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entirely different." 15 "There is no cognition in the world that does not follow words All knowledge appears as if permeated by words."16It is from words that things proceed: Iwords create the distinctions in the phenomenal world" One might he tempted to think that this last line speaks about meanings rather than things both called a tha in Sanskrit Bhartrhari speaks, however, about things in the obiective world. This is particularly clear from a passage of his commentary on the Mahabhasya, often called Mahabhāşyadipika, where the perception of words such ac Wheaven" anürva and "divinity" are presented as means to inter (anumana, the existence of the corresponding objects: "Just as the words 'heaven, apurva, and divinity when perceived, are the means to infer the existence of objects never observed."18 The same three obiects-"heaven, apúrva, and divinity are men
e. verse of the Vakyapadiya: "The sign of the thine denoted is that there is an object corresponding to all words. In the case of words like cow,' they say, it is similar to 'heaven' apurva, and divinity. 19
it will be clear from these quotations that the connection between language and phenomenal reality is close. And the language concerned is Sanskrit. But Bharthan anec further. The fundamental unit of language is the sentence; this is equally true the Vedic sentence 20 This is important: it shows that Bharthari does not merely postulate a correspondence between individual words and elements of the phe pomenal world. The link between statements, Vedic statements in particular, and tre phenomenal world is as important, or even more important. We shall return to this noint shortly. First we consider some of Bhartrhari's observations with regard to the role of the Veda in the unfolding of phenomenal reality: "Different sciences unfold based on the primary and secondary limbs of that Vedal which is the organize in principle vidhar of the worlds, sciences that are the causes of the menta! traces (samskara) of knowledge."21 The context of this verse leaves no doubt that actually concerns the Veda, and that therefore the Veda is the organizing principles
nerhans one is entitled to translate: creator of the worlds. A comparison with Vakvapadiva 3.14.198ab, cited above ("It is from words that things proceed; words create the distinctions lin the phenomenal world!"), which, too, uses the vero Viednia chowe that the creation of the world is essentially a division, a differentiation, of the undivided absolute. Another verse explains the relationship between the Veda ang the world in the following terms: "Those who know the sacred tradition know that this funiversel is a transformation of the word. In the beginning this universe pro ceeds exclusively from Vedic verses."22
The world having been created, or organized, by the Veda, tradition jagame smrtil bases itself on the Veda: The texts of tradition (smrti), which are muition and have visible as well as invisible aims, have been arranged by knowers of me Wade the basis of the Vedal with the help of indicators. This implies, Rhartrhari that the link between tradition and the world is close, too. The wong follows the rules of the word: "Even if (all) philosophies had disappeared, and there would pot be other authors, the world would not deviate from the rules expressed by the Veda (cruti) and by the tradition (smrti)."24 This implies, among other things, there the rules of behavior are in a way inherent in the world: "All duties (itikartavyat) i
the world are based on words, even a child knows them because of the mental impressions impressions (samskära) acquired earlier."25 The intuition (pratibha), which is called meaning of the sentence" and which makes us know our duties, either can be the result of verbal instruction or it can be inborn: "Whether the lintuitionl is dirertly produced by the word or by the result of impulsions (bhavand no one deviates from it where duties fitikartavyará) are concerned."26 Even animals are puided by this intuition: "Under the influence of that lintuition even the animals act.... Who changes the sound of the male cuckoo in spring? How have animals learnt to build nests and the like? Who induces wild animals and birds to eat love, hate swim. and so on, activities well known among the descendants of each species?
t hese verses have been interpreted to mean that the hereditary knowledge finds among animals and in children is the result of the use of language in an earlier existence 2" Nothing in the text supports this point of view. It is true that living beings are born with impulsions (bhivan.cr mental traces sansara, which are linguistic by nature, but it would appear that these linguistic impulsions are not or not always the results of instructions in an earlier life. One could here repeat Bhartrhari's question: What verbal impulsions would change the sound of the male cuckoo in spring! Bharthari himself answers this question, and the others that accompany it in the following verses: "It comes from tradition (agama) only, which follows the im pulsions (bhavana). As for the tradition, it is different for each individuall depending on ing on whether they are produced by the own nature, the Vedic school. practice Yoga, by the invisible (adrsta), or by a special Icausel 31 It follows that there is natural knowledge: "Since knowledge is natural, the traditional religious and scien. tific treatises (Sastra) serve no purpose whatsoever. This also applies to morality with regard to the two positions this is virtuous' and 'this is sinful there is little use for religious and scientific treatises (Sastra) right down to the untouchables "33
Bharthari uses the word bhavand, "impulsion," at several other occasions in the Vakyapadiya. The "impulsion of the word" (Sabdabhavand is required to set the Speech organs in motion, to emit an upward breath, and to make the points of articulation strike each other,34 The impulsions, moreover cause the imaginan divisions of the sentence, which has, in reality, no parts: Although the meaning of the sentence is without divisions, the imagined divisions are based on bhāvana."15 + The direct link between words and things explains the effects words can have on things: "Just as it is observed that colors et cetera have well-defined capacities with regard to certain things, in the same way one observes that words thave well-defined capacities to remove snake poison et cetera. Just as they have a capacity to do this to remove snake poison et cetera) it should be understood that they also have a capacity to producel merit. Therefore, good people desiring elevation (abhvudaval should use correct words." The capacity to produce merit belongs to correct words only: "On the basis of traditional knowledge treceived from the well-educated correct words are established as a means toward merit. While there is no difference in expressing the meaning, incorrect words are the opposite le not means toward merit)."
Philosophy East & West
Johannes Bronkhorst
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