Mathura. 163 These images present the figure of a tirthamkara on each of the four sides of a stone block.164 Two of the four images in many sarvatobhadrika-pratimas of Mathura of this period can be easily identified as figures of Rsabha and Parsva on the basis of locks of hair and serpent-hoods respectively. 165 Of the remaining two jinas, one has been recognised as Mahavira.166 The other may be Neminatha, who being the cousin of Krsna and Balarama was greatly esteemed at Mathura. 167 U.P. Shah opines that sarvatobhadrika-pratimas of Mathura were based 154. Ibid., MM nos. B. 17, B. 18, etc. 155. MS, p. 24. 156. JUPHS, III, MM no. B. 57, etc. 157. JAA, I, p. 66. 158. Ibid. 159. EI, X, Appendix no. 24; JAA, I, p. 66; SIJA, p. 11. 160. JAA, I, p. 66; SIJA, p. 12. 161. MCH, p. 353. 162. JAA, I, p. 66. 163. MCH, p. 353. 164. JAA,I, p. 66. 165. Ibid.; SIJA, p. 11; MCH, p. 354. 166. Ibid., p. 66. 167. Ibid.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura on the ancient Jaina tradition called samavasarana.168 In accordance with this tradition, high platforms were erected for the sermons of the jinas; the image of one of the jinas was installed in the centre of the platform, and the images of the same jina were installed on its remaining three sides in order to make him visible to the entire audience.169 He also opines that representation of four different jinas on four sides of the sarvatobhadrika-pratimas of Mathura was an advancement on the original conception of a samavasarana or caumukha sculpture.170 The facts highlighted by N.P. Joshi's study of these quadruple images deserve notice in this connection. In three of these quadruple images,171 the image of Rsabha, and in three of them,172 the image of both Rsabha and Parsva, are conspicuous by their absence.173 According to Joshi, these six images indicate that the sculptor intended to display either the same jina on four sides, or depict four different jinas other than Rsabha and Parsva on four sides of these caumukha images. 174 These quadruple images were probably installed in open space within the sacred precincts of the main stupa. In a summary representation which occurs on a slab, possibly an ayaga-patta,175 four seated tirthamkiaras - two each on either side of a stupa one of whom is Parsvanatha - are represented in the upper register. This representation conveys the impression of four images which were either installed in front of the four cardinal directions of a stupa or were set up within the stupa-niches facing the cardinal directions.176 We learn from one of the inscriptions that these 168. SIJA, p. 11; MCH, p. 353. 169. Ibid., p. 12. 170. Ibid. 171. JUPHS, III, MM nos. B. 70, B. 71; SML no. J.235; MCH, p. 354. SML nos. J.241, J.242; MM no. 45.3214; MCH, p. 354. 172. 173. MCH, p. 354. 174. Ibid. 175. 176. SML no. J.623; JAA, I, pp. 57, 66. JAA, I, p. 66. Ji Wan 0 187

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188 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura quadruple images were installed on a sila-stambbha, i.e., a pillar.177 Many images of the Kusana and post-Kusana period represent Neminatha in the company of Krsna and Balarama. One such image of the late Kusana period shows Balarama with seven hoods and four hands; the upper right hand holds a hala (plough), the lower left hand being akimbo.178 VasudevaKrsna carries in the upper left hand a gada (mace) and a cakra (wheel) in the upper right hand. 179 This image also contains representation of the leaves of vetasa tree, the kevala-tree of Neminatha. 180 Evaluation of the tirthamkara images of Mathura: The Kusana period The tirtharkara images of Mathura belonging to the Kusana period look cold and frozen.181 They are devoid of expression and grace.182 These images present a stark contrast to the sublime gentleness and serene grace of the figure of the Buddha, and to the divine grace and lavish charm of the images of the Hindu gods.183 They are characterised by puppet-like rigidity, primitive nakedness 184 and uniformity of pattern.185 These images are generally stiff in pose. 186 They have open eyes, 187 and sometimes even the eye-balls can be seen in these figures.188 These tirthamkara images have heavy shoulders and 177. SML no., J.234; MCH, p. 353. 178. JUPHS, III, MM no. 2502. 179. Ibid. 180. Ibid. 181. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 15. 182. JAA, I, p. 67. 183. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 151. 184. Ibid., p. 132. 185. JAA, I, p. 37; HOFA, Introduction, p. 11. 186. Ibid., p. 67; SIJA, p. 12; MCH, p. 339. 187. MS, p. 23; MCH, p. 339. 188. Ibid., ibid.

Page #211
Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura broad chest, and are characterised by archaic stolidity.189 In short, the jina images of Mathura of the first and second century AD possess little artistic merit. But the jina iconography of this period should be judged in the light of the doctrines of Jainism. These images are vehicles of the traditions of Jainism,190 which prescribed their depiction as ascetics.191 Jainism is a votary of asceticism, and these figures look like figures of ascetics. It is because of the restraint embodied in the Jaina religious tradition that 'a cold and frozen atmosphere hovers around the jina images 192 of Mathura of this period. The nudity of these figures represents the condition of absolute detachment from the world. 193 The sculptor of the Kusana period was fairly adept in carving human figure. But he failed to express the true character of the jinas, who were renowned for their serenity, spiritual strength, firmness of will and disciplined life.194 Facial expressions in these creations are almost non-existent,195 the only exception being smile which, too, is rare.196 The limbs of these figures, too, are mostly flat and disproportionate. 197 But considerable progress was made in the carving of the jina image by the end of the Kusana period, and the sculptors of Mathura did full justice to this figure in the Gupta period. Other Jaina sculptures of Mathura: The Kusana period There is an extremely limited depiction of incidents from the life of the jinas 189. JAA, I, p. 67. 190. JSAI, p. 231; EWA, VIII, p. 786; JAA, I, pp. 67-8. 191. JAA, I, pp. 67-8. 192. H. Zimmer, op. cit., p. 15. 193. Ibid., p. 15. 194. JAA, I, p. 68. 195. MS, p. 23. 196. Ibid. 197. JAA, I, p. 68. 189

Page #212
1901 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura in the Jaina art of Mathura during the period under review. One such depiction occurs on a lintel of the Sunga period; it has been interpreted as Mahavira's birth-celebration by V.S. Agrawala,198 and as the dance of apsara Nilanjana before king Rsabha by U.P. Shah199 and N.P. Joshi.200 A depiction on a plaque discovered at Kankali lila201 shows the goat-headed male deity Naigmesa seated on a high seat and being adored by a cauri bearer and a lady with wings; in the corner is a woman who carries a child in one hand.202 Naigamesa is said to have played an important role in the transfer of Mahavira's embryo from the womb of Devananda to that of Trisala. According to Jyoti Prasad Jain, this representation is a reference to the transfer of the newly-born babes of Devaki in Kamsa's prison to the bosom of Alaka, wife of Sudrasta, a merchant of Bhadrilapura.203 But according to N.P. Joshi, this depiction is either a reference to the transfer of Mahavira's embryo, or to Satyabhama's (wife of Krsna) worship of Naigmesa204 for the birth of a spn.205 Production of the images of Naigmesa was quite popular in this period. Ten images of this Jaina male deity have come to light at Mathura; but we find no representation of Naigmesa in the post-Kusana Jaina sculptural art of this city.2016 Two female figures of this period deserve special attention. One of the Jaina dedicatory inscriptions of Mathura of the period of Mahaksatrapa Sodasa mentions the installation of an image of Aryavati by a lady named 198. SIJA, p. 11 fn 4. 199. Ibid., p. 11. 200. MCH, p. 335. 201. SML no. J.626; MCH, p. 354. 202. Ibid.; ibid. 203. JAA, I, p. 65 fn 2. 204. Naigamesa is closely associated with children. See MCH, p. 354; EI, II, p. 315. 205. MCH, p. 354. 206. Ibid.

Page #213
Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Amohini. 207 Aryavati has been described as the mother of a jina,208 probably of Mahavira.209 She enjoyed divine status, 210 because her right hand is raised in abhaya-mudra.211 Attendants carrying flywhisks and an umbrella are also manifest in the image of Aryavati.212 One of the donative gifts of a Jaina devotee of the Kusana period was an image of Sarasvati,213 the goddess of learning in Hinduism and Jainism. Seated squat with knees drawn up above an oblong pedestal, this goddess, specifically named Sarasvati, holds a book in her left hand which rests on the waist.214 The broken palm of the right hand, which was raised to the shoulder, most probably held a rosary.215 Depiction of the monks, the nuns, etc.: The Kusana period The pedestals of numerous seated and standing jina figures of Mathura belonging to the Kusana period have a bas-relief in front in between two lions at either end of the pedestal.216 The bas-relief depicts the dharma-cakra,217 devotees218 or worshippers,219 male and female, 220 children,221 male devotees 207 EI, X, Approndix, no. 59. 208. MCH, p. 356; SIJA, p. 11. 209. SIJA, p. 11; JAA, I, p. 67. 210. MCH, p. 356. 211. SML no. J.1; MCH, p. 356; JAA, I, p. 67. 212. Ibid.; MCH, p. 356. 213. EI, X, Appendix, no. 54.; SML no. J.24. 214. SML no. J.24; JAA, I, p. 67; MCH, p. 356. 215. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 216. JUPHS, III, MM nos. B. 75, 1388, etc. 217. Ibid., MM nos. 490, B. 4, etc. 218. Ibid., MM nos. B. 71, etc. 219. Ibid., MM nos. B. 29, etc. 220. JUPHS, III, MM nos. B. 4, etc. 221. MCH, p. 347. 191

Page #214
192 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura with their retinue and attendants,222 female donor or donors with their retinue,223 monks and nuns.224 Most of the monks depicted in the bas-reliefs are partially clad and appear to belong to the Ardhaphalaka sect.225 We find mention of numerous male and female donors in the Jaina dedicatory inscriptions discovered at Mathura.226 Many of them contain the names of Jaina ladies, along with the names of their family members, and of the monks and the nuns at whose request or behest these female lay devotees had made donations in the form of images, ayaga-pattas, etc.227 It is highly probable that the aforesaid bas-relief on the pedestal of the seated jina figure depicts male and female donors, their family members, attendants or servants, monks, nuns, etc. Female figures in the Jaina art of Mathura: Pre-Kusana and Kusana period The Mathura school of sculptural art, which mainly followed the art traditions of Sanchi and Bharhut,228 more nearly those of the latter,229 came into existence in the first century AD.230 It had its predecessor in the pre-Kusana art of this city. Female figures carved on the railing pillars, which formed part of the Jaina stupa or stupas of Mathura,231 rank among the finest creations of the celebrated Mathura school of sclupture.232 In fact, they rank among the 222. MCH, p. 347. 223. Ibid. 224. Ibid. 225. Ibid. 226. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2ff. 227. Ibid., pp. 2ff. 228. A.K. Coomaraswamy, History ..., op. cit., p. 37; S.K. Saraswati, A Survey of Indian Sculpture, 1957, p. 62; V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, op. cit., p. 261. 229. A.K. Coomaraswamy, op. cit., p. 37. 230. R.C. Sharma, The Splendour ..., op. cit., pp. 36-7. 231. P.K. Agrawala, Mathura Railing Pillars, 1966, pp. 3ff. 232. V.S. Agarwala, Mathura Kala, op. cit., p. 41.

Page #215
Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura most enchanting creations of the Indian art as a whole.233 Some of these rail posts belong to the third century BC234 or to the period a little later than that,235 and the others to the Kusana period.236 The female figures on the rails, anterior to the commencement of the Christian era, are representatives of the pre-Kusana art of Mathura, and those carved in the first and the second century AD are products of the Kusana art of this city. In ancient India art was the handmaid of religion. But it was also art for the sake of art. The female figures carved on the railing pillars of the Jaina stupa or stupas of Mathura furnish unmistakable evidence of the truth embodied in the latter statement. The sculptors of Mathura loved to carve female figures, and they tried to make them as attractive, beautiful and feminine as was possible for them. These female figures carved in numerous bewitching postures and engaged in their favourite pastimes are pointers of the fact that in spite of its code of rigid discipline, which is manifest in the tirthamkara figures, the Jaina community of Mathura gave a free hand to the sculptors of this city as far as chiselling of female figures was concerned.237 These figures possess great artistic merit. They represent the sculptor's conception of female beauty. These well-proportioned figures also bear testimony to his professional skill. The real charm of the Mathura rail posts lies in the female figures carved on them. These figures have been conceived and executed in numerous poses and forms. The sculptors of Mathura chose free vertical spaces on the face of the railing pillar for the display of their majestic art. These uprights depict women in numerous attractive and bewitching poses; but there is no hint of sensuous narration in these figures.238 It is a representation of joyous females 233. P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 2. 234. Ibid., p.5. 235. Ibid., p. 3. 236. JAA, I, p. 59. 237. Ibid. 238. P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., pp. 5-6; V.S. Agrawala, Studies ... op. cit., p. 155. 193

Page #216
194 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura -- full of zest for life -- who are busy in their favourite sports and pastimes. In fact, the female figures carved on these railing pillars should not be viewed only as documents of the plastic art of Mathura; they are splendid specimens of plastic art, but they are also a mirror of the outlook, amusements, sports and pastimes of the women of that age. In the terminology of art some of the women portrayed on these rails have been designated as salabhanjikas,239 a term which originally denoted the motif - the woman plucking (and gathering) sala flowers by standing under a blossoming sala tree.240 These railing pillars depict numerous shades of contemporary female life - a female standing under an asoka tree and gathering its flowers; a female playing with a ball; a female in dancing pose; a lady feeding a parrot; a female taking bath under a precipice; a woman drying her hair after bath; a female looking into a mirror; a woman arranging her hair by looking into a mirror; a lady playing on a harp; a female putting on her necklace; a woman unloosing her girdle, etc.241 These female figures present an admirable mixture of art and realism. Some of the railing pillars with female figures, discovered at Kankali Tila, appear to be a little earlier in period than the torana-salabhanjikas of the stupa at Sanchi, and are superior in modelling to the railing pillar female figures of the stupa at Bharhut: 242 Jaina art of Mathura: Miscellaneous figures of the Kusana period The gateway-pillars of the Kusana period are extremely rich in carving. One of these pillars bears an inscription recording the gift of a torana by sravika Balhastini. 243 The two faces of these pillars are compartmented into a 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 6; JAA, I, p. 60. Ibid., p. 6. JUPHS, III, pp. 53 ff; P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 9. JAA, I, p. 60; V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, op.cit., p. 267. SML no. J, 532; JAA, I, p. 61 and Plate 11. B.

Page #217
Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura succession of panels which are separated from one another by a railingmotif.244 The depiction on these panels is mostly mundane and consists of scenes of love, palace-life, drinking couple, a man attending to the coiffure of a woman, a woman decorating herself, dancing couple, etc.245 The treatment of these scenes is admirable. 246 It is evident from these figures that in their portrayal the sculptor was not bound by the religious traditions of Jainism.247 Evaluation of the Jaina art of Mathura: Pre-Kusana and Kusana period The history of the jina inconography of this period is chracterised by three stages of development. The figures of two jinas in seated meditative mudra depicted on a lintel of the second century BC248 are the earliest known specimens of the tirthamkara figures carved at Mathura.249 In the next stage of development, the tirthamkara image made its appearance on the ayagapattas, one of which250 can be assigned to 50 BC.251 This was followed by the production of independent stone images of the jinas, including sarvatobhadrika images, during the Kusana period. Owing to the absence of distinctive symbols only a few of these jina figures have been recognised. Scholars are not unanimous in respect of their identification. According to Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, the figures of six jinas - Rsabha, Sambhava, Munisuvrata, Nemi, Parsva and Mahavira - were carved at Mathura during the Kusana period. 252 The Jaina inscriptions 244. SML no. J, 532; JAA, I, p. 61 and Plate 11. B. 245. Ibid. 246. Ibid. 247. JAA, I, p. 61. 248. SML no. J.349 and no. J.609. 249. MCH, p. 335. 250. SML no. J.253. 251. MCH, p. 335. 252. JPV, p. 49. 195

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196 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura of Mathura do not mention Munisuvrata.253 One of them makes mention of arhat Nandyavarta.254 The symbol nandyavarta is the cognizance of Aranatha.255 Nandyavarta -- the cognizance of Aranatha -- was wrongly read as Munisuvrata by K.D. Bajpai.256 We have already stated that the Jaina inscriptions of Mathura contain the names of seven arhats -- Rsabha, Sambhava, Santinatha, Nandyavarta, Nemi, Parsva and Mahavira. Therefore, Debala Mitra and N.P. Joshi hold that the names of at least seven tirthamkaras were known to the sculptors of Mathura. According to Debala Mitra, the images of Rsabha, Sambhava, Santinatha, Aranatha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira were carved at Mathura during the Kusana period.257 But according to Joshi, the jinas depicted in these images are Rsabha, Sambhava, Nemi, santinatha, Sumatinatha, Parsvanatha and Vardhamana Mahavira.258 Mathura played a significant role in the development of the iconography of the jinas during the period under review. This period witnessed the production of independent images of many jinas. Quadruple images called the sarvatobhadrika or caumukha pratimas were also chiselled. The production of these images in this city began in the first century AD, and continued for many centuries.259 The introduction of the srivatsa symbol in the jina figure was an innovation of the sculptors of Mathura.260 This symbol first occurred on the chest of Mathura tirthamkara figures in the first century BC,261 and became a characteristic feature of the bulk of jina figures during the Kusana 253. See EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2ff. 254. Ibid., no. 47. 255. JUPHS, III, p. 23; EI, II, no. XX. 256. JAA, I, p. 66 fn 1. 257. Ibid. 258. MCH, p. 357. 259. JPV, p. 48. 260. ISP, p. 1; JPV, p. 46. 261. JPV, p. 80 fn 1.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura period. 262 The sculptors of Mathura also initiated the practice of depicting the pratiharyas, the dharma-cakra and other symbols on tirthamkara figures during the period under review.263 The lanchanas of various jinas had not evolved by this time, but some distinctive features were introduced in the figures of Rsabha, Neminatha and Parsvanatha. The sculptors of Mathura depicted a single caitya-vsksa, i.e., the asoka tree in all jina figures of this period. 264 Male and female adorers, too, made appearance in some jina figures of this period. 265 This period further witnessed the depiction of some subordinate male and female deities of the pantheon of Jainism.266 The sculptor of Mathura was bound by the religious traditions of Jainism in the production of the images of the tirthamkaras. Probably, he also lacked the ability to give perfect shape to the figures of the jinas. Consequently, the jina images of the period under review lacked artistic merit. But the sculptor of Mathura was not shackled in respect of the production of figures other than those of the jinas. Therefore, the female figures produced by the master sculptors of Mathura in the Kusana period became poetry in stone. The Jaina art of Mathura: The Gupta period Jainism did not lose its appeal in Mathura in the post-Kusana period. But it was not as popular in this city as it was in the Kusana period. This is evident from the number of Jaina sculptures that have come to light at Mathura. Government Museum, Mathura and State Museum, Lucknow are the principal repository of Jaina antiquities discovered at Mathura; they possess only fifty-nine Jaina sculptures which can be definitely assigned to the 262. JUPHS, III, pp. 2-17. 263. Ibid. 264. MCH, p. 357. 265. Ibid. 266. Ibid. 197

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198 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Gupta period.267 Other museums in India and abroad, too, do not seem to possess Jaina sculptures of Mathura of the Gupta period in considerable numbers.268 The Jaina sculptures of the Gupta period discovered at Mathura consist of twenty-five tithamkara images in the seated meditative mudra, six tirtharkara images in the standing meditative mudra, twenty-three detached heads of tirtharkara figures, and some fragmentary pieces.289 It is, thus, evident that as in the Kusana period so in the Gupta period the images of the jinas in the seated posture were more popular than those in the standing posture. The Jina figures of Mathura: The Gupta period The cognizances or lanchanas of the various tirthamkaras did not evolve even in the Gupta period.270 Therefore, the figures of the jinas have been recognised on the basis of inscriptions, hair styles, attendants and serpentcanopy.271 It appears that images of only three jinas -- Rsabha,272 Nemi273 and Parsva274 -- were carved at Mathura during the Gupta period. The figures of Rsabha have been identified on the basis of locks of hair,275 and inscription incised on the figure.276 The figure of Neminatha has been identified on the basis of his representation in the company of Krsna and Balarama,277 and 267. JAA, 1, p. 107. 268. Ibid. 269. Ibid., p. 108. 270. Ibid., p. 116; R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ..., op.cit., pp. 145-6. 271. Ibid. 272. MM nos. B. 6, B 7: JUPHS, III, p. 18; JPV, p. 50; JAA, I, p. 108. 273. SML nos. J.89, J.121; JAA, I, pp. 108, 109; JPV, p. 50. 274. SML no. J. 100; JAA, I, p. 109; JPV, p. 50. 275. MM nos. B. 6, 268; JUPHS, III, pp. 18, 22. 276. Ibid., B. 6, 268; Ibid.p. 22. 277. SML no. J.121; JPV, p. 50.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura depiction of his attendant Balabhadra in one of the figures.278 The figure of Parsvanatha has been identified on the basis of the seven-hooded serpentcanopy over the head.279 The four-fold jina figures lost popularity in the Gupta period. These images became rare. 280 Only one four-fold jina image of the Gupta period has come to light at Mathura.281 This image forms part of the collection of Government Museum, Mathura.282 Another near-contemporary four-fold jina figure discovered at Mathura belongs to the seventh-eighth century AD. 283 Characteristic features of the jina figures of Mathura: The Gupta period The jina figures of Mathura belonging to the Gupta period do not depict the lanchanas of the jinas. But some guidelines had been laid in respect of the carving of the jina figure. Varahmihira tells: The distinguishing features of a jina figure are its long hanging arms, the srivatsa symbol, the peaceful appearance of form, youthful body and nudity.284 Nudity is one of the characteristic features of the jina figures carved at Mathura during the Gupta period. 285 The seat depicted in the pre-Gupta jina figures of Mathura was plain.286 The character of the seat of the Jina changed 278. SML no. J.89; JAA, I, p. 108. 279. JPV, p. 50. 280. JAA, I, p. 116. 281. JPV, p. 50. The quadruple jina image (MM no. B.68) assigned to the Gupta period by Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari belongs to the Kusana period. See JUPHS, III, p. 11. 282. MM no. B.68; JUPHS, III, p. 11. 283. MM no. B.75; JAA, I, p. 108; JUPHS, III, pp. 21-2. 284. JI, p. 27 fn 2. 285. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ..., op. cit., figures 3, 10, 11, 286. JAA, I, p. 111. 199

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2001 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura in the Gupta period. 287 In one of the Mathura figures of this period jina Rsabhanatha is depicted seated cross-legged in meditation on a cushion which is placed on a throne supported by a pair of lions.288 The cushion or the asana of the jina often bears ornamental patterns.289 Another characteristic feature of the seated jina figures of Mathura assignable to the Gupta period is the depiction of a profusely decorated back-rest.290 This novelty was introduced by the sculptors of Mathura during the Gupta period. 291 The bulk of jina figures of this period shows short schematic curls,292 but notched hair293 and hair combed back294, can also be noticed in them. The srivatsa symbol on the chest is another significant feature of the jina figures of this period. 295 The sculptors of Mathura devoted special attention to the ornamentation of the halo or the nimbus in the figure of the jina.296 It became customary to decorate the halo with motifs like lotus-petals, scrollwork, floral wreaths, scalloped border, leaf border, etc., in the Gupta period. 27 The urna mark is conspicuous by its absence in the bulk of jina figures of this period. 298 The pedestal of the jina figures of the Kusana period is characterised by the depiction of the dharma-cakra (the wheel). Illustration of the wheel can be noticed on the pedestals of the jina figures of the Gupta period also.299 287. JUPHS, III, pp. 18 ff. 288. MM no. B.7; JUPHS, III, p. 18. 289. Ibid., ibid.; JAA, I, p. 111. 290. SML no.J.118; JAA, I, p. 111. 291. JAA, I, p. 111. 292. MM nos. B.44, B.45, B.46; JUPHS, III, p. 20. 293. MM no. 2348; JUPHS, III, p. 24. 294. MM no. 12. 268; JAA, I, p. 109 and Plate 47B. 295. Ibid., nos. 1, 488,624, etc.; JUPHS, III, pp. 18, 23. 296. JUPHS, III, pp. 18 ff. 297. Ibid. 298. Ibid., MM no. B.44, p. 20; JAA, I, p. 109. 299. MM nos. B.31, B.15, etc.; JUPHS, III, p. 19.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Besides depicting the srivatsa symbol on the chest 300 the sculptors of Mathura carved the dharma-cakra on the palm and the sole in the figure of the jina.301 Evaluation of the jina figures of Mathura: The Gupta period The plastic art of Mathura of the Gupta period was the logical outcome of the art of the Kusana period,302 but it also marked an advance upon the latter 303 The celebrated Mathura school of sculptural art attained peerless excellence during the Gupta period. This art was truly Indian, both in concept and execution. It was a period of heightened intellectual consciousness;304 and it revolutionised the concept of beauty and expression in art. Restraint, serenity and spiritualism reigned supreme in the plastic art of the Gupta period, and this new concept of beauty changed the character of the figure of the jina also. The jina figures of the Kusana period were cold, stiff, disproportionate, heavy and voluminous. They lacked expression and grace. But the figures of the jinas carved at Mathura during the Gupta period were slim and youthful; they symbolised movement and flow of energy.305 The images of the jinas - great men who had attained immortal bliss - were differentiated from those of the worldly men.306 Small curly hair, elongated earlobes, long arms, etc., supposed to be symbols of great men (maha-purusalaksanas), became hall-marks of the jina figures of Mathura in the Gupta period.307 The simple halo of the jina figure of the Kusana period was replaced by a more elaborate and profusely ornamented halo in the Gupta period. The richness of the halo signified spread of knowledge from the body of the great 300 MM, nos. B.1, B.28, etc.; JUPHS, pp. 18, 19. 301. Ibid., ibid. 302. A.K. Coomaraswamy, History ..., op. cit., p. 72; S.K. Saraswati, op.cit., p. 131. 303. V.S. Agrawala, Studies ..., op. cit., p. 249. 304. S.K. Saraswati, op. cit., p. 121. 305. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ..., op. cit., p. 144. 306. Ibid. 307. Ibid. 201

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202 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura man, i.e., the jina.308 Like the Brahmanical and the Buddhist figures, the tirthamkaras figures of the Gupta period demonstrate triumph of spiritualism over materialism. It was the Mathura sculptor of the Gupta period who protrayed the true character of the jinas in his creations. Spiritual beauty and calm contemplation pervade the jina figures of the Gupta period. These figures have been aptly described as spiritually luminous.309 One of the tirthamkara figures of Mathura belonging to the Gupta period is highly illustrative of the character of the jina figures of this period. This figure, which forms part of the collection of State Museum, Lucknow,310 is one the finest creations of the Mathura school of art.311 It depicts a jina seated in meditation. The expression on the face of this figure is suggestive of supreme bliss; it is a state which can be attained only after passions have been burnt by the fire of knowledge. 312 It truly demonstrates the jina's conquest of the body, of the senses, and of the world-stuff. The master sculptor of Mathura exquisitely conveyed this idea through this extraordinary jina figure of the Gupta period. This beautifully modelled figure was discovered from Kankali Tila, Mathura.313 Other Jaina figures of Mathura: The Gupta period The era of ayaga-pattas had ended at Mathura. It is evident from the fact that no ayaga-patta assignable to the Gupta period has come to light at Mathura.314 The independent images of the Jaina deities like Sarasvati, Balabhadra and Dharanendra, too, were not carved at Mathura during the period under 308. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ..., op. cit., p. 144. 309. JAA, I, p. 68. 310. SML no. J.104; R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ... op.cit., figure 7. 311. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures ... op. cit., p. 152. 312. Ibid. 313. Ibid., p. 153. 314. JPV, p. 47.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura review.315 The images of the sasana-devas and sasana-devis were also not chiselled. 316 The Jaina art of Mathura: Post-Gupta period The lanchanas of the twenty-four jinas evloved in about the eighth-ninth century AD, and this development gave a new shape to the jina figures in about the ninth-tenth century AD.317 Numerous images of the jinas were carved in the medieval period, including the four-fold image of Vardhamana Mahavira already referred to. In repsect of inconography the post-Gupta jina figures of Mathura are superior to the earlier icons carved in this city.318 But in the expression of ideas the Mathura sculptor of the post-Gupta period could not match the excellence of the artist of the Gupta period. 319 The postGupta jina images of Mathura are definitely inferior to those produced in the Gupta period in respect of depiction of expression.320 The medieval jina figures of Mathura are characterised by depiction of lanchanas, and some of them show the attendant yaksas or sasana-devas also.321 The pedestal of one of the tirthamkara figures of Mathura of this period322 depicts the fish - the lanchana of Aranatha, the eighteenth tirtharkara.323 Usnisa, 324 decorated umbrellas 325 and flying vidyadhara s326 can also be noticed in the figures of this period. These features were borrowed from the Brahmanical and Buddhist 315. JAA, I, p. 108. 316. Ibid. 317. JPV, p. 250. 318. MS, pp. 45-6. 319. Ibid. 320. Ibid. 321. Ibid., p. 46. 322 MM no. 1388. 323. Ibid., JUPHS, III, p. 23. 324 MM no. B.19; ibid., p. 24. 325. JUPHS, III, pp. 24ff. 326. MM no. B.19; JUPHS, III, p. 24. 203

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204 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura sculptures.327 All jina figures of Mathura assignable to the pre-Kusana, Kusana and Gupta period are nude. But not all post-Gupta tirtharkara images of Mathura are naked.328 It is evident that the difference between the jina images of the Svetambaras and the Digambaras on the basis of drapery and nudity manifested in the medieval period. The four-fold or caumukha images of the jinas were also carved during the period under review. The fragment of a four-fold jina image discovered at Gopalakhera depicts the figures of Adinatha and Suparsva.329 The Jaina iconography of the medieval period furnishes unmistakable evidence of the fact that the Jainas sincerely believed in the tradition of twenty-four tithaskaras. A medieval period stele discovered from Gujar Ghati, Mathura depicts the figure of a standing Jaina tirthamkara; the twenty-three miniature figures carved on this stele represent the other jinas.330 The lanchanas of the twenty-four jinas having been evolved, the Mathura sculptor of the Gupta period left nothing to imagination regarding the identification of the images of the various tithamkaras.331 The pedestal of the jina figure depicted the dharma-cakra between two lions during the medieval period also.332 The practice of depicting the srivatsa symbol on the chest and other sacred symbols on the palm and sole of the jina figure was customary.333 Two figures or images provide a fair glimpse of the medieval jina iconography of Mathura. One of them depicts tirtharkara Adinatha, 327. MS, p. 46. 328. MM no. A.60. The images of the jinas belonging to the Svetambara sect are clothed during the medieval period. See MM no. A.60; JUPHS, III, p. 24. 329. MM no. 559; JUPHS, III, p. 29. 330. Ibid., no. 536; ibid. 331. MM nos. B.21, B.22, B.76, 559, etc.; ibid., pp. 24-5, 28-9. 332. MM no. B.65; ibid., p. 27. 333. Ibid., nos. B.25, B.79, B.80, etc.; ibid., pp. 26, 29. The jina figures of the Digambara sect of this period are nude. See MM nos. B.80, G.46; JUPHS, III, p. 29.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura who is seated on a cushion in meditation.334 The jina's seat is supported by two lions couchant between two broken pillars.335 A piece of cloth with garlands hangs down from the seat and its border touches the wheel below.336 Below the wheel is depicted a bull - the cognizance of tirtharkara Rsabha or Vrsabha. 337 The lower portion of the sculpture is divided by four pilasters into three compartments; in the proper right and central compartment there are two, and in the compartment to the left, there are three standing figures of the jinas; immediately beneath the outer pilasters are two kneeling figures of human worshippers; on both sides of the projecting portion of the stone is a vertical row of five figures; of these four are jinas who are seated in meditation; the missing top portion of the slab probably contained eight more tirthamkara figurines, making the total twenty-four, which is the traditional number of the Jaina tirtharkaras; the lowermost figures in both rows are a male and a female, who are probably a yaksa and a yaksu; the latter holds a flower in each hand; a Nagari inscription in one line runs along the raised rim over the lions; it reads: om pasdita sri - ganavara-devaya.338 The second image depicts tirtharkara Neminatha seated cross-legged in dhyana-mudra on a throne supported by two dwarf pillars and a pair of lions seated with one forepaw raised; from the throne an ornamental cloth hangs down between the two lions; under it is a wheel, and on the plain rim of the pedestal below it is a conch, which is the cognizance of Neminatha; to the right and left of the main figure there is an attendant standing with a flywhisk in one hand, and on both sides of the halo, a couple of flying celestials -- probably a gandharva and an apsara, of which the male figure carries a garland as an offering, and the female seems to shower flowers. 339 334. MM no. B. 21, JUPHS, III, p. 24. 335. Ibid., no. B. 21; ibid., p. 25. 336. Ibid., ibid. 337. Ibid.; ibid. 338. Ibid., ibid. 339. MM no. B.77; JUPHS, III, p. 28. 205

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206 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura The figures of the jinas were the most significant products of the Jaina iconography of this period. But images of other Jaina deities were also carved. One of these figures depicts the Jaina male deity Ksetrapala. 340 A jugaliya figure shows Marudevi and her husband seated under a tree, possibly kalpavrksa.341 One of the characteristic features of Jaina religious life in the post-Gupta period, both in north and south India, was independent worship of Jaina yaksis. 342 Therefore, images of the yaksis, too, were chiselled for worship at Mathura during the post-Gupta period. Two beautiful images of Jaina female deities called the yaksis or the sasana-devis belonging to the medieval period have come to light at Mathura. One buff sand stone image of the tenth century AD represents Cakresvari, the yaksi of Rsabhanatha.343 She stands on a lotus seat which is supported by her mount Garuda.344 The head of the figure is gone; the broken head is sorrounded by an elaborated halo depicted in the shape of an expanded lotusflower. 345 Originally, the image must have had ten arms, each of which held a cakra.346 A female attendant stands on each side of the figure; the attendant to the right side holds a fly-whisk (camara), and that to the left holds a wreath.347 On both sides of this figure there is a flying figure which carries a garland.348 According to V.S. Agrawala and R.C. Sharma, this image of Cakresvari appears to be the Jaina version of the Brahmanical female figure with ten arms, i.e., Vaisnavi.349 Another buff sand stone image of the ninth-tenth century AD depicts 340. MS, p. 46 and figure 97. 341. MM no. 1111; JUPHS, III, p. 34; MS, p. 46. 342. MS, p. 46. 343. MM no. D.6; R.C. Sharma, The Splendour ... op.cit., pp. 158-9. 344. Ibid., ibid., pp. 158-9; JUPHS, III, p. 31. 345. JUPHS, III, p. 31. 346. Ibid. 347. Ibid. 348. Ibid. 349. Ibid., III, p. 31; R.C. Sharma, The Splendour..., op. cit., p. 158.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Ambika, the yaksi of Neminatha, who is the Jaina counterpart of Parvati.350 Ambika has an ornamental halo; she is seated on a lotus cushion which is supported by a couchant lion; she holds a bunch of flowers in her right hand; her left hand clasps a male child who is seated on her thigh and plays with the lower part of her necklace. 351 The image of Ambika shows many deities - Ganesa, Kubera, Visnu, etc., and also the cauri bearing attendants. 352 The centre of top in this figure depicts a meditating jina, and the background shows beautifully chiselled flowers. 353 The pedestal of the image illustrates eight female devotees in adoration.354 Lanchanas and attendant yaksas and yaksis of the twenty-four tirthamkaras The lanchanas of the twenty-four jinas evolved in about the eighth-ninth century AD. These lanchanas are embodied in Jaina texts like Kahavali, Pravacanasaroddhara 355 Pratisthasaroddhara or Pratisthasarasamgraha, 35 etc. The Svetambaras and the Digambaras are in agreement regarding the lanchanas of the jinas except those of four - Suparsva, Sitala, Anant and Aranatha. 357 They also differ in respect of the attendant yaksas and yaksis of many jinas.358 There is also a marked difference between the Digambara Jaina iconography of north and south India. 359 The lanchanas of the twentyfour jinas and statement of their attendant yaksas and yaksis as given below should be viewed in the light of this background. 350. MM no. D.7; JUPHS, III, pp. 31-2; R.C. Sharma, op. cit., p. 159. 351. Ibid., ibid., p. 31. 352. Ibid.; ibid., p. 32; R.C. Sharma, op. cit., p. 159. 353. Ibid.; R.C. Sharma, op. cit., p. 159. 354. Ibid., ibid. 355. JPV, p. 250. 356. DJI, Introduction, p. 9. 357. JPV, p. 250. 358. JAA, I, pp. 14-16. 359. DJI, Introduction, p. 9. 2071

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208 @Wan 0 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura 1. RSABHANATHA Rsabhanatha's complexion is golden.360 His lanchana is bull or Vrsabha.361 His attendant yaksa is Gomukha,362 and the attendant yaksi is Carkresvari363 or Apraticakra.36 364 2. AJITANATHA Ajitanatha's complexion is golden.365 His lanchana is elephant.366 His yaksa is Mahayaksa.367 According to the Digambara tradition, his yaksi is Rohini.368 But according to the Svetambara tradition, Ajitanatha's yaksi is Ajitabala369 or Ajita or Vijaya.370 3. SAMBHAVANATHA Sambhavanatha's complexion is golden.371 His lanchana is horse.372 His yaksa is Trimukha.373 According to the Digambara tradition, his yakst is Prajnapti.374 But according to the Svetambara tradition, the name of his yaksi is Duritari.37 360. 361. Ibid.; ibid.; JPV, Appendix I, p. 254. 362. DJI, p. 21; JPV, Appendix I, p. 254; JAA, I, p. 14. 363. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 14; OISJ, p. 66. 364. JPV, Appendix, I, p. 254. 365. ERE, VII, 466; JAA, I, p. 14. 366. JAA, I, p. 14; JPV, Appendix I, p. 254; DJI, p. 21. 367. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 368. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 369. 370. 371. 372. 373. 374. 375. Ibid.; JPV, p. 96; OISJ, pp. 66-7. JPV, p. 96. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 14; OISJ, pp. 66-7. JAA, I, p. 14; JPV, p. 97. Ibid.; ibid.; DJI, p. 21; OISJ, pp. 66-7. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid.; ibid. Ibid.; ibid.; OISJ, pp. 66-7.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura 4. ABHINANDANANATHA Abhinandananatha's complexion is golden.376 His lanchana is ape.377 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his yaksa is Yaksesvara.378 But according to the Svetambara tradition, the name of his yaksa is Nayaka. 379 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his yaksi is Vajrasrnkhala. 380 But according to the Svetambara tradition, the name of his yaksi is Kalika381 or Kali. 382 5. SUMATINATHA Sumatinatha's complexion is golden.383 His lanchana is heron.384 The name of his yaksa is Tumburu.385 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Purusadatta386 or Naradatta.387 But according to the Svetambara tradition, the name of his yaksi is Mahakali388 or Sammohini. 389 376. JAA, I, p. 14; ERE, VII, p. 466; OISJ, pp. 66-7. 377. Ibid.; JPV, p. 98; ibid. 378. Ibid.; ibid.; DJI, p. 21; ibid. 379. Ibid., p. 14; OISJ, pp. 66-7. According to the Svetambara tradition, the name of his yaksa has been given as isvara also. See JPV, Appendix I, p. 254. 380. JAA, I, p. 14; JPV, p. 98, OISJ, pp. 66-7. 381. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 382. JPV, p. 98. 383. JAA, I, p. 14; OIS), pp. 66-7; ERE, VII, p. 466. 384. Ibid.; ibid.; JPV, p. 99. 385. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid.; DJI, p. 21. 386. Ibid.; ibid.; JPV, p. 99. 387. JPV, p. 99. 388. JAA, 1, p. 14; OISJ, pp. 66-7; JPV, p. 99. 389. JPV, Appendix I, p.254. 209

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210 6. PADMAPRABHANATHA History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Padmaprabhanatha's complexion is red.390 His lanchana is lotus-flower.391 The name of his attendant yaksa is Kusuma.392 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Manovega 393 or Manogupta.394 But according to the Svetambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Acyuta95 or Syama 396 or Manasi.397 7. SUPARSVANATHA The complexion of Suparsvanatha is golden.398 As per the Digmabara tradition, his lanchana is nandyavarta.399 But according to the Svetambara tradition, his lanchana is svastika.400 The Digambara tradition holds that the name of his attendant yaksa is Varanandin. 401 But according to the Svetambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksa is Matanga.402 In the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Kali403 or Kalika.404 It is important 390. JAA, I, p. 15; OISJ, pp. 66-8; ERE, VII, p. 466. 391. Ibid.; ibid.; JPV, p. 100. 392. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 393. 394. Ibid., ibid., pp. 66-8. 395. Ibid.; JPV, p. 100. 396. Ibid.; ibid.; OISJ, pp. 66-8. 397. JPV, p. 100 and Appendix I, p. 254. 398. JAA, I, p. 15; ERE, VII, p. 466. 399. Ibid.; JPV, Appendix I, p. 254. 400. Ibid.; ibid. 401. Ibid. 402 403. 404. JAA, I, p. 15; OISJ, pp. 66-8; JPV, p. 100. Ibid.; JPV, p. 101. Ibid.; ibid. JPV, p. 101.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura to point out that the Svetambara tradition suggests Kalika 40% or Kali406 as the name of the yaksi of Abhinandananatha, the fourth tirthamkara.407 According to the Svetambara tradition, the name of Suparsva's attendant yaksi is Santa,408 8. CANDRAPRABHANATHA Candraprabha's complexion is white.409 The lanchana of Candraprabha is half moon.410 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksa is Vijaya or Syama.411 But as per the Svetambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksa is Vijaya.412 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Jvalamalini413 or Jvalini.414 But the Svetambara tradition records the name of his attendant yaksi as Bhrkuti415 or Jvala. 416 9. SUVIDHINATHA OR PUSPADANTA His complexion is white.417 His lanchana is alligator (makara).418 The name of his attendant yaksa is Ajita419 or Jaya.420 Accroding to the Digambara 405. JPV, p. 98 and Appendix I, p. 254. 408. Ibid., pp. 98, 254. 407. Ibid. 408. Ibid., p. 254; JAA, I, p. 15. 409. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 410. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 103. 411. Ibid.; ibid., Appendix I, p. 254. 412. Ibid.; ibid. 413. Ibid. 414. JPV, Appendix I, p. 254. 415. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 15. 416. Ibid., p. 254. 417. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 418. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 254. 419. Ibid.; ibid. 420. JPV, p. 254. Wak 211

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212 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Mahakali.421 But as per the Svetambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Sutaraka422 or Sutara or Camdalika.423 10. SITALANATHA Sitalanatha's complexion is golden.424 According to the Digambara tradition, his lanchana is svastika.425 But the Svetambara tradition holds that his lanchana is the srivatsa symbol.426 The name of his attendant yaksa is Brahma427or Brahma428 or Brahmesvara.429 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendent yaksi is Manavi.430 But the Svetambara tradition records the name of his attendant yaksi as Asoka431 or Gomedhika.132 11. SREYAMSANATHA The complexion of this tirtharkara is golden.433 The lanchana of the eleventh tirtharkara is rhinoceros.434 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksa is isvara.435 But the Svetambara tradition gives the 421. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 15. 422. JAA, I, p. 15. 423. JPV, p. 104. 424. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 425. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 254. 426. Ibid., ibid. 427. JPV, p.105. 428. Ibid.; JAA, I p. 15. 429. JAA, I, p.15. 430. Ibid.; JPV, p. 254. 431. Ibid.; ibid., p. 105. 432. JPV, p. 105. 433. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 434. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 105. 435. Ibid., ibid.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura name of his attendant yaksa as Yakset436 or Yaksaraja. 437 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Gauri.438 But the Svetambara tradition mentions the name of his attendant yaksi as Manavi.439 It may be pointed out that the Digambara tradition records Manavi as the name of Sitalanatha's attendant yaksi.440 12. VASUPUJYA The conplexion of Vasupujya is red441 and his lanchana is buffalo.442 The name of his attendant yaksa is Kumara.443 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Gandhari.444 But the Svetambara tradition views the name of his attendant yaksi as Canda 445 or Candra or Ajita.446 13. VIMALANATHA The complexion of Vimalanatha is golden.447 His lanchana is boar (varaha).448 The name of his attendant yaksa is Sanamukha.449 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Vairoti450 or Vairotya.451 But the 436. JAA, 1, p. 15. 437. JPV, p. 105. 438. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 15. 439. Ibid., ibid. 440. JAA, I, p. 15. 441. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 442. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 106. 443. Ibid.; ibid. 444. Ibid., ibid. 445. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 106. 446. JPV, p. 106. 447. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 448. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 106. 449. Ibid.; ibid. 450. Ibid.; ibid., p. 254. 451. JPV, p. 106. 213

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214 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Svetambara tradition mentions the name of his attendant yaksi as Vidita.452 14. ANANTANATHA Anantanatha's complexion is golden. 453 According to the Svetambara tradition, his lanchana is falcon,454 but the Digambara tradition suggests his cognizance as bear.455 The name of his attendant yaksa is Patala.456 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Anantamati,457 but the Svetambara tradition mentions her name as Ankusa458 or Varabhrta.45 15. DHARMANATHA The complexion of Dharmanatha is golden.460 His lanchana is vajra.461 The name of his attendant yaksa is Kinnara.462 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Manasi,463 but the Svetambara tradition gives her name as Kandarpa.464 16. SANTINATHA The complexion of Santinatha is golden.465 His lanchana is deer.466 According 452. Ibid., p. 254; JAA, I, p. 15. 453. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 454. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 107. 455. Ibid.; ibid. 456. Ibid.; ibid. 457. Ibid.; ibid. 458. Ibid.; ibid. 459. JPV, p. 107. 460. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 461. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 107. 462. Ibid., ibid. 463. Ibid.; ibid., p. 254. 464. Ibid.; ibid. 465. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 466. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 108.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksa is Kimpurusa,467 but the Svetambara tradition mentions his name as Garuda 468 or Varaha. 469 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his yaksi is Mahamanasi,470 but the Svetambara tradition gives her name as Nirvani471 or Dharini. 472 17. KUNTHUNATHA The complexion of Kunthunatha is golden,473 and his lanchana is goat.474 The name of his attendant yaksa is Gandharva.475 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Vijaya476 or Jaya or Jayadevi.477 But the Svetambara tradition mentions her name as Bala478 or Acyuta or Gandharini.479 18. ARANATHA Aranatha's complexion has been mentioned as yellow or golden.480 According to the Digambara tradition, the lanchana of Aranatha is tagara-flower481 or 467. JAA., p. 15. 468. Ibid. ; JPV, p. 108. 469. JPV, p. 108. 470. Ibid., p. 254; JAA, I, p. 15. 471. Ibid., p. 108; ibid. 472. Ibid., p. 108. 473. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. 474. JPV, p. 112; ibid. 475. Ibid.; ibid. 476. JAA, I, p. 15. 477. JPV, pp. 112, 254. 478. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 15. 479. Ibid., pp. 112,254. 480. JAA, I, p. 15. 481. Ibid. 215

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216 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura fish.482 But the Svetambara tradition mentions his lanchana as the nandyavarta symbol.483 The Digambara tradition gives the name of his attendant yaksa as Kendra 484 or Khendra,485 but according to the Svetambara tradition, his name is Yaksendra486 of Yaksesa.487 The Digambara tradition furnishes the name of his attendant yaksi as Ajita488 or Taravati or Vijaya.489 But the Svetambara tradition mentions her name as Dhana490 or Dharini or Kali.491 19. MALLINATHA OR MALLI Malli's complexion is blue.492 His or her lanchana is pitcher (kalasa). 493 The name of this tirthamkara's attendant yaksa is Kubera.494 The name of the attendant yaksi mentioned in the Digambara tradition is Aparajita,495 but according to the Svetambara tradition, her name is Dharanapriya.496 Her 482. 483. 484. 485. 486. 487. 488. 489. 490. 491. 492. 493. JAA; JPV, p. 113. Ibid., ibid. Ibid., p. 15. JPV, p. 255. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 15. Ibid., p. 113. JAA, I, p. 15. JPV, p. 113. JAA, I, p. 15. JPV, pp. 113,255. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 15. JAA, I, p. 15; JPV, p. 114. We have already stated that according to the Digambaras Malli was a male, but according to the Svetambaras, Malli was a female. In sculpture Malli has been depicted as a male. But one image of Malli (SML no. J.885) depicts this jina as a female; this is probably the only image which depicts Malli as a female. See JPV, p. 114. JPV, p. 114; JAA, I, p. 15. Ibid., p. 255; Ibid. Ibid., Ibid. 494. 495. 496.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura name has been mentioned as Vairotya also.497 20. MUNISUVRATA The complexion of this tirthamkara has been mentioned as black. 498 His lanchana is tortoise.499 The name of his attendant yaksa is Varuna.500 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Bahurupini601 or Bahurupa,502 but the Svetambara tradition gives her name as Naradatta503 and Varadatta.504 21. NAMINATHA The complexion of Naminatha is golden.505 His lanchana is blue lotus.506 The name of his attendant yaksa is Bhikuti. 507 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksi is Camundi508 or Camunda.509 But the Svetambara tradition gives her name as Gandhari510 or Malini.511 497. JPV, p. 255; JAA, I, p. 15. 498. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 16. 499. JPV, p. 255; ibid. 500. Ibid. ; ibid. 501. Ibid., ibid. 502. Ibid., p. 114. 503. Ibid., p. 255; JAA, I, p. 16. 504. Ibid., p. 255. 505. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 16. 506. JPV, p. 255; JAA, I, p. 16. 507. Ibid.; ibid. 508. JAA, I, p. 16. 509. JPV, p. 255. 510. Ibid.; JAA, I, p. 16. 511. Ibid., p. 117.

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218 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura 22. NEMINATHA OR ARISTANEMI Neminatha's complexion is black.512 His lanchana is conch-shell.513 According to the Digambara tradition, the name of his attendant yaksa is Sarvahana,514 but the Svetambara tradition gives his name as Gomedha.515 The Digambara tradition mentions the name of his attendant yaksi as Kusmandini,516 but according to the Svetambara tradition her name is Ambika.517 23. PARSVANATHA Parsvanatha's complexion is blue.518 His lanchana is snake.519 The name of his attendant yaksa has been given as Dharanendra520 or Parsva or Vamana. 521 The name of his attendant yaksi is Padmavati.522 24. VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA Mahavira's complexion is golden. 523 His lanchana is lion, 524 The name of his attendant yaksa is Matanga.525 The name of his attendant yaksi is 512. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 16. 513. JPV, p. 255; JAA, I, p. 16. 514. JAA, I, p. 16. 515. Ibid.; JPV, p. 255. 516. Ibid., ibid. 517. Ibid., ibid. 518. ERE, VII, p. 466; JAA, I, p. 16. 519. JPV, p. 255; JAA, I, p. 16. 520. The Digambara tradition gives the name of his yaksa as Dharanendra. See JAA, I, p. 16 and also as Dharana; See JPV, p. 255. 521. The Svetambara tradition gives the name of his yaksa as Parsva or Vamana. See JPV, p. 255. 522. JPV, p. 255; JAA, I, p. 16. 523. ERE, VII, p. 466; ibid. 524. JPV, p. 136; ibid. 525. Ibid.; ibid.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Siddhayika526 or Padma.527 It may be pointed out that Matanga has been mentioned as the yaksa of Suparsvanatha also.528 The evolution of the lanchanas of the twenty-four jinas added a new chapter to the history of Jaina iconography. The new image of the jina depicted his lanchana, his attendant yaksa and yaksi, asta-mangalas, dharma-cakra, nava-grhas, figures of elephant, etc.529 In short, the jina figure attained completion in the ninth-tenth century AD.530 The Jaina architecture at Mathura The Jaina architectural activity at Mathura began with the construction of the stupa at Kankali lila in the pre-Kusana period. But, strangely enough, it did not extend beyond the Kusana period. This is evident from the fact that archaeological excavations at Mathura have not exposed any Jaina architectural antiquity which can be assigned to the post-Kusana period. Excavations at Mathura have brought to light a large number of Jaina inscriptions, 531 and architectural pieces like pillars, lintels, door-jambs, capitals, umbrellas, railing posts, cross-bars, coping stones, component parts of gateways, bracket-figures, tympana and other small or big fragments, which formed parts of Jaina buildings constructed in this city in the pre-Kusana and Kusana period.532 The Jaina stupa at Kankali Pila was constructed many centuries before the commencement of the Christian era. Inscriptions reveal that between the second century AD and the third century AD many more Jaina religious buildings were constructed at Mathura. A Jaina temple (pasada) was erected 526. JPV, p. 136; JAA, I, p. 16. 527. Ibid., p. 136. 528. JPV., p. 254; JAA, I, p. 15. 529. Ibid., p. 250. 530. Ibid. 531. EI, X, Appendix, pp. 2ff. 532. JS, Introduction; JAA, L, p. 52. 219

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2201 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura at Mathura as early as the middle of the second century BC. This is evident from the inscription which records the dedication of a pasada-torana by a sravaka named Uttaradasaka. 533 Two Jaina temples were built at Mathura sometime in the first century AD. One of them was the donative gift of a Jaina lady named Dhamaghosa.534 The second Jaina temple constructed at Mathura in the first century AD was the donative gift of a courtesan named Vasu, whose donation consisted of a devakula (shrine) of the arhat, an ayaga-sabha (hall), a cistern (prapa) and a sila-patta (stone slab) in the nirgrantha arhatayatana (sanctuary of the arhats).535 One more Jaina temple, called the temple of arhats, was built in the year 299 of an unknown era at Mathura. This is evident from the inscription (dated 299 of an unknown era) incised on the pedestal of a broken image which records the installation of an image of Mahavira in the temple (ayatana) of arhats, and erection of a devakula (shrine).536 Lohuizen is inclined to assign the aforesaid inscription to the preKusana period. 537 But R.C. Sharma fixes it in the transitional period which falls between the end of the Kusana period and the beginning of the Gupta period.538 It appears certain that viharas, i.e., monasteries for the residence of Jaina monks, were also built at Mathura.539 This is evident from the word vihara which occurs on a fragmentary ayaga-patta discovered at Mathura. 540 Architecture of the Jaina shrines and monasteries at Mathura We have already stated that a large number of architectural pieces belonging to the Jaina religious buildings constructed at Mathura have come to light. 533. 534. 535. 536. 537. 538. 539. 540. EI, X, Appendix, no. 93. Ibid., no. 99. Ibid., no. 102. Ibid., no. 78. The Scythian Period., op. cit., p. 58. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures, op. cit., p. 149. JAA, I, p. 62. Ibid., p.52.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura But the fragments unearthed by archaeological excavations do not throw light on the architectural pattern of the Jaina buildings raised at Mathura during the period under review.541 The Jaina stupa at Mathura was built of baked bricks. Most probably the Jaina temples, halls and monasteries were also built of bricks, and stone was generally used in the construction of pillars, pilasters, door-frames, windows, pavements and drain-channels.542 Some specimens of the drain-channels have been discovered; they show that the sides of the drains were decorated with aquatic creatures like fish, fish-tailed makara and auspicious symbols.543 Some specimens of the windows have also come to light.544 One intact specimen shows square perforations at four corners of the connected crosses. 545 The central square of the crosses is crisscrossed into rows of diamonds, and the arms are decorated with four-petalled flowers. 546 A fragmentary perforated window is made of groups of petals, each group having four. 547 Another fragment shows an eight-petalled lotus. 548 From the available material it is not possible to portray the form of the Jaina sanctuaries of Mathura. The form of the Jaina shrines of Mathura, therefore, is a matter of conjecture. In the Buddhist reliefs of Mathura, belonging to the Kusana period, we find representation of apsidal and quadrilateral shrines.549 One of these reliefs depicts a monastery within a compound-wall.550 The entrance is flanked by pylon-like projections.551 The 541. JAA, I, p. 62. 542. Ibid. 543. JS, Plate XLII; JAA, I, p. 62. 544. Ibid., Plate XLI; ibid., p. 62. 545. Ibid.; ibid. 546. Ibid., ibid. 547. Ibid., ibid. 548. JAA, I, p. 62. 549.J. Ph. Vogel, La Sculpture De Mathura, 1930, Plate XXIIIa and XXIII; JAA, I, p. 62. 550. Ibid., Plate XXIIIa; ibid., p. 62 fn 1. 551. Ibid., ibid.

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222 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura lay-out of the cottages appears to be quadrangular.552 The roofs, possibly tiled, are triangular in shape with a gable at either end.553 The available material is a pointer that the Jaina stupa or stupas at Mathura bore a striking resemblance with the Buddhist stupas. We have no positive evidence of the form of the Jaina shrines of Mathura. Probably, like the Buddhist shrines, the Jaina shrines of Mathura were apsidal and quadrilateral. A slightly less than half fragment of a typanum discovered at Mathura, which forms part of the collection of the National Museum, 554 is commonly believed to be a part of the torana of a Jaina stupa.555 Debala Mitra is of opinion that the aforesaid tympanum, an object of great interest, probably formed part of a Jaina shrine.556 This exquisite tympanum needs detailed description. Debala Mitra writes: Both sides of this piece are exuberantly carved with care, the layout of the decoration being the same. Each face is divided into three semicircular (half existing) panels within four bands decorated with floral and creeper motifs. The triangular spandril at the corner of the front side is relieved with a group of devotees approaching a stupa; in front of the stupa are four platforms crowned by ayaga-pattas, while below the devotees is a covered wheeled carriage. A larger cortege of worshippers is seen above a similar carriage on the spandril of the reverse side; in front of this group are a purna-ghata, a petal-shaped basket with garlands and three bowls covered by lids. The ends of the lunate panels of both the faces have fish-tailed makaras, the mouth of which is being opened by boyish figures in five cases. The rest of the available portion of the panels of two faces depicts men and women and flying vidyadharas proceeding towards the objects of 552. J. Ph. Vogel, La Sculpture De Mathura, 1930, Plate XXIIIa; JAA, I, p. 62. 553. Ibid., ibid. 554. JAA, I, Plates 12 and 13. 555. Ibid., p. 62. 556. Ibid.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura worship which were depicted in the central portion (missing) of the panels. While some devotees are on foot, others are within carriages drawn by bullocks and horses, and still there are others on the back of composite animals with fish-tails and serpentine bodies. In the top panel of the obverse is represented a vimana, possibly drawn by hamsas, an oblong structure with a semi-cylindrical roof having caitya-arches at two ends and railing at the base.557 THE JAINA STUPA ARCHITECTURE OF MATHURA The stupa358 and its concomitant railing559 have been primarily associated with Buddhism.560 In fact, the origin of the stupa goes back to the Rgvedic period. The Rgveda speaks of the golden stupa of Agni, i.e., the huge pile of splendour from which the cosmos is produced.561 In the pre-Buddhist tradition, the stupa was looked upon as a monument associated with the life of a great man, i.e., the enlightened one. 562 The Buddha or the enlightened one became an object of worship through the symbol of the stupa. 563 According to tradition, the ashes of the Buddha were parcelled out into eight portions, each of which was deposited in a commemorative stupa.564 The stupa originated as a ptled-up burial-tumulus and constituted the most characteristic monument of Buddhism.565 Symbolising the decease (parinirvana) of the Buddha, the stupa came to be looked upon as an object of Buddhist cult-worship by the time of Asoka, i.e., the third century BC. 566 557. JAA, I, pp. 62-3. 558. IGI, II, p. 110; V.S. Agrawala, Studies ..., op. cit., p. 77. 559. Ibid., p. 110. 560. Ibid.; V.S. Agrawala, Studies ..., op. cit., p. 77. 561. V.S. Agrawala, Studies . . ., op. cit., p. 77. 562. Ibid. 563. Ibid. 564. Ibid., pp. 77-8. 565. AII, p. 77. 566. Ibid., p. 78. 223

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224 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura But the construction of the stupa over the ashes of the enlightened one was not exclusive to the Buddhists. The art and architecture of India was not sectarian; all religions -- Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism - used the art of the age and the country, and all three drew on common store-house of symbolic and conventional devices.567 Jaina traditions also refer to the practice of erecting the stupas over the ashes of the jinas.568 The Jainas, too, constructed the stupas in honour of the jinas. According to Jinadasa, a stupa dedicated to jina Munisuvrata was built at Vaisali.569 Marshall has associated the Sirkap stupa near Taxila with Jainism.570 According to Havell, many Jaina stupas existed during the Maurya period.571 Somadeva and Jinaprabha Suri make mention of only one Jaina stupa at Mathura, i.e., the devanirmita stupa. But the Digambara texts like the Brhat-Katha-Kosa of Harisena speak about five Jaina stupas at Mathura, all built by gods during a controversy with the Buddhists.572 Jinaprabha Suri leaves us in no doubt that a Jaina stupa was built at a very early period and was repaired in the time of Parsvanatha. In fact, the prejudice that all stupas and railings must necessarily be Buddhists has probably prevented the recognition of Jaina structures as such, and up to the present day only two undoubted Jaina stupas have been recorded.573 For a proper appreciation of the architecture of the Jaina stupa or stupas constructed at Mathura, it is necessary to provide a brief outline of four Buddhist stupas, especially the central Indian stupas, i.e., the stupas built at Bharhut and Sanchi. The stupa was a solid structural dome (anda) usually raised on one or more terraces and invariably surmounted by a railed pavilion (harmika) from which rose the shaft of the crowning umbrella 567. IGI, II, p. 110. 568. SIJA, p. 9. 569. Ibid., fn 1. 570, Ibid., pp. 9-10. 571. E.B. Havell, The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India, 1915, p. 46. 572. SIJA, p. 63. 573. IGI, II, p. 111.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura (chatra).574 The stupa had one or more circumbulatory passages (pradaksina pathas) which were usually enclosed by railing (vedika).575 The earlier stupas were hemispherical in shape with a low base; but the latter ones assumed an increasingly cylindrical form with a well-developed drum.576 In the latter examples, which tended to be more ornate, the base terraces and the umbrellas were multiplied.577 The Buddhist brick-stupas at Piparava in Uttar Pradesh and at Rajgir in Bihar, as has already been stated, were constructed in the fifth century BC. The Buddhist stupa at Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh has also been assigned to the same period. But these brick-stupas did not spring to life at once. It is obvious that the brick-stupas developed from the earthen tumulus; kiln-baked brick slabs were later substituted for earth to ensure permanence to these structures. 578 A series of low-flattish stupas built of mud or mud-bricks with baked brickrevetments standing at Lauriya may be roughly contemporary with the Piparava stupa.579 The original stupa at Sanchi built by Asoka in the third century BC was a low brick structure.580 About a century later, the original brick-stupa was enveloped in a stone casing and was enlarged to its present dimension to form an almost hemispherical dome truncated near the top.581 It was in the latter half of the first century BC that four lavishly carved gateways (toranas) were erected, one in each cardinal direction as a magnificent entrance to this imposing monument.582 It is crystal clear that these gateways were conceived in wood and 574. All, p. 78. 575. Ibid., p. 79. 576. Ibid. 577. Ibid. 578. IGI, II, p. 102. 579. AII, p. 79. 580. Ibid. 581. Ibid. 582. Ibid., p. 80. 225

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226 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura executed in stone.583 Each of them was alike in design and consisted of two square uprights surmounted by capitals which in their turn supported three architraves with a row of sculptured balusters in between.584 Each of them was carved on both faces with Jataka tales, scenes from the life of the Buddha, and other motifs, the entire composition being significantly crowned by the dharma-cakra symbol.585 The surviving remains of the Bharhut stupa in central India mainly consist of portions of enclosing stone railing, dating from 125 BC, and the eastern gateway, erected fifty years later.586 They are of the same design as the Sanchi railing and gateways, and are richly carved with bas-reliefs.587 The architecture of the Jaina stupa or stupas constructed at Mathura should be judged in the light of these developments. We begin the discussion with the number of Jaina stupas constructed at Mathura. Archaeological excavations conducted at Kankali Tila unearthed some component parts of the stupa. For an idea of the elevation and outer form of this stupa we have to depend on representation of the stupa on ayagapattas, tympana, reliefs on architraves of the gateways, etc.588 According to Debala Mitra, the reliefs and dismembered stones of gateways and railings indicate that either more than one stupa was built at Kankali Tila or a single stupa underwent restoration and embellishments at frequent intervals.589 V.S. Agrawala590 and P.K. Agrawala591 opine that two Jaina stupas were built at Mathura -- one in the Sunga period and the other in the Kusana period. 583. AII, p. 80; P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 2. 584. Ibid., p. 80. 585. Ibid. 586. Ibid., p. 81. 587. Ibid. 588. JAA, I, p. 54. 589. Ibid. 590. V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, op. cit., p. 224. 591. P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 4.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura The earliest Jaina stupa at Mathura was the one called devanirmita by Jinaprabha Suri, Somadeva, and in one of the Jaina inscriptions. The devanirmita stupa, which probably enshrined the relics of Parsvanatha and built in the eighth century BC, must have been a clay-stupa. It must have been built of mud or mud-bricks,692 because burnt bricks became a medium of construction only in the fifth century BC. This mud-stupa was the forerunner of the earliest brick-stupa built by the Jainas at Mathura, and was called devanirmita, like the preceding clay-stupa. The Jaina brick-stupas raised at Mathura were indistinguishable from contemporary Buddhist stupas. 593 The components and representation of the stupas found at Kankali Tila do not reveal any characteristic that is not found in contemporary Buddhist stupas.594 But for their more slender shape, the stupas at Mathura possessed all features which were characteristic of the Buddhist stupas built at Sanchi and Bharhut in central India.595 Structurally, the toranas of the Mathura stupas did not differ from those of Sanchi and Bharhut, the only difference being the decoration which was less elaborate in the former. 596 The stupas at Mathura had dimensional railings and gateways loaded with reliefs and figures of endless description; they, thus, assimilated a rich stock of ancient symbols characteristic of ornamented stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut.597 The dome and drum of the Jaina stupas built at Mathura were austere and plain like stupas 1, 2 and 3 at Sanchi.598 But as at Sanchi so at Mathura, the urge for decoration found manifestation in the railings and gateways, which are adjuncts and not essential elements of the stupa.599 It is, thus, clear 592. V.S. Agrawala, Mathura Kala, 1964, p. 79. 593. IGI, II, p. 111. 594. JAA, I, Editorial, pp. 6-7. 595. J. Ph. Vogel, Buddhist Art in India, Ceylon and Java, 1936, p. 30. 596. ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 147. 597. V.S. Agrawala, Studies ..., op. cit., pp. 55-6. 598. JAA, I, p. 57. 599. Ibid. 227

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228 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura that the earliest Jaina brick-stupa constructed at Mathura was a contemporary or near-contemporary of the Buddhist stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut. The sculptors of Mathura followed the art traditions of Bharhut and Sanchi,600 more intimately those of the former. 601 It is evident that in the construction of the stupa the architects of Mathura followed the architectural traditions of Bharhut and Sanchi. The Buddhist stupa of Bharhut was built in the third century BC or the second century BC.602 The stupa of Sanchi was also originally built in the third century BC or the first century BC.603 We have already stated that the Jaina stupas of Mathura bore a striking stylistic affinity with the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi. Therefore, it appears certain that the earliest Jaina brick-stupa of Mathura, too, was constructed in the third century BC or the second century BC. 604 The dome was the principal element of the stupa. It was sorrounded by a pradaksina-patha which was often fenced off by a railing. The railings of the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi have been assigned to the second century BC.605 The earliest stupa railing discovered at Kankali Tila goes back to the second century BC.606 It appears that the railing of the Jaina stupa of Mathura was also constructed in the second century BC. The gateways of the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi were built in the second and first century BC respectively.607 One of the earliest torana-architraves discovered at Kankali Tila appears to be a construction of the first century BC.608 It appears that the toranas of the 600. A.K. Coomaraswamy, History... op. cit., p. 37; S.K. Saraswati, op. cit., p. 62; V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, p. 261. 601. A.K. Coomaraswamy, op. cit., p. 37. 602. A. Cunningham, The stupa of Bharhut, 1962, p. 14. 603. John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918, p. 31; AII, p. 79. 604. V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, op. cit., pp. 278-80; P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., pp. 4-5. 605. AII, pp. 79-81. 606. JAA, I, p. 57. 607. AII, pp. 79-81. 608. JAA, I, p. 59; SML, no. J.535.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura Jaina stupa of Mathura, 'which structurally did not differ from those of Sanchi and Bharhut', 609 were constructed in the first century BC. The representation of a stupa occurs on many Jaina architectural and sculptural antiquities discovered at Mathura. These antiquities form part of the collection of State Museum, Lucknow, 610 Government Museum, Mathura611 and National Museum.612 Chronologically, the earliest representation of a stupa occurs on the obverse of the bottom architrave of the gateway of a stupa.613 On stylistic consideration of the figures represented on the architrave, the latter cannot be regarded later than the first century BC.614 The stupa depicted on the aforesaid architectural object is somewhat bell-shaped.615 The two terraces of the circular drum of this stupa have three-barred railings around them.616 The hemispherical dome is crowned by a square three-barred railing; a conspicuous chatra rises from the centre of this railing 617 A fourth railing enclosing the processional path is provided at the ground level.618 Probably, this stupa did not have a stone gateway originally.619 It appears that this depiction represents the shape of the devanirmita stupa built at Kankali Tila620 in the third century BC or the second century BC. The sila-patta donated by courtesan Vasu bears a relief which depicts a developed form of stupa-architecture.621 The inscription on this sila-patta is 609. ASIAR, 1906-7, p. 147. 610. SML nos. J.535; J.255; J.623; J.250; J.283; JAA, I, pp. 54-7. 611. MM no. Q.2; JAA, I, Plate 1. 612. JAA, I, Plates 12 and 13. 613. SML no. J.535; JAA, I, Plate 2A. 614. JAA, I, p. 54. 615. Ibid., Plate 2 A; ibid., p. 54. 616. Ibid., ibid. 617. Ibid.; ibid., pp. 54-5. 618. Ibid., ibid., p. 55. 619. Ibid.; ibid., p. 55. 620. Ibid., p. 55; V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, op. cit., p. 226. 621. MM no. Q. 2; JAA, I, Plate 1. 229

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura palaeographically assignable to early first century AD.622 Probably, this depiction demonstrates the shape or form of the Jaina stupa built at Mathura in the pre or early Kusana period. This sila-patta or ayaga-patta depicts a complete stupa which is sorrounded by a railing and approached by means of a flight of steps and an ornamental gateway (torana).623 This stupa presents a contrast to the earlier Jaina stupa, i.e., the stupa constructed in the Sunga period. It has a high cylindrical drum which gives it a tower-like appearance.624 This stupa is built on a high platform which appears to be square.625 This stupa is flanked by two pillars of Persipolitan style, the one to the proper right carries or bears a wheel and the other a sitting lion.626 There are three worshipping figures on each side of the stupa. 627 The two flying figures above the stupa possibly represent the munis who were supposed to possess the power of transporting themselves through air. 628 They are naked and carry in the left hand a piece of cloth and a waterpotor almsbowl; their right hand is applied to the forehead in token of respectful salutation (namaskara).629 The second pair of figures may be identified with suparnas corresponding to the harpies of classical art. 630 They have birds' tails and claws.631 The one to the proper right carries a bunch of flowers, and the other a garland.632 The two female figures leaning in a graceful attitude against the drum of the stupa represent yaksis.633 On each side of the staircase 622. JAA, I, p. 55; V.S. Agrawala, Bharatiya Kala, op. cit., p. 226. 623. MM, no. Q.2; Vogel, Catalogue, Plate V; JUPHS, III, p. 35. 624. JAA, I, Plate 1 and p. 55. 625. Ibid. 626. Ibid., Plate I; Vogel, Catalogue, Plate V; JUPHS, III, p. 35. 627. Ibid.; ibid., ibid. 628. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 629. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 630. Ibid., ibid., ibid. 631. Ibid.; ibid.; ibid. 632. Ibid., ibid.; ibid. 633. Ibid., ibid.; ibid.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura is a niche containing a standing figure, the nature of which is difficult to ascertain.634 The figure to the proper right seems to be a male figure accompanied by a child, and that to the left appears to be a female figure. 635 The torana or gateway of this stupa is of the usual type. This lavishly carved torana bears a striking affinity with the toranas of the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut.636 It consists of two oblong carved posts supporting three horizontal curvi-form architraves with ends simulating makaras.687 Between the architraves are supporting blocks, and the two rolled ends of the bottom architrave are sustained by two lion-shaped brackets.638 Crowning the top architrave is a honeysuckle motif flanked on either side by a tri-ratna (or nandipada) symbol, as in the eastern gateway of the stupa of Bharhut.639 Dismembered fragments unmistakably prove that the torana of this Jaina stupa was modelled on the lines of the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut. 640 The terrace over the high platform of this stupa served as a processional path.641 The terrace in this stupa is enclosed by a three-barred railing, the latter is pierced by a torana.642 Access to this terrace is provided by a balustrated staircase of eight steps right in front of this torana or gateway.643 A distinctive feature of this stupa is depiction of two high pillars, one each at the front corners, which are of the height of the stupa above the platform.644 The relief on this sila-patta or ayaga-patta is a miniature replica of the stupa. 634. 635. 636. 637. 638. 639. 640. 641. 642. 643. 644. JAA, I, Plate I; Vogel, Catalogue, Plate V; JUPHS, III, p. 35. Ibid.; p. 55 and Plate 1. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., pp. 55-6 and Plate 1. Ibid., and Plate 1. Ibid., p.55 and Plate 1. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid., p. 56 and Plate 1. 231

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232 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Probably, there were two more pillars at the remaining two corners of this stupa.645 The railings of the Jaina stupas of Mathura deserve special notice. These stupas either perished of their own or 'were destroyed by ruthless agencies at some later date? 646 But the remaining pieces of the railing pillars show decorative skill of the highest class 'and a perfection of plastic art not attained at any time before or after"647 The railing formed an enclosure round a monument built of stone, but on a pattern similar to that of a bamboorailing.648 The stone railing round the stupa appeared as a series of upright posts, each pair of them joined together by three cross-bars inserted in the mortices cut into the narrower sides of the pillars, and held in position on top by the copings and at bottom by the base-stones held by the similar morticeand-tenon devices. 649 In the beginning the anda or the main hemispherical body of the stupa was plain.650 This architectural plan left no scope for the sculptors to display their decorative skill. They, therefore, unfolded their craft in the decoration of the torana (gateway) and railing (vedika) of the stupa. The sculptors embellished the torana and the railing of the stupa with figure-sculptures of rare beauty. The railing which once sorrounded the stupa of Bharhut and the stupa No. 2 at Sanchi bear testimony to it. 651 The real charm of the rail posts of the Mathura stupas lies in depiction of female figures. These figures have been conceived and represented in 645. JAA, I, p. 56 and Plate 1. 646. P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 4. 647. Ibid. 648. Ibid., p. 2; V.S. Agrawala, Masterpieces ..., op. cit., pp. 7-8. 649. Ibid.; ibid. 650. The anda of the Sanci stupa is a classical example. See JAA, I, p. 57;P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 2. 651. P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 3.

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Jaina Art and Architecture at Mathura numerous forms and poses.652 They are the finest specimens of the contemporary plastic art of Mathura, and have elicited great praise from connoisseurs of art. 653 Cunningham held that these female figures represent dancing girls.654 Cunningham's judgement was wrong, and it was ably refuted by scholars like Vogel and V.A. Smith.655 Some of these figures are shown naked.656 But in other figures the apparent nudity is merely an artistic convention.657 Vogel described these female figures as figures of yaksinis, like the somewhat similar figures of the railing of the Bharhut stupa. 658 In fact, the females depicted on these railing pillars are salabhanjikas. 659 In the terminology of art, the term salabhanjika originally denoted 'the woman plucking (and gathering) sala flowers by standing under a sala tree' 660 A graphic description of such females, who are depicted on the Jaina and Buddhist railings at Mathura, is embodied in the Jaina text entitled Rayapaseniya-Sutta.661 This and other Jaina sutras clearly state that the term salabhanjika was used for beautiful female figures carved on the pillars of a stupa-railing 662 652. JUPHS, III, pp. 53-67. 653. JAA, I, pp. 60-1; P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., pp. 5-6; V.S. Agrawala, Mathura Kala, op. cit., p. 41. 654. ASIAR, III, p. 26. 655. ASIAR (1906-7), pp. 145-6; HOFA, p. 140. 656. HOFA, p. 140. 657. Ibid. 658. ASIAR (1906-7), pp. 145-6; HOFA, p. 140. 659. HOFA, pp. 140-1;JAA, I, p.60;P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 6;V.S. Agrawala, Mathura Kala, op. cit., pp. 41-2. 660. P.K. Agrawala, op. cit., p. 6; V.S. Agrawala, Mathura Kala, pp. 41-2. 661. Ibid., ibid. 662. Ibid., p. 11; ibid., pp. 41-2. 233

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Page #257
Jainism in Mathura Eleventh Century AD to the Present Times In the opening years of the eleventh century AD Mathura was a beautiful, populous and prosperous city, full of majestic temples and buildings. According to contemporary Muslim historians like Al-beruniand Utbi, and later Muslim historians like Firishta, it was a Hindu city devoted to Vaisnavism, particularly to the Krsna cult. There is no mention of Buddhism in the accounts of the aforesaid Muslim historians. It appears certain that by this time Buddhism had become non-existent in this city. Contemporary Muslim historians do not make mention of Jainism also. But unlike Buddhism, Jainism was a living religion in Mathura even in the eleventh century AD. A great misfortune enveloped Mathura in the first quarter of the eleventh century AD. Mahmud of Ghazni invaded it in AD 1018 and plundered, burnt and destroyed this city. The accounts left behind by Utbi and Firishta make it crystal clear that Mathura was almost completely annihilated. But the donative inscription dated AD 1023, and the colossal image of jina Padmaprabhanatha dated AD 1077, indicate that somehow the two Jaina temples at Kankali lila escaped destruction. The aforesaid vs. inscriptions 1. Elliot and Dowson, II, pp. 44-5. 2. Alberuni's India, Sachau, vol. I, 1914, pp. 199, 400-6. 3. Elliot and Dowson, II, pp. 44-5. 4. John Briggs, op. cit., p. 58. 5. Elliot and Dowson, II, pp. 44-5. 6. John Briggs, op. cit., pp. 58-9. 7. JS, Introduction, pp. 3-4. 235

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236 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura are evidence of the fact that these temples were centres of Jaina worship even in the eleventh century AD, one of them even about sixty years after Mahmud's destruction of Mathura.8 Mathura was in a state of ruin for many centuries after Mahmud's invasion. This is evident from the fact that the next mention of this place in contemporary Muslim histories occurs as late as the latter half of the fifteenth century AD. Mathura could not recover from this annihilation for many centuries. It made some recovery, but misfortune once again struck sometime between AD 1489 and AD 1517 and Mathura suffered heavy destruction at the hands of Sikandar Lodi. It is because of these unfortunate developments that we are in dark about the state of this city in the period between the eleventh century AD and the fifteenth century AD. The two Jaina temples which escaped destruction in AD 1018 either perished of their own after AD 1077 or 'were destroyed'lo at some unknown date. Some Jaina texts inform that Jaina religious life flourished at Mathura even in the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth century AD,' and VividhaTirtha-Kalpa seems to convey the impression that the Jaina stupa was in existence even in the first half of the fourteenth century AD.12 There is no confirmation of this in contemporary Muslim histories and other texts. In fact, between AD 1018 and the latter half of the sixteenth century AD, the only mention of Mathura in contemporary Muslim accounts is Sikandar Lodi's destruction of Hindu temples and idols in this city. F.S. Growse comments, During the period of Muhammadan supremacy, the history of Mathura is almost a total blank. The natural dislike of the ruling 8. JS, Introduction, pp. 3-4. 9. Elliot and Dowson, IV, p. 447. 10. JS, Introduction, p. 4; Yasastilaka, p. 433. R.C. Sharma, Braj Ka Pracin Tirtha Kankali Sthala; paper presented at the National Seminar held at Ajmer on 15 and 16 October, 1999, pp. 5-6. 12. MCH, pp. 210-11.

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Jainism in Mathura power to be brought into close personal connection with such a centre of superstition divested the town of all political importance; while the Hindu pilgrims, who still continued to frequent its impoverished shrines, were not invited to present, as the priests were not anxious to receive, any lavish donation which would only excite the jealousy of the rival faith. Thus, while there are abundant remains of the earlier Buddhist period, there is not a single building, nor fragment of a building, which can be assigned to any year in the long interval between the invasion of Mahmud in AD 1017 and the reign of Akbar in the latter half of the sixteenth century.13 In view of these circumstances it appears highly improbable that the Jaina stupa of Mathura continued to exist up to the first half of the fourteenth century AD. It is said that an eminent Jaina named Sahu Todar built 514 new stupas at Mathura with the permission of Akbar during his reign, and a great celebration was held in this city in AD 1573 to commemorate it.14 We find no mention of these Jaina stupas in the Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl, the court historian of Akbar, who makes only a passing reference to Mathura in his celebrated work. 15 He described Mathura as a city which had some fine Hindu temples.16 In fact, Mathura was in a state of ruin. Father Monserrate, a member of a Christian mission, travelled to Fatehpur Sikri from Goa on the invitation of Akbar. 17 This mission reached on 19 February, 1580 and stayed as Akbar's guest up to April, 1582.18 In the course of his journey, Monserrate passed through Mathura and found it in 13. MDM, pp. 33-4. 14. J.P. Jain, Pramukh Aitihasik Jaina Purusa Aur Mahilayen, 1975, p. 285; Poddar Abhinandan, p. 826. Ain-i-Akbari, II, p. 192. 15. 16. Ibid., p. 192. 17. A.L. Srivastava, op. cit., p. 467. 18. Ibid., p. 467. @Ji Wan :0 237

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238 Ji Wan a state of ruin. Monserrate wrote, It used to be a great and well-populated city, with splendid buildings and a great circuit of walls. The ruins plainly indicate how imposing its buildings were. For out of forgotten ruins are dug out ancient statues of skilful and cunning workmanship. Only one Hindu temple is left out of many, for the Musalmans have destroyed all except the pyramids. 19 Akbar was a liberal and tolerant king, and his reign witnessed the revival of Hindu building activity at Mathura and Vrandaban. Construction of Hindu religious buildings continued during the reign of Akbar's son Jehangir. Mathura became the headquarters of a district during the intolerant reign of Aurangzeb (AD 1658-1707).20 But it again suffered destruction at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali in AD 1757.21 On the whole, the period from AD 1018 when Mathura suffered destruction at the hands of Mahmud of Ghazni, to AD 1757 when this city was destroyed by Ahmad Shah Abdali, was an unfortunate time in the history of the place and after the eleventh century AD, Jainism appears to have gained some importance in Mathura only in the nineteenth century AD. In the nineteenth century, Jainism gained some prominence in Mathura because of its profession by Seth Raghunath Das,22 son of famous Mathura banker Seth Lakhmi Chand,23 and grandson of famous Mathura banker Mani Ram.24 But the Jaina population in Mathura did not count much in the History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura 19. The commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J. on his journey to the court of Akbar, tr. J.S. Holyland, 1922, p. 93; A.L. Srivastava, Akbar the Great, vol. III, 1973, p. 11. R.S. Whiteway, Report on the settlement of the Muttra District, 1879, p. 11; DGM, 1911, p. 137. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Tara Chand, History of the Freedom Movement in India, vol. I, 1961, p. 58; K.R. Qanungo, History of the Jats, vol I, 1950, p. 103. DGM, 1911, p. 82. MDM, p. 14. Ibid.

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Jainism in Mathura nineteenth century. The Jainas usually known as Saraugis, and almost exclusively belonging to the bania community,25 numbered only 1593 in the Mathura district in 1882.26 The Jainas were not a large community in the Mathura district in 1911,27 and according to the census of 1951, they numbered only 2055 in the district.28 Mani Ram, Lakhmi Chand and Raghunath Das were devout Jainas.29 Raja Lakshman Das, a cousin of Raghunath Das, was one of the principal leaders of the Jaina community.30 He founded the Bharatavarsiya Digambara Jaina Mahasabha in AD 1884, and organised some sessions of this body at Mathura.31 Jainism made considerable progress in Mathura in the twentieth century. Up to 1911, there were only three Jaina temples in the city of Mathura; one at Chaurasi, and one each in Ghia Mandi and Caubes' Quarter, both dedicated to jina Padmaprabha. 32 At present there are ten Jaina temples and dharmasalas in Mathura and its immediate neighbourhood. These are -- (1) Sri 1008 Candraprabhu Bhagvan Digambara Jaina Mandir, Jaina Gali, Mathura; (2) Sri 1008 Padmaprabhu Bhagvana Digambara Jaina Mandir, Manik Chowk, Mathura; (3) Sri 1008 Candraprabhu Digambara Jaina Mandir, Jaisimhapura, Mathura; (4) Samkhesvara Parsvanatha Svetambara Jaina Mandir, Jaina Gali, Mathura; (5) Sri 1008 Adinatha Bhagvan Digambara Jaina Mandir, Vrandaban; (6) Sethani Ji Ka Chaityalaya, opposite Sri Dvarakadhisa Mandir, Mathura; (7) Sri 1008 Adinatha Digambara Jaina Chaityalaya, Chaurasi, Mathura; (8) Digambara Jaina Dharmasala, Jaina Gali, Mathura; (9) Svetambara Jaina Dharmasala, 25. MDM, p. 12; DGM, 1911, p. 82. 26. Ibid., p. 12. 27. DGM, 1911, p. 82. 28. Ibid., 1968, pp. 83-4. 29. J.P. Jain, op. cit., p. 354. 30. Ibid., pp. 354-5. 31. Ibid., p. 355. 32. MDM, pp. 12-13; DGM, 1911, pp. 82-3. 239

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240 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Jaina Gali, Mathura; (10) Sri 1008 Jambusvami Digambara Jaina Siddhaksetra temple, Chaurasi, Mathura. 33 The principal Jaina temple in Mathura stands in the Keshopur locality. 34 The site is called Chaurasi, 35 and the temple is also popularly called Chaurasi.36 The site where this Jaina temple stands is called Sri 1008 Jambusvami Digambara Jaina Siddhaksetra, Chaurasi by the Jainas.37 F.S. Growse felt that this site is called Chaurasi for some unexplained reasons.38 But the Jainas hold that it was at this site that Jambusvami attained nirvana at the age of eighty-four years and it was probably due to this happening that this site came to be known as Chaurasi.39 The Jaina temple at Chaurasi, Mathura was built by Mani Ram,40 sometimes in the nineteenth century. 41 Mani Ram enshrined in it an image of tirtharkara Candraprabha. 42 Sometime about the middle of the nineteenth century,43 Mani Ram's grandson Seth Raghunath Das,44 brought a large marble statue of tirtharkara Ajitanatha from Gwalior. 45 It is the aforesaid image of Ajitanatha which occupies the pride of place in the Jaina temple at Chaurasi, Mathura. 46 It is said that Jambusvami practised penance at this 33. Introductory Booklet, pp. 1-6. 34. MDM, p. 12; DGM, 1911, p. 82. 35. Ibid., p. 13; ibid., p. 83; Introductory Booklet, p. 1. 36. Ibid., p. 13; ibid., p. 83. 37. Introductory Booklet, p. 1. 38. MDM, p. 13. 39. Introductory Booklet, p. 1. 40. MDM, p. 13; DGM, 1911, p. 83; Introductory Booklet, pp. 1-2. 41. Ibid., pp. 12-13; ibid., pp. 82-3. 42. Ibid., p. 13; ibid., p. 82. 43. DGM, 1911, p. 82 44. MDM, p. 14. 45. Ibid., p. 13; DGM, 1911, p. 82; Introductory Booklet, pp. 2-3. 46. Ibid.; ibid. ; ibid., p. 3.

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Jainism in Mathura site,47 and that his name is recorded in an old and almost effaced inscription on a slab that is still preserved under the altar.48 F.S. Growse, the collector of Mathura district, was not impressed by the architecture of the Jaina temple at Chaurasi, Mathura. Writing about 125 years ago, he described it as 'as bare and unimpressive place of worship as any Methodist meeting-house'.49 F.S. Growse wrote about the Jaina temple at Chaurasi, Mathura thus: After ascending a flight of steps and entering the gate, the visitor finds himself in a square paved and cloistered courtyard with the temple opposite to him. It is a very plain solid building, arranged in three aisles, with the altar under a small dome in the centre aisle, one bay short of the end, so as to allow of a processional at the back. There are no windows, and the interior is lighted only by the three small doors in the front, one in each aisle, which is a traditional feature in Jaini architecture. What with the want of light, the lowness of the vault, and the extreme heaviness of the piers, the general effect is more that of a crypt than of a building so well raised above the ground as this really is.50 The site has undergone a sea change. The Jaina temple at Chaurasi now stands in the midst of a vast and beautiful complex characterised by a large garden, dharmasalas, a canteen, a store, an office, etc.51 The dharmasalas in this complex have about forty rooms, most of which have due amenities. The dharmasala of the temple is sorrounded by a large and beautiful garden measuring about 6.5 acres. This garden is full of trees and flowers of many varieties. Three tube-wells meet the irrigational requirements of this garden. 47. MDM, p. 12; DGM, 1911, p. 82; Introductory Booklet, p. 1. 48. Ibid.; ibid., p. 82. 49. Ibid., p. 13. 50. Ibid., p. 12. 51. Introductory Booklet, pp. 1-6. (5) EUR Kalake 241

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242 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura A boundary wall has been constructed to provide security to the temple, the dharmasalas and the garden. A beautiful stone manastambha was constructed in AD 1929 in front of the main entrance gate of the temple. The managing committee of the Jambusvami Digambara Jaina Siddhaksetra Chaurasi, Mathura, has chalked out many plans for the development of this temple and site, and these include the construction of a parikrama marga (processional path) around this temple. A bird sanctuary has also been built near the main entrance gate of the temple complex; food and drinking water requirements of the birds are properly taken care of in this sanctuary. The exterior of this temple is still plain. But as a result of marble flooring, construction work of a varied nature, and other renovations which are in progress, the interior of the Jaina temple at Chaurasi, Mathura, presents a fairly impressive appearance now. The large marble image of tirthamkara Ajitanatha is a seated figure of the conventional type.52 The expression of smile in this image is particularly worth attention. Many vedis embellish the interior of this temple. One of them bears the white marble image of Bahubali in the kayotsarga posture. Another vedi contains the white marble image of jina Parsvanatha in the seated meditative posture. A characteristic feature of this vedi is the installation of white marble statues of saptarsis in the kayotsarga posture in front of the image of Parsvanatha. Another vedi contains the image of jina Candraprabha; fifty-two stone and metal images installed on this vedi include the images of jina Santinatha and Jambusvami. A vedi contains an ancient stone image of Parsvanatha; this image is flanked by two images of this jina, one on each side. Another vedi contains the images of many jinas -- two white marble images of Parsvanatha; two images of Neminatha, one built of white marble and the other of red sandstone; a white marble image of Rsabha; a white marble image of Ajitanatha, and a red sand stone image of Padmaprabha. One vedi contains the images of the jinas Mahavira, Parsvanatha and Rsabhanatha; the white 52. MDM, p. 13.

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Jainism in Mathura marble image of Mahavira is the principal idol on this vedi; one image of Parsvanatha is built of brass and the other of black stone; the solitary image of Rsabha is built of brass. Another vedi contains a white marble image of Jambusvami in the kayotsarga posture. The images of some Jaina male and female deities Ksetrapala, Sarasvati and Padmavati, too, have been installed in the complex of this temple. An annual fair was instituted in AD 1870 at the Chaurasi site by a Bharatpur Jaina named Nain Sikh.53 This tradition continues. Originally, the annual Jaina fair at Chaurasi, Mathura was held for a week in October-Novemeber.54 Presently, it is held on 26 January every year. A Rathyatra Mahotsava on the occasion of the annual fair, and religious and cultural programmes are the characteristic features of this fair, which attracts Jaina pilgrims from many parts of the country.55 A varied Jaina establishment, including an educational institution, has grown around the Jaina temple at Chaurasi, Mathura. This temple is the principal centre of Jaina religous and cultural life at Mathura. Sri 1008 Jambusvami Digambara Jaina Siddhaksetra Chaurasi, Mathura is held in great esteem by the Jainas and Chaurasi, attracts Jaina pilgrims from many parts of the country. The Jainas in Mathura are divided into the Svetambara and the Digambara sect. But, despite their differences, the Svetambaras and the Digambaras are one regarding the doctrines and discipline of Jainism, at least in respect of fundamental and significant points. Therefore, one can speak of Jainism as a whole. Most of them are educated and economically well-off, and enjoy a respectable position in the city. The Jainas are not a large community in Mathura. But their religious zeal and fervour have made Jainism a living and vibrant religion in this city. 53. MDM, p. 13; DGM, 1911, p. 83. 54. MDM, p. 13; DGM, 1911, p. 83. According to Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain, the 8-day Kartiki fair at Chaurasi, Mathura and the Rathotsava were instituted by Seth Raghunath Das. See J.P. Jain, Pramukha..., op.cit., p. 354. 55. Information provided by Dr. Jai Prakash Jain; Souvenir of the Annual Fair and Rath yatra, Jaina Siddhaksetra, Chaurasi, Mathura. @Ji Wan 0 243

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PAD PL. I: Akota (Gujarat): Seated Rsabhanatha (copper alloy), tenth century AD, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery

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Sravanabelagola (Karnataka): Gomatesvara Statue, fifteenth century AD Egon

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Pl. III : Chittor (Rajasthan): Jaina Kirti Stambha (Pillar of Victory), fifteenth century AD PL. IV : Sravanabelagola (Karnataka): Jaina Manstambha, twelfth century AD

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Pl. V: Hampi (Karnataka): General view of Jaina temples on the Hemakuta Hill, fourteenth-fifteenth century AD Pl. VI : Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh): A view of Adinatha Temple, tenth-eleventh century AD M ICE

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23 Pl. VII : Kumharia (Gujarat): A view of Neminatha Temple, eleventh-twelfth century AD

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LILIT C 14 Pl. VIII : Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Adinatha Temple (Vimala-Vasahi Temple), eleventh century AD

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ES SORT NO LUL WA TUBE Pl. IX : Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of the ceiling of Adinatha Temple (Vimala-Vasahi Temple), eleventh century AD

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NO Pl. X : Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Luna-Vasahi Temple, thirteenth century AD

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DONO MO Pl. XI : Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Luna-Vasahi Temple, thirteenth century AD

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Pl. XII: Mount Abu (Rajasthan): A view of Luna-Vasahi Temple, thirteenth century AD

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Pl. XIII: Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Seated tirtharkara, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow Pl. XIV : Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Seated tirthamkara, Gupta Period, State Museum, Lucknow

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Pl. XV : Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Seated tirthamkara, tenth century AD, State Museum, Lucknow

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DK JAIN TABLET OF HOMAGE WITH A PROMINENT SWASTIKA AND A TIRTHANKARA FIGURE IN THE CENTRE SHOWING WORSHIP OF STUFA DE TREE WOLI KANKA TILA MATHANUSHANA PERIOD jana sAmAgAra gama meM isaritA bhara ke ma nomA gaya manAta AT THE T ITUT dry. c Pl. XVI: Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Ayaga-patta with svastika motif, seated tirtharkara figure and pair of fish, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow

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Pl. XVII : Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Architrave of the gateway of a stupa (Reverse), first century BC, State Museum, Lucknow Pl. XVIII : Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Yaksi Ambika, ninth century AD, Government Museum, Mathura CEREBU

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PI. XIX : Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Goddess Sarasvati, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow

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10 512 2:31 SEKRE Pl. XX : Mathura (U.P.): Ayaga-patta donated by Vasu depicting the Jaina stupa, Kusana Period, Government Museum, Mathura Pl. XXI: Mathura (Uttar Pradesh): Tympanum showing worship of a Jaina stupa, a tirtharkara and a goddess by male and female devotees, Kusana Period, State Museum, Lucknow

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Bibliography A.A. Macdonell, India's Past, Varanasi, 1956. A. Borroah, Ancient Geography of India, Gauhati, 1971. A.B.L.-Awasthi, Garuda Purana, Ek Adhyayana, Lucknow, 1968. A. Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, vol. III. - Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, vol. XVII. -, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, vol. XX. -, Ancient Geography of India, Varanasi, 1979. -, The Stupa of Bharhut, Varanasi, 1962. A.D. Pusalker, Studies in Epics and Puranas, Bombay, 1955. A. Fuhrer, North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Monumental Antiquities and Inscriptions, Allahabad, 1891. A.K. Coomaraswamy, Notes on Jaina Art, Peckham, 1914. - History of Indian and Indonesian Art, London, 1927. A.K. Majumdar, Concise History of Ancient India, vol. III, New Delhi, 1983. A.K. Mazumdar, Early Hindu India, Delhi, 1981. A.K. Mittal, Political and Cultural History of India from Indus Valley Civilisation to 1206 AD, Agra, 1992. A.L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, London, 1954. A.L. Srivastava, Bharat Ka Itihasa, 1000-1707 AD, Agra, 1979. -, Akbar the Great, vol. III, Agra, 1973. The Age of Imperial Kanauj, ed. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker, Bombay, 1955. The Age of Imperial Unity, ed. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker, Bombay, 1951. 261

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262 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura A Comprehensive History of India, vol. II, ed. K.A.N. Sastri, Bombay, 1957. A Cultural History of India, ed. A.L. Basham, Oxford, 1975. Ain-i-Akbari, Jarret and Sarkar Edition, vol. II, Calcutta, 1949. Alberuni's India, ed. Sachau, vol. I, London, 1914. The Art of the Chandelas, ed. A. Goswami, Calcutta, 1957. Archaeology in India, Department of Archaeology, Delhi, 1950. Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1906-7. Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report, 1922-3. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, ed. U.P.Shah and M.A. Dhaky, Ahmedabad, 1975. B.A. Saletore, Medieval Jainism, Bombay. B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, Lahore, 1939. B.C. Law, Historical Geography of Ancient India, Paris. B.N. Puri, Indian History, A Review, Bombay, 1960. - India Under the Kusanas, Bombay, 1965. Bhagavata Purana, Gita Press, Gorakhpur. Bhaskar Chattopadhyaya, Kusana State and Indian Society, Calcutta, 1975. Bhikshu Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, Bangalore, 1957. Census of India, 1931, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Part I, Report, Allahabad, 1933. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. III, ed. J.F. Fleet, Varanasi, 1963. The Cambridge History of India, vol. I, Cambridge, 1922. The Classical Age, ed. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker, Bombay, 1954. The Commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J. on his Journey to the Court of Akbar, tr. J.S. Hoyland, London, 1922. The Cultural Heritage of India, Ramakrishna Centenary Memorial, vol. I, Calcutta. D.R. Bhandarkar, Some Aspects of Ancient Indian Culture, Madras, 1940. O3 45

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Bibliography District Gazetteer of Mathura, Allahabad, 1911. District Gazetteer of Mathura, Lucknow, 1968. E.B. Havell, The History of Aryan Rule in India, London, - The Ancient and Medieval Architecture of India, London, 1915. E.W. Hopkins, Religions of India, New Delhi, 1977. Elliot and Dowson, History of India as Told by its Historians, vol. II, London, 1869. - History of India as Told by its Historians, vol. IV, London, 1872. Epigraphia Indica, vol. I, New Delhi, 1983. Epigraphia Indica, vol. II, New Delhi, 1984. Epigraphia Indica, vol. X, New Delhi, 1984. Epigraphia Indica, vol. XX, New Delhi, 1983. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. II, ed. James Hastings, Edinburgh/New York, 1958. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. VII, ed. James Hastings, Edinburgh New York, 1959. Encyclopaedia of World Art, vol. VIII, New York/Toronto/London. FR. Allchin, The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia, Cambridge, 1995. F.S. Growse, Mathura - A District Memoir, New Delhi, 1979. G.C. Lall, Buddha Dharma, Allahabad, 1959. G.F. Allen, The Buddha's Philosophy, London, 1959. The Geographical Encyclopaedia of Ancient and Medieval India, Part I, ed., K.D. Bajpai, Varanasi, 1967. H.G. Rawlinson, India - A Short Cultural History, London, 1952. Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, vol. I, New York, 1955. Hemacandra, Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. II, tr. H.M. Johnson, Baroda, 1937. , Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. IV, tr. H.M. Johnson, Baroda. 1954 Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. III, tr. H.M. Johnson, Baroda, 1949. - Trisastisalakapurusacarita, vol. VI, tr. H.M. Johnson, Baroda, 1962. 263

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264 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Hiralal Jain, Bharatiya Samskrti Mein Jaina Dharma Ka Yogadana, Bhopal, 1962. Historical Archaeology of India, A Dialogue between Archaeologists and Historians, ed. Amit Ray and Samir Mukherjee, New Delhi, 1990. History of Philosophy Eastern and Western, ed. S. Radhakrishnan, London, 1952. Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. II, Oxford, 1968. Introductory Booklet, Sri 1008 JambuskamiJaina Siddhaksetra, Caurasi, Mathura. J. Ph. Vogel, Catalogue of the Archaeological Museum at Mathura, Allahabad, 1910 - La Sculpture De Mathura, Paris and Brussels, 1930. , The Buddhist Art in India, Ceylon and Java, Oxford, 1936. J.C. Jain, Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jaina Canons, Bombay, 1947. J.E. Van Lohuizen-de Leeuw, The Scythian Period, Leiden, 1949. J.G. Buhler. On the Indian Sect of the Jainas, London, 1903. J.L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, Cambridge, 1940. Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I, ed. A. Ghosh, New Delhi, 1974. James Burgess, Digambara Jaina Iconography, Varanasi, 1979. James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, London, 1891. Jinaprabha Suri, Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, Santiniketan, 1934. Jinasena, Harivansa Purana, ed. and tr. into Hindi by Pannalal Jain, Kasi, 1962. John Briggs, History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India (Translation of Ferishta's work), vol. I, Calcutta, 1908. John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, Calcutta, 1918. Jyoti Prasad Jain, Jainism, The Oldest Living Religion, Benaras, 1951. - Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India, Delhi, 1964. Pramukh Aitihasik, Jaina Purusa Aur Mahilaen, New Delhi, 1975. K.A.N. Sastri, History of India, Part I, Madras, 1950. -, ed., Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, Banaras, 1952.

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Bibliography K.C. Jain, Jainism in Rajasthan, Sholapur, 1963. K.K. Handiqui, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, Sholapur, 1949. K.R. Qanungo, History of the Jats, vol. I, Calcutta, 1950. Klaus Janert, Mathura Inscriptions, Gottingen, 1961. Krishna, The Divine Lover, ed. David. R. Godine, London, 1982. Louis Renou, Religions of Ancient India, New Delhi, 1972. Marg, vol. X. Marg, Mathura Number. Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Jain Pratima Vigyan, Varanasi, 1981. - Mathura Ki Guptakalin Jain Murtiyon Ka Pratima Laksana. Paper presented in the International Seminar held at Government Museum, Mathura in March, 2000. Mathura - The Cultural Heritage, General ed. Doris Meth Srinivasan, New Delhi, 1989. Mathura Museum Catalogue, V.S. Agrawala, Part III, Journal of U.P. Historical Society, Lucknow, 1952. Maurice A. Caney, An Encyclopaedia of Religions, Delhi, 1976. Max-Pol Fouchet, The Erotic Sculpture of India, London, 1959. Moti Chandra, Sarthavaha, Patna, 1953. Muni Uttam Kamal Jain, Jaina Sects and Schools, Delhi, 1975. N. Dutt and K.D. Bajpai, Development of Buddhism in Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow, 1956. N.L. Dey, The Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India, New Delhi, 1971. N.P. Joshi, Mathura Sculptures, Mathura, 1966. N.S. Bose, History of the Candellas of Jejakbhukti, Calcutta, 1956. O.C. Gangoly, Indian Architecture, Calcutta. P.B. Desai, Jainism in South India, Sholapur, 1957.

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266 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura P.D. Mittal, Braj Ka Samskrtika Itihasa, vol. I, Delhi, 1966. P.K. Agrawala, Mathura Railing Pillars, Varanasi, 1966. P.N. Bose, Epochs of Civilisation, Calcutta, 1913. P.V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, vol. IV, Poona, 1953. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture Buddhist and Hindu Periods, 2nd and enlarged edn., Bombay. Poddar Abhinandan Granth, ed. V.S. Agrawala, Mathura, Samvat, 2010. R.C. Dutt, Early Hindu Civilisation, Calcutta, 1927. R.C. Majumdar, Ancient India, Delhi, 1960. -, H.C. Raychaudhuri and K.K. Datta, An Advanced History of India, Ancient India, London, 1949. R.C. Sharma, Jaina Sculptures of the Gupta Age in the State Museum, Lucknow, Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay Golden Jubilee Volume, Part I. The Buddhist Art of Mathura, Delhi, 1984. -, The Splendour of Mathura Art and Museum, New Delhi, 1994. Braj Ka Pracin Jain Tirtha Kankali Sthala. Paper presented at the National Seminar held at Ajmer on 15 and 16 October, 1999. R.D. Banerji, Prehistoric, Ancient and Hindu India, Bombay, 1950. R.S. Whiteway, Report on the Settlement of the Muttra District, Allahabad, 1879 Radha Kamal Mukherjee, A History of Indian Civilisation, vol. I, Bombay, 1958. - Culture and Art of India, London, 1959. Radha Kumud Mookerji, Ancient India, Allahabad, 1956. S.B. Deo, History of Jaina Monachism, Poona, 1956. S.D. Jha, Aspect of Brahmanical Influence on the Jaina Mythology, Delhi, 1978. S.K. Saraswati, A Survey of Indian Sculpture, Calcutta, 1957. S.R. Sharma, Bharat Mein Mughal Samrajya, Agra, 1973. Samuel Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Popular edn., London. Sital Prasad, Comparative Study of Jainism and Buddhism, Delhi, 1982.

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Bibliography The Struggle For Empire, ed. R.C. Majumdar and A.D. Pusalker, Bombay, 1957. Souvenir of the Annual Fair and Rath Yatra, Jain Siddhaksetra, Caurasi, Mathura. Tara Chand, History of the Freedom Movement in India, vol. I, Delhi, 1961. The Travels of Fa-Hsien, tr. H.A. Giles, London, 1956. U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955. V.A. Smith, The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura, Allahabad, 1901. The Early History of India, Oxford, 1957. A History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon, Oxford, 1911. The Oxford History of India, Oxford, 1958. V.S. Agarwala, Ancient Indian Folk Cults, Varanasi, 1970. Mathura Kala, Ahmedabad, 1964. Bharatiya Kala, Varanasi, 1966. Pre-Kusana Art of Mathura, Varanasi, 1966. Studies in Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965. Masterpieces of Mathura Sculpture, Varanasi, 1985. Vidya Prakash, Khajuraho, A Study in the Cultural Conditions of Chandella Society, Bombay, 1967. Visnu Purana, vol. I, tr. H.H. Wilson, Delhi, 1980. Watters, On Yuwan Chwang's Travels in India, vol. I, London, 1904. The World's Great Religions, Editorial Staff of Life, London, 1959. Jing Wan 267

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Abhaya-mudra, 181 Abhiksaka, 43 Abhinandananatha, 30, 209, 211 Abul Fazl, 237 Acaranga, 20, 56, 65, 68, 73 Acarya, 24-5, 160-1 Acarya Mamgu, 163 Acarya Rakkhiya, 163 Acira, 40 Acyuta, 210, 215 Acyutadevaloka, 35-6 Adinatha, 26, 86, 204 Adinatha temple, 87 Adievara Bhagvan, 26 Adi Purana, 49 Agama, 101 Agni, 223 Agra, 129 Ahicchatra, 59, 60 Ahimsa, 17, 18, 58, 65, 73, 106-9 Ahimsa Dharma, 1 Ahmad Shah Abdali, 238 Ain-i-Akbari, 237 Ajjavedaya Kula, 157 Ajita, 51, 211 Ajita, 30, 208, 213, 216 Ajitabala, 208 Ajitanatha, 27-8, 208, 240, 242 Ajitanatha Satparna, 27 Ajivika sect, 69, 91 Akaka, 149 Index Akbar, 107-10 Alaka, 190 Alberuni, 235 Allahabad, 59, 71, 129 Alauddin Khalji, 110 Amalakappa, 59 Ambika, 207, 218 Amohini, 191 Arhtevasi, 160 Amtevasin, 159 Amtevasini, 159-60 Amtevasikni, 159-60 Anantajit, 39 Anantadevaloka, 34 Anantamati, 214 Anantanatha, 38-9, 214 Andhra, 89 Andhra Pradesh, 3, 114 Anga, 71, 79 Angavijja, 173 Anantagumpha, 121 Anga texts, 65, 77, 97, 101-3, 105 Anila, 45 Anekanta mat, 1 Anekantavada, 16, 18, 110 Ankusa, 214 Anojja, 67 Anuyoga, 102 Anuyogdara, 101 Angabahira, 105 Angabahya, 101 @850 269

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History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Ayasyaka Niryukti, 25-6, 49 Awadha, 79 Ayaga-Pattas, 124, 151, 173-9 Ayaga-Sabha, 151, 176-7 Ayika, 161 Ayodhya, 26-8, 30-1 Apraticakra, 208 Apabhramsa, 111-3 Aparajita, 217 Aparajitadevaloka, 44, 46 Apsara, 180, 190, 205 Arhat, 20 Arhat temple, 151-2 Arhartas, 20 Arhat, 1 Atmavada, 9 Aranatha, 42, 1-52, 196, 216 Arabia, 150 Arista, 40 Aristanemi 45, 51, 123, 152, 183, 218 Ardha-Magadhi, 65, 75, 112 Arthasira, 40 Arya, 160 Arya, 27-46, 160 Aryan, 12, 13, 53 Ardhaphalaka, 92, 182, 192 Aryavati, 190-1 Arya Bhista Kula, 157 Arya Cetika Kula, 157 Arya Hattikiya Kula, 157 Arya Kaniyasika Kula, 1576 Arya Nagabhutikiya Kula 159 Arya Skandila, 104, 165 Arya Srikiya Sambhoga, 157 Arya Uddehikiya gana, 158 Arya Vajri Sakha, 158 Asoka, 65, 84, 88, 138, 212, 223 Asta-Mangalas, 178, 219 Astahika-Mahotsava, 162 Astapada, 22, 27 Asvasena, 58 Aurangzeb, 238 Avasarpini, 26 Avasyaka tradition, 68, Avasyaka Curni, 56 Avasyaka Nirvyuha, 180 Bahubali, 242 Balarama, 52, 123, 183, 186, 188, 198 Bala, 215 Balabhadra, 199, 202 Balhastini, 194 Bahurupa, 217 Bahurupini, 217 Bambhalijja Kula, 158 Bandhumati, 43 Bareilly, 59 Bappabhatti Suri, 134 Bengal, 63, 71, 80 Bengalis, 63 Benares, 63 Bidar, 90 Bihar, 22, 28, 60, 63, 71, 80, 114, 225 Bimbisara, 67 Bundelkhand, 83-4 Buddhism, 4-8, 14-8, 48, 223 Buddha, 6-8, 47-8, 114, 223, 226 Bhadrabahu, 49, 53, 79, 88-9, 91, 102 Bhadata, 160 Bhadanta, 160 Bhadrasana, 178 Bhanu, 39 Bhagvata Purana, 50-2 Bhadrika, 71 Bhaddiya, 71 Bhagalpur, 71, 79 Bhanucandra, 108 Bhagavata, 20 Bhagavati, 56-7, 65, 73 Bhadrabahucarita, 92

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Index Bhadrilapura, 190 Bhattaraka, 161 Bhamdira garden, 162-3, 176 Bhavade, 1 Bhavya, 1 Bhima, 87 Bharhut, 138, 194 Bharhut Stupa, 138-9, 224, 226-8, 231 3 Bharata, 51 Bharatpur, 243 Bharatavarsiya Digambara Jaina Mahasabha, 239 Bhubaneshwar, 120 Bhumisparsa-mudra, 181, Bharata War, 53 Bhrkuti, 211, 217 Brahma, 212 Brahma, 212, 58 Brahmi, 27 Brahmana, 10-1, 64, 66-7 Brahmana Dharmasastra, 11 Brahmesvara, 212 Braj, 123 Brhat Katha-Kosa, 135, 140, 162, 224 Brahmadasika Kula, 150 Cahmanas, 85 Caitya-Vrksa, 174 Cakrayuddha, 41 Calukya, 85, 87-8, 90 Campa, 37, 70, 71, 79 Campu, 112-4 Camunda, 217 Camundi, 217 Camdalika, 212 Canda, 213 Candra, 213 Candragupta Maurya, 89, 102 Candana, 76 Candraprabhanatha, 33 Candrikapuri, 33 Candrapuri, 33 Candella dynasty, 83 Carama, 31 Caru, 29 Caturyama Dharma, 57, 61 Catuvarna Samgha, 153 Caumukha-pratima, 186-8, 195 Carana gana, 155-7 Caubes, Quarter, 239 Cellana, 67 Cetaka, 66-7 Cudasamas, 85 Cakresvari, 206, 208 Champapur, 71 Champanagar, 71 Chanderi, 114 Chatarpur, 813 Chaurasi, 239-42, 244 Christ, 48, 136, 146, 152 Christian, 83, 99 Christian Mission, 237 Cheya-Suttas, 101 Cheda-Sutras, 105 Damini, 42 Damda, 163 Darpana, 178 Dasapurvis, 78 Datta, 152 Deccan, 2, 87-8 Deogadh, 84, 114 Devaki, 190 Devananda, 66-7, 95, 190 Devardhiganin Ksamasramana, 104 Devi, 42 Digambara, 95-8 Digambara Canon, 101-2, 105 Dina, 152 271

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272 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Duritari, 208 Durga, 125 Dharma-Cakra, 174, 185, 191, 197, 200-1, 219 Dharmacakrapravartana-mudra, 181 Dharmanatha, 39, 214 Dhamghosa, 220 Dharmaghosa, 134, 142, 149 Dharmaruci, 134 Dhara, 31 Dharana, 31 Dhara, 38 Dharani, 36 Dharini, 215-6 Dharanapriya, 217 Dharanendra, 202, 218 Dhana, 216 Dhank, 86 Dhyana-mudra, 181 Drdharatha, 35 Drsti-pravada, 102 Dravida Samgha, 98-9 Dvadasanga-Sruta, 100 Dvaraka, 46 Dvarakadhisa temple, 239 Gandharma, 205, 215 Gandhari, 213, 217 Ganga dynasty, 90 Ganga Valley, 64 Gangeya, 56 Ganesa, 207 Garuda, 215 Garuda Purana, 123 Gauri, 213 Gautama Buddha, 57, 68, 70, 74, 127 Gautama, 57, 61-2 Gaya, 79 Girnar, 22, 46, 86, 118 Gita, 11 Goa, 237 Goddess Kubera, 134, 162, 170-1 Godasa gana, 155 Gomedha, 218 Gomedhika, 212 Gomukha, 208 Gonda-Bahraich, 29, 59 Gosala, 69, 91-4 Gotra, 156 Gopal Khera, 204 Government Museum Mathura, 143-4, 149, 163, 197-9, 229 Gujar Ghati, 204 Gujarat, 2, 22-7, 86-7, 107, 114-8 Gujarat-Kathiawad, 89 Gujarati, 112-3 Gujarati style, 118 Guhils, 85 Gunabhadra, 11 Gupta period, 79-81, 84, 197, 202 Gurjar-Pratihara, 85 Gwalior, 84, 114-7 Ghia Mandi, 239 Europe 5, 99, 120, 127, 131 Fahien, 80, 165 Farrukhabad, 37, 60 Father Monserrate, 237-8 Fatehpur Sikri, 91, 114, 237 Firishta, 235 Firoz Tughlaq, 110 France, 79 Gajapura, 40, 42 Gana, 62, 154-9 Ganadhara, 27-46, 62, 77 Ganin, 155, 159-61 Halo, 201 Hallijja Kula, 157

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Index Hamsa, 223 Harivamsa dynasty, 22, 44-5 Harivamsa Purana, 70, 72, 85 Haryana, 91, 1-14 Harappa, 170 Harita gotra, 156 Hariyamatagari Sakha, 156 Harisena, 135, 140, 162 Hastinapur, 40-2, 59-60 Hastipala, 72 Hatthinapur, 59 Hathigumpha cave, 121 Hathigumpha Inscription, 23, 63, 82, 171 Hazaribagh district, 22, 28 Hemacandra, 20, 25, 87, 111 Hindi, 112-3 Hindu, 9, 11, 12, 25, 47, 73, 97, 100, 106-7 Hindu temples, 236-8 Hinduism, 8, 11, 21, 52, 81, 117 Himalayas, 28 Hiravijaya Suri, 107-8 *Hunen Tsang, 81-2, 91, 150, 166 Huna invasions, 166 Huviska, 128, 173 Jambusvami Siddha Ksetra, 240-4 Janakapur, 71 Jasa, 39 Jaya, 215 Jaya Devi, 215 Jayantavimana, 30-1, 43 Jayasena, 149 Jayasoma Upadhyaya, 108 Jaina, 1-5, 8-10 Jainabhadri, 149 Jaina era, 60 Jaina Church, 62, 68, 73, 75, 78 Jaina Canon, 105 Jaina Councils, 102-5 Jaina gali, 239 Jaina stupa, 133-40, 226-33 Jaina Temples, 239-40 Jainism, 1-18 Jaisimhapura, 239 Jina, 15-8, 20-1, 23-4, 26, 54 Jinacandra, 108 Jinacandra Suri, 108-9, 134 Jinadasa, 163 Jinakalpa, 94 Jinaprabha Suri, 135-6, 140, 224, 227 Jinasena, 11, 85 Jinasimha Suri, 110 Jitari, 29 Jitasatru, 28 Jnatraka, 66, 70 Jnatr, 66 Jodhpur, 118 Jsmbhikagrama, 70 Junagadh, 86 Jvala, 211 Jvalini, 211 Jvalamalini, 211 Indian Ocean, 149 Indo-Aryan, 112, 118 Indra, 27 Indrabhuti, 57, 76 Indrabhuti Gautama, 77, 102 Iksavaku dynasty, 21 Islam, 3, 98 Isvara, 212 Jahangir, 107, 238 Jamali 67-8, 91 Jambusvami, 123, 163, 240, 243 Jambusvami-Caritra, 135 Kadamba dynasty, 90 Kagaraul, 91 273

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274 @Ji Wan 0 Kahaum, 84-5, 114 Kahavali, 207 Kakubha, 85 Kakandinagara, 34 Kalinga, 23, 80-2, 171 Kalasa, 178 Kalkacarya, 84 Kalpasutra, 25-6, 49, 53, 56, 59, 63 Kalpavrksa, 206 Kambal, 163 Kampil, 37, 60 Kampilya, 37-8 Kamhsa, 190 Kannada, 111-4, 134 Kanara, 121 Kankali Devi, 125 Kankali Tila, 20, 54, 115, 122, 124-44 Kanhasaha Kula, 157 Kaniska, 186 Kapisa, 91, 150 Karkal, 116 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Kula, 154-9 Kumbha, 42-3 Kumarapala, 87 Kumara, 213 Kundagrama, 66 Karnataka, 2, 3, 89-90, 92, 114, 117-8 Kasi, 63 Kasava, 67 Kasyapa, 36 Kasyapi, 31 Kausambi, 31-2, 59-60, 71 Kayotsarga-mudra, 22, 27-46, 153, 181 Kashmir, 108 Kathiawad, 118 Kendra, 216 Keshopur, 240 Kest, 52 Kesin, 57, 61 Kevalin, 18, 20, 22, 27-8 Kirti-stambha, 121 Kodiya gana, 155-8 Kottiya gana, 155-8 Kosala, 58, 63, 79 Kosam, 59, 71 Kural, 112-3 Kusana dynasty, 133. Kusuma, 210 Kusumaudini, 218 Kushinagar Stupa, 137-8, 225 Kunthunatha, 41, 215 Kuvalayamala, 85 Kubera, 207, 216 Khandagiri, 82, 121 Khajuraho, 83-4, 114, 117, 120 Kharvela, 81-2, 106 Krsna 52-3, 123, 186, 188, 190, 198 Krsna Cult, 166, 235 Ksetrapala, 206, 243. Krtavarman, 38 Ladha, 71 Laksmana, 33 Laksmi Devi, 33 Lanchana, 180, 197, 203, 207-19 Lauriya, 225 Lavansobhika, 149 Licchavi, 66-7, 72 Lohanipur, 23, 114 Lonka Sect, 98 Lonasobhika, 149 Lucknow Museum, 128-9, 132 Lahore, 108 Madhya Pradesh, 83, 114 Madhyamagraiveka, 32 Madhyama Sakha, 158 Magadha 67, 71, 79-80, 82, 86 Mahabharata, 11, 45, 52-3 Mahadevi, 42

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Index Mohenjo-Daro, 170 Mulasangha, 89 Mula-suttas, 101, 105 Muslim 98, 100, 166, 235-6, 238 Mysore 89-90, 92, 116 Mount Abu, 87, 118-20 Muhammad Ghori, 110 Muhammad Tughlaq, 110 Mahakali, 209, 212 Mahayaksa, 208 Mahaksatrapa Sodasa, 190 Mahatapa, 110 Mahmud of Ghazni, 166-7, 235-6, 238 Mahamanasi, 215 Maharashtra, 2, 89, 114 Mahasaradevaloka, 38 Mahasena, 33 Mahavira, 46-7, 56-7, 64-72 Mahavira era, 60 Maighika Kula, 156-9 Majjhima Pava, 72 Majjhamilla Sakha, 157 Malla, 72 Malli, 43-4, 95, 216 Mallinatha, 43, 95, 216 Mallija Kula, 157 Malwa, 80, 84, 89 Malini, 217 Manasi, 210, 214 Manavi, 212-3 Mani Ram, 238-40 Manava gana, 155 Manoharpura, 129 Manogupta, 210 Manovega, 210 Matanga, 210, 218-9 Mathura Museum, 129 Mathura Council, 104 Mathura Vacana, 104 Maru Gurjar style, 118 Mitra, 155 Mittra, 42, 155 Mithila, 70-1, 77, 79 Mehiya Kula, 156, 159 Mehika Kula, 156, 159 Mogul empire, 108 Monghyr, 71, 79 Munisuvrata, 21, 44, 122 Nabhi, 26 Nadika Kula, 157 Naga, 58, 165 Nagari 205 Nagarjuna Suri, 104 Nain Sukh, 243 Naigmesa, 67, 152, 190 Naladiyar, 112-3 Namdivisala, 173 Naminatha, 44-5, 123, 217 Nanda, 23, 35, 82, 171 Nandi, 101 Nandivardhana, 68 Nandyavarta, 136, 152, 178, 184, 194, 196, 210, 216 Naradatta, 209, 218 Narayana, 50 Nata, 66 Natapulta, 70 National Museum, 175, 222, 229 Navagraha, 219 Naya, 66-8 Nayaka, 209 Nayas, 17 Neminatha, 22, 45-6,53-4,58, 123, 181, 186, 218 Neminatha temple, 87 Nepal, 71-2, 103 Niggantha, 70 Nimbus, 185 Nimi, 44

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276 35: Nimesvar, 44 Nirgrantha, 1, 56-7, 70, 73, 78 Nirgrantha Dharma, 1, 62 Nirgrantho Jnatrasputrah, 70 Nirvana, 6, 7, 16, 54, 60 Nirvant, 215 Nyaya, 8 Odehikiya gana, 156 Ogha, 149 Okha, 149 Okharika, 149-50 Orissa, 81-2, 114, 121-2 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Purana, 49 Purulia, 71 Purvas 77, 97, 102-3, 105 Pusmittijja Kula, 157 Pusyamitriya Kula, 157 Putikavahana, 134, 141 Puspadanta, 34, 211 Purusdatta, 209 Puspavati, 44 Prabhava, 78 Padma, 219 Padmasana, 22, 27-46, 181, 185 Padmavati, 44, 243 Padmaprabhanatha, 31, 143-5, 167, 210 Paharpur, 81, 135 Painnas, 101 Paitaputrika Sakha, 159 Pali, 56, 66, 126 Palitana, 118-9 Pancala, 59, 63 Parasanatha, 118 Paridhasika Kula, 159 Parsvanatha 5, 22, 46-8, 56-63 Parsvanatha Hill, 28, 30, 63 Panca-parmestins, 24 Panca-mahavratas, 61 Pataliputra, 23, 82, 101-3, 171 Pataliputra Council, 101-3 Patna, 23, 72, 79, 171 Pasada, 219 Piparava, 137-9, 225 Piparava Stupa, 137-8, 225 Panhavahanaya Kula, 158. Parvati, 207 Puddhammiya Kula, 157 Prabhavati, 43 Pradyotana, 32 Prajnapti, 208 Pranatadevaloka, 37, 39, 45 Prasnavahanaka Kula, 158 Prthvi, 32 Pravacanasaroddhara, 207 Pratistha, 32 Pratisthasarasamgraha, 207 Pratisthasaroddhara, 207 Prayag, 71 Paitaputrika Sakha, 159 Pavapuri, 72 Priyakarini, 66 Provincial Museum Lucknow, 129 Rgveda, 52-3 Rjupalika river, 22, 70 Rsabha, 22, 26-7, 46-54 Rsabha Cult, 1 Rsabhadeva, 26 Rsabhanatha, 26 Rajgir, 114, 137-8, 225 Rajgir Stupa, 137-8, 225 Rajagrha, 44, 70, 77 Rajghat, 60 Rajput, 85 Rajasthan, 2, 12, 107, 114, 118, 121 Rajasthani, 112-3 Raja Laksmana Das, 239

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Index Rajamalla, 135 Raksita, 42 Rama, 34 Rama Dasarathi, 44 Ranapura, 118 Ranigumpha cave, 121-2 Ramayana, 173 Rastrakuta, 88, 90 Ratnapura, 39-40 Ratnapuri, 39 Rati, 32 Ratnanandin, 92 Rathayatra, 162, 244 Rathods, 85 Rawals, 85 Rayapaseniya-Sutta, 233 Revati, 76 Riddel Museum, 129 Rohini, 208 Rome, 121 Samantabhadra, 111 Samnyasi, 10 Samavasarana, 187 Sambhoga, 154-9 Sambal, 163 Samkasia Sakha, 156 Sambhavanatha, 29, 181, 184, 196, 209 santinatha, 11, 40, 86, 152, 196 Sanmukha, 213 Sanchi, 138, 194, 225-6 Sankhasataka, 76 santicandra, 108 Sanskrit, 66, 70, 111-3 Sanchi Stupa 138-9, 225-9, 231-2 Sarvarthasiddha, 27, 40-2 Sarnath, 36 Sarvayasa, 38 Saket, 59 Sarvahana, 218 Sarasvati, 152, 191, 202, 243 Saraugi, 1, 239 Saraogi, 1 Sarvajna, 20 Saraka, 1, 63, 80 Sarasvati image, 1914 Sarasvati Movement, 111 Sarvatobhadrika-pratima, 186-8, 195 Satrunjaya Hill, 22, 27, 110 Satyabhama, 190 Sauripura, 46 Sauyapura, 46 Savika, 160 Savaka, 160 Seth Lakhmi Chand, 238-9 Sena Devi, 29 Senagana, 89 Seth Raghunath Das, 238-40, 244 Sewade, 1 Sir Antony MacDonnell, 132 Siddha, 21, 24-5 Sadhu, 24-5 Sageya, 59 Sahet-Mahet, 29, 59 Sahu Todar, 237 Sakti, 166 Sakha, 154-9 Samana, 160 Samana-Savika, 160 Samani, 1 Samet-sikhara, 22, 28-9, 31-5 Samkhya, 8-9, 15, 17 Samvaya, 25-6, 49 Samvara, 30 Samba, 42 Samudravijaya, 46 Sammohini, 209 Samaravira, 67 Sambhutivijaya, 79 Samprati, 84

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278 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Siddhanta, 101 Siddharaja, 87 Siddhartha 66-7 Siddhartha, 30 Siddhayika, 219 Siddhicandra, 108 Sikandar Sur, 110 Sila-patta, 151, 173-7 Sihanadika, 178 Simhapur, 36 Simhapuri, 36 Simhasena, 38 Sindhi, 112-3 Singhabhum, 71 Sirkap Stupa, 224 Sisya, 160 Sitalanatha, 35, 212 Sitala Ghati, 129 Siva, 85, 166 Siva Devi, 46 Skandagupta, 84 Sona, 33 Somadeva, 139-41, 162, 166, 224, 227 South Kanara, 116 Sraddhacara, 159-61 Sraddhacari, 159-61 Sramana, 10, 58, 65, 78, 160 Sramana Dharma, 1 Sramana Sargha, 58 Sravika, 161 Sramana-Sravika, 160 Sravaka, 1, 160 Sravanabelgola, 89-92, 114-6 Sravasti, 29, 33, 59, 70 Sri, 41 Sri Devi, 41 Sridhara, 31 Srigraha Sambhoga, 155-8 Srigupta, 156 Srivatsa symbol, 178, 180, 184-5, 196, 201 Sruta-kevalin, 78 Sreyasa, 36 Sreyamsanatha, 36, 212 State Museum Lucknow, 152, 166, 197, 229 Sthanakavasi Sect, 98 Sthavira kalpa, 94 Sthulabhadra, 92, 103 Subha, 45 Subhuma, 37 Subhabhumi, 71 Suci, 41 Sudarsana, 42 Sudharmana, 77-8 Sugriva, 34 Suhamma, 77 Sujasa, 35 Sulasa, 75-6 Sumana, 34 Sumati, 30, 51, 209 Sumatinatha, 30, 184, 196 Sumitra, 44 Sunga period, 190, 226, 229 Suparsvanatha, 32, 51, 123, 135-6, 210 1, 219 Supratistha, 32 Sura, 41 Suri, 161 Surya, 85 Suryasena, 41 Suryayasas, 38 Susmadusma, 26 Susena, 29 Susima, 31 Sutara, 212 Sutaraka, 212 Suvidhi, 34 Suvidhinatha, 34, 211 Suvrata, 39

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Index Svastika, 178, 210 Svetambara, 95-8 Svetambara Canon, 101, 105 Syadavada, 8, 16-7, 75, 110 Syama, 29, 210 Upanisads, 64 Urna, 185 Usabha, 26 Usnisa, 186, 203 Urvila, 162 Uttarabalissaha gana, 155 Uttaradasaka, 141, 220 Uttaradhyayana-Sutra, 59, 61-2 Uttara Mahura, 161 Uttara-Mimamsa, 9, 13 Uttara Purana, 49, 66 Uttara Pradesh, 12, 29, 37, 114 Utsarpini, 26 Uvarimagraiveka, 29, 31 Tamil, 90, 111-2 Tamil Nadu, 114 Taranapanthi Sect, 98 Taravati, 216 Taxila, 224 Tejpala, 87 Tejpala temple, 118 Terapanthi Sect, 98 Tirthakara, 19-20 Tirthamkara, 11, 17, 19-27 Trajan, 121 Trimukha, 208 Triratna, 16, 73, 185 Trisala, 66-7, 95 Trisastisalakapurusacarita, 20, 25, 49, 66 Tumburu, 209 Tungiya, 57 Telugu, 90, 111-4 Uccanagari Sakha, 157-8 Uchchairnagari sakha, 155 Udayagiri, 82, 84, 114 Udayagiri Hills, 121 Udayana, 171 Uddayana, 171 Uddeha gana, 155-6, 158-9 Uddehikiya gana, 156-8 Uauvadiya gana, 155 Ujjain, 88 Ujjaiyini, 89 Ujhatika, 149-50 Upadhyaya, 24-5, 161 Upangas, 101 Vacaka, 159-60 Vairi Sakha, 157-8 Vairoti, 213 Vairotya, 214, 217 Vaisali, 59, 66-7, 70, 122, 224 Vaisnavi, 206 Vaisnavism, 166, 235 Vairi Vajri Sakha, 158 Vajjahari Sakha, 157 Vajrakumara, 134, 141 Vajranabha, 30 Vajranagari Sakha, 158 Vajri Sakha, 158 Vajrasrankhala, 209 Valmiki, 174 Vama, 58 Vamana, 218 Vanijja Kula, 158 Vapra, 45 Varbhrta, 214 Vardhamana, 66-7, 70, 127 Vardhamanaka, 178 Vardhamanacarita, 66 Vardhamana Mahavira, 52, 55, 60, 64 5, 73

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280 History of Jainism with Special Reference to Mathura Visakha, 42 Visnu, 50, 166, 207 Visnu Devi, 36 Visnu Purana, 50 Visnuraja, 36 Visvasena, 40 Vitabhayapattana, 171 Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa, 52, 123, 134, 136, 140, 162, 176 Vimal Shah temple, 118 Vrndaban, 238-9, Vratya, 1 Vrsabha, 26, 205, 208 Vrsabhanatha, 26 Vyavaharasutra-Bhasya, 140 Westminster Abbey, 119 West Bengal, 63, 71, 114 Vardatta, 46 Varahaka, 34 Varahamihira, 199 Varanandin, 210 Varanasi, 32, 36, 71 Varuna, 217 Varuni, 34 Vasu, 41 Vasu, 159, 175, 220, 229 Vasudeva Krsna, 45, 123, 188 Vasupujya, 22, 37, 213 Vatsaliya Kula, 158 Vatsaraja, 85 Vathalijja Kula, 157-8 Veda, 6, 9, 48-9, 51, 58, 64, 102 Vedanta, 9 Vedic religion, 52, 64 Venur, 116 Vesavadiya gana, 155-6, 159 Vidarbha, 33 Videha, 79 Vidita, 214 Vidyadharas, 203, 222 Vijaya, 45, 211 Vijaya, 37, 208, 215-6 Vijaya Devi, 28 Vijayadeva Suri, 110 Vijayanagar, 4, 90 Vijayasena Suri, 108 Vijayavimana, 28, 39 Vijayanta, 33 Vimalanatha, 37-8, 213 Vimana, 223 Vindhyas, 80 Vinita, 28 Vinitanagar, 26 Viparita, 45 Yadava, 22, 45 Yaksadinna, 46 Yaksaraja, 213 Yaksa Sudarsan 162-3, 176 Yakset, 213 Yaksendra, 216 Yaksesa, 216 Yaksesvara, 209 Yasasatilakacampu, 134, 139-41, 162, 166 Yoga, 8-9 Yoga Marga, 1 Yasobhadra, 78 Yasoda, 78 Yapniya Sect, 98 Yenur, 116 Yugapradhana, 108-10

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V.K. Sharma, Agra University's Ph.D (History) is a reputed scholar with varied academic and research concerns - which are abundantly reflected in his writings. Besides the co-authorship of Terracotta Catalogue of Mathura Museum (published in AD 2000) and his numerous presentations at regional/national/ international seminars and conferences, he has published articles on varying themes in different print media and has, in addition, produced biographical profiles of eminent Indian personalities for certain reputed journals as well as books. Currently, he is working on "The History of Mathura" - a project whereupon he has already expended over a decade-long research effort. Having taught at several colleges affiliated to the universities of Panjab and Agra for about thirty five years, Dr Sharma retired as Head, Department of History, K. R. PostGraduate College, Mathura. (Reconstructing Indian History & Culture, no. 23) 2002, xx, 280 p.; 21 col. & b/w Plates; Bibliography; Index; 25 cm. ISBN 81-246-0195-X Rs. 850 www.jainelibrary Jalur LUULETTO

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D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd. Sri Kunj, F-52 Bali Nagar, NEW DELHI - 110 015 Phs.: (011) 545 3975, 546 6019; Fax: (011) 546 5926 E-mail: dkprintworld@vsnl.net