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Tatthārtha Sūtra
[5.17-18]
The act of being a cause in motion and position is the function of dharma and adharma substances in succession.
To be a cause in space is the function of the sky.
Dharma, adharma, and space are all intangible substances; therefore, they are not perceivable by the senses. Hence, their existence cannot be established through empirical experience; rather, it is accepted through scriptural authority. Nevertheless, there exists a reasoning that supports the existence of these substances. In the universe, there are two kinds of substances: the living beings (jīva) that are in motion and the pudgala (matter) that is situated. Motion and position are the results and functions of both of these substances, which arise from them; that is to say, living beings and pudgala are the instrumental causes of motion and position. Still, the induced causes that are required for the production of actions can only come from different causes than the instrumental ones. Therefore, in the motion of living beings and pudgala, the existence of dharma in an instrumental way is established, and in the position, the existence of adharma in an instrumental way is established. For this reason, in the scriptures, dharma is defined as "being an instrumental cause in the motion of moving substances," and adharma is defined as "being an instrumental cause in position."
Dharma, adharma, jīva, and pudgala are four substances that are situated somewhere; that is to say, their function is to become a substrate or to receive space. However, granting space (place) is the function of the sky. Thus, the definition of the sky is considered to provide coverage.
Question: In the philosophies such as Sāṅkhya, Nyāya, and Vaiśeṣika, space is acknowledged as a substance, but no one else has accepted dharma and adharma as substances; why is it recognized only in Jain philosophy?
Answer: The mobility of non-sentient and sentient substances is empirically established, being characteristics of the visible and invisible universe. If there is no regulatory element, then these substances can move anywhere in the infinite sky due to their inherent mobility. Indeed, if they were to move into the infinite sky, the situated organization of this visible and invisible universe would never appear uniform, because an infinite quantity of pudgala and infinite jīva, due to unobstructed movement in an infinite spatial realm, would become separated in such a way that their reunion and appearance in a determined creation would not be impossible but certainly challenging. This is why Jain philosophy has accepted the regulatory element for the mobility of these moving substances.