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ing all classes of his people, particularly the brahmins and ascetics; by making gifts directly to the aged and needy, instructing and examining his subjects in morality (R. 8). He honours all sects (R. 12), but means thereby that the essential principles of all should be followed. This is more than a fashion with him, for new officials, the Dhamma-mahāmātas now appear (R. 5), who are occupied with the morality of the whole population, the welfare of all prisoners, adjustment of schisms and controversies-all matters that didn't concern the Arthasāstra. The church, therefore, is an adjunct of the state, a method of reducing the expensive mechanism of violence. Moreover, all royal officials are to take their own 5-year tours of inspection (R. 3), which again implies lesser number of spies. The king does worry about administration, for he expressly says that he will hear reports at all hours however late, and in all places, no matter how private (R. 6); that he should thus "discharge his debt to all living creatures," is a new and inspiring ideal of kingship. Whether he changed the former attitude to the traders is not explicitly stated; he recommends minimum expenditure, and collection of as little goods as possible (R. 3 : apavyayatā apabhāmdată sådhu). Nevertheless, it is clear that the trader finds his relations with the state entirely changed. Though Ujjain and Taxila have their own viceroys (Dhauli 1), the greatest monuments of his and succeeding reigns are not there, but on trade route junctions such as at Sāñci, or Kārli in the Deccan. The trader comes forward to contribute bis share voluntarily, alongside that of the king, to the Sangha ; the caves at Kārli, at Kaņherī, and elsewhere are often cooperative enterprises in which each contributes what he can of his own free will. This would not be possible unless the trader had benefited, and in addition found some reason to like the state-as the Arthaśāstra state could not be liked. Certainly, the king's opening up new territory by dhammavijaya, planting useful and medicinal trees, building rest-houses, digging wells, and repairing roads far beyond his own frontiers was effective in spreading his influence where his arms had not reached. This would be of double benefit to the trader, and we have noted that Buddhism, Jainism, and such Magadhan religion are specially attractive to the traders; even though the king still reveres the brahmins, as does the trader, they now have a far better meeting ground in religion which was absent in brahmin ritual with its exaggeration of caste differences. Asoka's conversion served as a measure of democracy, bringing the king nearer to the people, making him accessible to public opinion without the expensive, dubious intermediacy of spies. In the earlier stages, the religion of ascetic celibate almsmen was more economic than brahminism with its costly antisocial multiplicity of sacrifices and endless fees for everything. Thus, except among the Yonas, where indeed men were not attached to any (Indian) sect or religion (R. 13), the Asokan policy had immense success. Even then invaders like Menander and the Kuşāņas found it expedient to be converts, so that the success was really greater than Asoka claimed. His empire fell apart because it was no longer economic nor even necessary. The country
