Ramayana in Pahari Miniature Painting

Author(s): Jutta Jain
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001570/1

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شایسته است این سرکاری اما به او ما را که بی تو پرونده برای بقیه موالداتها الناس مارمورا، کاتب
BU ANADO
THE RĀMĀYANA IN PAHARI
MINIATURE PAINTING
D.INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD 380 009

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THE RĀMĀYANA IN PAHARI MINIATURE PAINTING
L. D. SERIES 80
GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH
BY JUTTA JAIN-NEUBAUER
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD 380 009
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First Edition 15th March 1981 printed in India
by Creative Printers Private Limited Shree Industrial Mills Estate, Ahmedabad-380021
and Published by Dr. N. J. Shah
Director L. D. Institute of Indology
Ahmedabad-380 009
Price to 39303 303 33
Revised Rs.
je.
As 2002
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FOREWORD
The L. D. Institute of Indology has great pleasure in publishing The Rāmāyana in Pahari Miniature Painting by Dr. Jutta Jain-Neubauer. As the story of the Rāmāyaṇa has fascination for all the classes of Indian people, the study of the Rāmāyana paintings along with their reproduction will surely have wider appeal. In all we have in this volume fourteen colour prints and forty nine black-andwhite prints.
The text by Dr. Jain-Neubauer is illuminating. It evaluates Vālmkii's Rāmāyaṇa, elucidates the three major types of Rāmāyana miniatures, clearly points out the states and regions covered by Pahari area, enumerates stylistic features of Pahari painting, sympathetically takes note of the view that Pahari painting had its origin in the folk painting of the area, gives an interesting account of Rāma-worship in those regions and elaborately deals with the Rāmāyaṇa Series of ca. 1720, so-called 'Seige of Lanka' Series and their stylistic features and relationship. The text is followed by a descriptive catalogue of the three series, the third being from the Museum of Indian Art, West Berlin.
We extend our heartfelt thanks to Dr. Jutta Jain-Neubauer for allowing us to include her work in our L. D. Series. We are extremely grateful to the authority of various museums for giving us permission to reproduce the pictures and thus extending their kind cooperation in the publication of this book. Our thanks are also due to Shri Bhupendrabhai Thakore of Creative Printers Pvt. Ltd. for the excellent and prompt printing.
It is hoped that lovers of Indian Art will welcome this publication.
L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380 009. 1-3-1981.
Nagin J. Shah
Director
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AUTHOR'S PREFACE
The idea for this book was conceived during a lecture-series that Prof. Dr. B. N. Goswamy gave on Pahari Miniature Painting at the South Asia Institute of Heidelberg University. During this fascinating lecture-series, wherein a lot of new material was introduced, The Rāmāyaṇa theme evolved as a subject for a possible comparative study.
Professor Goswamy suggested to have a closer look into the relationship of two specific series which at the first sight seemed to have a close link with each other. This book deals with these two series, i. e. a Basohli Rāmāyaṇa of ca. A. D. 1720 and the so-called 'Siege of Lanka' series. Most of the leaves that might have once belonged to these series, now preserved in various collections throughout the world, are discussed here with their stylistic peculiarities, their relationship to each other and their place within Pahari miniature painting. A catalogue of three major Rāmāyaṇa series, including the above two and a series from the Museum of Indian Art, West Berlin, with brief descriptions of each leaf is attached.
I am grateful to Professor Goswamy (Chandigarh) and Mrs. Dr. Anna L. Dallapiccola (Heidelberg) for their suggestions and guidance during my studies.
I am also thankful to Shri Chinubhai Sheth, Shri Shrenik Kasturbhai, Shri Dalsukh Malvania, Shri U. P. Shah, Shri Nagin J. Shah for taking up this book for publication under the L. D. Institute Series.
Ahmedabad-380 013 15-3-81

Jutta Jain-Neubauer

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Acknowledgement for reproductions
Fig. Nos.
1, 47
2, 49
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 62, 63 11, 25
Name
Victoria & Albert Museum
N. C. Mehta Coll.
Chandigarh Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Rietberg Museum
MFA, Boston
Cleveland Museum of Art, Coll. Bickford
Metropolitan Museum
British Museum
Coll. H. Hodgkin
Prince of Wales Museum
Brooklyn Museum
Freer Gallery
Museum f. Indische Kunst Berlin
12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
21, 23, 26, 27, 28, 30, 36, 40
22
24, 34, 46
29, 42
31, 32, 33
35, 37, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 45
48
50, 51, 52, 53
54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61

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CONTENTS
Page
The Rāmāyana in Pahari Miniature Painting (Text) List of leaves belonging to the Rāmāyana of A.D. 1720 List of leaves belonging to 'Siege of Lanka' Series List of Rāmāyaṇa leaves in Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin List of Illustrations Plates I-XXVIII (figs. 1-63).
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THE RAMAYANA IN PAHARI MINIATURE PAINTING
This book is devoted to the Rāmāyaṇa theme as rendered in miniature painting. Its emphasis is on the major Rāmāyaṇa miniature series that have originated in the Pahari area, the mountain region in the north-western corner of India. Some Rāmāyaṇa series of other regions in India have been mentioned for the sake of comparison.
The Rāmāyaṇa
The Rāmāyaṇa, the Story of Prince Rama', is like the Mahabharata one of the two great classical Indian epics. Ever since its creation, the Rāmāyaṇa has been the most popular theme for narration, dramatic plays, folk perfomances, literary renderings and illustrations. The composition, in its original form, is ascribed to the poet-sage Valmiki, (ca. 3rd cent. B. C) believed to have lived in the region Kośala in Eastern India. Although Välmiki is considered to be the adikavi, the 'first, or foremost poet' of the classical Sanskrit literature, he certainly did not invent the story of Rama. He compiled the legends and ballads that had been narrated by bards and minstrels for ages, and formed one uniform heroic poem. It is believed that the original Rāmāyaṇa was composed by Valmiki in the third century B. C. in the Sanskrit language which at that time might not have been a living language anymore, as the use of local dialects for Buddhist and Jaina teachings show. But Sanskrit was always the language for literature and poetry and was well understood by the majority of the people. Valmiki's poem was surely not written down at that early stage. It was transmitted through oral tradition by bards and singers who had memorised its contents. They however, used it freely and introduced additional verses of their own creations and elaborated incidents that appealed to the audiences, like the humoristic deeds of the monkey-hero Hanumana, the didactic or religious portions, and the romantic descriptions of Sitā and Rama's love for each other and the beauty of the landscape around Lanka. Slowly the poem grew in size and took the shape of the grand epic called Rāmāyaṇa. It is believed that the present form and content of the Rāmāyaṇa were finalised towards the end of the second century A. D. Three different recensions of the text have come down to us. They have had their origins in the north-western, eastern and southern regions of India.2 These texts, although showing considerable differences in style, language and contents, have been edited as one standard critical edition of the Rāmāyaṇa of Valmiki.

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This Valmiki Rāmāyaṇa contains 24.000 double-verses and is divided into seven kanda, books or chapters. These describe I. the boyhood of Prince Rāma, son of King Dasaratha of Ayodhya (balakända, 'the book of childhood'), II. the events at the court of Ayodhya ( ayodhyākända, the book of Ayodhya'), III. Rāma's life in the forest-exile together with his brother Lakṣmaṇa and his wife Sitā (aranyakanda, the book of the forest'), IV. the alliance of Rama with the monkey chiefs in Kişkindha (kiṣkindhākāṇḍa, 'the book of kişkindha'), V. the search for Sitā, who had been abducted by the demon king Rāvana, by the monkey army in various regions with beautiful landscapes (sundarakanda, 'the book of beauty'), VI. the battle between Rama and Ravana (yuddhakanda, 'the book of the battle'), and VII. Rama's rejection of Sita and the growing up of her twin sons Lava and Kusa in a hermitage, and many myths and legends (uttarakända, the last book'). It is clear that the books I and VII did not belong to the original gist of Valmiki's Rāmāyaṇa, but were added later to the work. They display internal contradictions and are inferior in style and language, to the remaining books, II to VI which display a certain uniformity and fluency of style throughout.3
Valmiki depicts Rāma as a brave hero, a lawful prince, and a devoted husband, son and brother. In his feelings of love and sorrow, and his attitudes and dealings, he acts more like a human hero, though endowed with a divine character. He is not yet conceived as an avatāra, an incarnation of Visnu as in later mythology. Only in the later centuries, after the establishment of the bhakti cult, the cult of personal devotion to a god, did Rama receive an entirely godly nature as the eighth avatara of Visnu. Valmiki describes the deeds of Rama with much feeling and involvement, but as a mere narrator and observer from outside. The later bhakti poets, like Tulasidasa or Kamban, wrote their versions of the Rāmāyaṇa as true devotees of Rama. In this light it is important to note that all the Rāmāyaṇa miniatures that have come down to our days, are creations of later centuries, when bhakti cult was already widespread all over India. Most of Rāmāyaṇa miniatures, therefore, reflect, often in a subtle and delicate way, the ideas of a personal devotion to Rāma.
The Rāmāyaṇa soon became very popular all over India and with all classes of the people. Its popularity and appeal lie in the richness of themes and teachings

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included in the epic. Narrative passages, moralistic teachings, religious doctrines, love scenes, lyrical portions and dramatic and heroic elaborations, each in turn were enjoyed by the different people. Innumerable later poets, realising the magnificence of this theme, worked upon the epic, imitated or differentiated portions of it and brought out their own versions, often in a vernacular language suitable to the audiences in their respective areas.
The group of Rāmāyana miniatures could be divided into three major types : a. those based on the Sanskritic epic by Vālmiki, b. those based on later versions of the Rāmāyaṇa, like Tulasidasa's Rāmacaritamānasa (Ca. AD. 1575), Kamban's Rāmāyana, or a translation into Persian during and after the Mughal times, and c. those that are illustrations of local and folkish versions of the Rāma story. The Rāmāyaṇa. miniatures of the first type could be included as part of the socalled 'high', sanskritic tradition, to which also the texts belongs. These miniatures are usually done under royal or feudal patronage by master-artists in collaboration with a pandit, a traditional scholar of the scriptures. The painter, who was not always well-versed in the classical scriptures, rendered the visual aspects of the textual scenes often in his own individual ways. A typical example is the series in a Basohli style of Pahari painting dated to ca. A.D. 1720 which will be discussed later.
The second type of Rāmāyaṇa illustrations probably form the majority in this classification. In this type diverse series from various regions and periods are grouped together. A complete series of a Rāmāyana in Persian language from northern India commissioned in Moghul times, a set of about 14 miniatures in a Pahari style of painting based on Tulasidasa's text in Berlin, a complete book based on the same text written both in Hindi and Urdu in a late Rajasthani style in the collection of L. D. Institute of Indology, these are but a few examples. Many more series, which all belong to the large variety of derivations of the Sanskritic version of Vālmiki's text, could be named in this category. It is known that the emperor Akbar was fascinated by the wealth of the Hindu epics. He ordered their translation into Persian that he could derive the benefit of reading them. Not all his officials shared his enthusiasm for the traditional Indian texts. The account of Badaoni bears witness to this :
"In this year the Emperor commanded me to make a translation of the
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Ramayana, which is a superior composition to the Mahabharata. ... The story is about Ram Chand Rajah of Oudh, whom they also call Ram. And the Hindus pay him worship as a god in human form.... And there are many contradictory idle tales like this, which the intellect is at loss whether to accept or reject. ... Hence it is evident that these events are not true at all, and are nothing but pure invention, and simple imagination, like the Shahnamah, and the stories of Amir Hamzah, or else it must have happened in the time of the dominion of the beasts and the jinns-but God alone knows the truth of the matter." 4
This note in his diary Muntakhabu-t-Tawarikh indicates that Badaoni, basically a historian and searcher for facts and truth, was rather displeased with the task assigned to him to translate the Indian texts into the Persian language. Emperor Akbar had also commissioned the illustration of this Persian translation of the Rāmāyana but the pages of this have been lost. A copy of these is believed to be kept in the Freer Gallery, which is a complete manuscript with more than 350 pages and 135 illustrations. Illustrations to the Rāmacaritamānasa of poet Tulasidāsa are found in the Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin (West Germany) as some inscriptions on the reverse of the miniatures indicate. Although these fourteen miniatures have been executed in the rather late style of Pahari painting during the 19th century, often with a stale impression, one can perceive, in some of the miniatures, the impact of bhakti, for example in the scenes depicting the slaying of Rāvana and Sita's fire ordeal.
The Rāmāyana miniatures of the third type are based on local stories of themes connected with the Rāma legend. These legends and stories form the local oral tradition that prevailed simultaneously with the 'high' Sanskritic or classical one. The illustrations for the Rāma legend of this type were not necessarily painted by professional painters or on commission from a patron, Often the bards and storeytellers themselves, who wandered from village to village to give their performances, created their own paintings. These paintings served as illustrative demonstrations to the audiences, while the bards were narrating the story. Whereas nowadays the bards have ceased to wander from place to place to perform their storey-telling sessions, a large number of their paintings, however, have survived and are evidences of their

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swift, imaginative and powerful style. Very interesting examples of this type are the paintings of the Citrakathi, the 'tellers of illustrated stories', from Maharashtra.
On Pahari painting
From a distant view it seems that the painters of the Pahari area were mainly engaged in illustrating themes connected with the Great Goddess, the Devi; episodes from the Krsna legend; lyrical and romantic poems; and historical persons or incidents. However, the illustrations of the Rāmāyaṇa, too, played an equally important role in Pahari painting.
Under the term “Pahari painting' all the creations of the painters in the Pahari region are grouped together. They belong to the extensive school of Rajput painting, because all the Pahari states were ruled to a major part by Rajput clans, as it was also the case in large areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Central India.
The Pahari area (i. e. 'the mountain area'), also called Punjab Hills or Hill States, is situated in the north-western corner of Nothern India, adjoining the Panjab and Gangetic plains in the South and the Himalayan mountains in the North. Formerly there were about 34 Pahari kingdoms of more or less importance. The one noted for fine art activities and of art-historical interest were Basohli, Jammu, Guler, Nurpur, Chamba, Kulu, Kangra, Mandi, and Garhwal, for example. None of these states rose to the level of supra-regional powers, but the kings, even of the smaller states, were often patrons and lovers of art, sophisticated in their taste and appreciation. Many of the kings employed master artists in their royal ateliers. The creations of art in many of these states are exceptionally fine in spirit and execution. The styles found in Pahari painting range from wild and striking illustrations distinguished by a lack of naturalism, distortion of faces and a religious significance similar to that of metal icons, to extremely delicate, charming and naturalistic renderings of romantic, mythological and historical themes.
Ananda K, Coomaraswamy was the first scholar to discover this school of Rajput paintings in the North-West and to realise that it had existed independently of other Rajput schools of Rajasthan and Central India. He classified the Pahari miniatures into two groups, the Southern group around the area of Kangra-Garhwal
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displaying mainly a lyrical atmosphere and softness of toning and outline; and secondly the northern group of Jammu' with a more coarse and wild style. Based upon this first rough classification consequently more systematic inquieries into the distinguishing features of each style have been prepared subsequently.
The earliest documents of Pahari painting that came to light could be dated to the early 17th century. There are various theories about the origins of Pahari miniature painting. One view is that Pahari painting, which is to be considered as courtly or royal art, most probably had its beginnings in the folk paintings of that area. Folk art is part of the daily life and needs of the villages. The producers themselves do not regard their creations as 'high art', because they prepare them as objects of daily use and make them anew whenever there is a demand for them. Although no testimonies of early folk paintings of this area have come down to us as yet, a few examples of wood and stone carving throw some light on a relationship between these and the later miniature paintings. A closeness can be observed in the style of miniatures and the carvings of the temple in the Nurpur Fort, the temple of Ardhanāriśvara at Mandi and of a stone-stele with the depiction of a royal hero from Bilaspur.?
The painters, who were experts in their artistic crafts, belonged, like most other craftsman in traditional India, to a rather low social strata. Abul Fazl-i-Allami's quotation in his encyclopaedic work Ain-i-Akbari might throw light on the general view on craftsmen that existed in that period:
"The sudra is incapable of any other privilege than to serve these three castes, ..He may be a painter, goldsmith, carpenter, and trade in salt, honey milk, buttermilk, clarified butter and grain."
Rarely the painters were educated in a formal manner by classical scriptures like the other higher castes. The craftsmen and painters gained their knowledge and skills from their elders as a matter of tradition. When the painters were commissioned to illustrate religious and mythological text, they usually worked in collaboration with a pandit, the scholar of traditional learning. The pandit would explain the text, which was to be illustrated, to the painter. The colophon of the Rāmāyaṇa series by painter Ranjha of A. D. 1816 (in Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi ) makes it clear what kind of relation had existed between the pandit and the painter :
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"In the Vikrama Samvat calcutated by Rama (3), Rishi (7), Vasu (8), and Bhu (1), (i. e. 1873-A. D. 1816), in the dark half of the month of Sravana, on Wednesday the 7th:

In the town of Basohli, during the reign of Shri Raja Bhupendra Pal, the learned Sudarsan, born in the family of Kashmiri (Brahmins), composed, according to his best understanding, this basha of the (Valmiki) Ramayana for being visually rendered into paintings. He composed this basha for the artist Ranjha who gave visual form to the verses. This rendering of the katha of the Ramayana is blessed by Rama himself: it enables all to cross the world of misery, and absolves them of a multitude of sins. May this basha) be conducive to the prosperity, happiness, long life and well being of the whole world."9
The religious background
The religious activity in some Pahari royal courts was often dominated by the worship of Rama. Historical sources which describe Pahari rulers as ardent worshippers of Rama, numerous miniatures depicting Rāma as a glorious prince and idol for worship, and several portraits of kings shown in worship of Rama, are lucid examples of this. The illustrations of the Rāmāyaṇa also served as a form of devotional reverence to Rama.
A short allusion to the Rama worship in the Pahari Hills will not be out of place here. It will help us see in what religious atmosphere the Rāmāyaṇa miniatures were created. Pahari miniatures originated in a royal culture and were produced through the interest, initiative and patronage of kings and courtiers. The king did often not follow the local beliefs and religious practices, but worshiped gods of a seemingly higher rank, like Rama or Krsna. It is to be noted that the worship of Rama and Kṛṣṇa came up rather late in the Pahari region. It was introduced through the personal enthusiasm of some hill rajas in the Vaisnava bhakti cult which had been prevailing in the northern plains already for some centuries. When the räjäs of the hill states had established themselves in their kingdoms (around the 15/16th centuries) and had come into more close contact with the plains, their interest in the new form of religion, based on bhakti ideas,

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increased and they brought these new ideas into their home states. However, it was not only through the royal courts that the Vaisnava bhakti movement spread to the hill states. Many Vaişnava ascetics from the plains went to the hills and propagated their ideas. Among them Bhagwanji and his disciple Narayanji were very famous and have often been portrayed in Pahari miniatures. 10
From literature and painting it is clear that at several Pahari courts Rāma, the seventh incarnation of Vişnu, was worshipped ardently. In the bhakti cult, Rāma was depicted as the incarnation of a true, morally straightforward and lawful ruler, whereas Krsna was seen as the hero of romantic love and passion. Both these aspects had immediate appeal to the Rajput rulers of the Pahari states. They reflected ideals of chivalry, bravery and truthfulness on the one hand and sensuous feelings and love on the other, both of which form significant aspects throughout the Rajput culture. Several Pahari rulers introduced Rāma as the official god of the state and often made their personal religion the official religion of their court and state. It is said that Jagat Singh of Kulu (A. D. 1637-1672), a smaller state in the interior parts of the hills, was responsible for introducing the Vaisnava religion into Kulu.11 He placed an idol of Raghunātha ( a form of Rāma) which was brought from Ayodhyā in his newly built temple of Sultanpur. Because of the installation of the idol, Raghunātha became the ruler over Kulu. He also introduced the Dussehra festival in Kulu12, which is the celebration of Rāma's victory over Rāvana. One of his successors, Raja Jai Singh of Kulu (A.D. 1731-1742 ), gave up his royal status and transferred it to his younger brother Tedhi Singh, so that he was free to go on a pilgrimage to the holly Vaisnava centres in Oudh and end his life in complete devotion to this ista-devata (god of one's selection ) Rāma 13. In Mandi, the ruler Suraj Sen (A. D. 1637-1664) abdicated his throne in favour of god Madho Rai ( Krsna as fluteplayer ) and transferred the state rule to this god. This could however, be interpreted as an act of despair as all his 18 sons had died during his lifetime and there was no heir to the throne 14. In the State Chamba the stone idol of Raghubir became the object of worship of the royal family, but the state was not put under the rule of the deity as was the case in Kulu and Mandi15. The initiative was taken by Prithvi Singh of Chamba who brought this stone idol of Raghubir from Delhi in the year 1645. This stone idol which had earlier served as a weighing stone, was given to him by Shah Jahan16.
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Some rulers of Pahari hill states are shown in miniatures as worshippers of Rāma or Krsna. One miniature17 shows Raja Chattar Singh, son of Prithvi Singh, of Chamba (A. D. 1664-1690) with his attendent on his way to a Rāma shrine, Rāma and Sita are depicted in a small niche in the middle of the shrine, whereas Hanumāna worshipping the divine couple in añjali mudrā occupies a niche to the left. Miniatures depicting this new form of religiosity are quite common in Pahari miniature painting. They are not illustrative to any legend or story. They are devotional paintings for worship and they depict Rāma and Krsna respectively as deity and not as hero of any story. Miniatures of this kind show either the divine couple Rāma and Sitā being worshipped by Lakşmana, or Hanumāna and other mokeyleaders. Of similar religious importance are miniatures depicting Rāma as a glorious prince. There are many examples from Kulu, Mandi, Chamba and Mankot. One miniature from Kulu 18 dated A. D. 1720-1730 shows Rāma sitting on an impressive throne with his left foot on a ronnd carpet made of pinkish white lotus-petals and his right leg drawn upwards. Sitā is standing next to him and looking down on her husband in a devotional glance. Lakşmaņa in a yellow long dress is standing on the opposite side and holding cāmara, a fly whisk. In the following centuries this theme gained popularity all over the various schools of Pahari miniatures painting. These miniatuaes depict in a glorious way Rāma and his court, or Rāma returning home from the exile in the woods as yuvarāja, the crown-prince. In Kangra and Mandi especially this theme of miniature painting seemed to have been very popular in the 19th century. A miniature from Mandi 19 shows Rāma, with a shining halo, riding a horse and all his three brothers honouring him in añjali mudrā, while a hoard of monkeys and bears like Jambuvān are standing worshipful in front of Rāma.
These miniatures were not intended as illustrations to the Rāma-legend, but were meant for worship. Their significance is similar to that of an icon, basically a religious object of worship. Miniature series illustrating the Rāmāyaṇa, however were created only to some extent for a religious purpose. They also served as a means of instruction and entertainment to the onlookers. In traditional India miniatures were never displayed openly in a house or hall. They were kept concealed in wooden chests or boxes, wrapped in cloth. Only on special occasions they were disclosed and opened to the eyes of connoisseurs, when either the householder had
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the intention of sharing the beauty of his miniatures with a guest or when the ladies of the house sat together and enjoyed a story-telling session by looking at the illustrations.
Though the worship of Rāma was the official form of religion in some Pahari states, the religious beliefs on the rural level were hardly changed by the introduction of the new religious ideas centering around the worship of Rāma and Krýna. Goddess Hidimbā 20, for example, remained to be the patron deity of the Kulu valley, although the worship of Rāma was introduced officially at the royal court. Also in Nurpur, where the Vaisnava cult was introduced officially, nāga, the snake-gods, remained to be the kula-devatā, the family gods, of the Pathania rulers of Nurpur21. The consequence in the course of time was the intermingling of the various prevailing cults and the new ones, as can be seen from an illustration in the Chandigarh Museum. This miniature shows Rāma and Sitā being worshipped by Rāma's brother and Hanuman. In front of the throne, however, lies a tiger which is usually the võhana, the vehicle, of the Devi, the Goddess. The worship of the Devi remained the more dominant part of religion in the villages and was not suppressed by the new beliefs of the royal court.22.
The Rāmāyaṇa Series in Pahari painting.
In his catalogue of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, A.K. Coomaraswamy listed eleven miniatures of unusual size depicting scenes from the Rāmāyana which he attributed to the 'Siege of Lanka' sequence of the Rāmāyaṇa. He obviously marked that they belonged to the yuddhakānda, or book of battle of the Rāmāyana 23. These miniatures are remarkably large in size (of about 55 cm by 80 cm), but also magnificent in quality and workmanship. The Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay has a collection of drawings of the Rāmāyana theme which are again of the same size as the 'Siege of Lanka' leaves. Not only in size, but also in the drawing of the outline and the composition of the pictures and the fineness of execution these drawings have a striking resemblance to the Boston miniatures. Both the sets, therefore, seem to have originated from the same area.
In various other museums and private collectons in Europe and the USA there are scattered leaves of this seemingly extensive Rāmāyaṇa series. An investigation has
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revealed a total number of 40 miniatures belonging to this mentioned Rāmāyaṇa series.
There is another interesting series of Rāmāyana leaves which is not yet known much. This series has a close resemblance to style of painter Manaku. He is believed to have descended from Guler and to have lived in the area of Basohli in the early part of the 18th century. The most famous and important piece of work by this painter is the Gita Govinda series in a Basohli style. It has a colophon with the date corresponding to A.D. 1730 and mentions the name Manaku who is believed to be the executing painter. Due to its detailed colophon this Gita Govinda series has attained a key position in comparing and dating other works of a similar style. Through stylistic and comparative analysis with the Gita Govinda, the latter Rāmāyaṇa series has been given the date of ca. A.D. 1720, i.e. about a decadé earlier than the Gita Govinda set 24.
It is interesting to note that the Rāmāyana series of ca. A.D. 1720 illustrates only the third chapter of the Rāmāyana, the aranyakānda, which narrates the events of Rāma, Laksmana and Sitā in the forest. Recently nine leaves depicting scenes from the sundarakānda, the fifth book narrating the search of Rāma and his monkeycompanions for Sitā, came to light. In style, format and the type of the script in the inscriptions these leaves come very close to the leaves of the aranyakāņda. The leaves of the Siege of Lanka' series, however, are illustrations to the sixth book, the yuddhakanda, narrating the battle between the armies of Rāma and Rāvana. Both these series are rather similar in theme, concept, colour-scheme, style, drafting of the figures and narrative details.
The Rāmāyaṇa Series of ca. 1720
The Rāmāyana series of ca. A.D. 1720 and the Gita Govinda series play an important role in Pahari Painting, as they show the development of a specific style, the style of Basohli painting, within a period of about ten to fifteen years. They reveal, how Pahari painting has been influenced by the paintings from Northern India and the Moghul court24, One can observe in the sequence of these and other related series a slowly increasing tendency towards more naturalism in the figures, in the expression of the faces and in the realistic depiction of the landscape.
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About 20 leaves of this Rāmāyaṇa series have come to light so far. They are located in various Museums, like the Lahore Museum, Chandigarh Museum and Rietberg Museum (Zurich).
The similarities of this series with the Gita Govinda dated A.D. 1730 are its horizontal format (measuring 22 cm by 32 cm approximately with border and 17.5 cm by 27.2 cm approximately without border), the thick shining, dark-red border, the colour-scheme, the composition of the pictures, the iconography of Rāma or Kļsna, and Sitā or Rādha and the gopi, the flowering and sprouting trees and the landscape. Also the high horizon with the small line of white clouds over a thin line of blue sky, sometimes dramatically emphasized with curly and coloured clouds is a common feature in both the series. But inspite of the remarkable common point, the stages of development can be discerned in some refined details, like the treatment of the trees and the tendency in the Gita Govinda series to shading and soft expressions in the faces 25.
Parts of this Rāmāyana series were forinerly kept in the Central museum (Lahore). After the partition, the whole collection of this Museum was divided, and twelve leaves of this Rāmāyana series came to Chandigarh, whereas fifteen leaves remained in the Central Museum (Lahore). The nine leaves of the Rietberg Museum (Zurich) were acquired recently form a dealer who is said to have bought these miniatures in Kabul, Afghanistan. The Jagdish and Kamla Mittal Museum of Arts (Hyderabad) has, in its collection, a Rāmāyana miniature in a Basohli style dated to about 1720-30. The measurements of this leaf are about the same as those of the other leaves of this Rāmāyana series (being 20 cm by 31 cm with border and 16.1 cm by 26.9 cm without border). Also some stylistic details, like the dark red shining border, the idiom of the rocky hills, the trees in form of pyramidal bulks of leaves with white flower-bunches, the depiction of water in wavy lines, the individual plants and bunches of grass dispersed all over the ground and the hills, are also quite similar. A slight divergence in style is found in the depiction of the monkeys on the leaf from the Jagdish and Kamla Mittal collection. It looks as if the monkeys are wearing masks, tightly fitting to the body with just the small portion of the face open. Inspite of this divergence this miniature is kept within the sequence of Rāmāyaṇa leaves dealt with here.
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The most striking common feature throughout these leaves is the iconography of Rama and Lakṣmaṇa roaming around in the woods, (as all these leaves illustrate the aranya and sundarakanda). Both the princes are dressed in a short skirt made out of leaves and a leafy hat with a small stalk on top. It looks as if the head is covered with a flower, plucked and kept upside-down. Hanumana with his white body, darkish snout and alert-looking wide-open eyes has a three-pointed crown, ornamented bands on lower and upper arms and striped shorts. He has the same appearance throughout these Rāmāyaṇa leaves, sometimes as a companion and adviser to Rama, and at other times as an active adventurer on his own. The peculiar shape of the hills, shown as high vertical fingertiplike clusters covered with tiny bundles of grass, seem to have originated from a similar creative source. There is one Rāmāyaṇa leaf in the Cleveland Museum of art (Cleveland) which is similar in its details. But the eyes of Rama, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanumana are longish and thin in shape. The expression in the face of Hanumana and the depiction of hills display some Mankot-like features. So the attribution of this miniature to the Rāmāyaṇa of ca. 1720 might be somewhat doubtful. On the other hand, the Mankot and Basohli courts were closely related through marriage ties. This could account for the Mankot influences on the Basohli style 26. The figure of Hanumana has slight resemblance to the mask-like depiction of the monkeys in the leaf from the Jagdish and Kamla Mittal collection. The individual plants and bunches of grass in the hills too, look very similar.

Due to its nearness in style with the Basohli Gita Govinda, this Rāmāyaṇa series was most likely created in the area of Basohli. From the large scale of its production and the high quality of execution, we can assume that the illustrations were carried out by a royal atelier, under royal patronage. From its style, it could be established that the place of its production was probably the royal court of Basohli. The close connection between Guler and Basohli, which had existed earlier, became much more strong and obvious after the marriage-ties of the two rulers, Raja Govardhan Chand of Guler and Raja Medini Pal of Basohli who married each other's sister. As the atmosphere of the Vaisnava bhakti cult was prominent in both the ruling house, it is most likely that there was a connection between this event of marriage and the completion of the Gita Govinda set27. This probably explains some of the influences from the Guler style that appear in the Rāmāyaṇa of ca.
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1720 as well as the Gita Govinda series. Another link to Guler is painter Manaku, whose name is mentioned in the Gita Govinda colophon, and who is believed to have been a descendant of Guler, where his father, Pandit Seu, was active as a painter.
The place of production does not play that big a role in the formation of a specific style. The typical expressions that help to identify are more due to the individual or combined creative efforts of a painter and his colleagues. It is the hand of the painter, which does not escape the age-old traditions, that formulates the peculiarities of a style within a certain area. Location plays the part of background music, necessary for the composition of factors and softly felt, but not dominant. Alterations, new trends and departure from the convention happen because of the individuality of the painter or influences from outside. A very important factor in this respect is also the taste and likings of the patron who commissions a work of art. All these have their contributions in the creation of the peculiar idioms of a certain style.
W.G. Archer in his publication Indian Paintings of the Pahari Hills (1973) assigns this Rāmāyaṇa series of ca. 1720, of which three leaves are reproduced there, to the style of Nurpur. He admits that there are similarities in style between this Rāmāyaṇa series, the Gita Govinda af 1730 and the 'Siege of Lanka' series 28. K.Khandalavala sees a connection between the two series and puts the date of the Rāmāyaṇa, however, in the ruling years of Raja Jit Pal of Basohli (A.D. 17361756)29 which might be slightly too late considering the more advanced state of the Gita Govinda series which is dated A.D. 1730 by the colophon.
The 'Siege of Lanka' series.
Since A.K. Coomaraswamy's days this extensive Rāmāyaṇa series, generally attributed to the style of Guler, has been known as 'Siege of Lanka' series. In the successive literature this specifying name was kept and is used here also. A.K. Coomaraswamy might have conceived this name, because he could identify the leaves which he acquired from a dealer in Amritsar, as the illustrations to the episode of the 'Siege of Lanka' from the yuddhakända, the 'Book of battle' of the Rāmāyaṇa. As a probable place of or origin he suggested Jammu in the Pahari
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Hill states 30. A. Ghose later suggested Guler as the place of production. He had discovered that the miniatures bought by Coomaraswamy were originally from the collection of Raja Raghunath Singh of Guler (A.D. 1884-1920), a ruler of Guler31. Archer could verify in a conversation with the Raja's son Baldev Singh in the year 1954 that his father had sold those miniatures. He attributes this series to Guler, dated between A.D. 1725 and 173032.
How many pages of this series had originally existed, cannot be ascertained. Coomaraswamy had suggested a number between 50 and 10033. Here a series of 40 leaves, probably all belonging to this 'Siege of Lanka' series, from various Museums in India, Europe and America are presented and discussed. Following is the distribution of their locations:
Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay) Museum of Fine Arts (Boston) Metropolitan Museum ( New york)
British Museum (London)
Cleveland Museum of Art (Cleveland, Ohio)
Collection George Bickford (Cleveland, Ohio)
Collection Howard Hodgkin (Chippenham, England)
The leaves of this series are found in two stages of execution:
1. fully painted and finished miniatures (9 leaves) and partly painted, but unfinished miniatures (3 leaves),
19 leaves
12
4
2
1
1
1
د.

33
leaf
33
33
2. black-and-white drawings which only show the motifs in black outline and are not painted at all (28 leaves). These form the larger group. The majority of them are in the Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay).
The leaves of this series are remarkably large in size. The whole miniature measures with border 53,5 cm in width and 80 cm in length. This fact caused Coomaraswamy to say that these miniatures might have been models for wallpaintings which needed only to be transferred from the paper to the wall34. Successive scholars mentioning this series adopted this view. J. C. French's words could be considered a standard statement in this connection that Indian miniatures
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of the Kangra style are small wall-paintings in comparison to Moghul miniatures. 35 Also Archer considers this view and mentions that "murals in the Punjab Hills are in general, only slightly enlarged miniatures". But he also points out that there are no parallel examples for such a case 36. Within the lot of Pahari paintings there are quite a few examples of large size which are by no means connected with the idea of wall-painting. A statement which tries to refute J. C. French is that the leaves of the Siege of Lanka' series are very carefully drawn and finely executed. This would not have been the case, if they were mere models for wall-paintings.
The number of colours used in this series is limited; however, the painter did attain, with the use of only yellow, blue, green and a bit of red and white, a highly decorative effect in using shining and rather strong colours - and in their purest form and not in mixtures. In all earlier miniatures from the Pahari region this kind of colour-scheme is generally prevalent, especially in areas like Basohli, Kulu, Arki and early Guler. Another characteristic feature is the use of wide and extensive areas in one coiour only, which dominates the picture. In this series an obvious preference for the warm, satiated yellow (called peori) can be discerned. It can be marked especially in early Basohli and Kulu paintings, for example the Rāmāyana of ca. 1720 and the Shangri Rāmāyana. This bright yellow colour is made from cow-urine by feeding with mango-leaves.37 In the so-called Shangri Rāmāyana from Kulu which is about a quarter of a century older than the Rāmāyana dealt with here, this peculiar yellow is more profusely in use. This Rāmāyana series derived its name from the village of Shangri in the Kulu valley, the seat of the royal family of Kulu in the 19th century. 38 This series which contained about 270 illustrations is one of the earliest documents of Kulu paintings and therefore of great importance. The style of these miniatures is wild, the colours powerful and provoking, the shining yellow or deep-red dominates as the background in nearly each leaf. The audaciousness with which the birth of the monkey-heroes from the goddesses is depicted (ill. 47 ) is a sign of the strong perception and brazen sense of creativity with which the painter or painters were equipped with. Liveliness and natural activity continued to be depicted in the following century in Kulu paintings, as seen in illustration no. 49 "Hanumān in Asoka grove' of Lankä palace observing girls in a dance. In its soft atmosphere this picture comes
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more close to the leaves of the 'Siege of Lanka' servies.
The composition of a picture in the 'Siege of Lanka' series does not appear in many variations. The place of activity throughout the leaves is the same: the battle-field of Rāvana's palace in Lankā. The painter tried to loosen the monotony through additions or variations of details, while the general composition remains the same, e. g. once the palace of Lankā is depicted as undefeatable castle, at other times as the richly equipped palace of a king.
Altogether the composition is simple : the stress lies on the partition of the leaf into two halves, one part of which is filled by architecture (mostly the palace of Lankā, or a temple ), the other is reserved for the depiction of a scene. Often it is Mount Suvela with Rāma and his followers, or the palace -garden of Lankā with Sitā and the rākşasi, or a field occupied by warriors. This partition into two does not apply to the miniatures depicting the actual battle between the two opposing armies.
An attempt to depict depth on a two-dimensional surface is made by placing pictorial details one on top of the other. The same feature appears in early miniatures of the Moghul style, most prominently in the leaves of the Hamzah Nama, Razm Nama or Akbar Nama. Of a related style and period, and more relevant for the comparison with the Rāmāyaṇa dealt with here, is a complete manuscript narrating and illustrating the story of Rāma in Persian language (ills. 50 to 53). It was prepared for the Khan-i-Khanan Abd Al-Rahim, the Grand Vizier of Akbar commissioned in the years between A.D. 1587/88, and completed in 1598/9939, This important manuscript, which contains 350 pages and 135 illustrations, is believed to be a copy of a Rāmāyaṇa manuscript that was made for Akbar, and is kept now in the Freer Gallery, Washington. The earliest known Indian miniatures - both the illustrations to the religious texts of the Jainas and the works of the Sultanate period - display a pure two-dimensionality in composition. In the bridging period between this early phase and the artistic traditions of the successive Rajasthani and Central Indian miniatures on the one hand and the works of the Moghul ateliers on the other, slowly a sense of volume and space evolved and the possibility of its realistic depiction on plain paper through perspective was discovered. In one illustration to the 'Cleveland Tutinama' of about A.D. 1565-7041
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the pavilion in its outer appearance already gives an allusion to depth, while the interior with the balcony of the princely lady looks, as though screened on paper. The Persian Rāmāyana just mentioned is about 30 years later and is more successful in showing depth and space through a device which can be noticed in most illustrations of the Akbar period. The same device can be discerned in Pahari miniatures of more than hundred years later, for example the Rāmāyana of ca. 1720 and the Gita Govinda series in a Basohli style as in its early phase this style owes some features to Moghul miniatures. The device of creating volume on a two-dimensional plain is the depiction of a high wall on the lower border of the miniature, on top of which the scenery is placed. The painter is not concerned with the actual practicability of this scenery. The high wall (in the case of the Rāmāyana the wall around the palace of Lankā or the surrounding wall of the Asoka grove) does not prevent the view inside the courtyard, as in reality it would do. The events behind the walls are laid open to the spectators by showing the scene or scenes (sometimes two or three different plots) on top of the wall. This view from above into the inner courtyard can be very clearly seen in illustrations 24, 25, 26, 27, etc.
Perspective diminution is not used as a pictorial device in this series. The same feature can be observed throughout the early Indian miniature painting, for example early Malwa miniatures, in which rooms, houses, gardens, etc. are shown purely in architectural elevation, while the figures inside are depicted on the same plane, as if these were projected on a screen. The 'Shangri' Rāmāyaṇa of the early phase of Pahari painting shows this kind of easiness in rendering volume, although first steps in realizing distance and perspective can be noticed in illustration 47. In the Siege of Lankā' series belonging to still an early phase but already pointing towards a transition, the lack of perspective conception is most obvious in the leaves depicting the battle. The fighters attacking in clusters or engaged in duels are piled up one on top of another, or next to each other, as the space would allow it. The intermediate free areas are filled with crowds of monkeys, horses, killed warriors and demons (see ills. 29, 37, 40, etc) There is no attempt at any spacial arrangement. It is simply a two-dimensional depiction of the manifold facets of the war.
In this series the persons and their costumes are of a remarkably careful and
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minute sketching. The active persons are the brothers Rama and Lakṣmaṇa, Rama's consort Sita, the leaders of the army Vibhiṣaṇa, Sugriva and Hanumana, the king of the demons Rāvana, his son Indrajit and the numerous warriors of the monkey and demon army. The human heroes, Rama, Lakṣmaṇa, Vibhisana and Indrajit, and even Ravana are characterised by a strong, well-built body with protruding breast parts, clear-cut faces with enlarged, almond-shaped eyes. Their costumes are similar a coat-like garment reaching below the knees with long sleeves, and a wide skirt with many plaits (gherdār jāmā). In the cases of Rama, Lakṣmaṇa and Vibhiṣana, a chain-like texture is discernable on the garment alluding to their wearing of the protective warrior-west made of interwoven iron-chains. A long and broad cloth girdle with colourful embroidery on the ends, is wound around the waists, and high-reaching riding-boots protect the legs of the warriors. They all have towering triangular caps which are kept secure on the head by a narrow red band of cloth. The rather serious expressions on the faces of Rama and Lakṣmaṇa are due to their small mouths, thin lips, slightly recessing chins and dark black eyebrows of evenly curved semi-circle lines.
The leaders of the monkey-army, Hanumana, Sugriva, Angada, and Nila, wear short trousers, with a waist-band wrapped around the stomach. Often their heads are topped with richly decorated and jewelled crowns. The bear-leader Sugriva has a black body and the glowing white ornaments contrasting well with it. The other three monkey-leaders have darkish snouts with a deep-cut line for their mouths and peculiar, wide-open and alert looking eyes, similar to those in the aranyakanda leaves of the Rāmāyaṇa of ca. 1720.
Rāvana, the king of the demons has a long jāmā on, like Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa. This is, however, closed on the left side. His ten heads are arranged in a long horizontal row, one next to the other. They are kept together by a seven-pointed crown. In his numerous arms he is holding various weapons which are placed in a circle around his body giving the impression as if they are whirling around his body. The iconography of Ravana remains similar in the miniatures of the successive centuries in Pahari painting. The demon king Ravana in the Rāmāyaṇa series depicted by painter Ranjha in A. D. 1816 clearly displays a resemblance to the Ravana of the earlier series. Ranjha worked during the rule of Raja Bhupendrapal

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of Basohli and he is believed to have been the nephew of painter Manaku42. Not only the depiction of the figures, but also the conceivement of space and volume remained basically the same even a hundred years later.
Much care seems to have been taken in depicting the demons in the Siege of Lankā series. It appears that all over the Pahari region the painters had a liking for these, as they figure quite often and in phantastic formations in Pahari painting. They appear in two types :
a. with round and flat human race, and
b. with animal-like snout-face.
All the demons have horns, numerous folds on their foreheads, cheeks and throats, large flapping ears, long claw-nails and sharply pointed tusks in the corners of their broad mouths which give always the impression that they are grinning mischieviously.
The palace of Lankā is depicted in two ways, as required by the setting. As fortification it has a high surrounding wall and numerous small windows for shooting arranged alternatively in various rows. As the palace of the king it is richly decorated with turrets, minaretts, roofed projections, pavilions, colourful carpets and manifold draped and heavy curtains. The smoothly curved cupola-roofs with their ends drawn down on the turrets and pavilions, generally called Bangaldar roofs in architecture, appear in earlier miniatures from Basohli and are probably depictions of monuments built by Islamic rulers in the Gangetic plain and Rajasthan.
All through the illustrations of the 'Siege of Lankā series, the landscape is the Trikāta mountain with the mountain-top called Suvela, on which Rāma, his brother Lakşmana, his allies and troops are camping before the actual battle begins. The mountain is indicated by a curved half-circle line which is bordered by a row of trees. The trees are depicted in a manner typical of the style of Guler : ball-like or pyramidical tree-crowns on brown trunks. Occassionally there are the pointed and high-reaching cypresses or the light-green plantains inbetween. Flowering shrubs also appear in the background. This combination of trees is also used to depict the dense jungle, surrounding Lankā.
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Another characteristic feature in this series is the ocean in front of the walls of Lankā. The lower rim of the picture is filled with the waves of the sea in which fish and other (in some cases rather monstrous and peculiar ) water-animals are swimming.
In this paragraph some details of the 17 drawings of this series in the Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay) will be described. These drawings were acquired for the Museum in the year 1934 by the then director, late Dr. Motichandra, who also wrote the brief entries for the internal museum catalogue. The drawings are done in black ink with a fine brush. Some lines have been drawn a second time with a more dry brush and more ink to stress some specific parts or to loosen up the amount of similar objects, as the hoard of monkeys or warriors in the battle would be. These drawings represent the first sketches for the miniatures which were to be coloured later. The straightforward, but still swinging and powerful delineation, the firm sketching of the architectural buildings, the thoughtful traits and expressions in the faces which are already remarkable in these sketches, even more so in the finished miniatures, seem to be creations of a master-hand. Since early times it has been the task of the master-painter to sketch the first outline. His ideas created the draft, for on this the outcome of a miniature depended. The disciples and assistants got the opportunity to fill in the ground-areas with colour, to draw the landscape, the background and minor details.
K. Khandalawala too, mentions that these drawings in the Prince of Wales Museum resemble the 'Siege of Lankā' series in style and that the numerous leaves of this whole series are distributed all over various museums. He is rather uncompromising in appointing the date and evaluating the artistic merits of this series. He writes : "I cannot conceive of this series being painted before 1750 A.D. and in fact it may belong to even the last quarter of 18th century. ... Their bodies are wooden and their faces are heavy and lacking expression." 43
In many leaves of this series the figures seem to be breathing liveliness and energy, which is as much felt in the earlier series of the 'Shangri Rāmāyaṇa', the Gita Govinda and the Rāmāyana of ca. 1720 series. In the later centuries the natural appearances of the figures in their settings has been partly lost. Some fourteen
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leaves of a Rāmāyaṇa which are kept in the Museum für Indische Kunst (West Berlin) relate the story in a pleasant but slightly stale and uninvolving mood. However, the incidents are depicted with much care and minute observation, for example illustration no. 55 Ravana is slaughtered, his wives are coming to the battle-field with their arms raised high as sign of their mourning. The same picture also narrates four more incidents: Rama encountering a warrior, also with raised hands (may-be Indrajit, Ravana's son realizing the defeat of his father); Rama and Lakṣmaṇa surrounded by their monkey-leaders; Vibhisana and numerous monkeyheros greeting Rama and Lakṣmana. On top of the picture Indra is seen leaving the place of action on his elephant Airavata. The entries in the catalogue of the Berlin Museum do not give detailed clue regarding the origin, place of production, or the date of acquisition. It is suggested that these leaves could have been a product of Mandi and belong to the middle of the 19th century. These miniatures depict scenes from Tulasidāsa's Rāmacaritamānasa. The typical Mandi features of this period are trees in which all the leaves are drawn separately; massive bodily figures, especially of the monkeys; landscape made of hilly layers next to or on top of each other; facial type with thin, long-drawn eyes in a Kangra manner; and the "fondness for jagged shapes, pale colour and angular rhythms" of Sajnu's style44. These features also appear in the illustrations to this Rāmāyaṇa. May-be these leaves have been executed in the school of Sajnu. Two leaves which most probably belong to this same series are kept in Chandigarh Museum (no. E-75 and E-76).45 They depict Rama and Lakṣmaṇa camping along with the bear- and monkey-army on the seashore, while four godly figures approach them with offerings from the waves of the ocean (no. E-75) (ill. 63) and the battle between the monkeys and the demons, most prominently the duel between the monkey-hero Angada and the demon Vajradanta in various positions, like Angada rushing with a tree in his upraised hands towards Vajradanta, Angada beating him with the tree and cutting off his head (no. E-76) (ill. 62). One similar single leaf, depicting a scene from the Rāmāyana, is kept in the Victoria & Albert Museum (London). But some of the details are so different that it cannot be counted without doubts with the Berlin miniatures. A striking difference is the formation of the rocks and the flower-ornamentation on the brim in the London picture.

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The Rāmāyaṇa of ca. 1720 and the 'Siege of Larka' series.
The leaves of the Rāmāyana of ca. 1720 and the 'Siege of Lanka' series display remarkable similarities. The most striking feature in both these series is the common horizontal format with the shining red and broad border. The iconography of the figures of Rāma, Laksmana, Sita, Rāvana and the demons are similar in both the series, especially the rather stout bodies of Rāma and Lakşmana and monkeys with their massive legs. As third feature of similarity one could mention is the colour-palette. In both the series it is powerful, bright and fascinating, the colours being used in their pure and unmixed forms : the bright dominating yellow of the palace of Lankā or of the background of the scenes; the deep blackish-blue of the body of Rāma and some of the demons, or of the sky in the background; the pure white of the body of Laksmana, Hanumāna or the demons and monkeys; the green and dark-green in manifold shadings for trees and vegetation.
The figures of Rāma in the Rāmāyaṇa of ca. 1720 and the 'Siege of Lankā leaves are resembling each other in their dark-blue body-colour marked by a sharp outline of the face with a pointed nose, recessing chin, long-drawn, almond-shaped eyes and a high and prominent, evenly drawn half-circle line of the eyebrows. The similarity is also revealed in other minute details, like in the earrings of Rāma : two small shining white balls joined by a half-circle wire which goes through the earhole. Besides Rāma and Lakşmana, Hanumāna and other monkey-leaders wear these earrings throughout these Rāmāyaṇa leaves in the same fashion. Another comparable feature in both the series is the peculiar shape of Hanumāna's eyes : evenly shaped arches cut at the lower side by a slightly upward curved line, with big eyeballs in the middle. The eye is roundish and compact and not longish like Rāma's. In some cases, however, Hanumāna too, possesses the longish eye shape. The playful and humerous actions of monkeys and bears while roaming around in the woods (in the case of the aranyakända) or awaiting the battle (in the case of the yuddhakānda) display the same source of inspiration : the monkeys climb up trees, pluck fruits, jump down, chat with each other with heads inclined towards each other in a very natural way. In one leaf of the Rietberg Museum, they are engaged in playful erotic postures (see ill. 19). In the 'Siege of Lanka' series the monkeys are shown climbing up the fort walls of Lankā in unconcealed joy to start the
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fight with the demons or throwing stones and trees at their enemies. Their energetic movements and their lively expressions of childish enjoyment are common in both the series. This can be specially marked in the expression of the monkey peeping out of the tree in illustration no. 19 from the Rietberg Museum and no. 30 from the "Siege of Lankā' series.
The details of the setting in the landscape are also similar: the long and thin pine-trees alternating with bright, light-green plantains (some with fruits and flower-bunches); the trees with strong stems are divided into three or even more partitions and having broad crowns of leaves and sometimes also flowering. This setting is very typical of the landscape in Guler and appears in this very manner in the miniatures of the Guler style. The ocean in front of the Triküța mountain and the island of Lankā are conceived in the same way with many parallel lines of smooth waves in which large fish are swimming. Various strange animals and draggon-like monsters can be seen peeping out (cf. ill. no. 18 and 'Siege of Lanka' no. 22, 24, 35) Lastly, the double or tripple ornamental bands on the horns of the demons can be mentioned as common features throught these miniatures.
These similarities could indicate that both the Rāmāyana series were created in the same religious and artistic atmosphere. Several points, however, go to prove that there must have been a difference of time in the completion of both the series. The most obvious distinguishing point is the difference in format : The leaves of the Rāmāyaṇa series of ca. 1720 are smaller than the extraordinarily large-sized leaves of the 'Siege of Lankā' series.
A break within a seemingly extensive series occurs occasionally in Pahari miniature painting. The Bhāgavata Purāņa series of Manaku of about A.D. 1740 was begun, in the initial chapters, on a slightly smaller format, but was never finished. Only drawings illustrate the sixth chapter of the same book. What is remarkable is that there is a series of illustrations to the tenth and eleventh chapters of the Bhāgavata Purāņa, which are slightly larger in size, but very similar in style. It might have been that due to some reason the extensive project was left incomplete and when the successor of the first painter, may-be a son of Manaku, started the work again,
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he "preferred a large size and cooler palette"46, but he proceeded in the same manner as before. A similar case might have occurred to the Rāmāyana series dealt with here.
Earlier scholars dealing with these series are not unanimous in attributing a place of provenance to either of the series. Goswamy firmly establishes a link between the Gita Govinda of Manaku dated A.D. 1730 and the Rāmāyana of ca. 1720 saying that there are "strong similarities between the Gita Govinda paintings and the leaves of the Rāmāyaṇa" and that there seems to be little doubt that it (i.e. Rāmāyana) is a product of the same aesthetic vision which produced the Gita Govinda set, and is close to in point of time".47 Archer attributes this same Rāmāyaṇa series to Nurpur and dates it ca. 1720, admitting that "close relations... have existed between Nurpur and its neighbours Guler and Basohli...". He also sees a "Basohli-like idiom" in the 'Siege of Lankā' series and believes it somehow to be a continuation of the artistic spirit of the Rāmāyaṇa of ca. 1720 (attributed to Nurpur by him) reflected in, as he puts it, "the twisted trees, schematic walls, long faces of Sitā and Rāvana and the rendering of the demons". He attributes the 'Siege of Lankā series' to Guler and dates it to ca. 1725 to 173048, Khandalawala attributes the “Siege of Lankā' series to Guler on the ground of a similarity between Rāma's conical headgear and that worn by the mahout in the portrait of Raja Bikram Singh of Guler and dates it to the second half of the 18th century.49
It is most likely that both the Rāmāyana series were created in the area of Basohli, in which influences from Guler can be discerned more or less prominently. The houses of Guler and Basohli were after all closely related by marriage-alliances, as the daughter of Raja Dalip Singh of Guler married Raja Medini Pal (A.D. 1722-1736) of Basohli, and the sister of Raja Medini Pal married Raja Dalip Singh's second son, Raja Govardhan Chanda (A.D. 1741-1773). This personal relationship could have resulted in influencing the style of painting in each state as both Rajas were ardent admirers and patrons of art.
The execution of both the series could be dated to the 2nd and 3rd decades of the 18th century, admitting that the Rāmāyaṇa series depicting aranya- and sundarakānda is slightly earlier than the 'Siege of Lankā' series depicting the yuddhakānda.
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Notes 1. M. Winternitz, History of Indian Literature. (repr. Delhi, 1972), p.p. 517 and 507/508. 2. ibid., pp. 498-499. 3. ibid., p. 495. 4. Al Badaoni, Muntakh al-Tawarikh, transl. W. H. Lowe and Sir W. Haig. (repr. Academica
Asiatica, 1973), vol. II, pp. 346-347. 5. A. K. Coomaraswamy, Rajput Painting. (repr. New Delhi, 1976); and A. K. Coomaraswamy,
Catalogue of the Indian Collections in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Part V. Rajput
painting. (Cambridge, Mass., 1926). 6. K. Goswamy, Vaishnavism in the Punjab Hills and Pahari Painting. Ph. D. Thesis (Chandigarh
University, 1969), pp. 143-148. 7. V. C. Obri, Carvings from Mandi and Bilaspur. in: Lalit Kala, no. 14, p. 58; and V. C. Ohri,
The Origins of Pahari Painting. in: Roopa Lekha, vol. 38, p. 112. 8. Abul Fazl Allami, Ain-i-Akbari, transl. H. Blochmann and H. S. Jarrett (Calcutta, 1873-74,
3 vols., repr. Calcutta 1949), vol. III, pp. 127-128. 9. B. N. Goswamy. The artist Ranjha and a dated set of Ramayana drawings, in: Chhavi Golden
Jubilee Volume, (Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benaras, 1971), pp. 224-231. 10. K. Goswamy, op. cit., pp. 83-85. 11. M. S. Randhawa, Basohli Painting. (Delhi, 1959), p. 22. 12. K. Goswamy, op. cit., pp. 102-103. 13. J. P. Vogel and J. Hutchison, History of the Punjab Hill States. 2 vols. (Lahore, 1933), p. 465. 14. W. G. Archer, Paintings of the Punjab Hills. 2 vols. (London, 1973), vol. I, p. 390. 15. ibid., p. XX. 16. K. Goswamy, op. cit., pp. 106-107. 17. Chamba, ca. A. D. 1680, exhibited in Museum Rietberg (Zurich), repr. in: R. Skelton, Indian
Miniatures from the 15th to 19th centuries (1961), pl. 59; and Archer, op. cit., CHAMBA pl. 2 18. Kulu, ca. 1720/30, Victoria & Albert Museum (London), I. S. 29-1954, repr. in: Archer, op. . cit., KULU pl. 17. 19. Mandi, ca. 1820/30, Victoria & Albert Museum (London), I. S. 13-1949, repr. in: Archer, op.
cit., MANDI pl. 62. 20. Vogel and Hutchison, op. cit., p. 427. 21. Archer, op. cit., p. 390, vol. I. 22. ibid., p. XIX. 23. Coomaraswamy (1916), op. cit., p. 60; and Coomaraswamy (1926), op. cit., p. 47. 24. B. N. Goswamy, The family as the basis of style. in: Marg, 1968, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 19-20. 25. ibid., pp. 32-33. 26. Rajput Miniatures from the collection of Edwin Binney 3rd. (Portland Art Museum, Portland,
1968), pp. 68-70.
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27. Archer, op. cit., p. 48. 28. Archer, op. cit., vol. I, p. 396. The three leaves reproduced here are NURPUR 17 (1)-17 (iii). 29. K. Khandalawala, Pahari Miniature Painting. (Bombay, 1958), p. 128. 30. Coomaraswamy (1926), op. cit., p. 47. 31. A. Ghose, The schools of Rajput painting, in: Roopa Lekha, vol. I, no. 2, 1929, p. 5. 32. Archer, op. cit., vol. I, p. 146. 33. Coomaraswamy (1916), op. cit., p. 59. 34. Coomaraswamy (1926), op, cit., p. 47. 35. J. C. French, Kangra Frescoes. in: Art and Letters, vol. XXII, no. 2, 1928, pp. 57-59. 36. Archer, op. cit., vol. I, p. 147. 37. B. N. Goswamy (1968), op. cit., p. 32, footnote 104. 38. Randhawa, op. cit., pp. 21-22; and Archer, op. cit., vol. I, p. 326. 39. B. Barrett and B. Gray, Indische Malerei. "Die Kunstschatze Asiens" (Genf, 1963), pp. 97-98;
and R. Ettinghausen, Paintings of the Sultans and Emperors of India. (New Delhi, 1961),
pls. 3 and 4. 40. ibid. 41. Edwin Binney 3rd, Mughal and Deccani schools with some related Sultanate materials.
(Portland, 1973). 42. B. N. Goswamy (1971 Chhavi), op. cit., 43. Khandalawala, op. cit., p. 127. 44. Rajput miniatures, op. cit., p. 86. 45. I am thankful to Mrs. Suwarcha Paul (Chandigarh) for drawing my attention to these two
miniatures in the Chandigarh Museum. 46. B. N. Goswamy (1968), op. cit., p. 40. 47. ibid., pp. 32-33, where he also writes: "It is reasonable in the face of this, then, to arrive at
the conclusion that Manaku, son of Pandit Seu, executed this set of paintings" (i.e. the
Ramayana leaves). 48. Archer, op. cit., vol. I, pp. 146 and 396. 49. Khandalawala, op. cit., p. 127: "This Ramayana series belonged to Raja Raghunath Singh of
Guler (1884–1920 A. D.)"; and p. 128: "...beyond saying that its rounded treatment of the figures, its use of tree idioms similar to those in the Basohli Gita Govinda of 1730,..."
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Bibliographical notes and abbreviations
Archer 1952 : W. G. Archer, Indian Painting in the Punjab Hills. Victoria &
Albert Museum, London, 1952. Archer 1973 : W. G. Archer, Indian Painting from the Punjab Hills. London -
Now York-Delhi, 2 vols. 1973. Beach, M. C. : Milo C. Beach, A Bhagavata Purana from the Punjab Hills and
related paintings', in: Bull. Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston, vol. 63, no. 333, 1965, pp. 169-177. Coomaraswamy 1916 : A. K. Coomaraswamy, Rajput Painting. 1916, 2nd. ed.
1976, New Delhi. Coomaraswamy 1926 : A. K. Coomaraswamy, Catalogue of the Indian Collections
in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. part V:
Rajput painting. Cambridge, Mass., 1926. Coomaraswamy 1927 : A. K. Coomaraswamy, Geschichte der indischen und
indonesischen Kunst, transl. H. Goetz, Leipzig, 1927 French 1913 :
J. C. French, Himalayan Art. London 1931. French 1950 :
J. C. French, 'Guler Art', in: Art and Letters, vol. 24
no. 1, 1950, pp. 32-35. B. N. Goswamy, 1968: B. N. Goswamy, Pahari Painting : The Family as the
Basis of style', in: Marg 1968. 1968, vol. XXI,
no. 4, pp. 17-62. Khandalvala 1958 : K. Khandalavala, Pahari Miniature Painting. Bombay,
1958, Lee 1960 : Sh. E. Lee, Rajput Painting. New York 1960. Lee 1964 : Sh. E. Lee, A History of Far Eastern Art. London 1964. Rowland, B. 1959: B. Rowland, The Art and Architecture of India. London 1953.
St. C. Welch, A Flower from every meadow. The Asia Society, 1973.
he
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List of leaves belonging to the Rāmāyaṇa of A.D. 1720
1. After Bharata met his brother in the forest having tried in vain to bring him back to Ayodhya as king, Rama, Lakṣmaṇa and Sita left Citrakūta and went to Atri's hermitage.
loc.
Lahore Museum (Lahore ), no. E. 109 (02725/1933). with border 21. 8 cm x 31. 7 cm; without: 15.5 cm x 26.7 cm.
inscribed on reverse with text in nagari characters from the opening canto of the aranyakända, and the magari numeral 1.
publ.
Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (i).
2. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa are welcomed in an hermitage by the rsis with fruits. loc Chandigarh Museum
publ.
Goswamy (1968), fig. 17.
ill. 3
3. After leaving the hermitage, Rama, Lakṣmaṇa and Sita wander again in
the forest, where they meet the demon Viradha, who seizes Sitā.
loc.
Lahore Museum (Lahore ), no. E. 89 (02705/1933).
with border 21. 8 cm x 31. 7 cm; without 17. 1 cm x 26. 8 cm.
inscribed on reverse with text in nagari characters from the second canto
of the aranyakaṇḍa, and the nagari numeral 3.
publ. Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (ii).
4. The demon Viradha is wounded by arrows and finally liberated by the touch of Rama's feet.
loc. Lahore Museum (Lahore), no E. 102 (02718/1933).
inscribed on the reverse with text in nagari characters from the fourth canto of the aranyakaṇḍa, and the nagari numeral 4.
publ.
Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (iii).
5. Lakṣmaṇa cuts off the nose of demoness Surpanakha who had wooed for Rama and then for Lakṣmaṇa as a beautiful girl. Regaining her demon-body, she flies off.

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loc. : Chandigarh Museum, no E. 98. publ. : Goswamy (1968), fig. 18
6. Śūrpanakhã complains to her brother Khara and incites him to kill Rāma
and Lakşmaņa. loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore ) no. E. 110 (02726/1933). with border : 21.8 cm x 31. 4 cm; without : 17.1 cm x 26. 8 cm. inscribed on the reverse with text in nāgari characters from the seventh canto of the aranyakānda, and the nagari numeral 7. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (iv).
7. Śūrpanakhā leads Khara's demon army to fight Rāma and Lakşmaņa.
loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 111 (02727/1933). with border : 22. 2 cm x 31. 7 cm; without : 17.1 cm x 27. 6 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from the 19th canto of the āranyakānda, and the någari numeral 8. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (v).
8. Khara's army of 14 demons under the leadership of Düşana is proceeding, but
finally completely defeated by Rāma. loc. : Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 104. inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from the aranyakānda : first part : interpolation after canto 24, v. 23 second part : canto 25, v. 10. ill. 4
9. During the fight, the three-headed demon Triširas is slain by Rāma.
loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E 100 (02716/1933). with border : 22.2 cm x 31.7 cm; without : 17.8 cm x 27.3 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in någari characters from the 27th canto of the äranyakānda, and the nāgari numeral 11. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (vi).
10. Khara in his chariot attacks Rāma.
loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 105 (02721/1933).
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with border : 22.2 cm x 31.1 cm; without : 17.1 cm x 26.3. inscribed on the reverse with text in nāgari characters from the 28th canto of the āranyakanda, and the nāgari numeral 12. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (vii).
11. After slaying the demons, Rāma is congratulated by the rsis of Dandaka forest,
while the gods in heaven shower flowers. loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 99 (02715/1933). with border: 22.2 cm x 31.4 cm; without : 17.8 cm x 27.3 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from the 30th canto of the āranyakanda, and the nägari numeral 14. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (viii).
12. Śūrpanakhā compains to her brother Rāvana, the demon-king, that Rama and
Lakşmaņa have killed Khara and the demon army. loc. ; Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 107 (02723/1933). with border: 21.8 cm. x 31.8 cm; without : 17.4 cm x 27.3 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from the 31st canto of the āranyakända and the nagari numeral 15. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (ix).
13. As Sürpanakha had kindled the desire for Sita in Ravana, he decides to carry
her off. The miniature shows Rāvana approaching the wise demon-ascetic Mārica to ask for help in this matter, to which Mārica only unwillingly agrees. loc. : Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 106. inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from the aranyakanda : canto 33, v. 37; 33, v. 38; c. 34, v. 10; c. 34, v. 13; c. 34, v. 17. publ.: Archer (1973), vol. II, NURPUR 17 (iii). ill. 5
14. Demon Mārica appears as golden deer in front of Sita in order to attract her
attention and to lead Rāma away. loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 96 (02712/1933). with border: 22.2 cm x 31.7 cm; without : 17.5 cm x 27.3 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in nagari characters from the 43rd canto of the
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aranyakanda and the nagari numeral 17. publ. Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (x).
15. Demon Marica who had led away Rama from his asrama as a beautiful deer,
is killed by Rāma and regains his demon-shape.
loc. Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 97.
inscribed on reverse with text in nagari characters from the aranyakāṇḍa: canto 42, vv. 14-15; c. 43, v. 1.
ill 6
16. Rāvana approaches Sita in the disguise of a wandering ascetic.
loc.
Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 112 (02728/1933).
with border 22.2 cm x 31.1 cm; without: 17.5 cm x 26.7 cm.
inscribed on reverse with text in nagari characters from the 45th canto of the aranyakända and the nagari numeral 19
publ. Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (xi)
17. Rāvana, having approached Sita as a wandering ascetic while Rama was out to hunt the golden demon-deer and Lakṣmaṇa sent sway, carries her off to Lanka flying over the domain of the expelled monkey-king Sugriva.
loc. Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 108 (02724/1933).
with border: 22.2 cm x 31.7 cm; without: 17.8 cm x 27.0 cm.
inscribed on reverse with text in nagari characters from the aranyakaṇḍa and nagari numeral 21.
publ. Archer (1973), NURPUR 17 (ii); and Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (xii).
18. The king of Eagles Jaṭayus attacks Rāvana to save Sita, but is finally defeated by Ravana who cuts off his wings and talons. loc. Chandigarh Museum.
19. Sita is brought by Ravana to Lanka and put into Aśoka garden, where he orders some rākṣasi, demonesses, to keep watch over her.
loc. Chandigarh Museum, no. E-114.
inscribed on the reverse with text in nagari characters from the aranyakāṇḍa: canto 52, v. 12; c. 52, v. 14; c. 52, vv. 16 to 20.
ill. 7

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20. Indra brings haris, the ambrosial liquid which quenches hunger and thirst, to
Sitā, while god Brahmā, sits to the right. loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 115 (02731/1933). with border: 21.2 cm x 31.7 cm; without : 16.7 cm x 27.3 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from the 57th canto of the äranyakānda and the nāgari numeral 23. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (xiii).
21. In their search for Sitā, Rāma and Laksmana meet with dying Jațāyus who is
just able to tell about Sitā's fate of being carried off southwards by Rāvana. loc. : Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 101 inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from aranyakānda : canto' 59, v. 2; canto 64, v. 36. ills. 8 and 10.
22. On their search for Sitā, Rāma and Laksmana come across a tremendously big
demon Kabandha who only consists of a large mouth in a large belly without a head due to a curse of Indra. Kabandha is slain by Rāma and Laksmana. loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E 95 (02711/1933). with border: 20.9 cm x 31.1 cm; without : 16.5 cm x 26.7 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in någari characters from the 71st canto of the aranyakanda, and the nägari numeral 25. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (xiv).
23. Rāma liberates the demon Kabandha by burning him to ashes who, being
relieved, gives advice to seek help from the expelled monkey-king Sugriva. loc. : Chandigarh Museum; no. E. 91. publ.: Archer (1973), NURPUR 17 (i). ill. 9
24. Out of the flames Kabandha rose as beautiful person who ascended in his
heavenly chariot to the celestial worlds. loc. : Lahore Museum (Lahore), no. E. 94 (02710/1933). with border: 20.9 cm x 31.1 cm; without : 16.5 cm x 26.7 cm. inscribed on reverse with text in nāgari characters from the 73rd canto of the
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aranyakānda and the nägari numeral 26. publ. : Aijazuddin, NURPUR 2 (xv).
25. Sugriva being sure of Rāma's promise to kill his brother, calls Vāli out of his
cave at Kiskindha to challenge him to fight, while Räma, Lakşmaņa and Hanumān are hiding behind trees. loc. : The Cleveland Museum of Art, no. 73.103. size: 20.3 cm x 30.9 cm. ill. 11.
26. Rāma, Lakşmaņa and Sugriva send out groups of monkeys into all four
directions to search for Sitā's whereabouts. loc. : Museum Rietberg (Zurich), no. RVI 844. with border : 22 cm x 30 cm; without : 17.0 cm x 25.6 cm. ill. 12
27. The monkeys are searching Sitā in hills, water and jungle.
loc. : Jagdish and Kamla Museum (Hyderabad), no. 76.223 p 223-PH 13. size: 16.1 cm x 26.9 cm without border
20.2 cm x 31 cm with border. ill. 13
28. After being informed by Jatāyus' brother Sampāti about Sitā's stay in Lankā,
Hanumān, Angada and the other monkeys, who had the task to search the southern region, sit at the seashore in discussion how to cross the ocean to reach Lankā. loc. Museum Rietberg (Zurich), no. RVI 846. with border: 21.1 cm x 30.5 cm; without : 17.7 cm x 26.5 cm. ill. 14
29. Hanumān, Angada and Jambuvān climb up Mahendra mountain as a stand for
jumping across the ocean. loc. : Museum Rietberg (Zurich), no. RVI 847. with border: 22 cm x 30.9 cm; without: 17.6 cm x 26.8 cm. ill. 15

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30. Hanuman on the sea-shore concentrating on his jump across the ocean to Lankā.
loc. : Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Switzerland, no. RVI 841. measurements: 30 cm x 21.7 cm with border
25.7 cm x 17.5 cm without border
31. Hanuman flying across the ocean to reach Lankā.
loc. : Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Switzerland, no. RVI 840 measurements: 30.5 cm x 21.8 cm with border
26.2 cm x 17.5 cm without border ill. 16
32. On his flight across the ocean Hanuman encounters with the demoness Surasā
who opens her mouth widely so that Hanuman should enter into it. Hanumān, then, contracts his body into a speck, rushes through Surasā's body and comes out behind her in his previous shape. loc. : Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Switzerland, no. RVI 842. measurements : 31 cm x 21.8 cm with border
26.5 cm x 17.6 cm without border. ill. 17
33. After a talk with Sită in Aśoka garden and after laying waste to the castle
and city of Lankä, Hanuman is pursued by Indrajit, Rävana's son, and bound with his divine weapon brahmästra, depicted as snake-rope wound around Hanumān's body. God Brahmā appears in the sky. loc. : Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Switzerland, no. RVI 848. measurements : 30.8 cm x 21.8 cm with border
26.6 cm x 17.7 cm without border ill. 18
34. After Hanumān's successful mission to Lankā, he with his envoy return to
Kişkindbā, Sugriva's realm. There in the royal park they express their unrestrained joy in playful actions, until Dadhi-mukha, Sugriva's brother-in-law and keeper of the park, complains to Sugriva. loc. : Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Switzerland, no. RVI 845
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measurements : 30.5 cm
26 cm ill. 19
x 21.8 cm x 17.5 cm
with border without border.
35. Hanumān, Angada, Jambuvān and the other monkeys give the report of their
successful mission to Lankā to Rāma and Lakşmana. loc. : Museum Rietberg, Zurich, Switzerland, no. RVI 843. measurements : 30 cm x 21.8 cm with border
25.4 cm x 17.0 cm without border ill. 20
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List of leaves belonging to 'Siege of Lanka' series : 1. Three subsequent scenes are seen in this miniature : a. Rāvana sends out his
emissary Suka (Śārdüla according to Coomaraswamy 1916) with the order to spy size, location and martial plans of Rāma's army, b. he is recognized and caught by the monkey and bear warriors, and c. after due discussion with his advisers Rāma releases the spy and sends him back to Rāvana (Vālmiki VI, 20 and 24) location : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy Collection, no. 17.2745. published: a : Coomaraswamy, 1926, no. XVII on pl. X, description on p. 79
(but under no. 17.2745; no. 17.2746 and 17.2746 are exchanged). b. Archer 1952, no. 12 c. Khandalavala 1958, no. 58, description on p. 127-128. d. Archer 1973, vol. II, GULER, pl. 9 (ii) e. Coomaraswamy 1916, pl. 22 f. Beach M. C. 1965, fig. 4 according to Coomaraswamy 1926 : g. Museum of Fine Art Bulletin, no. 96, pl. LXXXI.
ill. 21
2. After the unsuccessful mission Rāvaņa sends out two of his spies with the
same order. In order not to be caught both approach Rāma's army in the disguise of monkeys. The monkeys building a tightly closed circle around Rāma and his advisors realize that strangers, who are actually not belonging to their own rows, are nearing and they look backward in repellent manner. (Vālmiki VI, 25). loc. : Cleveland Museum of Art. Property of George P. Bickford, Cleveland. publ. : Welch, S. C., A Flower from every meadow. New York 1973, pl. 41,
however, described as "Vibhisana joins Rāma's monkey and bear army' ill. 22
3. Vibhișana immediately recognized the two enemies in monkey-disguise, they
are revealed and captured by the monkeys and bears. (Vālmiki VI, 25, middle part).
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loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection, no. 17.2746. publ. : a. Coomaraswamy 1926, no. XVIII on pl. XI. description on p. 79 (no. 17.2745 and 17.2746 are exchanged). b. Coomaraswamy 1927, no. 266, description on p. 275. c. Archer 1952, fig. 11 d. Rowland, B. 1959, no, 132, description on p. 193. e. Archer 1973, vol. II, GULER 9 (i) ill. 23.
4. Vibhișana brings the two intruding enemies in front of Rāma and awaits
strict and heavy punishment of the spies. But Rāma, greatheartedly, orders to let them free giving them a warning message for their King Rāvana, saying that he will be completely destroyed, if he does not return Sitā. Again, a sequence of three scenes is being illustrated in this miniature. As next, Sarana and Suka are seen entering the palace of Lankā, as they are showing their backsides. Afterwards they give a report of their undertaking with Rāma's message to Rāvana, who is seated on the terrace of his palace. Being impressed by Rāma's kindness, the spies end their report with the advice to save their own lives and give back what Rāma is asking for. The frightful expression on their faces with wide-open and sound eyes would indicate their fear in this situation. In this picture an attempt is made to depict space on two-dimensional plain : the high surrounding wall does not prevent the view into the inner courtyard, where the two demons are just entering the palace. The device for this is the sharp angle within the wall, rendered completely different as for example in picture no. 3. (Vālmiki VI. 25 end) loc. : The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund, 1919. no. 19.24. 1. not published elsewhere.
ill. 24.
5. As many miniatures of this series, this picture is divided into two halves
depicting different scenes. In the left side Rāvana is seen seated in an inner room of his palace, the right side depicts the Asoka grove. Sitā is seen seated
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under the tree surrounded by some guarding demonesses, Rāvana approaches her, to ask again and again to become his main queen which she constantly refuses. The demon to whom Rāvana is talking in his palace might be the magician Vidyujjihvā whom he ordered to creat a māyā-head of Rāma. (Vālmiki VI, 31 ) loc. : The Cleveland Museum of Art, gift of Mr. George P. Bickford. no. 66.143. publ. : a. Archer 1952, fig. 13 (right half, detail), index to illustration
on p. 94. b. Khandalavala 1958, no. 60 (right half, detail), description
on p. 127-28.
Lee, S. E. Rajput Painting, pl. 3 (in colour, whole picture ) d. Lee, S. E. A History of Far Eastern Art, pl. 20 (in colour,
whole picture ). e. Archer 1973, vol. II, GULER 9 (iii) (in black-and-white). f. UNESCO Kurier : Weltkunst, Dec. 1967, no. 12, 8th year, in
'Skulptur und Malerei' by B. N. Goswamy, p. 16-27, illustration
of details on two pages.
g. Coomaraswamy 1916, pl. 23 (right half, detail). 6. The incident depicted in this picture follows very close to that of miniature
no. 5. Rāvana tells to Sitā all the details about how Rāma was killed in the battle-field. As proof the magician brings forward the māyā-head of Rāma, as second one he shows Rāma's bow. Thinking of her seemingly desperate situation Sitā is seated in complete grief under the tree, resting her head on her arms. The satisfaction of the demon-magician about his creation is his broadly grinning mouth ending in sharp teeth. The joy about the deceiving of Sītā is stressed with the depiction of the five darkish demons, all with crafty grinning faces, quelling out of the entrance of the palace. (Vālmiki VI, 31). loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection. no. 17.2747. publ. : a. Coomaraswamy 1926, no. XIX on pl. XII, description on p. 80.
b. Archer 1973, vol. I, mentioned on p. 147
according to Archer 1973, vol. I, p. 147 also :
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c. Gangoly 1926, pl. 16 (a). ill. 26
7. While Sita is still in full grief, one of Ravana's army generals, Prahasta, comes running into the Aśoka-grove and asks for a meeting. Rāvana immediately leaves the grove and listens to the report Prahasta has to give. After due consideration of his advisors' opinions he gives order to all his army generals to summon immediately all the demon-warriors and prepare them for the battle. (Välmiki VI, 32). One half of this picture shows the palace-building in which Rāvana is seen in conference with army-general Prahasta in reverential attitude. The huge tangled mass of demon-army summoned in front of the palace dominates the picture. The clumsy amount of demon-bodies and martial animals does not give the impression of disciplined ranks, the manifold variations in bodily shapes, facial expressions, in weapons and the colour-combination loosens the monotony of mass of similar objects. Often the animal-like body of the demons is not easily distinguishable from the martial animals, like the tiger and the demon above it in the middle of the warriors, both open their mouths and show their sharp white teeth out of which the tongues are hanging, both raise their heads and their big eyes sparkle in excitement, the tiger, which is exactly of the same appearance as the vahana of the Great Goddess in many contemporary and later Basohli miniatures, can be recognized from its dark stripes.
loc. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection, no. 17.2749
publ. a. Coomaraswamy 1926, no. XXI on pl. XIII, description on p. 80. b. Archer 1973, vol. I, p. 147 mentioned.
according to Archer 1973, vol. I p. 147 also:
c. Gangoly 1926, pl. 16 (b).
ill. 27
8. As soon as Ravana leaves the Aśoka grove to attend the meeting with his army generals, the maya-head of Rama and his bow and arrow which were lying in front of Sita, disappear. The rākṣas! Sarama who is devoted to Sitā, explains that Rama is living and that he soon will start the battle in order to
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bring Sita home to Ayodhya. Sita whose moods have cheered up again is seen in talk with the demoness, while in the palace Ravana is depicted seated in conference with his demon-advisors. (Valmiki VI, 32 end, 33 and 34). loc. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection, no.
17.2748.

publ. a. Coomaraswamy 1926, no. XX on pl. XII, description on p. 80.
b. Khandalavala 1958, no. 59, description on p. 127-128. c. Archer 1973, vol. I, mentioned on p. 147 (GULER). ill. 28
9. After Rāvana's order to start the battle, the demon-warriors immediately storm out of the palace, forming one point of agitation in an otherwise quiet. and calm surrounding like the simply white palace walls and the ordered rows of monkeys around Rama and his advisors. The narrow line of sky with dramatically curled clouds in deep colours indicate the disastrous events in the near future. (Välmiki VI, 29).
loc. British Museum, London. Stein-box II, no. 1955-10-8-078, French collection.
publ. a. The art of India and Pakistan, Exhibition catalogue of the Royal Academy of Arts, London 1947-48, cat. no. 530 (exh. no. 670).
b. shown in the special exhibition on 'Pahari Painting' in British Museum, London, in spring 1975.
according to Archer 1973, vol. I, Guler p. 147 also:
c. Gangoly 1926, pl. 15.
d. French, J. 1931, Himalayan Art, col. frontispiece.
e. French, J. 1950, Guler Art, in: Art and Letter, mentioned on p. 33 ill. 29
10. The battle has started and Rama is camping with his army in front of the palace of Lanka. While Rāma still takes advice of his closest friends, some of the bears and monkeys virtually break out of their rows in excitement of the near battle and start exploring the field, they hide in trees, break branches, they jump and run around. (Valmiki VI, 39). Although this picture is unfinished and only partly coloured the liveliness in the movements and expression of
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the monkeys, bears and heroes is already clear from the outlines. loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection. no. 17.2750. publ. : a. Coomaraswamy 1926, no. XXII on pl. XIII, description on p. 80.
b. Archer 1973, vol. I, mentioned on p. 147 (GULER). ill. 30
11. During the discussion with his advisors Rāma is reminded of his royal duties,
i. e, to try to attain a reconciliation with the enemy before starting a battle. Then, Rāma sends Angada, Vali's son, to Rāvana with the message to return Sitā, otherwise he and his own race will be destroyed completely and Vibhisana will become King of Lankā. Angada starts with a big jump from Mount Suvela towards the palace of Lankā. As next scene he is seen bringing Rāma's message to Rāvana, as the tongue coiling out of his mouth would indicate. (Vālmiki VI, 41). loc. : private collection of Mr. Howard Hodgkin, Chippenham, England. not published elsewhere. ill. 31 to 33
12. Hearing Rāma's message Rāvana falls into a rage and orders to get hold of
the messanger and beat him to death. But Angada himself seizes some of the demons and throws them to the earth, he jumps onto the roof of the palace with such a vehemence that parts are falling down, he seizes Rāvana's crown and returns back to Rāma and his advisors. (Vālmiki VI, 41). Although this picture is not finished completely it is one of the most important ones of the series, as it is the only one having an inscription which Professor B. N. Goswamy has transcribed and translated. The lines are as follows:
*Ramchandra Angat bhaja...Angat rāchhasān chor kari pakadeyā. Angat rāchhasan sāmet ugreya mehlāņ upar gayā latān kan ghar bhana...rāchhasan ... Raune pachhari kari mukat leyi akāșe ki ubhareyā mukat Ramachandra ki āni ditā se mukat Ramchandre Babhikhane ki le...' “Ramchandra sent Angada. Angada was caught as a thief by the raksasa. Angada flew together with the raksasa; he went to the top of the palace and broke the structure with his legs. (When) subduing Ravana and taking
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his crown he flew into the sky and brought the crown to the presence of
Ramachandra. Ramachandra (gave) the crown to Vibhisana'. The text is short, like a telegraphic information only. It was there to help the painter in illustrating the details of the respective scene and acting figures correctly. Later on the lines were removed again, i. e. painted over with the shining red of the border. The existence of these lines make clear the co-operation of the painters with the pandits who explained and interpreted the scenes which were to be depicted. loc. : The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Rogers Fund, 1919 no.
19.24.2.
not published elsewhere. ill. 34 13. Seeing that all efforts for reconciliation are fruitless, Rāma's monkey- and
bear army starts proceeding towards Lankā, while the demons, frightened or full of excitement, are observing from balconies and towers of the castle what is going on in front of the high surrounding walls. (Vālmiki VI, 41 ). The sign of the battle is not yet given, Rāma still is seated in the circle of his advisors, and Rāvana still holds conference with his ministers. This picture is one of the outline-drawings of which there are 17 in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-22. not published elswhere.
ill. 35 14. Seeing the high walls of the castle of Lankā being defended on all balconies,
towers and turrets by hosts of demons in full armor, he remembers Sitā who is captured behind it and he gives sign to start the battle. All the warriors storm towards the high walls, jump on top of them, crying: 'Let us destroy Lankā with our fists'. (Vālmiki VI, 42). loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection, no.
17.2751. publ. : Coomaraswamy 1926, no. XXIII on pl. XIV, description on p. 81.
Archer 1973, vol. I mentioned on p. 147 (GULER). ill. 36
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15. Both the armies take their positions opposite to each other with terrible
tumult and uproar. (Vālmiki VI, 42). loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-14. not published elsewhere,
16. Full of rage in his heart, Rāvana gives order to all his generals to summon
their troops at the city-gates and start marching out. (Vālmiki VI. 42). This miniature is very similar to no. 7 except that this picture is only a black-and-white drawing and here the demon to whom Rāvana is talking is in standing position. loc.: Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-16. not published elsewhere.
17. The host of demon-warriors is quelling out of the Lankā-gate, the army
leader is seated on a waggon drawn by several bear-like animals. Opposite the demon-ranks are the rows of the bear- and monkey-army, armed with trees and stones and open mouths showing their teeth being eager to fight. (Vālmiki VI, 42 ) The crow as sign of a coming disaster is depicted on the demons' side. loc.: Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-25. not published elsewhere. ill. 37
18. The fight between Rāvana's and Rāma's armies starts in full vehemence.
(Vālmiki VI, 42 end ). loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no- 81-13. not published elsewhere. ill. : 38
19. The monkeys and bears defend themselves with trees, stones and their blank
fists, or they attack the heavily armed demons in clusters and bite them and their animals. Some monkeys pierced with arrows are lying dead. (Vālmiki VI, 42-43). loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-21. not published elsewhere.
20. to 23. These four pictures show the fights and duels between various heroes
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of the demon- and monkey-army. In these as only ones the names of the heroes are inscribed near the figures in order to identify them, when the painter starts his work of colouring the leave. The names are in Gurmukhi script and differ slightly from the ones mentioned in Valmiki's text. (Vālmiki VI, 43 end). loc. : 20. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-26.
21. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-30. (ill. 39). 22. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-27.
23. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-28. not published elsewhere.
24. In full violence and fury the battle is going on, but still the painter did not
fail to include some glimpses of irony, for example the monkey climbing up the forehead of an elephant or hanging on his trunk. (Vālmiki VI, 43 end ). loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection, no.
17.2753. not published elsewhere.
25. Angada followed by a host of monkeys and bears with stones and trees is
attacking Indrajit, Rāvana's son, his chariot is broken, his horse slaughtered. Indrajit is about to flee and become invisible through his magical powers. The earth is covered with dead bodies of demons and animals, stray limbs cut off from the trunks and broken wheels are lying around. The depiction of the demon-musicians with trumpets, drums and cymbals is a scene of loveliness within the dreadfulness of the battle. (Valmiki VI, 45). loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Ross-Coomaraswamy collection. no. 17.2754. publ. : Coomaraswamy, 1926, no. XXVI on pl. XIV, description on. p. 81.
Archer 1973, vol. I, mentioned on p. 147. ill. 40
26. Due to a boon given to Indrajit by Brahmā, Indrajit can make himself
invisible. He disappears into the clouds and sends a shower of arrows on to the monkey army and the Rāghu-brothers. Rāma and Laksmana are pursuing him directing their bow and arrow towards the sky. (Vālmiki VI, 44 end).
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loc.: Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-23. not published elsewhere. ill. 41
27. The shower of arrows is continuously going on and piercing most of the
monkey and bear warriors. Seeing that they will not be able to defend themselves, Rāma and Lakşmana have taken down their bows. (Vālmiki VI, 44 end). loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection, no. 17.2752.. publ. : Coomaraswamy, 1926, description on p. 81 (no reproduction).
28. Rāma is eager to locate Indrajit. He selects ten of his monkey leaders who
should pursue him. These are: both sons of Sușena, general Nila, Angada, Sarabha, Dvivida, Hanumān, Sanuprastha, Rşabha and Rşabbaskandha. (Vālmiki VI, 45, 1-3) loc. : British Museum, London, Stein Box II, no. 1914-5-12-06, 0. A. not published elsewhere. ill. 42
29. The ten monkey leaders jump into the sky. Although they defend themselves
with huge stones and trees, they are not able to restrain Indrajit from sending out the fatal arrows. (Vālmiki VI, 45, 4-6). loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-20. not published elsewhere.
30. The 'snake-like arrows of Indrajit, which are figuratively depicted as snakes
in the miniature, have pierced and bound Rāma and Lakşmaņa who are lying in the battle-field among other slaughtered monkeys and bears. The bondage of arrows is shown as a network of entwingled snakes on the bodies of Rāma and Lakşmaņa which are surrounded by a holo-like circle of the parallel shafts of the arrows. (Vālmiki VI, 45) loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy, collection, no. 17.2756. publ. : a. Coomaraswamy 1926, no. XXVIII on pl. XV, description on p. 82.
b. Coomaraswamy 1916, pl. 24.
31. Vibhisana and the four monkey and bear leaders are standing in full grief and
despair near Rāma and Lakşmaņa lying in their arrow-bed, while the shower
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of snakes and arrows is still continuing. (Valmiki VI, 46). loc. : Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Ross-Coomaraswamy collection, no. 17.2755.
publ. : Coomaraswamy 1926, description on p. 82 (no reproduction). 32. This miniature shows the same episode as no. 31, but the shower of arrows
has stopped and the monkeys and bears are now sitting around Rāma and Lakşmana who are still being bound in the network of arrows. With an expression of pity in his face Vibhisana is seated near the Raghu-brothers and looking at them. (Vālmiki VI, 45), loc. : The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, no. 19.24.4, Rogers
Fund 1919. publ. : Miniatures and small sculptures from India. Univ. Gallery. Univ. of
Gainesville (a special loan exhibition), pl. 60 a. 33. After this deed Indrajit returns to the palace to meet his father. He informs
him that Rāma and Laksmana are killed. Rāvana is overwhelmed with joy hearing this news. (Vālmiki VI, 46). loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-29. not published elsewhere ill. 43
34. The joy in Rāvana's palace is unending, Rāvana is seen seated in his audience
hall in conference with three demons, in the front hall demon-musicians are playing their drums and trumpets in full vigour. The right side of the picture shows the Asoka grove where the demoness puts Sitā - according to Rāvana's order - into the heavenly vehicle puspaka in order to fly to the battle-field, so that Sitā might see her killed husband and finally submit to Rāvana's requests. In the top corner of the picture the vehicle with Sita and the demoness is seen flying off in the sky. (Vālmiki VI, 47). loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-31. ill. 44
35. This drawing shows the same setting as no. 32, : the two Raghu-brothers are
lying as if killed on the bed of arrows, they are encircled by grieving Vibhisana and the five army-leaders and the host of monkey and bear warriors. Here the
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puspaka-vehicle with the demoness Trijatā and Sita looking down to the battlefield is seen. In sorrow Sita rests her head on her knees. (Välmiki VI, 47 end). loc. Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-19.
not published elsewhere.
36. Again the same setting is seen in this picture as in no. 35. Here only Sitā seems to have been cheered up. She is sitting upright in the heavenly vehicle and talking to Trijatā. Full of sympathy for Sita the demoness has disclosed to her the secret that Rama is not dead. (Valmiki VI, 48 middle part).
loc.
not published elsewhere.
Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-18.
37. The puspaka vehicle with Sita and the demoness Trijatā returns back and Sitā is again placed under the Aśoka tree in Aśoka grove, surrounded by numerous rākṣasi. Remembering what she had seen on the battle-field she again falls into deep grievance bending her head downwards. (Valmiki VI, 48 end). loc.
Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-15.
not published elesewhere.
38. Out of a heavy storm in the clouds suddenly Garuda appears in the sky. Out of immense fear for him all the snakes which were binding Rama and Laksamana as arrows quickly take flight and disappear in the ocean. As soon as Garuda touches Rama, which is very feelingfully depicted, Rāma wakes up and regains his strength and energy again. (Valmiki VI, 50, 33-35).
Garuda has a rather estranging, stressingly human figure, even the head is that of an actual human with natural ears and eyes. Only the bent beak of a parrot and the attached angel-like wings denote that he is a bird. A similar depiction of Garuda appears in one miniature from Bikaner of late 17th century, published in 'A flower from every meadow' as pl. 32.
Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-17
loc.
not published elsewhere.
ill. 45
39. In anger about his unsuccessfulness Ravana calls his son Indrajit and orders him, who had successfully defeated Indra, to kill the Raghu-brothers. In order to secure his powers Indrajit makes an offering to God Agni. He is
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seen seated in the front hall of a small temple - of a style occuring in this way in Pahari miniatures - and pouring something with a hand-shaped spoon into the fire which is surrounded by arrows. Outside under a tree a goat with detached head is lying and four räksasi are approaching with more sacrificial goods. (Vālmiki VI, 80, 1-10). loc. : The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, no. 19.24.3. not published elsewhere.
ill. 46 40. While offering to Agni a chariot drawn by four horses emerges out of the
fire. In the next scene in the right side of the picture Indrajit has mounted the newly acquired chariot and is driving off, while two raksasas are observing him standing under the tree in the middle of the picture serving as partition line. (Vālmiki VI, 80, 11-18). loc. : Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, no. 81-24. not published elsewhere.
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List of Rāmāyaṇa leaves in Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin.
1. Suka and Sarana are sent out by Ravana to spy Rāma's army. a. They are
seen jumping down from Lankā-castle, b. talking to Rāma, Laksmana surrounded by the circle of monkey- and bear-leaders having discovered the true nature of the demon-spies, c. going back to Lankā. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5183.
ill. 54
2. Lakşmaņa is lying as if dead on a white bed surrounded by Rāma and the
monkey- and bear leaders. Hanumān brings the physician Suşeņa to Rāma who should cure Lakşmana, loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5187.
3. Several scenes are depicted. Right side : Laksmana is lying stretched on the
ground as if dead. Rāma taking advice from physician Sușeņa sends out Hanumān to get the required herbs for Laksmana's curing. On the top frame of the picture Hanuman is seen twice on his way while searching for the herbs. Left side : Rāvana sits in full armament on his chariot surrounded by his demons. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5186. ill. 56
4. As Hanuman is not able to identify the required herb, he brings the whole
mountain with all the herbs. He is attacked by a demon and kills him. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, MIK, I 5189.
5. Hanumān carrying the whole mountain with herbs is shot down by Bharata
living in his hermitage. 5 scenes are shown. Left side top : Hanuman flying in the sky with the mountain. Left side middle portion: Hanumān just shot down from the sky in discussion with Bharata, a sage and others. Middle portion bottom: Hanuman standing with folded hands talking to Bharata, the sage and others. Right side bottom : the hermitage where Bharata directs his arrow into the sky, where Hanumān is flying, the sage and some women sitting around a sacrificial fire. Right side top : Hanuman again with the mountain in the clouds.
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loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5188 6. Hanuman has brought the mountain, and the physician Susena selects the
herbs and applies them to Laksmana on his chest who is lying on the white bed surrounded by the monkeys and bears. The top right corner shows Rāma talking to Laksmana while Hanumān bows down to him in reverence.
loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5190. 7. Sușeņa has fulflled his task successfully, he takes his leave and is brought
back on a pedestal by Hanumān flying through the air. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5184.
ill. 57 8. The battle between the monkeys and the demons, Several scenes are depicted.
Left side : Rāvana is approaching in his horse-drawn chariot followed by demons. Middle portion : Rāvana in fight with Hanumān and others. Underneath : Rāvana is slain and lying on the ground. Right side bottom : demons and monkeys in fight, many demons are lying slaughtered on the ground. Right side top : Rāma and Laksmana seated in the forest in conference with monkey- and bear-leaders. Left side top : The palace of Lankā where Rāvana is approaching Sitā who is seated with bent head on a pedestal under a tree. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, MIK 5185.
ill. 58 9. Rāvana is slain and the dead bodies of demons cover the ground. Rāma,
Lakşmana, Vibhişana and the monkey and bear leaders are standing on the battle field. The top left corner of the miniature is occupied by the castle of Lanka. In the aky several gods appear in the clouds to triumph over Rāma's victory with musical instruments.
loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, MIK I 5191. 10. Rāvaņa is slain, in distress with high raised hands his queens are coming
out of the castle of Lankā to the battle field. Rāma and Lakşmaņa are seen twice within a group of monkey- and bear-leaders, once also with Vibhișana. God Indra on his elephant Airāvata is seen in the sky. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5192. ill. 55
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11. After the battle is over, the demons are bringing presents from the castle of
Lankā, headed by Vibhisana. Next, they are seen distributing the bundles and opening them and putting on the presented garments. At the bottom the farewell scene between Vibhișana, Rāma, Hanumān, and Sugriva is taking place.
loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5195. 12. Sitā is being fetched from Asoka garden of Lankā. Right side bottom : Rāma
is sending out Hanumān and others to fetch Sitā, they are seen entering the wall of Asoka garden in Lankā, then sitting in reverential posture in front of Sitā. loc. : Musem fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5193.
ill. 59. 13. Sita's fire ordeal is depicted. At the bottom Sitā is stepping into the fire
observed by Rāma and the monkeys. Middle portion : Sitā is sitting in the fire surrounded by flames and smoke. Bharata bows down towards her within the fire and is seen as next leading her out of the fire. Right : She is seated in front of Rāma, Laksamana, Vibhisana and the monkeys. Bharata bows down to Rāma. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5194.
ill. 60. 14. The group of Rāma, Lākṣmaṇa, Sitā and the monkey and bear companions
are brought in a flying pedestal drawn by Hanumān back to Ayodhyā which is depicted as white city among trees. Underneath : Hanuman is seen in talk with Bharata in front of the hermitage, further, again embracing him and taking his leave by bowing down in front of Bharata. loc. : Museum fur Indische Kunst, Berlin, no. MIK I 5196. ill. 61.
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
pl. I fig. 1: Krsna playing with gopi in the forest, Radha sitting a little away
in distress for being neglected and is consoled by a sakhi.
Gita Govinda, dated A. D. 1730. Victoria & Albert Museum (London), no. I. M. 87-1930.
fig. 2 Kṛṣṇa playing flute surrounded by gopi.
Gita Govinda, dated A. D. 1730 N. C. Mehta collection (Ahmedabad), no. 948.
pl. II fig. 3: Rama, Lakṣmaṇa and Sita are welcomed by rsi.
Rāmāyaṇa, āraṇyakanda, ca. 1720, Chandigarh Museum, no. E. fig. 4 Rāma killing demon Dūṣaṇa.
Rāmāyaṇa, āraṇyakaṇḍa, Basohli, ca. 1720. Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 104.
pl. III fig. 5: Ravana seeks advice of ascetic-demon Marica. Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakaṇḍa, Basohli, ca. 1720. Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 106. fig. 6 Demon Marica is killed by Rāma.
Rāmāyaṇa, äraṇyakända, Basohli, ca. 1720. Chandigarh Museum, no. 97.
pl. IV: fig. 7 Sita's abode in Aśoka garden of Lanka among rākṣasi. Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakaṇḍa, Basohli, ca. 1720, Chandigarh Museum, no. 114.
fig. 8 Rama and Lakṣmaṇa meet dying Jatayus.
Rāmāyaṇa, āraṇyakanda, Basohli, ca. 1920. Chandigarh Museum, no. 101.
pl. V fig. 9 Being burnt by Rama, demon Kabandha regains human form and
flies off in his celestial vehicle.
Rāmāyaṇa, āraṇyakanda, Basohli, ca. 1720. Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 91 (?)
fig. 10 Inscription on reverse with text in nagari characters from the
āraṇyakāṇda.
Chandigarh Museum, no. 101.
pl. VI fig. 11 Sugrīva challenges Vali to fight.
Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakanda, Basohli, ca. 1720. The Cleveland Museum

53

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The Ramayana In Pahari Miniature Painting
of Art, no. 73. 103.
fig. 12 Rama sending out groups of monkeys to search Sitā. Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakanda, Basohli, ca. 1720. Rietberg Museum (Zurich), no. RVI 844.
fig. 13 Sugriva's monkey-army searching for Sita in hills, water, and
jungle.
Rāmāyaṇa, āraṇyakanda, Basolhi ca. 1720. Jagdish and Kamla Mittal Museum of Indian Art (Hyderabad), no. 76.223 p. 233 PH 13.
pl. VII: fig. 14: Hanuman, Angada and Jambuvan discuss who could jump across
the ocean.
Rāmāyaṇa, āraṇyakanda, Basohli, ca. 1720. Rietberg Museum (Zurich), no. RVI 846.
fig. 15 Hanuman, Angada and Jambuvan climb up Mahendra mountain. Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakaṇḍa, Basohli, ca. 1720. Rietberg Museum (Zurich), no. RVI 847.
pl. VIII fig. 16 Hanuman flying across the ocean to Lankā.
Rāmāyaṇa, äraṇyakända, Basohli, ca. 1720. Rietberg Museum (Zurich), no. RVI 840.
fig. 18 Hanuman bound with the divine weapon, brahmastra, by Indrajit. Rāmāyaṇa, Aranyakända, Basohli, 1720. Rietberg Museum
(Zuridh) no. RVI 848.
pl. IX fig. 17 Hanuman encountering demoness Surasa on his flight to Lankā. Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakaṇḍa, Basohli, ca. 1720. Rietberg Museum (Zurich), no. 842.
pl. X fig. 19: Hanuman and his comrades enjoy their return to Kişkindha. Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakāṇḍa, Basohli, ca. 1720. Rietberg Museum (Zurich), no. 845
fig. 20 Hanuman, Angada and other monkeys give report of their mission
to Lanka.
Rāmāyaṇa, aranyakanda, Basohli, ca. 1720. Rietberg Museum (Zurich), no. RVI 843

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pl. XI: fig. 21 Ravana sending out Suka to spy Rama's army. Rāmāyaṇa, Siege of Lanka', yuddhaklinda, Guler, Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), no. 17.2745.
fig. 22 The two spies in monkey-disguise approach.
Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lanka', yuddhakaṇḍa, Guler, ca. 1725. The Cleveland Museum of Art, Property of George P. Bickford (Cleveland).
pl. XII: fig. 23: Vibhiṣana recognizes the spies in monkey-disguise.
Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lanka' yuddhakanda, Guler, ca. 1725. Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), no. 17.2746.
fig. 24 The spies are brought before Rāma.
Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lanka', yuddhakāṇḍa, Guler, ca. 1725, Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), no. 19.24.1.
ca. 1725.
pl. XIII: fig. 26: Ravana shows Rama's head to prove that he was killed in battle. Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lanka', yuddhakanda, Guler, ca. 1725, Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), no. 17.2747.
pl. XIV: fig. 25: The palace of Lanka, Ravaṇa approaches Sita in Aśoka garden. Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lanka', yuddhakanda, Guler, ca. 1725. The Cleveland Museum of Art, no. 66.143.
fig. 27 Ravana's army general reports the situation.
Ramayana, 'Siege of Lanka', yuddhakanda, Guler, Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), no. 17.2749.
pl. XV: fig. 28: Ravana in a meeting with army generals.
1725.
Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lanka', yuddhakanda, Guler, ca. 1725, Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), no. 17.2748.
fig. 29 The battle begins and demons storm out of Lanka palace. Rāmāyaṇa, Siege of Lanka', yuddhakända, Guler, ca. 1725. British Museum (London). no. 1955-10-8-078.
fig. 30 The monkey army roaming around in excitement over the begin
ning of the battle.

Rāmāyaṇa, Siege of Lanka', yuddhakanda, Guler, ca, 1725. Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), no. 17.2750.
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The Rāmāyana In Pahari Miniature Painting
pl. XVI : fig. 31: Angada is sent to Rāvana with a message from Rāma.
Rāmāyana, "Siege of Lankā', yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725
coll. Howard Hodgkin (Chippenham ), fig. 32 : detail of fig. 31 : The demons.
fig. 33 : detail of fig. 31 : Angada in meeting with Rāvaņa. pl. XVII : fig. 34: Angada devastates the palace of Lankā and takes away Rāvana's
crown. Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lanka', yuddhakanda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Metropolitan Museum (New York ), no. 19.24.2. fig. 35: Rāma's army proceeds towards Lankā.
Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lankā', yuddhakanda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay), no. 81-22. pl. XVIII: fig. 36: Rāma gives sign to start the battle.
Rāmāyana, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakanda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Museum of Fine Arts (Boston ), no. 17.2751 fig. 37: Both armies opposite each other.
Rāmāyana, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Prince of Wales Musem (Bombay), no. 81-25. pl. XIX : fig. 38 : The fight in its full vehemence.
Rāmāyana, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler ca. 1725.
Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay), no. 81-13. fig. : 39: Duels between heroes of the monkey- and demon-army.
Rāmāyaṇa, "Siege of Lanka', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay), no. 81-30. pl. XX : fig. 40: Angada fights Indrajit, Rāma and Lakşmana the demons.
Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Museum of Fine Arts (Boston), no. 17.2754. fig. 41 : The invisible Indrajit sends showers of arrows.
Rāmāyaṇa, 'Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Prince of Wales Musesm (Bombay), no. 81-23. pl. XXI : fig. 42: Rāma selects ten monkeys to search for Indrajit.
Rāmāyaṇa, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
56
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The Rāmāyaṇa In Pahari Miniature Painting
British Museum (London ), no. 1914-5-12-06 fig. 43 : Indrajit reports his killing of Rāma and Laksmana to Rāvana.
Rāmāyana, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay), no. 81-29. fig. 44 : Sitā is sent to see her dead husband at the battlefield.
Rāmāyaṇa, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Prince of Wales Museum, no. 81-31. pl. XXII : fig. 45 : Garuda appears on the battlefield.
Rāmāyaṇa, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725,
Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay), no. 81-17. fig. 46 : Indrajit makes an offering.
Rāmāyaṇa, "Siege of Lankā', Yuddhakānda, Guler, ca. 1725.
Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), no. 19.24.3. pl. XXIII; fig. 47: Birth of the key-heroes.
'Shangri Rāmāyana', Kulu, ca. 1700-1710. Victoria & Albert
Museum (London), no. I. S- 11-1966. fig. 48 : Rāma, Lakşmana and Hanumān fighting a demon.
'Shangri Rāmāyaṇa', Kulu, ca. 1700-1710. Brooklyn Museum
no. 70.145.2. fig. 49 : Hanumān in Lankā hiding in a tree to observe dancing girls.
Kulu, middle 18th cent. N. C. Mehta collection (Ahmedabad), no. 329.
pl. XXIV: fig. 50: King Daśaratha in his palace of Ayodhyā.
Rāmāyaṇa ms. in Persian, Akbar period, dated 1588 A. D. Freer
Gallery (Washington), no. 07.271, fol. 29 a. fig. 51 : Rāma and Lakşmaņa fighting demons.
Rāmāyaṇa ms. in Persian, Akbar period, dated 1588 A. D. Freer
Gallery (Washington), no. 07.271, fol. 38 b. fig. 52 : Rāma, Laksmana and Vibhișana in conference with monky-leaders.
Rāmāyana ms. in Persian, Akbar period, dated 1588 A. D. Freer
Gallery (Washington), no. 07.271, fol. 194 b. fig. 53 : Sitā in Asoka grove of Lankā palace guarded by demons.
57
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The Rāmāyaṇa In Pahari Miniature Painting
Rāmāyana ms. in Persian, Akbar period, dated 1588 A. D. Freer
Gallery (Washington), no. 07.271, fol. 10 a. pl. XXV: fig. 54: Rāvana sends out two spies to Rāma's army.
Rāmāyaṇa, probably Mandi, 19th cent. Museum fur Indische
Kunst (Berlin), no. MIK I 5183. fig. 55 : Rāvana is slain.
Rāmāyana, probably Mandi, 19th cent. Museum fur Indische
Kunst (Berling), no. MIK I 5191. pl. XXVI : fig. 56: Hanumān brings the required herbs for Lakşmana.
Rāmāyaṇa, probably Mandi, 19th cent. Museum fur Indische
Kunst (Berlin), no. MIK I 5186. fig. 57 : Hanumān brings the physician Suşena back.
Rāmāyaṇa, probably mandi, 19th cent. Museum fur Indische
Kunst (Berlin), no. MIK I 5184 fig. 58 : The battle between monkeys and demons. Rāmāyaṇa, probably
Mandi, 19th century, Museum for Indische Kunst (Berlin), no.
MIK I 5185 pl. XXVII: fig.59: Sitā is fetched from Lankā.
Kunst (Berlin), no. MIK I 5193. fig. 60 : Sitā's fire ordeal.
Kunst (Berlin), no. MIK I 5194. fig. 61 : Rāma and his company flying back to Ayodhyā.
Rāmāyana, probably Mandi, 19th cent. Museum fur Indische
Kunst (Berlin), no. MIK I 5196. pl.XXVIII: fig. 62: The fight between Angada and demon Vajradanta.
Rāmāyaṇa, probably Mandi, 19th century. Chandigarh Museum,
no. E. 76. fig. 63 : Rāma and Lakşmaņa camping on the seashore.
Rāmāyaṇa, probably Mandi, 19th century. Chandigarh Museum, no. E. 75.
58
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ART PLATES

Page #69

Jain Education Intemational

Page #70

Plate I
1. Kṛṣṇa playing with gopi in the forest, Radha being consoled by a Sakhi.
2. Kṛṣṇa playing flute surrounded by gopi.

Page #71

Plate II
3. Rāma, Laksmana and Sitä welcomed by rsi.
4. Rāma Killing demon Düşaņa.

Page #72

Plate III
5. Rāvana seeks advice of ascetic-demon Marica.
6. Demon Marica is killed by Rama.

၁

Page #73

Plate IV
mln
7. Sita's abode in Asoka garden of Lanka among rāk sasi.
8. Rama and Laksmana meet dying Jatayu.
Jain Education Intemational

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Plate V
9. Being burnt by Rama, demon Kabandha regains human form and flies off.
22717
२४
2717

सतरा जनस्थानं मान्यं दशरथात्मजः॥ रहितां परा शा लांच सीताया घर मंडितां श्रष्ट्रात वैदेहीस निरीक्षच सर्वशः मां दीनोमुखेन परिय्यत कलन वैदेही कां दिशंवा प्रवाहिताय पर्वत संका शेरा मोचन राम की रामस्तम्पतुविज्ञाय सीतायाः संश्रितांक या राजे परिवज्यरुरोद महल दर मराज हत्तवान् शस्करं सुदुष्करंक में ऐसे निपातित हर्बिकल्पेन व संस् तस्तथाजगाम पांगतिमात्मनः शुभ बुलिने।
10. Inscription in nāgari characters from aranyakanda.
E/0/

WEL
T
101-3
Panjab

Page #75

Plate VI
11. Sugriva challenges Vali to fight.
12. Rama sending out groups of monkeys to search Sita.
13. Sugriva's monkey-army searching for Sita.
Jain Education Intemational

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Plate VII
14. Hanuman, Angada and Jambuvan discuss who could jump across the ocean.
C
15. Hanuman, Angada and Jambuvan climb up Mahendra mountain.

Page #77

Plate VIII
16. Hanuman flying across the ocean to Lanka
18. Hanuman bound with the divine weapon, brahmästra, by Indrajit.

Page #78

Plate IX
SHAYARIKHANI
MANAYAN
17. Hanuman encountering demoness Surasa on his flight to Lankā.
मा. श्री कैलाससागरतुर शानमदिर श्री महावीर जेन आरामना
Jain Education Intemational

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Plate X
SVS
19. Hanuman and his comrades enjoy their return to Kiskindha.
20. Hanuman, Angada and other monkeys give report of their mission to Lanka.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #80

Plate XI
21. Ravana sending out Suka to spy Rama's army.
22. The two spies in monkey-disguise approach.

Page #81

Plate XII
11
23. Vibhişana recognizes the spies.
24. The spies are brought before Rama.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #82

Plate XIII
26. Ravana shows Rama's severed head to Sita.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #83

Plate XIV
25. The palace of Lanka, Ravana approaches Sita in Asoka garden.
27. Rāvana's army general reports the situation.
Jain Education Intemational

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Plate XV
28. Ravana in a meeting with his army generals.
29. The battle begins and demons storm out of Lanka palace.
30. The monkey army roaming around before the battle.
Jain Education Intemational

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Plate XVI
31. Angada is sent to Ravana with a message from Rama.
32. detail of fig. 31 the demons.
O

Ball
33. detail of fig. 31: Angada in meeting with Rävana.

Page #86

Plate XVII
34. Angada devastates the palace af Lanka and takes away Ravana's crown.
35. Rama's army proceeds towards Lankā.

Page #87

Plate XVIII
36. Rama gives sign to start the battle.
37. Both armies opposite each other.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #88

Plate XIX
38. The fight in its full vehemence.
39. Duels between heroes of the monkey- and demon-army.

Page #89

Plate XX
40. Angada fights Indrajit, Rama and Laksmana the demons.
41. The invisible Indrajit sends showers af arrows.

Page #90

Plate XXI
42. Rama selects 10 monkeys to search for Indrajit.
BEDU
БОА
43. Indrajit reports his killing of Rama and Lakṣmaṇa to Rāvana.
44. Sitä is sent to see her dead husband at the battlefield.

Page #91

Plate XXII
45. Garuda appears on the battlefield.
46. Indrajit makes an offering.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #92

Plate XXIII
47. Birth of the monkey-heroes.
48. Rama, Lakṣmaṇa and Hanuman fighting a demon.
49. Hanuman in Lanka hiding in a tree to observe dancing girls.

es

Page #93

Plate XXIV
رامیداشت این می رود و امید به مرور گیت
رام مالی است در ادامه به ما با دیگر می الانتهاء زمانیان فائر ریو بنا کر
التي ما زالته واوره مالی بان لیسای ارامتها ب ودم و امید مرستو پر مهار ایرانی های آنها داشته
50. King Dasaratha in his palace of Ayodhya.
51. Rama and Laksmana fighting demons.
او
52. Raniil, Laksmana and Vibhi sana in conference with monkey-leaders.
53. Sitä in Asoka grove of Lanka palace guarded by demons.
Jain Education Interational

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Plate XXV
54. Ravana sends out two spies to Rama's army.
55. Ravana is slain.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #95

Plate XXVI
56. Hanuman brings the required herbs for Lakşmaņa.
57. Hanuman brings the physician Suşena back.
58. The battle between monkeys and demons.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #96

Plate XXVII
59. Sita is fetched from Lanka.
60. Sita's fire ordeal.
.
61. Rāma and his company flying back to Ayodhyā.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #97

Plate XXVIII
62. The fight between Angada and demon Vajradanta.
63. Rama and Laksmana camping on the seashore.

Page #98
Si SOOS