Jainism the Oldest Living Religion

Author(s): Jyoti Prasad Jain, Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: P V Research Institute Varanasi
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001195/1

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P. V. Research Series : 44
Editor : Dr. Sagarmal Jain
JAINISM THE OLDEST LIVING RELIGION
Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain
पारवनाथ विद्याश्रम शोध संस्थान वाराणसी
in Education International

www.jamelibrary.oral

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P, V, Research Series : 44 Editor : Dr, Sagarmal Jain
Jainism The Oldest Living Religion
by
Late Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain
VARANASIS
P, V. RESEARCH INSTITUTE, VARANASI-5

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Published by : P. V. Research Institute. I. T. I. Road Varanasi-5
Phone : 66762
2nd Edition 1988
Price Rs, 20.00
Printed by :: Vivek Printers Post Box No. 4, B. H. U.Varanasi-5

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PREFACE
Although it should not be necessary to prove that Jainism is the oldest and independent religion of India, yet on account of many reasons it has become essential to prove today. During the last two centuries, the European scholars carried on research work on Indian thought and culture in accordance with their own standpoints. The commencement of Vikrama Era, which was an ordinary thing for Indians, was a matter of great controversy for those scholars. They could not arrive at unanimous conclusion even in this respect. In the same controversial atmosphere, the history of our national culture and religion was written incompletely and unsystematically. Historical works of this sort were prescribed in our educational centres viz. colleges and universities. Unfortunately, we were taught to think about our cultural and religious history in the light of foreign interpretations. Consequently, we find even today in the primary books of history written in the Indian languages that Jainism was founded by Lord Mahāyira, Some books indicate that it was founded by Lord Pārsvanātha and Lord Mahāyira simply reorganised it. Some say that Jainism is nothing more than a revolt against Vedic culture. Really speaking it was neither founded by Lord Pārsvanātha, nor by Mahāvīra nor it stood merely as a revolt agaiost the Vedic culture. Jainism is an absolutely independent religion and is older than Vedic culture itself. All these facts have been proved in this booklet by Shri Jyoti Prasad Jain, M, A., LL.B. He has given a lot of sound arguments. We are very much thankful to him for allowing this booklet to be

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published. We hope, the scholars will have a dispassionate glance at the arguments and remove their wrong conceptions and prejudices. If they find any shortcoming or error, they will kindly draw our attention towards them. The traditional meaning of the Rgvedic hymn which appears on page 22, is different from which is accepted by Shri Jyoti Prasad Jain; and we are aware of it. But we know this also that the interpreta. tion given by the author is not entirely baseless. Some non-Jaina writers also give the same interpretation. I invite the attention of the scholars especially to this problem. Even if we take it for granted that the interpretation of the said hymn, given by the author is not correct, still other arguments presented by him are strong enough to prove the antiquity and independence of Jainism,
Dalsakh Malvania,
Secretary, Jain Cultural Research Society,
Varanasi

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PUBLISHER'S NOTE

This booktet Jainism: The Oldest Living Religion by Late Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain was first published in 1951 by Jaina Cultural Research Society, which has been marged. into P. V. Research Institute. The book was not only an authentic piece of work done in a historical perspective but also a popular one, hence it became unavailable for sale. soon. Since long it was so much in demand that we decided in favour of bringing its second edition.
We feel pleasure in bringing this book before the readers.
We are thankful to Sri Ashok Kumar Singh for its proof reading and to Vivek printers for its speedy printing. August 1988
COL
Bhupendra Nath Jain
Secretary
Sohan Lal Jain Vidya Prasarak Samiti, Amritsar.

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JAINISM : : THE OLDEST LIVING RELIGION
Since the beginning of human civilization, India has ever played her role of being the spiritual mother of nations. But “if India stands unique in the world for her spiritual and philosophical developments, no one will deny that the credit belongs to the Jainas no less than to the Brāhmins and the Buddhists”, says M.M. Dr. S. C. Vidyabhusban. Among others, he is also of opinion that “Jainism is one of the most ancient and noble religions".2 Sir Sanmukham Chetty said, “It is beyond my capacity to say anything about the greatness of the Jaina religion. I have read sufficiently to warrant my saying that the contribution which the Jainas have made to Indian culture is something unique. I personally believe that if only Jainism had kept its hold firmly in India, we would perhaps have had a more united India and certainly a greater India than today's.3 Viewed as a religion, the keynote of Jainism has been the realisation of the highest ideals that man's physical and moral nature points out as bis final goal, and which, incidentally, is the cardinal canon of universalism.
Yet, in the words of Barrister C. R. Jain, "The origin of this creed of the I Irthankaras, that is Jainism, has been a faithful source of speculation and error for the orienta
1. Ja in Gazette, 1914, p. 35. 2. Ibid. 3. Jain Gazette, 1943, pp. 83-85.

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lists who have advanced all sorts of hypothesis concerning its rise'1. In fact, generally due to ignorance and inadequate information, sometimes under the influence of deeprooted notions and previously formed opinions, and not very seldom carried away by traditional or sentimental prejudices, scholars and historians have very often failed to do justice to Jainism and its history.
The early European savants who first began the work of reconstruction and compilation of India's history on the modern scientific basis, in the last quarter of the 18th century, at first took practically no notice of Jainism as even a separate sect. Their chief interest then lay in Buddhism, Brahmanism and Islam, which alone represented to them the India past and present. But even for the history of these, especially of the Hindus, they could not rely on indigenous sources, since they had already presumed that the Indians had never had any historic sense and had no historical records nor other reliable historical sources worth the name, for the reconstruction of their own history. Hence they came to the conclusion that for these they must necessarily look elsewhere. They had not far to seek. The various foreigners' accounts of India begin. ning from the 5th-4th century B. C. down to their own times, readily came to their rescue.
The early Greek writers, especially those who accompanied Alexander the Great in his eastern campaign (326 B.C.), or came to India subsequently as political ambassadors, like Megasthenes (305 B.C.), the Chinese Pilgrims like Fa-Hian (C. 400 A.D.), Huien Tsang (629645 A.D.) and Itsing (695 A.D.), some of the Arab merchants who traded with the Deccan kingdoms from
1. Practical Path, Appendix p. 174.

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the 8th to the 13th century A.D., stray visitors like AlBeruni (C. 1000 A.D.), Marco Polo (1288-1293 A.D.) and Ibn Batuta (1325 A.D.), the Jesuit Missionaries of Portugese Goa who visited the Mughal court, and the European adventurers and travellers of the 17th century onwards, like Terry, Pernier, Tavernier, Manucci, Peter Munde, etc. have all left their respective accounts of India, as and what they saw of it. Of these the original Greek records had long since been lost and could only be partially gathered from the Greek and Roman historical works written several centuries after them, but wherein they were said to have been freely used and often quoted. Most of the other earlier accounts have also not come down to us complete in their original forms. The outlook of the Chinese Pilgrims was entirely Buddhistic and what they saw and described was in the main pertaining to their own faith. Most of the Muslim writers and historians were biased and their outlook was predominantly Mohammadan. And as Prof. Rawlinson remarks, 'the European travellers of 17th and 18th century also usually took Mohammadan point of view about the Hindus'. Besides, all these foreign writers were practically stangers in a strange land, seldom if ever knew any of the languages of the country, and many of them were ordinary lay people of mediocre intelligence, They did not come in contact with the real life of the country, had very little opportunity and means of obtaining reliable and adequate information on most points, and whatever meagre, vague and often erroneous information they succeeded in collecting,
1. Rapson - Anctent Indis, p. 84. 2. The Legacy of India - India in European Literature
and Thought, page 30.

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was obtained from hearsay, barbershop and bazar gossip, which they supplemented by their own fanciful and many a time, prejudiced imaginations. They could not even understand or rightly interpret many of the things such as sectarian differences etc., which they themselves. observed.
Yet, these accounts came to be regarded as the most authentic and only reliable sources for the historical reconstruction of this vast, varied and ancient subcontinent, whereas the indigenous sources and traditions, even if recorded, were considered unreliable, legendary, often fictitious or an outcome of the vagrant imagination of the oriental. Very soon, numerous ancient munuments, apti. quities, epigraphical records and new literary evidences began to come to light, which seemed to support Indian traditions and other sources. Even then the latter could be accredited only when and in so far as they were confirmed by their favourite foreigners' accounts. No wonder, therefore, that the foundations of modern Indian History have so often proved to be false and shifting, and many wrong. notions, distortions or misstatements of facts found their way into the present day history books of India.
However, even in most of these foreigners accounts beginning from the earliest times the Jainas and their religion have very often been referred to, but usually due to the difficulties of language and the understanding of the writers they were in such forms that the early orientalists handicapped by inadequate information and insufficient knowledge, could not rightly interpret them and failed to identify them with Jainism and the Jainas. Still by the second quarter of the 19th century they could not help taking notice of this religion. But unfortunately, carried away by its superficial resemblance in some

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points with Buddhism, they soon, rather dogmatically surmised that it was nothing but a later derivation of the latter.
At this stage, towards the close of the last century, Dr. Hermann Jacobi, the famous orientalist, stepped in and refuted the Bddhist derivation theory very successfully. At first he met severe opposition, but finally his findings were accepted by all. Jacobi proved beyond the shadow of any doubt that the Nigantha Nātaputta of tho Buddhist scriptures was none else but Vardbamāna Mabāvira, the last and 24th Tirthai kara of the Jainas, the Mahävira was not only an elder contemporary of Gautama Buddha but he was also a powerful rival of the latter, and that at the period of Mahāvira and even before it, Jainism had been for some time a firmly established religion, and also that Mahāvīra did only reform it and reorganize the order of the ascetics. The conclusive evidence in this cespect, collected by Jacobi and others may be summarised as below:
1. “In the Jajna scriptures are mentioned names of the kings of Magadha and of some religious teachers of the time, contemporary of Mahāvīra, who were also contamporary of Buddha. And in the Buddhist scripturos Mahāvīra is mentioned as Nigantha Nātaputta ( Nirgrantha Jõāts.putra ) and the place of his death is also indicated as Pāvā. So there is no doubt that both were contemporary and independent. Buddbists often refer to Jainas as a rival sect, but never so much as hint that this sect was a newly founded one. On the contrary, from the
1. Sacred Books of the East, vols. XXII & XLV (Intro
ductions) - In this world famous series Dr. Jacobi published translations of four Jaina canonical works.

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way in which they speak of it, it would seem that this sect of the Nigaộthas (ihose who have no bonds) was at Buddha's time already one of long standing, or in other words it seems probable that Jainism is considerably older than Buddhism. Also, Buddha made several experiments in the quest of knowledge, but this was not so with Mahavira''. Mahāvira made no attempts to find or preach a new religion. As & matter of fact, Buddha is even said to have entered the Jaina order of ascetics, in bis quest of knowledge.
2. References are found in Buddhist literature to Nigantha Nātaputta (Mahāvira) and his greatness." In the Majjhima Nikāya ( P. T. S., 11 p. 214 ) the Nirgrantha ascetics tell Buddha that their master Nātaputta was an omniscient and that by his infinite knowledge he has told them what sins they have committed in their previous births. The Samyutta Nikāya (P.I.S., IV p. 398) tells us. about the belief that the famous Nātaputta could tell where his disciples would be born after their death, and on being inquired could also tell where a particular person was thus reborn. The Anguttara Nikāya also refers the belief that Nigantha Nātaputta could know all, could perceive all, that his knowledge was unlimited and that he was omniscient during all the hours we are waking or sleeping of following our mundane pursuits. Rockhill, in his 'Life of Buddha' (p. 259) confirms the same statement as having: been made by Mahāvīra to king Ajātasatru. In the Sāma gāma Sutta, there is a reference to the schism among
1. "I he Niggantha Nātaputta......knows and sees
all things, claims perfect knowledge and faith, teaches the annihilation by austerities of the old karma and prevention by inactivity of new karma. When karma ceases, misery ceases, S.B.E, Vol. XXII, p. XVff.

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Mahāvīra's followers after his death at Pāvā- the fact was related to Buddha who evidently survived Mahāvíra. “From Buddhist accounts in their canonical works as well as in other tooks, it may be seen that this rival (Mahāvīra) was a dangerous and influential one, and that even in Buddha's time his teaching has spread considerably” (Buhler--The Jains). "Mabāvīra nust have been a great man in his way and an eminent leader among his contemporaries'', says Jacobi, and “Like his great rival Buddha he must bave been an emineptly impressive personality”, says Hoerple. According to the Buddhisi tradition, Mahāvīra was one of the most important of the six Tirthankaras of Buddha's times. These famous teachers, outside the pale of E rābminism were the Nigantha Nātaputta, Makkhali Gośāla (founder of the Ājivika sect), Sáñjaya Belatthiputta, Ajita Kesakambalin, Pārāna Kassapa and Pakudha Kaccayana. And the followers of Mahāvīra, called the Niganthas, are described in an old Budhist Sutta, the Mabāparinibbāna Sutta (S.B.E., vol. XI, p. 106 ) as "Heads of companies of disciples and students, teachers of students, well-known and renowned founders of schools of doctrine, esteemed as good men by the multitude".
3. References to mutual conversions between the two sects :--
(i) In the Mabāvagga, about Simha, the general
in-chief of the Licchavis of Vaiśāli, and a lay disciple of Lord Mahāvira who goes against his prohibition to see the Buddha and is converted by him.
1. B. C. Law-Historical Gleanings, p. 21-42—Influence
of the five heretical Teachers on Jainism and Buddhism,

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(ii) A reference in the Majjhima Nikāya to the
conversion of Upāli, a lay disciple of Lord Mahāvira, after a dispute with the Buddha as to the comparative iniquitousness
of the sins of the body and the mind. (iii) Mrs. Rhys Davids in Psalms of the Early
Budhists' (London 1903) givos several insta. nces of conversions from Buddhism to Jainism and vice versa, viz. Ajjuna a Budhist, contacts the Jainas and enters their order, prince Abhaya is said to have been taught a dilemma
by Nātaputta, and so on. (iv) Dr. B. C. Law in his Historical Gleanings'
refers to the relation of Buddha with the Niganthas and to their mutual conversions, giving examples o f Siha, Saccaka, Šrigupta, Gșhadinna, Digha Tapassi, Upāli, Abhaya
Rājakumāra, Višākhā etc. (v) Mentions of Jainism are also found in other
famous works like Sumangalā Vilāsint, Lalila
Vistara, the Jātakas, Dāthā Vamso etc. 4. References in old Buddhist books tɔ well known and acknowledged doctrines of Jaipa theology, metaphysics and etbics :--
(i) A reference to cold water possessiog a soul
i.e, to Jivas of Jalakāya, in the Brabma jāla
Sutta of Digha Nikāya. (ii) A reference in the same to the Jaioa rejection
of the Ājivika doctrine that the soul has
colour (i.e. doctrine of Leśyā). (iii) In the Majjhima Nikāya, a reference to the
three Dandas of body, speech and mind,

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in which the Jain as believed, and also in connection with Upāli's conversion, to the Jaina conception of the sins of the body and
the mind. (iv) In the Arguttara Nikāya, a reference to the
Jaina Digvirati Vow and the Uposatha (prosadha) day. Digvirati Vow i.e. 'I shall go in only certain fixed direction this day'. Uposatha-keeping of fast in which the laymon are supposed to be like ascetics in their thoughts and deeds.
(v)
In the same Nikāya, in connection with the meeting of Prince Abhaya and the Buddha, a reference to the Jaina conception of the annihilation of Karmas, old or new and thereby the attainment of full knowledge, by means of austerity.
(vi) In the Mabāvagga, reference of the Jaina
doctrine of Kriyāvāda, 5. Traces of Jaipa influence in Buddhism :-Dr. Jacobi says, “The latter (i.e. Buddhists) borrowed the word Asrava from Jainism without its technical significance. As Buddha was chiefly concerned with what leads to salvation, he did not work out a new and self-sufficient system of psychology as the basis of ethics. He seems to hava largely adopted current ideas on this head and together with them current terms to express them. Hence there is something vague and undefined in Buddhist psychology". Jacobi asserted that the word Āsrava would never havo been used by the Buddhists in meaning so far removed from its etymology if the Jaioas had not used it before in

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its etymological sense (like the word 'influence of the Latin astrologers, adopted in English etc.1)
The Buddhists also use the word Samvara i.e. ŚrlaSamvara (restraint under the moral Law), and the participle Samvṛta (controlled), words which are not used in this sense by Erahmanical writers, and, therefore, are most probably adopted from Jainism, wherein their literal sense they adequately express the idea that they denote".2
6. Indirect evidence recorded by the Budhists of the importance and probable high antiquity of Jainism :-- (i) They mention the Jainas (the Niganthas) as
the opponents and converts of Buddha, and never imply, much less assert that they are a newly founded sect',.
(ii) They mention the older Nigantha Caityasof the Licchavis of Vaisall.
(iii) In the Samaññaphala Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, there is a reference to the 'four vows' (Caturyama Dharma) of Lord Parsva. Natha. "This passage is specially important as it shows that the Buddhists were also aware. of the older traditions of the Jainas with regard to the times and teachings of Lord Parsva Nätha", says Dr. Jacobi.
(iv) Makkhali Gośāla divides mankind into six classes. The third class is the Nigantha sect..
1. Jain Gazette, Jan. 1914, p. 3-12.
2. The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. VII, p. 472. In his introduction to 'Bhagavan Mahavira and Mahātmā Buddha', Dr. B. C. Law gives many other examples of such borrowals and adoptations by the Buddhist from Jainism.

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10
Jacobi says a new sect could not have held such an important place in a division of
mankind. (v) The Buddha bad a dispute with Saccaka,
the non-Nirgrantha son of a Nirgrantha. father, which fact, according to Dr. Jacobi, proves decisively that the Jainas were not an
offshoot of Buddhism. (vi) In the Fuddhist Dhammapada (v. 422) there:
is a mention of Rsabha and Mahāvira, the: first and the last Jaina Tirtharkaras, respec
tively, (vii) The Buddhist scholar Aryadeva mentions.
Rşabhadeva as the original founder of
Jainism. 7. Then there is the evidence of the Jaina book's. themselves. Dr. Jacobi says, “There are no reasonable grounds to reject the recorded tradition of a numerous class of men as being a tissue of meaningless lies. All the events and incidents that relate to their antiquity are recorded so frequently and in such a matter of fact way that they cannot be properly rejected, unless under force of much stronger evidence than the one adduced by the scholars who are sceptic about the antiquity of Jainism.. In the Uttarādby'ayana Sūtra an interview between Gautama and Kesi, the followers of Lord Mahävira and. Pāiśva respectively, is held in a garden and after good. conversation carried on more or less in occult terms, the: two leaders recognise the fundamental unity of the doctrines and leave the garden fully convinced that they are workers. in the same field. This again points out to an older Jaina
1.
Šata śāstra' (5th century A.D.).

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faith which prevailed before the advent of Mahāvīra and which was so vigorously reformed by him”.
8. Lastly, there is the ancient character of the Jaina philosophy--their animistic belief, the absence of the principal constituent elements of the universe, and the inclusion of Dharma (that which helps motion of things) and of Adharma ( means or motive of stopping motion ) in the class of substances along with Jiva (soul), Pudgala (matter), Ākāśa (space) and Kāla (time), the six eternal Dravyas or elements of universe. From a consideration of these facts in Jaina philosophy, Prof. Jacobi concluded that it was evolved in a very early period of the Aryan settlement in India, and said that this explodes once and for ever the error that Jainism is an off-shoot of Buddhism,
It was thus proved beyond cavail that Jainism is quilo an independent and 'exceptionally archaic religious system, which is not only not an off-shoot of Buddhism but is considerably older than latter. • To quote a few of the other numerous authorities:-- Prof. R}ys Davids - The Jainas have been an organised community all through the history of India from before the rise of Iuddhism down to the present time" : 3
1. In one of his lectures he says, “My studies of
Jainism made me re ect the old theory and convi. nced that Jainism is entirely independent of Buddhism. The difference between the two philosophies seems so great that it precludes any idea of common origin”, --Jain Gazette, May, 1914,
p. 169. 2. Buddhist India, 2nd ed., London 1903, p. 318.

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13:
E. W. Hopkins ---"The Niganthas are never referred to by the Buddhists as being a new sect, nor is their reputed founder Nätaputta spoken of as their founder whence Jacobi plausibly argues that their real founder was older than Mahāvira and that this sect preceded that of Buddhism".1
Thus practically all the modern scholars, both western and eastern, including Prof. Max Muller, Oldenberg, Bendole, Sir Monier Williams, Sir W. W. Hunter, Harvey, Wheeler, Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar, Dr. K. P. Jay aswal, B. G. Tilak, etc. have no doubt as to the greater antiquity of Jainism over Buddhism.
Moreover, the historicity of Lord Pārsvanātha? (877-- 777 B. C.) who preceded Mahāvira by 250 years, and was the 23rd Tirthankara of the Jainas, has now been upanimously accepted. He was the son of King Afva Sena of Kāśı, of the Uraga Vamsa (also called Kāśyapa Vamsa). and was a descendent of en peror Brahmadatta (a historical figures) who was the last of the twelve chakravartins of the Jaina tradition.
"That Pārsva was a historical person is now admitted by all as very probable”, says Jacobi.
1. Religion of India, p. 283.
2. Cambridge History of India, p. 153—which fully endorses this view, as also does the Encycl. of Religion. and Ethics, vol. VII.
3. Dr. H. C. Roy Choudbry — Political History of Ancient India, p. 47. He says that at his time Kāśt was the predominent state and that according to the Satapatha Brāhmaṇa ( xiii 5, 4, 19 ) these kings of Kāší were antagonistic to Vedic Sacrifices.
4. Jain Sutras–S.B.E., XLV. Introd.

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Dr. Jarl Charpentier, Pb.D. says, “We ought also to remember both that the Jaina religion is certainly older than Mahāvira his reputed predecessor Pārśva having almost certainly, existed as a real person, and that consequently the main points i f the original doctrine may have been codified long before Mahāvira".
Dr. R. C. Majumdar--"The first 22 of them are, however, unknown to history and reasonable doubts may be entertained regarding the existence of most of them. But the 23rd Tirthankara Pārsva seems to have had a Teal existence. His death may be placed in the 8th century B. C.92
Harmsworth -"They, the Jainas believe in a great number of prophets of their faith anterior of Nātaputta (Mahāvīra Vardhamāna) and pay special reverence to the last of these, Pārśva or Pārsvanātha. Herein they are correct, in so far as the latter personality is more than mythical. He was indeed the royal founder of Jainism (776 B.C.) while his successor Mabāvíra was younger by many generations and can be considered only as a reformer. As early as the time of Gotama, the religious confra. ternity founded by Pārsva, and known as the Nirgrantha, was a formally established sect, and according to the Buddhist chronicles, threw numerous difficulties in the way of the rising Buddhism”.3
Prof. Ram Prasad Chanda, the famous archaeologist says, “The Pali Suttas confirm good deal of what is
1. Uttarādby ayana Sūtra -Upsala ed. Introd. p. 21. 2. Outline of Ancient Indian History and Civilization,
p. 216 and An Advanced History of India, p. 86. .3. History of the World, vul. II, p. 1198.

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contained in the Svetambara Jaina canon. The ancient Jaina sculptures of Mathura, dating from the first century A.D. guarantee the antiquity and authenticity of many of the Jaina traditions. It is generally believed that there were Jaina monks before Mahāvīra, belonging to the order founded by Pārsvanatha •They had also their own Caity as".1
Dr. B. C. Law, Ph.D., D.Litt., F.R.A.S.B. etc., says, "Before the advent of Mahavira, the faith of which he was the last exponent seems to have been prevalent in Vaisal and the surrounding country in some earlier form. It appears that the religion as fixed and established by Kṣatriya peoples of North-eastern India, specially amongst the residents of Vaisal. We learn from the Acaranga Sutra that Mahavira's parents were worshippers of Parsva and followers of the Sramanas".2
15
Prof. J. C. Vidyalankara, speaking of the religious teachers of the post Mahabharata times, says, "One such great reformer, Tirthankara Parsva flourished in the 9th8th century B.C. His father was Asvasena, king of Vārāṇasi (Banaras), and his mother's name was Vāmā. The Jainas believe that their religion is very ancient and that 23 other Tirthankaras had gone before Mahavira. It is not just and proper to regard this belief as quite erroneous and baseless and to regard all previous Tirthankaras as imaginary beings and unhistorical. There is nothing unbelievable about it. The early history of India is as much Jainistic as it is of those who profess the Vedas...for the present, the modern critics have accepted the historicity of
1. Medieval Sculpture in Eastern India--J.D.L., III, 1920, p. 225-246.
2. Vaisal-Mahavira's Birth Place-J.A., X, I, p. 16.

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Tirtharkara Pārsva. The accounts of the other Tirthankaras are so involved in legends that they have not yet been reconstructed. But there are definite proofs of the fact that there existed in India sects different from the Vedic faith even before Mahāvīra and Buddha. The Arhats and their Caityas were in existence before the birth of Buddha (Buddha himself refers to Mahāvira's own clan, the Liccbavis and to their religion). The followers of those Arbatas and Caityas were known as the Vrāty as who aro also mentioned in the Atharva Veda”.)
And speaking about these Vrātyas2 Dr. K. P, Jayaswal said, “They are called Vrātyas or un-Brāhmanical Ksatriyas, they had a republican form of Govern. ment, they had their own shrines, their non-Vedic worship, their own religious leaders, they patronised Jainism”.3
Thus in the words of Dr. A. Guerinot, "There can no longer be any doubt that Pārsvanātha was a historical personage”.4 And there is evidence to show that his faith prevailed not only in different parts of India but it also penetrated beyond the frontiers of this country.
1. bhāratiya Itihās Ki Roopa-Rekhā, vol. I, p.
343-349. 2. About these Vrātyas or Kșātra-Bandhus and of
their being none but the Jains, see Prof. A. Chakravarti's article in Jaina Gazette, XXXI, pp. 6; and also Dr. Har Prasad Shastri's article in J.B.O.R.S., vol. V, p. 554-558, and also Anekānta 6/7, p.
335-336. 2. Modern Review, 1929, p. 499. 4. Essai de Bibliographica Jainica-- Introd,

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The Oldest Living Religion - Sit P. C. Moghal writing about the prevalence of Jainism long before Gautama Buddha, informs that about 1885, Prof. Beal told the Royal Asiatic Society that there undoubtedly was such a faith in central Asia long before Buddhism was promulgated by Sākya Muni Gautama. Also that Sir Henry Rawlinson has in the proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society (Sept. 1885) and his 'Central Asia' (p. 246) called attention to the new Vihāra (Monastry) at Balkh and other monumental remains in bricks, as showing the presence of Kāśya pa there.
Now Kāśyapa, besides being the name of an ancient Jaina Muni and the Gotra of several Tirtharkaras was also the Gotra of Pārsvanātna. According to the Adipurāņa, Kaśyapa whose another name was Maghavā, was the founder of the Uraga Vamsa (a branch of the ancient Nāga family ) in which Tirthankara Pārsva was born,
The geographical name Kaspia ( or Caspia ) resembles Kāśyapa and in this city (i.e. Kiapishi) of Central Asia Hiuen-tsang in the 7th century A. D. also noted the appearance of the Niganthas or the Jainas,3 and about a thousand years before him the Greeks had similarly come across them near the north-west borders of India. Hence
1 Jain Gazette, Aug. 1906, p. 13.
2 J. S. B., XIV, 2 p. 13, Saṁkşipta Adi-Purņa, p. 27; 1.4.Q., 1, p. 460 and II, p. 28.
3 Beal, Sijuki--vol. I, p. 55. "This'' says Dr, Buhler, "points apparently to the fact that they (the Jaipas) bad in the north west at least spread their missionary activity beyond the borders of India'' --(The Jaipas).
4 M. C. Crindle--Ancient India--They referred to the Jainas by the words Gymnosophists, Sarmanas, Veretei etc. and scholars have now no doubt that these decote the Niganthas or the Jainas.

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it may reasonably be inferred that Jainism was once, even Before Mabāvira, prevalent in Kaspia, Aman and the cities of Samarkand, Balkh etc.? Herodotus, the father of Greek history, in the 5th century B. C, wrote about an Indian religious sect which are nothing which had life and lived on a grain like millet. The Greek philosopher Pytha. goras ( born 580 B. C.) who was a contemporary of Mahāvīra and Buddha believed in the theory of metapsychosis, in the transmigration of souls, in the doctrine of Karma, refrained from the destruction of life and eating meat and even regarded certain vegetables as taboo. He even claimed to possess the power of recollecting his past births. These early lonian philosophers of Asia Minor, called the Orphic philɔsophers also believed in depreciation of the body in comparison with the soul.” Now all these beliefs are peculiary and distinctively Jaina and they have little in common with either the Buddhist or the Brabmanic religions. And since they were already professed in these far off lands at a time when Mahāvira and Buddha were just beginning to preach, and since there is no doubt that these ideas reached thither from India itself, there remains no doubt that they owned
1 Jain Gazette, August, 1906, p. 13.
2 The Legacy of India ( Oxford 1937 )--India in European Literature and Thought by H. G. Rawlinson, p. 3-6.—The author himself admits that these ideas seem to refer to the Jainas or Buddhists. But they could not possibly refer to Buddb ism which originated with Gautama Buddha who is believed to have died in 476 or 483 B.C. Moreover, the Buddhists, even Buddha himself never refrained from dating meat, while tabooing even certain vegetables is peculiar only to the Jainas. Same is the case with most of the other ideas mentioned above.

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their propagation, if not to any earlier Tirthankara, at least certainly to Pārsval and his disciples. In fact as Dr. Radhakrishnan says, “There is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamāna or Pārsvanātha”. 2
"But” says Dr. Nagendra Natha Basu, the reputed scholar, Sanskritist and Laxicographer, “Neminātha, the 22nd Tirthankara of the Jajnas, who preceded Lord Pārsva Nātha, was a cousin of Lord Śrr Kțşņa. If we admit the historicity of Lord Kțsna, there is no reason why we should not regard his contemporary Lord Neminātha, the 22nd Tirthařkara as a real and historical person”,3
Dr. Fuhrer says, “Lord Neminātha, the 22nd Tirthankara of the Jainas has been accepted as a historical person”.4 Same is the opinion of Prof. L. D. Barnett.
Mr. Karwa says, “Neminātba was the cousin of Kțsna. When the 22nd Tirthařkara of the Jainas was a contemporary of Lord Krsna, the readers may well imagine the antiquity of the remaining 21 TIrthankaras", 6
Col. Tod—“To me it appears that there were four distinguished Boodhas or Wisemen. The second ( the twenty-second of the Jainas ) was Neminātha, in 1120 B. C.", and says that he was contemporary of Kțşņa.*
1 For a life of Pārsva see "Lord Pārsva Nātba' by H, S. Bhattacharya and 'Bhagavān Pārsva Nātha' by K. P. Jain.
2 Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 287. 3 Harivamsa Purāņa-Introd. p. 6.
4 Epigrapbica Indica, Part I, p. 389 and Part II, p. 206-7.
5 Ancient Mid-Indian Kșatriya Tribes, vol. I, foreword p. IV.
6 Bhagavad Gitā--Appendix. * Apnals--Vol. I, p. 97-99, He also curiously makes

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Dr. Hari Satya Bhattacharya, M. A., B, L., Ph. D., has no doubt as to the historicity of Neminātha, and on its basis rather, establishes the historicity of Kļšņa. He says, “Notwithstanding remarkable differences, the Kršna story in the Jaina Purāṇas is essentially similar to that of the Vedic Purānas”. He is of opinion that the Jaina version is quite independent of the Brāhmanic traditions, and that “the appearance of the Krsna story in the Jaina sacred books shows that Kșsna of the Mahābhārata may not be a purely imaginary being but that in all probability he was a historic person, a high souled powerful monarch'.8
Moreover, as Rev. J. Kennedy says, “The Jaina traditions represent the oldest form of the Krsna legend”. 4
In fact, the Jaina traditions about Neminātha or Aristanemi as incorporated in their Harivamsa, Arittha Nemi Cariu and other works, are fully corroborated by the Brāhmanic traditions. There are specific mentions of Aristanemi in the Vedas, their commentaries and the Hindu Purāņas, which clearly indicate the Jaina TirthariNemipātha indentical with the first Odin of the Scandinavians and the first Fo of the Chinese. He also says, that the first Indian Boodha was Ādinātha or Rsabha Deva.
1 'Lord Aristanemi', p. 88-89. 2 Heroes of Jaipa Legends-.J. A., XIV, 2, p. 77,
In the Jaina tradition Kțşņa is called a Nārāyaṇa and a devotee of Jina. Even the orthodox Vedic Hindu regarded bim a Vrātya and outside the pale. (See Advanced History of India, 1948, p. 95).
3 The Child Krşna, Christianity and the Gujars-- JRAS. 1907, p. 951-991.

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kara. In the Vedic hymns he is described as one “who is capable of crossing over the ocean of life and death, as the remover of violence, one who is instrumental in sparing life from injury and so on.",3 Well renowned Vedic scholars like Svām! Virupaksa Vadiyar, M.A., Vedaratna, are fully convinced that these Vedic and Puranic references undoubtedly refer to the Jaina Tirthankara Aristanemi and to nobody else. What is more important is that even the Mabābhāratat makes a mention of his name with the adjective Jineśvara, in at least two places.
Dr. Prana Natha Vidyalankara published a Copper plate grant of the Babylonian ( Chaldean ) king Nebu
1 Rgveda (8, 8, 24; and 10, 178, 1), Yajurveda (25, 19 and 9, 25), Samaveda (4,1), Atharvaveda (20, 143, 10), Aitareya Brāhmaṇa (20,2), Yāska Nirukta (10, 12), Sarvānukramanikā, Vedārtha Dipikā. Sāyaṇa Bhāsya (p. 678), The Skarda Purāņa-Prabhāsa Khanda, (16, 96), The Bhāgavata (2, 7, 10), The Mārkandeya Purāņa (50,39-41) etc. Also see 'Jain references in the Vedic and Puranic Literature--' Delhi 1930.
2 J.S.B., XIII, 2, p. 89-90. This particular hymn is
"स्वस्ति न इन्द्रो वृद्धश्रवाः स्वस्ति नः पूषा विश्ववेदाः । स्वस्ति नस्तायो अरिष्टनेमिः स्वस्तिनो बृहस्पतिर्दधातु ॥"
- (Rg. 1, 1, 16; Yajur, 25, 19, Sāma 3, 9). 3 Jaina Patha Pradarśaka, III, 3. p. 106-112. He says that even the Vedic interpretation of the term Arist anemi used tiierein is in conformation with the Jaina doctrines, and that Uvvatācārya also in bis commentary on that hymn of Yajurveda interprets it as the "Propagator
of Ahimsā”. : 4 Mahābbārata--Anusāsana, ch. 149, vs. 50, 80,
p. 151.

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chadnazzar (circa 1140 B.C.), which he had discovered in Kathiawar, in the Times of India ( weekly ) of 19th March, 1935. According to his decipherment, this document revealed that the said king Nebuchadnazzar wbo was also the lord of Revāpagar ( in Kathiawar ) and who belonged to Su.( sumer ) Tribe has come to the place ( Dvārakā ) of the Yadurāja. He has built a temple and paid homage and made the grant perpetual in favour of Lord Nemi the paramount deity of Mt. Raivata”. 1 Prof. Prana Natha himself says, "The inscription is of great historical value. It may go a long way in proving the antiquity of Jaina religion since the name of Nemi appears in the inscription".
This important document, however, proves that the worship of Lord Neminātha, the 22nd Jaina Tirthankara, was already well established in the post Mabābhārata days, even before the advent of Pārsva and Mabāvīra. And there should now remain no doubt as to the historicity of Lord Aristanerni and to the existence of Jainism long before Pārsvadātha (9th century B. C.).
Aristanemi was the son of king Samudravijaya of Sauripura ( near Agra ), who was an uncle of Lord Kršna. But when all the Yaduvařśls under Krsna migrated to Dyārakā on the western coast, Neminātha also came along with him. Kțsņa negotiated his cousin's marriage with Rājulamati, the daughter of the Rājā of Junagarh. But Neminātha, taking compassion on the animals which were to
1 J.A., XIV, I, p. 3; J.S.B. XIV, 1, p. 21, The “Jain -- 35, 1, p. 2.
2 'The description of Neminātha given in this grant is identical with that of the Vedic hymns, and leaves no doubt to his being identical with the Jaina Tirthankara of that name --Virodha Paribār p. 63-64.

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be slaughtered in connection with the marriage feast, left the marriage procession at once, renounced the world, climbed the top of mount Raivata (Giranara or Urjayanta) there practised severe austerities, attaining Kevala jñāna, preached the nonviolent creed of the foregoing Tirthankara, to the world, and finally attained salvation.1
Thus, there is no question about his being a real historical person, but there is some difficulty in fixing his date, because opinions still differ as to the exact date of the Mahabharata war, which with different scholars varies from 950 F.C. to 2000 B.C. But the latest consensus of opinion fixes it in the middle of the 15th century B.C., and this is now generally regarded as the starting point of the regular history of India. The period prior to that, about which our knowledge is mainly based on religious traditions, the Jaina and Hindu Purāṇas, is called proto-history, chiefly because the history of that period could not yet be reconstructed on any sound basis.
But the name of Rama or the story of Rāmāyaṇa is as much an every-day homeward in India as the name of Kṛṣṇa or the story of Mahābhārata. And although many a scholar still persist in believing the Rama story to be a legendary one, the majority of scholars, especially Indian ones along with the general masses and intelligentia of the country firmly believe most of the events and persons connected with the story, to be quite real and historical, even though they might be beyond the pale of scientific history and their date unknown.
Here again, "The story of Rāmāyaṇa as stated in the Jaina Purāņas,is substantially similar to the account of Valmiki.
1 H. S. Bhattacharya-Lord Aristanemi, The Jaina Harivamsa, Ariṭṭhanemi Chariu, Nemi Purāņa etc.
2 Pargitor-950 B.C.; R.C. Majumdar-1000 B.C.; Tod1120 P. C.; Dr. H. C. Roy Choudhry-1376 B.C.; Prof. J. C. Vidyalankara-1424 B.C. Dr. K. P. Jayasawal and others1450 P. C.; Certain Purāņas give it as 1414 P. C. while astronomers and later traditions as 3102 or 2449 B.C.

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In is also quite independent of the Erahmanic version»1 says Dr. H. S. Bhattacharya. And further that “Thus the very fact that the Jainas have respectfully embodied the Rāma stoiy in their sacred lore is almost a proof conclusive that it is more than philosophical speculation in symbolic garb and that it may have a historical basis. Under the circumstances one would not be unjustified in holding that the Fāma story has at least a core of historical truth”. 2
In fact the oldest available Jaina version of this story, that is Pauma Cariu of Vimala Sūri, 3 belongs about to the same period as the oldest Brāhmanic version, the Fāmāyana of Vālmīki i.e. to the first century B.C. Moreover, the Jaina Samsksta Padma Purāna (7th century A. D.), Svayambhū Fāmāyaṇna of Apabhramśa (8th century A.D.), the Munisuvrata Kavya and Purānas did no less to preserve and popularise the story than the Brāhmanic Purāṇas and vernacular Rāmāyaṇas of comparatively much later dates.
But in what the Jaina version differs from the Brāhmanic Rāmāyaṇa, throws a very significant light on the position of Jainism. According to the Jaina version, lāvana and his Rākşasas were highly cultured people belonging to the race of Vidyadharas and were great devotees of Jina. Here unlike the Hindu epics they are not depicted as hideous looking, evil natured, irreligious demons, }ākşasas, Piśācas or Asuras, but certainly as antagonistic to the sacrificial cult of the Vedic sages. And it is why, as Dr. Ehattacharya observed that “Considering these two accounts together some of the present day scholars vehemently urge that the Vedic people denounced the Rākşasas because they were Jainas, and say that the descriptions of the Faksasas in Vālmiki's Fāmāyaṇa clearly show that they could not be other tban Jainas, and that the author of the Rāmāyaṇa presented them in hideous forms, simply
1 Heroes of the Jaina legends-J.A., XIII, 2, p. 21. 2 J.A., XIV, 1, p. 13. 3 An Advanced History of India, p. 142.

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out of religious bigotry",1 F. E. Pargitor also asserts that, "The Jainas were treated as Asuras and Daityas (terms of hatred etc.) by the Hindus". "Rhode", says Edkins "also supposes the Jainas to be descendents of Asuras and Rākṣasas". And C. F. Oldham is of opinion that "Both Buddhists and Jainas systems were closely connected with the sun and the serpent, and they found their chief supporters amongst the Solar Tribes who had come but little under Brahmanical influence. The Purana version is that the Jainas originated amongst the Asuras. The Jainas were in existence before Buddha. All the twenty-four Tirthankaras were kṣatriyas and all but two were of the solar race of Ikṣvaku",4
Now there is no question as to Rama's being of the Solar race of Ikṣvāku. According to the Jaina tradition, he along with most of the members of his family was a follower of Jainism. Not only that but Rāma Candra, his brother Lakṣmana and their enemy Ravana were three of the 63 prominent personages (Tri-sasti Salakāpurusas) of the Jaina tradition wherein the Rākṣasas and Vanaras of the Rāmāyaṇa have been described not as semi-human, sub-human animal or demons but as highly civilized and cultured human beings of the Vidyadhara race, who were mostly devotees of the Jina. These early non-Aryan inhabitants of India are now generally termed as Dravidians. According to Pargitor, even "The Suryavamsis or Solar race were the indigenous inhabitants of this country and were of Dravidian stock". And as will be presently shown, the religion of these early Dravidians was Jainism.
1 Heroes of Jaina Legends-J.A. XIV, 1, p. 9.
2 Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, London 1922, p. 291. 3 Joseph Edkins-Chinese Buddhism, London 1880, p. 156-158
4 The Sun and the Serpent, London 1905, p. 172-181.
5 J.S.B.-XIV, 1, p. 17-23.
6 Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 295-296.
25

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The Yoga Vāśistha Rāmāyaṇa, the authorship of which is ascribed by some to sage Vasistha, the family priest of Ramacandra and by others to Vālmiki, mentions that 'Rāma longed to become like a Jina). Even the Vālmīki Rāmāyana, which like the Mahābhārata was a product of the age of Brāhmanic revival and in the same manner truely represents, the highly prejudical and communal spirit of the revivalists, and which studiously avoided making any reference to Jainism or the Jainas did slip up in certain places. For example, it mentions that King Dasaratha, the father of Fāma had entertained the śramanas, 2 which according to Bhūşana's. commentary, were the Digambara Jaina ascetics.S
Thus there remains no doubt that in the time of Rāma Jainism existed and Lord Munisuvrata Nātha, the 20th Tirthankara of the Jainas, who was a prince of Rājagsha and a senior contemporary of Rāma was as real a person as Kāma himself.
Moreover, it was in the times of Munisuvrata that a hot discussion was held at the court of king Vasu Caidyoparicara as to whether animals or vegetable products are to be sacrificed in the Vedic Yajñas. King Vasu, however, gave his verdict in favour of animal sacrifice and since then the horrible practice commenced. This story of Vasu is practically identical in both the Jaina and Brāhmanical traditions, which is a proof of its veracity,5
1 Yoga Vāśistha-Yoga Vairāgya Prakaraṇa, Ch. 15. V. 8, p. 3. In this ancient work there are several other references to Jainism and its doctrines (in 3, 3, 49-50; 4, 22, 0; and Pt. II, 6, 173,-4). Also see Satyārtha Darpana, p. 90.
2 Fāmāyana Eālakānda-XIV, 12.
3 ‘Jainism: by V. K. Mukerji; Bhagavān Pārsvanātha, P. 24.
4 Pauma Cariu, Padma Purāņa, Uttara Purāņa, Munisuvrata Purāņa etc.
5 The story occurs in the Mahābhārata, and is also hinted at in the Buddhist Suttanipāta. The Jaina version is available in the Jaina Harivamsa Purāna, XIII, 1, p. 13.

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Of the remaining Tirthankaras, Rsabha, the first, Ajitanā. tha, the second and Supārsva, the seventh also seem to find mentions in the Vedas. 1
Then there is the curious story of King Veņu who wasoriginally a Hindu following the Vedas, but who became a Jaina monk at the instruction of a Jaina Muni, and therefore is called a sinner and his change of faith regarded as a degradation. Shri S. C. Ghoshal, M.A., B.L., Purāna-Kavya Tirtha etc. says, “This is only natural as the work (i.e. Hindu Padma Purāņa) in which the story is related indicates the teachings which are not favourable to Jainism, but from this story we can infer that it might be a historical fact that Veņu, a Hindu king became a convert to Jainism. As far as I know, this fact has not been noticed by scholars who try to establish the antiquity of Jainism”. 2
Now this story occurs in almost all the Brāhmanic. Puranas, and this king Veņu is stated in the Padma and Vāmana Purānas to have been the sixth in descent from Brahmā, the progenitor of mankind, while in the Bhāgavata the 11th, in the Garuda Purāna 13th, and in the Vișnu and rest of the other Purānas, 9th in descent from Svayambhu Manu, the first man and the son of Brahmā, the Creator.3. Venu is also said to have preached Jainism to the Asuras. Mr. Ghoshal says, “It is clear from all the Purāṇas that Veņu was from the beginning opposed to animal sacrifice and to the Brāhmins and that he became not only a heretic and antiVedic, but even a Jaina" 4 There are several other stories in the different Purānas about the origin of Jainism. But what is interesting about them is the fact that they invariably make some important personage belonging to their faith, first a convert to Jainism, under the influence of some or other of its
1 Radhakrishnan-- Indian Philosophy, Vol. I. p. 287. 2 Jainism in Non-Jain Literature-J. G. Feb. 1918, p. 87. 3 ‘Story of Benu: J.G. July 1918, p. 156. 4 Ibid. 5 According to another story occurring in the Padma--

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teachers, and then make this new convert preach his new faith. This clearly proves two things, first, that in the early Vedic period conversions from the Brāhmanic faith to Jainism were very common and, secondly, that Jainism was already an established religion even in the earliest times and was more popular amongst the Non-Aryan indigenous races, called by the Aryans as Asuras, Daityas, Rākşasas etc.
And since, as Macdonnel says, “The Hindu Purāņas contain much that is old, and do not always borrow from Mahābhārata and Manu, but derive information from the Vedas themselves and from sɔme older collections", 1 the signi. ficance of these stories, particularly of the story of Veņu which is related by all ihe Purānas, cannot be over-estimated. It clearly takes back the antiquity of Jainism to about the very beginning of the Irāhmanic creation, or rather to a period prior to the origin of Brāhmanism itself.2
Purāņa, Jainism was preached by śukrācārya, the preceptor of the Asuras. Another version says that God Vişnu with the help of Fphaspati, the preceptor of the gods, sent Mahā Māyā (delusion) in the disguise of a Jaina Muni to mislead the Daityas. The Bhāgavata attributes the propagation of Jainism to Arhat, the King of Konk-Bek-Kutak, who was a devotee of Rsabha. For other instances see Skanda Purāņa (*6-27-48 p, 154-161), Visnu Purāna (Pt. III, Ch. 17-18), Siva Purāņa (Pt. 5, Ch. 4, 5) etc.
1A, A. Macdonnel-A History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 299,
2 In fact according to the Jaina tradition the Erāhmanas came into being much later. The original Varna was that of the Ksatriyas alone. Even according to the Brāhmanic Purānas themselves ( i. e. Vāyu 88, 5-7; Visnu 4, 2, 2; and Brahmānda 3,6?, 5.7 ) the progeny of Rathitara, the fifth in descent from Nābhāga who had turned a Vaisya and was a grandson of Manu, became the first Brāhmanas and were called Angirasas. And it would be interesting to note that the Mundak opanişad of sage Angiras shows, according to Dr. Hertell, unmistakable signs of Jaina influence (Indo-Iranian Studies etc. Vol. III).

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Still there are some scholars who, owing mostly to deeprooted prejudices and other sentimental reasons, persist in believing and asserting that Jainism is an offshoot of Brāhmanism or that the Jainas are merely Hindu dissenters like the Buddhists, even though their religion is quite independent of and much older than the latter.
As would be clear from what has already been said, there are absolutely no grounds for holding such an opinion. There are innumerable references in the Erāhmanic literature from the Vedas down to the Purāṇas and other medieval literature, to the Jainas, their religion, its Tirthankaras and even their doctrines, sometimes ridiculing and denouncing them 2 and sometimes praising and applauding them,* while
1 Word 'Arban is often mentioned in the Rk and other Vedas (see Max Muller's edition 1854, vol. II, p. 579). The Jaina ascetics are referred to therein as “Windgirdled i.e, nude (see Weber--Ind. Ant. XXX, 1901). For other relevent Vedic hymns see, «Veda Purāņādi Granthon men Jaina Dharma kā Astitva', 'Virodha-Parihāra', 'Satyārtha Darpaņa. The Śramaņas of the Vedas who were antagonistic to animal sacrifice in the Yajñas, the Vrātyas, the Mahā-Vrātya (i.e. Rsabha), their Prajāpati Paramesthin etc. all refer to Jainas. Many of the Upanişads esp. the Chāndogya and Mundaka, the latter using many Jaina technical terms. Its discussions are also quite akin to Jainism, its author Angiras was formerly a Jaina Muni ( see Dr. Johannes Hertell). Mahābhārata (Santi Parva, Moksa Dharma ch. 228 v. 6; Anušāsana Parva ch. 14, v. 18, ch. 149, p. 41, 50, 80). Rāmāyaṇa ( Bālakāņda 14, 22 ), Yoga Vāśistha ( 15, 8 ), Hanuman.Nātaka, practically all the Purānas and most of the other religious and even secular works. For the similarity between the Brahma-Vidyā.Vādins. of the Upanişads and the Jainas see (IHQ—IIJ, p. 307-15-article of Umesh Chandra Bhattacharya).
2 Abuse of Jainism in Non-Jain a literature-J. G. May 1917, p. 144. The author says, “What are generally attacked in Jainism are not the true principles of this religion, but.
* See on next page

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Jainism very often misunderstanding and misinterpreting them. In certain places, devotion to Jina or to particular Tirthankaras, even to Jaina ascetics, is ranked much higher than all the religious observances enjoined by the Śrutis add Smrtis.2 And if there are to be found stories to the effect that Jainism was propagated by some or other follower of the Vedas who had dissented from his parent creed, there are similar stories, equally old, in the Jaina tradition that it was Marichi, the grandson of Lord Rsabha, who shrinking from the austere creed of the Jina, preached a false doctrine from which later on developed the 363 Pāşandas like the Vedic and such other faiths which were in contravention of the nonviolent creed of the Jina. In fact, according to the Jaina tradition, it was in merely some outward forms or customs which are supposed by these antagonists to be essentials of Jainism... From these old and well-known philosophical works down to insignificant tales and dramas, passages might be collected which purport to ridicule Jainism. The language is grave, caustic, filthy or even obscene according to the attitude and taste of the writer. The criticism of Jainism is generally wrong and misguided”. (Also see J. G. Jan. 1918, p. 45).
* In several Vedic hymns, some of the Purāņas, Yoga Vāśistha, Bhartphari's Satakas etc.
1 The Jaina doctrine mostly critcised by the Brāhmanic philosophers is the Syādvāda. Eminent scholars like Bādarayana (Vedānta-sūtra) and Sankarācārya tried their best to criticise it. But as Dr. G. N. Jha once observed, even Sankara could not and did not understand it properly. Swami Dayānanda's 'Satyārtha Prakāśa' (Ch. 12), Hopkin's Religions of India', are some recent example of such wrong and misguided criticisms of Jainism.
2 Visņu Purāņa (3, 341, p. 457) Skanda Purāņa (p: 102103), Śiva Purāņa, Nāga Purāņa. Manu's code, Bhāgavata Purāņa (7-11, v. 8–9) etc. See also Hindu Šāstras Pt. VIII, (p. 213-222) and Moksa Mārga Prakāśaka by Todar Mall p. 207-211.

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The Oldest Living Religion the times of the 10th Tirthankara Śtala Nātha that Bräbmanism made its first appearance and in the times of the 20th Tirtharkara the bloody sacrifices got their first impetus under royal patronage.
Even a reputed Vedic scholar Prof. V. P. Vadyar says, *According to the Jaina scriptures, Marsci, the grandson of Rşabha Deva was a materialist. Because the Vedas represent the same materialistic spirit, it was certainly due tɔ him that they (the Rgveda etc.) came to be popular. Consequently there are several hymns to be found in the Vedas and Purāņas, in the memory of sage Marsci, and there are mentions of the Jaina Tirtharkaras at many places. Hence there is no reason why we should not accept the existence of Jainism in the Vedic age". I
In fact, there is whatsoever no tangible evidence to show that Jainism branched off from the Vedic religion or from any of its later developments, at such and such time, nor there is any marked similarity between the fundamental doctrines and essential features of the two systems, which might favour that possibility. Jainism with the perfectly non-violent creed, animistic belief, subtle and peculiar karma theory, its rejection of a creator and the creation theory, and the like, is not only quite and original system but is also absolutely independent of all other systems. In its origin, it is not only non-Aryan and preAryan, in the sense that these terms are now generally understood, but it is also primitive and absolutely indigenous. Barrister C. R. Jain, successfuly refuting the Hindu-dissenter theory, concludes, “Thus Jainism, the creed of the holy Tirthankaras, far from being a daughter or rebellious Child of Hinduism, is actually the basis of that undoubtedly ancient creed", and that if there was any borrowing, it was more the otherway round.2
1 His opinion about Jainism, p. 27—see Bhagavān Pārsva. nātha, p. 22. Also see-Citra-maya-jagat.
2 Practical Path— App. p. 194.

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.
Prof. Jacobi says, “In conclusion, let me assert my conviction that Jainism is an original system, quite distinct and independent from all others; and that, therefore, it is of great importance for the study of philosophical thought and religious life in ancient India". I
And discussing the place of Jainism in the system of Indian philosophy, M. M. Dr. Ganga Nath Jha concludes, “The Jaina philosophy no doubt, holds certain principle in ccrrmon with Bud dhism, Vedānta, Sānkhya, Nyāya and Vaišeșika systems, but this does not disprove its independent origin and free development. If it has some similarities with the other Indian systems, it has its own peculiarities and marked differences as well”. 2
Prof. G. Satya Narayan Murti also observes, "Some of its doctrines are peculiar to itself and leave a stamp of individualism on the Jaina creed»;3 and Dr. Guerinot, that “Jainism is very original, independent and systematic doctrine', 4
Prof: Chinta Haran Chakravarti “Though it is not possible at this stage of our knowledge to determine the comparative antiquity of Jaina and Brāhmanic things, the realistic and rationalistic tone in the former does not fail to attract notice of even a casual observer”.5
Another scholar says, “We may make bold to say that Jainism, the religion of Abimsā (non-injury ) is probably as old as the Vedic religion, if not older................ There is no doubt that the religion of Ahimsā was as old as the Vedas themselves".
Yet another eminent thinker observes, “Besides there being numerous references to Jainism in the Vedas and Purāṇas,
1 The Metaphysics and Ethics of the Jains-JA, X, 1, 40. 2 Jain Gazett, 1921, p. 146. 3 Jain Gazette, 1916, p. 73. 4 Bibliographica Jainica --Introd. 5 Jains and Hindus-Jain Gazette, April 47, p. 61.
6 Cultural Heritage of India, Vol. 1--Sri Ram Krişna Centenary Memorial Volume, p. 185–188.

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another, simple fact shows that Jaina philosophy is as old as Hindu philosophy. It is a feature of the early epoch of the development of metaphysics that the category of quality is not defined. For instance, in Vedanta Brahma is not said to possess 'existence, intellect and joy' (Sat, Cit, Ananda) as qualities of his nature, but he is existence, he is intellect, he is joy itself (Saccidananda). Similar is the case in the Jaina metaphysics. It treats merit and demerit (Dharma and Adharma) as sub. stratum rather than as qualities as substances with which the soul comes into contact. Yet another fact is its hero-worship, the worship as deity of perfected mortals. And such worship is characteristic of all primitive religions. Lastly there is its animistic belief, again a primitive notion",2
In fact, as Dr. Edward Thomas, speaking about the simplicity and hence higher antiquity of Jainism, remarks, "The more simple faith perse must be primarily accepted as the predecessor of the more complicated." And "What more simple" asks Major Gen. Forlong "can there be than Jainism, be it in worship, in rituals or in morals".4
Reviewing the whole situation, Prof. M. S. Ramaswami Ayengar may be quoted, who says, "For a scientific student of early Indian History, the history of the Jainas begins from the time of Mahavira who is supposed to be the founder of Jainism. This conception regarding the origin of the faith has unfortunately led scholars to believe that Jaina tradition and literature are unreliable and useless for reconstruction of history. The less well informed amongst them went so far as to say that Jainism was an offshoot of Buddhism,simply because certain details in the lives of Mahavira and the Buddha are coincidental. Nor was Dr. Hoernle, perhaps the most well meaning amongst the writers on the subject, any nearer the truth when he said that neither of the sects could lay claim to
1 Carlyle's 'Heroes and Hero-worship'.
2 Jain Gazette, 1906.
3 Early faith of Asoka, p. 5-6.
4 Short Studies in the Sc. of comp. Religion.
3
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originality regarding their moral code, but that the Brahman ascetic was their model from which they borrowed many important practices and institutions (Vide Hoernle's Presidential Address, CAS, 1898). With, however, our present knowledge of the Jainas and their sacred literature, it is not difficult to prove that Jainism, far from being an offshoot of Buddhism or Brahmanism, was one of the earliest home religions of India. The simple devotion of the Jainas and their homely prayer, without the intervention of a Brāhmaṇa may prove not merely their high antiquity, but what is more important, the independent nature of their existence», I And according to F, W. Thomas, "Jainism on the other hand (i. e. unlike Buddhism etc.) has preserved down to the present time, its integrity as a separate world in the midst of Hinduism”.
To quote a few of the legal authorities, T. N. Sheshagiri Ayer, M.L.A., ex-Judge, Madras High Court, says, “I have no desire to date the Jaina religion at a period subsequent to the Vedas, it might be simultaneous with them. Jainas are not the Hindu dissenters. I can fully bear out the statement that all Jainas are not Vaiśyas. They are of all castes and grades”. 3
The Hon'ble Mr. Justice Coomar Swami Shastri, Chief Judge, Madras High Court, observed, “Were the matter res-integra, I would be inclined to bold that modern research has shown that Jainas are not Hindu dissenters, but that Jainism has an origin and history long anterior to the Smộtis and commentaries which are the recognised authorities on Hindu Law and Usage. In fact, Mahāvīra, the last of the Jaina Tirthankaras, was a contempo rary of Buddha;
i The Jains in the Deccan-Jain Gazette XVI, p. 212; and S I.J., Pt. I.
2 Legacy of India, p. 212. 3 Jain Gazette, June 1922, p. 145.

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and died about $27 B.C. The Jaina religion refers to a number of previous Tirthankaras, and there can be little doubt that Jainism as a distinct religion was flourishing several centuries before Christ. In fact, Jainism rejects the authority of the Vedas which form the bedrock of Hinduism and denies the efficacy of various ceremonies which Hindus consider essential".1
And Mr. Justice Rangnekar of the Bombay High Court remarks, "It is true the Jainas reject the scriptural character of the Vedas and repudiate the Brahmanical doctrines relating to obsequial ceremonies, the performance of Śraddhas and the offering of oblations for the salvation of the soul of the deceased. Amongst them there is no belief that a son by birth or adoption confers spiritual benefit on the father. They also differ from the Brahmanical Hindus in their conduct towards the dead, omitting all obsequies after the corpse is burnt or burried. Now, it is true, as later historical researches have shown that Jainism prevailed in this country long before Brahmanism came into existence or converted into Hinduism. It is also true that owing to their long association with the Hindus, who formed the majority in the country, the Jainas have adopted many of the customs and even ceremonies strictly observed by the Hindus and pertaining to Brahmanical religion"."
Lastly Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, the first premier of independent India, asserts that "Jainism and Buddhism were definitely not Hinduism nor even Vedicism, still they were born in India and were an inseparable part of Indian life, culture and philosophical thought. The Jainism or Buddhism of India is a cent per cent product of Indian thought and civilization, yet none of them is Hindu. Hence it is
1 A,I.R., 1927, Madras 228.
2 A.I.R., 1939, Bombay 377.
35

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misleading to call Indian culture by the name of Hindu. culture".
It would, therefore, seem quite strange that there stilt are people, and amongst them some scholars of repute, who are still sceptical about the antiquity and independent character of Jainism. As Prof. S. Srikantha Sastri. says, “It has become customary to take granted the statements of certain historians that Jainism like Buddhism represents a reaction to the sacrificial cult of Vedic Aryans, and in the case of Jainism many scholars are reluctant to take back the history of the faith before Pärśva in about the 9th century B.C.”.2
But as Dr. Jacobi observes, “There is nothing to prove that Pārsva was the founder of Jainism. Jaina tradition is unanimous in making Rsabha, the first TI.thankara, as its founder. There may be something historical in the tradition which makes him the first Tirth ankara”. 3
Dr. A. N. Upadhye, M.A., D.Litt. says, “To take a practical view the Jaina Tirtharkaras like Rşabhadeva Neminātha, Pārsvanātha, Mabăvira etc, have been some of the greatest mystics of the world...... It would be interesting to note that the details about Rsabhadeva given in Ehāgavata practically and fundamentally agree with those recorded by Jaina tradition”. 4
1 Discovery of India, Pt. Nehru, however, is quito mistaken in holding the long rejected view about the origin of Jainism and io asserting that it was founded by Mahā. vira in the 6th century B. C.
2 The Original Home of Jainism - J.A., XV, 2, p. 58. 3. Ind. Aot. IX, p. 163. 4 Paramātma-Prakāśa (R.J.S., Bombay, 1937)- Intro.
p. 39,

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The Oldest Living Religion And Prof. R. D. Ranade, giving details of Rsabhadeva's mystical life rightly designates this first Tirthankara of the Jainas, as “Yet a mystic of different kind whose utter carelessness of his body is the supreme mark of his God-realization”. 2
Dr. S. C. Vidya Bhusban—'Jainism reaches back to the beginning of the creation itself. I have no doubt in asserting that Jaina philosophy is much anterior to Vedānta and other systems”.?
Dr. N. N. Basu Probably Rşabhadeva was the first to discover the art of writing. He seems to have invented the Brāhmi script for the propagation of Brahma-Vidyā, and that is why he came to be known as the 8th Avatāra. He was born to Marudevi, the queen of the Indian king Nābhirāja and is mentioned in the Bhāgavata as the 8th of the 22 Avatāras”. 3
Dr. Sir Radhakrishnan also affirms that “The Bhāgavata Purana endorses the view that Rsabha was the founder of Jainism. There is evidence to show that so far back as the first century B. C. there were people who were worshipping Rşabhadeva, the first Tirtharkara. There is Bo doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamāna or Pārsvanātha. The Yajurveda mentions the names of three Tirtharkaras-Rsabha, Ajitanātha and Aristanemi”. 4
From the Rgvedic hymns, their old est commentator, Kātyāyana in his Sarvānukramanikā, Sadguru Sisya in bis Vedārtha Dipikā, Sāyaṇa in his Bhāşya - all admit the term Ķsabha to be a personal name, but they do not specify the identity of the person named."
1 Mysticism in Mahārāshtra, p. 9. 2 In an Address-See Satyārtha Darpaņa, p. 97. 3 Hindi Viśvakoşa, Vol. I, p. 64 and Vol. III, p. 444. 4 Indian Philosophy, Vol. I, p. 287 (First Edition). 5 Sarvānukramaņikā (London), p. 164.

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Dr. Sir Radhakrishnan, however, believes tha Vedic references clearly mean the particular Jaina Tirthankara.1
Anyway, it is quite obvious that by the name mentioned in the hymns is meant a great man of the name of Rṣabha. And so long as there is no indication of any other great man of the same name, how can it be said that the great man referred to is not Lord Rṣabha, the Jaina Tirthankara.
Another reputed Vedic scholar, Swami V. P. Vadiyar Vedaratna also clearly expresses his opinion that the person referred to is none else but Lord Rsabhadeva, the Jaina Tirthankara.2
Several authentic dictionaries of Samskṛta and Hindi also give as meaning of word Rṣabha, the first Jaina Tirthankara of that name.3 The Yajurveda, Samaveda and other branches of the Vedic literature also make a mention of his name.*
In this connection, Mr. Kamta Prasad (in 'Who was the founder of Jainism'-J.A.-I, 2, p, 21) remarks "It seems either they have no knowledge of him or they did not want to disclose it owing to religious animosity, which indeed made many alterations and additions in the Vedas", (as Pargitor also observes in AIHT, p. 11, and Asur India, Introd. p. IV).
1 Indian Philosophy, p. 287-especially the Yajurveda. 2 Jaina Patha Pradarśaka, III, 3, p. 106.
3 SabdaKalpadruma, Sabdartha Cintamani, PadmaCandra Kośa, HindiViśvakosa, Hindi Sabdasāgara (Kaśi N. P. Sabha), Hindi Kośha (Bhaskara series, Meerut ).
4 Rgveda (10, 12, 166; 8, 8, 24 etc.), Yajurveda (9, 25; 25, 19 etc.), Samaveda (1, 1, 103) and commentaries.

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Moreover, the commentators of the Vedas themselves insist that the Vedic traditions should be elucidated with the help of the traditional accounts given in the Purāņas. And we know that the account of Rsabhadeva as given in the Jaina Purānas i.e. the Adipurāna, the Harivamsa Purāņa (Ch. VIII 55-104) etc. is quite similar to that available in most of he Brāhmanic Purānas.2 Pt. Jwala Prasad Misra the commentator of the Bbāgavata definitely asserts that “Lord Rşabba, the Avatāra, was the son of Nābhi and Maru devi and the grandson of Lord Agnidhra (the grandson of Manu, the son of Brahmā), that he practised yoga, was paid homage to by the great sages and that he propagated Jainism”. 3
In fact this agreement between the different traditions, about Rşabha being the founder of Jainism,4 is so singular and striking that its validity cannot be doubted, for as
Pt. Todar Mal (18th century) gives several ocher references from the Vedas etc., which are not found in the presept editions.
1 Pargitor--Asur India, Introd. p. iv.
2 Mārkandeya Purāņa (ch. 50. p. 150), Kūrma P. (ch. 41, p. 61), Agni Purāna (cb. 10, p.62), Vāyu Purāņa (Pt. I, ch, 3?, p. 51), Brahmānda Purāņa (Pt. I, Anuşangapada ch. 14, p. 24), Varāha P. (ch, 74, p. 49), Linga P. (ch, 47, p. 68), Vişnu P. (Pt. II, ch. I, p. 77), Skanda P. (ch. 37, p. 148 of the kaumāra khanda of Maheśvara kbanda), Nāradiya P. (Avatāra varñana, v. 54), Bbāgavata Purāņa ( 5-5-28, 5-5-3, 5-5-32 ), Garuda P. ( ch. 1, p. 1), Śiva Purāņa (ch. 4, p. 241), also see 'Kalyāṇa'. Santānka No. XII, 1 p. 274.
3 Bhāgavata (Hindi Edition), 2, 7, 4, 10.
4 Old famous Buddhist works like Dhammapada, Sata Šāstra, Nyāya-bindu also mention Rsabha as the first

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Prof. Stevenson remarked, "It is so seldom that Jainas and Brāhmanas agree, that I do not see how we can refuse them credit in this instance, where they do so". 1
Thus to conclude, in the words of Barrister Champat Rai, “Hinduism itself has always admitted and never disputed the antiquity of Jainism and of its founder Rşabhadeva whom the Hindus regard as an incarration of Vişnu. He is mentioned in the Purāņas which place his historicity beyond question, giving the name of his mother Marudevi and of his son Bharata after whom India came to be called Bhāratavarsa in the past. According to the Bhagavata Purāna Rsabhadeva was the ninth incarnation of Vişnu and preceded the Vāmana (Dwarf), Rāma, Kęşna etc. who are also regarded as Avatāras. Nɔw since the Vāmapa Avatāra, the fifteenth in the order of enumeration, is expressly referred to in the Rgveda, it follows that it must have priority in point of time to the composition of the hymn that refers to it, and in as much as Rsabhadeva even preceded the Vāmanāvatāra, he must have flourished still earlier”.2 Svāmı Karmānanda also, from his deep and comparative study of the Vedic literature, successfully proved that Rsabha was the first promulgator Jaina Tirthankara. Even in the Avestan Language, the words "Arhat' and Rsabha are found. The latter, according to the Avestan dictionary means a man, a hero, or a bull, which are in agreement with the Jaina meaning of the word, bull being the distinctive symbol of Rsabha. Mr. Govind Pai proves the Avestan use of the word to be very ancient-(see I.H.Q.-III, p. 473-475).
1 Kalpasūtra - Introd. XVI.
2 Practical Path, and Lord Rşabhadeva, the founder of Jainism.

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of religion on earth. Even the epigraphical evidence reaching back to several centuries before Christ, amply supports this view.?
Now, this Rsabhadeva was the progenitor of the Ikşvāku race, 3 the noblest and most ancient race of Indian Ksatriyas, from which later on branched off Solar and the Lunar families (the Sürya and Candra Vamsas) Rşabha himself belonged to the most primitive and indigenous race of India - the Mānavas. His father and several other prominent predecessors, as well as he himself were called Manus. The other tribes which began to appear in India from his times onwards were the Rkşa, Yaksa, Nāga, Pbani, Gandharva, Kinnara, Vānara etc. termed under the common name of Vidyādharas being prominently skilled in various kinds of arts, crafts, engineering and such other scientific enterprises. Modern scholars generally like to call these latter people by the generic term Dravidian. Rşabha preached his Dharma to both the Mānavas and
1 'Dharma Kā Ādi Pravartaka'.
2 See Jaina stūpa and other Antiquities of Mathura, and JBORS-III-465-67.
3 Rsabha was the first to discover the use of Ikşu (sugarcane ) and hence was called Ikşvāku,( see Ādi Purāņa, p. 77-78 16, 34 and Harivamsa Purāņa 13–32, of the Jainas). The fact is also referred to in the Rgveda (10, 60, 4) and a number of Hindu Purānas according to which the first man, son of Brabmā, the creator, was Manu and his race was called Mänava. He had ten sons, but four had their progenies, The eldest son of Mapu was Iksvāku whose progeny was later on called the Solar race (see also Bhāratiya Samsksti, p. 12, Pargitor--AIHT; Bhāratiya Itihasa Ki Rūpa Rekbā, p. 124; Bhārata kā Ādi Samrāt etc.).

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Vidyadharas alike. His son Bharata was the first emperor of India and after his name the country came to be known as Bharatavarṣa and his progeny as the Bharatas.1 Prior to that this land was known as Añjanabha or Himavarṣa. Ayodhya, the first Indian city was the birth place of Rṣabha and the seat of Bharata's government. Gajapur (later on known as Hastinagpur) and few other cities and states soon came into being.
2
There are, however, some scholars who still like to believe that it was the Puruvamsi Sarvadamana alias Bharata of Hastinagpur, the son of Dusy anta and Sakuntala (of Kalidasa fame) who was responsible for the country being named as such.
But there is ample evidence to show that even long before the birth of this son of Śakuntala, nay even before Puru, the father of his race, migrated to India, this country was called Bharatavarșa and its natives Bharatas. Not only the Jaina traditions but almost all the Brahmanic Puranas testify to the fact that it was the Bharata, son of Rṣabha, the son of Nabhi after whom the country was named Bharata.3 References to this fact are also available in the Vedas and other branches of the Vedic literature.4 Prof. J. C. Vidyalankara says, "We are tempted to think. that our country was named Bharatavarsa after this Bharata (the son of Śakuntala and Dusy anta) but this naming is attributed to another much more earlier king. Bharata, the son of Rṣabha, who is either a legendry
1 'Bharata Aura Bhārata' and Bhārata kā Ādi Samrat'. 2 N. L. Dey-Geog. Dic. of Anc. Ind., pt. I, Calcutta, 1899.
3 See p. 43 Note 4. and the Markandeya-Brahma Purana issue of Kalyāṇa XXI, 1, p. 251.
4 See p. 46, Note 1.

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figure or some prehistoric person.” In another place he says, " The first of these (Jaina Tirthankaras) was Rsabhadeva after whose son charata's name this country came tobe known as I bāratavarsa”. I There thus remains no It ason to doubt the truth of this tradition and the historicity of Emperor Bharata, the son of Lord Rsabha, who was the first Cakravartin of the Jaina tradition - the first Indian king who was a universal conqueror and world. potentate, particularly when his existence is well corroborated by the different traditions.
As a matter of fact, the Hindu history of India is. generally made to begin from the advent of the Aryans - into this country, just as the British or European bistory of India used to begin from Alexander's invasion. And so every event and person prior to or outside the pale of the Vedic religion and culture is regarded unbistorical or at best prehistonic. The Rgveda is the first and earliest of the Vedas and is supposed to be the oldest book in the world's library. It is believed by the majority of scholars, both eastern and western, to have been composed in the form of isolated hymns ranging over a long period, sometimes between 4500 B. C. and 2.00 or 1500 B. C. The advent of the Vedic Aryans through the Northwest Frontiers of India is also dated to about 3500 to 2500 B.C.2 Lord Rsabha and his son Bharata, the great emperor are obviously much anterior to these times. Prof. S. Srikantha Sastri takes back the antiquity of Jaina tradition to at least 20,000 B.C. and asserts that the original home of Jainism was certainly some where in Bhāratavarşa, -
1. BIR.-p. 146-343.
2 Tilak—(Arctic Home of the Aryans and Orian), Jacobi, Winternitz, Max Muller, Majumdar, Rangacharya etc, etc.

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although at the same time he is inclined to believe it to be a phase of the indigenous Aryan culture before the commencement of the sacrificial cult of the Vedas.1
The epoch making discovery of the prehistoric Indus Valley civilization of Mohenjodaro and Harrappa further sheds a new and significant light on the antiquity of Jainism. Sir John Marshal emphatically asserts that, "a comparison of the Indus and Vedic cultures shows incontestably that they were unrelated. The Vedic religion is normally ariconic. At Mohenjodaro and Harrappa iconism is everywhere apparent. In the houses of Mohenjodaro the firepit is conspicuously lacking”. At Mohenjodaro there "have been discovered many nude figures which “depict personages who are no other than Yogis”.3 And nudity has been one of the characteristics of the Jaina Šramaņas. Lord Rşabha himself went nude and his images are represented as such. Even in the Rk-Samhitā, there is a mention of the "wind girdled Bacbhanters-Munayaḥ Vātavasarāḥ”, who according to Dr. A. Weber, seem to be pone else but Jaina ascetics who “also appear to be referred to in the well known accounts of the Indian Gymnosophists of the time of Alexander the Great”.5
Now about these nude yogic figures of Mohenjodaro, it has been said that “These statutes clearly indicate that the people of the Indus Valley, in the Chalcolithic period not only practised yoga but worshipped the images of the
I The Original Home of Jainism - JA, XV, 2, p. 58. 2 Mohenjodaro, vol. I, p. 110-111. 3 Ibid p. 33-34.
4 Nudity of Jain Saints; Digambaratva and Digambara Muni.
$ History of Religions in India - IA-XXX, July 21901,

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yogis".1 And R. B. Prof. Rama Prasad Chanda says, "Not only the seated deities engraved on some of the Indus seals are in yoga posture and bear witness to the preval. ence of yoga in the Indus Valley in that remote age, the standing deities on the seals also show Käyotsarga posture of Yoga”. Further that “The Kāyotsarga posture is pecu-- liarly Jaina. It is a posture not of sitting but of standing. In the Ādi Purāņa, Book XVII), Kāyotsarga posture is described in connection with the penances of Rsabha or Vrsabha. A standing image of Jaina Rsabha in Kāyotsarga posture on a slab showing four such images, assignable to the 2nd century A.D. in the Curzon Museum of Archaeology, Mathura is reproduced in figure 12. Among the Egyptian sculptures of the time of the early dynasties there are standing statues with arms, hanging on two sides. But though these early Egyptian statues and the archaic Greek Kouroi show nearly the same pose, they lack the feeling of abandon that characterises the standing figures on the Indus seals and images of Jainas in the Kāyotsarga posture. The name Rşabha means "bulland the bull is the emblem of Jaina Rşabha..2
1 Survival of the Pre-historic Civilization of the IndusValley - Memoir --ASI.
2 Sindh Five Thousand Years Ago - Modern Review, Aug. 1932, p. 155-160
According to Prof. / apade (Mysticism in Maharashtra p. 9) Rsabhadeva was a mystic whose utter carelessness of his body is the supreme mark of his God-realization.
Also see my article-- The Jaina mystics of Medieval Times', and that of H, C. Modi (in Anekānta I, p. 536543) which prove Rşabba to be the originator of the Yogamārga in India.

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Prof. Pran Nath Vidyalankara says, “The names and - symbols on plates annexed would appear to disclose a connection between the old religious cults of Hindus and Jainas with those of the Indus people. It may also be noted that the incription on the Indus seal no. 449 reads according to my decipheraent, Jineśvara or Jinesa (Jin.i-isarah)”. He is also of opinion that the Indus people worshipped such Tântric deities as Śri, Hri, Kiin etc. which incidentally are important female deities of the Jaina pantheon. Further he says, “It is interesting to note that the Purāṇas and the Jaina religious books both . assigo high places to these gods (of the Indus people)”.?
There are numerous other evidences of the presence of Jainism in the Indus Valley, in that remote age, such as figures of hooded saints which could be the representations of the seventh Tirthankara Supārsva3 and so on. "The Indus civilization of C.3000-2500 B.C.”, says Prof. S. Srikantha Sastri, "with its cult of nudity and yoga, the worship of the bull and other symbols, has resemblances
1 Ind Hist. Quarterly, VIII-supplement p. 18,
2 Mohenjodaro Antiquities and Jainism ---J. A., XIV 1, p. 1-7.
3 Supārsva who is also mentioned in the Vedas, is represented as hooded with Nāgas, and his symbol is Svastika, about which Sri Hatit Krishna Deb (in the Svastika, .and the Omkāra – JPASB, XII, 1921, p. 231-244) says, “The Svastika has long been a favourite emblem with the Jainas whose traditions represent it as having been the special sign of Supārsvanātha, a Tirtharkara who is said to have flourished considerably anterior to the period of Mahāvira ( died 28 B.C.)". It would be interesting to note that svastika was much in use in Mohenjodaro itself-even the roads and streets were designed on the svastika pattern.

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to Jainism, and, therefore, the Indus civilization is sup. posed to be non-Aryan or of non-Vedic Aryan origin"] because Jainism is believed to have a non-Aryan or at least, pre-Vedic Aryan origin.
Although in the words of Prof. Humayun Kabir "There have been scholars who doubt whether Mohen-jodaro represents pre-Aryan culture at all. They believe that India was the original home of the Aryans and Mohenjodaro marks only an early stage in t'e development of Aryan culture”.2 Still the general tendency of the scholars has been in favour of the theory that the Indus people were of Dravidian stock, Rev. Father Dr. Heras is emphatically of the opinion tbat the Mohenjodaro people were Dravidian, that the language of the Mohenjodaro inscriptions was a purely Dravidian language and that their culture, religion etc. was also Dravidian.
According to him Nandur, the land of the Crabs (the constellation crab of the zodiac), was the ancient name of Mohenjodaro. He believes that the Nandur script was mad's first attempt at writing and that the Nandur or Mohenjodaro civilization was earlier than that of predynastic Egypt and was probably man's earliest civilization, The stage of this civilization is said to be Chalco-lithic (copper-stone), iron not yet being known. According to Sir John Marshall, this civilization "must have had a long
1 JA., XV, 2, p. 58. 2 Our Heritage (Bombay), p. 12.
3 The Crab was the special symbol of Puşpadanta, the 9th Jaina Tirthankara.
4 'Different Interpretations of the Pre-historic Indus Valley culture of 3000 B.C.:— by Dr. B. R. Chatterji, Ph.D., D.Litt., Principal, Meerut College, M.C. Magazine, 1936.

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antecedent bistory on the soil of India, taking us back to an age that can only be dimly surm ised", and that it must have been lipked with the then existing sister or mother civilization of central upper India (i.e. Ayodhyā-Hastināpura region)".1 Prof. Childe wrote, “India confronts Egypt and Babylonia by the third millenium with a thoroughly individual and independent civilization of her own, techpically the peer of the rest. And plainly it is deeply rooted in the Indian soil. It has endured, it is already specifically Indian and forms the basis of modern Indian culture”.2
Thus the most ancient yet highly developed civilization of the Indus people, which is ascribed by eminent archaeologists and antiquarians, to the Dravidian people 3 who, according to Rislay, "are the earliest inhabitants of India of whom we bave any knowledge”, 4 shows ample proof of these people being of Jaina persuation, long before the birth of the Vedic religion or even the beginning of the Aryan civilization. These ancient Jaip as are called
1 Mohenjodaro and the Indus civilization (1931), Vol. I, p. 106.
2 New Light on the most ancient East (1934).
3 Sir John Marshall, Father Dr. Heras, Rakbal Das Baperji, F. W. Thomas, Dr. R. K. Mukerji, Prof. H. Kabir, etc.
Dr. G. R. Hunter and the eminent Assyriologist Prof. Langdon are of opinion that Brāhmi is the lineal descendent of this prehistoric alphabet of the Indus Valley, And from the Jaina tradition we know that Rsabha was the first to discover the art of writing and that he named the first script he invented after the name of his daughter Brāhmi.
4 Census of India Report (1901), vol. I, Pt. I, p.508.

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Vrātyas or Vțşalas in the early Brahm anic Literature. 1 They with their well built cities (Puras) and non-violent, non-sacrificial cult were the indigenous rivals and enemies whom the first Aryans had to encounter for settling and extending in this country. In fact, according to the Jaina tradition, Prince Dravida, a son of Lord R$abha was the progenitor of the race who later on came to be called as Dravidas. Many Dravida Princes of old are believed to have turned Jaina saints and as such are worshipped even to this day.
Major Gen. J. G. R. Forlong, F. R. S. E., F, R. A. S., M.A.I. etc. point out, as the result of his over seventeen years' study and research, that, “All upper, western, northcentral India was then ----say 1500 to 800 B.C. ard indeed from coknown times ruled by Turanians, conveniently called Draviďas, and given to trce, serpent and phallic worship but there also then existed throughout upper India an ancient and highly organized religion, philosophical, ethical and severely ascetical, viz. Jainism, out of which clearly developed the early ascetical features of Brāhmanism and Buddhism. Long before Aryans reached the Ganges or even the Sarasvati, Jainas had been taught by some twenty two prominent Bodhas, saints or Tirthankaras, prior to the 23rd Bodba Pārsva of the 8th or 9th century B.C., and he knew of all his predecessors-pious Rșis living at long intervals of time, and of several scriptures even then known as Pūrvas or Purāṇas, that is ancient, which had been banded down for ages in the memory of
1 Prof. A, Chakravarti, M.A., I.E.S. - Yesterday and Today - Chapter on Glimpse of Ancient India, p. 59-71, and Jain Gazette XXI, p.6, also see Modern Review 1929,
p. 499.

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recognised anchorites, vānaprasthas or forest reculses. This was more especially a Jaina order, severely enforced by all their Bodhas and particularly in the 6th century B.C., by the 24th and last, Mahāvira of 598-526 B.C. This ascetic order continued in Brāhmanism and Buddhism throughout distant Baktria and Daccia, as seen in our study I and Sacred Books of the East, vols. XXII and XLV”. Further he remarks, “instead of Jainism being, as was formerly supposed, an offshoot of Buddhism, it is shown to extend as far back as 3000 B.C. It is found flourishing along side the nature worship of the rude tribes in Northern India". 1
In the words of S. N. Gokhale "Ahimsā is the keynote of Jainism, a philosophy which comes from pre-Aryan? days”. And says Dr. Kali Das Nag, “No one even amongst those who profess to know history knows that lacs and crores of years before Buddba, not only one or two but several Jaina Tirtharkaras had preached the gospel of Ahimsā. Jainism is very ancient religion and it has given much to Indian culture"3. Dr. Jacobi was also of te opinion that Jainism was related to the primitive philosophy of India. Speaking about the development of the atomic theory by the Indians, another eminent scholar says, “In the oldest philosophical speculation of the Brāhmins as preserved in the Upanisads we find no traco of an atomic theory, and it is therefore controverted in the Vedānta Sūtra which claims systematically to interpret the teachings of the Upan işads. Nor it is acknowledged in the
1 Short studies in the Science of Comparative Religions, p. 243-244 and Chapter I.
2 Indian Theosophist. 3 Anekānta X, 6, p. 226. 4 Jain Gazette, 1922, p. 46.

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The Oldest Living Religion Sankhya and Yoga pbilosophies which have the next claim to be considered orthodox, i.e. to be in keeping with the Vedas for even the Vedānta Sūtra allows them the title of Smộties. But the atomic theory makes an integral part of the Vaišesika and it is acknowledged by the Nyāya, two Brābmanical philosopbies which have originated by secular scholars (Panditas) rather than by divine or religious men. Among the heterodox, it has been adopted by the Jainas and also the Ājivikas. We place the Jainas first, because they seem to have worked out their system from the most primitive notions about matter”l. The same is equally true about the Karma doctrine of the Jainas, which is based on their own atomic theory, of their apimistic beliefs and hero worship.2
Prof. G. Satyanarayan Murti wrote in 1916, that “Jainism seems to be an indigenous product of ancient schools of Indian thought. Whatever the early savants of European fame have said to the contrary, it is to be noted that Jainism with all the glory of its Dharma and plenitude of its literature, both secular and religious has been handed down from a boary antiquity. Jainism bas a history of its own, a history on most of the obscure parts of which fresh light is being thrown almost every year owing to the patient researches of many scholars, both in India and abroad. The sources for the history of Jainism are now many and they have themselves, curiously enough a history of their own, viz. Transaction of the Asiatic Society, and Asiatic Researches-Davis, Knox, Capt. Mahoney, Hodgson, Dr. Buchanon, Prof. Wilson, De la Maine, Dr. Jacobi and Buihler - and a host of other Jaipa historiographers”,3
1 Encyclopaedia of Rel, and Ethics, Vol. II, p. 199-200.
2 On these points we bave already quoted references in previous pages.
3 Jain Gazette, 1916, p. 73,

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According to Gustav Oppert, Jaica Missionaries were the first preachers and religious teachers devoted to the indigenous population. This is perhaps why a temple more particularly of the Jainas is called a Palli.1
Lastly to quote one more erudite scholar, Sir Sanmu. kham Chetty, “It has occurred to me as a very interesting historical speculation as to what must have been the real genesis of this great religion in India ............looking at this great religion from that point of view, I am tempted to believe that Jainism was probably the earliest religion prevalent in India, and that it was the flourishing religion when the Aryan migration came in India and when the religion of the Vedas was being evolved in the Punjab. I think it was the tremendous force let loose by Lord Mahāvīra that really created Lord Buddha. There is a very deep Significance in that Lord Mahāvīra and Lord Buddha were contemporaries. The standard of revolt set up by Lord Mahāvira must have been taken up Lord Buddha. The very fact that the great Hindu saints who wanted to revive Hinduism in South India had to resort even to cruel methods to exterminate Jainism is proof of the hold that Jainism must have had on the people of South India. recent historical researches and archaeological discoveries have led scholars to believe that in the pre-Aryan period there flourished a very great civilization in India, which, for the sake of convenience I shall call “Dravidian civilization'. I casually use the word for the sake of convenience because in these days unnecessary heat is generated when we use such phrases as 'Dravidian Civilization and the like,
1 On the original inhabitants of Bhāratavarşa (Westminister and Leipzig, 1893), p. 100, also p. 62.

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and my own belief is that Jainism was the religion of the Dravidian people who were the pre-Aryan inhabitants of India. The Aryans came with their own ideas based upon ritualism and animal sacrifice, and the promi. neace given to the revival in the time of Lord Mahāvīra is only an indication of that feeling of revolt which came amongst the vast masses of Jainas in this country against this new cult and the practices which were the antithesis of the principles that the Jainas believed in”.
The oldest mystic symbols of India, like the svastika, Tridanda (or Triśūla representing Tri-Ratna), Dharma Cakra (wheel of law and the time wheel), the Nandyā: varta aod Vardhamanakya (or the Nandipada), the tree, the stūpa, the crescent, lotus, animals like bull, elephant, lion, crab, serpent, and several others are found to have commonly used by the Jaioas from the earliest times, even before they were adopted by Brāhm anism and Buddhism, and also before icon making became a fashion. And there have been discovered certain prehistoric paintings in some Neolithic caves, tens of thousands years old, such as at Singanpur in Raigarh state which bear unmistakable traces of Jaina influence in these primitive times. Even the religious ideas of Palcolithic and Neolithic men in India, whatever little is known of them, bear close resemblance to the cardinal features of Jaina philosho phy, i.e. animism, life after death, existence and eternal nature of soul, the psychic phenomenon of cause and effect resembling the Jaina doctrine of Karma,
1 Jain Gazette, June 1943, p. 83-85.
2 Pre historic Jaina Paintings --JA, X, 2 and XI, 1, also see Pre-historic India by P. C. Mitra

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and so on. There is also sufficient evidence to show that there had always been non-violent Abimsite people depending solely on vegetable diet, side by side with meateating violent natures. The religion of very ancient pre-dynastic Egypt, supposed to be lacs of years old also appears to be quite akin to Jainism. In fact, in the words of Forlong "It is impossible to find the begioning of Jainism”. According to the Jainas themselves their religion is eternal, it existed even before Rşabha, and even the date of Rşa bha that they give is beyond computation.
But to come back to the hard facts of scientific history, according to the geologists, anrthopo-geographers and other pre-historicians, the last of the primeval ice age ended about eight to ten thousand years before Christ, and with it the Postglacial epoch commenced. This is also the time assigned to the closing period of the Neolithic age (the new stone age) of the Quartenary epoch. It was also near about this time that the so called Aryan people are said to have begun moving. out of their Arctic home. In India proper, soon after this time the Chalcolithic (Copperstone) age was about to commence, which marked the first beginnings of
1 Rargacharya-History of Pre-Musalman India, vol. 1, and Nava Jivan Gandhi number, Oct. 2, 1949.
2 S.P. Roy - Some Aspects of food question for manJ.G. April, 1911.
3 Compare Jainism with the religion of Ancient Egypt as described by Dr. Robert Churchwell in his “The origin and Evolution of Religion (London), 1924. . 4 Tilak - Arctic Home of the Aryans, also works of Mitra Rangacharya etc.

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civilization as we understand it today. An interesting piece of evidence curiously assigas Lord Rşabha to just about this time. The Selucide ambassador Magasthenes who resided for some time in Pätaliputra, at the court of emperor Candra Gupta Maurya, now unanimously accepted to be a Jaina monarch, in about the year 305 B. C. records that the then current indigenous tradition dated the beginning of Indian History from 6462 years before that time, when according to it -the great Indian Dionysus and his son the great Hercules lived. He also associates this Dionysus with Mt. Meru and Kailāsa (Hemodos), attributes to him the invention and discovery of various arts and crafts, building of cities, setting up of kingdoins, and so on. He calls him Lenaios because he discovered how fruits should be gathered and pressed to yield juice. Before his times the inhabitants are said to have subsisted on such fruits as the earth yielded spontaneously. His son Herakles was a great warrior and conqueror, had many wives and numerous children. Dionysus lived a long age of 250 years.
Now all this description points to none else but to Lord Rsabhadeva or Ādinātha (The first Lord), the first propagator of religion, the first promulgator of law and order, pioneer of art, industry and social organization who at the close of Bhogabhūmi (oature depending primitive life) inaugurated the Karmabhūmi (age of action
1 Smith - EHI, E. Thomas -Early faith of Asoka, A. R. Banerji-QJMS, XIV, 1923, p. 5.9, Jayaswal - JBORS-III, C. D. Chatterji B. C. Law, vol., etc. etc.
2 M. C. Crindle - Ancient India, p. 35-38 (Indica of „Magasthenes),

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and intelligence). His son Bharata Cakravarti, the first. universal conqueror had many wives and numerous sons. So there is no doubt that this more than two thousand years old tradition so definitely referred to Lord Rșabhadeva whose date according to it would come to be 6765 B. C. or about 9000 years ago. At least this was the date traditionally believed in the 3rd 4th century B. C. But incidentally, it is quite in keeping with the geological data mentioned above, and is sufficiently anterior to the beginnings of the most ancient civilization of the Indus Valley (c.6000 B. C.), of the early Egyptian Civilization (c. 5000 B. C.) to the advent of the Aryans (c.3000 B, C.). And thus Jainism is found to have existed throughout the pre-historical (pre-written bistorical), protohistorical and historical times.
This oldest religion of man was primarily called simply Dharma or Mānavadharma or Magga? (the Mārga or Path), in the Indus Valley days as Rsabha cultor Jainadharma, by the Vedic people as Vrātya religion or Abiṁsādbarma, in the time of the Upanisads as Ārbala Dharma or Ātmadharma, in Buddha's times
1 The authors of Manu's Code, the Mahābhārata and the Purāņas (100 B.C. - 1000 A. D.) increased their traditional dates and periods of yugas etc. to enormous lengths. Seeing this the Jaida writers also, who definitely knew that their tradition were decidedly anterior to those of the Brāhmanas, extended their dates as well and to outwit the Brābmanas made them so fabulous as to be beyond computation.
2 About the very ancient character of the word Magga and its original application to Jainism, see-New Light op the Antiquity of Jainism'-J.A., XIV, 1, p. 22.

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377
as Nigantha Dharma, in the Indo-Greek and Indo. scythian periods as Sramana Dharma, in the so-called Hindu period as Jaina Dharma, Syādavāda Mata or. Anekādta Mata, in the days of Bhakti movement especially in the Deccan as Bhavya Dharma, in Rajputana. as Śrāvaka Dharma, in the Punjab as the religion of Bhābadās and so on. Besides being purely indigenous and the earliest religious system of civilized man, it is the only one which has miraculously endured so long and yet preserved its integrity down to the present day, Since its inception it has ever been acting and reacting on all religious systems it came in contact with, and influencing human thought and culture. Its contributions, too, to all the many domains of culture are by no means meagre or mean. It has the noblest and most practicable message of peace and good will, of universal brotherhood and sound bliss and happiness, not only for the land of its birth but for the world at large, not only for the individual but for the whole of the mankind. Dr. Nag said, “Jainism is not the religion of any one particular caste or community. Eut it is the religion of all living beings. It is international and universal”.. In the words of Pev. A. J. Dubois “Yea! his (Jina's) religion is the only true one upon earth, the primitive faith of all mankind”.
Glory be to the creed of Jina !!!

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AIHT
AIR
ASI
BIR
CR
EHI
Ind. Ant.
I. A.
J. A.
J. D. L.
J. G.
J BORS
JRAS
J. S. B.
QJM S
R. J. S.
S BE
SIJ

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, All India Reporter.
Archaeological Survey of India. Bharatiya Itihasa ki Rūparekhā. Calcutta Review.
Early Hitsory of India.
Indian Antiquary, Arrah.
Jaina Antiquary.
Journal of the Department of Letters,
Jaina Gazette.
Journal of Bihara and Orrissa Research
Society.
Journal of Royal Asiatic Society,
Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Arrah. Quarterly Journal of Mystic Society. Rayacandra Jaina Śāstramālā.
Sacred Books of the East, Studies in South Indian Jainism.

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