Development of Nagari Script

Author(s): A K Singh
Publisher: Parimal Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006800/1

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Development of Nagari Script u r ka ke A kha I KA KHA GIA JA NA TA PA BHA NA n MA YA VA SA uu ja l- K KA K 18 va bha ka huM ABERK U la na 2 m ma ya ri va 8 5 ke rava 5 5 M kSa kSa kSa Ja Ja 3 m A.K.SINGH pu la za bha ya ai e For Personal & Private Use Only ja la s 9 va za rI ha ka kha ga DA e l cch pa Ch ta ta ma ya va haa .

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Nagari is the outcome of evolutionary process of Mauryan Brahmi script and any consideration on its independent origin is superfluous. From Mauryan to the middle of the sixth century A.D., only a few letters resemble counterparts in Nagari. While to. wards the end of the sixth century, with the emergence of the Kutila alphabet, the development in alphabet towards Nigari moves fast. Most of the letters, from the 7th century onwards undergo the process of development in forms of the letters with only the difference of full covering head-line and straight vertical. All characteristics of the Nagari appear first about the end of the 10th century and approaches mature Nagari form by the 13th century A.D. There are some variations in the Nagari script of different regions due to various factors, namely the writing material, the writing technique, different schools of writers and engravers and their individual interest and mannerisms, etc. However, script maintains a sort of unity during the developmental process. Rs. 550.00 For Personal & Private Use Only

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DEVELOPMENT OF NAGARI SCRIPT For Personal & Private Use Only

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DEVELOPMENT OF NAGARI SCRIPT A. K. Singh PARIMAL PUBLICATIONS DELHI 1991 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Published by K. L. Joshi for Parimal Publications 27/28 Shakti Nagar, Delhi 110007 (India) Phone: 7127209 (c) Author First Edition 1991 ISBN 81-7110-096-1 Computer Typeset by Rastrix 1197, Sector D-1, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110030 Printed at Deluxe Offset Printers Daya Basti, Delhi 110035 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Dedicated My Rev'd late Grand-father (Babaji) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Preface * The Nagari script is now used over a large part of the Indian sub-continent for writing Sanskrit and some other Indian languages. But it is seldom realised by the common people that its origin lies in Brahmi through a chain of successive variations. The question of the origin and development of Nagari has been summarily dealt with in the works on Indian palaeography and a few other writings, but so far we have had no independent work dealing with the subject in a scientific perspective. The present work aims at meeting this long-felt desideratum which is an out-come of my research for the degree of Ph.D. of the Banaras Hindu University. I have investigated into the development of the Nagari Script only upto the 13th century A.D. This cut-off point has been chosen because by this time, the development of the Nagari alphabet reached its maturity and during the following centuries it became almost stagnant. The bulk of the work contains illustrations of alphabets selected from different inscriptions and manuscripts. The present work is divided into seven chapters dealing with the different stages of the development of Nagari. The first one is an introduction dealing with the subjects, such as various theories on the name Nagari and Devanagari, its main features and also gives a fair idea of the nature of Mauryan Brahmi tracing the development of individual letterforms including ligatures and medial signs met with in this prototype. It also gives a reasonable account of various factors which were responsible for the development of the Brahmi script. It is followed by a detailed account of the Kutila variety, a post-Gupta development from Brahmi, which represents an important developmental stage between Brahmi and For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script Nagari, in the next chapter. This Kutila script further developed into the proto-Nagari and forms the subject matter of the third chapter. The fourth chapter deals with the maturing of the Nagari script during the three centuries from 11th to 13th centuries towards the end of which the evolutionary process became almost stagnant. The pace of scriptal evolution in monumental records like stone and metallic inscriptions and manuscripts was not uniform. Hence Nagari alphabet, as found in manuscripts dating from the 11th to the 13th century A.D. is dwelt upon with the help of selected manuscripts in the fifth chapter. The next chapter is devoted to the development of numerals and other signs. The seventh chapter is the concluding one, dealing with the factors responsible for the development and migration of the script from one region to the other from time to time. 8 However, I am aware of the limitation and the methodological problems involved in this kind of work. It has not been practicable to examine each and every inscription, manuscript and coin in the original and therefore I have had to depend on photographic reproductions. Such photographs have their own limitations. It has also not been possible to illustrate all specimens, therefore only representative forms have been selected for illustration. I am deeply indebted to all those scholars who have worked in the field of palaeography. Their studies served me as a valuable background in the completion of this work. It is my privilege to express my sincere gratitude to all those persons who have helped me in various ways, to complete this work. First of all I am under a heavy debt of gratitude to my venerable teacher, Dr. T.P. Verma, Reader in the Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi for his kind guidance and suggestions. I am particularly thankful to Prof. M.A. Dhaky, Associate Director (Research), American Institute of Indian Studies, Ramnagar, Varanasi who went through the manuscript and gave valuable suggestions. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Preface I express my sincere thanks to Prof. A.K. Narain, Prof. Lallanji Gopal, Prof. P. Singh, Prof. A.M. Shastri for their kind help. My thanks are also due to my friends who have helped me in various ways, but whom it is not possible to list here. My thanks are also due to the librarians of Banaras Hindu University; American Institute of Indian Studies; National Library; Asiatic Society of Bengal library; Asiatic Society of Bombay library for their kind help. I am indebted to Prof. R.N. Misra, Dr. R.P. Pandey and Dr. B.R. Mani for their constant encouragement and support during the publication. Other colleagues and members of our School variously helped me. I am thankful to all of them. Lastly, the author expresses his deep gratitude to M/s Parimal Publications not only for undertaking the publication of this work but also for publishing this work within the minimum period of time and with best possible get-up and printing. Gwalior A. K. Singh For Personal & Private Use Only

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Transliteration Table AI ai O o AU AM_H au aM : AA I I U U RI E a A i I u U R e KA KHA GA GHA NA ka kha ga gha Ga CHA CHHA JA ca cha ja JHA jha NA Ja TA THA Tha DA DHA NA Da Dha Na TA ta THA tha DA DHA NA da dha na PA pa PHA BA BHA MA pha ba bha ma RA ra LA la VA va SA za SHA SA HA KSHA Sa sa ha kSa ya For Personal & Private Use Only

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Abbreviations ABORI ARSIE ASI, AR ASI, ARIE ASIR ASWIR, AKK BORI CII Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Annual Report in South Indian Epigraphy Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report of Indian Epigraphy Archaeological Survey of India Report Archaeological Survey of Western India Report on the Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Catalogue of Manuscripts in Jaisalmer Bhandar Catalogue of Manuscripts in Patan Bhandar Epigraphia Indica Indian Antiquary Indian Archaeology: A Review Indian Culture Inscriptions from the Cave Temple of Western India, Burgess & Bhagawanlal Indraji, Indian India, 1976 Indian Historical Quarterly Jain Antiquary SMJV CMPB EI IA IAR IC ICTWI IHQ JA For Personal & Private Use Only

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14 Abbreviations JAHRS JAS JASB JASL JBBRAS JBORS JBRS JESI JIM JMPIP JOHRS JOI Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society Journal of the Asiatic Society Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Jouinal of the Asiatic Society Letter Journal of the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society Journal of Bihar Research Society Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India Journal of Indian Museum Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihas Parishad Journal of the Orissa Historical Research Society Journal of the Oriental Institute Journal and Proceedings of Asiatic Society of Bengal Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London Journal, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal Letters Journal of U.P. Historical Research Society Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society Karnataka Inscriptions Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India Monuments of Sanchi JPASB JRAS JRASBL JUPHRS JUPHS KI MASI MS NPP YIAJ Nagari Pracharini Patrika, Varanasi (Hindi) Yadava Inscriptions from Ambe Jogi For Personal & Private Use Only

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Contents Preface Transliteration System Abbreviations 1 2 3 70 4 102 Introduction * Text Figures 1 - 3 The Background : (6th-8th Century A.D.) * Text Figures 4 - 6 * Plates 1 - 30 The Period of Transition : (9th-10th Century A.D.) * Plates 31 - 90 The Age of Maturity : (11th-13th Century A.D.) * Text Figures 7-8 * Plates 91 - 162 Nagari in Manuscripts : (11th-13th Century A.D.) * Plates 163 - 174 Numerals and other Signs * Plates 175 - 178 Conclusions General Bibliography 5 145 6 158 7 175 180 Index 197 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Nagari / Devanagaris Nevari nhajani na Nagari Jaina Nepalese Maithili Kaithi Gujarati Assamese DOON Nandi Nagari Gaud Modi Oriya Sarada Takari For Personal & Private Use Only Bengali central Asian umukhi Scripts vsT2b Salud sankha Tibetan Siddham Bar Brahmi 4 RS DEVELOPMENT OF THE NORTH INDIAN SCRIPTS

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Introduction The Nagari script (also known as Devanagari) is prevalent in a large part of the Indian sub-continent and employed for writing different regional languages. It has developed ultimately from the script popularly called the Mauryan Brahmi. During earlier centuries, the various stages of its development can be discerned; however, by which appellation/s these scripts were known among the contemporary peoples is as yet unknown The historians and palaeographers prefer to call them Sunga, Kshatrapa, Kushana, Gupta, or Later-Gupta script, depending on the period and region. While it is certain that those scripts were precursors of the present Nagari, it is hard to ascertain whether Nagari was the appellation by which it was known between first to eighth centuries A.D. The present work is addressed to investigate into this problem. The Appellation Nagari Various etymologies have been suggested for the word Nagari. On the basis of the Lalitavistara (c. 5th-6th Cent. A.D.), A.C. Burnell is inclined to believe that it was the 'naga-lipi' (serpent writing). But L.D. Bernetta found no connection between the 'naga-lipi' and the Devanagari script. Furthermore, there seems no etymological relation in the formation of the word 'Nagari-lipi' from 'naga-lipi' or vice versa. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script One other hypothesis explains it as the writing of the "Shah" (Kshatrapa) kings of Gujarat, reigning before fourth century A.D. who were called the nagas or snakes. This is only a conjecture without evidential foundation. A.H. Dani, however, is positive that it was derived from varnanaga, which occurs in the compound varna-naga-kripanika in the Mahakalesvara Temple Inscription (of the reign of Paramara Naravarma, A.D. 1094- 1133).' But this derivation also cannot be accepted as the word varnanaga-kripanika simply means the alphabet written in the shape of a serpent and sword. N.N. Vasu, after discussing the opinion of various Pandits whom he consulted, concluded that "This alphabet was first devised by a class of men, designated Nagara, and in a certain place also called Nagara." This explanation, too, is unacceptable as the Nagari script does not seem a corporate invention by a set of persons but it is evidently the ultimate consequence of the progressive evolution of the Mauryan Brahmi script. In Hindi Sabdasagara (A.D. 1968)? it is recorded that when the script of Northern India was introduced in Gujarat under the aegis of the Rashtrakutas and was used by the Nagara Brahmanas, it was given the name Nagari. But there seems no historical basis for accepting such an explanation. Hiranand Sastris on the other hand is of the opinion that it was the alphabet of the Nagaras or the highly cultured people. But F. Max Muller, W.D. Whitneylo and David Diringerll thought that the reason behind the formulation of the term Nagari is unknown. If derived from nagara (city) it would simply mean that the art of writing was first practiced in the cities But this theory also cannot be conceded since no specific city can be named as the seat of origin. V.S. Agrawala, 12 on his part opines that it was the script connected with nagara, which he identifies, on the authority of the play Padataaitakam (c. 5th Cent. A.D), with Pataliputra. K.D. Bajpai 13 likewise identifies nagara For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 19 with Patliputra But Anant Chaudhari 14 theorised that the Kutila script refined by the Nagaras (clever Pandits) of Pataliputra nagara during 8th9th centuries, is the cause of the appellation Nagari. This refined form of course, was simple and efficient in writing as compared to the Kutila letters; hence the persons of that period gave honour to call it by the name Nagari (the perfect script of the Nagaras of nagara). While it may be conceded that Pataliputra was called nagara, it does not ipso facto follow that the script used in or around that particular city alone was termed Nagari. Sesha Krishna, the author of the Prakrit Chandrika (c. A.D. 1050) has recorded twenty-seven apabhraias, two of which are named Nagara and Upanagara.15 According to G.A. Grierson, 16 the close connection of Nagara apabhramsa with Sauraseni Prakrita of Central Gangetic Doab, points to the probable region of its use. This region has been the seat of the Nagari script from the beginning uptil now. Finally, T.P. Vermal? believes in the growth of the regional languages and their employment in written literature. Against this background it is somewhat safer to assume that the script that was used for writing the Nagara apabhraisa, possibly came to be known as Nagari. Here it can be recalled that at least three items are associated with the Nagara or Nagari. These are Nagari script, Nagara and Upanagara apabhramsas and the Nagara style of temple architecture. It is noteworthy that the geographical extension of all these three are almost the same, i.e. the whole of northern India excluding Punjab in the West and Bengal in the East. The alternative name for the Nagara style of temple architecture is Indo-Aryan given by Fergusson.18 T.P. Verma has discussed the problem in some detail in some other context. Stella Kramrisch believes that the "ternary, Nagara, Dravida and Vesara is in agreement with three-fold geographical division of India into the North, the Deccan and the South."20 If we accept this, the burden of our problem is slightly reduced because when we are not able to determine precisely the meaning of the term Nagari we can indicate its geographical limits. We can assume that perhaps For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script Nagara or Nagari had a definite geographical connotation about which our predecessors had no ambiguity. They used this term by prefixing Deva-, Jaina-, Nandi- for scripts and Nagara and Upanagara for apabhrarias as well as for a definite style of temple architecture prevalent in a definite area. Antiquity of the name Nagari Considering the antiquity of the term "Nagari', we find that the Jaina commentators Maladhari Hemachandra Suri (of Harshapuriya Gachchha, A.D. 1118)21 and Malayagiri (c. 2nd 3rd quarter of the 12th Cent. A.D.)22 ention Nagari in their commentaries. This indicates that the Nagari appellation had become popular by the 12th century A.D. In point of fact, Hemachandra Suri quotes an ancient verse, possibly of the tenth or the eleventh century A.D.; to the effect, which indicates that the name Nagari was known even a few centuries prior to the 12th century A.D. Al-Beruni, who visited India (c. A.D. 1030) with Mohammed of Gazana, mentions Nagara-a script which was used in the Malava country.25 Vasu24 averred that the first mention of the Nagari script is encountered in the Jaina Nandisutra (of Devavachaka, c. mid. 5th Cent. A.D.). However, there is no mention of Nagari script at all in the selfsame work. Strangely, Vasu does not give the exact reference of this work and only quotes 18 lipis from the Jainacharya Lakshmi-Vallabhagani's Kalpasutra-Kalpadruma-Kalika, commentorial work of as late as 17th century A.D. Perhaps the Nagari script became famous by the name Devanagari in later period. But the date when this appellation came into use is controversial. Rai Bahadur Bishun Svarup25 thought it of as early as 1700 B.C., which in course of time lost the name revived lately to indicate that the script was used in upper India, including Banaras, the seat of Sanskrit learning. This is an improbable conjuncture. However, M.R. Kale tries to define the word in his own way. According to him, "The Aryans who were much fairer in colour than the aborigines of For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 21 India are the Devas referred to in the name Devanagari (from Div to shine, those of a brilliant complexion); and Nagari means the Aryan settlements within the precincts of which the sacred language was spoken."26 Like that of Bishun Svarup this suggestion is also widely off the mark. R. Shamsastry27 takes back the Devanagari script to pre-Asokan or in Tantric (Atharva-Veda?) period. But leaving aside the date of the Tantric literature referred to by him, the word Devanagari does not appear to have been used in any work till late medieval times. Some European scholars had looked into the problem in their own way. Isaac Taylor writes, "The term Devanagari, which would mean the divine or sacred Nagari, is not used by the natives of India, and it seems to have been invented by some ingenious Anglo-Indian about the end of the last century."28 Similar is the view of J. Filliozat29 who holds that the name appears for the first time in the European reports of the seventeenth century. But such views cannot be given much weight and should be discarded as far fetched. The Appellation Devanagari The term Devanagari has been defined in many different ways. Shamasastry suggests that the Brahmi itself is derived from Tantric symbols, which were called Devanagara - the abode of the gods - and the script derived, therefore, was consequently Devanagari.30 it is, however, difficult to accept this view, because, Nagar or Devanagari is the evolved form of Brahmi script and the works which list the scripts of ancient India do not include Nagari or Devanagari. As noted above, Max Muller, Whitney and Diringer mention 'Devanagari as 'Nagari of the gods or of the Brahmanas.' According to R.K. Lohia, Devanagari means gift of 'Deva' (God) to 'nagarikas' (citizens) so that they can communicate and transfer the treasure of knowledge and cultural heritage from generation to generation through the media of writing." George Thomas Kurian, too, defines it as the script of the divine city. 32 These definitions, however, interpret the term from a legendary or metaphorical stand point. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script Bajpai33 is of the view that the Nagari script was christened Devanagari when Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, employed it. Chaudhari"4 likewise believes that the name Devanagari was derived on the resemblance of Devavani Sanskrit. But this view too rests on slender foundations. It is evident that Sanskrit was being written in Brahmi and its derivative scripts from the very beginning, hence the question of Nagari being associated with Sanskrit is unwarranted. Here we may agree with H.R. Kapadia, that "One will not be completely unjustified to believe that the name Devanagari is not so old as Nagari."35 However in the present state of knowledge, it is not possible to settle the problem finally but it can be indicated that the term Nagara or Nagari denoted some geographical area or region. The term is mentioned in the Silpasastras (10-11th century ) and the Holal inscription (12th century) as well as in Jain commentaries (referred to above) by Malayagiri and Hemachandra. Here, it must be admited that the term Nagari is not found earlier than the 10th-11th century A.D. It is, however, futile to discuss the appearance of a word in this or that work because such words are recorded in works long after getting currency among the people. Earlier Stages Brahmi is the earliest known historical script of India. In the present state of our knowledge there is no specimen of Brahmi which can be definitely assigned before the Mauryan times. The Mauryan Brahmi was formed by simple geometrical configurations like horizontal and perpendicular lines, angles and triangles, circles and semi-circles, curves and dots, etc. Nagari placed alongside Mauryan may seem vastly different in appearance.50 However, passing through the various developmental stages, some or the other part of every letter of the Mauryan Brahmi is still retained in the Nagari forms with only some ornamental or simplified additions and modifications. In the natural process Brahmi developed continuously at least from the time of Asoka. But there are some remarkable stages of its development For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 23 which may be arranged under six groups. The incipient stage is of course the Asokan Brahmi, shown in Table A of Text Fig. 1(a-b).* The alphabets of the Kshatrapa and pre-Kushana period represent a distinct phase, shown in Table B in which the vertical is tapering and reduced. The adoption of cursiveness made transitional phase of the Brahmi of the Kushana period, of which some distinction of eastern and western forms are shown in Table C (a & b). The next stage of development of Brahmi is noticeable in Gupta period, shown here in Table D (a & b). Under the Aulikaras, Western variety, or Malava style of writing progressed more distinctly which is illustrated in Table E. In the inscriptions of the Maukharis, Western Indian influence and further development in some letters are seen (Table F); and in the subsequent stage Brahmi is transformed into the Kutila script. Developmental Stages of Individual Letter Forms The development in the forms of the Brahmi letters was continuous and any talk of developmental stages is to be understood as hypothetical. However, for the sake of facile comprehension of the process of development, I have here grouped these forms into six stages. The detailed and minute description of the palaeographical study of all these developmental stages is out of consideration. For our purpose it will suffice to examine chronologically only the main peculiarities of the alphabets which lead to the evolution of the Kutila, or the Nagari characters. Vowels The initial a of the Mauryan Brahmi is of various types, of which 'angular' and 'cursive' are two main varieties. Table B shows the growth into a thick top and inner curve in the lower left limb. The vertical stroke in Table C is considerably lengthened. This letter rapidly evolves in the Gupta period (Fig. 3). In an advanced form, the left limb hangs down from the triangular head and ends in a hook open to the left instead of the right curve. In column F (Fig. 1) two arms of the lower curve are All references to Tables in this Chapter refer to Text Figures and not Plates. For Personal & Private Use Only

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2424 Development of Nagari Script shown projected from the left vertical. The Maukharis also employed this form and this is the real source from which the Kutila and the Nagari features ultimately evolved. The long a is formed by adding a horizontal bar, on the top, or in the middle to the right of the vertical stroke of the initial letter a in its earliest stage. But, in Kushana period, horizontal bar had been transformed into a leftward curve or hook and placed in the lower end of the vertical. This form continued for a long time and at last a vertical line to the right developed in Nagari. I of Tables A, and B are represented by three dots arranged triangularly. In Kushana period dots developed into short lines, two of which are placed one upon the other and the third one is a vertical line to the right of these two. In Gupta period a form is seen in which the vertical line is lengthened beside two dots in place of the other two short lines. However, in general, it is in the form of three dots of which the apex is downwards. Table F shows a distinct phase with lower dot developed into a curved or tailed form. This form is retained in the Kutila script. Mauryan u is formed by two straight lines meeting generally at the right angle. The same form continued for a long time only with the addition of broad head and some changes in the angle. In the early Gupta period a horizontal bar developed into upward curve; while in post-Gupta period the curve is lowered and turned to the left (Fig. 3). The lower portion grows into an elegant curve in Table E and F (Fig. 1). Triangle is the shape of Mauryan letter e with its apex laid at various directions. This shape remained unchanged for a long time; then developed into a flat-topped variety. Tables E and F show further growth in which the top is flat, right portion is in vertical shape and left limb curved in a bulgy manner. From this shape Nagari form eventually evolved. The initial o is formed by two horizontal lines joined by a third slanting line at its either end. Table B shows a feature in which vertical is inclined with angularized shape. In Kushana period angles become cursive. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction The initial au is rarely employed in ancient inscriptions. To trace its development four specimens (Fig. 3) have been taken from the Turfan manuscript of Kalpanamanditika (early 5th Cent. A.D.),37 the Bihar Kotra Inscription of Naravarma (A.D. 417),38 the Bower manuscript (early 6th Cent. A.D.)39 and the Mandasor Inscription of Yasodharma (A.D. 530).40 Of these, the first form is formed by adding a horizontal stroke to the right of the Mauryan letter o. In the second stage, upper portion become cursive and additional stroke bends downwards. Further, the base of the letter is curved to left as in u and another curled stroke goes up from mid-angle. Finally, lower curve further prolongs in an elegant curly shape and the joined curve at the right also extends with a rightward bend. Consonants Simple Aksharas 25 Gutturals A simple cross is the form of Mauryan ka. The vertical takes a tapering shape and lengthens in pre-Kushana period. In the time of the Kushanas, the top vertical develops into a triangle head and the horizontal bar is slightly curved. The head-mark and horizontal curve become more prominent in the post-Kushana period. The letter kha of the Mauryan Brahmi is shaped like a hook with a circle at the lower right limb. Lower circle develops into a large triangle and hook is shortened in pre-Kushana and Kushana period (Tables B & C). Occasionally, left limb of the Gupta kha shows a foot-mark, and the right limb an inner curve (Table D, a-b). In post-Gupta period, inner triangular shape with slanted base is the feature of the letter. Asokan ga is generally an angle with its apex at the top. In Table B, the angle is curved and takes a shape like the horse-shoe. Round-topped ga became a standard form in the Kushana Brahmi in which optionally the left limb shows a foot-mark and right one is extended. From the time of the Guptas, upper portion is almost flat; and foot-mark of the left limb develops into a solid triangular shape (Table F). For Personal & Private Use Only

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26 Development of Nagari Script The letter gha of Table A is represented as a fish-hook with a vertical stroke in the middle of the curve. Further, the curves of the letter are ed with flattened base and verticals are almost equalised (Tables B & C). In the Gupta period, middle stroke comes closer to the right vertical. From the time of the Aulikaras this letter undergoes a fundamental transformation in which the base of the right half slants, the left one curves, thus forming an acute-angle (Kutila). The letter na is not met separately. In the ligatures, it is in a cursive (Fig. 2, D); or angular (Fig. 2, E) form. Palatals In Mauryan Brahmi letter cha is formed by drawing a semi-circle to the bottom left of a vertical line. From the time of Mathura-Saka Kshatrapas the vertical of the letter became gradually short and bears a triangular head-mark. The loop of the letter develops into crescentic shape; which further takes beaked shape in the post-Gupta period. The Mauryan chha is represented by an oval appendage, bisected by a vertical line almost in the middle. Table B shows the fundamental change by which oval shape developed into a double-looped shape, the vertical reduced with thick top. Without any noticeable change this form continued in the Kutila script. Tables A and B show a form of ja, formed by two semi-circles placed one upon the other. However, the vertical form of the letter became common in later periods. Gradually, the lower arm of the letter is slanted from the time of the Kushanas; and occasionally, vertical line shows an inner bend from the time of the Guptas. The letter jha is rarely met. In most of the specimens, from the time of Asoka, the letter is formed by adding an angular hook to the right of a vertical line in such a position that the mouth opens upward. The letter na is also rare, formed by adding a downwards open angular hook to the right in a vertical line. With some minor developments, such For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction as the prolongation of the vertical line in Mathura-Saka Kshatrapas inscriptions, this form continues for a long time. Linguals From the Mauryas to the Kushanas, letter ta is shaped like a semi-circle. Sometimes, in Gupta period, top of the letter developed into a flat horizontal bar. In Maukhari, top end became broader The circular form of the letter tha is retained in all the developmental stages. The Mauryan da is represented as a horizontal line with two vertical lines joining at either end in which the left extends to the down and the right to the up. In later varieties, the top-vertical is shortened and the lower one bends to right (Table B). The form in the Gupta period, with curved back and lengthened leg, shows further progress. In the Aulikara and Maukhari specimens the leg is further prolonged. Dha of the Mauryan Brahmi is formed as a semi-circle with spiral at the lower and a vertical stroke at the upper end. Basically, the same form continues till now. The Mauryan na is represented as a vertical line with two horizontal kes at either ends. In pre-Kushana Brahmi the vertical is reduced. The letter makes revolutionary progress in the Kushana period, of which even an open-mouthed variety is noticed (Fig. 3). From the time of the Guptas, open-mouthed form of the letter became a standard form. Progressively, the outer curve of the letter prolongs in the Maukhari inscriptions. Dentals The letter ta of the Mauryan Brahmi reveals several varieties namely angular, slanted, curved. In the pre-Kushana and Kushana Brahmi; it is, in general, represented with a head-marked, short vertical line and a horse-shoe like lower portion. From the time of the Guptas, lower right limb is prolonged and the top becomes triangular. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script A circle with a dot in its middle is the form of the letter tha from the Mauryan times upto the Kushanas. Gupta inscriptions exhibit faster evolucion in which, progressively, the circle became slightly elliptical with a central dividing line in the place of the dot. The letter undergoes further progress in the Maukhari period (Table F) in which right limb becomes straight and left is formed in a bulging fashion. The Mauryan da is a semi-circle, opening to the left, with its ends prolonged vertically to the top and bottom. The pre-Kushana period is a transitional one from the viewpoint of the development, best understood by the forms of the letter shown in Fig. 3. In post-Gupta period its curve becomes a sort of double-curve (Fig. 1, Tables E & F). The Mauryan dha is represented as a semi-circle with its vertical to the left or sometimes to the right also. But after Asoka the latter variety gained more currency. In post-Gupta period the lower limb becomes angular. The letter na of the Mauryan Brahmi is formed by a vertical line with a slightly shorter horizontal line at the bottom. In pre-Kushana, vertical line is reduced with a clear head-mark. This letter undergoes a revolutionary development in Kushana period (Fig. 3). First it bends its base to various degrees and finally develops into a looped form in Kausambi region. In the eastern script of the Gupta period looped form of the letter is more common. In the post-Gupta period, vertical starts with triangular top, slightly inclined to the right and a loop forming to the left bends downwards. Labials A fish-hook drawn to the right is a shape of the Mauryan letter pa. In pre-Kushana period verticals are equalized in which usually the left and optionally both verticals are marked with triangular top; and the base is curved with angularized bends. From the time of the Kushanas only the left limb bears a head-mark; and in the post-Gupta scripts base of the letter is slightly slanted. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 29 The letter pha is represented by adding an inner curl to the hook of pa in Mauryan Brahmi. In Gupta period, the curl of the hook develops into a loop touching the base in the middle. In post-Gupta inscriptions, loop of the letter is compact and the base is sloppy. The letter ba has a square or rectangular shape from Asoka till Maukharis with slight variations. The shape of the Mauryan bha is formed by adding an additional parallel stroke to the right from the lower stroke of the letter da. Tables B and C show two main varieties -- in the first form right portion developed into a vertical line and left into curved shape with or without notch; while in the second, lower portion becomes broader. In Gupta period, both limbs of the letter hang from the top-mark in angular shape. The post-Gupta inscriptions reveal quick evolution in the letter form which may be seen in Fig. 3. A semi-circle placed upon a circle is the form of the letter ma in the Mauryan Brahmi. In pre-Kushana period circle developed into a broad triangle. Kushana inscriptions represent a transitional phase from the viewpoint of the development (Fig. 3) in which, finally, it takes a shape, termed as tailed variety. The left projecting part is thickened and base is slanted in the Maukhari's inscriptions. Semi-Vowels The Mauryan ya has two basic forms: first formed by drawing a vertical line in the middle of a crescent, the second made by a double curve in the place of a single crescent. The crescentic base developed into a flat shape and the central stroke reduced with thickened top in pre-Kushana Brahmi. The Kushana specimens are also of flat-bottom type; but its left limb shows gradual evolution which may be noticed in Fig. 3. The left half of the letter is curved and right one is slanted in post-Gupta writing. The Mauryan ra is a wavy vertical line. In Kshatrapa and Kushana Brahmi, it developed into a form which has a thickened top vertical line with its lower tip turned to the left, or occasionally to the right. The top For Personal & Private Use Only

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30 Development of Nagari Script of the letter became triangular in the Gupta period; and the post-Gupta inscriptions show the development of a triangular foot-mark. Left facing hook with a horizontal bar is the shape of the Mauryan la. The base of the letter flattens in Kushana period. From the viewpoint of the development Kushana period is a transitional one (Fig. 3) showing two distinct forms of the letter, the hooked and the broadened left limb type. The first form of the letter is called eastern and second the western variety. Both forms of the letter are employed in the Gupta Brahmi. Out of them, the western variety paved the way for the Kutila, or Nagari character. The Mauryan va is represented as an upright stroke upon a circle. The circle develops into a triangle, and vertical is reduced which sometimes takes the shape of triangular head-mark in the Kushana period. In postGupta inscriptions, head-mark further reduces and base is slightly slanted. Sibilants and Ha The standard shape of the Mauryan palatal sa is like an arrow facing upwards with its prolonged middle bar. The angular top of the letter develops into a curve in pre-Kushana period. In the Kushana Brahmi, evolution is rapid (Fig. 3), finally takes a form in which left limb has a triangular or line foot-mark and a horizontal line in the middle. The top curve of the letter became peculiar with a downward extending right limb in the Gupta period. In post-Gupta period, foot-mark became peculiar like that in letter ga. The cerebral sha of the Mauryan Brahmi is represented as two parallel curves, placed one upon the other. In pre-Kushana period, left vertical is reduced with flattened and angularized base and middle curve developed into a horizontal stroke. The Gupta inscriptions reveal two varieties of this letter; the eastern is formed by a narrow oval with a head-mark at the left and a leftward angle at the right; and the second, the western type is represented as the letter pa with fully lengthened mid line. The bottom of the letter in post-Gupta inscriptions has a slight slope. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction The Mauryan dental sa has an additional hook, pointing downwards, attached to the left in the shape of pa. The verticals of the letter are equalized in pre-Kushana period. In the Kushana period, the form of the letter progressed much and finally developed into a looped variety (Fig. 3). This variety is called eastern, while in the western region the older form persists with prominent head-mark. Both forms of the letter are represented in the Gupta inscriptions. The Aulikara inscriptions reveal a stroke in the place of loop at the left limb. Lower loop of the letter develops into a solid-triangular form in the inscriptions of the Maukharis. 31 The shape of the letter ha in the Mauryan Brahmi is like pa with an additional tick on the right. The curves of the letter are angularized in pre-Kushana period. The Kushana period is a transitional one from the viewpoint of the development. The letter developed under two distinct varieties which can best be understood by the illustrations shown in Fig. 3. The first hooked ha is called eastern variety. Western inscriptions present a form of angular ha with downwards curling right tick. In postGupta period, head-mark becomes solid-triangle and right curve further extends. Ligatures (Fig. 2b) In all the developmental stages ligatures do not follow the rule of Sanskrit grammar in which the first letter loses its inherent a to combine with the second letter. Earlier ligatures are normally formed by placing consonants one upon the other in their natural order. For accommodating them in the limited space, in general, the lower letter is made more shorter and cursive. These factors are responsible for the development of some letter forms, such as bipartite type of subscript ya, cursive variety of n, etc. Development in the medial signs (Fig. 2a) In the formation of the medial signs, from the time of Asoka, a is attached to the right, e and ai left, u and u in the lower portion of the letter. Medial o is a combination of the signs for a and e. And au is not For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script found in the Asokan Brahmi. In later inscriptions it is represented by adding a sign of e to the medial o. The medial a is denoted in the Mauryan Brahmi by a horizontal stroke attached to the right, either at the top or in the middle according to the shape of the letter. In Kushana period it has taken the shape of a slanting stroke. The inscriptions of the Guptas and the Aulikaras generally demonstrate a straight horizontal line with its tip turned downwards. From this shape modern Nagari form of the selfsame medial is derived. In the ornate style of post-Gupta period, this sign is represented by a flourished top-stroke. The Mauryan medial i is indicated by adding an angular or cursive form to the right of the top or in the middle of the consonant. Optionally in pre-Kushana; but commonly in Kushana inscriptions, the curve extends up to the left portion of the head-mark. In the Gupta period, curve is further extended with a downward turn reaching below the head-mark. In the ornate style of post-Gupta period it grows into more than one flourished curve. Long T is denoted by doubling the sign of medial i in Mauryan and pre-Kushana inscriptions. The Kushana counterpart developed into full cursive form. However, Gupta specimens show a distinct feature in which right curve is smaller while left limb extends into a rightwards stroke. In ornate style, it has taken a shape of two or more flourishes to the right. In the inscriptions of Maurya and pre-Kushana period medial u is marked by a stroke at the bottom of the consonant, either in horizontal or downwards vertical form. From the time of the Kushanas curved form of this medial sign developed which subsequently prolonged and shows an almost modern Nagari feature adumbrated in post-Gupta inscriptions. Medial u is formed by adding an additional stroke to the shape of medial u in the Mauryan Brahmi. In pre-Kushana and Kushana inscriptions, left stroke is horizontally slanted to meet with the right vertical stroke. In the Gupta period, it developed either into a leftward curve with a rightward horizontal stroke or leftward curve opened downwards. In post For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 33 Gupta inscriptions, it is represented as a leftward extended curve with a small horizontal stroke to right. In pre-Kushana inscriptions, medial ri is represented as a slanted stroke to the left at the bottom. From the time of the Guptas it is indicated by a rightward hook to the lower limb of the consonant. In the Mauryan and pre-Kushana Brahmi medial e is shaped as a horizontal stroke to the left at the top or middle of the letter. In the Kushana period it developed into a slanted top-stroke form. In post-Gupta ornate style, flourishes with embellished thin and thick line are formed Two horizontal or one horizontal and other slanted stroke is the shape of medial ai in the Mauryan Brahmi. From the time of the Kushanas slanted stroke type of formation on the top become the common form. In post-Gupta ornate style, either both or the right slant are flourished. In latter specimen, generally, left limb is a horizontal stroke with a tick at the tip. Asokan medial o is a combination of two strokes of medial a and e. From the time of the Kshatrapas both strokes developed into slanting form in which one is to the left and other to the right. One, or both of the slants are decorated by thin and thick line in post-Gupta inscriptions. The medial au is not employed in the inscriptions of Asoka. From the time of the Kshatrapas it has been formed by adding an additional sign of e in the form of medial o and developed in the same process. Features of Nagari The Nagari undoubtedly is an evolution of Brahmi, but a question may arise as to which developmental stage of Brahmi be ascribed the name Nagari. Similarities of the shape may not be an adducible ground for this purpose, because the shape of the Nagari dha is as much similar to Asokan Brahmi as the forms of i, ja, bha, of the 13th century A.D. So, it is necessary to define the distinguishing features of Nagari which differ For Personal & Private Use Only

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34 Development of Nagari Script from those of the earlier developmental stages of Brahmi. A tentative outline may be given as follows: Head-line The main characteristic of Nagari is the entire breadthed top-stroke or head-line while in earlier developmental stages it was in triangular or short-line form. Straight vertical line Nagari script shows the use of straight vertical line. But in precursor stages it was in crooked shape. Simplification Nagari prefers simple forms, while predecessor writings were represented by elaborately twisted and elongated shapes of the letters and medial signs. Uniformity in Medial Sign In Nagari one sign is used for one medial instead of earlier practice of giving more signs for simple and ornamental styles. Halanta Sign The halanta sign was represented by making the letter small, or placing a stroke above the letter in earlier inscriptions. However, a stroke below the letter was also used for a halanta sign which was later adopted in the Nagari. Compendious Consonant in Ligatures Nagari ligatures are formed by mutilating the first consonant and conjuncting side by side, while in earlier developmental stages usually the complete shape was placed one upon the other. Final Observations The factors that were responsible for the development of the Brahmi For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 35 script are more or less the same that were responsible for the development of the Nagari script. Economy of effort plays an important role in the evolution of the Brahmi. The best example of saving labour can be seen in forming the letter bha of the Gupta period (cf., Fig. 1b), where the lower right and the upper vertical of the letter coalesce into a single vertical. The sam tendency is responsible for the development of simplified forms which require the triangular head-mark to transform into a simple horizontal line and pave the way for the evolution of Nagari line-head-mark. On the other hand, the desire for ornamentation also affects the course of development.4l This works in three ways: first, box (cf., ya and va of Fig. 1b, D) and triangular (cf., Fig. 1, Table C and onwards) type of head-mark developed; second, embellishment in the shape of the letters (cf., ya of Kushana period, Fig. 3); third, fondness for flourishes affecting medials to develop curly forms (cf., Fig. 2a, E & F). The tendency for ornamentation is also responsible for the development of the Kutila script. Political changes also had a role in the development of the scripts. The formation of the bigger political powers are not favourable for the growth of regional cultures. The larger kingdoms try to adopt a uniform style of writing within their dominions. Consequently the script primarily becomes the subject of the kings, their officers, and royal scribes only; which arrests the independent evolution in farther regions. The uniformity in Asokan Brahmi throughout the subcontinent is mainly due to the centralized political power. Disintegration of a political power -- while in many ways disastrous, helps in the development of regional scripts. With the disappearance of an imperial authority small monarchies spring up and regional cultures evolve. Regional cultural centres emerge and the popular regional styles flourish. The popularity of writing demands swiftness, leading to the introduction of an additional quality, i.e., facile writing. Regular writing practices also create certain traits that are responsible for script developments. It required continuous and unobstructed movement of the pen, which in turn becomes For Personal & Private Use Only

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36 Development of Nagari Script responsible for the substitution of curves in place of angles & c. It is easier to draw a curved form which can be quickly written than to work out an angular form in which the movement of the hand is obstructed at several points. The influence of cursive hand is responsible for the development of several letter forms and medial signs. For example, the increasing popularity of writing in the Kushana period 42 gave a fillip to the fast evolution in the letter forms (cf., Fig. 3) and medial signs (cf., Fig. 2a, Table C). One of the other consequences of the popularity and intensity of writing was that more and more writers came forward and made their contributions to the development of Brahmi script. The old 'acharya writers' must have had a number of disciple-apprentices learning the art of writing. Some of these writers, in their turn, formed their own schools were responsible for the development of regional varieties.43 Out of them a distinction is marked in the style of East and West in Northern India from the Kushana period onwards (cf., Fig. la-b; Tables C&D, a-b). Hoernle44 noted sibilant sha as the test letter to distinguish between the eastern and western varieties of the so-called Gupta Brahmi. G. Buhlerts adds two more letters la and ha to this list. He observes that, "in the eastern variety the left limb of la is turned sharply downwards, the base stroke of sha is made round and attached as loop to the slanting central bar, and the base stroke of ha is suppressed with its hook attached to the vertical sharply turned to the left. In the western variety these three have the older and fuller form."46 R.D. Banerji47 adds a fourth test letter sa of which the looped form is of eastern variety. But at the same time the distinctions between the eastern and western varieties are based on a few letters and are overlapped in geographical distribution. Disintegration of the Mauryan empire encouraged foreign invasions and establishment of new kingdoms. When neighbouring indigenous states came in contact with them, among other things, writing also was affected. For example, we can point to the tendency of approximate equalization of length and breadth of the letters and angularization of the curves in the 1st century A.D. Dani observes: "the angular feature was, no doubt, For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction dictated by the Greek lettering as well as by the technique of die-cutting."48 Verma believes that the most significant and revolutionary change on Brahmi was introduced by the Sakas of Mathura.49 37 By nature, the writing activities are more intense and as a consequence more advanced in the centres of power than remoter areas. With the transference of the political and cultural gravity advances in writing travelled from one place to the other. For example, cultural gravitation was centralized earlier in Magadha in the East which after the disintegration of the Mauryan empire, in the post-Sunga period, shifted to Mathura in the West. Hence, it became more advanced and predominant in the realm of writing in subsequent centuries. With the weakening of the Kushana power and the rise of the Maghas of Kausambi in the last phase of 3rd century A.D., the writing style of that region follows a more developed variety. In the 4th century A.D., the Guptas adopted and encouraged the script of Kausambi region, which was nearer to their original home. But 'in the beginning of the 6th century A.D. the Maukharis of Malava ruled over Magadha and Kanyakubja and with them they brought the script of the Malava region,'50 which eventually gained full currency. The actual form of the letter is dependent on the writer's method of producing the letters on a given surface. Kasia copper-plate51 reveals 12 black ink written unengraved and only one engraved line. This makes clear the two stages of copper-plate making, writing and engraving. In several cases, the writing was done by a professional scribe of the court and engraved by someone else. However, sometimes the engravers themselves wrote the text on the surface or engraved the text without previously drawing the letters on them.52 It is generally held that a writer was a literate man while an engraver was illiterate. Naturally the skilled hand of the professional writer made the script standard and uniform than the illiterate or semi-literate hand of the engraver. Occasionally, the movement of the engraver's instrument also made some differences in the representation of the forms of the letter. Buhler's observation is accurate in that "the degree of regularity with which the signs are used, depends not For Personal & Private Use Only

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38 Development of Nagari Script upon the age of the Sasanas, but on individual qualities of the writers, their learning and their carefulness.53 Writing materials, too, affected the course of development of the Brahmi script. For earlier period, we find stone and copper-plate as more popular base materials. As a result of several destructive agencies, including both man and nature, we do not possess manuscripts of more early periods. But from the Kurud Plates of Narendra (6th Cent. A.D.),54 and Tiruvalangadu Inscription55 it has become clear that some of the royal charters were first written on palm-leaf or birch-bark and then were copied to more permanent materials, mainly stone or metal. Obviously, it is easier to write in cursive form on the raw materials while in engraving angular shape of letters with chisel on the stone drawing is easier. Scratching the letters on the stone is difficult, but when it was done straight line was transformed into curved.56 Verma observes, in connection with the Piprahva Vase inscription that "the device of scratching on a spherical object tended to make the letters long and slanting."57 The small space on the coins compelled the writers to form the shape of the letters to suit the available space. As a result, the length of the letters was reduced and the medial signs were simplified on most of the coins. Writing tools also effect the course of development. The uniform thickness of the body of the letters in the inscriptions of Asoka is only due to the simplest writing tool, a rod-like object. From the first century A.D., thickness of the lines varied in the different part of the letter. Dani58 and Verma59 ascribe this feature to the edged reed pen. Practice with this new pen and skilful twisting subsequently developed several forms of the letters. For example, swift handling of the pen made letters more cursive. Dani60 reconstructs eight types of head-marks which are the outcome of the different styles of handling the pen. The peculiar twisting of the pen made thin and thick lines in the flourished medial signs and letter forms. And it is the distinctive type of twisting the pen which is mainly responsible for the development of the Kutila script. The writing material in the South, i.e., the stylus and the palm-leaves, was the cause of developing more rounded and wavy characters in numerous South Indian inscriptions. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction Dani is right in his observation that the use of the pen in the North was mainly responsible for the new shapes which so fundamentally differed from the southern characters.61 39 The technique of writing also affected the script. In North India, the general practice of the writing differed from the South. Writing on the leaves was done by pen and ink in North India, while in the South, the letters were incised on the leaves with a sharp-pointed needle like instrument and were made black by besmearing ink on the writing.62 The technique of writing is mainly responsible for the development of more cursive forms in Orissa region. Because of the stylus with which it was written on talipot palm-leaves, it split the leaves if the lines were straight. In the same way the writing technique on copper-plate of the North and the Deccan is different. 63 Presumably, the technique of Deccan is responsible for the evolution of the line form of head-mark and simplified forms of the letters; because it is difficult to incise a solid triangle, or thin and thick line with a sharp stylus. Geographical factors also have their share in the development of the script. For clarifying this point, we may take the example of Malava region. The peculiar geographical position of Malava has inevitably moulded all aspects of her culture complex. Situated on the border land between the North and the Deccan, it was open to influences from both sides. Here the two cultural traits often came in contact with each other and this phenomenon is mirrored in the styles of writing. For example, in considering the palaeography of Eran inscription of Budha Gupta (A.D. 484),64 Eran inscription of Toramana, 65 Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula,66 Rinasthal inscription of Prakasadharma,67 Mandasor inscriptions of Yasodharma; 68 we find that out of the cultural contacts the area produced a style of its own writing. Dani has given it the name 'the Malwa or Rajasthani style of writing'.69 The same style of writing prepared the ground for the growth of Nagari script. The influence from Malava on the one hand reached the northern parts of the country and on the other, it penetrated into the Deccan, by currents and cross currents of politicalcum-religious factors. For Personal & Private Use Only

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40 Development of Nagari Script Notes and References 1. Elements of South Indian Palaeography, London, 1878, p., 52, infra 2. 2. Diringer, David, The Alphabet, London, 1949, p., 358. 3. Taylor, Isaac, The Alphabet, vol., II, London, 1883, p., 349, infra 3. 4. Indian Palaeography, Oxford, 1963, p., 112. 5. Sastri, K.N., EI, XXXI, p., 28. 6. "The origin of the Nagaras and Nagari-alphabet," JASB, Lxv, p., 115. 7. Syamasundaradas, ed. vol., V, Varanasi, 1968, pp. 2361-62. 8. "Devanagari and the Muhammadan Rulers of India " JBORS, XXIII, p., 493. 9. A Sanskrit Grammar, New Delhi, 1979 (1866), P., 3. 10. A Sanskrit Grammar, London, 1960 (1889), p., 1. 11. Alphabet. p., 360. 12. Indian Systems of Writing, Delhi, 1966, p., 15. 13. Prachina Abhilenkhon me Devanagari," Devanagari Lipi Svarup, Vikas evam Samasyaen (Hindi) ed. by Joglekar, N.C. & B.D. Tiwari, Lucknow, Samvat 2019, p., 219. 14. Nagari Lipi aur Hindi Vartani (Hindi), Patna, 1973, p., 68. 15. The concerned verse are: "Maharashtri tathavanti Saurasenyardhamlagadhi Vanliki Magadhi chaiva shadeta (another reading ashteta) Dakshinatyajah || Brachando Latavaidarbhavupanagaranagaraul Varvaravantya-Panchala-Takka- Malava-Kaikayah || Gaudodra-Daiva-Panchatya-Pandya-Kauntala-Saim halah| Kalinga-Prachya-Karnata-Kanchya-Dravida-Gaurjarah || Abhiro Madhyadesiyah Sukshmabhedavyavasthitah || Saptavimsatyapabhraisa vaidaladiprbhedatah II. 16. Linguistic Survey of India, IX, Pt. II, p., 327. 17. Development of Script in Ancient Kamrupa, Assam, 1976, p., 30. 18. History of India and Eastern Architecture, vol., II, London, 1910, p., 84 ff. 19. Indian Epigraphy: Its Bearing on the History of Art, Calcutta, 1985, pp. 210-11. 20. The Hindu Temple, vol., I, p., 292. 21. Viseshavasyakabhashyavritti, p., 256 - "Hamsalivi Bhuyalivi Jakkhi tah Rakkhasi ya Bodhavva Udd Javani Turukki Kiri Davidiya ya Simdhaviya Il For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction Malavini Nadi Nagari Ladalivi Parasi ya Bodhavva Taha Animira ya livi Chanakki Muladevi ya " 22. Malayagiriya Nandivritti, p., 188 "Tatra Nagarim Lipimadhikritya kimchit pradarsyate" 23. Sachau, E.C., Alberuni's India, New Delhi, 1964, p., 173. 24. "The Origin"., p., 128. 25. "Antiquity of Writing in India," JBORS, VIII, pp. 111 and 115. 26. A Higher Sanskrit Grammar, Delhi, 1960, p., 1. 27. "A Theory of the Origin of the Devanagari Alphabet," IA, XXXV, pp. 253--67, 270-90 & 311-24. 28. Alphabet., p., 349. 29. "Paleographic," L'inde Classique, Manuel Des E'iudes Indiennes, Paris, 1953, p... 678, quoted in Development of Brahmi with Special Reference to the Origin and Development of Nagari, An unpublished thesis by Shashi Bala submitted for Ph. D. degree of Punjab University, Chandigarh. 30. "A Theory"., p., 255. 31. Ek-Bharati 'Vishvanagari' the Romanised "Devanagari for national integration and universal brotherhood, Bombay, 1975, p., 15. 32. Historical and Cultural Dictionary of India, New York, 1976, pp. 72-73. 33. "Prachina Abhilenkhon.", p., 219. 41 34. Nagari Lipi., p., 68. 35. "A Detailed Exposition of the Nagari, Gujarati and Modi Scripts," ABORI, XIX, p.. 389. 36. H.K. Bhattacharya has emphatically asserted that Brahmi cannot be called the mother of Nagari and that the latter has a different origin. The Language and Scripts of Ancient India, Calcutta, 1959, pp. 113-14. 37. Luders, H., Bruchstucke der Kalpanamanditika Des Kumaralata, Leipzig, 1926. 38. Chakravarti, S.N., EI, XXVI, pp. 130-32, Pl. f. p., 131. 39. Hoernle, Rudolf A.F., Bower Manuscript, ASI, Calcutta, 1893-1912. 40. Fleet, J.F., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol., III, Varanasi, 1963, pp. 152-54, PI. XXII. " 41. Dani, pp. 113-18. 42. Verma, T.P., The Palaeography of Brahmi Script in North India, Varanasi, 1971, p... 109. 43. Verma, Development of Script., p., 14. 44. "On the Date of the Bower Manuscript," JASB, LX, p., 81. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script 45. Indian Palaeography, Calcutta, 1959, P., 65. 46. Ibid. 47. The Origin of the Bengali Script, Calcutta, 1973, p., 26. 48. Indian., p., 52. 49. The Palaeography., p., 82. 50. Dani, p., 126. 51. Pargiter. F.E.. ASI. AR. 1910-11. pp. 73-77. Pl. XXXIX. 52. Sircar, D.C., Indian Epigraphy, Motilal Banarsidass, 1965, pp. 85-86. 53. Indian., p., 109. 54. Dikshii, M.G., EI, XXXI, p., 265. 55. Sivaramamurti, C., Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, Madras, 1966, p., 20. 56. Cf., the form of the letters of Piprahva Vase inscription, D.C. Sircar, Select Inscrip tions, I, Pl. X. 57. The Palaeography., p., 15. 58. Indian., p., 52. 59. The Palaeography., p., 19. 60. Indian., pp. 80-81. 61. Indian., p., 114. 62. Sircar, D.C., Indian Ep., p., 62. 63. Pandey, R.B., Indian Palaeography, I, Varanasi, 1957, pp. 81-82. 64. Fleet, CII, III, pp. 88-90, Pl. XIIA. 65. Ibid., pp. 158-61, Pl. XXIII A. 66. Ibid., pp. 161-64, Pl. XXIII B. 67. Wakankar, V.S., Bharati, N.S., No. 1 (1983), pp. 56-62, PI. IV. 68. Fleet, CII, III, pp. 142-58, Pls. XXI B, C & XXII. 69. Indian., p., 155. Bibliography Maurya inscriptions - Table A 1. Girnar rock inscription, E. Hultzsch, CII, I (1969), pp. 1-27, Pls. f. pp. 4, 10, 14, 22 & 26. 2. Kalasi rock inscription, Ibid., pp. 27-50, Pls. f. pp. 44 & 50. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 43 3. Delhi-Topra pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 119-37, Pls. b. pp. 122-23, 128-29 & f. p., 134. 4. Delhi-Mirath pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 137-40, Pls. b. pp. 138-39, & f. p., 140. 5. Lauriya-Araraja pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 141-45, Pls. f. pp. 142 & 144. 6. Rampurva pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 151-53, Pls. b, pp. 152-53. 7. Sarnath pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 161-64, Pl. f. p., 162. 8. Rummindei pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 164-65, Pl. f. p., 164. 9. Nigali Sagar pillar inscription, Ibid., p., 165, Pl. f. p., 164. 10. Barabar Cave inscription, R. B. Pandey, Asoka ke Abhilekha, Varanasi, Samvat 2022, pp. 133-34, Pl. 46. 11. Nagarjuni Cave inscription of Dasaratha, Ibid., pp. 136-38, Pl. 47. Pre-Kushana inscriptions -- Table B 1. Mathura Jaina inscriptions (New Series), G. Buhler, EI, II, pp. 195- 212, Pls. b. pp. 202-03 & f. p., 208 (Nos. 1-11 and 30-32). 2. Mora stone slab inscription, MASI, No. 1 (1919), p., 22, PI. VI, No. 5. 3. Mathura pillar inscription of the time of Sodasa, Ibid., No. 5 (1920), pp. 169-73, Pl. XXVI b. 4. Mathura inscription of (Dhru)vamitra, R. D. Banerji, EI, X, p., 107, Pl. f. p., 107, No. 1. 5. Ganeshra inscription of Ghataka, ASI, AR, 1911-12, pp. 128-30; Pl. LVIII, No. 17. 6. Stone Bowl inscription from Mathura, D. R. Sahni, EI, XIX, P., 67, Pl. f. p., 67, No. VI. Inscriptions of Kushana period -- Table C a. Eastern style 1. Mathura inscription of Kanishka: year 4, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXIV, p., 9, Pl. f. p., 10, No. 1. For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #46
44 Development of Nagari Script 2. Mathura inscription of Kanishka: year 14, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., XIX, pp. 96-97, Pl. f. p., 97. 3. Mathura inscription of Huvishka: year 33, T. Bloch, Ibid., VIII, pp. 181-182, Pl. f. p., 182 b.Western style 1. Inscription of Vasudeva: year 64 (67 ?), D. C. Sircar, EI, XXX, pp. 181-84, Pl. f. p., 184. 2. Inscription [ of Vasu ...] : year 74, H. Luders, Ibid., IX, pp. 241-46. Pl. f. p., 242. 3. Mathura inscriptions of year 74, J. Dowson, JRAS, N.S. V., p., 183, No. 4. 4. Inscriptions of year 25, 35, 45, 47, 54, 86, 87 and 95, G. Buhler, EI, I, pp. 384ff. & Pls. 5. Inscriptions of year 31, 32, 49, 50, 52, 62, 81, 90, 93, 98, G. Buhler, Ibid., II, pp. 202ff. & Pls. Inscriptions of Gupta period -- Table D a. Eastern style 1. Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, J. F. Fleet, CII, III (1963), pp. 1-17, Pl. I. 2. Susunia rock inscription of Chandravarma, H. Sastri, EI, XIII, p., 133, Pl. f. p., 132. 3. Karamadanda inscription of the reign of Kumaragupta I, S. Konow, Ibid., X, pp. 70-72, Pl. f. p., 71. 4. Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 52-56, PI. VII. 5. Dhanaidaha Copper-plate of the time of Kumaragupta: (G) year 113, R. G. Basak, EI, XVII, pp. 345-48, Pls. b. pp. 347-48. 6. Damodarpur Copper-Plate of (G.) years 124, 129 & 163, R. G. Basak, Ibid., XV, pp. 113-37, Pls. f. pp. 132, 133 & 138. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Introduction 7. Paharpur Copper-plate of year 159, K. N. Dikshit, Ibid., XX, pp. 59-64, Pls. b. pp. 62-63. 45 b. Western style 1. Mathura inscription of Chandragupta II, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 25-28, PI. ILA. 2. Mathura inscription of Chandragupta II: (G) Year 61, D. R. Bhandarkar, EI, XXI, pp. 1-9, Pl. f. p., 8. 3. Mathura inscription of Kumaragupta, Buhler, Ibid., II, p., 210, Pl. f. p., 209, No. 39. 4. Indor Plate of Skandagupta: (G) Year 146, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 68-72, Pl. ix b. Inscriptions of Aulikaras - Table E 1. Rinasthal inscription of Prakasadharma: V.S. 570, V. S. Wakankar, Bharathi, N.S., No. 1, pp. 56-62, Pl. IV. 2. Mandasor Inscription of Yasodharma, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 142-48, Pl. XXI B. 3. Another Mandasor inscription of Yasodharma, Ibid., pp. 149-50, Pl. XXI C. 4. Mandasor inscription of Yasodharma and Vishnuvardhan: (V) year 589, Ibid., pp. 150-58, Pl. XXII. Inscriptions of Maukharis - Table F 1. Barabar Hill Cave inscription of Anantavarma, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 221-23, Pl. XXX B. 2. Nagarjuni Hill Cave inscription of Anantavarma, Ibid., pp. 223-28, Pls. XXXI A-B. 3. Haraha Stone inscription of Isanavarma: (V) year 611, H. Sastri, EI, XIV, pp. 110-20, Pl. f. p., 118. 4. Jaunpur Stone inscription of Isanavarma?, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 222-30, Pl. XXXIIA. 5. Asirgadh Copper seal of Sarvavarma, Ibid., pp. 219-21, Pl. XXXA. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script 6. Nalanda Clay seal of Sarvavarma, H. Sastri, EI, XXI, p., 74, Pl. f. p., 74. 7. Sohnag Terracotta seal of Avantivarma, M. S. Vats, Ibid., XXVII, pp. 62-65, Pl. f. p., 64. For Personal & Private Use Only

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AA R V A Y I :. UL ED 07 KA + KHA GA A GHA DUAVVV ***:: NA CHA d CHHA JA E JHA P NA h TA C THA O DA DHA & 3 Kai Ang . J D N + 2 C p D8 da FKW 7 TA EVOLUTION IN LETTERS s O FIP H b s = L 04 Gan Gan KHU 2 2 E e PP k GHI 2 w thu 3 JA ss a b deo21 D D : ** i bhu bhu D * F 23 77 GMA 2 2 3 3 L ? FIG. 1 A +6 s s E 1245 *:. For Personal & Private Use Only 3 023 * b baa 3 a 15: MO 0 0 F 34 3 L E E E E * AGE 2 n ru CON

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NA I TA A THA O DA S DHA D NA L A B PAU PHA b BA Vna pr MA 4 YA | RA { LA p VA SA 1 t SA & L SHA HA H x (c) Ta Q x U LLE K 1 4 G ta 4 J p 2 Y XX THA - & O 2 2 DHI DHE NYA ME Karav 1 x 2 2 mm sala X ali al J Sad A A DJ A yy m pii 5 z FIG. 1 B a b DR OO X 16 e e 2 2 0 J D s IC T D n 76 b DO 9 ZA JJ 2 J KAB - ma R m 3 5 shk LM KO For Personal & Private Use Only E F e ng 000 k b 9 * ch 8 0 A A A D n phr I 2 4 H m th 21 2 a X p n m` D 2~ 2 2~ lkh 7 A y m n n th

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A. EVOLUTION IN MEDIAL VOWELS ON + arzu had to coa Be tot v Isu cg rv k << Ray mo na ya X Te B. LIGATURES A A 7 6 81TTILA 3+*0101 C 2017 base wait 4 d'any ante che sul si mi come la bagi I ara Meny $9997 yogo 75PSy nuuN PS go gering from klaaN **fut in cele gaa raa Come foto FIG.2 Fig. 2 For Personal & Private Use Only

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RAPID EVOLUTION IN SOME LETTERS Du s - IN PRE - KUSHANA PERIOD } + { + 2 IN KUSHANA PERIOD ^ + ? ? H x 30 SS ? ? Ez 5 5 I I I I I I I I I I s 5 C D ? ? ExtK 5 SZDLER * I I I I I I I I I I xxx 32a cassa I I I I I w 9 6 7 wt Toms I I I I I I IN GUPTA PERIOD U 1 Ten o O c I - H - H H - 1 - 1 - 5 -o - 0 - 0 EVOLUTION OF Au IN Post:- GUPTA PERIOD >> 2- 2 +3 + - 0 0 - 0 - a-n! .' IN POST - GUPTA PERIOD 0 E BHA FIG. 3 For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) Passing through its developmental stages, in North India, Brahmi grew into a script called by the palaeographers as-Siddhamatrika, Kutila, acute-angled, etc. The new innovation, by which it differs from Brahmi, is the inward bending in the right vertical limbs of the letters. The bending of the vertical shows an acute-angle with the base line. Apart from these, in general, the top of the letters are triangular in shape and the medial signs are prolonged with twists and bends. These are mainly due to the pen-technique which can be seen in the forms of the letters (Fig. 4), which become much more decorative in the medial signs (Fig. 5). The distinctive feature of this newly developed Kutila script, according to Buhler4 as well as Danis are first noticed in the Bodh-Gaya inscrip of Mahanama (A.D. 588-89) and later on became the characteristics of the North Indian scripts. In due course of time all scripts of North India, i.e. Nagari, Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, etc., have developed from this very script. The demarcation of geographical boundaries of the Kutila script may be assigned on the basis of its use from Gilgit in the North to Tiwarakhed For Personal & Private Use Only

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EVOLUTION BY THE PEN TECHNIQUE ms aWu Hong Hong Huan nanzcmxZhi RAR Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi m5amukaz nav w xanShuang Yun Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Bai & Si 5azzurunn x mm 111Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi ws a5 awsazz Tannxz5 Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yi Yin 5>> He mwEe zzmrama M M5 For Personal & Private Use Only

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ORNAMENTATION IN THE MEDIAL SIGNS BODH-GAYA INS BANSKHERA COGARH PL. JA KUSUMA INS MA KANSWA INS. INS TASAI INS. TA O : **** KA DO Vni XoSo CHE CAPE VE 2 KE O m). So nauki Tel: 934 29- CHAI NAI sh a De 308 MAU NAU MAU GAU h FIG. 5 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script (M.P.) in the South and from Nidhanpur (Assam) in the East to Vasantgadh (Rajasthan) in the West, during the 7th-8th centuries. About the 8th century A.D. it drove out the early popular scripts prevalent in M.P. and Western India and was often used in the northern and western areas of the Deccan and rarely in the southern Deccan as far as Pattadakall (Bijapur, Karnatak). Beyond the frontiers of India and Pakistan its use can be noticed in the Kabul inscription of Shahi Khingala.11 It has also been used in the inscriptions of Sri Lanka, Nepal, Tibet, Java, Cambodia, Central Asia, China and Japan.12 11 48 The main features of this script remained almost the same in this period excepting for ornamentation. The ornamentation differs in different regions according to the materials used for writing. Aside from the influence of writing materials, we also noticed the regional influences on the writing. Not only writing materials or regional traits, but also personal habits and mannerisms of the scribes affected the shapes of letters. In order to understand the development and variations of the Kutila script, it is grouped here under four main heads: The Middle Ganga Valley & North Western Region The middle Ganga Valley properly includes the greater portion of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In the Gupta period, eastern style of writing was prevalent in this region. But under the Maukharis western style of writing came into use. The western style along with Mathura style and eastern ornamentation underwent a change in this region during 6th-7th centuries A.D. This interaction produced a new style ornamental style of Kutila script which was also given a regional appellation 'Middle Ganges Valley script'. 13 In the beginning of the 7th century A.D., Harsha adopted the ornamental Kutila script and this style of writing spread all over North India along with the expansion of his power. In the northwestern region, about the 8th century A.D., a distinct form of Brahmi was developing which is called Sarada script. The script of the Bodh-Gaya inscription of Mahanama (A.D. 588-89) - For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) is a step further from the writing of Aulikaras (Mandasor) and Maukharis (Bihar & U.P.). In this epigraph (Plates 1-24, Table A) only three initial vowels, a, u and e are noticed. The right vertical of the initial a is slanted and forms an acute-angled shape. The downward curve of u is extended further; and e is of flat-topped variety with right-angle. The letter ka is generally in the new form in which left curve developed into a triangular loop and right one into a downward tick. But the old curved form is retained in ku, kri and ligatures. The top of the kha is flat and left limb shows a triangular foot-mark. The right vertical line of ga has a bend in its middle. The letter ta is of flat-topped variety in letter li. Na is of open-mouthed variety with sloped base and extended outer curves. Right limb of ta is curved. In tha and dha, the left curve slopes in a fashion that upper portion became broader and the lower narrower. Da is represented by double curve, with its tip turned up. Na shows Kutila feature in the right vertical. Ya is of the tripartite variety with left arm herged in the loop. Bipartite variety of ya with a bend in the right vertical can be seen in the letter ye (Plate 16, Table A1). Letters bha, ra and sa show triangular foot-mark or loop. The base of the letters pa, pha, ma, ya, la, sha and sa is sloped and their bent right vertical makes an acuteangle. Ligatures follow the earlier style in which the letter pronounced first is written in full form in the same line while the following letter is engraved just below the former. Following the tendency of simplification, in some instances, the first or optionally the second letter is shortened and becomes cursive. Forms of two armed superscribed i , cursive subscribed na and reduced form of ya and ra are noteworthy. In rya, superscribed r directly joins with the bipartite form of ya. The right vertical of the subscript is extended upward to the head-mark. It can be seen in mpo, sya and ssa (Plate 24, Table A1). The ornamentation is noticed in the medial signs. In the fifth century, flourishes in the medial signs are clearly seen in the Bilasadl4 and Meharauli inscription. 15 The ornamentation attained maturity in the period of Aulikaras and Maukharis, which is evident from their inscriptions (cf. Fig. 2a, Tables E & F). In the present inscription (of For Personal & Private Use Only

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HALANTA SIGNS IN 6TH - 8TH CENTRUY A.D. LAI A3 A4 AS A6 A7 As A AM A12 A15 T 31 39 ana a aa 39 IN 9TH CENTURY A.D. Ilang2 man IN 10TH CENTURY A.D a 294 291 292 994 el 1 FIG. 6 For Personal & Private Use Only

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50 Development of Nagari Script Mahanama) the effect of the pen style is marked, not only in the thick and thin lines but also in the long flourishes. Generally, in the formation of medial a, a wedge is added at the headmark to the right. But in pa, a curve is added to the top of the letter. A different mode, of slightly bending the right end and extending it upwards beyond the top of the letter to the left, is adopted in the formation of na. For medial u, the right vertical of the letter extended downward as in pu, mu and su (Plate 10, Table A). Sometimes, a curve is added to the left at the right end of the letter as in ku, gu, tu (Plate 9, Table A). The medial u is formed by adding an additional stroke either to the left or right in medial u. The medial ri is represented by adding a hook to the vertical of the letter. The twisted form of medial e, which first appeared in Susunia Rock inscription of Chandravarmalo (4th Century A.D.) now became common. Occasionally, it is also formed by a wedged shape at the left of the head-mark. The top slants of the medials e, ai, o and au are flourished, or simple as in nau (Fig. 5). The anusvara is represented by a dot on the top of the letter, such as in lyam (Plate 24, Table A,). The visarga is formed by placing two dots one upon the other, to the right of the letter, such as shown in nnah (Plate 23, Table A1). It becomes clear that the inscription of Mahanama does not represent the fully developed form of the Kutila letters; and the fact is evident that the Kutila script was in the initial stages of development. During the 7th century A.D. the Kutila features further progressed, clearly understood by the illustrations shown in Plates 1-26, Tables A2, A4 & As. These illustrations have been taken from the Later-Gupta inscriptions (Aphsad; Sahapur, A.D. 672; & Deo Bamark) of Magadha region and Banskhera (A.D. 628) and Madhuban (A.D. 631) copper-plates (both of U.P. region) of Harsha. Of these, Banskhera Plate is more ornamental and shows artistic calligraphy of the seventh century A.D. The letters of the sign-manual in Banskhera Plate are so elaborately ornamented and beautifully incised that Buhler remarks, "If king Harsha really used these characters in signing all legal documents, he must have been a most accomplished penman and the cares of government and the conquest of India must have left him a For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 51 great deal of leisure."17 But it is known from various sources that perhaps Harsha was a good poet too. If so, his appreciation of penmanship might have led him to calligraphic writing. The lower limb of the right verticals in Aphsad inscription are more twisted, on the basis of which Fleet calls it "the Kutila variety of the Magadha alphabet of the seventh century A.D."18 Banerjilo noticed eastern influence in it. Aphsad inscription was done by Sukshmasiva, a native of the Gauda country.20 So, it is possible that the eastern influences arrive with the writer. But after all, there seems no remarkable difference from the script of the region. The feature of development is seen in the bending of the right verticals. In initial vowels, the lower bend of a and u is prolonged into an artistic curve. A notch is marked at the top line in initial e of Banskhera Plate; and u of Madhuban Plate. Initial i is formed by two dots above and a curve below. Rare, initial i in Banskhera Plate is formed by a dot in either sides of a wedged and footmarked vertical line. Among consonants, the evolution is noticeable in the form of ka, where vertical line prolongs and right vertical lengthens into a bent vertical. The foot-mark of the letter ga is triangular; in the case of rounded-top, the right limb of the letter extends upward. The letter ja of Banskhera Plate shows a developed feature with a head mark on the top, middle bar bent downwards and lower portion going further down and bent to the left. Ta in Later-Gupta inscriptions is merely a curve with horizontally placed wedge at upper end. Banerji21 asserted to this form as eastern and opines that eastern variety differs very much from that of the head-marked western. But this is unreliable, because curved form is a common variety of the earlier period and also employed during 7th-8th centuries A.D. in Rajasthan and western regions (Cf., Plate 1). Presumably, cursive form was the common variety from which head-mark form of western and double curve form of eastern varieties ultimately evolved Among other consonants, right curve of na is elongated with curl, upper portion of tha shows an inner loop. Later Gupta da represents a tail For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script in the place of lower tick; and right portion of na growing into a vertical form. The triangular foot-mark of bha becomes peculiar and right limb is extended. Ya is of developed bipartite type. The left portion of va growing into a round form. With flat or round-topped sa, a looped variety of the letter is also found. In Madhuban Plate, solid triangular loop of sa shows a process of developing the tail. Occasionally triangular foot-mark of sa in Later-Gupta inscriptions is hollow or open its mouth. Ha prolongs its right limb in a curly fashion. 52 Ligatures represent more cursive form of some letters, such as subscript na, superscript n and above all cursive form of n (Plate 23, Table A2). This form of n shows the precursor stage of modern shape. Subscript va became triangular to differentiate it from dha. The medial signs are simple as well as of ornamental types. In Banskhera Plate, generally, top-stroke forms of medial signs occur which are formed by two, or more curved shapes. In the sign-manual, medial i contains more than a dozen strokes and medial a has seven. In simple style, curve of medials i and e are fully extended and occasionally, turns outwards in Later-Gupta inscriptions. The development of the Kutila script, in 8th century A.D., shown in Plates 1-24, Table A3; is taken from Nalanda Stone inscription of Yasovarma of Kannauja. Incidentally, it is difficult to agree with the view of Hirananda Sastri that this inscription "cannot be placed later than the first half of the sixth century A.D."22 The inscription shows advanced forms of letters, developed tails and broader head-mark. These palaeographic characteristics demonstrate that it cannot arguably be put before the eighth century A.D. An evolution is noticeable in the development of tails seen in a, i, e, ka, kha, cha, da, dha, ya, ra, la, va. The top of the letter tha grows a peculiar inner loop. Ma is yet to develop its left loop, while in western India, from the sixth century A.D., looped form of ma was frequently employed. According to Dani, "The medial vowels have become almost stand For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 3 ardized, with the exception of a and o, which still optionally retain the older forms.23 But, cursive as well as vertical forms of u, two varieties of medial u, full extended or short curve types of i and i may be observed in the inscription (Table A3). On the whole, this inscription marks an advance towards the evolution of proto-Nagari. However, at the same time it prefers ornamentation and alphabets retain the Kutila features. Eastern India Bengal, Assam and Orissa together form the region of Eastern India. From the palaeographical viewpoint, the influence of the region reached as far West as Bihar and as far South as Andhra Pradesh. With the expansion of Harsha's political power the script of the Middle Ganga Valley influenced the script of the eastern region; yet it retains its individuality. The style of Bengal does not have the foot-mark and the letters bha and sa do not have the solid triangular foot-mark. They show directly the open-mouthed triangle at this point.24 The confusion of using the va for ba also is the contribution of Bengal.25 The first appearance of twisting medial sign in this region makes probable that the region was the original seat of ornamentation from where it spread to the other parts and helped in the development of the Kutila script. Purushotrampur Plates of Sainyabhita Madhavavarma II (c. A.D. 619- 32) and Chandesvara Plates of Manabhita Dharmaraja (c. A.D. 695-730) are selected and illustrated in Table A 16. Generally, the alphabet shows cursive features, which may be due to using stylus and imitation of palm-leaf writing. Initial a shows peculiar eastern features and lower tip of u turns downwards. Gha of gha points towards Nagari shape. Na is cursive as well as of open-mounted variety. The upper loop of tha in tha is detached from the vertical line. Bha and sa have opened their mouths. The base of la develops into a hook and both hooks show inner curl. The base of the letters pa, ma, ya and sha are sloped and their right verticals are sharply For Personal & Private Use Only

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54 Development of Nagari Script bent. In ligatures, subscript is reduced and lower ta of tta turns its mouth downward. Medial signs are like the other epigraphs of that period. Nidhanpur grant of Bhaskaravarma marks the expansion of the Kutila script in Assam region. The right vertical of the letters, such as pa, ma, ya, etc., show the Kutila features; and bha starts the process of mouth opening 26 Central India and Rajasthan The eipgraphs pertaining to this section are scattered in a vast area and therefore differences in the writing styles are for certain encountered. The central territory for this vast area was Malava which, owing to the cultural contacts both from North and South, evolved a new style of writing. Dani calls it "Malwa or Rajasthani style of writing."2' This style covers the whole area, spread as far as western India and also influenced the script of the Gangetic and eastern regions. Later, in the seventh century A.D., ornamental characters of the Middle Ganga Valley influenced the script of this region. At the same time, the writing style of this region maintained its individuality and produced more advanced letter forms in the last phase of the seventh century A.D., which paved the way for Nagari and is now called by the appellation proto-Nagari. In protoNagari, the triangular head-mark becomes broader, or is replaced by a small stroke; and tail, or footmark is developed at the bottom of the letters. Vasantgadh inscription of Varmalata of A.D. 625 (Table Ag) and Jhalrapatan inscription of Durgagana of A.D. 689 (Table Ay) are selected for the study of palaeographical development with regional peculiarities. The influence of the Middle Ganga Valley is here clearly marked. However, Vasantgadh inscription shows tendency to use some signs with a little ornamentation. Some of the letters such as a and sa still retain local forms. The initial a is of the curved type and sa maintains the local variety with the left hook. In the Vasantgadh inscription, e is of sloppy left limb type; kha without a foot-mark and ta has a flat top. Notched base type of rounded back dha, distinct separate sign for ba, archaic tripartite form of For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 55 ya, etc., are also the noteworthy forms. Dani28 refers to the closed loop in the letter ma whereas in the photographic reproduction of the inscription the loop is unclear.29 In Jhalrapatan ta developed into triangled-topped variety, na took new shape, ma has a small loop, ya is of bipartite type and ra developed a tail at the foot. A variety of the archaic oval tha is found in this inscription. The conjunct tta is of peculiar variety in which full form of both letters is separately formed one upon the others, the lower one being smaller (Pl. 25, A7). Most of the medial signs in Jhalrapatan inscription are similar to the corresponding signs of the Banskhera Plate. Optionally, the curve of medials i and i extends up to the lower portion of the letter and bends towards left or right (Pls. 5-8, Tables Ag & A7). Sometimes, a kind of hook form is used for medial a in Vasantgadh inscription (cf, Pls. 3-4, see ta, ma, la, sa, sa and ha). Twisted a medial is also noteworthy in pa (Pl. 4, A). The further developments in the alphabet during eighth century A.D. are represented in Tables Ag, A, and A10, taken from Tasai and Khandela inscriptions (Rajasthan), Indragadh inscription of Nannappa, Saugor and Chhoti Deori inscriptions of Sankaragana I (all in M.P.). Of these, Khandela inscription (A.D. 807) belongs to slightly later period in which different limbs of the letters are formed thick and thin in an artistic manner. It seems that originally the inscription was written by brush or some tool like that. The head-mark of Sankaragana's inscriptions developed into linear form while in other inscriptions it is in a solid triangular form. The alphabet of the Indragadh inscription closely resembles that of the Jhalrapatan. But letters ka, kha, ga, ja, tha, da, ya, la, va, etc., of the present inscription are of a more developed variety. Initial u looks Nagari in form. Sometimes, the right curve of the letter ka is turned inside and inner curve of letter becomes rounded. The middle bar of the letter ja is prolonged with downwards bent. Ta shows a developed head-mark, da has a short tail and sa retains left hook. For Personal & Private Use Only

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56 Development of Nagari Script In the Khandela inscription, the development of a tail is discerned in the letters ka, kha, gha, cha, ja, da, pa, ma, ya, ra, va, sha and sa. The letter da is interesting as it resembles the form of the letter in JainaNagari.30 Na is like the Nagari la. The shape of the letters ka, ga, cha, ta, dha, da, na, pa, ma, ya, ra, la, va and sa (Pls. 1-2, Ag) show the transitional phase and nearer to their corresponding forms in Nagari. The further developments are noticed in the Sankaragana's inscriptions, in the forms of cursive na, developed ta, open-mouthed bha and sa, looped ma and tailed ra (Pls. 1-4, A10). However, gha is of archaic variety, ja retains three horizontal bars, da has a tip instead of tail and na is of looped variety. Pa is open at the top while two verticals of va meet with the line headmark at two points (Table A10). V.V. Mirashi' is accurate in placing, on palaeographical grounds, these inscriptions in the middle of the eighth century A.D. In ligatures, the forms of ncha, nchha, pta, rya, hna, etc., are noticeable. In the subscript ta mouth opens downward. The medial signs of Tables Ag and A, are, in general, ornamented while those of Table A10 bear simple forms. Table A10 represents mostly standardized form of medial signs in which u is of cursive variety; e, ai, o and au are reaching Nagari forrns. Medial a in ja is added to the middle bar of the letter. In na and ha it is attached on the top in slanted forms and in ligature tta in hooked shape while usually it is found in a long or short vertical line form. Western India and the Deccan In this group I propose to describe the development of the Kutila script of south-western region of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Kutila script represents marked evolution in this region. The most ancient specimen of proto-Nagari is found from Gujarat. However, the earlier inscriptions of the region are engraved in local (cave) characters. A question may arise, as to what led the scribes to use an alphabet different For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 57 from that which was current in their own region. Vasu, after referring to the migration of Brahmanas, pointed out: "Some of these immigrants who came from Magadha, Kanyakubja and Gauda, brought to their new colony their old alphabet, which in a later period became known as the Nagari lipi."32 Most of the earlier proto-Nagari specimens of the region reveal the mixture of triangular and line forms of head-mark (cf. Table A 13). It seems probable that the imrnigrant Brahmanas of Northern India, who had brought with them their own scripts, tried to engrave the alphabet in the same form. Naturally, it is hard to draw a solid-triangular shape with a stylus, the main writing tool of the region. The writing materials and writing technique of this region played an important role in the emergence of the simple form of the alphabet. Table Au is taken from the Tiwarakhed Plates of Rashtrakuta Nannaraja (A.D. 631) to represent the palaeographical development. The present inscription differs from the Indragadh inscription of Rashtrakuta Nannappa in the sense that the Indragadh inscription reveals ornamental characters while Tiwarakhed Plates prefer only the simple forms. Triangled head-mark developed into short line. However, the alphabet retains Kutila influence. The right limb of the letters a, ka, ga, gha, ta, na, pa and ya bends inwards at the middle. The tails are not well marked, only a short tail is seen in the letters gha, da, pa and va. The tail of initial i is turned towards right. The curve of the letter ka is more elongated and sometimes looks like looped na. Kha in khe has an upward going stroke outside the right limb instead of an inward triangle (Pl. 15, Au). Such a kha is again found in ligature khya of Kalachuri inscriptions (Pl. 27, A1n). Na is of looped variety; and ma shows a hollow loop at the left limb. Bha and sa are of open-mouthed variety. La gracefully curls its left hook. The form of va is used for both, ba and va, in which upper protion of the left curve joins with the head-mark instead of the vertical line. In ligature nda, superscribed n is of three tooth type. Subscript tha is of oval variety. Superscript s shows three forms, namely open-mouthed, tailed and hollow triangular. Medials are usual as in other regions. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script In the signatures of the Gurjjara princes on the Kaira Plates (A.D. 629 & 643),33 Sankheda Plate (A.D. 642),34 Navasari Plates (A.D. 709)," Anjaneri Plate (A.D. 710),36 Kavi Plate (A.D. 736),37 and Prince of Wales museum Plates (A.D. 736)38 genuine specimens of northern alphabet are found while the texts are in local characters. Presumably, these are the earlier examples which show the evolution of the line top-mark and tails. Buhler39 recognized these characters of the sign-manuals as first exan of Nagari. But they do not seem written in Nagari characters as they display the old form of the letters without full covering head-lines and vertical tails. The feature of Kutila is present even in the letter ma and ya of Kavi Plate. Table A13 is taken from Hilol Plates of Chandraditya (A.D. 788). The inscription is written with the aid of stylus and represent hollow-triangular head-mark. Initial T is formed by placing a dot on each side of double. curved line. Letters kha, da, pa and ya have short tails. A peculiar variety of tha may be seen in thi, which is formed by two loops. Sometimes, ka looks like looped na and na is of many varieties. Ligatures are the same as before in that period. The noticeable form is the superscribed b of ligature bda (Pl. 30, A13). In ligature stha, subscript tha is of Asokan type. Medials are standardized and have taken Ngari forms, however, variations can also be seen in the forms of a. Tables A12, A14 and Ais are taken from Multai, Samangadh and Daultabad Plates (all of 8th Cent. A.D.) of Rashtrakuta rulers. These copper-plates display only the simplified style. However, there is a noticeable difference between them. Multai Plates show the influence of Kutila writing and only short line form of head-mark. Samangadh copper-plates illustrate the simplified copper-plate style of Rajasthan.40 The top-stroke of letters in this inscription covers the entire breadth. Generally, the head-mark of Daultabad Plates is in notched shape. The lower portion of middle bar of initial a in Table A14 is turned up and a has a slanting stroke from the middle of the vertical line of a instead of common lower curved shape. The tail of initial i is turned to left, which has a downward bend at the tip in Table A15. Initial i is denoted by turning the tail For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 59 of i to right in Samangadh Plate. The initial e of Multas Plates is of peculiar variety. Remarkable evolution in the consonants are seen. The tails are small in Multai Plates while other two inscriptions reveal a long tail in letters ka, kha, cha, da, dha, pa, ma, ya, ra, la, va, sha and ha. The head-mark of tha is yet to develop. Lower limb of da shows a process of leftward bending. Na of Table A12 is of open mouthed variety. Other two inscriptions show well developed form of cursive na. Ta is still of curved variety. Tha of Table A14 shows transitional phase. Na of Table A15 is of vertical variety while in other inscriptions it retains broader looped feature. Pha has an inner loop. Ba in Multai plate is denoted by a distinct sign. Bha and sa have their mouths open. Ma has a loop at the left angle. The left curve of la is prolonged. Ha of Table A 14 shows a developed tail. Ligatures are formed in the old pattern. Subscript prolongs its right vertical up to the head-mark. Subscribed chha of Table A14 shows a developing form of the letter. Superscript r is of developed variety. Both va of ligature vvi, in Daultabad Plate, are formed by placing one upon the other in the left portion of the vertical line. The medial signs are of different types. Table A14 generally shows full perpendicular form of modern a medial except in ta and na where hooked or curved form is still present. A horizontal notch is optionally used for a in Daultabad Plates. Both forms of medials u, u and e are found. According to Buhler, "The most ancient document, written throughout in Nagari, is the Samangarh grant of Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga of A.D. 754.'4. However, in scrutinizing the palaeography of this inscription, it is found that tha has no head-mark; e and gha are without tails. Sometimes, head-mark does not cover the whole letter, such as in po. Medial signs are of different types, and in ligature first letter is still formed in full shape. If all these are left out, even then it may not be accepted as the earliest Nagari inscriptional record. Moreover Sukthankar42 has proved it For Personal & Private Use Only

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60 Development of Nagari Script as a spurious record. One of his arguments in favour of that decision is: "These plates occupy a very isolated position in the progressive development of Nagari.>>:43 He apparently is right, because the other later records such as Talegaon,44 Bhandak,45 Pimpari,46 Dhulia,47 Daultabad, 48 Paithan,49 etc., are all written in proto-Nagari. General Remarks On the whole, though the characters of the Western inscriptions show a remarkable progress toward the development of Nagari, we are still not in a position to say that Nagari script evolved during the eighth century A.D., even in Western India to be precise. Notes and References 1. Diringer, Alphabet., p., 357; D.C. Sircar, EI, XXXIV, P., 161. 2. Princep, J., JASB, VI, p., 779; Fleet, EI, III, p., 328., infra 1; Ojha, Bharatiya., p., 62; Dani, Indian., p., 115. 3. Buhler, Indian., p., 68. 4. Ibid. 5. Indian., p., 127. 6. Raghuvira & Lokesh Chandra, Gilgit Buddhist Manuscripts, New Delhi, 1959-66. 7. Lal, Hira, "Tiwarakhed Copper-plate of A.D. 631," EI, XI, pp. 276-80 & Plate. 8. Sarma, D., "Nidhanpur Copper-plate of Bhaskaravarma," Ks, pp. 20-32, & Plate. 9. Bhandarkar, "Vasantgadh Inscription of A.D. 625," EI, IX, pp. 187-92, & Plate. 10. Fleet, J.F., "Pattadakal pillar Inscription of A.D. 755," EI, III, pp. 1-7 & Plate. 11. Sircar, D.C., EI, XXXV, pp. 44-47 & Plate. 12. Dani, pp. 215-47; Sircar, Indian., pp. 202-18; B. Ch. Chhabra, Expansion of Indo Aryan Culture, Delhi, 1965, pp. 10-57; J. Filliozat, Political History of India, Eng. Tr., India, 1957, pp. 61-68; R.H. Van Gulik, Siddham, New Delhi, 1956. 13. Dani, pp. 109 ff. 14. Fleet, CII, III, pp. 42-45, Pl. v. 15. Ibid., pp. 139-42, Pl. XXIA. 16. Sastri, H., EI, XIII, PI. f., p., 132; & also cf., the form of te, Fig. 2a, Table D. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 17. EI, IV, p., 209. 18. CII, III, p., 202. 19. The Origin., p., 42. 20. Fleet, CII, III, p., 205. 21. The Origin., p., 45. 22. EI, XX, p., 38. 23. Indian., p., 129. 24. Dani, 130. 25. Ibid. 26. Cf. Verma, Development., Tables III-VI, column d. 27. Indian., p., 155. 28. Indian., p., 160. 29. EI, IX, Pl. f. p., 190. 30. The Jaina writer of Western India employed a somewhat variant form of Nagari, termed as Jaina-Nagari. 31. CII, IV, pp. 174 & 177. 32. "The Origin of the Nagaras.," p., 132. 33. Cf. CII, IV, Pls. X & XI. 34. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XIII. 35. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XIV. 36. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XV. 37. Cf. Ibid., IV, PI. XVI. 38. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XVII. 39. Indian., pp. 69-70. 40. Dani, p., 164. 41. Indian., p., 70. 42. "Palacographic Notes," Commemorative Essays Presented to R.G. Bhandarkar, New Delhi, Reprint, 1977, pp. 310-20. 43. Ibid. 44. EI, XIII, Pls. b. pp. 280-81. 45. Ibid., XIV, Pls. b. pp. 124-25. 46. Ibid., X, Pls. b. pp. 86-87. 47. Ibid., VIII, Pls. b. pp. 186-87. 48. Ibid., IX, Pls. b. pp. 196-97 and to face, p., 198. 49. EI, III, Pls. b. pp. 106-107. 61 For Personal & Private Use Only

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62 Development of Nagari Script Bibliography The Middle Ganga Valley & North-Western Region 1. Bodh-Gaya inscription of Mahanama of A.D. 588, J.F. Fleet, IA, XV, pp. 356-59, Pl. f. p., 358; (Tables A, & N5).* 2. Lakkha Mandal Temple Prasasti, Buhler, EI, I, pp. 10-15, Pl. f. p., 12. 3. Deogadh rock inscription of Svamibhata, D.R. Sahni, Ibid., XVIII; pp. 125-27, Pl. f. p., 126. 4. A stone inscription from Kudarkot, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., I, pp. 179-84, Pl. f. p., 180. 5. Aphasad inscription of Adityasena, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 200-08, Pl. XXVIII; (Table A2).* 6. Sahapur inscription of Adityasena of A.D. 672, Ibid., pp. 208-10, PI. XXIX A; (Table A2).* 7. Mandar inscription of the time of Adityasena, G.S. Gai (ed.), ASI, ARIE, 1962-63, p., 79 (257), Pl. II reverse. 8. Mangaraon inscription of the reign of Vishnugupta of year 17, Priyatosh Banerjee, JBRS, XXX, pp. 199-202, Pl. f. p., 201(a); (Table N6).* 9. Deo-Bernark inscription of Jivitagupta II, Fleet CII, III, pp. 213-18, Pl. XXIX B; (Table A2).* 10. Kotra grant of Jivagupta, D.C. Sircar, EI, XXXV, pp. 125-30, Pls. b. pp. 130-31. 11. Nalanda inscription of Yasovarma, H. Sastri, Ibid., XX, pp. 37-46, Pl. f. p., 43; (Table A3).* 12. Banskhera plate of Harsha of A.D. 628, Buhler, Ibid., IV, pp. 208-11, Pl. f. p., 210; (Tables A4 & N7).* 13. Madhuban plate of Harsha of A.D. 631, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., VII, pp. 155-60, Pl. f. p., 158; (Tables Ag & Ng).* 14. Sonpat Copper seal of Harsha, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 231-32, Pl. XXXII B. For Personal & Private Use Only

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63 The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 15. Nalanda clay seal of Harsha, H. Sastri, EI, XXI, p. 75, Pl. f. p., 75. 16. Banaras inscription of Pantha, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., IX, pp. 59-62, Pl. f. P., 60. 17. Some inscriptions from U.P., D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 242-53, Pl. f. p., 245. 18. Fragmentary Maurya inscription from Mathura, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 207-12, Pl. f. p., 211. 19. Nirmand Copper-plate of Samudrasena, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 286-91, Pl. XLIV. 20. Gum inscription of Samanta Ashadhadeva, J. Ph. Vogel, Antiquities of Chamba State, Part I, 145-47. Eastern India 1. Kailan plate of king Sridharana Rata of Samatat, D. C. Sircar, IHQ, XXIII, pp. 221-41, Pls. f. pp. 237 & 240; (Table Nj).* 2. Tipperah grant of Lokanath of year 44, R. G. Basak, EI, XV, pp. 301--15, Pls. b. pp. 308-09; (Table N2).* 3. Dubi plates of Bhaskaravarma, D. Sarma, KS, pp. 8-18, Pls. f. pp. 6 & b. pp. 10-11, 12-13, 14-15 & 16-17. 4. Nidhanpur plates of Bhaskaravarma, Ibid., pp. 19-32, Pls. b. pp. 20-21 & 30-31. 5. Inscriptions from Nepal, D. R. Regmi, Inscriptions of Ancient Nepal, 3 vols. 6. Plates of the time of Sasankaraja of A.D. 619, E. Hultzsch, EI, VI, pp. 143-46, Pls. b. pp. 144_45. 7. Two inscriptions from Jaipur, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXVIII, pp. 179- 85, Pl. f. p., 183. 8. Two Sailodbhava grant from Banpur, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXIX, pp. 32-43, Pls. b. pp. 36-37 & 40-41. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script 9. Parikud plate of Madhyamarajadeva, R. D. Banerji, Ibid., XI pp. 281-87, Pls. b. pp. 284-85. 10. Terundia plate of Subhakara II of A.D. 706, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXVIII, pp. 211-16, Pls. b. pp. 214-15; (Table N3).* 11. Neulpar grant of Subhakara, R. D. Banerji, Ibid., XV, pp. 1-8, Pls. b. pp. 4-5. 12. Purushottampur plates of Madhavavarma II, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXX, pp. 264-69. Pls. b. pp. 266-67; (Tables A16 & N4).* 13. Chandeswar plates of Dharmaraja, Ibid., pp. 269-73. Pls. b. pp. 272- 73; (Tables A16 & N4).* Central India and Rajasthan 1. A fragmentary inscription from Sanchi, N. G. Majumdar, Monuments of Sanchi, by J. Marshall, pp. 394-96, Pl. CXXXIX, 4. 2. Malga Plates of Samanta Indraraja, Sircar & Sankaranarayan, EI, XXXIII, pp. 209-14, Pls. b. pp. 212-13. 3. Rajim inscription of Nala Vilasatunga, V. V. Mirashi, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 49-58, Pl. f. p., 56. 4. Sirpur inscription of the time of Balarjuna, M. G. Dikshit, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 179-99, Pl. f. p., 198. 5. Senakapat inscription of the time of Sivagupta Balarjuna, Dikshit & Sircar, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 31-36, Pls. f. p., 34. 6. Mahakosal Historical Society's plate of Mahabhavagupta, L. P. Pan dey, Ibid., XXII, pp. 135-38, Pls. b. pp. 136-37. 7. Sirpur inscription of the time of Mahasivagupta, H. Lal, Ibid., XI, pp. 184-201, Pl. f. p., 190. 8. Sirpur Gandesvar Temple inscription of the time of Mahasivagupta, S. L. Katare, IHQ, XXXIII, pp. 229-34, Pl. f. p., 232. 9. Sirpur inscription of Acharya Buddhaghosh, B. C. Jain, EI, XXXVIII, pp. 59-62, Pl. f. p., 60. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 10. Ragholi plates of Jayavardhan II, H. Lal, Ibid., IX, pp. 41-47, Pls. b. 44-45. pp. 65 11. Buddhist inscription of Bhavadeva Ranakesarin, F. Kielhorn, JRAS, 1905, pp. 617-33, Pl. f. p., 628. 12. Saugor inscription of Kalachuri Sankaragana I, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, pp. 174-76, Pl. XXIXA; (Table A10).* 13. Chhoti Deori inscription of Kalachuri Sankaragana I, Ibid., pp. 176- 78, Pl. XXIX B; (Table A10).* 14. Dadhimati-mata inscription of the time of Dhruhlana of A.D. 608, Ram Karna, EI, XI, pp. 299-304, Pl. f. p., 304; (Table Ng).* 15. Vasantgadh inscription of Varmalata of A.D. 625, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., IX, pp. 187-92, Pl. f. P., 190. 16. Kusuma inscription of A.D. 636-37, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 47-49, Pl. f. p., 48; (Table N10).* 17. Sakrai inscription of A.D. 643, B. Ch. Chhabra, Ibid., XXVII, pp. 27-33, Pl. f. p., 32. 18. Samoli inscription of Siladitya of A.D. 646, R. R. Halder, Ibid., XX, pp. 97-99, Pl. f. p., 99; (Table N11).* 19. Udaypur inscription of Aparajita of A.D. 661, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., IV, pp. 29-32, Pl. f. p., 30. 20. Two grants of early Guhilas of A.D. 653 & 688, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 168-77, Pls. b. pp. 172-73 & 174-75; (Table N12).* 21. Jhalrapatan inscription of Durgagana of A.D. 689, Buhler, IA, V, pp. 180-83; Pls. b. pp. 180-81; (Table A7).* 22. Kalyanpura inscription of Padda, Sircar & Subrahmanyam, EI, XXXV, pp. 55-56, Pl. f. P., 56. 23. Dhulev plate of Bhetti, V. V. Mirashi, Ibid., XXX, pp. 1-4, Pl. f. p., 4. 24. Kalyanpur inscription of Kadachhi, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 57-59, Pl. f. p., 57. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script 25. Kanswa inscription of Sivagana of A.D. 740, Peterson, JBBRAS, XVI, pp. 378-89, Pl. f. p., 382. 26. Tasai inscription of A.D. 788, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXVI, pp. 49-52, Pls. f. pp. 49 & 54; (Table Ag).* 27. Osian inscription of Pratihara Vatsaraja, D. C. Sircar (ed.) ASI, ARIE, 1959-60, p., 101 (537), Pl. I. 28. Mahua inscription of Pratihara Vatsaraja, Sankanarayanan, & Bhat tacharya, El., XXXVII, pp. 53-55, Pl. f. p., 55. 29. Khandela inscription of A.D. 807, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 161-65, Pl. f. p., 163; (Table A3).* Western India and the Deccan 1. Dhinaki plate of Jaikadeva of A.D. 738, Buhler, IA, XII, pp. 151-56 Pls. b. pp. 154-55; (Table N13).* 2. Hilol Plates of Chandraditya of A.D. 788, H. D. Sankalia, EI, XXXIV, pp. 212-17, Pl. f. p., 217; (Table A 13).* 3. Pattadakal inscription of Kirtivarma II of A.D. 754, Fleet, Ibid., III, pp. 1-7, Pl. f. p., 4. Inscriptions of Rashtrakutas 1. Tiwarakhed plates of Nannaraja of A.D. 631, H. Lal, EI, XI, pp. 276-80, Pl. f. p. 279; (Table Au).* 2. Multai plates of Nandaraja of A.D. 709, Fleet, IA, XVIII, pp. 230-36, Pls. b. pp. 234-35; (Table A12).* 3. Indragadh inscription of Nannappa of A.D. 710, Krishna Deva, EI, XXXII, pp. 112-17, Pl. f. p., 116; (Table A9).* 4. Samangadh plates of Dantidurga of A.D. 753, Fleet, IA, XI, pp. 108-15, Pls. b. pp. 110-11 & 112-13; (Tables, A14 & N14).* 5. Talegaon plates of Krishnaraja of A.D. 768, S. Konow, EI, XIII, pp. 275-82, Pls. b. pp. 280-81. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 6. Bhandak plates of Krishnaraja of A.D. 772, V. S. Sukthankar, Ibid., XIV, pp. 121-30, Pls. b. pp. 124-25. 7. Pimpari plates of Dharavarsha-Dhruvaraja of A.D. 775, K. B. Pathak, Ibid., X, pp. 81-89, Pls. b. pp. 86-87. 8. Bhor State Museum plates of Dharavarsha-Dhruvaraja of A.D. 780, A. D. Altekar, Ibid., XXII, pp. 176-86. Pls. b. pp. 182-83. 9. Dhulia inscription of Govindaraja II of A.D. 780, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., VIII, pp. 182-87, Pls. b. pp. 186-87. 10. Jethwai plates of Silamahadevi of A.D. 786, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., XXII, pp. 98-109, Pls. b. pp. 108-09. 11. Daultabad plates of Sankaragana of A.D. 793, D. R. Bhandarkar Ibid., IX, pp. 193-98, Pls. b. pp. 196-97 & f. p., 198; (Tables A15 & N15).* 12. Paithan plates of Govinda III of A.D. 794, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., III, pp. 103-10, Pls. b. pp. 106-07. For Personal & Private Use Only

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68 Development of Nagari Script References for Plates 1 to 30 (6th-8th Cent.) Table Inscription Reference Date in A.D. A 588 Bodh-Gaya inscription of Mahanama IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 358 CII, III, PI, XXVIII A 672 CII, III, Pl. XXIXA Aphsad inscription of Adityasenana Sahapur inscription of Adityasena Deo-Barnark inscription of Jivitagupta II CII, III, Pl. XXIXB A3 Nalanda inscription of Yasovarma EI, XX, Pl. f. p., 43 Banskhera plate of Harsha 628 EI, IV, Pl., f.p., 210 EI, VII, Pl. f. p., 158 Madhuban plate of Harsha 631 Vasantgadh inscription of Varmalata EI, IX, Pl. f. p., 190 Jhalrapatan inscription of Durgagana Tasai inscription IA, V, Pls. b. pp. 180-81 788 EI, XXXVI, Pls. f. pp. 49 & 54 EI, XXXIV, Pl. f. P., 163 Khandela inscription 807 For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.) 710 EI, XXXII, Pl. f. p., 116 CII, IV, Pl. XXIX A10 A Indragadh inscription of Nannappa Saugor inscription of Sankaragana I Chhoti Deori inscription of Sankaragana I Tiwarakhed plates of Nannaraja Multai plates of Nandaraja CII, IV, Pl. XXIX B A11 A12 709 A13 Hilol plates of Chandraditya A14 Samangadh plates of Dantidurga 753 EI, XI, Pl. f. p., 279 IA, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 234-35. EI, XXXIV, Pl. f. p., 217. IA, XI, Pls. b. pp.110-11 & 11213 EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 196-97 & f. p., 198 EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 266-67 EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 272-73. Als Daultabad plates of Sankaragana 793 A16 Purushottampur plates of Madhavavarma II Chandesvara plates of Dharmaraja For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D.. PLATE 1 | Aa A Ay As A6 A7 A8 A, A. A# A12 A1 A14 A15 Ass IanRarana ppa pAyA pA CMM FICErecccccc 00 ra | | * enlan enjence anlar eaman MMMM For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 2 As I A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A ABIA A 10 An | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | A16 or ]b b b b b b b b b b b b q |b | nanananananananananananana Pleacacacacasaya paca pacara yayayayayaya TAyacaTAcAra SH Tana POSTS | vaha vaya vaya ca ya ya ka | For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 3 - A1 TA2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A I Ago I AM A12 A13 A14 A95 | AL bi en / | | | pAyAcyA awra adorjoselesed on Manaar - hama mAtA kA kahanA For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 4 I AI A2 A3 A4 AS I A6 A A STA, I Aso | A | A33T 7. e eph 5 e b n e baa eoy | sadara para sara ra pAra | bn C r + 5 = 5 e e e e baa baalk naam mn| y yaa aay yaa| >> [ * * j m d t | - ph ph ph ph ph | m m ph m h s bh sb sb = a 4/ r' m m m m m m s m y | eph em A si 4vAdAnAmA | 2 ||N | | 2 sebeogeok1syon myeongyi seong aek nie / su | * b y y b b k b s yaay' | | d b j n d d naa maanaa | phri sbaa | s j m m m aa aa aa | si For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 5 KERRY @ Salaza taca CH TH For Personal & Private Use Only

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6tin-Sth CENTURY A.D. PLATE 6 Rela (2 CR 733 (. rida | ra aaaaaaaaaaaaaa Raa Raaaaa Tue A CM picara | aaaaaaaamana (yaGO mm dmm SAHARASAR sinila For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. NOWEL K KH G GH 2. N CH 5[, JH 2 F F TH D DH N d A 1 A2 jI 2. kI kI kI A A3 zrI 3 A4 As PE Ac mI yett yettla+ y zrI dI Ge A1 As G I Ag A10 kI kI kI 2 dr hI Ast For Personal & Private Use Only A12 C A 13 PLATE 7 A 14 .14 zrI A15 kI kI kI TI A 16 G dIdI kI nadI tI

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 8 22 26zI TV kI For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 9 A1 A2 A3 A4 As AC A4 As Ag Ago AH AH AI Agu A15 35 3 3 3 3 3 55 VOWEL 31 La 1311/ 15 BIL 3 | ISI IS 2. For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. TH D DH PH B BH 3 R L 1 " 3 vu vu vana u N P patha cU cU cU cU V SH A. 5 D H Da 1 zu zu Aa ka N A3 4 mama ma N A4 As Ac A1 Yuan 1 1 1 1 1 11 Ag mu mu ru ru ru l5 555 traarm dzumumu atha yU Ty ra pa pharu ru ru ru da v Ag 4 1 Tu ru du S 5 na nu Ajo ri Rs ru 3 u 3 3 ma sbsw bha bha sa bha su A 19 For Personal & Private Use Only A 12 ru Www A13 5 pu pu pu TyU th 1 la jegteo PLATE 10 814 p bu A 1s e da ila U U ru ta ma A sc 9 nwmb u ru ru ru la la la ta tha sa sa ta t 6

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 11 For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 12 A A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A 9 A 1o An A12 1 A 1 A | Ais L AK NT 2011a EGIC As * IN 26204 For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. VOWEL K KH G GH N CH CHH J JH gwa T TH D Dil N T A, 61 A 3 e A4 pa As Ac gR gR A 7 Ag C 3. ru 2 2 2 Ag A jo * * Rs haiM ye tU kR kRR haiM hai hai kR de kR 1 ru rU kR 2 ru ra PA. For Personal & Private Use Only A 12 PLATE 13 A 13 A14 AIS Arc 1 ra 4

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 14 - A P 2 | A | A4. As A A A A A 1o An A12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 e. 0 4 rasa ru. cha / yasa For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 15 2A yaha raTa For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. TH . DH N P khy 8 BM S > R 70 L S SH S H A, A2 khh r llh lhm R A3 km km dh 22 | A4 A5 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 de | ly khh `md 1 | 2 lhm km km kw 6666666 khh khy hm khh Sheng Sheng Sheng Da Ac khm dr A7 AX nh mr 2 Ag r y F ww m 2 m m n khhh nw khy A10 A1 A12 khyy 22 llh r lng nya For Personal & Private Use Only 22 2 lp kaDe 6 lhw l`lm A13 | | Do khyly'y khsy PLATE 16 tw w bul Hwlw &&&& t Tr TrH amr PAG jaTa jana A 16 va 3 mA la sa usa bol syd ma rahe tara yi se se sa

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6th-8th GENTURY A.D. VOWEL K KH G GH N CH CHH J JH zl N F. TH D DH N d A1 no A2 yr A3 SE A4 mr As FI A A1 Ag S Lots Ar ~ maiM maiM ke A chr BE A10 A For Personal & Private Use Only A 12 `dw AC A13 hw PLATE 17 A14 A15 `mr Aic K Par & 10 B

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. TH w DH N P PH B BH M Y R L > S. S SH s H As Ta A 1 N sto ta aa As bha llh 7 de A4 2 h e As Ac hiTa as 20 AT - TA C Ag Ar A V jama A to hw For Personal & Private Use Only Al A 12 55 yA madhalA G A 13 AN hai PLATE 18 A 14 A 15 nala Jeo O va te hai Wang A 16 meM kra la ta neTa tara se en

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 19 A i A2 A3 A4 As I A. Ani | 0 0 ! ! A4 AJS A 16 VowsL kkk || T tt m s nN 0 graam we For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 20 I A2 A3 AM AS ALLA I A8 A As An A12 | A3 AM A1 A1 / |RA nAmamA nAyara FFEEJE jara havAla PUTIVE zap zAsA For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 21 A, A2 A3 A4 AS ACATAS Ag | Aso | Ass A12 | A3 A44 Ais' As6 VOWEL For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 22 LA, A I A3 A4 A5 A6 A A A A 10 AL A 12 A3 A4 AIS A 16 For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 23 LIGATURES A, A KRAUKTA KRAKSINAKSHMA KTA El KTA KSHA KSM KTVA KRAKSHA KHYA Gry GPRA GRA GYA 1 GVA DO NGANGKANGHYAM NGA ELETO CHCHA CHHA CHCHACHCHHA CUYA SHCHALA DHYA ANYA For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 24 LIGATURES NTTRA NORA NDH ANANDA NOHA NNAH NYA HORANDHANGHA NTANOHANNA NORA Tagaa BHRA BHANUBHA kN RPPA RMMA RSHA REMARANERDHVA ROVARJJA RODHA Ryva RSHA She als LIPA A SRA SVA | 12 am | | | 17 | | For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 25 LIGATURES ( KSHAKSHMA (CHAKTRAKYA KYA KSHAKSHYA mec arnia NsA NMA Sale Snichnia LHYU SiAG TTA NDA DAN I NYA For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. ZHZH C HO H C PH 8 B S x R 7 > 5. S As H LENG S VEN SAP 20131 WER SHTA SHTHA SHIL SH sRS Sav 116 A 18 M4 Tour EMENT 55 LIGATURES DOMS 23 R MEN S Enco 5 BHRAM For Personal & Private Use Only 54. PLATE 26 Fo 221231 20 maammo 34 J 1484122021 717 lcmms-mlmaa- Mvo

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 27 LIGATURES KSH KSHA Esch NKHA NGA 19 CHCHKA 2016 in CWSHHAI subbel OA the pollo i NDA NYA For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 28 LIGATURES NMA BHRA RTMA RANA RMMARSHAK RMA voca. . For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. x KH y GM *I CN 3 CHI ma JH E T. d TH D DH Z. A13 LEW LEKK 14 kk byaaje byaa Rag | | ENT 2495 35 IC ky LIGATURES J J daa Co HCHHI 24 25 * 352 19 5 1 1 7 3 G For Personal & Private Use Only S 159519 RA PLATE 29 SFCC NE lml AC PENS |P|| HE

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 30 LIGATURES A | DAM NIA NDRA NOMA |$hree 42 |4z|oz| 31 VnuA BNRA MMA MPJ MAMA MVA RAWA RANA RSHA 104 RMMA Kop Aug * uuv 8 +:59 $ NEAQ 2sng | chnaaMng paad) HKA SHTRA SHNA .paaliis SHVASH TASHTUSHWA ISH \r 95 Vop El1(PS | For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) The sign-manual of Gurjjara princes and the alphabet of Multai Plates represent the early transitional phase of the Kutila script, which moves fast in this period. This is the period in which Kutila script completed its path of evolution and the characters of the subsequent period show a mature form of Nagari. The general course of the development of Nagari out of Kutila letters is clear enough, but the ascertainment of the actual period of transition is still puzzling. Palaeographers and historians have given suggestions about the fact, however, they are not unanimous on this point. For example, Om Prakash Bhatiya 'Araj'accepts the actual period of transition in A.D. 1000, while Sukthankar in the mid of the 9th, Buhler in the 7th and Vasut in the 5th century A.D. So, in these conditions of uncertainty it is necessary to make a thorough and minute palaeographical observation of the inscriptions of different regions and dynasties. The Palas of Bengal, Pratiharas of Northern India and the Rashtrakutas of Gujarat and Maharashtra dominated the history of India during this period. Their writing differs somewhat from each other. In order to understand the development with differences, the script of the transitional period may be divided into three groups: Eastern, Northern and Western. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) Eastern India The regional style of writing in Eastern India maintained its originality at least up to the 8th century A.D. Subsequently, the trend was modified under the extraneous influences during the rule of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar. With these changes, the proto-Nagari script of Western India for a long time obscured the evolution of the Gaudi script. However, some letters still retain their distinguishing features which are elaborated in the succeeding paragraphs. Ar. Inscriptions of Palas Table B1 is taken from Nalanda and Mungir Plates of Devapaladeva (c. A.D. 810-50) and Table B2 from the Gaya and Badal inscriptions of Narayanapala (A.D. 854-908). The lower end of letters turned less to the right in Mungir and Gaya epigraphs than Nalanda and Badal. The alphabet of Badal pillar inscription, which is in the East is more archaic than that of the Gaya inscription in the West. 71 Among initial vowels, the vertical line of a has a foot-mark with upwards (but optionally downwards also) extended lower left curve and slanted middle bar in Nalanda inscription while in Table B2 middle bar becomes parallel. Initial a has now a vertical line to the right of the letter to mark long a. A different type of a is found in Badal inscription, which is the peculiarity of the region. Initial i shows a developing feature, formed by a short horizontal line at the top and two circles or dots below. Sometimes, a short vertical line is also attached to the horizontal line and lower two circles are formed on both sides of this vertical line (Table B1). E has developed a tail (Pl. 45, B1 & B2). The rare initial o is of peculiar variety (Pl. 49, B1) and au is formed by adding an upward curve to the right middle of initial o (Pl. 51, B1). Among consonants, right curve of the letter ka is prolonged. Kha is of two varieties-one with an inner triangular loop and the other is of eastern variety with an outer triangle and open mouth. Gha is on its way of development in which upper part comes closer and left curve raised above the level of the right one. Cha retains its beaked shape. The lowest For Personal & Private Use Only

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72 Development of Nagari Script arm of ja is further extended towards left. Ta is of two varieties in which eastern one prolongs its right hand tick downwards and left portion contains a semicircle with a slanting stroke by which it is attached to the left end of the top stroke. Tha is still of a plain circle type. The back of da is curved and leg is bent. Na is cursive as well as of open-mouthed variety. Ta is of curved type. Tha develops an outer loop at the upper portion in Table B2. The breadth of pa is shortened. Pha shows a peculiar variety with its outwards turned loop. Bha and sa have opened their triangular foot-mark. With regular forms a peculiar variety of sa is found with its top curled and joined by a bar to the right vertical (Pl. 32, B2). Perhaps this is the peculiarity of the region from which Bengali form was derived later on. Ha has a developed tail in its left portion. The ligatures ksha, dya, nda, sri of Table B2 are nearer to their Nagari forms. Subscript na is of cursive variety while in superscript it is formed in full shape. Superscript r retains its triangular head-mark. A vertical line to the right of the letter is the form of medial a, except in the case of ta of Table B1 which retains its older feature. The medials i and i are extended up to the bottom of the letter. The medial u is of cursive as well as wedged vertical type. In the case of ru it is a downward hook from the middle of the letter. A leftward hook is added at the bottom of the letter for medial u. The older style of putting the left vertical stroke still continues in the case of medials e, ai, o and au; but in a majority of cases new style of leftward slanting stroke is marked (Tables B1 & B2). Old form of halanta sign is retained in these inscriptions (Fig. 6). Optionally, the triangular form of top-stroke is found. AI. Inscriptions of Assam Table B4 is taken from Parbatiya plates of Vanamalavarmadeva (A.D. 835-65). The head-mark is represented as a broad solid-triangle. Initial a and u show the regional influence. I is of archaic variety with its lower curve leftwards. E represents peculiar variety in which upper left portion is rounded and lower portion attached with the right vertical at its middle. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 73 Among consonants, the left limb of kha, ga and sa bends inward at the middle and lower tip become cursive or rounded. Gha is of tailed variety. Cha retains its beaked shape. Ta is eastern double curved variety and tha is marked by a plain circle. Na shows in both forms -cursive and open-mouthed. Tha represents archaic inner looped variety. In pa, the breadth of the letter is decreased. Pha has an outer loop at its upper instead of Pala's side portion. Bha and sa have opened their mouths. Ra shows a developed tail. Left curl of la extends farther inwards. Sa takes the form of two circles one over the other at the left of the vertical in which the upper one is hollow. The tail of ha is attached with the right hook. Ligatures are as usual. Superscript n is of cursive as well as of openmouthed variety. Superscribed I takes its place to the left of the subscript like modern Nagari. The middle bar of the subscript ja of raj is prolonged and is on its way of developing into a vertical shape. With the common vertical form of medial a, the old curved form is also seen in ja, ta and tha. Both forms of u are present. Medial e is unique, formed by extending the left end of the head-mark into a curve forming almost a loop at the end. Further development is marked by the Nowgong Plates of Balavarma (A.D. 885-910), shown in Table C. In the formation of letters cursive hand is adopted. The head-mark is represented by broad triangle, which optionally developed into a line form and cover the entire breadth of the letter. Lower curve of initial i is turned to right. Au is formed by adding an upward curve, turning to the left, in the middle of the initial o. The lower left limb of kha and ga develop in the direction of the Parbatiya Plates (Table B4). Cha is still of beaked variety; and middle bar of ja is yet to develop into straight vertical. Ta is of eastern type with two curves and a stroke at the right. Tha has no head-mark; and na is of archaic open-mouthed variety. Na shows developed feature in which right portion became straight vertical and left loop meets with the vertical in the middle as in modern Nagari. Letters like pa, ya, la, va too developed into For Personal & Private Use Only

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74 Development of Nagari Script Nagari forms. Sometimes, the upper portion of the letter sa shows an outer loop (Pl. 62, C1), which is the real base of Nagari form. Among ligatures superscript n is noteworthy and shows the local form. The upper curve of subscript ta is extended. Medial signs are usual as in Parbatiya Plates. Along with the new form of halanta sign old one is also employed (Fig. 6). A111. Inscriptions of Orissa Table Bs is taken from Petrasar Grant of Netabhanja (A.D. 885) and Narasingpur Plate of Devanandadeva . The alphabet of this region shows a more cursive form and solid triangle of the left limb of kha, ga and sa have their mouths open. Presumably, it is due to the writing technique of the region in which while writing with a stylus of solid triangular shape, it is not easy to draw. The lower curve of initial a is bent downwards and middle bar is slanted. The lower curve of initial i turns downwards. U is of Nagari type and e has a rounded top. The right curve of the letter ka is further extended with a rightwards bend. Kha has opened its mouth as in eastern style. Chha is on its way of development. The middle arm of ja is developing into straight vertical form. Na shows developed cursive variety. Pha has an outer loop on the right limb like Assam inscriptions. Bha and sa are of open-mouthed variety. Sa retains its eastern style. Lower limb of the vertical lines are bent to the right. These inscriptions represent short line head-mark which do not cover the entire breadth of the letters. Among ligatures tta is interesting in which both ta are placed separately side by side with the left one slightly at upper level. In nta and shtim, the subscript ta opens mouth downwards in eastern style. The middle bar of the superscript sh starts from the head-mark in a curly shape to meet with the right vertical in the middle. Medial signs do not maintain uniformity throughout the inscriptions as they are a mixture of older and newer forms. The further developments are shown in Tables C and C3, respectively derived from the Balangir Museum Plates of Mahasivagupta I Yayati and For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 75 Chicacole Plates of Madhu-Kavarnnadeva (A.D. 923). Chicacole Plates belong to Andhra; however, its alphabet shows the influence of Orissa. The lower left limb of the letters kha, ga and sa represents open-triangular mark like the earlier style of the region. Initial e of Table Cz opens its mouth to left, which later on became the common characteristics of the eastern script. Ta and sa followed the style of eastern region. The lower extremity of da is turned to left. Na extends its right limb upwards. The upper outer loop of tha is still in the form of a hook. The upper right loop of pha is developing into a hooked shape, which was later on accepted in the eastern style. Ha has a developed tail in its left portion. The top-strokes still do not cover regularly the entire breadth of the whole letter. Ligature kshe of Table C, shows the transitional form. Superscribed n in Table Cz has a dot or circle at the right tip of the upper horizontal line. This may be regarded as the precursor of modern Nagari na with a dot at the right side of the letter. It is also to be found in ihe inscriptions of Narayanapala of Bihar (Pl. 53, B2). N is of eastern variety. Among medial signs noticeable form is e which is generally formed by adding a line in the left portion of the letter as it is found in eastern scripts. General Remarks The observations attested that the inscriptions of Eastern India do not show regular full covering head-mark. The alphabet is progressing towards local scripts, however, the influence of proto-Nagari is still retained in many forms; Nalanda and Mungir inscriptions are marked by proto-Nagari than any other influence. The Bengali, Assamese and Oriya scripts are still in the process of evolution during this period. North India In North India Pratiharas established an extensive empire. Two important cultural territories - Kanyakubja and Malava---were under them. As a consequence, the writing style of the region was much developed and influenced the scripts of eastern India and penetrated into the western regions. For Personal & Private Use Only

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76 Development of Nagari Script Br. Inscriptions of Pratiharas For the purpose of showing the development of alphabets during 9th Cent. A.D., the Barah copper plate (Kanpur, U.P.) and Sagar-Tal inscription (Gwalior, M.P.) of Bhojadeva; Dighwa-Dubauli plate (Saran, Bihar) and Peheva inscription (Karnal, E. Punjab) of Mahendrapala were selected and illustrated in Tables B6, B10, B3 and Bg. On the basis of the narrow cha, cursive ja, later ta, proto-Bengali tha, looped ma, transitional sa, late sha; and exceptional forms of a, kha, gha, ta, na and na Banerji" admits that Dighwa-Dubauli grant shows the use of an alphabet which is a mixture of eastern and western varieties. However, the mentioned peculiarities are also met with in the corresponding letter forms of Barah Plate. So, these peculiarities may not be due to the mixture of eastern and western but was the common simplified style of copper plate writing of that period. Of these inscriptions, Sagar-Tal is similar to the Peheva. Both are engraved on stone and still have a touch of flourish, Kutila forms and triangular head-mark. Barah plate resembles the Dighwa-Dubauli plate. Both are Copper-plates and show only simple forms of letters and line forms of head-mark. Table B10 (Sagar-Tal) shows a peculiar type of initial a in which right portion is a wedged vertical line and left has an outward curve with triangular head-mark and slanting bar in the lower portion attached to the vertical line. A of Table B6 (Barah Plate). represents an archaic form with a curve at the bottom while a developed vertical form added to the right of a in Table B3 (Dighwa-Dubauli) and Bg (Peheva). Initial i is of archaic variety with leftward lower curve, however, in Peheva epigraph lower curve turns downwards and a slanted bar is added to the lower limb of the curve. Except in Sagar-Tal, initial vowel e shows the developed variety with tail. The Sagar-Tal inscription invariably bears Kutila forms of letters in which only some letters have a short tail while most of the letters of other inscriptions show developed form of the long tail. The right curve of the letter ka is prolonged. The left limb of the letter kha in khi (Pl. 35, B3) For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 77 shows a developed tail, which looks Nagari in form. Letter gha of this region retains archaic tripartite feature; and except Peheva inscription, na is generally of open-mouthed variety. Ta shows two forms: one with the two arms rounded and the other with the left arm forming an angular hook and finally joining with the right vertical. Tha has an outer loop. Na is of modern vertical as well as of archaic curved form . The breadth of pa is reduced. Pha of Table B10 looks like the letter dha. Bha and sa have their mouths open in Copper-plates while the stone inscriptions show a process of developing the modern Nagari tailed form. The left loop of ma was common in this period. Ra is of well developed cursive tailed variety. Va, when triangular, has slanted base; and when rounded, bends right vertical. Both forms of sa, looped and round topped, are present. The middle bar of sha in the stone inscriptions is in the shape of horizontal bar while it is slanting in the Copper-plates. The ligatures are still formed by placing the consonants one upon the other. Subscripts right verticals extend up to the top of the letters. Superscribed b of Table B2 is represented by a distinguishing sign while generally it is denoted by the sign of va. Superscript r of rma in Table Bg shows the modern shape. Generally, medial a is denoted by a short vertical line in the stone inscriptions and long vertical line in the Copper-plates. In the case of na, old upward cursive form is still present. The cursive type of u is more common. However, the use of vertical wedged form may be also seen in Table Bg. In the case of the medials e, ai, o and au; the older style of the left horizontal stroke is more frequently employed in the Copper-plates. The ornate style survives in the medial signs of stone inscriptions. Ojha noticed Dighwa-Dubauli inscription as the first epigraph of Nagari script. However, the alphabets do not follow the full covering head-line, like an a, gha, pa, ma, etc. and the sporadic use of acute-angles, such as in ma, entitle to be considered as an inscription of the transitional phase. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nazari Script The further evolution during 10th century A.D. are represented in Tables CA and C, which have been taken from the Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Vinayakapala (A.D. 931) and Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Hariraja (A.D. 983).8 Buhler is of the view that in Northern and Central India, Nagari appears first on the Copper-plate of the Maharaja Vinayakapala of Mahodaya. But, it may be seen in Table C4 that the head-mark is a broad triangle or wedge which does not cover, optionally, the letter ma, ya, sa; base of the letter pa, ma is slanted; and lower limb of the vertical line turns rightwards. In the formation of the ligatures old pattern is adopted. In the observation of the Bharat Kala Bhavan plate it may be noticed that the plate is engraved in a simple style. Head-mark is in line form which regularly covers the full breadth of the letters. Even on the top of tha and na, head-mark is formed. Right verticals show a straight line form. Most of the ligatures represent a process of following the pattern of modern rule, conjuncting side by side. Except e, medial signs have uniformity throughout and attain modern shapes. As far the development of letters is concerned, ka, kha, ga, ta tha, da, na, pa, ya, ra, la, va and ha have taken Nagari shapes; and gha, cha, ja, tha, na, pha, sa, sha, sa, etc., are nearer to the modern form. On the whole, the characteristics of the alphabet entitle Bharat Kala Bhavan plate to be considered as the inscription of Nagari. Bu. Table B, is taken from the Pandukesvar (Garhwal, U.P.) Plate of Lalitasuradeva (A.D. 854) to represent the development of script in the inscription of the local ruler. Barah Plate of Bhojadeva (A.D. 836) is also found from U.P., however, there is a remarkable difference in the alphabets of these two inscriptions. In the Barah Plate (Table B6), head-mark is denoted by a small line while in the present inscription a solid-triangle is formed and tail is small. The Kutila features are prominent in the present inscription. Kha is of open-mouthed variety like in eastern style. Ta and tha are without top-mark. Na shows open-mouthed form with sloppy base. Tha is of peculiar variety with an added right vertical. Na is denoted by For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 79 archaic broad looped form and la has an outer bend at the lower extremity of the left curve. Medial a is formed by attaching a triangular or short line instead of full perpendicular line. Medial u is of many types, such as wedged vertical, hollow triangular, cursive, or rightwards extended form. Bu. Table B, is illustrated from the Karitalas Stone inscription of Lakshmanaraja I (A.D. 840-41) and Table Cg from the Karitalai inscription of Lakshmanaraja II (A.D. 945-70) to show the evolution in the Kalachuri alphabet. The head-mark of Table B, is in triangular form which is broader and covers the tops of some letter in Table Cg. The letter ga of Table B, looks like ra. Left limb of kha still shows triangular foot-mark. Gha shows a process of developing modern features. Na retains open-mouthed shape and ta is of curved variety. The upper left limb of dha bends leftwards in order to form a horn like later shape. Bha and sa are of wedged variety in Table B, and with mouths open in Table Cg. The stroke of the medial signs in Table B, have here and there been ornamentally treated and much elongated in serpentine form. The medials of Table Cg are of simple variety but still they are not uniform. Biv. Table Cg is taken from Dewal (Pilibhit, U.P.) Prasasti of Lalla (A.D. 992). J. Princep10 termed the alphabet of this inscription as the Kutila alphabet while Buhler11 puts it into the group of North Indian Nagari. The palaeography shows some peculiarities which may be due to the writer and engraver, the former, belonged to Gaudadesa and the latter from Kanyakubja. 12 The inscription itself refers to the writer as "Kutilaksharani Vidusha," 'well versed in writing Kutla letters'. The head-mark is a solid triangle or wedge, which sometimes becomes broader or develops into line form. The initial vowel a shows a foot-mark and e is without a tail. Among consonants, kha, ga and sa have a hollow triangle in the left limb. Gha is still of three armed variety. Lower curve of da in da prolongs leftward in modern Nagari style. Dha extends upwards its right vertical. The right curve of na and the middle bar of ma start from the upper portion and the left loop of both letters are open. The For Personal & Private Use Only

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80 Development of Nagari Script archaism may be seen in three full armed gha, headless tha, open-mouthed na and tailless ha. By. The characteristics of the Chandella alphabet are shown in Table C, taken from the Khajuraho inscription of Yasovarma (A.D. 954). In the formation of the letter and medial sign taste of ornamentation may be seen. The head-mark is represented by broad-wedge shape and lower portion further extends into a rightward curve. Initial a is developing in the direction of modern Nagari. Lower rightward curve of i bends downwards with a stroke to the left like that in Peheva Inscription (Table B8). U is without head-mark. E shows a developed tail and looks Nagari in form. Among consonants, the tail is well marked in every letter. Even an unusual tail is seen in the left limb of bha. Gha retains three arms and na is of open-mouthed variety. Pha has a peculiar shape, nearer to the same letter in Dewal Prasasti of Lalla the Chhinda (Table C5). Ligature approaches the modern Nagari style. The medial a is generally formed by a vertical line, while in ta hooked or cursive form is still present. Both forms, wedged and cursive, are employed for medial u. E is formed with a top stroke as well as with a vertical line at the left. Byi. The Malava Copper-plate of Vakpatiraja (A.D. 974) and Harsol (Ahmedabad, Gujarat) Grants of Siyaka (A.D. 948) are selected and illustrated in Tables C, & C13; to represent the characteristics of Paramaara alphabet. The head-mark is a broad-wedge in Table C, and line or notched form in Table C13. The forms of the letters in Malava plate are bold type in the forming of which cursive hand is adopted. Lower extremity of the letters is further extended to the right. Initial a shows a foot-mark; the curves of a, e and u prolong upwards. However, initial a of Table C13 bears no foot-mark; tail is yet to develop in e; the loop of pha transforms into a curve and is placed to the right of the straight vertical line. Most of the letters show developed forms. In the formation of ligature, modern features may be seen. Ksha shows almost the modern form. Superscript n is without a dot. Subscript chha For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Ceniury AD) is of the oval variety with a tail; ta shows an additional stroke to the right of the letter. Superscript s and ligature sa of Table Co represent ihe modern features. Medials are of fully developed variety. However, variations may be seen in the form of a of Table C13--full perpendicular, short stroke and cursive form. Medial e also is of both types. Byu. Table Ci is taken from the Saranesvara (Udaipur, Rajasthan) Temple Inscription of Guhil King Allat (A.D. 953). The head-mark is a mixture of triangular and line form. Generally, the vertical line is straight. Initial vowels have no remarkable development. Among consonants, both limbs of letter ka hang from the head-line or simply touch it. Developing forms of gha and cha have a tail, ta bears a head-mark, na is of cursive variety and ba is shown by a separate sign. However, left limb of kha retains a triangular shape, lower arm of ja is not prolonged into leftward curve, dha is still of bulgy type and na is of broad looped variety. In the formation of medial e continuity of the ornate style may be noticed. Byil. Table Cu is derived from Harsha (Rajasthan) Inscription of Chahamana Vigraharaja (A.D. 973). The vertical line is almost straight; head-mark is represented by broad wedged shape and rarely covers the entire breadth of the letter. Rare initial au is of peculiar variety, by adding a vertical line with a horizontal bar to the form of initial o. The left limbs of kha, ga and sa show hollow triangled foot-mark. Gha is in a developing process. Chha is of peculiar type in which right loop is detached from the left one and shows one step ahead from contemporary signs to take the form of modern Nagari. Middle bar of ja is extended. Headline of ta becomes a regular feature. Middle bar of la is short and parallel to the head-mark. The lower left limb of sa is growing into the modern tail form. But tha is still without head-mark, na is to develop vertical form and ha is without a tail. In the formation of medial e, the use of ornate double curved form may be seen. Medial au is represented by superscribed two horned and a vertical line form in gau. For Personal & Private Use Only

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82 Development of Nagari Script Brx. Table C is taken from the Balera (Sanchor, Rajasthan) Plates or Chalukya Mularaja 1. Generally, the head-mark is in notched shape, formed by two curved strokes. The lower extremity of the letters further prolongs to the right. The left limb of kha shows a process of developing the tail and the inner loop of right portion becomes rounded. Both lower arms of ja are further extended. Lower limb of da is on its way of developing into a leftward curve shape. The right limb of ta is developing into vertical shape. Na approaches modern feature with right vertical and downwards open left loop. Ha has a developed tail in left limb. Bha and sa are of open-mouthed variety. In ligatures, superscript r shows the modern cursive form. Medial e is formed by superscript sign as well as perpendicular line. General Remarks In reviewing of the palaeography of the region as a whole, it may be observed that from the viewpoint of development most of the letters reveal modern characters. In the formation of ligatures the consonants come side by side in which the first letter loses inherent a and is mutilated in order to combine with the other letter. Medial signs are also standardized and modern form of halanta sign is employed. But verticals are generally bent to the right and head-mark always do not cover the full breadth of the letter. However, it can be said that the Bharat Kala Bhavan Plate of Hariraja contains more advanced forms from this point of view and may be treated as the first, or the earliest dated record of Nagari. Western India and the Deccan Rashtrakutas of Western India were the strongest and most victorious rulers of that region. They conquered not only the Pratiharas but also the Palas of Bengal. Notwithstanding the influence of the cultural activities of Northern India they were bound to use the script of that region in incising inscriptions. The credit for popularising the proto-Nagari of North in Western India goes to the Rasntrakutas. C. Inscriptions of Rashtrakutas I have selected Gujarat Plates of Dantivarma of A.D. 867 (Table B11), Bagumra Plates of Krishna II of A.D. 888 (Table B12) from Gujarat region; For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 83 and Dharur Plates of Govinda III of A.D. 806 (Table B13), Javakhed Plates of Amoghavarshal of A.D. 820 (Table B14), Sanjan Plates of Amoghavarsha I of A.D. 871 (Table B16) from the Maharashtra region to represent developments during 9th century A.D. Head-mark is in shor: line form and it does not always cover the full top of the letter. Initial a of Table Bu shows a foot-mark while in other inscriptions it is not present. In the formation of a, in the Gujarat region Il perpendicular line is added to the right of the initial a while in Maharashtra only a slanting stroke to the middle of the vertical line is formed. The roofed variety of initial i is seen in Gujarat epigraphs whereas the old form is retained in Maharashtra. E of Gujarat region reveals a fully developed form. The right limb of the letter ka in Gujarat prolongs rightwards. The left limb tail in kha still persists and the right portion shows many varieties like inner triangular, inner rounded and outer opened triangular shape. Gha of Gujarat and Sanjan Plates is on its way to development. The other two inscriptions reveal the archaic form of three armed gha. The three armed ja is still retained in Maharashtra while in other parts only the transitional form of the letter is employed. Ta of Gujarat shows modern form whereas it is on its way to development in Maharashtra. Tha is denoted by a plain circle. Na of both regions is only in cursive form while in other regions open-mouthed variety of the letter is also employed. Tha is of developed variety in which only the top-stroke is needed. Table B14 shows a peculiar inner curve or loop in the form of tha. Na shows only the cursive form of the looped variety. The breadth of pa is reduced. Pha is of two types--one with inner loop and other with outer loop. The open-mouthed type of bha is common, but in Gujarat Piate a wedged form of the letter may be noticed. The letter la of Table Bu shows a process of developing into the Marathi la. The letter sa is of many varieties in which modern form of the letter can also be noticed (Pls. 34, B11; 40, 46, 50, Bja). Generally, sa is of open mouthed variety. Table B12 shows full developed form of modern ha (Pl. 32). For Personal & Private Use Only

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84 Development of Nagari Script In ligatures curved form of k still persists. Khya of Table Bu is of modern type. Gma of Table B 14 is formed side by side. Superscript n of Maharashtra is still in two armed form while in other regions upper arm merges in the head-mark. Jna of Table B12 is peculiar. Superscript n of Table B 14 shows both forms-cursive and full. Conjunction with the initial letter t shows the use of modern practice. Superscript s of Table Bu approaches the modern form. Rya of Table BU (Pl. 58) shows the old pattern of conjuncting the full form of the letters which is peculiar in formation. Medial a is generally shown in long vertical form and optionally in cursive form (cf. ja, ta, na, Pl. 33). The medial u of Table B11 is in wedged shape while in general cursive form is employed. For e more than one form is used in which top-stroke variety is more common. In other forms, Table B11 shows a full extended line to the left of the letter. Inscriptions of Maharashtra reveal the use of a hook to the left top. The evolution of alphabets during the 10th century A.D. is recorded in Tables C14 and Cus; derived respectively from the Bagumra Plates of Indraraja III (A.D. 914) and Deoli Plates of Krishna III (A.D. 940). In this period the head mark developed into full covering line. Letters have a rightwards bend at the lower extremity. The initial a is of two varietes, representing modern features. A of Table C14 shows archaism in joining stroke to the middle of the vertical line. I of Table Cis shows an additional stroke in the lower portion. E is yet to develop a long tail. The use of archaic curved form of ka may be seen in kri (Pl. 73) and ligatures (P1 89). The left limbs of the letters kha, ga and sa show a hollow triangular loop. Sometimes, the right portion of the letter kha is in the form of an outer loop with open mouth like eastern India. The letter gha shows a process of development, the full middle arm of Table C14 is reduced into a tick in Table C15 (Pl. 61). Chha is of the oval variety with a tail. The lower arm of ja is short in Table C14, but in the other inscription it has taken an elegant cursive feature and middle bar is in the process of taking vertical shape. Tha is yet to develop the head-mark. Lower limb of da is For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) on the way of developing into a leftward bend. The vertical form of ta and na may be seen in Table C14. Pa attains modern Nagari form. In the outer looped type of pha head-mark disappears. The mouth of bha and sa are opened. The looped form of sa shows many varieties. Ha has developed a tail. In ligature superscript n is in full form. Subscript ta mouth opens to the right. Superscript s of scha, with an outer loop and slanted foot-mark, is reaching nearer to the modern form. Ligatures are generally formed by conjunction of one consonant upon the other. 85 With general perpendicular line the cursive form of medial a is also noticed in ta. The vertical type e is more common. Other two forms are side stroke or hooked and top-stroke. In su of Table C15, a slanting stroke is added to the right vertical of the letter for denoting medial u. CII. Inscriptions of Silaharas Table B15 is taken from three Kanheri Cave Inscriptions of Pullasakti and Kapardi II (A.D. 843, 853 & 877). These inscriptions are in a mutilated condition and eye copies of Mirashi are unsatisfactory from the veiwpoint of palaeography. But one can not afford to leave these inscriptions because earlier epigraphers like Sukthankar13 considered them the first Nagari inscriptions. The head-mark is in the line form, but it may be marked that the entire breadth of the letter is not always covered by it. Ligatures are formed in old style by conjuncting one upon the other. Medial a is denoted by long or short vertical line, or cursive form. Medial u is generally of wedged type and occasionally cursive. Both forms of e are present. As far as the development of an alphabet is concerned these inscriptions reveal the advanced forms of letters. Initial a and a have attained modern-shapes. I is of roofted variety. Generally, the left limbs of kha, ga and sa show a triangular loop. Gha retains three arms. The lower arm of ja does not show developed curve. Ta is still of double curved form. For Personal & Private Use Only

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86 Development of Nagari Script Left curve of va becomes rounded. Ha has developed a tail. Base of the letters like cha, pa, ma and sha are slanted. The development of 10th century A.D. is illustrated in Table C16. taken from the Janjira Plates of Aparajita (A.D. 993). The head-mark covers the whole letter. Initial a bears a triangular foot-mark while the Rashtrakuta inscriptions of the same region, optionally, show only a stroke type of addition in the vertical line. The left limb of e is also straight instead of curved. The left limbs of kha, ga and sa still retain triangular loop. Gha shows a step further from the point of view to approach the Nagari form. Middle bar of ja becomes almost vertical and lower portion is curved in an artistic manner. The rare jha is also employed. Ta and na are of developed vertical form. Pha shows a distinct feature with an addition of a stroke to the lower portion of the loop. The base of the letters become parallel to the head-mark. Left portion of va shows an elegant rounded form in the place of curve, or triangle. Ha has only a short tail. Ligatures are of the developing type in which superscript n is still without a dot and subscript chha is of oval variety. Dya looks modern in character. Superscript r is in modern curved form. The right vertical type of subscript is conjuncting with the right limb of initial letter h while in other type joins with the left limb. Medial signs are usual, as in that time. General Remarks On the whole, the above palaeographical observation reveals that even the western inscriptions of 10th century A.D. retain ornamentation in twisting the letter and straight vertical is yet to be formed. Most of the head-marks do not entirely cover the letters. The use of the archaic as well as the advanced forms of letters would indicate that the alphabet employed in the inscriptions was in transition and under the influence of the local style. Notes and References 1. Nagari Lipi ka Udbhava aur Vikas (Hindi), Delhi, 1978, p., 199. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 87 87 2. "Palaeographic.", P., 310. 3. Indian., pp. 69-70. 4. "The Origin.," pp. 128-31. 5. The Origin., p., 69. 6. Bharatiya., P., 69. 7. Buhier antedated Bengal Asiatic Society's Plate of Vinayakapala in A.D. 794, Indian., P., 70. 8. The find-spot of the Plate and the story of its discovery are unknown. But it is stated that the Plates were purchased from a resident of Tikamgadh in the former Orccha state, now in Madhya Pradesh, D.C. Sircar, EI, XXXI, p., 309. 9. Indian., p., 70. 10. "Account of an Inscription from Bareilly," JASB, VI, P., 779. 11. EI, I, p., 76. 12. Ibid., p., 81. 13. "Palaeographic.," p., 320. Bibliography Eastern India Bihar and Bengal Inscription of Palas & Others 1. Khalimpur plate of Dharmapala, V. C. Bhatavyal, JASB, pp. 39-62, Pi. LXIII, Pl. III. 2. Nalanda plate of Devapala, H. Sastri, EI, XVII, pp. 310-27, Pls. b. pp. 320-21; (Tables B, & N16).* 3. Mungir plate of Devapala, L. D. Barnett, Ibid., XVIII, pp. 304-07, Pls. f. pp. 304 & 306; (Tables Bi & N16).* 4. Gaya inscription of the time of Narayanapala of year 7, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 225-28, Pl. f. p., 228; (Table B2).* 5. Badal pillar inscription of the time of Narayanapala, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., II, pp. 160-67, Pls. b. pp. 160-61; (Table B2).* For Personal & Private Use Only

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88 Development of Nagari Script 6. Pala inscription in the Indian Museum, Nilamani Chakravarti, JPASB, NS, IV, pp. 102-09, Pls. VI-VII. 7. Kasyapa image inscription from Silao, B. Ch. Chhabra, EI, XXV, pp. 327-34, Pls. b. pp. 332-33. 8. A Buddhist inscription from Ghosarawa, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVII, pp. 307-12, Pl. f. p., 310. 9. Pachimbag plate of Srichandra of year 5, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXVII, pp. 289-304, Pls. b. pp. 302-03. 10. Chittagaon plate of Kantideva, R. C. Majumdar, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 313-18, Pl. f. p., 316. Inscriptions of Assam 1. Haunthal plate of Harjaravarma, D. Sarma, Ks, pp. 36-39, Pls. b. pp. 38-39. 2. Tezpur inscription of Harjaravarma, Ibid., pp. 40-42, Pl. f. p., 42. 3. Parabatiya plates of Vanamalavarmadeva, Ibid., pp. 50-55, Pls. b. pp. 52-53 & 54-55; (Table B4).* 4. Howraghat plates of Balavarma III, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXII, pp. 283-92; Pls. b. pp. 288-89 & 290-91. 5. Nowgong plates of Balavarma, III, D. Sarma, Ks, pp. 71-77, Pls. b. pp. 72-73 & 76-77; (Table Ci).* Inscriptions of Orissa 1. Jurerpur plate of Devanandadeva, D. C. Sircat, EI, XXVII, pp. 325 30, Pl. f. p., 328. 2. Narasingapur plate of Devanandadeva, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXVII, pp. 331-34, Pl. f. p., 329; (Table Bs).* 3. Baripad Museum plate of Devanandadeva, K. Ch. Panigrhi, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 74-82, Pls. b. pp. 78-79. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 89 4. Puri plates of Madhavavarma Sainyabhita, R. G. Basak, Ibid., XXIII, pp. 122-31, Pls. b. pp. 128-29. 5. Balangir Museum plates of Mahasivagupta I Yayati, D. C. Sircar, JASL, XIX, pp. 117-24, Pls. b. pp. 124-25; (Table C2).* 6. A grant of Mahasivagupta I Yayati of year 4, P. R. Srinivasan, EI, XXXVIII, pp. 186-91, Pls. b. pp. 188-89. 7. Taltali plate of Dharmmamahadevi, Ghanshyamadas & Panigrhi, IHQ, XXI, pp. 212-22, Pl. f. p., 218. 8. Two plates of Tribhuvan Mahadevi from Baudh, D. C. De, EI, XXIX, pp. 210-20, Pls. b. pp. 216-17. 9. A grant of Vakulamahadevi, P. R. Srinivasan, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 307-12, Pls. b. pp. 310-11. 10. Pettasar grant of Nettabhanja, C. C. Das Gupta, Ibid., XXVII, pp. 337-40, Pls. b. pp. 338-39; (Tables B, & N12).* 11. Baudh undated grant of Ranabhanjadeva, A. C. Banerji, JBORS, IX. pp. 147-52, Pl. f. p., 150. 12. Baudh plates of Ranabhanjadeva of year 54, R. D. Banerji, EI, XII, pp. 322-25, Pls. b. pp. 324-25. 13. Baudh plates of Ranabhanjadeva, Haradatta Sharma, IHO, X, pp. 473- 85, Pls. f. pp. 473 & 475. 14. Three Copper plates from Mayur Bhanja, R. C. Majumdar, EI, XXV, pp. 147-64, Pls. b. pp. 156-57, 160-61 & 162-63. 15. A Buddhist tract inscription in the Cuttack Museum, A. Ghosh, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 171-74, Pl. f. p., 172. Northern India Inscriptions of Pratiharas 1. A Fragmentary Pratihara Inscription, D. B. Diskalkar, EI, XIX, pp. 174-77, Pl. f. p., 176. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script 2. Buchkala inscription of Nagabhatta of A.D. 815, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., IX, pp. 198-200, Pl. f. p., 200. 3. Barah plate of Bhojadeva of A.D. 836, H. Sastri, Ibid., pp. 15-19, Pl. f. p., 18; (Tables Bo & N22).* 4. Jodhpur inscription of Bauk of A.D. 837, R. C. Majumdar, Ibid., XVIII, pp. 87-99, Pl. f. p., 96; (Table 1).* 5. Ghatiyala inscription of Kakkuk of A.D. 861, ASI, ARIE, 1970-71, p., 79 (373), Pl. 1. 6. Sagar-Tal Prasasti of Bhoja, Hirananda, ASI, AR 1903-04, pp. 277- 85, Pl. LXXII; (Table B 10).* 7. Ahar inscription of time of Bhojadeva of A.D. 865, D. R. Sahni, EI, XIX, pp. 52-62, Pl. f. p., 60; (Table N23).* 8. Peheva inscription of the reign of Mahendrapala, G. Buhler, Ibid., I, pp. 242-50, Pl. f. p., 244, (Table B8).* 9. Dighwa-Dubauli plate of Mahendrapala of A.D. 898, J. F. Fleet, IA, XV, pp. 105-113, Pl. f. p., 112; (Tables B3 & N24).* 10. Mahisantosh image inscription of Mahendrapala of year 15, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXVII, pp. 204-08, Pl. f. p., 208. 11. Asni inscription of Mahipala of A.D. 917, J. F. Fleet, IA, XVI, pp. 173-75, Pl. f. p., 174. 12. Garh inscription of Mahipala of A.D. 923, ASI, ARIE, 1961-62, p., 58 (128), Pl. II. 13. Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Vinayakapala of A.D. 931, J. F. Fleet, IA, XV, pp. 138-41, Pl. f. p., 140; (Tables C4 & N24).* 14. Pratapgarh inscription of the time of Mahendrapala II of A.D. 946, G. H. Ojha, EI, XIV, pp. 176-88. Pl. f. p., 185. 15. Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Hariraja of A.D. 983, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 309-13, Pl. f. p., 312; (Table C6).* For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 91 Inscriptions of Kalachuris of Tripuri 1. Karitalai stone inscription of Lakshmanaraja I of A.D. 840, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. XXX A; (Tables B9, N25).* 2. Bandogarh inscriptions of Yuvarajadeva I, Ibid., Pls. XXX B & XXXI A-B. 3. Karitalai stone inscriptions of Lakshmanaraja II, Ibid., Pl. XXXII; (Table C3).* 4. Bargaon inscription of Prabodhsiva of A.D. 973, Ibid., Pl. XXXIII. 5. Chandrehe inscription of Prabodhsiva of A.D. 973, ibid., Pl. XXXIV; (Table N25).* 6. Bilhari inscription of Yuvarajadeva II, Ibid., Pl. XXXV. 7. Gurgi inscription of Kokalladeva II, Ibid., Pl. XXXVI. Inscriptions of Chandellas 1. Khajuraho inscription of Yasovarma of A.D. 954, F. Kielhorn, EI, I, pp. 122-35, Pl. f. p., 122; (Table C7).* 2. Nanyaur plate of Dhangadeva of A.D. 998, Ibid., IA, XVI, pp. 201-04, Pl. f. p., 202. Inscriptions of Paramaras 1. An old plate of Siyaka of A.D. 969, D. B. Diskalkar, EI, XIX, pp. 177-79, Pl. f. p., 178; (Table N 26).* 2. Two Harsola grants of Siyaka, K. N. Dikshit and D. B. Diskalkar, Ibid., XIX, pp. 236-44, Pls. b. pp. 242-43; (Tables C13 & N26).* 3. Malava Copper plate grant of Vakpatiraja of Dhar of A.D. 974, N. J. Kirtne, IA, VI, pp. 48-53, Pls. f. pp. 51 & 52; (Table Cy).* 4. Gaonri plates of Vakpatimunja of A.D. 981, K. N. Dikshit, EI, XXIII, pp. 108-13, Pls. b. pp. 108-09, 110-111 &112-13. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script Inscriptions of the Chahamanas 1. Puskar inscription of Durgaraja of A.D. 925 & 937, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXV, pp. 239-44, Pl. f. p. 242; (Table N27).* 2. Thanwala inscription of the time of Simharaja of A.D. 956, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 244-46, Pl. f. p. 243; (Table N27).* 3. Harsha inscription of Vigraharaja of A.D. 973, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., II, pp. 116-30, Pl. f. p., 120; (Table C11).* 4. Sakrai inscription of Govinda of Samvat 55, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 323-26, Pl. f. p., 324. 5. Jodhpur fragmentary grant of Simharaja of A.D. 997, B. Ch. Chhabra, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 45-46, Pl. f. p., 46; (Table N27).* Miscellaneous 1. An inscribed stone slab from Pahariya, J. N. Banerjee, JASL, XXI, pp. 35-37, Pl. f. p., 38. 2. Pandukesvar plate of Lalitasurdeva of year 22, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXI, pp. 277 ff., Pl. f. p., 280; (Table B7).* 3. Pandukesvar plate of Padmatadeva of year 25, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 284- 90, Pl. f. p., 281. 4. Pandukesvar plate of Subhaksharajadeva of year 4, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 290-98, Pl. f. p., 293. 5. Dewal Prasasti of Lalla the Chhinda, G. Buhler, Ibid., I, pp. 75-85, PI. f.p., 76; (Table N20).* 6. Bhilsa inscription of A.D. 878, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXX, pp. 211-15, Pl. f. p., 218. 7. A fragmentary inscription from Kadawaha, Mirashi, & A. M. Shastri, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 117-24, Pl. f. p., 122. 8. Inscriptions from Maihar, Sircar & Subrahmanyam, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 171-78, Pls. b. pp. 176-77. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 93 9. Maser inscription of a Sulki Chief, M. Venkataramayya, Ibid., XXIX, pp. 18-28, Pl. f. p., 27. 10. Vaillabhattasvamin Temple inscription of A.D. 876, E. Hultzsch, Ibid., I, pp. 159-62, Pl. f. p., 160. 11. Gwalior inscription of the time of Patangasambhu, V. V. Mirashi, JMPIP, IV, pp. 3-12, Pl. 1. 12. Dabok inscription of the time of Dhavalappadeva of A.D. 813, R. R. Halder, EI, XX, pp. 122-25, Pl. f. p., 124. 13. Mungathal inscription of A.D. 837, D. C. Sircar, JUPHS, NS, III, pp. 1-9, Pls. f. pp. 7 & 8. 14. Kaman inscription, V. V. Mirashi, EI, XXIV, pp. 329-35, Pl. b. pp. 33435. 15. Kaman inscription of A.D. 869, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 52-56, Pl. f. p., 55. 16. Chatsu inscription of Guhila Baladitya, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., XII, pp. 10-17, Pl. f. p., 14. 17. Saranesvara inscription of the time of Allat of Mewar of A.D. 953, R. R. Halder, IA, LVIII, pp. 161-62, Pl. f. p., 161; (Table C10).* 18. Bayana inscription of Chitralekha of A.D. 955, EI, XXII, pp. 120-27, Pls. b. pp. 122-23. 19. Mandkila Tal inscription of A.D. 986, B. Ch. Chhabra, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 79-92, Pls. b. pp. 82-83. 20. A Jaina Pedestal inscription of A.D. 994, P. Banerjee, JASL, XIX, pp. 109-10, Pl. f. p., 110. Western India Inscriptions of Rashtrakutas 1. Anjanavati plate of Govinda III of A.D. 800, V. V. Mirashi & L. R. Kulkarni, EI, XXIII, pp. 8-18, Pl. f. p., 16. For Personal & Private Use Only

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94 Development of Nagari Script 2. Jharika grant of Govinda III of A.D. 803, V. B. Kolte, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 157-64, Pls. b. pp. 160-61 & 162-63. 3. Nesarika grant of Govinda III of A.D. 805, P. L. Gupta, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 125-36, Pls. b. pp. 130-31, & f. p., 134. 4. Dharur plates of Govinda III of A.D. 806, V. V. Mirashi & M. A. Gore, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 285-96, Pls. b. pp. 292-93; (Table B 13).* 5. Radhanpur plates of Govinda III of A.D. 808, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., VI, pp. 239-51, Pls. b. pp. 244-45. 6. Wani grant of Govinda Prabhutavarsha of A.D. 808, J. F. Fleet, IA, XI, pp. 156-63, Pls. b. pp. 158-59, & 160-61. 7. Two Copper plates of Govinda III of Berar of A.D. 807 & 812, V. V. Mirashi, EI, XXIII, pp. 204-23, Pls. b. pp. 210-11 & 220-21. 8. Javakhed plate of Amoghavarsha of A.D. 820, D. R. Bhat, EI, XXXII, pp. 129-34, Pls. b. pp. 130-31, 132-33, & f.p., 134; (Table N28).* 9. Surat plates of Karakaraja Suvarnavarsha of A.D. 821, A. S. Altekar, Ibid., XXI, pp. 133-47, Pls. b. pp. 140-41. 10. A Copper-plate of Dhruva II of A.D. 835, E. Hultzsch, IA, XIV, pp. 196-203, Pls. b. pp. 200-01. 11. Gujarat plates of Dantivarman of A.D. 867, D. R. Bhandarkar, EI, VI, pp. 285-94, Pls. b. pp. 290-91 & to f. p., 294; (Table B11).* 12. Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsha of A.D. 871, D.R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., XVIII, pp. 235-57, Pls b. pp. 248-49; (Table B16).* 13. A new Copper plate of Dhruva of A.D. 884, A. S. Altekar, Ibid., XXII, pp. 64-76, Pls. b. pp. 74-75 & f. p., 76. 14. Bagumra plates of Krishna of A.D. 888, E. Hultzsch, IA, XIII, pp. 65-69, Pls. f. p., 65 & 68; (Table B12).* 15. Jambgaon grant of Indra III of A.D. 914, V. V Mirashi, EI, XXXVI, pp. 223-38, Pls. b. pp. 234-35. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 95 16. Navasari grant of Indra III of A.D. 914, JBBRAS, XVIII, pp. 257-69, Pls. b. pp. 316-17. 17. Bagumra plates of Indra III of A.D. 914, D. R. Bhandarkar, EI, IX, pp. 24-41, Pls. b. pp. 30-31 & 34-35; (Table C14).* 18. Two grants of Indra III from Vajrakheda of A.D. 914, V. B. Kolte, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 5-22, Pls. b. pp. 16-17 & 20-21. 19. Chinchani plates of Indra III of A.D. 926, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 45-55. Pls. b. pp. 52-53; (Table N29).* 20. Gaonri fragmentary grant of Govinda IV of A.D. 929, K. N. Dikshit, Ibid., XXIII, pp. 106-08, Pls. b. pp. 106-07. 21. Andhura plates of Govinda IV of A.D. 929, V. V. Mirashi, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 257-72, Pls. b. pp. 268-69. 22. Cambay plates of Govinda IV of A.D. 930, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., VII, pp. 26-47, Pls. b. pp. 38-39 & 40-41. 23. Sangali grant of Govinda of A.D. 933, J. F. Fleet, IA, XII, pp. 247-55, Pls. b. pp. 250-51; (Table N29).* 24. Deoli plates of Krishna of A.D. 940, R. G. Bhandarkar, EI, V, pp. 188-97, Pls. b. pp. 194-95; (Table C15).* 25. Chinchani plates of Krishna III, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 55-60, PI. f. p. 58. 26. Karhad Plates of Krishna III of A.D. 958, R. G. Bhandarkar, Ibid., IV, pp. 278-90, Pls. b. pp. 284-85. 27. Kolagallu inscription of Khottiga of A.D. 967, N. L. Rao, Ibid., XXI, pp. 260-67, Pls. b. pp. 264-65. 28. Kolhapur plates of Akalavarsha, K. G. Kundanagar, JBBRAS, NS, X, pp. 21-37, Pls. b. pp. 20-21. 29. Rashtrakuta grant of Amoghavarsha of A.D. 972, J. F. Fleet, 1A, XI, Pls. b. pp. 266-67; (Table N29).* For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script 30. Fragmentary Rashtrakuta inscription from Kandhar, Sircar & Bhat tacharya, EI, XXXV, pp. 105-14, Pls. b. pp. 112-13. Inscriptions of Chalukyas 1. Grant of Mularaja of Anhilavada of A.D. 986, G. Buhler, IA, VI, pp. 180-93. Pls., b. pp. 192-93; (Table N30).* 2. Balera plates of Mularaja I of A.D. 995, S. Konow EI, X, pp. 76-79, Pl. f. p., 78; (Table C12).* Inscriptions of Silaharas 1. Kanheri cave inscription of Pullasakti of A.D. 843, V. V. Mirashi, CII, VI, Pls. I & II; (Table B15).* 2. Kanheri cave inscription of Kapardina II. of A.D. 853 & 877, Ibid., Pls. III-IV & V-VI; (Table B15).* 3. Prince of Wales Museum Plates of Chhadvaideva, Ibid., Pls. VII-VIII. 4. Pattanakudi Plates of Avasara of A.D. 988, B. R. Gopal & V. S. Subrah manyam, EI, XXXVII, pp. 56-60, Pls. b. pp. 58-59. 5. Janjira plates of Aparajita (Set I & II) of A.D. 993, V. V. Mirashi, CII, VI, Pls. IX-XII & XIII-XVII; (Tables C16 & N31).* 6. Bhadan grant of Aparajita of A.D. 997, Ibid., Pls. XVIII-XX; (Table N31).* Inscriptions of Saindhavas 1. Ghumli grant of the time of Agguka II of A.D. 832, A. S. Altekar, EI, XXVI, pp. 185-226, Pls. f. p., 200. 2. Ghumli grant of Jaika I, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 206. 3. An incomplete grant of Ranaka, Ibid., Pls. b. pp. 170-71. 4. Ghumli grant of Ranaka of A.D. 874, Ibid., Pls. b. pp. 214-15. 5. Ghumli grant of Agguka III of A.D. 886, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 220. 6. Ghumli grant of king Jaika II of A.D. 915, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 224. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 97 97 Miscellaneous 1. Amra-Nath inscription of Mahamvanirajadeva of A.D. 860, Bhau Daji, JBBRAS, IX, pp. 219-21, Pl. f. p., 218. 2. Kamkhed plates of the time of Pratapasila, V. V. Mirashi, EI, XXII, pp. 93-96, Pls. b. pp. 94-95. 3. An inscription at Salotgi in the Kaldgi District of A.D. 945. S. P. Pandit, IA, I, pp. 205-11, Pls. b. pp. 210-11. 4. Chicacole plates of Ganga Madhu-Kavarnnadeva of A.D. 923, G. Ramadas, JBORS, XVIII, pp. 272-95, Pls. b. pp. 294-95; (Tables C3 & N18).* 5. An incomplete grant of Sind Adityavarma II of A.D. 965, V. V. Mirashi & M. G. Dikshit, EI, XXV, pp. 164-71, Pls. b. pp. 170-71. For Personal & Private Use Only

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98 Development of Nagari Script References for Plates 31-60 (9th Century) Table Inscription Reference Date in A.D. Bi Nalanda plates of Devapala Mungir plates of Devapala EI, XVII, Pls. b. pp. 320-21. EI, XVIII, Pls. f. pp. 304 & 306. EI, XXXV, Pl. f. P:, 228. EI, II, Pl. f. p., 160 B2 Gaya inscription of Narayanapala Badal inscription of Narayanapala Dighwa-Dubauli plate of Mahendrapala B3 898 IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 112. Parbatiya plates of Vanamalavarma Pettasar grant of Netabhanja 885 EI, XXIX, Pls. b. pp. 154-55. EI, XXVII, Pls. b. pp. 338-39. EI, XIX, Pl. f. p., 18. B6 Barah plate of Bhoja 836 B Pandukesvar plate of Lalitasura 854 EI, XXXI, Pl. f. p., 280. EI, I, Pl. f. p., 244. Bg Peheva inscription of Mahendrapala B, 840 CII, IV, Pl. XXXA Karitalai inscription of Lakshmana For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) 99 B10 Sagar-Tal inscription of Bhoja ASI, AR, 1903-04, Pl. f. p., 280. Bu Gujarat plates of Dantivarma 867 EI, VI, Pls. b. pp. 290-91 & f. p., 294. B12 Bagumra plates of Krishna II 888 Dharur plates of Govinda III 806 IA, XUI, Pls. b. pp. 65 & 68. EI, XXXV., Pls. b. pp. 292-93. EI, XXXII,, Pls. b. pp. 130-31, & 132- 33. CII, VI, Pls. I & II. B 14 Javakhed plates of Amoghavar- sha I 820 B15 843 Kanheri cave inscription of Pullasakti 853 Kanheri Cave inscription of Kapardi II CII, VI, Pls. III & IV. 877 Kanheri cave inscription of Kapardi II CII, VI, Pls. V & VI. B16 Sanjan Plates of Amoghavarsha I 871 EI, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 248-49. For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 31 ...m ma ma ama a kakakaka kakakakakakaka ka ka ka ka | ka A Raala Rai ala | InMRITRA IN hyw a e my' akyu wnn | | ca R va ra ra ra ra ra ra ya ya ra - 3657555576 555 T&TT a Zcc ZZZccc | Manana(AMMercelalalala For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 32 BIBB3435BBBBBB00308314345 | 18 laaaaaaa ra ra da ra dararararara ra da da ya dada [= [b b b b b b b b b b b b e | na na na na na na na na na na na vaka yayapavuuuulpa pacayapa | samaya mama mamamama mamamama yaya TATA yayayayayayayayaya | ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra lalalalalalala lala lala vavavavavava vaya BAMAIMSAR AARABla | RRENagaghaSa va For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 33 mj mhNs maask ( 6 m s | k r'uukN ky'ekjn | k | a / 25 et jha | | mt ( m sh eb m yaaso| phta acuu_ * br' 12 hbph 22 b s y baab | bhaan 2y' $ e sb ! | y y yd | bb| | | Ctg a uthlth | shmto naanaa mt y] For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. TH tathA * darA dArA D DH aa PH B a "nA nA nA nA nA N 1 yA yA cAcA cA B1 B 2 M x B 3 Y B1 A Bu Bs B Bg B 16 bA / al a thA ghara thA dAdarA dAdA dArA darA dA dAdA dA Aao a vA aa By 1310 B 11 B 12 BH dara kA yA nAnAsA thA mA bhAbhA maare| mAmA mAmA mAmammmaam yA yA yAdyA yA prathA yA yA yA yA yA yA yAdyA rArArArArArA rA rA rA rA rA rArA L lA lA lAlA zAlAya' lA lA lA lA lA laalaa laalaa V vA vA vA vA vA vAtA tA vA vA vA vA vA 5 bhAzA 8 ka NA A hza ra sA sA sA SH sI bA yA vA PLATE 34 B 13 1314 13 15 For Personal & Private Use Only nA nA nA nA navA vA kAkA kA yA yA yA yA pApA yA cAyA 51 sa yA sA sA sA sasA sA sA mA sA sA sA sA H. hA hA hA hA DA sA dadA hA sA hA hA hA hA hA hA a

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 35 | 10 o o o o o | F ki | 5 ki& | @@ @ th a o o o o o &#j jk aaqtr 59 | * ye 5 o 6 ye eytr a CHH [ e ble ni telete e [ tini ytni baa For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. TH DH N P Ba B 10 B11 B12 B 14 & AL GA @ D 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 di di di. di. @ @ @ d NAGACCCC CG PH B By M Vz L B4 Bs BG 34 I Bg BH 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 bhalabha mima zazi bhUmi mama mama gha gha B SH dhdh 5 sa sa sa sa si sasasa S H ha ha ha Da di PLATE 36 1313 6 6 G A Ga G A G GA.C cirA (dhapi ca ca ca iTTELAG ki.mi. di. ki U ti 12 gha Y yivithi di R C 9 3 3 3 I 9 I E halalalala vi. vi vi da va da va 6 . 6 vi vi yi vivi vi@ EEE laliG sila lali A Y G 5 sa ( 1 MA ta sa sa @ B 15 For Personal & Private Use Only B 16 ssdhe hiM si sasasasasa hi. hi. hi. hi. hi. di. si ch

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 37 31 32 B3845318331031312313|8|815310 | Bii kI kAhIhI kI kI kAkI kI kI jAnA jAtA - alkarI kI T 200 | onlancela lAla kanIka kolI nahI havAmAna kAhIhI For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 38 B, B2 33B | 65831888,13030821831431530 1. sAyarIzasa sATI dIdI rImA oraa aaana/ - bhImAna kamI kI vahI vo cAcI LATIlAmI vara kAravAdIvI vara vA kA sAsI sImAsI mAmI sA sa hI ANEa For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 39 | 13 | 4 | 133 | 3x | 3s | 3 | 17| 34 | 3, | 3 y | 3 | Bja ] 41 | 31s | 31s | 31 | 9e | 2 | ? | 9 em ngg / | gun s ags o 4 For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLATE 40 9th CENTURY A.D. dyrh | 44 wr dw wr hrm w w d, w bh w r r w` m 3 ` w S ` H | ` w mly m * yuyu yggaqaay'khgg m` m y ` A m yr khm ` j m mw m` m m` | ` m 5 h m y ` | m 4 mm Lm y` | | | | | | | | l m m s r F G2 r w w w w w w m hm w w ` w w | m m hr kh 1 m m * For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 41 B B2 B3 B4 B5 Bol By B. , BioBuB12B Biul Bis B 16 194 For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. TH D dU DH 4 N PH B BH M B L > B 2 yU yU ya R ru rU S 24 51 SH 5 sa sU H hRd B 3 Bu 20 5 R B5 FUL G Vs A zU kA Ba BB 3 TU 2 dU S KHv T waa ST Bg B 10 ru rU ru ru ru rU nU ru ru ru ru ru rU bhu bhU hyU * lplp B K B 12 For Personal & Private Use Only B 13 23234 PLATE 42 nU pU cU pU yra yra sU sU samU sU hna 1314 dU dra ddha na Tu na 4 BIS BIG ru 20 24 ng PS120 691 254

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 43 B, B2B B4 B5 B6 B7B8B, B10 B1 B12 B13 B:4 Bis Bio VOWEL For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. TH 0 yuda DHC N lR vR 9 pR yu P B Y BH da da M zu ma R L > B 1 -S SH B 2 S H TU ma B 3 N B4 AN B5 Vy Tu ru mR mR ra ra ru ha ha B7 B8 Ra c yR S B, da T B 10 B11 B12 bR vR vR 6 9 ra da vR vR vR vR Ta vR dhR 2 B13 PLATE 44 1314 dR haTTa dR vR For Personal & Private Use Only ya nR kRR kR kRR vR kRR vR mR pa pa pa vR ru ru ru ru ru ru ru 8 ru mR ma pra mR B 15 B 16 sR cha ha ha ha ma vR kh

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9th CENTURY A.D. VOWEL KH K&G G GH z. CH CHH 4 H IZ N T TH O. D rj DH N Z. B1 B2 B3 T JEG Sa EA BES R go he he ta Vch J F j tU hai B5 B6 Te 23 d lm B za B$ E SEG y B12 E B to B1 B2 B3 B4 VERS ke ke ke ka ka Sa s For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 45 IN B18 B16 015 Goo MS D en M aaaaaazon?

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 46 81, 8 6 87 880,000461801580 ra 2 ra ya 266232 ra 8 ra 8 2 FAANI | na karana ne mana IME * aiy hyi y i y y y a/MAJBANI SAJ SW UKShrimagar mAyAmA hAmAyA To w postaja R 29357 LS For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 47 B, B2 B3 Bu I BOB. By B, B, B. Bu B12 Bis B4 Bis Bic VOWEL St20 ada For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 48 1 2 | 3 | 2 | 3 | | 3 | 4 2 | 3 | 6 | 8 | rw wr wr wr wr13 | m `th wHy khrr bhrh rAya ra h | | m l'lm lHlm || krkm lm | 88| 88 8888888 my khh For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 49 31 33 | 1, | 3 | 5s 18 | 17| Ba] 9, | 331 3 | 1ia| 3/3 | 3 | | 51s | 8 ye Vow |x phle baaNlaai 2' bkaa jhk kaa kii 1 0 12 15 | bege4/ hy'| yiim [ mishn phi phinaan shphi For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 50 | | | ab shj a| - ym aar iimaaiimed mm mmm | jny ei phrj aiiy'jyaay'| . | biy'e th||| e jiph baa For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 51 13, 11, 13, 1 13. / / 12 / . 1 3, 4s 1 39 ] 3 4 51 | 3 | | 13 | is 14s 12s VOWEL N anythaa For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 52 epng 3, | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 85 | 81 | 1312 313 | 34 | 35 | 36 LEK For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 53 LIGATURES 199 Bu KSME KTY KY KRAKSMAN KCHAKRA KSN KTA KTA KTYA sj AV GOHA 6 : S = ai NAN NGA MU NAREN CNCHA CHCECHYA CNC CNYA TRAM JYA 20 khd NCMA NA TANO NRI DPA INYA 10TH NPA For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 54 LIGATURES DDHA DAMADYA DRA DUDDHA DYAVRA DOMA Dve pe DU DOMA DAVRA DOMA DGHI DMA DRA DGHRIDDHADYA DVA Ikflow DNY NTYA NORA NDMA IN PRA NTA NDAMA NTA NORA NARANSA ods. ya |Hp4 |Hery C naa 4g dii gyy PRA PA PA PA y' yaatr . 3HY | 5HRA MYA IMAHAMVA LKKA TRI ROMA ng ng daujaaruac. . naadii naang 1aunik ni SNTA SNTA SHNI For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 55 LIGATURES B7 GOMOGRA NGA ho hogy 108 SA CHCI CHCOM snenni TOWA TMA YA For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 56 LIGATURES B7 THYAM CVA Ruun DDMADANS DRA DVA DONA DYA Doni Donulun | DWYA DHYLDUVA BRA * nimn jimmilisistri| Than0310 pera SR SNY Sva, STM Smo SYA SVA stus DZISI Men For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 57 LIGATURES B11 B 12 KSHAKSHMA KTA KRAKSHAY KSHMA KKHAKCHA KRAKSHA KTAKYA KRAKSHAN TES asmoa GHNA GHYA NGA NGMANMU NA CHCHWA CHCNHS CMC MACHYU CNCHA Heren & B ota B CDENG TRI For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 58 LIGATURES LIGATURES | | | | 3 1 | | | | 177 | | DNNA DNY DHRU DMVA cws {bT65 NDRA NPA MVA MORA IMA NYA Ysya HONANDA prns SNY BMRA MNT MEA I MALMLE oN blsstth yi r' & 2 khr i ii FR.destou o NEHA 5||HHnyji 4 / STU ISMA SPA | thri nyst phu ghaaskry | For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 59 TEATURES,TTTTT LIGATURES 9 / 13 48 3 15 15 NAGYAGRA INNANMA CHERA CHCHHA || ghiiimaanthaambaai For Personal & Private Use Only

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9th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 60 IGATURES | : S ) $ 15 TVYA - DpHAPy PNYA DNYE DHYA jaa 11% NDHYA MITANYA INTAN NT NORA d: dii Vnu BMYA MPA I MYAM MMA MyA MVA | Myanva [ uuvuuvuuvuuvuuvuuv k Essanqgg 21A523153, >> | suu+ loeooy mntrii - tiiooykhnyuM rngaaphaeuuvtoeng For Personal & Private Use Only

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100 Development of Nagari Script References for Plates 61-90 (10th Century) Table Inscription Reference Date in A.D. ci Nowgong plates of Balavarma KS, Pls., b. pp. 72- 73 & 76-77. JASL, XIX, Pls. b. pp. 124-25. Balangir Museum plates of Mahasivagupta 923 931 Chicacole plates of MadhuKavarnna Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Vinayakapala Dewal Prasasti of Lalla Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Hariraja Khajuraho inscription of Yasovarma JBORS, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 294-95. IA, XV, Pl. f.p., 140. EI, I, Pl. f. p., 76. EI, XXXI, Pl. f. p., 312. EI, I, Pl. f. p., 122. 922 983 954 CII, IV. Pl. XXXII. Karitalai inscription of Lakshmana II Malava plates of Vakpati 974 IA, VI, Pls. f. pp. 51 & 52. 953 Saranesvara Temple inscription of Allat Harsha inscription of Vigraharaja Balera plates of Mularaja I IA, LVIII, Pl. f. p., 161. EI, II, Pl. f. p., 120. 973 Cj2 994 EI, X, Pl. f. p., 78. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.) C13 Two Harsol grants of Siyaka Bagumra plates of Indra III C14 C15 5 Deoli plates of Krishna III C16 Janjira plates of Aparajita 948 914 940 993 For Personal & Private Use Only 101 EI, XIX, Pls. b. pp. 242-43. EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 30-31 & 34-35. EI, V, Pls. b. pp. 194-95. CII, VI, Pls. XIIIXVII.

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10th CENTURY A.D. A * C1 C 2 C 3 C4 Cs C6 CT C & C12 C14 C 15 | C 31 51 1 Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja zr Ja VOWEL * ka ta ka ta ka ka va va ha tA va va va ka ka ka KH rata 57 usa saya vaya g G ii dI jarI gha garAgarA nyaabaa GH 7. CHH J JH Z} CH va rA sa sa ru 1 da va va da ka Da DA je je aa ja ja ja va Da ja Da ja ja ma N tei eett 3 TH o ra u 100 C p 1 gha gha ghagha yA dagha y dA dA C 10 C ~ 3 4 PLATE 61 C13 2 Ta | Ta Ta Ta Ta Ta Ta Ta For Personal & Private Use Only O 8 8 ra u 8 8 8 13 ra DH !! la la la la la la y la la la la la la la la - na ta ta na ta ta ra ta ta ta ta na ta ta ta M

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 62 c. c2c2 cu coco e, co C . Cucuc13014Csc aala dararararararara padada ra | nava ga ma na na na na na na na na pacapaya papapapapapapapapapapa 66 3 sa hada sadasadara rUrU kara | ma mamamama mamamamamama mamama 1 yayayaya TA yayayayayayaya & lalala lala lalalalalalalala data vaya va va va va va va va va va va 52278 (OERR(Rs sRAR sbahAva bava papa sabasaghava sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sasa sa sa sa sa sa sa hada daha daha dahAhA hA AMAY FAyavasa54 samayamA zrama For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 63 | a haamaasbaa ghaa / / gaamii tin | k k k kaakaa kaak kaan kaaj I m / 2yaa haa | | phi hy'e pyA yA kAya pyAppA kA * bi e er 2 baa yaayaab th y b e 11 aS j j aa m jy' 11 g 21 22 0 2 02 * 5 5aa hy' S | * / | laa laa laabol blte 1. At naanaa smyen naa hy'| For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 64 1, C2 C3 Ica es coro C& C so c C12/C13 | C 14 | akhaa e ghssbaa pr'aa pr'aa pr'aa r'pr'thy | 0 2 2 y h bbb bbb bb b. | 5 |b eb(yaa (be baa e e b ) |r | mm4/ saalaam sh n n m| yAdhAcA pAya pAyA yA yA yAyAvayA yA pApA | 4 m Rddh hi y d k n jy' | " mi(maam maam maam mmmm mmm | by(haas yaayaa hjb y y h yth A B 8 8 cit | - lAlA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA | baar'r'aae br' baa yb bbe h ble baabaa |; |ac(\-m suaa baa nN( brnnaa | s* yaa yaa maamaa ss m m m m l m | phaa| maas hlaae yaa smaaj | hijaabaay' md' naam || rb| For Personal & Private Use Only

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10TH CENTURY A.D. K 00 Novel 2 6 2 6 3 ke KH G GH z. CHH 17 J 4 TH Zl C1 T TH G C 2 C 3 C4 3 C5 ke Ca ke botter din bi CH vi. vi. Rs ( ta la va za vi ( zi ra dhe (& GGG ji ji ji ji ji 5 C6 up C7 C 8 I je baa bo C9 C10 k k k Q & bi b C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 15 16 00 PLATE 65 ke ke (bebir bi biji D DH tt 1. golile yo li MM n n n T & & - ( For Personal & Private Use Only EE E E E E E E C 2 ~p M G . na tata. ta &

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 66 [* | 555 5ti 55 55 55 5aah | br'thb b n b y b aaaG 5 baa * dle se nehi n j l e [ &innye &i bi si yi a5 bi &i Q ye ye | . % o 552 555 bijibi - mim misim si sise mmim se [ lionnaani li o 6 Gn e nile ni guli| [ a & br' br'tthe5 b b hbe| [ Jale et & Aph | ki| benyj [+ ji phil jitthit hy'e ji| [ aa | 56tthit For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 67 calc lc. ca cs Ico calcolc, colcu C 12 C 13 C 14 Cis. JC 16 ha kIkA kI kI kI kI kI khI sarI kamI jAgI [+ M lIlAkIlAal hAtI tAnAtakatA For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 68 dI dAdarI dAdA dAdI dAvA kInI kA nAma kI bImA kAnA yA yA kApAva mAmImA mAmI mI mI lIlA hAta basalI so sAmAyI mAsIyAmA mAyA sIsI yAnI For Personal & Private Use Only

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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 VOWEL 3 5 5 3 3 3 3 KA 10th CENTURY A.D. KH G157 GH z. N CH CHH J JH Iz T. F. CH z. E 7 tu tu da GM yu 164 169 ku shru F KAL E C1 CB KM N U bcu MA cas R C1 19 G J I MIL 14 WE 3 C 10 C11 C 12 C13 C14 | C 15 C16 33 3 3 33 IN D JAA gu zu For Personal & Private Use Only B PLATE 69 EF M 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 3 3 3 3 3

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10th CENTURY A.D. TH D DH M B 1 pa PH C 1 da L > va uu S. C2C3 R Rs 3 ru lU Bm ru ru ru ru ru ru M bhU bhU zu mu jhu C4 Cs ya yu yuyu $ $ vu gu jhu nu pu pu pu pu ha K C6 C 7 C8 g U C9 d du C 10 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 ra du ra du yu Tu Tu du du du. 44894 4 ma mu 4 PLATE 70 3 3 Tha ku ku u u vu nu g C 1s C 16 g pu pu pu pu pu pu pu pu pa 3 mu gu yu yu color 66 la yu vu u S jnyaa SHgha ba Su gha gha ghu Su Su pu Sa Sa s sra su su su su su su su su su su su su su su H ru du hu hU 3 U 15 44 For Personal & Private Use Only ru ru du mu mu mu mu yu ru ru ru ru rururururu ru lu la lu lu vU da zu 1 ha bubu bu

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 71 XC For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 72 C. C2/C3 C4 lc, co calcaico col calci2 C3 C4 Cis C16 0 2020 294 201 que o TAHUN 19) For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLATE 73 10th CENTURY A.D. C I C3 TC C5 C6 C7 C8 C COCHC2C13/CHC15/016 kAka takRta kAla ya mA For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 74 vA epra / 15. kAka papApa | | da va dAda / For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. VOWEL K KH G GH z. CH CHM J TH Z T TH a DH C1 na Ta C2 Q C3 b a C4 9 C5 b ka C6 C1 273 3 C8 3 3 3 E Cg ---- y G GS G C10 C11 C12 BUSSE SIT Ta Te So C13 | Cu |C5 C6 1444 and aga FQAN For Personal & Private Use Only p Lok s 9 nee joo kiloo ni PLATE 75 hr y de yaya ARGA LEE B 15 213

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 76 |ca|ca|ca|cs | 06 | C1C819 | C {e |C 41 | 12 | 13 | C1Cfs 016 dala darada 62 6 3 6 deda de n tt l seje * paan ye sine 2 m m # aa || | + m mememsi m l m mmmm mne se me i yaai yye . si| ci | | blbe bibe bebi br'| nni | | |j8 6 | 8 8 | [ 6/ca| | | | | | For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 77 Tolco - Calc. cioculc12 613 614 Cisc 16 se S For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 78 C, C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 Co c. c. Cu 12 C, C14 Cisc 16 haTala ni SIAN 3 // va vana ve hi dete va JNNSE So I M For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 79 VOWEL * kilo kii ye kii kii bndhk | bos yaar' phli tth+ hbe| | jaajii ai baa snggii Ugd 2 minaa naa naa naam mner For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. TH * rA dAtyA Dy N P PH B BH M Y R V SH C1 C2C3 - lAlI L S va s SU - nA ka H yAlA yA zala lA Cu lA sAhA kI mmA mo Cs za C6 tha C C 8 do yo vayo O va C1 gho yA se roza to lolo to INS SET SING C 10 C 11 gho do mono vA no vo mere no kA nA (na no ceyA ke colA yA yo S rowed C12 C13 sa mo mo mo mo mo momo mAmA mA yAro yo yo ca yo yayA yA yA rA kha sasA mA so so sAmo sAma soso da) dA PLATE 80 C 14 C 15 C 16 bo For Personal & Private Use Only (dhA (da) do do kA do rhe| dara yo vo to vo tA k mA zogho to mAno RECC ma se so rahA ho dila dA ho

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 81 C. c. c3 c4 c5 coca cola ci Ca C 12 C3] Vowe | ai For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 82 Au c. c. c3 c4 c co loco co CH C 12 13 14 1 cis 16 For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 83 LIGATURES KSYY KTM KYAN KH 57 [misty dbiin ali tthi| | INGER | sthi strii cii sb ] For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 84 LIGATURES | | | c, DVAM PONA >> 8 9 diipii p14 - ryy [ uuv tuM smaakhnyuM a thmii MAHA 22ER| Ec== bhaay | For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. K Kn GH Z. CH CHH a 2 G 4 JH H. T TE D 3 DH 65 N T KTYA KRAM KSHA KTA sg:nm m KTAN s S KHYA 9| GDA GONA Gya BHA GRA 249 bhayagrA gra NKAN NGA CHCHA CHYA g JJA JHA NJA TTA M we GMA TKA C6 Jyo 3 EC NTHAN DAN NYA OFORO C AKG KSHI JYA LIGATURES CT GOHA GNI yA li H KRA A ALH DI KHYA KLA KVA KSHA KTYA KRA KSHA KSHMA NGA sa EVEN CHCHA CHENNA CHYA TPA da GRA A HCHA FCHNU NA sys NTHAN NYAM 2 C8 KHYAM 3 For Personal & Private Use Only JJA JAE YA JVA F cug ndn GMA GMA GRA ma HKA HKHA ha ha hA~ WHE CHCHA CHCHHA PLATE 85 Feng 7 2 ENG JVA QYA th TMNDA THATPRA TYA THA TMA TRA TKA IPA TMA TSA TYA raaraakwtwMkkmgo li raa dd aoo ttH rbem k an M TEKT TSA

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10th CENTURY A.D. TH D DH z g PH 14 S x 8 J > 5. SH S H C5 15:5 325 2392 TEASE TO S INS h [Sys. 2 3 No LIGATURES SHVT IMIR EAST Ens aoor-gyo-thyo-T0 asi For Personal & Private Use Only EDC PLATE 86 32 mAjhA hAsya 277 35 22 4 ghRSTha gha va sa sU sa

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 87 LIGATURES Cu | KA KLA * yntre stri jhy sb H GNI GRA | | | : Snia ssia || | | NINA For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 88 LIGATURES CA DOMADMEDRA DVA u Sindh DONA DA PRA DVA DANA DYA DANADYAN AVE IRO No VO 2017IANI NNA THrnia | HyA 1/60 AN? 228 Vnul | BnRA BNYA BHRAM MNA MBWA MVA MMAMMA MAMA Ma VOM ISKC For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 89 LIGATURES C13 Ci5 | KTM | KTYA | KTM Kyn KRAM KSHAKKA KTAKYA K: MAM KXAKTA KRAKSMA Deng Ti Ying Ying Ying Jia Yuan & sum hr sth sb mhaa phliktt | CHCHA NAM JYA TH NTHANDA NYANVANOAMNYA 3 SEA EE 43 For Personal & Private Use Only

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10th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 90 LIGATURES TTC naanoo69 9.l.g DMRU NDMANPRANMA NMANTA NTA NOA NKA nos daeng: d9F BHRA BNYA BNY k MRAMVA MNR nuH ooysiismiiqvii diibhii | HATIKANA EA 3 prj*82.gdau soenchngaay .t . ELEGAL For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) Nagari, with fully developed top-stroke, straight vertical line, halanta sign, uniform medial signs and mutilated initial consonant in ligatures, is shown by Bharat Kala Bhavan Plate of Pratihara Hariraja (A.D. 983) and Kauthem Plates of Chalukya Vikramaditya V (A.D. 1008). The requirements of speed and simplification had a determining role in the evolution of the Nagari script, as illustrated in Fig. 7. It was in use since the 11th century A.D. in the Ganga Valley, Central India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western India and the Deccan. This is also evident from the records of the late Pratiharas, the Gahadavalas of Kanyakubja, the Chandellas of Jejakabhukti, the Kalachuris of Sarayupara, Tripuri and Ratanpur, the Kachchhapaghatas of Gopagiri, Dubakunda and Naravar, the Guhilas of Mevada, the Chahamanas of Sakambhari, Nadol, etc. and the Paramaras of Malava, the Chalukyas of Kalyana, the Silaharas of Konkana and Kolhapura, the Yadavas of Seunadesa and Devagiri, the Kadambas of Goa and other royal or personal epigraphs. However, this does not mean that the Nagari of 11th century is identical with the Nagari of 20th century and thereafter, no development took place in the form of the letters. Certainly, it was the mechanization in printing technology which gave Nagari a modern stand For Personal & Private Use Only

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EVOLUTION BY SIMPLIFICATION vubo ECCDEFGH ffffffffffffff | g FebBERDER iiifffffffffff L B EFFRESSNg iiiiiiiiiiitfig 10 ne ano tra F w o of ffffffffffffff 29 6805ZKDFWen Yuan For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 103 ardized shape. I am, of course, not dealing with all these processes in this chapter, however, it focuses mainly on the evolution till the 13th century A.D. because by then it reached a mature stage and subsequently became stereotyped. There are minor varieties in Nagari script, depending on differences in localities, period or individual hands. These varieties have been shown by dividing them into Northern and Southern, Jaina and non-Jaina,? or Eastern and Western by the scholars. But these divisions are rather broad and largely vague, having limitations and do not take into account the minutiae of the alphabet. In order to understand clearly the development of the Nagari script I have worked out the following sub-divisions: A. Eastern India I. Bihar-Bengal, II. Assam, III. Orissa B. Northern India 1. The Middle Ganga Valley, II. Central India, III. Rajasthan. C. Western India & the Deccan 1. Gujarat, "II. Maharashtra, III. Karnataka. Under these I am mainly concerned with (i) the fully developed or archaic form of letters, (ii) the changes due to developing technology, (iii) regional and inter-regional influences on the Nagari script. Eastern India The influence of the proto-Nagari, or Nagari alphabet in Eastern India gradually declined from the time of Mahipala I (c. A.D. 988-1038). The use of the Gaudi alphabet begins towards the close of the 10th century A.D.' which diverges from the proto-Nagari type and ultimately develops into regional scripts of Assam, Bengal and Orissa. To briefly review the changes in Nagari characters in Eastern India we now take up these regions. For Personal & Private Use Only

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104 Development of Nagari Script Bihar-Bengal 11th Century A.D. Table D, is taken from Bihar grant of Sauraditya (A.D. 1020). This inscription bears enough traces of proto-Nagari or Nagari characters along with the local forms of several letters. As for continuation of Nagari, the following letters preserved their old or advanced forms: initial vowel e, consonants ka, ga, gha, cha, ta, da, dha, ta, da; dha, pa, ma, ya, la, va and ha; besides medial signs and ligatures. Of these, the advancement towards Nagari is marked in the line head-mark of ta, leftward bend of da instead of the tail, straight right vertical of ta and horizontally placed bar of sha. On the other hand, the letters a, u, kha, ja, na, na, tha, na, pha, bha, ra, sa, sa; medials u and e are marked by certain new or local innovations. Of these, the lower curve of a and u are distinctly prolonged. These peculiarities pave the way for Bengali forms. The open-mouthed kha, bha, sa; cursive na, double curved sa which have been marked in the preceding inscriptions of the region now become common. The new development in ja is noticed in the peculiar formation of the lower curvature. The new shape of na contains Bengali features with double loops to the right of a hooked vertical. The upper outer loop of tha is detached along with a peculiar inner looped form. Looped portion of na further slants downwards. Like Bengali, the upper right limb of pha bears an outer loop. The new innovation in ra is a hollow triangular foot-mark. As for medial u, the new local hollow triangular like shape appears with Nagari form. For e both forms, top-stroke and left perpendicular, are retained in this inscription. The noticeable peculiarity among ligatures is the representation of a dot or circle in n to the right top. Both subscript chha and tha contain oval shape and present confusion. The old full shaped superscribed n appears side by side with the new Bengali form. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 105 12th Century Table E, is taken from the Bodh-Gaya inscription of Gahadaval Jayachandra (A.D. 119x). The alphabet furnishes the incorporation of northern Nagari. This transformation is surely due to its belonging to a North Indian king. At the same time, the absence of tail, and notched-wedge shaped headmark make the alphabet peculiar by which it can be distinguished from the other northern inscriptions of the same dynasty. The top-wedge is so prominent that it merges with superscript r. In such type of formation, certainly, the broader edged pens play an important role, from which inscriptions of the region were written. Besides tail and wedge, the local influence is marked in the letters u, ta, sa; and medials e, u. The peculiar curvature of u, as it appears in the preceding period, becomes the common feature of the region. The right top of ta bears a small tick. As for sa, it furnishes tailed Nagari form along with a new form. In the new variety, left loop distinctly become triangular. The distinguishing features of medial u shows a local wedged vertical shape as in the preceding inscriptions. In the case of initial e, with both earlier perpendicular and top-stroke forms, a new sign is met with which is denoted by a falling tick to the left of the letter. The letter kha and ha are also of distinctive varieties. The left limb of kha shows a triangle like foot-mark, as in other eastern inscriptions, in the place of northern tailed shape. In ha tail has disappeared. Rest of the letters assume developed modern Nagari counterparts. Of these, peculiarities may be noticed in the forms of ja, na, dha and bha. The right limb of ja takes vertical shape. Middle bar of na bends to left. An advanced form of dha occurs in this inscription. The new innovation is the addition of an oblique stroke in the upper portion. The letter bha is of transitional variety with right straight vertical. 13th Century Table F, is derived from Gaya inscriptions of Sultan Muizzuddin (A.D. 1200) and Balban (A.D. 1268). These epigraphs reveal advanced forms For Personal & Private Use Only

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106 Development of Nagari Script of northern Nagari alphabet which indicates that, with the expansion of the Muslim rule, northern Nagari spread to the eastern region, the most remarkable development of which is the occurrence of modern looking forms of the letters ja and bha, while other inscriptions of earlier or current period show only their progressive features. As for other letters, they are found to be fully developed to approach their modern counterparts. Ligatures are in Nagari style excepting for the use of two armed superscribed d and peculiar tailless s. Medial e retains left slanting top-stroke, however, in some cases left vertical form are also employed. It can also be noticed in medial o. All other medial signs are in fully developed Nagari shapes. One notable point about these inscriptions is their relationship with Muslim rulers. Definitely, it was the force of tradition and popularity of Nagari in that period which compelled Muslim rulers to use it side by side with their own script. This is further evident from the accommodation of Nagari alphabet on Muslim coins. As for example: Mohammed of Ghazna (A.D. 1027), Mohammed Bin Sam (A.D. 1193-1206), Mohammed Bin Mohammed (A.D. 1206), Shamsu-d-din Iltutmish (A.D. 1210-35), Ruknu-d-din Firuz Shah (A.D. 1235), Raziyya (1236-40), Muizzu-d-din Baharam Shah (A.D. 1240-42), Alau-d-din Masud Shah (A.D. 1242-46), Nasiru-d-din Mohammed (A.D. 1246-66), Ghiyasu-d-din Balban (A.D. 1266-87), Muizzu-d-din Kaikubad (A.D. 1287-90), Jalalu-d-din Firuz (A.D. 1290-96), Alau-d-din Mohammed Shah (A.D. 1296-1316) and others employed Nagari for writing legends on their coins. Assam The script of Assam was influenced by proto-Nagari in the preceding periods, which eventually diverges in this period and shows the same process of development as does Bengali. However, the script of Assam has retained some distinctive characteristics. 11th Century The peculiarities of the Assamese alphabet are shown in Table Dz; they are taken from Gauhati and Guakuchi Grants of Indrapala (A.D. 980-1010). The tail of the letters is sharply bent to the right and head-mark For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 107 are in solid triangular or line form. In the vowels only a, i, u and e are to be found. The left curve of a is prolonged in eastern style and right vertical shows a foot-mark. I shows a double-curved shape above two circles. The left curve of u further extends to the top-mark; and e opens to the left as in eastern style. Among consonants, most of the letters are represented in their old or developed Nagari characters in the formation of which effects of the local hand are clearly marked. Only some distinction occurs from the usual northern Nagari in the letters kha, cha, da, na, tha, bha, ra, sa and sa. Kha shows a peculiar variety. The breadth of cha is broader. A new innovation in da is seen in the replacing of left curve by slanting stroke. The cursive na, upper left-curve detached tha, open-mouthed bha and sa, double curved sa, which occur in the preceding period, become more frequent now. Ra furnishes a peculiar tail or hollow triangular loop in the lower portion. In later period hollow triangular with a slanted dividing line in the middle becomes the standard form of the letter ra. It is certainly the shape of ra and va on which basis Bengali and Assamese can be discriminated." Among ligatures, superscribed in shows the use of a dot as in Nagari. The local influence is marked in the leftward double curved form of superscribed n, double curved with a tick form of t, cursive n and hooked form of th. The curly Nagari form of superscript r is noticeable. Medials u, e, ai, o and au represent more than one form in which local features gain more currency. In the local variety, medial u is formed by triangular, or rightward hooked shape. In the formation of medials, e, ai, o and au a tendency of extending the head-mark to left and curving it in a sort of hook is noteworthy. 12th Century The further deterioration of Nagari features and evolution of local script is evident from the illustration shown in Table E, which has been taken from the Khonamukh Plates of Dharmapala. The influence of Nagari For Personal & Private Use Only

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108 Development of Nagari Script characters retained in some letters in forming which too local style is more apparent. Notable new innovation in initial a is seen in the formation of a knob in the left curve. Leftward opened e peculiarly curves its left extension. In the formation of medial signs, the local forms, which previously occurs, frequently employed in this period and developing in the same direction. On the whole, the alphabet of this inscription reveals a transmutation of Nagari into proto-Assamese or Assamese. Orissa The general observation on Eastern Indian alphabets apparently shows more divergence in the Orissa region's script from Northern Nagari than the script of Bengal or Assam. The distinctive writing objects and the writing techniques of the region are mainly responsible in the peculiar transformation which makes the letter more cursive. In course of time, curvature of the letters became prominent and ultimately prepared the way for the development of the Oriya script. Kunjabihari Tripathi believes: "Though the Oriya alphabet is mainly affiliated to proto-Bengali, the influence of the Nagari is also noticed in early Oriya inscriptions." 11th Century Mahulpara plates of Somavamsi king Mahasivagupta-Dharmarath and Nadagam plates of Ganga Vajrahasta are selected and illustrated in Tables D3 and D4 for study. Palaeographically, both inscriptions differ in some respects, but at the same time they represent assertive local influence on the writing. The new development in initial vowels occur in the shapes of a, a, i and e. A of Table Dz shows the same process of development as in Bengal inscriptions. Table DA shows somewhat different mode in which left curve opens downwards with horizontally extended extremities. The shape of long a is also peculiar. It presents a feature from which modern Oriya form emerges later on. I is shaped as a line mark above the two circles in Table Dz. Table DA shows a curved shape in place of line mark. E is of open-mouthed variety in which both left arms become horizontally parallel. However, consonants ka, ja, da, ta, da, dha, ma and ha preserve For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 109 Nagari counterparts. All of these retain old shape. There is nothing noteworthy from the viewpoint of development. Only one point worthy of attention straight formation of right vertical in ja. Other letters mark the evolution towards local scripts. In Table D3, the reminiscent hollow triangular shape appears in the left limb of the letters kha, ga and sa. The hollow-triangle shape is opened in Table D4. The breadth of cha is broader in Table D3. Ta retains archaic double curved shape with right tick. Na extends its right vertical upwards. The letter tha is marked by new innovation in which the upper loop is transformed into a hook and base becomes sloppy. The left arm of the letters pa, pha, ya and sha is bent in the middle. Pha attains Oriya counterpart. Lower extremity of bha extends towards the left instead of the right. The base of va is slanted to meet with the right vertical at the end. Among ligatures, superscript n contains a small circle to the right. Superscribed n is of local type. In medial vowels local forms gain more currency. Of them, a new innovation is marked in u and u. In the new form of u a rightward hook is drawn to the bottom of the letter; u is formed by extending the lower limb and looks like medial ri. 12th Century The further termination of Nagari influence is marked by Bhuvane svara inscription of Svapnesvara, shown in Table Ez The alphabet of this inscription reveals a developmental process of the local script. In this, the most remarkable transformation is noticed in a initial. Tha retains old circular shape. This shape still continues in Oriya. General Remarks The above observations attest that the Nagari features were losing hold in Eastern India during 11th-12th centuries; and the local scripts, namely Bengali, Assamesa, Oriya, etc., were emerging from it. Northern India This vast region was divided into several local states during the period, For Personal & Private Use Only

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110 Development of Nagari Script which maintain distinguished calligraphic peculiarities. In order to understand clearly the development with distinctive characteristics northern Nagari may be assorted into three groups: I. The Middle Ganga Valley, II. Central India and III. Rajasthan. But it is difficult to fix the exact limit of one type of writing because there are overlappings due to socio-political reasons. The Middle Ganga Valley 11th Century Table D, is taken from Goharwa plates of Kalachuri Karna (A.D. 1041-73) and Table Da from Chandravati plates of Gahadavala Chandradeva (A.D. 1093 and 1099). Among initial vowels, the peculiarities of the region which reflect from these inscriptions are noticed in a and i. In a, the lower limb of the left curve prolongs upward and the upper joining bar disappears, or shortens. Table D5 shows a new innovation in i of which curve and circles are substituted by a line. It may be identified as the first progenitor of its modern counterpart. In this period, such type of development only occurs in this region. Other initial vowels, a and u resemble modern Nagari in forms and e curves its left limb. Among consonants, the distinctive letters are cha, bha and sa. The upper left limb of cha detaches from the right vertical and prolongs upwards. Bha shows only transitional phase with right vertical. The outer looped or hooked sa develops to attain the modern counterpart, while in other regions old forms of these letters are more common. In other letters, right limb of ka extends to right, kha and ga resemble modern counterparts. The left curve of gha moves up. A fully developed form of it can be seen in gha of Goharwa plates, Chha presents developing process by placing loops one upon the other. Dha is yet to develop upper oblique shape. The right appendage of pha starts from middle portion in modern style, only differing by right hooked shape instead of modern curvature. Sha slants its middle bar. However, rest of the letters approach fully developed shapes. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 111 Among ligatures, superscript gh is of developed variety, subscript chha retains oval shape and tha is of peculiar double-looped variety. Table D6 reveals an unusual peculiar shape of fra and superscribed s retains openmouthed feature. In medial signs, only the cursive variety is employed for u, right limb of long u prolongs in modern style. Ri in hri is attached to the outer curve while in eastern region joins with the tail. 12th Century The further developments are shown in Tables E4 and Es; taken from Kamauli plate of Gahadavala Govindachandra (A.D. 1126) and Mahoba plates of Chandella Paramardideva (A.D. 1173). These inscriptions reveal developed Nagari characters in which only the development is required in the letters, i, cha, chha, ja, dha and bha. Of these, the initial i shows the transitional form of the letter. Cha occurring in the Kamauli plate is of old beaked variety. Table E, represents a new innovation by flattening the upper left curve. Only the protrusive bar is needed to develop into the modern form. Chha is in archaic oval, or double-looped variety. The right limb of ja becomes almost a straight vertical but upper stroke is yet to coalesce with the lower one to make a single line. Dha shows primitive stage of development by adding an oblique stroke at the upper angle. The left limb of bha still shows an extension towards down instead of modern upward prolongation. In ligatures, the modern form of superscript n is met with in Table Es and th also is of modern type. The medial signs are in Nagari form except e which optionally retains the left vertical form. 13th Century Table F2 is taken from Ajayagadh inscription of Nana (A.D. 1288). Nana was the minister of the Chandella Bhojavarma. In consequence, the inscription follows Chandella style of ornamental and bold writing. A further development is marked in initial i which has taken almost modern shape. Chu and ja are still to develop. Dha presents the developing process For Personal & Private Use Only

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112 Development of Nagari Script by bending the oblique into a curve. The right appendage of pha still is in old looped form with a slanted stroke, while in other inscriptions attains modern curly features. The left limb of bha is falling down. Sa represents a distinctive feature, denoted by a looped hook with slanting bar to the left of the vertical line. In ligatures, n is of old two armed variety without dot. Medial e still retains perpendicular shape. In the top-stroke form of it the ornamentation can be seen. Central India 11th Century The Rajapura plates of Nagavamsi Madhurantakadeva (A.D. 1065) and Sas-Bahu Temple inscription of Kachchhapaghata Mahipala (A.D. 1093) have been selected to study the development of Nagari script in Central India. These are respectively illustrated in Tables D, and Dg. The initial a of these inscriptions differs from that found in the Middle Ganga Valley in which the left curve joins the head-mark. It differs from Western Indian a in having an additional lower slant in the vertical. Initial i shows developing process. A rare long 7 occurs in Sas-Bahu inscription which is formed by a head-mark, a vertically curved line coming down from it and a horizontal curve with one circle on either side below. The left limb of e is denoted by a curve as in the Middle Gangetic region. The triangular variety of foot-mark is retained in the Rajapura inscription but it is developed in tailed form in the later Sas-Bahu inscription. The left notched portion of gha is still horizontally placed. Cha retains beaked shape and Chha is of oval variety. Dha is yet to develop the oblique stroke of upper angle. Table D7 shows archaic open-mouthed bha; but it occurs in transitional phase in Table Dg. Sa presents old inner looped form, while in the Middle Ganga Valley it has taken the form of its modern counterpart. The noticeable point in ligature is the disappearance of the dot in the superscript n. While in the eastern region it always contains a dot in the right portion. The medial signs are usual as in the Middle Ganga Valley. 12th Century The further development in Central Indian Nagari script is marked by For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) a number of inscriptions. We have selected Sarakho plates of Kalachuri Ratnadeva II (A.D. 1128), Mallar inscription of Kalachuri Jajalladeva II (A.D. 1167), Sihava inscription of Kakaira Karnaraja (A.D. 1192), Bhopal plates of Udayavarma (A.D. 1199) and sequentially illustrated them in Tables E6, E7, Eg, & E9. Among initial vowels, a is found in different varieties. Table E6 shows a shape which is similar to that found in Goharva Plates (D5) of previous century. In Table E, it occurs in fully developed northern variety. Table Eg furnishes a peculiar type of it which is shaped as a double curve to the left of the vertical line, without a joining stroke. It becomes further more peculiar in a, where upper curve prolongs to the vertical. Perhaps this formation is due to cursive or rapid hand writing. Initial i of Kalachuri inscriptions represents a transitional phase of the letter as we find in the Middle Ganga Valley, while in Bhopal inscription it is of the old variety. Rare long i occurs in Table E6, formed by adding an additional slanting stroke on the top of i (cf., Pls. 127 & 125). An archaic triangular form of e is met in Sarakho Plates (Table E6). Other initials, u, u and ai resemble their corresponding letters in modern Nagari. 113 Among consonants, most of the letters have taken the shape of modern Nagari counterparts. The development is lacking only in letters cha, ja, pha, ba and bha. In upper horizontal arm of cha a leftward protrusive stroke is yet to develop. Both right limbs of ja are still formed separately. The right appendage of pha is of hook shape. Bha retains its lower extensiion in left arm. A peculiar form for ba occurs in Table E6 which has a tail at the left of the square and prolongation of the right vertical. As for development, the most remarkable letters are chha, na and dha. Chha in E, presents modern features by placing the loops one upon the other in which only the separation in upper tailed portion is needed. In Table Eg na shows a new innovation by curving its left arm as in the modern style. The analogous Nagari type of dha occurs in Table Eg and E9. In ligatures, superscript ph of Table E, shows modern features while For Personal & Private Use Only

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114 Development of Nagari Script subscript tha is of old double-looped variety. Medials are in modern Nagari shapes. The only exception is noticed in the vertical form of e. 13th Century Table Fz is taken from Kuretha Plate of Pratihara Malayavarma (A.D. 1220). This inscription denotes further development in Nagari script of which almost all letters attain their modern counterparts. Development is needed only in initial i, ja, dha and bha. I shows of peculiar variety (Pl. 153, F3). The right limb of ja is yet to become a single vertical. Dha loses its upper top-mark and left arm of bha is still falling downwards. The remarkable development which draws attention is the modern shape of cha. As for the medial vowels, only the top-stroke form of e occurs in this inscription. In it a new innovation is marked in forming a circle at the upper extremity. But perpendicular form is maintained in ai and au. Rajasthan 11th Century For the study of 11th century alphabets in Rajasthan area the Banswara Plates of Paramara Bhojadeva (A.D. 1019) and Kadmal Plates of Guhil Vijayasimha (A.D. 1083) are selected and illustrated in Tables D, and D10. Kadmal Plates which belong to later pericd display more advanced forms of the alphabet than Banswara Plates. Among initial vowels two letters, i.e. i and e, draw attention. Of these i is of archaic form with two circles and one curve below. In e new innovation is marked in the formation of left limb in a single stroke. This is the real base of modern Nagari e. Other initial vowels a, a, u and u also occur in their fully developed form. Among consonants, the left limb of kha, ga and sa show a triangular loop in Table D, whereas it develops into modern rounded form in ga and tailed shape in kha and sa in Table Dio. In Table Dio gha occurs in developed Nagari form and ia denotes a peculiar form which looks like initial u. In dha of Kadmal Plates a new innovation is marked in the formation of an oblique stroke at the upper angle, while other inscriptions For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 115 of the period do not comprise such type of development. In Table Do, pha retains loop with a stroke at right as appendage, bha is of openmouthed variety and sa is of inner looped type. In Table D10 the right appendage of pha is in modern cursive form, bha is of transitional variety and sa is of modern type. The rest of the letters attain their fully developed form. Ligatures and medial vowels are usual as in other parts of Northern India. 12th Century The further development in Nagari script is illustrated in Tables E10 and Eu which have been derived from Paldi inscription of Guhila Arisimha (A.D. 1116) and Nadol inscription of Chahamana Kirtipala (A.D. 1161). Of these inscriptions Paldi inscription is earlier. In the consequence, Nadol inscription furnishes more developed form than Paldi inscription. The peculiarities in initial vowels are marked in i, i, u, e and ai. Of these i retains older form till now in this region, while in other regions it presents transitional phase. I is formed by a hook, a circle and a horizontal top-line. In u an additional hook is added in the lower extremity of u instead of modern cursive middle attachment. Paldi inscription presents an old triangular form for e, whereas it occurs in modern form in Nadol inscription. Ai also shows modern feature. Among consonants, most of the letters resemble their counterparts in modern Nagari. Only the forms of cha, ja, dha, pha and bha are yet to develop. Like other inscriptions of the period these letters denote their developing process. In ligatures, superscript n is still without a dot and n resembles the letter in modern Nagari. Superscript s is to be found in old as well as new type. Subscript tha is of archaic oval variety. 13th Century Table FA is taken from Mandhata Plates of Paramara JayasimhaJayavarma (A.D. 1274) and Table Fs is derived from Kavalji Temple inscription of Chahamana Hammir (A.D. 1288). These inscriptions mark further progress in Nagari script. Development is required only in letters cha and For Personal & Private Use Only

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116 Development of Nagari Script bha. As for cha its upper left protrusive is yet to develop. In bha, the left portion is still falling downwards. Among the initial vowels the lower curve of a prolongs upward. The reminiscent form of i occurs in the Chahaman inscription. Rare initial si occurs in Mandhata Plates which is of transitional variety. Au retains its archaic shape. As for the consonants, medial and ligatures, they approach the form in modern Nagari. Western India and the Deccan The scribes of western India and the Deccan had their own style of writing which diverges from the northern Nagari in its appearances as well as in the special forms employed for some letters. This is called Nandi-Nagari. A.C. Burnello suggests that Nandi-Nagari is directly derived from the North Indian Nagari in about eleventh century A.D. In the same way recorders of Jaina-sect had their own individuality which is known by the name of Jaina-Nagari. The peculiarities of these two variant forms of Nagari may be understood best by the help of Fig. 8. Besides the usual form of Nagari was also in circulation. Gujarat 11th Century Table Du is taken from Paliad and Bhadresvar Plates of Chalukya Bhimadeva I to represent the Nagari alphabet of Gujarat region. There are some peculiarities which draw attention. Both curves of initial a are detached from the right vertical. I retains its old feature. E has a slanting stroke in the left and a bar in the right in modern style, like Kadmal inscription of Guhila king (D10). In consonants, the notable letters are ga, gha, cha, ja, da, na, dha, pha, bha, la and sa. Of these, ga presents modern as well as triangular form in the left limb. Left notched portion of gha is still to take vertical position. Cha retains its beaked shape. In ja left portion is formed by a single stroke and right curve separately joins in the place of straight For Personal & Private Use Only

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SPECIMENS OF NAGARI JAINA-NAGART AND NANDI-NAGARI NAGARI aAi U e ai o au ka kha ay un JAINANAGARI aAi 6 B 20n NANDINAGARI NAGARI Ta ta JAINA-. NAGARI Da. 77 5baTa | Tapa tatha da pa NANDINAGARI NAGARI JAINA NAGARI | pha ba pha. ja ma ya ra la va za Sa sa ha NANDINAGARI para 2 la / FIG.8 For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 117 formation of right vertical. Da presents transitional phase while in other regions it has attained its modern shape. Na shows cursive form of top as in the inscriptions of Eastern India. Dha is yet to develop its upper oblique. The right appendage of the letter pha shows curve with slanted stroke in northern style, while in Maharashtra and eastern region looped form is more common. The old open-mouthed form of bha remains in this region. In la left curve sharply bends inwards. As for sa double looped form is more common in which upper loop is circular and lower one triangular. Along with this the old cursive-topped and modern outer looped forms are also in use in this region. In ligatures, subscript chha and tha are of oval type. D of dvam is in two armed shape. Superscript s and s are met in old as well as in modern forms. 12th Century To mark the development of the alphabet in Gujarat during 12th Cent. A.D. the Veraval inscription of Chalukya Bhima II has been selected and illustrated in Table E12. This inscription represents further development in Nagari script from earlier century. Among initial vowels, a, u, e show fully developed features. The letter cha of cha is in modern shape. Chha represents transitional phase by placing both the loops of the letter one upor the other. The top of the letter na is flat. Dha with its upper oblique stroke represents the process of development. But the left notch of gha is still placed horizontally. Right limb of ja is yet to take the form of single vertical line. The form of bha is yet to develop. Other consonants resemble the letters in modern Nagari. Among medial vowels, the peculiarity may be noticed only in the formation of the left perpendicular type of e. 13th Century Table F6 is taken form the Veraval inscription of Chalukya-Vaghel King Arjuna (A.D. 1264). This inscription records further development in the Nagari script. Initial i has taken fully developed shape. The letters gha and dha have almost taken their modern shapes. But cha in this region For Personal & Private Use Only

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118 Development of Nagari Script is still of beaked variety. Chha is of peculiar oval variety with slanted cross bar of tail. The right limb of ja is yet to take single vertical form. Bha denotes its transitional phase. In ligature bdha, the use of the old square form of b can be seen. Like earlier inscriptions of the region, this inscription also represents more frequent use of the vertical form of e. Maharashtra 11th Century I have selected Kauthem Plates of Chalukya Vikramaditya V (A.D. 1008), Kalas-Budrukh Plates of Yadava Bhillam III (A.D. 1026), Bhandup Plates of Silahara Chhittaraja (A.D. 1026), Kharepatan Plates of Silahara Anantadeva I (A.D. 1094) and illustrated them in Table D1, D13, D14 and Dis respectively. These inscriptions show some peculiarities of the region. They also show some differences among themselves which may be due to these inscriptions belonging to different dynasties who had their own cultural gravity. Of that sequel distinction in the inscriptions are discernible. Kauthem Plates of Chalukya king Vikramaditya V represent the developed form of Western or southern Nagari (D2). Initial a is found in fully developed western or southern variety. The left portion of it is formed by two curves which are joined by a horizontal bar with the right vertical. I persists with its old shape. In the formation of e, the influence of northern regions is clearly marked in which the right limb is formed by a single stroke which is unlike the e found in Gujarat region. Rare au shows its old features. In consonants, left limb of the letters kha, ga and sa are marked with a triangular formation. Left notch of gha is placed horizontally. Cha retains beaked form. The forms of chha and pha are almost same. Both letters furnish a tailed inner loop in the right portion. The letters na and ta show modern features side by side with the old cursive shape. The upper horn of dha is yet to develop. Na retains old curved shape. The archaic form of bha denotes a tail in the left limb. Sa is also of old inner looped variety. Table D13, which has been taken from Kalas-Budrukh Plates of Yadava Bhillan III, shows the northern form of a without lower stroke, For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) progressing feature of i, tailed kha, flat-topped na and vertical form of na. Both forms of bha, archaic open-mouthed and transitional, occur in this inscription. But triangular type of left limb remains in ga and sa. Left curves of gha are horizontally placed. Pha like Kauthem Plates shows an inner loop in the right limb. And sa is also of old inner looped or flattopped variety. 119 The lower extremity of the letters in Silahara inscription is bent to the right. Initial i of both inscriptions present only old features of the letter. The left limb of kha bends to left in cursive or straight form in place of developed tail or archaic triangle shape. The left limb of ga also develops in the same direction. Rare jha occurs in both inscriptions. Tha of tha in Table D15 presents the features of the letter as found in Jaina-Nagari. The top of na is cursive. Table D14 which has been taken from an earlier inscription of this century furnishes only the curved form of ta and na, old type of cursive or flat-topped sa while later Kharepatan plates (Table D15) denote their well developed shape. Dha of this region is still without upper horn. The letter pha differs from the inscriptions of the same region by its outer curve of the right limb in place of inner loop. Bha presents only its transitional phase in which right arm is in curved shape instead of a vertical line. Among ligature, superscribed gh in Table D15 denotes its modern shape. Subscript chha is of oval variety. Optionally letter s retains old open-mouthed shape. The medial vowels are usual as in that period. 12th Century Kolhapur Plates of Silahara Gandaraditya (A.D. 1126) and Kolhapur inscription of Silahara Bhoja II (1190-93) are selected and illustrated in Table E13 & E14 to represent the development in Nagari script in 12th century A.D. The new innovations which draw our attention are found in letters kha, gha, cha, na, dha, ba, bha, sa. The left limb of kha develops into tailed shape as in northern inscriptions. The notched portion of gha prolapse to left and are placed vertically. Cha flattens its upper limb in For Personal & Private Use Only

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120 Development of Nagari Script which only the protrusive stroke is wanted. The top of na becomes flat as in northern inscriptions. Dha develops an oblique stroke in the upper portion. A distinct sign for ba occurs in Table E14 which is shaped with double loops to the left of a vertical line. The right limb of bha becomes vertical. Sa with outer loop denotes the modern phase of the letter. On the whole, these inscriptions furnish developed form of the letters in which the development is required only in the letters cha, ja, dha, ba and bha. Of these, left curve of ja is shorter than other inscriptions. 13th Century Table F, is taken from Kalegaon plates of Yadava Mahadeva (A.D. 1260). This inscription apprises of further development in Nagari script. As for initial vowels a, a and e are of fully developed variety. Initial ri also completes the way of developed in which only the lower hook still remains to develop. Initial vowels i, u and consonant chha denote peculiarities which resemble the corresponding letters in Jaina-Nagari. The breadth of ja is broader as in Jaina-Nagari. The most remarkable development which occurs in this inscription is the use of advanced and modern form of ba, while in other regions the letter is generally represented by the sign of va. Left vertical slant of bha prolongs upward, which shows that it is still in the process of developing into the modern shape. The development requires only in cha, ja and bha. In ligatures, modern form of n occurs in this inscription. Superscript n is formed by a single stroke as in modern western style. Medial vowels display modern shapes along with the usual both forms of e, ai, o and au of the period. In such type of formation top-stroke form of e is more common. Karnataka 11th Century Table D16 is taken from Ittagi Plates of Kadamba Jayakesi I (A.D. 1062) to represent the Nagari script of the region. In place of western double curved form of initial a, here we find the use of northern shape For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 121 with prolonged outer curves from the left vertical. With two arms above the two circles the initial i appears in developing process. Here we find developed forms of kha, na, bha and sa in the place of old features of Maharashtra region. Side by side with the developing horned form dha old shape also persists. The right appendage of pha joins the top instead of being joined in the middle of the vertical as in modern Nagari. The archaic form of open-mouthed sa also survives along with the developed shape. In the ligatures archaism can be noticed in cursive na, flat or round-topped s and oval form of chha and tha. Medials are as usual. 12th Century Asoge Plates of Kadamba Jayakesin II (A.D. 1133) and Nilgunda Plates of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI (A.D. 1087 & 1123) are selected and illustrated in Tables Eis and E16 for the alphabets of 12th century in Karnataka. These inscriptions represent developed form of the letters. Initial vowel i presents its transitional feature. Ai is formed by adding a top-stroke of e medial in the initial e. Rare initial au looks like topless a. The tailless or bulgy form of e display archaism. The advanced and modern form of cha occurs in Asoge Plates, while in other inscriptions of the period it is in old beaked or transitional broader shape. A new innovation be marked in sha in which cross-bar is placed horizontally in straight line form (Pl. 122). Among the consonants development is yet to be recorded in gha, ja, dha, pha and bha. Among ligatures, the peculiar form of ksha, dotted r, oval chha are noteworthy (Pl. 149). The most notable peculiarity among the medial vowels is the frequent use of perpendicular type of e. The concluding phrase sri-Saradayai namah of Nilgunda Plates is written in Sarada alphabet, a feature which is probably due to the fact that the scribe, Mallaya, hailed from Kashmir. 13th Century Table Fg is derived from the Copper plate grants of Hoysala ViraBallala II (A.D. 1204). R.S. Panchamukhi remarks about the palaeography that, "the inscription is written in the Nagari alphabet which furnishes one For Personal & Private Use Only

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122 Development of Nagari Script of the earliest specimens of the Nandi-Nagari that subsequently became the ruling alphabet of the Vijayanagara period."10 The letters of Nandi-Nagari become compact and consequently diverges from corresponding Nagari characters. Calligraphically, the new alphabet is not as much appealing as Nagari. As for individual letters, the lower extremity of the outer curves in a and u are bent downwards and e retains tailless old feature. Gha places its notched shape horizontally. However, the left limb of cha is in triangular looped shape. The lower curve of ja is shortened and bends down. Da presents two forms of the letter, one looks like initial u and other denotes usual Nagari shape with the difference of less prolongation in lower extremity. Left arm of na is straight and its three arms are approximately equal. The head-mark of tha disappears and upper left limb is detached from the right vertical. The upper portion of dha is formed by two strokes arranging in notched shape. The left looped protion of na is slanted. Right appendage of pha starts from the head-mark. Advanced and modern looking form for ba occurs in this inscription. Ra looks somewhat like old and is of slanted footmarked variety. The joining bar of the letter la is notched and the outer curve bends sharply inwards which sometimes becomes looped. Among ligatures, subscribed chha retains oval shape and ya of dhya shows peculiarity. In the formation of medial vowels some peculiarities are noticeable. Medial a, i, i are denoted by fully extended line side by side with short line. U bends its extremity down. A peculiar shape for medial u appears in ru which is formed by a rightward stroke. An additional leftward stroke is added in the form of u to make it long u. This shape becomes the peculiarity of Nandi-Nagari. The rightward stroke form for ri occurs in this inscription which becomes common in Nandi-Nagari. Medial e and o are represented by top-stroke. In ai and au both the forms, i.e. top-stroke and perpendicular are to be found. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) Notes and References 1. Buhler, Indian., p., 70; Ojha, Bharatiya., pp. 68-70. 2. Kapadia, "A Detailed Exposition.." p., 394. 3. Sircar, D.C. "Introduction to Indian Epigraphy and Palacography," JAIH, IV, p. 117; Diringer, Alphabet., p., 361. 4. Cf., the alphabet of Bangarh grant of Mahipala 1, R.D. Banerji, El, XIV, pp. 324-30, Pls. b. pp. 326-27; and Irda grant of Nayapaladeva, N.G. Majumdar, El, XXII, pp. 150-59, Pls. b. pp. 154-55. 5. Chakravarti, S.N., "Development of the Bengali Alphabet from the fifth century A.D. to the end of the Muhammadan Rule," JASBL, IV, p., 365. 123 6. Wright, H.N., The Coinage and Metrology of the Sultans of Delhi, Delhi, 1936; Hirananda Sastri, "Devanagari and the Muhammadan.," pp. 492-97. 7. Bora, Mahendra, The Evolution of Assamese Script, Assam, 1981, p., 70. 8. The Evolution of Oriya Language and Script, Cuttack, 1962, p., 44. 9. Elements., pp. 52-53. 10. Karnataka Inscriptions, vol. I, p., 58. Bibliography Eastern India Inscriptions of Bihar & Bengal 1. Bihar grant of Sauraditya of A.D. 1020, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXV, pp. 131-36, Pls. b. pp. 134-35; (Tables D1 & N32).* 2. A Copper plate grant of Kramaditya of A.D. 1062, V. V. Mirashi, JBRS, LI, pp. 55-57, Pl. f. p., 56. 3. Silsila inscription of Angasimha's time of A.D. 1105, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXVI, pp. 39-41, Pl. f. p., 40. 4. Tarachandi rock inscription of Pratapdhaval of A.D. 1168, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 23-27, Pls. b. pp. 26-27; (Table N32).* For Personal & Private Use Only

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124 Development of Nagari Script 5. Nalanda inscription of Vipulasrimitra, N. G. Majumdar, Ibid., XXI, pp. 97-101, Pl. f. p., 98. 6. Bronze sculpture inscription of Arapachan from Nepal, P. Banerjee, JBRS, XXXIII, pp. 164-69, Pls. I-V. 7. Gaya inscription of the time of Sultan Muizzuddin of A.D. 1200, Ibid., LII, pp. 71-95, Pl. vii; (Tables Fi & N33).* 8. Gaya epigraph of A.D. 1268 noticing Balban as Biruban, H. N. Ansari, Ibid., LIII, pp. 170-81, Pl. xxxiv; (Tables Fi & N33).* Inscriptions of Assam 1. Gauhati grant of Indrapala of year 8; D. Sarma, Ks, pp. 91-98, Pl. f. p., 91; (Table D).* 2. Guakuchi grant of Indrapala of year 21, Ibid., pp. 99-102, Pl. f. p., 102; (Table D2).* 3. Gachtal plates of Gopalavarmadeva, Ibid., pp. 103-17, Pls. f. p., 103 & b. pp. 114-15. 4. Khonamukh plates of Dharmapala of year 1, Ibid., pp. 118-23, Pls. f. p., 118 & b. pp. 122-23; (Table E2).* 5. Silimpur inscription of Jayapaladeva, R. G. Basak, EI, XIII, pp. 283-85, Pl. f.p., 290. Inscriptions of Orissa 1. Mahulpara plates of Mahasivagupta-Dharmarath, P. R. Srinivasan, EI, XXXVII, pp. 225-32, Pls. b. pp. 228-29; (Tables Dz & N32).* 2. Ganjam plates of Ganga Vajrahasta III of A.D. 1069, R. C. Majumdar, Ibid., XXIII, pp. 67-73, Pl. f. p., 72. 3. Badakhimedi plates of Indravarman, P. N. Bhattacharya, Ibid., XXIII, pp. 78-80, Pls. b. pp. 80-81. 4. A charter of Kulika Virapachandradeva, P. R. Srinivasan, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 63-65, Pls. b. pp. 64-65. 5. Bhuvanesvar inscription of Svapnesvara of the time of Ganga For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) Aniyankabhima, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., VI, pp. 198-203, Pl. f. p., 202; (Table E3).* 6. Two Bhanja grants in the Orissa State Museum, P. R. Srinivasan, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 257-68, Pls. b. pp. 260-61, 266-67 & f. p., 268. Inscriptions of Eastern Ganga 1. Narasapatam plates of Vajrahasta III of A.D. 1045, S. Konow, EI, XI, pp. 147-53, Pls. b. pp. 150-51 & f. p., 152. 125 2. Nadgam Plates of Vajrahasta of A.D. 1057, G. V. Rammurti, Ibid., IV, pp. 183-93, Pls. b. pp. 190-91; (Table D4).* 3. Arasavalli plates of Vajrahasta of A.D. 1060, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 310-16, Pls. f. pp. 312, 314 & 315. 4. Madras museum plates of Vajrahasta of A.D. 1062, S. Konow, Ibid., IX, pp. 94-98, Pls. b. pp. 96-97. Northern India Pratihara Inscriptions 1. Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Trilochanapala of A.D. 1027, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVIII, pp. 33-35, Pl. f. p., 34. 2. Kara inscription of Yasahpala, D. R. Sahni, JRAS, 1927, Pl. f. p., 694. 3. Two Pratihara grants from Kuretha of Malayavarman & Naravarman of A.D. 1220 & 1247, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXX, pp. 143-52, Pls. b. pp. 148-49; (Tables F3 & N34).* 4. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Malayakshitisa of A.D. 1225, Ibid., XXXVIII, Pl. f. p., 306. 5. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Malayakshamapala of A.D. 1225, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 306. 6. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Malayavarman's time, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 307. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script 7. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Naravarman's time, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 308. 126 Gahadavala Inscriptions 1. Dubi stone inscription of the time of Gahadavalas, A. S. Altekar, JUPHS, V, pp. 86-88, Pl. f. P., 88. 2. Chandravati plate of Chandradeva of A.D. 1090, S. Konow, EI, IX, pp. 302-05, Pl. f. p., 304. 3. Chandravati plates of Chandradeva of A.D. 1093 & 1097, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., pp. 192-209, Pls. b. pp. 192-93; (Tables D6 & N35).* 4. Allahabad museum plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1114, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 176-80, Pl. f. p., 179. 5. Three new copper plate grants of Govindachandra from Raiwan of A.D. 1123-28, A. Fuhrer, JASB, LVI, pp. 106-23, Pls. VI-VIII. 6. Maner plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1126, R. Sarma, JBORS, II, pp. 441-47, Pl. f. p., 445. 7. Kamauli plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1126, F. Kielhorn, EI, IV, pp. 97-100, Pl. f. p., 100; (Table 4).* 8. Kamauli plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1127, R. K. Ghoshal, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 68-74, Pl. f. p., 72. 9. Copper plate inscription of Govindachandra of A.D. 1129, H. Sastri, Ibid., XIII, pp. 295-97, Pl. f. P., 297. 10. Sahet-Mahet plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1129, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., XI, pp. 20-26, Pl. f. P., 24. 11. Rajghat plates of Govindachandra of A.D. 1140, Krishna Deva, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 268-73, Pls. b. pp. 272-73. 12. Unao Suvratnath image inscription of the time of Govindachandra of A.D. 1153, D. C. Sircar, IHQ, XXX, pp. 185-88. Pl. f. p., 184. 13. Sarnath inscription of Kumaradevi, S. Konow, EI, IX, pp. 319-28, Pl. f. p., 324. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 14. Spurious grant of Vijayachandra of A.D. 1166, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 153-58, Pl. b. pp. 156-57. 15. Some Gahadaval grants, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXV, pp. 201-20 & Pls.; (Table N35).* 127 16. A Buddhist inscription from Bodh-Gaya of reign of Jayachchandra of A.D. 119X, N. B. Sanyal, IHQ, V, pp. 14-30, Pl. f. p., 17; (Table E1).* 17. Lucknow Museum plate of Jayachchandra of A.D. 1180, N. P. Chakravarti, Ibid., XXIV, pp. 291-95, Pls. b. pp. 294-95. Inscriptions of the Kalachuri of Sarayupara 1. Kasia stone inscription, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. LXI. 2. Kahla plates of Sodhadeva of A.D. 1079, Ibid., Pl. LXII. Inscriptions of the Kalachuri of Tripuri 1. Makundpur stone inscription of Gangeyadeva of A.D. 1019, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. XXXVII. 2. Paikore inscription of Karna (proto-Bengali), Ibid., Pl. XXXIX. 3. Inscriptions of Karna, Ibid., Pls. XXXVIII & XL-XLIV; (Table D5).* 4. Tewar inscription of Gayakarna of A.D. 1151, Ibid., Pl. XLVII. 5. Khairha and Jabalpur plates of Yasahakarna, Ibid., Pls. XLV & XLVI. 6. Bhera-Ghat, Lal-Pahad, Alha-Ghat inscriptions of Narasimha, Ibid., Pls. XLIX-LI. . 7. Jabalpur, Rewa, plates and Tewar, inscriptions of Jayasimha, Ibid., Pls. LII-LV. 8. Rewa and Bhera-Ghat inscription of Vijayasimha, Ibid., Pls. LVILVIII. 9. Jhulpur and Umariya plates of Vijayasimha, JESI, VII, Pl. XIX-XXI. Inscriptions of the Kalachuri of Ratanapur 1. Raipur and Amoda plates of Prithvideva I, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pls. LXIII-LXIV. For Personal & Private Use Only

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128 Development of Nagari Script 2. Ratanpur & Pali inscription of Jajalladeva I, Ibid., Pl. LXV; (Table N36).* 3. Sheorinarayan, Sarakho, Akalatara and Paragaon inscriptions of Rat nadeva II, Ibid., Pls. LXVI-LXVIII & CI; (Table E6).* 4. Inscriptions of Prithvideva II, Ibid., Pls. LXIX-LXXVIII & CII; (Table N37).* 5. Mallar, Sheorinarayan and Amoda inscriptions of Jajalladeva II, Ibid., LXXIX-LXXXI; (Table E7).* 6. Kharod inscription of Ratnadeva III, Ibid., Pl. LXXXII. 7. Pendrabandha plates of Pratapamalla, Ibid., Pl. LXXXIII. 8. Bilaigarh plates of Pratapamalla, Ibid., Pl. LXXXIV. Chandella Inscriptions 1. Nanyaur plate of Dhangadeva of A.D. 1050, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVI, pp. 204-07, Pl. f. p., 206. 2. Ajayagadh inscription of Kirttivarman, S. L. Katare, EI, XXX, pp. 87-90, Pl. f. p., 90; (Table N38).* 3. Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Madanvarman of A.D. 1135, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 118-22, Pl. f. p., 122. 4. Plate of Madanavarmadeva of A.D. 1138, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVI, pp. 207-10, Pl. f. p., 208. 5. Semra plates of Paramardideva of A.D. 1167, W. Cartellieri, EI, IV, pp. 166-67, Pls. b. pp. 166-67. 6. Mahoba plates of Paramardideva of A.D. 1173, Hira Lal, Ibid., XVI, pp. 9-15, p., f. p., 12; (Table E5).* 7. Pachar plate of Paramardideva of A.D. 1176, Arthur Venis, Ibid., X, pp. 44-49, Pls. b. pp. 48-49. 8. Bharat Kala Bhavan plates of Paramardideva of A.D. 1185 & 1190 D. C. Sircar, XXXII, pp. 123-28, Pls. f. p., 123 & b. pp. 126-27. 9. Garra plates of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1204, K. N. Dikshit, Ibid., XVI, pp. 272-77, Pls. b. pp. 274-75. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 129 10. Saugor plate of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1207, Barua & Chakravarty, JBBRAS, NS, XXIII, pp. 47-51, Pl. f. p. 52. 11. Tehri plate of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1208, S. L. Katare, EI, XXXI, pp. 70-73, Pl. f. p., 72. 12. Dhureti plates of Trailokyamalla of A.D. 1212, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. LX. 13. Ramvan plate of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1226, EI, XXXVIII, pp. 269-74, Pl. f. p., 272. 14. Ajayagadh inscription of Nana of A.D. 1288, H. L. Srivastava, Ibid., XXVIII, pp. 98-107, Pl. f. p., 102; (Table F2).* 15. Charkhari plate of Hammiravarmadeva of A.D. 1289, Hira Lal, Ibid., XX, pp. 134-36, Pl. f. p., 136. Paramara Inscriptions 1. Udepur Prasasti of the king of Malwa, Buhler, EI, I, pp. 222-38, Pl. f. p., 234. 2. Three Paramara inscriptions from Malwa, K. N. Sastri, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 25-30, Pls. b. pp. 28-29. 3. Mahudi plates of Bhoja of A.D. 1017, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 215-18, Pls. b. pp. 218-19. 4. Banswara plates of Bhojadeva of A.D. 1019, E. Hultzsch, Ibid., XI, pp. 181-83, Pls. b. pp. 182-83; (Table D,).* 5. Betma plates of Bhoja of A.D. 1019, D. B. Diskalkar, Ibid., XVIII, pp. 320-25, Pls. b. pp. 322-23. 6. Sasan of Bhoja of Dhar of A.D. 1021, N. G. Kirtne, IA, VI, pp. 53-55, Pls. f. pp. 53 & 54. 7. New plates of king Bhoja in the Indore Museum of A.D. 1022. Ojha, IHQ, VIII. pp. 305-15, Pls. f. pp. 305 & 312. 8. Modas plate of the time of Bhoja, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXIII, pp. 192-98, Pls. b. pp. 196-97. For Personal & Private Use Only

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130 Development of Nagari Script 9. Bhojapur fragmentary inscription of the time of Bhoja, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 185-86, Pl. f. p., 186. 10. Mandhata plates of Jayasimha of A.D. 1055, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., III, pp. 46-50, Pl. f. p., 50. 11. Udayapur inscription of Udayaditya of A.D. 1080, Ramsharma, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 281-84, Pls. b. pp. 282-83. 12. Bhojapur inscription of the time of Naravarman of A.D. 1100, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, p., 186, Pl. f. p., 186. 13. Arthuna inscription of the time of Vijayaraja of A.D. 1109 R. R. Halder, Ibid., XXI, pp. 50-55, Pl. f. p., 52. 14. Kadambapadraka grant of Naravarman of A.D. 1110, R. D. Banerji, Ibid., XX, pp. 105-08, Pls. b. pp. 106-07. 15. Raipur plate of Naravarman, Rungevalli Recent Researches in Indol ogy, Pls. 17-20. 16. Mahakalesvara Temple inscription of the time of Naravarman, K. N. Sastri, EI, XXXI, pp. 25-28, Pls. b. pp. 28-29. 17. Dongargaon inscription of the time of Jaggadeva of A.D. 1112, V. V. Mirashi, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 177-85, Pl. f. p., 183. 18. Jodhpur museum inscription of Visala of A.D. 1117, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 222-24, Pl. f. p., 224. 19. Bhopal plates of Mahakumar Harischandradeva of A. D. 1157, N. P. Chakravarti, Ibid., XXIV, pp. 225-34, Pls. b. pp. 232-33. 20. Abu Plates of Dharavarsha, R. R. Halder, IA, LVI, pp. 47-51, Pls. b. pp. 50-51. 21. Dhar prasasti of Arjunavarman, E. Hultzsch, EI, VIII, pp. 96-122, Pls. f. pp. 106, 112 & 116. 22. Harsauda inscription of Devapala of A.D. 1218, Burgess & B. L. Indraji, ICTWI, pp. 11-12, last plate. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 23. Dhanta image inscription of Somasimha of A.D. 1220, C. L. Suri, EI, XXXVII, pp. 209-11, Pl. f. p., 211. 131 24. Mandhata plates of Devapala of A.D. 1225, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., IX, pp. 103-16, Pls. b. pp. 110-11; (Table N39).* 25. Bhilsa inscription of the time of Jayasimha of A.D. 1263, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 187-88, Pl. f. p., 187. 26. Pathari inscription of the time of Jayasimhadeva II of A. D. 1269, Ramsharma, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 33-34, Pl. f. p., 34. 27. Mandhata plates of Jayasimha-Jayavarman of A.D. 1274, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 138-56, Pls. b. pp. 148-49, 150-51, 154-55 & f. p., 156; (Table F4).* 28. Girvad stone inscription of the time of Pratapasimha, H. V. Trivedi, CII, VII, Pl. II, pp. 270-77, Pl. LXXXII. Chahaman Inscriptions 1. Sevadi plates of Ratnapala of A.D. 1119, Ram Karna, EI, XI, pp. 304-13, Pls. b. pp. 310-11. 2. A Chahaman inscription of A.D. 1132, C. L. Suri, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 163-64, Pl. f. p., 164. 3. Nadol plates of Kirtipala of A.D. 1161, Ram Karna, IA, XL, pp. 144-47, Pls. b. PP. 144-45; (Table E11).* 4. Bamner plate of Kelhana of A.D. 1163 & 1166, M. B. Garde, EI, XIII, pp. 206-11, Pls. b. pp. 208-209. 5. Anvalda pillar inscription of Somesvara and Prithviraja III, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 278-81, Pl. f. P., 281. 6. Menal inscription of the time of Prithviraja of A.D. 1169, Ram Sharma, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 155-58, Pl. f. p., 320. 7. Barla inscription of the time of Prithviraja III of A.D. 1177, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 299-304, Pl. f. P., 303. For Personal & Private Use Only

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132 Development of Nagari Script 8. Two Songira Chauhan inscriptions from Barlut of A.D. 1226 & 1273, Sircar & Ramesh, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 33-38, Pls. b. pp. 36-37. 9. Menal inscription of Meghanand of A.D. 1255, Ram Sharma, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 155-58, Pl. f. p., 158. 10. Nun inscription of Sodhadeva of A.D. 1279, C. L. Suri, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 305-06, Pl. f. p., 306. 11. Inscription of the time of Hammir of Ranthambhor of A.D. 1288, Ibid., XIX, pp. 45-52, Pl. f. p., 50; (Tables Fs & N40).* 12. Varda inscription of Samantasimha of A.D. 1290, C. L. Suri, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 43-54, Pl. f. p., 45. Miscellaneous 1. Rajapur plates of Nagavamsi Madhurantakadeva of A.D. 1065, Hira Lal, EI, IX, pp. 174-81, Pls. b. pp. 178-79; (Table D7).* 2. Kadmal plates of Guhila Vijayasimha of A.D. 1083, A. K. Vyas, EI, XXXI, pp. 237-48, Pls. b. pp. 246-47; (Table D10).* 3. Dubkund inscription of Kachchhapaghata Vikramasimha of A.D. 1088, ASIR, XX, Pls. XXI & XXIII. 4. Kalanjar inscription of A.D. 1090, S. L. Katare, EI, XXXI, pp. 163 66, Pl. f. p., 165. 5. Sas-Bahu Temple inscription of Kachchhapaghata Mahipala of A.D. 1093, F. Kielhorn, IA, XV, pp. 33-46, Pl. f. p., 36; (Table D8).* 6. Lucknow Museum plate of Kirtipala of A.D. 1110, F. Kielhorn, EI, VII, pp. 93-98, Pls. b. pp. 96-97. 7. Paldi inscription of Guhila Arisimha of A.D. 1116, A. K. Vyas, Ibid., XXX, pp. 8-12, Pl. f. p., 10; (Tables E10 & N41).* 8. Kamauli plate of Singar Vatsaraja of A.D. 1134, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., XI, pp. 130-33, Pls. b. pp. 24-25. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 133 9. Jain inscription from Shergarh of A.D. 1134, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 81-86, Pl. f. p., 84. 10. Mahaban prasasti of A.D. 1150, G. Buhler, Ibid., II, pp. 275-79, Pls. b. pp. 274-75. 11. Delhi Siwalik inscription of Visaladeva of A.D. 1163, F. Kielhorn, IA, XIX, pp. 215-19, Pl. f. p., 218. 12. Durgapur pedestal inscription of A.D. 1169, ASI, ARIE, 1963-64, p., 64 (132), Pl. II. 13. Sihawa inscription of Kakair Karnaraja of A.D. 1192, Hira Lal, EI, IX, pp. 182-87, Pl. f. p., 186; (Table Eg).* 14. Two inscriptions of Ajayapaladeva of A.D. 1192 & 1194, Ramasharma, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 132-34, Pls. b. pp. 132-33. 15. Machhalisahar plate of Harischandradeva of Kanauja of A.D. 1196, Hirananda, Ibid., X, pp. 93-100, Pls. b. pp. 98-99. 16. Bhopal plates of Udayavarman of A.D. 1199, J. F. Fleet, IA, XVI, pp. 252-56, Pls. b. pp. 256-57; (Table Ey).* 17. Jhansi inscription of Sallakshanasimha, F. Kielhorn, EI, I, pp. 214-17, Pl. f. p., 216. 18. Thakarda inscription of the time of Surapaladeva, R. R. Halder, IA, LVI, pp. 216-17, Pl. f. p., 226. 19. Narayanpal inscription of Naga Gunda Mahadevi, Hiralal, EI, IX, pp. 311-16, Pl. f. p., 314. 20. Chittoragarh inscription, ASI, AREI, 1956-57, p., 84 (473), Pl. III. 21. Pujaripali inscription of Gopaladeva, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. XCIV. 22. Thankpar plates of Somavamsi Pamparajadeva of A.D. 1213 & 1214, Ibid., Pl. XCVI (A-B). 23. Bhera-Ghat inscription of A.D. 1218, ICTWI, p. 105-11, Pl. inscrip tion I. For Personal & Private Use Only

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134 Development of Nagari Script 24. Unchahra fragmentary inscription of A.D. 1237, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXIII, pp. 121-24, Pl. f. p., 124. 25. Jain inscription at the Temple of Neminath on Mount Abu of Tejapal of A.D. 1230, H. Luders, Ibid., VIII, pp. 219-22, Pl. f. p., 212. 26. Baraudi inscription of the time of Gopala of A.D. 1279, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 31-35, Pl. f. p., 34; (Table N42).* 27. Narwar inscription of the time of Gopala of A.D. 1282, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 36-40, Pl. f. p., 40. 28. Inscriptions of the time of Gopala of A.D. 1281 & 1284, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 323-36, Pls. b. pp. 326-27. 29. Inscription of A.D. 1283 from Survaya, M. S. Bhat, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 263-66, Pl. f. p., 264. 30. Two inscription of the time of Ganapati of A.D. 1293 & 1298, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXII, pp. 339-46, Pls. f. pp. 342 & 346. 31. Budhera inscription of A.D. 1294, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 163-66, Pl. f. p., 165. 32. Lal-Darwaja Masjid inscription of A.D. 1296, ASIR, XI, Pl. XXXVII (3). 33. Fragmentary. Yajvapala inscription from Narwara, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXIII, pp. 65-70, Pl. f. p., 68. 34. Ajayagadh inscription, ASIR, XXI, Pls. XIII-XIV. 35. Rajaghat inscription of Bhimadeva, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXII, pp. 277-82, Pl. f. p., 281. 36. Rataul plate of Chahadadeva, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., XII, pp. 221-24, Pl. f. p., 224. Western India and the Deccan Chalukya Inscriptions 1. Kauthem Plates of Vikramaditya V of A.D. 1008, Fleet, IA, XVI, pp. 15-24, Pls. b. pp. 22-23; (Table D12).* For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 2. Miraj plates of Jayasimha II of A.D. 1024, L. D. Barnett, EI, XII, pp. 303-15, Pls. b. pp. 312-13. 135 3. Mumdaka grant of Bhimadeva of A.D. 1029, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 35-37, Pl. f. p., 36. 4. Copper-plates of Somesvara I of A.D. 1047, IAR, 1974-75, Pl. XLVIII. 5. A Copper-plate grant of Trilochanapala of A.D. 1050, H. H. Dhruva, IA, XII, pp. 196-205, Pls. b. pp. 202-03; (Table N43).* 6. Paliad plates of Bhimadeva I of A.D. 1055, A. L. Basham, EI, XXXIII, pp. 235-37, Pl. f. p., 236; (Table D11).* 7. Bhadresvar plates of Bhimadeva I of A.D. 1060, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 37-40, Pl. f. p., 39; (Table D11).* 8. Palanpur plates of Bhimadeva of A.D. 1063, K. N. Dikshit, Ibid., XXI, pp. 171-72, Pl. f. p., 172. 9. Two sets of Chalukya copper plate from Navasari of A.D. 1074, G. V. Acharya, JBBRAS, XXVI, pp. 250-64, Pl. f. p., 264. 10. Tilgundi grant of Tribhuvanamalla of A.D. 1083, S. P. Pandit, IA, I, pp. 80-84, Pls. b. pp. 80-81. 11. Sitabaldi inscription of the time of Vikramaditya VI of A.D. 1086, F. Kielhorn, EI, III, pp. 304-06, Pl. f. P., 306. 12. Nilagund plates of Vikramaditya VI of A.D. 1087 & 1123, L. D. Barnett, Ibid., XII, pp. 142-55, Pls. b. pp. 152-53; (Table E16).* 13. Sunak plates of king Karna I of A.D. 1091, E. Hultzsch, Ibid., I, pp. 316-18, Pls. b. pp. 316-17. 14. Ganesvadi inscription of the time of Tribhubanmalla of A.D. 1099, V. M. Kolte, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 289-304, Pls. b. pp. 290-91 & f. p., 292. 15. A Chalukya grant of A.D. 1207, E. Hultzsch, IA, XI, pp. 337-40, Pls. b. pp. 338-39. For Personal & Private Use Only

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136 Development of Nagari Script 16. Patan plates of Bhimadeva II, H. H. Dhruva, IA, XI, pp. 71-73, Pls. b. pp. 72-73. 17. Veraval inscription of Bhima II, V. P. Joharapurkar, EI, XXXIII, pp. 117-20, Pl. f. p., 120; (Table E12).* 18. Mount Abu inscription of the reign of Bhimadeva II of A.D. 1230, H. Luders, EI, VIII, pp. 200-29, Pls. f. pp. 212 & 222. 19. Veraval inscription of Arjuna of A.D. 1264, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 143-52, Pl. f. p., 148; (Table F6).* 20. Desan inscription of the time of Karna of A.D. 1297, C. C. Das Gupta, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 153-56, Pl. f. p., 152. Silahara Inscriptions. 1. Kharepatan & Balipattan plates of Rattaraja of A.D. 1008-1010, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pls. LXXIX-LXXXVII. 2. Thana plates of Arikesarin of A.D. 1017, Ibid., Pl. XXI. 3. Inscriptions of Chittaraja of A.D. 1026-1034, Ibid., Pls. XXII-XXXIV; (Table D14).* 4. Thana plates of Nagarjuna of A.D. 1039, Ibid., Pls. XXXV-XXXVI. 5. Inscriptions of Mummuniraja of A.D. 1048-1060, Ibid., Pls. XXXVII XLIV; (Table N44).* 6. Inscription of Anantadeva I of A.D. 1081-1094, Ibid., Pls. XLV-L; (Table D15).* 7. Talale and Kolhapur inscriptions of Gandaraditya of A.D. 1110-1126, Ibid., Pls. XCII-XCVI & C-CI; (Table 13).* 8. Inscriptions of Aparaditya of A.D. 1127-1138, Ibid., LI-LVII. 9. Panhale plates of Vikramaditya of A.D. 1139, Ibid., Pls. LVIII-LXI. 10. Inscriptions of Haripaladeva of A.D. 1148-1154, Ibid., LXII-LXV. 11. Chiplun and Bassein inscriptions of Mallakarjuna of A.D. 1156-1161, Ibid., Pls. LXVI-LXVII. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 137 12. Inscriptions of Aparaditya II of A.D. 1184-1186, Ibid., Pls. LXVIII LXX. 13. Kolhapur inscription of Bhoja II of A.D. 1190-93, Ibid., Pl. CXII CXIII; (Table E14).* 14. Bassein stone inscription of Anantadeva II of A.D. 1198, Ibid., Pl. LXXI; (Table N45).* 15. Inscriptions of Keshideva II of A.D. 1203-39, Ibid., Pls. LXXII-LXXIV. 16. Ranvad inscription of Somesvara of A.D. 1259, Ibid., Pl. LXXV. 17. Chanje inscription of Somesvara of A.D. 1260, Ibid., Pl. LXXVI. Kadamba Inscriptions 1. Savai-Vere plates of Guhalladeva II of A.D. 1038, M. G. Dikshit, JUPHS, XVIII, pp. 174-95, Pls. b. pp. 194-95. 2. Ittagi plates of Jayakeshi of A.D. 1062, IA, AR, 1974-75, Pl. XLVII; (Table D16).* 3. Copper-plate grant of Tribhuvanamalla of A.D. 1106, P. B. Desai, EI, XXX, pp. 71-77, Pls. b. pp. 76-77. 4. Asoge plates of Jayakeshin of A.D. 1133, G. H. Khare, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 304-09, Pls. b. pp. 308-09; (Table E15).* 5. Savaragaon inscription of Marudadeva of A.D. 1164, Prachin Marathi Koriv Lekh, Pl. 13. 6. Sadasivagad plates of Vijayaditya of A.D. 1180, P. B. Desai, EI, XXIX, pp. 29-32, Pls. b. pp. 30-31. 7. Dodavad plates of Jayakeshi III of A.D. 1209, R. N. Guruv, JESI, III, pp. 43-68, Pls. f. pp. 48, 50, 52 & 54. 8. Gadivore grant of Sharthadeva II of A.D. 1262, G. S. Gai, EI, XXXIV, pp. 107-12, Pls. b. pp. 108-09. Yadava Inscription 1. Kalas-Budrukh plates of Bhillam III of A.D. 1026, J. F. Fleet, IA XVII, pp. 117-22, Pls. b. pp. 118-19; (Table D13).* For Personal & Private Use Only

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138 Development of Nagari Script 2. Two Yadava charters from Devalali of A.D. 1052, S. Sankaranar ayanan, EI, XXXVII, pp. 74-84, Pls. b. pp. 80-81. 3. Asvi Plates of Airamadeva of A.D. 1098, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 249-56, Pls. b. pp. 252-53. 4. Yadava Inscription of A.D 1141, B. L. Indraji, IA, XII, pp. 119-29, Pl. f. p., 126. 5. Yadava Inscription from Patan of A.D. 1153, Buhler, Ibid., VIII, pp. 39-42, Pl. f. p., 40. 6. The Sakalesvara Temple inscription of Kholesvara of A.D. 1228, YIAJ, Pl. f. p., 5. 7. The Yogesvari Temple inscription of Kholesvara, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 37. 8. Prakasa inscription of Simhana's Time of A.D. 1234, Sircar & Sub rahmanyam, EI, XXXVI, pp. 19-22, Pl. f. p., 21. 9. Karalahalli grant of Simhana of A.D. 1238, J. F. Fleet, JBBRAS, XV, pp. 382-90, Pls. b. pp. 386-87. 10. Amba inscriptions of Simhana of A.D. 1240, ASWI, III, Pl. LVIII. 11. Dharwar plates of the time of Simhana, Sircar & Sankaranarayanan, EI, XXXIV, Pls. b. pp. 38-39, & f. p., 41. 12. The Ramanarayan Temple inscription of Lakshmi of A.D. 1240, YIAJ, Pl. f. p., 49. 13. Tasgaon plates of Krishna of A.D. 1250, G. H. Khare, EI, XXVII, pp. 206-16, Pls. b. pp. 212-13. 14. Methi inscription of Krishna of A.D. 1254, P. B. Desai, Ibid., XXVIII, pp. 312-20, Pl. f. p., 319; (Table N46).* 15. Kalegaon plates of Mahadeva of A.D. 1260, D. G. Kaparkar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 31-44, Pls. b. pp. 38-39 & 42-43; (Table F7)* 16. Thana plates of the time of Ramachandra of A.D. 1272, L. D. Barnett, Ibid., XIII, pp. 198-206, Pls. b. pp. 200-201. For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 139 17. Unkesvara inscription of Ramachandra of A.D. 1280, Inscriptions from Nanded District, Pl. XVIII. Miscellaneous 1. Dive Agar Marathi copper charter of A.D. 1060, M. G. Dikshit, EI, XXVIII, pp. 121-24, Pl. f. p., 124. 2. Kondguli inscription of Bhuvalokamalla of A.D. 1132, K. V. Ramesh, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 189-92, Pls. b. pp. 192-93. 3. Balsane inscription of the time of Krishna of A.D. 1184, M. G. Dikshit, EI, XXVI, pp. 309-13, Pl. f. p., 312. 4. Society's Museum plate of A.D. 1187, B. L. Indraji, JBBRAS, XII, pp. 329-35, Pl. f. p., 334. 5. Inscription of Kakatiya Ganapati of A.D. 1199, IAR, 1958-59, Pl. LXVIII. 6. Karnatak copper plate grant of Hoysala Vira-Ballala of A.D. 1204, KI, I, Pls. f. pp. 58, 60, 62 & 64; (Table Fg).* 7. Inscription from the Temple of Vastupal Tejapala of A.D. 1231, ASWI, AKK, Pl. XXXV. 8. Veraval inscription of A.D. 1246, F. Kielhorn, EI, III, pp. 302-04, Pls. b. pp. 306-07. 9. Grant of Maharajakula Jaitrasimhadeva of A.D. 1290, Sadhu Ram, EI, XXXII, pp. 220-28; (Table N47).* For Personal & Private Use Only

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140 Development of Nagari Script References for Plates 91-120 (11th Century) Table Inscription Date in Reference A.D. Bihar grant of Sauraditya 1020 Gauhati grant of Indrapala Guakuchi grant of Indrapala - Mahulpara plates of Mahasivagupta-Dharmarath Nadagam plates of Vajrahasta 1057 Goharwa Plates of Karna Chandravati plates of Chandra DO 1093 & 1099 EI, XXXV. Pls. b. pp. 134-35. KS, Pl. f. p., 91. KS, Pl. f. p., 102. EI, XXXVII, Pls. b. pp. 228-29. EI, IV, Pls. b. pp. 190-91. CII, IV, Pl. XL. EI, XIV, Pls. b. pp. 192-93 & f. pp. 196 & 198. EI, IX, pls. b. pp. 178-79. IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 36. EI, XI, Pls. b. pp. 182-83. EI, XXXI, Pls. b. pp. 246-47. EI, XXXIII, Pl. f. p., 236. EI, XXXVII, Pl. f. p., 39. Rajapur plates of Madhurantak 1065 Dg Sas-Bahu inscription of Mahipala Banswara plates of Bhoja 1093 1019 Dio Kadmal plates of Vijayasimha 1083 Paliad plates of Bhima I 1055 Bhadresvar plates of Bhima I 1060 For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 141 D12 Kauthem plates of Vikramaditya V 1008 D13 1026 Kalas-Budrukh plates of Bhil- lam III Bhandup plates of Chhittaraja IA, XVI, Pls. b. pp. 22-23. IA, XVII, Pls. b. pp. 118-19. CII, VI, Pls. XXIIXXIV CII, VI, Pls. XLVIL. D14 1026 Dis Kharepatan plates of Ananta I 1094 D16 Ittagi plates of Jayakesi I 1062 IA, AR: 1974-75, Pl. XLVI. For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D.' PLATE 91 D. 10 ou 02 03 04 05 06 ....asA bhrama mAtra 5 mama | ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka MAN AA avA 1405 gaerAga gavA kara gajaga | aaaa ba ca saya tara tara ratanata kacha kA 555 5/555 3 3 35555 CHH Ta Ta Ta TaTaTa Ta Ta Ta Ta Ta Ta Ta] ThaTha | Da 533333333Da. nalAtala pa mmmm mance - hAta ta tAta tata ta ta ta ta tAtAta For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 92 4 22/aa cagha * varada dara dara dara da da da da dadada O la la laccalalalalala lalala sa | nana mana na na na na na na na na na na na | Rauuuu pa pa pa pa papapapa | Brakapa para kapakapA | an dara 3 ru ta ta da sa sa sa sa ha ka ka rUna | ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma ma mama | ya ma rA ya ya ya ya yA ya yA yA yayAma | RT R ra ra ra ra ra ra ra ra | la la lala la la la la la la la la la la Iv lalalalalalalalalalalaaaaaa | sssn M/s700 S700ra (narAza | SEE baghaSabaSa gha vahAba sa masa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa tahata dasa dAha haha ha ha ha hada For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 93 Dj | 0 | 03 | | 1u | 0s | 0% | 07 | 0s | 09 | Dr | 0 1 Da | D3 ] 0w Top 1D6 M... hR| j 4/ 4/ 3] sngge sus) | kaaph kk kk kaam kaa kaa kaa kaa dd j | | | || myb|sNbaa tthaa tthaa kre yaay' | gh m aa aa m s m m gh| maa * y y b b b b b b b b b baa ||mjaa em e j j j j j m || S st| ||| |-|cdczqlte gele t| | || | || m naanaan nb nb nbb| For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 94 en21 thAhA hA hA hA aala | sAradA dAdA dAdA rADA dA dA dA dA dAdA | on a vA kA dAvA | nAnA yA mA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA |: pAyAcyA pApA yA pApA pA pA yA paayaayaa| kA sa mAna hA mAjhA sAdA dara sA ra sAnA samA gA mA mA mA ma mAmA mAmA mAmA mAmA * yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA yA | rA rA rA rA sa rA rA rA rA rA rA rA rA sArA | lAlA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA |v yA vA vA vA vA vA dAdA vA vA vA vA vA vA vA vA | sst smail | rAmAzAzA mA ersal | sa RunAsAlA pAyA ghAyApA | sAsA sAsA sAsA sA sAyA sA sA sA sA jAtAmA nanhA hA hA hA hA hA hA hA hA hA hA hA hA For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 95 |kalnaka ki ka kaka ki ki Kala khata likha (rava lava | ja manA gajala ahelala G ra aaaa CHH |- e CCE 2 cee (Ta | 0 beche bekele yi ye ke te blete tamilatavilitatiti tiaalaa For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. Ds Do Dt D12 D13 D14 D15 D16 8 a db the ghi TH * 6 6 6 6 6 di di di 1 di di di di di di di D N PH B M > D1 Y Dr @aa @ vi vi ta ta ya va vi. vi. a vi @ Ca DH ni ni ni ni ni ni ni ni ni ni ni ki ni vi ni na P (ye hI ghiya pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi D 2 s SH sa S D 3 BH hi. (U ri ri ni ti di mmimi rI zi 2 dina ra R - lila li L H D4 Dy (ma vi ghi la lilili lilili li li li li lili la (2 (1 vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi Y dh dh zaizi bish ph) za ghassTha (ma H D8 g sa si si si hri de hi hi hi hi D9 D 10 mi mimi ma bhi mi ch (27 Ta ri PLATE 96 hi hi hi ki ki mimi ma yi ghi va For Personal & Private Use Only ghi ghiSi ( sa si si si si si si si hi hi hi hi hni di hi hi

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 97 D, D2 D2 Du Ds Do 10, 10. 10. 10 10 10 10 12 103 104 105 10 16 kI kA hI kI kI kI kAkA kI kI kI kI kI kI kI gopI sIvI DADAkA DIDI 50 kA Inclemlsponent mI mAnatI hA pI lA lA tI tI tI nI tI tI For Personal & Private Use Only

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1lth CENTURY A.D. PLATE 98 D, D2 103 104 105 106 1or 10. 10. 10 ou 10120o en los 1016 rAnaDI dIdI dIdIdI dIdI dIdI do Daal | monA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nI bhInI nA yAcI yA pApIyA yI | yAcI TI TI calalAlI lAlI lAlI lAlI lA lA lA lA Enlala vavI vI vI vI vI vI / yA mAsA sAsI sI sI sI sI sIsI sAlIsA For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 99 D, 102 103 ou os olo, e. lol Dyo Du D12 D12 | DW | DIS | ka ka ku ku ku ku ku ku ku ku ku ku ku 8 Ta I For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 100 D, 102 103 Du Ds Do I Do 0, D. D, 100 ou 1012 Dis 04 D5 16 i 8 Da Da Da ra KATNA wor NP 20 C | ma ra ya e e e e e pa pu 7 pu e epa | rAya | sasaka ru laEFE yu Tayu yuyu ra u uha ru na A P | sakhasa surasu su su sasa musu su su sasu For Personal & Private Use Only

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lith CENTURY A.D. PLATE 101 D, 102 103 104 105 106 10g loa 10, 10, 1 102 103 104 105 10 16 VOWEL kaka BG pa -23 For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 102 DI D2 103 104 105 Door Do 1o, 1oo lou012 103 104 105 1016 sU N | Dr vU DU il a not a sayU pR pUpU pUnamata pUna hU dUra rusU hasU hU tU kaha na san | ACKGROF rAya yU huR hada ta / For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. KH G gR GH N CH CHK J NOWEL K ne krU kR kRR kR kR sa kR JH N T TH D DH D1 Z. N D 2 Te D3 D4 Ds D 6 2 Dy N Rr 2 Ta Ta t D8 Dg gTa gR gR gR Q D 10 D For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 103 D12 D13 014 gR D 15 D16 R ha R R kR ha ha Ta tR tR

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 163 D, 102 103 104 105 106 10 10 10 10 10 10 12 103 104 Dis 16 dAda 25 kana na. mamama ma mA Who For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 105 E x ki 5 kek kek kek kaakkeke | | | | | bei| taa r`iiiy'taan o B / | di kono dler s m nini i ne ne | For Personal & Private Use Only

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TH 11th CENTURY A.D. D DH N P PH B BM V D1 5 ha a n SH D2 D3 Du Ds Y R la la sa na la L D6 01 a tha hi M me m. (m m m meM mi me me me mai ma me me ma ma (ya rA ya ye (ya ye ye ye ye ye ya ya ya ra E D8 Do D10 D11 hai di da da da de de la la la la la la D 12 D13 D14 D15 C16 (gha de de de da da (da da aa va b lAve d (va gi na na ne nai na ni ni meM na ka na na po pa (gha va pa la la 7 pa vi vi va te va ve ISL s - " da ha ha ha ha ha hai de ha ` m va ji E E sa sa sa se sa sa sa sa sa he ha For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 106 va b hi lAla va va sa sa da

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 107 D, D2 D2 D4 Ds 1oo loro. D. Do on D2 103 104 Dis 1016 i| bi bi ! | 4tti ukti / || ne| yaarn bi bi bi 1 | | For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 108 D D2 D2 D4 Ds Dg 1. og 1014 D5 D16 aia elele lac CE@ Na Dreat a El For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 109 D, TD. | 0 | Dw Do Do Do Ds Dg 100 ou 1012 013 014 Dis Dib TOWEL * dey' | kaakaako baaik| ke ke ke | ye gnggaa ndii| (baa m y 1 || ye se | e bheje j j m s aajii ( zTA To TATA | sei taae naa | | naa kaaeno sebaar naam naaemaanbe! For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 110 dAdA do do yA do TATA do dA | nAnA yA mAnA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA ko no no (pA (pA pA pA pAyApA lAla dAsotoko do sau lAnA | mama (t ma( mamA mA mo mo mA (mA mAmA yA gAyA gayA ho yA yo yo yo yo yo yo yA yA yA | lAlA lolA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA yA dAba vA re vo vo vo (dA vA vA vA || paanke(hy' ye 4 / yaahaa de| A ( sAmAyA yo mAyAmA yo sosaa| ho sAho dAdA For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 111 TD2 D2 D4 Ds Do 107 108 109 10 ou 1012 Dis 014 Dis Dib shun For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 112 D D2 D3 104 105 106 107 108 10, oso ou D12 un D14 Dis 216 ja/ | lonAvalAnA lA lA lA lA (pA (tyo vA tyo (po | G. hA koloto yo Toli yo yA TA EDULE jAna sAyo sasA so mA so For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 113 LIGATURES KRAKSHA KTI KSHAM KTRAM K PRAKRA KCHA KTA KRAKSNA itai GOWA GNAH GRA arnR GRA SE NKE NGA NSA NGA EN IT CHYU CHCHACMCHA CHYA NCHA NOMMA uue NDA NYA NTMA HPA Nyo NDANYA NPA MYA 8 9 y around 30 30 1 TMA TEMATPATYA TKA For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 114 LIGATURES Dy DHyu DHYADAVA uuvuuv ph| NTAX NMANNA : NGA NOHAMMA ev } | z 1: thmii 090 2 gyy uuvquujaa 6H4 | 9HKA BAYA. dii MERR MEN MYA MURA MN! MOHAMRAM MAMBHA Mme MyA MRAMMAMMA MRAMVA 2 chnaaM khnyuMooy bhnM | / 2 TRMMAN RYA ROSA ROOMA ROMA RAHMA RYA gyy nau LBNYELLA - a/ a 1 _ dii uuv a so5 SCHA Sye nautoe: idai : raapii SVA : 17 Sya SVAD | For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 115 LIGATURES KSMA KEHAKTAN KLAKSHA KRA KSHA KTA KPRA KYA KSMA x | = s 1 GINAGMAGRA { 2Antoere : | n}\: 29a TAJYAJRA CHA DYA 3 PHY DHYA NTHA NTMA NDANYAM Tva TMA TNA TYA For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 116 LIGATURES TH DANYADYA DURAM DAN DMA DDMR DMADYA DVA MT & Mo DHYA DAVA HTd. NDRAN MMA IN TAM MWA NTANDMANMANYA BNYA BHYAM BARA BHyA. | Han MNM MOHAMAMVA 5: p oovaad c [edgchnaaMnoeng || d4A od. 2sn7 pic|p|eg| For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 117 LIGATURES Do KTYA KPA KRAKTY KYAKRA KTAM KRA K al 27 de fo GAN GOMA GMUM GRA ou GHYA snennia CHCHMA CHYA CHCHNU TRA NDA NYA I mean 20 Rang sama For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 118 LIGATURES DYANI DAN DOHA DYA DRA DVA ODHA DYA DVA DIVA DAARD DHYA DHVA NSA NYAM DJ 1166 SOT NTA MYANVA NON NPCA NM NJI I 1 727 of TOEG A gal NYAM PA VnuA | Bnka BHYA BNYA MPRA MYAN MINI MMA MYR LYA should be no2V25911 SNTA For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th CENTURY A.D. KTAM KTYA K tUM kA baa KHYAN KH za .Z CH CHH GMI GDHA GME GYA GRA GRA G gru na gra grAma ya GH THA JYA va du gha JH IN D13 T. TH a DH NDI TNYA !! la ya KSMA D14 KTAM KYA KSHA Cai Chu Mian KHYA GHMAM GHYA pra 44) CHCHA CHCHHA CHYA jJa h 2) HCHA ca TKA TTHA TSHA TU TTha dA NMU NOA mulu LIGATURES D 15 ma KTA KLI kra tI ka la ke TYA GHNA GHYAN gha chaH CHCHA GGA GYA GRA GUYA GGA GDHA bhAga yA pyA maga JTA mA JAA JyA JRA JJA JNAN JYA JVA hu hu hA i da ha gha ha hi TTAN ha: DGA CHCHHA NOAN THAM TPA TRA TSA JPRA IMA TSA TKHA TPRA TVA naM va va sa rA sa ca tA Dmu D 16 KSHA KSHNA KLA KSHAM la daM For Personal & Private Use Only KHYAH khA TSA GHRA zrA NKA HGA 6 ha CHCHA CHCHHU chU PLATE 119 | TTA 31 DGA N GMAM GNA HOA NOVAM 3 Q ka pyUma sa TKA TPRA TMA TSA

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11th CENTURY A.D. TH D DH da NDRA NBHA " na ru kA nU nU ma na P pApa pu PH B BH S J > 3 S. che H LKYA sa gha gha Y 9 ya~ hai / dvaM " ke rya rSa meM 6 haiM jo 6 ma LIGATURES D 15 S ENG >><< SHTRA SHTHA SHYA a. 800 you.net SHTVE SHT Plea a s sU sU sAsa sa sa ma sa kA s tra kha ma For Personal & Private Use Only ED PLATE 120 40 2247 lHm

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142 Development of Nagari Script References for Plates 121-150 (12th Century) Table Inscription Date in Reference A.D. 119X Bodh-Gaya inscription of Jayachchandra Khonamukh plates of Dharmapala Bhuvanesvar inscription of Svapnesvara Kumauli plate of Govindachandra THQ, V, Pl. f. p., 17. KS, Pls. f. p., 118 & b. pp. 122-23. EI, VI, Pl. f. p., 202. EI, IV, Pl. f. p., 100. EI, XVI, Pl. f. p., 1126 Mahoba plates of Parmardi 1173 12. 1128 Sarakho Plates of Ratnadeva Mallar inscription of Jajalla Sihawa inscription of Karna 1167 1192 Bhopal plates of Udayavarma 1199 Paldi inscription of Arisimha 1116 CII, IV, Pl. LXVII. CII, IV,Pl. LXXIX. EI, IX, Pl. f. p., 186. IA, XVI, Pls. b. pp. 256-57. EI, XXX, Pl. f. p., 10. IA, XL, Pls. b. pp. 144-45. EI, XXXIII, Pl. f. p., 120. CII, VI, Pls. C-CI. Eu Nadol inscription of Kirtipala 1161 E12 Veraval inscription of Bhima II - E13 Kolhapur plates of Gandaraditya 1126 For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.) 143 E14 E15 Kolhapur inscription of Bhoja II Asoge plates of Jayakesi II 1190-93 CII, VI, Pl. CXIII. 1 133 EI, XXVI, Pls. b. pp. 308-09 1087 & EI, XII, Pls. b. pp. 1123 152-53. E16 Nilagund plates of Vikramaditya VI For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 121 - E, E, EL EETE EED EL ELE13 JEHEEM In a ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka ka | Ka Rai | kha ra kha va kha kha kha gagagagagagaga Janeald | creavavavavavata va varaca CHH 1* n -] n r r r r d n r b n rgyun TaTaTa 27 Ta TaTa TaTa | 0 | Nlo Tha hul lol _1337 MEE 3 IN N | lAla lala lalalalala Tahaaaalalalabalaaalala For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 122 Eu E E E, E. E. E. Eu E2 E3 Eu Eis Es II. ha pm ra Ta Ta ra ra ra ra ra ra ka ra 2 2 2. - 0 NI AAA na na na na na na na na na na na na auuuuuu | Pya 15 HD15 | sanadara tana na ta tara hAtAta lAbha yaya TAya yAyadA yasa Ay || la la la la la la la la la la la la Malaa va va va va va va va va va va alaa zarA rA rA rA rA rA rA rA rAza INpala OLI For Personal & Private Use Only

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KH E2E3 E4 ESE ET E8 Eg E10 E1 E12 E13 E14 615 E 16 VOWEL RR 21 A A A Ja JA lA A jA a a A K kA te? kA kA kA kA kA kA kA kA kA kA kA kA kA kA thaa khA khA khA khA khA khA khA gA jA gA gA gA gA gA gA gAlagA gA gA ghA ghA 144 G gA GH Z. CHH JH Z{ TH E1 CH vA vA vA tA tA vA vA vA vA vAcA vA CO. 12th CENTURY A.D. D A Tapa Taya ya na RY S7 S ThI ghA jA a jA jA jA jA jA jA jA jA jA jA jA jA jA 5 DA 55 PLATE 123 DA For Personal & Private Use Only a DA DH 7 DhA !! zA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA TA TA 57 DA

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 124 EEEEEEEEE, E8 |E ENETELESEHESE yAzA mAnA jA kara hA yA ghara kA vA vA * dAdA yA dAdA dAdA dAdA TA dA dAdA dAdA dA a land se at a AA E A cat at the ta nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA nA vAghApA pApA pA pApA pApA pApAmA phAphA | sa nA mAnA nA nA nA tA lA lA | mAmA mAmA mAmA mAmA | yA yA yA yA TayA yA yA ghATa yA rA rA vA rA rA rA rA rA rA rA rA rA rA rA - lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA vA vA vA vA vA vA vAvA 5 yA TAkA zA zArA zAzA lA lA lA mAsA sAyA sA sA sA sA sAsA sA sAsA sA sA sA | dAdAhAhAhA hA hA hA dAdA hA hA hA For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 125 JE2 |ESE ES EE7 E E , E to Eu E 12E 13 E Eis E36 VOWEL Kalala (kakika kinaki Gora ga ( N caacaala ( ( ( aea (cala CHH Feeeeeeeee lalalalalala MMMMeroin aaaa ta tiaala alalalalalalal For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 126 E2 E3 Eu Es E. E, E8E, E 1o En E12 E, E14 E 15 E 16 | | | ha ha ra u u hari & Tili | | paraadlalaladder a collalala (ad Halalanana (alalala aalalalanina Pak (pa( paORT (u la tu (pa Lalalala (na( Gala |Moulana (ma mama (mana mi (A (na (RCH (mama mi yayamaya a ya yadi | kola (RRARRRRRRRRR GR | Lala lala lala lala lalalalala lala la vaalaa aa (va vivi va va va va va va | Ecallel zaza Is ( ( (pa Is Alla Ra (ma CA ARARIA (AA | Relatelete le lalal For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. VOWEL K kI ka kI kI zrI dI KH zrI gI G GH -2 CH CHH J JH Zl T TH Co. 0 DH E, E2 E3 E4 Es E6E7 E8 Eg N 3) h| 57 S' lu kI kI I cai E 10 E11 E12 13 14 15 E 16 kI kI kI kI kI kI kI kI tI jI DI DI kI jI jI jI jI jI jI TI TI PLATE 127 ThI For Personal & Private Use Only 10 la lI pIlI gIlI lA lA la la lA to tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI tI T jI TI

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12th CENTURY A.D. PILATE 128 E, E JEE, EEEEEEEEEEEEE16 Laa dI ra dI dIdI dIdI dI dIdI [MARATii na na na na na na nI nI 1vIcI ghI pIpIpI nI nI - hanuman mI sATI PARAN lIlAla lI lI lI to lI lIlA vaalan lal vI vI va vIvAnIala al lA zI zIzI modara | zrI sI sI sI sI sI sI sI sI sI sI sI sA sI sI TI rITI kI hI TrI TI rITI, For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 129 E, E2ESE5] |E E-EE, EEEEEEEM VOWEL 33333333 kaka ku ku ku ku ku ku U U kuka sa | gu gu gu gu gu gu gu gu gu gu gugu Ta Tu - tu tu tu tu tu altd For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLATE 130 12th CENTURY A.D. wrE wrE wrE wrE wrE wrE wrE w E, E1E1E1E1E1E1ElE loc une collega M NO | m m lHm m lm fy 9 | 8 | || m Srhm lq w|w| agg gaggggggg[ | -| -| hm m lh lky lkn 19 ` m h S m a | la ala al zal alg g hm bh wh lh ` m lkm m ` h m | m M ` w lh m h e | mHl bH h N lmwl 5 GA m khy 1A myl 888 m | For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 131 Ei E, EYES EGELE&E, E10 EHE 12 E13 E 34 E 15 E 16 16 VOWEL S tUna 27 For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 132 E4 ES JEE-EE EEEREBEHESE: / N ( pUpU pUla pUpU jana nUtana na tU lU mU tU tU . mAsU sU sU sU sU sU sU N For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. G G4 /01/EL K kR do the hI kR kR kRR kR kR kR R rU. kR. KH 6 N CH CHH 17 e JH Z 7 TH D DH N E, E2 E3 Ey d M r 22 5 PEN Es E EE8 E E10 E1 E12 E13 E14 E15 E 16 d BI 19 2 gR tR tR tR tR For Personal & Private Use Only 2 PLATE 133 22 kR kR 22 12

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 134 JE, LE EEEEEEE, ESE, E E13 E14 E 15 E 16 DU szala UN he For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 135 E, EZ EZ EE, EE, EE, E, EHE 12 E 13 E 14 E 15 E 16 VOWEL velupola la la K la com la la la la LG 55 38 Lalalalalalalalalalalalalala For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 136 0688 ra de de (ra de da de de 9 de dada ta 25A AG malane (nana na lavaa (pa MRI me mama mamame me memamama yaya ya ya ya ya ya ya ya ya do yA [RRRR vara ra 3 ra re re rAba EME vavavavavavavavavavava ar RA za For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. VOWEL K KH G GH N CH CHH J JH gwa d TH D DW .z T E, E2 E3 Eu Si C Tong 1 nc Te Es E6 EE8 E9 E10 E1 E12 E13 E14 E 15 E 16 pe R A cch Ax hoo (ke ke ke w Yuan tte |8 For Personal & Private Use Only ke ka - Shi PLATE 137 ai E Dian Hong Jie

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 138 N ne na na na na ToTo ye ye 2 ToTI ra IC la vavava al JOVE For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 139 E, JE JE JEE, JE JE, JEs |E, IEDIEM TE TEEH Es| E16 WEL ka alkA ko kokA ko kA ko ko kAkA || yo gAra (gA go gAgo Gaulana tA tAtA totA to nAtA to tAtA. For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 140 |EEEE, E, EE, E E , E14 Eis E16 ala dAdA dAdA dA dAdA | mAlA no no no no nA nA nA nA nA | lAnA lA lA lA lA lA to tA se tA yA yo tara tyA tyA yo tto| yo yo (yA do yA do yA | lAlA lA lA lA lA lA lA lA lo j cehy' hy'taae baa dii hy' ei phl ghaaer | SA | vAje fe jijira lA For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY. A.D. VOWEL * qI ko K KH G GH .Z CH CHH H I TH 1Z N T. TH D DH 2. N E. E2 E3 T la bho E4 Es E6 E1 M go laga ara Au Es Eg La ka+ 41 n E 10E 11 E12 E13 E 14 15 16 F ki ka+ For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 141 a ta

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 142 EL EZE, E ES EE, ERE, EE, E2 EE14. Els E36 / dIlA do| | nana nA nA nA nA pA po poko pAyo to lo - mo mo mo mo ma AAMA REC SEUM va mA HIsanA sAtyo sau sA For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 143 LIGATURES FH KTA KRA KSHA KKE KTI KSHAKTAKRA KVAKSMA KRAKSHA Ksimi K st Kansa la KATA KHYA GNA GRA GVRA GNA GRAGLA GVIGNE GRA NGA A NGA NSA NKHANGA hire CHCHACHCHHA CHYU CHCHA CHCHA CHYU CHCHNA NCHA NCHANTA NCHA NCHI DYA INYA NTNE NOANNA NYA NINA MPANYA For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. F D DH N P PH 3 BH S Y R L > 55 SH S H LJ E .. n N nis SHTHA Tu E HYAN STHA SMA THERE 2166 E2 Pas 16M A Z STRA STHA 2 Mor 2 A LIGATURES ELT how NTHA NORAH NNA AL~ FAY For Personal & Private Use Only 80 SVA 8 8 b STRAM SPA 320 221 E PLATE 144 MBHAN MYA ma mA jhumra nA maHmpa DDHA DBHK no & hot

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 145 LIGATURES E 1 KSMA KRA KSNA I KSHNA KTI KYA KSHAKKAKSHI Kami a G athle GNI IGRA GOMA GRL GVA GNYAGMU GRA NKA NGA lus Iz CHCHI CNC MACHYA CHH JaviJYAM IVA NCHA NJA NCHI Zay to NTA NRA For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 146 LIGATURES THY DDHA DBMI DYA DBHA OMA DVAM DOA DOHA Dyu DVAMO AN nama DHYADAVA DHYADHVA 21 NTAH NORA NOHA NMANTANMA NA NDNUNMANCHA MTANYA NSA 221 olla a la zga YA BHYA BHRA BH J la Ima MMA MA MRAMA MVA l MNAMOMAMMAMUA MRA ma RODHARMMA RYVA KODANI RODMR ROMA BA KAPHATNAN RPA TRSNA TARANE CET SRO Uran | Jdd ses.KE $25s 2000 Args 18 anni SHTA SITRA SHTE EUA en ng SLE 1643 FAIRE NYANNAMMA For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. x 5 GH Ggrama mA .N CH CHH JH zl bdm T. TH O. S DH E T FFW 1 e 1315 ti E 291 424 lo gmu Fo LIGATURES grAmaH gU S s me ELT For Personal & Private Use Only KM 2 PLATE 147 Sar ya a$?? 7 7 8 a a a a a a a Ni

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12th CENTURY A.D. TH D HO z P PH B 14 S x 20 R L > S. SH S H Ea REHAM RTHA VRA vaya vA SCHA SRT sa trI LPA LYA LLA tyA lyA lla & STA 23 30 23 1435 SHTA SHYA nnn nnn M ny 800 2 {` 83 SCHA Syo M |rb? 32VE AN Jing LIGATURES M E S JAS For Personal & Private Use Only T SUE SHE & too CAN TBR E 12 2727 prANiEB PLATE 148 NO L100 350 SYA

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 149 LIGATURES E 15 KTA KRAKSHA KTA KYA KRAKSHA KTA KYA KRAKSHA Gay como NGA CNCHA CHCNA CHCHHE CMYA tot JYAM JYA SHE 1 khi KG TAH TPRI TTA DYA For Personal & Private Use Only

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12th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 150 LIGATURES DDHA | De+fPSA DvAn | DGRADDHA DYA DOMADAMU DRA DMDHA DNYE DHVA shivaa {s:8 NTA NM NYAM NVA NTAMANYA NTANNANMANVA 5 PLAM BRA ENYIM By BMys. { RYVA RvARSNA 'n hs@.tM DASA $ 5.3M #a Wj tnu. hsii [{ps se .tn &D & PRE SSA SVA SKAM For Personal & Private Use Only

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144 Table Inscription F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 Fg Gaya inscription of the time of Sultan Muizzuddin (Ghori) Ajayagadh inscription of Nana References for Plates 151-162 (13th Century) Kuretha plate of Malayavarma Mandhata plates of JayasimhaJayavarma Kavalji Temple inscription of Hammir Veraval inscription of Arjuna Kalegaon plates of Mahadeva Karnatak plates of Vira-Ballala II Development of Nagari Script Date in Reference A.D. 1200 1288 1220 1274 1288 1264 1260 1204 For Personal & Private Use Only JBRS, LII, Pl. VII. EI, XXVIII, Pl. f. p., 102. EI, XXX, Pl. f. p., 148. EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 148-49, 15051, 154-55 & f. p., 156. EI, XIX, Pl. f. 50. P., EI, XXXIV, Pl. f. P., 148. EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 38-39 & 42-43. KI, I, Pl. f. pp. 58, 60, 62 & 64.

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13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 151 FF FFIF IF IFFFFFFF, IFS . Vorams| J.D | __ ka ka ka ka ka ka kA kA kAkA kAkA kA kA sakha khakha kha kha kha kha and gagagaga gAgAgAgA khA khA khA CHA lal555553aa DADAkA DADA pa sA Ta 22222 ThaThaThaTha | DADA a . Ta MMMMMMM moyA pAlA pAm Tlalalalalalalalalalalaalalalalam For Personal & Private Use Only

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13th CENTURY A.D. TH D PH F3 F4 Fs Fo F71 Fe ghA dyA thA vA vA dAdA dAdA dAda pai vAghAvA " na na na na na na na na nA nA nA nA nA nA P 977 aaa 4 pApA Q. pha pha pha | da 2 da DH bhu 5 5 5 B F BH M na F2 F3 F4 Fs Fo aa a tha a A da Footo da da SH gha Ri F7 gha gha Fs | F da hr eka phA 01 9 s a ta ta tata tata m ma ma ma ma y jha jha ya aa ya Rra 7 ra 2 - la la v va va va va va va va va 5 za hA za za za za za za vA Sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa sa H ha ha ha da ha ha ha ha dA hA 7 ma ma mA F2 24 ya TA jA jA ra 2 la la la la la la lA lA rA rA vA tod bA bA tA tA sAlA tA mAmA mAmA mA mA mA yA yA yA yA yA ghA zA A pA pA PLATE 152 For Personal & Private Use Only pA vA vA vA rA rA rA rA rA ta nA nA pA pA lA lA lA lA lA lA vA vA yA yA ba zA zA zA zA ghAghA ghA sA sA sA sA sA hA hA hA hA hA hA hA

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13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 153 F, I F3 F 4Fs F7 | FaF FIF, FFFFF8 ki hai ki kika kI kImI kI kI kI kI liriva vikhI man vi Eaa atii | Go Ga66 kI DAkA DA kA Eeee | la la la ManonIlA jAta |- lalia titatiaa tA tI tI.tI tAtA | For Personal & Private Use Only

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13th CENTURY.A.D. TH vi ghighi zi di di (da di DH dhi SThi (da dhi dhi D P PH BH 3 Y tha di di di dI do dI dI dIdI dI dI (dhdhi vi prI zrI vI dhI N ni ni ni ni ni ni ni ni nI nI nI iu a u uu gha pIpI vI R L F F2 F3 F4 > I Fs F6 F SH Fe F1 F2 F3 jiti li li ti jiti li mi ma ma bha ma mi ma di yi ( ri ri ri ri ri li li li li li li la yi ghisi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vi vI vI S trizizi ji zi ma s si si sa H di di hi di hi hi hi hi e es mI G eN (ma si si ti sI sI I F4 F5 thrI nI jI tI mI mI mI mI bhI 22 ||rI garI lI lI lI lI lI lI For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 154 F6 F7 F8 sI hI hI dI ssss pI th sr za vI vI vI vI vI vI zIzI zI zI zI mI sI sA hI hI

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13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 155 FF2 F, F4 F1 F FF F Homes 5 3 3 19 15 hy 52 ron GD) Gagaala 1 For Personal & Private Use Only

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13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 156 F2 F3 Fu F5 Fo IF, F8 Fil | ii M 5 a ]m | | no og ) 3|33| 71919 1938 5.91 48818831 GA a A haa @ H R 3 3 | N 8 ] a ]H 4 5 6 3 3 | 15 3 P | e | 0 A 3 ]A >> B ii ]]] ii ]tt ] A Gang Gang Ming De C 23 & 4 { For Personal & Private Use Only

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13th CENTURY A.D. VOWELS K KH G GH N CH CHH J JH 71 N T TH D DH N F F2 F3 F4 RI 16 Fs a Tha kR hara kR kR ta ha kU~ c. 16 Fo F F8 F1 F2F3 F4 Fs keo gR gR Ta Ta Ta ghR r AG Fo F7 Fe pa Q 5 eva ke ke ke ki ki A 2 khe kha reva ge la 2 Da phra 13 E PA For Personal & Private Use Only ax PLATE 157 13. je U U U tt 12 TheTha The Da AV dph 2 ai la yla la la la tttte tite

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13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 158 F2 F3 F F F F F F F2 F3 FIFA IFE IF, Fg st 6 Up N Ju| L H || g u ru a ca pe pe 2 _F tayaREME ME Feet & DeBPMNala RPHA hata same se se For Personal & Private Use Only

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13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 159 F, F2 F3 F F F F F F F F F F F F F8 VOWELS ke ke ko ko kA ko ko ko kho khA ( ne IL tataaad tAto tAto to to For Personal & Private Use Only

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13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 160 dada dAdA do dA do hai| na ne na na nA nA nA no (no B Araaajar to tato so tAto momo mo mo mo mo yA tyA yo rA rA rA rA rA lo lolo EJEE KRE ado zo so so sAsA For Personal & Private Use Only

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131 CENTURY A.D. PLATE 161 LIGATURES 1 . F F F F F2 F3 F4FSF6FFA FISE KSHAKLE KSHA KSHA KTI KHYR KMYA GHYA GHRINGHRAMA NMU 23 CHCHI CHCH CHCHACHCHNO 1 JYAM JNAH slo 4 NCHI 2. EASEE TTA AN lut LJE NOA |ny NYA NYANDA o lalalala la la la la la la For Personal & Private Use Only

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13th CENTURY A.D TH 0 DH N P PH B BH M Y R L < 5 SH S H F F2 12h ht Fa Zhu tA moma mo F4 Au ho Gu Liang ARChan ni (no no yo F's Fr sa meM Jo lo lo lau h lo lo F1 to ma Fs Fr cola lau DOHE DVA dAdva dve ( F2 F3 F4Fs THYT NTA NVA to va te PRA PTA pra pra LIGATUKES NYAM NVA bhU THYA ghara DDHAM DDHA DMA DSHA DYA I DRRM dve 6 jhaDa dya : dmadva DHNK DHYA DIYA DHVA DHYE DI YA ghA BHRA BHRA BHRA BHYAH GEN: va yaH MyA MRA MYA MINA na bhU hA mA YYA yA P-TA PRA ITA PRA PYA pra a ta gha pra h KMA AMA hna meM karma zrI se LGU SHKA ka pRSTa SYR STA For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 162 SVA SCHA SVA (za) va dhaya Fs F7 VYA TA Spi sA sAsU sA HMA HRE he ha NMA NGHA 4) jJA PTA SDNA BRA pra bra FB A RSA RSA RGA LLA 1.PA L.MA LLA LGA LLA la ha lAbha yA la VYA VYA VYA VRA VYA hAhAH zavA SYA ! SKD 1 SVA SYA 12 VNUK VNU M arth MYAN MYA mAya YYA vya SHTA SHKA SHTA SA SHTA SHNA SHPA RMA me grA !SHA ST

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Nagari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.) The development of monumental Nagari script has been dealt with in the preceding pages, but without involving the manuscript-Nagari. The subject would remain incomplete without considering that area. It is attested from the description of Tiruvalangadu inscription, and Kurud plates, 2 that engraving on hard surfaces like stone, metal, terracotta objects, was the secondary use of the writing. So, any generalisation on account of such engravings can have only a limited validity. The basic materials for popular writing were palm-leaf, birch-bark, cloth, and later paper, on which the real palaeographic studies should be based, because it is only here that the real and original hand of the writer is found. John Guy refers that "Paper made its appearance around the 12th century but did not displace palm-leaf until the 14th century."3 Before that, in general, palm-leaf and birch-bark were used for writing the manuscripts. Of these the birch-bark was frequently employed in the Himalayan territories where the birch trees grew, naturally while in other parts of the country palm-leaf was more common. The choice of the writing materials mainly depended on the availability of materials and nature of the work. So far as the nature of the work is concerned books, accounts, and ordinary correspondence For Personal & Private Use Only

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146 Development of Nagari Script D . 1 were written on perishable materials whereas important documents were incised on durable objects. As regards the antiquity, a Bauddha tradition appraises of writing the canon on palm-leaves at the first Council held soon after the death of Buddha." The Buddhist Jatakas also refer to panna (parna, leaf) as a popular writing material, which presumably represented palm-leaves. Hiuen-Tsiang (first half of the 7th Cent. A.D.) mentioned general use of palm-leaf as a writing material throughout the country. In the 11th centu Al-Beruni also noticed that, "The Hindus have in the south of their country a slender tree like the date and cocoa-nut- palms, bearing edible fruits and leaves of the length one yard and as broad as three fingers one put besides the other. They call these leaves tari (tala or tar=Borassus flabelli formis), and write on them."? Besides literary evidence, some of the earlier manuscripts have been discovered outside India. For example, the Horizui plam-leaf manuscript of the Skanda-purana now kept in the Darbar Library at Kathamandu (Nepal) belongs to the 7th century A.D. Some fragments of Godfrew collection from Kashgar belongs at least to the 4th century A.D., as attested by palaeography and so shown by Hoernle. The Khotan copy of the Prakrit Dhammapad is the earliest known birch-bark manuscript, belonging as it does to about the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. 10 But, despite this evidence for the early existence of the palm-leaf or birch-bark manuscript, no specimen has survived in India, due to several destructive agencies, negligent preservation, and climatic conditions, which can be dated definitely prior to the 10th century A.D. According to R. B. Pandey, "It should be observed that the early manuscripts on palm-leaves are found mostly in the cold and dry countries and parts of India. No manuscript of a date earlier than the fifteenth century A.D. is found in the south due to the hot and humid climate of that part of India."11 In daily use leaves in their natural form were used; while for writing out the important works the leaves were specially prepared". They were first dried, then soaked or boiled in water for a considerable length of For Personal & Private Use Only

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Nagari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.) 147 time and again dried. The dried leaves were rubbed with conch, or cowrieshells, or a smooth piece of stone and finally cut into folios of equal size. According to the length of folio, the writer or scriber divided it into two or three columns separated by narrow vertical margins. Generally, the external sides of the first and the last folios were left blank. The earliest available manuscripts, in general, were written by twosects --Bauddha and Jaina. The Buddhist tradition was prevalent in eastern India, chiefly in the provinces of Bihar and Bengal; while the Jaina tradition was widely spread in western India. Several religious complexes of these groups were established where among other things the task of copying and illustrating the manuscript was a part of the monastic activity During the 12th century, the Muslim invaders razed to the ground and burnt down many religious and monastic establishments in U.P., Bihar and Bengal. As a consequence, the art of Buddhist manuscript illustration came to an abrupt end in Eastern India. The Jain tradition in Western India, however, escaped such misfortune and remained to develop in the subsequent centuries without any significant interruption. The alphabet employed in the manuscripts of these two sects is Nagari. The manuscripts generally were written in North India, with pen and ink, while in the South the letters were incised on the leaves with a sharppointed needle and were made black by besmearing ink on the writing. As in the inscriptions so also in manuscripts, the Nagari unravels a process of development into the Bengali script in Bihar and Bengal; and in Western India, a variant of Nagari, termed Jain-Nagari. In the study of manuscript-Nagari one confronts some problems such as determining the provenance, date, etc. Manuscript writing was then a universal tradition. Document writers from time to time transcribed from older manuscripts in which, optionally, the same original date is repeated in the later copies. The later manuscript reveals a more advanced form of the alphabet on the basis of which the earlier may be discriminated. However, it was not impossible that the script of the same period shows different stages of development in the different geographical distributions. In these conditions it is not easy to sort out the alphabets of manuscripts For Personal & Private Use Only

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148 Development of Nagari Script region and period-wise. One more problem confronts us with ancient manuscripts is their being written on palm-leaves or birch-bark. These are easily perishable materials, for which reason preservers generally do not provide for proper observations. The manuscripts written in Nagari have come in a good number. But I am not able here to particularize all the characteristics, which needs a volume by itself. For our present purpose only some manuscripts have been selected for illustration and analytical elaborations. A comparative study of the letter forms in the manuscripts with the forms known from the inscriptions is also intended. For the sake of palaeographic presentation the following published manuscripts have been selected: 1. Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts (11th century A.D.). 2. Oghniryukti palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1060 (now preserved in the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). 3. Sri Bhagavatisutra palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1062 (written at Stambhatirtha, Cambay). 4. Palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1118 (Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). 5. Sardha-sataka palm-leaf manuscript (c. A.D. 1125-50, Jaina Trust). 6. Karmastavatika plam-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1122 (BORI, Poona). 7. Jaina palm-leaf manuscript (c. 1275-1300, Jaina Trust). 8. Risabhadevacharita of A.D. 1232, and 9. Mahaviracharita of A.D. 1237 (Patan). These manuscripts are arranged under eight groups according to period and region for analytical study of the palaeography. Eleventh Century Table M is derived from the illustrated Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts of 11th century A.D. In comparing the alphabet in inscriptions, we observe, For Personal & Private Use Only

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Nagari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.) however, that it resembles the Bodh-Gaya inscription of Jayachchandra of the last decade of 12th century A.D. (Plate 121 - 144, Table E1). The bold notch-wedged head-mark and oblique edged form of the letters denote that the folios were written with a broad-edged pen. As for the alphabet, most of the letters and medial signs attain their corresponding Nagari counterparts. Only initial i, kha, tha, dha, pa, sa and sha with medials u and e represent some distinguishing features from the usual form of Nagari. I occurs in peculiar roofed variety in which two vertical strokes falling from the upper horizontal line with an additional leftward curve in left stroke and in the lower two circles left one generally has a tail. In kha, left limb retains foot-marked shape in the place of developed tail. Lower curve of tha is slanted. The upper portion of dha is marked by blotted shape as well as with developed horn. Pa and sha bend their left arm as in Bengali. Sa occurs in peculiar looped variety as appears in Bodh-Gaya inscription of Jayachchandra (Plate 122, Table E1). In the formation of medials u and e; local forms of wedged vertical and left stroke, which have seen in Bodh-Gaya inscription, are also present here. 149 Table M2 is taken from the Oghaniryukti palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1060 (now in the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). The folios of the manuscript were written with a reed pen. Like inscriptions of the period, this manuscript also furnishes horizontally placed left notched form of gha, developing form of cha, and hornless dha. The peculiarity is marked in double looped chha, which with some differences became the common feature of Jaina-Nagari. Lower leftward prolongation in ja is shortened. Bha shows transitional phase with dropping left limb as in inscriptions. Other letters resemble the form of modern Nagari. Medial signs and ligatures also are of Nagari type and do not furnish any remarkable noteworthy feature except wedged vertical form of medial u which may be due to the eastern influence. Table M3 is derived from Sri Bhagavatsutra palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1062 (written at Stambhatirtha, modern Cambay). Here we find peculiarities in some letters. The horizontal and vertical joining strokes For Personal & Private Use Only

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150 Development of Nagari Script with left curve in a and a are shortened or disappear. I retains its old double dots and one curve shape. In u, a knob appears at the upper end of lower curve which becomes the common variety of Jaina-Nagari. Rare au is found in a peculiar variety which looks like headless initial a with an additional upright stroke at the left curve. Among consonants ja occurs in modern Nagari shape, while the inscriptions of 12th century A.D. generally show the transitional phase of the letter. The diverging features from the usual Nagari are marked in chha and tha. Both represent their shape as in Jaina-Nagari. Gha still retains its left notched shape horizontally. Dha is yet to develop its upper oblique. Pha is of modern Nagari variety with only the difference of crooked right appendage instead of modern curve. Here, the shape of ya is more angularized than in the inscriptions or in the manuscriptions of other regions. Bha retains its broader archaic shape. Other consonants occur in their matured Nagari shapes. Ligatures ksha, chchha and jna represent distinctive features as in Jaina-Nagari. Subscript tha retains its oval shape. Twelfth Century The development in alphabets during the 12th century A.D. is illustrated in Table M4 which is derived from the palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1118 (now preserved in the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). Most of the letters and medial signs are found in their modern Nagari shapes. Even the left portion of gha shows a process of vertically placed notched form. But at the same time archaism is retained in some letters such as ta, na and bha with their broader or cursive form. Dha is yet to develop its upper horn like shape. I still retains its old dots and curved shape. In ligatures, ksha draws the attention which is formed by adding n like shape to the left of the letter ka. Table Ms is derived from the Sardha-sataka palm-leaf manuscript (c. A.D. 1125-50), now preserved in the collection of Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). We come across developed form of Nagari alphabet in these folios. The For Personal & Private Use Only

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Nagari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.) 151 new innovation which occurs here is the shape of initial i which resembles the letter in modern Nagari only with the difference of lower detached hook, while in the inscriptions of the period it is in old or transitional shape. Chha and ja furnish peculiar Jaina-Nagari shape. Dha develops an oblique stroke at its upper angle. Medial signs and ligatures are as usual in the inscriptions. Table Mo is taken from the Karmastavatika palm-leaf manuscript (by Govinda Gani dated A.D. 1122). This represents a typical example of Jaina-Nagari. Initial u and o show Jaina-Nagari features. In both the letters upper end of lower curve are in broader shape. As for o, it is formed by adding an upright stroke to the form of initial u. Among other initial vowels a represents the same feature as in the Sri Bhagavatisutra manuscript (Table Mz) of the preceding period. I shows transitional phase by adding two circles with an angular mark and turning lower curve to the right Among consonants left portion of cha is in triangular shape in the place of developed one. Chha and ja are found in their peculiar Jaina-Nagari shape. Dha preserves its upper oblique stroke. Other letters are in developed and usual Nagari shapes. Among ligatures, a peculiar variety of medial u is found in npu and pyu. Here the u medial sign has been attached in the middle of the vertical in place of the lower end. Such type of typical symbols are occasionally found only in Jaina-manuscripts. Other signs are as usual. Thirteenth Century Table M7 is derived from Jaina palm-leaf manuscript (c. 1275-1300, now preserved in the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). As for initial vowels, the advanced and modern looking forms of a, a, i, i, u, u and e are found in these folios in which top of i is flattened and curve of u is knobbed like peculiar Jaina-Nagari. In the manuscripts lower leftward stroke in a is retained while in inscriptions generally it has disappeared. As for consonants, left notched shape of gha is still horizontally placed. Chha, ja, tha and bha diverge from the usual Nagari and furnish peculiar For Personal & Private Use Only

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152 Development of Nagari Script shape of Jaina-Nagari. Ba is denoted by separate and modern looking sign. Other letters have also attained their modern Nagari counterparts: Medials are as usual in that period. In ligatures, ksha, Chchha, and jna represent their peculiar Jaina-Nagari character. Table Mg is taken from the palm-leaf manuscripts of Risabhadevacharitra (mss. dated A.D. 1232) and Mahaviracharitra (by Hemachandra Suri, mss. dated A.D. 1237). These manuscripts are preserved now in Sanghavina Bhandar Patan. The folios of these manuscripts are written with a broad edged pen, peculiar handling of which makes for a distinctive appearance of the alphabet. As far as development of individual letters is concerned except gha, cha and bha, all of them have attained their Nagari counterparts in which chha, ja and tha are denoted by their pe Jaina-Nagari shapes. Optionally, the usual Nagari form of ja is also found in these folios. Among ligatures, jna is of modern looking variety. Medials a, i, i, u, u and ri resemble with modern Nagari signs. Others, e, ai, o and au are represented by modern top-stroke signs along with the perpendicular mark of that period. General Remarks It is clear from the illustrations that the developments in a alphabet first take place in manuscripts and engraved forms follow the trait. At the same time it is also evident that for writing the conventional or royal works, a standard form of an alphabet was employed while in daily writing newer forms were emerging, due to continuous use, personal mannerisms, and several other reasons, as in modern times. Notes and References 1. Sivaramamurti, C., Indian Epigraphy., p., 20. 2. Dikshit, M.G., EI, XXXI, pp. 263-66 & Pl. 3. Palm-leaf and paper, Melbourne, 1944, p., 12. However, this statement refers only to the manuscripts discovered in India so far. Nearchos mentioned to the manufacturing For Personal & Private Use Only

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Nagari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.) of writing paper out of cotton by pounding in the 3rd century B.C. Pandey, R.B., Indian., I, p. 71. 4. Beal, S., The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang, Delhi, 1973, p., 117; cf., also the story regarding Sanghbhadra's "dotted manuscript of the Vinaya," JRAS, 1896, pp. 436 ff. 5. Pandey, Indian., I, p., 69, 6. Beal. S., Si-u-ki,, Buddhist Records of the Western World, vol. II, p., 225. 7. Sachau, Alberuni's., p., 171. 8. Sastri, Haraprasad (ed.) Catalogue of Palm-leaf and Selected Paper Manuscript belonging to the Darbar Library, Nepal, Eng. Intro., p., 52. 9. Hoernle, "The Godfrew manuscript," JASB, LXVI, pp. 225-36, Pls. VIII-XIV & XXVII-XXX. 10. Ojha, Bharatiya., p., 144. 11. Pandey, Indian., I, p., 70. 153 Bibliography 1. Oghaniryukti palm-leaf: A.D. 1060, Sarayu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting, Marg Publication, 1985, p., 36, Fig. 3; (Table M2).* 2. Sri Bhagavatisutra: A.D. 1062, Sarabhai M. Nawab, Jain Printings, vol. I, Ahmedabad, 1980, Figs. 13-16; (Table M3).* 3. Namamala: A.D. 1063, Ms. with Babu Ramdas Sen, Bahrampur, No. 2511 in Notices of Skt. Mss., Govt. of Bengal, vol. VII. 4. Viseshavasyakabhashyavyakhyana: A.D. 1081, Cat. of Mss. in BORI, Poona, vol. XVII, Pl. V., App. V, No. 1106. 5. Nisithasutrabhashya: A.D. 1089, No. 36 of 1880-81, BORI. 6. Nisithasutra (XIV-XX) Viseshachurni: A.D. 1089, Ibid., No. 448. 7. Bhasvati Jyotisha: A.D. 1099. Bharat Kala Bhavan, 2B/669, B 820. 8. Buddhist palm-leaf Ms: 11th Cent. Jamila, Brijbhushan, The world of Indian Miniatures, Japan 1979, Fig. 1, f., p., 40; Philip S. Kawson, Indian Printing, New York, 1961, Figs. on pages 81 & 85; Panorama For Personal & Private Use Only

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154 Development of Nagari Script of Indian Painting, Publication Division, 1968, Figs. b., pp. 10-11; (Table Mi).* 9. Sukhabodh (Uttaradhyayan Sutravritti): A.D. 1107, No. 4 of 1881-82. BORI. 10. Jivasamasaprakaranam : A.D. 1107, Peterson Mss. 1883, 64. 11. Avasyakasutra: A.D. 1109, CMJB, 24, 216. 12. Divasagrihyaprasna: A.D. 1116, Bharat Kala Bhavan: 8/4700, B400. 13. Palm-leaf Ms.: A.D. 1118, Sarayu Doshi, Masterpieces., p., 28, 5; (Table M2).* 14. Sardhasataka: c. A.D. 1125-50, Ibid., p., 36, 4; (Table M5).* 15. Karmastavatika: A.D. 1122, BORI, No. 42 of 1880-81; (Table M6).* 16. Dharmabindu: A.D. 1124, Peterson, Third Report, App. I, No. 229. 17. Sagarachakravarticharitra: A.D. 1134, CMPB, 183, No. 152. 18. Navalingasutram: A.D. 1146, Govt. of Bengal, vol. III (Series 2). 19. Kavyaprakasa: A.D. 1158, CMJB, 18, No. 163. 20. Prithvichandracharita: A.D. 1167, CMJB, 17, No. 146. 21. Mahapurushacharitra: A.D. 1170, CMJB, 39, No. 311. 22. Nyayabindutika: A.D. 1172, No. 208 of 1899-1915, BORI. 23. Yama paddhati, Karma kanda: A.D. 1191, Bharat Kala Bhavan, 8/5209, B 2267. 24. Yogasastra: A.D. 1194, Peterson Mss. 1887, 74-77, No. 249. 25. Shadasitivritti: A.D. 1201, CMPB, 43. 26. Jinapujadyupadesa: A.D. 1223, CMPB, 288-90, No. 40. 27. Jinayajnakalpah Kalpadarpanakhyaya tikaya Sametah: A.D. 1228, No. 785 of 1895-1902, BORI. 28. Angavidya: A.D. 1235, Catalogue of Skt. & prt. Mss. in Bombay Univer sity Library, No. 2374. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Nagari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.) 155 29. Risabhadevacharitra: A.D. 1232, Mahaviracharitra: A.D. 1237, Sarah hai M. Nawab, Jain., Pl. 12, Figs. 34-36 & Pl. 16, Figs. 51-54; (Table M2).* 30. Shadvidhavasyakavivarana: A.D. 1237, CMPB, 33, No. 37 31. Sangrahapivika: A.D. 1239, No. 141 of 1902-1907, BORI. 32. Yogaratnavalih Tika: A.D. 1239, No. 141 of 1902-1907, BORI. 33. Desinamamala: A.D. 1241, CMPB, 60, No. 84. 34. Pindavisuddhi: A.D. 1243, No. 47 of 1880-81, BORI. 35. Dhatuparyayan Vritti: A.D. 1250, CMPB, 162. 36. Uttaradhyayanvritti: A.D. 1253, CMPB, 218. 37. Jnanapanchamikatha: A.D. 1256, CMPB, 33, No. 40. 38. Katharatnakara: A.D. 1262, CMPB, 14, No. 15. 39. Dasavaikalikatika: A.D. 1269, CMPB, 135, No. 204. 40. Vasupujyacharitra: A.D. 1270, CMJB, 24, No. 210. 41. Uttaradhyayansutra: A.D. 1275, No. 3 of 1880-81, BORI. 42. Jaina palm-leaf Ms.: c. 1275-1300, Sarayu Doshi, Masterpieces., pp. 40-41, No. 19; (Table M-).* 43. Adinathacharitra: A.D. 1282, CMJB, 42, No. 334. 44. Sthanagangatika: A.D. 1289, CMPB, 201, No. 329. 45. Pratilekhanagatha (Rituals): A.D. 1298, Accession No. 8484/10, Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology, Calcutta. For Personal & Private Use Only

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156 Development of Nagari Script References for Plates 163-174 (11th-13th Century) Table Manuscript Reference Date in A.D. M Buddhist palm-leaf 11th Century The World of Indian Miniatures, Fig. 1, f. p., 40; Indian Painting, Figs. on pp. 81 & 85; Panorama of Indian Painting, Figs. b., pp. 10-11. M2 Oghaniryukti palm-leaf 1060 Masterpieces of Jaina Painting, P., 36, No. 3. M3 Sri Bhagavatisutra palm-leaf 1062 Jaina Paintings, vol. I, Pl. 5, Figs. 13-16. Masterpieces of Jain Painting, P., 28, No. 5. M4 Palm-leaf 1118 Mg Sardhasatak palm-leaf c. 1125- Masterpieces of 50 Jain Painting, p., 36, No. 4. Mo Karmastavatika palm-leaf 1112 M Palm-leaf c. 1275. 1300 ABORI, XXXVI, f. p., 217, (leaf 145b). Masterpieces of Jain Painting, pp. 40-41, No. 19. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Nagari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.; Mg Risabhadevacharitra Mahaviracharitra 1232 1237 For Personal & Private Use Only 157 Jain Paintings, I, Pl. 12, Figs. 34-36. Jain Paintings, I, Pl. 16, Figs. 51-54.

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. Z. CHH VOWELS K ka ka ta ka JK 3 Sz M1 KH G ga ga ga GH N M2 F. CH Jaa d M3 kha kha a Mu ii m TH Tha 0 Da Da Da DH Tha Tha M N gha Ta aa a 8 a 3 a 3 U U U U U U U U A M5 M6 Ma M8 MI ka ka ka ka kA kha kha kha khA ga ga ga gha ga a Ta Ta Ta a Da Da Da ThaTa ! ta la ta la la la la la T pr 15 ta ta ta ta M2 Da DA DA yA M3 M4 gA jA jA For Personal & Private Use Only re A Ms PLATE 163 tA kA kA kA kA kA khA khA l M6 M1 7 | TA cA l M8 gA gA vA jA jA jA sy aa lA pAlA gAegA ! tA tA tA tA tA tA tA tA

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. M1 M2 TH tha 01 da da da Dr a a d a PH M3 B Mu BH ta ta ta 4 A M5 va 5 4 N na na na na 3 | 14 | 1 nA mA pacapaca papapapa yA pAyA pha M6 M1 aa ghA da da da da dAdA dA ma ma ma M ma ma ma ma yaya ya ya gha sa ya sa sa sa sa sa A R 1 1 1 ra 2 ra 2 H ha ha ha ha ha M8 MI 4 vA ru na ta ta ta sA | tA ma M2 M3 ya - la la la la la la la lA vaa va va va va a a vA Pa 5 za za za za za za za zA SH 8 pa gha gha gha gha t mA mA mA mA 2 ca yA yA yA yA MH MS Mo M1 M8 lA lA vA vA zA IR rArA rA K sa sa sa sa sA sAsA ha ha ha hA hA hA hA For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 164 29 dAdA dA a nA nA nA in in In lA lA lA lA mA mA mA yA sA yA yA rArA rA lA lA lA vA vA vA al zA zA zA zA al sA sA sA sA hA hA hA hA

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 165 1 M3 M4 / MSIM. M, M8 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 My 7 | . Cla Road | DiBBS mMummom Falalala aalana For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 166 M, M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M, M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 zrI bedi divi didi (ea dI thI dAdI dA aaa | walani ninaaliaaa nInA piyA mA |v laaaaahalfalana aamanan sesilasisisi cle Re Reale For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. Plat PLATE 167 M1 M2 M3 M4 Ms M6 M7 Me Me M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 VOWELS D For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 168. M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M, M. Mi M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 651 Ko 165 la 1031 5602 For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. VOWELS K KH G GH Z. CH CHH J JH SZ 2 T F TH D DH N T Mi 24 M2 M3 lm RI M4 M5 M6 150 S M7 M8 Mi 15 U R * M2 M3 ka For Personal & Private Use Only M4 M5 e Za E rAta titala EE PLATE 169 M6 M7 M8 Re ka ka E aa 3 a 13 ( U S 13 a EE tata

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. TH DH N P PH B BH S Y R L V S SH S H MI ha RV mR M2 M3 Mu M RI M5 Mo M1 M8 | M1 dR 2 2 2 vRha a vR W Ma M3 da d For Personal & Private Use Only M4 E (ru E se Ms hi he P PLATE 170 M6 2 17 | RR la la la la la be bhU ma ma me ma ma ma ma sa ya ya (ya tya M1 M8 co da dida d 4 na ni ne na a lila vi ( 2 za sa ha he ha

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 171 M1 M2 M3 M4 Ms M6 M7 M8 M, M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 man Illa la la laamaan.com For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. TH D DH N P PH B BH S Y R L V S SH S H M1 Nei M2 | M3 C At M4 M5 Ce M6 M7 zi se M8 M1 li ' da bha zazi za M2 tA M3 M4 M5 M6 M1 M8 thA (gha dAdA bha [ma] mA [[yA E la For Personal & Private Use Only dAdA hA 0 Chu E PLATE 172 (zA la nA to D) 10) bA lA lA lo mAmA mA yA tyA yA rA ro lA lA zava vA (zA za sAtA hA

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11th - 13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 173 LIGATURES M, M2 M3 M4 M5 Mol Me mi M2 M3 Mul Ms M. Mil M8 VoWEL KSHAKTYA KSHA KSHA KTA KTA KSHA KSHA yA kAka KHYA KHYA KHYA GMA GRA CHCHHA Sennia snenniazhnnia Czhnia, szhnyi snennia! Snn # i a TMA TP TVA TPA TPA For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th - 13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 174 Au LIQ ATURES M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 DDHA DBHU DVA DDHA DVYA DMA DVI DHYA DHYA inola EMEA E NU NDANDA NTA NPU Pea nA PRA Pyu pae BHYA IDHYA URTHAH RTHA hallca 1231F VRA hotI SCHA ing SHYA SWIM SHYA SNTA For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs Signs for Numerals Like alphabets, the Indian numeral also reveals a history of gradual evolution. In ancient times, before the 10th century A.D. numeral notations were denoted in two ways - letter numerals and numerical figures of the decimal system. In letter numerals separate signs are used for the units, tens, hundreds and thousands. Other composite numbers are represented by the combination of units with tens, hundreds and thousands. This type of notation was employed exclusively up to the later part of the 6th century A.D. and thereafter sporadically survived alongside the decimal system till the 10th century A.D. Very useful researches on the letter-numerals have been done by E. Thomas, E. Clive Bayley, Bhau Daji, H.R. Kapadia, 4 Bhagawanlal Indraji, G. Buhler, G.S. Ojha,? Awadhesh Narain Singh, Sobhana Laxaman Gokhale, and recently Om Prakash Lal Srivastava 10 The modern system of using nine unit figures and zero for all purposes of notation and calculation, arranged in decimal order seems to be of a later period. To the best of our knowledge, the earliest epigraphic instance of the use of the decimal notation is the Gurijara inscriptions from Sankheda of Chedi year 346 (A.D. 595). The object of the present chapter is not For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs 159 to deal with the typology, old and new, of the numerals but to trace the history of evolution of Nagari numerals. For the present purpose I have prepared three numerical Plates out of which Plate 175 (Tables N, to N15) is derived from the inscriptions of the 6th-8th centuries, Plate 176 (Tables NG to N21) from the 9th-10th centuries and Plate 177 (Tables N32 to N47) from the period between the 11th and the 13th centuries. Here I do not wish to enter into the controversy of numerals being evolved with the letter forms or independent symbols, but have taken the general resemblance of the numeral signs with the letters of the period. Sign for Zero The sign of zero, in Terundia Plate of Subhakar: A.D. 704 (Table N3) is represented as a dot. It is evident from literary sources that the sign of zero was drawn by a dot in the earlier period. 12 Tables N4 and Ns, derived from Purushottampur and Daultabad plates, show an open circle or hook like sign. From the 9th century, it becomes circular in shape as in modern times. Sign for One The numeral 1 is denoted by a horizontally placed stroke (Pl. 175, Tables N2 & N15), or curve (Table Ny) and continues till 8th century A.D. From the 9th century, curve is vertically drawn. In further developmental stage a hook (Table N16), a knob (Table N26), or a small circle (Tables N27, N30, N31) is added to the top of it. These forms are continued till 13th century. Out of them, small circular variety is accepted in modern Nagari. Sign for Two Two parallel horizontal lines occur for the numeral 2 in Tipperah Grant of Lokanath (Table 1). In the next developmental stage (Table Nm), both horizontal stroke are joined by a third cursive stroke. This numeral notation attains modern shape during the 9th century A.D. in which a slanting stroke is attached to the upper half-circle. For Personal & Private Use Only

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160 Development of Nagari Script Sign for Three The Dadhimati-mata inscription of the time of Dhruhlana (A.D. 608; Table No) indicates the use of old form of numeral notation 3 which is formed with three parallel horizontal lines. In the first developmental stage (Table N10) right tip of the upper two bars slant to meet with the lower bar, which is extended to the right. The further developmental stage (Table Nu) shows a form in which the right tip of both upper bars became cursive by which three limbs joined with each other. Finally, from the 9th century, upper two lines are shortened and form almost a double curved shape and a slanted tail is attached at the lower extremity. This form is retained in Nagari. Sign for Four Two different types of numeral signs are found for 4 till the 9th century A.D. A sign like letter ka was the shape for four in the Mauryan period. Later on, an upward open curve was added to the left of it which looked like the ligature pka. In the 7th century curve turns to open right and looks like ligature tka (Table Ny). The continuation of the letter numeral in the 9th century is marked by Javakhed plate of Amoghavarsha (A.D. 820; Table N28) where it is formed with ka like shape with a stroke to the left of the head-mark. However, the Nagari form of this numeral is also noticed as early as the Dhinaki plate of Jaikadeva of A.D. 738?13 (Table N,3). The modern form gains more currency from the 9th century. Sign for Five Several signs are employed for the numeral 5. This notation is not shown in the Mauryan Brahmi. From the time of the Kushanap till third century it is denoted by a like letter form. Na, or tri like letter form is the common variety of it during the fourth-fifth centuries. Later on, a like form of it developed into hu like mark in the Kailan plate (Table N), ha like in Dighwa-Dubauli plate (Table N24). Tri like shape of it grew into the form of Tya in Madhuban (Mg) and Barah plates (N22). In Tipperah plate (Table Ny) it is denoted by a leftward hooked shape with an additional small stroke in the middle of the vertical line. In the Kusuma inscription For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs 161 (N10) it is represented as an upward hooked shape with a knob at the upper end. A righward hooked shape is employed for this sign in the Gaya epigraph of the time of Sultan Muizzudin (Table N33). However, in general, this notation is denoted by the letter ja, where the head-mark disappears. Jodhpur inscription of Bauk (A.D. 837; Table N21) represents a transitional shape formed by an upward opened curve with notched left limb. The next developmental stage is marked by Jodhpur grant of Simha (A.D. 997; Table N ), where the right limb forms a straight line; but left limb still is notched. Finally, the right limb became straight and the left one cursive (Tables N25, N26, N39, N40, N42, N46). From this form modern Nagari shape evolved in course of time. Sign for Six The earlier specimens frequently show the form of ja for the numeral notation 6. Thereafter in Madhuban plate of Harsha (Table No) it is shown by the letter da or dra. Samangadh (Table N14) and Chicacole (N18) plates reveal a phase of developing the modern sign, represented as a curve with a slanted stroke. In further developmental stage (Table N23) upper curve is turned to right and lower slanted stroke develops into a hook shape. Finally, both limbs of the vertical become cursive with a vertical tail (Tables Nan & N47). However, this developed form continued in use from the 10th century. Alongwith the developed sign, peculiar headless da like letter-form of the numeral 6 is noticed even in the 11th century (Table N44). Sign for Seven In tracing the development of Nagari numeral 7 we observe that it was shown by a downward curve in the earlier periods. In developing stages, the right limb of the curve extends downward (Table N14), progressively turned to left in various degrees (N35, N36, N46) and finally prolongs upwards (N37, N42). Side by side with these developed marks other forms are also noticed such as a leftward double curved shape like incipient mark of the numeral 3 (Tables N20 & N25), a hooked shape with a notch in right limb and a head-line (Table N34) and a double curved shape in For Personal & Private Use Only

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162 Development of Nagari Script which either upper curve to right and lower to left (Table N38) or upper curve to left and lower to right (Tables N43 and N44). Sign for Eight The numeral 8 is denoted by initial vowel u like letter in BodhGaya inscription (Table Ns), bha like in Guhil grants (Table No), da like in Daultabad plate (Table N15), vra like in Jodhpur inscription (Table N21) and hra like form in Bengal Asiatic Society's plate (Table N24). To trace the developmental stages of modern Nagari form, we find that it is represented as a rightward curve in Table N4. In the next developmental stage the upper portion become flattened with a downward slanted stroke (Table N23). Further, lower slant transforms into a rightward curve (Tables N37 & N20). Finally, upper flat line protrudes to the left (Tables N35, N40). This shape is still employed in Nagari. As for other signs, one horizontal line with two falling strokes is the shape in Gujarat (N28) and Chinchni (N29) plates, rightwards peculiar notched with curly extremity in Kuretha plate (Table N34), leftward double curved shape in Thana plates (N44) and leftward hooked shape in Bassein inscription (Table N45). Sign for Nine The numeral 9 is represented by a leftward curve with notch in earlier period. Letter ra is the shape for it in Bodh Gaya inscription (Table N5), jya in Nalanda (N16) and Pettasar Grant (N17) and u in Bengal Asiatic Society's Plate (Table N24). In later period generally two signs are employed for this numeral: (i) leftward hooked shape with a circle at the upper end and (ii) double curved shape. Second shape furnished numeruous sub-varieties which can be best understood by the illustrations shown in Plates 176 & 177. Of these sub-varieties, Koni inscription (Table N37) reveals developed features with both curves turning to right. From this shape modern Nagari form evolved in due course. Sign for Ten A separate sign is employed for the numeral notation 10, in old specimens. The letter ma with its open mouth turned to right is the shape for ten in earlier stages. Progressively, the left loop mouth opened and upper arm For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs 163 of the right curve transforms into a straight vertical and shows different forms which look like nta and found in Tipperah grant (Table N2). A peculiar sign occurs in Chandesvara plates (Table N4). The ya like letter appears in the Mangaraon (Table N) and Dadhimati-mata inscriptions (Table Ny). In Ahar (N23) and Dighwa-Dubauli plates (N24) it is represented by lri like letter-form. From the 10th century decimal system becomes the regular feature where numeral one comes to the left of zero. Sign for Twenty The numeral 20 retains old tha like letter form in Tipperah (Table N2), Banskhera (N7) and Madhuban copper-plates (Ne). Sign for Forty Pta like letter-form is the shape of numeral 40 in the Guhil inscriptions (Table N12). Sign for Fifty In all developmental stages 50 is indicated by a curve open to right as shown in Table N24 (Dighwa-Dubauli plate). Sign for Sixty An angle with its apex downwards is the shape of 60 in earlier period which developed in due course and takes pu like letter form in the BodhGaya inscription (Table 15). Sign for Seventy In Kushana period a cross-bar or pna like letter from is employed for 70 which developed into rika like mark in later period as shown in Table N17 (Pettasar grant). Sign for Eighty The numeral 80 is denoted by a circle with a full breadth vertical line in the middle in earlier period. In Dadhimati-mata inscription flat line with two upright triangle is the shape of it. In the Bengal Asiatic Society's plate (Table N24) an upward open curved with inner bent extremities is the shape of the numeral. For Personal & Private Use Only

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164 Development of Nagari Script Sign for Ninety In earlier period 90 is indicated by a circle with cross mark in the middie. One horizontally slanted with three upright and one crossed slanted line was the shape of it in Kusuma inscription (Table N10), Barah plate (N22) furnishes a different sign of the numeral which is formed by rightward hooked slants with the numeral 2 like mark in the right portion. Sign for Hundred The su or a like letter form was rarely and generally a vertical hooked with notched top employed for 100 in earlier period. Later on, in Terundia plate of Subhakar (Table N3) it is denoted by letter lu. Sign for Two Hundred The numeral 200 is represented by adding the sign of two in the form of hundred. Nagari letter la like combination is shown in Bodh-Gaya inscription (Table Ns), while signs for sa and 2 are combined in Dadhimatimata inscription (NO) and sa in Pettasar grant (N17). Sign for Six Hundred The sign for letter sa is combined with the sign for six to denote 600 in Kusuma inscription (Table N10). Sign for Seven Hundred In Samoli inscription (Table Nu) letter sra for hundred mark is combined with hooked seven mark for the numeral 700. Sign for Eight Hundred Barah plate (Table 122) shows sra like letter combined with the sign for eight makes the numeral notaiion of 800. Sign for Nine Hundred The numeral 900 is denoted by the combination of sra and the sign for nine in Dighwa-Dubauli plate (Table NW) while it is a bit different in Bengal Asiatic Society's plate (N24), but the basic principle is the same. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs 165 Other Signs and Symbols In inscriptions and manuscripts several signs and symbols are to be found from very ancient times. Very often we are not sure about the phonetic or symbolic value of these signs. Some scholars read the signs found in the beginning of the epigraphs as Siddham and others prefer to read them as sign for Om. Here we have recorded some such signs and symbols found in the beginning, middle and at the end of the epigraphs and manuscripts for illustration. Signs for Om (Plate 178, A) Generally, Indian epigraphs and manuscripts begin with an auspicious symbol which is recognised as Om. This syllable does not occur in the Rig veda and the Atharvaveda, 14 but is found in the Vedic rituals where it is mentioned as universe. 15 It is also stated there that, in the sound Om there are three aksharas a, u, m.16 The sound Om is expressed by a symbol. The symbolic representation is, in general, drawn as a curl or spiral, turning either to the left or right. It may be a conventional representation of the sacred samkha or conch shell. As J.J. Boeles states: "We must presume that the curious curl on which the Om mangala is based must have derived from the old vowel, 0, known from Buhler's alphabets."17 Danil 8 has arranged Om signs under three formal groups: North Indian, West Indian and South Indian. But his South Indian forms are also noticed in Rajasthan, for example his fourth form is met with in Dhulev and fifth in the Vasantgadh inscriptions. The North Indian second form is met with in the Samangadh inscription from Maharashtra. Here an attempt has been made to present various clearly noticeable varieties of this sign under four groups: (i) leftward spiral forms, (ii) rightwards spiral forms, (iiirare forms and (iv) evolution of modern form. For Personal & Private Use Only

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166 Development of Nagari Script Signs for Jihvamuriya and Upadhamaniya (Plate, 178 B & C) The illustrated forms of Jihvamutiya are taken from Guhil, Lakkhamandal and Jhalrapatan inscriptions; and the forms of Upadhamaniya from Guhil (A.D. 653), Vasantgadh, Banskhera, Lakkhamandal and Guhil (A.D. 688) inscriptions. Of these, the first is represented by a symbol looking like superscript y joined with ka; and second by two circles, or above opened curly ended semicircle, or lower bended horn shaped, placed above the letter pa. Signs for Punctuation, Etc. (Plate 178, D) It is generally averred that the various modern signs of punctuationnamely comma, inverted comma, dash, colon, semi colon, full stop, sign of interrogation, sign of exclamation, several kinds of brackets, etc., were not employed in ancient inscriptions and manuscripts. It is true to some extent. During the earliest period only straight, or curved single stroke was sporadically used for denoting the punctuation mark. In later period a danda, or stroke is drawn to mark the completion of a sentence or a hemistich of a verse and two dandas, or strokes to indicate completion of a verse. Some mangalas and ornamental signs are also drawn in the later portion; or at the end of the inscriptions. A very common sign of this description is a large circle with a smaller one in side. Notes and References 1. "On the Dynasty of the Sah kings of Surashtra," JRAS, XII, pp. 32-47. 2. "On the Genealogy of modern Numerals," JRAS, N.S. XIV, pp. 335-76 & Plates. 3. "The ancient Sanskrit Numerals in the Cave Inscriptions and on the Sah-coins, correctly made out; with Remarks on the Era of salivahana and Vikramaditya," JBBRAS, VIII, pp. 225-33 & Pl. 4. "Foliation of Jaina Manuscripts and Letter-Numerals," ABORI, XVIII, pp. 171-86 & Pls. 5. "On the ancient Nagari Numerals," IA, VI, pp. 42-48, & Pls. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs 167 6. Indian., pp. 96-107, & Pl. 7. Bharatiya., pp. 102-27 & Pls. 8. "On the Evolution of Alphabetic Numerals in India," JUPHS, VII, Pt. I (1934), pp. 42-53. 9. Indian Numerals, Poona, 1966. 10. Uttar Bharat me Ariko ka Vikas (Hindi), Varanasi, 1986. 11. Dhruva, H.H., EI, II, pp. 19-20, Pl. f., p., 20. 12. Cf., Sunyabindava iva vilikhitah, Subandhu's Vasavadatta, (c. early 6th Cent. A.D.), Varanasi, 1967, p., 168. 13. Majumdar, R.C., The Classical Age, Bombay, 1962. The genuineness of this record has been doubted. 14. Keith, A.B., Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 1917, vol. IX, p., 490. 15. Mandukya Upanishad, I. 16. Maitrayana Upanishad, 6.3 17. "The Migration of the Magic Syllable Om," India Antiqua, Leyden, 1947, p., 44. 18. Indian., Fig. 156. For Personal & Private Use Only

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168 Development of Nagari Script References for Plate 175 (6th-8th Century) Table Numeral Inscription Reference Date in A.D. 2, 3,5 Kailan plate of Sridharana IHO, XXIII, Pl. f. p., 237. EI, XV, Pls. b. pp. 308-09. N2 1,2,5,7, 9, 10, 20 Tipperah grant of Lokanatha - 0, 100 Terundia plate of Subhakara II 706 0,8 EI, XXVIII, Pls. b. pp. 214-15. EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 266-67. Purushottampur plates of Madhavavarmna II Ns 8,9, 60, 200 Bodh-Gaya inscrip- 588 tion of Mahanama IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 358. JBRS, XXX, Pl. f. p., 201. No 2, 7, 10 - scrp- Mangaraon inscription of the reign of Vishnugupta Banskhera plate of Harsha 1,2, 20 628 EI, IV, Pl. f. p., 210. Ng 5,6,20 Madhuban plate of Harsha 631 EI, VII, Pl. f. p., 158. EI, XI, Pl. f. p., 304. N, 608 3,4,9, 10, 80, 200 3,5, 90, 600 Dadhimati-mata in- scription of the time of Dhruhlana Kusuma inscription time of N10 636 EI, XXXVI, Pl. f. p., 48. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs 169 Nu 3, 700 646 E1, XX, Pl. f. p., 99. Samoli inscription of the time of Siladitya N12 8,40 Two grants of early 654 & Guhilas 689 EI, XXXIV, Pls. b. pp. 172-73 & 17475. N13 4,7,9 Dhinaki plate of Jaikadeva 738 IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 154-55. N14 IA, XI, Pls. b. pp. 110-11 & 112-13. 5,6,7 Samangadh plates 753 of Dantidurga 0,1,5,7, Daultabad plates of 793 Sankaragana N15 EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 196-97 & f. p., 198. For Personal & Private Use Only

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6th-8th CENTURY A.D. O 1 22 3 2 4 549 9 7 N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 No No No N12 N13 N14 N15 8 9 2 2 6 D | _| C3 ~ 22 s -61 01 ERS 3 NUMERALS 90 111 m 8. 2 10 20 90 432yELY nx kahyuM che je la ba ma je 20 200 Bo Loo S 200 336 ru For Personal & Private Use Only PLATE 175 Ja 4 G s ( 519 5 73 3rd 2

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170 Development of Nagari Script References for Plate 176 (9th-10th Century) Table Numeral Inscription Reference Date in A.D. N16 3,9 - Nalanda plates of Devapala EI, XVII, Pls. b. pp. 320-21. EI, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 304 & 306. N EI, XXVII, Pls. b. pp. 338-39. N18 923 1,2 Mungir plates of Devapala 9, 70, 200 Pettasar grant of Nettabhanja 0, 1, 2, 4, Chicacole plates of Madhu Kavarnnadeva 1, 2,5 Pandukesvar plate of Lalitasura 0, 1,7,9 Dewal Prasasti of Lalla 5,6 JBORS, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 294-95. N19 854 EI, XXXI, PI. f. p., 280. N20 - EI, I, Pl. f. p., 76. N21 4, 5, 8, 9 837 N22 836 3, 5, 90, 800 1 to 10 Jodhpur inscription of Bauk Barah plate of Bhoja Ahar inscription of the time of Bhoja Dighwa-Dubauli plate of Mahendrapala EI, XVIII, Pl. f. p., 96. EI, XIX, Pl. f. p., 18. EI, XIX, Pl. f. p., 60. IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 112. N23 865 N24 5, 10, 50 900 898 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Numerals and Other Signs N25 N26 N27 N28 N29 8, 9, 80, 900 3,5,9 2, 4, 7 0, 1, 3 2, 5, 6 2, 8, 9 0, 1, 3 4,5 2,4 7,8,9 8 5 Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Vinayakapala Karitalai inscription 840 of Lakshmana I Chandrehe inscrip tion of Prabodhasiva Two Harasol grants of Siyaka An odd plate of Siyaka Puskar inscription of Durgaraja Thanwala inscription of the time of Simharaja Jodhpur fragmentary grant of Simharaja Javakhed plates of Amoghavarsha Gujarat plates of Dantivarma Chinchani plates of Indra III 931 Sangli grant of Govinda 973 969 925 & 937 956 997 820 867 926 933 For Personal & Private Use Only IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 140. CII, IV, Pl. XXXA. CII, IV, Pl. XXXIV. 171 EI, XIX, Pls. b. pp. 242-43. EI, XIX, Pl. f. p., 178. EI, XXXV, Pl. f. P., 242 EI, XXXV, Pl. f. P., 243. EI, XXXVI, Pl. f. p., 46. EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 130-31, 132-33 & f. p., 134. EI, VI, Pls. b. pp. 290-91 & f. p., 294. EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 52-53. IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 250-51.

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172 N30 N31 4,9 0, 1, 3, 4, Grant of Mularaja of Anhilavada 5 1,5,9 0, 2, 6 A grant of Amoghavarsha Janjira plates of Aparajita Bhadan grant of Aparajita Development of Nagari Script IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 266-67. 972 986 993 997 For Personal & Private Use Only IA, VI, Pls. b. pp. 192-93. CII, VI, Pls. IX-XII CII, VI, Pls. XVIII XX

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9th- 10th CENTURY A.D. 0 1 2 3 bha 50 7 7 8 9 N16 N17 N18 N19 N20 N21 N22 N23 N24 N25 N26 N27 N28 N29 N30 N31 C dr kh 2 aaa 6 FOR ANNE KE 70 200 20 0 , 2 2 04 j '1 4 A5 3 3 jI| 2 | 3 3 4 4 cha hai ja 5 56 6 2 S 0 Boo phda m 10 hara lR 50 NUMERALS 1. 1 2 2 2 1 3 3 3 4 dA C32 80 10 3 900 900 sao 0 For Personal & Private Use Only khy PLATE 176 2 T C 2 o 8488 Fa 1 1 2 3 o DAcI ja 6 da 7

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Numerals and Other Signs 173 References for Plate 177 (11th-13th Century) Table Numeral Inscription Reference Date in A.D. N32 0, 1,4,7 1020 EI, XXXV, Pls. b. pp. 134-35. 2,5 Bihar grant of Sauraditya Tarachandi inscrip- tion of Pratapadhavala 1168 EI, XXXIV, Pls. b. pp. 26-27. Mahulpara plates of -- MahasivaguptaDharmarath EI, XXXVII, Pls. b. pp. 228-29. N33 1,5,7 1200 JBRS, LII, Pl. VII. Gaya inscription of the time of Muizzuddin 2,3 1268 N34 1 to 9 Gaya epigraph of Balban Kuretha grants of Malayavarma Chandravati plates of Chandra N35 6,8 1247 1093 & 1097 JBRS, LIII, Pl. XXXIV. EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 148-49. EI, XIV, Pls. b. pp. 194-95 & f. pp. 196 & 198. EI, XXXV, Pls. b. pp. 208-09, 21213, 214-15, & 21819. CII, IV, Pl. LXVA. 1, 2, 3, 5, Some Gahadaval 7,9 grants N36. 0 to 9 Ratanpur inscrip- tion Jajalla I 1114 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Development of Nagari Script N37 0 to 9 1148 Koni inscription of Prithvideva II CII, IV, PI. LXXIII. to 9 Ajayagadh inscription of Kirttivarma Mandhata plates of Devapala 0 to 9 1225 N40 0 to 9 1288 Inscription of the time of Hammir Paldi inscription of Arisimha EI, XXX, Pl. f. p. 90. EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 110-11. EI, XIX, P1. f. p., 50. EI, XXX, Pl. f. p., 10. EI, XXXIII, Pl. f. 1,3,7,9 1116 N12 P., 34. N43 N44 0 to 9 0 to 9 Baraudi inscription 1279 of the time of Gopala 0 to 9 A grant of 1050 Trilochanpula Thana plates of 1048 Mummuniraja 0, 1, 3,8 Bassein inscription 1161 of Mallikarjuna 0 to 9 Methi inscription of 1254 Krishna 0, 1, 2, 3, Grants of 1290 4, 6, 7, 8, Maharajakula Jayasimha IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 202-03. CII, VI, Pls. XXXVII-XLI. CII, VI, PI. LXVII. N16 N47 EI, XXVIII, Pl. f. p., 319. EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 222-23 & f. p., 225 For Personal & Private Use Only

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11th-13th CENTURY A.D. PLATE 177 Na2 N33 N34 | N35/N36/N37 138 139 | N4. Mus N42 | 43 | 44 | Nus | N46 N47 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 | 2 23 22 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 c | |6| | | | | | | D | | | | | | | | 6 6 6 6 6 6.6 6 6 6 6 [7 1722 9 3 5 2 || 8 | S | | |c : c ) 22 | | | | | | | | |_) _ - NUMERALS For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLATE 178 MISCELLANEOUS SIGNS A. SIGNS FOR OM 7 T 7 1 2 2 - 7 1 4 , R S HIS SU or v 2 2 3 ; DuM che B. JIHVAMULIYA C. UPADHMANIYA D. PUNCTUATION MARK ETC. 1 ja 3 ( ( (@ rAdhyA rAjA rAbharA rAmA (( ( ( For Personal & Private Use Only

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Conclusions Nagari is the outcome of evolutionary process of Mauryan Brahmi script and any consideration on its independent origin is superfluous. From Mauryan to the middle of the sixth century A.D., only a few letters resemble counterparts in Nagari. While towards the end of the sixth century, with the emergence of the Kutila alphabet, the development in alphabet towards Nagari moves fast. Most of the letters, from the 7th century onwards undergo the process of development in forms of the letters with only the difference of full covering head-line and straight vertical. All characteristics of the Nagari appear first about the end of the 10th century and approaches mature Nagari form by the 13th century A.D. There are some variations in the Nagari script of different regions due to various factors, namely the writing material, the writing technique, different schools of writers and engravers and their individual interest and mannerisms, etc. However, script maintains a sort of unity during the developmental process. Some noticeable factors which are responsible for such type of development are reviewed below: Learned persons from time to time have migrated from one place to the other and among other things they also affected writing styles. Rajasekhara has stated that many early poets, who had travelled widely, had For Personal & Private Use Only

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176 Development of Nagari Script benefited their country-men by making use of their experience in those alien lands in their literary compositions. Rajasekhara himself was a Maharashtrian Brahmana, stayed in the court of the Imperial Pratiharas, married a Chahmana lady Avantisundaria king Indra III. The Kashmiri, poet, Bilhana, travelled to South 'ndia and in the court of king Vikramaditya of Kalyana, he composed his Vikramarkadeva Charitra." Jayanaka, the noted Kashmiri poet, made a journey to the court of Prithviraja III. Dhanapala, of U.P., spent a major part of his life at the court of Paramara rulers and lastly settled at Satyapura in Rajasthan. Similarly, Sriharsha, who was probably a Bengali by birth, was patronised by Jayachandra, the Gahadavala king of Kanauja. This point becomes more clear by the example of Pattadakal pillar inscription of the time of Chalukya Kirtivarma II (A.D. 754) which was engraved in the southern as well as in proto-Nagari characters. The northern characters were surely due to the Brahmanas from Northern ia, for whom the pillar was set up.5 Sometimes, it is also noticed that the writer and engraver belonged to two distinct places and might have influenced the alphabet considerably. Along with the writers and engravers the donee also had a role in the migration of the script. For example, most of the Rashtrakuta grants written in proto-Nagari or Nagari were donated to the Brahmanas who had come from the different parts of Northern India. It may be due to the fact that perhaps the receiver of the charters did not follow the matter written in southern scripts or the donor was under the influence of these learned scholars. The establishment of larger kingdoms also encouraged a uniform system of writing within the dominions where divergent systems were prevalent. In consequence many diversities of the alphabet disappeared and with the skilled hand of the royal writer and engraver the script developed in unidirection. Sometimes writers were chosen from the newly conquered country by the king. Raids and conquests from time to time have also shared in the migration of scripts. For example with the expansion of Harsha's power, in the early part of the 7th century, the script of the west reached the Middle For Personal & Private Use Only

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Conclusions 177 Ganga Valley. Nagari seems to have infiltrated into the Punjab in the wake of the armies of king Bhoja of Malava and Karna of Tripuri, which came to liberate it from the Turks and reached up to Kangada. The first Nagari inscription in the Punjab is a Jaina record of A.D. 1240 at Baijanath.' Sometimes the writers and engravers were brought from the important centres. As V.B. Kolte states: It may be that after the victory of Indra III over Kanauj and the temporary exile of king Mahipala, Rajasekhara had gone to the royal court of the Rashtrakutas and stayed with Indra III where he might have composed this panegyric. Several important educational centres were established by the philomath kings, where people used to come from different parts of the country take education. Varanasi was one such centre which attracted students from far-off places. Mammatabhata, a native of Kashmir, had his early education at Varanasi.10 Kanauj was another great centre of learning. This centre produced several learned scholars like Rajasekhara, Kshemesvara, Bhatta Lakshmidhara, Sriharsha & c. who served in the royal court of Kanauja. Kashmir too was an important educational centre. 11 Students from distant places like Pataliputra and Bengal went there to study. In Rajasthan, there were several educational centres like Bhinmal, Abu, Chitor, Ajmer, Kumaravihara. Valabhi was a great and renowned centre flourishing in Kathiawada. Dhara and Mandu were the important educational centres of Madhya Pradesh. Pataliputra was the important seat of learning in Eastern India. Different types of persons were engaged in writing works. Royal charters were generally written by the skilled hand of professional writers and engraved by artists. Public records were often written and engraved by the persons who were generally not professional or skilled writers. Due to these factors the royal inscriptions show the use of a standard form For Personal & Private Use Only

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178 Development of Nagari Script of writing whereas different new apprentices were given a chance to work on personal records. Likewise, the religious manuscripts were very often copied in their old characters which made the script conventional. The divergence of Jaina-Nagari is a good example of it. In day-to-day writing, copyists were not bound to use only the standard form of letters. In consequence rapid evolution took place in such types of work. The writing style, writing materials, the taste for ornamentation, desire for speed, etc., all affected the course of the development of scripts. It is surely the consequence of speedy writing in daily use which is responsible for the development of cursive scripts like Gujarati, Mahajani, Kaithi, etc. Apparently, these scripts ultimately developed from Nagari with a view to write with speed. With the expansion of Muslim power and extinction of the Hindu kingdoms after 12th century A.D. the task of inscription writing subsequently became secondary specially in Northern India because there was a fall in tradition of landgrants. Manuscript writing had become the common tradition and almost a religious practice, especially among Jainas with a view to escape destruction by the Muslim invaders. But in manuscript writing copyists generally tried to follow the old alphabet too, and therefore the development in script became stagnant after the 13th century A.D. With the invention of the printing press and the typewriter, script became fully stereotyped and standardised. Now only the standard forms are employed in such type of works so the natural path of evolution of alphabets has become blocked. Now the necessities of the press and the demands of smaller types are so important that any change in the script can be thought of only with a view to suit the machine. Thus it can be concluded that the Nagari script developed from the Mauryan Brahmi for about sixteen centuries and then after the thirteenth century A.D. onwards it became almost stagnant. The mechanization during last hundred years or so has standardised the alphabet. If there is any future for the Nagari it is bound with mechanical needs. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Conclusions 179 Notes and References 1. Kavyamimamsa, pp. 12, 78. 2. Karpuramanjar, I, 11. 3. Sharma, B.N., Social and Cultural History of Northern India (c. 1000-1200 A.D.), 1972, New Delhi, p., 50. 4. Ibid. 5. Fleet, J.F., EI, III, p., 5: "Gamgaya uttara-kule Mrigihanikahara vishayadihagatena." 6. Buhler, "The Dewal Prasasti of Lalla the Chhinda, "EI, I, P., 81: "Vishnuharestanayenacha Likhita Gaudena Karanikenaisha | Kutilaksharani vidusha Takshadityabhidhanena II Kanyakuvjagatenapi kamadevasutenachal Utkirnna Somanathena Tankavijnanasalina ll" 7. Vidyalankar, Jaya Chandra, The Language and Script Problem in Punjab, Hindi Bhavan, 1966, p., 110. 8. "Two grants of Rashuakuta Indra III from Vajirkhoda," EI, XXXVIII, p., 14. 9. The Rewah inscription of Malayasimha of A.D. 1192 mentions that Purushottam, the composer of the prasasti and also an inhabitant of Varanasi, was well-versed in Logic, Grammar, mimamsa, Vedanta and Yoga philosophy, EI, XIX, pp. 26-27. 10. Ray, S.C. Early History and Culture of Kashmir, Calcutta 1957, p., 180. 11. Occan of Stories, V, Motilal Banarsidass, 1968, pp. 178-79; Sachau, Al beruni's., I, p., 22. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography Agrawal, V. S. Indian System of Writing. Delhi, 1966. Allan, John. Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum Calcutta, vol. IV, Delhi, 1976. Annigeri, A. M. (ed.) Karnatak Inscriptions, vol. IV. Dharwar, 1961. Aryan, K. C. Rekha. Delhi, 1952. Assam Rashtra Bhasha Prachar Samiti. Hastlipika. Gauhati, 1965. Astle, T. The Origin and progress of Writing etc. Delhi, 1952. Bajpai, Ambika Prasad. "Kagaja, Uska Itihasa aur Mahatva," (Hindi), Sarasvati, November, 1943. Bandyopadhyay, Brajendranath. "Nagari Lipi me Sarvaprathama Prakasita Gramtha," (Hindi), Visala Bharata, January, 1940. Banerji, A. "Evolution of Magadhi Script," JBORS, XXVIII (1942), pp. 440-41. Banerji, R. D. The Origin of the Bengali Script. Calcutta, 1973 (1919). Banerji & A. P. Sastri, Early inscription of Bihar and Orissa. Patna, 1927. Barnett, L. D. Antiquities of India. London, 1913. Barhaspatya. "Devanagari Lipi" (Hindi), Sarasvati, October, November, December, 1908. Bayley, E. Clive. "On the Genealogy of Modern Numerals," JRAS, NS., XIV (1882), pp. 335-76 & Plates. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography 181 Beal, Samuel. Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li. New Delhi, 1973. Beal, Samuel. Si-yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of The Western World, 2 vols. London. Beelingham, C. F. "Arabic Numerals," JRAS (1940), pp. 61-64. Bhagavadatta. Bhasha ka Itihasa. (Hindi), Delhi, 3rd ed. S. 2021. Bhandarkar, D. R. "Origin of the Indian Alphabet," Sir Asutosh Mukherji Silver Jubilee Volume (1922), vol. III (Orientallia), Pt. I, pp. 492 514. Bhatiya, Omprakash. Lipi Vijnan aur Nagari Lipi (Hindi), Delhi, 1974. Bhatiya, Omprakash. Nagari Lipi ka Udbhava aur Vikasa (Hindi), Delhi, 1978. Bhatta, Badri Nath. "Nagari Lipi me Sudhara ki Avasyakata," (Hindi), Sarasvati, vol. 21, Part I, 1920; Sammelan Patrika, vol. 8, Part II, V. S. 1978. Bhatta, Gaurisankar. Akshar Tattva (Hindi), Kanpur, V. S. 1983. Bhatta, Gaurisankar. Lipikala (Hindi), Kanpur, 1936. Bhatta, Gaurisankar. Devanagari Lipi ka Vidhan-Nirmana-Patra (Hindi). Kanpur, 1936. Bhattacharya, Bijanbihari. Lipiviveka (Hindi), Calcutta, 1962. Bhattacharya, H. K. The Language and Scripts of Ancient India. Calcutta, 1959. Bhau Daji. "The ancient Sanskrit Numeral in the Cave Inscriptions and on the Sah-Coins, correctly made out; with Remarks on the Era of Salivahana and Vikram aditya," JBBRAS, VIII (1863-66), pp. 225-33 & Pl. Bhave, Binova. "Saba Bhashaom ki Eka Hi Lipi 'Devanagari Ho," (Hindi). Naya Sahitya, May, 1960. Biddulph, C. H. Coins of the Cholas, NSI, Varanasi, 1968. For Personal & Private Use Only

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182 Development of Nagari Script Bishun Svarup, R. B. "The Antiquity of Writing in India," JBORS, VIII (1922), pp. 46-53. Boeles, J. J. "The Migration of the Magic Syllable Om," India Antiqua, a volume of Oriental Studies Presented by his friends and Pupils to Jean Philippe Vogel, Leyden, 1947. Bora, Mahendra. The Evolution of Assamese Script. Assam, 1981. Bose, S. K. "Studies in Gupta Palaeography." IC, IV (1938), pp. 181-88, 325-46. Brajmohan. Nagari Lipi (Rupa aur Sudhara) (Hindi), Varanasi, 1968. Brajamohan. "Nagari Lipi ke Dosha" (Hindi), Sarasvati, March, 1949. Brijbhusban, Jamila. The World of Indian Miniatures. Japan, 1977. Buhler, G. Indian Palaeography. Indian Studies: Past & Present, vol. I, Pt. I, 3, Calcutta, 1959. Buhler, G. On the Origin of the Indian Brahmi Alphabet, 2nd revised ed. Varanasi, 1968. Buhler, G. "On the origin of the Indian Alphabet and Numerals," IA, XI (1882), pp. 268ff. Burgess, Bhagawanlala Indraji. Inscriptions from the Cave Temple of western India, Indian India, 1976. Burn, R. "Hindu Numerals: Reply," Asiatic Review, XIII (1949), pp. 81ff. Burnell, A. C. Elements of South-Indian Palaeography. From the fourth to the seventeenth century A.D. London, 1878. Chatterji, S. K. The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language. Calcutta, 1926. Chhabra, Bahadurchand and G. S. Gai, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. III (Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings), ASI, New Delhi, 1981. Chhabra, B. Ch. Antiquities of Chamba State, Part II, MASI, No. 72, Delhi, 1957. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography 183 Chhabra, B. Ch. Expansion of Indo Aryan Culture. Delhi, 1965. Chhabra, B. Ch. "Brahmi Lipi ka Vikasa aur Devanagari ki Utpatti" (Hindi). NPP, 49 V.S. 2001, pp. 276-300 with plates. Chakravarti, S. N. "Development of the Bengali Alphabet from the Fifth Cen tury A.D. to the End of the Muhammadan Rule", JASBL, IV (1938), pp. 351-91. Chattopadhyay, Brajadulal. Coins and Currency Systems in Southern India. New Delhi, 1976. Chaturvedi, Sitaram. Devanagari Lipi ka Anga Bhanga, Sudhara ke Nam par Vigana na Kijiye. (Hindi), Varanasi, V. S. 2012. Chaudhuri, Anant. Nagari Lipi aur Hindi Vartani (Hindi). Patna, 1973. Chakraborti, Haripada. Early Brahmi Records in India. Calcutta. Clodd, Edward. The Story of Alphabet. London, 1900. Cunningham, Sir A. Coins of Medieval India, Varanasi, 1967. Cunningham, A. Archaeological Survey Reports. Dani, A.. H. Indian Palaeography. Oxford, 1963. Das, Sukumar Ranjan. "The Origin and Development of Numerals," IHQ, III (1927), pp. 97-120, 356-75. Das Gupte, C. D. "On a New Type of Brahmi ja inscribed on some Ancient Indian Coins," JRAS, 1934, pp. 350-52. Datta, B. B. "The Present Mode of Exposing Numerals," IHQ, III (1927), pp. 530-40. Deambi, K. B. Kaul. Corpus of Sarada Inscriptions of Kashmir, Delhi, 1982. Diringer, David. The Alphabet A Key to the History of Mankind. London, 1949. Diringer, David. Writing. London, 1962. For Personal & Private Use Only

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184 Development of Nagari Script Diskalkar, D. B. "Materials on which Indian Epigraphical Records were incised," JIH, XXXV (1957), pp. 289ff. & Ibid., vol. XXXVI, p., 43ff. Doshi, Saryu. Masterpieces of Jain Printing. Marg Publications, 1985. Dvivedi, Padmakara. "Nagari me Vamchhaniya Parivartana," (Hindi) Kal pana, January, 1960. Elliot, Sir Walter. Coins of Southern India. Varanasi, 1970. Fergusson, James. History of India and Eastern Architecture, vol. II, London, 1910. Filliozat, J. "Palaeographie," L'inde classique, manuel Des E'iudes In diennes. Paris, 1953. Filliozat, J. Political History of India, Eng. Tr. India, 1957. Fleet, J. F. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, III (Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and their Successors). Varanasi, 1963. Fleet, J. F. Pali Sanskrit and Old Canarese Inscriptions. London, 1978. Fuhrer, A. The Sharqi Architecture of Jaunpur. Varanasi, 1971. Gadre, A. S. Important Inscription from the Baroda State, vol. I, Baroda, 1943. Gairola, Vachaspati. Akshar Amar Rahen (Hindi). Varanasi, 1959. Gandhi, Mahatma. "Ek-Lipi ki Avasyakata" (Hindi), NPP, 44, V. S. 1966. Gelb, I. J. A Study of Writing. Chicago, 1963, 2nd ed. Gokhale, S. L. Indian Numerals. Poona, 1966. Gokhale, S. L. Purabhilekhavidya. Poona, 1975. Gonda, J. Twenty-Five Sanskrit Inscriptions. Nagpur, 1912. Gopal, Lallanji. Early Medieval coin-type of Northern India. Varanasi, 1966. Gopal, Madan. This Hindi and Devanagari Script, Delhi, 1953. Grierson, G. A. Linguistic Survey of India, IX, Pt. II. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography 185 Grierson, George A. A Handbook to the Kaithi Character. Calcutta, 1881. Grierson, G. A. Index of Language Names. Calcutta, 1920. Grierson, G. A. Bharata ka Bhasha Sarvekshana (Hindi), U. P., 1959. Grierson, G. A. "On Sarada Alphabet," JRAS (1916), pp. 677-708. Gulik, R. H. Van. Siddham. New Delhi, 1956. Gupta, Chitrarekha. The Brahmanas of India: A Study based on Inscrip tions. Delhi, 1983 Gupta, Chitralekha. "Inscriptions In The Bhaiksuki-Lipi And Associated Problems of Later Buddhism," K. K. Dasgupta (ed.) Buddhism Early and Late Phase Calcutta University, 1985, pp. 108-18. Gupta, K. K. Copper-Plates of Sylhet. Sylhet, 1967. Gupta, Parmanand. Geography in Ancient Indian Inscriptions (upto 650 A.D.) Delhi, 1973 Gupta, P. L. Coins, Delhi, 1969. Gurjara, Vasudeva. "Nagari Lipi me Atyavasyaka Sudhara," (Hindi) Visala Bharata: May, 1949. Guy, John. Palm-leaf and Paper, Illustrated Manuscripts of India and Southeast Asia. Melbourne, 1982. Hoernle, Rudolf A. F. Bower Manuscript. ASI, Calcutta, 1893-1912. Hoskin, R. F. & G. M. Meredith-Owens, (ed.) A Handbook of Asian Scripts. London, 1966. Hultzsch, E. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. I, (Inscriptions of Asoka). Indological Book House, 1969. Husain, Aga Haidar. Aksharon ka Arambha aur Bhasha Vijnana (Hindi). Delhi, 1958. Indraji, Bhagawanlal. "On the ancient Nagari Numerals," IA, VI (1877), pp. 42-48 & Pls. Jain, Balachandra. Utkirna-Lekha (Hindi). Raipur, 1961. For Personal & Private Use Only

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186 Development of Nagari Script Jain, Balabhadra. Bharat ke Digambar Jaina Tirtha, I (Hindi). Bombay, 1974. Jensen, Hans translated from the German by George Unwin. Sign, Symbol and Script, An Account of Man's Effort to Write. London, 1970. Joglekar, N. Ch. & Bhagavan Das Tiwari, (eds.) Devanagari Lipi Svarup, Vikas aur Samasyyen (Hindi). Lucknow, Samvat 2019. Kabir, Humayun. "Development of Language, Place of Script and Alphabet," JAHRS, XXV (1958-60), pp. 180-4. Kabir, Humayun. "Bhasha, Varna aur Lipi," (Hindi), Rashtravani, February, 1960. Kale, M. R. A Higher Sanskrit Grammar. Delhi, 1960. Kamath, M. G. Writing for Farm Families, 1969. Kannaiyan, V. Scripts in and Around India. Madras, 1960. Kapadia, H. R. "A Note of ksha and jna," ABORI, XVII (1935-36), pp. 289-96. Kapadia, H. R. "Outlines of Palaeography," JUB, VI (1937-38), Pl. VI. pp. 87-110 (with special reference to Jain Palaeographical data and their evaluation). Kapadia, H. R. "Foliation of Jain Manuscripts and Letter-Numerals," ABORI, XVIII, Pt. II (1937), pp. 171-86 & Pls. Kapadia, H. R. "A Detailed Exposition of The Nagari, Gujarati and Modi Scripts," ABORI, XIX, Pt. IV (1938), pp. 386-401 & Pls.; XXXVI (1955), pp. 215-26. Kapadia, H. R. "A Palm-leaf Ms. dated A.D. 1122 of Karmastavatika by Govinda Gani," ABORI, XXXVI, illustration f.'p., 217. Kaye, G. R. "On Indian Numerical Symbols," IA, XL (1911), pp. 49-54. Keith, A. B. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 1917, vol. IX. Khanna, G. L. "Bharatiya Lipiyom ka Vikasa," (Hindi) Sarasvati: May 1947. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography 187 Kincaid, C. A. "Hindu Numerals," Asiatic Review, XLI (1945), pp. 95-97. Kramrisch, S. The Hindu Temple, vol. I. Kurian, George Thomas. Historical and Cultural Dictionary of India. New York, 1976. Lambert, H. M. Introduction to the Devanagari Script for Student of Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali. Oxford, 1953. Lohia, R. K. Ek-Bharati "Vishvanagari" The "Romanised" Devanagari for National Integration and Universal Brotherhood. Bombay, 1975. Luders, H. Bruchstucke der Kalpanamanditika Des Kumaralata. Leipzig, 1926. Macdonell, A. A. "The Earliest Occurrences of Devanagari in Printed Book." JRAS, 1900, p., 350. Macdonell, A. A. India's Past. A Survey of her Literatures Religions, Languages and Antiquities. Oxford, 1927. Mag, Sahityacharya. "Bharatiyon ka Lipi Jnana (Hindi), Ganga, Jan. 1952, pp. 189-92. Mahalingam, T. V. A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamil Nadu and Kerala States. New Delhi, 1985. Mahalingam, T. V. Early South Indian Palaeography. Madras, 1974. Maire, A. Materials used to write before the Invention of Printing. Washington, 1904. Majumdar, A. K. Concise History of India, 3 vols. Delhi, 1977. Majumdar, R. C. Inscriptions of Kambuja. Calcutta, 1953. Majumdar, R. C. (Gen. ed.). The History and Culture of the Indian People. Vidya Bhavan Series: 1. The Vedic Age, 2. The Age of Imperial Unity, 3. The Classical Age, 4. The Age of Imperial Kanauja, 5. The Delhi Sultanate. Malinda. "Devanagari aur Bharata ke Muslima Sasaka," (Hindi) Saras vati, August, 1944. For Personal & Private Use Only

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188 Development of Nagari Script Marshal, Sir John. The Monuments of Sanchi. Delhi, 1982 print. Mason, William A. A History of the Art of Writing. The Macmillan Company, 1920. McPherson, Hon'ble Sir Hugh. "The Oriya Alphabet," JBORS, X (1924), pp. 169ff. Mehrotra, Rammurti. Lipi Vikasa (Hindi). Agra, 1945. Mi, Mahesh. Nagari Lipi aur Uski Samasyarye (Hindi), Rohtak, 1982. Mirashi, V. V. (ed.). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. VI (Inscrip tions of the Silaharas) ASI, New Delhi 1977. Mirashi, V. V. (ed.). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. IV, 2 parts (Inscriptions of the Kalachuri-Chedi Era). Ootacamund, 1955. Mishra, Kartik Nath. "Hindi Lipi," (Hindi) Sahitya, October, 1955. Mishra, Vijaya Kant. "The Origin of Writing in India," JIH, XXVI (1948), pp. 211-84. Morrison, Barrie, M. Political Centres and Culture Regions in Early Bengal. Arizona, 1970. Mule, Gunakar. Bharatiya Lipiyon ki Kahani (Hindi), Delhi. 1974. Mukherji, Ramaranjan and S. K. Maity, Corpus of Bengal Inscriptions, bearing on History and Civilization of Bengal. Calcutta, 1967. Muller, F. Max. A Sanskrit Grammar. New Delhi, 1979 (1886). Muni, Punyavijayaji. "Bharatiya Jaina Sramana Samskriti aur Lekhana Kala," (Hindi), Preface to Jain Chitrakalpadruma by Sri Sarabhai Nawab, pp. 1-118. Murhouse, A. C. Writing and the Alphabet etc. London, 1946. Nahar, Puran Chand. Jain Inscriptions, 3 vols. Calcutta, 1918-29. Nahata, Agar Chand. "Jainagamo me Ullikhit Bharatiya Lipiya evam Ichchha Lipi," (Hindi), NPP, 57, V.S. 2000, pp. 243-49. Nahata, Bhavaralal. "Phalaudhi ki Kutila Lipi" (Hindi), NPP, 43: V. S. 1995. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography 189 Narain, A. K. & T. P. Verma, Prachina Bharatiya Lipisastra aur Abhilekhaki (Hindi). Varanasi, 1970. Narasimhamurti, A. V. & B. K. Gururaja Rao, Rangavalli Recent Re searches in Indology (Shri S. R. Rao Felicitation Volume). Delhi, 1983. Nawab, Sarabhai M. Jain Painting, I. Ahmedabad, 1980. Neog, Maheswar (ed.). Prachya-sasanavali from A.D. 1205 to 1847. Assam, 1974. Ojha, Rai Bahadur Pandit Gaurishankar Hirachand. Bharatiya Prachina Lipimala (Hindi). Delhi, 1959. Ojha, G. H. & K. D. Mishra, Nagari Arka aur Akshar (Hindi). Prayag, V. S. 1919. Pal, Purushottam. Hindi Akshara Kala (Hindi). Delhi, 1956. Panchamukhi, R. S. (ed.). Karnatak Inscriptions, 3 vols. (I-III), Dharwar 1941, 1952 & 1953. Pandey, Chandrabali. Kachahar i ki Bhasha aur Lipi (Hindi). Kashi, V. S. 1993. Pandey, Chandrabali. Mughal Badasahom ki Hindi. Kashi, V. S. 1997. Pandey, Chandrabali. Nagari ka Abhisapa (Hindi). Gwalior, V. S. 2002. Pandey, Chandrabali. "Padmavata ki lipi tatha Rachanakala," (Hindi), NPP, 12, V. S. 1988. Pandey, Chandrabali. "Musalamani Sasana Me Nagari" (Hindi), Saras vati, November, 1947. Pandey, Chandrabali. "Nagari aur Musalam ana," (Hindi) NPP, 45, V. S. 1997. Pandey, Chhabinath. Mudrana-kala (Hindi). Patna, 1958. Pandey, N. D. "Deva nagari Lipi me Tara-Yojan a, (Hindi) Sammelan Patrika, vol. 28: V. S. 1997. Pandey, R. B. Indian Palaeography, I. Varanasi, 1957. Pandey, Rajbali. Asoka ke Abhilekha (Hindi). Varanasi, V. S. 2022 For Personal & Private Use Only

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190 Development of Nagari Script Parikh, Pravinchandra. Gujar atmani Brahmi Hi Nagari Sudhino Lipi (Gujarati). Gujarat University, 1974. Parikh, R. C. & H. G. Sastri, Gujaratno rajakiya ane Sanskritik Itihasa (Gujarati), vols. 3, 4, 5 & 6. Ahmedabad, 1974, 1976, 1977 and 1979. Paul, P. O. "The Development of Bengali Script," IHQ, XII (1936), pp. 308-35. PEN. Writing in India, 1965. All India Writers Conference, Lucknow, 1964-65. Petric, W. H. Flinders. The Formation of the Alphabet. London, 1912. Phogat, S. R. Inscriptions of Haryana. Haryana, 1978. Prasad, Durga. "Bharatiya Mudrayem aur Unapara Hindi ka Sthana" (Hindi), NPP, V.S. 1997, pp. 1-12. Prasad, Gorakha. "Devanagari Lipi me Sudhara," (Hindi) Sarasvati, January, October, 1948. Princep, J. Essays on Indian Antiquities, ed. E. Thomas. London, 1858. Publications Division. Panorama of Indian Painting. Ministry of Infor mation and Broadcasting, 1968. Raghuvira & Lokesh Chandra. Gilgit Buddhist Manuscripts, 3 Parts. New Delhi, 1959-66. Rajaguru, S. N. Inscriptions of Orissa, 3 vols. Bhubanesvar, 1958-61. Ramesh, K. V. Inscriptions of the Western Gangas. Delhi, 1984. Ramesh, K. V. Indian Epigraphy, vol. I. Delhi, 1984. Ramesan, N. A Catalogue of the Vijayanagar Coins of the Andhra Pradesh Government Museum. Hyderabad, 1962. Rao, S. R. The Decipherment of the Indus Script. Delhi, 1982. Rastogi, Naresh Prasad. Origin of Brahmi Script: The Beginning of Al phabet in India. Varanasi, 1980. Ravale, L. S. & G. M. Dabholkar, Hindi Hastakshara Darsana (Hindi). Bombay, 1968. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography 191 Rawson, Philip S. Indian Painting. New York, 1961. Regmi, D. R. Inscriptions of Ancient Nepal, 3 vols. New Delhi, 1983. Richardson, E. C. Alphabet and Writing. Chicago, 1930. Ritti, Shrinivas & G. C. Shelkhe, (eds.). Inscriptions from Nanded Dis trict. Nanded, 1968. Roy, P. C. The Coins of Northern India. New Delhi, 1980. Sachau, E. C. Alberuni's India, New Delhi, 1964. Saha, R. N. The Origin of the Alphabet and Numerals, Private Pub, 1931. Salomon, Richard, "Calligraphy in Pre-Islamic India," Frederick M. Asher and G. S. Gai (ed.), Indian Epigraphy: Its Bearing on The History of Art, AIIS, 1985, pp. 3-6. Sankalia, H. D. The Archaeology of Gujarat. Bombay, 1941. Santaram. "Bharata me Roman Lipi ki Lila," (Hindi) Sarasvati, June, 1942. Sarma, D. (ed.). Kamarupasasanavali. Gauhati, 1981. Sarma, S. R. "Writing Material in Ancient India," Aligarh Journal of Orien tal Studies, vol. II (1985), pp. 175-96. Sastri, Hariprasad. Bharatiya Abhilekhavidya, (Hindi). Ahmedabad, 1970. Sastri, Hiranand. "Deva nagari and The Muhammadan Rulers of India," JBORS XXIII (1937), pp. 492-97. Sastri, Hiranand. "Deva nagari Lipi aur Musalamani Silalekha" (Hindi), NPP, V.S. 1997, pp. 13-16. Satyapriya. "Hindi Typewriter Ka Pramanita Talika Pata," (Hindi) Sarasvati, November, 1957. Savanis, Murlidhara. "Bharatiya Sighralipi ka Prasna," (Hindi) Vistala Bharata , April, 1949. Shamasastry, R. "A Theory of the Origin of the Devanagari Alphabet," AI, XXXV (1906), pp. 253-67, 270-90 and 311-24. For Personal & Private Use Only

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192 Development of Nagari Script Sharma, Bholanath & Surat Prasad. "Nagari Lipi-Sudhara ki Samasya evar Uska Samadhana," (Hindi), Sarasvati, February, 1948. Sharma, B. N. Social and Cultural History of Northern India, c. A.D. 1000-1200. New Delhi, 1972. Sharma, Raghunandan. Akshara Vijnana (Hindi). Bombay, S. S. 1835. Shashi Bala. Development of Brahmi with Special Reference to the Origin and Development of Nagari, (Unpublished Thesis, Punjab Univer sity, Chandigarh). Shastri, Ajay Mitra. Yadava inscription from Ambe Jogi Hoshiarpur, 1972. Silvestre, M. J. B. Universal Palaeography or Facsimiles of All Nations and Periods. London, 1849. Simhala, Harisa. "Devanagari Lipi me Navina Sudhara-Yojana, (Hindi) Sarasvati, July, 1948. Singh, Arvind Kumar. "Impact of writing materials on the Evolution of Brahmi script," T. P. Verma and O. P. Tandon (ed.), Studies In Indian History and Culture, Varanasi, 1988, pp. 133-40. Singh, Awadhesh Narayan. "On the Evolution of Alphabetic Numerals in India," JUPHS, VII, Pt. I (1934), pp. 42-53. Singh, Sivaprasad. "Devanagari Lipi ki Trutiya aur Unaka Sudhara," (Hindi) Sammelan Patrika, vol. II, Part III, V. S. 1980. Sircar, D. C. Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Mediaeval India. Motilal Banarsidass, 1960. Sircar, D. C. Indian Epigraphy, Motilal Banarsidass, 1965. Sircar, D. C. Select Inscriptions, bearing on Indian History and Civiliza tion, vol. I, from the sixth century B. C. to the sixth century A.D. Calcutta, 1965, 2nd ed. Revised and enlarged. Sircar, D. C. Indian Epigraphy Glossary. Motilal Banarsidass, 1966. Sircar, D. C. Studies in Indian Coins. Delhi, 1968. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliography 193 Sircar, D. C. Some Epigraphical Records of the Mediaeval Period from Eastern India. New Delhi, 1979. Sircar, D. C. (ed.) Select Inscriptions, vol. II, bearing on Indian History and Civilization from the sixth to the eighteenth century A.D. Motilal Banarsidass, 1983. Sircar, D. C. "Introduction to Indian Epigraphy and Palaeography," JAIH, IV (1970-71), pp. 72-136. Sivaramamurti, C. Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts. Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum, New Series-General Section, vol. III, No. 4, 1952, Government of Madras, 1966. Sivaramamurti, C. and Krishna Deva. "Indian Scripts and Languages in Asian Countries," Lokesh Chandra and Others (ed.), India's Con tribution to World Thought and Culture, Madras, 1970, pp. 203-14. Skinner, F. N. Story of the Letters and Figures. Chicago, 1905. Somani, R. V. Jaina Inscriptions of Rajasthan. Jaipur, 1982. Sprengling, Martin. The Alphabet, Its Rise and Development from The Sinai Inscriptions. Illinois, 1931. Srivastava, Omprakash Lal. Uttar Bharat me Anko ka Vikas, (Hindi). Varanasi, 1986. Strange, E. F. Alphabets, London, 1907. Subrahmanyam, R. A Catalogue of Yadava Coins in the Andhra Pradesh State Museum. Hyderabad, 1965. Sukthankar, V. S. "Palaeographic Notes," Commemorative Essays Presented to R. G. Bhandarkar. Delhi, 1977. Sukumar, Ranjan, "The Origin and Development of Numerals," IHQ, III (1927), p., 97 ff. and 358 ff. Taylor, Isaac. The Alphabet, II. London, 1883. Thaplyal, K. K. Inscriptions of the Maukharis, Later Guptas, Puspabhutis and Yasovarman of Kanauj. Delhi, 1985. For Personal & Private Use Only

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194 Development of Nagari Script Thomas, E. "On the Dynasty of the Sah Kings of Surashtra," JRAS, XII (1850), pp. 32-47. Tripathi, Kunjabihari. The Evolution of Oriya Language and Script. Cut tack, 1962. Tripathi, Satya Narayan. Hindi Bhasha aur Lipi ka Aitihasika Vikasa (Hindi). Banaras, 1964. Trivedi, Harihar Vitthal. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. VII, Part II (Inscriptions of the Paramaras). ASI, New Delhi. Tulpule, S. G. (ed.). Prachin Marathi Koriva Lekh (Marathi). Poona, 1963. Unesco. The Art of Writing, Unesco, 1965. Upadhyay, Bhagavatsharana. "Lipi Satta aur Samrajya, (Hindi), NPP, 67, V.S. 2019, PP. 107-17. Upasak, C. S. The History and Palaeography of Mauryan Brahmi Script. Nalanda, 1960. Upreti, B. D. Hindi Bhasha aur Lipi ka Vikasa evam Svarupa, (Hindi). Allahabad, 1972. Vasu, Nagendra Nath. "The Origin of the Nagaras and the Nagari-Al phabet," JASB, LXV, Pt. I (1896), pp. 114-35. Vasu, Nagendra Nath. Bharatiya Lipi Tattva (Hindi). Jaipur, 1924. Veluppillai, A. "Tamil Palaeography As An Aspect of Culture," J. E. Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw, Studies in South Asian Culture, Leiden, 1978, pp. 275-82 Verma, Dhirendra. Hindi Bhasha aur Lipi (Hindi). Allahabad, 1949. Verma, Jaganmohan. "Asoka-Lipi," Sarasvati, April, May, August, Sep tember, October, November, December, 1913; Ibid., February, May, 1914; and Ibid., April, May, June, 1915. Verma, Kamalakant. "Romana Banama Deva nagari," (Hindi) Visala Bharata, April, 1938. For Personal & Private Use Only

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General Bibliczraphy 195 Verma, Lakshmikant (ed.). Hindi Bhasha aur Nagari Lipi (Hindi). Al lahabad, 1971. Verma, Shivashankar Prasad. Devanagari Lipi Aitihasika tatha Bhasha Vaijnanika Adhyayan (Hindi). Bhagalpur, 1972. Verma, T. P. The Palaeography of Brahmi Script in North India, Varanasi, 1971. Verma, T. P. Development of Script in Ancient Kamrupa, Assam, 1976. Verma, T. P. "Fresh Light on the Origin of Brahmi Alphabet," JOI, XIII (1964), pp. 360-71. Verma, T. P. "Observations on the Epigraphic References to Temple Style," Indian Epigraphy Its Bearing on the History of Art, Edited by Frederick M. Asher & G. S. Gai, American Institute of Indian Studies, 1985, pp. 209-11. Vidyalankar, Jay Chandra. The Language and Script Problem in the Punjab, Hindi Bhavan, 1966. Voghel, J. Ph. Antiquities of Chamba State, I. Calcutta, 1911. Vyas, S. N. "Prachina Ujjayindi ki Mudraem," (Hindi) NPP, 12, V. S. 1988. Webb, William Wilfrid. The Currencies of the Hindu States of Rajputana. Delhi, 1972. Whitney, W. D. A Sanskrit Grammar. London, 1960 (1889). Woodroffe, Sir John. The Garland of Letters (Varnamala). Studies in the Mantra-Shastra, 1922. Wright, H. Nelson. The Coinage and Metrology of the Sultans of Delhi. Delhi, 1936. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Dr. AK Singh is a faculty in the School of Studies in Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology. Jiwaji University, Gwalior (M.P) He obtained his master's Degree in two disciplines, Ancient Indian History Culture and Archaeology; and Museology and a Ph. D. from the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Dr. Singh was awarded the University medal and Anant Sadashiv Altekar medals for securing first position in order of merit in M.A. Examination. Banaras Hindu University Scho. larship, Junior fellowship of University Grants Commission and Senior fellowship of Indian Council of Historical Research were awarded to him for his research work. Dr. Singh is deeply involved in researches for the last ten years or so, mostly in the fields of Palaeography and Epigraphy. He has more than fifteen research papers to his credit published in reputed journals. For Personal & Private Use Only

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PARIN ||||TITO ULTRI CATIONS qyanmandir@kobatirth.onacal Books 27/28, Shakti Nagar, Delhi-110007 A 042931 For Personal & Private Use Only