Book Title: Management Of Scientific Research In Developing Countries
Author(s): Ram Prasad
Publisher: Ram Prasad

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________________ **78 PHILOSOPHY AND SOCIAL ACTION cover how things work as casual systems. Systematic reflection, often largely expressed in the symbols of mathematics , enables science to bring together the resultant knowledge in an effort to reconstruct the world a posteriori by the process of conceptualization. Science (or the sciences) accordingly constitutes an interlocking complex of attested fact and speculative hypothesis, in which the principle is observed that--so far as practically, economically and humanly possible-the theoretical element must be capable of being verified experimentally. "Scientific method means that progression from hypothesis to verification by experiment, to theories that must themselves be modified when new phenomena are observed. This description of science includes the social sciences, in which the scientific techniques of analysis and deduction are used as far as possible to comprehend the behaviour of human beings in groups or societies, although opportunities for controlled experiments may be less in social sciences than in the so-called exact sciences. "The product or output of science is a coherent system of codified and correlated information of observable phenomena. Technology consists of knowledge which relates directly to the production or improvement of goods or services. Some parts of technology are wholly explicable in terms of fully-fledged scientific theory, whereas other parts are still in a state in which they are not fully codified in such terms. "The activity of research is that of obtaining by observation, experiment or investigation, the new information required to extend science and technology. The new knowledge, and understanding provided by research must be experimentally developed into some tangible application if it is to be meaningful and significant from a social or economic standpoint as opposed to a purely cultural one. The expression research and development is used to denote both the study, reflection, conceptualization and theory-testing and the process of refinement and adaptation which leads up to the point of practical application and exploitation." Organization of Scientific Work As Kalweito points out, up to the turn of the century the scholars mainly pre-occupied with science were those whose major task consisted of lecturing at establishments of higher learning. They conducted research in so far as this was required for teaching and out of personal interest during their free time. To the extent to which science began to play an important part in social life and grew beyond the scope of individual · research capabilities, it became a matter of concern for industrial enterprises and subsequently for the state. In the Charter of Scientific Workers adopted by the World Federation of Scientific Workers in 1948, (on the basis of which the Federation adopted in 1969 the declaration on the rights of Scientific Workers and finally Unesco framed the international instrument just mentioned) is a section on the organization of scientific work. The need under modern

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