Later Gangas Mandali Thousand

Author(s): Nagarajaiah Hampa
Publisher: Ankita Pustak
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006722/1

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Dr. Nagarajaiah, Hampa THE LATER GANGAS: MANDALI THOUSAND

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THE LATER GANGAS: MANDALI-THOUSAND

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THE LATER GANGAS : MANDALI-THOUSAND Dr. Nagarajaiah, Hampa (Former Professor of Bangalore University) ANKITA PUSTAKA 53, Shamsingh Complex, Gandhibazar Main Road Basavanagudi, Bangalore - 560 004 Karnataka, INDIA 8 699 2014 (0) 6549633 (R)

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THE LATER GANGAS: MANDALI-THOUSAND, A monograph on the History of the Later Gangas and their administration, by Dr. Nagarajaiah Hampa, Rtd. Professor and Author; Published by Ankita Pustaka, 53, Shamsingh Complex, Gandhibazar Main Road Basavanagudi, Bangalore - 560 004, Karnataka, INDIA * 699 2014 (0) 6549633 (R) Pages : xxij + 28 + 112 Price: Rs. 200 $20 PS15 (c) Author Cover Page: Makali ISBN: 81-87321-17-2 The publication of this book has been financially supported by the Indian Council of Historical Research. The responsibility for the facts stated or opinions expressed is entirely of the author and not of the council. Published by: Ankita Pustaka 53, Shamsingh Complex, Gandhibazar Main Road Basavanagudi, Bangalore - 560 004 Karnataka, INDIA * 699 2014 (0) 6549633 (R) Printed at: Satyasri Printers Pvt. Ltd. Chamarajpet, Bangalore - 560 018 0:080-6525736, 080-6506023

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Dedicated to All the Members of BRAHMI JAIN SOCIETY (USA & Canada) who are doing excellent work

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AUTHOR'S PREFACE The period before the migration of the apostle Bhadrabahu gives a hazy picture of the conditions of Jainism in Karnataka; the period after Bhadrabahu also, for over four centuries, throws only a dim light on the condition of Jainism. But, after the advent and contact of the Gangas, Jaina history is enlivened, leaving behind its vestiges of glory. From then onwards, Karnataka witnessed hectic activities of the construction of Jaina temples, monasteries, of causing images of Jinas, in fervent manner, at the instance of their preceptors. All this resulted in the perfect methodical organisation of Jaina community in Karnataka, and also in the South India as a whole. It is the active agency of the adept Simhanandi-l, that the mighty Ganga kingdom was created. Dadiga and Madhava, two forlorn princes from the north were extended a refuge. They founded the Ganga dynasty and acarya Simhanandi-Il promoted it in the 3rd and 4th cent. C.E., which opened a new era of Jina-Dharma in Karnataka and Jainism, started with a bang of prosperity never looked back. Nirgrantha church spread so fast, covering very vast areas, that by fifth cent. C.E., itself, there were varieties of sects and schisms within the faith the Aharistis, the Kurcakas, the Nirgranthas, the Svetapatas and the Yapaniyas. Though the Gangas are called Western Gangas, Gangas of Talkad, Gangas of Talavanapura etc., the great Gangas belong exclusively neither to western origin nor to Karnataka alone; their achievements are the rich heritage of India as a whole. Therefore, I have tried to frame them in temporal terms, as the Early Gangas and Later Gangas. Accordingly, I have presented a comprehensive picture of the contribution of the early Gangas, to the spread and sustainence of Jaina faith in the south, in my previous monograph of 'A History of The Early Ganga Monarchy and Jainism' (1999). This monograph continues to carry the history of the Gangas, from where it had stopped in the above monograph, upto the end of their clearly visible vestiges.

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viii Like several royal families of ancient India, the Ganga family also had some branches, in ancient times, ruling different parts. One of the main branches was ruling from Kuvalalapura and later from Talkad; another branch of the same stalk was ruling from Mandali; after the liquidation of the former branch, the latter one of Mandali picked up strength and sustained to its glory being a feudatory of the Kalyana Calukyas and the Hoysalas. The Mandali Gangas are rightly termed as the Later Gangas, who are infact, the last Gangas. The Mandali chieftans ruled at an important epoch in the South Indian history in general and in the history of Karnataka in particular. Their patronage of Jainism, and to other isms, seems to have lasted upto 16th cent., and had firm roots in the masses. The Mandalinad administration is the best example of religious tolerance, not because they did not supress other faiths, instead they continued the indulgent policy of their fore-fathers. This enduring spirit of the Mandali reign has been evidenced by epigraphic corroboration. Some of the magnificent temples still bear witness to the bygone affluence and profusion of the Mandali-Thousand. Either in English or in Kannada, it is for the first time that the history of the Mandalinad is described; so far, not even two pages is written about them. An account of my personal research and extensive field work, voluminous material has come to light and much of it is embedded in this monograph. Necessary care is taken to proper evaluation and selection of material out of a mass of epigraphical sources available; while doing so, I have fixed the date of the kings, queens, princes and other administrators, for the first time. By way of conclusion, I should emphasise that the description of the Mandalinad in its historical development presented in this book, is a broad outline. Broad outlines have their use and can constitute major advances in our understanding. A documented and chronological account of the political and cultural life of the Mandali-Thousand was a desideratum till to-day, and this monograph aims at clearing the gap.

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After voluntarily accepting the onus of perceiving subaltern studies, so far, I have published half a dozen books and some more papers dealing with minor and very minor dynasties of Karnataka. This monograph, one more in the series, again aims at concisely recording the major achievements of a minor principality. I should place on record that I was really glad when I was complimented from the veteran historians that this is the first exhaustive write up on the Mandali-Thousand rulers. I hope such appreciations will continue to inspire me to take up similar projects and to properly utilise my retired life. I can never forget the enthusiastic villagers who extended their co-operation during my field work. P.S. Ramabhatt, a research scholar, K. Vasudevachar, Jeweller and a Kannada activist, Ratnaiah, education officer, Krishna Murthy - photographer, Dr. Kamala Hampana, who has been a constant source of inspiration for my research work, and M/s Satyasri Printers, have helped me in one way or the other in preparing this book. I remember with gratitude the excellent services of Mr. Benjamin Lewis Rice, who has meticulously edited the volumes of Epigraphia Carnatika (VII-i. 1902, and VIII, 1902), which has helped me as the source book. Similarly I owe my obligation to the Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi, whose valuable financial assistance has helped both the author and the publisher. Last, but not least, I am obliged to the young entrepreneur Prakash Kambathalli, my publisher, for assigning this project to me unhesitatingly, and to the authorities of the Government Museum, Shimoga, who so kindly permitted me to take the photos. Dr. M.A. Dhaky, Director, American Institute of Indian Studies, Dr. S.A. Bhuvanendra Kumar, editor of Jinamanjari, a journal published from Canada and U.S.A., and Dr. S. Settar, Chairman of ICHR, have never allowed me to relax! It is their affection that is generating extra energy in me to concentrate on the quality of production, March, 1999 Nagarajaiah Hampa. Bangalore

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About the Author Prof. Nagarajaiah, Hampa, one of the major litterateurs of Karnataka, has authored more than 70 books in Kannada and English, on varied subjects including linguistics, history and epigraphy, textual criticism, folklore, biography, transalation, children literature and Jainism. Some of his books have been translated to English, Hindi, Marathi and Telugu. He has taught under-graduate and postgraduate classes for 37 1/2 years. He has served Kannada Sahitya Parishat as secretary (8 years) and president (8 years). With 'Hampana' as his nom de plume, he is a recipient of a number of state and national awards. He has presented papers at the national and inter-national congress and delivered endowment lectures at various Universities. Contemporary men of letters have honoured 'hampana' by presenting five felicitatory volumes. Dr. Nagarajaiah's contribution to the study of Jainology is voluminous and significant. This monograph on the 'Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand', sheds light on a little known principality.

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1. 2. The lofty Nandagiri their fortress; Kuvalala their city, the 96000 their country, the blameless Jina their lord, Victory their companion in the battle-field, the Jinamata their faith, the Gangas prospered [EC.VII-I (BLR). Shimoga. 57 C.E. 1115]. In the ocean-girdled world celebrated is the Gangavadinadu, a Ganga country, with 96000 villages; in it is the Mandalinad olim Mandali-Thousand, a most celebrated sub-division. - Epigraphia Carnatika, Vol. VII, Part-I (1902), Shimoga 97. C.E. 1113, p. 108. 3. The Gangas were in order to protect the Jina-dharmma of the Kailasa mountain. - ibid, Shimoga. 10 C.E. 1085. p. 19

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CONTENTS Author's Preface Illustrations Prolegomena Origin and Genealogy The Mandalinadu polity Society and Religions The preceptors Appendices * Inscriptions * Genealogy Personal names * * * Place names Bibliography Abbreviations * *

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Illustrations DETAILS OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1. An ancient flight of stairs, made of rock, leads up to the historic point, scenically situated at Kallurgudda ('a hillock near the village of rocks'), vide, inscription number Sh. 4. C.E. 1121-22 2. Crest of Kallurugudda, with a newly built Sivalaya. None of the Jaina vestiages is found on the hill. Standing here, one can see a panoramic view of the modern Shimoga, a district head-quarters 3 a. Sivalinga inside the sanctum of newly built temple 3b. Upper protion of the slab containing the inscription of Sh.4.1121-22. A Jina seated in paryankasana dhyanamudra in the centre, capped with triple umbrella and flanked by two cauri-bearers, an elephant (right) and a cow (left) - are visible 4. One of the pillars in the navaranga to the left of the garbhagriha, with an inscription at the salaka and pindi portion of the citrakhanda pillar 5. Slab containing the full text of Tattekere basadi caused by Nokkayya EC. VII-I (1902) Sh. 10 C.E. 1085, pp. 19-24 6. God Anjaneya svamy, mulanayaka of the converted Kote Anjaneya temple, with decoration 7. Sculptural details of a Srikara pillar in the converted Kote Anjaneya temple, from pindi to the capital

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The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand 8. Patta-jinalaya, the crown-jain temple of the Mandalinalu, at Harakere near Shimoga. Old basadi has been converted into a Saiva temple, now known as "Ramesvara Devalaya'. Arhat Parsva image in the sanctum is replaced with Ramesvara Linga. But, the two citrakhanda pillars in the Navaranga are original with simple capital, kantha, pattike, kantha, a lid, kumba, 4 faces, 16 faces, 8 faces, 16 faces and a square pinni; garbhagriha, closed antarala and navaranaga - are part of the original basadi 9. A close look at the inscription on the pillar of Pattada basadi [vide, Sh. 6. C.E. 1060. Harakere, p. 18]. Out of the total 26 lines, 19 lines are visible in the plate and the remaining 7 lines are continued at the pindi part of the pillar 7. Ruined site of the original Tattekere basadi commissioned by pergade Nokkayya. IWG: No. 150: 1085: pp. 468-70; MAR 1923, pp. 114-15 10. Ruined site of the original Tattekere basadi commissioned by pergade Nokkayya. [WG: No. 150: 1085: pp. 468-70; MAR 1923, pp. 114-15 11. A close look of the same charter as in plate number 8 (upper portion) 12. Two srikara pillars in the rangamandapa of the original basadi, now converted into Kote Anjaneya temple at Shimoga 13. Dvara sakha, door frame (panca-sakha) details; tutelary deity, a seated Jina in the centre, capped with triple umbrella and camara bearers standing on either side, carved on a lalata block of stone, at the tutelary position upwards in the centre of the door frame looks dim because of the repeated coating of the silver painting. Malalankara at uttaranga, below Kapota; animal motif in the creeper bearing band on one side, and the dance troupe on the other side are not clearely visible

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Hlustrations 14. Sri Kote Anjaneya svami, Shimoga 15. Details of the door frame (upper portion) with seated Jina flanked by two cauri bearers as tutelary figure at the lalata as an auspicious figure, at in the Trikuta Jinalaya at Nyamati olim Nellavatti in Honnali taluk, commissioned by pergade Nokkayya 16. Dethroned Jaina vestiges including a broken right hand of a Yaksi and a triple umbrella of a Jina at Nellavatti (Nyamati) 17. Gudmandapa padmasila ceiling in the Trikuta Jinalaya at Nyamati 18. Srikara pillars in the rangamandapa (navaranga) of Trikuta jinalaya at Nyamati; doorframe of one of the sanctums with a Sivalinga inside the sanctorum. Details of the pillars: pitha, pindi, salaka, kumba, pastike and bodige (capital) 19. Padmasila - ceiling details with a pair of parrots on all the four corners (Nyamati) 20. A hall ceiling in the Jaina temple at Gurupura, abovt four kms from Shimoga 21. Sculptures of Arhat Parsva and Nagaraja, the cobra, kept outside the jinalaya at Gurupura 22. Dethroned and mutilated vestiges of a Jina and a makaratorana, at Gurupura upper half of the Jina, standing on the lotus pedestal in Kayotsarga posture, is broken. Acolytic divinity attending upon Jina, with the female elemental spirit on the left and the yaksa on the right

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The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand 23. Old original Jinabimbas, broken into two, triple umbrellas, a pedestal and other Jina relics kept behind the temple at Gurupura. Though the vestiges contain two broken parts of a Jina, one upper half and the other lower half, yet they are not of the same figure. [Vide, Sh. 64. C.E. 1112. pp. 63-69]. Not less than three jinalavas must have existed at this place. during leventh and twelfth centuries. This is the same place which is referred in the epigraphs as Kuruli tirthada basadi and a Ganga Jinalaya commissioned by Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-ll, in C.E. 1132 24. Another view of the basadi, from right side 25. A view of basadi, from left side, at Gurupura. The shrine is located in a cocoanut garden which is the property of Sri Adicucnanagiri Matha. The ruined Jaina shrine has ekatala sikhara. Vimana of Dravida style and rudracanda: sukanasi seems to have been renovated. Door frame has four sakhas-vatayana, pillar, valli (vine) and Vajrapattika. Creeper bearing door-jamb and the neatly framed dvarapalakas are very attractive 26. A displaced Jina Parsva's head dumped behind the basadi at Gurupura. Though the face is disfigured, frizzy hair on the head, seven hood canopy capped with triple umbrella, aureola, dancers and musicians - are so neatly executed that the original image must have been a magnificient Tirthankara figure; compare with a similar image from Islapura (plate No. 64) 27. One of the inscriptions of Gurupura, now safely preserved in the Shimoga Govt. museum 28. Manastambha, a characteristic Jaina pillar of eminence, in fornt of a Jinalaya at Basavanna Ganguru near Shimoga; raised platform has collapsed

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Illustrations 29. Old Jinalaya has been converted into a Sivalaya with a new name as Vira Somesvara devalaya. Original jinabimba in the sanctum has been replaced with a Sivalinga installed on the original simhapitha pedestal of Tirthankara, at Gurupura 30. A close view of the front side with door frame details; Gulamandapa door frame with embellished jalandharas (vatayana) on either side. Entire door frame from top to bottom, has beautiful designs, studded with minute details and delicate carving. Block of stone at the tutelary position, upwards in the centre of the doorframe has the usual seated Jina. But, an unusual feature of this door frame is, in addition to the Jina as a lalatabimba in the centre there are two more seated Jinas on left and right side corners; and the miniature sculpture (cikanisilpa) is fascinating, though slightly covered with whitewash 31. A disused Jaina temple in open field at Basavana Ganguru in ruins, surrounded and hidden under overgrown thick bush 32. Upper part details of the basadi at Basavana Ganguru: Two figures resembing the Hoysala Lancana, torana-arch spewed from the mouths of an opposed pair of makaras (seamonster, dolphin), a seated jina as a a lalata bimba, tutelary deity seated on the lion throne. 33. A fort on the outskirts of Bannikere village, which has a reference in a charter vide, Sh. 99. C.E. 1127 p. 109; 'Vira Gangarasa caused a Kannakapura fort in the Mandalinadu which was a part of the Gangavadi-96,000'. This fort consists of five stages, with a banduku-kindi and a ambu-kimdi 34. A Jaina ruins in a farm abovt 172 kms from Basavapatna in Cannagiri taluk. These three images were hidden under over grown bush and almost buried upto the neck. These three images could be examined only after clearing the bush and mud, with the assistence of local enthusiastic youth. This site may be the original place where once a basadi existed

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The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand 35. An inscription on the (broken) slab in the open field at Bannikere near Shimoga, vide, Sh. 99 C.E. 1127 p. 109 36. Sanctum of a sivalaya (of a later period) at Bannikere 37. A cauri-bearer of the post Rastrakuta period, with multiple kanthaharas (addike, cintaku), a pearl yajnopavita, upavita, udarabandha, katibandha, droppery, long distended ear lobes called tatanka and malanka kundalas, karandaka mukuta on the head with the figure of Jina in purita. His two hands holding a fly-whisk and a fruit are missing; 1 could not trace them in and around the pit 38. Of the three images, two are seated Jinas completely nude and unornamented but magnificent Tirthankara images. Jina image to the right seated cross-legged in meditation pose (paryankasana), with hands resting upon elongated soles of his feet, as a true embodiment of peace and tranquility 39. Another image of a Tirthankara in a farm near Basavapatna. The forehead and eye up to the cheeck on the left side is very much defaced, but the hair arrnaged in short schematic curls is intact. Since it was getting dark in the evening, Tirthankara image could not be properly examined 40. A portion of the office at Basavapatna where the image of Suparsva is preserved. Suparsva image was discovered while excavating a site for the foundation of a hospital; perhaps that was the place where a Jinalaya existed 41. My visit to Basavapatna also yielded another surprising find of a 2 feet suparava Tirthankara image in khadgasana posture. The image could be assigned to early leventh century 42. Sculpture of a Mahasati at Sasuvehalli (Honnali tk)

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43. A Nisidhi slab at Sasuvehalli. A characteristic feature of this nisidhi is that a lady votary is sitting before the seated Jina on the lion throne with triple umbrella above; but, the friar who is to administer the sallekhana rite is absent Illustrations 44. Two tiered nisidhi stone at Sasuvehalli; below - a Jaina ascetic administering the sallekhana vow to the lay follower above - a seated Jina with two fly-whisk on either side and a triple umbrella (chatratraya) over the head 45. An old image of a seated Tirthankara, without head, buried deep in a wet land (paddy field) a km away from Didaguru (Honnali tk); local people obliged to recover the broken image of early 12th cent. 46. Details of the upper part garbhagriha door frame of the Arhat Suparsva temple at Didaguru which was commissioned in C.E. 1160 [Vide, Honnali No. 5 C.E. 1160. Didagur p. 364]. Block of stone at the tutelary position, upwards in the centre of the doorframe has retained most of its original structure with Jina Suparsva carved on the lalata-block. Uttaranga, below kapota, has malalankara and flowers; but the two buds hanging at the lalata position are broken. Now the Jinalaya has been convereted into a temple of Virabhadrasvami 47. Front elevation of the Arhat Suparsvanatha basadi, with the original doorframe and jalandhara. But the wall of the temple is of a later period, constructed during the conversion of the basadi into a non-Jaina temple, at Didaguru 48. Another nisidhi slab, similar to the one in number 44, at Sasuvehalli. Aradhana text being recited at the time of administering the rite of sallekhana is placed on the trioad in between the monk and the disciple 49. A fourth nisidhi slab at Sasuvehalli, which was evidently an important Jaina centre. According to the local version a bog to the left side of the place where the four nisidhi slabs are kept was a Jaina site. Further excavation at the site may yield fresh material. An undated nisidhi inscription has been recorded [EC. Vol. VIII (BLR) Honnali 86. p. 411]

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The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand 50. Jina Suparsva image in samabhanga posture, displaced from the original sanctum of the basadi, and fixed to exterior wall of the car garrage (teru mane) of the local Anjaneyasvami temple at Didaguru. Face is disfigured, a five hooded canopy, three parasol, a nimbus (tiruvaci) going round consists of a torana-arch issued from the mouths of an opposed pair of dolphins (makara) standing on pillar. At the bottom are the figures of Yaksa and Yaksi Plates 51 to 64 are illustrations of the Jaina vestiges neatly preserved in the Govt. Museum of Shimoga. Unfortunately all of the images are mutilated 51. Adinatha Tirathankara seated on a lotus pedestal (12th cent) from Gurupura temple, in excellent condition. The delicacy shown in carving the prasanta mudra, calm posture, clubbed with spiritual introspection of the perfectly poised sitting Tirthankara figure suggests the artists skill. Graceful cauribearers in tribhanga pose are richly ornamented holding a bijapura and fly-whisk 52. A slab, with an inscription, from Gurupura (12th cent) 53. 53 to 64 All the twelve images are from Islapura and the entire hoard contains only broken, disfigured or mutilated figures, and the extent of damage can be imagined 65. A front view of the basadi at Basavana Ga after the thick bush being cleared, with the help of local youngsters, who willingly volunteered their services). Details of the door frame are excellent. Though it resembles the door frame of Gurupura basadi, the latter is earlier to the former, in temporal terms. Lower part door frame details; jalandara, kamba, valli and vajra sakhas, dvarapalakas at the doorjamb. (See cover page)

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Chapter 1 Prolegomena Nhe present Shimoga district in Karnataka witnessed some extraordinary royal families, both major and minor, like the MandaliSasira, Santalige-Sasira, Jiddulige-70, Nagarakhanda-70 and the Samantas of Chikka Magadi, Tevara Teppa, Elevala and Barangi. A good number of the charters of these families contain references to a chronological history of their successors. This monograph aims at recording a brief survey of the Mandali - Thousand principality through ages. The Mandali-Thousand did not emerge from obscurity. The Gangas are referred to with the dynastic appellation of the Western Gangas, the Gangas of Talkac or Talavanapura or Kuvalalapura or of Karnataka etc. The phrase of the Western Gangas of Talkadu, coined by B.L. Rice, gained currency, as the subsequent historians accepted it. Lewis Rice, a pioneer in the field, brought to light a good number of the Ganga copper plate inscriptions. J.F. Fleet, gen

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2/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand erating a controversy, said that many of the copper plates are spurious or forgeries. A pragmatic study by later epigraphists, allowing a margin of omission and commission, confirmed the genuineness of most of the inscriptions, thus nullifying the ambiguity. As far as the Mandalinad Gangas are concerned, the appellation is analogous with the early Gangas, because, it is an extension of the same traditionally known Ganga family. Evidences of lithic records confirm that the Gangas of Mandali-sahasra are, as the very name also suggests, the direct descendents of the original Gangas of Kuvalalapura ab initio, before the liquidation of the Rastrakuta empire. Diaspora of the Gangas quickened after the fall of the Rastrakulas. Taking its root from Ganga Perur in the Cuddapah district of Andhra Pradesh, a main stream that branched off earlier is the Mandali-Sasira, which historically speaking is as old as the Gangas of the Kuvalalapura or Talavanapura, and its history is marked by vicissitudes. Like several royal families of ancient India, the imperial Ganga family also had its branches, ruling from different centres. There are cogent reasons and records for holding the view that the original home of the early Gangas was the Ganga-Perur which is analogous with the medieval and present day Perur. Later, they shifted to the Nandagiri where the Gangas built a hill-fort and assumed the title of Nandagirinatha. Gradually, the Ganga kingdom extended in extent and the later Gangas had to shift their head quarters from the hill-fort to Kuvalalpura situated on the plain; The Rastrakutas in the beginning shifted from Markanda hill (Mayurkhand) to Markanda village at its foot; the Badami Calukyas also shifted from the hill-fort. The Gangas who proceeded to several places, finally settled at Talavanapura. Of the prasasti text of the Gangas, a relevant portion to the present context runs as follows: The lofty Nandagiri being their fortress, Kuvalala their city, the 96000 their country, the blameless Jina their Lord, victory their companion in the battle-field, the Jina-mata their faith (Sh. 57. C.E. 1115). Thus the Gangas gained by quick stages mastery over the then Karnataka region; imperial appellation of the Gangas, Satyavakya in Sanskrit and Nannisya)

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Prolegomena/3 in Kannada, is vociferous in their charters but it is befitting their achievements. Sources In respect of the documentation of the genealogy of the Gangas from time immemorial, recorded in the Sh. 4 and 64, the claim is dismissed by the historians as an attempt at driving puranic pedigree. But, a close scrutiny does throw some interesting light on the problem. Most of the facts narrated may not be literally true, but the suggested and symbolic meaning it carries needs some consideration leading to the origin and early history of the Gangas. Lewis Rice has rightly given deserving credibility to the historical aspect of the inscription (ibid, "Intro". pp. 13-14). Some of the charters are very lengthy, but contain useful information of historical importance. In particular the epigraphs number Shimoga 4 (1121-22), 39 (1122), 57 (1118) and 64 (1112), contain the quintessence of the history of the Gangas, both the early Gangas and the Mandali-Gangas; All the other charters are either expansion of what is said here or substantial to the most essential part recorded here. Some of the later branches cropped up, after the Gangas lost all resemblance of independence, sank into the position of local representatives of the greater sovereigns. Following is the broad classification of the main centres and ramifications of the Gangas: i) Ganga-Perur: Place of the Proto-Ganga dynasty ii) Kuvalalapura: First phase of their diaspora iii) Mandali nanu: Second phase iv) Talavanapura: Third phase v) Mandya area branch: Tippuru, Guttalu etc., vi) Hassan area branch: Sakalespura, Ballu etc., : vii) Sivanasamudra branch in the Simsa river belt; Chikka Gangavaoi with its capital at Ponganur (Honganur)

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4/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand Konganivarman, the progenitor and Agamemnon of the Ganga family, second distinctive name of the Ganga kings, perhaps stayed back at Kuvalalapura; his son and successor Madhava Varman-1 proceeded further, with the family preceptor the adept Simhanandi, to the Shimoga area, to be later called the MandaliThousand, where he pitched the army camp that augmented the growth of a prominent branch of their family. Without repeating what is said of the acarya Simhanandi in the inscriptions (EC. VII-i (BLR) Sh. 4 1121-22 pp. 10-15), we can proceed with the description apropos of the Mandali Gangas. The two kings Madhava and Dadiga, on their march to subdue the Konkana country, in mid 4th century, C.E., saw the great Mandalipura which was famous in all the four ages Krita, Treta, Dvapara and Kali-Yugas, with Mahendrapura, Madanapura, Mandalapura and Mandali as their names respectively. Seeing on the outskirts of the town, a large tank with white water-lilly, the thousand-leaved lotus on blossom and the sound of many fish, the Ganga kings pitched their camp. On the advice of their preceptor Simhanandi acarya, the ornament of the Kranur-gana, a cohort of Jaina friars and nuns, the Gangas caused a caityalaya on the Mandali hill in about C.E. 350. Thus it has survived ab origine condition of the Mandali in C.E. 350. This corroborates the antiquity of anekantamata in this region. Some of the references to this Mandalinad in the inscriptions deserve a special mention: i) Mandalinad (Sh. 96. C. E. 915, p. 106) ii) Mandale-Sayira (MAR 1935 No. 33. C.E. 939) iii) Mandalinadu-sasira (Sk. 24. C.E. 970) iv) Meghutti-Mandali-Thousand (Sh. 51. 1108) v) Mandali-sasira (Sh. 5 1108; Sh. 4. 1121-22) vi) (Beautiful) Mandali-Thousand (Sh. 40. 1180. p. 46) vii) Nalprabhu of Mandali-Sasira (Sh. 36. 1180) viii) Mandaliya-betta (Sh. 4. 1121-22)

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Prolegomena/5 ix) Ganga Mandalinad (Sh. 54. 1216. pp. 53-55) x) Ganga Mandali-rajya (Sh. 78. 1291. p. 78) An inscription of the 17th century refers to this family with its localisation - the Ganga Mandalinadu on the bank of the river Tunga-Bhadra (Sh. 27. 1621. Yeragana-halu). The main scene of Mandalinad early activities lay on the banks of the Tunga and Bhadra, where they strengthened their political position. There were some small sub-divisions in the Mandali-thousand region. Edatorenad is mentioned in an inscription of 1134 C.E. (Sh. 32. p. 43 Hutta-grama). Another inscription referes to EdadoreMandali-sayira, ruled by Hermmadideva, with its capital at Harige (Sh. 64. 1112). Ededore-70 had a Na!prabhu looking after the region (Sh. 39 1122), whereas the Mandalinad is more known as the Ganga-Mandalinad elsewhere, this is the only instance where the division is mentioned as Edadore-Mandalinao, evidently named after its secondary capital town (Sh. 64. 1112) from where Ganga Hermadideva was ruling under his uncle Nanniya (Satya)- Ganga Permmaaideva, who was ruling from the primary capital Eaehalli. After it was superseded by the Hoysa!a Kingdom, Hosyala Visnuvardhana is introduced in one of the inscriptions along with all titles of the Ganga Mandalinad kings (Sh. 87, 1245 Islapura). Thereafter, Mandalinad is also referred to as Gangana nao, meaning the country of the Gangas (ibid, and Sh. 698 1320). Geographical boundaries of the Mandali-thousand can be marked as follows: The modern Sikaripur taluk on the north, Honnali taluk on the north-east, Cannagiri on the east, Narasimharajapura and Tarikere taluks on the south, Tirthahalli taluk on the southwest, Sagara and Hosanagara taluks on the west, the taluk of the Soraba on the north-west side - are the boundaries of the Mandalinadu, which evidently had included some of the villages of these taluks. For example the villages of Didugur, Kuruva, Kuruvadagadde, Kotepura and Honnali. But, the heart of the Mandali-Sasira-nalu

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6/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand included the entire Shimoga and Bhadravati taluks, and the present taluk head-quarters of Tarikere and Nyamati town in Honnali taluk. It is quite possible that some of the villages in the border of ChikkaMagalur district upto Koppa were within the limits of the Mandalinad. The Manqali-thousand-nadu had the following broad administrative sub-divisions: Edavale-70 (MAR 1923. No. 116. 1160, Padari-Hosur, Sh. 23. 115 Arakere), Edadore-70 (Sh. 39. 1122). Bilige-70 (Ci. 61. 1125), Cilur-balli-30 (Hi. 14. 1076 Kuruva-grama), Polalu-12 and Dummi-12 (ibid). Edehalli was one of the capitals (Sh. 97. 1112). Edadore was the main capital. Lewis Rice equates it with a place in Koppa, but there is a town of that name on the bank of Tunga near Shimoga enroute Cannagiri. The Gangas An indigenous race, the Gangas after their migration to Karnataka, made a modest but consistant beginning in the modern Kolar district region, with their will and skill, grew from strength to strength, expanding the boundaries to include numerically labelled as the kingdom of Gangavadi-96,000. As the fortunes of war and alliances ordained, the Gangas expanded their kingdom in all directions and held sway from the end of the fourth to the mid of tenth century C.E. After the birth of Butuga and his sons, Marasimha in particular, the Gangas became unassailable, as the Yadavas after the birth of Krisna. But, at the peak of their imperial power, they were subdued by the more powerful Rastrakutas. They were reluctant to shoulder the Rastrakuta hegemony, fought many battles. Ultimately both realised their strength and weakness, wisely decided to strike an honourable ambivalance. Govinda Prabhutavarsa of the Rastrakutas and Nandivarman, the Pallava King, accompanied Sivamara to the Ganga kingdom, bound the diadem on Sivamara's brow with their own hands (MAR 1920 para 54). The families were tied together with matrimonial alliance, also motivated by political considerations. The privity of the Kadambas and the Gangas, the Badami Calukyas and the Gangas, the Pallavas and the Gangas was not as perpetual and cordial as the Rastrakutas and the Gangas; The

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Prolegomena / 7 Gangas and the Rastrakutas friendship developed into virtually collateral branches of the royal line with marital status. Candrobalabbe was married to Butuga-l, and Revakanimmadi-I was married to the Ganga prince Ereyanga, both were daughters of Amoghavarsa. Revakanimmadi-II, daughter of Baddega and sister of Krisna-III, was the wife of Butuga-II. Krisna-III presented the 'Madanavatara', royal umbrella of rare honour, to Maruladeva, son of his sister and Butuga-ll, on the auspicious occasion of the latter's coronation. Krisna-III himself came to the Ganga capital to attend the coronation ceremony of Marasimha-ll. Thus, the Gangas had their saving grace in their adverseries, because the Rastrakutas cleared the uneasiness by showering on them the warmth of royal treatment, sharing their moments of joy and distress. However, the Gangas while under the aegis of their soverigns, maintained the dignity and identity, and served on the basis of equality. Besides, the Gangas and the Rastrakutas were bound together by bonds of a common religion, culture and language. But, when the things were going smooth, the imperial Rastrakutas suffered a set back, never to come back. Ceasing the opportunity, Taliapa-Il heralded and renewed the Calukya dynasty, captured the capital Manyakheta, crowned himself as the emperor. The death of the champion Marasimha (C.E. 974) led to a greater crisis in the Ganga family, symbolised the disintegration and migration of the forlorn Gangas. Indra-IV terminated his life (982 C.E.) in despair by the rite of Sallekahana, a slow starvation, at Sravanabelagola. That was the end of the Rastrakuta rule, and the whole of their kingdom became the Calukya territory. After that those, who were rather reluctant also acknowledged the suzerainty of Tailapa-II. The Rastrakutas had gone totally destroyed but, some how the Ganga candle did not extinguish and continued to burn, casting its light on a limited zone of the Mandalinad, who could strike a deal with which they were restored to their throne, but never to raise above the Calukya imperialism; the Gangas had no option but to acknowledge their suzeranity. There after, as the efficient torch-bearer of the Ganga

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8 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand family, the localised Ganga Mandalinad played a prominent role for another two hundered years and even more, but the later history after the 14th century is obscure; except for its name sake, nothing concrete comes forth. In the beginning, the Gangas were in gloves with the coeval dynasty of the early Kadambas of Banavasi, who had wrested their hegemony from the Pallavas. Later, the duo of the GangaKadamba combination paved the way for the Ganga-Calukya (Badami) combination, with the elimination of the Kadambas by the Calukyas of Badami. The Gangas had crossed swords with the Calukyas, the Kadambas and the Rastrakutas. Though, the Gangas shifted their political allaince, at the same time maintained a cordial relationship with the Pallavas for sometime to come. The Gangas had matrimonial alliances with the Kadambas and the Pallavas. Avinita was the son of the sister of the Kadamba king Krisnavarman. Infact it is the Pallava king Simhavarman who anointed the Ganga Aryavarman; again, it is the Pallava Skandavarman who put Madhavarman-ll on the throne. The Ganga king Durvinita (Nirvinita) was the son of the daughter of Skandavarman, king of Punnata. But, by the time the Ganga Mandalinad could flourish, the kingdom of Kadamba, the Badami Calukya, the Punnata, the Rastrakuta, and even the Pallava had vanquished. The Calukyas of Kalyana, their suzerians, did not treat the Mandalinad family more than any other of their feudatories. Hence the question of any marriage alliance with the suzerians did not arise. For that matter, the Santaras of Santa!igenad Thousand enjoyed more previleges with their overlords of the Calukya imperialism than the coeval Mandalinau chiefs. During the period of interregnum in the reign of the Rastrakutas and the Calukyas of Kalyana, the Mandalinad was ruled by the Kambharasa alias Ranavaloka as the viceroy over Gangavadi, and the Vikramaditya Permmadi as the mahamandalesvara of the Gangavaoi.

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Chapter 2 Origin and Genealogy A ven though the Mandalinad was started in about C.E. 350, after the mid fourth century, there is a lull period of five centuries, upto the beginning of tenth century. But the Mandali-sahasra had continued uninterrupted as a part of the Gangavadi96,000. Owing to the non-availability of charters of the period of four centuries from fifth to tenth, nothing factual can be said about who succeeded whom apropos of Mandalinad. Albeit, it is obvious that the Gangas who ruled Gangavadi also administered the Mandali territory, as it was included in the Gangavadi. There is a reference to the NanniyaGanga in one of epigraphs of ninth century (IWG: No. 91: C. 9th cent p. 293, EC. XII (BLR) TP. 55). It is probable that the person Nanniya Ganga of this inscription being a chief of the Mandalinad. A circumstantial evidence in support of this conjecture is

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10/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand the regional proximity of Aralaguppe, the find spot of the charter and Mandali-sasira territory. In that case Aralaguppe inscription will be the earliest to mention the ruler of Mandalinad. Next in the chronology comes a charter of Butuga-1, which mentions that he was ruling the Mandali region in C.E. 915 (Sh. 96. p. 106. Alahalli), which provide copious attestation to the fact that the Mandali rulers are of the same Ganga-kula. The very fact that the Mandalisasira rulers are referred in many inscriptions as the Ganga Mandalinad itself is a clear indication of the obvious fact, which does not warrant much debate. But, by that time the ancient city Talkad, the Ganga capital finally fell into the hands of Rajendra Cola in 1004, assuming the title of Gangai Konda Cola. The Mandali-Thousand region, comprising an administrative unit of the Thousand villages, gained its independent status of prominence after the rise of the Kalyana Calukyas. It is during this period, i.e. after tenth century, that a methodical dynastic chronology can be traced. To be more precise, it is during the long regime of Vikramaditya-VI, that the Mandalinad was bifurcated from Gangavadi-96000, with an independent status of a mahamandalesvara ruling the seperate divison. Perhaps, the wise emperor Vikramaditya must have felt the need for a solid base for his political hegemony in the extreme southern region of the vast kingdom. Hence, he judiciously preferred the well established Mandali branch of the erstwhile Ganga family. The Calukya king is said to have given the headship of the Mandali-1000, along with all the rights, as regards treasure trove and underground stores, according to the rule of one-third tribhogabhyantara (Sh. 10. 1085). The Mandalinad chiefs also reciprocated their desire to serve. Many of the cognomen of the Mandali chiefs indicate their gratitude and a willing affiliation to the Calukya benefactor. This was obviously a period of significant shift of loyalty, from the Rastrakutas to the Calukyas, which eased their anxiety. When once the political uncertainity was cleared, the Ganga Mandali family safely settled to persue their religious activities to the great benefit of the state in general and Jainism in particular.

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Origin and Genealogy / 11 Nadu : Its Significance Regarding the numerical description attached to the names of territories such as the Gangavadi-96000, the Nolmbavali-32000, are believed to indicate the amount of revenue reckoned in niskas (varahas or pagodas), as suggested by A.C. Burnell (South Indian Paleaography, p. 67). But, J.F. Fleet opined that the numerical components of such appellation denote the number of cities, towns and villages consisting in that principality; thus the three Maharastras containing 99,000 villages (Aihole inscription, IA. VIII. p. 244). According to Lewis Rice, "or else they may refer to subdivisions, or nads, which were called Thousands. That they represent the number of villages, it is quite plain, is physically impossible, even supposing the whole areas were occupied by villages and nothing else" (Gangavadi-article in Bhandarkar Commemoration volume : 1917: 238-39). The system of administration by dividing the country into circles of tens, twenties, hundreds and thousands of villages is prescribed in the Manava-dharma-sastra (VII. 115-18) olim Manusmriti. Sukra has also mentioned grama, dasagrama, satagrama and sahasragrama. My preference for the appellation Thousand is nad; a composite term to the numerical villages. Santalige-naa, Mandali-nad are simultaneously used as alternatives of Santalige-Thousand, Mandali-Thousand. Maharajavadi (Marajavali) is the Banarasa's Maharajara-nad, the word nad alternating with vadi, suggests that the Gangavadi is originally a Ganga-nad, the numerical 96000 being the composite nad of different 96 nads. Gangavadi-6000 in Kolar district was a unit of nads, using the term nad as a substitute for Thousand and vice-versa. The collective noun form Thousand need not necessarily be an exact 'One Thousand' villages; on the other hand, it is just an honourific or rather a euphemeric term suggesting a unit of big number. Whatever be the exact number, the nadu is a unit of certain villages, each nadu being administered by the gavundas. The word nalgavunna a variant, with morpho-phonemic changes, of nadagavunda, where in the compound the word nad taking the form of na!, is descriptive in nature, signifying that the nalgavunda

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12/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand is the chief headman of that unit of villages. Thus the Mandalinad had comprised some nadus such as Edatore-nad, Haduvalikenad. Therefore, the Mandali-Thousand nad itself is a bigger unit of nads which had included smaller units of nadus, Kampanas and hence the denoimation Thousand. A gavunda (gamunda), a fief and head of village, is called nalgavunda, when he is head of a group of villages. Some of the nalgavundas were well trained warriors and they were also padevalas (Haduvala). Being elevated to still higher position, they would be the dandanayakas (dandadhipati). A reference to Ganganada nalprabhu Bidirya Haduvala Kalayya confirms this statement (HI.7. 1204. Kuruvagadde p. 367 line: 45). Some of nalgamundas were also called as the mahasamantas, when they were entitled for the honour of the five great drums, the Pancamaha-vadyas. Nagayya nayaka (HI. 10. 1111) and Ottighattiyanna were the famous maha- samantas of the MandaliThousand. Ottighattiyanna, was ruling in peace the gavundike, with enjoyment for one generation (HI. 14.1076), in Kotepura belonging to the Cilurur-balle-Thirty Kampana of the MandaliThousnad-nad; he was entitled to the five big drums. The Perggades (Herggade, Peggade, Heggade, Veggade, Hegde) were feuds, the chief of the village on par with the gavundas. Mostly the Perggades are the officers to collect the local taxes, similar to Vodda-raulas; they were also in charge of the domestic affairs of the palace. The status of the Perggade is called Perggadetana (Sh. 10. 1085). Perggadati (Heggadti, Heggaditi) is the wife of a Perggade. In the Mandalinad, the Heggades also played a prominent role. For the preceptor Balacandradeva of Mula sangha Kanur-gana, mesapasanagaccha, the Herggade Jakkayya and his wife Jakkavve, caused a Caityalaya to be made in Didgur in 1106 C.E., setting up the god Suparsva; the Herggade couple made grants of land (specified) for the god Suparsva, and for gifts of food to the rsis, the Jain friars (HI. 5.1160 p. 364). This Caityalaya of Suparsva, the seventh Tirthankara, is a rare temple because most of the thousands of basadis in Karnataka

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Origin and Genealogy / 13 are dedicated to Parsva, Mahavira, Adinatha (Rsabha), Neminatha, santinatha, Ajitanatha and Mallinatha (Nagarajaiah, Hampa: Sasangalalli Basadigalu: 1998-B). There are only a few Jinalayas for Suparsvanatha Tirthankara, at Sravanabelagola (10th century), Are-Tippur (two mutilated images of 9th century, the earliest known Suparsva images in the state), Honnavana (1054), Bidare (11th century), Sindagere (1136), Danavulapalu (Andhra: 10th C: a Caturmukha-Suparsva), Heggere (1116), Milagesi, Gokak (1842), Patagundi (1915) and Alarvala (1941). Recently ! discovered a Suparsva images at Basavapatna (Sh. dt/ cp. tk) of the period of 11th-12th cent., and assigned to the reign of the Mandali rulers. Most prominent of the Perggades, in the annals of the Mandali-nal, is the senior Perggade Nokkayya, with numerous titles and praises, who commanded the respect and affection of all in the Perggade Ganga's house. Since there are references to him else where in this monograph, there is no need to repeat the same, except stressing the point that nobody in the Ganga Mandalinad - Thousand received such highest awards and rewards as the Perggade Nokkayya, which underlines his towering personality. Another Heggade Candimayya was a Sarvadhikari of the village Bagi, and he sold his gaudike land in Kuruli, and buyer of it made it over to a Jain friar, gaunike land was a rentfree manya or inam land. Titles To consider the titles of the Mandalinad-mahamandalesvaras, there are certain salient features which deserve clarification and consideration. The usual prasasti is as follows: the lofty Nandagiri being their fortress, Kuvalala their city, the Ninety-six thousand their country, the blameless Jina their Lord, victory their companion in the battle-field, the Jina-mata their faith, having a crest of a lusty elephant, obtainer of a boon from the goddess Padmavati, fragrant as Jasmine, Nanniya-ganga (a Ganga of truth), an autmn moon to the water-lily the Gangakula, with these and all other titles and names, Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva.

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14/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand Permma(na)di: Its significance An analysis of the personal names and the biruda will show that among the names, Marasimha or Marasingha is common, and among the royal titles Permmadi, Tribhuvanamalla and Nanniya are common. Because their kingdom was first established by Kongani varman at Kuvalalpura, the Ganga charters are therefore unanimous in giving credit to Konganivarman and Kuvalalapura. The Gangas of the last phase had their names after the members of Butuga's family, Marasimha being more conspicuous, to perpetuate their memory along with the famous titles such as Nanniya Ganga, a Kannada synonym of the Sanskrit word 'Satyasraya', meaning 'a person of truth'. Acquiring the biruda 'Permmanadi', has an interesting history. The Pallava king Nandivarmma, while defeating the Gangas, deprived them of the most precious necklace containing the rare diamond 'ugrodaya'. But soon the Ganga Sripurusa got the opportunity of retaliating the Pallavas. The cognoman Permanadi was originally a title of the early Pallava kings. But, after defeating Kaduvetti the then Pallava king, Sripurusa of the Ganga dynasty assumed the titles of 'Permmanadi' and 'Bhimakopa'. The story did not end at it. Later, after defeating the Gangas and the Rastrakutas, the Calukyas of Kalyana took over the titles of the Gangas along with the popular and prestigeous biruda 'Permmanadi' which implied supremacy. Thus the greatest of all the Calukya emperors Vikramaditya-VI (1076-1126) is known along with the epithets as Tribhuvanamalla-Vikramaditya Perma(na)di. Therefore, with his kind permission, his feudatories of the Mandalinad were allowed to use as the usual raja-prasasti 'permmadi' (Permmanadi), along with the typical Calukya raja-prasasti 'Tribhuvanamalla' or a similar title of the then ruling king like Bhuvanaikamalla. But, even then, the royal crest of the Mandalinad was no different from the early Gangas and they continued the same 'mada-gajendra' lancana, lordly elephant in rut (Sh. 97 1103) and the 'pincha' whisk, bunch of the peacock feathers as their dhvaja,

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Origin and Genealogy / 15 the banner of the divine Arhat (1A. XVIII. p. 309 11th century). Satyavakya or Nanniya and Nitimargga being the other titles are also used as their second name. A process of shortening the lengthy personal name is also recorded. One of the charters of Mandalinad has used the form of 'Ballu', an affectionate abbreviation of Vira Ballasadeva. This reminds of the use of 'Vikki' for Vikramadityadeva. Similarly Goggi is the short form of Govindaradeva. Hegemony The Mandalinad was within the fold of the Calukyas of Kalyana. But, after its liquidation, the Mandali-sasira region was officially taken over by the Hoysala kingdom, in the last decades of twelfth century, and the Mandali chiefs served the Hoysalas as their vassals (Sh. 40. 1180 pp. 46-47). Even before that, when the Hoysalas themselves were the feudatories of the Calukyas, the region of the Mandali-1000, which was then an independent state directly under the control of Calukyas, there were unhappy incidents of the Hoysalas attacking the region of the Mandalinad. Bopanna a general of Poysala Bittideva had once attacked the Mandalinad (Sh. 12. 1120). An inscription of the early thirteenth century speaks of a general Goggi, an ornament of Nanniya Ganga's kingdom the Mandalinad, as a dweller at the lotus-feet of the Hoysala Pratapa Cakravartti Vira-Balla!adeva (Sh. 5. 1218). The Hoysala kingdom being in receipt of six-taxes from Gangananad and the neighbouring districts (Sh. 69. 1320), and also Visnuvardhana with all the titles of the Gangana-nad (Sh. 87. 1245) are reported in support of the above statement. After the GangaMandalinal was amalgamated with the Araga kingdom and merged in the Gajanur-sthala or sime, in the year 1524, the villages Urukadvur, Danayaka-Hosahalli and Mattur were given to Triyambaka, who in turn gave it to Harihararadhya. The village Mattur was divided into 120 shares out of which 90 shares were given away to the Brahmans (Sh. 26. 1524). An inscription of the 13th century refers to the area of the Ganga Mandalinadas a Svarnagrama-sthala, a place of the golden village (Sh. 54. 1216).

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16/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand A branch of the later Gangas, who ruled for some years from Kolar region, opted to go with the Colas; another branch of the Gangas preferred to rule independently from Sivanasamudra which was superceded by Sri Rangaraja of Talkad. Jaina monasteries were prevalent in certain pockets in the Mandalinad, at Bannikere, Nellavatti (Nyamati), Tattekere etc., continued to enjoy the royal support and received irrevocable grants. Towards the end of tenth century and to be more precise in the early decades of eleventh century, the Gangas liquidated and scattered to several places of protection and prosperity, though a major chunk found its settlement in the Mandali nad. The Calukyas of Kalyana, on the whole, were not hostile to the Gangas and accomodated them wherever suitable. During the reign of the Calukyas, there was an exodus of the Ganga family to the Hoysala region, later to become an independent kingdom. The achievements of the Gangas under the hegemony of the Hoysalas reached its apogee in Gangaraja, who even defeated the mighty and invincible army of Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya-VI. But, we have some stray incidents of some individual Ganga chiefs holding responsible positions elsewhere also. For example, Gangarasa of the status of mahamandalesvara of Kukkavadi-300, is mentioned in an inscription from Gunjagnur of Holalkere taluk (EC. XI (BLR) Holalkere 68. 1126 (Chitradurga dt)]. When Govaladeva of the Kadambas of Goa was ruling, a Ganga Arikesari, with the titles of the Ganga dynasty, is mentioned as a manamandalesvara of Kadarvalli-30. Similarly an inscription from Huli (Puli) records mahamandalesvara Pitta of the Ganga dynasty with some titles, along with the names of his wife and children, as followers of the Nirgrantha creed [El. XVIII. 22-H. Belgaum dt/Saudatti tk]. Re-instated Bhujabali Ganga Permmadi Barmmadeva-1 was made manamandalesvara of the Ganga Mandalinad, during the reign of the Kalyana Calukya emperor Trailokyamalla AhavamallaSomesvara-I (1042-68). Till then, upto the end of the reign of the

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Origin and Genealogy / 17 Rastrakutas, i.e. 973-74, the Gangas were ruling the Mandalinad which was an integral part of Gangavadi-96,000. Even after Tailapa-II (973-998) was crowned as the emperor, the Gangas were allowed to rule as their feudatories. Rajamalla alias Racamalla -IV, Rajamalla-V and Kali Ganga, sons of Marasimha, were administering the Mandalinad. Trailokyamalla Ahavamalla, who had Somesvara as his first name, made, out of his four sons, the second son Vikramaditya Permmadideva as the mahamandlesvara of the Banavasi-12,000 and the Gangavadi-96,000 (Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1997-C: 218-25). During that period he had caused in the royal city Balligave a basadi called Calukya GangaPermmadi Jinalaya (EC. VII-i. Sk. 124. 1077). Prince Vikramaditya-VI was ruling the Gangavadi province, as the maha- mandalesvara, between 1058 and 1068, till his elder brother and yuvaraja 'crown prince', Bhuvanaikamalla SomesvaraII (1068-76) was throned as the emperor. An heir apparent, Bhuvanaikamalladeva, who had Somesvara as his first name, immediately after succeeding his father in 1068, shifted his brother from the Gangavadi. It was a political move, because, Vikramaditya was popular and powerful in this region winning the confidence and affection of the sub-ordinate chiefs. Instead of his brother, he made Brahmaksatra Buvanaikavira Udayadityadeva as the mahamandalesvara of the Gangavadi-96,000, Banavasi-12,000, Santalige-1000, Kadambalige-100, Kogali-500 and Masiyavadi140 (Sk. Nos. 109 to 130. 1070 to 1075 C.E.). As things happened so fast that Vikramaditya succeeded his brother and crowned as the emperor Tribhuvanamalla Ahavamalla Vikramadityadeva Permmanadi-VI, in the year C.E. 1076, and ruled for a long period of over five decades (10761126). During his reign, Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya-VI, officially confirmed and favoured and made over the Gangavadi, including the Mandali-nad with all the rights of revenue, to the mahamandalesvara Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva. Further the Mandali chief was permitted to use the Calukya emperor's biruda 'Tribhuvanamalla' as an honourific prefix in his name. Thereafter the chief of Mandali is introduced with all the usual titles of the

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18 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand early Gangas as 'Satya vakya Konganivarma DharmmaMaharajadhiraja Parmesvara, boon lord of Kuvalalapura, Lord of Nandagiri endowed with all good qualities, having the crest of a lusty elephant, fulfiller of the mind's desire of the learned, obtainer of a boon from the goddess Padmavati, scented like the musk, moon to the waterlily pond the Ganga-kula, Indra to the mountain of the mandalikas, elephant to the lotus pond the hostile mandalikas, punisher of the evil', with these names and other titles. Resurrection The genealogical details of the epigraph number Shimoga. 39 of C.E. 1122 are, though some portions are broken, by and large clear and in tone with the similar charters. As such, first king of the Mandalinad, after it was superseded by the Calukyas of Kalyana and again handed over back to the ab origin Ganga family, was Bhujabala Ganga, who had Barmmadeva as his first name, and Permmadideva as the traditional epithet of the Ganga family. Kali Gangadeva-l, who had Ereyangadeva as his first name, was the father of Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva Barmmadeva-l. Updating his position and to impart fulness to the genealogical discussion, this needs some more clarification. There is an anomaly regarding the father's name of Barmmabhupala. According to the charter number Sh. 39 (1122) Maru!adeva's son, was Yeriyangadeva and his son was Barmmadeva. But the inscription number 57 of, 1115 C.E. states that Marasingadeva's son was Kali Gangadeva and his son was Bramadeva. Therefore, we can easily surmise that Kali-Gangadeva had the Yeriyangadeva as his first name, thus the anomaly gets cleared. Not only that, it is note worthy that the genealogy confirms an unbroken succession from Butuga-ll has continued. Jayaduttaranga Koneyaganga Narayana-Ganga Gangeya, Stayavakya-Ganga-Permmadi, who had Butuga-11 (938-61) as his first name, had three wives Revakanimmadi, Kallabba, Paddabbarasi and from them he had two daughters Kundanasamidevi wife of Rajaditya and Bijjambadevi; and Butuga

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Origin and Genealogy / 19 had five sons - Maruladeva alias Arumolideva, Marasimha [who had the titles Guttiya-Ganga, Nolambantaka, Ganga-Kandarpa, Ganga-Cakrayudha, Ganga-vajra, Ganga-Cudamani, GangaVidyadhara Marasingha-Permmadi], Raja(Raca)malla, NitimargaGovindara Permmanadi and Vasava (husband of Kancaladevi) [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1997-C: 629-32]. Out of these five sons, Maruladeva (961-63), the eldest son, had a son by name Marasinga, a most common personal name in the Ganga family. Marasinga had a son Kali-Ganga, who had Yereyangadeva as his first name. This Yereyanga-Kali Ganga-PermmadiBarmmadeva-l, is the fourth generation after Butuga-l; in other words Brammadeva is the son of Butuga's great-grandson.

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THE MANDALI RULERS Mahamandalesvara BhujabalaGanga Permmadi Barmmadeva-1 (1045-65) hujabala Ganga Permmadideva-l, who had Barmmadeva as his first name, became the earliest ruler to set up his home in the Mandalinalu in the mid eleventh century, after the other centres of Manyakheta, Talavanapura, Kuvalalapura and Manyapura had ceased to be the hub of the early Ganga imperial might. Barmmadeva was a mahamandalesvara during the reign of the Calukya emperor Trailokyamalla Ahavamalla Somesvara-I (1042-68). Barmmadeva, who had the other names of Barmmabhupala, Bhujabala Ganga Pemmaaideva and the title GangaraBhima, was the son of Kali Gangadeva, younger brother of Rakkasa Ganga, who was a lay disciple of the preceptor Anantavirya Siddhantadeva; Brammadeva was himself a laic of the monk Prabhacandra-Siddhantadeva.

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The Mandali Rulers / 21 Bhujabala Ganga had his crowned queen Ganga Mahadevi, who was reckoned as a kalasa, the best among women was born in the Pandyakula. She was a female bee at the lotus feet of Jinendra, her beautiful form adorned with good qualities. While Bhujabala Ganga was still a heir apparent to the Mandalinad throne, he made a gift during the region of his father to the Mandali tirthada basadi in the saka year 976 (1054 C.E.). A number of his pious acts are extolled in the contemporary records. He renovated a basadi in Ededore-Seventy of the Mandali-Thousand, giving it the name Patrada-basadi, 'the crown basadi', endowed it with certain lands specified. This is different from the basadi, which was formerly established on the Mandalihill by the founders of the ancient Ganga line. The Ganga kings perpetually provided the offerings, which the Gangas had at a later period caused to be built of wood. During the time of this king Bhujabala Ganga Barmmadeva-1, this temple attained the royal status of being the chief of all basadis in the state and this Pastada-basadi of the Mandali-tirtha is now called the Ramesvara temple at Harakere. The Mahamandalesvara Barmmadeva-1 had four sons from his crown queen the Ganga-Mahadevi, who ruled in quick succession. Marasingadeva was his first son, Nanniya Ganga-I was his second son and Kali Ganga-Il alias Rakkasa Ganga, who had Govindara as his first name, was his third son, and the fourth son was Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-II. His second son, Naniyya Ganga was a lay votary of the illustrious preceptor Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva (Sh. 6. 1060; Sh. 10. 1085; Sh. 60 1115; Sh. 57 Sh. 1118; Sh 4. 1121-22 etc), and all of them made grants of land (specified) to this Pattada basadi. The celebrated Barmmadeva is described as a favourite of the goddess victory, a moon in raising the ocean his family line, of pleasing form, a bee at the lotus feet of Jina, the victor. Overthrowing powerful enemies and defeating them in great battles, he continued his victory march; attacking quickly his hostiles, and captured the enemies city, their fort and their territory; thus he extended his dominion by the power of his arm.

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22 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Marasingadeva (1065-70) Marasingadeva is the eldest of the four celebrated sons of the Barmmadeva, who had Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva as his second name. Marasingadeva has been described as the lord of wealth of victory, with his three younger brothers who were also equally known for thier valour. Marasingadeva's mother, Ganga Mahadevi was a constant worshipper of the feet of the Lord Jina. Marasimha was influenced by his mother in persuit of the glory of their faith; a charter mentions that he was born like the three jewels 'ratnatraya', right faith (insight), right knowledge and right conduct. He made a grant of certain lands (specified) in Ardravalli to the family god the Pattada-basadi on the Mandali hill in the year saka 987 (C.E. 1065). Moreover he was the lay votary of the pontiff Maghanandi Siddhantadeva, a preserver of the established doctrine of non-absolutism, shone with the growth of the true doctrine of Jaina faith. Maghanandi was the monk disciple of Prabhacandradeva-l, and a teacher of the illustrious Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva-ll. Under the guidance of his rajaguru, Marasingadeva and his younger brother Nanniya Gangadeva together made a grant of certain lands (specified) in Siriyur to the Mandali tirthada basadi, in the year saka 992 (1070) (Sh. 6. 1060; Sh. 10; 1085; 4, 1121-22). Mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya-Ganga Permmadideva-l (1070-86) With all the usual and traditional titles of the dynasty, Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-l, second son of Bhujabala Ganga Permmali-l, who had Barmmadeva as his first name, succeeded his father as mahamandalesvara of the Mandalinad. He was a lay disciple of the famous Jaina ascetic Prabhacandra SiddhantadevaII. He made a grant of certain land (specified) in Siriyur to the crown basadi of Mandalinad, in saka year 992 (C.E. 1070) to conform the convenance of his family. Mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Ganga Permmadideva, who had Nanniya Ganga, Jayaduttaranga as his other names, brought under his command the Gangavadi-96000, the then Calukya emperor Tribhuvanamalladeva having favoured him with

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The Mandali Rulers / 23 the Mandali-Thousand belonging to it, with all rights as regards treasure trove and underground stores, according to the rule of one third. The Calukya emperor Vikramaditya-VI, shortly after succeeding to throne, personally came all the way and half the way too, to receive his boyhood friend Goggiga Govindara Nanni Santara (1076-77). Goggiga gained still greater distinction than even Butuga-Il from Krisna-III, when the emperor Vikki gave him half the seat on his metal throne, and placed the valiant Santara at his side (EC. VIII. Nr. 35. 1077). It was during the same occasion that the Mandalinao, adjacent to the Santaligenad, was officially recognised by the emperor. Thus, Barmmadeva was the first Mandali ruler to possess the imperial title of 'Tribhuvanamalla', after whom his two younger brothers and the son of his youngest brother also had the same title. It was during his time that the senior perggade Nokkayya prospered as a donar and was amply rewarded by the Ganga Permmadideva. He and his younger brother Kali-Gangabhupati were ruling the Mandalinad together for some years. Tribhuvanamalla-Ganga-Permmadideva granted for the basadi at Tattekere, constructed by the minister and senior Perggade Nokkayya, shop tax and customs dues. Both Nokkayya and Damaraja were the ministers of the Tribhuvanamalla Ganga Permmadideva, and of the two, latter was also a poet who composed the text of Shimoga inscription number ten of C.E. 1085 [Sh. 10. 1085). Tribhuvanamalla Ganga Permmadideva Kali-Ganga-11 Rakkasa Ganga Govindara (1079-1103) The resurrection of the Mandali-Ganga lineage and a regular chronology starts from the period of Kali-Ganga, father of Barmmadeva, Bhujabala Ganga-l. Kali Ganga-Il was the elder brother of Bhujabala Ganga-ll and younger brother of Marasingadeva and Nanniya Gangadeva-l. In other words KaliGanga-l is the third son of Barmmadeva, a terror to the chiefs. Kali Ganga-ll had Govindara as his first name, reminds us of the similar situation when the famous Ganga king Rakkasa Ganga,

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24/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand son of Vasava and Kancaladevi, and a grandson of Butuga-ll, had Govindara as his frist name. An inscription of 1076 from Kuruvagrama in Honnali taluk introduces Tribhuvanamalla Ganga Permmadideva with the usual titles of the Ganga dynasty; Satyavakya Kongunivarma dharmmaMaharajadhiraja, boon lord of Kolalapura, Lord of Nandagiri, having the crest of a ruling elephant, obtainer of a boon form goddess Padmavati, fragrant as musk, Nanniya Ganga, Jayaduttaranga, Rakkasa Ganga srimat Tribhuvanamalla Ganga Permmadideva (HI. 14. 1076). This clearly establishes the date of his crowning to the Mandalinad throne and that he was permitted to use the Calukya emperor Vikramaditya's title name 'Tribhuvanamalla' as a prefix, as exgratia. King Kali Ganga, known for following a policy to the core, is considered as more distinguished warrior, compared to the Mount Meru, ocean, son of Surendra, the tree of plenty (Kalpavrksa) - in firmness, bravery, generosity respectively. If he speaks it is truth; if he does not, a sasana; if he gives, Rama's arrow; if he stops, death: if he walks, bestowing benefits, that is the road. Thus the charter has carved a niche, in high sounding eulogy, for KaliGanga, a liac votary of Prabhacandra Sidhantadeva-ll, who laid a foundation for his younger brother Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-ll (Sh. 57. 1118) Tribhuvanamalla Rakkasa Ganga Kali-Ganga Permmadi deva was also a lay-disciple of another preceptor Anantavirya Siddhantadeva. He made a grant of land (specified with boundaries) to the Mandali Tirthada basadi, the crown temple (Sh. 4. 1121-22; Sh. 10. 1085; Sh. 57. 1118). Mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva - II (1103-18) Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-ll, last of the four sons of Barmmadeva, succeeded his elder brother Rakkasa Ganga KaliGanga-ll. A fragmentary inscription of 1103 (Sh. 14), the earliest record of his period, registers the erection and grant of land for the god Jakkesvara. He punished his enemies and was terror to

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The Mandali Rulers / 25 his hostiles; he besieged the fortresses of his enemies and became celebrated for his strength; thus he was considered an ornament of the Mandali Gangakula. Bhujabala Ganga had his capital at Edehalli. His consort crown queen Ganga Mahadevi had her first name as Candaladevi, her younger brother was Pattigadeva. A bee at the lotus feet of Parsva Jinendra, mulanayaka of the crown basadi on the Mandali hill, Bhujabala-Ganga-ll was a laic votary of Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva-II. He made a grant of land (specified with boundaries) in Heg-Gangaile, for the daily worship and offerings of the Pattadatirthada basadi of Mandali and for the food of the rsis, the Jain monks, in the year 1105. His kula-guru, the religious teacher of the royal family, was the exalted and of unassailable wisdom, Municandra Siddhantadeva, a confrere of both the PrabhacandraSiddhantadeva-ll and Anantaviryamuni and a revered teacher of the wise monk Srutakirti. Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-ll caused a Ganga Jinalaya in the Kuruli-tirtha in 1112; after washing the feet of his friar Madhavacandradeva, made several grants. His second consort Bacaladevi had the biruda patra-jagadale, conferred on her by the king. An inscription of 1103 [Sh. 97] has recorded a graphic description of Bacaladevi's wisdom and mastery in the performing arts, of which there is a seperate discussion elsewhere in this monograph. The reign of Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-Il ushered in a new era of economic prosperity, ever since he assumed the crown to Ganga Mandali. Both he and his elder brother ruled the region under the imperial Calukya monarch Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya-IV (1076-1126). Bhujabala Ganga's son Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-Il succeeded him in 1118; the inscription of Nidige [Sh. 57. 1118] is the last inscription of the father and the first charter of the son [Sh. 14. 1103; Sh. 51. 1108; Sh 64. 1112; Sh. 97. 1113; Sh. 57. 1118; Sh. 12. 1220 and Sh. 4. 1121-22].

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26 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Tribhuvanamalla (and Bhulokamalla) Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-ll alias Satya Ganga Marsingadeva (1118-58) Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-1 was followed on the throne by his son Nanniya Ganga-ll, who ably ruled and consolidated the supremacy of a compact principality. Perhaps the most remarkable personage of the Mandali Ganga family was Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmaaideva-11. His long reign of over four decades and more was the period when the Mandali nad reached the highest point of prosperity. He had vanquished the hostiles and subdued the rest. Rajyabisavadhipati, anointed ruler of the Mandalinadu, Nanniya Ganga, 'a Ganga of truth' had the titles of Jayaduttaranga and Ganga-Gangeya, popular birudas of Butuga-11 [EI. XV. 23. 1071-72; MAR 1921. pp. 8-16). He is the only son of Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-l and Pattamahadevi Candaladevi alias Ganga Mahadevi, and a grandson of Barmmadeva. He was ruling the kingdom in peace and wisdom with his residence at Edehalli. His consort queen Pattamahadevi Kancaladevi, was the daughter of Paddigadeva Maha-mandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga, important and powerful king, possessed all the traditional titles of the early Gangas. Contemporary records refer to his fame, dancing on the moustaches of the regents of the eight quarters, and his splendour surpassing that of the submarine fire. He also had the title of Viraganga Permmalideva. Nanniya Gangadeva and his crown-queen kancaladevi, having made a vow to the goddess Padmavati, obtained a son Hermmaoideva; in fulfilment of the promise, he granted a tribute of the five pana from the villages of the Mandalinad that he governed, to continue forever. His only son Hermmaaideva was also a son-in-law of Ereyanga Hoysala. Dadiga and Madhava had formerly established on the Mandali hill a basadi for which the kings of Ganga line had continued to provide the offerings. Afterwards the later Gangas caused it to be made of wood; Barmmadeva made this basadi the chief of all

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The Mandali Rulers / 27 basadis giving it the name of the crown basadi. NanniyaGangadeva caused the Pattada basadi to be constructed of stone, and endowed it with lands and customs duties in the year C.E. 1121. His benefactions included the construction of twenty five Caityalayas for the promotion of his faith and made specified grants of lands and customs dues of Basadiyahalli, the meaning of this place name being the village of basadis'. He also erected the Kuralibasadi alias Ganga Jinalaya and made it famous as the Kuruli tirtha, and made grants to the monk Madhavacandradeva and distributed food and money. Gangaya, a general (Hadavala) of the Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Gangadeva, was succeeded by his son Hadavala Hemmaoidevarasa (Sh. 42. 1122], and his son was Kaleya alias Kala, who had two wives (Sh. 55. 1167]. Marasingha, a sahani, care taker of horses of the king, slaying the enemy in the battlefield, went to the world of gods [Sh. 15. 1122]. Barmmisetti, the governor of Kalamburu nagara, erected a basadi; to provide for the ceremonies of the basadi and for gifts of food for rsis, the Jaina seers, after washing the feet of the ascetic Subhakirtideva-bhattaraka, the king made over the land free of all imposts. One of the incidents of historic importance that took place during the reign of Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga deserves a special mention. Mahamandalesvara Tailapadeva, while ruling the peaceful kingdom of the Banavasi-12000, Beluvala-600, Santalige1000, Hanagal-500 and the Mandalinal, ascended to svargga in C.E. 1130, on which Bopanna making good his word of vow for the occasion vele-vali, went to the world above with Tailapadeva (HI. 47. 1130-31. Belagutti]. This mahamandalesvara Tailap(h)a is identical with the mahamandalesvara Tailapa of the Hanungal Kadambakula. Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva was the most powerful and famous ruler of the Mandalinad who was also known for his prowess, splendour, learning and religious fervour. In his early days he was a lay-disciple of Prabhacandradeva. During his reign as the Mandalinao chief, his religious teacher

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28/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand was Budhacandra Panditadeva. His catholicity was exemplary. He treated the temples of Lord Siva and his devotees with great respect. The great mahamandalesvara BhujabalacakravarttiTribhuvanamalla Bijjana Devarasa of the Kalacurya kula was ruling the kingdom in peace and wisdom in C.E. 1158. Under his command, mahamandalesvara Nanniya Ganga Permmali Devarasa with the titles Ganga-Gangeya and Jayaduttaranga, was ruling the Epavatte-70, Ballave-70, Narivelige and Begur agraharas [Sk. 18. 1158]. At that time Sovaguada alias Soma, the senabova, kulkarani of the village accountant, for the prosperity of his father Madimayya, at the time of the sun's eclipse, worshipped the feet of 1300 of the agrahara Begur. After obtaining their approval, Soma made for the god Mallikarjuna, to provide for ablutions, offerings and temple repairs a grant of rice land (specified) measured by the god's pole, in the year C.E. 1158. His reign must have come to an end shortly after C.E. 1158, as that is the last date occurring in the known inscriptions of his reign (Sh. 57. 1118; Sh. 12. 1125; Sh. 4. 11221-22; Sh. 13. 1539.42, 44, all of 1122; Sh. 56 1125; Sh. 59 1127; HI. 47. 1130-31; Sh. 20. 1137; Sh. 37. 1140. Sh. 64. 1150 (?); Sk. 18. 1158] Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva ruled the Mandalinad as mahamandalesvara, under four Calukya emperors. He started during the fag end of the reign of Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya-VI (1076-1126) in 1118. After the death of Vikramaditya in November 112, and his third son SomesvaraIII, who had the title Bhulokamalla, succeeded his father in February 1127; by that time his two elder brothers, Ahavamalla nutnaSriharsa and Mallikarjuna respectively had breathed their last (Corpus of Inscriptions in the Telengana Districts, part IV, No. 21. C.E. 1127]. Bhulokamalla Somesvara ruled between 1127 and 1137. As a consequence, the Mandali mahamandalesvara Nanniyaganga changed the royal appellation of his title from Tribhuvanamalla to the Bhulokamalla, thus the Bannikere inscription introduces him as Bhulokamalla Vira Ganga Permmadideva [Sh. 99. 1127. Bannikere. pp. 109-10).

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The Mandali Rulers / 29 After Bhulokamalla Somesvara-11I (1127-37), his elder son Perma Jagadekamalla (1137-49), and his second son and brother of Perma Jagadekamalla, Trailokyamalla Tailapa-IV (1149-62) ruled the Calukya empire. Nanniya Ganga continued to rule as a feudatory under these two kings. Thus, he is the only Mandali ruler who was a mahamandalesvara during the period of four Kalyana Calukya emperors-Vikramaditya-VI, Somesvara-III, Perma Jagadekamalla and Tailapa-IV. Towards the end of his rule, Nanniyaganga Permmadideva-11 was also a vassal of the Kalacuri Bijjana. It is believed that Bijjala alias Bijjana declared himself a independent king and started the Kalacuri kingdom in C.E. 1162. But, a charter of the Mandalinad (Shikaripura No. 18, 1158] makes it clear that the Bijjanadeva had assumed the imperial Kalacuri seat as its first emperor in 1158 itself and the Mandalinad was under his sway. This charter stands in support to the opinion of the historians who hold the view that Bijja!a established himself as an independent ruler from C.E. 1156. When, Bhulokamalla Vira Gangarasa Nanniya GangaPermmadideva was ruling, his friendship with Siddhigesetti, worshipper of Jina and maha-vadda-vyavahari, a greater merchant was permanently continuing. Vira-Gangarasa had built a fort at Kannakapura, near Bannikere, confirmed to the third generation (tribhogabhyntara). To the east of this fort, Siddhigesetti's special patron Ankamayya-nayaka and Bhaskarasetti had a well dug in front of the Mulasthana temple. On the application of several parties Vira Gangarasa and Rudramayya, the Odeya (leader) of Bannikere, made a grant of land (specified). Barmmisetti, who caused a Jina-caityavasa at Kalamburu-nagara, was the Pattanaswamy during this period. Mahamandalesvara Ganga Hermmaaideva alias Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-111 (1127-60) Mahamandalesvara Ganga Permmaaideva, who had Hermma Mandhatabhupa and Hermmadiarasa as his other names, was the son of Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmadi deva-II. He was also called as the Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-II; Permmali and Hermmadi, the variants are one

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30 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand and the same. He is also mentioned as Ganga-Kumara and Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-III. Hermmadideva was born by the grace of the goddess Padmavatidevi, attendent yaksi of Arhat Parsva, the 23rd Tirthankara. His parents Nanniya Gangadeva-1| and Kancaladevi vowed a temple to the goddess Padmavatidevi, obtained the son in 1101, who was named Hermmadideva, and granted a tribute of five pana, from the villages of the Mandalinad that he governed, to continue perpetually. Ganga Hermmapideva, son-in-law of Ereyanga Hoysana Deva (1098-1102) of the Hoysala kingdom, described as a 'mavana gandha-varana', a father-in-law's lusty elephant. His residence was Harige, from where he was ruling a part of the Mandalinad, as a contemporary ruler of his father, and later succeeded him as a feudatory of the Hoysalas. Mahamandalesvara Ganga Hermmaaideva made a caityalaya in Kuntalapura. To provide for the worship, for food to the four sections of the faith, for repairs of the basadi, for making Kuntalapura the chief station, assembling the chiefs and farmers of Yedadore Mandalinad, to protect the work of merit, made a grant of the village with the rights pertaining free of all imposts. The donee was the Ganga Mandalinad family preceptor Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva-ll. Again, in the presence of the mahamandalesvara GangaHermmadideva alias Bhulokamalla Viraganga Permmaoideva took place: Heggade Candimayya, son of Lokkimayya, sold his gaudike land in Kuruli, where a Ganga Jinalaya alias Kuruli-tirtha basadi was built, to Kaliyara Malli setti, who in the presence of the king, made a grant of it to the preceptor Balacandradeva. Similarly Siriyamasetti and his sons made a grant of their gaunike land in Hallavur, in the presence of king Nanniyarasa (satya) Gangadeva, to Balacandradeva. After him, his four sons, Ganganlpa, Marasinganopa, general Gogginspa and Kaliyanganlpa succeeded for a brief period.

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The Mandali Rulers/31 During which time the Mandalinad was completely superseded by the Hoysala kingdom. The general Goggi was the extender of the celebrated Ganga kingdom, a champion of extreme bravery. The prowess of this Hadavala Goggi is compared to Recana (11351225), a famous general of the Kalacuris and Hoysalas, who had the title Vasudhaika bandhava. At the time of general Gogginspa, Recana dandadhinatha was still serving the Hoysala pratapacakravarti Vira Ballaladeva (Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1997-C: 49-61). Recana, a great devout Jaina, erected Jinalayas at Lakkundi, Arasikere and Jinanathapura. He commissioned the poet Acana to write the Vardhamanapuranam, a campu kavya of 16 cantos [ibid]. To the general Goggideva and his consort Mailave Rani, was born Mudiyana, an ornament of Ganga Mandalinad, celebrated for speech without falsehood. To Mudiyanna and his wife Jakkale was born Vibhu Ganga(na) known for his counselling. To him and his wife Vijjale Rani was born a son known as Madhusudanadeva. He was a nalprabhu. Madhusudanadeva, compared to cupid (Manmatha), Sanmukha and Javanta, disposed charities to Goravas. Brahman. the poor, the pandits, the elders, the musicians - both vocal and instrumental. In the name of his father, nalprabhu Madhusudanadeva caused to be built the Gangesvara temple, had a door made in the year 1218. On the holy occasion, he made certain grant of land (specified) below the tank of Gangasamudra, for burning the perpetual lamp and for the auspicious ceremonies in the above temple. The donee was Somesvaraguru, the grandson of Amstarasi guru. Asandi branch After being displaced by the Hoysalas by reason of superior power, the Mandalinad chiefs were allowed to continue their rule as dependants. When the Nissanka pratapa cakravarti ViraBallaladeva (1173-1220) was ruling, the mahamandalika Barmmarasadeva, born in the renowed Ganganvaya, was in the residence of Asandi with his celebrated son Narasimhabhupa (Ci.

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32 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand 73. 1180. Kallukere. pp. 468-70), obviously named after the father of the imperial Vira Ballala, as a token of allegiance to the new sovereigns of the Hoysala kingdom. When the Hemmaciraya was ruling the Ganga Mandalinao, a branch of the same Ganga family Vayja mandalika was ruling from Asandi as its capital, with all the titles of the Ganga dynasty. From the grace of Padmavati, Jina sasanadevi of Arhat Parsva, the 23rd Tirthankara, builder of the ford and the omniscient spiritual teacher of the Nirgrantha creed, was born a son, the brave king mahamandalika Barmmarasa, glory of the Gangavamsa (Ci. 72. 1220]. When Barmmarasa was in the residence of Asandi, to him and his companion Gangamahadevi was born Narasimhabhupa. On receiving the order from his king Ballu, Vira Balla!adeva, mahamandalika Narasimharasa attacked the kings of Malava, Lala, Gujjara and Cola, on the battle field (Ci. 64. 1214: Alakanalu. pp. 460-62). A dweller at his lotus feet, with all his titles, was the esteemed mahanalprabhu Mudugere Ramagaunda, who constructed the tanks at Bilasamudra and Bucasamudra, erected a temple by setting up the linga of god Billesvara, consecrated by the raja-guru Kriyasaktideva, made grants of land (specified) for the decorations and offerings, daily and special ceremonies. When mahamandalika Barmmarasa was in the residence of Asandi, ruling his province, Hiriya-Belagavunda, Kamagavunda and his brothers set up the Sivalinga in Kallakere, constructed a tank, erected a temple. Further, for the decorations and illuminations of the god, temple repairs and offerings, washing the feet of Kariyagurudeva, made a grant of land (specified) and for the perpetual lamp, five oil-mills (gana), also certain dues [Ci. 73. 1180). Asandinao, comprising some villages of the modern Cannagiri (Sh. dt), NR Pura and Koppa (CM. dt) taluks, was administered by a branch of the Gangas during the transition period of the area from Calukyas to Hoysalas. Asandi became another major residence of the Mandalinal during the time of the Hoyasala king Ereyanga (1098-1102), the subduer by force of enemies who would

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The Mandali Rulers / 33 not submit. Those who ruled from Asandi had their early affiliation to the Hoysalas. Asandi was a part of the Banavasi Kadambas and continued to be a Jain centre from fifth century onwards. Perhaps the first prominent chief of the Asandi Gangas was Vaijarasa- I, who was a direct subordinate of the Hoysala Ereyanga. When the hostile Aggadaraya ran into the Bedarabanki forest, in front of Hemmadi alias Tribhuvanamalla Rakkasa Ganga Permmadi (1076-1102), Vaijarasa-l aimed an arrow at the foe from his bow, which not only went through the skull but continuing on, to the amazement of the onlookers, hit one eye of a kite that was flying in the sky. For this extraordinary feat, Vaijarasa received from Hermmaciraya the title Kanna-ambi, eye arrow (Ci. 64 1214). To Vaijarasa of extraordinary achievements was born king Nadanna alias Nada. Nadanna and his consort Nagale, by the boon of the three eyed god Mukkanna (Siva), was born the king Vayja-11. Vayjamandalika-11 worshipped the goddess Padmavati saying 'this is my deity, the only light of my family, character and power. Similarly, his lady partner Vayjala Devi also worshipped daily the same deity. By their single dedication to the goddess Padmavati was born a son. sandinad, with its head-quarters at Asandi, now in Cikkamagalur dt/Kadur tk, has been a seat of Nirgranta activities, ever since it was a part of the Banavasi Kadamba dynasty, as early as 5th cent. C.E., and it was very soon under the sway of the Gangas. A basadi at Asandi is mentioned in an inscription of A.D. 961 (EC. VI (old) Kadur. 159. C.E. 961]. Keleyaladevi was the queen consort of the Hoysala king Vinayaditya who was ruling with his residence in Sosevur. Vinayaditya (1047-98) and Keleyaladevi, or the occasion of the marriage of Mariyane Dandanayaka with Dekave Dandanayakiti, granted Asandinad and Sindagere in the year C.E. 1048 [EC. VI. (1901) Cm. 160). Mariyane Dandanayaka, younger brother of Nakana Dandanayaka, was the son of Dakarasa Dandanayaka and Ecave Dandanayaka's consort Dekave was the sister of the greatest of generals Gangaraja (EC. VII (R) "Intro" p. viii).

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34/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Boppadeva, son of Gangaraja, the senior dandanayaka, commissioned a basadi, for the merit of his father, named Drohagharatta-jinalaya. Visnuvardhana, the Hoysala king, renamed the temple as Vijaya-Parsva jinalaya and made a grant of the village Javagallu in Asandi-nadu (EC. Vol. IX (R) 13 1. 389. C.E. 1133. pp. 352-56] Thus Asandi continued to remain as a property of the Gangas, and during the reign of the Mandalinad also it enjoyed the same previlege. After the Mandalinad and Asandinad Gangas, their influence gradually waned into oblivion.

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The Mandali Rulers / 35 Queen Consorts Ganga Mahadevi-1 'Ganga Mahadevi' is the usual name given to all the queens of the Ganga kings, as their second name, their first name being different. Ankabbarasi, queen consort of Marasimhadeva, is also referred to as a Ganga Mahadevi. In the same fashion all the queens of the Ganga Mandalinad are mentioned as Ganga Mahadevi; only in a few instances their first name is also recorded. Ganga Mahadevi-I was the Pattadarasi, 'the crown queen' of mahamandalesvara Bhujabala Ganga Permmali Barmmadeva. She had four sons - Marasingadeva, Satya (Nanniya) Ganga, Rakkasaganga and Bhujabala Ganga-ll, respectively. She, along with her husband, four sons and a grandson, made grants of land (specified) to Pattada basadi, the crown basadi olim Mandalitirthada-basadi. It is said the Ganga Mahadevi was born in Pandya kula. Everyone of her four sons were renown rulers; when her first son was born, it is recorded in the inscription that his birth was like the birth of three-jewels, the ratna-trayas. Ganga Mahadevi is styled as a female bee at the lotus feet of Jinendra. Her beautiful form adorned with good qualities. In short, Ganga Mahadevi was like a kalasa, a sacred water-vessel, among women [Sh. 6. 1060; Sh. 10. 1065; Sh. 57. 1118; Sh. 97. 1112]. Kancaladevi Kancaladevi, the crowned queen of Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-II, had deep devotion to the Jina the victor. She was also an ardent devotee of goddess Padmavati-Devi, the presiding deity of the Mandalinad Ganga family. She obtained a son, Hermmadideva, a Ganga-Kumara, to succeed the throne of Mandali-Thousand, after having made a vow to the goddess Padmavati. Pleased with the success and in fulfilment of her voluntary promise made to the deity, she gifted a tribute of five pana from the villages of the Mandali province to continue as long as sun, moon and stars.

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36 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Candala Devi alias Ganga Mahadevi-|| Ganga Mahadevi-II, who had her first name as Candala Devi, was the crown queen of Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva-ll. Candaladevi was so kind and generous that a charter has described her as the fabulous cow of plenty (surabhi) to her followers. She was the chief queen ornament of the seraglio of the king; with her sterling character, dexterity in handling the affairs of the harem, she was at the helm. She was also a proud mother of four competent sons - Ganganlpa (Gangarasa), Marasingancpa, Gogginspa and Kaliyanaganspa, the best of sons who shone as great warriors. Candaladevi, superior to all queens and kings, had an younger brother Pattigadeva who was a noted person in the kingdom. When the talented Bacaladevi, another wife of her husband, constructed a caityalaya at Bannikere, to that Arhat Parsvanatha caityalaya, Candaladevi alias Ganga Mahadevi-Il also, along with her husband, ruler of the Mandalinao, and her four sons made grants, free of all imposts, of Budanagere. Bacaladevi :Chief of dancers and musicians Of all the queen consorts of the Mandalinad rulers, it is Bacaladevi alone who stands unique with her extraordinary genius. Though she could not be given the status of Pattamahadevi or Ganga Mahadevi, because she was the second wife, was second to none in her achievements. A prominent personality, Bacaladevi, mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva's other half, was the cream of the Mandalinad culture. She was, to her consort, wealth-victory-celebrity-wisdom personified; she was beyond any comparison. She did not confine herself to the four walls of the seraglio. Bacaladevi was a patron of art, with her charitable disposition. She would take delight in liberal gifts to the deserving and thus she is compared to the great 'danacintamani' Attimabbe, the donor of donors [Kamala Hampana: Attimabbe and Calukyas: 1995].

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The Mandali Rulers / 37 Bacaladevi had earned great distinction in performing arts. The Mandali ruler Bhujabala Ganga permmali had conquered the strong rulers by his might, but Bacaladevi had conquered him by her talent. The way in which she captivated her husband was like a play 'nataka'; pleased with her excellent dance performance, he gave her the befitting title of 'patra jagadale', 'chief of the world of dancers'. She was also a versatile singer. While the king, with his crown queen Ganga Mahadevi was staying in the capital residence of Edehalli, Bacaladevi was happy at Bannikere, confirmed in its enjoyment to the third generation. Her father was an officer appointed by the king to perform domestic and ceremonial duties of the palace. Bacaladevi was a female bee at the lotus feet of the Jina, passage maker. She was dedicated to enhance the glory of her religion, so was her elder brother Bahubali, who had earned name and fame as a devout Jaina. Taking council with her brother Bahubali, she erected at Bannikere a beautiful basadi called Parsvanatha caityalaya, which was an ornament of the Mandalinad. In the ocean-girdled world celebarated is Gangavadinan, in it is the distinguished Mandalinao, to which as the face Bannikere was its nose, blessing everyone was its lord Parsvanatha. For that holy god in the year 1113 the king, Ganga Mahadevi, her four princes, ministers and the perggade Bacaladevi, in the presence of the nad-prabhus, made a grant, free of all imposts, of Budanagere, certain lands in Bannikere, a garden, two oil-mills and certain customs-dues in both the towns. Grants were also given to the stone mason Kaloja and for the dancing girls. The donee was the preceptor of Bacaladevi, the chief of Mulasangha Desiga gana, Subhacandradeva munipa, a disciple of Maladharideva yamina. For the decorations of the god, Erekanna, Lokkigundi prabhu, also granted one and a half Lokki gadyana, to increase by interest and some land. These grants and the presence of all the chiefs at the basadi, go to confirm the

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38/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand influence of the towering personality of Bacaladevi, who rose to the status of a queen from being born in the family of a country sheriff, by the virtue of her wisdom and genius [Sh. 97. 1113. Alahalli. pp. 106-08] Female religiosity amongst the Jain women of the Mandalinad was almost on par with any woman of Hindu caste. Jain women strictly adered to the sanctities of home.

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Chapter 3 The Mandalinadu Polity W ithin the limited scope of this monograph, only a summary treatement of selected topics will be possible to sketch the social, economic and cultural conditions of the Mandalinad. Albeit, the social, administrative and religious conditions that prevailed in the Mandalinad division were very much similar to those in the early Ganga kingdom, harmony and contentment with the existing order being the key-note. The Mandalinad was divided into certain well-marked territorial divisions which included the following sub-divisions with the Edehalli as its capital, now in Koppal taluk [Sh. 39 and Sh. 97. 1113; Edatorenad (Sh. 32. 1134), Ededore - 70 (Sh. 39. 1112, pp. 45-46). Hiriyur [Sh. 40. 1180. 43. 1172] and Hadavalikenad [Sh. 19. 1309]. Although a record of property in land was well maintained, there is no means of informing any estimate of the population of the Mandalinad. However, going by the available records we are now review

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40/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand ing, the bulk of the population seems to be Jains. So many basadis, inumerable gifts to the maintenance of those Jinalayas attest the devotion of the Mandalinad administration; we will shortly revert to this subject under the title 'religion'. In the official hierarchy, maha-prabhu Sindagavunda, na!prabhus Hiriyappa, Nemaveggade, Hoysala Goyisetti, chief of forests, the oilrnen merchant community, as well as in the army, the Jains were in majority. They proved true and efficient to the trust and the rest of the community willingly acknowledged the justice of it. With due regard to the catholicity of the Mandali lords, they were also, along with the enlightened Jaina ascetics, equally responsible for the wide spread of the Nirgrantha creed. But the Jains were not fanatics. They loved and respected the religions of others as their own dharmma: Hoysala Goydi (Goyi)setti in Edadore and his two sons, worshippers of the feet of Jinendra, on hearing the recital of Siva-dharmma. Purana-katha-prasanga, made a grant of land to god Siddhesvara. Matrimonial alliances between the Jains and the (Vira) Saivas was not barred. All these details will be taken up again at the appropriate place. Although no local quarrels are registered, some stray instances of the turbulance of a chieftain leading to a village being attacked, its cattle being taken away, the local people valiantly defending themselves and the bravery of some village heroes - are reported from the contemporary records of the Mandalinad. No information is forthcoming about observing the rite of sati. The women of elite class in the Mandalinad were more religious minded, dedicated to the traditional rituals. There is only a single record of a lady skilled in fine arts of music and dancing. She is none other than Bacaladevi, the spouse of the king, highly accomplished in performing arts. She displayed her proficiency in dancing to the admiration of her husband (Sh. 97. 1103 p. 10708). The way in which Bacaladevi fascinated Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva was like a play. Highly pleased, the king, who was her husband, gave her the befitting title 'patra-jagadale', head of the world of dancers, along with the gift of a village Bannikere,

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The Mandalinalu polity / 41 where she built a basadi to which Ganga Permmadideva also endowed with several gifts of land. "This is a very significant point, for dancing was not looked down upon as an art of any particular sect, but was practiced by persons well placed in society. Secondly, such dancers had so much faith in religion that they would undertake the construction of temples and basadis" [Sheik Ali: 1976: 275-76). In the celebrated Mandalinad as the face to Gangavadinad, the Bannikere was its nose (Sh. 97. 112-13 pp. 106-108]. Intercaste marriage was not uncommon in the Mandalinad. Sindagamunda of Viragrama was a bee at the lotus feet of Jinendra. But, he had married Nagagavundi who was head of Mahesvara-gana and respecting each others faith they lived happily. Perhaps this type of husband, wife and children each belonging to different religion, but yet living in harmony in the same house, was the order of the day. Jains could marry endogamously, albeit attend the local basadi ("Jain temple' from Sanskrit Vasati') without any intervention, either from the priest or from the Jaina laity. Normally, Jains do accomodate, if not encourage, marriages outside their own sects and castes, which elucidate the catholicity of Jainism. This reminds of a similar family of Macikabbe and Marsimhayya, the parents of Patta-mahadevi santaladevi of king Visnuvardhana, who were also supposed to have possessed different caste system. It is said that Visnuvardhana, having come under the sway of the erudite great Ramanujaacarya, converted to the Vaisnava dharma and changed his name from Bittigadeva to Visnuvardhana. In the above two cases, the women were Jains and their husbands were Saiva and Vaisnava respectively. Brahmmasiva, a Kannada poet (1175) has recorded such instances of inter-caste marriages and their peculiarities in his kavya 'Samaya-parikse'. Feudal relations between the state and the merchant guilds, as referred in the epigraphs of the Mandalinad was cordial. They had monopolised the trade and commerce, thus controlling the local civil, revenue and judicial matters. Hoysala Goyisetti, a worshipper of the feet of Jinendra, was head merchant of the Mandalinad. He was lord of the forest, evidently a dealer of wood and other products of the forest (Sh. 36. 1180). He was staying at

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42 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Edadore with his son kallisetti, who had two sons Balla-gavunda and Boppa-gavunda. Kallisetti succeeded his father Goyisetti as the chief of merchants. Kallisetti alias Goydusetti was elevated to the position of pattanasetti (Sh. 88. 1203). He was the 'Vaddavyavahari' of the beautiful Mandali-Thousand (Sh. 36 and 40. 1180. pp. 44 and 46). The epithet Vaddavyavahari is generally used in the sense of the chief of the merchants of a particular place or region or guild; even the senior merchants are referred to as Vaddavyavahari or Vaddabevahari [SII. ix-i. 177 1108; EC. II. 235. 1185; MAR 1946. 31. 1314]; a derived (corrupted) word from the Sanskrit Vrddhavyavaharin. Perhaps this is below the status of Pattanasetti, chief of the merchant guild, with a state-recognition, where as the "Raja-sresthi" royal merchant, is the highest and a royal recognition. Thus, the ascending order of the mercantile hierarchy would be like the merchant community chief Vaodavyavahari, the great merchant Pattanasetti and finally Rajasresthi. There are only two instances of Pattanasetti in the Mandalinad, that of Barmmisetti and Goydusetti. The feudatories were permitted to recognise the chief of merchants and declare the pattana-setti status, whereas the recognition of a Raja-sresthi status was the privilege of the 'raja', the king above the mahamandalesvaras. Therefore, there were no raja - sresthis in the Mandalinad. There were chamberlin (mane-verggade) and steward (banasa verggade), besides a bureaucracy comprising of various grades. Offices of the Mandalinad were hereditary and they were remunerated by assignments of land, suited to their position, in the hierarchy; they were also rewarded with titles of honour. A reasonable land revenue and tolls on goods in transit was collected to the exchequre; confiscation of property or arbitrary unusual imposts is not reported, instead instances of exemptions are recorded. Building a temple or to endow a monastery or construction of a tank, was not only the act of merit but also road to social eminence and public recognition. Though the Mandalinad was a vassal state, the chief enjoyed autonomy to an extent that he could alienate villages without the imperial sanction. The

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The Mandalinadu polity / 43 vil Mandali-nadu consisted of bhuktis with -70, -32, -12 or so, lages each named after the head-quarters towns. The Mandali chiefs carried on the revenue administration in co-operation with the nadu-gavundas, the hereditary revenue officers, who were remunerated by the grant of rent-free lands, called the gaudike land. The village head-man had to discharge the duties of military captain also, on such occasions, when the village was disturbed by thieves and dacoits or the rivalaries of adjacent villages. He had to lay down his life, if it comes to that, while defending the hearths and homes of fellow villages; we will have an occasion to take up the details of this reference once again. Adavigove Sinda Gamunda was a maha-prabhu and a leading oil man. In his family, Barmmanna, son of Bittiyama was another oilman [Sh. 37. 1140] in the Mandalinad Thousand. The entrepreneur Barmmanna was trained in the skills of the war and once had gone on an expedition of Lokigundi. The other rural chiefs of the Mandalinad were Hiriyappa, Nemaveggade, Hoysala setti, Madhusudanadeva and Sindagavunda - all nal-prabhus [Sh. 36-37. 1180. Sh. 42. 1122, Sh. 5. 1218]. Gangimayya alias Gangaya [Sh. 42. 1122 & 56. 1125], Hemmadi and his son Kala alias Kaleya [Sh. 55. 1167] were the generals in the army of the Mandalinad. Wars Sometimes to exhibit their superior strength, subordinate chiefs used to raid the neighbour territories. Except for some stray incidents of the usual attack on the border villages, carrying of the cattle wealth, there are not much references to any sanguinary battle of greater significance. Of course, there were some clashes between the Hoysalas and the Mandalinadu, before the latter was formally superseded by the former. A brief analysis of such bloody wars will confirm the validity of this statement. A battle took place when against the mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva, entitled to the previlege of five great drums, the Panca-mahavadya, was ruling the Mandalinad Thousand.

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44/ The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand Boppanna, a general of the Poysala Bittideva alias Visnuvardhana (1108-52), rose and came in the battle of Halsur in C.E. 1120. Bammayanayaka, son of Cambavansi and Butabbe, the brave servant (a Lenka) of the Mandalinad chief, while his master was looking on at his boldness, fighting courageously attained to the world of gods [Sh. 12. 1120]. It is clear from this charter that a social custom of 'Lenka', dedication of life of a person to the service of his master, prevailed in the Mandalinad also, which was more prevalent in the Hoysala kingdom. But this system of 'Lenka' was in vogue from the early tenth century, and the great Kannada author Pampa refers to this custom in his epic Vikramarjuna Vijayam (Canto-7, prose after verse No. 4). There are similar instances recorded in the inscriptions [SII. XI-i. 50. 1005]. Lenka ('a faithful one') is a Dravidian word which can be compared with velevali and garuda system. A lady with the same motif is called a Lenkiti [MAR 1943. No. 33. 1217], as old as of nineth century. When mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva was ruling the Mandalinad, his chief of the horses Sahani Marasingha, in the great battle in 1122, slaying the enemy, drove off many by the might of arm, went to the world of gods [Sh. 15. 1122]. This incomplete hero-stone, set up in memory of the deceased Marasingha, does not furnish other details of the 'great battle', such as the cause of the battle and the enemy who attacked the Mandalinad. While mahamandalesvara Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva was ruling the Mandalinad, a similar incident happened. This time an oilman Bammanna, son of Bittiyanna (Telliga-Tailika) in the family of the maha-prabhu Sindagamunda of Adavigova, played a prominant role. When Bittiga alias Bittiyanna had embarked on an expedition to Lokigundi in C.E. 1140., waiting for the opportunity, 'Torahara' Kalaya carried off the cows of the village. On his return from the hostile march, Barmmanna, the son of Bittiyanna, slew his head servant, seized his horse, fought the hostile force which had turned back the arrow in the hands of his younger brother Kusa, recovered the cows, and in the process the oilman Barmanna attained the world of gods (Sh. 37. 1140).

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The Mandalinadu polity / 45 A similar act of chivalry is reported when maha-mandalesvara Hoysala Vira Ballaladeva (1173-1220) was ruling the kingdom in peace and wisdom. Hiriyappa was the na!-prabhu of the MandaliThousand. Hoysala Goyisetti was the head-merchant and lord of forest; his son was Kallisetti and his son was Ballagavunda. A person named Halliya-gauda (the valiant of the village) drove away the cows of the village belonging to Balla gavunda, in C.E. 1180. But the courageous Sibayya appeared on the scene, ranout, confronted Halliya-gauda, slew several men, recovered all the cows and doing his duty to his master, the fearless Sibayya attained the world of gods (Sh. 36. 1180). Gangimayya, general of the mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Vira Permmadideva, made an attack upon the area of Belagavarthi. In the severe battle many being killed, general Gangimayya perceived that he too would fall. Gangimayya, the Hanuman (a loyal and daring person) of Vira Ganga Permmadi deva displayed his intrepidity for his master, bringing down the pride of the opposite camp, went to the world of gods, amid the applause of the soldiers of both the camps (Sh. 56. 1125). Haluvala (Padevala-chief of the soldiers) Gangayya and his son were devotees of god Siva; listening the recital of Siva-dharmma purana, he had made a grant of land to the god Siddesvara (Sh. 42. 1122]. Some more instances of the same nature go to endorse the fact that those who would fight ad finem, were inspired by the popular belief, which is so often repeated in very many inscriptions - The victor gains spoil, the slain, too, the celestical nymphs; What fear then of death in war to him Who for a moment seeks the close encounter? A clarification awaits for the rare usage of "Torahara" Kalaya [Sh. 37. 1170). In this usage Torapa is the nominative base, rather known form and 'a' is the suffix of genitive case. Torapa (Toraha) is the name of a medieval family. Torapa-kula is mentioned in a

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46 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand good number of epigraphs [El. XIX. 230. 1179, EC. VIII. (BLR) Sagara 109, 1042. SII. XI-i. 148. 1099. El. XVIII. 200.1107, Kl. i. 24, 1148 etc). Members of the Torapa (ha)- kula are known for their bravery and participation in battles. Torapa families existed in the Mandalinad is reported from an inscription cited above. Members of the goldsmith family were skilled architects. Cattoja's younger brother Malloja constructed the tank and erected the temple [Sh. 43. 1172]. Erecting the temples of various castes and creeds was the popular form of identifying with the religious persuasion. As a consequence there were a large number of temples, either newly constructed or the old ones renovated, enjoying very many tax-free endowments, some being renewed from time to time; this subject will be dealt with all necessary details, in the chapter on religion. Constructing the tanks (Sh. 10. 1085, and 43. 1172] was considered an act of religious merit. A ruined family, a breached tank or pond, a fallen kingdom, who so restores or repairs a damaged temple, acquires merit fourfold of that which accrued from them at first - was the divine influence to infuse the donars to indulge more and more in those acts of glory. Acts of digging wells (Sh. 99. 1127], establishing places for the free distribution of water and food to the needy (Sh. 10. 1085), forming paddyfields (ibid) are reported. Important persons who are indulged and dedicated to the cause of merits were amply rewarded by the Mandalinad chief. Perggade Nokkayya who had acquired such greatness was granted the royal insignia of two horns, a conopy, camaras and big drums by the chief of the nad, Ganga Permmadi deva, in addition to the headship of eight villages including the modern Shimoga (Simoge), a district head-quarters, 20 horses and 500 servants. One of the measuring rods in the Mandalinad had the name 'Gangana gale' [HI. 8. 1228. Kuruvadagadde, p. 368 line: 13). In concluding the political history of the Mandalinad, we may note that it was throughout under the rule of the line of the western Gangas. They built up a remarkably efficient administrative

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The Mandalinadu polity / 47 system. To judge from their grants, they generally led a peaceful existence without disturbing their neighbours or being very much troubled by them. In proceeding to sketch the policy of the Mandali rulers, emphasis should be laid on certain fundamental characteristics in their attitude. They upheld the existing social order, protected it from any internal trouble and foreign invasion, received as the taxes, according to the rule of one third of the land, as was agreed upon (Sh. 10. 1085). The Mandalinad rulers respected the numerous social, economic and religious concerns of people. Ascetics, priests, temple servants, guilds of merchants, artisans - all functioned more or less independently of the ruler. A determined will to conquer new territories and raise to higher heights is not found. The village had a headman called gavunda or na!-prabhu, a country - sheriff, who was the mediator with royal government. The ur, grama, was the common type which included all classes of people who held the movable and immovable property in the village, maintained tanks, managed the affairs of the temples. Gavunda had other regional variants such as gramani [Kautilya, Arthasastra, III-10), gramika [Manusmrti 7-116], raddi or reddi, patel or patil - all equivalent terms signifying a village chieftain. Traders and merchants also had their own assemblies or associations. As noticed earlier, na!-prabhus, maha-prabhus, gamundas etc., were the officers charged with the maintenance of the peace and securing the safety of life and property. The Mandalinad Gangas specially favoured the particular religious creed they professed; albeit, never sought to impose it on all their subjects. As a matter of policy, the Mandalinad Gangas patronised all the other creeds. Usually succession to the throne was hereditary in the eldest male line, and there was no civil war on this ground. The high officers of the state were held by the hereditary officials who commanded the confidence of the king with their ability, character and descent. The main royal family of the Mandalinad was housed at Edehalli where the royal palace was maintained for a long time. The Mandalinad queens, patta-mahadevi or otherwise, occupied

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48 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand a position of equal importance and with the permission of king, made grants of land at their will. The consorts of Mandalinal chief had the usual cognomen of the Ganga-Mahadevi, apart from a different first name, suggesting that the important lady is the queen of a king in the line of Ganga. These spouses were allowed to favour the tenets of their choice, to practice the talents whatever they possessed, and fine arts, even to the extent of giving public performance; music and dancing being liberally patronised. Bigamy was in vogue. The Ottighattiyanna, a mahasamanta ruling the gavundike in Kotepura belonging to the chiru-Balle - a Thirty kampana of the Mandali-Thousand, had a biruda Colamanikya' (ruby of the Co!a). This is the only instance of a person of Cola lineage enjoying a place of recognition in the Mandali-Thousand [HL. 14 1076]. Another inscription of the same period also refers to a mahasamanta Ghattiyarasa (SII. IX-i 135. 1071. Huvina-Hadagali (Bellary dt]; hether OttiGhattiyanna and Ghattiyarasa are identical or just contemporaries, is worth pondering. Similarities between Mandali-Thousand and Santalige-Thousand The MandalinaD-Thousand and the Santaligenad-Thousand, ruling concurrently, are marked by some striking similarities and developments in administration, art, architecture, language and religion. The Santalige-sasira, adjacent administrative unit, serving as subordinates under the same sovereigns like the Rastrakutas and the Calukyas, was ruled by a dynasty called the Santaras alias the Ugra-vamsa. [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: SantararuOndu Adhyayana: 1997-A). The Mandali and Santalige-Thousand families were contemporaries for several hundred years sharing common traits. They were not only neighbour states but also closely related by matrimonial alliances. Instead of dealing the subject at length, a comprehensive list of some common factors is given below: a. both the Santaras and the Mandali Gangas were contempo rary dynasties. b. The beginning history of both the kulas are overladen by legend.

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The Mandalinalu polity / 49 C. d. e. g. h. Both the states upheld and protected Jainism. Arhad Parsva was the Tirthankara that they worshipped as thier family god and the basadi of Jina-Parsva, the 23rd marker of the river crossing, was their Patta-Jinalaya or Tirthada-basadi, 'the crown temple'. Goddess Padmavatidevi, the Jina-sasanadevi, Yaksi was their family deity. Thus they followed a common religion from beginning to the end. They had common names starting with Bhujabala (Nr. 35. p. 137), Nanniya (Nr 59 p. 154), Barmma, Goggi and Tribhuvanamalla (T1. 192. p. 205). Both had enmity with the Hoysalas in the beginning. Both served the same Rastrakuta, Calukya, Hoysala, Kalacuri and Vijayanagar empires as loyal feudatories. Both the states were concise and compact provinces in Shimoga district. Both the dynasties have a long and continuous history of over a thousand years. Apart from common Jain gods and goddesses, the temples of god Bhillesvara and god Kamathesvara were also found in both these states. After the final dissolution of the Calukyan hegemony, Kalyana passed into the hands of the Hoysala Vira-Ballala-1 (11731220) who had struck heavy blows and defeated SomesvaraIV (1184-90) in 1190, virtually the last ruler of the Calukyas. Both the Santalige-Thousand and the Mandali-Thousand came under the hegemony of the Hovsalas, which was a welcome shift for them, because both the dynasties had developed an affiliation to the Hoysalas and were followers of a common creed. The rule of succession to the throne in the eldest male line was followed by both these dynasties. Even when there were . m.

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50 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand more than two brothers, a cordial relationship between brothers prevailed. Any rupture within the sons or brothers, motivated by political ambition is not reported, in both the families. Thus the two coeval minor states, splendid promoters of the Nirgrantha church, had a regular cultural and political contact maintaining their identity. Such a contact between the Santara and the Mandali court is well attested. The rulers of the Mandali and Santalige, brought under one sceptre under the Calukyas of Kalyana, carved out two small principalities of their own over which they ruled for centuries, and they preserved the same cultural traditions of their benefactors in the field of art, architecture, sculpture, polity and religion. The Calukyas ruled supreme over the destinies of the Santaras and the Mandali rulers. After the long reign of Vikramadityadeva-VI, the political power of the Calukyas grew weaker and suffered eclipse during the constant wars with the neighbouring and subordinate chieftains, their territories were distributed between the victors, the Kalcuris, the Seunas and the Hoysalas, who emerged as major powers. Obviously, the Mandali and Santalige, almost the collateral branch, became a prey to the annexations between the victors, who ruled supreme over the destiny of petty principalities. The Hoysalas who ruled for a longer period than either the Kalacuris or the Seunas, were nearer home to the Santara and Manqali dynasties in all respects, and ruled almost independently under their new imperial overlordship, contributing greatly in the field of art and architecture as before. Some of the charters, Sh. 4, 39, 57 and 64 in particular, more or less in identical diction, narrate the genealogy of the Ganga family containing a combination of the Vamsika-, Anu-vamsika and Raja-prasastis. Some portions in the very beginning of the narrative, as for example Sh. 4, look bit complicated, without furnishing much historical data. Even that portion of eulogy carrying

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The Mandalinalu polity / 51 information on the reigning king, is full of lofty and lengthy conventional praises liberally showered; such eulogistic stereotyped composition is the hall mark of the medieval period. The bards in the courts of the Mandali-Thousand Gangas and the Santalige Santara kings, had evolved a typical but standard royal formulary. It seems that the court poets who composed or drafted the important epigraphs of the Santaras and the Mandali Gangas, the two contemporary royal dynasties of the adjacent divisions in the Shimoga district, are one and the same or influenced by each other. For that matter the literary quality and merit of poetic excellence of the charters of the Santaras is far superior [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1997-A].

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. Chapter 4 Society and Religions glimpse of the religious conditions: The Mandalinad rulers have carved themselves a permanent niche of honour in the religious life of Karnataka. They had great deference to all creeds of their times. There is not even a single instance of proselytising either an individual or a group. Available records clearely mirror the catholicity as practiced by the Mandali-Thousand rulers, without Toosing their personal faith Some of the charters belong to an important phase in the history of Karnataka, because they provide new material for the study of the various aspects of political and religious history and culture of the region. Therefore, a detailed discussion of the important issues connected to this period is worth pondering. While speaking of a particular king/ kingdom as belonging to a particular religion/Dharma, one should not forget the basic truth that the Indian rulers

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Society and Religions /53 were duty bound to support and respect all religions existing in their kingdom. The rulers were the worshippers of all religious orders, champions of shrines of all gods, a dictum so well enunciated by Kharavela, king of Kalinga, in second cent. B.C. All said and done, each ruler had his own choice, his own allegiance to a particular caste, sect, creed or religion. He used to take more care to protect and promote his personal faith. Such an act of active patronage of a particular faith would be transparent in his administration. Many a time his or his subordinates annual taxes and other relevant revenues from a particular source of a village or a commodity, used to be turned over to a temple of his sect or a mendicant community of his religion. However impartial a king tries to be, such favours invariably brought a tremendous increase in that religion's political power, prestige and social status. Ultimately, this would lend an impetus to popularise the faith of his choice. The common people considered it to be easy and safe to develop royal contact, to derive administrative benefits and of access to the court by simply following the kings religion. The socio-religious history of the Mandalinad is not different from this analysis; their catholicism is transparent, but their proJaina attitude is not opaque. During the long reign of the Mandalinad Gangas, once again the Jainas moved into positions of great influence as ministers, chief of army and as financers. As a consequence they were able to establish a power base in the Mandalinad also, which sustained for centuries. After the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Rastrakutas, the Calukyas of both Badami and Kalyana, the Kalacuris and the Seunas supported Jainism to the maximum. Once again fortune smiled on the Jainas, as the Hoysalas shouldered the responsibility of promoting Jainism as their own religion, which also helped the Mandali-Gangas to thrive for some years. A detailed analysis of the Mandalinad charters will make the above observation more meaningful and confirm that the Mandali rulers made munificent grants for the maintenance of both Jain and non-Jain monasteries without any discrimination. Liberal grants, consistent teaching and guidance of the monks, greatly contributed to the spread of material and

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54 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand spiritual knowledge and to the stepping up of educational, literary and architectural activities. As in all matters of spiritual and material culture, the Mandalinad chiefs, in the sphere of religion also began by being heavily indebted to their ancestors and made signal contributions to the theory and practice of religion. Harmony and tolerance are the main characteristic of the Mandalinad Gangas. Temples of all sects were richly endowed for the daily worship and periodical festivals. There is no mention of Buddhism, Islam and Christianity; but, Jainism as the more favoured creed, Savism and Vaisnavism had greater influence on the life of the people. The donees of the temples are required to use the proceeds of the endowement for the daily rites and observances of the Mulanayaka and other deities in the temple. There are no references to Islam in the inscriptions of this period. Some traits of the revival of Brahmanism can be recognised in the later charters of post-medieval period. A salient feature worth contemplating is the mutual influence of the Rastrakutas and the Gangas. Influence of the Rastrakutas on the Gangas, at a later stage, operated on two levels; one, personal names like Govinda (Govindara, Govindaradeva), and the titles like the Javaduttaranga. Secondly, the Gangas started restructuring the old temples and erecting the new basadis, using stone instead of their old tradition of using the brick or wood. This shift in the material used, from wood to stone, is because of the influence of the Rastrakutas stone temples, in particular of Ellora. It is possible that the planners and workers of the major monuments of the Gangas were extremely familiar with the earlier magnificient monuments of similar nature at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Ellora. The influence of the Gangas on their masters, the Rastrakutas, was in the field of religion and language, in other words, Jainism and Kannada. Most of the emperors of the Rastrakuta royal house faithfully followed Jaina church because of the impact of the Gangas. Kannada became the official language and also was adopted as their mother tongue, thanks to the Gangas.

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Society and Religions / 55 As I have worked out the statistics and distribution of the Rastrakuta inscriptions; out of 516 charters, 340 are in Kannaua language, 90 are in Sanskrit, 104 are in Tamil, 7 are in Telugu and only one in Marathi; and out of the 90 Sanskrit charters, 19 are bilingual of which 17 are in Sanskrit and Kannada. This predominence of Kannada was also due to the power exerted by the Gangas; more and more matrimonial alliances also cemented the process. Jainism became the principal faith throughout the regime of the Mandali-Thousand kings, who continued to flourish one after another under the patronage of their imperials. The ascetics of the Nirgrantha order were the preceptors who guided and inspired the mahamandalesvaras to rule with respect and honour to all castes and creeds, to worship all gods. An exhaustive list of the rulers, preceptors, temples, the donors and the donee is recorded in some of the charters. Perggade Nokkayya : a pole star Mahamandalesvaras of the Mandalinad used to pay visits to different places and temples under the rule. On one such occasion in C.E. 1085, Ganga Permmaoideva paid a visit to Tattekere, where the main minister and senior perggade, a man of high rank, Nokkayya was living with his two consorts and two sons. During his visit, the king was pleased with his minister, to find and learn that Nokkayya and the members of the family were devoted to the state and to the service of the people, even in their adverseries. Overwhelved by his feelings of warmth, the king gifted Nokkayya, the whole revenue of Tattekere, an important centre of the MandaliThousand. An incident of taking exception to the construction of a basadi near the big tank of the village is also reported. Gujjana, elder son of minister Nokkayya, opposed the idea of erecting temple near the huge tank of Tattikere by his father. But the untimely demise of Gujjana made the family suffer a set back. To commemorate the death of his son, the senior perggade Nokkayya built two more basadis, one each at Harige and Nellavatti, the modern Nyamati

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56 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand town in Honnali taluk, where the Trikuta-basadi exists to this day; it is converted into a Virasiva temple and the Jinabimbas replaced by Sivalingas. All the broken Jaina images were dumped into the old well infront of the present Kalmatha, covered with mud and sealed once for all. But once again, it was the ill-luck of Nokkayya, that his second son Jinadasa also had a premature death. As a paroksavinaya, respect to the deceased and to preserve the memory, Nokkayya ereceted basadis at Nelavatti and Tattekere. Thus the aged father withstood the sad demise of his two grownup sons, commissioned totally four basadis to perpetuate the remembrance of his sons. Nokkayya dedicated all his time to the service of the people, mostly the rural folk; whatever was good to others, was good to him. Nokkayyas's service was spontaneous, and had the motto of service to people is service to god. The news of his dedication knocked the doors of the palace. The Mandali king GangaPermmadideva, as a reward of Nokkayya's boldness, liberality and service, presented a good number of precious gifts. Among them the gavunda-vitti, chief officer of eight villages (named), 20 horses (horses were preferred to elephants in the army of the Mandali-nad), 500 slaves, together with the fixed revenue of the eight villages, including the present Shimoga city. Tattekere, Kiluru, Areyuru, Harige, Kadavuru, Simoge (Sivamogga), Tarikeri and Hennavura - are the eight villages that Nokkayya was allowed to enjoy the headmanship. As a bonus, Nokkayya also received Panasavadi, free of all imposts for as long as sun, moon and stars endure. Perggade Nokkayya had acquired such a greatness that the Mandali king once again granted him the royal insignia of two horns, a canopy, camaras and big drums, a unique umbrella called the Meghadambara and thus made Nokkayya, cream of the principality, shine brilliantly as a mine of glory. But, Nokkayya did not loose his humility; being a laic of the exalted Prabhacandra Siddhanta Deva-l, of the original congregation (Mula-Sangha),

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Society and Religions / 57 Kranur-gana and Mesa-pasana-gaccha, a cohort of the frairs and nuns, made grants of land (specified) for the sthanpatis, chief of the diocese. Nokkayya also made a specific and seperate grant of wet-land of a mattar to the local drummer (parekars) and the potterer (Kumbaras). The Ganga king Permmadideva did not lag behind, he also once again endowed the shop tax and customs dues to the basadi of Tattekere. Jainism Jainism olim anekanta-mata, a comprehensive religion, as opposed to ekantamata, being one sided, is an organic religion. It adopted, accomodated and assimilated so many alien thought, art, architecture, gods and godesss, so far as these adoptations agree with the primary dictum of Jainism, the universal nonviolence. The religious history of the Mandalinadu opens, continues and concludes with the predominent prevalence of the anekantamata, as a state and public creed. A good number of inscriptions have irrefutably established the existence of a highly developed and secured Jaina society. The most significant Kallurugudda charter of the NanniyaGanga Bhujabala Permmaaideva, registers not only the grants made to but also narrates in a nut-shell the religious history of the Mandali Ganga family. The Harakere epigraph of C.E. 1060 is also a trend setter of their basic religious attitude to be followed by their successors. 'Tirtha', a technical term so often used, needs a clarification; the following quotation will connotate the term tirtha - "in Jainism a place of pilgrimage is called tirtha (literally, a ford), because it helps the aspirant in crossing over the ocean of samsara which is full of pain and misery, and in attaining liberation from the other wise unending round of births and deaths. The primary aim of Jaina pilgrimage is, therefore, spiritual edification. It is probably why the Jainas have generally selected for the sites of their tirthaksetras mountain tops, seculded dales for jungle-clearings, far from habitations and the hubbub materialism - ridden wordly life, in the midst of captivating natural scenery and peaceful surround

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58/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand ings, conducive to concentrated meditation and spiritual contemplation" (Ghosh, A, (ed): Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. 1: 1974:36). Tirthankaras, a synonym for Jina, are the exalted teacher propagators of their own faith. - The Mandali tirtha referred to in the charter, a name that has survived to this day, is to be traced in the ruins on the hill. Albeit, 'the Mandali tirthada basadi' was the crown-basadi, the 'Patta Jinalaya', the patron deity which formed the nucleus of religious life of the Mandali Gangas for several centuries. In other words that was the cathedral of the Ganga family. To be more precise, the Mandali-tirtha-Patta-Jinalaya was held in high esteem from C.E. 350 to C.E. 1600,till the final termination of the dynasty, Madhava-l being the earliest known Mandali ruler who founded this basadi. The main deity or the Mula-nayaka of this Mandali tirtha temple was the Arhat Parsva (Sh. 57. 1118, Nidige pp. 5761), the earliest known Jain temple of Jina Parsva in Karnataka. From the beginning of the tenth century and onwards, inscriptions provide ample attestation to the religious leanings of the Mandali rulers. Some of the charters also speak of the chief religious faith of the Mandali rulers and their individual subjects including the members of the official hierarchy. The chiefs of the Ganga Mandali were the benefactors of the Jaina Church, the greatest among them being the Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-ll (1118-58), who caused to be built 25 Caityalayas to help on the growth of his faith. He patronised Jaina institutions, both monasteries and monks, with liberal endowments, especially for providing food to spiritually accomplished caste gurus. The effiicacy of devotion of the Jina, the spiritual victor and ford-maker, and to the Jinalayas also called Caityalayas and basadis, can be better illustrated by referring to the Mandalinad epigraphs. The basadis were rendered rich in lands and in money, in cash and kind, by generous donations of the Mandali rulers, thier subordinates and their subjects, which accelerated the activities of Jaina monasteries, and Jainism virtually engulfed the Mandalinad.

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Society and Religions / 59 A good number of the Mandali charters register the extent of spontaneous support which Jainism enjoyed. The pontifical genealogy of the Jaina preceptors recorded in the inscriptions is just outstanding and betrays zeolously the respect they commanded by the state and its subjects. These preceptors were more than exponents of rigid dogmas. Some of the friars were political advisors to the kings, ministers, the queens and generals; they taught the lay person, who is an adherent of Jainism, initially anuvratas the five basic lesser vows, applicable to laymen of abstaining from evil conduct. These bhattaraks, the religious teachers, maintained good libraries (srtabhandaras). Saints still ruled the society at large. People sought them out for, spiritual or otherwise, guidance. Their grandiloquence to a larger extent determined state policy. Ascetics could exert so much influence on the society, because of their simplicity-simple living and high thinking, ochre-clad renouncer, a portrait of homeless almsman, possessing nothing but bear hands and pinci, a peacock-feather whiskbroom, whose ordained duty was to seek truth, peace, enlightenment and infuse a sense of similar detachment in their followers. Jaina Temples - the Basadis The Jaina temples of Digambara and Svetambar the two main and prominent sects, are very much similar in every respect, except that the images of the Tirthankaras of the latter sect are decorated with precious stone and necklace of gems or similar rich ornaments of jewels, where as in the former sect absolutely unclothed and unornamented figures are found. Nakedness is in accordance with the monastic rule of the archaic period, the rigid form of the perfected saviours, representing a condition of absolute detachment from the world. In the Mandalinad, practically there are no Svetambara sanctuaries; only Digambara shrines abound. Building the basadis, installing the Jina bimbas and sasana deities there in, making substantial provision for their permanent sustainance were acts of greater merit for the Mandali rulers.

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60/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand On the basis of the inscriptions, it is seen that nearly forty Jaina temples were built during the rule of the Mandalinad mahamandalesvaras. Unfortunately most of these Jain temples are not traceable now. Some of them are converted and the rest are destroyed. All the basadis of the Mandali-Thousand sub-division were attached to the Pattadabasadi, the crown temple, olim Mandali-tirthada-basadi, chief of all temples in the province. Following is the list of some main basadis recorded in the charters: 1. Patta Jinalaya on the Mandalihill, built by the founders of Gangavadi kingdom, Dadiga and Madhava in C.E. 350, but renovated from time to time; a detailed discussion of its significance will follow. 2. 3. Kuruli basadi, commissioned by Nanniya Ganga Permmadi deva-II. to 28. Nanniya (satya) Ganga Permmadideva erected 25 caityalayas at different places. 29-30. Jinasasanadevi goddess Padmavatidevi temples; one on the Mandali-hill and the other at Asandi. About the nature and importance of the deity Padmavatidevi, a seperate subchapter is earmarked. 31. Harige, capital town of Hermmadideva, had a basadi. 32. Tattikere, an important town, had a basadi. The earliest reference of it comes from a charter of eleventh century (IWG: No. 150, pp. 468-70). 33-34. Two basadis at Nellavatti, another place of prominence. All the above four Jinalayas at Nos 31, 32, 33 and 34, were caused to be made by Perggade Nokkayya, a minister of Mandalinad. In particular the basadi built by Nokkayya in the midst of the big tank at Tattekre, shone like a mountain of gods surrounded by the divine river; the Jinabhavana at Nellavatti resembled the Vimana of the season. 35. A Jaina temple at Kalamburu-nagara was erected by the governor of that nagara, Barmmisetti. For the gifts of food

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Society and Religions / 61 for rsis, Nanniya Ganga Permmaaideva gave land, free of all hindrances. The recipient was subhakirtideva bhattaraka. Nagara (Nakhara, Nakara), occuring in the Kannada inscriptions in the sense of merchant guilds, seems to signify a commercial town where the concerned basadi was built. In the Sivatatva-ratnakara, Nagara is defined as a metropolis of imports and exports, a residence of various communities and castes and a seat of the ruler (Chapt. VI. VV. 15-16). Thus, Kalumburu Nagara, with a basadi, was a main habitat of the Mandali-Thousand. 36. When Hermmadideva, impaler of liars, and his father-in-law's lusty elephant ('mavana-gandha-varana'), was in the residence of Harige, his capital, ruling Ededore-Mandali Thousand, made a caityalaya in Kuntalapura. To provide for the worship, for food to the four sections of Jaina society (the monk, nun, layman and lay woman), for all the four castes, for repairs of the temple, for making this the chief station for all, washing the feet of their family guru PrabhacandraSiddhantadeva, Hermmadideva made a grant of the village with all rights pertaining, free of all imposts, in C.E. 1132; the excellent acarya, the adept, Nemicandra bhattarakadeva, stayed in this Kuntalapura chapel in the year C.E. 1204. 37. Satya (Nanni) Gangadeva also made a 'Ganga Jinalaya' in the Kuruli-tirtha in the year 1132, washing the feet of his religious head Madhavacandradeva, made a grant of land (Sh. 64. 1132). 38. A basadi at Hebbandegrama built by Ketavve, a lay disciple of the preceptor Municandra Siddhantadeva, a disciple of Kanakanandi Traividya Siddhantadeva. To this basadi, Bittideva, Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva, Barmmagavunda and na!-prabhu made a grant of land (specified) with six houses and one oil-mill (Sh. 89. 1111. pp. 102-03). 39. The Arhad Parsva Jinaglha at Bannikere, erected by the perggadati Bacaladevi, the beloved queen consort of Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva, was a

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62 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand celebrated sanctuary and considered as an ornament to the Mandali-Thousand province. The Ganga king, his two wives, his four sons, his council of ministers-all made a number of grants of various kinds to the basadi, to the stone mason and for the dancing girls (Sh. 97. 1113. pp. 106-08). At this stage of recording the number of basadis and the grants these temples enjoyed, there are three special points to be clarified, to make the subject in extenso: In respect of the grant made over to the dancing girls, there are similar instances elsewhere also of setting apart a portion of the endowment for the maintenance of the 'devadasis'; angabhoga-rangabhoga are the variety of worship, expressing the devotion to god. It is well-known that dances were performed by dancers, particularly dancing girls, who were trained by the dance masters devoted to those temples; such dances were not confined to any one religion. Jaina temples also patronised performing arts such as vocal and instrumental music and dance. Basadis had a seperate dancing hall: b. Nagadeva erected a stone pavement and a dancing hall in front of the Kamatha Parsvadeva basadi (EC. II (R) 457 (335). 1195. p. 279. lines: 45-46). Manne plates record the grant of a village from the king, free of all hindrances, for dances performed by dancing girls, singing and drums for the Srivijaya jinalaya at Manyapura (EC. IX. NL. 61. C.E. 802. p.45). C. Similar instances are not lacking : APGAS - 111. Ng. 43. Ins No. 45. C.E. 1125, SII. XV. 164. 1220. p. 210, SII. XX.202.1244 etc., To consider the second aspect, a chief of the Lokkingundi granted 1 1/2 Lokki-gadyana, to increase by interest. This shows that, those who were borrowers from the temple would return the amount with interest. In other words, basadis were also acting as banks. ii.

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Society and Religions / 63 iii. In relation to the structure of the Jaina society, there is a reference in the epigraph under discussion, that a grant was made to the basadi for providing food to the 'Catur varna sangha samudaya'. In the context of Nirgrantha church, the phrase 'Catur-varna' does not denote the usual sense of the four castes of Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra; the four sections of the Jaina 'sangha-samudaya' are the monk, the nun, the layman, and the lay-woman; to put it in the accepted terminology, the sramana, the aryika, the sravaka and sravika constitute the catur-varna-sangha samudaya (Sh. 57. 1118 and Sh. 64. 1132). An extraordinary feature of the endowment (Sh. 64. 1132) is that the grant was made not only for the food to the Jains but also to all the four castes, the catus-Samaya (ibid, line: 93), an example of the catholicity of Jaina society. There are instances of the tanks named after frairs as savanana kere '(the tank of the Jaina monk) (Sh. 57. 1118) and the villages named after them as 'Savanana-bililu-grama' (EC. VIII-ii (BLR) Soraba. 223. 1139. pp. 97-98). Jaina faith in the township of Bannikere, Tattekere, Nellavatti, Nidige, Purulegrama, Harakere flourished; it made its prominent mark on the Mandalihill. Inscriptions endorse profusely the fact that Jainism received tremendous fillip, rose to greater heights during the period of 11th and 12th centuries and it was still the religion of a large section of the people. Apart from the rulers, some of the local assemblies caused the construction of new basadis and renovation of old ones. Pattada basadi - 'the crown temple' The concept of a Pattadabasadi is exclusively a Jaina invention, particularly in Karnataka. Some major dynasties like the Gangas, the Rastrakutas, the Badami Calukyas, the Kadambas, the Hoysalas and some minor dynasties like the Santaras, MandaliGangas, the Cenga!vas had their Pattada-basadis, also called Patta-Jinalayas - 'the crown temples' of those royal houses. The ruling king and the palace would invariably possess a Pattada

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64 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand rani (the crown queen), Pattada-ane (the crown elephant), Pattadakudure (the crown horse), Pattada-katti (the crown sword), Pattada-simhasana (the crown throne). Analogus with this is the Patta-Jinalaya alias Pattada-basadi (the crown Jinalaya). It is obvious that every royal family will have its own temple for the exclusive worship of the members of the palace. But the PattaJinalaya is conspicuous because there are no parallel term of other religions like Patta-sivalaya or Patta-visnugeha or PattaBrahmalaya. Patta Jinalayas or Pattada basadis are also called as the Tirthadabasadis. The Ellamma temple on the hill of Saudatti was the Patta Jinalaya of the Rattas; It is mentioned in the inscriptions as Rattara Patta Jinalaya. Pasta-Jinalaya for the Kadambas was at Palasika, for the early Calukyas at Puligese, for the Santaras at Hombuja. For the early Gangas, the Pattada basadi was the Rsbhnath temple on the Nandi hill, but later they had their crown temple at Talavanapura. The Jaina temple on the Mandali hill, one of the oldest temples in Karnataka and of the Gangas, built in about C.E. 350, was made the Pattada basadi of the Mandali Gangas in the medieval period. The work begun by Madhava-i was continued, after a lull of some centuries, by Barmmadeva Permmaoi and his four sons, their children and grand children and the Caityalaya came to be recognised over a large region as the chief basadi of royal worship. Because this was in the province of the Mandali sahasra, it is called as Mandali tirthada basadi (Sh. 6. 1060.p. 18, Sh. 4. 1121-22). This Jinalaya is also one of the rare temples that continued to prosper for nearly a thousand years with very many royal renewed endowments from time to time, ad majorem Dei gloriam, for the greater glory of god. 1. Konganivarma Madhava (C.E. 350-75), at the instance of his preceptor the Simhanandin - II, had found a small kingdom of his own called Mandali-sasira, on the outskirts of the present Shimoga, on the bank of the river Tunga. He also built a Caityalaya which was the earliest and first Jaina temple of wood in Karnataka (Rice, Lewis; Mysore Gazetter-1:

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Society and Religions / 65 1897:311, Sharma, I.K.: 1992; MAR. 1912 p. 30 para. 70; Ec. VII-i. Sh.4. 1121-22). In the end of the tenth century, a disciple of the Municandra Siddhantadeva, Rakkasa Ganga Nanniya Ganga Ksitipala, Marasingana-anujam, gifted some wet lands under the tank of Tattekere (1WG: No. 150: 11th cent.: pp. 468-70, MAR 1923, pp. 114-15). 3. Mahamandalesvara Bhujabala Ganga Permmadi Barmmadeva-l (1050-65) endowed Mandali-basadi with taxfree gifts in the year 1054 (Sh. 4. 1121-22, pp. 10-15), giving it the name of 'Pattada basadi', the royal chapel. He again made some more grants of land, along with his queen consort and four sons and a grandson, in the year 1060 (Sh. 6. 1060. p. 18). This temple exists in good condi tion even now at Harakere, as a Saiva temple. 5. Barmmadeva's first son Marasinga, a lay disciple of Maghanandi Siddhantadeva, made a gift to this temple in the year 1065 in Ardravalli. 6. Barmmadeva's second son, Nanniya (satya) Ganga made a grant in the year 1070. 7. Rakkasa Ganga, third son of Barmmadeva and a lay votary of the seer Anantavirya siddhantadeva made another grant in the same year. Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva-ll and the fourth and last son of Barmmadeva, made a grant of lands, specified with boundaries, in Heg-Ganagile, for the daily worship and offerings at the Pastada Tirthada basadi, and for the food of the Sramanas. 9. Again in the year 1121-22, Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmaaideva-ll, grandson of Brammadeva, on the happy occasion of the birth of his son Hermmaaideva, made a hindrance free gift of the village Basadiyahalli, to the crown basadi.

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66 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand 10. Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga renovated the crown tem ple, built by his ancestors, caused to be constructed of stone. Thus, the Mandali-Thousand Patta Jinalaya on the hill, was one of the rare temples, as old as fifteen hundred years that continued to enjoy renewed endowments. But it is astonishing that no information is coming forth about the time of the disintegration or the manner of the collapse of this crown temple, which had the status of being the chief of all the temples in the Mandalinad. It is noteworthy and also of historical importance that the Patta-jinalaya in the town exists to this day in good condition, converted into a Saiva temple. It has undergone some modification: the front elevation is altered, the Vimana on the temple has been removed, the Jina Parsva image in the sanctum sanctorum has been replaced with the present Siva-Linga, and in a nut-shell, almost all the traits of Jaina stamp has been systematically dismantled. Albeit, the original stone pillars of the navaranga, the centre hall of the temple, stand strong in situ, with the sculpture and the north-west pillar contains the inscription of C.E. 1060, all the 26 lines in tact, giving the following details: The mahamandalesvara Bhujabala Ganga Permmali Barmmadeva made grant of land (specified) for the Pattada basadi of the Mandali Tirtha. And his crowned queen Ganga Mahadevi, his son Marasingadeva, his younger brother Satya Ganga, his younger brother Rakkasa Ganga, his younger brother Bhujabala Ganga, his son Marasingadeva Nanniya Ganga Permmali - all made grants of land (specified). And in the villages of the naa, which he ruled, he gave a tribute of five Pana to the goddess Padmavatidevi, to continue as long as sun, moon and stars. [Sh. 6. 1060. p. 18; total 26 lines] The (small) shrine, exclusively built as an abode for housing the goddess Padmavatidevi, either inside the temple or outside but within the temple complex, does not exist now. The Ramesvara temple as it (Patta Jinalaya) is called today, is just about three kms from proper Shimoga city. Everyday

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Society and Religions / 67 the usual rituals of prayer and worship takes place here. The temple is in the heart of the village Harakere, retaining its old name, on one side of the main road from Shimoga, which passes through the village almost bifurcating the hamlet. The river Tunga flows behind the temple and the location speaks of the aesthetic excellence of the Mandali rulers, who have rightly chosen the best site (nivesana) for their crown temple; the area in and around this chaple was the proper or rather heart of Mandali town. Further, the villages, tanks, paddy field, the wet land and dry land and a pond mentioned in the above endowment charter of the Patta Jinalaya (Ramesvara devalaya) deserve a special consideration. Tattekese, Adravalli, Konare, Siriyur, Huli and its tank, Heggana(gi)le, Heggere, Basadiyahalli, Harakeri and its tank and a pond are the places and the area covered in the gift to the crown-temple. Most of these places have survived to this day, with the very names. Tattekere, about five kms still further and eight kms away from Shimoga, is the famous Jaina seat and the residence of the senior minister Nokkayya. The basadi that he built at Tattekere does not exist now; but the small shed (of about 15' x 10') called Ramesvarana-gudi was the place where the basadi once existed. The lithic record of the size of 7'6" X 3'3", in front of the guli, is one of the famous charters of the Mandali rulers, which proclaims that the Gangas were born in order to protect the Jinadharmma of the Kailasa mountain (Sh. 10. 1085, pp. 19-21]. The lone inscription at Tattakere also contains the achievements of Perggade Nokkayya who caused Jinalayas at Harige and Nellavatti. Thus, it is well established that the entire area of Harakere and its neighbouring villages was attached to the Pasta Jinalaya, with marked boundaries. What happened to the original mulanayaka pratime, the Arhat Parsva image, and the attendent goddess Padmavatidevi image of the Patta-Jinalaya is not known, it seems that these images are not shifted to the Shimoga museum; similar is the case with the idols of Tastekere Jinalaya.

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68 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand We are not in a position to differentiate between the architecture of the kings and the architecture of the people, since the 'Chapel royal' (pasta jinalaya) has undergone so many changes in the course of nine hundred years. The Jaina style of architecture, on the whole is uncomplicated and does not differ much from non-jaina styles. Looking at the Jaina sanctuaries from a distance, one will easily say that it looks like any other temples. But, only a careful examination of the details, both the outside and the inside of the shrine, will reveal the items and details of difference from non-jaina temples and the elements of its own characteristic Jaina features. The exterior of the temple may not look so graceful, but the interior details are lively; particularly the breath-taking beauty of its doorways and pillars are typical of the Mandali-nad temples. This can be seen in the sanctuaries at Nyamati, Basavana-Gangur, Shimoga, Harakere and Gurupura. These marvels would never have been accomplished, had the ruling mahamandalesvaras not taken a keen interest in them. Their interest and zeal in these works could be explained only if they lived so close by to these basadis that they and their consorts could visit the sanctuaries as often as they wished. Therefore, a careful examination and fieldsurvey indicate that, the Ganga family might have been ruling the Mandali nad in a feudatory capacity, with their residence at the present Harakere vicinity. We get manifold sources of information for reconstructing an authentic account of the political, social, economic, religious and cultural conditions of the Mandali nal. The political stability and the economic prosperity during the reign of the Calukyas prompted the Mandali rulers to patronise different temples and to create permanent endowment in its favour. Goddess Padmavatidevi Of the 24 Tirthankaras of Jaina order, only Jina Parsvanatha temples played a prominent role in the Mandalinal for two reasons:

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1. 2. Society and Religions/69 The Ganga family owes its origin to the political and spiritual guidance of the adept Simhanandi, promoter of the Ganga kingdom, who caused by his faith the goddess Padmavati, the attendent deity of Arhat Parsva, to appear, obtained a boon and gave the Gangas a sword and the whole kingdom. The crown-basadi, the patta jinalaya, of the Mandali-Thousand had the god Parsva as its mulanayaka, the chief of the sanctum sanctorum. And, this Parsvanatha Jinalaya was the chief of all the temples; the deity Padmavatidevi is his attendent goddess, a desire fulfiler and a boon giver. As a consequence to this, the deity Padmavati acquired the place of honour among the goddesses, and became famous and popular in the Ganga Mandalinad. According to the Jaina pantheon, the deity Padmavatidevi is the consort of the cobra god Dharanendra (Dharana, Nagendra, Nagaraja, Phanendra). Both of them are considered as the Jina Sasanadevi and deva of Arhat Parsva (Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1976: 114-16 and 138-41; Dhaky, M.A. (ed): 1997). The goddess Padmavati is the family deity of not only the Gangas ab initio-ad finem, but also of the Santaras and even the Hoysalas. Santaligenad and Mandalinad dynasties invariably had in their raja-prasasti a common phrase - obtainer of a boon from the goddess Padmavati, analogous with that of the early Gangas (Nagarajaiah, Hampa: Santararu: 1997-A). They lived under the guardianship of Padmavatidevi, their favourite deity who presented them with a crest, a royal insignia. Kancaladevi, a Pattamahadevi of Marasinga Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva, for having obtained a son Hermmadideva, a prince of the royal family, by the divine grace of goddess Padmavati, and in fulfilment of her solemn promise, granted a tribute of five pana, in the year 1121-22, from the villages of Mandali nadu to continue as long as sun, moon and stars shine. Shimoga has the distinction of being the centre place of two of the earliest temples erected for Lord Parsva and goddess Padmavati respectively in C.E. 350, by the early Gangas at the instance of Simhanandi

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70 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand acarya, the promoter of the Ganga kingdom. A century after this Padmavati temple on Mandalihill, Ravivarma (458-519), the Banavasi Kadamba king, made some grants for the embellishments of the Padmavati temple at Kallili village; KalliligramamPadmavatyalayasya-Puja samskarartham (Gopal, B.R: Corpus of Kadamba Inscriptions 1985: 87). So, the early temples for goddess Padmavatidevi are at Mandali-hill (mid 4th century), at Kallili in North Canara (5th century) and at Hombuja in Shimoga district (7th century). Inscriptions of the Mandali Gangas and the SantaligeSantaras make a special reference to this deity as Lokkiyabbe and Nokkiyabbe. To impart fulness to this monograph, this observation needs further elaboration, covering its background. Lokkiyabbe alias Nokkiyabbe is a tribal deity. The process of assimilation of tribal divinities is not new to the religions of india. Adoption of the local pastoral deity Lokkiyabbe, absorbing the name and identifying with Padmavatidevi must have taken place in seventh century C.E. and the melting pot of the regional tribal deity was the present day Hombuja. Inscriptions vouch to the testimony of this process of assimilation of the deity of the tree with the patron deity of Hombuja and the rulers Santaras. Tribal origin of Lokkiyabbe is not beyond recognitioin, because we have an access to the etymology of the word: Lokki/Nokki - (Nekki, Lakki, Lekki, Lokki, Lakali, Nakali-being other variants) is a variety of plant, the shrub or small tree vitex negundo or trifolia Lin; Lokki/Nekki is a Dravidian word with its congnates as follows - Kannada, Lokki, Nekki, Lakali, Nakali; Tamil, Noci; Malayalam, Noci; Tulu. Nekki, Lakki; Telugu, Noccil, Lokki; Sanskrit name for the Dravidian Lokki or Nokki plant is Indra-surasa, Indranke, Sephalika, Sinduvara. Jains in Karnataka worship the shrub Lokki even to this day, considering it a symbol of Padmavatidevi. The vegetarian character of the deity being the main characteristic feature of the typical Jaina goddess. Thus mostly the Yaksas manifest in their benevolent form on the benefic aspect; they rarely manifest in their terrible form. Only occasionally, with valid reasons, they split into two opposing, yet complimentary

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Society and Religions / 71 forms. For instance, if a person/power out of his/its personal hatred and in a state of anger and malice, indulge in causing any thing wrong to an innocent person, a Jina or an ascetic or a devout lay votary, deeply engrossed in meditation, the goddess Yaksi would voluntarily manifest in her terrible form, demonstrate the malefic aspect and dispense the evil. Generally the Yaksis manifest as the boon-conferring (anugraha-murti) and desire fulfilling (abhista-vara-pradayini) deities, but never the Jinas/Tirthankaras. Thus, the Yaksis became the favourite goddesses for the worshippers; very imposing and aesthetically chiselled and designed images of Yaksis appeared. Architecturally also, there is scope for the sculptors for the imagination in the images of Yaksis, but particularly no scope for variety in the images of the Jinas. The Mandali rulers also caused Padmavatidevi alias Lokkiyabbe temples. The Vayjamandalika and his queen consort Vayjaladevi of Asandinad Gangas, saying that "this is our deity and the only light of our family, character and power', they worshipped goddess Padmavatidevi, everyday; a son was born to them, whom they named as Barmmadeva, who succeeded the throne. Bhujabala Ganga Permmadi Barmmadeva was a laic devotee of the deity Padmavatidevi and in fulfilment of the obligation, he gave a permanent grant of five pana from the villages he ruled in the year C.E. 1060. There were temples exclusively built for Padmavatidevi, as the main deity to be worshipped in the sanctum sanctorum. She figures prominently in the Mandalinad inscriptions in her boon granting divine form. Padmavatidevi had the other names of Lokkiyabbe and Nokkiyabbe, meaning the 'VIksa-devata', goddess of the plant Lokki or Nokki as variants. Some of the personal names of the Mandalinad important persons were after the name of this goddess; Lokkiyakka, wife of Marasinganspa, is one such name. Even male persons who were devotees to this deity would prefer to be named after her; Nokkayya is one such name. Since the Yaksas are primarily sylvan deities, Padmavatidevi's association with the shrub Lokki is not surprising.

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72/The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand The Mulanayaka, the principle deity of the basadi at Nellavatti, the modern Nyamati, is not mentioned in the concerned inscirption. But the beautiful image of the goddess Ambika alias Kusmandini, of eleventh century in the village (now placed on the JagatiKatte near Santemala), suggests that the temple built in 1085 by the celebrated Perggade Nokkayya, was for the god Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara. At Didagur, on the bank of the river, in Honnali taluk, the herggade Jakkayya-Jakkavve couple caused a Caityalaya, in 1160, setting up the god Suparsva Tirthankara, made grants for the god and for rsis. Recently 1 discovered an inscription in the Nyamati temple giving details about Icarasa and Sovaladevi, his consort, who commissioned the extended portion, to the right side of the Trikuta Jinalaya caused earlier by pergade Nokkayya. Icarasa, chief of Sindavadi, was ruling from his residence at Belagavatti (Belagutti) as a vassal of the Mandalinad, in the early decades of 12th cent. Belagutti (Belagavatti, Belagavarti) in Honnali taluk, was the capital of Sindavadi principality of the Hoysala kingdom. Viraballaladeva had entrusted it to dandanayaka Todapille, in C.E. 1175. Mallidevarasa (1196), Isvaradevarasa (1216), Simhaladevarasa (1232) and Biradevarasa (1249) succeeded Todapille as samantas. Later, Belagutti was ruled by the subordinates of Vijayanagara. With the discovery of the new inscription, it has come to light that Icarasa was the earliest to rule Belagutti. Icarasa and Sovaladevi, his spouse, had caused many Jinalayas, made Belagutti look like another Kopana, a celebrated Jaina centre. Sovaladevi, a lady votary of Jinadharma, has been compared to Danacintamani Attimabbe, an illustrious lady of tenth century in the Calukya kingdom. [Kamala Hampana: 1995]. Nalprabhu Sindagavunda, a bee at the lotus feet of Jinendra and a subordinate of the Mandali rulers is mentioned in an inscription [Sh. 39 C.E. 1122]. But, it is not clear whether he was related to Icarasa of Sindavadi or not. Yet, the charter confirms. that Sindavadi was a part of the Mandalinad.

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Chapter 5 The Preceptors The Nirgrantha creed has its political order, methodically maintained in the canonical texts and in inscriptions. This traditionally preserved chronological list of the religious teachers, more or less, is in confirmity with the available historical data. Jaina preceptors are called as Sramanas (Sanskrit), Samana or Savana (Prakrit), Yati, muni and rsi. In hundreds of inscriptions, the term ssi is invariably refers to a Jain saint. Some of these monks were raja-gurus, royal teachers and mandalacaryas, the abbots of a greater diocese, in which case such ascetics would be introduced with the epithet mandalacarya of so and so. These pontiffs had their individual and some times traditional titles, occasionally distinguishing prefixes or suffixes that speak of each preceptors monastic status, erudition and achievement. The bhattarakas had the title Jagadguru, teacher of the world [EC. Il (R) 476 (345) A.D. 1159. line: 38]. The word Jagadguru, as an epithet is men

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74/ The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand tioned for the first time in an inscription of A.D. 1067 of Koppala (Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1978-A: p/73). Bhattarakas would stay in the Matha attached to the temple, whereas the Nirgrantha friars would stay in the basadi, sleep on the floor during the blunt of seasonal variations. They were profound scholars in various branches of knowledge, not confined to their religious dogmas only. Most of them were grammarians, logicians, eloquent orators, litterateures, proficient in religious discourses and debates. They were experts in siddhanta, the Jaina philosophy, syadvada, the doctrine of qualified assertion, anekantavada, the doctrine of manifold aspects, with a working knowledge in medicine. Nirgrantha monks would take food only once in a day, in forenoon, and would not sip even a drop of water for the next 24 hours and never after sunset. Jaina pontificates were established during the reign of the Mandali-Thousand Ganga kings at several places. Some of the basadis in the province were either newly built or repaired, or rebuilt, on the advice of these friars. Most of the Mandalinad charters simultaneously testify to the growth of the basadis and the Nirgrantha-mata, at the hands of the local Mandalinadu rulers and the commoners. Thus, religious activities of Jainas accelerated. The descent of the seers of the Kranur (Kanur) gana, a cohort of the friars and nuns of the original congregation, the Mulasangha has been chronologically recorded, starting from its first and foremost ascetic the adept Simhanandi acarya. Apostle Simhanandi acarya Quite a good number of Jaina acaryas flourished in the Mandalinadu, commanding lot of respect from the state and its subjects. Among the very many monks that adorned the Mandalinad, it is the great Simhanandi acarya who stands unique at the top and all the rest of ascetics simply walked on his foot steps. There were two or three Simhanandi acaryas; one in the third century, the other in the fourth century.

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The Preceptors / 75 Following are the details as recorded in the Mandalinad inscriptions: Well-versed in the ten forms of righteousness (the Uttama Ksamadi dasa-dharmas, the ten commandments of the Jaina church), possessing the auspicious wealth of immaculate virtues, a sight of pleasure for the devotees was the acarya Simhanandi. He, bearing the stamp of radiance of fame reaching the four sea shore, free and far away from all impurities, a sun to the sky of Kranurgana, was dedicated to the practice of performing the 12 varities of penance. When he was indulged in his daily penance and leading the life of austerity at the outskirts of the Ganga Perur, Dadiga and Madhava, Ksatriya brothers in distress, approached the ascetic. The revered Simhanandi acarya who carefully listened to the grievances narrated by the forlorn brothers. The adept monk, taking pity, made them indulge in the proper education. After some days, Simhanandi invoked the goddess Padmavatidevi who blessed them with a boon, a sword and a kingdom. Madhava, revered by the learned, with all his might struck the stone pillar column which broke with a cracking noise. Convinced with the power of Madhava, prophet Simhanandi placed a coronet of the petals of Karnnikara flower, blessed them by scattering rice grains (aksata). Thus, the saint with a pleased mind gave them a kingdom with a crest and cognizance, making his pinca, peacock feather whisk broom a signal flag for them, furnished with numerous attendants, elephants and horses. Simhanandi acarya's matured wisdom was such, that while establishing a kingdom for his laic followers with all required infrastructure, he also laid down for his protege, rightly swept up in the spirit of the age and history: If you fail in what you have promised If you do not approve of the Jaina teachings If you seize the wife of another If you eat honey or flesh If you form relationships with low people

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76 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand If you do not give your wealth to the needy If you flee from the battle field Then your race will go to ruin All the Gangas faithfully adhered to these aeonial commandments almost verbatem; they fought bravely and won many decisive battles, whole-heartedly approved the Jaina teachings, maintained sterling character, remained virtuous, followed vegetarianism, aimed at altruistic principles, distributed their wealth to the needy. A number of the Ganga charters go to approve that they are celebrated for their unswerving fidelity to the plighted word. They continued to include the cognomen Dharma-mahadhiraja and Satya-vakya or Nanniya Ganga to aver their guru the adept Simhanandi. After the great Bhadrabahu Srutakevali acarya, it is Sishanandi acarya who as an apostle revitalised and opened a new vista to Jaina church in Karnataka, which assumed new proportions. The acarya had a vision, a mission and an ambition. He had a large number of valiant and loyal royal followers who ably executed his sermon to achieve phenominal success. The charter of Purale village makes it clear that the adept Simhanandi was a native of southern country: Daksina-desa-nivasi (Sh. 64. 1132. p. 67). He is one of the earliest of Jain pontiffs to envisage the importance of political strength to safeguard the religion also. With Bhadrabahu came Candragupta Maurya, relinquishing his kingdom and accepted monkhood. But, Simhanandi came with a band of martial race and trained them not to renounce the world but to rule the kingdom ably, and they did fulfil the wishes of their preceptor. The Mulasangha, a dominant ecclesiastical institution, was established by Mahavira, and Indrabhuti Gautama (Pk. Indabui Goyama) was the first to hold its pontiffical chair. Later, apostle Bhadrabahu first brought the Mulasangha to the south, and gradually it branched off into different ganas and gacchas. Once again the adept konpakunda acarya, one of the greatest of patriarchs, consolidated all the splinter groups that had branched off from

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The Preceptors /77 the original congregation, including the Yapaniya sangha and made Mulasangha an invincible force in the south: Sri Kondakunda nama=bhun=mula-sangha=grani gani [EC. Vol. II (R) No. 79 (69) C. 12th Cent. C.E. P. 55] Thus, Mulasangha maintained its hold for more than a thousand years. Among the congregations of the Nirgranta creed, the best is Mulasangha, the original congregation; in that Mulasangha the zenith is the Desiga gana (Sh. 97. 1113. p. 108). This statement of an inscription of the Mandlinad has crystalised the long tradition of Jaina monachism. Mula sangha superseded some of the early and later branches. Bacaladevi, queen consort of Mandali ruler, was a disciple of this Desiga gana; she caused to be made a celebrated Caityalaya, an ornament to the Mandali-Thousand with Arhat Parsva as the mula-nayaka and dedicated it to the tradition of Mulasangha Desiga gana. Of the different sects of Jainism, Digambara the sky-clad, Svetambara the white-clad and the Yapaniya are the earliest. The inscriptions discussed in this monograph, however, do not contain any reference to the Svetambara sect, only Digambara sect held faster to the ground. Though Yapaniya sangha school of Jainism was different from the other two, but nearer to the former, had its sway in Karnataka between 4th and 14th centuries. But Yapaniya lost its identity in the pre-medieval period itself, and it merged with the original congregation, in and around tenth and 11th centuries, even though its nomenclature continued to survive for some more centuries. Yapaniya sangha had its own ganas and gacchas (Nagarajaiah, Hampa: Candrakode : 1997-C: 15256). The early Gangas were followers and great supporters of Yapaniya school, because the very promoter of the Ganga kingdom, adept Simhanandi was himself a Yapaniya acarya. Of the many ganas and gacchas, Kanar gana, Surasta gana and Mesa Pasana gaccha, three of the cohorts of friars of the Yapaniya

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78 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand school of thought, are mentioned in the Mandali-Thousand inscriptions. Charters of the period of Nanniya Ganga Permmali and later epigraphs go to prove that his predecessors and successors continued to be followers of this sangha, and made generous gifts to the basadis. Most of the preceptors of the Mandali rulers are of Kanurgana. It is Ponna (C.E. 960), a Jina-samaya-dipaka, light of the Jaina religion, a court-poet of the Rastrakuta king Klsna-III, who is the earliest author to mention and pay rich tributes to the Kanur gana acaryas. Poet Ponna, in his Santipuranam, has mentioned Arhadbali acarya (1-17, 18) and Bettada Damanandi (1-23, 24) as the excellent teachers of Kanar gana. It is note worthy that the above pontiffs mentioned by poet Poona find place in the inscriptions of the Mandalinad. After Simhanandi acarya follows an exhaustive list of Kanur-gana acaryas (Sh. 4, 40, 57,64 etc). This list of the succession of Nirgranta pontiffs of Kanur gana is in extenso identical with the Icavadi fragmentary inscription; but, I have explained elsewhere in this monograph, that the Icavadi charter is just a broken piece, containing the second half of the same Kallurgudda inscription, bearing the number Shimoga 4, in Rice's edition of Epigraphia Carnatika volume VII and part-I (1902). The disciples after Simhanandi acarya are Arhadbalyacarya, Bettada Damanandi bhattaraka, Meghacandra traividyadeva, Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva-I, Gunacandra Panditadeva, Gunanandideva, Maghanandi Siddhantadeva, his collegue, Anantaviryamuni, his confrere Municandramuni, his disciple Srutakirti Kanakanandi-traividya, Madhvacandra, his disciple Balacandra yatindra - these are the acaryas of the Mandali rulers. These are the monks who were the moving spirit behind the construction of Caityalayas. The names of these ascetics are repeated with various epithets, emphasising their spiritual attainment. This long list does not say that these acaryas came one after another in the same order; because, some of them were contemporaries, either living at the same monastery or at different basadis. Alahalli, Basadiyahalli, Bannikere, Didagur, Edehalli, Harige, Kalamburunagara, Kuntalapura, Kuruli, Nelavatii, Nidige,

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The Preceptors / 79 Purulegrama, Tattekere - were some of the villages where these ascetics had stayed. Balacandra bratipati was honoured at Purulegrama in 1112; his confrere at Kopanatirtha was Vaddacaryabratipati, who was more honoured than his collegue Nemideva, was evidently a monk to whom the mercantile community had large number of lay votaries. There are only three nisidhi stones caused to be made in memory of the deceased. One of the nisidhi is of the monk Balacandradeva, erected by his disciple Nemideva in 1227. Incidentally this is the last reference to a Jaina monk in the Mandalinad. It is curious to note that there are no references to nuns, the female Jaina ascetics, in any of the Mandalinad charters. Gunanandideva, a Brahma to grammar, the brilliance of his speech spreading the glory of his qualities, his eloquence growing in fame like a moon, had become great. There are two pontiffs with the name of Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva, both being great scholars. The earlier acarya, adoring the throne of Akalanka, a celebrated logician, a lion to the elephant of disputants, versatile in Saddarsanas, proficient in all literature, a sun in the sky of the Nirgrantha congregation, belonged to the Mula sangha, Kondakundanvaya, Kranurgana, Mesapasana gaccha. The later Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva-ll was his great grand disciple and he also possessed similar virtues and scholarship. It is this acarya who was a raja-guru to some of the Mandalinadu chiefs. Two of the rare instances of a person possessing a typical Jaina personal names are Bahubali and Jinadasa. Bahubali is recorded in an inscription (Sh. 97. 1113), Jinadasa is mentioned in an epigraph of eleventh century (Sh. 10. 1085). Lokkiyabbe and Nokkayya are the names after the popular deity Padmavatidevi who had other localised names as Lokkiyabbe and Nokkiyabbe. Basadis Basadis were nucleus of various socio-religious activities, safe guarding the interests of the community. Along with the attached mathas, the basadis played a prominent role in moulding

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80 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand the personality of the laics; its votaries were complimentary to each other and evidently depended on each other. Basadis were of the people, by the people and for the people. Basadis also worked as schools, primarily imparting the scriptural knowledge, initiation to religious texts. As repository of religious books written on palm-leaf, basadis invariably contained stabhandaras, a collection of basic religious books and books on grammar, logic, philosophy, lexicography, medicine, poetics, prosody and poetry. For the lay votaries, they were also centres of attraction. Occasionally dramatic performances, based on the theme of the Jaina puranas were also arranged in the premises. Panca Kalyana episode, a popular theme, was enacted accompanied by dance and music. Dancing performances were more frequent, and a portion of the grants made over to the basadi was year marked to dances. Thus, basadis were also repositories of fine arts. Even the worship in the Caityalaya was not limited to the well-being of the individual alone. It had a range of wider scope of wishing safety for all people, with the king being god fearing, Indra blessing with seasonal rains, devoid of all diseases, famine and pestilence. Therefore, basadi was an institution in itself and was more than a mere place of worship. Basadis even today, in and around the proper Shimoga town are found the traces of the predominence of Nirgrantha faith. A number of surrounding villages clearly betray the Jainistic features of iconography, coupled with the presence of more and more Jaina images. Jainism had entered Shimoga vicinity as early as in the early centuries of C.E., that go to confirm the verocity of the statements in Kallurgudda charter. Some of the ancient sculptures, Jaina images, pillars and pedestals and other antiquities, collected from the ruins in this area of the Mandali nadu, are neatly housed in the old palace museum at Shimoga. These excellent masterpieces of architecture are the silent witness to the heyday of dominence of Jainism under the Gangas of Mandali-1000. It is note worthy that the modern Shimoga city, a district head-quarters, was a small village, with 'SIMOGE' as its early name, included in the Mandalinad principlaity. The present Anjaneya (Hanumanta) temple, in the centre of Shimoga proper

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The Preceptors / 81 town, was a basadi Jain temple, built by the Manqali Gangas in eleventh century. The village Simoge, along with another seven villages were gifted as a gavunda-vitti, a means of subsistence, to the minister Perggade Nokkayya, by his king Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-l (1070-76) (Sh. 10.1085 pp. 1921). In all probability it is Perggade Nokkayya who caused a basadi at the then simoge, the modern Shimoga, in the end of eleventh century around 1090, which after being taken over by the Brahmins, has been renovated and altered into a Vaisnava temple; but it is happy to note that the old temple of the Mandalinao, some how survives to this day in good condition, with some alterations. But, the old and original pillars are intact in situ; door frames are also maintained as they were. In these solid and heavy pillars and the door frames, technical skill is as transparent as the patient labour is visible. Srikara columns very much resemble the similar columns in the Jinalayas of Halebidu olim Bastihalli of the Hoysala period. Catholicity of the Mandali Gangas The Mandali-Gangas were wont to observe religious tolerance. They were the promoters of the dharma of the four traditional samayas, though Jainism continued to be the implicit faith of the state and the people, throughout the reign of the Mandali1000, fashioned after the early Gangas. There were some agraharas in the Mandalinad and the Brahmanas were respected and rewarded everywhere. Cordial relations prevailed between Jains and other sects which had most salutary effect on the state. Alahalli inscription, one of the earliest of the Mandalinad charters throws light on the catholicism of the Gangas: Cikkabbe, consort of Butuga-1, made over the tank, granted to her by her husband, as gift for purposes of management to god isanasiva (Sh. 96. C.E. 915 p. 106). After the advent of Kalamukha Saivas, as early as tenth century, the Saivas wielded a greater influence. The Mandalinao patronised Saivadharma and Mahesvara Savia in particular.

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82 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand God Siddhesvara temple Though the progress of Arhatamata institution was unchecked, the worship of Lord Siva was wide spread. Jains and Saivaites, without any reservation or distinction used to attend each others temples and listen to the recital of Siva-dharma-kathaprasanga from the holy scriptures with devotion. During the period of the Mandali Gangas, the Mandali-basadi and god Siddhesvara temple existed in Edadore-70, side by side, and together flourished with hindrance free gifts and endowments. A na!-prabhu Sindagavunda was a bee at the lotus feet of Jinendra; his wife Nagagavundi was head of the Mahesvaragana. The couple living happily in Vira-grama, made a grant for the decorations, distribution of food and for the repairs of god Siddesvara, of land (specified) (Sh. 39. 1122). The god Siddhesvara and the priest Brahmesvaradeva had their devotees mentioned in inscriptions (Sh. 51. 1108 and Sh. 40. 1180). The devout Jain lay votaries, Hoysala Goydisetti and his two sons, on hearing the recital of Siva-dharma, made a grant of land for the embellishment and repairs of the god Siddesvara (Sh. 40. 1180. p. 46). Mahamandalesvara Nanniya Ganga himself made a grant of a garden for the god Uma-Mahesvara of the Panca Linga temple at Balligave (Sk. 127. 1118) A number of Saiva and Vaisnava temples were built during the reign of Mandali Gangas and were endowed with liberal grants. The nalprabhu Madhusudhanadeva caused to be built the Gangesvara temple in the name of his father of Madu-GangaKhandalipura in the Mandalinad (Sh. 5. 1218). The god Kamathesvara, whose temple had been erected of stone, was also worshipped and the temple had grants given by the devotees (Sh. 44. 1122). Haduvala (general) Gangaya and his eldest son Haluvala Hemmadi-Devarasa, one day, on hearing the recital of Siva-dharmma, made grant of land (Sh. 42. 1122). When mahamandalesvara Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva-1 was ruling in peace at his residence, a

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The Preceptors / 83 temple for the god Jakkesvara was erected, a linga was set up in the sanctum, a Kalasa was put up, and after washing the feet of Jagadindu-pandita, a grant of land was made (Sh. 14. 1103 p. 22). In the principality of the Mandali, Venkata Nayaka erected the temple of Ranganatha and endowed it with land. Siriyoja, son of Mallojayya of Gangur, was the architect of the temple who also inscribed the inscription. Begur agrahara was famous and highly respected vedic centre for Mahesvaras, Vaisnvas and other creeds. 1300 Brahmanas of the agrahara of Begur were characterised by self control, subjection, recitation of the vedas, meditation, abstraction, silence, propriety, prayer, religious vows. They were skilled in the Mimamsaka, Lokayata, Bauddha, Sankhya, Vaisesika and other sastras and agamas; performances of agnistoma and all other sacrifices; reverenced by the learned; obtainers of three fold fame in many branches of sruthi, smriti and the meaning of sruti. Cattagosi, son of Kala-gamunda of Amba, made a grant of 25 Kamma of rice land and a site for one house, to provide a satra, choultry/feeding house, for distributing food to those of the country and those from other parts, in the year 1089 (Sk. 14 and 16. 1085; Sk. 18. 1158). A Ghatika sthana Bhimesvara temple of Kusukuru agrahara, village assigned to Brahmins for their maintenance, was a Svayambhu LingaKsetra, self existent and hence hallowed, with the god Bhimanathadeva. Still more significant is that it was a Ghatikasthana, a place of learning in 14th century, when pratapa cakravartti Hoysana Vira Ballala Devarasa's ministers for peace and war, Devapa-Hariyapa was the Sarvadhikari of Haduvalikenad in GangaMandali. During his time in the year C.E. 1309, Bhimanatha, 60 farmers, 1700 Gavare-gaudas, 120 Sthanas and 18 castes granted for the god Bhimanatha, free of all imposts. Equally famous was the god Ramanathadeva of the village Kuruva. When Tribhuvanamalla NanniyaGanga Permmadideva was ruling and his mahasamanta Otti-ghattiyanna at Kotepura of Ciluru

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84 / The Later Gangas : Manqali-Thousand balle-30 Kampana of Mandali-1000, Savanta Ramayya, after washing the feet of Padmasideva, the priest of god Nagesvara, made a grant of land (specified) in 1076. He also made a gift of land for Palayiga, the dancing girl, the singers, for the man who brings bilpatre leaves, the Bael tree, and others. Ramayya had carried out the stone work of the Nagesvara temple, built a tank for the god Siva, with devotion set up the god kesava in his own name, Rama-kesava, and made grants of land including those given by the previous order (HI. 14. 1076) Bagavadi Somesvara Pandita was the chief of the Saiva temple in Edadore-70 of the Mandali-1000. After washing his feet, the na!-prabhu Nema Veggade, a liac Jain, with several others, made grant of land for the god (Sh. 43. 1172). A temple of Kalesvara was erected by the general Hemmali, in the name of his mother Kalevve. Later, his son Kaleya alias Kala had it built of stone, made for it a grant of land, washing the feet of Kalyana Pandita, Malloja built the garbhagsha (Sh. 55. 1167). Maraya, doorkeeper of Hoysala Vira Ballala, in the name of his younger brother Cikkatamma, erected temple called Cikkesvara, and made a grant (specified) for the service, offerings, food of ascetics and repairs of the temples; the people and farmers of Gangana nad (Mandali) also made grants (specified) to the god Cikkesvara from the customs dues. The donee was Mallikarjuna pandita, disciple of Suryabharanadeva, acarya of Tripurantaka, at the eastern gate of Sriparvata. To the Pattanasvami Goyisetti, a dweller at the feet of Jinendra, 20 bullocks were allowed out of the 100 bullocks granted to the temple (Sh. 88. 1203). Na!-prabhu Madhusudanadeva, son of Vibhu Ganga and Vijjale-Rani, had a door made to the Gangesvara temple erected by his father. Later he also granted land (specified) for the ceremonies and perpetual lamp of the temple (Sh. 5. 1218). Literature The Mauryas, the Satavahanas, the Cutus - were all alien to the soil of Karnataka; they employed either Prakrit or Sanskrit as

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The Preceptors / 85 their language. It was left for the indigenous dynasties like the Gangas and the Badami Calukyas to employ and encourage the language of the inhabitants of the region. The Banavasi Kadambas, though a indigenous family, adopted Sanskrit as their official language. The Gangas contribution to Kannada language and literature is remarkable. Some of the early kings of the Ganga dynasty were great scholars. Kannada was the mother tongue of the Gangas, the Rastrakutas, the Calukyas of Badami and Kalyana. The Mandalinadu Gangas also continued the religion and language of their family tradition. Thus, Kannada was their mother tongue and the language of the administration. The personal names of the Ganga kings and queens such as Butuga, Ereyappa, Ereganga, Muttarasa, Mukkara, Kambayya, Kattane, Arasane, Kalabba, Padmabbarasi, Revakanimmadi, Kallabba, Punuseya Marula, Arumolideva, Nanniya Ganga etc., virtually demonstrates that their mother tongue was Kannada language. But, whether the Mandali Gangas patronised Kannada authors is not known. Albeit, there were some bards in the courts of these mandalikas, capable of authoring the Mandali charters. When the Kalyana Calukya emperor Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya-VI was ruling the kingdom, his feudatory Ganga Permmadi's minister was Heggade Nokkayya. His Sandhi-vigrahi and a poet Damaraja authored the Shimoga inscription number ten of C.E. 1085. This 'Sasana-gabba', a sasana-kavya as the poet calls it, contains 59 lines, and fairly records the early and later Gangas. This charter with the usual invocatory verse, Srimatparama-gambhira-syadvada, in praise of the Jinasasana, very often quoted in hundreds of Jaina inscriptions [it is a quotation from Bhatta Akalankadeva's 'Pramanasangrah' (C.E. 730-50)], contains some Sanskrit composition in the beginning. Immediately after the tenth line onwards, the whole inscription is in chaste Kannada language. Damaraja had a sound knowledge of Kannada language and literature. This Tattekere inscription can be considered as an abridged Campukavya. It is composed in ornate literary style and contains verses composed in Kanda, Vrttas of Campakamala,

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86 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Utpala and mattebha-vikridita form/metre. The epigraph betrays the poet's mastery in handling the historical events in the frame of an inscription, with a touch of poetic excellence. He is proficient in both Sanskrit and Kannada languages and equally at ease in Jaina philosophy. Apart from Damaraja, Kavisvara Brahmadeva (Sh. 69. 1320) and Senabova Bogadeva, a lay disciple of Kanakanandi traividya deva (Sh. 89. 1111), are the poets who have composed some of the Mandali inscriptions. Except for a few such inscriptions of literary merit, poetic flash and brilliance of ideas, the rest are all conventional and stereotyped. The mendicant Prabhacandra Siddhantadeva-ll was learned (budha), versatile author in both Kannada and Sanskrit, superior among the poets and was proficient in the three branches of knowledge (trai-vidya); he was a moon to the ocean of Siddhanta (Sh. 57. 1118. Nidige. p.59); The word 'Siddhanta' needs a clarifiction. Digamabara apostle Dharasena transmitted (C.E. 156) to his two disciples Puspadanta and Bhutabali, who compiled Satkhandagama, scripture in six parts; Ganabhadra-l compiled Kasayaprabhita, dealing with theories of bondage of the soul. These two works, being highly technical, are comprehensible to the most advanced scholars or the mendicants. Pontiff Virasena (C.E. 816) wrote Dhavala, the luminous, a commentary on Satkhanlagama. The adept Jinasena (C.E. 820) wrote Jayadhavala, the victoriously luminous, a commentary on Kasayaprabhita. A mendicant possesing full knowledge of Satkhandagama and Kasaya prabhrta, the two primoridal Siddhanta canonical works, was honoured by the title SiddhantaCakravarti. All the preceptors of the Mandalinad patriarchate were proficient in grammar, epistomology, scripture, Sabdagama, Yuktyagama and Paramagama; the last three are traividyas, In importance, the most notable event of Bhujabala Ganga Permmadidev's reign was the copying of the Dhavala-Tika, commentary on the first five parts of Satkhandagama (KammapayadiPahuda alias Karma-praksti-prabhita). The illustrious erudite

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The Preceptors / 87 Virasena acarya, a royal teacher to both Jagattunga and Ntupatunga, kings of the Rastrakuta dynasty, wrote Dhavala-Tika, a commentary of 72 thousand verses, using both Prakrit and Sanskrit languages, in A.D. 816. Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva-I's consort Bacaladevi had constructed a beautiful Caityalaya at Bannikere, which had gained more importance, because of the Parasvanatha temple, the best of temples in the celebrated Mandalinad. Subhacandradeva Munipa, a pupil of Maladharideva yamina [EC. 11(R) 484 (351) C.E. 1119], who was a moon to the ocean of Mulasangha, Desigagana, was the chief preceptor of Bannikere caityalaya. He had mastered agama literature and had the cognomen Siddantaratnakara. Once he wanted to read the Dhavala-Tika to teach his pupil but the palm-leaf text was not there in the Stabhandara of the Caityalaya. Devamati alias Rati-Deviyakka, mother-in-law of the Mandalinad ruler Bhujabala Ganga Permmadi, who was a lady-votary of the ascetic subhacandra Siddhantadeva, had camped at Bannikere Jina Parsva Caityalaya, for the ceremony of concluding the religious observance of Sruta-pancami vrata. Knowing the need and excellence of Dhavala-Tika, Deviyakka immediately arranged for copying the text. Because of the timely action of Deviyakka, a copy of Virasena acarya's Dhavalalika was made available, not only to her revered guru subhacandra Siddhantadeva but the whole world, because that is the one and only copy available to this day. Deviyakka (Devamati, Demati, Ratidevi, Devamati), daughter of Nagale, sister of both Dandanayakitti Lakkale (wife of general Gangaraja) and Buciraja, was wife of Camunda, a royal merchant. She has been compared to Sita, Laksmi and to Sasanadevata, attendent goddess of Jina, the agent in giving protection to the supreme Jaina faith. Demavati, liberal in giving food to the people, refuge to the frightened, good medicine to those rendered miserable by disease, and science and the agamas (scriptural knowledge) to those desirous of learning them. Demavati, at the close of her life, fixed her mind on the Arhat, according to the prescribed rites for all lay votaries, observed

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88 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Sallekana at Sravanabelagola on the Candragiri hill, and entered the high heaven as if her own home, in C.E. 1120. Her elder sister Lakkale alias Laksmi, set up a nisidhi, stone pillar, resembling a column of victory, for that excellent lady Demavati [EC. II (R) 158 (129) 1120. pp. 99-101]. Whoever conceived the act of Sastra-dana, their dream is realised: there is no other holier or greater Sastra-dana, ever known than this, in the annals of Jainism. Similarly, another pious lady Mallikabbe, a queen consort of Santisenaraja also got copied by the skilled professional copyists, Maha-Dhavala (maha-bandha). She is praised with the epithets Sila-nidhi, an abode of amiable disposition and mahayasasvini, a great splendour of glory. Mallikabbe, to commemorate the completion of the Sripancamivrata, had the MahaDhavala copied and respectfully dedicated to her preceptor Maghanandimuni, as an act of Sastradana; providing agama texts, one of the six essential duties of an householder. Though further details about Mallikabbe and her spouse Santisenaraja are still lacking, yet it can be safely said that Mallikabbe, perhaps on the guidance of Devamati, did this act of greater significance, in the beginning of 12th century or vice versa. Maghanandi Siddhanatadeva was also a senior confrere of subhacandra Siddhantadeva, in the Mandalinad principality. The copysists of the Dhavala commentaries were also Jains and well-versed in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Kannada. They have taken extra care and bestowed keen interest in selecting 'Sitale', the best variety of palm-leaf, more flexible and durable, with the maximum length of thirty inches long and 3 1/2 to 4 inches in width. Instead of using 'kantha', an iron style, to write on the palm-leaf, the devoted copysits have used a specially prepared ink that would last long for centuries. Miniature paintings on the palm-leaf wherever possible, is done with extraordinary details and care. Subhacandradeva was the preceptor of Gangaraja, the general, Laksmimati dandanayakiti, consort of Gangaraja, Devamati who caused the copying of DhavlaTika as an act of Sastradana

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The Preceptors / 89 and sister of Laksmimati, Jakkanabbe, the sister-in-law of Gangaraja, Bhujabala Ganga Permmadi, Ganga-Mahadevi and Bacaladevi and many others. Dandanayaka Gangaraja granted the village Parama for the maintenance of Jinalaya commissioned by his mother Pocabbe and his wife Laksmi. Gangaraja's guru Subhacandradeva was inaccessible to sin, of wide-spread-fame, resembling the milk ocean and a pearl necklace. Gangaraja, after washing the feet of his preceptor, entrusted the gift of the village Parama on 28-1-1118 (EC. 11(R) No. 82 (73) C.E. 1118. pp. 6465). Laksmi alias Laksmimati, consort of Gangaraja, general of Visnuvardhana, the Hoysala king, caused a new Jina temple in the year C.E. 1121 at Sravanabelago!a, which belonged to the Pustaka gaccha olim Sarasvati-gaccha, a cohort of Jaina friars and nuns, Desiga-gana of the Mula-sangha, the original congregation. Laksmi was a lady votary of Subhacandra Siddhantadeva, lord of sages, profound and perfect in Jaina philosophy (EC. 11(R). 160 (130). C.E. 1121.p. 101]. Laksmimati, like her sister Demavati, was a mine of auspiciousness; through her, the method of making gifts of food, shelter, medicine and learning acquired splendour. Laksmimati dandanavakiti, the lay disciple of SubhacandraSiddhantadeva, adopted sanyasana, ended her life by samadhi, and went to the world of gods on 20-1-1122, on Candragiri hill. Gangaraja, the general and husband of Laksmimati, set up the nisidhi, an epitaph, as an act of reverence to the deceased and consecrated it with valuable gifts and worship. Thus, the rulers of Mandalinad and their preceptors had connections with Sravanbelago!a and the merits of promoting their creed in different ways, with far reaching effects. Subhacandradeva is also mentioned in another inscription of the Mandalinad (Sh. 89. C.E. 1111 Hebbande-grama p. 103].

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APPENDICES Inscriptions of Mandali-Thousand * Family Genealogy * List of personal names * List of place names * Bibliography * Abbreviations

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Appendices : 97 Inscriptions of Mandali - Thousand Inscriptions of the Mandalinalu, with the exception of Sh.96 and Sh. 26, mostly belong to the period of three imperial dynasties of medieval Karnataka, viz, the Calukyas of Kalyana, the Kalacuris and the Hoysalas. The two early inscriptions, bearing number Sh.96 and Sh. 26 of C.E. 915 and C.E. 970 respectively, belong to the period of the Rastrakutas. Inscriptions of Sh. 26 and 27 of 1524 and 1621 respectively, belong to the Vijayanagara period, by which time the Mandalinad had virtually lost its significance. A predominant ruling dynasty which held sway during the major period of the Mandali Gangas was of the Calukyas of Kalyana, and the present day Karnataka State was under their rule. After the Calukyas of Kalyana rose to the highest power, and brought a vast region under one umbrella, the Gangas were indirectly supressed. The fall of the Rastrakutas, who were totally obilterated from the political scene, was a severe shock and blow to the Gangas, who could not really rise to the power again, though there was nominal re-establishment of the Mandali-Gangas under the Calukya hegemony. An analysis of the charters will throw light on this aspect. There are about fifty charters directly dealing with the Mandalinaa, dating from the early tenth century (C.E. 915) to mid seventeenth century, covering the reign of the Rastsakutas, the Calukyas of Kalyana, the Kalacuris, the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empires, as mentioned above. Prominent among these major dynasties, aprops of the Ganga Mandalinad, are only two, the Calukyas and the Hovsalas. In tote. the lion's share of the epigraphs go to the period of the Calukyas of Kalyana. Shimoga 96 (C.E. 915) and Shimoga 24 (C.E. 970) are the earliest, and only two charters which belong to tenth century. There are three criptions, Nos. 6, 10 and 58, which belong to eleventh century; but there are twenty records of twelfth century. Totally about 23 inscriptions cover the period of Calukya regime. Inscription number 27 of 1621 is perhaps the last inscription which refer to the GangaMandalinadu.

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92 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Most of the dates suggested and worked out by Lewis Rice are valid, as I calculated them once again, except a few, where a correction is necessary. For example, the date of the important Nidige inscription number Shimoga 57, should be 1118 instead of 1115, of the Purulegrama (Shimoga 64) should be 1132 instead of 1112 etc. List of inscriptions Some of the inscriptions are lengthy and contain very useful information of historical importance. In particular the epigraphs, No. Sh. 4 (1121-22), Sh. 39 (1122), Sh. 57 (1118), Sh. 64 (1132) and Sh. 97 (1112), contain a detailed account of the origin and genealogy of the Gangas, Ganga-anvaya-avataram. Shimoga 4 (1121-22) and Shimoga 64 (1132), each with their very long lines, runs to totally 95 and 104 lines respectively. On the whole, succession of kings is in general accord with the known facts from other inscriptions, though here and there some of the details may vary, which is to be expected in such extended annals. As noticed and rightly pointed by B.L. Rice, the earliest containing similar account is the inscription at Hombuja (EC. VIII. Nr. 35. 1076), which is much superior in execution (EC. VII-i. "Intro." p. 14. f.n.1). But the details of Hombuja and other similar charters, while narrating the genealogy of the Gangas, does not go beyond the period of Butuga-l and his sons, which also stops at Raja(Raca)malla and Rakkasa Ganga. In a way Hombuja inscription furnishes some details of the third generation after Butuga-ll, but not the history of the Mandali-1000 province. One of the famous and significant charters of the MandaliGanga administration is Shimoga 4 of 1121-22, of the period of Kalyana Calukya emperor TribhuvanamallaVikramaditya-VI (10761126). The same slab laying on the rock bed of the Kallurgudda hill, containing a long inscription recorded earlier by Lewis Rice and his team in 1901 (EC. VII - i. Sh. 4. 1121-22 pp. 10-15), has been later, after a lapse of two decades, shifted to Ichavadi, a nearby village, after breaking it into two. But, the upper half of the stone slab containing the first half of the portion of the above

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Appendices / 93 charter under discussion, was in due course brought down from top of the hill, and is now in the museum of Shimoga. The other half of it was left uncared, which contained the second half of the same inscription. Luckily this was noticed by R. Narasimhachar which he published in the MAR 1923, pp. 14-15. Not knowing that was a part of the same inscription published earlier by Lewis Rice, on paleographic grounds of the charter, Narasimhachar proposed a date of tenth century. K.V. Ramesh, while editing the inscriptions of the Western Gangas, has included this fragmentary inscription of MAR 1923, and also, unware of its background, has suggested the date as second half of the 10th century A.D. (1WG: No. 150 pp. 468-70). But, after a careful examination, I discovered that the schavadi inscription is an integral part of the Kallurgudda inscription published earlier by Lewis Rice. Therefore, the suggested date of tenth century A.D. to Ichavadi inscription is not correct. It should be C.E. 1121-22. Lack of proper knowledge has cost the country darely, in the form of the destruction of inscriptions and invaluable art pieces. One such example, in the present context of the history of the Mandalinao, is the above charter of Shimoga number 4, which introduces the king, his wife and four sons, highly praised and credited with numerous virtues and achievements worthy of note. List of some important inscriptions of the Mandali-1000 principality; reference numbers are from EC. VII-I (1902) and belong to Shimoga (Sh.), Honnali (HI.), Sikaripura (Sk.) and Cannagiri (Ci.) taluks: Si. Inscription Date Place and page number No. No. 4 1121-22 Kalluru-gudda, pp. 10-15 1218 Basavana Ganguru. pp. 15-18 1060 Harakere. p. 18 1085 Tattekere pp. 19-21 1400 Ganjanur. pp. 21-22 Ganianur on 1120 Gondi Cattanahalli p. 22 AWN

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94 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand 15 1122 19 11 14 15 16 17 18 39 19 40 20 21 42 22 23 13 1122 Gondi Cattanahalli p. 22 14 1103 Gondi Cattanahalli p. 23 Hunasavadi. p. 23 1309 Kuskuru. pp. 24-25 23 1115 Arakere-cilara. p. 26 970 Bhairekoppa pp. 26-27 1524 Matturu. pp. 27-28 1621 Yaraganahalu pp. 35-36 1134 Huttagrama. p. 43 1180 Hiriyuru. p. 44 37 1140 Hiriyuru p. 44 1122 Hiriyuru p. 45-46 1180 Hiriyuru p. 46-47 41 1203 Hiriyuru p. 47 1122 Hiriyuru pp. 47-48 1172 Hiriyuru p. 48 1122 Hiriyuru p. 49 1172 Hiriyuru p. 50 1108 Siddapura. pp. 52-53 1216 Sogane. pp. 53-54 56 1125 Bidare. p. 57 1118 Nidige. pp. 57-61 1070 Nidige. p. 61 1132 Puralegrama. pp. 63-69 1204 Puralegrama. p. 70 1227 Puralegrama p. 70 1320 Kudligrama. pp. 71-72 1245 Isalapura. pp. 99-100 1203 Sante-gaduru pp. 100-02 1111 Hebbandegrama. pp. 102-03 96 915 Alahalli. p. 106; 1WG: No. 137: pp. 409-10 1112 Alahalli pp. 106-08 99 1127 Bannikere pp. 109-10 1WG: No. 150. 1121-22 Ichavadi. pp. 468-70 HI.2 1064 Honnali pp. 363-64 4 1064 Honnali p. 364 54 57 30 64 31 65 32 66 ng 33 34 87 35 88 36 89 37 38 97 41 42

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Appendices / 95 1160 1204 1228 1111 1076 47 1130-31 Sk. 130 1075 Ci. 64 1214 73 1180 52 MAR 1923. 116. 1106 53. MAR. 1935.33. 939 Didagur. p. 364 Kuruvadagadde pp. 365-68 Kuruvadagadde pp. 369-70 Kuruvadagadde p. 371 Kuruvagrama. pp. 372-73 Belagutti p. 392 Balligave pp. 239-40 Alakanalu pp. 460-62 Kallu-kere 468-70 Padari Hosur Some of the new facts of historical importance, found in the Mandalinad inscriptions are discussed at the appropriate places. The following points also need special consideration: A. Tailapadeva, son of santivarma and Siriyadevi, was a maha mandalesvara under the rule of Guvaladeva, a mahamandalesvara of Gove, with all titles in C.E. 1103. He was placed incharge of Panungal-500, during the reign of the Calukya emperor Tribhuvanamalla Vikramaditya-VI (10761126). Later, he was elevated, with more responsibility of administering Banavasi-12000, Panungal-500 and Kontakuli30, from his residence at Panugal. The charter of Belagutti is the only inscription giving complete picture of his area of administration, which included Banavasi-12000, Beluvala600, Santalige-1000, Hanagal (Panungal)-500 and the Mandali-1000. Further the importance of this Belagutti epigraph is enhanced, because of the information it provides about the date of his death as C.E. 1131. Thus, Tailapadeva ruled as mahamandalesvara for over two decades, from 1103 to 1131. His consort Bacaladevi was princess of a Pandya king (El. XIII.2. 1107. Nidagundi, El. XVI. 8-B. 1107. Puligere, KI. I. XIX. 1108. Shigavi, SII. XX. 76-1118. Balambida. Kl. V. 18. 1119, EC. VII-I (BLR) HI. 47. 1131 Belagutti). B. Cikkabbe, queen consort of Butuga Permmadi-l, who had Butugendra as his first name, finds place in an inscription of

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96 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Mandalinad (Sh.96 C.E. 915 p. 106); Butuga's crown queen was Candrobalabba, daughter of Amoghavarsa Baddega (MAR 1919 pp. 21-24, 1WG: No. 120: C.E. 906, ibid No. 113, 9th century C.E.). With the evidence of these and other epigraphs the date of Butuga-I may be fixed between C.E. 880-920. Inscription No. Sh. 65. of 1204 provides an interesting information for the epigraphists. An inscription, in the Jain temple of Kuntalapura in the Mandalinao, containing wrong information was noticed by the Nemicandra Bhattarakadeva, then abbot of the diocese. He immediately brought it to the notice of the then ruling king, the samantas, and the local gavundas. With the approval of the government and the public and in their presence, the preceptor got the mischevious Silasasana (stone inscription) defaced and a new stone sasana written. Genealogy Students of history know that fixing the first regnal year of the early Ganga kings, from the Konganivarma upto Durvinita, is a very difficult problem. Because of the bewilderingly conflicting dates given for the early Ganga kings, the dates vary and pose a challenge to the historians. This is the main reason for the differences found in the genealogy lists of the Gangas, so carefully prepared by the expert Gangalogists. Based on the list prepared by M.V. Krishna Rao, B. Sheik Ali, I.K. Sharma and others, I have given a genealogical sketch, which includes the genealogy of the Mandali Gangas. Here again a problem crops up in fixing the succession of the four brothers, Ganganlpa and others. Unfortunately the inscription (Sh. 91.1112-13) is badly damaged exactly in the line containing required information. The line in question (line: 11) starts with an eulogy of the person, supposed to be the brother of either the king or his consort, and abruptly cuts at the spot where some letters with required details are lost. After that luckily the rest of the inscription is intact, in the fairly lengthy charter running into 59 lines.

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Appendices / 97 The crux of the problem is regarding the decision to be taken of the parenthood of the four brothers, the Ganga, Marasinga, Goggi and Kaliyanga nrpas. If they are to be treated as the sons of the Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva-11 (110318), which seems to be reasonable, then the immediate question would be - why there is no mention of his first son the Tribhuvanamalla NanniyaGanga Permmadideva-11 (1118-58) who is known from other inscriptions (Sh. 4.1121-22). Therefore, this problem needs further clarification. I have tried to record fairly an authentic and exhaustive genealogy of the Gangas, both the early and later Gangas, who ruled in succession. Some scions of the Ganga family survived here and there, and maintained cordial relationship with those in power. I have not tried to workout or trace the genealogy of such stray cases of individuals. Illustrations I had the opportunity of conducting extensive and intensive field work in Shimoga district. This facilated in acquiring lot of fresh and first hand information. Most of the illustrations in this monograph, except the few photos of Shimoga Government Museum, are being published for the first time. In these illustrations, the history of a vibrant minor principality, hitherto ignored and pushed under carpet, is enlivened.

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98/ The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Genealogy of the Ganga dynasty Konganivarmman (325-50) Madhava - 1(350-75) Harivarmman/Aryavarmman/Krsnavarmman Visngopa (420-40) Madhava-II (400-20) (Simhavarmman) Madhava-III (440-69) Avinita (469-529) alias Curcuvayda-Ganganspa Son (?) Durvinita alias Nirvinita (529-69) Polavira Mokkara/Muskara (569-584) (584-594) Srivikrama (594-609) S. Bhuvikrama (609/10-34/35) Sistapriya Sivamara-1 (635-75) Son (?) Sripurusa-Kongani-Muttarasa (725-88)

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Appendices /99 Duggamara Vijayaditya Sivamara-11 (788-816) Racamalla-1 alias Rajamalla (816-43) Prithvipati Marasimha (796) Nanniya-Ganga NitimargaEreyanga-1 (843-70) Prithvipati-11 Butuga-1 Racamalla-11 alias Rajamalla (877-907) Ereganga-Ereyappa Nitimarga-11 (886-920) Butuga-ll Narasimha (920-33) Racamalla-III (933-36) 1. Maruladeva 2. Kundanasamidevi 4. Marasimhadeva-11 6. Nitimarga alias Aramolideva (m. Rajaditya) (963-74) Goyindara(961-63) 3. Bijambarasi 5. Rajamalla (m. Hariga) (m. Kencabbarasi) 7. Vasava (m. Kancaladevi) Goyindaradeva-11 Satyavakya-Rakkasaganga (999-1024) Nitimarga Arumulideva-11 (m. Gavabbarasi) (1020-36) Cattaladevi (m. Kaduvetti of Tondamandala) Kancaladevi (m. Trailokyamallavira-SantaraBiruga Rajavidyadhara alias Lokavidyadhara alias Rajaditya (1034-35)

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100 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Genealogy of Mandali-Ganga Rulers Butuga Permmali (C.E. 936-61) Maru adeva-II (C.E. 961-63) (eldest son) Marasinga (985) (son) Yereyangadeva Kaliganga - (1020) (son) Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva Barmmadeva-1 (1050-65) (son) (four sons) Marasingadeva (C.E. 1065) Nanniya-Ganga Permmadideva-l alias Satya-Ganga (1076-76) Tribhuvanamalla Ganga Permmadideva alias Kali-Ganga Rakkasa Ganga alias Govindara (1076-1102) Tribhuvanamalla Bhujabala Ganga Permmaaideva-ll (m. Candaladevi) (C.E. 1103-18) Ganginspa General Gogginspa Tribhuvanamalla Nanniya Ganga Permmadideva-11 (m. Kancaladevi) (1118-58) Kaliyanganrpa Vira-Ganga (P) Hermmaaideva Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva-III Marasinganspa (m. Lokkiyakka)

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Appendices / 101 Nanniya Ganga Kaliyanganrpa-111 Gogginspa Marasinganspa (m. Lokkiyakka) Mallideva Mari-setti Samanta Cikatamma Maraya Kencave General Gogginspa (m. Mailave-Rani) Mudiyana (m. Jakkale) VibhuGanga (m. Vijjale Rani) Na!-prabhu Madhusudhanadeva (C.E. 1218)

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102 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Asandi-nad Ganga Mandalikas Vajya (nna)-I alias Kannambi C.E. 1125 (son) Nada (nna) (m. Nagale) C.E. 1140 Vayja-mandalika-ll (m. Vayjala-Devi) C.E. 1160 Mahamandalika Barmm(arasa) alias Barmmabhupala C.E. 1180 (m. Ganga-Mahadevi) Mahamandalika C.E. 1120 Narasimhabhupa-alias Narasimharasa [Cennagiri Nos. 73 & 77, 1180; ibid. 64. 1214;ibid. 72. 1220]

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Appendices / 103 List of personal names The names of the Mandali Ganga kings and queens are pedantic and studded with the usual, traditional titles. For instance, Tribhuvanamalla-Bhujabala Ganga Permmadideva or Tribhuvanamalla-Nanniya-Ganga-Permmadideva are all rather the royal cognomen and family name. Bhujabala Ganga, Nanniya Ganga, Permmaaideva, Rakkasa Ganga, Satya Ganga, ViraGanga etc. are not the first names of the persons, Even Gangamahadevi is also the usual honourafic phrase of the queens of the Gangas and hence their first name is different from this; for instance the first name of the Ganga-mahadevi-l is Kancaladevi, and Gangamahadevi-II is Candaladevi. Similarly the first name of the Bhujabala Ganga Permmali and Kali Ganga Rakkasa Ganga is Barmmadeva and Govindara respectively. Following is the list of some personal names, mentioned in the inscriptions of Mandalinad: Baicana Kalavve Balluga Kallisetti Bammaya-Nayaka Kaleyabbe Barmmadeva Kamale Bittideva (Poysala) Kancaladevi Boppana Keleyabbe Butabbe Kenca-gavunda Candaladevi Kencave Candimayya Ketanna Deviyakka Ketavve Ecaladevi Lokkambike Gangaimayya Lokkiyakka Goggi Lakkimayya Goggiga Madiga Goyisetti Maraya Goydusetti Madhusudana Gujjana Mailave Hiriyappa Malliyabbe Jakkale Mallisetti Jinadasa Malloja

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104/ The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand Kala Kalabbe-gaviti Nokkayya Permmale Poleyamma Singana Marasinga Mudiyana Singa-gavunda Racana Vijjale anna and a short form (abbreviation) of it, -ana means 'a brother'; but its secondary meaning denotes the sense of affection and respect; occasionally -anna/-ana is added to the proper personal name as an honourific suffix; Ketanna, Boppana, Mudiyana. Generally -anna/-ana is added in the end of the personal name of male persons; but instances where the female personal names also take this suffix are not lacking. -anna/-ana is semantically very much similar to the suffixes -appa and -ayya (father) added to the personal names of male persons. Morphologically -anna, -appa, -ayya are all free morphemes and Dravidion words. -abbe, -avve, -devi are the suffixes added to the female personal names. Primary meaning of the suffixes -abbe an -avve is "mother". But to express the sense of affection and respect, these two suffixes are used. Sanskrit word -devi meaning 'a goddess, a respected lady' is also affixed to the (female) personal names. The variants of Gamunda, gavunda, gauda are from the Sanskrit gramavrddha, which takes the form of gamavuda in Prakrit; gavundi, gavudi, gavundi and gaundi are the female noun forms; -gaviti, a rare form with the same meaning as gavundi is also used; gaviti may be derived from the Sanskrit word gramastri, 'a village woman'. The personal name Bitti (ga) is again from the Sanskrit word Visnu (Vittu, Bittu + ga), with the usual suffix -ga, generally added to the male personal names. List of place names The following is the list of some of the names of villages and towns mentioned in the inscriptions of the Mandalinad:.

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Appendices / 105 Alahalli (Sh. 96 C.E. 915 p. 106; 97-1112-13 pp. 106-08) Ardravalli (Sh. 4. 1121-22) Arakere Areyuru (Sh. 10. 1085) Bagi (Sh. 64. 1132) Ballave - 70 (Sk. 18. 1158) Basadiyahalli (Sh. 4. 1121) Bannikere (Sh. 97. 1112-13) Begur (Sk. 18. 1158) Belagavarthi Bhairekoppa (Sh. 24. 970. pp. 26-27) Bidare (Sh. 56 1125; HI. 7 1204) Budanagere (97-113) Didugur (HI. 5.1160) Edehalli (Sh.39.1122 pp. 45-46 and 97.1112-13 pp. 106-08) Edatorenad (Sh. 32. 1134. p. 43) Ededore-70 (Sh. 39. 1122; 40.1180; 43.1172) Edatore (HI. 2 and 4. 1064) Edavate-20 (Sk. 18. 1158. Begur) Gangasamudra (Sh. 5. 1218) Ganguru, Gurupura Halavalikenad (Sh. 19. 1309) Halasuru (Sh. 12. 1120. p. 22) Hallavur Harakere (Sh. 6. 1060 p. 18) Harige (Sh. 10. 1085) Hebbandegrama (Sh. 89.1111. pp. 102-03) Heg-Ganagile (Sh. 4.1121-22) Heggere (Sh. 6. 1060) Hennavura (Sh. 10. 1085) Hiriyuru (Sh. 39. 1122. pp. 45-46) Hosahalli (Sh. 26. 1524) Huliyakere (Sh. 4 1121-22) Huttagrama (Sh. 32. 11134. p. 43) Isalapura (Sh. 87. 1245. pp. 99-100) Kadavuru (Sh. 10. 1085) Kalamburunagara (Sh. 57. 1118)

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106 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand Kallurugudda (Sh. 4. 1121-22 pp. 10-15) Kannakapura - Fort (Sh. 99. 1127) Khandalipura (Mudu-Gangur) (Sh. 5. 1218) Kilur (Sh. 4. 1121-22) Kuntalapura (Sh. 64. 1132) Kuruli (Sh. 4. 1121-22) Kuntalapura (Sh. 64. 1132) Kuruli (Sh. 4. 1121-22) Mattur (Sh. 26. 1524) Meguti Mudu-Gangur (Khandalipura) (Sh. 5. 1218) Narivelige (Sk. 18. 1158) Nelavatti (Sh. 10. 1085) Nidige-Nidigi (Sh. 57. 1118 and 58. 1070) Panasavadi (Sh. 10. 1085) Parvatavalli (Sh. 14. 1103) Puralegrama (Sh. 64. 1112; 65. 1204 p. 70) Siddapura-Benkipura (Sh. 51. 1108) Simoge (Sh. 10. 1085) (the present Shimoga, now a district headquarters) Siriyur (Sh. 4. 1121-22) Sogane (Sh. 54. 1216) Tarikeri (Sh. 10. 1085) Tastekere (Sh. 10. 1085. pp. 19-21) Tagarti Uttavalli (Sh. 32. 1134. p. 43) Valagere (Sh. 10. 1085)

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Dhaky, M.A. 1997 (ed) Bhatsoori K.G. 1995 Fleet J.F. 1896 Krishna Rao, M.V. 1936 Arhat-Parsva and Dharanendra Nexus Antiquities in the Government Museum, Shimoga - A Study 1976 1997-A 1997-B 1998-A The Dynasties of the Kanarese districts of the Bombay Presidency, pp. 297-309 (Reprint 1988) Kamala Hampana 1995 1999 The Gangas of Talkad Nagarajaiah, Hampa Bibliography Attimabbe and Chaulkyas Status of women in Jainism in Karnataka, JJ, XXXIII3, Jan 99 Appendices/107 Yaksa-Yaksiyaru Santararu - ondu Adhyana Candrakode Koppalada Sasanagalu (Corpus of Koppala inscriptions) 1998-B 1998-C 1999-A 1999-B Ramesh K.V. 1984 (ed) Rice B.L. 1902 1917 Sasanagalalli Basadigalu Sasanagalalli Jaina Tirthagalu A History of the Early Ganga Monarchy and Jainism Jina Parsva Temples in Karnataka Inscriptions of the Western Gangas (ed) Epigraphia Carnatika (with Introduction) Gangavadi, article in the Bhandarkar Commemoration volume, pp. 237-48 Mediaeval Jainism Temples of the Gangas of Karnataka Saletore B.A. 1938 Sharma I.K. 1992 Sastry, Srikantha, S. 1952 Sheik Ali, B 1976 Early Gangas of Talkad History of Western Gangas

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108 / The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand Kannada works of Prof. Nagarajaiah, Hampa Linguistics 1. 2. Bhasa-vijnana 1968 3. Dravida-bhasa-vijnana (1966) 4th ed. 1997 Bharatada-bhasa-samasye 1968 4. Dravida-sankhya-Vacakagalu 1973 5. Bhase 1973 6. Bhasavijnanigalu 1977 History and Epigraphy 7. Sasanagalalli Eradu Vamsagalu 1995 8. Visnuvardhana - Vijayaditya - Kirtivarma 1986 9. Kavivara - Kamadhenu - Attimabbe 1996 10. Santararu: Ondu Adhyayana 1997 11. Koppala Sasanagalu 1998 12. Sasanagalalli Basadigalu 1998 Novels 13. Nagasri (1965) 4th ed. 1994 14. Savyasaci Pampa (1976) 4th ed 1994 Essays 15. Hesarina Sogasu (1974) 4th ed. 1990 16. Ayda prabandhagalu (1993) 2nd ed. 1996 Books edited 17. Pampa Bharata Sangraha 1964 (co-editor) 18. Jayanripa kavya Sangraha 1967 19. Bharatesa Vaibhava 1967 (co-editor) Salva Bharata 1976 20. 21. Dhanyakumara carite 1976 22. Nagakumara Satpadi 1978 23. Ratnakarana Hadugalu 1979 25. 24. Apratimavira carite 1975 (co-editor) Neminatha puranam 1981 (co-editor) Kelavu Nompiya Kathegalu 1976 Candrasagara Varniya Kritigalu 1976 26. 27.

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Appendices / 109 28. Anandara Ayda Kathegalu 1985 29. Sadasivara Hanneradu Kathegalu 1985 30. Vaddaradhane 1993 31. Pampa 1998 Biographies 32. Ajatasatru (1968) 2nd ed. 1971 (Co-author) 33. Sambhavasagara Carite 1968 34. Dr. A. Ne. Upadhye. 1996 35. Galinadu Gandhi 1974 (Co-author) 36. Mahavira 1974 37. Sammelana - Adhyaksarugalu 1983 Nenapina - Angaladalli Masti 1993 39. Attimabbe 1994 40. Govinda Pai 1975 (co-author) 41. Basavappa Sastri 1975 (co-author) Folklore 42. Karnataka Jatregalu 1985 43. Akasa Janapada 1985 44. Janapada Kalavidara suci 1982 45. Janapada Adhyana Vicara Sankirana 1980 46. Valnaradhane mattu Janapada 1997 Children Literature 47. Nadoja Pampa (1971) 3rd ed. 1972 Mahakavi Ranna (1971) 3rd ed. 1972 49. Devarayana durga 1973 50. Mahavira 1976 Translation (from English) 51. Atma-Tattva-Vicara 1971 52. Krisna Pandavaru 1971 53. Bhima-bhakti-parikse 1979 54. Vira-Jinendra Carite (from Hindi) 1975 Research 55. Yaksa-Yaksiyaru 1976 56. Nompiya Kathegalu 1976

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110 / The Later Gangas : Mandali-Thousand 57. Kammatada Kidigalu 1980 58. Gommata Bahubali 1981 59. Kavi Bandhuvarma: Jijnase 1993 60. Nagacandrana Itivrutta (1989) 2nd ed 1992 61. Karnataka mattu Jaina dharma 1981 62. Candrakoae 1997 63. Jaina-Kathakosa 1997 (chief-editor) Literary Criticism 64. Paiyavara Muru Natakgalu 1967 65. Sangatya Kavigalu 1975 66. Phanikumara Katha Sahitya 1978 67. Vi. Kru. Gokak, 1984 University Extension Lecture Series 68. Vaddaradhane (1968) 2nd ed 1973 69. C.V. Raman 1968 70. Muraneya Mangarasa 1968 English works 71. A History of The Early Ganga Monarchy and Jainism 1999 72. The Later Gangas: Mandali-Thousand 1999 73. Jaina Corpus of Koppala Inscriptions: X-rayed 1999 74. Jina Parsva Temples in Karnataka 1999 75. Apropos of Vikramaditya-Vl and Jainism 1999 Works translated to other languages Mahavira 1974: in Kannada, Ten Thousand copies translated to A. Hindi (1975) 3rd ed. 1996, Thirty Thousand copies B. Marathi (1981) 4th ed. 1996-97, Fourteen Thousand copies C. English 1982, Ten Thousand copies. 2. Attimabbe 1994: Original in Kannada translated to A. Telugu 1998 by Dr. Josyula Sadanandam B. Hindi 1999 by T.R. Jodatti

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Abbreviations APGAS: Andhra Pradesh Governament Report on Epigraphy BLR: Benjamin Lewis Rice C.E.: Current Era Cent.: Century Ci.: Cannagiri CM: Cikkamagalur Dt: District EC (R): Epigraphia Carnatika El.: Epigraphia Indica HL: Honnali IA: Indian Antiquary ibid: ibidem, same as above IWG: Inscriptions of Western Gangas KI: Karnatak Inscriptions MAR: Mysore Archaeological Report NG.: Nalgonda NL: Nelamangala Nr.: Nagara (Hosanagara) NRPura: Narasimharajapura p: page pp: pages Sh: Shimoga SII: South Indian Inscriptions Sk: Shikaripura Tk: Taluk TL: Tirthahalli TP: Tiptur Vol: Volume

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The very name of 'The Later Gangas: Mandali Thousand' evokes historical and mythological memories worth pondering; it is a minor principality, but never to be forgotten. Contemplating over the relevance of the subject to the modern world, the present book provides lot of material of cultural significance, The history of Mandalinad, in the Shimoga district (Karnataka), is a golden chapter of peace, harmony, religious tolerance and of greater achievement in art and architecture. Some of the magnificant temples, still bear witness to the glory and aesthetic taste of the Mandali rulers. Prof. Hampa. Nagarajaiah, litterateur, folklorist, linguist and historian, has vividly portrayed the attainments of the Later Gangas, which is the outcome of his personal researches and extensive field work. Voluminous material that has come to light afresh and embodied in this monograph, has provided authentic supplementary evidences for the reconstruction of the genealogy of the Gangas and, an unbroken history of their cultural life. The monograph, richly illustrated with rare photographs, throws fresh light on the history of Karnataka. Rs. 200/ ISBN: 81-87321-17-2 ANKITA PUSTAKA 53, Shamsingh Complex, Gandhibazar Main Road, Basavanagudi, Bangalore - 560 004, Karnataka, INDIA - Jain Education Internation0-699 2014 (for Private SpArsonal lose Only