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Cultural Milieu of Jaina Caves: Socio-economic and Religious Backdrop
313 The first definite evidence in Andhra Pradesh is an epigraph recording a donation made by the queen Ayanamahadevi of eastern Chalukyan king Kubjavishnuvardhana, dated to 627 CE (Murthy 1963: 13), though two 3rd century BCE inscriptions from the cavern at Malkonda in Nellore district are said to record the donation of the cavern to Jaina monks (Arundhati 1990: 240). In Tamil Nadu, a series of rock-cut beds accompanied by Brahmi inscriptions datable from 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE at a number of sites are generally associated with Jainas (Champakalakshmi 1974: 93, Soundara Rajan 1975: 138, Chatterjee 1978: 128.) At almost all these sites Jaina icons were carved at a later date (Champakalakshmi 1974: 94). Some such beds are found in Kerala also (Sarkar 1975a: 215). A number of these Brahmi records are related to śramanas and were donated by various craftsmen (Soundara Rajan 1993). Since most of these sites were definitely associated with Jainism at a later date, these śramanas are considered to have been Jainas.
Thus, the early phase of the history of Jainism in south India is unclear and confusing. The exact date of the advent and the route of the spread of the sect in the region are difficult to determine. The definite evidence of the existence of Jainism in south India appears from the 4th century CE in Karnataka. It is not sure how much truth lies in the Bhadrabahu-Chandragupta tradition. It may carry memories of ancient past, but most probably the legend was fabricated later on when the site became famous, associating the site with famous personalities. Similarly, nothing can be said with certainty about the tradition of King Dhanada, appearing as late as 12th century CE. However, on the basis of the association of some of the rock-beds with Jainism it can be assumed that the sect was introduced in the region in about 4th_3rd centuries BCE. It spread in different phases in the various parts of south India.
North India :
As stated earlier, a number of famous cities of Uttar Pradesh were visited by Mahāvira himself and so Jainism was quite strong in this region during the early phase of its history. The Jaina literary tradition associates the sect with all the major cities of Uttar Pradesh (Chatterjee 1978: 90). The reference to various sakhas such as Kausambikā, Srāvastika, Sankasyā, named after the places of its origin in the Therävali indicate that Jainism was quite popular in this region by the 3rd century BC (Chatterjee 1978: 92, 95). Moreover, a number of archaeological remains such as a 1st century BCE inscription from Pabhosa near Kausambi, two caves at the same site datable to the 1st century BC, a number of Jaina icons found from Kausambi, Ahichhatra and Sravasti, datable to preGupta period, many of which carry inscriptions and a large number of pre-Kushana and Kushana Jaina icons accompanied by inscriptions, the earliest of which dates to as early as the 2nd century BCE as well as the remains of a Jaina stūpa and other remains found at Mathura, point at the flourishing state of Jainism in Uttar Pradesh in the early centuries of the Common era.
Central India :
A number of cities in central India have legendary association with Jainism as recorded in the early canonical texts. Vasudevahindi, a 4th-5th century CE text speaks of an icon of
