Development of Nagari Script

Author(s): A K Singh
Publisher: Parimal Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006800/1

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Development of Nāgari Script
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Nāgari is the outcome of evolutionary process of Mauryan Brāhmi script and any consideration on its independent origin is superfluous. From Mauryan to the middle of the sixth century A.D., only a few letters resemble counterparts in Nāgari. While to. wards the end of the sixth century, with the emergence of the Kuțila alphabet, the development in alphabet towards Nigari moves fast. Most of the letters, from the 7th century onwards undergo the process of development in forms of the letters with only the difference of full covering head-line and straight vertical. All characteristics of the Nagari appear first about the end of the 10th century and approaches mature Nāgari form by the 13th century A.D.
There are some variations in the Nāgari script of different regions due to various factors, namely the writing material, the writing technique, different schools of writers and engravers and their individual interest and mannerisms, etc. However, script maintains a sort of unity during the developmental process.
Rs. 550.00

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DEVELOPMENT OF NĀGARĪ SCRIPT

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DEVELOPMENT OF NAGARĪ SCRIPT

A. K. Singh
PARIMAL PUBLICATIONS
DELHI 1991

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Published by K. L. Joshi for Parimal Publications 27/28 Shakti Nagar, Delhi 110007 (India) Phone: 7127209
© Author First Edition 1991 ISBN 81-7110-096-1
Computer Typeset by Rastrix 1197, Sector D-1, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi 110030
Printed at Deluxe Offset Printers Daya Basti, Delhi 110035

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Dedicated
My Rev'd late Grand-father (Babaji)

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Preface
•
The Nāgarī script is now used over a large part of the Indian sub-continent for writing Sanskrit and some other Indian languages. But it is seldom realised by the common people that its origin lies in Brāhmi through a chain of successive variations. The question of the origin and development of Nāgarī has been summarily dealt with in the works on Indian palaeography and a few other writings, but so far we have had no independent work dealing with the subject in a scientific perspective. The present work aims at meeting this long-felt desideratum which is an out-come of my research for the degree of Ph.D. of the Banaras Hindu University.
I have investigated into the development of the Nāgarī Script only upto the 13th century A.D. This cut-off point has been chosen because by this time, the development of the Nāgari alphabet reached its maturity and during the following centuries it became almost stagnant. The bulk of the work contains illustrations of alphabets selected from different inscriptions and manuscripts.
The present work is divided into seven chapters dealing with the different stages of the development of Nāgarī. The first one is an introduction dealing with the subjects, such as various theories on the name Nāgari and Devanāgarī, its main features and also gives a fair idea of the nature of Mauryan Brāhmi tracing the development of individual letterforms including ligatures and medial signs met with in this prototype. It also gives a reasonable account of various factors which were responsible for the development of the Brāhmi script. It is followed by a detailed account of the Kutila variety, a post-Gupta development from Brāhmī, which represents an important developmental stage between Brāhmi and

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Development of Nāgarī Script
Nāgarī, in the next chapter. This Kutila script further developed into the proto-Nāgarī and forms the subject matter of the third chapter. The fourth chapter deals with the maturing of the Nagarī script during the three centuries from 11th to 13th centuries towards the end of which the evolutionary process became almost stagnant. The pace of scriptal evolution in monumental records like stone and metallic inscriptions and manuscripts was not uniform. Hence Nagarī alphabet, as found in manuscripts dating from the 11th to the 13th century A.D. is dwelt upon with the help of selected manuscripts in the fifth chapter. The next chapter is devoted to the development of numerals and other signs. The seventh chapter is the concluding one, dealing with the factors responsible for the development and migration of the script from one region to the other from time to time.
8
However, I am aware of the limitation and the methodological problems involved in this kind of work. It has not been practicable to examine each and every inscription, manuscript and coin in the original and therefore I have had to depend on photographic reproductions. Such photographs have their own limitations. It has also not been possible to illustrate all specimens, therefore only representative forms have been selected for illustration.
I am deeply indebted to all those scholars who have worked in the field of palaeography. Their studies served me as a valuable background in the completion of this work.
It is my privilege to express my sincere gratitude to all those persons who have helped me in various ways, to complete this work. First of all I am under a heavy debt of gratitude to my venerable teacher, Dr. T.P. Verma, Reader in the Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi for his kind guidance and suggestions.
I am particularly thankful to Prof. M.A. Dhaky, Associate Director (Research), American Institute of Indian Studies, Ramnagar, Varanasi who went through the manuscript and gave valuable suggestions.

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Preface
I express my sincere thanks to Prof. A.K. Narain, Prof. Lallanji Gopal, Prof. P. Singh, Prof. A.M. Shastri for their kind help.
My thanks are also due to my friends who have helped me in various ways, but whom it is not possible to list here.
My thanks are also due to the librarians of Banaras Hindu University; American Institute of Indian Studies; National Library; Asiatic Society of Bengal library; Asiatic Society of Bombay library for their kind help.
I am indebted to Prof. R.N. Misra, Dr. R.P. Pandey and Dr. B.R. Mani for their constant encouragement and support during the publication. Other colleagues and members of our School variously helped me. I am thankful to all of them.
Lastly, the author expresses his deep gratitude to M/s Parimal Publications not only for undertaking the publication of this work but also for publishing this work within the minimum period of time and with best possible get-up and printing.
Gwalior
A. K. Singh

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Transliteration Table
AI ऐ
O ओ
AU AM_H औ अं :
AA I I U U RI E अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ए KA KHA GA GHA NA क ख ग घ ङ
CHA CHHA JA
च छ ज
JHA झ
ÑA ञ
TA
THA ठ
DA DHA NA ड ढ ण
TA त
THA थ
DA DHA NA द ध न
PA प
PHA BA BHA MA फ ब भ म
RA र
LA ल
VA व
ŚA श
SHA SA HA KSHA ष स ह क्ष
य

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Abbreviations
ABORI
ARSIE ASI, AR ASI, ARIE
ASIR
ASWIR, AKK
BORI
CII
Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Annual Report in South Indian Epigraphy Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report of Indian Epigraphy Archaeological Survey of India Report Archaeological Survey of Western India Report on the Antiquities of Käthiāwād and Kachh Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Catalogue of Manuscripts in Jaisalmer Bhandar Catalogue of Manuscripts in Patan Bhandar Epigraphia Indica Indian Antiquary Indian Archaeology: A Review Indian Culture Inscriptions from the Cave Temple of Western India, Burgess & Bhagawanlal Indraji, Indian India, 1976 Indian Historical Quarterly Jain Antiquary
СМЈВ CMPB
EI ΙΑ IAR
IC
ICTWI
IHQ
JA

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14
Abbreviations
JAHRS
JAS
JASB JASL JBBRAS
JBORS JBRS JESI
JIM
JMPIP JOHRS JOI
Journal of the Andhra Historical Research Society Journal of the Asiatic Society Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Jouinal of the Asiatic Society Letter Journal of the Bombay Branch of Royal Asiatic Society Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society Journal of Bihar Research Society Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India Journal of Indian Museum Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihas Parishad Journal of the Orissa Historical Research Society Journal of the Oriental Institute Journal and Proceedings of Asiatic Society of Bengal Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, London Journal, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal Letters Journal of U.P. Historical Research Society Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society Karnataka Inscriptions Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India Monuments of Sāñchi
JPASB
JRAS
JRASBL JUPHRS
JUPHS
KI
MASI MS
NPP YIAJ
Nägarī Prachāriņī Patrikā, Varanasi (Hindi) Yādava Inscriptions from Ambe Jogi

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Contents
Preface Transliteration System
Abbreviations
1
2
3
70
4
102
Introduction • Text Figures 1 - 3 The Background : (6th-8th Century A.D.) • Text Figures 4 - 6 • Plates 1 - 30 The Period of Transition : (9th-10th Century A.D.) • Plates 31 - 90 The Age of Maturity : (11th-13th Century A.D.) • Text Figures 7-8 • Plates 91 - 162 Nagari in Manuscripts : (11th-13th Century A.D.) • Plates 163 – 174 Numerals and other Signs • Plates 175 - 178 Conclusions General Bibliography
5
145
6
158
7
175
180
Index
197

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Nagari /
Devanagaris
Nevari
nhájani
na Nagari
Jaina
Nepalese
Maithili
Kaithi
Gujarati
Assamese
DOON
Nandi
Nagari
Gaud
Modi
Oriya
Sarada
Takari
Bengali
central Asian
umukhi
Scripts
וסט2b
Salud
sankha
Tibetan
Siddham
Bar
Brāhmi
4
RS

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NORTH INDIAN SCRIPTS

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Introduction
The Nāgari script (also known as Devanāgari) is prevalent in a large part of the Indian sub-continent and employed for writing different regional languages. It has developed ultimately from the script popularly called the Mauryan Brāhmi. During earlier centuries, the various stages of its development can be discerned; however, by which appellation/s these scripts were known among the contemporary peoples is as yet unknown The historians and palaeographers prefer to call them Sunga, Kshatrapa, Kushāna, Gupta, or Later-Gupta script, depending on the period and region. While it is certain that those scripts were precursors of the present Nāgarī, it is hard to ascertain whether Nāgarī was the appellation by which it was known between first to eighth centuries A.D. The present work is addressed to investigate into this problem.
The Appellation Nāgari
Various etymologies have been suggested for the word Nāgarī. On the basis of the Lalitavistara (c. 5th-6th Cent. A.D.), A.C. Burnell is inclined to believe that it was the 'nāga-lipi' (serpent writing). But L.D. Bernetta found no connection between the ‘nāga-lipi' and the Devanāgarī script. Furthermore, there seems no etymological relation in the formation of the word 'Nāgari-lipi' from 'nāga-lipi' or vice versa.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
One other hypothesis explains it as the writing of the "Shāh” (Kshatrapa) kings of Gujarat, reigning before fourth century A.D. who were called the nāgas or snakes. This is only a conjecture without evidential foundation.
A.H. Dani, however, is positive that it was derived from varṇanāga, which occurs in the compound varṇa-nāga-kripānikā in the Mahākāleśvara Temple Inscription (of the reign of Paramāra Naravarmā, A.D. 1094– 1133).' But this derivation also cannot be accepted as the word varnanāga-kripānikā simply means the alphabet written in the shape of a serpent and sword.
N.N. Vasu, after discussing the opinion of various Pandits whom he consulted, concluded that “This alphabet was first devised by a class of men, designated Nāgara, and in a certain place also called Nagara." This explanation, too, is unacceptable as the Nāgari script does not seem a corporate invention by a set of persons but it is evidently the ultimate consequence of the progressive evolution of the Mauryan Brāhmi script.
In Hindi Sabdasāgara (A.D. 1968)? it is recorded that when the script of Northern India was introduced in Gujarat under the aegis of the Rāshtrakūtas and was used by the Nāgara Brāhmanas, it was given the name Nāgari. But there seems no historical basis for accepting such an explanation.
Hiranand Sastris on the other hand is of the opinion that it was the alphabet of the Nāgaras or the highly cultured people. But F. Max Müller, W.D. Whitneylo and David Diringerll thought that the reason behind the formulation of the term Nāgari is unknown. If derived from nagara (city) it would simply mean that the art of writing was first practiced in the cities But this theory also cannot be conceded since no specific city can be named as the seat of origin.
V.S. Agrawala, 12 on his part opines that it was the script connected with nagara, which he identifies, on the authority of the play Pädatāạitakam (c. 5th Cent. A.D), with Pātaliputra. K.D. Bajpai 13 likewise identifies nagara

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Introduction
19
with Patliputra But Anant Chaudhari 14 theorised that the Kuțila script refined by the Nāgaras (clever Pandits) of Pātaliputra nagara during 8th9th centuries, is the cause of the appellation Nāgarī. This refined form of course, was simple and efficient in writing as compared to the Kutila letters; hence the persons of that period gave honour to call it by the name Nāgari (the perfect script of the Nāgaras of nagara).
While it may be conceded that Pāțaliputra was called nagara, it does not ipso facto follow that the script used in or around that particular city alone was termed Nāgarī.
Śesha Krishņa, the author of the Prākrit Chandrikā (c. A.D. 1050) has recorded twenty-seven apabhraías, two of which are named Nāgara and Upanāgara.15 According to G.A. Grierson, 16 the close connection of Nāgara apabhramsa with Sauraseni Prākrita of Central Gangetic Doab, points to the probable region of its use. This region has been the seat of the Nāgarī script from the beginning uptil now. Finally, T.P. Vermal? believes in the growth of the regional languages and their employment in written literature. Against this background it is somewhat safer to assume that the script that was used for writing the Nāgara apabhraíśa, possibly came to be known as Nāgarī.
Here it can be recalled that at least three items are associated with the Nāgara or Nāgarī. These are Nagari script, Nāgara and Upanāgara apabhramsas and the Nāgara style of temple architecture. It is noteworthy that the geographical extension of all these three are almost the same, i.e. the whole of northern India excluding Punjab in the West and Bengal in the East. The alternative name for the Nāgara style of temple architecture is Indo-Aryan given by Fergusson.18 T.P. Verma has discussed the problem in some detail in some other context. Stella Kramrisch believes that the "ternary, Nāgara, Drāvida and Vesara is in agreement with three-fold geographical division of India into the North, the Deccan and the South."20 If we accept this, the burden of our problem is slightly reduced because when we are not able to determine precisely the meaning of the term Nāgari we can indicate its geographical limits. We can assume that perhaps

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Development of Nāgarī Script
Nāgara or Nāgari had a definite geographical connotation about which our predecessors had no ambiguity. They used this term by prefixing Deva-, Jaina-, Nandi- for scripts and Nāgara and Upanāgara for apabhrarías as well as for a definite style of temple architecture prevalent in a definite area.
Antiquity of the name Nāgari
Considering the antiquity of the term "Nāgari', we find that the Jaina commentators Maladhāri Hemachandra Sūri (of Harshapurīyā Gachchha, A.D. 1118)21 and Malayagiri (c. 2nd 3rd quarter of the 12th Cent. A.D.)22
ention Nāgarī in their commentaries. This indicates that the Nāgarī appellation had become popular by the 12th century A.D. In point of fact, Hemachandra Sūri quotes an ancient verse, possibly of the tenth or the eleventh century A.D.; to the effect, which indicates that the name Nāgarī was known even a few centuries prior to the 12th century A.D.
Al-Beruni, who visited India (c. A.D. 1030) with Mohammed of Gazanā, mentions Nāgara-a script which was used in the Mālava country.25
Vasu24 averred that the first mention of the Nāgarī script is encountered in the Jaina Nandisūtra (of Devavāchaka, c. mid. 5th Cent. A.D.). However, there is no mention of Nāgari script at all in the selfsame work. Strangely, Vasu does not give the exact reference of this work and only quotes 18 lipis from the Jaināchārya Lakshmi-Vallabhagani's Kalpasūtra-Kalpadruma-Kalikā, commentorial work of as late as 17th century A.D.
Perhaps the Nāgarī script became famous by the name Devanāgarī in later period. But the date when this appellation came into use is controversial. Rai Bahadur Bishun Svarup25 thought it of as early as 1700 B.C., which in course of time lost the name revived lately to indicate that the script was used in upper India, including Banaras, the seat of Sanskrit learning. This is an improbable conjuncture.
However, M.R. Kale tries to define the word in his own way. According to him, "The Aryans who were much fairer in colour than the aborigines of

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Introduction
21
India are the Devas referred to in the name Devanāgari (from Div to shine, those of a brilliant complexion); and Nāgari means the Aryan settlements within the precincts of which the sacred language was spoken."26 Like that of Bishun Svarup this suggestion is also widely off the mark.
R. Shamsastry27 takes back the Devanāgarī script to pre-Asokan or in Tantric (Atharva-Veda?) period. But leaving aside the date of the Tantric literature referred to by him, the word Devanāgari does not appear to have been used in any work till late medieval times.
Some European scholars had looked into the problem in their own way. Isaac Taylor writes, "The term Devanāgarī, which would mean the divine or sacred Nagarī, is not used by the natives of India, and it seems to have been invented by some ingenious Anglo-Indian about the end of the last century."28
Similar is the view of J. Filliozat29 who holds that the name appears for the first time in the European reports of the seventeenth century. But such views cannot be given much weight and should be discarded as far fetched.
The Appellation Devanāgari
The term Devanāgarī has been defined in many different ways. Shamasastry suggests that the Brāhmi itself is derived from Tantric symbols, which were called Devanagara - the abode of the gods - and the script derived, therefore, was consequently Devanagarī.30 it is, however, difficult to accept this view, because, Nāgar or Devanāgari is the evolved form of Brāhmi script and the works which list the scripts of ancient India do not include Nāgarī or Devanāgarī.
As noted above, Max Müller, Whitney and Diringer mention ‘Devanāgarī as ‘Nāgarī of the gods or of the Brāhmaṇas.' According to R.K. Lohia, Devanāgarī means gift of 'Deva' (God) to ‘nāgarikas' (citizens) so that they can communicate and transfer the treasure of knowledge and cultural heritage from generation to generation through the media of writing." George Thomas Kurian, too, defines it as the script of the divine city. 32 These definitions, however, interpret the term from a legendary or metaphorical stand point.

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Development of Nāgarı Script
Bajpai33 is of the view that the Nāgarī script was christened Devanāgari when Sanskrit, the language of the Vedas, employed it. Chaudhari"4 likewise believes that the name Devanāgarī was derived on the resemblance of Devavāni Sanskrit. But this view too rests on slender foundations. It is evident that Sanskrit was being written in Brāhmi and its derivative scripts from the very beginning, hence the question of Nāgarī being associated with Sanskrit is unwarranted. Here we may agree with H.R. Kapadia, that "One will not be completely unjustified to believe that the name Devanāgari is not so old as Nāgarī."35
However in the present state of knowledge, it is not possible to settle the problem finally but it can be indicated that the term Nāgara or Nāgari denoted some geographical area or region. The term is mentioned in the Silpaśāstras (10-11th century ) and the Holal inscription (12th century) as well as in Jain commentaries (referred to above) by Malayagiri and Hemachandra. Here, it must be admited that the term Nāgari is not found earlier than the 10th-11th century A.D. It is, however, futile to discuss the appearance of a word in this or that work because such words are recorded in works long after getting currency among the people.
Earlier Stages
Brāhmi is the earliest known historical script of India. In the present state of our knowledge there is no specimen of Brahmi which can be definitely assigned before the Mauryan times. The Mauryan Brāhmi was formed by simple geometrical configurations like horizontal and perpendicular lines, angles and triangles, circles and semi-circles, curves and dots, etc. Nāgarī placed alongside Mauryan may seem vastly different in appearance.50 However, passing through the various developmental stages, some or the other part of every letter of the Mauryan Brāhmi is still retained in the Nāgarī forms with only some ornamental or simplified additions and modifications.
In the natural process Brāhmi developed continuously at least from the time of Asoka. But there are some remarkable stages of its development

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Introduction
23
which may be arranged under six groups. The incipient stage is of course the Asokan Brāhmī, shown in Table A of Text Fig. 1(a-b).* The alphabets of the Kshatrapa and pre-Kushāņa period represent a distinct phase, shown in Table B in which the vertical is tapering and reduced. The adoption of cursiveness made transitional phase of the Brāhmi of the Kushāna period, of which some distinction of eastern and western forms are shown in Table C (a & b). The next stage of development of Brāhmi is noticeable in Gupta period, shown here in Table D (a & b). Under the Aulikaras, Western variety, or Mālava style of writing progressed more distinctly which is illustrated in Table E. In the inscriptions of the Maukharis, Western Indian influence and further development in some letters are seen (Table F); and in the subsequent stage Brāhmi is transformed into the Kutila script.
Developmental Stages of Individual Letter Forms
The development in the forms of the Brāhmi letters was continuous and any talk of developmental stages is to be understood as hypothetical. However, for the sake of facile comprehension of the process of development, I have here grouped these forms into six stages. The detailed and minute description of the palaeographical study of all these developmental stages is out of consideration. For our purpose it will suffice to examine chronologically only the main peculiarities of the alphabets which lead to the evolution of the Kuțila, or the Nāgarī characters.
Vowels
The initial a of the Mauryan Brahmi is of various types, of which 'angular' and 'cursive' are two main varieties. Table B shows the growth into a thick top and inner curve in the lower left limb. The vertical stroke in Table C is considerably lengthened. This letter rapidly evolves in the Gupta period (Fig. 3). In an advanced form, the left limb hangs down from the triangular head and ends in a hook open to the left instead of the right curve. In column F (Fig. 1) two arms of the lower curve are
All references to Tables in this Chapter refer to Text Figures and not Plates.

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2424
Development of Nāgarī Script
shown projected from the left vertical. The Maukharis also employed this form and this is the real source from which the Kutila and the Nagarī features ultimately evolved.
The long a is formed by adding a horizontal bar, on the top, or in the middle to the right of the vertical stroke of the initial letter a in its earliest stage. But, in Kushāṇa period, horizontal bar had been transformed into a leftward curve or hook and placed in the lower end of the vertical. This form continued for a long time and at last a vertical line to the right developed in Nāgarī.
I of Tables A, and B are represented by three dots arranged triangularly. In Kushāņa period dots developed into short lines, two of which are placed one upon the other and the third one is a vertical line to the right of these two. In Gupta period a form is seen in which the vertical line is lengthened beside two dots in place of the other two short lines. However, in general, it is in the form of three dots of which the apex is downwards. Table F shows a distinct phase with lower dot developed into a curved or tailed form. This form is retained in the Kutila script.
Mauryan u is formed by two straight lines meeting generally at the right angle. The same form continued for a long time only with the addition of broad head and some changes in the angle. In the early Gupta period a horizontal bar developed into upward curve; while in post-Gupta period the curve is lowered and turned to the left (Fig. 3). The lower portion grows into an elegant curve in Table E and F (Fig. 1).
Triangle is the shape of Mauryan letter e with its apex laid at various directions. This shape remained unchanged for a long time; then developed into a flat-topped variety. Tables E and F show further growth in which the top is flat, right portion is in vertical shape and left limb curved in a bulgy manner. From this shape Nāgarī form eventually evolved.
The initial o is formed by two horizontal lines joined by a third slanting line at its either end. Table B shows a feature in which vertical is inclined with angularized shape. In Kushāṇa period angles become cursive.

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Introduction
The initial au is rarely employed in ancient inscriptions. To trace its development four specimens (Fig. 3) have been taken from the Turfan manuscript of Kalpanamaṇḍitikā (early 5th Cent. A.D.),37 the Bihar Kotrā Inscription of Naravarmā (A.D. 417),38 the Bower manuscript (early 6th Cent. A.D.)39 and the Mandasor Inscription of Yasodharmā (A.D. 530).40 Of these, the first form is formed by adding a horizontal stroke to the right of the Mauryan letter o. In the second stage, upper portion become cursive and additional stroke bends downwards. Further, the base of the letter is curved to left as in u and another curled stroke goes up from mid-angle. Finally, lower curve further prolongs in an elegant curly shape and the joined curve at the right also extends with a rightward bend.
Consonants
Simple Aksharas
25
Gutturals
A simple cross is the form of Mauryan ka. The vertical takes a tapering shape and lengthens in pre-Kushāṇa period. In the time of the Kushāṇas, the top vertical develops into a triangle head and the horizontal bar is slightly curved. The head-mark and horizontal curve become more prominent in the post-Kushāṇa period.
The letter kha of the Mauryan Brahmi is shaped like a hook with a circle at the lower right limb. Lower circle develops into a large triangle and hook is shortened in pre-Kushāṇa and Kushāṇa period (Tables B & C). Occasionally, left limb of the Gupta kha shows a foot-mark, and the right limb an inner curve (Table D, a-b). In post-Gupta period, inner triangular shape with slanted base is the feature of the letter.
Asokan ga is generally an angle with its apex at the top. In Table B, the angle is curved and takes a shape like the horse-shoe. Round-topped ga became a standard form in the Kushāņa Brahmi in which optionally the left limb shows a foot-mark and right one is extended. From the time of the Guptas, upper portion is almost flat; and foot-mark of the left limb develops into a solid triangular shape (Table F).

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26
Development of Nāgarī Script
The letter gha of Table A is represented as a fish-hook with a vertical stroke in the middle of the curve. Further, the curves of the letter are
ed with flattened base and verticals are almost equalised (Tables B & C). In the Gupta period, middle stroke comes closer to the right vertical. From the time of the Aulikaras this letter undergoes a fundamental transformation in which the base of the right half slants, the left one curves, thus forming an acute-angle (Kutila).
The letter na is not met separately. In the ligatures, it is in a cursive (Fig. 2, D); or angular (Fig. 2, E) form.
Palatals
In Mauryan Brāhmi letter cha is formed by drawing a semi-circle to the bottom left of a vertical line. From the time of Mathurā-Saka Kshatrapas the vertical of the letter became gradually short and bears a triangular head-mark. The loop of the letter develops into crescentic shape; which further takes beaked shape in the post-Gupta period.
The Mauryan chha is represented by an oval appendage, bisected by a vertical line almost in the middle. Table B shows the fundamental change by which oval shape developed into a double-looped shape, the vertical reduced with thick top. Without any noticeable change this form continued in the Kuțila script.
Tables A and B show a form of ja, formed by two semi-circles placed one upon the other. However, the vertical form of the letter became common in later periods. Gradually, the lower arm of the letter is slanted from the time of the Kushānas; and occasionally, vertical line shows an inner bend from the time of the Guptas.
The letter jha is rarely met. In most of the specimens, from the time of Asoka, the letter is formed by adding an angular hook to the right of a vertical line in such a position that the mouth opens upward.
The letter ña is also rare, formed by adding a downwards open angular hook to the right in a vertical line. With some minor developments, such

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Introduction
as the prolongation of the vertical line in Mathurā-Saka Kshatrapas inscriptions, this form continues for a long time.
Linguals
From the Mauryas to the Kushāņas, letter ta is shaped like a semi-circle. Sometimes, in Gupta period, top of the letter developed into a flat horizontal bar. In Maukhari, top end became broader
The circular form of the letter tha is retained in all the developmental
stages.
The Mauryan da is represented as a horizontal line with two vertical lines joining at either end in which the left extends to the down and the right to the up. In later varieties, the top-vertical is shortened and the lower one bends to right (Table B). The form in the Gupta period, with curved back and lengthened leg, shows further progress. In the Aulikara and Maukhari specimens the leg is further prolonged.
Dha of the Mauryan Brāhmi is formed as a semi-circle with spiral at the lower and a vertical stroke at the upper end. Basically, the same form continues till now.
The Mauryan na is represented as a vertical line with two horizontal
kes at either ends. In pre-Kushāna Brāhmi the vertical is reduced. The letter makes revolutionary progress in the Kushāna period, of which even an open-mouthed variety is noticed (Fig. 3). From the time of the Guptas, open-mouthed form of the letter became a standard form. Progressively, the outer curve of the letter prolongs in the Maukhari inscriptions.
Dentals
The letter ta of the Mauryan Brāhmi reveals several varieties namely angular, slanted, curved. In the pre-Kushāna and Kushāna Brāhmi; it is, in general, represented with a head-marked, short vertical line and a horse-shoe like lower portion. From the time of the Guptas, lower right limb is prolonged and the top becomes triangular.

Page #30

Development of Nāgarī Script
A circle with a dot in its middle is the form of the letter tha from the Mauryan times upto the Kushānas. Gupta inscriptions exhibit faster evolucion in which, progressively, the circle became slightly elliptical with a central dividing line in the place of the dot. The letter undergoes further progress in the Maukhari period (Table F) in which right limb becomes straight and left is formed in a bulging fashion.
The Mauryan da is a semi-circle, opening to the left, with its ends prolonged vertically to the top and bottom. The pre-Kushāna period is a transitional one from the viewpoint of the development, best understood by the forms of the letter shown in Fig. 3. In post-Gupta period its curve becomes a sort of double-curve (Fig. 1, Tables E & F).
The Mauryan dha is represented as a semi-circle with its vertical to the left or sometimes to the right also. But after Asoka the latter variety gained more currency. In post-Gupta period the lower limb becomes angular.
The letter na of the Mauryan Brāhmi is formed by a vertical line with a slightly shorter horizontal line at the bottom. In pre-Kushāna, vertical line is reduced with a clear head-mark. This letter undergoes a revolutionary development in Kushāna period (Fig. 3). First it bends its base to various degrees and finally develops into a looped form in Kaušāmbi region. In the eastern script of the Gupta period looped form of the letter is more common. In the post-Gupta period, vertical starts with triangular top, slightly inclined to the right and a loop forming to the left bends downwards.
Labials
A fish-hook drawn to the right is a shape of the Mauryan letter pa. In pre-Kushāņa period verticals are equalized in which usually the left and optionally both verticals are marked with triangular top; and the base is curved with angularized bends. From the time of the Kushānas only the left limb bears a head-mark; and in the post-Gupta scripts base of the letter is slightly slanted.

Page #31

Introduction
29
The letter pha is represented by adding an inner curl to the hook of pa in Mauryan Brāhmi. In Gupta period, the curl of the hook develops into a loop touching the base in the middle. In post-Gupta inscriptions, loop of the letter is compact and the base is sloppy.
The letter ba has a square or rectangular shape from Aśoka till Maukharis with slight variations.
The shape of the Mauryan bha is formed by adding an additional parallel stroke to the right from the lower stroke of the letter da. Tables B and C show two main varieties — in the first form right portion developed into a vertical line and left into curved shape with or without notch; while in the second, lower portion becomes broader. In Gupta period, both limbs of the letter hang from the top-mark in angular shape. The post-Gupta inscriptions reveal quick evolution in the letter form which may be seen in Fig. 3.
A semi-circle placed upon a circle is the form of the letter ma in the Mauryan Brāhmi. In pre-Kushāna period circle developed into a broad triangle. Kushāņa inscriptions represent a transitional phase from the viewpoint of the development (Fig. 3) in which, finally, it takes a shape, termed as tailed variety. The left projecting part is thickened and base is slanted in the Maukhari's inscriptions.
Semi-Vowels
The Mauryan ya has two basic forms: first formed by drawing a vertical line in the middle of a crescent, the second made by a double curve in the place of a single crescent. The crescentic base developed into a flat shape and the central stroke reduced with thickened top in pre-Kushāna Brāhmi. The Kushāna specimens are also of flat-bottom type; but its left limb shows gradual evolution which may be noticed in Fig. 3. The left half of the letter is curved and right one is slanted in post-Gupta writing.
The Mauryan ra is a wavy vertical line. In Kshatrapa and Kushāņa Brāhmi, it developed into a form which has a thickened top vertical line with its lower tip turned to the left, or occasionally to the right. The top

Page #32

30
Development of Nāgarī Script
of the letter became triangular in the Gupta period; and the post-Gupta inscriptions show the development of a triangular foot-mark.
Left facing hook with a horizontal bar is the shape of the Mauryan la. The base of the letter flattens in Kushāna period. From the viewpoint of the development Kushāna period is a transitional one (Fig. 3) showing two distinct forms of the letter, the hooked and the broadened left limb type. The first form of the letter is called eastern and second the western variety. Both forms of the letter are employed in the Gupta Brāhmi. Out of them, the western variety paved the way for the Kuțila, or Nāgari character.
The Mauryan va is represented as an upright stroke upon a circle. The circle develops into a triangle, and vertical is reduced which sometimes takes the shape of triangular head-mark in the Kushāņa period. In postGupta inscriptions, head-mark further reduces and base is slightly slanted.
Sibilants and Ha
The standard shape of the Mauryan palatal śa is like an arrow facing upwards with its prolonged middle bar. The angular top of the letter develops into a curve in pre-Kushāņa period. In the Kushāna Brāhmī, evolution is rapid (Fig. 3), finally takes a form in which left limb has a triangular or line foot-mark and a horizontal line in the middle. The top curve of the letter became peculiar with a downward extending right limb in the Gupta period. In post-Gupta period, foot-mark became peculiar like that in letter ga.
The cerebral sha of the Mauryan Brāhmi is represented as two parallel curves, placed one upon the other. In pre-Kushāna period, left vertical is reduced with flattened and angularized base and middle curve developed into a horizontal stroke. The Gupta inscriptions reveal two varieties of this letter; the eastern is formed by a narrow oval with a head-mark at the left and a leftward angle at the right; and the second, the western type is represented as the letter pa with fully lengthened mid line. The bottom of the letter in post-Gupta inscriptions has a slight slope.

Page #33

Introduction
The Mauryan dental sa has an additional hook, pointing downwards, attached to the left in the shape of pa. The verticals of the letter are equalized in pre-Kushāṇa period. In the Kushāṇa period, the form of the letter progressed much and finally developed into a looped variety (Fig. 3). This variety is called eastern, while in the western region the older form persists with prominent head-mark. Both forms of the letter are represented in the Gupta inscriptions. The Aulikara inscriptions reveal a stroke in the place of loop at the left limb. Lower loop of the letter develops into a solid-triangular form in the inscriptions of the Maukharis.
31
The shape of the letter ha in the Mauryan Brahmi is like pa with an additional tick on the right. The curves of the letter are angularized in pre-Kushāna period. The Kushāṇa period is a transitional one from the viewpoint of the development. The letter developed under two distinct varieties which can best be understood by the illustrations shown in Fig. 3. The first hooked ha is called eastern variety. Western inscriptions present a form of angular ha with downwards curling right tick. In postGupta period, head-mark becomes solid-triangle and right curve further extends.
Ligatures (Fig. 2b)
In all the developmental stages ligatures do not follow the rule of Sanskrit grammar in which the first letter loses its inherent a to combine with the second letter. Earlier ligatures are normally formed by placing consonants one upon the other in their natural order. For accommodating them in the limited space, in general, the lower letter is made more shorter and cursive. These factors are responsible for the development of some letter forms, such as bipartite type of subscript ya, cursive variety of ñ,
etc.
Development in the medial signs (Fig. 2a)
In the formation of the medial signs, from the time of Aśoka, ā is attached to the right, e and ai left, u and ū in the lower portion of the letter. Medial o is a combination of the signs for ā and e. And au is not

Page #34

Development of Nāgarī Script
found in the Asokan Brāhmi. In later inscriptions it is represented by adding a sign of e to the medial o.
The medial ā is denoted in the Mauryan Brāhmi by a horizontal stroke attached to the right, either at the top or in the middle according to the shape of the letter. In Kushāna period it has taken the shape of a slanting stroke. The inscriptions of the Guptas and the Aulikaras generally demonstrate a straight horizontal line with its tip turned downwards. From this shape modern Nāgarī form of the selfsame medial is derived. In the ornate style of post-Gupta period, this sign is represented by a flourished top-stroke.
The Mauryan medial i is indicated by adding an angular or cursive form to the right of the top or in the middle of the consonant. Optionally in pre-Kushāna; but commonly in Kushāṇa inscriptions, the curve extends up to the left portion of the head-mark. In the Gupta period, curve is further extended with a downward turn reaching below the head-mark. In the ornate style of post-Gupta period it grows into more than one flourished curve.
Long T is denoted by doubling the sign of medial i in Mauryan and pre-Kushāna inscriptions. The Kushāna counterpart developed into full cursive form. However, Gupta specimens show a distinct feature in which right curve is smaller while left limb extends into a rightwards stroke. In
ornate style, it has taken a shape of two or more flourishes to the right.
In the inscriptions of Maurya and pre-Kushāņa period medial u is marked by a stroke at the bottom of the consonant, either in horizontal or downwards vertical form. From the time of the Kushānas curved form of this medial sign developed which subsequently prolonged and shows an almost modern Nāgarī feature adumbrated in post-Gupta inscriptions.
Medial ū is formed by adding an additional stroke to the shape of medial u in the Mauryan Brāhmi. In pre-Kushāna and Kushāņa inscriptions, left stroke is horizontally slanted to meet with the right vertical stroke. In the Gupta period, it developed either into a leftward curve with a rightward horizontal stroke or leftward curve opened downwards. In post

Page #35

Introduction
33
Gupta inscriptions, it is represented as a leftward extended curve with a small horizontal stroke to right.
In pre-Kushāna inscriptions, medial ri is represented as a slanted stroke to the left at the bottom. From the time of the Guptas it is indicated by a rightward hook to the lower limb of the consonant.
In the Mauryan and pre-Kushāna Brāhmi medial e is shaped as a horizontal stroke to the left at the top or middle of the letter. In the Kushāna period it developed into a slanted top-stroke form. In post-Gupta ornate style, flourishes with embellished thin and thick line are formed
Two horizontal or one horizontal and other slanted stroke is the shape of medial ai in the Mauryan Brāhmi. From the time of the Kushānas slanted stroke type of formation on the top become the common form. In post-Gupta ornate style, either both or the right slant are flourished. In latter specimen, generally, left limb is a horizontal stroke with a tick at the tip.
Asokan medial o is a combination of two strokes of medial à and e. From the time of the Kshatrapas both strokes developed into slanting form in which one is to the left and other to the right. One, or both of the slants are decorated by thin and thick line in post-Gupta inscriptions.
The medial au is not employed in the inscriptions of Aśoka. From the time of the Kshatrapas it has been formed by adding an additional sign of e in the form of medial o and developed in the same process.
Features of Nāgari
The Nāgarī undoubtedly is an evolution of Brāhmī, but a question may arise as to which developmental stage of Brāhmi be ascribed the name Nāgari. Similarities of the shape may not be an adducible ground for this purpose, because the shape of the Nāgarī dha is as much similar to Asokan Brāhmī as the forms of i, ja, bha, of the 13th century A.D. So, it is necessary to define the distinguishing features of Nāgarī which differ

Page #36

34
Development of Nāgarī Script
from those of the earlier developmental stages of Brāhmi. A tentative outline may be given as follows:
Head-line
The main characteristic of Nāgarī is the entire breadthed top-stroke or head-line while in earlier developmental stages it was in triangular or short-line form. Straight vertical line
Nāgarī script shows the use of straight vertical line. But in precursor stages it was in crooked shape. Simplification
Nāgarī prefers simple forms, while predecessor writings were represented by elaborately twisted and elongated shapes of the letters and medial signs. Uniformity in Medial Sign
In Nāgarī one sign is used for one medial instead of earlier practice of giving more signs for simple and ornamental styles. Halanta Sign
The halanta sign was represented by making the letter small, or placing a stroke above the letter in earlier inscriptions. However, a stroke below the letter was also used for a halanta sign which was later adopted in the Nāgarī.
Compendious Consonant in Ligatures
Nāgarī ligatures are formed by mutilating the first consonant and conjuncting side by side, while in earlier developmental stages usually the complete shape was placed one upon the other.
Final Observations
The factors that were responsible for the development of the Brāhmi

Page #37

Introduction
35
script are more or less the same that were responsible for the development of the Nāgarī script.
Economy of effort plays an important role in the evolution of the Brāhmi. The best example of saving labour can be seen in forming the letter bha of the Gupta period (cf., Fig. 1b), where the lower right and the upper vertical of the letter coalesce into a single vertical. The sam tendency is responsible for the development of simplified forms which require the triangular head-mark to transform into a simple horizontal line and pave the way for the evolution of Nāgari line-head-mark.
On the other hand, the desire for ornamentation also affects the course of development.4l This works in three ways: first, box (cf., ya and va of Fig. 1b, D) and triangular (cf., Fig. 1, Table C and onwards) type of head-mark developed; second, embellishment in the shape of the letters (cf., ya of Kushāna period, Fig. 3); third, fondness for flourishes affecting medials to develop curly forms (cf., Fig. 2a, E & F). The tendency for ornamentation is also responsible for the development of the Kutila script.
Political changes also had a role in the development of the scripts. The formation of the bigger political powers are not favourable for the growth of regional cultures. The larger kingdoms try to adopt a uniform style of writing within their dominions. Consequently the script primarily becomes the subject of the kings, their officers, and royal scribes only; which arrests the independent evolution in farther regions. The uniformity in Asokan Brāhmi throughout the subcontinent is mainly due to the centralized political power.
Disintegration of a political power — while in many ways disastrous, helps in the development of regional scripts. With the disappearance of an imperial authority small monarchies spring up and regional cultures evolve. Regional cultural centres emerge and the popular regional styles flourish. The popularity of writing demands swiftness, leading to the introduction of an additional quality, i.e., facile writing. Regular writing practices also create certain traits that are responsible for script developments. It required continuous and unobstructed movement of the pen, which in turn becomes

Page #38

36
Development of Nāgarī Script
responsible for the substitution of curves in place of angles & c. It is easier to draw a curved form which can be quickly written than to work out an angular form in which the movement of the hand is obstructed at several points. The influence of cursive hand is responsible for the development of several letter forms and medial signs. For example, the increasing popularity of writing in the Kushāna period 42 gave a fillip to the fast evolution in the letter forms (cf., Fig. 3) and medial signs (cf., Fig. 2a, Table C).
One of the other consequences of the popularity and intensity of writing was that more and more writers came forward and made their contributions to the development of Brāhmi script. The old 'āchārya writers' must have had a number of disciple-apprentices learning the art of writing. Some of these writers, in their turn, formed their own schools
were responsible for the development of regional varieties.43 Out of them a distinction is marked in the style of East and West in Northern India from the Kushāna period onwards (cf., Fig. la-b; Tables C&D, a-b). Hoernle44 noted sibilant sha as the test letter to distinguish between the eastern and western varieties of the so-called Gupta Brāhmi. G. Bühlerts adds two more letters la and ha to this list. He observes that, "in the eastern variety the left limb of la is turned sharply downwards, the base stroke of sha is made round and attached as loop to the slanting central bar, and the base stroke of ha is suppressed with its hook attached to the vertical sharply turned to the left. In the western variety these three have the older and fuller form."46 R.D. Banerji47 adds a fourth test letter så of which the looped form is of eastern variety. But at the same time the distinctions between the eastern and western varieties are based on a few letters and are overlapped in geographical distribution.
Disintegration of the Mauryan empire encouraged foreign invasions and establishment of new kingdoms. When neighbouring indigenous states came in contact with them, among other things, writing also was affected. For example, we can point to the tendency of approximate equalization of length and breadth of the letters and angularization of the curves in the 1st century A.D. Dani observes: “the angular feature was, no doubt,

Page #39

Introduction
dictated by the Greek lettering as well as by the technique of die-cutting."48 Verma believes that the most significant and revolutionary change on Brahmi was introduced by the Sakas of Mathura.49
37
By nature, the writing activities are more intense and as a consequence more advanced in the centres of power than remoter areas. With the transference of the political and cultural gravity advances in writing travelled from one place to the other. For example, cultural gravitation was centralized earlier in Magadha in the East which after the disintegration of the Mauryan empire, in the post-Sunga period, shifted to Mathura in the West. Hence, it became more advanced and predominant in the realm of writing in subsequent centuries. With the weakening of the Kushāṇa power and the rise of the Maghas of Kausāmbī in the last phase of 3rd century A.D., the writing style of that region follows a more developed variety. In the 4th century A.D., the Guptas adopted and encouraged the script of Kauśāmbi region, which was nearer to their original home. But 'in the beginning of the 6th century A.D. the Maukharis of Malava ruled over Magadha and Kanyakubja and with them they brought the script of the Mālava region,'50 which eventually gained full currency.
The actual form of the letter is dependent on the writer's method of producing the letters on a given surface. Kasia copper-plate51 reveals 12 black ink written unengraved and only one engraved line. This makes clear the two stages of copper-plate making, writing and engraving. In several cases, the writing was done by a professional scribe of the court and engraved by someone else. However, sometimes the engravers themselves wrote the text on the surface or engraved the text without previously drawing the letters on them.52 It is generally held that a writer was a literate man while an engraver was illiterate. Naturally the skilled hand of the professional writer made the script standard and uniform than the illiterate or semi-literate hand of the engraver. Occasionally, the movement of the engraver's instrument also made some differences in the representation of the forms of the letter. Bühler's observation is accurate in that "the degree of regularity with which the signs are used, depends not

Page #40

38
Development of Nagari Script
upon the age of the Sasanas, but on individual qualities of the writers, their learning and their carefulness.53
Writing materials, too, affected the course of development of the Brahmi script. For earlier period, we find stone and copper-plate as more popular base materials. As a result of several destructive agencies, including both man and nature, we do not possess manuscripts of more early periods. But from the Kurud Plates of Narendra (6th Cent. A.D.),54 and Tiruvalangaḍu Inscription55 it has become clear that some of the royal charters were first written on palm-leaf or birch-bark and then were copied to more permanent materials, mainly stone or metal. Obviously, it is easier to write in cursive form on the raw materials while in engraving angular shape of letters with chisel on the stone drawing is easier. Scratching the letters on the stone is difficult, but when it was done straight line was transformed into curved.56 Verma observes, in connection with the Piprahvā Vase inscription that "the device of scratching on a spherical object tended to make the letters long and slanting."57 The small space on the coins compelled the writers to form the shape of the letters to suit the available space. As a result, the length of the letters was reduced and the medial signs were simplified on most of the coins.
Writing tools also effect the course of development. The uniform thickness of the body of the letters in the inscriptions of Aśoka is only due to the simplest writing tool, a rod-like object. From the first century A.D., thickness of the lines varied in the different part of the letter. Dani58 and Verma59 ascribe this feature to the edged reed pen. Practice with this new pen and skilful twisting subsequently developed several forms of the letters. For example, swift handling of the pen made letters more cursive. Dani60 reconstructs eight types of head-marks which are the outcome of the different styles of handling the pen. The peculiar twisting of the pen made thin and thick lines in the flourished medial signs and letter forms. And it is the distinctive type of twisting the pen which is mainly responsible for the development of the Kutila script. The writing material in the South, i.e., the stylus and the palm-leaves, was the cause of developing more rounded and wavy characters in numerous South Indian inscriptions.

Page #41

Introduction
Dani is right in his observation that the use of the pen in the North was mainly responsible for the new shapes which so fundamentally differed from the southern characters.61
39
The technique of writing also affected the script. In North India, the general practice of the writing differed from the South. Writing on the leaves was done by pen and ink in North India, while in the South, the letters were incised on the leaves with a sharp-pointed needle like instrument and were made black by besmearing ink on the writing.62 The technique of writing is mainly responsible for the development of more cursive forms in Orissa region. Because of the stylus with which it was written on talipot palm-leaves, it split the leaves if the lines were straight. In the same way the writing technique on copper-plate of the North and the Deccan is different. 63 Presumably, the technique of Deccan is responsible for the evolution of the line form of head-mark and simplified forms of the letters; because it is difficult to incise a solid triangle, or thin and thick line with a sharp stylus.
Geographical factors also have their share in the development of the script. For clarifying this point, we may take the example of Malava region. The peculiar geographical position of Mālava has inevitably moulded all aspects of her culture complex. Situated on the border land between the North and the Deccan, it was open to influences from both sides. Here the two cultural traits often came in contact with each other and this phenomenon is mirrored in the styles of writing. For example, in considering the palaeography of Eran inscription of Budha Gupta (A.D. 484),64 Eran inscription of Toramāṇa, 65 Gwalior inscription of Mihirakula,66 Rinasthal inscription of Prakāśadharmā,67 Mandasor inscriptions of Yasodharma; 68 we find that out of the cultural contacts the area produced a style of its own writing. Dani has given it the name 'the Malwa or Rajasthani style of writing'.69 The same style of writing prepared the ground for the growth of Nagarī script. The influence from Mālava on the one hand reached the northern parts of the country and on the other, it penetrated into the Deccan, by currents and cross currents of politicalcum-religious factors.

Page #42

40
Development of Nāgarī Script
Notes and References
1. Elements of South Indian Palaeography, London, 1878, p., 52, infra 2. 2. Diringer, David, The Alphabet, London, 1949, p., 358. 3. Taylor, Isaac, The Alphabet, vol., II, London, 1883, p., 349, infra 3. 4. Indian Palaeography, Oxford, 1963, p., 112. 5. Sastri, K.N., EI, XXXI, p., 28. 6. “The origin of the Nāgaras and Nāgarī-alphabet," JASB, Lxv, p., 115. 7. Syamasundaradas, ed. vol., V, Varanasi, 1968, pp. 2361-62. 8. “Devanagarī and the Muhammadan Rulers of India " JBORS, XXIII, p., 493. 9. A Sanskrit Grammar, New Delhi, 1979 (1866), P., 3. 10. A Sanskrit Grammar, London, 1960 (1889), p., 1. 11. Alphabet. p., 360. 12. Indian Systems of Writing, Delhi, 1966, p., 15. 13. Prāchina Abhilenkhon me Devanāgarī,” Devanāgarī Lipi Svarup, Vikās evaṁ Sāmasyaen
(Hindi) ed. by Joglekar, N.C. & B.D. Tiwari, Lucknow, Samvat 2019, p., 219. 14. Nāgarī Lipi aur Hindi Vartanī (Hindi), Patna, 1973, p., 68. 15. The concerned verse are:
"Māhārashtrī tathāvantī Saurasenyardhamlāgadhi Vanlīki Māgadhi chaiva shadetā (another reading ashteta) Dakshiņātyajah || Brāchando Lātavaidarbhāvupanāgaranāgaraul Varvarāvantya-Pāñchala-Țākka- Mālava-Kaikayāḥ || Gaudodra-Daiva-Pāñchatya-Pandya-Kauntala-Saim halaḥ| Kālinga-Prāchya-Kārņāta-Kāñchya-Drāvida-Gaurjarāḥ || Abhīro Madhyadesīyaḥ Sūkshmabhedavyavasthitāḥ ||
Saptavimšatyapabhraísa vaidālādiprbhedataḥ II. 16. Linguistic Survey of India, IX, Pt. II, p., 327. 17. Development of Script in Ancient Kamrupa, Assam, 1976, p., 30. 18. History of India and Eastern Architecture, vol., II, London, 1910, p., 84 ff. 19. Indian Epigraphy: Its Bearing on the History of Art, Calcutta, 1985, pp. 210–11. 20. The Hindu Temple, vol., I, p., 292. 21. Višeshāvaśyakabhāshyavritti, p., 256 -
"Hamsalivi Bhūyalivi Jakkhi tah Rakkhasi ya Bodhavvā Udd Javani Turukki Kīrī Davidīya ya Simdhavīya Il

Page #43

Introduction
Mälavini Nadi Nagarī Lāḍalivī Pārasi ya Bodhavvä Taha Animira ya livi Chanakki Müladevi ya "
22. Malayagiriya Nandivṛitti, p., 188
"Tatra Nagarim Lipimadhikritya kimchit pradarsyate"
23. Sachau, E.C., Alberuni's India, New Delhi, 1964, p., 173.
24. "The Origin"., p., 128.
25. "Antiquity of Writing in India," JBORS, VIII, pp. 111 and 115.
26. A Higher Sanskrit Grammar, Delhi, 1960, p., 1.
27. "A Theory of the Origin of the Devanagari Alphabet," IA, XXXV, pp. 253--67, 270-90 & 311-24.
28. Alphabet., p., 349.
29. "Paleographic," L'inde Classique, Manuel Des E'iudes Indiennes, Paris, 1953, p... 678, quoted in Development of Brähmi with Special Reference to the Origin and Development of Nagarī, An unpublished thesis by Shashi Bala submitted for Ph. D. degree of Punjab University, Chandigarh.
30. "A Theory"., p., 255.
31. Ek-Bharati 'Vishvanagari' the Romanised "Devanagari for national integration and universal brotherhood, Bombay, 1975, p., 15.
32. Historical and Cultural Dictionary of India, New York, 1976, pp. 72-73.
33. "Prachina Abhilenkhon.", p., 219.
41
34. Nāgarī Lipi., p., 68.
35. "A Detailed Exposition of the Nägarī, Gujarātī and Modi Scripts," ABORI, XIX, p.. 389.
36. H.K. Bhattacharya has emphatically asserted that Brahmi cannot be called the mother of Nagari and that the latter has a different origin. The Language and Scripts of Ancient India, Calcutta, 1959, pp. 113-14.
37. Lüders, H., Bruchstücke der Kalpanamaṇḍitikā Des Kumaralāta, Leipzig, 1926.
38. Chakravarti, S.N., EI, XXVI, pp. 130-32, Pl. f. p., 131.
39. Hoernle, Rudolf A.F., Bower Manuscript, ASI, Calcutta, 1893-1912.
40. Fleet, J.F., Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol., III, Varanasi, 1963, pp. 152-54, PI. XXII.
"
41. Dani, pp. 113-18.
42. Verma, T.P., The Palaeography of Brahmi Script in North India, Varanasi, 1971, p...
109.
43. Verma, Development of Script., p., 14.
44. "On the Date of the Bower Manuscript," JASB, LX, p., 81.

Page #44

Development of Nāgarī Script
45. Indian Palaeography, Calcutta, 1959, P., 65. 46. Ibid. 47. The Origin of the Bengali Script, Calcutta, 1973, p., 26. 48. Indian., p., 52. 49. The Palaeography., p., 82. 50. Dani, p., 126. 51. Pargiter. F.E.. ASI. AR. 1910-11. pp. 73-77. Pl. XXXIX. 52. Sircar, D.C., Indian Epigraphy, Motilal Banarsidass, 1965, pp. 85–86. 53. Indian., p., 109. 54. Dikshii, M.G., EI, XXXI, p., 265. 55. Sivaramamurti, C., Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, Madras, 1966, p., 20. 56. Cf., the form of the letters of Piprahva Vase inscription, D.C. Sircar, Select Inscrip
tions, I, Pl. X. 57. The Palaeography., p., 15. 58. Indian., p., 52. 59. The Palaeography., p., 19. 60. Indian., pp. 80–81. 61. Indian., p., 114. 62. Sircar, D.C., Indian Ep., p., 62. 63. Pandey, R.B., Indian Palaeography, I, Varanasi, 1957, pp. 81-82. 64. Fleet, CII, III, pp. 88-90, Pl. XIIA. 65. Ibid., pp. 158-61, Pl. XXIII A. 66. Ibid., pp. 161-64, Pl. XXIII B. 67. Wakankar, V.S., Bhāratī, N.S., No. 1 (1983), pp. 56-62, PI. IV. 68. Fleet, CII, III, pp. 142–58, Pls. XXI B, C & XXII. 69. Indian., p., 155.
Bibliography
Maurya inscriptions - Table A 1. Girnar rock inscription, E. Hultzsch, CII, I (1969), pp. 1–27, Pls. f.
pp. 4, 10, 14, 22 & 26. 2. Kalasi rock inscription, Ibid., pp. 27–50, Pls. f. pp. 44 & 50.

Page #45

Introduction
43
3. Delhi-Topra pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 119–37, Pls. b. pp. 122–23,
128-29 & f. p., 134. 4. Delhi-Mirath pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 137–40, Pls. b. pp. 138–39,
& f. p., 140. 5. Lauriya-Araraja pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 141-45, Pls. f. pp. 142 & 144. 6. Rampurva pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 151–53, Pls. b, pp. 152–53. 7. Sarnath pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 161-64, Pl. f. p., 162. 8. Rummindei pillar inscription, Ibid., pp. 164–65, Pl. f. p., 164. 9. Nigali Sagar pillar inscription, Ibid., p., 165, Pl. f. p., 164. 10. Barabar Cave inscription, R. B. Pandey, Asoka ke Abhilekha, Varanasi,
Samvat 2022, pp. 133–34, Pl. 46. 11. Nagarjuni Cave inscription of Dasaratha, Ibid., pp. 136–38, Pl. 47. Pre-Kushāna inscriptions — Table B 1. Mathura Jaina inscriptions (New Series), G. Bühler, EI, II, pp. 195–
212, Pls. b. pp. 202–03 & f. p., 208 (Nos. 1-11 and 30–32). 2. Mora stone slab inscription, MASI, No. 1 (1919), p., 22, PI. VI, No. 5. 3. Mathura pillar inscription of the time of Sodasa, Ibid., No. 5 (1920),
pp. 169–73, Pl. XXVI b. 4. Mathura inscription of (Dhru)vamitra, R. D. Banerji, EI, X, p., 107,
Pl. f. p., 107, No. 1. 5. Ganeshra inscription of Ghataka, ASI, AR, 1911–12, pp. 128–30; Pl.
LVIII, No. 17. 6. Stone Bowl inscription from Mathura, D. R. Sahni, EI, XIX, P., 67,
Pl. f. p., 67, No. VI. Inscriptions of Kushāņa period — Table C a. Eastern style 1. Mathura inscription of Kanishka: year 4, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXIV, p., 9,
Pl. f. p., 10, No. 1.

Page #46

44
Development of Nāgarī Script
2. Mathura inscription of Kanishka: year 14, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., XIX, pp.
96-97, Pl. f. p., 97. 3. Mathura inscription of Huvishka: year 33, T. Bloch, Ibid., VIII, pp.
181-182, Pl. f. p., 182 b.Western style 1. Inscription of Vasudeva: year 64 (67 ?), D. C. Sircar, EI, XXX, pp.
181–84, Pl. f. p., 184. 2. Inscription [ of Vasu ...] : year 74, H. Lüders, Ibid., IX, pp. 241-46.
Pl. f. p., 242. 3. Mathura inscriptions of year 74, J. Dowson, JRAS, N.S. V., p., 183, No. 4. 4. Inscriptions of year 25, 35, 45, 47, 54, 86, 87 and 95, G. Bühler, EI,
I, pp. 384ff. & Pls. 5. Inscriptions of year 31, 32, 49, 50, 52, 62, 81, 90, 93, 98, G. Bühler,
Ibid., II, pp. 202ff. & Pls. Inscriptions of Gupta period — Table D a. Eastern style 1. Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, J. F. Fleet, CII, III
(1963), pp. 1-17, Pl. I. 2. Susunia rock inscription of Chandravarma, H. Sastri, EI, XIII, p., 133,
Pl. f. p., 132. 3. Karamadanda inscription of the reign of Kumaragupta I, S. Konow,
Ibid., X, pp. 70–72, Pl. f. p., 71. 4. Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 52–56, PI.
VII. 5. Dhanaidaha Copper-plate of the time of Kumaragupta: (G) year 113,
R. G. Basak, EI, XVII, pp. 345–48, Pls. b. pp. 347–48. 6. Damodarpur Copper-Plate of (G.) years 124, 129 & 163, R. G. Basak,
Ibid., XV, pp. 113-37, Pls. f. pp. 132, 133 & 138.

Page #47

Introduction
7. Paharpur Copper-plate of year 159, K. N. Dikshit, Ibid., XX, pp. 59-64, Pls. b. pp. 62-63.
45
b. Western style
1. Mathura inscription of Chandragupta II, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 25-28, PI. ILA. 2. Mathura inscription of Chandragupta II: (G) Year 61, D. R. Bhandarkar, EI, XXI, pp. 1-9, Pl. f. p., 8.
3. Mathura inscription of Kumaragupta, Bühler, Ibid., II, p., 210, Pl. f. p., 209, No. 39.
4. Indor Plate of Skandagupta: (G) Year 146, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 68-72, Pl. ix b.
Inscriptions of Aulikaras - Table E
1. Rinasthal inscription of Prakasadharma: V.S. 570, V. S. Wakankar, Bharathi, N.S., No. 1, pp. 56-62, Pl. IV.
2. Mandasor Inscription of Yasodharma, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 142-48, Pl.
XXI B.
3. Another Mandasor inscription of Yasodharma, Ibid., pp. 149-50, Pl. XXI C.
4. Mandasor inscription of Yasodharma and Vishnuvardhan: (V) year 589, Ibid., pp. 150-58, Pl. XXII.
Inscriptions of Maukharis - Table F
1. Barabar Hill Cave inscription of Anantavarma, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 221-23, Pl. XXX B.
2. Nagarjuni Hill Cave inscription of Anantavarma, Ibid., pp. 223-28, Pls. XXXI A-B.
3. Haraha Stone inscription of Isanavarma: (V) year 611, H. Sastri, EI, XIV, pp. 110-20, Pl. f. p., 118.
4. Jaunpur Stone inscription of Isanavarma?, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 222-30, Pl. XXXIIA.
5. Asirgadh Copper seal of Sarvavarma, Ibid., pp. 219-21, Pl. XXXA.

Page #48

Development of Nāgarī Script
6. Nalanda Clay seal of Sarvavarma, H. Sastri, EI, XXI, p., 74, Pl. f. p.,
74.
7. Sohnag Terracotta seal of Avantivarma, M. S. Vats, Ibid., XXVII, pp.
62–65, Pl. f. p., 64.

Page #49

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Page #50

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Page #51

A. EVOLUTION IN MEDIAL VOWELS
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Page #52

RAPID EVOLUTION IN SOME LETTERS
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FIG. 3

Page #53

The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.)
Passing through its developmental stages, in North India, Brāhmi grew into a script called by the palaeographers as-Siddhamātrikā, Kutila, acute-angled, etc. The new innovation, by which it differs from Brāhmi, is the inward bending in the right vertical limbs of the letters. The bending of the vertical shows an acute-angle with the base line. Apart from these, in general, the top of the letters are triangular in shape and the medial signs are prolonged with twists and bends. These are mainly due to the pen-technique which can be seen in the forms of the letters (Fig. 4), which become much more decorative in the medial signs (Fig. 5). The distinctive feature of this newly developed Kutila script, according to Bühler4 as well as Danis are first noticed in the Bodh-Gayā inscrip of Mahānāma (A.D. 588–89) and later on became the characteristics of the North Indian scripts. In due course of time all scripts of North India, i.e. Nāgarī, Assamese, Bengali, Oriyā, etc., have developed from this very script.
The demarcation of geographical boundaries of the Kutila script may be assigned on the basis of its use from Gilgit in the North to Tiwarakhed

Page #54

EVOLUTION BY THE PEN TECHNIQUE
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Page #55

ORNAMENTATION IN THE MEDIAL SIGNS
BODH-GAYA
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Page #56

Development of Nāgarī Script
(M.P.) in the South and from Nidhānpur (Assam) in the East to Vasantgadh (Rajasthan) in the West, during the 7th-8th centuries. About the 8th century A.D. it drove out the early popular scripts prevalent in M.P. and Western India and was often used in the northern and western areas of the Deccan and rarely in the southern Deccan as far as Pattadakall (Bijapur, Karnatak). Beyond the frontiers of India and Pakistan its use can be noticed in the Kabul inscription of Shahi Khingala.11 It has also been used in the inscriptions of Sri Lanka, Nepal, Tibet, Java, Cambodia, Central Asia, China and Japan.12
11
48
The main features of this script remained almost the same in this period excepting for ornamentation. The ornamentation differs in different regions according to the materials used for writing. Aside from the influence of writing materials, we also noticed the regional influences on the writing. Not only writing materials or regional traits, but also personal habits and mannerisms of the scribes affected the shapes of letters. In order to understand the development and variations of the Kutila script, it is grouped here under four main heads:
The Middle Ganga Valley & North Western Region
The middle Ganga Valley properly includes the greater portion of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In the Gupta period, eastern style of writing was prevalent in this region. But under the Maukharis western style of writing came into use. The western style along with Mathura style and eastern ornamentation underwent a change in this region during 6th-7th centuries A.D. This interaction produced a new style ornamental style of Kutila script which was also given a regional appellation 'Middle Ganges Valley script'. 13 In the beginning of the 7th century A.D., Harsha adopted the ornamental Kutila script and this style of writing spread all over North India along with the expansion of his power. In the northwestern region, about the 8th century A.D., a distinct form of Brähmi was developing which is called Sarada script.
The script of the Bodh-Gaya inscription of Mahānāma (A.D. 588-89)

-

Page #57

The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.)
is a step further from the writing of Aulikaras (Mandasor) and Maukharis (Bihar & U.P.). In this epigraph (Plates 1-24, Table A) only three initial vowels, ā, u and e are noticed. The right vertical of the initial ā is slanted and forms an acute-angled shape. The downward curve of u is extended further; and e is of flat-topped variety with right-angle.
The letter ka is generally in the new form in which left curve developed into a triangular loop and right one into a downward tick. But the old curved form is retained in ku, kri and ligatures. The top of the kha is flat and left limb shows a triangular foot-mark. The right vertical line of ga has a bend in its middle. The letter ta is of flat-topped variety in letter ļi. Ņa is of open-mouthed variety with sloped base and extended outer curves. Right limb of ta is curved. In tha and dha, the left curve slopes in a fashion that upper portion became broader and the lower narrower. Da is represented by double curve, with its tip turned up. Na shows Kuțila feature in the right vertical. Ya is of the tripartite variety with left arm
herged in the loop. Bipartite variety of ya with a bend in the right vertical can be seen in the letter ye (Plate 16, Table A1). Letters bha, ra and sa show triangular foot-mark or loop. The base of the letters pa, pha, ma, ya, la, sha and sa is sloped and their bent right vertical makes an acuteangle.
Ligatures follow the earlier style in which the letter pronounced first is written in full form in the same line while the following letter is engraved just below the former. Following the tendency of simplification, in some instances, the first or optionally the second letter is shortened and becomes cursive. Forms of two armed superscribed i , cursive subscribed ña and reduced form of ya and ra are noteworthy. In rya, superscribed r directly joins with the bipartite form of ya. The right vertical of the subscript is extended upward to the head-mark. It can be seen in mpo, sya and ssa (Plate 24, Table A1). The ornamentation is noticed in the medial signs. In the fifth century, flourishes in the medial signs are clearly seen in the Bilasadl4 and Meharauli inscription. 15 The ornamentation attained maturity in the period of Aulikaras and Maukharis, which is evident from their inscriptions (cf. Fig. 2a, Tables E & F). In the present inscription (of

Page #58

HALANTA SIGNS IN 6TH - 8TH CENTRUY A.D.
LAI A3 A4 AS A6 A7 As A AM A12 A15 T 31 39 aña a aa 39
IN 9TH CENTURY A.D.
Ilang2 man
IN 10TH CENTURY A.D
a
294 291 292
994 el
1
FIG. 6

Page #59

50
Development of Nāgarī Script
Mahānāma) the effect of the pen style is marked, not only in the thick and thin lines but also in the long flourishes. Generally, in the formation of medial ā, a wedge is added at the headmark to the right. But in pā, a curve is added to the top of the letter. A different mode, of slightly bending the right end and extending it upwards beyond the top of the letter to the left, is adopted in the formation of nā. For medial u, the right vertical of the letter extended downward as in pu, mu and su (Plate 10, Table A). Sometimes, a curve is added to the left at the right end of the letter as in ku, gu, tu (Plate 9, Table A). The medial ū is formed by adding an additional stroke either to the left or right in medial u. The medial ri is represented by adding a hook to the vertical of the letter. The twisted form of medial e, which first appeared in Susuniā Rock inscription of Chandravarmālo (4th Century A.D.) now became common. Occasionally, it is also formed by a wedged shape at the left of the head-mark. The top slants of the medials e, ai, o and au are flourished, or simple as in nau (Fig. 5). The anusvāra is represented by a dot on the top of the letter, such as in lyaṁ (Plate 24, Table A,). The visarga is formed by placing two dots one upon the other, to the right of the letter, such as shown in nnāh (Plate 23, Table A1).
It becomes clear that the inscription of Mahānāma does not represent the fully developed form of the Kuțila letters; and the fact is evident that the Kuțila script was in the initial stages of development. During the 7th century A.D. the Kuțila features further progressed, clearly understood by the illustrations shown in Plates 1-26, Tables A2, A4 & As. These illustrations have been taken from the Later-Gupta inscriptions (Aphsad; Sāhapur, A.D. 672; & Deo Bamārk) of Magadha region and Bānskherā (A.D. 628) and Madhuban (A.D. 631) copper-plates (both of U.P. region) of Harsha. Of these, Banskherā Plate is more ornamental and shows artistic calligraphy of the seventh century A.D. The letters of the sign-manual in Bānskherā Plate are so elaborately ornamented and beautifully incised that Bühler remarks, "If king Harsha really used these characters in signing all legal documents, he must have been a most accomplished penman and the cares of government and the conquest of India must have left him a

Page #60

The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.)
51
great deal of leisure."17 But it is known from various sources that perhaps Harsha was a good poet too. If so, his appreciation of penmanship might have led him to calligraphic writing.
The lower limb of the right verticals in Aphsad inscription are more twisted, on the basis of which Fleet calls it “the Kutila variety of the Magadha alphabet of the seventh century A.D.”18 Banerjilo noticed eastern influence in it. Aphsad inscription was done by Sukshmasiva, a native of the Gauda country.20 So, it is possible that the eastern influences arrive with the writer. But after all, there seems no remarkable difference from the script of the region.
The feature of development is seen in the bending of the right verticals. In initial vowels, the lower bend of a and u is prolonged into an artistic curve. A notch is marked at the top line in initial e of Bānskherā Plate; and u of Madhuban Plate. Initial i is formed by two dots above and a curve below. Rare, initial i in Bānskherā Plate is formed by a dot in either sides of a wedged and footmarked vertical line.
Among consonants, the evolution is noticeable in the form of ka, where vertical line prolongs and right vertical lengthens into a bent vertical. The foot-mark of the letter ga is triangular; in the case of rounded-top, the right limb of the letter extends upward. The letter ja of Banskhera Plate shows a developed feature with a head mark on the top, middle bar bent downwards and lower portion going further down and bent to the left. Ta in Later-Gupta inscriptions is merely a curve with horizontally placed wedge at upper end. Banerji21 asserted to this form as eastern and opines that eastern variety differs very much from that of the head-marked western. But this is unreliable, because curved form is a common variety of the earlier period and also employed during 7th-8th centuries A.D. in Rajasthan and western regions (Cf., Plate 1). Presumably, cursive form was the common variety from which head-mark form of western and double curve form of eastern varieties ultimately evolved
Among other consonants, right curve of ņa is elongated with curl, upper portion of tha shows an inner loop. Later Gupta da represents a tail

Page #61

Development of Nāgarī Script
in the place of lower tick; and right portion of na growing into a vertical form. The triangular foot-mark of bha becomes peculiar and right limb is extended. Ya is of developed bipartite type. The left portion of va growing into a round form. With flat or round-topped śa, a looped variety of the letter is also found. In Madhuban Plate, solid triangular loop of sa shows a process of developing the tail. Occasionally triangular foot-mark of sa in Later-Gupta inscriptions is hollow or open its mouth. Ha prolongs its right limb in a curly fashion.
52
Ligatures represent more cursive form of some letters, such as subscript ña, superscript ǹ and above all cursive form of n (Plate 23, Table A2). This form of n shows the precursor stage of modern shape. Subscript va became triangular to differentiate it from dha.
The medial signs are simple as well as of ornamental types. In Bānskhera Plate, generally, top-stroke forms of medial signs occur which are formed by two, or more curved shapes. In the sign-manual, medial i contains more than a dozen strokes and medial à has seven. In simple style, curve of medials i and ē are fully extended and occasionally, turns outwards in Later-Gupta inscriptions.
The development of the Kutila script, in 8th century A.D., shown in Plates 1-24, Table A3; is taken from Nālandā Stone inscription of Yasovarmā of Kannauja. Incidentally, it is difficult to agree with the view of Hirananda Sastri that this inscription "cannot be placed later than the first half of the sixth century A.D."22 The inscription shows advanced forms of letters, developed tails and broader head-mark. These palaeographic characteristics demonstrate that it cannot arguably be put before the eighth century A.D.
An evolution is noticeable in the development of tails seen in a, i, e, ka, kha, cha, da, dha, ya, ra, la, va. The top of the letter tha grows a peculiar inner loop. Ma is yet to develop its left loop, while in western India, from the sixth century A.D., looped form of ma was frequently employed.
According to Dani, "The medial vowels have become almost stand

Page #62

The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.)
3
ardized, with the exception of a and o, which still optionally retain the older forms.23 But, cursive as well as vertical forms of u, two varieties of medial ū, full extended or short curve types of i and i may be observed in the inscription (Table A3).
On the whole, this inscription marks an advance towards the evolution of proto-Nāgarī. However, at the same time it prefers ornamentation and alphabets retain the Kutila features.
Eastern India
Bengal, Assam and Orissa together form the region of Eastern India. From the palaeographical viewpoint, the influence of the region reached as far West as Bihar and as far South as Andhra Pradesh. With the expansion of Harsha's political power the script of the Middle Gangā Valley influenced the script of the eastern region; yet it retains its individuality. The style of Bengal does not have the foot-mark and the letters bha and sa do not have the solid triangular foot-mark. They show directly the open-mouthed triangle at this point.24 The confusion of using the va for ba also is the contribution of Bengal.25 The first appearance of twisting medial sign in this region makes probable that the region was the original seat of ornamentation from where it spread to the other parts and helped in the development of the Kutila script.
Purushotrampur Plates of Sainyabhīta Mādhavavarmā II (c. A.D. 619– 32) and Chandeśvara Plates of Mānabhīta Dharmarāja (c. A.D. 695–730) are selected and illustrated in Table A 16. Generally, the alphabet shows cursive features, which may be due to using stylus and imitation of palm-leaf writing.
Initial ā shows peculiar eastern features and lower tip of u turns downwards. Gha of ghā points towards Nāgari shape. Ņa is cursive as well as of open-mounted variety. The upper loop of tha in thā is detached from the vertical line. Bha and sa have opened their mouths. The base of la develops into a hook and both hooks show inner curl. The base of the letters pa, ma, ya and sha are sloped and their right verticals are sharply

Page #63

54
Development of Nägarī Script
bent. In ligatures, subscript is reduced and lower ta of tta turns its mouth downward. Medial signs are like the other epigraphs of that period.
Nidhānpur grant of Bhāskaravarmā marks the expansion of the Kutila script in Assam region. The right vertical of the letters, such as pa, ma, ya, etc., show the Kuțila features; and bha starts the process of mouth opening 26
Central India and Rajasthan
The eipgraphs pertaining to this section are scattered in a vast area and therefore differences in the writing styles are for certain encountered. The central territory for this vast area was Mālava which, owing to the cultural contacts both from North and South, evolved a new style of writing. Dani calls it “Malwa or Rajasthani style of writing.”2' This style covers the whole area, spread as far as western India and also influenced the script of the Gangetic and eastern regions. Later, in the seventh century A.D., ornamental characters of the Middle Gangā Valley influenced the script of this region. At the same time, the writing style of this region maintained its individuality and produced more advanced letter forms in the last phase of the seventh century A.D., which paved the way for Nāgarī and is now called by the appellation proto-Nāgarī. In protoNāgarī, the triangular head-mark becomes broader, or is replaced by a small stroke; and tail, or footmark is developed at the bottom of the letters.
Vasantgadh inscription of Varmalāta of A.D. 625 (Table Ag) and Jhālrāpāțan inscription of Durgagana of A.D. 689 (Table Ay) are selected for the study of palaeographical development with regional peculiarities. The influence of the Middle Gangā Valley is here clearly marked. However, Vasantgadh inscription shows tendency to use some signs with a little ornamentation. Some of the letters such as a and sa still retain local forms. The initial a is of the curved type and sa maintains the local variety with the left hook. In the Vasantgadh inscription, e is of sloppy left limb type; kha without a foot-mark and ta has a flat top. Notched base type of rounded back dha, distinct separate sign for ba, archaic tripartite form of

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ya, etc., are also the noteworthy forms. Dani28 refers to the closed loop in the letter ma whereas in the photographic reproduction of the inscription the loop is unclear.29
In Jhālrāpāțan ta developed into triangled-topped variety, ņa took new shape, ma has a small loop, ya is of bipartite type and ra developed a tail at the foot. A variety of the archaic oval tha is found in this inscription. The conjunct tta is of peculiar variety in which full form of both letters is separately formed one upon the others, the lower one being smaller (Pl. 25, A7).
Most of the medial signs in Jhālrāpātan inscription are similar to the corresponding signs of the Bānskherā Plate. Optionally, the curve of medials i and i extends up to the lower portion of the letter and bends towards left or right (Pls. 5–8, Tables Ag & A7). Sometimes, a kind of hook form is used for medial a in Vasantgadh inscription (cf, Pls. 3-4, see tā, mā, lā, sā, sā and hā). Twisted ā medial is also noteworthy in pā (Pl. 4, A).
The further developments in the alphabet during eighth century A.D. are represented in Tables Ag, A, and A10, taken from Tasāī and Khandelā inscriptions (Rajasthan), Indragadh inscription of Nannappa, Saugor and Chhoti Deori inscriptions of Sankaragana I (all in M.P.). Of these, Khandelā inscription (A.D. 807) belongs to slightly later period in which different limbs of the letters are formed thick and thin in an artistic manner. It seems that originally the inscription was written by brush or some tool like that.
The head-mark of Sankaragana's inscriptions developed into linear form while in other inscriptions it is in a solid triangular form. The alphabet of the Indragadh inscription closely resembles that of the Jhālrāpātan. But letters ka, kha, ga, ja, tha, da, ya, la, va, etc., of the present inscription are of a more developed variety. Initial u looks Nāgarī in form. Sometimes, the right curve of the letter ka is turned inside and inner curve of letter becomes rounded. The middle bar of the letter ja is prolonged with downwards bent. Ta shows a developed head-mark, da has a short tail and sa retains left hook.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
In the Khandelā inscription, the development of a tail is discerned in the letters ka, kha, gha, cha, ja, da, pa, ma, ya, ra, va, sha and sa. The letter da is interesting as it resembles the form of the letter in JainaNāgarī.30 Na is like the Nāgarī lā. The shape of the letters ka, ga, cha, ța, dha, da, na, pa, ma, ya, ra, la, va and sa (Pls. 1-2, Ag) show the transitional phase and nearer to their corresponding forms in Nāgarī.
The further developments are noticed in the Sankaragana's inscriptions, in the forms of cursive na, developed ta, open-mouthed bha and sa, looped ma and tailed ra (Pls. 1-4, A10). However, gha is of archaic variety, ja retains three horizontal bars, da has a tip instead of tail and na is of looped variety. Pa is open at the top while two verticals of va meet with the line headmark at two points (Table A10). V.V. Mirashi' is accurate in placing, on palaeographical grounds, these inscriptions in the middle of the eighth century A.D.
In ligatures, the forms of ncha, nchha, pta, rya, hna, etc., are noticeable. In the subscript ta mouth opens downward.
The medial signs of Tables Ag and A, are, in general, ornamented while those of Table A10 bear simple forms. Table A10 represents mostly standardized form of medial signs in which u is of cursive variety; e, ai, o and au are reaching Nāgarī forrns. Medial ā in jā is added to the middle bar of the letter. In nā and hā it is attached on the top in slanted forms and in ligature ttā in hooked shape while usually it is found in a long or short vertical line form.
Western India and the Deccan
In this group I propose to describe the development of the Kuțila script of south-western region of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Kutila script represents marked evolution in this region. The most ancient specimen of proto-Nāgari is found from Gujarat. However, the earlier inscriptions of the region are engraved in local (cave) characters. A question may arise, as to what led the scribes to use an alphabet different

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from that which was current in their own region. Vasu, after referring to the migration of Brāhmanas, pointed out: "Some of these immigrants who came from Magadha, Kanyakubja and Gauda, brought to their new colony their old alphabet, which in a later period became known as the Nāgari
lipi.”32
Most of the earlier proto-Nāgarī specimens of the region reveal the mixture of triangular and line forms of head-mark (cf. Table A 13). It seems probable that the imrnigrant Brāhmanas of Northern India, who had brought with them their own scripts, tried to engrave the alphabet in the same form. Naturally, it is hard to draw a solid-triangular shape with a stylus, the main writing tool of the region. The writing materials and writing technique of this region played an important role in the emergence of the simple form of the alphabet.
Table Au is taken from the Tiwarakhed Plates of Rāshtrakūta Nannarāja (A.D. 631) to represent the palaeographical development. The present inscription differs from the Indragadh inscription of Rāshtrakūta Nannappa in the sense that the Indragadh inscription reveals ornamental characters while Tiwarakhed Plates prefer only the simple forms. Triangled head-mark developed into short line. However, the alphabet retains Kutila influence. The right limb of the letters a, ka, ga, gha, ta, na, pa and ya bends inwards at the middle. The tails are not well marked, only a short tail is seen in the letters gha, da, pa and va. The tail of initial i is turned towards right. The curve of the letter ka is more elongated and sometimes looks like looped na. Kha in khe has an upward going stroke outside the right limb instead of an inward triangle (Pl. 15, Au). Such a kha is again found in ligature khyā of Kalachuri inscriptions (Pl. 27, A1n). Na is of looped variety; and ma shows a hollow loop at the left limb. Bha and sa are of open-mouthed variety. La gracefully curls its left hook. The form of va is used for both, ba and va, in which upper protion of the left curve joins with the head-mark instead of the vertical line. In ligature nda, superscribed ņ is of three tooth type. Subscript tha is of oval variety. Superscript s shows three forms, namely open-mouthed, tailed and hollow triangular. Medials are usual as in other regions.

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In the signatures of the Gürjjara princes on the Kairā Plates (A.D. 629 & 643),33 Sāńkhedā Plate (A.D. 642),34 Navasārī Plates (A.D. 709)," Añjaneri Plate (A.D. 710),36 Kāvī Plate (A.D. 736),37 and Prince of Wales museum Plates (A.D. 736)38 genuine specimens of northern alphabet are found while the texts are in local characters. Presumably, these are the earlier examples which show the evolution of the line top-mark and tails. Bühler39 recognized these characters of the sign-manuals as first exan of Nāgarī. But they do not seem written in Nāgarī characters as they display the old form of the letters without full covering head-lines and vertical tails. The feature of Kutila is present even in the letter ma and ya of Kāvi Plate.
Table A13 is taken from Hilol Plates of Chandrāditya (A.D. 788). The inscription is written with the aid of stylus and represent hollow-triangular head-mark. Initial T is formed by placing a dot on each side of double. curved line. Letters kha, da, pa and ya have short tails. A peculiar variety of tha may be seen in thi, which is formed by two loops. Sometimes, ka looks like looped na and na is of many varieties. Ligatures are the same as before in that period. The noticeable form is the superscribed b of ligature bda (Pl. 30, A13). In ligature sthā, subscript tha is of Asokan type. Medials are standardized and have taken Ngari forms, however, variations can also be seen in the forms of ā.
Tables A12, A14 and Ais are taken from Multāī, Sāmangadh and Daultābād Plates (all of 8th Cent. A.D.) of Rāshtrakūta rulers. These copper-plates display only the simplified style. However, there is a noticeable difference between them. Multāī Plates show the influence of Kutila writing and only short line form of head-mark. Sāmangadh copper-plates illustrate the simplified copper-plate style of Rajasthan.40 The top-stroke of letters in this inscription covers the entire breadth. Generally, the head-mark of Daultābād Plates is in notched shape.
The lower portion of middle bar of initial a in Table A14 is turned up and à has a slanting stroke from the middle of the vertical line of a instead of common lower curved shape. The tail of initial i is turned to left, which has a downward bend at the tip in Table A15. Initial i is denoted by turning the tail

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59
of i to right in Sāmangadh Plate. The initial e of Multās Plates is of peculiar variety.
Remarkable evolution in the consonants are seen. The tails are small in Multai Plates while other two inscriptions reveal a long tail in letters ka, kha, cha, da, dha, pa, ma, ya, ra, la, va, sha and ha. The head-mark of tha is yet to develop. Lower limb of da shows a process of leftward bending. Ņa of Table A12 is of open mouthed variety. Other two inscriptions show well developed form of cursive na. Ta is still of curved variety. Tha of Table A14 shows transitional phase. Na of Table A15 is of vertical variety while in other inscriptions it retains broader looped feature. Pha has an inner loop. Ba in Multāī plate is denoted by a distinct sign. Bha and sa have their mouths open. Ma has a loop at the left angle. The left curve of la is prolonged. Ha of Table A 14 shows a developed tail.
Ligatures are formed in the old pattern. Subscript prolongs its right vertical up to the head-mark. Subscribed chha of Table A14 shows a developing form of the letter. Superscript r is of developed variety. Both va of ligature vvi, in Daultābād Plate, are formed by placing one upon the other in the left portion of the vertical line.
The medial signs are of different types. Table A14 generally shows full perpendicular form of modern ā medial except in tā and nā where hooked or curved form is still present. A horizontal notch is optionally used for ā in Daultābād Plates. Both forms of medials u, ū and e are found.
According to Bühler, “The most ancient document, written throughout in Nāgarī, is the Sāmangarh grant of Rāshțrakūta king Dantidurga of A.D. 754.'4. However, in scrutinizing the palaeography of this inscription, it is found that tha has no head-mark; e and gha are without tails. Sometimes, head-mark does not cover the whole letter, such as in po. Medial signs are of different types, and in ligature first letter is still formed in full shape. If all these are left out, even then it may not be accepted as the earliest Nāgarī inscriptional record. Moreover Sukthankar42 has proved it

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Development of Nāgarī Script
as a spurious record. One of his arguments in favour of that decision is: “These plates occupy a very isolated position in the progressive development of Nāgarī.»:43 He apparently is right, because the other later records such as Tālegãon,44 Bhāndak,45 Pimpari,46 Dhuliā,47 Daultābād, 48 Paithan,49 etc., are all written in proto-Nāgarī.
General Remarks
On the whole, though the characters of the Western inscriptions show a remarkable progress toward the development of Nāgarī, we are still not in a position to say that Nāgarī script evolved during the eighth century A.D., even in Western India to be precise.
Notes and References
1. Diringer, Alphabet., p., 357; D.C. Sircar, EI, XXXIV, P., 161. 2. Princep, J., JASB, VI, p., 779; Fleet, EI, III, p., 328., infra 1; Ojha, Bhāratīyā., p., 62;
Dani, Indian., p., 115. 3. Bühler, Indian., p., 68. 4. Ibid. 5. Indian., p., 127. 6. Raghuvira & Lokesh Chandra, Gilgit Buddhist Manuscripts, New Delhi, 1959–66. 7. Lal, Hira, "Tiwarakhed Copper-plate of A.D. 631," EI, XI, pp. 276-80 & Plate. 8. Sarma, D., “Nidhānpur Copper-plate of Bhāskaravarmā," Kś, pp. 20–32, & Plate. 9. Bhandarkar, “Vasantgadh Inscription of A.D. 625," EI, IX, pp. 187-92, & Plate. 10. Fleet, J.F., “Pattadakal pillar Inscription of A.D. 755," EI, III, pp. 1-7 & Plate. 11. Sircar, D.C., EI, XXXV, pp. 44-47 & Plate. 12. Dani, pp. 215-47; Sircar, Indian., pp. 202-18; B. Ch. Chhabra, Expansion of Indo
Aryan Culture, Delhi, 1965, pp. 10–57; J. Filliozat, Political History of India, Eng.
Tr., India, 1957, pp. 61-68; R.H. Van Gulik, Siddham, New Delhi, 1956. 13. Dani, pp. 109 ff. 14. Fleet, CII, III, pp. 42-45, Pl. v. 15. Ibid., pp. 139–42, Pl. XXIA. 16. Sastri, H., EI, XIII, PI. f., p., 132; & also cf., the form of te, Fig. 2a, Table D.

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17. EI, IV, p., 209.
18. CII, III, p., 202.
19. The Origin., p., 42.
20. Fleet, CII, III, p., 205.
21. The Origin., p., 45.
22. EI, XX, p., 38.
23. Indian., p., 129.
24. Dani, 130.
25. Ibid.
26. Cf. Verma, Development., Tables III-VI, column d.
27. Indian., p., 155.
28. Indian., p., 160.
29. EI, IX, Pl. f. p., 190.
30. The Jaina writer of Western India employed a somewhat variant form of Nägarī, termed as Jaina-Nagari.
31. CII, IV, pp. 174 & 177.
32. "The Origin of the Nagaras.," p., 132.
33. Cf. CII, IV, Pls. X & XI.
34. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XIII.
35. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XIV.
36. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XV. 37. Cf. Ibid., IV, PI. XVI.
38. Cf. Ibid., Pl. XVII. 39. Indian., pp. 69-70.
40. Dani, p., 164.
41. Indian., p., 70.
42. "Palacographic Notes," Commemorative Essays Presented to R.G. Bhandarkar, New Delhi, Reprint, 1977, pp. 310-20.
43. Ibid.
44. EI, XIII, Pls. b. pp. 280-81. 45. Ibid., XIV, Pls. b. pp. 124-25.
46. Ibid., X, Pls. b. pp. 86-87.
47. Ibid., VIII, Pls. b. pp. 186-87.
48. Ibid., IX, Pls. b. pp. 196-97 and to face, p., 198.
49. EI, III, Pls. b. pp. 106-107.

61

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Bibliography
The Middle Gānga Valley & North-Western Region 1. Bodh-Gaya inscription of Mahanama of A.D. 588, J.F. Fleet, IA, XV,
pp. 356–59, Pl. f. p., 358; (Tables A, & N5).* 2. Lakkha Mandal Temple Prasasti, Bühler, EI, I, pp. 10–15, Pl. f. p., 12. 3. Deogadh rock inscription of Svamibhata, D.R. Sahni, Ibid., XVIII;
pp. 125–27, Pl. f. p., 126. 4. A stone inscription from Kudarkot, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., I, pp. 179–84,
Pl. f. p., 180. 5. Aphasad inscription of Adityasena, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 200-08, Pl.
XXVIII; (Table A2).* 6. Sahapur inscription of Adityasena of A.D. 672, Ibid., pp. 208–10, PI.
XXIX A; (Table A2).* 7. Mandar inscription of the time of Adityasena, G.S. Gai (ed.), ASI,
ARIE, 1962–63, p., 79 (257), Pl. II reverse. 8. Mangaraon inscription of the reign of Vishnugupta of year 17, Priyatosh
Banerjee, JBRS, XXX, pp. 199–202, Pl. f. p., 201(a); (Table N6).* 9. Deo-Bernark inscription of Jivitagupta II, Fleet CII, III, pp. 213-18,
Pl. XXIX B; (Table A2).* 10. Kotra grant of Jivagupta, D.C. Sircar, EI, XXXV, pp. 125–30, Pls. b.
pp. 130–31. 11. Nalanda inscription of Yasovarma, H. Sástri, Ibid., XX, pp. 37–46, Pl.
f. p., 43; (Table A3).* 12. Banskhera plate of Harsha of A.D. 628, Bühler, Ibid., IV, pp. 208–11,
Pl. f. p., 210; (Tables A4 & N7).* 13. Madhuban plate of Harsha of A.D. 631, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., VII, pp.
155–60, Pl. f. p., 158; (Tables Ag & Ng).* 14. Sonpat Copper seal of Harsha, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 231–32, Pl. XXXII B.

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The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.)
15. Nalanda clay seal of Harsha, H. Sastri, EI, XXI, p. 75, Pl. f. p., 75. 16. Banaras inscription of Pantha, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., IX, pp. 59–62, Pl. f.
P., 60.
17. Some inscriptions from U.P., D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 242–53,
Pl. f. p., 245. 18. Fragmentary Maurya inscription from Mathura, D. C. Sircar, Ibid.,
XXXII, pp. 207–12, Pl. f. p., 211. 19. Nirmand Copper-plate of Samudrasena, Fleet, CII, III, pp. 286–91, Pl.
XLIV. 20. Gum inscription of Samanta Ashadhadeva, J. Ph. Vogel, Antiquities of
Chamba State, Part I, 145–47. Eastern India 1. Kailan plate of king Sridharana Rata of Samatat, D. C. Sircar, IHQ,
XXIII, pp. 221-41, Pls. f. pp. 237 & 240; (Table Nj).* 2. Tipperah grant of Lokanath of year 44, R. G. Basak, EI, XV, pp.
301--15, Pls. b. pp. 308–09; (Table N2).* 3. Dubi plates of Bhaskaravarma, D. Sarma, KS, pp. 8–18, Pls. f. pp. 6
& b. pp. 10-11, 12–13, 14–15 & 16-17. 4. Nidhanpur plates of Bhaskaravarma, Ibid., pp. 19–32, Pls. b. pp.
20–21 & 30–31. 5. Inscriptions from Nepal, D. R. Regmi, Inscriptions of Ancient Nepal,
3 vols. 6. Plates of the time of Sasankaraja of A.D. 619, E. Hultzsch, EI, VI, pp.
143–46, Pls. b. pp. 144_45. 7. Two inscriptions from Jaipur, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXVIII, pp. 179–
85, Pl. f. p., 183. 8. Two Sailodbhava grant from Banpur, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXIX, pp.
32–43, Pls. b. pp. 36-37 & 40-41.

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9. Parikud plate of Madhyamarajadeva, R. D. Banerji, Ibid., XI pp.
281-87, Pls. b. pp. 284–85. 10. Terundia plate of Subhakara II of A.D. 706, D. C. Sircar, Ibid.,
XXVIII, pp. 211-16, Pls. b. pp. 214–15; (Table N3).* 11. Neulpar grant of Subhakara, R. D. Banerji, Ibid., XV, pp. 1–8, Pls. b.
pp. 4–5. 12. Purushottampur plates of Madhavavarma II, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXX,
pp. 264-69. Pls. b. pp. 266–67; (Tables A16 & N4).* 13. Chandeswar plates of Dharmaraja, Ibid., pp. 269-73. Pls. b. pp. 272–
73; (Tables A16 & N4).* Central India and Rajasthan 1. A fragmentary inscription from Sanchi, N. G. Majumdar, Monuments
of Sanchi, by J. Marshall, pp. 394–96, Pl. CXXXIX, 4. 2. Malga Plates of Samanta Indraraja, Sircar & Sankaranarayan, EI,
XXXIII, pp. 209–14, Pls. b. pp. 212–13. 3. Rajim inscription of Nala Vilasatunga, V. V. Mirashi, Ibid., XXVI,
pp. 49–58, Pl. f. p., 56. 4. Sirpur inscription of the time of Balarjuna, M. G. Dikshit, Ibid.,
XXXI, pp. 179–99, Pl. f. p., 198. 5. Senakapat inscription of the time of Sivagupta Balarjuna, Dikshit &
Sircar, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 31–36, Pls. f. p., 34. 6. Mahakosal Historical Society's plate of Mahabhavagupta, L. P. Pan
dey, Ibid., XXII, pp. 135–38, Pls. b. pp. 136–37. 7. Sirpur inscription of the time of Mahasivagupta, H. Lal, Ibid., XI, pp.
184–201, Pl. f. p., 190. 8. Sirpur Gandesvar Temple inscription of the time of Mahasivagupta, S.
L. Katare, IHQ, XXXIII, pp. 229–34, Pl. f. p., 232. 9. Sirpur inscription of Acharya Buddhaghosh, B. C. Jain, EI, XXXVIII,
pp. 59–62, Pl. f. p., 60.

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10. Ragholi plates of Jayavardhan II, H. Lal, Ibid., IX, pp. 41-47, Pls. b. 44-45.
pp.
65
11. Buddhist inscription of Bhavadeva Ranakesarin, F. Kielhorn, JRAS, 1905, pp. 617-33, Pl. f. p., 628.
12. Saugor inscription of Kalachuri Sankaragana I, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, pp. 174-76, Pl. XXIXA; (Table A10).*
13. Chhoti Deori inscription of Kalachuri Sankaragana I, Ibid., pp. 176– 78, Pl. XXIX B; (Table A10).*
14. Dadhimati-mata inscription of the time of Dhruhlana of A.D. 608, Ram Karna, EI, XI, pp. 299-304, Pl. f. p., 304; (Table Ng).*
15. Vasantgadh inscription of Varmalata of A.D. 625, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., IX, pp. 187-92, Pl. f. P., 190.
16. Kusuma inscription of A.D. 636-37, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 47-49, Pl. f. p., 48; (Table N10).*
17. Sakrai inscription of A.D. 643, B. Ch. Chhabra, Ibid., XXVII, pp. 27-33, Pl. f. p., 32.
18. Samoli inscription of Siladitya of A.D. 646, R. R. Halder, Ibid., XX, pp. 97-99, Pl. f. p., 99; (Table N11).*
19. Udaypur inscription of Aparajita of A.D. 661, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., IV, pp. 29-32, Pl. f. p., 30.
20. Two grants of early Guhilas of A.D. 653 & 688, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 168-77, Pls. b. pp. 172-73 & 174-75; (Table N12).*
21. Jhalrapatan inscription of Durgagana of A.D. 689, Bühler, IA, V, pp. 180-83; Pls. b. pp. 180-81; (Table A7).*
22. Kalyanpura inscription of Padda, Sircar & Subrahmanyam, EI, XXXV, pp. 55-56, Pl. f. P., 56.
23. Dhulev plate of Bhetti, V. V. Mirashi, Ibid., XXX, pp. 1-4, Pl. f. p., 4. 24. Kalyanpur inscription of Kadachhi, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 57-59, Pl. f. p., 57.

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25. Kanswa inscription of Sivagana of A.D. 740, Peterson, JBBRAS, XVI,
pp. 378–89, Pl. f. p., 382. 26. Tasai inscription of A.D. 788, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXVI, pp. 49–52,
Pls. f. pp. 49 & 54; (Table Ag).* 27. Osian inscription of Pratihara Vatsaraja, D. C. Sircar (ed.) ASI, ARIE,
1959–60, p., 101 (537), Pl. I. 28. Mahua inscription of Pratihara Vatsaraja, Sankanarayanan, & Bhat
tacharya, El., XXXVII, pp. 53–55, Pl. f. p., 55. 29. Khandela inscription of A.D. 807, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp.
161-65, Pl. f. p., 163; (Table A3).* Western India and the Deccan 1. Dhinaki plate of Jaikadeva of A.D. 738, Bühler, IA, XII, pp. 151–56 Pls.
b. pp. 154–55; (Table N13).* 2. Hilol Plates of Chandraditya of A.D. 788, H. D. Sankalia, EI, XXXIV,
pp. 212–17, Pl. f. p., 217; (Table A 13).* 3. Pattadakal inscription of Kirtivarma II of A.D. 754, Fleet, Ibid., III,
pp. 1-7, Pl. f. p., 4. Inscriptions of Rāshțrakūtas 1. Tiwarakhed plates of Nannaraja of A.D. 631, H. Lal, EI, XI, pp.
276-80, Pl. f. p. 279; (Table Au).* 2. Multai plates of Nandaraja of A.D. 709, Fleet, IA, XVIII, pp. 230–36,
Pls. b. pp. 234–35; (Table A12).* 3. Indragadh inscription of Nannappa of A.D. 710, Krishna Deva, EI,
XXXII, pp. 112-17, Pl. f. p., 116; (Table A9).* 4. Samangadh plates of Dantidurga of A.D. 753, Fleet, IA, XI, pp.
108–15, Pls. b. pp. 110–11 & 112–13; (Tables, A14 & N14).* 5. Talegaon plates of Krishnaraja of A.D. 768, S. Konow, EI, XIII, pp.
275–82, Pls. b. pp. 280–81.

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6. Bhandak plates of Krishnaraja of A.D. 772, V. S. Sukthankar, Ibid.,
XIV, pp. 121–30, Pls. b. pp. 124–25. 7. Pimpari plates of Dharavarsha-Dhruvaraja of A.D. 775, K. B. Pathak,
Ibid., X, pp. 81–89, Pls. b. pp. 86–87. 8. Bhor State Museum plates of Dharavarsha-Dhruvaraja of A.D. 780,
A. D. Altekar, Ibid., XXII, pp. 176-86. Pls. b. pp. 182–83. 9. Dhulia inscription of Govindaraja II of A.D. 780, D. R. Bhandarkar,
Ibid., VIII, pp. 182–87, Pls. b. pp. 186–87. 10. Jethwai plates of Silamahadevi of A.D. 786, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid.,
XXII, pp. 98–109, Pls. b. pp. 108–09. 11. Daultabad plates of Sankaragana of A.D. 793, D. R. Bhandarkar Ibid.,
IX, pp. 193–98, Pls. b. pp. 196-97 & f. p., 198; (Tables A15 & N15).* 12. Paithan plates of Govinda III of A.D. 794, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., III, pp.
103–10, Pls. b. pp. 106-07.

Page #77

68
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plates 1 to 30
(6th-8th Cent.)
Table Inscription
Reference
Date in A.D.
A
588
Bodh-Gayā inscription of Mahānāma
IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 358 CII, III, PI, XXVIII
A
672
CII, III, Pl. XXIXA
Aphsad inscription of Adityasenana Śāhapur inscription of Adityasena Deo-Barņārk inscription of Jivitagupta II
CII, III, Pl. XXIXB
A3
Nālandā inscription of Yasovarmā
EI, XX, Pl. f. p., 43
Bānskherā plate of Harsha
628
EI, IV, Pl., f.p., 210 EI, VII, Pl. f. p., 158
Madhuban plate of Harsha
631
Vasantgadh inscription of Varmalāta
EI, IX, Pl. f. p., 190
Jhālrāpātan inscription of Durgagana Tasāī inscription
IA, V, Pls. b. pp. 180-81
788
EI, XXXVI, Pls. f. pp. 49 & 54 EI, XXXIV, Pl. f. P., 163
Khandelā inscription
807

Page #78

The Background (6th-8th Century A.D.)
710
EI, XXXII, Pl. f. p., 116 CII, IV, Pl. XXIX
A10
А
Indragadh inscription of Nannappa Saugor inscription of Sankaragana I Chhoti Deori inscription of Sankaragana I Tiwarakhed plates of Nannarāja Multāī plates of Nandaraja
CII, IV, Pl. XXIX B
A11
A12
709
A13
Hilol plates of Chandrāditya
A14
Sāmangadh plates of Dantidurga
753
EI, XI, Pl. f. p., 279 IA, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 234–35. EI, XXXIV, Pl. f. p., 217. IA, XI, Pls. b. pp.110-11 & 11213 EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 196–97 & f. p., 198 EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 266–67 EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 272–73.
Als
Daultābād plates of Sankaragaņa
793
A16
Purushottampur plates of Madhavavarmā II Chandeśvara plates of Dharmarāja

Page #79

6th-8th CENTURY A.D..
PLATE 1
| Aa
A
Ay
As
A6
A7
A8
A,
A.
A#
A12
A1
A14
A15
Ass
IanRarana प्प पाया
पा
CMM
FICErecccccc
००
र
| | • enlan enjence anlar eaman MMMM

Page #80

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 2
As I A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A
ABIA
A 10
An
|
12 |
13
|
14 |
15 |
A16
or ]བ བ བ བ བ བ བ བ བ བ བ བ q |བ | ननननननननननननन Pleaचचचचसय पच पचर
यययययय टायचटाचार
SH टन POSTS
|
वह वय वय च य य क |

Page #81

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 3
-
A1
TA2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A
I Ago I AM
A12
A13
A14
A95 | AL
বি এন । | | |
पायाच्या awra
adorjoselesed on Manaar -
हम माता का कहना

Page #82

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 4
I AI
A2
A3
A4
AS I A6 A
A STA, I Aso | A
| A33T
7. এ এফ ৫ এ ব ন এ বা এoy |
सदर पर सर र पार | bn C r + ৫ = ৫ এ এ এ এ বা বালক
নাম মন। য যা আয যা|
»
[ * * জ ম দ ত | - ফ ফ ফ ফ ফ | ম ম ফ ম
হ স ভ স্ব স্ব = অ ৷ ৰ ম ম ম ম ম ম স ম য | এফ এম
A
সি 4वादानामा
| ২ ||ং
|
| 2
세벅엌1숀 명의 성 앸 니에
।
সু |
* ব য য ব ব ক ব স যায় | | দ ব জ ন দ দ না মানা
| ফ্রি স্বা | স জ ম ম ম আ আ আ
| সি

Page #83

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 5
KERRY @
Salaza taca
CH
TH

Page #84

6tin-Sth CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 6
Rela (2 CR 7३३ (. रिद | ra aaaaaaaaaaaaaa Raa Raaaaa Tue A
CM पिचर
| aaaaaaaamana (यGO
امم ادمم
SAHARASAR सिनिल

Page #85

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
NOWEL
K
KH
G
GH
2.
N
CH
༥「༔
JH
2
F
F
TH
D
DH
N
ד
A 1

A2
जी
२.
की की की
A
A3
श्री
3
A4
As
PE
Ac
मी
যেট যেটलৗ য
श्री दी
Ge
A1
As
G
I
Ag A10
की की की
2
dr
ही
Ast
A12
C
A 13
PLATE 7
A 14
.14
श्री
A15
की की की
टी
A 16
G
दीदी की नदी ती

Page #86

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 8
२२ २६शी
TV
की

Page #87

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 9
A1
A2
A3
A4
As
AC
A4
As
Ag
Ago
AH
AH
AI
Agu
A15
35 3 3 3
3 3
55
VOWEL
31
La 1311/ 15 BIL 3 | ISI IS
2.

Page #88

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
DH
PH
B
BH
3
R
L
१
" ३ वु वु वन उ
N
P
पथ चू चू चू चू
V
SH
A.
5
D
H
ड १ शु शु
Aa
क
N
A3
4

मम म
N
A4
As Ac A1
原
१ १ १ १ १
११
Ag
मु मु रु रु रु
ལ༥ ༥༥༥ ཏྲཱརམ ཛུམུམུ
अथ यू ट्य् र प
फरु रु रु रु
द व्
Ag
4
१ टु रु दु
S
५ न नु
Ajo
리
₹ रु ३ उ
3 3
म
སྦསྭ
भ भ स भ सु
A
19
A 12
रु
Www
A13
5
पु पु पु
ट्यू थ्
१
ल
젝터
PLATE 10
814
প
बु
A 1s
e
द
इल
ऊ ऊ रु त
म
A sc
9
ནྭམྦ ུ
रु रु रु
ल ल ल
त थ स स त
ต
६

Page #89

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 11

Page #90

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 12
A
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A 9
A 1o
An
A12 1 A
1 A
| Ais
L
AK
NT
2011a
EGIC
As
*
IN
26204

Page #91

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
VOWEL
K
KH
G
GH
N
CH
CHH
J
JH
과
T
TH
D
Dil
N
T
A, 61

A 3
e
A4
प
As
Ac
गृ गृ
A 7 Ag
C
3.
रु 2 2 2
Ag
A jo
* * ₹ हैं ये तू कृ कॄ हैं है है कृ दे कृ १ रु रू कृ
2
रु र
PA.
A 12
PLATE 13
A 13 A14
AIS
Arc
१ र ४

Page #92

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 14
-
A
P 2 | A
| A4. As
A
A
A
A
A 1o
An
A12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16
ए.
०
4
रस रु.
छ
।
यस

Page #93

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 15
2A
यह रट

Page #94

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
TH
.
DH
N
P
کے
8
BM
Σ
>
R
70
L
S
SH
S
H
A, A2
کہ
ار
الله الهم
R
A3
كم كم
ده

22
|
A4 A5
३ २ १ १ १ १ १ ३ दे
| لي
که عمد
1 | 2 لهم
كم كم كو
۶۶۶۶۶۶۶
که
کی هم که
生生生答
Ac
کم در
A7
AX
نه مر
2
Ag
ار
ی
F
وو
م 2 م م
n
کہہ
نو کی
A10 A1 A12
کیے 22
الله
ر
ལྔ
न्य
22
2
ལཔ
कडे ۶
الهو
العالم
A13
| |
Do
کیلئے کسی
PLATE 16
تو
و
bul
حوالو
&&&& t
طر
طرح آمار
PAG जट जन
A 16
व ३ मा ल स उस
bol سید
म रहे तर यि
से से स

Page #95

6th-8th GENTURY A.D.
VOWEL
K
KH
G
GH
N
CH
CHH
J
JH
zł
Ň
F.
TH
D
DH
N
ד
A1
no

A2
یر
A3
SE
A4
مار
As
FI
A
A1
Ag
S
Lots
Ar
~
मैं मैं के
A
چر
BE
A10 A
A 12
عدو
AC
A13
ہو
PLATE 17
A14 A15
عامر
Aic
K
Par
& 10
B

Page #96

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
TH
ܘ
DH
N
P
PH
B
BH
M
Y
R
L
>
S.
Ś
SH
s
H
As
ट
A 1

N
sto
त
aa
As
भ
الله
7 दे
A4
2
হ
এ
As
Ac
हिट as 20
AT
→
टा
C
Ag
Ar
A
ˇ
जम
A to
ا ہو
Al
A 12
55
या मधला
G
A 13
AN
है
PLATE 18
A 14
A 15
नल
Jeo O
व
ते है
网
A 16
में
क्र ल त नेट तर সে এন

Page #97

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 19
A
i A2
A3
A4
As
I A.
Ani
| ০ ০
!
!
A4 AJS
A 16
VowsL
ককক
|| T
ট ম স নং ০ গ্রাম
wে

Page #98

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 20
I A2
A3
AM
AS
ALLA I A8
A
As
An
A12 | A3 AM A1
A1
।
|RA नाममा नायर
FFEEJE जर हवाल
PUTIVE
शp
शासा

Page #99

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 21
A,
A2
A3
A4
AS ACATAS
Ag
| Aso | Ass
A12 | A3
A44
Ais'
As6
VOWEL

Page #100

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 22
LA,
A
I
A3
A4
A5
A6
A
A
A
A 10
AL
A 12
A3
A4
AIS
A 16

Page #101

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 23
LIGATURES
A,
A
KRAUKTA
KRAKSINAKSHMA KTA
El
KTA KSHA KSM
KTVA KRAKSHA
KHYA
Gry
GPRA
GRA GYA 1 GVA
DO
NGANGKANGHYAM
NGA
ÉLETO
CHCHA CHHA
CHCHACHCHHA CUYA
SHCHALA
DHYA
ANYA

Page #102

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 24
LIGATURES
NTTRA NORA
NDH
ANANDA
NOHA NNAH NYA
HORANDHANGHA NTANOHANNA
NORA
Tagaa
BHRA
BHANUBHA
కం
RPPA RMMA RSHA
REMARANERDHVA ROVARJJA RODHA Ryva RSHA
She als
LIPA
A
SRA
SVA
| 12 am | | |
17
| |

Page #103

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 25
LIGATURES
(
KSHAKSHMA
(CHAKTRAKYA
KYA KSHAKSHYA
mec
арня
NśA NMA
Sale
Снічня
LHYU
СиАГ
TTA
NDA
DAN
I NYA

Page #104

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
ㄓㄓ
C
HO
H
C
PH
8
B
Σ
x
R
7
>
5.
S
As
H
LENG
S
VEN
SAP
20131
WER
SHTA SHTHA SHIL
SH सृष्
Sav

116
A
18
M4
Tour
EMENT
55
LIGATURES
DOMS
23 R
MEN
S
Enco
5
BHRAM
54.
PLATE 26
Fo
221231
20
མཱམམོ
34
J
1484122021
717
ལྕམམས་མལམཱ་
Mvo

Page #105

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 27
LIGATURES
KSH
KSHA
Esch
NKHA NGA
19
CHCHKA
2016 in
CWSHHAI
subbel
OA
the
pollo
i
NDA
NYA

Page #106

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 28
LIGATURES
NMA
BHRA
RTMA RANA RMMARSHAK
RMA
voca។
។

Page #107

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
x
KH
ی
GM
•I
CN
3
CHI
મ
JH
E
T.
ד
TH
D
DH
Z.
A13
LEW
LEKK

14
ক্ক ব্যাজে ব্যা
Rag
| |
ENT
2495
35
IC
ཀྱ
LIGATURES
J J
དཱ
Co
HCHHI
24 25
· 352 19 5 1 1 7 3
G
S
159519
RA
PLATE 29
SFCC
NE
المال
AC
PENS
|P||
HE

Page #108

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 30
LIGATURES
A
|
DAM
NIA
NDRA NOMA
|$hree
៤២
|4z|oz|
31
ВнуА
BNRA
MMA
MPJ MAMA MVA
RAWA RANA RSHA 104
RMMA Kop
Aug
*
ឪ
៨
+:59
$
NEAQ ២សង |
ឆ្នាំង បាទ)
HKA SHTRA SHNA
.បាលីស
SHVASH TASHTUSHWA ISH
\r
95
Vop
El1(£ |

Page #109

The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.)
The sign-manual of Gūrjjara princes and the alphabet of Multai Plates represent the early transitional phase of the Kutila script, which moves fast in this period. This is the period in which Kutila script completed its path of evolution and the characters of the subsequent period show a mature form of Nāgarī. The general course of the development of Nāgarī out of Kutila letters is clear enough, but the ascertainment of the actual period of transition is still puzzling. Palaeographers and historians have given suggestions about the fact, however, they are not unanimous on this point. For example, Om Prakash Bhatiya ‘Araj'accepts the actual period of transition in A.D. 1000, while Sukthankar in the mid of the 9th, Bühler in the 7th and Vasut in the 5th century A.D. So, in these conditions of uncertainty it is necessary to make a thorough and minute palaeographical observation of the inscriptions of different regions and dynasties.
The Palas of Bengal, Pratīhāras of Northern India and the Rāshtrakūtas of Gujarat and Maharashtra dominated the history of India during this period. Their writing differs somewhat from each other. In order to understand the development with differences, the script of the transitional period may be divided into three groups: Eastern, Northern and Western.

Page #110

The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.)
Eastern India
The regional style of writing in Eastern India maintained its originality at least up to the 8th century A.D. Subsequently, the trend was modified under the extraneous influences during the rule of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar. With these changes, the proto-Nagarī script of Western India for a long time obscured the evolution of the Gaudi script. However, some letters still retain their distinguishing features which are elaborated in the succeeding paragraphs.
Ar. Inscriptions of Palas
Table B1 is taken from Nalanda and Mungir Plates of Devapāladeva (c. A.D. 810-50) and Table B2 from the Gaya and Badal inscriptions of Nārāyaṇapāla (A.D. 854-908). The lower end of letters turned less to the right in Mungir and Gaya epigraphs than Nālandā and Badal. The alphabet of Badal pillar inscription, which is in the East is more archaic than that of the Gaya inscription in the West.
71
Among initial vowels, the vertical line of a has a foot-mark with upwards (but optionally downwards also) extended lower left curve and slanted middle bar in Nālandā inscription while in Table B2 middle bar becomes parallel. Initial ā has now a vertical line to the right of the letter to mark long ā. A different type of a is found in Badal inscription, which is the peculiarity of the region. Initial i shows a developing feature, formed by a short horizontal line at the top and two circles or dots below. Sometimes, a short vertical line is also attached to the horizontal line and lower two circles are formed on both sides of this vertical line (Table B1). E has developed a tail (Pl. 45, B1 & B2). The rare initial o is of peculiar variety (Pl. 49, B1) and au is formed by adding an upward curve to the right middle of initial o (Pl. 51, B1).
Among consonants, right curve of the letter ka is prolonged. Kha is of two varieties-one with an inner triangular loop and the other is of eastern variety with an outer triangle and open mouth. Gha is on its way of development in which upper part comes closer and left curve raised above the level of the right one. Cha retains its beaked shape. The lowest

Page #111

72
Development of Nagari Script
arm of ja is further extended towards left. Ta is of two varieties in which eastern one prolongs its right hand tick downwards and left portion contains a semicircle with a slanting stroke by which it is attached to the left end of the top stroke. Tha is still of a plain circle type. The back of da is curved and leg is bent. Na is cursive as well as of open-mouthed variety. Ta is of curved type. Tha develops an outer loop at the upper portion in Table B2. The breadth of pa is shortened. Pha shows a peculiar variety with its outwards turned loop. Bha and sa have opened their triangular foot-mark. With regular forms a peculiar variety of sa is found with its top curled and joined by a bar to the right vertical (Pl. 32, B2). Perhaps this is the peculiarity of the region from which Bengālī form was derived later on. Ha has a developed tail in its left portion.
The ligatures ksha, dya, nda, śrī of Table B2 are nearer to their Nāgarī forms. Subscript ña is of cursive variety while in superscript it is formed in full shape. Superscript r retains its triangular head-mark.
A vertical line to the right of the letter is the form of medial ā, except in the case of ta of Table B1 which retains its older feature. The medials i and i are extended up to the bottom of the letter. The medial u is of cursive as well as wedged vertical type. In the case of ru it is a downward hook from the middle of the letter. A leftward hook is added at the bottom of the letter for medial u. The older style of putting the left vertical stroke still continues in the case of medials e, ai, o and au; but in a majority of cases new style of leftward slanting stroke is marked (Tables B1 & B2). Old form of halanta sign is retained in these inscriptions (Fig. 6). Optionally, the triangular form of top-stroke is found.
AI. Inscriptions of Assam
Table B4 is taken from Parbatiyā plates of Vanamālavarmadeva (A.D. 835-65). The head-mark is represented as a broad solid-triangle. Initial a and u show the regional influence. I is of archaic variety with its lower curve leftwards. E represents peculiar variety in which upper left portion is rounded and lower portion attached with the right vertical at its middle.

Page #112

The Period of Transition (9th–10th Century A.D.)
73
Among consonants, the left limb of kha, ga and sa bends inward at the middle and lower tip become cursive or rounded. Gha is of tailed variety. Cha retains its beaked shape. Ta is eastern double curved variety and tha is marked by a plain circle. Na shows in both forms -cursive and open-mouthed. Tha represents archaic inner looped variety. In pa, the breadth of the letter is decreased. Pha has an outer loop at its upper instead of Pāla's side portion. Bha and sa have opened their mouths. Ra shows a developed tail. Left curl of la extends farther inwards. Sa takes the form of two circles one over the other at the left of the vertical in which the upper one is hollow. The tail of ha is attached with the right hook.
Ligatures are as usual. Superscript ñ is of cursive as well as of openmouthed variety. Superscribed I takes its place to the left of the subscript like modern Nāgarī. The middle bar of the subscript ja of raj is prolonged and is on its way of developing into a vertical shape.
With the common vertical form of medial ā, the old curved form is also seen in jā, tā and thā. Both forms of u are present. Medial e is unique, formed by extending the left end of the head-mark into a curve forming almost a loop at the end.
Further development is marked by the Nowgong Plates of Balavarmā (A.D. 885–910), shown in Table C. In the formation of letters cursive hand is adopted. The head-mark is represented by broad triangle, which optionally developed into a line form and cover the entire breadth of the letter. Lower curve of initial i is turned to right. Au is formed by adding an upward curve, turning to the left, in the middle of the initial o. The lower left limb of kha and ga develop in the direction of the Parbatiyā Plates (Table B4). Cha is still of beaked variety; and middle bar of ja is yet to develop into straight vertical. Ța is of eastern type with two curves and a stroke at the right. Tha has no head-mark; and ņa is of archaic open-mouthed variety. Na shows developed feature in which right portion became straight vertical and left loop meets with the vertical in the middle as in modern Nāgari. Letters like pa, ya, la, va too developed into

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Development of Nāgarī Script
Nāgarī forms. Sometimes, the upper portion of the letter sa shows an outer loop (Pl. 62, C1), which is the real base of Nāgarī form.
Among ligatures superscript ñ is noteworthy and shows the local form. The upper curve of subscript ta is extended. Medial signs are usual as in Parbatiyā Plates. Along with the new form of halanta sign old one is also employed (Fig. 6). A111. Inscriptions of Orissa
Table Bs is taken from Petrasar Grant of Netabhañja (A.D. 885) and Narasingpur Plate of Devānandadeva . The alphabet of this region shows a more cursive form and solid triangle of the left limb of kha, ga and sa have their mouths open. Presumably, it is due to the writing technique of the region in which while writing with a stylus of solid triangular shape, it is not easy to draw.
The lower curve of initial a is bent downwards and middle bar is slanted. The lower curve of initial i turns downwards. U is of Nāgari type and e has a rounded top. The right curve of the letter ka is further extended with a rightwards bend. Kha has opened its mouth as in eastern style. Chha is on its way of development. The middle arm of ja is developing into straight vertical form. Na shows developed cursive variety. Pha has an outer loop on the right limb like Assam inscriptions. Bha and sa are of open-mouthed variety. Sa retains its eastern style. Lower limb of the vertical lines are bent to the right. These inscriptions represent short line head-mark which do not cover the entire breadth of the letters.
Among ligatures tta is interesting in which both ța are placed separately side by side with the left one slightly at upper level. In nta and shtim, the subscript ta opens mouth downwards in eastern style. The middle bar of the superscript sh starts from the head-mark in a curly shape to meet with the right vertical in the middle. Medial signs do not maintain uniformity throughout the inscriptions as they are a mixture of older and newer forms.
The further developments are shown in Tables C and C3, respectively derived from the Bālangir Museum Plates of Mahāśivagupta I Yayāti and

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Chicacole Plates of Madhu-Kāvārnnadeva (A.D. 923). Chicācole Plates belong to Andhra; however, its alphabet shows the influence of Orissa. The lower left limb of the letters kha, ga and sa represents open-triangular mark like the earlier style of the region. Initial e of Table Cz opens its mouth to left, which later on became the common characteristics of the eastern script. Ța and sa followed the style of eastern region. The lower extremity of da is turned to left. Na extends its right limb upwards. The upper outer loop of tha is still in the form of a hook. The upper right loop of pha is developing into a hooked shape, which was later on accepted in the eastern style. Ha has a developed tail in its left portion. The top-strokes still do not cover regularly the entire breadth of the whole letter. Ligature kshe of Table C, shows the transitional form. Superscribed n in Table Cz has a dot or circle at the right tip of the upper horizontal line. This may be regarded as the precursor of modern Nāgari na with a dot at the right side of the letter. It is also to be found in ihe inscriptions of Nārāyaṇapāla of Bihar (Pl. 53, B2). Ñ is of eastern variety. Among medial signs noticeable form is e which is generally formed by adding a line in the left portion of the letter as it is found in eastern scripts.
General Remarks
The observations attested that the inscriptions of Eastern India do not show regular full covering head-mark. The alphabet is progressing towards local scripts, however, the influence of proto-Nāgarī is still retained in many forms; Nālandā and Mungir inscriptions are marked by proto-Nāgarī than any other influence. The Bengālī, Assamese and Oriyā scripts are still in the process of evolution during this period.
North India
In North India Pratīhāras established an extensive empire. Two important cultural territories - Kānyakubja and Mālava---were under them. As a consequence, the writing style of the region was much developed and influenced the scripts of eastern India and penetrated into the western regions.

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Development of Nagari Script
Br. Inscriptions of Pratihāras
For the purpose of showing the development of alphabets during 9th Cent. A.D., the Barah copper plate (Kanpur, U.P.) and Sagar-Tal inscription (Gwalior, M.P.) of Bhojadeva; Dighwā-Dubaulī plate (Saran, Bihar) and Pehevä inscription (Karnal, E. Punjab) of Mahendrapala were selected and illustrated in Tables B6, B10, B3 and Bg. On the basis of the narrow cha, cursive ja, later ta, proto-Bengali tha, looped ma, transitional sa, late sha; and exceptional forms of a, kha, gha, ta, na and na Banerji" admits that Dighwa-Dubauli grant shows the use of an alphabet which is a mixture of eastern and western varieties. However, the mentioned peculiarities are also met with in the corresponding letter forms of Barah Plate. So, these peculiarities may not be due to the mixture of eastern and western but was the common simplified style of copper plate writing of that period.
Of these inscriptions, Sagar-Tal is similar to the Peheva. Both are engraved on stone and still have a touch of flourish, Kutila forms and triangular head-mark. Barah plate resembles the Dighwa-Dubaulī plate. Both are Copper-plates and show only simple forms of letters and line forms of head-mark.
Table B10 (Sagar-Tal) shows a peculiar type of initial a in which right portion is a wedged vertical line and left has an outward curve with triangular head-mark and slanting bar in the lower portion attached to the vertical line. A of Table B6 (Barah Plate). represents an archaic form with a curve at the bottom while a developed vertical form added to the right of a in Table B3 (Dighwa-Dubauli) and Bg (Peheva). Initial i is of archaic variety with leftward lower curve, however, in Pehevä epigraph lower curve turns downwards and a slanted bar is added to the lower limb of the curve. Except in Sagar-Tal, initial vowel e shows the developed variety with tail.
The Sägar-Tal inscription invariably bears Kutila forms of letters in which only some letters have a short tail while most of the letters of other inscriptions show developed form of the long tail. The right curve of the letter ka is prolonged. The left limb of the letter kha in khi (Pl. 35, B3)

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shows a developed tail, which looks Nāgarī in form. Letter gha of this region retains archaic tripartite feature; and except Pehevā inscription, ņa is generally of open-mouthed variety. Ta shows two forms: one with the two arms rounded and the other with the left arm forming an angular hook and finally joining with the right vertical. Tha has an outer loop. Na is of modern vertical as well as of archaic curved form . The breadth of pa is reduced. Pha of Table B10 looks like the letter dha. Bha and sa have their mouths open in Copper-plates while the stone inscriptions show a process of developing the modern Nāgarī tailed form. The left loop of ma was common in this period. Ra is of well developed cursive tailed variety. Va, when triangular, has slanted base; and when rounded, bends right vertical. Both forms of sa, looped and round topped, are present. The middle bar of sha in the stone inscriptions is in the shape of horizontal bar while it is slanting in the Copper-plates.
The ligatures are still formed by placing the consonants one upon the other. Subscripts right verticals extend up to the top of the letters. Superscribed b of Table B2 is represented by a distinguishing sign while generally it is denoted by the sign of va. Superscript r of rma in Table Bg shows the modern shape.
Generally, medial ā is denoted by a short vertical line in the stone inscriptions and long vertical line in the Copper-plates. In the case of nā, old upward cursive form is still present. The cursive type of u is more common. However, the use of vertical wedged form may be also seen in Table Bg. In the case of the medials e, ai, o and au; the older style of the left horizontal stroke is more frequently employed in the Copper-plates. The ornate style survives in the medial signs of stone inscriptions.
Ojha noticed Dighwā-Dubaulī inscription as the first epigraph of Nāgarī script. However, the alphabets do not follow the full covering head-line, like an a, gha, pa, ma, etc. and the sporadic use of acute-angles, such as in ma, entitle to be considered as an inscription of the transitional phase.

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The further evolution during 10th century A.D. are represented in Tables CA and C, which have been taken from the Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Vināyakapāla (A.D. 931) and Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Harirāja (A.D. 983).8 Bühler is of the view that in Northern and Central India, Nāgarī appears first on the Copper-plate of the Mahārāja Vināyakapāla of Mahodaya. But, it may be seen in Table C4 that the head-mark is a broad triangle or wedge which does not cover, optionally, the letter ma, ya, sa; base of the letter pa, ma is slanted; and lower limb of the vertical line turns rightwards. In the formation of the ligatures old pattern is adopted.
In the observation of the Bharat Kala Bhavan plate it may be noticed that the plate is engraved in a simple style. Head-mark is in line form which regularly covers the full breadth of the letters. Even on the top of tha and na, head-mark is formed. Right verticals show a straight line form. Most of the ligatures represent a process of following the pattern of modern rule, conjuncting side by side. Except e, medial signs have uniformity throughout and attain modern shapes. As far the development of letters is concerned, ka, kha, ga, ta tha, da, na, pa, ya, ra, la, va and ha have taken Nägarī shapes; and gha, cha, ja, tha, ņa, pha, śa, sha, sa, etc., are nearer to the modern form. On the whole, the characteristics of the alphabet entitle Bharat Kala Bhavan plate to be considered as the inscription of Nāgarī.
Bu. Table B, is taken from the Pandukeśvar (Garhwal, U.P.) Plate of Lalitāsuradeva (A.D. 854) to represent the development of script in the inscription of the local ruler. Barāh Plate of Bhojadeva (A.D. 836) is also found from U.P., however, there is a remarkable difference in the alphabets of these two inscriptions. In the Barāh Plate (Table B6), head-mark is denoted by a small line while in the present inscription a solid-triangle is formed and tail is small. The Kutila features are prominent in the present inscription. Kha is of open-mouthed variety like in eastern style. Ța and tha are without top-mark. Ņa shows open-mouthed form with sloppy base. Tha is of peculiar variety with an added right vertical. Na is denoted by

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archaic broad looped form and la has an outer bend at the lower extremity of the left curve. Medial ā is formed by attaching a triangular or short line instead of full perpendicular line. Medial u is of many types, such as wedged vertical, hollow triangular, cursive, or rightwards extended form.
Bu. Table B, is illustrated from the Kāritalās Stone inscription of Lakshmanarāja I (A.D. 840-41) and Table Cg from the Kāritalai inscription of Lakshmanarāja II (A.D. 945–70) to show the evolution in the Kalachuri alphabet. The head-mark of Table B, is in triangular form which is broader and covers the tops of some letter in Table Cg. The letter ga of Table B, looks like rā. Left limb of kha still shows triangular foot-mark. Gha shows a process of developing modern features. Na retains open-mouthed shape and ta is of curved variety. The upper left limb of dha bends leftwards in order to form a horn like later shape. Bha and sa are of wedged variety in Table B, and with mouths open in Table Cg.
The stroke of the medial signs in Table B, have here and there been ornamentally treated and much elongated in serpentine form. The medials of Table Cg are of simple variety but still they are not uniform.
Biv. Table Cg is taken from Dewal (Pilibhit, U.P.) Prasasti of Lalla (A.D. 992). J. Princep10 termed the alphabet of this inscription as the Kutila alphabet while Bühler11 puts it into the group of North Indian Nāgarī. The palaeography shows some peculiarities which may be due to the writer and engraver, the former, belonged to Gaudadeśa and the latter from Kānyakubja. 12 The inscription itself refers to the writer as “Kuțilāksharāni Vidushā,” 'well versed in writing Kuțla letters'.
The head-mark is a solid triangle or wedge, which sometimes becomes broader or develops into line form. The initial vowel a shows a foot-mark and e is without a tail. Among consonants, kha, ga and sa have a hollow triangle in the left limb. Gha is still of three armed variety. Lower curve of da in dā prolongs leftward in modern Nāgarī style. Dha extends upwards its right vertical. The right curve of na and the middle bar of ma start from the upper portion and the left loop of both letters are open. The

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Development of Nāgarī Script
archaism may be seen in three full armed gha, headless tha, open-mouthed na and tailless ha.
By. The characteristics of the Chandella alphabet are shown in Table C, taken from the Khajurāho inscription of Yasovarmā (A.D. 954). In the formation of the letter and medial sign taste of ornamentation may be seen. The head-mark is represented by broad-wedge shape and lower portion further extends into a rightward curve. Initial a is developing in the direction of modern Nāgarī. Lower rightward curve of i bends downwards with a stroke to the left like that in Pehevā Inscription (Table B8). U is without head-mark. E shows a developed tail and looks Nāgarī in form.
Among consonants, the tail is well marked in every letter. Even an unusual tail is seen in the left limb of bha. Gha retains three arms and na is of open-mouthed variety. Pha has a peculiar shape, nearer to the same letter in Dewal Prasasti of Lalla the Chhinda (Table C5). Ligature approaches the modern Nāgarī style. The medial ā is generally formed by a vertical line, while in tā hooked or cursive form is still present. Both forms, wedged and cursive, are employed for medial u. E is formed with a top stroke as well as with a vertical line at the left.
Byi. The Mālava Copper-plate of Vākpatirāja (A.D. 974) and Harsol (Ahmedabad, Gujarāt) Grants of Siyaka (A.D. 948) are selected and illustrated in Tables C, & C13; to represent the characteristics of Paramaāra alphabet. The head-mark is a broad-wedge in Table C, and line or notched form in Table C13. The forms of the letters in Mālava plate are bold type in the forming of which cursive hand is adopted. Lower extremity of the letters is further extended to the right. Initial a shows a foot-mark; the curves of a, e and u prolong upwards. However, initial a of Table C13 bears no foot-mark; tail is yet to develop in e; the loop of pha transforms into a curve and is placed to the right of the straight vertical line. Most of the letters show developed forms.
In the formation of ligature, modern features may be seen. Ksha shows almost the modern form. Superscript n is without a dot. Subscript chha

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is of the oval variety with a tail; ta shows an additional stroke to the right of the letter. Superscript s and ligature sa of Table Co represent ihe modern features.
Medials are of fully developed variety. However, variations may be seen in the form of ā of Table C13--full perpendicular, short stroke and cursive form. Medial e also is of both types.
Byu. Table Ci is taken from the Saranesvara (Udaipur, Rajasthan) Temple Inscription of Guhil King Allat (A.D. 953). The head-mark is a mixture of triangular and line form. Generally, the vertical line is straight. Initial vowels have no remarkable development. Among consonants, both limbs of letter ka hang from the head-line or simply touch it. Developing forms of gha and cha have a tail, ta bears a head-mark, na is of cursive variety and ba is shown by a separate sign. However, left limb of kha retains a triangular shape, lower arm of ja is not prolonged into leftward curve, dha is still of bulgy type and na is of broad looped variety. In the formation of medial e continuity of the ornate style may be noticed.
Byil. Table Cu is derived from Harsha (Rajasthan) Inscription of Chāhamāna Vigraharāja (A.D. 973). The vertical line is almost straight; head-mark is represented by broad wedged shape and rarely covers the entire breadth of the letter. Rare initial au is of peculiar variety, by adding a vertical line with a horizontal bar to the form of initial o. The left limbs of kha, ga and sa show hollow triangled foot-mark. Gha is in a developing process. Chha is of peculiar type in which right loop is detached from the left one and shows one step ahead from contemporary signs to take the form of modern Nāgari. Middle bar of ja is extended. Headline of ta becomes a regular feature. Middle bar of la is short and parallel to the head-mark. The lower left limb of sa is growing into the modern tail form. But tha is still without head-mark, na is to develop vertical form and ha is without a tail. In the formation of medial e, the use of ornate double curved form may be seen. Medial au is represented by superscribed two horned and a vertical line form in gau.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
Brx. Table C is taken from the Bälerā (Sāñchor, Rajasthan) Plates or Chālukya Mülaraja 1. Generally, the head-mark is in notched shape, formed by two curved strokes. The lower extremity of the letters further prolongs to the right. The left limb of kha shows a process of developing the tail and the inner loop of right portion becomes rounded. Both lower arms of ja are further extended. Lower limb of da is on its way of developing into a leftward curve shape. The right limb of ta is developing into vertical shape. Na approaches modern feature with right vertical and downwards open left loop. Ha has a developed tail in left limb. Bha and sa are of open-mouthed variety. In ligatures, superscript r shows the modern cursive form. Medial e is formed by superscript sign as well as perpendicular line. General Remarks
In reviewing of the palaeography of the region as a whole, it may be observed that from the viewpoint of development most of the letters reveal modern characters. In the formation of ligatures the consonants come side by side in which the first letter loses inherent a and is mutilated in order to combine with the other letter. Medial signs are also standardized and modern form of halanta sign is employed. But verticals are generally bent to the right and head-mark always do not cover the full breadth of the letter. However, it can be said that the Bharat Kala Bhavan Plate of Harirāja contains more advanced forms from this point of view and may be treated as the first, or the earliest dated record of Nāgari.
Western India and the Deccan
Rāshtrakūtas of Western India were the strongest and most victorious rulers of that region. They conquered not only the Pratīhāras but also the Pālas of Bengal. Notwithstanding the influence of the cultural activities of Northern India they were bound to use the script of that region in incising inscriptions. The credit for popularising the proto-Nāgari of North in Western India goes to the Rāsnțrakūtas. C. Inscriptions of Rāshțrakūtas
I have selected Gujarāt Plates of Dantivarmā of A.D. 867 (Table B11), Bagumrā Plates of Krishna II of A.D. 888 (Table B12) from Gujarat region;

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and Dharur Plates of Govinda III of A.D. 806 (Table B13), Javakhed Plates of Amoghavarshal of A.D. 820 (Table B14), Sañjāņ Plates of Amoghavarsha I of A.D. 871 (Table B16) from the Maharashtra region to represent developments during 9th century A.D.
Head-mark is in shor: line form and it does not always cover the full top of the letter. Initial a of Table Bu shows a foot-mark while in other inscriptions it is not present. In the formation of ā, in the Gujarat region
Il perpendicular line is added to the right of the initial a while in Maharashtra only a slanting stroke to the middle of the vertical line is formed. The roofed variety of initial i is seen in Gujarat epigraphs whereas the old form is retained in Maharashtra. E of Gujarat region reveals a fully developed form.
The right limb of the letter ka in Gujarat prolongs rightwards. The left limb tail in kha still persists and the right portion shows many varieties like inner triangular, inner rounded and outer opened triangular shape. Gha of Gujarāt and Sañjāņ Plates is on its way to development. The other two inscriptions reveal the archaic form of three armed gha. The three armed ja is still retained in Maharashtra while in other parts only the transitional form of the letter is employed. Ta of Gujarat shows modern form whereas it is on its way to development in Maharashtra. Țha is denoted by a plain circle. Ņa of both regions is only in cursive form while in other regions open-mouthed variety of the letter is also employed. Tha is of developed variety in which only the top-stroke is needed. Table B14 shows a peculiar inner curve or loop in the form of tha. Na shows only the cursive form of the looped variety. The breadth of pa is reduced. Pha is of two types—one with inner loop and other with outer loop. The open-mouthed type of bha is common, but in Gujarāt Piate a wedged form of the letter may be noticed. The letter lā of Table Bu shows a process of developing into the Marāthī ļā. The letter śa is of many varieties in which modern form of the letter can also be noticed (Pls. 34, B11; 40, 46, 50, Bja). Generally, sa is of open mouthed variety. Table B12 shows full developed form of modern ha (Pl. 32).

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Development of Nāgarī Script
In ligatures curved form of k still persists. Khyā of Table Bu is of modern type. Gma of Table B 14 is formed side by side. Superscript n of Maharashtra is still in two armed form while in other regions upper arm merges in the head-mark. Jña of Table B12 is peculiar. Superscript ñ of Table B 14 shows both forms-cursive and full. Conjunction with the initial letter t shows the use of modern practice. Superscript s of Table Bu approaches the modern form. Rya of Table BU (Pl. 58) shows the old pattern of conjuncting the full form of the letters which is peculiar in formation.
Medial ā is generally shown in long vertical form and optionally in cursive form (cf. jā, tā, ņā, Pl. 33). The medial u of Table B11 is in wedged shape while in general cursive form is employed. For e more than one form is used in which top-stroke variety is more common. In other forms, Table B11 shows a full extended line to the left of the letter. Inscriptions of Maharashtra reveal the use of a hook to the left top.
The evolution of alphabets during the 10th century A.D. is recorded in Tables C14 and Cus; derived respectively from the Bagumrā Plates of Indrarāja III (A.D. 914) and Deoli Plates of Krishna III (A.D. 940). In this period the head mark developed into full covering line. Letters have a rightwards bend at the lower extremity. The initial a is of two varietes, representing modern features. A of Table C14 shows archaism in joining stroke to the middle of the vertical line. I of Table Cis shows an additional stroke in the lower portion. E is yet to develop a long tail. The use of archaic curved form of ka may be seen in kri (Pl. 73) and ligatures (P1 89). The left limbs of the letters kha, ga and sa show a hollow triangular loop. Sometimes, the right portion of the letter kha is in the form of an outer loop with open mouth like eastern India. The letter gha shows a process of development, the full middle arm of Table C14 is reduced into a tick in Table C15 (Pl. 61). Chha is of the oval variety with a tail. The lower arm of ja is short in Table C14, but in the other inscription it has taken an elegant cursive feature and middle bar is in the process of taking vertical shape. Tha is yet to develop the head-mark. Lower limb of da is

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The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.)
on the way of developing into a leftward bend. The vertical form of ta and na may be seen in Table C14. Pa attains modern Nagarī form. In the outer looped type of pha head-mark disappears. The mouth of bha and sa are opened. The looped form of sa shows many varieties. Ha has developed a tail.
In ligature superscript n is in full form. Subscript ta mouth opens to the right. Superscript s of scha, with an outer loop and slanted foot-mark, is reaching nearer to the modern form. Ligatures are generally formed by conjunction of one consonant upon the other.
85
With general perpendicular line the cursive form of medial a is also noticed in ta. The vertical type e is more common. Other two forms are side stroke or hooked and top-stroke. In su of Table C15, a slanting stroke is added to the right vertical of the letter for denoting medial u.
CII. Inscriptions of Śilāhāras
Table B15 is taken from three Kanheri Cave Inscriptions of Pullasakti and Kapardi II (A.D. 843, 853 & 877). These inscriptions are in a mutilated condition and eye copies of Mirashi are unsatisfactory from the veiwpoint of palaeography. But one can not afford to leave these inscriptions because earlier epigraphers like Sukthankar13 considered them the first Nagari inscriptions.
The head-mark is in the line form, but it may be marked that the entire breadth of the letter is not always covered by it. Ligatures are formed in old style by conjuncting one upon the other. Medial a is denoted by long or short vertical line, or cursive form. Medial u is generally of wedged type and occasionally cursive. Both forms of e are present.
As far as the development of an alphabet is concerned these inscriptions reveal the advanced forms of letters. Initial a and a have attained modern-shapes. I is of roofted variety. Generally, the left limbs of kha, ga and sa show a triangular loop. Gha retains three arms. The lower arm of ja does not show developed curve. Ta is still of double curved form.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
Left curve of va becomes rounded. Ha has developed a tail. Base of the letters like cha, pa, ma and sha are slanted.
The development of 10th century A.D. is illustrated in Table C16. taken from the Janjirā Plates of Aparajita (A.D. 993). The head-mark covers the whole letter. Initial a bears a triangular foot-mark while the Rāshtrakūta inscriptions of the same region, optionally, show only a stroke type of addition in the vertical line. The left limb of e is also straight instead of curved. The left limbs of kha, ga and sa still retain triangular loop. Gha shows a step further from the point of view to approach the Nāgarī form. Middle bar of ja becomes almost vertical and lower portion is curved in an artistic manner. The rare jha is also employed. Ta and na are of developed vertical form. Pha shows a distinct feature with an addition of a stroke to the lower portion of the loop. The base of the letters become parallel to the head-mark. Left portion of va shows an elegant rounded form in the place of curve, or triangle. Ha has only a short tail.
Ligatures are of the developing type in which superscript n is still without a dot and subscript chha is of oval variety. Dya looks modern in character. Superscript r is in modern curved form. The right vertical type of subscript is conjuncting with the right limb of initial letter h while in other type joins with the left limb. Medial signs are usual, as in that time. General Remarks
On the whole, the above palaeographical observation reveals that even the western inscriptions of 10th century A.D. retain ornamentation in twisting the letter and straight vertical is yet to be formed. Most of the head-marks do not entirely cover the letters. The use of the archaic as well as the advanced forms of letters would indicate that the alphabet employed in the inscriptions was in transition and under the influence of the local style.
Notes and References
1. Nāgarī Lipi kā Udbhava aur Vikās (Hindi), Delhi, 1978, p., 199.

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87
87
2. “Palaeographic.", P., 310. 3. Indian., pp. 69–70. 4. "The Origin.," pp. 128–31. 5. The Origin., p., 69. 6. Bhāratīya., P., 69. 7. Bühier antedated Bengāl Asiatic Society's Plate of Vināyakapāla in A.D. 794, Indian.,
P., 70. 8. The find-spot of the Plate and the story of its discovery are unknown. But it is stated that
the Plates were purchased from a resident of Tikamgadh in the former Orccha state, now
in Madhya Pradesh, D.C. Sircar, EI, XXXI, p., 309. 9. Indian., p., 70. 10. “Account of an Inscription from Bareilly," JASB, VI, P., 779. 11. EI, I, p., 76. 12. Ibid., p., 81. 13. "Palaeographic.," p., 320.
Bibliography
Eastern India Bihar and Bengal Inscription of Pālas & Others 1. Khalimpur plate of Dharmapala, V. C. Bhatavyal, JASB, pp. 39–62,
Pí. LXIII, Pl. III. 2. Nalanda plate of Devapala, H. Sastri, EI, XVII, pp. 310–27, Pls. b. pp.
320–21; (Tables B, & N16).* 3. Mungir plate of Devapala, L. D. Barnett, Ibid., XVIII, pp. 304-07,
Pls. f. pp. 304 & 306; (Tables Bi & N16).* 4. Gaya inscription of the time of Narayanapala of year 7, D. C. Sircar,
Ibid., XXXV, pp. 225–28, Pl. f. p., 228; (Table B2).* 5. Badal pillar inscription of the time of Narayanapala, F. Kielhorn,
Ibid., II, pp. 160–67, Pls. b. pp. 160-61; (Table B2).*

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Development of Nāgarī Script
6. Pala inscription in the Indian Museum, Nilamani Chakravarti, JPASB,
NS, IV, pp. 102–09, Pls. VI-VII. 7. Kasyapa image inscription from Silao, B. Ch. Chhabra, EI, XXV, pp.
327–34, Pls. b. pp. 332–33. 8. A Buddhist inscription from Ghosarawa, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVII, pp.
307–12, Pl. f. p., 310. 9. Pachimbag plate of Srichandra of year 5, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXVII,
pp. 289-304, Pls. b. pp. 302-03. 10. Chittagaon plate of Kantideva, R. C. Majumdar, Ibid., XXVI, pp.
313–18, Pl. f. p., 316. Inscriptions of Assam 1. Haunthal plate of Harjaravarma, D. Sarma, Kś, pp. 36–39, Pls. b. pp.
38–39. 2. Tezpur inscription of Harjaravarma, Ibid., pp. 40–42, Pl. f. p., 42. 3. Parabatiya plates of Vanamalavarmadeva, Ibid., pp. 50–55, Pls. b. pp.
52–53 & 54–55; (Table B4).* 4. Howraghat plates of Balavarma III, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXII, pp. 283-92;
Pls. b. pp. 288–89 & 290-91. 5. Nowgong plates of Balavarma, III, D. Sarma, Kś, pp. 71-77, Pls. b.
pp. 72–73 & 76–77; (Table Ci).* Inscriptions of Orissa 1. Jurerpur plate of Devanandadeva, D. C. Sircat, EI, XXVII, pp. 325
30, Pl. f. p., 328. 2. Narasingapur plate of Devanandadeva, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXVII, pp.
331-34, Pl. f. p., 329; (Table Bs).* 3. Baripad Museum plate of Devanandadeva, K. Ch. Panigrhi, Ibid.,
XXVI, pp. 74–82, Pls. b. pp. 78–79.

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4. Puri plates of Madhavavarma Sainyabhita, R. G. Basak, Ibid., XXIII, pp.
122–31, Pls. b. pp. 128–29. 5. Balangir Museum plates of Mahasivagupta I Yayati, D. C. Sircar,
JASL, XIX, pp. 117–24, Pls. b. pp. 124–25; (Table C2).* 6. A grant of Mahasivagupta I Yayati of year 4, P. R. Srinivasan, EI,
XXXVIII, pp. 186–91, Pls. b. pp. 188–89. 7. Taltali plate of Dharmmamahadevi, Ghanshyamadas & Panigrhi, IHQ,
XXI, pp. 212-22, Pl. f. p., 218. 8. Two plates of Tribhuvan Mahadevi from Baudh, D. C. De, EI, XXIX, pp.
210–20, Pls. b. pp. 216–17. 9. A grant of Vakulamahadevi, P. R. Srinivasan, Ibid., XXXVI, pp.
307-12, Pls. b. pp. 310-11. 10. Pettasar grant of Nettabhanja, C. C. Das Gupta, Ibid., XXVII, pp.
337–40, Pls. b. pp. 338–39; (Tables B, & N12).* 11. Baudh undated grant of Ranabhanjadeva, A. C. Banerji, JBORS, IX.
pp. 147–52, Pl. f. p., 150. 12. Baudh plates of Ranabhanjadeva of year 54, R. D. Banerji, EI, XII,
pp. 322–25, Pls. b. pp. 324–25. 13. Baudh plates of Ranabhanjadeva, Haradatta Sharma, IHO, X, pp. 473–
85, Pls. f. pp. 473 & 475. 14. Three Copper plates from Mayur Bhanja, R. C. Majumdar, EI, XXV,
pp. 147-64, Pls. b. pp. 156–57, 160–61 & 162–63. 15. A Buddhist tract inscription in the Cuttack Museum, A. Ghosh, Ibid.,
XXVI, pp. 171–74, Pl. f. p., 172. Northern India Inscriptions of Pratihāras 1. A Fragmentary Pratihara Inscription, D. B. Diskalkar, EI, XIX, pp.
174–77, Pl. f. p., 176.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
2. Buchkala inscription of Nagabhatta of A.D. 815, D. R. Bhandarkar,
Ibid., IX, pp. 198–200, Pl. f. p., 200. 3. Barah plate of Bhojadeva of A.D. 836, H. Sastri, Ibid., pp. 15–19, Pl.
f. p., 18; (Tables Bo & N22).* 4. Jodhpur inscription of Bauk of A.D. 837, R. C. Majumdar, Ibid.,
XVIII, pp. 87-99, Pl. f. p., 96; (Table 1).* 5. Ghatiyala inscription of Kakkuk of A.D. 861, ASI, ARIE, 1970–71, p.,
79 (373), Pl. 1. 6. Sagar-Tal Prasasti of Bhoja, Hirananda, ASI, AR 1903–04, pp. 277–
85, Pl. LXXII; (Table B 10).* 7. Ahar inscription of time of Bhojadeva of A.D. 865, D. R. Sahni, EI,
XIX, pp. 52–62, Pl. f. p., 60; (Table N23).* 8. Peheva inscription of the reign of Mahendrapala, G. Bühler, Ibid., I,
pp. 242–50, Pl. f. p., 244, (Table B8).* 9. Dighwa-Dubauli plate of Mahendrapala of A.D. 898, J. F. Fleet, IA,
XV, pp. 105-113, Pl. f. p., 112; (Tables B3 & N24).* 10. Mahisantosh image inscription of Mahendrapala of year 15, D. C.
Sircar, EI, XXXVII, pp. 204-08, Pl. f. p., 208. 11. Asni inscription of Mahipala of A.D. 917, J. F. Fleet, IA, XVI, pp.
173–75, Pl. f. p., 174. 12. Garh inscription of Mahipala of A.D. 923, ASI, ARIE, 1961–62, p., 58
(128), Pl. II. 13. Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Vinayakapala of A.D. 931, J. F.
Fleet, IA, XV, pp. 138–41, Pl. f. p., 140; (Tables C4 & N24).* 14. Pratapgarh inscription of the time of Mahendrapala II of A.D. 946, G.
H. Ojha, EI, XIV, pp. 176–88. Pl. f. p., 185. 15. Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Hariraja of A.D. 983, D. C. Sircar, Ibid.,
XXXI, pp. 309-13, Pl. f. p., 312; (Table C6).*

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91
Inscriptions of Kalachuris of Tripuri 1. Karitalai stone inscription of Lakshmanaraja I of A.D. 840, V. V.
Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. XXX A; (Tables B9, N25).* 2. Bandogarh inscriptions of Yuvarajadeva I, Ibid., Pls. XXX B & XXXI
A-B. 3. Karitalai stone inscriptions of Lakshmanaraja II, Ibid., Pl. XXXII;
(Table C3).* 4. Bargaon inscription of Prabodhsiva of A.D. 973, Ibid., Pl. XXXIII. 5. Chandrehe inscription of Prabodhsiva of A.D. 973, ibid., Pl. XXXIV;
(Table N25).* 6. Bilhari inscription of Yuvarajadeva II, Ibid., Pl. XXXV. 7. Gurgi inscription of Kokalladeva II, Ibid., Pl. XXXVI. Inscriptions of Chandellas 1. Khajuraho inscription of Yasovarma of A.D. 954, F. Kielhorn, EI, I,
pp. 122–35, Pl. f. p., 122; (Table C7).* 2. Nanyaur plate of Dhangadeva of A.D. 998, Ibid., IA, XVI, pp. 201-04,
Pl. f. p., 202. Inscriptions of Paramāras 1. An old plate of Siyaka of A.D. 969, D. B. Diskalkar, EI, XIX, pp.
177-79, Pl. f. p., 178; (Table N 26).* 2. Two Harsola grants of Siyaka, K. N. Dikshit and D. B. Diskalkar,
Ibid., XIX, pp. 236-44, Pls. b. pp. 242–43; (Tables C13 & N26).* 3. Malava Copper plate grant of Vakpatiraja of Dhar of A.D. 974, N. J.
Kirtne, IA, VI, pp. 48–53, Pls. f. pp. 51 & 52; (Table Cy).* 4. Gaonri plates of Vakpatimunja of A.D. 981, K. N. Dikshit, EI, XXIII,
pp. 108-13, Pls. b. pp. 108-09, 110–111 &112-13.

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Inscriptions of the Chāhamānas 1. Puskar inscription of Durgaraja of A.D. 925 & 937, D. C. Sircar, EI,
XXXV, pp. 239-44, Pl. f. p. 242; (Table N27).* 2. Thanwala inscription of the time of Simharaja of A.D. 956, D. C.
Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 244–46, Pl. f. p. 243; (Table N27).* 3. Harsha inscription of Vigraharaja of A.D. 973, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., II,
pp. 116–30, Pl. f. p., 120; (Table C11).* 4. Sakrai inscription of Govinda of Samvat 55, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp.
323–26, Pl. f. p., 324. 5. Jodhpur fragmentary grant of Simharaja of A.D. 997, B. Ch. Chhabra,
Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 45–46, Pl. f. p., 46; (Table N27).* Miscellaneous 1. An inscribed stone slab from Pahariya, J. N. Banerjee, JASL, XXI, pp.
35-37, Pl. f. p., 38. 2. Pandukesvar plate of Lalitasurdeva of year 22, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXI,
pp. 277 ff., Pl. f. p., 280; (Table B7).* 3. Pandukesvar plate of Padmatadeva of year 25, Ibid., XXXI, pp. 284–
90, Pl. f. p., 281. 4. Pandukesvar plate of Subhaksharajadeva of year 4, Ibid., XXXI, pp.
290–98, Pl. f. p., 293. 5. Dewal Prasasti of Lalla the Chhinda, G. Bühler, Ibid., I, pp. 75–85, PI.
f.p., 76; (Table N20).* 6. Bhilsa inscription of A.D. 878, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXX, pp. 211-15,
Pl. f. p., 218. 7. A fragmentary inscription from Kadawaha, Mirashi, & A. M. Shastri,
Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 117–24, Pl. f. p., 122. 8. Inscriptions from Maihar, Sircar & Subrahmanyam, Ibid., XXXV, pp.
171-78, Pls. b. pp. 176–77.

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93
9. Maser inscription of a Sulki Chief, M. Venkataramayya, Ibid., XXIX,
pp. 18–28, Pl. f. p., 27. 10. Vaillabhattasvamin Temple inscription of A.D. 876, E. Hultzsch, Ibid., I,
pp. 159–62, Pl. f. p., 160. 11. Gwalior inscription of the time of Patangasambhu, V. V. Mirashi,
JMPIP, IV, pp. 3–12, Pl. 1. 12. Dabok inscription of the time of Dhavalappadeva of A.D. 813, R. R.
Halder, EI, XX, pp. 122–25, Pl. f. p., 124. 13. Mungathal inscription of A.D. 837, D. C. Sircar, JUPHS, NS, III, pp.
1-9, Pls. f. pp. 7 & 8. 14. Kaman inscription, V. V. Mirashi, EI, XXIV, pp. 329–35, Pl. b. pp.
33435. 15. Kaman inscription of A.D. 869, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXVI, pp.
52–56, Pl. f. p., 55. 16. Chatsu inscription of Guhila Baladitya, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid., XII,
pp. 10–17, Pl. f. p., 14. 17. Saranesvara inscription of the time of Allat of Mewar of A.D. 953, R.
R. Halder, IA, LVIII, pp. 161–62, Pl. f. p., 161; (Table C10).* 18. Bayana inscription of Chitralekha of A.D. 955, EI, XXII, pp. 120–27,
Pls. b. pp. 122–23. 19. Mandkila Tal inscription of A.D. 986, B. Ch. Chhabra, Ibid., XXXIV,
pp. 79-92, Pls. b. pp. 82–83. 20. A Jaina Pedestal inscription of A.D. 994, P. Banerjee, JASL, XIX, pp.
109–10, Pl. f. p., 110. Western India Inscriptions of Rāshțrakūtas 1. Anjanavati plate of Govinda III of A.D. 800, V. V. Mirashi & L. R.
Kulkarni, EI, XXIII, pp. 8–18, Pl. f. p., 16.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
2. Jharika grant of Govinda III of A.D. 803, V. B. Kolte, Ibid., XXXII,
pp. 157–64, Pls. b. pp. 160–61 & 162–63. 3. Nesarika grant of Govinda III of A.D. 805, P. L. Gupta, Ibid., XXXIV,
pp. 125–36, Pls. b. pp. 130–31, & f. p., 134. 4. Dharur plates of Govinda III of A.D. 806, V. V. Mirashi & M. A.
Gore, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 285–96, Pls. b. pp. 292–93; (Table B 13).* 5. Radhanpur plates of Govinda III of A.D. 808, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., VI,
pp. 239–51, Pls. b. pp. 244-45. 6. Wani grant of Govinda Prabhutavarsha of A.D. 808, J. F. Fleet, IA,
XI, pp. 156–63, Pls. b. pp. 158–59, & 160–61. 7. Two Copper plates of Govinda III of Berar of A.D. 807 & 812, V. V.
Mirashi, EI, XXIII, pp. 204-23, Pls. b. pp. 210-11 & 220-21. 8. Javakhed plate of Amoghavarsha of A.D. 820, D. R. Bhat, EI, XXXII, pp.
129–34, Pls. b. pp. 130–31, 132–33, & f.p., 134; (Table N28).* 9. Surat plates of Karakaraja Suvarnavarsha of A.D. 821, A. S. Altekar,
Ibid., XXI, pp. 133–47, Pls. b. pp. 140–41. 10. A Copper-plate of Dhruva II of A.D. 835, E. Hultzsch, IA, XIV, pp.
196–203, Pls. b. pp. 200-01. 11. Gujarat plates of Dantivarman of A.D. 867, D. R. Bhandarkar, EI, VI, pp.
285–94, Pls. b. pp. 290-91 & to f. p., 294; (Table B11).* 12. Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsha of A.D. 871, D.R. Bhandarkar, Ibid.,
XVIII, pp. 235–57, Pls b. pp. 248–49; (Table B16).* 13. A new Copper plate of Dhruva of A.D. 884, A. S. Altekar, Ibid.,
XXII, pp. 64–76, Pls. b. pp. 74–75 & f. p., 76. 14. Bagumra plates of Krishna of A.D. 888, E. Hultzsch, IA, XIII, pp.
65–69, Pls. f. p., 65 & 68; (Table B12).* 15. Jambgaon grant of Indra III of A.D. 914, V. V Mirashi, EI, XXXVI,
pp. 223–38, Pls. b. pp. 234–35.

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16. Navasari grant of Indra III of A.D. 914, JBBRAS, XVIII, pp. 257-69,
Pls. b. pp. 316–17. 17. Bagumra plates of Indra III of A.D. 914, D. R. Bhandarkar, EI, IX,
pp. 24–41, Pls. b. pp. 30–31 & 34–35; (Table C14).* 18. Two grants of Indra III from Vajrakheda of A.D. 914, V. B. Kolte,
Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 5–22, Pls. b. pp. 16–17 & 20–21. 19. Chinchani plates of Indra III of A.D. 926, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp.
45-55. Pls. b. pp. 52–53; (Table N29).* 20. Gaonri fragmentary grant of Govinda IV of A.D. 929, K. N. Dikshit,
Ibid., XXIII, pp. 106-08, Pls. b. pp. 106-07. 21. Andhura plates of Govinda IV of A.D. 929, V. V. Mirashi, Ibid.,
XXXVI, pp. 257-72, Pls. b. pp. 268-69. 22. Cambay plates of Govinda IV of A.D. 930, D. R. Bhandarkar, Ibid.,
VII, pp. 26–47, Pls. b. pp. 38–39 & 40–41. 23. Sangali grant of Govinda of A.D. 933, J. F. Fleet, IA, XII, pp. 247–55,
Pls. b. pp. 250–51; (Table N29).* 24. Deoli plates of Krishna of A.D. 940, R. G. Bhandarkar, EI, V, pp.
188–97, Pls. b. pp. 194–95; (Table C15).* 25. Chinchani plates of Krishna III, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 55–60,
PI. f. p. 58. 26. Karhad Plates of Krishna III of A.D. 958, R. G. Bhandarkar, Ibid., IV,
pp. 278-90, Pls. b. pp. 284–85. 27. Kolagallu inscription of Khottiga of A.D. 967, N. L. Rao, Ibid., XXI,
pp. 260-67, Pls. b. pp. 264–65. 28. Kolhapur plates of Akalavarsha, K. G. Kundanagar, JBBRAS, NS, X,
pp. 21-37, Pls. b. pp. 20–21. 29. Rashtrakuta grant of Amoghavarsha of A.D. 972, J. F. Fleet, 1A, XI,
Pls. b. pp. 266–67; (Table N29).*

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Development of Nāgarī Script
30. Fragmentary Rashtrakuta inscription from Kandhar, Sircar & Bhat
tacharya, EI, XXXV, pp. 105–14, Pls. b. pp. 112–13. Inscriptions of Chalukyas 1. Grant of Mularaja of Anhilavada of A.D. 986, G. Bühler, IA, VI, pp.
180–93. Pls., b. pp. 192-93; (Table N30).* 2. Balera plates of Mularaja I of A.D. 995, S. Konow EI, X, pp. 76–79,
Pl. f. p., 78; (Table C12).* Inscriptions of Silāhāras 1. Kanheri cave inscription of Pullasakti of A.D. 843, V. V. Mirashi,
CII, VI, Pls. I & II; (Table B15).* 2. Kanheri cave inscription of Kapardina II. of A.D. 853 & 877, Ibid.,
Pls. III-IV & V-VI; (Table B15).* 3. Prince of Wales Museum Plates of Chhadvaideva, Ibid., Pls. VII-VIII. 4. Pattanakudi Plates of Avasara of A.D. 988, B. R. Gopal & V. S. Subrah
manyam, EI, XXXVII, pp. 56-60, Pls. b. pp. 58–59. 5. Janjira plates of Aparajita (Set I & II) of A.D. 993, V. V. Mirashi, CII, VI,
Pls. IX-XII & XIII–XVII; (Tables C16 & N31).* 6. Bhadan grant of Aparajita of A.D. 997, Ibid., Pls. XVIII-XX; (Table N31).* Inscriptions of Saindhavas 1. Ghumli grant of the time of Agguka II of A.D. 832, A. S. Altekar, EI,
XXVI, pp. 185–226, Pls. f. p., 200. 2. Ghumli grant of Jaika I, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 206. 3. An incomplete grant of Ranaka, Ibid., Pls. b. pp. 170–71. 4. Ghumli grant of Ranaka of A.D. 874, Ibid., Pls. b. pp. 214–15. 5. Ghumli grant of Agguka III of A.D. 886, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 220. 6. Ghumli grant of king Jaika II of A.D. 915, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 224.

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97
97
Miscellaneous 1. Amra-Nath inscription of Mahamvanirajadeva of A.D. 860, Bhau
Daji, JBBRAS, IX, pp. 219-21, Pl. f. p., 218. 2. Kamkhed plates of the time of Pratapasila, V. V. Mirashi, EI, XXII,
pp. 93–96, Pls. b. pp. 94-95. 3. An inscription at Salotgi in the Kaldgi District of A.D. 945. S. P.
Pandit, IA, I, pp. 205–11, Pls. b. pp. 210–11. 4. Chicacole plates of Ganga Madhu-Kavarnnadeva of A.D. 923, G.
Ramadas, JBORS, XVIII, pp. 272–95, Pls. b. pp. 294–95; (Tables C3
& N18).* 5. An incomplete grant of Sind Adityavarma II of A.D. 965, V. V. Mirashi
& M. G. Dikshit, EI, XXV, pp. 164–71, Pls. b. pp. 170–71.

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98
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plates 31-60
(9th Century)
Table Inscription
Reference
Date in A.D.
Bi
Nālandā plates of Devapāla
Mungir plates of Devapāla
EI, XVII, Pls. b. pp. 320–21. EI, XVIII, Pls. f. pp. 304 & 306. EI, XXXV, Pl. f. P:, 228. EI, II, Pl. f. p., 160
B2
Gayā inscription of Nārāyanapāla Badāl inscription of Nārāyanapāla Dighwā-Dubaulī plate of Mahendrapāla
B3
898
IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 112.
Parbatiyā plates of Vanamālavarmā
Pettasar grant of Netabhañja
885
EI, XXIX, Pls. b. pp. 154–55. EI, XXVII, Pls. b. pp. 338–39. EI, XIX, Pl. f. p., 18.
B6
Barāh plate of Bhoja
836
B
Pandukeśvar plate of Lalitaśūra
854
EI, XXXI, Pl. f. p., 280. EI, I, Pl. f. p., 244.
Bg
Pehevā inscription of Mahendrapāla
B,
840
CII, IV, Pl. XXXA
Kāritalāi inscription of Lakshmana

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The Period of Transition (9th–10th Century A.D.)
99
B10
Sāgar-Tāl inscription of Bhoja
ASI, AR, 1903–04, Pl. f. p., 280.
Bu
Gujarāt plates of Dantivarmā
867
EI, VI, Pls. b. pp. 290–91 & f. p., 294.
B12
Bagumrā plates of Krishņa II
888
Dharur plates of Govinda III
806
IA, XUI, Pls. b. pp. 65 & 68. EI, XXXV., Pls. b. pp. 292–93. EI, XXXII,, Pls. b. pp. 130–31, & 132– 33. CII, VI, Pls. I & II.
B 14
Javakhed plates of Amoghavar- sha I
820
B15
843
Kanheri cave inscription of Pullasakti
853
Kanherī Cave inscription of Kāpardi II
CII, VI, Pls. III & IV.
877
Kanherī cave inscription of Kāpardi II
CII, VI, Pls. V & VI.
B16
Sañjāņ Plates of Amoghavarsha I 871
EI, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 248–49.

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9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 31
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Page #140

9th CENTURY A.D.
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Page #141

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 33
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Page #142

9th CENTURY A.D.
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था मा भाभा मारे। मामा मामा मामমমমাম या या याद्या या प्रथा या या या या या या याद्या रारारारारारा रा रा रा रा रा
रारा
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SH सी बा
या वा
PLATE 34
B 13
1314 13 15
ना ना ना ना नवा वा काका का
या या या या पापा या चाया
51
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या सा सा सा
ससा सा सा मा सा सा सा सा
H. हा हा हा हा डा सा ददा हा सा हा हा हा हा हा हा
ཨ

Page #143

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 35
| ১০ ও ও ও ও ও | F কি | ৫ কি& | @@ @ থ a
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Page #144

9th CENTURY A.D.
TH
DH
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PLATE 36
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सि
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Page #145

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 37
31
32
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Page #146

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 38
B, B2 33B | 65831888,13030821831431530
1. सायरीशस साटी दीदी रीमा oraa aaana/ - भीमान कमी की वही वो चाची
LATीलामी
वर कारवादीवी वर वा का
सासी सीमासी मामी सा स
ही ANEa

Page #147

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 39
| 13
| ৪
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| গুন
s ags ও ৪

Page #148

PLATE 40
9th CENTURY A.D.
دايره | 44 اور
دو اور اهرم
و او ادا، او به او ا ر ا ر
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Page #149

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 41
B
B2 B3 B4 B5 Bol By B.
, BioBuB12B
Biul Bis B 16
194

Page #150

9th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
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23234
PLATE 42
नू
पू चू पू य्र य्र
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1314
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4
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रु
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Page #151

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 43
B, B2B
B4 B5 B6 B7B8B, B10 B1 B12 B13 B:4 Bis Bio
VOWEL

Page #152

9th CENTURY A.D.
TH
० युद
DHC
N
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द ट्
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B11 B12
बृ वृ वृ ६ ९ र द वृ वृ वृ वृ ट वृ धृ
2
B13
PLATE 44
1314
दृ हट्ट दृ वृ
य
नृ कॄ कृ कॄ वृ कॄ वृ मृ
प
प प
वृ
रु रु रु रु रु रु रु ८ रु मृ म प्र मृ
B 15 B 16
सृ
छ ह ह ह
म
वृ
اک

Page #153

9th CENTURY A.D.
VOWEL
KH
K&G
G
GH
z.
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CHH
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IN
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Page #154

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 46
81,
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Page #155

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 47
B, B2 B3
Bu I BOB.
By
B,
B,
B. Bu
B12
Bis B4 Bis Bic
VOWEL
St20
ada

Page #156

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 48
1
2 |
3 |
2 |
3 |
|
3 | 4
2 |
3 |
6 |
8 |
رو اور اور اور اور13 |
م اعاته
وحی
کرارا بهراه
राय र
ها |
|
ام الألم الحلم ||
كاركم لم
| 88| 88 8888888
می
کہ

Page #157

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 49
31
33 | ১, | 3
| 5s 18
| ১৭| Ba] ৯, | 331 3
| ১ia| 3/3 | 3 | | 51s | 8 ye
Vow
|x ফলে
বাংলাই ২' বকা ঝক কা কী
1 0 12 15
| বেগে৷ হয়। যীম
[ মিশন ফি ফিনান শফি

Page #158

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 50
| | | অব সহজ অ| - যম আর ঈমাঈমেদ মম মমম | জন্য এই ফ্রজ ঐইয়জযায়।
.
| বিয়ে থ।।। এ জইফ বা

Page #159

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 51
13, 11, 13, 1 13. ।। ১২ ।
. 1 3,
4s 1 39 ] 3 4
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VOWEL
N
অন্যথা

Page #160

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 52
เป็ง
3, | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 85 | 81 | 1312
313 | 34 | 35 | 36
LEK

Page #161

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 53
LIGATURES
199
Bu
KSME
KTY KY
KRAKSMAN KCHAKRA
KSN
KTA
KTA KTYA
sj
AV
GOHA
6 : S = ai
NAN NGA
MU
NAREN
CNCHA CHCECHYA
CNC
CNYA
TRAM
JYA
20
کد
NCMA
NA
TANO
NRI
DPA
INYA
10TH NPA

Page #162

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 54
LIGATURES
DDHA DAMADYA DRA DUDDHA DYAVRA DOMA
Dve pe DU DOMA DAVRA DOMA DGHI DMA DRA DGHRIDDHADYA DVA
Ikflow
DNY
NTYA NORA NDMA IN PRA
NTA NDAMA
NTA
NORA NARANSA
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PRA PA PA PA
য় যাত্র
។
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MYA
IMAHAMVA
LKKA TRI ROMA
ង
ង ទៅជារួច។
. នាទី នាង 1ៅនិក
និ
SNTA SNTA SHNI

Page #163

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 55
LIGATURES
B7
GOMOGRA
NGA
ho
hogy 108
SA
CHCI CHCOM
сненні
TOWA TMA
YA

Page #164

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 56
LIGATURES
B7
THYAM
CVA
Руун
DDMADANS DRA DVA DONA DYA
Дони Донулун |
DWYA
DHYLDUVA
BRA
* নিম্ন জিম্মিলিসিস্ত্রি।
Than0310 pera
SR SNY
Sva, STM Smo SYA SVA
stus
DZISI
Men

Page #165

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 57
LIGATURES
B11
B 12
KSHAKSHMA
KTĀ KRAKSHAY KSHMÄ KKHAKCHA KRAKSHA KTAKYA KRAKSHAN
TES
asmoa
GHNA GHYA
NGA NGMANMU
NA
CHCHWA
CHCNHS CMC MACHYU CNCHA
Heren & B
ota
B
CDENG
TRI

Page #166

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 58
LIGATURES
LIGATURES
| |
| |
3 1
|
| | |
১৭৭
| |
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DNY
DHRU DMVA
চws
{bT65
NDRA NPA MVA MORA IMA NYA
Ysya
HONANDA
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যি ৰ
&
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খ্র ই ঈ
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৫||ঃঃঞ্জি
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STU ISMA
SPA
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ঘাস্কর্য |

Page #167

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 59
TEATURES,TTTTT
LIGATURES
৯।
13 48
3 15
১৫
NAGYAGRA
INNANMA
CHERA CHCHHA
||
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Page #168

9th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 60
IGATURES
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រងាផែឪដើង

Page #169

100
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plates 61-90
(10th Century)
Table Inscription
Reference
Date in A.D.
ci
Nowgong plates of Balavarmā
KŚ, Pls., b. pp. 72– 73 & 76–77. JASL, XIX, Pls. b. pp. 124–25.
Bālangir Museum plates of Mahāśivagupta
923
931
Chicācole plates of MadhuKāvārnna Bengāl Asiatic Society's plate of Vināyakapāla Dewal Prasasti of Lalla Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Harirāja Khajurāho inscription of Yasovarmā
JBORS, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 294–95. IA, XV, Pl. f.p., 140. EI, I, Pl. f. p., 76. EI, XXXI, Pl. f. p., 312. EI, I, Pl. f. p., 122.
922
983
954
CII, IV. Pl. XXXII.
Kāritalai inscription of Lakshmana II Mālava plates of Vākpati
974
IA, VI, Pls. f. pp. 51 & 52.
953
Śaraṇeśvara Temple inscription of Allat Harsha inscription of Vigraharāja Bālerā plates of Mūlarāja I
IA, LVIII, Pl. f. p., 161. EI, II, Pl. f. p., 120.
973
Cj2
994
EI, X, Pl. f. p., 78.

Page #170

The Period of Transition (9th-10th Century A.D.)
C13
Two Harsol grants of Siyaka
Bagumra plates of Indra III
C14
C15
5
Deoli plates of Krishna III
C16 Janjira plates of Aparajita

948
914
940
993
101
EI, XIX, Pls. b. pp. 242-43.
EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 30-31 & 34-35.
EI, V, Pls. b. pp. 194-95.
CII, VI, Pls. XIIIXVII.

Page #171

10th CENTURY A.D.
A
•
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C12
C14
C 15 | C
31 51 1 ञ ञ
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VOWEL
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KH
रत
57
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নযাবা
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प् 1 घ घ घघ या दघ य् दा दा
C 10 C
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PLATE 61
C13
2 ट | ट ट ट ट ट ट ट
O
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13
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!! ल ल ल ल ल ल য
ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल
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M

Page #172

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 62
c. c2c2 cu coco e, co
C
.
Cucuc13014Csc
aala
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|
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66
3 स हद सदसदर रूरू कर | म मममम मममममम ममम १ यययय टा ययययययय
&
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हद दह दह दहाहा हा
AMAY FAयवस54 समयमा श्रम

Page #173

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 63
|
a
হামাস্বা ঘা ।। গামী তিন | k ক ক কাকা কাক কান কাজ
I
m
। ২যা হা | | ফি হয়ে प्या या काय प्याप्पा का
• বি এ
এর
২ বা যাযাব থ য ব এ
১১ অS জ জ া ম জয়
11 g 21 22 ০ ২ ০২
• 5
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| *
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| লা লা লাবোল বলতে 1. At নানা সমযেন না হয়।

Page #174

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 64
1, C2 C3 Ica
es coro
C&
C
so c
C12/C13 | C 14
| aখা এ ঘষবা প্ৰা প্ৰা প্ৰা ৰপ্ৰথ্য | ০ ২ ২ য হ ববব ববব বব b. | ৫ |ব এব(যা (বএ বা এ ে ব ) |r | মম৷ সালাম সহ ন ন ম|
याधाचा पाय पाया या या यायावया या पापा
| ৪ ম ঋদ্ধ হই য দ ক ন জয় | " মি(মাম মাম মাম মমমম মমম | বয(হাস যাযা হজ্ব য য হ যথ
A B 8 ৮ চিত
| - लाला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला | বাৰৰাে বৰ বা যব ববে হ বলে বাবা |; |ac(\-m suা বা নং( বর্ণা | s* যা যা মামা ষ ম ম ম ম ল ম | ফা। মাস হলাে যা সমাজ | হিজাবায় মদ' নাম || রব।

Page #175

10TH CENTURY A.D.
K
00
Novel 2 6 2 6 3
কে
KH
G
GH
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জে বা বো
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བ
C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14 15 16
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PLATE 65
কে কে
(বেবির বি বিজি
D
DH ট
1. গোলিলে যো লি MM ন ন ন
T
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Page #176

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 66
[• | ৫৫৫ ৫তি ৫৫ ৫৫ ৫৫ ৫াহ | bৰথব ব ন ব য ব aaaG ৫ বা • দলে সে নেহি ন জ ল এ [ &িণযে &ি বি সি যি a৫ বি &ি Q যে যে
| . % ও ৫৫২ ৫৫৫ বিজিবি - মিম মিসিম সি সিসে মমিম সে
[ লিওননানি লি ও 6 Gন এ নিলে নি গুলি। [ a & বৰ বৰঠে৫ ব ব হবে। [ Jaলে এt & Aফ | কি। বেঞ্জ
[+ জি ফিল জিঠিত হয়ে জি। [ aa |
৫৬ঠিত

Page #177

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 67
calc lc. ca cs Ico calcolc, colcu C 12 C 13 C 14 Cis. JC 16
ह
कीका की की की की की
खी
सरी कमी जागी
[+ M लीलाकीलाal
हाती तानातकता

Page #178

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 68
दी दादरी दादा दादी दावा
कीनी का नाम की बीमा काना या या कापाव
मामीमा मामी मी मी
लीला हात बसली
सो सामायी मासीयामा माया सीसी यानी

Page #179

C1 C2
C3
C4 C5
C6
VOWEL 3 5 5 3 3 3 3
KA
10th CENTURY A.D.
KH
G157
GH
z.
N
CH
CHH
J
JH
Iz
T.
F.
CH
z.
E
7 तु तु

द
GM
यु
164
169
कु
ཤྲུ
F
KAL
E
C1 CB
KM
N
U
བཅུ
MA
cas
R
C1
19
G
J I MIL 14
WE
3
C 10
C11 C 12
C13 C14 | C 15 C16
33 3 3 33
IN D JÄÄ
गु शु
B
PLATE 69
EF
M
3
3 3 3 3 3 6 3 3 3 3 3

Page #180

10th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
DH
M
B
१ प
PH
C 1
द
L
>
व ू
S.
C2C3
R ₹ ३ रु
लू
Bm रु रु रु रु रु रु
M भू भू शु मु झु
C4

Cs
य यु युयु
$
$
वु गु झु नु पु पु पु पु
ह
K
C6
C 7
C8
g
U
C9
द् दु
C 10 C 11 C 12 C 13 C 14
र दु र दु यु टु टु दु दु दु.
44894
4
म मु
4
PLATE 70
३ 3 ठ कु कु उ उ वु नु
g
C 1s C 16
g
पु पु पु पु पु पु पु पु प
3
मु गु
यु यु
color 66
ल
यु वु उ
S
ଜ୍ଞା
SHघ ब
षु घ घ घु षु षु
पु ष ष
s स्र सु सु सु सु सु सु सु सु सु सु सु सु सु सु
H
रु
दु हु
हू 3 ऊ
15
44
रु रु दु
मु मु मु मु
यु
रु रु रु रु रुरुरुरुरु
रु
लु ल लु लु
वू
द
शु १ ह बुबु बु

Page #181

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 71
XC

Page #182

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 72
C. C2/C3 C4 lc, co
calcaico col calci2 C3 C4 Cis C16
0
2020
294
201
que o
TAHUN 19)

Page #183

PLATE 73
10th CENTURY A.D.
C
I
C3
TC
C5 C6 C7 C8
C
COCHC2C13/CHC15/016
काक तकृत
काल
य
मा

Page #184

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 74
वा एप्र ।
15. काक पपाप
|
| द
व
दाद ।

Page #185

10th CENTURY A.D.
VOWEL
K
KH
G
GH
z.
CH
CHM
J
TH
Z
T
TH
a
DH
C1
ન
Ta

C2
Q
C3
བ
a
C4
༩
C5
བ
क
C6 C1
273
3
C8
3 3 3
E
Cg
་་་་
য
G
GS G
C10 C11 C12
BUSSE
SIT
ट टे
So
C13 | Cu |C5 C6
1444
and aga FQAN
π
Lok
ס
୯
ਨੇ ਜੋ ਕਿਲੋ ਨਿ
PLATE 75
ہرا
য
দে
यय
ARGA
LEE
B
15
213

Page #186

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 76
|ca|ca|ca|cs | 06 | C1C819 | C {e |C 41 | 12 | 13 | C1Cfs 016
दल दरद ६२ ६ ३ ६ देद दे
ন ট ল সেজে
• পান যে সিনে ২ ম ম # অa ||
| + ম মেমেমসি ম ল ম মমমম মনে সে মে
ই যাই যযে
.
সি।
চি |
| বলবে বিবে বেবি বৰ|
ন্নি
|
|
|j৮
৬ | ৮
৮
|
[
6/ca|
| |
| |
|

Page #187

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 77
Tolco
- Calc. cioculc12 613 614 Cisc 16
se
Š

Page #188

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 78
C, C2
C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 Co c.
c. Cu
12 C, C14
Cisc 16
हटल
नि
SIAN
३॥
व वन वे हि देते
व
JNNSE
So I
M

Page #189

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 79
VOWEL
* কিলো কী যে কী কী বন্ধক
| বোস যাৰ ফলই ঠৗ হবে।
| জাজী ঐ বা সঙ্গী
Ugd
২
মিনা না না নাম মনের

Page #190

10th CENTURY A.D.
TH
● रा दात्या
Dy
N
P
PH
B
BH
M
Y
R
V
SH
C1 C2C3
- लाली
L
S
व
ś SU
-
ना क
H
याला या
शल ला
Cu
ला साहा की
মमा मो

Cs
श
C6
थ
C
C 8
दो यो
वयो
O
व
C1
घो
या
से रोश
तो लोलो तो
INS SET SING
C 10 C 11
घो
दो
मोनो वा नो वो मेरे नो का ना (न नो चेया के चोला या यो
S rowed
C12 C13
स
मो मो मो मो मो मोमो मामा मा यारो यो यो च यो यया या या
रा
ख ससा मा सो सो सामो साम सोसो द) दा
PLATE 80
C 14 C 15 C 16
बो
(धा
(द) दो
दो का दो रहे। दर
यो वो तो वो ता
ك
मा शोघो तो मानो
RECC
म से सो रहा हो दिल दा हो

Page #191

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 81
C. c. c3 c4 c5 coca cola ci Ca C 12 C3]
Vowe
| ৈ

Page #192

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 82
Au
c. c. c3 c4 c
co loco co
CH
C 12
13
14 1 cis
16

Page #193

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 83
LIGATURES
KSYY
KTM KYAN
KH 57
[মিস্ত্য দ্বীন অলি ঠি।
| INGER
|
স্থি স্ত্রী চিই স্ব ]

Page #194

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 84
LIGATURES
|
|
| c,
DVAM
PONA
» 8
9 ទីប៊ី
p14
- ឬ [ ឪ ដុំ ស្មាខ្ញុំ à ថ្មី
MAHA
22ER|
Ec==
ភាយ
|

Page #195

10th CENTURY A.D.
K
Кн
GH
Z.
CH
CHH
a 2
G
4
JH
H.
T
ΤΗ
D
༣
DH
65
N
T
KTYA KRAM KSHA
KTĀ
སྒ:ནམ མ
KTAN
ส S
KHYA
9|
GDA GONA
Gya
BHĀ
GRA
249 भयग्रा ग्र
NKAN NGA
CHCHA CHYA
g
JJA JHA
NJA
TTA
M
ゑ
GMA
TKA
C6

Jyo
3
EC
NTHAN DAN NYA
OFORO C
AKG
KSHI
JYA
LIGATURES
CT
GOHA
GNI
या लि H
KRA
A ALH DI
KHYA
KLA KVA KSHA KTYA KRA KSHA KSHMA
NGA
સ EVEN
CHCHA CHENNA CHYA
TPA
द
GRA
A
HCHA FCHNU NA
สยส
NTHAN NYAM
2
C8
KHYAM
3
JJA JAE
YA JVA
F ཅུག ནདན
GMA
GMA GRA
༞མą
HKA HKHA
ह ह हाँ WHE
CHCHA CHCHHA
PLATE 85
Feng
7
2
ENG
JVA
QYA
ཐ
TMNDA
THATPRA TYA THA TMA TRA
TKA
IPA TMA TSA
TYA
རཱརཱཀྭཏྭཾཀྐམགོ ལྀ རཱ ཌ ཨཽ ཊཿ ༞རྦེམ
ក
an M
TEKT
TSA

Page #196

10th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
DH
z
g
PH
♡
14
Σ
x
8
J
>
5.
SH
S
H
C5
15:5
325 2392
TEASE

TO
S
INS
h
[Sys.
2
3
No
LIGATURES
SHVT
IMIR
EAST
Ens
ཨཽར་གཡོ་ཐཡོ་T༠
asi
EDC
PLATE 86
32
माझा हास्य 277 35
22 4
घृष्ठ घ व स सू स

Page #197

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 87
LIGATURES
Cu
| KA
KLA
* যন্ত্রে স্ত্রই ঝ্য স্ব ঃ
GNI
GRA
|
|
| :
Сня сся
||
|
|
NINA

Page #198

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 88
LIGATURES
CA
DOMADMEDRA DVA
u Sindh
DONA DA
PRA
DVA
DANA
DYA
DANADYAN
AVE
IRO
No
VO
2017IANI
NNA
THрня | HyA
1/60
AN?
228
Внул | BнRA
BNYA
BHRAM
MNA
MBWA MVA
MMAMMA MAMA
Ma
VOM
ISKC

Page #199

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 89
LIGATURES
C13
Ci5
| KTM | KTYA |
KTM Kyn
KRAM KSHAKKA
KTAKYA
K: MAM KXAKTA
KRAKSMA
等题 影影影家园 & সুম হ্র স্থ স্ব মহা ফ্লিক্ট |
CHCHA
NAM
JYA
TH
NTHANDA NYANVANOAMNYA
3
SEA
EE
43

Page #200

10th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 90
LIGATURES
TTC
នានឱ69
9.ល។g
DMRU
NDMANPRANMA
NMANTA
NTA
NOA
NKA
នos dែង៖ d9F
BHRA
BNYA
BNY
ក៏
MRAMVA
MNR
នុះ ឱ្យស៊ីស្មីអ្វី
ឌីភី |
HATIKANA
EA
3
ប្រជ*៨២។gទៅ sើនឆ្ងាយ
.ត
។
ELEGAL

Page #201

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
Nāgarī, with fully developed top-stroke, straight vertical line, halanta sign, uniform medial signs and mutilated initial consonant in ligatures, is shown by Bharat Kala Bhavan Plate of Pratihāra Harirāja (A.D. 983) and Kauthem Plates of Chālukya Vikramāditya V (A.D. 1008). The requirements of speed and simplification had a determining role in the evolution of the Nāgarī script, as illustrated in Fig. 7. It was in use since the 11th century A.D. in the Gangā Valley, Central India, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western India and the Deccan. This is also evident from the records of the late Pratīhāras, the Gāhadavālas of Kānyakubja, the Chandellas of Jejākabhukti, the Kalachurīs of Sarayūpāra, Tripuri and Ratanpur, the Kachchhapaghātas of Gopagiri, Dubakunda and Naravar, the Guhilas of Mevāda, the Chāhamānas of Sākambharī, Nādol, etc. and the Paramāras of Mālava, the Chālukyas of Kalyāna, the Silāhāras of Konkana and Kolhapura, the Yādavas of Seunadesa and Devagiri, the Kadambas of Goa and other royal or personal epigraphs. However, this does not mean that the Nāgari of 11th century is identical with the Nāgari of 20th century and thereafter, no development took place in the form of the letters. Certainly, it was the mechanization in printing technology which gave Nagari a modern stand

Page #202

EVOLUTION BY SIMPLIFICATION
vubo ECCDEFGH ffffffffffffff | g FebBERDER iiifffffffffff L B EFFRESSNg iiiiiiiiiiitfig 10 ne ano tra F w o of ffffffffffffff 29 6805ZKDF文员

Page #203

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
103
ardized shape. I am, of course, not dealing with all these processes in this chapter, however, it focuses mainly on the evolution till the 13th century A.D. because by then it reached a mature stage and subsequently became stereotyped.
There are minor varieties in Nāgarī script, depending on differences in localities, period or individual hands. These varieties have been shown by dividing them into Northern and Southern, Jaina and non-Jaina,? or Eastern and Western by the scholars. But these divisions are rather broad and largely vague, having limitations and do not take into account the minutiae of the alphabet. In order to understand clearly the development of the Nāgari script I have worked out the following sub-divisions:
A. Eastern India
I. Bihar-Bengal, II. Assam, III. Orissa
B. Northern India
1. The Middle Gangā Valley, II. Central India, III. Rajasthan.
C. Western India & the Deccan
1. Gujarat, "II. Maharashtra, III. Karnataka.
Under these I am mainly concerned with (i) the fully developed or archaic form of letters, (ii) the changes due to developing technology, (iii) regional and inter-regional influences on the Nāgari script.
Eastern India
The influence of the proto-Nagari, or Nāgarī alphabet in Eastern India gradually declined from the time of Mahīpāla I (c. A.D. 988-1038). The use of the Gaudi alphabet begins towards the close of the 10th century A.D.' which diverges from the proto-Nāgarī type and ultimately develops into regional scripts of Assam, Bengal and Orissa. To briefly review the changes in Nāgarī characters in Eastern India we now take up these regions.

Page #204

104
Development of Nāgarī Script
Bihar-Bengal 11th Century A.D.
Table D, is taken from Bihar grant of Saurāditya (A.D. 1020). This inscription bears enough traces of proto-Nāgarī or Nāgarī characters along with the local forms of several letters. As for continuation of Nāgarī, the following letters preserved their old or advanced forms: initial vowel e, consonants ka, ga, gha, cha, ta, da, dha, ta, da; dha, pa, ma, ya, la, va and ha; besides medial signs and ligatures. Of these, the advancement towards Nāgarī is marked in the line head-mark of ta, leftward bend of da instead of the tail, straight right vertical of ta and horizontally placed bar of sha.
On the other hand, the letters a, u, kha, ja, ña, na, tha, na, pha, bha, ra, śa, sa; medials u and e are marked by certain new or local innovations. Of these, the lower curve of a and u are distinctly prolonged. These peculiarities pave the way for Bengālī forms. The open-mouthed kha, bha, sa; cursive na, double curved śa which have been marked in the preceding inscriptions of the region now become common. The new development in ja is noticed in the peculiar formation of the lower curvature. The new shape of ña contains Bengālī features with double loops to the right of a hooked vertical. The upper outer loop of tha is detached along with a peculiar inner looped form. Looped portion of na further slants downwards. Like Bengālī, the upper right limb of pha bears an outer loop. The new innovation in ra is a hollow triangular foot-mark. As for medial u, the new local hollow triangular like shape appears with Nāgarī form. For e both forms, top-stroke and left perpendicular, are retained in this inscription.
The noticeable peculiarity among ligatures is the representation of a dot or circle in n to the right top. Both subscript chha and tha contain oval shape and present confusion. The old full shaped superscribed ñ appears side by side with the new Bengāli form.

Page #205

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
105
12th Century
Table E, is taken from the Bodh-Gayā inscription of Gāhadavāl Jayachandra (A.D. 119x). The alphabet furnishes the incorporation of northern Nāgarī. This transformation is surely due to its belonging to a North Indian king. At the same time, the absence of tail, and notched-wedge shaped headmark make the alphabet peculiar by which it can be distinguished from the other northern inscriptions of the same dynasty. The top-wedge is so prominent that it merges with superscript r. In such type of formation, certainly, the broader edged pens play an important role, from which inscriptions of the region were written.
Besides tail and wedge, the local influence is marked in the letters u, ta, sa; and medials e, u. The peculiar curvature of u, as it appears in the preceding period, becomes the common feature of the region. The right top of ta bears a small tick. As for sa, it furnishes tailed Nāgarī form along with a new form. In the new variety, left loop distinctly become triangular. The distinguishing features of medial u shows a local wedged vertical shape as in the preceding inscriptions. In the case of initial e, with both earlier perpendicular and top-stroke forms, a new sign is met with which is denoted by a falling tick to the left of the letter. The letter kha and ha are also of distinctive varieties. The left limb of kha shows a triangle like foot-mark, as in other eastern inscriptions, in the place of northern tailed shape. In ha tail has disappeared.
Rest of the letters assume developed modern Nāgarī counterparts. Of these, peculiarities may be noticed in the forms of ja, na, dha and bha. The right limb of ja takes vertical shape. Middle bar of na bends to left. An advanced form of dha occurs in this inscription. The new innovation is the addition of an oblique stroke in the upper portion. The letter bha is of transitional variety with right straight vertical.
13th Century
Table F, is derived from Gayā inscriptions of Sultan Muizzuddin (A.D. 1200) and Balban (A.D. 1268). These epigraphs reveal advanced forms

Page #206

106
Development of Nāgarī Script
of northern Nāgari alphabet which indicates that, with the expansion of the Muslim rule, northern Nāgarī spread to the eastern region, the most remarkable development of which is the occurrence of modern looking forms of the letters ja and bha, while other inscriptions of earlier or current period show only their progressive features. As for other letters, they are found to be fully developed to approach their modern counterparts. Ligatures are in Nāgarī style excepting for the use of two armed superscribed d and peculiar tailless s. Medial e retains left slanting top-stroke, however, in some cases left vertical form are also employed. It can also be noticed in medial o. All other medial signs are in fully developed Nāgarī shapes.
One notable point about these inscriptions is their relationship with Muslim rulers. Definitely, it was the force of tradition and popularity of Nāgari in that period which compelled Muslim rulers to use it side by side with their own script. This is further evident from the accommodation of Nāgarī alphabet on Muslim coins. As for example: Mohammed of Ghaznā (A.D. 1027), Mohammed Bin Sam (A.D. 1193-1206), Mohammed Bin Mohammed (A.D. 1206), Shamsu-d-din Iltutmish (A.D. 1210-35), Ruknu-d-din Firuz Shah (A.D. 1235), Raziyya (1236-40), Muizzu-d-din Baharam Shah (A.D. 1240-42), Alau-d-din Masud Shah (A.D. 1242-46), Nasiru-d-din Mohammed (A.D. 1246-66), Ghiyasu-d-din Balban (A.D. 1266-87), Muizzu-d-din Kaikubad (A.D. 1287-90), Jalalu-d-din Firuz (A.D. 1290-96), Alau-d-din Mohammed Shah (A.D. 1296-1316) and others employed Nāgarī for writing legends on their coins. Assam
The script of Assam was influenced by proto-Nāgarī in the preceding periods, which eventually diverges in this period and shows the same process of development as does Bengālī. However, the script of Assam has retained some distinctive characteristics.
11th Century
The peculiarities of the Assamese alphabet are shown in Table Dz; they are taken from Gauhātī and Guākuchi Grants of Indrapāla (A.D. 980-1010). The tail of the letters is sharply bent to the right and head-mark

Page #207

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
107
are in solid triangular or line form. In the vowels only a, i, u and e are to be found. The left curve of a is prolonged in eastern style and right vertical shows a foot-mark. I shows a double-curved shape above two circles. The left curve of u further extends to the top-mark; and e opens to the left as in eastern style.
Among consonants, most of the letters are represented in their old or developed Nāgari characters in the formation of which effects of the local hand are clearly marked. Only some distinction occurs from the usual northern Nāgari in the letters kha, cha, da, na, tha, bha, ra, śa and sa. Kha shows a peculiar variety. The breadth of cha is broader. A new innovation in da is seen in the replacing of left curve by slanting stroke. The cursive ņa, upper left-curve detached tha, open-mouthed bha and sa, double curved śa, which occur in the preceding period, become more frequent now. Ra furnishes a peculiar tail or hollow triangular loop in the lower portion. In later period hollow triangular with a slanted dividing line in the middle becomes the standard form of the letter ra. It is certainly the shape of ra and va on which basis Bengāli and Assamese can be discriminated."
Among ligatures, superscribed in shows the use of a dot as in Nāgari. The local influence is marked in the leftward double curved form of superscribed ñ, double curved with a tick form of t, cursive n and hooked form of th. The curly Nāgarī form of superscript r is noticeable. Medials u, e, ai, o and au represent more than one form in which local features gain more currency. In the local variety, medial u is formed by triangular, or rightward hooked shape. In the formation of medials, e, ai, o and au a tendency of extending the head-mark to left and curving it in a sort of hook is noteworthy.
12th Century
The further deterioration of Nāgari features and evolution of local script is evident from the illustration shown in Table E, which has been taken from the Khonāmukh Plates of Dharmapāla. The influence of Nāgari

Page #208

108
Development of Nāgarī Script
characters retained in some letters in forming which too local style is more apparent. Notable new innovation in initial a is seen in the formation of a knob in the left curve. Leftward opened e peculiarly curves its left extension. In the formation of medial signs, the local forms, which previously occurs, frequently employed in this period and developing in the same direction. On the whole, the alphabet of this inscription reveals a transmutation of Nāgarī into proto-Assamese or Assamese.
Orissa
The general observation on Eastern Indian alphabets apparently shows more divergence in the Orissa region's script from Northern Nāgarī than the script of Bengal or Assam. The distinctive writing objects and the writing techniques of the region are mainly responsible in the peculiar transformation which makes the letter more cursive. In course of time, curvature of the letters became prominent and ultimately prepared the way for the development of the Oriyā script. Kunjabihari Tripathi believes: “Though the Oriyā alphabet is mainly affiliated to proto-Bengālī, the influence of the Nāgarī is also noticed in early Oriyā inscriptions."
11th Century
Mahulpara plates of Somavamśī king Mahāśivagupta-Dharmarath and Nadagām plates of Ganga Vajrahasta are selected and illustrated in Tables D3 and D4 for study. Palaeographically, both inscriptions differ in some respects, but at the same time they represent assertive local influence on the writing. The new development in initial vowels occur in the shapes of a, ā, i and e. A of Table Dz shows the same process of development as in Bengal inscriptions. Table DA shows somewhat different mode in which left curve opens downwards with horizontally extended extremities. The shape of long ā is also peculiar. It presents a feature from which modern Oriyā form emerges later on. I is shaped as a line mark above the two circles in Table Dz. Table DA shows a curved shape in place of line mark. E is of open-mouthed variety in which both left arms become horizontally parallel.
However, consonants ka, ja, da, ta, da, dha, ma and ha preserve

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Nāgarī counterparts. All of these retain old shape. There is nothing noteworthy from the viewpoint of development. Only one point worthy of attention
straight formation of right vertical in ja. Other letters mark the evolution towards local scripts. In Table D3, the reminiscent hollow triangular shape appears in the left limb of the letters kha, ga and sa. The hollow-triangle shape is opened in Table D4. The breadth of cha is broader in Table D3. Ța retains archaic double curved shape with right tick. Na extends its right vertical upwards. The letter tha is marked by new innovation in which the upper loop is transformed into a hook and base becomes sloppy. The left arm of the letters pa, pha, ya and sha is bent in the middle. Pha attains Oriya counterpart. Lower extremity of bha extends towards the left instead of the right. The base of va is slanted to meet with the right vertical at the end.
Among ligatures, superscript n contains a small circle to the right. Superscribed ñ is of local type. In medial vowels local forms gain more currency. Of them, a new innovation is marked in u and ū. In the new form of u a rightward hook is drawn to the bottom of the letter; ū is formed by extending the lower limb and looks like medial ri.
12th Century
The further termination of Nāgari influence is marked by Bhuvane svara inscription of Svapneśvara, shown in Table Ez The alphabet of this inscription reveals a developmental process of the local script. In this, the most remarkable transformation is noticed in a initial. Tha retains old circular shape. This shape still continues in Oriyā. General Remarks
The above observations attest that the Nāgarī features were losing hold in Eastern India during 11th-12th centuries; and the local scripts, namely Bengālī, Assamesa, Oriyā, etc., were emerging from it.
Northern India
This vast region was divided into several local states during the period,

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which maintain distinguished calligraphic peculiarities. In order to understand clearly the development with distinctive characteristics northern Nāgarī may be assorted into three groups: I. The Middle Gangā Valley, II. Central India and III. Rajasthan. But it is difficult to fix the exact limit of one type of writing because there are overlappings due to socio-political reasons.
The Middle Gangā Valley 11th Century
Table D, is taken from Goharwa plates of Kalachuri Karna (A.D. 1041-73) and Table Da from Chandrāvati plates of Gāhadavāla Chandradeva (A.D. 1093 and 1099). Among initial vowels, the peculiarities of the region which reflect from these inscriptions are noticed in a and i. In a, the lower limb of the left curve prolongs upward and the upper joining bar disappears, or shortens. Table D5 shows a new innovation in i of which curve and circles are substituted by a line. It may be identified as the first progenitor of its modern counterpart. In this period, such type of development only occurs in this region. Other initial vowels, ā and u resemble modern Nagari in forms and e curves its left limb.
Among consonants, the distinctive letters are cha, bha and sa. The upper left limb of cha detaches from the right vertical and prolongs upwards. Bha shows only transitional phase with right vertical. The outer looped or hooked sa develops to attain the modern counterpart, while in other regions old forms of these letters are more common.
In other letters, right limb of ka extends to right, kha and ga resemble modern counterparts. The left curve of gha moves up. A fully developed form of it can be seen in ghā of Goharwa plates, Chha presents developing process by placing loops one upon the other. Dha is yet to develop upper oblique shape. The right appendage of pha starts from middle portion in modern style, only differing by right hooked shape instead of modern curvature. Sha slants its middle bar. However, rest of the letters approach fully developed shapes.

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Among ligatures, superscript gh is of developed variety, subscript chha retains oval shape and tha is of peculiar double-looped variety. Table D6 reveals an unusual peculiar shape of fra and superscribed s retains openmouthed feature.
In medial signs, only the cursive variety is employed for u, right limb of long ū prolongs in modern style. Ri in hri is attached to the outer curve while in eastern region joins with the tail. 12th Century
The further developments are shown in Tables E4 and Es; taken from Kamauli plate of Gahadavala Govindachandra (A.D. 1126) and Mahobā plates of Chandella Paramardideva (A.D. 1173). These inscriptions reveal developed Nāgari characters in which only the development is required in the letters, i, cha, chha, ja, dha and bha. Of these, the initial i shows the transitional form of the letter. Cha occurring in the Kamauli plate is of old beaked variety. Table E, represents a new innovation by flattening the upper left curve. Only the protrusive bar is needed to develop into the modern form. Chha is in archaic oval, or double-looped variety. The right limb of ja becomes almost a straight vertical but upper stroke is yet to coalesce with the lower one to make a single line. Dha shows primitive stage of development by adding an oblique stroke at the upper angle. The left limb of bha still shows an extension towards down instead of modern upward prolongation.
In ligatures, the modern form of superscript ñ is met with in Table Es and th also is of modern type. The medial signs are in Nāgarī form except e which optionally retains the left vertical form. 13th Century
Table F2 is taken from Ajayagadh inscription of Nāna (A.D. 1288). Nāna was the minister of the Chandella Bhojavarmā. In consequence, the inscription follows Chandella style of ornamental and bold writing. A further development is marked in initial i which has taken almost modern shape. Chu and ja are still to develop. Dha presents the developing process

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by bending the oblique into a curve. The right appendage of pha still is in old looped form with a slanted stroke, while in other inscriptions attains modern curly features. The left limb of bha is falling down. Sa represents a distinctive feature, denoted by a looped hook with slanting bar to the left of the vertical line. In ligatures, n is of old two armed variety without dot. Medial e still retains perpendicular shape. In the top-stroke form of it the ornamentation can be seen.
Central India 11th Century
The Rājapura plates of Nāgavamsi Madhurāntakadeva (A.D. 1065) and Sās-Bahū Temple inscription of Kachchhapaghāta Mahīpāla (A.D. 1093) have been selected to study the development of Nāgarī script in Central India. These are respectively illustrated in Tables D, and Dg. The initial a of these inscriptions differs from that found in the Middle Gangā Valley in which the left curve joins the head-mark. It differs from Western Indian a in having an additional lower slant in the vertical. Initial i shows developing process. A rare long 7 occurs in Sās-Bahū inscription which is formed by a head-mark, a vertically curved line coming down from it and a horizontal curve with one circle on either side below. The left limb of e is denoted by a curve as in the Middle Gangetic region. The triangular variety of foot-mark is retained in the Rājapura inscription but it is developed in tailed form in the later Sās-Bahū inscription. The left notched portion of gha is still horizontally placed. Cha retains beaked shape and Chha is of oval variety. Dha is yet to develop the oblique stroke of upper angle. Table D7 shows archaic open-mouthed bha; but it occurs in transitional phase in Table Dg. Sa presents old inner looped form, while in the Middle Gangā Valley it has taken the form of its modern counterpart. The noticeable point in ligature is the disappearance of the dot in the superscript n. While in the eastern region it always contains a dot in the right portion. The medial signs are usual as in the Middle Gangā Valley.
12th Century
The further development in Central Indian Nagari script is marked by

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a number of inscriptions. We have selected Sarakho plates of Kalachuri Ratnadeva II (A.D. 1128), Māllar inscription of Kalachuri Jājalladeva II (A.D. 1167), Sihāvā inscription of Kakaira Karṇarāja (A.D. 1192), Bhopal plates of Udayavarmā (A.D. 1199) and sequentially illustrated them in Tables E6, E7, Eg, & E9.
Among initial vowels, a is found in different varieties. Table E6 shows a shape which is similar to that found in Goharva Plates (D5) of previous century. In Table E, it occurs in fully developed northern variety. Table Eg furnishes a peculiar type of it which is shaped as a double curve to the left of the vertical line, without a joining stroke. It becomes further more peculiar in a, where upper curve prolongs to the vertical. Perhaps this formation is due to cursive or rapid hand writing. Initial i of Kalachuri inscriptions represents a transitional phase of the letter as we find in the Middle Ganga Valley, while in Bhopal inscription it is of the old variety. Rare long ī occurs in Table E6, formed by adding an additional slanting stroke on the top of i (cf., Pls. 127 & 125). An archaic triangular form of e is met in Sarakho Plates (Table E6). Other initials, u, u and ai resemble their corresponding letters in modern Nāgarī.
113
Among consonants, most of the letters have taken the shape of modern Nāgari counterparts. The development is lacking only in letters cha, ja, pha, ba and bha. In upper horizontal arm of cha a leftward protrusive stroke is yet to develop. Both right limbs of ja are still formed separately. The right appendage of pha is of hook shape. Bha retains its lower extensiion in left arm. A peculiar form for ba occurs in Table E6 which has a tail at the left of the square and prolongation of the right vertical.
As for development, the most remarkable letters are chha, na and dha. Chha in E, presents modern features by placing the loops one upon the other in which only the separation in upper tailed portion is needed. In Table Eg na shows a new innovation by curving its left arm as in the modern style. The analogous Nagari type of dha occurs in Table Eg and E9.
In ligatures, superscript ph of Table E, shows modern features while

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subscript tha is of old double-looped variety. Medials are in modern Nägarī shapes. The only exception is noticed in the vertical form of e.
13th Century
Table Fz is taken from Kūrethā Plate of Pratīhāra Malayavarmā (A.D. 1220). This inscription denotes further development in Nāgarī script of which almost all letters attain their modern counterparts. Development is needed only in initial i, ja, dha and bha. I shows of peculiar variety (Pl. 153, F3). The right limb of ja is yet to become a single vertical. Dha loses its upper top-mark and left arm of bha is still falling downwards. The remarkable development which draws attention is the modern shape of cha. As for the medial vowels, only the top-stroke form of e occurs in this inscription. In it a new innovation is marked in forming a circle at the upper extremity. But perpendicular form is maintained in ai and au.
Rajasthan 11th Century
For the study of 11th century alphabets in Rajasthan area the Banswārā Plates of Paramāra Bhojadeva (A.D. 1019) and Kadmāl Plates of Guhil Vijayasimha (A.D. 1083) are selected and illustrated in Tables D, and D10. Kadmāl Plates which belong to later pericd display more advanced forms of the alphabet than Banswārā Plates. Among initial vowels two letters, i.e. i and e, draw attention. Of these i is of archaic form with two circles and one curve below. In e new innovation is marked in the formation of left limb in a single stroke. This is the real base of modern Nāgarī e. Other initial vowels a, ā, u and ū also occur in their fully developed form.
Among consonants, the left limb of kha, ga and sa show a triangular loop in Table D, whereas it develops into modern rounded form in ga and tailed shape in kha and śa in Table Dio. In Table Dio gha occurs in
developed Nāgarī form and ia denotes a peculiar form which looks like initial ū. In dha of Kadmāl Plates a new innovation is marked in the formation of an oblique stroke at the upper angle, while other inscriptions

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of the period do not comprise such type of development. In Table Do, pha retains loop with a stroke at right as appendage, bha is of openmouthed variety and sa is of inner looped type. In Table D10 the right appendage of pha is in modern cursive form, bha is of transitional variety and sa is of modern type. The rest of the letters attain their fully developed form. Ligatures and medial vowels are usual as in other parts of Northern India.
12th Century
The further development in Nāgari script is illustrated in Tables E10 and Eu which have been derived from Paldi inscription of Guhila Arisimha (A.D. 1116) and Nadol inscription of Chāhamāna Kīrtipāla (A.D. 1161). Of these inscriptions Pāldī inscription is earlier. In the consequence, Nadol inscription furnishes more developed form than Paldi inscription.
The peculiarities in initial vowels are marked in i, i, u, e and ai. Of these i retains older form till now in this region, while in other regions it presents transitional phase. I is formed by a hook, a circle and a horizontal top-line. In ū an additional hook is added in the lower extremity of u instead of modern cursive middle attachment. Pāldi inscription presents an old triangular form for e, whereas it occurs in modern form in Nadol inscription. Ai also shows modern feature.
Among consonants, most of the letters resemble their counterparts in modern Nāgari. Only the forms of cha, ja, dha, pha and bha are yet to develop. Like other inscriptions of the period these letters denote their developing process. In ligatures, superscript n is still without a dot and ñ resembles the letter in modern Nāgarī. Superscript ś is to be found in old as well as new type. Subscript tha is of archaic oval variety.
13th Century
Table FA is taken from Māndhātā Plates of Paramāra JayasimhaJayavarmā (A.D. 1274) and Table Fs is derived from Kavālji Temple inscription of Chāhamāna Hammīr (A.D. 1288). These inscriptions mark further progress in Nāgarī script. Development is required only in letters cha and

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Development of Nāgarī Script
bha. As for cha its upper left protrusive is yet to develop. In bha, the left portion is still falling downwards.
Among the initial vowels the lower curve of a prolongs upward. The reminiscent form of i occurs in the Chāhamān inscription. Rare initial și occurs in Māndhätā Plates which is of transitional variety. Au retains its archaic shape. As for the consonants, medial and ligatures, they approach the form in modern Nāgarī.
Western India and the Deccan
The scribes of western India and the Deccan had their own style of writing which diverges from the northern Nägarī in its appearances as well as in the special forms employed for some letters. This is called Nandi-Nāgarī. A.C. Burnello suggests that Nandi-Nāgarī is directly derived from the North Indian Nāgari in about eleventh century A.D. In the same way recorders of Jaina-sect had their own individuality which is known by the name of Jaina-Nāgari. The peculiarities of these two variant forms of Nāgarī may be understood best by the help of Fig. 8. Besides the usual form of Nāgari was also in circulation.
Gujarat 11th Century
Table Du is taken from Paliād and Bhadreśvar Plates of Chālukya Bhimadeva I to represent the Nāgari alphabet of Gujarat region. There are some peculiarities which draw attention. Both curves of initial a are detached from the right vertical. I retains its old feature. E has a slanting stroke in the left and a bar in the right in modern style, like Kadmāl inscription of Guhila king (D10).
In consonants, the notable letters are ga, gha, cha, ja, da, ņa, dha, pha, bha, la and śa. Of these, ga presents modern as well as triangular form in the left limb. Left notched portion of gha is still to take vertical position. Cha retains its beaked shape. In ja left portion is formed by a single stroke and right curve separately joins in the place of straight

Page #217

SPECIMENS OF NÅGARI JAINA-NÅGARŤ AND NANDI-NAGARI
NAGARI
अआइ
ऊ
ए ऐ
ओ
औ क
ख
ay un
JAINANAGARI
अाइ ६
B
20n
NANDINAGARI
NAGARI
ट
त
JAINA-. NAGARI
ड.
७७
5बट | टप तथ
द
प
NANDINAGARI
NAGARI
JAINA NAGARI
| फ ब
फ.
ज
म
य र
ल
व
श ष
स ह
NANDINÅGARI
पर
२
ल ।
FIG.8

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formation of right vertical. Da presents transitional phase while in other regions it has attained its modern shape. Na shows cursive form of top as in the inscriptions of Eastern India. Dha is yet to develop its upper oblique. The right appendage of the letter pha shows curve with slanted stroke in northern style, while in Maharashtra and eastern region looped form is more common. The old open-mouthed form of bha remains in this region. In la left curve sharply bends inwards. As for sa double looped form is more common in which upper loop is circular and lower one triangular. Along with this the old cursive-topped and modern outer looped forms are also in use in this region.
In ligatures, subscript chha and tha are of oval type. D of dvam is in two armed shape. Superscript ś and s are met in old as well as in modern forms.
12th Century
To mark the development of the alphabet in Gujarat during 12th Cent. A.D. the Verāval inscription of Chālukya Bhīma II has been selected and illustrated in Table E12. This inscription represents further development in Nāgarī script from earlier century. Among initial vowels, a, u, e show fully developed features. The letter cha of chā is in modern shape. Chha represents transitional phase by placing both the loops of the letter one upor the other. The top of the letter na is flat. Dha with its upper oblique stroke represents the process of development. But the left notch of gha is still placed horizontally. Right limb of ja is yet to take the form of single vertical line. The form of bha is yet to develop. Other consonants resemble the letters in modern Nāgarī. Among medial vowels, the peculiarity may be noticed only in the formation of the left perpendicular type of e.
13th Century
Table F6 is taken form the Verāval inscription of Chalukya-Vaghel King Arjuna (A.D. 1264). This inscription records further development in the Nāgari script. Initial i has taken fully developed shape. The letters gha and dha have almost taken their modern shapes. But cha in this region

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Development of Nāgarī Script
is still of beaked variety. Chha is of peculiar oval variety with slanted cross bar of tail. The right limb of ja is yet to take single vertical form. Bha denotes its transitional phase. In ligature bdha, the use of the old square form of b can be seen. Like earlier inscriptions of the region, this inscription also represents more frequent use of the vertical form of e.
Maharashtra 11th Century
I have selected Kauthem Plates of Chālukya Vikramāditya V (A.D. 1008), Kalas-Budrukh Plates of Yādava Bhillam III (A.D. 1026), Bhandup Plates of Silāhāra Chhittarāja (A.D. 1026), Kharepätan Plates of Silāhāra Anantadeva I (A.D. 1094) and illustrated them in Table D1, D13, D14 and Dis respectively. These inscriptions show some peculiarities of the region. They also show some differences among themselves which may be due to these inscriptions belonging to different dynasties who had their own cultural gravity. Of that sequel distinction in the inscriptions are discernible.
Kauthem Plates of Chālukya king Vikramāditya V represent the developed form of Western or southern Nāgarī (D2). Initial a is found in fully developed western or southern variety. The left portion of it is formed by two curves which are joined by a horizontal bar with the right vertical. I persists with its old shape. In the formation of e, the influence of northern regions is clearly marked in which the right limb is formed by a single stroke which is unlike the e found in Gujarat region. Rare au shows its old features. In consonants, left limb of the letters kha, ga and sa are marked with a triangular formation. Left notch of gha is placed horizontally. Cha retains beaked form. The forms of chha and pha are almost same. Both letters furnish a tailed inner loop in the right portion. The letters na and ta show modern features side by side with the old cursive shape. The upper horn of dha is yet to develop. Na retains old curved shape. The archaic form of bha denotes a tail in the left limb. Sa is also of old inner looped variety.
Table D13, which has been taken from Kalas-Budrukh Plates of Yādava Bhillan III, shows the northern form of a without lower stroke,

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progressing feature of i, tailed kha, flat-topped na and vertical form of na. Both forms of bha, archaic open-mouthed and transitional, occur in this inscription. But triangular type of left limb remains in ga and sa. Left curves of gha are horizontally placed. Pha like Kauthem Plates shows an inner loop in the right limb. And sa is also of old inner looped or flattopped variety.
119
The lower extremity of the letters in Silāhāra inscription is bent to the right. Initial i of both inscriptions present only old features of the letter. The left limb of kha bends to left in cursive or straight form in place of developed tail or archaic triangle shape. The left limb of ga also develops in the same direction. Rare jha occurs in both inscriptions. Tha of tha in Table D15 presents the features of the letter as found in Jaina-Nāgarī. The top of na is cursive. Table D14 which has been taken from an earlier inscription of this century furnishes only the curved form of ta and na, old type of cursive or flat-topped sa while later Kharepaṭan plates (Table D15) denote their well developed shape. Dha of this region is still without upper horn. The letter pha differs from the inscriptions of the same region by its outer curve of the right limb in place of inner loop. Bha presents only its transitional phase in which right arm is in curved shape instead of a vertical line.
Among ligature, superscribed gh in Table D15 denotes its modern shape. Subscript chha is of oval variety. Optionally letter s retains old open-mouthed shape. The medial vowels are usual as in that period.
12th Century
Kolhapur Plates of Śilāhāra Gaṇḍarāditya (A.D. 1126) and Kolhapur inscription of Silahāra Bhoja II (1190-93) are selected and illustrated in Table E13 & E14 to represent the development in Nāgarī script in 12th century A.D. The new innovations which draw our attention are found in letters kha, gha, cha, na, dha, ba, bha, śa. The left limb of kha develops into tailed shape as in northern inscriptions. The notched portion of gha prolapse to left and are placed vertically. Cha flattens its upper limb in

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Development of Nāgarī Script
which only the protrusive stroke is wanted. The top of ņa becomes flat as in northern inscriptions. Dha develops an oblique stroke in the upper portion. A distinct sign for ba occurs in Table E14 which is shaped with double loops to the left of a vertical line. The right limb of bha becomes vertical. Sa with outer loop denotes the modern phase of the letter.
On the whole, these inscriptions furnish developed form of the letters in which the development is required only in the letters cha, ja, dha, ba and bha. Of these, left curve of ja is shorter than other inscriptions.
13th Century
Table F, is taken from Kālegāon plates of Yādava Mahādeva (A.D. 1260). This inscription apprises of further development in Nāgari script. As for initial vowels a, ā and e are of fully developed variety. Initial ri also completes the way of developed in which only the lower hook still remains to develop. Initial vowels i, u and consonant chha denote peculiarities which resemble the corresponding letters in Jaina-Nāgarī. The breadth of ja is broader as in Jaina-Nāgari. The most remarkable development which occurs in this inscription is the use of advanced and modern form of ba, while in other regions the letter is generally represented by the sign of va. Left vertical slant of bha prolongs upward, which shows that it is still in the process of developing into the modern shape. The development requires only in cha, ja and bha.
In ligatures, modern form of ñ occurs in this inscription. Superscript n is formed by a single stroke as in modern western style. Medial vowels display modern shapes along with the usual both forms of e, ai, o and au of the period. In such type of formation top-stroke form of e is more common.
Karnataka 11th Century
Table D16 is taken from Ittagi Plates of Kadamba Jayakesi I (A.D. 1062) to represent the Nāgarī script of the region. In place of western double curved form of initial a, here we find the use of northern shape

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with prolonged outer curves from the left vertical. With two arms above the two circles the initial i appears in developing process. Here we find developed forms of kha, na, bha and sa in the place of old features of Maharashtra region. Side by side with the developing horned form dha old shape also persists. The right appendage of pha joins the top instead of being joined in the middle of the vertical as in modern Nāgarī. The archaic form of open-mouthed sa also survives along with the developed shape. In the ligatures archaism can be noticed in cursive ña, flat or round-topped ś and oval form of chha and tha. Medials are as usual.
12th Century
Asoge Plates of Kadamba Jayakesin II (A.D. 1133) and Nilgunda Plates of Chālukya Vikramāditya VI (A.D. 1087 & 1123) are selected and illustrated in Tables Eis and E16 for the alphabets of 12th century in Karnataka. These inscriptions represent developed form of the letters. Initial vowel i presents its transitional feature. Ai is formed by adding a top-stroke of e medial in the initial e. Rare initial au looks like topless a. The tailless or bulgy form of e display archaism. The advanced and modern form of cha occurs in Asoge Plates, while in other inscriptions of the period it is in old beaked or transitional broader shape. A new innovation
be marked in sha in which cross-bar is placed horizontally in straight line form (Pl. 122). Among the consonants development is yet to be recorded in gha, ja, dha, pha and bha.
Among ligatures, the peculiar form of ksha, dotted r, oval chha are noteworthy (Pl. 149). The most notable peculiarity among the medial vowels is the frequent use of perpendicular type of e.
The concluding phrase śri-Śāradayai namaḥ of Nīlgunda Plates is written in Sāradā alphabet, a feature which is probably due to the fact that the scribe, Mallaya, hailed from Kashmir.
13th Century
Table Fg is derived from the Copper plate grants of Hoysala ViraBallāla II (A.D. 1204). R.S. Panchamukhi remarks about the palaeography that, "the inscription is written in the Nāgari alphabet which furnishes one

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Development of Nāgarī Script
of the earliest specimens of the Nandi-Nāgarī that subsequently became the ruling alphabet of the Vijayanagara period.”10
The letters of Nandi-Nāgarī become compact and consequently diverges from corresponding Nāgari characters. Calligraphically, the new alphabet is not as much appealing as Nāgari. As for individual letters, the lower extremity of the outer curves in a and u are bent downwards and e retains tailless old feature. Gha places its notched shape horizontally. However, the left limb of cha is in triangular looped shape. The lower curve of ja is shortened and bends down. Da presents two forms of the letter, one looks like initial u and other denotes usual Nāgarī shape with the difference of less prolongation in lower extremity. Left arm of na is straight and its three arms are approximately equal. The head-mark of tha disappears and upper left limb is detached from the right vertical. The upper portion of dha is formed by two strokes arranging in notched shape. The left looped protion of na is slanted. Right appendage of pha starts from the head-mark. Advanced and modern looking form for ba occurs in this inscription. Ra looks somewhat like old and is of slanted footmarked variety. The joining bar of the letter la is notched and the outer curve bends sharply inwards which sometimes becomes looped. Among ligatures, subscribed chha retains oval shape and ya of dhyā shows peculiarity.
In the formation of medial vowels some peculiarities are noticeable. Medial ā, i, i are denoted by fully extended line side by side with short line. U bends its extremity down. A peculiar shape for medial u appears in ru which is formed by a rightward stroke. An additional leftward stroke is added in the form of u to make it long ū. This shape becomes the peculiarity of Nandi-Nāgari. The rightward stroke form for ri occurs in this inscription which becomes common in Nandi-Nāgari. Medial e and o are represented by top-stroke. In ai and au both the forms, i.e. top-stroke and perpendicular are to be found.

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Notes and References
1. Bühler, Indian., p., 70; Ojha, Bharatiya., pp. 68-70.
2. Kapadia, "A Detailed Exposition.." p., 394.
3. Sircar, D.C. "Introduction to Indian Epigraphy and Palacography," JAIH, IV, p. 117; Diringer, Alphabet., p., 361.
4. Cf., the alphabet of Bangarh grant of Mahipala 1, R.D. Banerji, El, XIV, pp. 324-30, Pls. b. pp. 326-27; and Irda grant of Nayapaladeva, N.G. Majumdar, El, XXII, pp. 150-59, Pls. b. pp. 154-55.
5. Chakravarti, S.N., "Development of the Bengali Alphabet from the fifth century A.D. to the end of the Muhammadan Rule," JASBL, IV, p., 365.
123
6. Wright, H.N., The Coinage and Metrology of the Sultans of Delhi, Delhi, 1936; Hirananda Sastri, "Devanagari and the Muhammadan.," pp. 492-97.
7. Bora, Mahendra, The Evolution of Assamese Script, Assam, 1981, p., 70.
8. The Evolution of Oriya Language and Script, Cuttack, 1962, p., 44.
9. Elements., pp. 52-53.
10. Karnataka Inscriptions, vol. I, p., 58.
Bibliography
Eastern India
Inscriptions of Bihar & Bengal
1. Bihar grant of Sauraditya of A.D. 1020, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXV, pp. 131-36, Pls. b. pp. 134-35; (Tables D1 & N32).*
2. A Copper plate grant of Kramaditya of A.D. 1062, V. V. Mirashi, JBRS, LI, pp. 55-57, Pl. f. p., 56.

3. Silsila inscription of Angasimha's time of A.D. 1105, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXVI, pp. 39-41, Pl. f. p., 40.
4. Tarachandi rock inscription of Pratapdhaval of A.D. 1168, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 23-27, Pls. b. pp. 26-27; (Table N32).*

Page #225

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Development of Nāgarī Script
5. Nalanda inscription of Vipulasrimitra, N. G. Majumdar, Ibid., XXI,
pp. 97-101, Pl. f. p., 98. 6. Bronze sculpture inscription of Arapachan from Nepal, P. Banerjee,
JBRS, XXXIII, pp. 164-69, Pls. I-V. 7. Gaya inscription of the time of Sultan Muizzuddin of A.D. 1200,
Ibid., LII, pp. 71-95, Pl. vii; (Tables Fi & N33).* 8. Gaya epigraph of A.D. 1268 noticing Balban as Biruban, H. N. Ansari,
Ibid., LIII, pp. 170-81, Pl. xxxiv; (Tables Fi & N33).* Inscriptions of Assam 1. Gauhati grant of Indrapala of year 8; D. Sarma, Kś, pp. 91-98, Pl. f. p.,
91; (Table D).* 2. Guakuchi grant of Indrapala of year 21, Ibid., pp. 99-102, Pl. f. p., 102;
(Table D2).* 3. Gachtal plates of Gopalavarmadeva, Ibid., pp. 103-17, Pls. f. p., 103 & b.
pp. 114-15. 4. Khonamukh plates of Dharmapala of year 1, Ibid., pp. 118-23, Pls. f. p.,
118 & b. pp. 122-23; (Table E2).* 5. Silimpur inscription of Jayapaladeva, R. G. Basak, EI, XIII, pp. 283-85, Pl.
f.p., 290. Inscriptions of Orissa 1. Mahulpara plates of Mahasivagupta-Dharmarath, P. R. Srinivasan, EI,
XXXVII, pp. 225-32, Pls. b. pp. 228-29; (Tables Dz & N32).* 2. Ganjam plates of Ganga Vajrahasta III of A.D. 1069, R. C. Majumdar,
Ibid., XXIII, pp. 67-73, Pl. f. p., 72. 3. Badakhimedi plates of Indravarman, P. N. Bhattacharya, Ibid., XXIII,
pp. 78-80, Pls. b. pp. 80-81. 4. A charter of Kulika Virapachandradeva, P. R. Srinivasan, Ibid., XXXVIII,
pp. 63-65, Pls. b. pp. 64-65. 5. Bhuvanesvar inscription of Svapnesvara of the time of Ganga

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Aniyankabhima, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., VI, pp. 198-203, Pl. f. p., 202; (Table E3).*
6. Two Bhanja grants in the Orissa State Museum, P. R. Srinivasan, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 257-68, Pls. b. pp. 260-61, 266-67 & f. p., 268. Inscriptions of Eastern Ganga
1. Narasapatam plates of Vajrahasta III of A.D. 1045, S. Konow, EI, XI, pp. 147-53, Pls. b. pp. 150-51 & f. p., 152.
125
2. Nadgam Plates of Vajrahasta of A.D. 1057, G. V. Rammurti, Ibid., IV, pp. 183-93, Pls. b. pp. 190-91; (Table D4).*
3. Arasavalli plates of Vajrahasta of A.D. 1060, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 310-16, Pls. f. pp. 312, 314 & 315.
4. Madras museum plates of Vajrahasta of A.D. 1062, S. Konow, Ibid., IX, pp. 94-98, Pls. b. pp. 96-97.
Northern India
Pratihāra Inscriptions
1. Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Trilochanapala of A.D. 1027, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVIII, pp. 33-35, Pl. f. p., 34.
2. Kara inscription of Yasahpala, D. R. Sahni, JRAS, 1927, Pl. f. p., 694. 3. Two Pratihara grants from Kuretha of Malayavarman & Naravarman of A.D. 1220 & 1247, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXX, pp. 143-52, Pls. b. pp. 148-49; (Tables F3 & N34).*
4. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Malayakshitisa of A.D. 1225, Ibid., XXXVIII, Pl. f. p., 306.
5. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Malayakshamapala of A.D. 1225, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 306.
6. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Malayavarman's time, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 307.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
7. Gangol Tank-Bed inscription of Naravarman's time, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 308.
126
Gāhaḍavāla Inscriptions
1. Dubi stone inscription of the time of Gahadavalas, A. S. Altekar, JUPHS, V, pp. 86-88, Pl. f. P., 88.
2. Chandravati plate of Chandradeva of A.D. 1090, S. Konow, EI, IX, pp. 302-05, Pl. f. p., 304.
3. Chandravati plates of Chandradeva of A.D. 1093 & 1097, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., pp. 192-209, Pls. b. pp. 192-93; (Tables D6 & N35).*
4. Allahabad museum plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1114, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 176-80, Pl. f. p., 179.
5. Three new copper plate grants of Govindachandra from Raiwan of A.D. 1123-28, A. Fuhrer, JASB, LVI, pp. 106-23, Pls. VI-VIII.
6. Maner plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1126, R. Sarma, JBORS, II, pp. 441-47, Pl. f. p., 445.
7. Kamauli plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1126, F. Kielhorn, EI, IV, pp. 97-100, Pl. f. p., 100; (Table 4).*
8. Kamauli plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1127, R. K. Ghoshal, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 68-74, Pl. f. p., 72.
9. Copper plate inscription of Govindachandra of A.D. 1129, H. Sastri, Ibid., XIII, pp. 295-97, Pl. f. P., 297.
10. Sahet-Mahet plate of Govindachandra of A.D. 1129, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., XI, pp. 20-26, Pl. f. P., 24.
11. Rajghat plates of Govindachandra of A.D. 1140, Krishna Deva, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 268-73, Pls. b. pp. 272-73.
12. Unao Suvratnath image inscription of the time of Govindachandra of A.D. 1153, D. C. Sircar, IHQ, XXX, pp. 185-88. Pl. f. p., 184. 13. Sarnath inscription of Kumaradevi, S. Konow, EI, IX, pp. 319-28, Pl. f. p., 324.

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14. Spurious grant of Vijayachandra of A.D. 1166, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 153-58, Pl. b. pp. 156-57.
15. Some Gahadaval grants, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXV, pp. 201-20 & Pls.; (Table N35).*
127
16. A Buddhist inscription from Bodh-Gaya of reign of Jayachchandra of A.D. 119X, N. B. Sanyal, IHQ, V, pp. 14-30, Pl. f. p., 17; (Table E1).* 17. Lucknow Museum plate of Jayachchandra of A.D. 1180, N. P. Chakravarti, Ibid., XXIV, pp. 291-95, Pls. b. pp. 294-95.
Inscriptions of the Kalachuri of Sarayūpāra
1. Kasia stone inscription, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. LXI. 2. Kahla plates of Sodhadeva of A.D. 1079, Ibid., Pl. LXII. Inscriptions of the Kalachuri of Tripuri
1. Makundpur stone inscription of Gangeyadeva of A.D. 1019, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl. XXXVII.
2. Paikore inscription of Karna (proto-Bengali), Ibid., Pl. XXXIX.
3. Inscriptions of Karna, Ibid., Pls. XXXVIII & XL-XLIV; (Table D5).*
4. Tewar inscription of Gayakarna of A.D. 1151, Ibid., Pl. XLVII.
5. Khairha and Jabalpur plates of Yasahakarna, Ibid., Pls. XLV & XLVI.
6. Bhera-Ghat, Lal-Pahad, Alha-Ghat inscriptions of Narasimha, Ibid., Pls. XLIX-LI.
.
7. Jabalpur, Rewa, plates and Tewar, inscriptions of Jayasimha, Ibid., Pls. LII-LV.
8. Rewa and Bhera-Ghat inscription of Vijayasimha, Ibid., Pls. LVILVIII.
9. Jhulpur and Umariya plates of Vijayasimha, JESI, VII, Pl. XIX-XXI. Inscriptions of the Kalachuri of Ratanapur
1. Raipur and Amoda plates of Prithvideva I, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pls. LXIII-LXIV.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
2. Ratanpur & Pali inscription of Jajalladeva I, Ibid., Pl. LXV; (Table N36).* 3. Sheorinarayan, Sarakho, Akalatara and Paragaon inscriptions of Rat
nadeva II, Ibid., Pls. LXVI-LXVIII & CI; (Table E6).* 4. Inscriptions of Prithvideva II, Ibid., Pls. LXIX-LXXVIII & CII; (Table N37).* 5. Mallar, Sheorinarayan and Amoda inscriptions of Jajalladeva II, Ibid.,
LXXIX-LXXXI; (Table E7).* 6. Kharod inscription of Ratnadeva III, Ibid., Pl. LXXXII. 7. Pendrabandha plates of Pratapamalla, Ibid., Pl. LXXXIII. 8. Bilaigarh plates of Pratapamalla, Ibid., Pl. LXXXIV. Chandella Inscriptions 1. Nanyaur plate of Dhangadeva of A.D. 1050, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVI, pp.
204-07, Pl. f. p., 206. 2. Ajayagadh inscription of Kirttivarman, S. L. Katare, EI, XXX, pp.
87-90, Pl. f. p., 90; (Table N38).* 3. Bharat Kala Bhavan plate of Madanvarman of A.D. 1135, D. C.
Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 118-22, Pl. f. p., 122. 4. Plate of Madanavarmadeva of A.D. 1138, F. Kielhorn, IA, XVI, pp.
207–10, Pl. f. p., 208. 5. Semra plates of Paramardideva of A.D. 1167, W. Cartellieri, EI, IV,
pp. 166-67, Pls. b. pp. 166-67. 6. Mahoba plates of Paramardideva of A.D. 1173, Hira Lal, Ibid., XVI,
pp. 9-15, p., f. p., 12; (Table E5).* 7. Pachar plate of Paramardideva of A.D. 1176, Arthur Venis, Ibid., X,
pp. 44-49, Pls. b. pp. 48-49. 8. Bharat Kala Bhavan plates of Paramardideva of A.D. 1185 & 1190
D. C. Sircar, XXXII, pp. 123-28, Pls. f. p., 123 & b. pp. 126-27. 9. Garra plates of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1204, K. N. Dikshit, Ibid., XVI,
pp. 272-77, Pls. b. pp. 274-75.

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129
10. Saugor plate of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1207, Barua & Chakravarty,
JBBRAS, NS, XXIII, pp. 47-51, Pl. f. p. 52. 11. Tehri plate of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1208, S. L. Katare, EI, XXXI,
pp. 70-73, Pl. f. p., 72. 12. Dhureti plates of Trailokyamalla of A.D. 1212, V. V. Mirashi, CII,
IV, Pl. LX. 13. Ramvan plate of Trailokyavarman of A.D. 1226, EI, XXXVIII, pp.
269–74, Pl. f. p., 272. 14. Ajayagadh inscription of Nana of A.D. 1288, H. L. Srivastava, Ibid.,
XXVIII, pp. 98-107, Pl. f. p., 102; (Table F2).* 15. Charkhari plate of Hammiravarmadeva of A.D. 1289, Hira Lal, Ibid.,
XX, pp. 134-36, Pl. f. p., 136. Paramāra Inscriptions 1. Udepur Prasasti of the king of Malwa, Bühler, EI, I, pp. 222-38, Pl. f.
p., 234. 2. Three Paramara inscriptions from Malwa, K. N. Sastri, Ibid., XXXI,
pp. 25-30, Pls. b. pp. 28-29. 3. Mahudi plates of Bhoja of A.D. 1017, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp.
215-18, Pls. b. pp. 218-19. 4. Banswara plates of Bhojadeva of A.D. 1019, E. Hultzsch, Ibid., XI,
pp. 181-83, Pls. b. pp. 182-83; (Table D,).* 5. Betma plates of Bhoja of A.D. 1019, D. B. Diskalkar, Ibid., XVIII,
pp. 320-25, Pls. b. pp. 322-23. 6. Sasan of Bhoja of Dhar of A.D. 1021, N. G. Kirtne, IA, VI, pp. 53-55,
Pls. f. pp. 53 & 54. 7. New plates of king Bhoja in the Indore Museum of A.D. 1022.
Ojha, IHQ, VIII. pp. 305-15, Pls. f. pp. 305 & 312. 8. Modas plate of the time of Bhoja, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXIII, pp.
192-98, Pls. b. pp. 196-97.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
9. Bhojapur fragmentary inscription of the time of Bhoja, D. C. Sircar,
Ibid., XXXV, pp. 185-86, Pl. f. p., 186. 10. Mandhata plates of Jayasimha of A.D. 1055, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., III,
pp. 46-50, Pl. f. p., 50. 11. Udayapur inscription of Udayaditya of A.D. 1080, Ramsharma, Ibid.,
XXXVIII, pp. 281-84, Pls. b. pp. 282-83. 12. Bhojapur inscription of the time of Naravarman of A.D. 1100, D. C.
Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, p., 186, Pl. f. p., 186. 13. Arthuna inscription of the time of Vijayaraja of A.D. 1109 R. R.
Halder, Ibid., XXI, pp. 50-55, Pl. f. p., 52. 14. Kadambapadraka grant of Naravarman of A.D. 1110, R. D. Banerji,
Ibid., XX, pp. 105-08, Pls. b. pp. 106-07. 15. Raipur plate of Naravarman, Rungevalli Recent Researches in Indol
ogy, Pls. 17-20.
16. Mahakalesvara Temple inscription of the time of Naravarman, K. N.
Sastri, EI, XXXI, pp. 25-28, Pls. b. pp. 28-29. 17. Dongargaon inscription of the time of Jaggadeva of A.D. 1112, V. V.
Mirashi, Ibid., XXVI, pp. 177-85, Pl. f. p., 183. 18. Jodhpur museum inscription of Visala of A.D. 1117, G. S. Gai, Ibid.,
XXXVII, pp. 222-24, Pl. f. p., 224. 19. Bhopal plates of Mahakumar Harischandradeva of A. D. 1157, N. P.
Chakravarti, Ibid., XXIV, pp. 225-34, Pls. b. pp. 232-33. 20. Abu Plates of Dharavarsha, R. R. Halder, IA, LVI, pp. 47-51, Pls. b.
pp. 50-51. 21. Dhar prasasti of Arjunavarman, E. Hultzsch, EI, VIII, pp. 96-122, Pls.
f. pp. 106, 112 & 116. 22. Harsauda inscription of Devapala of A.D. 1218, Burgess & B. L. Indraji,
ICTWI, pp. 11-12, last plate.

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The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
23. Dhanta image inscription of Somasimha of A.D. 1220, C. L. Suri, EI, XXXVII, pp. 209-11, Pl. f. p., 211.
131
24. Mandhata plates of Devapala of A.D. 1225, F. Kielhorn, Ibid., IX, pp. 103-16, Pls. b. pp. 110-11; (Table N39).*
25. Bhilsa inscription of the time of Jayasimha of A.D. 1263, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXV, pp. 187-88, Pl. f. p., 187.
26. Pathari inscription of the time of Jayasimhadeva II of A. D. 1269, Ramsharma, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 33-34, Pl. f. p., 34.
27. Mandhata plates of Jayasimha-Jayavarman of A.D. 1274, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 138-56, Pls. b. pp. 148-49, 150-51, 154-55 & f. p., 156; (Table F4).*
28. Girvad stone inscription of the time of Pratapasimha, H. V. Trivedi, CII, VII, Pl. II, pp. 270-77, Pl. LXXXII.
Chahaman Inscriptions
1. Sevadi plates of Ratnapala of A.D. 1119, Ram Karna, EI, XI, pp. 304-13, Pls. b. pp. 310-11.
2. A Chahaman inscription of A.D. 1132, C. L. Suri, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 163-64, Pl. f. p., 164.
3. Nadol plates of Kirtipala of A.D. 1161, Ram Karna, IA, XL, pp. 144-47, Pls. b. PP. 144-45; (Table E11).*
4. Bamner plate of Kelhana of A.D. 1163 & 1166, M. B. Garde, EI, XIII, pp. 206-11, Pls. b. pp. 208-209.
5. Anvalda pillar inscription of Somesvara and Prithviraja III, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 278-81, Pl. f. P., 281.
6. Menal inscription of the time of Prithviraja of A.D. 1169, Ram Sharma, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 155-58, Pl. f. p., 320.
7. Barla inscription of the time of Prithviraja III of A.D. 1177, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXII, pp. 299-304, Pl. f. P., 303.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
8. Two Songira Chauhan inscriptions from Barlut of A.D. 1226 & 1273,
Sircar & Ramesh, Ibid., XXXVI, pp. 33-38, Pls. b. pp. 36-37. 9. Menal inscription of Meghanand of A.D. 1255, Ram Sharma, Ibid.,
XXXVII, pp. 155-58, Pl. f. p., 158. 10. Nun inscription of Sodhadeva of A.D. 1279, C. L. Suri, Ibid., XXXVII,
pp. 305-06, Pl. f. p., 306. 11. Inscription of the time of Hammir of Ranthambhor of A.D. 1288, Ibid.,
XIX, pp. 45-52, Pl. f. p., 50; (Tables Fs & N40).* 12. Varda inscription of Samantasimha of A.D. 1290, C. L. Suri, Ibid.,
XXXVIII, pp. 43-54, Pl. f. p., 45.
Miscellaneous 1. Rajapur plates of Nagavamsi Madhurantakadeva of A.D. 1065, Hira
Lal, EI, IX, pp. 174-81, Pls. b. pp. 178-79; (Table D7).* 2. Kadmal plates of Guhila Vijayasimha of A.D. 1083, A. K. Vyas, EI,
XXXI, pp. 237-48, Pls. b. pp. 246-47; (Table D10).* 3. Dubkund inscription of Kachchhapaghata Vikramasimha of A.D. 1088,
ASIR, XX, Pls. XXI & XXIII. 4. Kalanjar inscription of A.D. 1090, S. L. Katare, EI, XXXI, pp. 163
66, Pl. f. p., 165. 5. Sas-Bahu Temple inscription of Kachchhapaghata Mahipala of A.D.
1093, F. Kielhorn, IA, XV, pp. 33-46, Pl. f. p., 36; (Table D8).* 6. Lucknow Museum plate of Kirtipala of A.D. 1110, F. Kielhorn, EI,
VII, pp. 93-98, Pls. b. pp. 96-97. 7. Paldi inscription of Guhila Arisimha of A.D. 1116, A. K. Vyas, Ibid.,
XXX, pp. 8-12, Pl. f. p., 10; (Tables E10 & N41).* 8. Kamauli plate of Singar Vatsaraja of A.D. 1134, F. Kielhorn, Ibid.,
XI, pp. 130-33, Pls. b. pp. 24-25.

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133
9. Jain inscription from Shergarh of A.D. 1134, D. C. Sircar, Ibid.,
XXXI, pp. 81-86, Pl. f. p., 84. 10. Mahaban prasasti of A.D. 1150, G. Bühler, Ibid., II, pp. 275-79, Pls.
b. pp. 274-75. 11. Delhi Siwalik inscription of Visaladeva of A.D. 1163, F. Kielhorn, IA,
XIX, pp. 215-19, Pl. f. p., 218. 12. Durgapur pedestal inscription of A.D. 1169, ASI, ARIE, 1963-64, p.,
64 (132), Pl. II. 13. Sihawa inscription of Kakair Karnaraja of A.D. 1192, Hira Lal, EI,
IX, pp. 182-87, Pl. f. p., 186; (Table Eg).* 14. Two inscriptions of Ajayapaladeva of A.D. 1192 & 1194, Ramasharma,
Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 132-34, Pls. b. pp. 132-33. 15. Machhalisahar plate of Harischandradeva of Kanauja of A.D. 1196,
Hirananda, Ibid., X, pp. 93-100, Pls. b. pp. 98-99. 16. Bhopal plates of Udayavarman of A.D. 1199, J. F. Fleet, IA, XVI, pp.
252-56, Pls. b. pp. 256-57; (Table Ey).* 17. Jhansi inscription of Sallakshanasimha, F. Kielhorn, EI, I, pp. 214-17,
Pl. f. p., 216. 18. Thakarda inscription of the time of Surapaladeva, R. R. Halder, IA,
LVI, pp. 216-17, Pl. f. p., 226. 19. Narayanpal inscription of Naga Gunda Mahadevi, Hiralal, EI, IX, pp.
311-16, Pl. f. p., 314. 20. Chittoragarh inscription, ASI, AREI, 1956-57, p., 84 (473), Pl. III. 21. Pujaripali inscription of Gopaladeva, V. V. Mirashi, CII, IV, Pl.
XCIV. 22. Thankpar plates of Somavamsi Pamparajadeva of A.D. 1213 & 1214,
Ibid., Pl. XCVI (A-B). 23. Bhera-Ghat inscription of A.D. 1218, ICTWI, p. 105-11, Pl. inscrip
tion I.

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Development of Nāgarī Script
24. Unchahra fragmentary inscription of A.D. 1237, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXIII,
pp. 121-24, Pl. f. p., 124. 25. Jain inscription at the Temple of Neminath on Mount Abu of Tejapal
of A.D. 1230, H. Lüders, Ibid., VIII, pp. 219-22, Pl. f. p., 212. 26. Baraudi inscription of the time of Gopala of A.D. 1279, D. C. Sircar,
Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 31-35, Pl. f. p., 34; (Table N42).* 27. Narwar inscription of the time of Gopala of A.D. 1282, D. C. Sircar,
Ibid., XXXIII, pp. 36-40, Pl. f. p., 40. 28. Inscriptions of the time of Gopala of A.D. 1281 & 1284, D. C. Sircar,
Ibid., XXXI, pp. 323-36, Pls. b. pp. 326-27. 29. Inscription of A.D. 1283 from Survaya, M. S. Bhat, Ibid., XXXVIII,
pp. 263-66, Pl. f. p., 264. 30. Two inscription of the time of Ganapati of A.D. 1293 & 1298, D. C.
Sircar, EI, XXXII, pp. 339-46, Pls. f. pp. 342 & 346. 31. Budhera inscription of A.D. 1294, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIII, pp.
163-66, Pl. f. p., 165. 32. Lal-Darwaja Masjid inscription of A.D. 1296, ASIR, XI, Pl. XXXVII (3). 33. Fragmentary. Yajvapala inscription from Narwara, D. C. Sircar, EI,
XXXIII, pp. 65-70, Pl. f. p., 68. 34. Ajayagadh inscription, ASIR, XXI, Pls. XIII-XIV. 35. Rajaghat inscription of Bhimadeva, D. C. Sircar, EI, XXXII, pp. 277-82,
Pl. f. p., 281. 36. Rataul plate of Chahadadeva, D. R. Sahni, Ibid., XII, pp. 221-24, Pl.
f. p., 224.
Western India and the Deccan Chālukya Inscriptions 1. Kauthem Plates of Vikramaditya V of A.D. 1008, Fleet, IA, XVI, pp.
15-24, Pls. b. pp. 22-23; (Table D12).*

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2. Miraj plates of Jayasimha II of A.D. 1024, L. D. Barnett, EI, XII, pp. 303-15, Pls. b. pp. 312-13.
135
3. Mumdaka grant of Bhimadeva of A.D. 1029, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 35-37, Pl. f. p., 36.
4. Copper-plates of Somesvara I of A.D. 1047, IAR, 1974-75, Pl. XLVIII. 5. A Copper-plate grant of Trilochanapala of A.D. 1050, H. H. Dhruva, IA, XII, pp. 196-205, Pls. b. pp. 202-03; (Table N43).*
6. Paliad plates of Bhimadeva I of A.D. 1055, A. L. Basham, EI, XXXIII, pp. 235-37, Pl. f. p., 236; (Table D11).*
7. Bhadresvar plates of Bhimadeva I of A.D. 1060, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 37-40, Pl. f. p., 39; (Table D11).*
8. Palanpur plates of Bhimadeva of A.D. 1063, K. N. Dikshit, Ibid., XXI, pp. 171-72, Pl. f. p., 172.
9. Two sets of Chalukya copper plate from Navasari of A.D. 1074, G. V. Acharya, JBBRAS, XXVI, pp. 250-64, Pl. f. p., 264.
10. Tilgundi grant of Tribhuvanamalla of A.D. 1083, S. P. Pandit, IA, I, pp. 80-84, Pls. b. pp. 80-81.
11. Sitabaldi inscription of the time of Vikramaditya VI of A.D. 1086, F. Kielhorn, EI, III, pp. 304-06, Pl. f. P., 306.
12. Nilagund plates of Vikramaditya VI of A.D. 1087 & 1123, L. D. Barnett, Ibid., XII, pp. 142-55, Pls. b. pp. 152-53; (Table E16).*
13. Sunak plates of king Karna I of A.D. 1091, E. Hultzsch, Ibid., I, pp. 316-18, Pls. b. pp. 316-17.
14. Ganesvadi inscription of the time of Tribhubanmalla of A.D. 1099, V. M. Kolte, Ibid., XXXVIII, pp. 289-304, Pls. b. pp. 290-91 & f. p., 292.
15. A Chalukya grant of A.D. 1207, E. Hultzsch, IA, XI, pp. 337-40, Pls. b. pp. 338-39.

Page #237

136
Development of Nāgarī Script
16. Patan plates of Bhimadeva II, H. H. Dhruva, IA, XI, pp. 71-73, Pls. b.
pp. 72-73. 17. Veraval inscription of Bhima II, V. P. Joharapurkar, EI, XXXIII, pp.
117-20, Pl. f. p., 120; (Table E12).* 18. Mount Abu inscription of the reign of Bhimadeva II of A.D. 1230, H.
Lüders, EI, VIII, pp. 200-29, Pls. f. pp. 212 & 222. 19. Veraval inscription of Arjuna of A.D. 1264, D. C. Sircar, Ibid., XXXIV,
pp. 143-52, Pl. f. p., 148; (Table F6).* 20. Desan inscription of the time of Karna of A.D. 1297, C. C. Das Gupta,
Ibid., XXXIV, pp. 153-56, Pl. f. p., 152. Silāhāra Inscriptions. 1. Kharepatan & Balipattan plates of Rattaraja of A.D. 1008-1010, V. V.
Mirashi, CII, IV, Pls. LXXIX-LXXXVII. 2. Thana plates of Arikesarin of A.D. 1017, Ibid., Pl. XXI. 3. Inscriptions of Chittaraja of A.D. 1026-1034, Ibid., Pls. XXII-XXXIV;
(Table D14).* 4. Thana plates of Nagarjuna of A.D. 1039, Ibid., Pls. XXXV-XXXVI. 5. Inscriptions of Mummuniraja of A.D. 1048-1060, Ibid., Pls. XXXVII
XLIV; (Table N44).* 6. Inscription of Anantadeva I of A.D. 1081-1094, Ibid., Pls. XLV-L;
(Table D15).* 7. Talale and Kolhapur inscriptions of Gandaraditya of A.D. 1110-1126,
Ibid., Pls. XCII-XCVI & C-CI; (Table 13).* 8. Inscriptions of Aparaditya of A.D. 1127-1138, Ibid., LI-LVII. 9. Panhale plates of Vikramaditya of A.D. 1139, Ibid., Pls. LVIII-LXI. 10. Inscriptions of Haripaladeva of A.D. 1148-1154, Ibid., LXII-LXV. 11. Chiplun and Bassein inscriptions of Mallakarjuna of A.D. 1156-1161,
Ibid., Pls. LXVI-LXVII.

Page #238

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
137
12. Inscriptions of Aparaditya II of A.D. 1184-1186, Ibid., Pls. LXVIII
LXX. 13. Kolhapur inscription of Bhoja II of A.D. 1190-93, Ibid., Pl. CXII
CXIII; (Table E14).* 14. Bassein stone inscription of Anantadeva II of A.D. 1198, Ibid., Pl.
LXXI; (Table N45).* 15. Inscriptions of Keshideva II of A.D. 1203-39, Ibid., Pls. LXXII-LXXIV. 16. Ranvad inscription of Somesvara of A.D. 1259, Ibid., Pl. LXXV. 17. Chanje inscription of Somesvara of A.D. 1260, Ibid., Pl. LXXVI. Kadamba Inscriptions 1. Savai-Vere plates of Guhalladeva II of A.D. 1038, M. G. Dikshit,
JUPHS, XVIII, pp. 174-95, Pls. b. pp. 194-95. 2. Ittagi plates of Jayakeshi of A.D. 1062, IA, AR, 1974-75, Pl. XLVII;
(Table D16).* 3. Copper-plate grant of Tribhuvanamalla of A.D. 1106, P. B. Desai, EI,
XXX, pp. 71-77, Pls. b. pp. 76-77. 4. Asoge plates of Jayakeshin of A.D. 1133, G. H. Khare, Ibid., XXVI, pp.
304-09, Pls. b. pp. 308-09; (Table E15).* 5. Savaragaon inscription of Marudadeva of A.D. 1164, Prachin Marathi
Koriv Lekh, Pl. 13. 6. Sadasivagad plates of Vijayaditya of A.D. 1180, P. B. Desai, EI,
XXIX, pp. 29-32, Pls. b. pp. 30-31. 7. Dodavad plates of Jayakeshi III of A.D. 1209, R. N. Guruv, JESI, III,
pp. 43-68, Pls. f. pp. 48, 50, 52 & 54. 8. Gadivore grant of Sharthadeva II of A.D. 1262, G. S. Gai, EI, XXXIV,
pp. 107-12, Pls. b. pp. 108-09. Yādava Inscription 1. Kalås-Budrukh plates of Bhillam III of A.D. 1026, J. F. Fleet, IA
XVII, pp. 117-22, Pls. b. pp. 118-19; (Table D13).*

Page #239

138
Development of Nāgarī Script
2. Two Yadava charters from Devalali of A.D. 1052, S. Sankaranar
ayanan, EI, XXXVII, pp. 74-84, Pls. b. pp. 80-81. 3. Asvi Plates of Airamadeva of A.D. 1098, G. S. Gai, Ibid., XXXVI, pp.
249-56, Pls. b. pp. 252-53. 4. Yadava Inscription of A.D 1141, B. L. Indraji, IA, XII, pp. 119-29, Pl.
f. p., 126. 5. Yadava Inscription from Patan of A.D. 1153, Bühler, Ibid., VIII, pp.
39-42, Pl. f. p., 40. 6. The Sakalesvara Temple inscription of Kholesvara of A.D. 1228,
YIAJ, Pl. f. p., 5. 7. The Yogesvari Temple inscription of Kholesvara, Ibid., Pl. f. p., 37. 8. Prakasa inscription of Simhana's Time of A.D. 1234, Sircar & Sub
rahmanyam, EI, XXXVI, pp. 19-22, Pl. f. p., 21. 9. Karalahalli grant of Simhana of A.D. 1238, J. F. Fleet, JBBRAS, XV,
pp. 382-90, Pls. b. pp. 386-87. 10. Amba inscriptions of Simhana of A.D. 1240, ASWI, III, Pl. LVIII. 11. Dharwar plates of the time of Simhana, Sircar & Sankaranarayanan,
EI, XXXIV, Pls. b. pp. 38-39, & f. p., 41. 12. The Ramanarayan Temple inscription of Lakshmi of A.D. 1240, YIAJ,
Pl. f. p., 49. 13. Tasgaon plates of Krishna of A.D. 1250, G. H. Khare, EI, XXVII, pp.
206-16, Pls. b. pp. 212-13. 14. Methi inscription of Krishna of A.D. 1254, P. B. Desai, Ibid., XXVIII,
pp. 312-20, Pl. f. p., 319; (Table N46).* 15. Kalegaon plates of Mahadeva of A.D. 1260, D. G. Kaparkar, Ibid.,
XXXII, pp. 31-44, Pls. b. pp. 38-39 & 42-43; (Table F7)* 16. Thana plates of the time of Ramachandra of A.D. 1272, L. D. Barnett,
Ibid., XIII, pp. 198-206, Pls. b. pp. 200-201.

Page #240

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
139
17. Unkesvara inscription of Ramachandra of A.D. 1280, Inscriptions
from Nanded District, Pl. XVIII. Miscellaneous 1. Dive Agar Marathi copper charter of A.D. 1060, M. G. Dikshit, EI,
XXVIII, pp. 121-24, Pl. f. p., 124. 2. Kondguli inscription of Bhuvalokamalla of A.D. 1132, K. V. Ramesh,
Ibid., XXXVII, pp. 189-92, Pls. b. pp. 192-93. 3. Balsane inscription of the time of Krishna of A.D. 1184, M. G. Dikshit,
EI, XXVI, pp. 309-13, Pl. f. p., 312. 4. Society's Museum plate of A.D. 1187, B. L. Indraji, JBBRAS, XII, pp.
329-35, Pl. f. p., 334. 5. Inscription of Kakatiya Ganapati of A.D. 1199, IAR, 1958-59, Pl.
LXVIII. 6. Karnatak copper plate grant of Hoysala Vira-Ballala of A.D. 1204, KI,
I, Pls. f. pp. 58, 60, 62 & 64; (Table Fg).* 7. Inscription from the Temple of Vastupal Tejapala of A.D. 1231, ASWI,
AKK, Pl. XXXV. 8. Veraval inscription of A.D. 1246, F. Kielhorn, EI, III, pp. 302-04, Pls.
b. pp. 306-07. 9. Grant of Maharajakula Jaitrasimhadeva of A.D. 1290, Sadhu Ram, EI,
XXXII, pp. 220-28; (Table N47).*

Page #241

140
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plates 91-120
(11th Century)
Table Inscription
Date in Reference A.D.
Bihar grant of Saurāditya
1020
Gauhāțī grant of Indrapāla Guākuchi grant of Indrapāla
-
Mahulpara plates of Mahāśivagupta-Dharmarath Nadagām plates of Vajrahasta
1057
Goharwā Plates of Karna Chandrāvati plates of Chandra
DO
1093 & 1099
EI, XXXV. Pls. b. pp. 134-35. KŚ, Pl. f. p., 91. KŚ, Pl. f. p., 102. EI, XXXVII, Pls. b. pp. 228-29. EI, IV, Pls. b. pp. 190-91. CII, IV, Pl. XL. EI, XIV, Pls. b. pp. 192-93 & f. pp. 196 & 198. EI, IX, pls. b. pp. 178-79. IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 36. EI, XI, Pls. b. pp. 182-83. EI, XXXI, Pls. b. pp. 246-47. EI, XXXIII, Pl. f. p., 236. EI, XXXVII, Pl. f. p., 39.
Rājapur plates of Madhurantak
1065
Dg
Sās-Bahū inscription of Mahīpāla Banswārā plates of Bhoja
1093 1019
Dio
Kadmāl plates of Vijayasimha
1083
Paliād plates of Bhīma I
1055
Bhadreśvar plates of Bhima I
1060

Page #242

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
141
D12
Kauthem plates of Vikramāditya V
1008
D13
1026
Kalas-Budrukh plates of Bhil- lam III Bhandup plates of Chhittarāja
IA, XVI, Pls. b. pp. 22-23. IA, XVII, Pls. b. pp. 118-19. CII, VI, Pls. XXIIXXIV CII, VI, Pls. XLVIL.
D14
1026
Dis
Kharepāțaņ plates of Ananta I
1094
D16
Ittagi plates of Jayakeśi I
1062
IA, AR: 1974-75, Pl. XLVI.

Page #243

11th CENTURY A.D.'
PLATE 91
D. 10
ou 02 03 04 05 06
....असा भ्रम मात्र 5 मम | क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क क
MAN
AA अवा
1405 गएराग गवा कर गजग | aaaa
ब
ca सय तर तर रतनत
कछ का 555 5/555 3 3 35555
CHH
ट
ट ट टटट ट ट ट ट ट ट ट]
ठठ | ड 533333333ड.
naलातल प mmmm mance - हात त तात तत त त त त तातात

Page #244

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 92
4 22/aa चघ • वरद दर दर दर द द द द ददद O la la laccalalalalala lalala sa | नन मन न न न न न न न न न न न | Rauuuu प प प प पपपप | Braकप पर
कपकपा
| an दर 3 रु त त द स स स स ह क क रून | म म म म म म म म म म म म म म मम | य म रा य य य य या य या या ययाम | RT R र र र र र र र र | ल ल लल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल Iv lalalalalalalalalalalaaaaaa | sssn M/s700 S700ra (नराश | SEE बघषबष घ वहाब
स मस स स स स स स स स स स तहत दस दाह हह ह ह ह हद

Page #245

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 93
Dj | ০
| 03 | |
১u | ০s | ০% | 07 | ০s | 09 | Dr | 0
1 Da | D3 ] 0w Top 1D6
M... হৃ| জ ৷ ৷ 3] সঙ্গে সুস) | কাফ কক কক কাম কা কা কা কা
ড জ
| | | ||
myb|সংবা ঠা ঠা করে যায় |
ঘ ম আ আ ম স ম ম ঘ। মা
•
য য
ব ব ব
ব ব ব ব ব ব বা
||মজা এম এ জ জ জ
জ জ ম
||
S
st|
|||
|-|cdczqলতে গেলে ত| | || | || ম নানান নব নব নবব।

Page #246

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 94
en21 थाहा हा हा हा aala | सारदा दादा दादा राडा दा दा दा दा दादा | on a वा का दावा | नाना या मा ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना |: पायाच्या पापा या पापा पा पा या पायाया।
का स मान हा माझा सादा दर सा र साना
समा गा मा मा मा म मामा मामा मामा मामा • या या या या या या या या या या या या या या या या | रा रा रा रा स रा रा रा रा रा रा रा रा सारा | लाला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला |v या वा वा वा वा वा दादा वा वा वा वा वा वा वा वा | sst smail | रामाशाशा मा ersal | sa Runासाला पाया घायापा | सासा सासा सासा सा साया सा सा सा सा जातामा
nanहा हा हा हा हा हा हा हा हा हा हा हा हा

Page #247

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 95
|kalnaक कि क
कक कि कि Kala खत लिख (रव लव | ज मना
गजल
ahelala G
ra aaaa
CHH
|- e CCE 2 cee (ट
| 0 বেছে বেকেলে যি যে কে তে বলেতে तमिलतविलिततिति तिaalaa

Page #248

11th CENTURY A.D.
Ds
Do
Dt D12 D13 D14 D15 D16
8 a
দ্ব থে
घि
TH
• ६ ६ ६ ६ ६ दि दि दि १ दि दि दि दि दि दि दि
D
N
PH
B
M
>
D1
Y
Dr @aa @ वि वि त त य व वि. वि. a वि @ Ca
DH
नि नि नि नि नि नि नि नि नि नि नि कि नि वि नि न
P
(ये ही घिय पि पि पि पि पि
पि पि पि पि पि पि
D 2
ś
SH स
S
D 3
BH हि. (ऊ रि रि नि ति दि মমिমि
री शि
२ दिन र
R
- लिल लि
L
H
D4

Dy
(म
वि घि
ल
लिलिलि लिलिलि लि लि लि लि
लिलि ल (2 (1 वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि
Y
ধ ধ शিशि বিশ
ফ) श घষठ
(म
H
D8
g
स सि सि सि ह्रि दे हि हि हि हि
D9 D 10
मि मिमि म भि मि ছ
(27
ट
रि
PLATE 96
हि हि हि कि कि
मिमि म
यि घि
व
घि
घिषि
( स सि सि सि सि सि सि सि हि हि हि हि ह्नि दि
हि हि

Page #249

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 97
D,
D2
D2
Du
Ds
Do 10, 10. 10. 10 10
10
10 12 103 104 105 10 16
की का ही की की की काका की की की की की की की
गोपी सीवी
डाडाका डीडी 50 का
Inclemlsponent
मी मानती हा
पी ला ला ती ती ती नी ती ती

Page #250

1lth CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 98
D, D2 103 104 105 106
1or 10. 10. 10
ou 10120o en los 1016
रानडी दीदी दीदीदी दीदी दीदी दो Daal | मोना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना नी भीनी ना याची या पापीया यी
| याची टी
टी
चललाली लाली लाली लाली ला ला ला ला Enlala ववी वी
वी वी वी वी ।
या मासा सासी सी सी सी सी सीसी सालीसा

Page #251

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 99
D, 102 103 ou os olo, e. lol
Dyo
Du
D12 D12
| DW | DIS
|
क
क कु कु कु कु कु
कु
कु कु कु कु कु
८ ट
ई

Page #252

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 100
D, 102
103
Du
Ds
Do I Do
0,
D.
D, 100 ou 1012
Dis 04 D5
16
इ ८ ड ड ड र
KATNA
wor NP
20 C
|
म र य ए ए ए ए ए प पु ७ पु ए
एप
| राय | ससक
रु
लEFE
यु टयु युयु र उ उह
रु
न
A
P
| सखस सुरसु सु सु सस मुसु सु सु ससु

Page #253

lith CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 101
D, 102 103 104 105 106 10g loa
10, 10,
1
102 103 104 105 10 16
VOWEL
कक
BG
प
-23

Page #254

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 102
DI D2 103 104 105
Door Do 1o, 1oo lou012 103 104 105 1016
सू
N
| Dr वू
डू
il a not a
सयू पृ पूपू पूनमत पून
हू दूर रुसू हसू हू तू कह न सन् |
ACKGROF
राय यू
huR
हद त ।

Page #255

11th CENTURY A.D.
KH
G गृ
GH
N
CH
CHK
J
NOWEL
K ने क्रू कृ कॄ कृ कृ स कृ
JH
N
Ţ
TH
D
DH
D1
Z.
N
D 2
Te
D3 D4 Ds

D 6
2
Dy
N
Rr
2 ट ट त्
D8 Dg
ग्ट गृ गृ गृ
Q
D 10
D
PLATE 103
D12 D13 014
गृ
D 15 D16
ऋ ह ऋ ऋ कृ
ह ह ट तृ तृ

Page #256

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 163
D, 102 103 104 105 106 10
10
10
10
10
10 12 103 104 Dis
16
दाद
25
कन
न.
ममम
म
मा
Who

Page #257

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 105
E
x কি ৫ কেক কেক
কেক কাককেকে
| | | | | বেই। তা ৱিীয়তান
ও
B।
| দি কোনো দলের স ম নিনি ই নে নে |

Page #258

TH
11th CENTURY A.D.
D
DH
N
P
PH
B
BM
V
D1
5
હ
a
ন
SH
D2
D3
Du Ds
Y
R ल ल स न ल
L

D6
01
à थ
हि
M
মে ম. (ম ম ম में मि मे मे मे मै म मे मे म म
(य रा य ये (य ये ये ये ये ये य य य
र
E
D8 Do D10 D11
है दि द द द दे दे
ल ल ल ल ल ल
D 12 D13 D14 D15 C16
(घ
दे दे दे द द (द द aa व ব लावे
d
(व गि न न ने नै न नि नि में न क न न पो प
(घ व प ल ल 7
प
वि वि व ते व वे
ISL
s -
" द ह ह ह ह ह है दे
ह
ע ם
व
지
È E
स स स से स स स स स
हे
ह
PLATE 106
व ব
हि
लाल
व व
स स
द

Page #259

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 107
D, D2
D2
D4
Ds 1oo loro.
D. Do on D2 103 104 Dis 1016
ই।
বি
বি
! |
৪টি উক্তি ।
|| নে। যারন বি বি
বি 1 | |

Page #260

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 108
D
D2 D2 D4
Ds
Dg 1. og
1014 D5 D16
aia
elele
lac
CE@
Na
Dreat
a
El

Page #261

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 109
D, TD. | 0
| Dw
Do
Do
Do
Ds
Dg 100 ou 1012
013
014
Dis
Dib
TOWEL
* দেয় | কাকাকো বাইক। কে কে কে
| যে
গঙ্গা নদী। (বা ম য ১ || যে সে
| এ ভেজে জ জ ম স আজী
( zटा टो टाटा
| সেই তাে না | | না কােনো সেবার নাম নােমানবে!

Page #262

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 110
दादा दो दो या
दो टाटा दो दा
| नाना
या
माना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना को नो नो (पा (पा पा पा पायापा
लाल दासोतोको दो सौ लाना | मम (t म(
ममा मा मो मो मा (मा मामा या गाया गया हो या यो यो यो यो यो यो या या या
| लाला लोला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला
या दाब वा रे वो वो वो (दा वा वा वा || পানকে(হয় যে ৪। যাহা দে।
A ( सामाया यो मायामा यो सोसा।
हो साहो दादा

Page #263

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 111
TD2 D2 D4
Ds
Do 107 108 109 10
ou 1012
Dis
014
Dis
Dib
shun

Page #264

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 112
D
D2
D3
104
105 106
107 108 10,
oso
ou
D12
un
D14
Dis
216
ज/
| लोनावलाना
ला ला ला ला (पा (त्यो वा त्यो (पो
| G. हा कोलोतो
यो टोलि यो या टा
EDULE
जान
सायो ससा सो मा सो

Page #265

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 113
LIGATURES
KRAKSHA
KTI
KSHAM
KTRAM K PRAKRA
KCHA KTA KRAKSNA
இதை
GOWA GNÁH GRA
арнR
GRĀ
SE
NKE
NGA NSA
NGA
EN IT
CHYU
CHCHACMCHA CHYA
NCHA
NOMMA
uue
NDA
NYA
NTMA
HPA
Nyo
NDANYA
NPA
MYA
8 9
y around 30
30
1
TMA
TEMATPATYA
TKA

Page #266

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 114
LIGATURES
Dy
DHyu
DHYADAVA
ឪឪ ផ|
NTAX NMANNA
៖
NGA NOHAMMA
ev }
| z
1: ថ្មី
០៩០
២
គឺ
ឪអូជា
6H4 | 9HKA
BAYA។
ទី
MERR MEN
MYA
MURA
MN!
MOHAMRAM MAMBHA Mme MyA MRAMMAMMA MRAMVA
២ ឆ្នាំ ខ្ញុំឱ្យ
ភ្នំ
|
/
2
TRMMAN RYA
ROSA ROOMA ROMA
RAHMA RYA
គឺ
នៅ
LBNYELLA
- á/ à 1
_
ទី
ឪ a
so៥
SCHA
Śye
នៅដើ៖
ឥទៃ ៖ រ៉ាប៊ី
SVA
៖ ១៧
Sya
SVAD
|

Page #267

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 115
LIGATURES
KSMA KEHAKTAN KLAKSHA KRA
KSHA KTĀ KPRA KYA KSMA
x |
=
s
1
GINAGMAGRA
{ ២Aនដើរe ៖
|
n}\៖ ២៩a
TAJYAJRA
CHA
DYA
3
PHY
DHYA
NTHA
NTMA NDANYAM
Tva
TMA
TNA
TYA

Page #268

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 116
LIGATURES
TH
DANYADYA
DURAM
DAN
DMA
DDMR
DMADYA DVA
MT
& Mo
DHYA
DAVA
HTd.
NDRAN MMA
IN TAM
MWA
NTANDMANMANYA
BNYA
BHYAM BARA
BHyA។ | Han
MNM MOHAMAMVA
៥៖
p
ឱវាទ
ច
[edgឆ្នាំនើង
|| d4A
od. ២សន៍៧
pic|p|eg|

Page #269

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 117
LIGATURES
Do
KTYA
KPA KRAKTY KYAKRA
KTAM
KRA
K
al 27 de
fo
GAN
GOMA GMUM GRA
ou
GHYA
снення
CHCHMA
CHYA
CHCHNU
TRA
NDA
NYA
I
mean 20 Rang sama

Page #270

11th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 118
LIGATURES
DYANI DAN
DOHA
DYA
DRÁ
DVA
ODHA DYA
DVA
DIVÁ
DAARD
DHYA
DHVA
NSA
NYAM
DJ 1166 SOT
NTĀ MYANVA
NON
NPCA NM
NJÍ I 1 727 of TOEG Á gal
NYAM
PA
ВнуА | Bнка
BHYA
BNYA
MPRA
MYAN
MINI MMA MYR
LYA
should be
no2V25911
SNTA

Page #271

11th CENTURY A.D.
KTAM
KTYÄ
K तूं का বা
KHYAN
KH श
.Z
CH
CHH
GMI
GDHA
GME
GYA
GRA
GRA
G ग्रु न ग्र ग्राम य
GH
THA
JYA
व दु घ
JH
IN
D13
T.
TH
a
DH
NDI
TNYA
!! ल य
KSMA
D14

KTAM
KYA
KSHA
采出面
KHYA
GHMAM GHYA
प्र 44)
CHCHA
CHCHHA CHYA
ज्ञ ह् २)
HCHA
ca
TKA TTHA TSHA
टू ट्ठ दा
NMU
NOA
मुलु
LIGATURES
D 15
म
KTA
KLI
क्र ती क ल के
TYA
GHNA GHYAN
घ छः
CHCHA
GGA
GYA
GRA GUYA GGA GDHA
भाग या प्या मग
JTA
मा
JÄÄ JyA JRA JJA JNAN JYA
JVA
हु हु हा इ द ह घ ह हि
TTAN
ह:
DGA
CHCHHA
NOAN
THAM TPA TRA TSA JPRA IMA
TSA
TKHA TPRA TVA
नं व व स रा स च ता
Dmu
D 16
KSHA KSHNA KLA KSHAM
ल दं
KHYAH
खा
TSA
GHRA
श्रा
NKA HGA
६ ह
CHCHA CHCHHU
छू
PLATE 119
|
TTA
31
DGA
N
GMAM
GNA
HOA NOVAM
3 Q क प्यूम स
TKA TPRA
TMA TSA

Page #272

11th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
DH द
NDRA NBHA
" न रु का नू नू म न
P पाप पु
PH
B
BH
Σ
J
>
3
S.
ཆེ
H
LKYA
स
घ घ
Y
९ यँ है । द्वं “ के र्य र्ष में ६ हैं जो ६ म

LIGATURES
D 15
S
ENG
»«
SHTRA SHTHA SHYA
अ.
८००
you.net
SHTVE SHT
Plea
अ
s सू सू सास स स म स का स् त्र ख म
ED
PLATE 120
40 2247
لحم

Page #273

142
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plates 121-150
(12th Century)
Table Inscription
Date in Reference A.D.
119X
Bodh-Gayā inscription of Jayachchandra
Khonāmukh plates of Dharmapāla Bhuvaneśvar inscription of Svapneśvara Kumauli plate of Govindachandra
THQ, V, Pl. f. p., 17. KŚ, Pls. f. p., 118 & b. pp. 122-23. EI, VI, Pl. f. p., 202. EI, IV, Pl. f. p., 100. EI, XVI, Pl. f. p.,
1126
Mahobā plates of Parmardi
1173
12.
1128
Sarakho Plates of Ratnadeva Māllār inscription of Jājalla Sihāwā inscription of Karna
1167
1192
Bhopāl plates of Udayavarmā
1199
Pāldī inscription of Arisimha
1116
CII, IV, Pl. LXVII. CII, IV,Pl. LXXIX. EI, IX, Pl. f. p., 186. IA, XVI, Pls. b. pp. 256-57. EI, XXX, Pl. f. p., 10. IA, XL, Pls. b. pp. 144-45. EI, XXXIII, Pl. f. p., 120. CII, VI, Pls. C-CI.
Eu
Nādol inscription of Kīrtipāla
1161
E12
Verāval inscription of Bhīma II
-
E13
Kolhāpur plates of Gandarāditya
1126

Page #274

The Age of Maturity (11th-13th Century A.D.)
143
E14 E15
Kolhāpur inscription of Bhoja II Asoge plates of Jayakesi II
1190-93 CII, VI, Pl. CXIII. 1 133 EI, XXVI, Pls. b.
pp. 308-09 1087 & EI, XII, Pls. b. pp. 1123 152-53.
E16
Nīlagund plates of Vikramāditya
VI

Page #275

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 121
-
E,
E,
EL
EETE EED EL ELE13 JEHEEM
In a क क क क क क क क क क क क क क | Ka Rai | ख र ख व ख ख ख
गगगगगगग Janeald
| creaवववववत व वरच
CHH
1• ན
་] ན ར ར ར ར ད ན ར བ ན རྒྱུན
टटट 27
ट
टट टट
| 0 |
Nlo
ठ
hul lol
_1337
MEE
3 IN N
| लाल लल ललललल Tahaaaalalalabalaaalala

Page #276

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 122
Eu E
E
E,
E. E.
E. Eu E2 E3 Eu Eis Es
II.
ह
pm
ર ટ ટ ર ર ર ર ર ર ક ર 2 2 2.
-
0
NI
AAA
न न न न न न न न न न न न auuuuuu | Pय
15
HD15
| saनदर तन न त तर
हातात
लाभ
यय
टाय यायदा यस
Ay
|| ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ल Malaa व व व व व व व व व व
alaa शरा रा रा रा रा रा रा रा राश
INपल
OLI

Page #277

KH
E2E3 E4 ESE ET
E8 Eg E10 E1 E12 E13 E14
615 E 16
VOWEL ॠ 21 आ आ आ ञ ञा
ला आ जा अ
अ आ
K का ते? का का का का का का का का का का का का का का
থা
खा खा
खा खा
खा खा
खा
गा
जा गा गा गा गा गा
गा गालगा गा गा घा घा
144
G गा
GH
Z.
CHH
JH
Z{
TH
E1
CH वा वा वा ता ता वा वा वा वा वाचा वा
CO.
12th CENTURY A.D.
D
A
टप टय य
न
RY S7 S
ठी
घा
जा अ जा जा जा जा जा जा जा जा जा जा जा जा जा
5

डा
55
PLATE 123
डा
a
डा
DH
7
ढा
!! शा ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला
ला
ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता
टा
टा
57 डा

Page #278

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 124
EEEEEEEEE, E8 |E ENETELESEHESE
याशा माना जा कर हा या घर का वा वा • दादा या दादा दादा दादा टा दा दादा दादा दा a land se at a AA E A cat at the ta
ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना ना वाघापा पापा पा पापा पापा पापामा
फाफा
| sa ना माना ना ना ना ता ला ला | मामा मामा मामा मामा | या या या या टया या या घाट या
रा रा वा रा रा रा रा रा रा रा रा रा रा रा - ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला वा वा वा वा वा वा
वावा 5 या टाका
शा शारा शाशा
ला ला ला
मासा साया सा सा सा सा सासा सा सासा सा सा सा | दादाहाहाहा हा हा हा
दादा हा हा हा

Page #279

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 125
JE2 |ESE ES EE7
E
E
,
E to Eu
E 12E 13 E
Eis E36
VOWEL
Kalala
(ककिक किनकि
Gora ग (
N
caacaala ( ( (
aea
(चल
CHH
Feeeeeeeee
लललललल MMMMeroin aaaa त तिaala alalalalalalal

Page #280

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 126
E2 E3 Eu Es E.
E,
E8E,
E 1o
En E12 E, E14
E 15
E 16
| | | હ હ ર ઉ ઉ હરિ & ટિલિ | | paraadlalaladder a collalala (ad
Halalaनन (alalala aalalalaनिन Pak (प(
पORT (u la tu (प
Lalalala (न( Gala |Moulana (म मम (मन मि (A (न (RCH (मम मि
ययमय a य यदि | kola (RRARRRRRRRRR GR | Laल लल लल लल ललललल लल ल vaalaa aa (व विवि व व व व व व | Ecallel
शश Is
( ( (प Is Alla Ra (म CA ARARIA (AA |
Relatelete le lalal

Page #281

12th CENTURY A.D.
VOWEL
K की क की की श्री दी
KH
श्री गी
G
GH
-2
CH
CHH
J
JH
Zł
T
TH
Co.
0
DH
E, E2 E3 E4 Es E6E7 E8 Eg
N
3)
ཧ| 57

Σ'
लु
की की
I
चি
E 10 E11 E12 13 14 15 E 16
की की की की की की की की
ती जी
डी डी की जी जी जी जी जी जी
टी टी
PLATE 127
ठी
१०
ल ली
पीली गीली ला
ला ल ल ला तो ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती ती
T
जी
ટી

Page #282

12th CENTURY A.D.
PILATE 128
E, E JEE, EEEEEEEEEEEEE16
Laa दी र दी दीदी दीदी दी दीदी
[MARATी न न न न न न नी नी 1वीची घी
पीपीपी
नी नी
-
hanuman
मी
साटी PARAN
लीलाल ली ली ली तो ली लीला vaalan lal वी वी व वीवानीala al
ला शी शीशी
मोदर | શ્રી
सी सी सी सी सी सी सी सी सी सी सी सा સી સી ટી રીટી કી હી ટ્રી ટી રીટી,

Page #283

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 129
E, E2ESE५]
|E E-EE, EEEEEEEM
VOWEL
33333333 कक कु कु कु कु कु कु ऊ ऊ कुक
स
|
गु
गु गु गु गु
गु
गु गु गु गु गुगु
ट
टु
-
तु तु तु तु
तु
altd

Page #284

PLATE 130
12th CENTURY A.D.
اورE اورE اورE اورE اورE اورE اورE و
E, E1E1E1E1E1E1EلE
loc une collega
M
NO
|
ما ام لحم
ما لم
في 9 | 8
|
||
ما
صراهما
لق
و|و| agg gaggggggg[ | -| -|
ہم
م
له لكي
ا
لكن
19
ع
م
ه
S
م
a
| la ala al zal alg g
هم به
وه له عا م لكم
م
عا ه ام
| m
M
ع ا
و
له
ما ه
ا
e
|
محل بحا ه
N
المول
5
GA
ما
کیا
1A میل
888
ما |

Page #285

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 131
Ei
E,
EYES
EGELE&E, E10 EHE 12 E13 E 34 E 15 E 16
16
VOWEL
S
तून
27

Page #286

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 132
E4
ES
JEE-EE EEEREBEHESE:
।
N
(
पूपू पूल पूपू
जन
नूतन न तू लू मू तू
तू
.
मासू सू सू सू सू सू सू
N

Page #287

12th CENTURY A.D.
G
G4
/01/EL
K कृ दो थे ही कृ कृ कॄ कृ कृ कृ ऋ रू. कृ.
KH
༦
N
CH
CHH
17
e
JH
Z
7
TH
D
DH
N
E, E2 E3 Ey
ד
M

را
22
5
PEN
Es E EE8 E E10 E1 E12 E13 E14 E15 E 16
δ
BI
19
2
गृ
तृ तृ तृ तृ
2
PLATE 133
22
कृ कृ
22
12

Page #288

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 134
JE, LE
EEEEEEE, ESE,
E
E13 E14 E 15 E 16
DU
szala
UN
he

Page #289

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 135
E, EZ EZ EE, EE, EE,
E,
EHE 12
E 13
E 14
E 15
E 16
VOWEL
velupola la la
K la com la
la
la la
LG
55
38
Lalalalalalalalalalalalalala

Page #290

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 136
०६८८ र दे दे (र दे द दे दे ९ दे दद
त
25A
AG
मलने (नन न lavaa (प
MRI मे मम मममे मे मेममम
यय य य य य य य य य दो या [RRRR वर र ३ र रे रे राब
EME
ववववववववववव ar RA
श

Page #291

12th CENTURY A.D.
VOWEL
K
KH
G
GH
N
CH
CHH
J
JH
과
ד
TH
D
DW
.z
T
E, E2 E3 Eu
司
C

通
1
nc
Te
Es E6 EE8 E9 E10 E1 E12 E13 E14 E 15 E 16
पे
R
A
จ
Ax
ਹੋ
(के के के
w
元
টে
|8
के क
-
食
PLATE 137
ऐ
E
点
紅
价

Page #292

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 138
N
ने न
न न
न
Tोटो ये ये 2 टोटी र
IC
ल
ववव al
JOVE

Page #293

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 139
E, JE JE JEE, JE JE, JEs |E, IEDIEM TE TEEH Es| E16
WEL
ka alका को कोका को का को
को काका
||
यो गार (गा गो
गागो
Gaulana ता ताता तोता तो नाता तो ताता.

Page #294

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 140
|EEEE, E, EE,
E
E
, E14
Eis
E16
ala दादा दादा दा
दादा
| माला नो
नो नो नो
ना
ना ना ना ना
| लाना ला ला ला ला ला तो ता से ता
या यो तर त्या त्या यो टो। यो यो (या दो या दो या | लाला ला ला ला ला ला ला ला लो
জ চেহয় হয়তাে বা দী হয় এই ফল ঘাের | SA | वाजे
fe जिजिर
ला

Page #295

12th CENTURY. A.D.
VOWEL
* क़ी को
K
KH
G
GH
.Z
CH
CHH
ח
I
TH
1Z
Ň
T.
TH
D
DH
2.
N
E. E2 E3
T

ल
भो
E4
Es E6 E1
M
गो लग
ara
Au
Es Eg
La
कৗ
41
ন
E 10E 11 E12 E13 E 14 15 16
F
कि कৗ
PLATE 141
a
त

Page #296

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 142
EL EZE, E ES EE, ERE, EE, E2 EE14. Els E36
। दीला दो।
|
नन ना ना ना ना पा पो पोको पायो
तो लो
-
मो
मो
मो मो
म
AAMA
REC
SEUM
व
मा
HIसना
सात्यो सौ सा

Page #297

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 143
LIGATURES
FH
KTA
KRA
KSHA
KKE KTI
KSHAKTAKRA
KVAKSMA KRAKSHA Ksimi
K
st
Kansa
la
КАТА
KHYA
GNA
GRA
GVRA
GNA GRAGLA GVIGNE GRA
NGA
A
NGA NSA
NKHANGA
hire
CHCHACHCHHA CHYU
CHCHA CHCHA CHYU
CHCHNA
NCHA
NCHANTA
NCHA NCHI
DYA
INYA
NTNE NOANNA NYA NINA MPANYA

Page #298

12th CENTURY A.D.
F
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Page #299

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 145
LIGATURES
E 1
KSMA
KRA
KSNA I KSHNA KTI
KYA
KSHAKKAKSHI
Kami a
G
athle
GNI
IGRA
GOMA GRL GVÁ
GNYAGMU GRA
NKA
NGA
lus
Iz
CHCHI CNC MACHYA
CHH
JaviJYAM IVA
ÑCHA NJA
NCHI
Žay to
NTA NRA

Page #300

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 146
LIGATURES
THY
DDHA DBMI DYA
DBHA OMA
DVAM
DOA DOHA Dyu
DVAMO
AN
नम
DHYADAVA
DHYADHVA
21
NTAH NORA NOHA NMANTANMA
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NDNUNMANCHA MTANYA
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Page #301

12th CENTURY A.D.
x
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CHH
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LIGATURES
ग्रामः गू
S
ས མེ
ELT
KM
2
PLATE 147
Sar
य
ि 7 7 8 ã ã ã ã ã ã ã
泥

Page #302

12th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
HO
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P
PH
B
14
Σ
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20
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SH
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SCHA ŚRT
स त्री
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Page #303

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 149
LIGATURES
E 15
KTA KRAKSHA
KTA
KYA
KRAKSHA KTA KYA
KRAKSHA
Gay
como
NGA
CNCHA
CHCNA
CHCHHE
CMYA
tot
JYAM
JYA
SHE
1 खि KG
TAH TPRI
TTĀ
DYA

Page #304

12th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 150
LIGATURES
DDHA | De+f£À DvAn |
DGRADDHA DYA
DOMADAMU DRA
DMDHA DNYE
DHVA
ಶಿವಾ {s:8
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Page #305

144
Table Inscription
F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
Fg
Gaya inscription of the time of Sultan Muizzuddin (Ghori)
Ajayagadh inscription of Nana
References for Plates 151-162 (13th Century)
Kūreṭhā plate of Malayavarmā
Māndhātā plates of JayasimhaJayavarmā
Kavālji Temple inscription of Hammir
Veraval inscription of Arjuna
Kalegaon plates of Mahadeva
Karnatak plates of Vira-Ballala II

Development of Nāgarī Script
Date in Reference
A.D.
1200
1288
1220
1274
1288
1264
1260
1204
JBRS, LII, Pl. VII.
EI, XXVIII, Pl. f.
p., 102.
EI, XXX, Pl. f. p., 148.
EI, XXXII, Pls. b.
pp. 148-49, 15051, 154-55 & f. p., 156.
EI, XIX, Pl. f.
50.
P.,
EI, XXXIV, Pl. f.
P., 148.
EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 38-39 & 42-43.
KI, I, Pl. f. pp. 58, 60, 62 & 64.

Page #306

13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 151
FF
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J.D
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Page #307

13th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
PH
F3 F4 Fs Fo F71 Fe
घा द्या था वा वा
दादा दादा दाद
पै
वाघावा
" न न न न न न न न ना ना ना ना ना ना
P 977 aaα 4 पापा
Q. फ फ फ
| द 2 द
DH भु ५ ५ ५
B
F
BH
M
न
F2
F3 F4 Fs
Fo
aa a थ a

A
द
Footo
द द
SH घ 日
F7
घ घ
Fs | F
द
hr
एक फा
01 9
ส a
त त तत तत
म् म म म
म
य् झ झ य ा य
Rर 7 र २ - ल ल v व व व व व व व व 5 श हा श श श श श श
वा
ष
स स स स स स स स स स
H
ह ह ह द ह ह ह ह
दा हा
7
म म मा
F2
24
य टा जा जा
र २
ल ल ल ल ल ल ला ला
रा रा
वा
tod
बा बा
ता ता
साला
ता मामा मामा मा मा मा
या या या या या घा
शा
A
पा पा
PLATE 152
पा
वा वा वा
रा रा रा रा रा त
ना ना
पा पा
ला ला ला ला ला ला
वा वा
या या
ब
शा शा शा शा
घाघा घा
सा सा सा सा सा हा हा हा हा हा हा हा

Page #308

13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 153
F,
I
F3 F 4Fs
F7 | FaF
FIF,
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कि है कि किक की कीमी की की की की लिरिव विखी
man
वि
Eaa atी
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की डाका डा का
Eeee
| ल ल ल Manonीला जात |- lalia तिततिaa ता ती ती.ती ताता |

Page #309

13th CENTURY.A.D.
TH
वि घिघि शि
दि
दि (द दि
DH धि ष्ठि (द धि धि
D
P
PH
BH
3
Y
थ
दि दि दि दी दो दी दी दीदी दी दी
(ধधि वि
प्री
श्री वी धी
N
नि नि नि नि नि नि नि नि नी नी नी iu a ū ू घ
पीपी वी
R
L
F F2 F3 F4
>
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Fs F6 F
SH
Fe F1 F2 F3
जिति लि लि ति जिति लि
मि म म भ म मि म

दि यि
(
रि रि रि रि
रि
लि लि लि लि लि लि ल
यि घिसि
वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वि वी वी
Ś
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F4 F5
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नी जी ती
मी मी मी मी भी
22
||રી ગરી
ली ली ली ली ली ली
PLATE 154
F6 F7 F8
सी
ही ही दी
สสสส પી
ཐ སྲ
श
वी वी वी वी वी वी
शीशी शी शी शी
मी सी सा
ही ही

Page #310

13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 155
FF2
F, F4 F1
F
FF
F
Homes
5
3 3
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Page #311

13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 156
F2 F3
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Page #312

13th CENTURY A.D.
VOWELS
K
KH
G
GH
Ň
CH
CHH
J
JH
71
N
T
TH
D
DH
N
F F2 F3
F4

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16
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a
ठ कृ हर कृ कृ त ह कूँ
c. 16
Fo F F8 F1 F2F3 F4 Fs
커
गृ गृ ट ट ट
घृ
ᄅ
AG
Fo
F7 Fe
प Q ५ एव के के के कि कि
A 2
खे
ख रेव
गे
la
2
ड फ्र
13
E
PA
ax
PLATE 157
13. जे ऊ ऊ ऊ
ਟ 12
ठेठ ठे
ड
AV
dফ
2
ऐ ल
যल ल ल ल ततततॆ
तिते

Page #313

13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 158
F2
F3
F
F
F
F
F
F
F2 F3 FIFA IFE IF, Fg
st
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Page #314

13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 159
F,
F2
F3
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F8
VOWELS
के
के
को को
का को को को
खो खा
(
ने
IL
ततaad तातो तातो तो तो

Page #315

13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 160
दद दादा दो दा दो है।
न ने
न न
ना ना ना नो (नो
B
Araaajar
तो ततो सो तातो मोमो मो मो मो मो
या त्या यो रा रा रा रा रा
लो लोलो
EJEE KRE
adो
शो
सो सो सासा

Page #316

131 CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 161
LIGATURES
1
.
F F
F F F2 F3 F4FSF6FFA
FISE
KSHAKLE KSHA KSHA KTI
KHYR
KMYA
GHYA
GHRINGHRAMA
NMU
23
CHCHI
CHCH
CHCHACHCHNO
1
JYAM
JÑAH
slo
4
NCHI
2.
EASEE
TTA
AN
lut
LJE
NOA
|ny
NYA NYANDA
o
lalalala la la
la la
la
la

Page #317

13th CENTURY A.D
TH
0
DH
N
P
PH
B
BH
M
Y
R
L
<
5
SH
S
H
F
F2
12h
হত
Fa
主
ता
मोम मो

F4
Au
हो
固两AR产
नि (नो नो यो
F's Fr
स
में
Jo
लो लो लौ
হ
लो
लो
F1
तो
म
Fs Fr
चोल
लौ
DOHE DVA
दाद्व द्वे (
F2 F3 F4Fs
THYT
NTA
NVA
तो व ते
PRA
PTA
प्र प्र
LIGATUKES
NYAM NVA
भू
THYA
घर
DDHAM
DDHA DMA
DSHA DYA I DRRM
द्वे ६ झड द्य : द्मद्व
DHNK
DHYA
DIYA
DHVA DHYE
DI YA
घा
BHRA BHRA BHRA BHYAH
GEN: व यः
MyA MRA MYA MINA
न भू हा मा
YYA
या
P-TA
PRA
ITA
PRA
PYA
प्र अ त घ प्र
h
KMA
AMA
ह्न में कर्म श्री से
LGU
SHKA
क पृष्ट
SYR STA
PLATE 162
SVA
SCHA SVA
(श) व धय
Fs F7
VYA
टा
Spi
सा सासू सा
HMA
HRE
हे ह
NMA NGHÄ
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PTA
SDNA BRA
प्र
ब्र
FB
A RSA RSA RGA
LLA
1.PA L.MA LLA LGA LLA
ल ह लाभ या ल
VYA
VYA VYA VRA
VYA
हाहाः
शवा SYA ! SKD 1 SVA
SYA
12
ВНУК ВНУ М
ଅର୍ଥ
MYAN MYA
माय
YYA
व्य
SHTA SHKA SHTA SA SHTA SHNA SHPA
RMA
मे
ग्रा
¡SHA ST

Page #318

Nāgarí in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.)
The development of monumental Nāgarī script has been dealt with in the preceding pages, but without involving the manuscript-Nāgarī. The subject would remain incomplete without considering that area. It is attested from the description of Tiruvālangādu inscription, and Kurud plates, 2 that engraving on hard surfaces like stone, metal, terracotta objects, was the secondary use of the writing. So, any generalisation on account of such engravings can have only a limited validity. The basic materials for popular writing were palm-leaf, birch-bark, cloth, and later paper, on which the real palaeographic studies should be based, because it is only here that the real and original hand of the writer is found.
John Guy refers that “Paper made its appearance around the 12th century but did not displace palm-leaf until the 14th century.”3 Before that, in general, palm-leaf and birch-bark were used for writing the manuscripts. Of these the birch-bark was frequently employed in the Himalayan territories where the birch trees grew, naturally while in other parts of the country palm-leaf was more common. The choice of the writing materials mainly depended on the availability of materials and nature of the work. So far as the nature of the work is concerned books, accounts, and ordinary correspondence

Page #319

146
Development of Nāgarī Script
D
.
1
were written on perishable materials whereas important documents were incised on durable objects.
As regards the antiquity, a Bauddha tradition appraises of writing the canon on palm-leaves at the first Council held soon after the death of Buddha." The Buddhist Jätakas also refer to panna (parņa, leaf) as a popular writing material, which presumably represented palm-leaves. Hiuen-Tsiang (first half of the 7th Cent. A.D.) mentioned general use of palm-leaf as a writing material throughout the country. In the 11th centu Al-Beruni also noticed that, “The Hindus have in the south of their country a slender tree like the date and cocoa-nut- palms, bearing edible fruits and leaves of the length one yard and as broad as three fingers one put besides the other. They call these leaves tārī (tāla or tār=Borassus flabelli formis), and write on them.”?
Besides literary evidence, some of the earlier manuscripts have been discovered outside India. For example, the Horizui plam-leaf manuscript of the Skanda-purāna now kept in the Darbar Library at Kathamandu (Nepal) belongs to the 7th century A.D. Some fragments of Godfrew collection from Kashgar belongs at least to the 4th century A.D., as attested by palaeography and so shown by Hoernle. The Khotan copy of the Prākrit Dhammapad is the earliest known birch-bark manuscript, belonging as it does to about the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. 10 But, despite this evidence for the early existence of the palm-leaf or birch-bark manuscript, no specimen has survived in India, due to several destructive agencies, negligent preservation, and climatic conditions, which can be dated definitely prior to the 10th century A.D. According to R. B. Pandey, “It should be observed that the early manuscripts on palm-leaves are found mostly in the cold and dry countries and parts of India. No manuscript of a date earlier than the fifteenth century A.D. is found in the south due to the hot and humid climate of that part of India."11
In daily use leaves in their natural form were used; while for writing out the important works the leaves were specially prepared". They were first dried, then soaked or boiled in water for a considerable length of

Page #320

Nāgarī in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.)
147
time and again dried. The dried leaves were rubbed with conch, or cowrieshells, or a smooth piece of stone and finally cut into folios of equal size. According to the length of folio, the writer or scriber divided it into two or three columns separated by narrow vertical margins. Generally, the external sides of the first and the last folios were left blank.
The earliest available manuscripts, in general, were written by twosects --Bauddha and Jaina. The Buddhist tradition was prevalent in eastern India, chiefly in the provinces of Bihar and Bengal; while the Jaina tradition was widely spread in western India. Several religious complexes of these groups were established where among other things the task of copying and illustrating the manuscript was a part of the monastic activity During the 12th century, the Muslim invaders razed to the ground and burnt down many religious and monastic establishments in U.P., Bihar and Bengal. As a consequence, the art of Buddhist manuscript illustration came to an abrupt end in Eastern India. The Jain tradition in Western India, however, escaped such misfortune and remained to develop in the subsequent centuries without any significant interruption.
The alphabet employed in the manuscripts of these two sects is Nāgarī. The manuscripts generally were written in North India, with pen and ink, while in the South the letters were incised on the leaves with a sharppointed needle and were made black by besmearing ink on the writing. As in the inscriptions so also in manuscripts, the Nāgarī unravels a process of development into the Bengāli script in Bihar and Bengal; and in Western India, a variant of Nāgarī, termed Jain-Nāgarī.
In the study of manuscript-Nāgari one confronts some problems such as determining the provenance, date, etc. Manuscript writing was then a universal tradition. Document writers from time to time transcribed from older manuscripts in which, optionally, the same original date is repeated in the later copies. The later manuscript reveals a more advanced form of the alphabet on the basis of which the earlier may be discriminated. However, it was not impossible that the script of the same period shows different stages of development in the different geographical distributions. In these conditions it is not easy to sort out the alphabets of manuscripts

Page #321

148
Development of Nāgarī Script
region and period-wise. One more problem confronts us with ancient manuscripts is their being written on palm-leaves or birch-bark. These are easily perishable materials, for which reason preservers generally do not provide for proper observations.
The manuscripts written in Nāgarī have come in a good number. But I am not able here to particularize all the characteristics, which needs a volume by itself. For our present purpose only some manuscripts have been selected for illustration and analytical elaborations. A comparative study of the letter forms in the manuscripts with the forms known from the inscriptions is also intended.
For the sake of palaeographic presentation the following published manuscripts have been selected:
1. Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts (11th century A.D.). 2. Oghniryukti palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1060 (now preserved in
the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). 3. Sri Bhagavatīsūtra palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1062 (written at
Stambhatīrtha, Cambay). 4. Palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1118 (Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). 5. Sārdha-śataka palm-leaf manuscript (c. A.D. 1125-50, Jaina Trust). 6. Karmastavatīkā plam-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1122 (BORI, Poona). 7. Jaina palm-leaf manuscript (c. 1275-1300, Jaina Trust). 8. Risabhadevacharita of A.D. 1232, and 9. Mahāvīracharita of A.D. 1237 (Pāțan).
These manuscripts are arranged under eight groups according to period and region for analytical study of the palaeography.
Eleventh Century
Table M is derived from the illustrated Buddhist palm-leaf manuscripts of 11th century A.D. In comparing the alphabet in inscriptions, we observe,

Page #322

Nāgarī in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.)
however, that it resembles the Bodh-Gaya inscription of Jayachchandra of the last decade of 12th century A.D. (Plate 121 - 144, Table E1). The bold notch-wedged head-mark and oblique edged form of the letters denote that the folios were written with a broad-edged pen.
As for the alphabet, most of the letters and medial signs attain their corresponding Nagari counterparts. Only initial i, kha, tha, dha, pa, sa and sha with medials u and e represent some distinguishing features from the usual form of Nagari. I occurs in peculiar roofed variety in which two vertical strokes falling from the upper horizontal line with an additional leftward curve in left stroke and in the lower two circles left one generally has a tail. In kha, left limb retains foot-marked shape in the place of developed tail. Lower curve of tha is slanted. The upper portion of dha is marked by blotted shape as well as with developed horn. Pa and sha bend their left arm as in Bengālī. Śa occurs in peculiar looped variety as appears in Bodh-Gaya inscription of Jayachchandra (Plate 122, Table E1). In the formation of medials u and e; local forms of wedged vertical and left stroke, which have seen in Bodh-Gaya inscription, are also present here.
149
Table M2 is taken from the Oghaniryukti palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1060 (now in the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). The folios of the manuscript were written with a reed pen. Like inscriptions of the period, this manuscript also furnishes horizontally placed left notched form of gha, developing form of cha, and hornless dha. The peculiarity is marked in double looped chha, which with some differences became the common feature of Jaina-Nagarī. Lower leftward prolongation in ja is shortened. Bha shows transitional phase with dropping left limb as in inscriptions. Other letters resemble the form of modern Nagari. Medial signs and ligatures also are of Nagari type and do not furnish any remarkable noteworthy feature except wedged vertical form of medial u which may be due to the eastern influence.
Table M3 is derived from Sri Bhagavatsūtra palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1062 (written at Stambhatīrtha, modern Cambay). Here we find peculiarities in some letters. The horizontal and vertical joining strokes

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150
Development of Nāgarī Script
with left curve in a and ā are shortened or disappear. I retains its old double dots and one curve shape. In u, a knob appears at the upper end of lower curve which becomes the common variety of Jaina-Nāgarī. Rare au is found in a peculiar variety which looks like headless initial a with an additional upright stroke at the left curve.
Among consonants ja occurs in modern Nāgarī shape, while the inscriptions of 12th century A.D. generally show the transitional phase of the letter. The diverging features from the usual Nāgarī are marked in chha and tha. Both represent their shape as in Jaina-Nāgarī. Gha still retains its left notched shape horizontally. Dha is yet to develop its upper oblique. Pha is of modern Nāgarī variety with only the difference of crooked right appendage instead of modern curve. Here, the shape of ya is more angularized than in the inscriptions or in the manuscriptions of other regions. Bha retains its broader archaic shape. Other consonants occur in their matured Nāgarī shapes. Ligatures ksha, chchha and jña represent distinctive features as in Jaina-Nāgari. Subscript tha retains its oval shape.
Twelfth Century
The development in alphabets during the 12th century A.D. is illustrated in Table M4 which is derived from the palm-leaf manuscript of A.D. 1118 (now preserved in the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). Most of the letters and medial signs are found in their modern Nāgari shapes. Even the left portion of gha shows a process of vertically placed notched form. But at the same time archaism is retained in some letters such as ta, na and bha with their broader or cursive form. Dha is yet to develop its upper horn like shape. I still retains its old dots and curved shape. In ligatures, ksha draws the attention which is formed by adding ñ like shape to the left of the letter ka.
Table Ms is derived from the Sārdha-śataka palm-leaf manuscript (c. A.D. 1125-50), now preserved in the collection of Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). We come across developed form of Nāgari alphabet in these folios. The

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Nāgarī in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.)
151
new innovation which occurs here is the shape of initial i which resembles the letter in modern Nāgari only with the difference of lower detached hook, while in the inscriptions of the period it is in old or transitional shape. Chha and ja furnish peculiar Jaina-Nāgarī shape. Dha develops an oblique stroke at its upper angle. Medial signs and ligatures are as usual in the inscriptions.
Table Mo is taken from the Karmastavațīkā palm-leaf manuscript (by Govinda Gani dated A.D. 1122). This represents a typical example of Jaina-Nāgari. Initial u and o show Jaina-Nāgarī features. In both the letters upper end of lower curve are in broader shape. As for o, it is formed by adding an upright stroke to the form of initial u. Among other initial vowels a represents the same feature as in the Sri Bhagavatīsūtra manuscript (Table Mz) of the preceding period. I shows transitional phase by adding two circles with an angular mark and turning lower curve to the right Among consonants left portion of cha is in triangular shape in the place of developed one. Chha and ja are found in their peculiar Jaina-Nāgarī shape. Dha preserves its upper oblique stroke. Other letters are in developed and usual Nāgarī shapes. Among ligatures, a peculiar variety of medial u is found in npu and pyu. Here the u medial sign has been attached in the middle of the vertical in place of the lower end. Such type of typical symbols are occasionally found only in Jaina-manuscripts. Other signs are as usual.
Thirteenth Century
Table M7 is derived from Jaina palm-leaf manuscript (c. 1275-1300, now preserved in the collection of the Jaina Trust, Jaisalmer). As for initial vowels, the advanced and modern looking forms of a, ā, i, i, u, ū and e are found in these folios in which top of i is flattened and curve of u is knobbed like peculiar Jaina-Nāgari. In the manuscripts lower leftward stroke in a is retained while in inscriptions generally it has disappeared. As for consonants, left notched shape of gha is still horizontally placed. Chha, ja, tha and bha diverge from the usual Nāgari and furnish peculiar

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152
Development of Nāgarī Script
shape of Jaina-Nāgari. Ba is denoted by separate and modern looking sign. Other letters have also attained their modern Nāgari counterparts: Medials are as usual in that period. In ligatures, ksha, Chchha, and jña represent their peculiar Jaina-Nagari character.
Table Mg is taken from the palm-leaf manuscripts of Risabhadevacharitra (mss. dated A.D. 1232) and Mahāvīracharitra (by Hemachandra Sūri, mss. dated A.D. 1237). These manuscripts are preserved now in Sanghavīnā Bhandār Patan. The folios of these manuscripts are written with a broad edged pen, peculiar handling of which makes for a distinctive appearance of the alphabet. As far as development of individual letters is concerned except gha, cha and bha, all of them have attained their Nāgari counterparts in which chha, ja and tha are denoted by their pe Jaina-Nāgarī shapes. Optionally, the usual Nāgarī form of ja is also found in these folios. Among ligatures, jña is of modern looking variety. Medials ä, i, i, u, ū and ri resemble with modern Nāgarī signs. Others, e, ai, o and au are represented by modern top-stroke signs along with the perpendicular mark of that period.
General Remarks
It is clear from the illustrations that the developments in a alphabet first take place in manuscripts and engraved forms follow the trait. At the same time it is also evident that for writing the conventional or royal works, a standard form of an alphabet was employed while in daily writing newer forms were emerging, due to continuous use, personal mannerisms, and several other reasons, as in modern times.
Notes and References
1. Sivaramamurti, C., Indian Epigraphy., p., 20. 2. Dikshit, M.G., EI, XXXI, pp. 263-66 & Pl. 3. Palm-leaf and paper, Melbourne, 1944, p., 12. However, this statement refers only to
the manuscripts discovered in India so far. Nearchos mentioned to the manufacturing

Page #326

Nāgarī in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.)
of writing paper out of cotton by pounding in the 3rd century B.C. Pandey, R.B., Indian., I, p. 71.
4. Beal, S., The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang, Delhi, 1973, p., 117; cf., also the story regarding Sanghbhadra's "dotted manuscript of the Vinaya," JRAS, 1896, pp. 436 ff.
5. Pandey, Indian., I, p., 69,
6. Beal. S., Si-u-ki,, Buddhist Records of the Western World, vol. II, p., 225.
7. Sachau, Alberuni's., p., 171.
8. Sastri, Haraprasad (ed.) Catalogue of Palm-leaf and Selected Paper Manuscript belonging to the Darbar Library, Nepal, Eng. Intro., p., 52.
9. Hoernle, "The Godfrew manuscript," JASB, LXVI, pp. 225-36, Pls. VIII-XIV & XXVII-XXX.
10. Ojha, Bharatiya., p., 144.
11. Pandey, Indian., I, p., 70.
153
Bibliography
1. Oghaniryukti palm-leaf: A.D. 1060, Sarayu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting, Marg Publication, 1985, p., 36, Fig. 3; (Table M2).*
2. Sri Bhagavatisutra: A.D. 1062, Sarabhai M. Nawab, Jain Printings, vol. I, Ahmedabad, 1980, Figs. 13-16; (Table M3).*
3. Namamala: A.D. 1063, Ms. with Babu Ramdas Sen, Bahrampur, No. 2511 in Notices of Skt. Mss., Govt. of Bengal, vol. VII.
4. Viseshavasyakabhashyavyakhyana: A.D. 1081, Cat. of Mss. in BORI, Poona, vol. XVII, Pl. V., App. V, No. 1106.
5. Nisithasutrabhashya: A.D. 1089, No. 36 of 1880-81, BORI.
6. Nisithasutra (XIV-XX) Viseshachurni: A.D. 1089, Ibid., No. 448. 7. Bhasvati Jyotisha: A.D. 1099. Bharat Kala Bhavan, 2B/669, B 820.
8. Buddhist palm-leaf Ms: 11th Cent. Jamila, Brijbhushan, The world of Indian Miniatures, Japan 1979, Fig. 1, f., p., 40; Philip S. Kawson, Indian Printing, New York, 1961, Figs. on pages 81 & 85; Panorama

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154
Development of Nāgarī Script
of Indian Painting, Publication Division, 1968, Figs. b., pp. 10-11;
(Table Mi).* 9. Sukhabodh (Uttaradhyayan Sutravritti): A.D. 1107, No. 4 of 1881-82.
BORI. 10. Jivasamasaprakaranam : A.D. 1107, Peterson Mss. 1883, 64. 11. Avasyakasutra: A.D. 1109, CMJB, 24, 216. 12. Divasagrihyaprasna: A.D. 1116, Bharat Kala Bhavan: 8/4700, B400. 13. Palm-leaf Ms.: A.D. 1118, Sarayu Doshi, Masterpieces., p., 28, 5; (Table
M2).* 14. Sardhasataka: c. A.D. 1125-50, Ibid., p., 36, 4; (Table M5).* 15. Karmastavatika: A.D. 1122, BORI, No. 42 of 1880-81; (Table M6).* 16. Dharmabindu: A.D. 1124, Peterson, Third Report, App. I, No. 229. 17. Sagarachakravarticharitra: A.D. 1134, CMPB, 183, No. 152. 18. Navalingasutram: A.D. 1146, Govt. of Bengal, vol. III (Series 2). 19. Kavyaprakasa: A.D. 1158, CMJB, 18, No. 163. 20. Prithvichandracharita: A.D. 1167, CMJB, 17, No. 146. 21. Mahapurushacharitra: A.D. 1170, CMJB, 39, No. 311. 22. Nyayabindutika: A.D. 1172, No. 208 of 1899-1915, BORI. 23. Yama paddhati, Karma kanda: A.D. 1191, Bharat Kala Bhavan, 8/5209,
B 2267. 24. Yogasastra: A.D. 1194, Peterson Mss. 1887, 74-77, No. 249. 25. Shadasitivritti: A.D. 1201, CMPB, 43. 26. Jinapujadyupadesa: A.D. 1223, CMPB, 288-90, No. 40. 27. Jinayajnakalpah Kalpadarpanakhyaya tikaya Sametah: A.D. 1228, No.
785 of 1895-1902, BORI. 28. Angavidya: A.D. 1235, Catalogue of Skt. & prt. Mss. in Bombay Univer
sity Library, No. 2374.

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Nāgarī in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.)
155
29. Risabhadevacharitra: A.D. 1232, Mahaviracharitra: A.D. 1237, Sarah
hai M. Nawab, Jain., Pl. 12, Figs. 34-36 & Pl. 16, Figs. 51-54; (Table
M2).* 30. Shadvidhavasyakavivarana: A.D. 1237, CMPB, 33, No. 37 31. Sangrahapivika: A.D. 1239, No. 141 of 1902-1907, BORI. 32. Yogaratnavalih Tika: A.D. 1239, No. 141 of 1902-1907, BORI. 33. Desinamamala: A.D. 1241, CMPB, 60, No. 84. 34. Pindavisuddhi: A.D. 1243, No. 47 of 1880-81, BORI. 35. Dhatuparyayan Vritti: A.D. 1250, CMPB, 162. 36. Uttaradhyayanvritti: A.D. 1253, CMPB, 218. 37. Jnanapanchamikatha: A.D. 1256, CMPB, 33, No. 40. 38. Katharatnakara: A.D. 1262, CMPB, 14, No. 15. 39. Dasavaikalikatika: A.D. 1269, CMPB, 135, No. 204. 40. Vasupujyacharitra: A.D. 1270, CMJB, 24, No. 210. 41. Uttaradhyayansutra: A.D. 1275, No. 3 of 1880-81, BORI. 42. Jaina palm-leaf Ms.: c. 1275-1300, Sarayu Doshi, Masterpieces., pp.
40-41, No. 19; (Table M-).* 43. Adinathacharitra: A.D. 1282, CMJB, 42, No. 334. 44. Sthanagangatika: A.D. 1289, CMPB, 201, No. 329. 45. Pratilekhanagatha (Rituals): A.D. 1298, Accession No. 8484/10, Lalbhai
Dalpatbhai Institute of Indology, Calcutta.

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156
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plates 163-174
(11th-13th Century)
Table Manuscript
Reference
Date in A.D.
M
Buddhist palm-leaf
11th Century
The World of Indian Miniatures, Fig. 1, f. p., 40; Indian Painting, Figs. on pp. 81 & 85; Panorama of Indian Painting, Figs. b., pp. 10-11.
M2
Oghaniryukti palm-leaf
1060
Masterpieces of Jaina Painting, P., 36, No. 3.
M3
Sri Bhagavatīsūtra palm-leaf
1062
Jaina Paintings, vol. I, Pl. 5, Figs. 13-16. Masterpieces of Jain Painting, P., 28, No. 5.
M4
Palm-leaf
1118
Mg
Sārdhaśatak palm-leaf
c. 1125- Masterpieces of 50
Jain Painting, p., 36, No. 4.
Mo
Karmastavațīkā palm-leaf
1112
M
Palm-leaf
c. 1275. 1300
ABORI, XXXVI, f. p., 217, (leaf 145b). Masterpieces of Jain Painting, pp. 40-41, No. 19.

Page #330

Nāgari in Manuscripts (11th-13th Century A.D.;
Mg
Risabhadevacharitra
Mahaviracharitra

1232
1237
157
Jain Paintings, I, Pl. 12, Figs. 34-36.
Jain Paintings, I, Pl. 16, Figs. 51-54.

Page #331

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
Z.
CHH
VOWELS
K क क त क
JK
3
Sz
M1
KH
G ग ग ग
GH
N
M2
F.
CH Jaa
ܕ
M3
ख ख
a

Mu
ี ม
TH ठ
0 ड ड ड
DH
ठ ठ
M N
घ
ट
aa a
8 a 3 a 3
ऊ ऊ ऊ ऊ ऊ ऊ ऊ ऊ
A
M5 M6
Ma M8 MI
क क क क का
ख
ख ख खा
ग ग ग
घ
ग
a
ट ट ट
a
ड ड ड
ठट
! त ल त ल ल ल ल ल
T
ปร 15 त त त त
M2
ड डा डा
या
M3
M4
गा
जा जा
re
Ā
Ms
PLATE 163
ता का का का का का
खा खा
ལ
M6
M1
7 | टा
चा
ལ
M8
गा गा
वा
जा जा जा
sy
aa
ला पाला
गाएगा ! ता ता ता ता ता ता ता ता

Page #332

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
M1 M2
TH
थ
०१ द द द
Dr a a d
a
PH
M3
B
Mu
BH त त त
4
A
M5
व ५ ४
N न न न न
3 | 14 | 1
ना मा
पचपच पपपप या पाया
फ

M6
M1
aa
घा
द द द द दादा दा
म म म
M म म म म यय य य घ स य
स स स स स
A
R 1 1 1 र २ र २
H ह ह ह ह ह
M8 MI
४ वा
रु न त त त सा | ता
म
M2 M3
य
- ल ल ल ल ल ल ल ला
vaa व व व व a a वा
Pa
5 श श श श श श श शा
SH 8 प
घ घ घ घ
ต
मा मा मा मा
२ च
या या या या
MH MS Mo M1 M8
ला ला
वा वा
शा
IR
रारा रा
K
स स स स सा सासा ह ह ह हा हा हा हा
PLATE 164
29
दादा दा
अ
ना ना ना
in in In
ला ला ला ला
मा मा मा
या सा या या
रारा रा
ला ला ला
वा
वा वा al
शा शा शा शा
al
सा सा सा सा
हा हा हा हा

Page #333

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 165
1 M3 M4 / MSIM. M, M8 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 My
७ |
.
Cla
Road
| डिBBS
mMummom Falalala aalana

Page #334

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 166
M, M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M, M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
श्री
beदि दिवि दिदि (ea दी थी दादी दा
aaa | walaनि निनaliaaa नीना
पिया
मा
|v laaaaahalfalana aamanan
seसिलसिसिसि
cle Re Reale

Page #335

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
Plat PLATE 167
M1 M2 M3 M4 Ms M6 M7 Me Me M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
VOWELS
D

Page #336

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 168.
M1 M2
M3 M4 M5 M6 M,
M. Mi M2
M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
651
Ko
165
la
1031
5602

Page #337

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
VOWELS
K
KH
G
GH
Z.
CH
CHH
J
JH
SZ
2
T
F
TH
D
DH
N
T
Mi
24

M2 M3
لام
RI
M4
M5 M6
150
S
M7 M8 Mi
15
ऊ
Ρ
·
M2 M3
क
M4 M5
ए
Za
E
રાત तितल
EE
PLATE 169
M6 M7 M8
Re
क क
E
aa
3
a
13 ( ऊ
S
13
a
EE तत

Page #338

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
TH
DH
N
P
PH
B
BH
Σ
Y
R
L
V
Ś
SH
S
H
MI
ह
RV
मृ

M2
M3 Mu
M
RI
M5
Mo M1 M8 | M1
दृ
2
2
2
वृह a वृ
W
Ma
M3
द
d
M4
E
(रु
E
से
Ms
हि हे
P PLATE 170
M6
2 17 | RR
ल ल ल ल ल
বে
भू म म मे म म म म
स य य (य त्य
M1 M8
co
द दिद
d
४
न नि ने न
a
लिल
वि
( 2 श
स
ह हे ह

Page #339

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 171
M1 M2 M3 M4 Ms M6 M7 M8 M, M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
man
Illa la la laamaan.com

Page #340

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
TH
D
DH
N
P
PH
B
BH
Σ
Y
R
L
V
Ś
SH
S
H
M1
內
M2

|
M3
C
At
M4 M5
厕
M6 M7
शि
से
M8 M1
लि
'
द
भ
शशि श
M2
ता
M3 M4 M5 M6 M1 M8
था
(घ
दादा
भ
[म] मा
[[या
E
ल
दादा
हा
0
初
E
PLATE 172
(शा
લ
ना तो
D) 10)
बा
ला ला लो
मामा मा
या त्या या
रा रो
ला ला
शव वा
(शा श
साता
हा

Page #341

11th - 13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 173
LIGATURES
M, M2 M3 M4 M5 Mol
Me mi M2 M3 Mul Ms M. Mil M8
VoWEL
KSHAKTYA KSHA KSHA KTA KTA KSHA KSHA
या काक
KHYA KHYA KHYA
GMA GRA
CHCHHA
Сення сненняжння Cжня, сжный снення!
Снн
#
i
a
TMA
TP
TVA
TPA
TPA

Page #342

11th - 13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 174
Au
LIQ ATURES
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8
DDHA DBHU DVA
DDHA DVYA
DMA DVI
DHYA
DHYA
inola EMEA
È NU
NDANDA NTA
NPU Pea
ना
PRA Pyu
पए
BHYA
IDHYA
URTHAH RTHA
hallca
1231F
VRA
होती
SCHA
ing
SHYA SWIM SHYA SNTA

Page #343

Numerals and Other Signs
Signs for Numerals
Like alphabets, the Indian numeral also reveals a history of gradual evolution. In ancient times, before the 10th century A.D. numeral notations were denoted in two ways - letter numerals and numerical figures of the decimal system. In letter numerals separate signs are used for the units, tens, hundreds and thousands. Other composite numbers are represented by the combination of units with tens, hundreds and thousands. This type of notation was employed exclusively up to the later part of the 6th century A.D. and thereafter sporadically survived alongside the decimal system till the 10th century A.D. Very useful researches on the letter-numerals have been done by E. Thomas, E. Clive Bayley, Bhau Daji, H.R. Kapadia, 4 Bhagawanlal Indraji, G. Bühler, G.S. Ojha,? Awadhesh Narain Singh, Sobhana Laxaman Gokhale, and recently Om Prakash Lal Srivastava 10
The modern system of using nine unit figures and zero for all purposes of notation and calculation, arranged in decimal order seems to be of a later period. To the best of our knowledge, the earliest epigraphic instance of the use of the decimal notation is the Gūrijara inscriptions from Sānkhedā of Chedi year 346 (A.D. 595). The object of the present chapter is not

Page #344

Numerals and Other Signs
159
to deal with the typology, old and new, of the numerals but to trace the history of evolution of Nāgarī numerals. For the present purpose I have prepared three numerical Plates out of which Plate 175 (Tables N, to N15) is derived from the inscriptions of the 6th-8th centuries, Plate 176 (Tables NG to N21) from the 9th-10th centuries and Plate 177 (Tables N32 to N47) from the period between the 11th and the 13th centuries.
Here I do not wish to enter into the controversy of numerals being evolved with the letter forms or independent symbols, but have taken the general resemblance of the numeral signs with the letters of the period.
Sign for Zero
The sign of zero, in Terundia Plate of Subhakar: A.D. 704 (Table N3) is represented as a dot. It is evident from literary sources that the sign of zero was drawn by a dot in the earlier period. 12 Tables N4 and Ns, derived from Purushottampur and Daultābād plates, show an open circle or hook like sign. From the 9th century, it becomes circular in shape as in modern times.
Sign for One
The numeral 1 is denoted by a horizontally placed stroke (Pl. 175, Tables N2 & N15), or curve (Table Ny) and continues till 8th century A.D. From the 9th century, curve is vertically drawn. In further developmental stage a hook (Table N16), a knob (Table N26), or a small circle (Tables N27, N30, N31) is added to the top of it. These forms are continued till 13th century. Out of them, small circular variety is accepted in modern Nāgarī.
Sign for Two
Two parallel horizontal lines occur for the numeral 2 in Tipperāh Grant of Lokanāth (Table 1). In the next developmental stage (Table Nm), both horizontal stroke are joined by a third cursive stroke. This numeral notation attains modern shape during the 9th century A.D. in which a slanting stroke is attached to the upper half-circle.

Page #345

160
Development of Nāgarī Script
Sign for Three
The Dadhimati-mātā inscription of the time of Dhruhlana (A.D. 608; Table No) indicates the use of old form of numeral notation 3 which is formed with three parallel horizontal lines. In the first developmental stage (Table N10) right tip of the upper two bars slant to meet with the lower bar, which is extended to the right. The further developmental stage (Table Nu) shows a form in which the right tip of both upper bars became cursive by which three limbs joined with each other. Finally, from the 9th century, upper two lines are shortened and form almost a double curved shape and a slanted tail is attached at the lower extremity. This form is retained in Nāgarī.
Sign for Four
Two different types of numeral signs are found for 4 till the 9th century A.D. A sign like letter ka was the shape for four in the Mauryan period. Later on, an upward open curve was added to the left of it which looked like the ligature pka. In the 7th century curve turns to open right and looks like ligature tka (Table Ny). The continuation of the letter numeral in the 9th century is marked by Javakhed plate of Amoghavarsha (A.D. 820; Table N28) where it is formed with ka like shape with a stroke to the left of the head-mark. However, the Nāgarī form of this numeral is also noticed as early as the Dhinaki plate of Jāikadeva of A.D. 738?13 (Table N,3). The modern form gains more currency from the 9th century.
Sign for Five
Several signs are employed for the numeral 5. This notation is not shown in the Mauryan Brāhmi. From the time of the Kushānap till third century it is denoted by a like letter form. Nā, or tri like letter form is the common variety of it during the fourth-fifth centuries. Later on, a like form of it developed into hu like mark in the Kailan plate (Table N), ha like in Dighwā-Dubaulī plate (Table N24). Tri like shape of it grew into the form of Tyā in Madhuban (Mg) and Barāh plates (N22). In Tipperāh plate (Table Ny) it is denoted by a leftward hooked shape with an additional small stroke in the middle of the vertical line. In the Kusumā inscription

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Numerals and Other Signs
161
(N10) it is represented as an upward hooked shape with a knob at the upper end. A righward hooked shape is employed for this sign in the Gayā epigraph of the time of Sultan Muizzudin (Table N33). However, in general, this notation is denoted by the letter ja, where the head-mark disappears. Jodhpur inscription of Bāuk (A.D. 837; Table N21) represents a transitional shape formed by an upward opened curve with notched left limb. The next developmental stage is marked by Jodhpur grant of Simha
(A.D. 997; Table N ), where the right limb forms a straight line; but left limb still is notched. Finally, the right limb became straight and the left one cursive (Tables N25, N26, N39, N40, N42, N46). From this form modern Nāgari shape evolved in course of time.
Sign for Six
The earlier specimens frequently show the form of ja for the numeral notation 6. Thereafter in Madhuban plate of Harsha (Table No) it is shown by the letter da or drā. Sāmangadh (Table N14) and Chicācole (N18) plates reveal a phase of developing the modern sign, represented as a curve with a slanted stroke. In further developmental stage (Table N23) upper curve is turned to right and lower slanted stroke develops into a hook shape. Finally, both limbs of the vertical become cursive with a vertical tail (Tables Nan & N47). However, this developed form continued in use from the 10th century. Alongwith the developed sign, peculiar headless da like letter-form of the numeral 6 is noticed even in the 11th century (Table
N44).
Sign for Seven
In tracing the development of Nāgarī numeral 7 we observe that it was shown by a downward curve in the earlier periods. In developing stages, the right limb of the curve extends downward (Table N14), progressively turned to left in various degrees (N35, N36, N46) and finally prolongs upwards (N37, N42). Side by side with these developed marks other forms are also noticed such as a leftward double curved shape like incipient mark of the numeral 3 (Tables N20 & N25), a hooked shape with a notch in right limb and a head-line (Table N34) and a double curved shape in

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162
Development of Nāgarī Script
which either upper curve to right and lower to left (Table N38) or upper curve to left and lower to right (Tables N43 and N44). Sign for Eight
The numeral 8 is denoted by initial vowel u like letter in BodhGayā inscription (Table Ns), bha like in Guhil grants (Table No), da like in Daultābād plate (Table N15), vra like in Jodhpur inscription (Table N21) and hrā like form in Bengāl Asiatic Society's plate (Table N24). To trace the developmental stages of modern Nāgarī form, we find that it is represented as a rightward curve in Table N4. In the next developmental stage the upper portion become flattened with a downward slanted stroke (Table N23). Further, lower slant transforms into a rightward curve (Tables N37 & N20). Finally, upper flat line protrudes to the left (Tables N35, N40). This shape is still employed in Nāgarī. As for other signs, one horizontal line with two falling strokes is the shape in Gujarat (N28) and Chinchni (N29) plates, rightwards peculiar notched with curly extremity in Kūretha plate (Table N34), leftward double curved shape in Thāņā plates (N44) and leftward hooked shape in Bassein inscription (Table N45). Sign for Nine
The numeral 9 is represented by a leftward curve with notch in earlier period. Letter ra is the shape for it in Bodh Gayā inscription (Table N5), jya in Nālandā (N16) and Pettasar Grant (N17) and u in Bengāl Asiatic Society's Plate (Table N24). In later period generally two signs are employed for this numeral: (i) leftward hooked shape with a circle at the upper end and (ii) double curved shape. Second shape furnished numeruous sub-varieties which can be best understood by the illustrations shown in Plates 176 & 177. Of these sub-varieties, Konī inscription (Table N37) reveals developed features with both curves turning to right. From this shape modern Nāgarī form evolved in due course. Sign for Ten
A separate sign is employed for the numeral notation 10, in old specimens. The letter ma with its open mouth turned to right is the shape for ten in earlier stages. Progressively, the left loop mouth opened and upper arm

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Numerals and Other Signs
163
of the right curve transforms into a straight vertical and shows different forms which look like nta and found in Tipperāh grant (Table N2). A peculiar sign occurs in Chandeśvara plates (Table N4). The ya like letter appears in the Mangarāon (Table N) and Dadhimatī-mātā inscriptions (Table Ny). In Ahar (N23) and Dighwā-Dubaulī plates (N24) it is represented by lri like letter-form. From the 10th century decimal system becomes the regular feature where numeral one comes to the left of zero. Sign for Twenty
The numeral 20 retains old tha like letter form in Tipperāh (Table N2), Banskherā (N7) and Madhuban copper-plates (Ne). Sign for Forty
Pta like letter-form is the shape of numeral 40 in the Guhil inscriptions (Table N12). Sign for Fifty
In all developmental stages 50 is indicated by a curve open to right as shown in Table N24 (Dighwā-Dubaulī plate). Sign for Sixty
An angle with its apex downwards is the shape of 60 in earlier period which developed in due course and takes pu like letter form in the BodhGayā inscription (Table 15). Sign for Seventy
In Kushāna period a cross-bar or pna like letter from is employed for 70 which developed into rika like mark in later period as shown in Table N17 (Pettasar grant). Sign for Eighty
The numeral 80 is denoted by a circle with a full breadth vertical line in the middle in earlier period. In Dadhimatī-mātā inscription flat line with two upright triangle is the shape of it. In the Bengāl Asiatic Society's plate (Table N24) an upward open curved with inner bent extremities is the shape of the numeral.

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164
Development of Nāgarī Script
Sign for Ninety
In earlier period 90 is indicated by a circle with cross mark in the middie. One horizontally slanted with three upright and one crossed slanted line was the shape of it in Kusumā inscription (Table N10), Barāh plate (N22) furnishes a different sign of the numeral which is formed by rightward hooked slants with the numeral 2 like mark in the right portion.
Sign for Hundred
The su or a like letter form was rarely and generally a vertical hooked with notched top employed for 100 in earlier period. Later on, in Terundia plate of Subhakar (Table N3) it is denoted by letter lu. Sign for Two Hundred
The numeral 200 is represented by adding the sign of two in the form of hundred. Nägarī letter lā like combination is shown in Bodh-Gayā inscription (Table Ns), while signs for sa and 2 are combined in Dadhimatimātā inscription (NO) and sā in Pettasar grant (N17).
Sign for Six Hundred
The sign for letter sa is combined with the sign for six to denote 600 in Kusumā inscription (Table N10).
Sign for Seven Hundred
In Sāmolī inscription (Table Nu) letter srā for hundred mark is combined with hooked seven mark for the numeral 700.
Sign for Eight Hundred
Barāh plate (Table 122) shows srā like letter combined with the sign for eight makes the numeral notaiion of 800.
Sign for Nine Hundred
The numeral 900 is denoted by the combination of srā and the sign for nine in Dighwa-Dubaulī plate (Table NW) while it is a bit different in Bengāl Asiatic Society's plate (N24), but the basic principle is the same.

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Numerals and Other Signs
165
Other Signs and Symbols
In inscriptions and manuscripts several signs and symbols are to be found from very ancient times. Very often we are not sure about the phonetic or symbolic value of these signs. Some scholars read the signs found in the beginning of the epigraphs as Siddham and others prefer to read them as sign for Om. Here we have recorded some such signs and symbols found in the beginning, middle and at the end of the epigraphs and manuscripts for illustration.
Signs for Om (Plate 178, A)
Generally, Indian epigraphs and manuscripts begin with an auspicious symbol which is recognised as Om. This syllable does not occur in the Rig veda and the Atharvaveda, 14 but is found in the Vedic rituals where it is mentioned as universe. 15 It is also stated there that, in the sound Om there are three aksharas a, u, m.16
The sound Om is expressed by a symbol. The symbolic representation is, in general, drawn as a curl or spiral, turning either to the left or right. It may be a conventional representation of the sacred saṁkha or conch shell. As J.J. Boeles states: “We must presume that the curious curl on which the Om mangala is based must have derived from the old vowel, 0, known from Bühler's alphabets."17
Danil 8 has arranged Oṁ signs under three formal groups: North Indian, West Indian and South Indian. But his South Indian forms are also noticed in Rajasthan, for example his fourth form is met with in Dhulev and fifth in the Vasantgadh inscriptions. The North Indian second form is met with in the Samangadh inscription from Maharashtra. Here an attempt has been made to present various clearly noticeable varieties of this sign under four groups:
(i) leftward spiral forms, (ii) rightwards spiral forms, (iiirare forms and (iv) evolution of modern form.

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166
Development of Nāgarī Script
Signs for Jihvamūriya and Upadhamānīya (Plate, 178 B & C)
The illustrated forms of Jihvāmūtīya are taken from Guhil, Lakkhāmandal and Jhālrāpātan inscriptions; and the forms of Upadhamānīya from Guhil (A.D. 653), Vasantgadh, Banskherā, Lakkhāmandal and Guhil (A.D. 688) inscriptions. Of these, the first is represented by a symbol looking like superscript y joined with ka; and second by two circles, or above opened curly ended semicircle, or lower bended horn shaped, placed above the letter pa. Signs for Punctuation, Etc. (Plate 178, D)
It is generally averred that the various modern signs of punctuationnamely comma, inverted comma, dash, colon, semi colon, full stop, sign of interrogation, sign of exclamation, several kinds of brackets, etc., were not employed in ancient inscriptions and manuscripts. It is true to some extent. During the earliest period only straight, or curved single stroke was sporadically used for denoting the punctuation mark. In later period a danda, or stroke is drawn to mark the completion of a sentence or a hemistich of a verse and two dandas, or strokes to indicate completion of a verse.
Some mangalas and ornamental signs are also drawn in the later portion; or at the end of the inscriptions. A very common sign of this description is a large circle with a smaller one in side.
Notes and References
1. "On the Dynasty of the Sāh kings of Surāshtra," JRAS, XII, pp. 32-47. 2. "On the Genealogy of modern Numerals," JRAS, N.S. XIV, pp. 335-76 & Plates. 3. "The ancient Sanskrit Numerals in the Cave Inscriptions and on the Sah-coins,
correctly made out; with Remarks on the Era of salivāhana and Vikramāditya,"
JBBRAS, VIII, pp. 225-33 & Pl. 4. “Foliation of Jaina Manuscripts and Letter-Numerals,” ABORI, XVIII, pp. 171-86 & Pls. 5. "On the ancient Nāgari Numerals," IA, VI, pp. 42-48, & Pls.

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Numerals and Other Signs
167
6. Indian., pp. 96-107, & Pl. 7. Bhāratīya., pp. 102-27 & Pls. 8. "On the Evolution of Alphabetic Numerals in India," JUPHS, VII, Pt. I (1934), pp.
42-53. 9. Indian Numerals, Poona, 1966. 10. Uttar Bhārat me Ariko kā Vikās (Hindi), Varanasi, 1986. 11. Dhruva, H.H., EI, II, pp. 19-20, Pl. f., p., 20. 12. Cf., Sünyabindava iva vilikhitāḥ, Subandhu's Vāsavadattā, (c. early 6th Cent. A.D.),
Varanasi, 1967, p., 168. 13. Majumdar, R.C., The Classical Age, Bombay, 1962. The genuineness of this record
has been doubted. 14. Keith, A.B., Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, 1917, vol. IX, p., 490. 15. Māndūkya Upanishad, I. 16. Maitrāyaṇa Upanishad, 6.3 17. "The Migration of the Magic Syllable Om," India Antiqua, Leyden, 1947, p., 44. 18. Indian., Fig. 156.

Page #353

168
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plate 175
(6th-8th Century)
Table Numeral Inscription
Reference
Date in A.D.
2, 3,5
Kailan plate of Sridhārana
IHO, XXIII, Pl. f. p., 237. EI, XV, Pls. b. pp. 308-09.
N2
1,2,5,7, 9, 10, 20
Tipperāh grant of Lokanātha
–
0, 100
Terundia plate of Subhakara II
706
0,8
EI, XXVIII, Pls. b. pp. 214-15. EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 266-67.
Purushottampur plates of Mādhavavarmnā II
Ns
8,9, 60, 200
Bodh-Gayā inscrip- 588 tion of Mahānāma
IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 358. JBRS, XXX, Pl. f. p., 201.
No
2, 7, 10
-
scrp-
Mangarāon inscription of the reign of Vishņugupta Bānskherā plate of Harsha
1,2, 20
628
EI, IV, Pl. f. p., 210.
Ng
5,6,20
Madhuban plate of Harsha
631
EI, VII, Pl. f. p., 158. EI, XI, Pl. f. p., 304.
N,
608
3,4,9, 10, 80, 200 3,5, 90, 600
Dadhimati-mātā in- scription of the time of Dhruhlana Kusumā inscription
time of
N10
636
EI, XXXVI, Pl. f.
p., 48.

Page #354

Numerals and Other Signs
169
Nu
3, 700
646
E1, XX, Pl. f. p., 99.
Sāmolī inscription of the time of Silāditya
N12
8,40
Two grants of early 654 & Guhilas
689
EI, XXXIV, Pls. b. pp. 172-73 & 17475.
N13
4,7,9
Dhinaki plate of Jāikadeva
738
IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 154-55.
N14
IA, XI, Pls. b. pp. 110-11 & 112-13.
5,6,7 Sāmangadh plates 753
of Dantidurga 0,1,5,7, Daultābād plates of 793
Sankaragana
N15
EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 196-97 & f. p., 198.

Page #355

6th-8th CENTURY A.D.
O
1
22
3 ૨
4
549
9
7
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 No No No N12 N13 N14 N15
8
9

2
2
6
D
| _|
C3
~
༢༢
с
-61 01
ERS 3
NUMERALS
90 111
མ
៨.
2
10
20
90
432ÿELY
nx કહ્યું છે જે લ બ મ જે
૨૦
200
Bo
Loo
S
200
336
रु
PLATE 175
Ja
४
G
с
(
519
५
73
3rd
2

Page #356

170
Development of Nāgarī Script
References for Plate 176
(9th-10th Century)
Table Numeral Inscription
Reference
Date in A.D.
N16
3,9
-
Nālandā plates of Devapāla
EI, XVII, Pls. b. pp. 320-21.
EI, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 304 & 306.
N
EI, XXVII, Pls. b. pp. 338-39.
N18
923
1,2
Mungir plates of
Devapāla 9, 70, 200 Pettasar grant of
Nettabhañja 0, 1, 2, 4, Chicācole plates of
Madhu
Kāvarnnadeva 1, 2,5 Pandukeśvar plate
of Lalitasura 0, 1,7,9 Dewal Prasasti of
Lalla
5,6
JBORS, XVIII, Pls. b. pp. 294-95.
N19
854
EI, XXXI, PI. f. p., 280.
N20
-
EI, I, Pl. f. p., 76.
N21
4, 5, 8, 9
837
N22
836
3, 5, 90, 800 1 to 10
Jodhpur inscription of Bāuk Barāh plate of Bhoja Āhar inscription of the time of Bhoja Dighwā-Dubaulī plate of Mahendrapāla
EI, XVIII, Pl. f. p., 96. EI, XIX, Pl. f. p., 18. EI, XIX, Pl. f. p., 60. IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 112.
N23
865
N24
5, 10, 50 900
898

Page #357

Numerals and Other Signs
N25
N26
N27
N28
N29
8, 9, 80,
900
3,5,9
2, 4, 7
0, 1, 3
2, 5, 6
2, 8, 9
0, 1, 3
4,5
2,4
7,8,9
8
5

Bengal Asiatic Society's plate of Vinayakapāla
Karitalai inscription 840 of Lakshmana I
Chandrehe inscrip
tion of Prabodhasiva
Two Harasol grants of Siyaka
An odd plate of Siyaka
Puśkar inscription of Durgarāja
Thanwala inscription of the time of Simharāja
Jodhpur fragmentary grant of Simharāja
Javakhed plates of Amoghavarsha
Gujarat plates of Dantivarmā
Chinchani plates of
Indra III
931
Sangli grant of Govinda
973
969
925 &
937
956
997
820
867
926
933
IA, XV, Pl. f. p., 140.
CII, IV, Pl. XXXA.
CII, IV, Pl. XXXIV.
171
EI, XIX, Pls. b. pp. 242-43.
EI, XIX, Pl. f. p.,
178.
EI, XXXV, Pl. f. P., 242
EI, XXXV, Pl. f. P., 243.
EI, XXXVI, Pl. f. p., 46.
EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 130-31, 132-33 & f. p., 134.
EI, VI, Pls. b. pp.
290-91 & f. p., 294.
EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 52-53.
IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 250-51.

Page #358

172
N30
N31
4,9
0, 1, 3, 4, Grant of Mūlarāja of Anhilavāḍa
5
1,5,9
0, 2, 6
A grant of Amoghavarsha

Janjira plates of Aparajita
Bhädän grant of Aparajita
Development of Nagari Script
IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 266-67.
972
986
993
997
IA, VI, Pls. b. pp. 192-93.
CII, VI, Pls. IX-XII
CII, VI, Pls. XVIII
XX

Page #359

9th- 10th CENTURY A.D.
०
1
2
3
भ
50
७
7
8
9
N16 N17 N18 N19 N20 N21 N22 N23 N24 N25 N26 N27 N28 N29 N30 N31
C
در کا
༢
ཨཱ
६

FOR ANNE KE
70
200
20
०
,
2 2
04 ज्
འ༡
४
A5
3
3
જી|
༢
| ३ ३
४ ४
छ है ज ५ ५६
६
2
S
०
Boo
ফद
m
10
हर ऌ
50
NUMERALS
१. १
२ २ २ १
३ ३ ३
४
दा
C32
80
১০
3
900
900
★ सও
०
کی
PLATE 176
2
T
C 2
o
8488
Fa
१ १
२
3
o
डाची ज
६
द
୭

Page #360

Numerals and Other Signs
173
References for Plate 177
(11th-13th Century)
Table Numeral Inscription
Reference
Date in A.D.
N32
0, 1,4,7
1020
EI, XXXV, Pls. b. pp. 134-35.
2,5
Bihar grant of Śaurāditya Tarachandi inscrip- tion of Pratāpadhavala
1168
EI, XXXIV, Pls. b. pp. 26-27.
Mahulpārā plates of -- MahāśivaguptaDharmarath
EI, XXXVII, Pls. b. pp. 228-29.
N33
1,5,7
1200
JBRS, LII, Pl. VII.
Gayā inscription of the time of Muizzuddin
2,3
1268
N34
1 to 9
Gayā epigraph of Balban Kurethā grants of Malayavarmā Chandrāvati plates of Chandra
N35
6,8
1247 1093 & 1097
JBRS, LIII, Pl. XXXIV. EI, XXX, Pls. b. pp. 148–49. EI, XIV, Pls. b. pp. 194-95 & f. pp. 196 & 198. EI, XXXV, Pls. b. pp. 208-09, 21213, 214-15, & 21819. CII, IV, Pl. LXVA.
1, 2, 3, 5, Some Gāhadavāl 7,9
grants
N36. 0 to 9
Ratanpur inscrip- tion Jājalla I
1114

Page #361

Development of Nāgarī Script
N37
0 to 9
1148
Konī inscription of Prithvideva II
CII, IV, PI. LXXIII.
to 9
Ajayagadh inscription of Kirttivarmā Māndhātā plates of Devapāla
0 to 9
1225
N40
0 to 9
1288
Inscription of the time of Hammīr Pāldī inscription of Arisimha
EI, XXX, Pl. f. p. 90. EI, IX, Pls. b. pp. 110-11. EI, XIX, P1. f. p., 50. EI, XXX, Pl. f. p., 10. EI, XXXIII, Pl. f.
1,3,7,9
1116
N12
P., 34.
N43
N44 0 to 9
0 to 9
Baraudi inscription 1279 of the time of
Gopāla 0 to 9 A grant of
1050 Trilochanpüla Thāṇā plates of 1048
Mummunirāja 0, 1, 3,8 Bassein inscription 1161
of Mallikārjuna 0 to 9 Methi inscription of 1254
Krishna 0, 1, 2, 3, Grants of
1290 4, 6, 7, 8, Mahārājakula
Jayasimha
IA, XII, Pls. b. pp. 202-03. CII, VI, Pls. XXXVII-XLI. CII, VI, PI. LXVII.
N16
N47
EI, XXVIII, Pl. f. p., 319. EI, XXXII, Pls. b. pp. 222-23 & f. p., 225

Page #362

11th-13th CENTURY A.D.
PLATE 177
Na2 N33 N34 | N35/N36/N37
138 139 | N4. Mus N42 | 43 | 44 | Nus | N46 N47
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ ૧ | 2 23 22 3 ૨ ૨ ૨ ૨ ૨ ૨ ૨ ૨ 2
c | |6| |
| | | | | D | | | | | | | |
૬ ૬ ૬ ૬ ૬ ૬.૬ ૬ ૬ ૬ ૬ [7 1722 9 3 5 2 ||
8 | S | | |c : c ) 22 | | | | | | | | |_)
_
-
NUMERALS

Page #363

PLATE 178
MISCELLANEOUS SIGNS
A. SIGNS FOR OM
૭ T
૭
1 2 2 – ૭ 1 4 , R S HIS SŲ or v ૨ ૨ ૩
;
ડું
છે
B. JIHVĀMULİYA
C. UPADHMANIYA
D. PUNCTUATION MARK ETC.
૧ જ
3 (
( (@ રાધ્યા રાજા રાભરા રામા
((
(
(

Page #364

Conclusions
Nāgari is the outcome of evolutionary process of Mauryan Brāhmi script and any consideration on its independent origin is superfluous. From Mauryan to the middle of the sixth century A.D., only a few letters resemble counterparts in Nāgarī. While towards the end of the sixth century, with the emergence of the Kuțila alphabet, the development in alphabet towards Nāgarī moves fast. Most of the letters, from the 7th century onwards undergo the process of development in forms of the letters with only the difference of full covering head-line and straight vertical. All characteristics of the Nāgari appear first about the end of the 10th century and approaches mature Nāgarī form by the 13th century A.D.
There are some variations in the Nāgarī script of different regions due to various factors, namely the writing material, the writing technique, different schools of writers and engravers and their individual interest and mannerisms, etc. However, script maintains a sort of unity during the developmental process. Some noticeable factors which are responsible for such type of development are reviewed below:
Learned persons from time to time have migrated from one place to the other and among other things they also affected writing styles. Rājasekhara has stated that many early poets, who had travelled widely, had

Page #365

176
Development of Nāgarī Script
benefited their country-men by making use of their experience in those alien lands in their literary compositions. Rājasekhara himself was a Maharashtrian Brāhmana, stayed in the court of the Imperial Pratihāras, married a Chāhmāna lady Avantisundaria king Indra III. The Kashmiri, poet, Bilhana, travelled to South 'ndia and in the court of king Vikramāditya of Kalyāna, he composed his Vikramārkadeva Charitra." Jayānaka, the noted Kashmiri poet, made a journey to the court of Prithvirāja III. Dhanapāla, of U.P., spent a major part of his life at the court of Paramāra rulers and lastly settled at Satyapura in Rajasthan. Similarly, Sriharsha, who was probably a Bengali by birth, was patronised by Jayachandra, the Gahadavāla king of Kanauja. This point becomes more clear by the example of Pattadakal pillar inscription of the time of Chälukya Kirtivarmā II (A.D. 754) which was engraved in the southern as well as in proto-Nāgarī characters. The northern characters were surely due to the Brāhmanas from Northern
ia, for whom the pillar was set up.5 Sometimes, it is also noticed that the writer and engraver belonged to two distinct places and might have influenced the alphabet considerably.
Along with the writers and engravers the donee also had a role in the migration of the script. For example, most of the Rāshtrakūta grants written in proto-Nāgarī or Nāgarī were donated to the Brāhmanas who had come from the different parts of Northern India. It may be due to the fact that perhaps the receiver of the charters did not follow the matter written in southern scripts or the donor was under the influence of these learned scholars.
The establishment of larger kingdoms also encouraged a uniform system of writing within the dominions where divergent systems were prevalent. In consequence many diversities of the alphabet disappeared and with the skilled hand of the royal writer and engraver the script developed in unidirection. Sometimes writers were chosen from the newly conquered country by the king.
Raids and conquests from time to time have also shared in the migration of scripts. For example with the expansion of Harsha's power, in the early part of the 7th century, the script of the west reached the Middle

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177
Gangā Valley. Nāgarī seems to have infiltrated into the Punjab in the wake of the armies of king Bhoja of Mālava and Karna of Tripurī, which came to liberate it from the Turks and reached up to Kāngadā. The first Nagari inscription in the Punjab is a Jaina record of A.D. 1240 at Baijanāth.'
Sometimes the writers and engravers were brought from the important centres. As V.B. Kolte states:
It may be that after the victory of Indra III over Kanauj and the temporary exile of king Mahīpāla, Rājasekhara had gone to the royal court of the Rāshtrakūtas and stayed with Indra III where he might have composed this panegyric.
Several important educational centres were established by the philomath kings, where people used to come from different parts of the country take education. Varanasi was one such centre which attracted students from far-off places. Mammatabhata, a native of Kashmir, had his early education at Varanasi.10
Kanauj was another great centre of learning. This centre produced several learned scholars like Rājasekhara, Kshemeśvara, Bhatta Lakshmidhara, Srīharsha & c. who served in the royal court of Kanauja.
Kashmir too was an important educational centre. 11 Students from distant places like Pāțaliputra and Bengal went there to study.
In Rajasthan, there were several educational centres like Bhinmāl, Ābū, Chitor, Ajmer, Kumāravihāra. Valabhĩ was a great and renowned centre flourishing in Kāthiāwāda. Dhāra and Māndu were the important educational centres of Madhya Pradesh. Pataliputra was the important seat of learning in Eastern India.
Different types of persons were engaged in writing works. Royal charters were generally written by the skilled hand of professional writers and engraved by artists. Public records were often written and engraved by the persons who were generally not professional or skilled writers. Due to these factors the royal inscriptions show the use of a standard form

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of writing whereas different new apprentices were given a chance to work on personal records. Likewise, the religious manuscripts were very often copied in their old characters which made the script conventional. The divergence of Jaina-Nāgarī is a good example of it. In day-to-day writing, copyists were not bound to use only the standard form of letters. In consequence rapid evolution took place in such types of work. The writing style, writing materials, the taste for ornamentation, desire for speed, etc., all affected the course of the development of scripts. It is surely the consequence of speedy writing in daily use which is responsible for the development of cursive scripts like Gujarātī, Mahājanī, Kaithi, etc. Apparently, these scripts ultimately developed from Nāgarī with a view to write with speed.
With the expansion of Muslim power and extinction of the Hindu kingdoms after 12th century A.D. the task of inscription writing subsequently became secondary specially in Northern India because there was a fall in tradition of landgrants. Manuscript writing had become the common tradition and almost a religious practice, especially among Jainas with a view to escape destruction by the Muslim invaders. But in manuscript writing copyists generally tried to follow the old alphabet too, and therefore the development in script became stagnant after the 13th century A.D. With the invention of the printing press and the typewriter, script became fully stereotyped and standardised. Now only the standard forms are employed in such type of works so the natural path of evolution of alphabets has become blocked. Now the necessities of the press and the demands of smaller types are so important that any change in the script can be thought of only with a view to suit the machine.
Thus it can be concluded that the Nāgarī script developed from the Mauryan Brāhmi for about sixteen centuries and then after the thirteenth century A.D. onwards it became almost stagnant. The mechanization during last hundred years or so has standardised the alphabet. If there is any future for the Nāgari it is bound with mechanical needs.

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Notes and References
1. Kāvyamīmāṁsā, pp. 12, 78. 2. Karpūramanjar, I, 11. 3. Sharma, B.N., Social and Cultural History of Northern India (c. 1000-1200 A.D.),
1972, New Delhi, p., 50. 4. Ibid. 5. Fleet, J.F., EI, III, p., 5: "Gamgāyā uttara-kule Mrigihanikāhāra vishayādihāgatena." 6. Bühler, “The Dewal Prasasti of Lalla the Chhinda, "EI, I, P., 81:
"Vishnuharestanayenacha Likhitā Gaudena Karanikenaisha | Kutilāksharāni vidushā Takshādityābhidhānena II Kanyakuvjāgatenāpi kāmadevasutenachal
Utkirnņā Somanāthena Tankavijñānašalinā ll” 7. Vidyalankar, Jaya Chandra, The Language and Script Problem in Punjab, Hindi
Bhavan, 1966, p., 110. 8. “Two grants of Rāshựakūta Indra III from Vajirkhoda,” EI, XXXVIII, p., 14. 9. The Rewah inscription of Malayasimha of A.D. 1192 mentions that Purushottam, the
composer of the prasasti and also an inhabitant of Varanasi, was well-versed in
Logic, Grammar, mimāṁsā, Vedānta and Yoga philosophy, EI, XIX, pp. 26-27. 10. Ray, S.C. Early History and Culture of Kashmir, Calcutta 1957, p., 180. 11. Occan of Stories, V, Motilal Banarsidass, 1968, pp. 178-79; Sachau, Al beruni's., I, p., 22.

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Dr. AK Singh is a faculty in the School of Studies in Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology. Jiwaji University, Gwalior (M.P) He obtained his master's Degree in two disciplines, Ancient Indian History Culture and Archaeology; and Museology and a Ph. D. from the Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. Dr. Singh was awarded the University medal and Anant Sadashiv Altekar medals for securing first position in order of merit in M.A. Examination. Banaras Hindu University Scho. larship, Junior fellowship of University Grants Commission and Senior fellowship of Indian Council of Historical Research were awarded to him for his research work. Dr. Singh is deeply involved in researches for the last ten years or so, mostly in the fields of Palaeography and Epigraphy. He has more than fifteen research papers to his credit published in reputed journals.

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