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Urban Centres and Urban forces in c. 600-900 CE Rajasthan:
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Two significant urban variables, cultural complexity and peaceful co-existence of different religious sects are discernable from the existence of the Vişnu, Mahāvīra, Sun and Durga temples in close proximity at Osia. The Kuvalayamālā presents a graphic description of dusk, when the sounds of worship emanating from different religious establishments, pavilions for the recitation of mantras, abodes of Brāhmaṇas, Jaina temples, Buddhist vihāras, Durgā, Siva and Kārttikeya shrines and music mingled together harmoniously. Epigraphic records testify to the catholicity of the Imperial Pratihāra rulers who changed their tutelary deity from generation to generation.16
The rational and tolerant outlook of the urban mind manifested itself in the syncretist images of Harihara at Osia and Buckala as well as Ardhanārīśvara images from Jhalrapatan, Osia and Abaneri. The Harihara images represent the composite forms of the gods Hari or Vişņu and Hara or Siva. Visnu's ornamental headgear, floral garland and his attributes, the conch and discus on the left side, fluidly transform into the matted locks, garland of skulls and the attributes, the trident and rosary on the right side. 162
The Ardhanārīśvara images represent the composite form of Siva and Sakti, the right half male and the left half female. The Khandela inscription specifically refers to the construction of an Ardhanārīśvara temple. The eighth-century preceptor accorded due recognition to the Purāņic deities as gods of long enduring fame and their ability to confer wealth. Haribhadra's satirization of the Purāņic legends in the Dhūrtākhyāna is also that of a rationalist and not that of a religious bigot.163
Another feature reflective of urbanism was the comprehensiveness and secular orientation of the educational system. equal importance was attached to vocational and non-vocational courses. Training in the fine arts and industrial arts was regarded as much an education as the mastery of literary arts and religious scriptures, and therefore was included even in a prince's curriculum. The brahmanical mathas which emerged as centres of higher education imparted the philosophies of various heterodox schools, besides those of the orthodox sects, and included secular subjects such as medicine, astronomy, dhātuvāda and rasāyana. 164
A secular framework is also evident in the exquisite and unusual sculptures adorning the plinth of the Harşat Mātā temple at Abaneri which apparently represent a king, his consort and courtly attendants. 165 Associated with cultural activities such as music and dance, they faithfully reflect the material ethos of an urban set-up.
The luxurious life-style of the urban elite is vividly portrayed in Uddyotana's description of the sleeping chambers of the townswomen being beautified for the reception of their husbands. The wall frescoes were unveiled, pieces of camphor dropped into the wine, flower garlands arranged in the house, leaf designs drawn on the floor, flower beds prepared; pots of incense lighted; Cages of melodious pet birds placed all around; clusters of betel-leaves prepared, camphor sticks placed in caskets, the bed clothes and couches laid out in lattices balconies, śrngāțaka and valkala necklaces and cakralatā ornaments were put on, lamps lighted, wine brought in, hair dressed, drinking cups handed over and various eatables and drinks arranged around the beds.166
Even more luxurious was the king's palace, which is described as furnished with jeweled necklaces, chowries, garlands of silk, flowers, pillars adorned with gold, precious textiles, incense and wine. 167 Consequently, both the royalty and the urban elite provided a market for specialized production and encouragement to trade in luxury articles.
