________________
196
D. D. KOSAMBI
goods in exchange (Jat. 90). Nevertheless, the new society needs and uses coinage, which cannot be older in India than the 7th century B.C.; that is about the period at which it appears elsewhere in the world. In Buddhist works, in any case, the kahāpaņa (skt. kārşāpaņa), meaning thereby the silver coin at the earlier stages and probably a bronze coin by the time of the commentators, is standard measure of value. Commodity production as a whole is still at a very low level, but certain luxuries (such as fine cloth from Benares) and certain necessities like salt meant trade over a long range. Had metals been more plentiful, and commodity production at a higher level, chattel slavery would have been far more general. But we find the chattel slave rare, usually some sort of an accomplished servant, and all slaves are treated better than the paid servants (DhA 5.1 gloss). The Arthaśāstra forbids the sale even of a sūdra living as a free man (äryaprāņa), and the sūdra was the great source of expropriable labour. Even brahminical works insist upon avoidance of the bride-price (Manusmộti 3.51), for it might seem purchase of the woman, thus degrading her to the status of a slave. I suggest that the absence of slavery and the ultimate victory of brahminism are both connected with the low density of commodity production, which made trade in human beings unnecessary, and country life as easy as that in the cities.
6. CHRONOLOGICAL POSSIBILITIES While the outline seems simple enough, its details are not, and it is necessary to point out the virtual impossibility of constructing a detailed chronology from conflicting sources. As far as kings are concerned, there is no need to prove the statement, which will be found true by anyone who takes the trouble of comparing our records. But even for uncontested Buddhist sources, the dates are not only doubtful but the time sequence is often impossible. Look, for example, at the story of Pasenadi, Vidūdabha and Ajātaśatru. The last is supposed to have become king eight years before the death of the Buddha. Pasenadi, being of the same age as the Teacher, must then have been in his 72nd year. After that he fights several battles with Ajātaśatru; during flights from one of which he sees the sixteen year old Mallikā and makes her his chief queen forthwith. But she seems to have alternated with Väsabha-khattiyā as chief queen, and survived Pasenadi according to the Anguttara-nikāya. Vidūdabha visits the Sakyans during his father's lifetime, being himself then sixteen years old, overhears a servant woman talk of him as "that slave-girl's son", learns of the deceit, and vows to wash his throne with Sakyan blood. This vow he fulfills at the very earliest opportunity. But the usurpation takes place in Pasenadi's (and the Buddha's) 80th year. After that, Viļūdabha makes three attempts (which I should take as three separate annual campaigns) upon the Sakyans, turning away each time because of the Buddha's quiet intercession. The fourth time, the Buddha recalls that the evil karma of the Sakyans in poisoning
