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HISTORY OF VEGETARIANISM IN INDIA
only little himsā (M 4.2). The brahmin and the warrior should avoid agriculture because by ploughing one injures living beings and is made dependent on others (M 10.83–84). In older times agriculture was not prohibited to the brahmin (cf. M 10.82), but Gautama 10.5 gives a restriction: agriculture and trade are allowed only if the brahmin does not do the work himself. He is also prohibited from selling animals for slaughter (Gaut 7.13), which may include sacrificial animals.
Ahimsā is one of the means to attain heaven (M 4.246), eternal bliss (M 12.83). The best means, however, is to give up the sacrifices prescribed in the karmakāņda of the Veda, since they lead to rebirth, and to follow the spiritual practices of the jñānakāņda which lead to knowledge of the ātman and union with it and thus overcome rebirth (M 12.85–93; 118; 125). This agrees in essence with renunciation considered as the ideal conduct for the brahmin.
5. The renouncer (sannyāsin) or wandering ascetic (pravrājaka, parivrājaka) is subjected to the strictest rules of ahimsā. Upon entering this stage of life one performs a sacrifice whose dakşiņās are one's whole possessions, and one reposits the sacred fires in oneself. One gives the promise of fearlessness (abhaya) to all beings which guarantees one's own fearlessness (M 6.38-40). Here abhaya is a quasi-synonym of ahimsā. The sannyāsin prepares himself for immortality by ahimsā (M 6.60; cf. 75). His aim is union with the highest self (paramātman) which is present in all beings (M 6.65). Ahimsā as a vow of the renouncer occurs in Baudh (2.10.18.2). The ascetic is to avoid injuring beings by word, thought and deed (2.6.11.23). The consecration culminates in the giving of abhaya to all beings (2.10.17.29–30). The renouncer should subsist only on food offered voluntarily and spontaneously, an idea attested already in Isopanişad 1, probably the oldest metrical Upanișad.
Rules similar to those for the sannyāsin apply to the vānaprastha, the hermit in the forest. He should live on flowers, roots and fruits which are ripe and fallen spontaneously (M 6.21) and show compassion towards all beings (M 6.8). Some hermits live on the meat of animals killed by beasts of prey (Baudh 3.3.6;2.6.11.15; Gaut 3.31). The hermit shall enter water slowly and bathe without beating it (Āp 2.9.22.13). This reminds one of the rule for the Jaina monk, who is not to beat water either.
6. The brahmacārin, the Veda student has to avoid honey, meat, perfumes, garlands, spices, women, everything turned sour and injury to living beings (M 2.177). In an earlier text he has to abstain from gambling, low service, taking something not offered to him and
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