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and obligation (Meta-ethics). The question that confronts us is : what is intrinsically desirable, good or worthwhile in life, according to the Jaina? What intrinsic values are to be pursued according to him? The answer that may be given is this: What is intrinsically good or valuable or what ought to be chosen for its own sake is the achievement of Ahimsā of all living beings, the attainment of knowledge, the realisation of happiness, the leading of a virtuous life, and the experiencing of freedom and good emotions. Thus the criterion of intrinsic goodness or the good-making characteristic shall be the fulfilment of ends, like Ahiṁsā, knowledge, virtues etc. and the satisfaction that attends the their fulfilment. We may say here that goodness is a matter of degree and this depends on the degree of fulfilment of ends and the resulting satisfaction therefrom. An altogether good shall be wholly fulfilling the ends and wholly satisfying the seeker. The Jaina texts speak of the partial realisation of Ahimsa and the complete realisation of Ahiṁsā and of other ends. This theory of intrinsic goodness may be called AhimsaUtilitarianism. This means that this theory considers Ahimsā and other ends to be the general good. But it may be noted here that this general good shall not be possible without one's own good. Thus by this theory of Ahiṁsā-Utilitarianism narrow egoism is abandoned. This, Ahiṁsā-Utilitarianism, is to be distinguished from Hedonistic Utilitarianism of Mill, but it has some resemblance with the Ideal Utilitarianism of Moore and Rashdall. The point to be noted here is that Moore distinguishes between good as a means and good as an end (good in itself). When we say that an action or a thing is good as a means, we say that it is liable to produce something which is good in itself (Intrinsically good). The Jaina recognises that Ahiṁsā can be both good as a means and good as an end. This means that both means and ends are to be tested by the criterion of Ahimsā. I may say in passing that the principle that "the end justifies the means” need not be rejected as immoral if the above criterion of means and ends is conceded. It may look paradoxical that Ahimsā is an end. But it is not so. Perhaps in order to avoid this misunderstanding that Ahimsā cannot be an end the
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Jaina Mysticism and other essays
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