Some Jain Concepts and Conduct

Author(s): Sushma Singhvi
Publisher: B J Institute
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001417/1

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Sheth Shri Popatlal Hemchand Adhyātma Vyākhyānamālā, No. 10
Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
by
Dr. Sushma Singhvi
09
B. J. INSTITUTE OF LEARNING & RESEARCH
Ashram Road, Ahmedabad-9

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Sheth Shri Popatlal Hemchand Adhyātma Vyākhyānamālā, No. 10
Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
Dr. Sushma Singhvi
BV
GUJARAT VIDYASABHA B. J. INSTITUTE OF LEARNING & RESEARCH
Ashram Road, Ahmedabad-380 009

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Some Jain Concepts and Conduct By Dr. Sushma Singhvi
Published by
DR. BHARATI SHELAT Director, B. J. Institute of Learning & Research Ashram Road, Ahmedabad-9 Gujarat (INDIA)
© B. J. Institute, Ahmedabad-380009
First Edition : 2005
Copies : 300
Prince : 60-00
Printed by :
KRISHNA GRAPHICS 966, Naranpura Old Village, Near Swaminarayan Temple, Naranpura, Ahmedabad-380013 Ph. : 079 - 27494393

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શેઠશ્રી પોપટલાલ હેમચંદ
જન્મ
સં. ૧૯૨૮, શ્રાવણ સુદ ૫ ને શનિવાર
- તા. ૨૨-૭-૧૮૭૧
સ્વર્ગવાસ સં. ૨૦૦૧ આસો વદ ૫ ને ગુરુવાર
તા. ૨૫-૧૦-૧૯૪૫

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Publisher's Note Under the terms of the donation made by Shri Chimanlal Popatlal Shah in 1946 in the name of his father Shah Popatlal Hemchand, it was decided to organize series of lectures on the subject of Ātman-paramātman with special reference to Jain Philosophy under the auspices of B.J. Institute of Learning and Research, Ahmedabad. It was decided to name the series ‘Sheth Shri Popatlal Hemchand Adhyātma Vyākhyānamālā'.
Under this Lecture-series, Dr. R.D.Ranade delivered thrée lectures on 'Spiritual Life in Mahatma Gandhi and Hindi Saints, Pandit Sukhlalji Sanghvi on ‘Adhyātmavicāraņā', Dr. Padmanabh Jaini on 'Liberation, Incarnation and Rebirth in Jainism', Dr. Bhogilal Sandesara on Yoga, Anuyoga and Mantrayoga', Dr. R.N. Mehta on “Jainism and Archaeology', Dr. N. J. Shah on, ‘Concept of Sraddhā (Samyak-darśana), Matijñāna and Kevalajñāna in Jain Philosophy,' Dr. Jitendra Shah on “Naya in Jain Philosophy', Y.S. Shastri on “Jainism from the view-point of Vedāntic Ācāryas and Dr. Siddheshvar Bhatt on ‘The Concept of Atman and Paramātman in Indian Thought' respectively. All . these lectures have been published in the book-form by the Institute.
Dr. Sushma Singhvi is a well-known scholar of Sanskrit studies and Jain Philosophy. She has contrituted a lot to the field of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Philosophy. Her scholarly works include “Philosophical view point of Kundakundācārya's works', Șaddarśanasamuccaya (ed.) and several research papers on Anekāntavāda, Jain Naya, Philosophical Foundations of Jainism etc.
Dr. Singhvi has organized several programmes on personality development, Freedom and Education, Role of Distance Education etc. and has delivered scholarly lectures at various Institutions and universities in the foreign countries and in our homeland.

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I have a great pleasure in publishing three lecture delivered by Dr. Sushma Singhvi on 'Some Jain Concepts and Conduct' in the book-form and I hope the publication will prove to be illuminative not only to the students of Indian Philosophy, but also to those who are interested in the subject.
Ahmedabad 21 March, 2005
Bharati Shelat
Director

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PREFACE This book is a collection of my three lectures delivered under the auspices of Sheth Shri Popatlal Hemachandra Adhyātma Vyākhyānamālā, at B.J. Institute of Learning and Research, Ahmedabad in February 2005. These lectures are based on Some Jain Concepts and Conduct.
The title of the book “Some Jain Concepts and Conduct has been selected to express the notion of applying the insight of Jainism to the issues of our lives to enable us to resolve them. How we can attain and sustain happiness and how we should treat other living beings are two such issues. “Knowledge is power” proverb is true in the sense that through applying and practising the knowledge of Jain philosophical concepts we can gain the power to understand and resolve the issue. It is not possible in three lectures to outline in detail the vast Jain philosophical concepts and tradition, this book should be considered as an introduction to Some Jain Concepts and Conduct. The three chapters of this books are : (i). Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development, (ii) Srāvakācāra : Code of Conduct of a Householder and (iii) The Concept of Atman.
“Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development" occupies a central position in Jain philosophy. In the first chapter three different phases of Anekāntavāda has been discussed : (1) vibhjyavāda : the principle of division of issues (2) nayas : the method of defining the frame work of reference (3) saptabhangi : The doctrine of seven fold predications and syâdvāda : the prefixing of the practicle syat meaning in a certain reference to a preposition indicative of its conditional character. Jain āgamas refer to these stages for judging the nature of reality, interpreting the meaning of the words, describing the duties and resolving the issues.

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“Śrāvakācāra : Code of Conduct of a householder” chapter deals with faith, knowledge based on the vision of truth called samyagdarśana. Criterion of right faith according to Jainism is the manifestation of the five characteristics : (i) praśama : calmness, (ii) samvega : aspirations after real freedom, (iii) nirveda : absence of hankering, (iv) anukampā : compassion and (v) āstikya : belief in the existence of soul.
In Jainism, this faith is explained as the consequence of lessening of the intensity of passions of anger, pride, deceit and greed. Bt observing twelve vratas the scope of violence is limited and circumscribed. Five aņuvratas, three guņavratas and four sikşāvratas, are meant for limitation of the activity of the śrāvaka.
“The Concept of Ātman” summarises the fact that this physical world is ruled by physical law and not by any divine 'law. God is only the highest, noblest and fullest manifestation of the powers which lie latent in souls of living beings. There is no creator of this universe. All souls are fundamentally independent.
"Some Jain Concepts and Conduct” is based on the fundamental doctrine of nonabsolutism. This has saved Jain ethics from being one-sided and helped to led to the balanced view between vyavahāra and niscaya. Tha path of salvation is the unity of faith, knowledge and conduct. Thus Jain ethical code of conduct is not merely a system giving certain code of morality but it is religion to be lived in practice.
This book investigates that boundaries and rules in the îorm of vratas enable identities to be established and their responsibility to be fixed. Jain code of conduct assigns primary place to the life of a monk and the life of a householder is expected to be the preparation for monk hood. Householder is rightly called śramaṇopāsaka. It is due to this fact that Jain eth

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ics lays more emphasis on individual and ascetic virtues than on social virtues. The ultimate aim of life being liberation, observing vratas and practising penance is important in śrāvakācāra. Jain concept of atman is based on equality of soul, all souls are equal and fundamentally independent. Jain ethics is based neither on oneness of life in Vedanta nor on momentary nature of self as in Buddhism.
The benefit gained from reading this book is an opportunity to become familiar with some philosophical concepts of Jainism which strengthens and increase our ability to think and reflect and practice the code of conduct which in real sense leads us to the path of development.
B.J.Institute of Learning and Research is doing a great service to the field of Indology through its research, teaching, editing and publishing and arranging learned lecture series. I am grateful to Dr. Bharatiben Shelat, Director, B.J. Institute of Learning and Research for inviting me to deliver these three lectures under the prestigious Vyākhyānamālā.
21st March, 2005

Dr. Sushma Singhvi Director
Vardhaman Mahaveer Open University Regional Centre, JAIPUR

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1-15
16-50
CONTENTS Publisher's Note Preface Contents 1. Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development - Three stages of development :
(a) Vibhajyavāda (b) The Nayas
(c) Saptabhangi and Syādvāda - Reflections on application of Anekāntavāda 2. Śrāvakācāra : Code of Conduct of
a Householder - Samyagdarśana - Twelve Vratas :
(a) Aņuvratas (b) Guņavratas
(c) Sikśāvratas - Categories of a Śrāvaka 3. The Concept of Ātman
- Introduction - Attributes of Jiva - Categories of self - The idea of God - Jiva and Ātman
51-64

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Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development
The three distinct stages of evolution of the doctrine of Anekāntavāda in the early Jaina Āgamas are the main sources to examine, Whether Jainas were analysts or propounder of the views by division of issues and not of partial view of things :(a) Vibhajyavāda
The method of answering a question or following an action
by dividing the issues. (b) Nayavāda
The method of defining the framework of reference. (c) Syādvāda
The prefixing of the particle syāt, meaning “in a certain reference to a preposition, indicative of its conditional character.
The concept of Anekānta occupies a central position in Jaina philosophy. Although it is not possible, exactly, to determine the date of its origin, there is no doubt that the ontology of early Jainism was deeply influenced by this principle. Originally an ethical mode of speech, (for artha-nirņaya, artha-prarūpaña', Samyak dharma-prarūpaņa”, Samādhāna and Tattva-nirdhāraņa etc.) being concerned with what one ought or ought not to speak, anekāntavāda assumed an ontological role in the Ardhamāgadhi

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.
2]
[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
Āgamas through three stages of development, viz, Vibhajyavāda (the method of answering a question by dividing the issues), nayavāda (the method of defining the framework of reference), and syädvāda (the prefixing of the particle syat, meaning ‘in a certain reference to a preposition, indicative of its conditional character)". Syādvāda asserts that the knowledge of reality is possible only by denying the absolutistic attitude. Vibhajyavāda :
It is perhaps the earliest phase of the doctrine of Anekāntavāda, which is found mentioned in the sūtrakrtānga where a monk is asked to explain things, through the principle of division of issues. Non practice of this principle is considered as anācāra”. The method of analysis in vibhajyavāda for dividing the issues is called dvipadāvatāra method, which is the key to anekāntavāda?. Those, who do not know this method of vibhajyavāda are named as 'bāla', ignorants. The Bhagawati sūtra provides many illustrations where a question is dealt with in Vibhajyavāda. On being asked by Gautam whether a person who says that he has taken the vow of desisting from committing injury to all sentient beings is a bonafied observer of the vow or a malafied imposter, Mahāvīra replied that if such person was incapable of distinguishing between the sentient and the insentient, or between the mobile and immobile living beings, he is the latter but otherwise he is a true observer of the vowo. Similarly on being asked by Jayanti which of the two, viz slumber and wakefulness, was preferable, he replied that for the sinful, it was the former, while for the virtuous the latter''. A resident of vāņijya village asked Mahāvīra that Do you eat Sarisava (skt. sadrśavaya friend and sarsapa mustarad seeds) or not, Mahāvīra answered the question by dividing the issue that the sarisavas are eatable and also not eatable.

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Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development]
SARISAVA
SEED SARISAVA
FRIEND SARISAVA 1-Sahajāta 2. Sahavardhita
3. Sahapānśukridita (All not eatables)
SASTRAPARIŅATA
ASASTRAPARIŅATA
(Not Eatable)
EŞAŅIYA
ANESAŅIYA (Not Eatable)
YĀCITA
AYĀCITA (Not Eatable)
ALABDHA
LABDHA (eatable)
(Not Eatable)
Thus labdha, yācita, eşaniya, sastrapariņata sarisava seed is eatable.
The process of dividing the issues continued till Lord Mahāvira could explain the method of practising Jaina śramaņācāra. These and similar instances which are in galore in the Jaina texts are obviously case of answer by division. It should

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
be noted here that the alternative answers to the divided issues are sometimes introduced in the Āgama by 'vi' meaning also and by the particle siya (skt, Syād) meaning in a certain reference'2. The expression siyavāya in the sutrakrtānga'also deserves mention: one should not explain anything without taking resort to siyavāya (skt. syādvāda, the principle of conditional prediction). It is obviously synonymous with the expression vibhajyavāya noted above and is the forerunner of the syädvāda of later times. It confirms that vibhajyavāda is the earliest phase of anekāntavāda. The Nayas
The nayas (stand points) constitute the second stage of the evolution of the concept of anekānta. The earliest and most important way of judging the nature of things was to consider them under four heads/points of view viz. dravya (substance), kşetra (space), kāla (time) and bhāva (mode). In the Bhagawati sūtra the loka (inhabited cosmos) is considered as finite in substance and space, but infinite in time and modes 4. There are also other heads such as guņa5, bhāva' and saṁsthāna!? which were analogous to bhāva. But all these heads were not called nayas. The expressions used in connection with the nayas were however dravya and paryāya (equivalent of bhāva). The material atoms are thus stated to be eternal qua dravya (davyatthayae) and non-eternal (qua paryāya pajjavehim!8 and the souls are characterized as eternal qua dravya (davvatthayae) and non-eternal qua bhāva (bhāvattayae)lo . Another pair of nayas viz avvocchitti naya (skt. avyucchitti naya, the stand point of non-interception) and vocchitti-naya (skt. vyucchitti naya, the stand point of interception) are also mentioned in the Bhagavati Sūtra'. Thus the infernal beings are eternal from the stand point of noninterception (of their existence as souls) but they are non-eternal from the standpoint of interception (of their present state of being infernal after the expiry of that form of existence). Brhadvrtti on

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Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development] Uttarādhyayana sútra clearly indicates that vyavacchitti naya is paryāyārthika naya and avyavacchitti naya is dravyārthika naya?'. The fifth chapter (pada) of prajñāpanā upanga is famous by the name, 'paryāya pada' where in jiva and ajīva prajñāpanā are explained in detail. It is difficult to comprehend this āgama without understanding paryāyārthika naya.
Third pair of nayas is also mentioned in the Bhagavati Sutra viz. vavahāriya naya (skt. vyavahārika naya, the popular stand point) and necchaiya-naya (skt. naiscayika-naya, the factual or scientific standpoint). Thus from the popular standpoint the drone is black in colour but factually or scientifically speaking, it is possessed of all the five colours viz. black, blue, red, yellow and white. Mention of seven müla naya in sthānănga sūtra is also important”. Reality possesses an infinite number of attributes, this concept of non-absolutism of Jainism signifies speculations of sevenfold stand points also. Saptabhangi
As the third stage of development of the concept of anekānta, we find a primitive saptabhangi and syādvada in the Bhagavati Sūtra 'Goyama, Siya aya, siya no aya, siya avattavva aya ti ya no aya ti ya:24. Here the things are judged under the Categories of 'self' (aya skt. ātman) and 'not self' (no aya skt. no ātman). An object is characterised as 'self' in some respect (siya aya), 'not self' in some respect (siya no aya) and indescribable' that is both 'self and not self' in some respect (siya avattavam aya ti ya no aya ti ya). Further the meaning of 'in some respect' is explained- "Goyama! appana aditthe aya, parassa aditthe no aya, tadubhassa aditthe avattavam........ 25.
These three attributes are predicated of an object noncomposite or composite, respectively from the standpoints of existent characters, non existent characters and existent cum non existent characters. In the case of the objects that are non

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
composite (for instance, a monad, an atom), the attributes are only three in number viz. self, not self and indescribable. Hence indescribable means the impossibility of the object being spoken of or described exclusively as self or not self, because of the same object being both (self and not self) at the same time. These three attributes however, become six in the case of a dyad (a composite body of two space points) as follows: 1. Self 2. Not self 3. Indescribable 4. Self and not self (one attribute for each space point) 5. Self and indescribable (one attribute for each space point) 6. Not self and indescribable (one attribute for each space point)
These six modes (ways) again become seven in the case of a triad (a composite body of three space points) I to 6 as above and 7. Self, not self and indescribable(one attribute for each of the
three space points).
Bhagavati sūtra describes that the fourth, fifth and sixth modes have each two more subdivisions. The text referred to above gives the divisions and sub-divisions of the tetrad, pentad and hexad also. On account of various possible combinations of the space points the number of modes may be thirteen or two hundred twenty two, yet the basic modes do never exceed the number seven. The basic seven modes/ways enumerated above are the prototypes of latter seven bhangas of what is called saptabhangi (the doctrine of seven fold predication). What is to be carefully noticed in this connection is the fact that according to Bhagavati Sūtra the joint predication of the attributes ‘self' and ‘not self' to a monad is not possible because the monad has only one space point. Such predication is only possible of a dyad which

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Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development]
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has two space point. Similarly the simultaneous predication of three attributes is only possible in the case of triad which has three space points. The implication of above description is that the joint predication of two contradictory attributes to the same space points is purely a case of 'indescribability' and not an illustration of a dual predication of self and not-self. The dual predication is meaningful only if the object has two parts in order that each individual attribute may find its own accommodation. The later Jain philosophers, however, did not find any difficulty in such predication, and they made the dual predication (‘is' and ‘is not’used by them in place of 'self' and 'not-self') irrespective of the non composite or composite character of the object. Some of them also interchanged the positions of the third and fourth attributes.
Bhagavati Sätra has given us a clue to the fact that the behaviour of monad or atom and dyad etc. and molecule or particle is absolutely different. Dr. D.S.Kothari has also stated this fact in his article “Modern Physics and Syādvāda’26. Explaining complimentarity principle in syādvāda he quotes Bohr's concept of modern physics and stresses upon the very close nature of complimentarity and syādvāda. Modern physics has warned us against the dangers of overestimating the value and utility of precise scientific concepts: for example, the fundamental concepts of classical physics no longer hold in quantum mechanics. It was some two thousand years after Euclid that non-Euclidean geometry was discovered in the nineteenth century.
A favourite maxim of Bohr of interest in connection with syādvāda is the distinction between the two kinds of truths, profound truths and trivial truths. For a profound truth its opposite or negation is also a profound truth. For a trivial truth its opposite is false, an absurdity. “The truth of a statement of the highest wisdom is not absolute, but is only relative to a suitable meaning

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
for the ambiguous words in it, with the consequence that the converse statement also has validity and is also wisdom.” Bohra illustrated this with his statement ‘There is a God' a statement of great wisdom and truth and the converse. “There is no God' also a statement of great wisdom and truth. (For him who believes that there is no God, his God is ‘no God'. The aspects of God are infinite, inexhaustible, inexpressible). This reminds ofan oft quoted dialogue between Lord Mahāvīra and his favourite disciple Gautama.
“Are the souls, O Lord, eternal or non eternal ?"
“The souls, O Gautama, are eternal in some respect and non eternal in some respect.”
“With what end in view, O Lord is it said that the souls are eternal in some respect and non eternal in some respect?” They are eternal, O Gautama, from the view point of substance (dravya), and non-eternal from the view point of modes (paryāya) and with this end in view it is said, O Gautama, that the souls are eternal in some respect and non-eternal in some respect.”
“Is the body, O Lord, identical with the soul or is the body different from it?"
"The body, O Gautama, is identical with the soul as well as it is different from it.”:27
Talking about the atom and complimentarity, the question arises that what is the redically new situation we meet within dealing with atomic phenomena (quantum physics) as distinct from everyday experience (classical physics). When we speak of a 'table' or 'chair', any meaningful statement and its negation cannot both be correct at the same time. If the statement 'the chair is in this room' is correct, then the statement 'the chair is not in this room' is false. Both cannot be true at the same time. But this fundamental principle of logic and common sense is, in general violated at atomic phenomena. Atoms in general behave in a

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manner completely foreign totally repugnant to common sense and classical logic. Suppose there is an 'atom' in a closed box. The box is divided by a partition into two equal compartments. The partition has a very small hole so that the atom can pass through it. The hole can be closed if desired. According to classical logic the atom can be either in the left compartment (L) or in the right compartment (R). There is no third alternative. But the new physics forces us to admit other possibilities to explain adequately the results of experiments. Dr. Kothari discusses that if we use the word 'box' and 'atom' then there is no escape whatsoever from admitting in some strange way which totally defies description in words that the same atom is at the same time in both the compartments. What we are speaking of is not a case of the atom being sometimes in the left compartment and sometimes in the right compartment, but being in both the compartments at the same time. It is an idea crazy beyond words. And so it is, but there is no escape.
Consider the 'box' and 'atom' situation a little further. We suppose a beam of light illuminating the box (which we may take to be transparent) and we study the angular distribution of the intensity of light scattered by the atom in the box. We make three experiments. Firstly, the atom is placed in L with the hole closed; secondly, the atom is placed in R with the hole closed and thirdly, the atom is placed in the box with the hole open so that it can move freely in the whole box. The observed intensity distribution of light for the third case is truely astonishing. The intensity distribution is not a mixture, a sum, of distributions for the first and the second case, the composition of the mixture depending on the fraction of time spent by the atom in each of the two compartments. The distribution is infact altogether different. It shows an interference feature which can be only explained by assuming that the incident light is scattered from the atom present at the same time in both the compartments. The atom is, in some

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
strange way, in the two compartments at the same time. It shows in this case a behaviour fundamentally different from that of a 'particle'. A particle cannot be at two places at the same time. The new aspect of the atom revealed in the third experiment is called the 'wave aspect'. A wave fills all available space. Totally unlike large objects objects on the atomic scale show a dual aspect, a particle aspect and a wave aspect. The two aspects which are totally contradictory in every day experience are complimentary at the level of atoms.
Why so? Because nature is so consituated that experiments which demonstrate the particle aspect and those which demostrate the wave aspect are mutually incompatible. We can have only the one set up or the other, and never the two can be combined or built together into some super apparatus to demonstrate both the aspects at the same time. What is that makes these experiments mutually incompatible? It arises from the far-reaching and totally unexpected, fact that an act of observation even an ideal observation supposed to be made with 'perfect' instruments is inevitably accompanied by a certain minimum disturbance. The disturbance cannot be eliminated, cannot be analysed or allowed for. It is inherent in the nature of things. It disturbs in an unpredictable way, the state of system under observation. We cannot even think of an experiment- a thought experiment, as it is called- that can be made free of the concomitant minimum uncertainity. According to syādvāda logic this fact is placed positively that the reality has inherent infinite attributes. No one is able to observe at a time or speak at a time all the attributes of really existing thing. One can only perceive or speak any one attribute at a time with particular view point not denying the remaining attributes. Observer's view point is important. Linguistic terminology always follow it.
The physical example of the atom and the box described

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earlier is presented diagramatically and compared with the seven modes of syādvāda. Seven modes of syādvāda and ‘atom’-'box'example Atom in box
Syādvāda models L=Left; R=Right
of description
Atom in L Compartment
Existence (Atom in L)
R
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
| Atom in R Compartment
Non-existence (Atom not in L)
-
-
----
LR
Atom in both
tment at the same time.
Avyakta (Inexpressibility)
LR Non visualisable
Existence and Nonexistence
------------------ ------------------ LR LR
Cases 1 and 2 at different times or two similar boxes at the same time.
Avyakta and Existence.
3 and 1 at different times or two boxes at the same time.
3 and 2 at different times or two boxes at the same time.
Avyakta and Non-existence.
7. 3 and 4 at different times or three
boxes at the same time.
Avyakta and Existence & Non-existence.

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
Syadvāda demands that in the very nature of things the negative of the given statement is also correct. Suppose 'A' is a meaningful statement, 'not-A' will be the negative statement of 'A'. The conditions under which the two statements, 'A' and 'notA', are correct cannot ofcourse be the same. In general the respective conditions are mutually exclusive. Given a statement 'A', it may not be at all easy to discover the conditions or situations under which 'not-A' holds. It may even appear at the time impossible. But faith in syädvāda should keep us on to continue the search. The syādvāda, indispensable for ethical and spiritual quest and for ahimsā (non violence), is also of the greatest value for the advancement of natural sciences. Reflections on application of anekantavāda and examples of syādvada can be seen in Appendix 1.
12]
1. Sūtrakṛtānga Sutra, I/14/22
2. Sūtrakṛtānga Sūtra, II/5/2, 3
3. Bhagavati Sutra, XVIII/10/24,25 & XII/10/18, 27.
4.
'Anckanta', Dr. Nathmal Tatia, Tulsi Prajñā, Vol.IV. Nos. 7-8, pp. 113
5.
6.
7.
etc.
REFERENCES
Samkejja ya' samkitabhavabhikkhu,
Vibhajjavayam ca viyagarejja.
Bhāsāduyam dhamma samutthitehim,
viyagarejja samaya supanne.
sütrakṛtānga sūtra, 1/14/22.
Anadiyam parinnaya, anavadaggeti va puno sasayamasasaye va iti ditthim na dharaye.
Eehim dohim tthanehim vavahāro na vijjai
Eehim dohim tthanehim anayaram tu janae sūtrakṛtāṁga sūtra, II/5/ 2,3.
"Jadatthi nama loge tam savvam dupaoaram tam jahā jivacceva ajivacceva......" sthānanga sūtra, II/1/57.

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Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development]
113
8. Evameyani jampamta bala pandiamanino niyayaniyayam santam
ayananta abuddhiya sūtrakstānga, 1/1/2/4. "Se nunam bhante! savvapanehim..... java siya dupacchakkhayam
bhawati” Bhagavati Sūtra, VII/2/271. 10. Bhagavati Sütra, X11/2/18/1,2. 11. ".... Goyama! Saviriyavi aviriyavi..." Bhagavati Sūtra, 1/8/71. . 12. "... Goyama! Siya saindiya vakkamai, siya anindie vakkamai, ..."
Bhagvati sutra, 1/7/61. 13. “... na ya’siyavaya viyagarejja" Sūtrakrtānga, 1/14/19. 14. Bhagavati Sütra, II/1/45. 15. Bhagavati Sutra, 11/10/126. .16. Bhagavati Sutra, XIX/9/102. 17. Bhagavati Sūtra, XIV/7/80. 18. Bhagavati Sütra, XIV/4/49-50. 19. Bhagavati Sūtra, VIII/2/58-59. 20. Bhagavati Sūtra, VIII/3/93-94. 21. Samtaim pappa te’nai apajjavasiavi a
tthiim paducca saia sapajjavasia vi a 22. Bhagavati Sotra, XVIII/6/108. 23. “Naigane samgahe vavahare.......... "Sthānănga, VII/3/552. 24. Bhagavati Sütra, XII/10/211-226. 25. Bhagavati Sūtra. X[1/10/469. 26. Jeet Abhinandana Grantha, Il part, pp. 187-199. 27. Tatia, Nathmal, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Jain Cultural Rescarch
Society, Benaras, 1951, pp. 22-23.

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Appendix-1 Reflections on application of Anekāntavāda: 1. Many words have same meaning, one word may have many
meaning, both is possible. Knowing objects means (a) knowing what general class it belongs to (b) knowing what specific class and name it holds. (c) knowing as many possible qualities / attributes out of infinite attributes or objects. (d) knowing similarities
and dissimilarities of qualities / attributes. 3. Knowing an object means by what view point what quality
of object has been perceived as existing or as non-existing or as both.
Process of identification is the process of classification. 5. Process of perception is process of discrimination. 6. Wise knows that he does not know everything. 7. (a) Coming of day into existence is possibly because night
exits. (b) There is an aspect of 'permanent' because temporary
aspect exists. (c) Coming of black into existence is possible because white
exists. Some objects are called living beings because some ob
jects are non-living beings. (e) Any two objects have similar as well as dissimilar as
pect from each other. (f) Object can be identified by classification of opposite
aspects. (g) Reality of object, view point of observer and terminol
ogy depend upon each other. Anekāntavāda affirms the
theory of relativity as operating by syādvāda. Example of syādvăda (approach to fundamental problem)

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Anekāntavāda : Origin and Development]
[15 Determinism and Free willTwo contradictory facts :(a) One knows by direct incontrovertible experience that it
is one's own self that directs the motion of one's body; and because of this freedom arises moral responsibility
for one's action. (b) The body functions are a pure mechanism according to
the Laws of Nature.

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Śrāvakācāra : Code of Conduct of a Householder
Who is a Śravaka ? The word Śrävaka(a house holder or a lay man) is used in a special sense in Jainism. Generally speaking a Śravaka is a person who has acquired a right faith (Samyagdarśana) in the spiritual categories like soul, karma, rebirth, enlightenment and emancipation. The Uttaradhyayana defines samyaktva as belief in nine categories.' In Darśanapahuda, Kundakunda also defines samyagdarśana as a firm belief in the six substances and nine categories. In Mokṣapahuda, samyagdarśana is defined as belief in dharma devoid of violence, in faultless deity and in the way of life prescribed by the omniscient.' In Niyamasāra samyagdarśana is explained as a belief in liberated souls, Jaina scriptures and Jaina principles. In Mūlācāra, the samyagdarśana is defined as belief in Nine categories.' Svāmikārtikeya added belief in nonabsolutism as a condition for samyagdarśana." He held that the nature of nine categories cannot be rightly ascertained without the help of Pramāṇa and naya. Umāsvāti, who is followed by Amṛtacandrācārya and Nemicandra Siddhantacakravarti, defines samyagdarśana as belief in the seven pedicments of Jainism.' Samyagdarśana defines samyagdarśana as a belief in true deities, true scripture and true teachers as against the three follies of belief in pseudo-deva, pseudo-belief and pseudo-teacher. Samyagdarśana also speaks of the eight essentials of right faith and the necessary of freedom from eight types of pride for a

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[17
right believer. Vasunandi in his Śrāvakācāra says that in addition to belief in seven predicaments, samyagdarśana includes belief in liberated soul and Jaina scriptures.' rightly Criterion of Right faith according to Jainism is the manifestation of the following characteristics: calmness or tranquility (praśaina), disgust at the worldly activities and aspirations after freedom (samvega), absence of hankering (nirveda), compassion (anukampā) and belief in life here after and the existence of soul, Karman etc. (āstikya).
The Tattvārthasūtra speaks of following five transgressions of samyagdarśana
(i) Sarikā (doubt) (i) Ākānksā (desire) (ii) Vicikitsă (repulsion) (iv) Anyadrstiprasaṁsā (Admiration of followers of other
creeds) (v) Anyadrstisamstava (praise of followers of other
creeds).?" The fourth transgression differs from the fifth in as much as the former means secretly thinking admiringly of wrong believers, whereas the latter means announcing the praise of wrong believers loudly."
The existence of the jewel of right faith, although extremely subtle, owing to being a condition of soul, may be inferred from these qualities. Right faith is the starting point of the life of a Srāvaka. The Ācārānga Sūtra brings out the moral significance of right faith with great emphasis when it says, "He who right fait commits no sin.”!? The discipline to be observed by him is based on the right view if things in the absence of which the discipline becomes only a formal practice without any meaning or content. Faith may differ from religion

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
15
to religion. But without it, a religion is meaningless. The Rgveda praises faith (śraddha)13. The Chandogyopanisad asks us to be faithful.14 The Gita says that only the faithful attains knowledge. S We find a further development of this idea of faith in the Bhaktisūtra of Narada and Śāṇḍilya. In Vedānta, Rāmānujācārya held that salvation is not possible by knowledge, as held by Sankara, but by bhakti. Thus we find that the importance of faith has been impressed throughout the history of Indian culture. The essence of a religion is determined by the nature of the faith uphold in it. The moral code of a religion is necessarily based on the nature of the faith propounded there. The mental and moral discipline prescribed for a layman, Śrāvaka in Jainism is inspired by the criterion of faith noted above. The firmness of a Śravaka's belief is indicated by the following eight qualities :
1.
2.
Niśśankita (Absence of doubt about scriptures) Niḥkänkṣita (having no desire for the worldly pleasures)
Nirvicikitsa (absence of doubt about the attainments of spiritual path).
4.
Amudhadrsti (no confusion about the ideal)
5. Upabṛmhana (Augmenting the spiritual qualities)."? Sthirikaraṇa (Re-establishing those who deviate from truth)
6.
Vatsalya (Sense of brotherhoods towards the followers of the right path)
Prabhavana (Preaching he importance of truth)
3.
7.
8.
It would be observed here that the first five characteristics pertain to the individual life of the aspirant whereas the last three pertain to the social aspect of religion.

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[19
The awakening of faith : the spiritual awakening of a person sometimes takes place after a prolonged association with saints and study of religious literature. It can also take place spontaneously without any effort''. This awakening is called samyagdarśana i.e. right view of things. This right view is technically called samyagdarśana which is taken as right faith. Faith, in essence, is a kind of knowledge, based on the vision of truth. In Jainism, this faith is explained as the consequence of lessening of the intensity of the passions of anger, pride, deceit and greed. The passions have a deluding faith. They act as impediments to spiritual awakening. These impediments are due to karma, which cover and mutilates the inherent qualities of the soul. A detailed process of the elimination of the effects of the karma also is given as a doctrine in Gunasthāna, the stages of spiritual development, in the philosophical literature of Jainism. With the awakening of initial enlightenment, a person acquires the basic qualification of a Śrāvaka. He is qualified for the higher spiritual life of a layman. A brief account of the rules and regulations to be observed and practiced by a Srävaka is given below :
The Aņuvrata, their makeshift character vis-à-vis mahāvratas : the most important vows to be undertaken by a Srāvaka are called aņuvratas which are five in number. These are derived from the five Mahāvratas practiced by the Jain monastic order. A full observance of a vrata requires that the act prohibited by it should not be done, or cause to be done or approved of : and also it should not be done by mind, speech and body. This is technically called a vrata pure in nine ways, that is three ways of doing multiplied by three organs of doing. This is the observance par excellence, which is essential for a monk or a nun. In the case of Srāvaka this nine fold observance is not compulsory, as he is allowed to observe the vows as thoroughly as he can. Thus generally a Śrāvaka is required to

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
restrain his mind, speech and body in doing a work or getting it done. It is not necessary for him to abstain from giving his consent to what is being done.
Unlike the mahāvratas which are sometimes four only as in the times of the twenty two Teertharkaras preceding Mahāvīra, the asuvratas are always five. As regards the meaning of 'anu' in the word aņuvrata, it stands for partial as distinguished from ‘mahā' Meaning full. It is said that the aņuvratas are so called because they are minor (laghu) vrata as compared, with the mahāvratas which are major vows. An aņuvrata moreover is practiced by a person in a lower guṇasthāna, compared to a monk established in a higher guṇasthāna. The aņuvratas are thus only a makeshift arrangement subject to up gradation according to the ability of the observer.
As distinguished from the mahāvratas the aņuvratas are concerned only with the abstinence from causing injury to gross living being (two sensed or higher organisms).
In the case of vratas other than Ahimsā the implication of the aņuvratas are to be explained differently in order to distinguish them from the corresponding mahāvratas. The five aņuvratas are regarded as the mūlaguna in the svetāmbara tradition,
The eight mūlaguņas in Digambara tradition : the earlier Digambara Ācāryas like Samantabhadra & Jinasena included the five aņuvratas in their list of mūla guņas. But Amrtacandra & others gave a different list, which mentioned abstinence from the five udumbers. The remaining three mūlaguņas which are common to all the digambara list are abstinences from meat, alcohol and honey. Jinasena and others mentioned gambling instead of honey.
In addition to the five mūla guņas mentioned above

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[21
there are even uttara guņas, which are divided into two groups namely guņavratas and śikṣāvratas. The terms mūla guna and uttara guņa are explained with reference to the imaginary of a big tree the former being roots and the later the body of the tree nourished by the roots. Twelve vratas :
Abiṁsā aṇuvrata- this vrata occupies the most important position in the moral code of the Jainas. Absolute ahimsā is possible only for the monks who live an extremely austere life, denying themselves of all comforts and amenities of life. The life of lord Mahāvira described in the IX Chapter of the Ayaro is an example of the practice of absolute ahimsā as understood by the Jainas. The ahiṁsā vrata observed by a Śrāvaka is imperfect, because for him it is not possible to avoid all kinds of himsā for instance he has to do agriculture and other work which necessarily involve injury to living organisms. Such himsā is called arambhaja, which is not committed intentionally.
A Srāvaka, however, is prohibited from inflicting injury to life with a motive. The motivative himsā is called sankalpaja, which is strictly prohibited in Jainism. This implies that any piviession or occupation that involves intentional himsā is unworthy of being adopted by a Śrāvaka. Even in the event of arambhaja himsā, a Śrāvaka should be extremely careful in order to avoid unnecessary injury to living organisms. In brief a Srāvaka is required to avoid all sorts of hiṁsā, that are avoidable and as regards the unavoidable ones he should be extremely careful and vigilant in order to avoid himsă as far as possible.
A householder is likely to destroy living organisms in five places namely oven (cūlhā), grinder (cakki), broom (Jhādu), pestle (mūsala) and martar (okhali) and water pot. 19 This involve

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
what is called arambha. The householder moreover has parigraha consisting of animate and inanimate things. He can not avoid arambha and parigraha, and consequently he can not ordinarily do without minor himsā. In other words his observance of the ahimsā vrata is of necessity partial (aņu). This partially has a long range starting from the abstinence from doing an act through body (ekavidham ekavidhena) upto the abstinence from doing, getting done and approving of an act done through the mind or the speech or the body (trividhaṁ trividhena). In the case of the abstinence which is trividham trividhena the householder reaches the perfection of abstinence which is very much like that of a monk.
A very interesting question arises in the case of trividham trividhena, which has exercised the intelligence of Umāsvāti, his commentator Siddhasenagani and also Haribhadra. The Avaśyakaniryukti have not mentioned trividhani trividhena where as in the Bhagavatisūtra itself this is clearly admitted. This discrepancy between the original āgama and the niryukti has been softly removed by the three authors just mentioned. The problem is solved with reference to a Śrāvaka who has established himself in the eleventh stage of Uvasaga Padima but has not finally decided to renounce the world to become a monk in order that he may be able to look after his progeny on the completion of the padima.
Another instance of Trividham Trividhena is provided with reference to Prāņātipāta of fish in the Swamabhuranana ocean which is beyond the reach of the - Śrāvaka and his associates.20
A Srāvaka is also called Aagāri (house holder), who has accepted the Aņuvrata.
Amritcandra has refuted the arguments of the thinker who supported Himsā to satisfy the duties of hospitality and

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propitiate gods.” It is also wrong to destroy ferocious creatures in the belief that by doing so other creatures will be saved. Creatures should not be killed with a view to save them from a state of wretchedness, thinking that death will relieve them their misery
Haribhadra and Hemcandra are the mediaeval Svetāmbar authorities who deal great length the problem of Ahimsā with reference to the ahiṁsā vrata of the house holder. Haribhadra narrates a parable to illustrate a monk's attitude to the Aņuvrata of Ahimsā, which is given below in the words of R. William : “The wives of a certain king obtained permission from their husband to leave the women's quarters and visit the city by night. To ensure that they could do so unmolested he gave order that all the men of the city should be outside the walls by dusk. However, the six sons of a merchant were detained by some business in their counting house and failed to leave. They were arrested and condemned to death. Their father besought the king for pardon but was only able to obtain the release of the youngest one by a reasoned plea to the ruler. Here the sons who were executed are the Jiva-Nikāyasstationary animate beings (the earth organisms, the water organisms, the fire organisms, the air organisms and the plant organisms) and the released one is transa-jive (from two sensed to five sensed living beings), the father is the Sadhu, and his plea is his exposition of the dharma at the time that the layman takes the aņuvratas. He knows that the Srāvaka will not be able to spare the lives of all living beings and so he attempts to save at least most of them.
An account of the aticāras of this vrata is given which are five in number namely :
(1) Bandh- keeping is captivity (2) vaha (vadha) beating (3) Chaviccheda-multilating (4) Aibhara (Atibhara) overloading

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct (5) Bhattapānavuchochheda depriving of food and drink. As regards bandh, it is asserted that it is an aticāra only when done out of anger, bad intention, cruelty, mercilessly, without purpose.?} If done with due care and a beneficial motive, for instance opening the swollen leg of a person suffering from elephantiasis (padvalmieka), it is not a case of aticāra. The ultimate cause of aticãra of overloading is the excessive greed for earning more than what is due.24 Regarding depriving of food and drink, it is laid down that it is an aticāra only when this is done without any cause. It is not however aticāra if done for the moral good of a disciple or the physical benefit of a patient suffering from fever.” It is the intention that place an important role. If a person is very careful in his movement and has no intention to kill, he is a perfect observer of this vrata, thus if a monk, practicing eryasamiti, inadvertently kills an insect he does not bind any karma. It is considered as a case of Dravyahiṁsā as opposed to Bhāvahimsă, which is committed by an evil intention. The very intention to kill is himsă even though no physical violence has been perpetuated.
Somadeva, Like Umāsvāti, has emphasized the positive aspect of ahiṁsā by incorporating the concepts of Maitri, Pramoda, Kārunya & Madhyasthya in this context. Maitri according to him stands for any kind of activity that is intended to avoid any cause of suffering to anybody. Pramod means humble affection for a person superior in the qualities of austere and self restraint life. Kārunya stands for a disposition towards helping the poor and the needy. Madhyasthya means a balanced attitude free from elation or anger. There is no act which is absolutely free from himsā, it is only the intention that matters. It is on account of intention that a fisherman is sinner even when he is not catching fish and a cultivator is free from sin even when actually engaged in cultivation. There is indeed a gulf of difference between the psychic states of two persons

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[25
one touching his mother and other his wife.26
The varieties of acts that are responsible for karmic bondage are given as thirteen in the Samavāyārga, the same are found in the Sütrakıtānga also. These activities are committed in various ways as described below :1. Atthadanda
violence committed for one's
interest 2. Anatthadaņda
violence committed without a
personal interest 3. Hiṁsādanda
violence committed slaying. 4. Akanhadaņda
violence through accident 5. Ditthivippariasiadaņda violence committed by an error
of sight 6. Musāvāyavattiya violence committed through lying 7. Adinnadānavattiya violence committed taking what
is not freely given 8. Ajjhatthiya
violence committed through a
mere conceit 9. Mänavattiya
violence committed through pride 10. Mittadosavattiya violence committed through bad
treatment of one's friends 11. Māyāvattiya
violence committed through deceit 12. Lobhavattiya
violence committed through greed 13. Iriyāvattiya
violence committed through actions referring to a religious
life. Here the first kind of violence is prompted by a motive. The second is not prompted by personal interest. It is absolutely devoid of any purpose, being done simply on account the habit

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct of cruelty. In the third type of violent act, a person kills movable and immovable beings or get them killed or consents to another killing them.
This happens when a man thinks that someone has hurt or is hurting or will be hurting to one of his people or somebody else or one of that people. The fourth kind of prompting violence in accident is called accidental. In this case the person kills somebody not intended to be killed. Thinking that he will kill the deer, he kills partridge or a duck or a quail or a pigeon or a monkey. Here instead of one being he hurts another, therefore he is the accidental killer. The fifth kind of violence through an error of sight. It takes place when a man mistakes a friend for his enemy and kills him. This is usually case when during a riot an honest citizen is mistaken fo rioter and killed. The sixth act is concerned with lying. It is not a kind of danda violent activity resulting in physical injury as in the aforesaid five act, yet it is a sinful (savadya) act like them. The seventh kind of committing sins relates to what is not freely given. This is the case takes what is not given to him. The eighth kind of commiting sin is due to the person himself, even in the absence of any provocation from outside, being simply on account of the persons own anger, pride, deceit and greed. Such a person feels anger, grief and anxiety by nature without any sufficient external cause. The ninth sinful act springs from pride on account of the hostfulness in respect of caste, family, power, beauty, penance, scripture's knowledge, gain, lordship and wisdom or any other resulting in slighting, blaming, abusing revealing others and extolling oneself. The tenth kind of committing sin is concerned with bad treatment meeted out to wants friends. This is the case when a man severely punishes even the smallest offence of his relatives. The eleventh kind of committing sin is related to deceit. This is the case when a person believes himself different from what he is. Asked about one thing, he

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anxious about another. He speaks different from what he has spoken. A deceitful man does not confess his deceit. He is generally not trusted. He blames and revives the person whom he has deceived.
The twelfth kind of committing sin is related to greed. This is specially concerned with the heretical modes who live in woods, in huts, about villages or practice some secret rites, or not well controlled, not do they well abstain from slaying all sorts of living beings and employ speech that is true and untrue at the same time. They consider themselves superior to others and wish to be treated with reverence and honour, compared to others whom they consider inferior. This category of sin is committed by a special class of people held above the common people who are householders.
The above mentioned twelve kinds of sins should be well-understood by a pious śramana or brāhmaṇa as Sāmparāyika which leads to worldly life contrary to this is another category of karman which is called iriyăvahiya. It is the subject matter of the thirteenth kind of karman which is explained in some detail with reference to samiti and guptis and perfectly careful conduct of the monastic community. Such activity is called iriyavahiya because it is a pure activity which does not effect the spirituality of the soul. It causes bondage in the first moment, it is realized in the second and falls in the third moment. This is an account of the activity of a soul that has achieved spiritual perfection, though still living in a world and leading a mundane life.
Satya aņuvrata - the second aņuvrata namely the Satyavrata is defined as abstinence from untruth spoken out of lust or hatred and also from truth if it leads to the destruction of living beings.?? Even the truthful utterance that is harsh and likely to lead to holocaust or harm the feelings of respectful

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
persons is also considered as untruth.28
The most primitive aspect of this vow is preserved in the earlier Avaśyaka literature. Siddhasenagani also mentions these aspects. The sthūlasatyavrata consists in abstinence from the untruth like speaking of an unchaste as chaste or vice versa (kannaliya); a cow giving meager quantity of milk as one giving a larger quantity and vice-versa (govaliya); a unfertile land as fertile and vice-versa (bhomaliya); appropriation of a dispositive (nansavahara thapanamoso) and witnessing to the truth of an untrue event (kudasakhijje - kudisakha). 29
In connection with the mahāvrata Umāsvāti defines asat (in the sütra - asadabhidhānamantram) in three ways namely (i) denial of existence (sadbhāvapratisedha) (ii) reverse statement (arthāntara) (ii) despicable utterance (garhā). The first way is of two kinds (a) denial of what is (bhūtanihanva) e.g. there is no ātman, there is no other world (b) assertion of what is not (abhūtodbhāvana) e.g. the soul is of the size of a grain, of millet, of rise, it is of the size of the joint of a thumb, or it is as shining as the sun, or it is devoid of any activity. In the second way the cow is spoken as horse and vice-versa. The third way consists in a speech, even though true, is characterized by violence, harshness, back hitting and so on. In this connection Siddhasenagani quotes from the Daśavaikālika, VII/2, that one should not speak what is unworthy of speaking (though true), and also what is mixed with untruth and also what is purely untruth. A wise man should not also speak what has not been approved of by the enlighten ones.30 The five aticāra of this vrata, given in the Uvāsagadasão are thoughtless slandering (sahasabbhakkhana); divulgence of secret talks (rahasabbhakkhana); divulgence of ones own wives secret utterance (sadaramantabheda); false information (mosovaese); producing false document (kudalehakaran).31

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In this connection Abhayadevasūri remarks that if such acts are committed out of carelessness (Pramāda) or on the spur of the moment (sahasakara) or thoughtlessly (Anābhoga), they are infraction (Aticāra) and breaking of the vrata if committed under the influence of passion (akuttya).
Somadeva gives some positive features of truthfulness. The speech should be free from exaggeration, fault finding and indecency; it should be noble, beneficial and concise.32
Kārttikeya characterizes this aņuvrata as abstinence from violent speech, harsh and cruel utterance or secret speech; it proves of beneficial and balanced language that gives satisfactions to all living creatures and reveals the true nature of spiritual life.33
Asatya and himsă are intimately related. Asatya necessarily leads to himsă. Amritchandra asserts that all asatya implies passionate activity (pramattayoga) which lies at the root of Hiṁsā.34
As soon as a false statement results in violence, it crosses from the stage of aticāra to the stage of anācāra which is infringement of the vow.
Adattādāna asuvrata-for the asteya aņuvrata (minor vow of non stealing), the objects which can not be stolen are threefold (i) animate (sacitta) (ii) inanimate (acitta) and (iii) mixture of animate and inanimate. The Śrāvaka abstains from the gorss object, which is punishable crime. He does not abstain from small things like grass, fuel, dung etc.35 kintu sthūlāt Couryaropanahetutvena Prasidhat]. The infractions of this vow are following five (i) Tenahada - receiving stolen goods (ii) Takkarppaoga - instigating the thieves (iii) Virudharajatikkamacrossing the boundaries of hostile kings (iv) KudatulāKudamāna-- using false eights and measures (v) Tathadiruvagavavahāra = adulteration.36 All these acts are

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct genuine case of infraction (aticāra), if done frivolously or of the spur of the moment. But they become cases of infringement (bhanga), if done with serious intention. For instance, simply receiving the stolen goods is a case of aticāra but to instigate a thief to steal is a case of anācāra or bhanga."
The interconnection between theft and hiṁsā is explained by Amitagati in following words. The stealing of the possessions of a person virtually stealing his life because his property is a source of sustenance for him.”
Similarly Amrtacandra says that the appropriation of others property, out of passion like greed is an act of theft which should be considered as violence because it leads to injury to others. 39
Svadārāsantosa aņuvrata : the fourth aņuvrata is abstinence from sexual relationship with women other ones than own wife. 40
The infractions of this aņuvrata are five namely (i) ittariyapariggahiyagamana - intercourse with woman accepted as wife (ii) apariggahiyagamana - intercourse with an unmarried woman (iii) anangakira - amorous play (iv) paravivāhakarana - match making (v) kāmabhogativvabhiläsa - intense feeling for sexual pleasures.! .
Haribhadra quotes from the Cūrņi to say that the brahmavrata saves humanity from the danger of promiscuous sexual life that will demolish the social order and turn human being into the brutes. 42
Paragrahaparimāņa aņuvrata - the fifth sthüla aņuvrata is concerned with voluntary limitation of one's desires and ambitions (icchāparimāņa) for worldly possessions.
The Śrāvaka takes a vow of not possessing or acquiring animate and inanimate objects beyond the self imposed limits.

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He also imposes on himself restriction in respect of the period of possessions and enjoyment of food, clothes, servants, wives etc. In brief this aņuvrata sets a limit to the acquisition of properties which are counted as follows :
Land and houses, silver and gold, commodities and grain, servant, birds (dvipāda)
and live stock (catuspāda) furniture, crockery and utensils (kupya). Ācārya Haribhadra explains the social value of this aņuvrata by asserting that the voluntary limitation (icchāparimāna) of possessions saves a person from such activities as are harmful to the society. Different persons have different interests and inclinations which they control and restrict in accordance with their capacity by undertaking this vow of voluntary limitation. The outcome of it is a balanced development of social life in its various aspects. 43
Digvrata - guņavratas are meant for further limitation of the activity of the Śrāvaka. The aņuvratas are more or less general principles which are further divided in the guņavratas for instance in the digvrata, which is the first guņavrata, a special limitation is imposed. A Śrāvaka can now move in a fixed area by taking the vow of not moving beyond that area. By this guņavrata the scope of violence is circumscribed. This special limitation is applicable to the vertical as well as the horizontal directions.
The infractions of this guņavrata are incurred when the Śrāvaka increases the prescribed limit in one direction, vertical or horizontal by decreasing some distance of the opposite side, thinking that such change is permissible because it does not violate the total distance - uddadisipamānātikkama, ahodisipamānātikkama, tiriyadisipamānātikkama; similar infraction is possible in respect of land also - khettavuddhi, on the lapse of memory when the Srāvaka forgets the limits to be observed by

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him - sai antaraddha.44
Upabhoga-paribhoga-vrata - limitation is imposed on upabhoga- consumption of food, drinks, sweet, flower, garlands and paribhoga - use of clothes, ornaments, beds, seats, house, vehicle etc. In the voluntary imposition of limit, the articles and activities which involve injury to life on a large scale is completely discarded and those which entail insignificant injury are delimited. It should be noted here that this gunavrata envisages two classes of thing to be abundant and delimited namely articles of food (bhojana) and professions (karma). The former includes foods and drinks and delicacies like meat, wine and honey and all other live food. The professions include fifteen items which involve injury to life. 45 1. Ingalakamma - livelihood from charcoal
Vanakamma - livelihood from destroying plants Sadikamma - livelihood from carts Bhaờikamma - livelihood from transport fees Phoļikamma - livelihood from hewing and digging Dantavanijja - trade in animal by products Lakkhavanijja - trade in lac and similar substances Rasavanijja - trade in alcohol and forbidden food
stuffs 9. Visavanijja - trade in destructive articles 10. Kesavanijja - trade in men and animals 11. Jantapilanakamma - work involving milling
Nilañcchanakamma - work involving mutilation
Davaggidavanya - work involving the use of fire 14. Saradahatalagaparisosanya - work involving the use
of water
3.
12.

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[33
15. Asatijanaposanya - work involving breeding and
rearing
The Śrāvaka is required to accept only those professions which entail the least possible injury to living beings. The aticāras of this guņavrata are the following five (i) sacittahara - consuming live things (ii) sacittapadibaddhahara - consuming what is connected with the live things (iii) appuliyosahibhakkhanaya consuming uncooked vegetable's products - consuming partly cooked vegetable products (v) tucchosahiyabhakkahanaya - a vegetable that is trifle.
The aticāras character of this kind of consumption is due to the in advertence of Srāvaka in consuming food or drink that falls outside the prescribed limit. 46
Anarthadanda - the third guņavrata is called anarthadanda . A Srāvaka should avoid all kinds of purposeless acts of violence. Indulgence in an act, that is not conducive to any of the ends of dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa is a case of anarthadaņda.
In this connection four categories of anarthadaņda are mentioned namely (i) avajjhanacarita - what is done under the influence of bad type of meditation namely árta and raudra (ii) pamayacarita - what is done on account of indolence (pramāda) (iii) hiṁsāppayana - what is committed by offering the weapons of violence (iv) pavakammovadesa - what is done through to giving instruction in sinful activity. 48
The infraction of this guņavrata is five (i) kandappa - amorous speech (ii) kukkuiya - ugly gestures (iii) mohariya - garrulity (iv) sanjuttahikaraṇa - assembles of harmful weapons implements (v) uvabhogaparibhogatiritta - excessive articles of luxury.49
Sāmayika - the first śikṣāvrata (out of four) is sāmayika

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct which means abstinence from all sinful activities for a fixed intended period of time. The nature of samayika has been explained in the section of saḍāvaṣyaka. The sãmayika has a negative as well as a positive aspect. The negative aspect stands or abstinence from all sinful activities and in its positive aspect it means practice of such activities as are absolutely free from any kind of violence. 50
The aticāras of this sikṣāvrata are :
(i) duppanihana (ii) vayaduppanihana (iii) kāyaduppanihana - bad activities of the mind, speech and body, (iv) samaiyassa sati akaranaya - forgetfulness of the sämayika itself (v) samaiyassa anavatthiyassa karanaya - unsteadyness in the samayika, it also includes interruption of the samayika before the intended period.31
Of these five aticāras the first three are done out of lack of attention and the last two on account of passions. 52
Desavākāsika
the second sikṣāvrata desavākāsika which stands for the further curtailment of distance and time limits undertaken by the first guṇavrata. This is done daily as distinguished for the first gunavrata which is undertaken for a longer period of time.
-
Five aticāras are (i) anavanappaoga - order of something from outside the set distance (ii) pesavanappaoga -- sending a servant for something from outside the set distance (iii) saddanuvaya - communicating by making sounds that go beyond the set limit (iv) ruvanuvaya - communicating by making gestures beyond the set limit (v) bahiyapoggalapakkheva - communicating by throwing objects beyond the set limit.53
The above mentioned five activities are aticāras because they involve action at a point beyond the limit set by the śikṣāvrata. They are not infringement because there is no actual crossing of the limit, though the purpose is served through

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[35
devices considered as proper and admissible
Posahovavāsa - the third śikṣāvrata is posahovavāsa, that is fasting on the pausadha day which stands for the 8", 14th and 15th day of a fortnight or any other day. On the sacred day Śrāvaka gives up food, starting his fasting from the previous evening and ending till the occur of the next days forenoon milk (thus abandoning four meals in all). The fasting may be longer, avoiding six meals or eight meals and so on. During this period he does not take bath and do not use any kind of cosmetics and garlands or ornaments and desists from all sinful activities and spends the time in yogic posture or lying down on seats and beds made of kuśagrass or wooden flake. He remains vigilant and self-aware during the whole length of fasting. 54 The Śrāvaka observes strict celibacy during the period. This pausadhopavāsa may be observed in full or in part in respect of food, bodily care sexual intercourse, worldly occupation. In respect of āhāra the śrāvaka may take once of twice tasteless food nirvikrti or only rice and water (only once) āyambila or taking only water. This is partial pausadhopavāsa. In complete pausadhopavāsa he abandons from food and drink, similarly the observance can be partial or complete in respect of bodily care, sexual intercourse of worldly occupation.55
The five aticāras of this śikṣāvrata are :- (i) appadilehiya duppadilehiya sijjasanthara - using sleeping place or bed, not examined or examined improperly (ii) appamajjhiya duppamajjhiya sijjasanthara - Using a sleeping place or bed not swept or swept improperly (iii) appadilehiya duppadilehiya uccarpasavanabhumi - using a place of excretion not examined or examined improperly. (iv) appamajjhiya duppamajjhiya uccarpasavanabhumi - using place of excretion not swept or swept improperly. (v) posahovavāsa(saha)ssa sammani ananupalanaya - improper performance of the fast."

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Ahasaṁvibhāga - the fourth śikṣāvrata ahasamvibhāga (athisaṁvibhāga) prescribes that a śrāvaka should offer food, drink etc. to monk and nuns strictly in accordance with the rules. The items offered must be acceptable to the recipients as per the monastic rules. The things should be properly earned and offered in gratitude towards the monastic order. (1) sacittanikkhevana - the first'aticāra of this sikşāvrata relates to depositing the acceptable food on live articles such as grains and rice etc. with the intention of avoiding the dāna. (2) sacittapihana - the second aticāra is concerned with coving the alms with living articles, such as fruits, leaves, flowers etc. (3) kālātikamma - The 3rd aticāra is called kālātikamma, takes place when the dāna is offered either when the time for the monks to eat is over or when the time has not come. (4) parovaesa - is incurred when a householder, at the time of breaking his fast after the pausadhopavāsa, refuses to offer the alms on the plea that the same belongs to somebody else. (5) macchari - in the fifth aticāra the alms is given out of the anger or envy at the monk.
All the above mentioned act of dāna the are aticāras and not bhangas because the donor has the will and eagerness to give but his intention to give is polluted leading to inventing excuses. A genuine bharga takes place when the donor is influenced by the karma that obstructs the desire to give and as a consequence he does not give and prevents others from giving and also repents after giving an account of the niggardliness.
Samlekhanā - at the top of the samyaktva, aņuvrata and sila there is the practice of penance of samlekhanā for attenuation of the body and the passions which a layman as well as a monk or nun undertakes at the end of his life. This penance extends over twelve year in the maximum. It is undertaken by a layman and also a monk or a nun. In the Uttaradhyayana the period of twelve years is distributed for

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different kinds of penances in the following manner. The first four years the vikrtis are avoided, in the next four years various austerities are observed and the next two years are spent in fasting alternately with acamla. (only rice and other grain and water). Of the eleventh year in the first six months he does not practice fasting for more than two days and the next six months he observes longer fasting and during this period he is to break fasting with acamla, in the twelfth year a monk (or a laymen) has to engage in acamla everyday uninterruptedly. Occasionally during this period he undertakes fortnightly and monthly fasting. 57
Siddhasenagani quotes a verse in which the first four years are assigned to various austerities and the next four years vikrtis are avoided. This is also the order followed in the digambara tradition. The saṁlekhanā vrata is adoped when the aspirant feels the approach to bad time or physical weakness or any calamity or the approach of death which renders the performance of the necessary duty impossible. In such circumstances he stars fasting. Gradually increasing its length an observes the moral and spiritual discipline as strictly as possible and finally gives up four kinds of elements for the whole life. He now spends his time in the practice of the anupreksā and the cultivation of self awareness and meditation till death and emancipation from worldly bondage. This type of spiritual life is called ārādhanā which has found elaborate treatment in books like the Mulārādhanā.
The last stage of samlekhanā is sanstara diksā or death bed consecration expressed special form of confession (vikatana) and reinforcement (uccharana) of the vows. The last moment on earth will then be spent in concentration on the pañca namaskāra and on the catuḥsarana and in mediation on the anupreksā and all that is covered by he term ārādhanā.58

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The fasting unto death is undertaken in three different ways namely (1) padovagamanam (2) inginimaranam (3) bhattapaccakkhanam. In the first, the practitioner does not indulge in any kind of movement and remains first as straight as a tree. In this penance the practitioner is prohibited any kind of help or assistance to do any service to himself or get any service done by others. This is the highest kind of fasting for death, which is possible only for a person enjoying best health in respect of samhanana.
In the second, he can move about a fixed area delimited by him voluntary. In this kind of fasting the practitioner can serve himself but can not take service from anybody else. This type of fasting also is possible for a person of good saṁhanana. In the third, he is free to move about and can take service from others and can serve himself. He can engage a retinue of forty eight waiters for himself who should be monk.59
The five aticāras of saṁlekhanā are :(i) ihalogasamsappaoga - desire for a fortunate birth in the
human world. (ii) paralogasamsappaoga - desire for a fortunate birth in reign
of gods. (iii) jivayasamsappaoga - desire for a long life as an observer
of fasting unto death. (iv) maraṇasamsappaoga - desire for quick death. (V) Kāmabhogasamsappaoga - desire for sexual pleasure
occruing from the fasting. 6 The three ambitions of a śrāvaka (1) The first ambition is to prepare for monastic life by giving
up all possessions small and big (2) His second ambition is to renounce worldly life and become
a monk.

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(3) The third ambition is - practice of and fasting unto death
(without any desire of death).
While concluding it will not be out of place to give the four resting places or transitional modes of a Śrāvaka
(i) At the first stage the (Srāvaka) layman accepts the aņuvratas and silavrats and observes them to the best of his capacity. At the next stage he observes the sāmayika and the desavāsāsika more intensively, which is followed in the third stage, by a meticulous observance of the pausadha fasting. At the fourth stage, which is the last, he undertakes fasting unto death to attain the highest goal, namely emancipation. These four stages are resting places, or accurate transitional modes. 62
Ācārya Hemacandra gives a comprehensive list of the qualities of a Srāvaka who should be :(1) Nyāyasampannavibhava - the possessor of honesty wealth. (2) Śiştācārapraśanisaka - appreciative of the conduct of the .
virtuous. (3) Kulaśilasamaih sārdham anyagotrajaiḥ krtodvāha - wedded
to a spouse of even family traditions and social life, but
not of the same gotra. (+) Păpabhiru - shy of committing any kind of sin. (5) Prasiddham deśācāram samācāram - observer of the
established customs of the country. (6) Avarņavādi na kvāpi rājādişu višeşataḥ - not culminating
ādarśa, particularly the potentials. (7) Anativyakte gupte sthāne suprativeşmika - dwelling in a
place, neither too open nor too secluded with good
neighbours and a limited number of exit (8) Sad -ācāraiḥ kṣtasasanga - following moral principles of
moral virtues.

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct (9) Mātāpitroh pūjakaḥ - devoted to parents. (10) Upaplutam sthānam tyajan - avoiding a place where
confession prevails (11) Garhite pravrtta - not engage the despicable profession (12) Vyayam ayocitam kurvan - spending in proportion in one's
income (13) Vesam vittānusărataḥ kurvan - using garments in
accordance with one's affluence (14) Astabhirdhigunairyukta - Endowed with eight intellectual
quality (1) suśrūşā - desire to listen (ii) śravaņa – listening (iii) grahaņa - understanding (iv) dhāraņa - retention (v) uha - logical thinking (vi) apoha - discriminative thoughts (vii) arthavijñāna - knowledge of the meaning
(viii) tattvavijñāna - knowledge of the essence (15) Dharmam anvaham śravaņa - Listening daily to the sacred
doctrine. (16) Ajirņe bhojanatyāgin - avoiding food in the case of
indigestion (17) Kāle bhoktā sātmyataḥ- Eating at the right time according
to a dietary regime. (18) Anyonya pratibandhena trivargai sādhyan - perusing the
three ends of the life namely dharma, artha, kāma striking
balance between them. (19) Yathāvād atithou sādhou dine ca pratipattikrt - properly
distributing charity among the guest, the ascetics and the

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[41 needy people after due consideration. (20) Sadānabhinivista - always devoid of evil motives. (21) Gunesu paksapatin - favourably disposed to virtues such
as benevolence, generosity, readiness to help, patience, and the habit of using courteous and friendly language as
well as acts of kindness, as the seed of religious merit etc. (22) Adeśakālayoścaryām tyajan -avoiding conduct which is
inappropriate to time and place. (23) Balābalaṁ jānan - aware in full of one's strength and
weakness. (24) Vrttasthajñānavrddhānām pūjaka - venerating persons of
high morality and superior in knowledge. (25) Pusyaposaka - supporting one's dependants. (26) Dirghadarśin - far sighted. (27) Visesajña - adept and discriminating. (28) Krtajña -- grateful. (29) Lokavallabha – likable (30) Salajja - ashamed of any kind of lapse. (31) Sadaya - compassionate. (32) Saumya - gentle in disposition. (33) Paropakrtikarmattha- ready to render service to others. (34) Antarangarişadvargapariharapārāyaṇa- intent on avoiding
the six internal enemies namely kāma- lust, krodha - anger, lobha-greed, māna-pride, mada-vainglory, harşa-malicious
pleasure. (35) Vaśikṣtendriyagrāma - master of the sense-organs.63
The seven Vices (vyasana) - a śrävaka should avoid (sapta vyasana) seven vices for living a good social life. They are (i) dyūta- gambling (ii) madya - drinking alkohol (iii) māmsa

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meat eating (iv) veśyā - whoring (v) mṛgayā - hunting (vi) caurya - thieving (vii) paradārā / parapuruṣa - adultery.64
In the Jain literature there are tales best known in Literature in connection with the seven vices. For gambling the example is Yudhisthira; for madya the yādavas; for māṁsa Bakarākṣasa; for veśyā Cārudatta; for mṛgayā Brahmadatta; for caurya Shribhuti; and for paradārā Rāvaṇa; while addiction to all seven vices at the same time is personified by Rudradatta."
These seven vices are of a later origin. In the Bṛhatkalpabhāṣya we find another set of seven Vyasanas namely (1) addiction to woman, (2) gambling (3) wine (4) hunting (5) harsh speech (6) harsh punishment and (7) mismanagement of the sources of wealth which primarily apply to the ruling authority of country."
67
In this connection the vyasanas mentioned in the Manusamhita deserve attention. There are ten vyasanas that are due to lust and there are eight due to anger. A keen addicted to vyasanas due to lust is deprived of his wealth and virtues and is deprived of his life if addicted to those arising out of anger." The ten vyasanas due to lust are (1) hunting (2) dicing (Jua) (3) day dreaming (4) slundering (parivāda) (5) addition to woman (6) drinking (7) addiction to dance and (8) music vocal (9) addiction to music instrumental (Tauryatrikam) (10) and purposeless loitering (vṛthatya).
The eight vyasanas due to anger are (1) backbiting (2) rashness (sahasya) (3) perfidy (droha) (4) jealousy (irsya) (5) envy (asūyā) (6) misappropriation (arthad- ūṣaṇa) (7) Harsh words and (8) harsh punishments.
The place of six Avaśyakas in householders life:
There appears to have been a controversy about the performance of the six avasyakas by a householder. Acarya Abhayadevasüri quotes the following passage from the

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Anuyogadvărasūtra to support the view that the six avasyakas are a necessary part of the spiritual life of a layman. Then what the āvassaya as essence- bhāvāvassayam, which is extra worldly - lokottaram ? The āvassaya as essence- bhāvāvassayam, which is extra worldly, refer to those who are monks- samana or nuns - samani, or laymen – savae or lay women saviya whose mind is fixed on that āvassaya, whose colour index is according to that āvassaya, whose determination is fixed on that āvassaya, whose intense exertion is directed to that āvassaya who are attentive to the meaning of that āvassaya, whose paraphernalia (body, duster, mouth, cloth etc.) are employed for (the scale of) that āvassaya, who are practiced in concentration (of mind) on that āvassaya, without diverting their mind to anything else performing the āvassaya both times at sunrise and sunset. This is the avassaya as essence, which is extra worldly. This is the āvassaya as essence without scriptural knowledge. This the āvassaya as essen Varieties of pratikramaņa : Five kinds of pratikramaņa :(1) Asravadvāra - these are concerned with the inhibition of
the doors of influx of karma. (2) Mithyātva - perversity (3) Kasāya - passions . (4) Yoga - activities of body, speech and mind. (5) Bhäva - tendencies and inclination to perversity etc.
indulging by oneself or instigating others or approving of them through body, speech and mind.69
Categories of Śrāvaka :- There are three categories of śrāvaka namely (1) Pākṣika (2) Naisthika (3) Sadhaka A beginner in the practice of the layman's discipline of partial abstinance from injury to life is a pāksika śrāvaka. The naisthika śrāvaka is one who observes the vows undertake by him in a perfect way without the least violation of the discipline. The padhaka

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śravaka is the who has attained perfection in the discipline undertaken by him and spends his life in meditation on the self and becomes a perfect yogin as it were though still a householder. 70
Aśādhara has mentioned the affiliation of the śravaka to anyone of three varṇas namely-brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, and vaiśya." He further quotes words of the Jaina ṛsis which prescribe a full course of a layman disciple beginning from the conception of the womb and ending in the attainment of nirvāṇa, accomplined with the necessary mantras and ceremonies.72
This reminds us of the injunction of the Manusmṛti that only a person who about whom a full course of ceremonies beginning from entry into the womb has been prescribed by means of mantras is entitled to the study of the śastra and no one else. This is a clear evidence of the influence of the Brahmanical social and religions institutions on those of the Jainas as who could not remain isolated from the common run of the cultural echoes.
For the person born in Jain family, it is easier to live a life strictly according to the rule and the regulations prescribed in Jainism, But for those who are born in a non Jain family it is necessary to go to a Jain Acārya for entrance into Jainism (Avatāra) and then learn the vratas for the proper conduct. This is followed by learning the namaskāramantra. This is called sthānalabha. There after the false God are expelled by him from his pantheon. This is called guṇagrāha. This is followed by listening to the twelve limbed scripture who is called "worship of the respectable" (pūjārādhya). Then he is made to study the meaning of the fourteen purvas, which increases his religious merit (puṇyayajña). This is followed by the seventh stage strong faith in his own style of the life (drdhācārya). Now he comes to the eighth stage by practicing a pratima yoga in the night of an auspicious day, which is called upayogita. Finally

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at the end of these eight stage, the person becomes qualified for the upanayana ceremony.74 These ceremonies are not available in earlier Jain liferature.
Even the sudra were accepted to the Jainas provided he was pure in respect of his conduct (such as abstinence from wine etc.) and his belongings (house, utensils and body).
In the Mahāpurāņa it is said that a person becomes brāhmaṇa on account of his observance of the vratas. He becomes a ksatriya on account of his yielding weapons (for the protection of the people), a vaisya on account of his earning wealth honestly and a śudra on account of his occupation. A śūdra can however reach higher class in society by means of higher profession.75
Among the religious duties of a śrāvak, dāna and yajña find an important place. Yajña stands for the worship of the deity. A layman should daily perceive arhatdeity in a temple by the ceremony nityamahaḥ which stands for worship of the jina image with articles like water, sandal paste, hust rice corns (Akşata) etc. or the construction of places of worship or an offer of a village or a house or a land for the temple or paying homage to the arhat at three juncture of a day an offering of food to the monks every day with reverence respect. All such religious activities are prescribed in great detail in text composed by digambara ācāryas76. A householder should take bath before doing the pūjā. The Srävaka should build alms house an hospital for the hungry and the poor and similarly a garden of flowers for offering to the deity. There is no harm in building such
places.??
All these positive instructions to a house holder are evidently due to influence of the social and religious creeds prevalent in those times among the people with whom the followers of Jainism had intimate cultural bonds.

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There is no doubt that Jainism was, in the early phase a religion that discarded all ceremonies and rites that involve any sort of injury to any kind of living being. But in later times, a new out look grew up according to this the offering of water, rice grains, flower garlands etc. were considered as leading to a prosperous life. This was the firm conviction of the believer in image worship, which has found a clear description in the following statement of Asadhara :- the water washing the feet of the arhat washes out the sins of the worshipers; the sandal powder offered adds to the fragrant of the worshiper's body, the rice grains offered are conducive to the preservation of the wealth of the worshipers; the flower garland offered qualities the worshiper for the garland of heavenly flowers; the articles like curd, ghee, milk etc. naivedya confirm ownership of fortune; the lamp adds to the luster of the worshiper; the leads to the prosperity of the offerer; the fruits offered leads to the accession of the desired object.78
46]
In the daily routine of a house holder the following six items are called
Satkarma:
(1)
Devapūjā - worship of the deity represented by the
image.
Gurupasti - service rendered to the preceptor.
(2)
(3) Svadhyāya - scriptural study. Samyama - self restraint.
(4)
(5) Tapa - susterities and penance and
(6)
Dana - charity.
A śrävaka should offer his daughter in marriage only a person who is a co-religionist in order to preserve the custom of using the namaskāra mantra at the time of conception of the child and other rituals.79 He should take into fall consideration the seven qualifications namely; family, conduct, the superiors,

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knowledge, wealth, body and fame of the boy of the person. 80
Somadeva has given a universal dictum in order to defend all these social activities of the Jainas which apparently are conflict with the traditional negative spirit of early Jainism. The dictum is o the Jainas all worldly activities are acceptable provided there is no harm caused to religious faith (samyaktva) and the vows undertaken for strict observance.Si
The Nitiväkyāırta gives the several following benefits of a good married life namely :- pious progeny, unblemished sects, domestic economy, discipline, nobility and pure life, faultless service o deity-twice born-guest and relatives. 82
The best person is the monk (anāgāra) and the observer of the aņuvratas is the second. Next comes the person with right faith but observing no vow And the fourth place is occupied by the person with no faith but observing the vratas. The last is the person devoid of right faith as well as the observance of vratas and is called the unfit (apatra). The results of charity offered to these categories of people differ enormously. The charity given to the first leads to the highest bhogabhūmi and so on, while the charity given to the last categories of the people is futile and no avail. 83
The Sthānānga sūtra classifies people, so far as their religious discipline is concerned, into four groups.84 :(1) There are people who have love for the discipline but are
not firm in their persuasion. (2) There are again those who are firm but have no love for
the discipline. (3) There are again persons who have love for and firmness
in the discipline. (4) In the fourth category there are people who have neither
love nor firmness in respect of the discipline.

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21.
1. Uttaradhyayana, 28/14, 15
2. Darśanapahuḍa, 19
3.
Moksapahuda, 90 Niyamasara,5
4.
5.
Mulăcăra, 5-6
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Chandogyopanisad, VI/12.3
15.
"Śraddhāvān labhate jñanam", Gitā, IV/39
16.
Radhakrishnan, S., Indian Philosophy, Vol. II, p.,70 Puruṣārthasiddhyupaya, 26
17.
18.
"Tannisargadadhigamad va"., Tattvärthasūtra, 1/3 19. Manusmrti, III/68
20.
Bhagavatisūtra, VIII/5/239; Śrāvakaprajñapti, p., 207; Tattvärthadhigamasutrabhāṣāṭīkā, II, p., 85; Haribhadravṛtti on Avasyakaniryukti, pp. 805-806
"The God Svayambhu has created the animals for offering them in the sacrifices. Therefore, killing them for the rituals is considered non killing", Manusmrti, 39, 44; Mahabharata, vana parva, III/ 199.5; "plants, trees, cattles and other animals, birds etc. attain higher existence, when they are killed for the sacrificial purposes", Manusmrti, 40
Śrävakaprajñapti, p.152; Pañcāsaka, p.,16
[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
Foot-note
Kārttikeyanuprekṣā, 311-12
Tattvärthasūtra, 1/2 Ratkaraṇḍaśrāvakācāra, 4
Vasunandiśrāvakācāra, 6
Upāsakadasānga, 1/40; Tattvärthasūtra, VII/18
Caritrasāra, p.,7
"Samattadansi na karei pāvam”, Acārāṁga, 1/3/2.1 Rgveda, X/151/1.5
22.
23.
Yogaśastra. III/90
24. Charitrasara in Srāvakācārasaṁgraha, Vol. I, p. 239
25.
26.
Tattvärthadhigamasūtra Bhāṣya Țikā. Part II P. 104; Pañcāsaka p. 17; Avaśyaka-chūrṇi, p. 285. Upasakādhyayana, gāthā, 334-342. Vasunandi Śrāvakācāra. gāthā 210 Daśavaikälika, VII/11
27
28.
29. Śrāvakaprajñapti, p., 154
30.

Tattvarthädhigama Sutra Bhāṣya, p., 73

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Śrāvakācāra : Code of Conduct of a Householder]
149
31. Uvāsagadasão, 1/33 32. Yasastilakacampū, VIII/107 33. Kārttikeyānupreksā, gāthā, 32-33 34. "Sarvasminnapyasmin Pramattayogaikahetukathanāni yat.
Anrtavacane pi tasminniyatam hiṁsā samavatarati", Purusārtha
siddhyupaya, 99 35. "Adattādānānna sarvasmāt kintu sthūlāt cauryarop-aņahetutvena
prasiddhāt" Tattvārthādhigama- Bhasya Țika, II, p. 87 36. Uvāsagadásão, 1/34 37. "Aticărāt cāsya sāksäccauryapravstteh", Upāsaka-daśātikā, p.31 38. "Yo yasya harati vittam sa tasya jivasya jivitam harati.
Āśvāsakaram bāhyam jivanan jivitam vittam.”, Amitagatisrávakācāra,
VI/61. 39. “Avitirņasya grahaņai parigrahasya pramattayogād yat.
Tatpratyeyam steyam saiva ca hiṁsā vadhasya hetutvät",
Purusārthasiddhyupāya, 102 40. "Tathā maithunăd na sarvasmāt, kintu sthūlāt, sthalaṁ ca
paradārāgamanam, tadvisayamasya, pratyākhyānam, anyapakseņa"
Tattvärthādhigama- Bhāsya Tikā, II, p.87 41. Uvāsagadasão, 1/35.
“Cauthe aņuvrate ..." Āvaśyakacürņi, p. 823 43. “Icchāparimāņaṁ khalu asyärambhavinivstisamjanagam
khettaivatthuvisayam cittadavirohao cittam”, Pañcāsaka, I/17 44. Uvāsagadasão, I/38 45. Uvāsagadasão, 1/38 46. Upasakadaśātikā, p.41 47. Tattvārthâdhigama- Bhāsya Țikā, II, p. 91 8. Uvāsagadasāo, 1/30
Uvāsagadasão, 1/39 50. “Sikkhavayam tu etthan samaiyamo tayam tu vinneyam.
Savajjeyara jogana vajjana sevannaruvam", Pañcāsaka, 25 51. Uvāsagadasão, 1/40
Upăsakadaśātikā, p.48 53. Uvāsagadasão, 1/41 54. Uvāsagadasão, 1/41 55. Avaśyakațikā, p. 836 56. Uvāsagadasão, 1/42 57. Uttarādhyayana, XXXVI/251-55; Ts Bh T II/p.94; Bhagavati
ārādhanā, 255-56. 58. Yogashastra, III/150-51

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Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
69. 70.
Mant
59. Bhagavati árădhanā, 647 60. Uvāsagadasão, 1/44 61. Thânăng (Sthānānga), III/497 62.
Thānāng (Sthānānga), IV/362 63. Yogasāstra, 47-56 64. Vasunandiśrāvakācāra, 59 65. Vasunandiśravakäcăra, 125-33 66. Brhatkalpabhāsya, 134 67. Manusmrti, VII/45-53
Nandisuttam and anuyogadārasättam, 1/28 Shãnangavutti, p.,/332
Sāgaradharmămrta, 1/20 71. "Dvijaḥ dvirjāto mātņgarbho jinasamayajñānagarbhe cotpādād dvijo
brālmaņa-ksatriya-vaisyamanyatamaḥ", Sāgaradharmāmrta, p., 65 "Jino devatā yesāṁ te jainasteşām kulam, pūrvapurusaparamparāprabhavo vamśastatra. Jinoktagarbhādhānādinirvāṇaparyanta kriyā, Mantra saṁskārayogyo mahānvaya ityarthah.” Sagaradharmāmrta,
p., 66 73. "Nischadihśmaśānānto mantrairyasyodito vidhiḥ 1 tasya sāstredhikāro
simnjneyo nānyasya kasyacit", Manusmrti, 11/16 74. Sāgaradharmāmsta, p., 67-69 75. Mahiipurāņa, XXXXVIII/46 76. Sāgaradharmāmsta, 11/25 77. Sāgaridharmāmrta, II/40 78. Sāgaradharmāmịta, II/30 79. Sāgaradharınāmrta, 11/57 80. Sagaradharmāmsta, p., 93 81.. "Sarva eva hi jainănām praiānan laukiko vidhiḥ.
yatra samyaktvahānirna yatra na vratadüşaņam". Upāsakādhyayana,
XXXIV/480 82. "Dharmasantatiranupahataratih grhavrata,
suvihitattvamabhijātyācāravisuddhih." devadvijatithibandhavasatkārānavadyatva ca dārakarınanah phalań" Nitivāk yāmrtam, XXX1/30
Sāgaradharmāmrta, II/67 84. Sthânângasūtra, IV/421
83.

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The Concept of Ātman
According to the Daśavaikālika sūtra one who does not know the Ātman and Anātman, Jiva and Ajiva, self and nonself can not know the path of saṁyama.' Self is the subject, as well as an object, of all meditation. The nature of the self is, therefore, the most fundamental of all discussions. Chāndogyopanişad says that self-realization is the key to removal of all the miseries.
• The brhadāraṇyakopanisad mentions that it is the self which we should perceive, hear, of which we should meditate.3
According to Cārvāka self is body, characterized by consciousness. On the dissolution of body, the self is annihilated.* cāravākas do not accept the existence of soul as a different entity from the body. This is duty refuted by the Jain statement that the Jiva lives by prāņas. If body and soul are accepted as one then it can not be assumed that they can be separated from each other and action would be anticipated wheresoever body is existing whether lifeless or with life.
The Nyāya system believes that the knowledge is attributed to the soul as an associated quality. In the initial stage of inception, dravya is supposed to be without any attribute. According to this system the existence of a permanent jīvātman can be proved through inference and authority. The Nyāya Vaiseșika systems hold that Ātman is basically non-conscious and consiqusness becomes manifest in it only by its association with mind, sense-organs and objects of contact. Therefore, the state of liberation is a stage of complete non-consciousness.

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(Some Jain Concepts and Conduct Vātsyāyana clearly states that there can be no bliss in the state of liberation. However, Jain authors reject this view and holds that it is not possible to assume separation of a quality from the dravya. Kundakundācārya, a Jain Ācārya, propounds identification of guna and guņi with only exception that one is not the synonym of the other. It is impossible for the former to exist without the later and vice-versa. This leads to the conclusion that knowledge is an innate attribute of the soul.
Naiyāyikas, accept the omnipresence of Jiva. According to Jain view the atoms of soul have a unique quality of expansion and contraction, thus they pervade in the body irrespective of the size of the body-possessed by the Jiva. However, Jaina view accepts the omniscient and omnipresence of the Liberated Souls.
The Sārkhya system believes in a permanent soul but all visible conscious activities are attributed to praksti, different to Purusa. According to sārkhya, it is the lingaśarīra which is bound, the soul remains detached.
The purusa of sārkhya system resembles Jiva of Jainism but Jiva is unique in the sense that it is actor also, where as the purusa is not. All the activities of material world are conducted by the triguņātmaka praksti. The prakrti as enunciated in sārkhya system approaches very close to the pudgala accepted in Jain Philosophy. According to Jain view only a sentient being can be a doer of any act and one who does any deed should be responsible and should enjoy the good or bad fruits of the deed. Thus the sărkhya concept of distinction between doer and enjoyer is rendered untenable by Jain logic. Doer being different from enjoyer will be held responsible for the deeds not committed by it. They will lead to a situation where the deeds will go unrewarded (phalahāni of krta) and the fruits will be enjoyed without any effort (akrta-phala-lābha).
The existence of ātman as distinguished from body is

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The Concept of Ātman]
53 implied in the pūrvamīmānsă system, which attributes the qualities of knowledge, activity and experience to the soul.''
Bhatta and Cārvāka propound Jiva to be consisting of pañcha-Bhūtas; as such, according to them, Jiva must be mūrta. Jain view contradicts this on the basis of distinction between pañcha-bhautika pudgala and Jiva, Pudgala being mūrta and Jiva being amūrta.
All systems given above, except the cārvāka system, are dualistic and realistic in nature but Vedānta is monistic in nature. It holds Brahman to be the only reality. They hold that empirical self is a creation of illusion and transcendental self is free from all bondage. All moral responsibilities lie with the empirical self."
According to Jain point of view there is no distinction between the mundane and liberated souls as far as dravya is concerned. Nevertheless mundane soul possesses impure mode in comparison to the liberated soul. This two fold classification of the souls appears to be self contradictiory but it is not so, because a soul which is not yet liberated has got to be mundane till liberation. It can not be assumed that the mundane soul was ever in liberated state as accepted in the Sadāśiva point of view because there is not rationale in believing that a liberated soul should accept a state of bondage on purpose.
Above discussion is helpful in understanding the concept of ātman, attributes of Jiva and nature of soul.
Attributes of Jiva : Nemicandra Siddhānta Cakravarti gives the following nine attributes of Jiva. The commentator Brahmadeva contradicts the above mentioned one or the other school of thought by the given attributes : (1) Jiva : It is a conscious entity. Here self is conceived as
distinct from matter. This, according to Bramadeva, refutes
the Cārvāka view of self. (ii) Uvāogamao : It is endowed with apprehension and

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[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct knowledge. This refutes the Naiyāyika view of self. (iii) Amutti : It is an intangible entity. By this attribute the
Mimāṁsā school of though is refuted. (iv) Kattā : The self is the agent of actions. This Jain view
refutes the view of Sankhya system. (v) Svadehaparimāņo : Jiva is co-existensive with the body
which is attained by it. This Jain view refutes the view of
Nyāya, Mimāṁsā and Sankhya systems. (vi) Bhottā : It is the enjoyer of the fruit of its actions. This
goes to refute the momentary theory of Buddhists. (vii) Sansarattho : It passes through births and deaths. This view
goes against the followers of Sadāśiva cult, which hold
the view that soul is ever liberated even in transmigration. (viii) Siddho : It gets liberation. This goes against the view of
Mimārsakas and Cārvākas. (ix) Vissasoddhagai : It has a natural potentiality of upward
motion. This quality has been stated by way of refutation of Mandalika philosophy.'2
Though there are different views regarding nature of self yet they do not differ on the basic moral principles which are the means of self realization. Whether the self is considered atomic in size or all-prevasive or it expands and contracts according to the size of body, these views do not affect the urge for salvation, hence need not bother us.
Whether Jiva is the agent of activities or not? ātman is conscious or not ? are the two questions which are dealt with care using empirical and transcendental stand points in Jainism to take into consideration both the views. From empirical point of view, the self is the agent of actions and it undergoes such experiences as those of pain and pleasure. The Pūrvamimāṁsā school seems to emphasize the empirical nature of self. From transcendental point of view, the self is pure, unalloyed and

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[55
free from matter. The sărkhya system seems to emphasize this aspect of self. Jainism, true to its philosophy and tradition of non-absolutism takes into consideration both the aspects. Self with karmaņa śarīra is empircal. Adrasta in Nyāya Vaišesika and karaṇa śarīra in śārikhya yoga correspond to karmaņa śarīra of Jainism. In Vedānta also empirical illusionary self is accepted for practical purposes. Jainism, Sänkhya and Vedānta views resemble where self is represented in its pure intrinsic form.
Categories of self : On the basis of potentiality of achieving salvation kundakundācārya designates two categories of the Ātman (i) bhavya and (2) abhavya.'3 Bhavya souls are those who have capability of shedding off all the binding karmas and becoming siddhas, where as abhavya souls can never attain salvation.'4 An abhavya soul remains ignorant and mithyādrsti in spite of practicing vrata, samitis, guptis, sila and tapa as propounded by Arhantas in āgama. An abhavya soul having no faith in mokṣa tattva can gain nothing from svādhyāya as the knowledge so acquired would not be based on right faith. An abhavya Jiva remains entangled in the worldly pleasures and comforts.'s Moreover, it does not have faith in śuddhopayoga of falsehood in spite of listening to the sermons from āgamas. This behaviour is more or less similar to that of a serpent which does not become free of venom in spite of taking sweetened milk." Bhavya soul quite unlike abhavya soul practices nijabhāvanā which helps in destroying the karmas. Once four ghatiya karmas, Jñānāvaraniya, Darśanāvaraniya, Mohaniya, Antarāya, are annihilated the intrinsic qualitites of the soul like Anantajñāna, Anantadarśana, Anantabala and Anantasukha become manifest and such a soul enlightens lokāloka, The soul, free of karmas, becomes Paramātmä and is known as Jñāni, Śiva, Paramesthi sarvajña, Vişņu, Chaturmukha and Buddha etc The soul is designated as Jõāni by virtues of kevalajñāna; such a soul is symbolic of well being, hence Śiva; it attains highest

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stage of purity, hence Paramesthi; it knows everything, hence Sarvajña; it pervades the entire lokākāśa - alokākāśa by virtue of its anantajñāna, hence Vişņu; it sees everything around, hence Chaturmukha : it is knower of everything belonging to past, present and future and situated in lokāloka, hence Buddha.'?
Out of the two categories of ātman only bhavya soul will attain salvation and rest of the souls will undergo the life cycle till eternity, as such the world will never be devoid of souls. Zimmer Henrich remarks,"we ascent and descent through various states of being, now human, now divine, now animal; the bodies seem to die and to be born, but the chain is continuous, the transformation endless, and we do pass from one state to the next. The manner in which the indestructible life monads circulate is disclosed to the inward eye of the enlightened Jain Saint and Seer.:18
The idea of God : Many popular religions, together with some systems of philosophy, assert that there is an eternal Lord of the universe who creates, sustains and destroys it. It is He who sends us miseries and happiness. Of course, according to some religions, he does so in accordance with the actions that we perform. Thus the idea of God is not always disconnected with the doctrine of karma in India. But Jainism does not hold it logical to believe that there is an eternal God ruling over the universe and sitting on us in judgement, so it will not be out of the context of examining the views of Christianity. Islam and Hinduism about God.
According to Hinduism, God is all-in-all. All living beings are just puppets in his hands. We should surrender ourselves unconditionally to the will of Almighty.'' Nothing can be done without His will. He is present in every heart, moving every body according to His will.20 Yet the Hindu scriptures remind that the consequences of an action performed by a person

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57
must be borne by him. So there is no denying of the responsibility.
Christianity does not consider it necessary to give any argument to prove God. The old Testament presupposes the existence of God. It teaches us to worship the one God and not to pay any attention to deities. God is one.21 He is spirit, holy and righteous, merciful and forgiving 22 he cares for the lowliest. Jesus, who is the son of God. Knows his father as no other can. God father, His Christ son and the spirit makes the Holy Trinity of Christianity complete. Hastings remarks: the father is the primal source, the son of the mediating power, the spirit the executive energy; and every divine act is to be understood as a working of the Father, through the Son in and by the Holy Spirit.23 The mediating power Christ can be compared to the incarnation of Hinduism. Sikkhism and Arya Samāj also deny deity other than God.
Islam lays even greater emphasis on oneness of God and condemns the trinity of Chritianity.24 Muslim theologians have given the following seven attributes of God :
(i) hayat - Life (ii) ilm - knowledge (iii) qudra-power (iv) irada - will (v) sam - hearing (vi) basar-seeing (vii) kalamspeech.
To sum up we can say that these theistic religions believe in one omnipresent, omnipotent and omniscient God who is considered as creator of this universe. The theory of God is based on the idea that every action must have an agent so there should be some power which created this universe, and the power is God. Here the question arises whether the assumed God has created this universe out of nothing or any existing material ? The first alternative is not possible because, there is no existence out of non-existence nor is there destruction of what exists, "says Gitā.25 The other alternative, that God created this universe out of a pre-existent matter, could not answer how

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suddenly God became creator at a particular time? It also questions kindness of God, when creation is full of misery and suffering.
Kumāril Bhatta opined that there could be no creator of this universe.26 Even Nyāya and Vaiseșika, according to new researches, were originally atheistic.27 Jaina view about God is different from the above systems. Jain philosophy is of the view that there is no supreme entity like God, who is creator of this universe. All souls are fundamentally independent and all the substances in this universe are independent of any external agency in their functioning and do not obey any superior power. Of what use is the inherent quality of a substance if it works only under God's supervision ? "If fire burns and water cools, it is not due to the will of God, it is due to their inherent qualities which were bestowed on these substance by God” is also an impossibility. Can we imagine these substances bereft of their qualitites at any time ? No, therefore, this physical world is ruled by physical law and not by any divine law. This, however, does not mean that there is no God in Jainism. God is only the highest, noblest, fullest manifestation of the powers which otherwise lie latent in souls of living beings. There is no eternal God sitting upon judgement on human beings. Human souls themselves attain siddhahood or omniscience - omnipresence by shedding off all impurities. These free souls neither create nor destroy anything. They have conquered passions, anger, pride, deceit and greed, and do not take birth for any reason. They do not get pleased or angry and can not return or reward our prayers. This does not mean that prayers have no place in Jain Scheme of life. By meditating upon the attributes of Siddhas we try to awaken our latent potentialities of Godhood.
A detailed study of Jiva will belp us to understand the concept of Atman.
Jiva and Ātman : Jiva is characterized by its various

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(59
activities and the Prāņas (bodily powers) causing them. Jiva is supposed to perform all sorts of actions due to indriya prāņa (related to five sense), bala prāņa (three powers of body, speech and mind), āyu prāņa (possession of the allotted span of life during which the Jiva has to sustain a particular bodily form) and Švāsocchvāsaprāņa (powers of respiration) from vyavahāra naya. These four prāņas are constituted of pudgala dravya.28
But from niscaya naya Jiva dravya is characterized by Cetana and Upayoga. The above-mentioned four types of prānas are said to be the characteristics of Jiva from vyavahāra naya, as from niscaya naya. Jiva is not alive due to these Präņas in its purest form, however; it is not devoid of Jiva dravya. Kundakundācārya considers Jiva as one who is alive at present, shall be alive in future and had been alive in the past by virtues of the above mentioned four prāņas. These characteristics show that Jiva or Ātmadravya is eternal. Liberated soul does not have āyu prāņa etc. hence Kundakundācārya has emphasized that one who had lived in past by virtue of the four prāṇas is also a Jiva.
The terms Jiva and Ātman appear very frequently in the Jain-works. Characteristics and categories of Jiva and Ātman have been described at several places and it can be inferred that the terms Jiva and Ātman are synonyms representing the same dravya. However, it appears that each of them is associated with a particular connotation e.g. the five categories of Jiva depending upon the sense are no-where referred to as ekendriya Ātman etc. Similarly in Jaina-āgama it has been mentioned that one should concentrate three-fold activities into the soul i.e. Ātman but it has been no where mentioned that these activities should he concentrated into Jiva. The expression Jiva-sādhanā is no where used as an equivalent to Ātmasādhanā.
Jain-ācāryas have presented soul in its purest form as the cherished aim of the Jiva desiring salvation and has suggested

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that all suddha activities are the means of achieving this end. Jiva has been advised time and again to concentrate all the activities in the soul to abandon parasamaya and to mediate on svasamaya. There is no difference in Ātman and Jiva from Niscayanaya; but it appears from vyavahāranaya that soul reflects a particular stage which is attained by Jiva. Jainas have adopted axiomatic approach to prove the existence of soul. Every Jiva is always aware of its existence.
Pūjyapāda (478-513 AD) has enunciated, in his work sarvārthasiddhi, his theory to prove existence of the soul. According to him prāņa and other activities found in a Jiva are enough evidence of the existence of motivator and actor, i.e. the soul. He further explains this by the illustration of a robot whose activities clearly point towards the existence of a sentient operator.29
Jiva perceives, knows and experiences pains and pleasures. Jiva is actor of all good and bad activities and bears the consequences of these activities. Thus the existence of Jiva is axiomatic.
According to Jain logic the existence of souls is to be accepted by existence consciousness. Whatever is the sentient being in me is experienced by myself as 'I am and this experience is worth receiving by prājña. Everything other than this ātmabodha is not mine and is different from me.30
Jiva is characterized by Cetana and Upayoga. Cetana, or sentiency or consciousness is regarded as the essence of the Atman. The sentiency which is responsible for all these activities of the soul is threefold:
(1) Jñanacetana (2) Karmacetana (3) Karmaphala Cetana The act of knowing all padārthas by bhedavijñāna (sva

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[61
para-viveka) is cognition. This activity to know any padārtha by soul is due to its Jñānacetana. The vibhāva pariņāma of soul gives rise to the bondage and fruition of karmas. All the activities whether good or bad of the soul in which Pudgala karma is an instrument and which are taking place uninterrupted are due to the karmacetana of Jiva. Pleasure and pain are the fruits of the karmas. Jiva experiences these pleasures and pains according to the bondage of karmas and this experience is due to its Karmaphala Cetana.?! Karmaphala cetana can be well understood by a gross example: the moment out hand comes in contact with a hot thing, it automatically is taken off the hot object. The movement of the hand is symbolic of the outcome of the act of touching the hot object. This is sufficient in itself to distinguish between animate and inanimate because inanimate, being insentient, does not show any reaction which is shown by sentient animates. Thus karmaphala cetana may be accepted as an external evidence of the existence of the soul possessed of conciousness. As the organs in the form of bahirātmā are indicator of the existence of the soul, in the same way karmaphala cetana also points out towards the entity of Atman.
Karma may be classified into two catagories-Dravyakarma and Bhāva-karma. Dravya-karma is the outcome of pudgala and is attaracted towards the soul because of Bhāvakarma. Bhāva-karmas are the outcome of the thought activities of the soul. These thought-activities are extremely subtle and cannot be perceived by sensory organs. They are subject to the realization by the self, One, who has realization, is the soul. The soul in its purest form is devoid of dravya-karma and bhāvakarma and discloses kevalajñāna. All the attributes of the soul and fully manifest in this state, hence it is known as paramātmā. The soul whose activities are entirely governed by jñānacetana is known as paramātmā.
The process of purifcation of self can be illustrated by

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an example from our daily life. A white cloth having prolonged association with dirt appears to be black but when it is washed again and again, it regains its whiteness. This analogy is well applicable to the soul also. This mundane soul is bound by karmas since time infinite. It can liberate itself from the bondage by persistent efforts spread over the span of several bhavas, life cycles. The ultimate form of the soul, devoid of passions, is the purest form of Ātman, free from all karmic impurities. It should be noted here that as in the case of the cloth, the whiteness was not regained by outward imposition, rather it, became manifest when the cover or dirt was removed from the cloth, similarly the absolute purity of the soul is its intrinsic quality which becomes manifest due to the nirjară of all types of karmas attached to soul.
Soul is sentient and upayogamaya. Upayoga is defined by Pujyapāda in the Sarvārthasiddhi as follows :
Ubhayanimittavaśādutpadyamānaścaitanyānuvidhāyi pariņāmo upayogaḥ. "32
The activity of ātman due to the relationship with consciousness is upayog. Upayoga is two fold-darśanopayoga and Jñānopayoga. Darśanopayoga is attributed to the ordinary aspect of cetana which perceives whereas Jñānopayoga is an extra-ordinary aspect of cetana which knows. When the soul is in its purest form, its upayoga is without any impurity. However, the upayoga of a mundane soul is impure due to rāga and dvesa, attachment and aversion and is known as aśuddhopayoga. There are two categories of aśuddhopayoga (1) Subha and (2) Aśubha. Aśuddhapayoga is the sole cause of the bondage of the soul with the karmas. This bondage results into various modes of the mundane soul. As soon as the soul attains Suddhopayoga it becomes free from the bondage of karmas, and gets freedom from the life cycles to become siddha. This division of souls into the categories of mundane and liberated occupies the central

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The Concept of Ātman]
[63
place in the Jain doctrine. Mundane souls are further classified into four categories according to the model point of view :
(1) Devagati (2) Manusyagati (3) Tiryancagati
(4) Narakagati
Every mundane soul belonging to any of the above categories is supposed to possess a body, gross or subtle, made of pudgala. The future mode to be attached to the soul is determined by the karmas of the soul. This attachment of the souls is for a particular duration. As soon as this duration is over, the old mode is shed off by the soul to have a new one. The mundane soul transfers itself from one mode of the other along with its taijasa and karmaņa bodies infinite times. In this process the new mode is created and the old is destroyed. However, there is not a least change in the Jīva dravya which justifies its dhrauvya. Anādi and ananta are the two fundamental qualities of the soul. The former is a safeguard against anavasthā dosa whereas the latter explains the dhrauvya of the Jiva.33
To conclude, the following points may be noted regarding the discussion held in the chapter : (1) Though, the different systems of Indian Philosophy disagree about the nature of self or the position of liberated soul, yet as far as the particle side of moral conduct is concerned, they seldom differ, (2) Secondly, in Jainism we find a combination of both types of systems of morality, those which emphasise on knowledge and those which emphasise on conduct and faith.
Foot Notes 1. Daśavaikālika sūtra, IV / 12 2. "tarati śokamātmavit" Chāndogyopanisad, VII/1/3. 3. “Ārma vā re drastavyaḥ śrotavyo mantavyo nididhyāsitavyaḥ"
Brhadāraṇyakopanisad, II 4/5 4. (a) “taccaitanyavisistadeha evātmā” saddarśanasamgraha, p.3

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64]
[Some Jain Concepts and Conduct
(b) "no pretya samjñāsti” Bṛhaspatisūtra, II4/12 quoted in Ibid., p.3 5. (a) Keshava Mishra : Tarkabhāṣā, Benaras, 1967, p.33
(b) Nyāyasūtra, I 1/9
6. (a) Jayantabhaṭṭa on Nyāyasūtra, Benaras, 1934, pt. II, I 1/9 pp. 4-7 (b) Prasastapāda on Vaiseṣika sütra, Benaras, 1966, III 2/1,4. p. 18-19 Vātsyayana on Nyayasutra, Benaras, 1970, I 1/22, PP. 59-67 Sänkhya tattvakaumudi, Benaras, 1971, Sānkhya Kārikā, 17, p. 155 Ibid., Samkhya Karita, 62
7.
8.
9.
10. Radhakrishna, S., Indian Philosophy, London, 1956, Vol. II, pp. 407
409
11. Dasgupta, s., A History of Indian Philosophy, Cambridge, 1982, Vol. I, p. 476
12. Dravyasangraha, 2
13. Pañcāstikāya (Ed.) Manukarlal, PSPM, Bombay, 1904, verse 120, p.
183
14. Ibid., verse, 106, p. 168
15. Samayasara, verse, 273-75
16. Bhāvapahuḍa, verse, 138
17. Ibid., verse, 151
16. Herrich, Zimmer: Philosophies of India, London, 1969, p. 228
19. Gitā, Madras, 1980, verse XVIII/66
20. Ibid., XVIII/61
21. The Holy Bible. Mark XII/29
22. The Holy Bible, John, IV/24, XVII/11,25
23. Hastings, James: Encyclopaedea of Religion and Ethics, Vol. Vol. VI, p. 261
24. Ibid, Vol. VI. p. 300
25. "Nasato vidyate bhāvo nābhāvo vidyate sataḥ" Gita, II/16
26. Ślokavārttika, Calcutta, 1909, Sambhandhākṣepaparihāra, 47-59[ 74
88
27. Hastings, James: ERE, Vol. II, p. 186
28. Pravacana Sāra, verse, II/15, p. 189 29. Sarvärthasiddhi, verse, V/19, p. 166 30. Samayasara, verse, 297,p. 393
31. Pravacanasära, verse, II/32, p. 157
32. Sarvarthasiddhi, II/18, p. 89
33. Henrich, Zimmer: Philosophies of India, London, 1969, p. 228

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