Jaina Philosophers On Nature Of Liberation

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We use cookies to enhance your experience on our website. By clicking 'continue' or by continuing to use our website, you are agreeing to our use of cookies. You can change your cookie settings at any time. OXFORD ACADEMIC Journal of Hindu Studies The Journal of Hindu Studies, Volume 12, Issue 1, May 2019, Pages 28-48, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhs/hiz001 Published: 29 July 2019 PDF Abstract Split View 66 Cite Like a Castor Seed: Jaina Philosophers on the Nature of Liberation Ana Bajzelj Issue Section: Articles Skip to Main Content Permissions Introduction Continue Find out more Share V Q XFORD CENTRE FOR HINDU This article examines the nature of the spatial transition of liberated jivas, a special episode in the life of jivas that according to Jaina philosophy takes place between the destruction of all karman that binds them to samsara on the one hand and their dwelling in the space of liberated beings on the other. As the place of karmically bound jivas that are capable of attaining liberation is located far below the space of liberated beings, the disembodied liberated jivas must travel upwards to reach it. Focused on Umasvati's Tattvartha-sutra with four commentaries, the article describes and analyses the discussions and issues that developed around the doctrine of the jiva's final journey. STUDIES

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Article Navigation very middle of it. Above the middle realm (madhya-loka) is the heavenly realm (urdhva-loka), occupied by various kinds of heavenly beings (deva), and above the heavenly realm, at the very top of the cosmos, is the realm of liberated or perfected beings (siddha-loka). Liberation (moksa) is attainable only in the middle realm, and, more specifically, in the human form. What gets liberated are individual living selves (jiva, atman) and what they get liberated from is samsara, a beginningless and potentially endless succession of embodied existences. Jivas are understood to be substantial in nature, meaning that they persist as jivas throughout the various rebirths as well as after their embodied existences come to an end. This led Jaina authors to deliberate on how upon attaining moksa disembodied jivas move from the middle realm to the realm of liberated beings at the top of the cosmos. This article explores how the process of the transition of liberated jivas is understood by Umasvati, one of the most important systematisers of the Jaina doctrine, and his commentators. It will focus on Umasvati's magnum opus, the Tattvartha-sutra (TS), two Svetambara commentaries, the Tattvarthadhigama-bhasya (TBh) and Siddhasenaganin's Tattvarthadhigama-tika (TT), as well as two Digambara commentaries, Pujyapada Devanandin's Sarvartha-siddhi (SS) and Akalanka's Tattvartha-varttika (TV). The topic of this article has been scarcely researched. Even though the basic outline of what happens to the jiva at the moment of liberation is well known, the nature and mechanics of its travel have not been thoroughly explored. Some scholars, such as Nathmal Tatia and Sukhlal Sanghavi, draw on classical commentaries in their brief comments to the sutras of TS that refer to the travel of the liberated jivas, but they neither systematically examine this specific topic nor explore the commentaries side by side. They, furthermore, present the commentaries as conveying a uniform view on the topic. This article provides a close analysis of how the selected texts approach and interpret the topic and identifies their commonalities and differences. Moksa as Svatantrya In SS 1.4 $19 Pujyapada declares moksa to be the principal subject of discussion of TS.' This is supported by the fact that the text begins and ends with a reference to moksa-it starts by outlining the path to moksa and ends by describing the state of moksa. In SS 10.2 $922 Pujyapada presents these topics relating to moksa in the form of two basic questions: 'From what cause (hetu) is moksa (achieved) and what are its characteristics (laksana)? This is Skexpiatacu netentAs the topic of the travel of liberated jivas relates to both of these questions, it is important to briefly touch upon them first. TS 10.3 defines moksa in the following way: 'The exhaustion of all karman is moksa.'This basic definition of the Jaina

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Article Navigation distinctiveness of the Jaina approach, with one of the most pronounced differences being that Jainas understand karman to be material. As matter, karman affects jivas in various ways, including how well they can comprehend reality and the nature of the bodies that they occupy throughout their samsaric existence. The fact that moksa represents a complete exhaustion of karmic matter differentiates it from the attainment of omniscience or perfect knowledge (kevala-jnana), where according to Jainism only the karmic matter that impedes the functioning of the jiva is eliminated. Kevala-jnana arises while the jiva is still embodied and is defined as the attainment of the unpolluted and infinite operation of knowledge (jnana), which occurs along with the attainment of the unimpeded operation of the other essential qualities of the jiva, that is, perception (darsana), energy (virya) and bliss (sukha)." Even though an omniscient (kevalin) stays in samsara and continues to occupy a material body due to the operation of the remaining karmic matter that determines its embodiment, these qualities remain perfectly functional until and throughout moksa. In that sense moksa is a continuation of kevala-jnana. Akalanka refers to both features of moksa in TV 1.4 $20: Just as a human being is blissful upon the arising of freedom (svatantrya) because of the liberation (moksa) from the [material] substance of the shackles (nigada) and so forth (and) the attainment of the wished for place (abhipreta-pradesa) and so forth, so also upon the separation from all karman (krtsna-karma-viyoga) the self exists in endless knowledge and perception as well as incomparable bliss, all of which are independent (svadhina) [from any other factors).14 As this excerpt indicates, moksa is not merely a negative state (that is, a state that is defined as independence from all karman), but also a positive state that is characterised by endless and incomparable qualities. It is attained by following an ardous path of purification that cultivates the right world-view (samyag-darsana) and knowledge (samyag-jnana) regarding reality as well as the right conduct (samyak-caritra) that manifests the right comprehension of reality. The attainment of kevala-jnana is a necessary condition of moksa. It also guarantees the realisation of moksa in the same lifetime in which it occurs, and in order to become liberated the kevalin only needs to wait for all the remaining karman to naturally run its course. Once it does, the jiva is finally rid of all karmic matter. TS Svet 10.4 points out that this is the result of the elimination of all karmically influenced states of jivas Skdescribed abovetas well as one of its innate states: '[Moksa occurs) owing to the absence of the states (of the jiva), such as those due to the suppression of the deluding karman (aupasamika) and the state of being capable of attaining liberation (bhavyatva), except perfect

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Article Navigation his commentators, jivas have several innate states (parinamika-bhava), some, such as being a jiva (jivatva), that are peculiar to it, and others, such as existence (astitva), that are characteristic of other substances (dravya) as well. The state of being capable of attaining liberation is the innate state that ceases at liberation as its aim is achieved. Upon the attainment of liberation, the jiva is free from further rebirths. And owing to the absence of a cause (hetu)', says TBh 10.3, 'there is no manifestation (apradurbhava) of the next [birth]',19 with TT 10.3 adding that the cause is the cause of [karmic) bondage (bandhahetu).20 'However, does the liberated self', asks TT 10.4, 'stay where it was liberated from all [kinds of] karman or [does it go) elsewhere?:21 According to Umasvati, the liberated jiva changes location: 'Immediately after that (tad-anantaram) (the jiva] moves upwards (urdhvam) to the border of the cosmic space (loka-anta). 22 Instead of again being reborn in a material body the liberated jiva, then, travels from the middle realm to the 'wished for place? at the top of the cosmos. There are several questions to consider regarding Umasvati's description of this transition, and the next sections of the paper will investigate them in the following order: (i) What does 'immediately after that' mean? (ii) How much time does the jiva need to reach the border of the cosmic space? (iii) How is it possible for a jiva to move? (iv) Why does it move upwards? (v) Does it move in a straight line? (vi) Why does it stop moving at the border of the cosmic space? Concurrence of events This section will explore the first two questions about the meaning of the phrase 'immediately after that' and the time period that passes from the moment of liberation to the jiva's reaching of the border of the cosmic space. The meaning of the word 'that' (tad) is not difficult to work out, especially with the guidance of the commentaries. SS 10.5 8930 writes that 'immediately after that' refers to 'release from all karman' (sarva-karma-vipramoksa),23 meaning that TS 10.5 logically follows TS 10.2. TV 10.5 S1 specifically comments on the word 'that', stating: 'The word "that" is (added) in order to indicate the principal subject of discussion. [...] And what is the principal subject of discussion? Release from all karman.24 The explanation of 'that' in TBh and TT 10.5 is similar, except that it also includes a reference to the absence of the already mentioned states of the jiva (TS Svet 10.4/TS 10.3-4). TT 10.5, Skfurtheajpoints out that the transition happens after the jiva's expansion, most likely referring to the kevalin's spreading to the borders of the cosmos (kevali-samudghata),

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Article Navigation While SS and TV do not comment on what 'immediately after' means temporally, TBh 10.5 clearly states that the movement takes only one moment and that it happens at the same time as two other events: 'When karman is exhausted, it [i.e. the jiva) concurrently (yugapad), in the course of one moment (eka-samaya), attains the separation from the body (dehaviyoga), the motion of one achieving perfection (sidhyamana-gati) and the border of the cosmic space (loka-anta). This means that as soon as karman is exhausted, the jiva, in a single moment, simultaneously separates from the body, obtains extraordinary speed of a liberated being and, darting upwards, reaches the top of the cosmos. TT 10.5 attributes the fact that the three events of the liberated jiva occur concurrently and in a single moment to the power of the jiva, emphasising that in the course of this activity, there are no temporal or spatial intervals: 'The motion (gati) is without touching (asprsat) the intermediate moments (samaya-antara) or intermediate space units (pradesa-antara). And owing to its (i.e. jiva's] inconceivable power (acintya-samarthya), all this occurs concurrently.29 TBh 10.5 explains the concurrence of the events involved in the following way: 'For instance, in the case of the activity of motion (gati-karman), occasioned by the impetus (prayoga), modification (parinama) and so forth, the occurrence (utpatti), the beginning of the effect (karya-arambha) and the destruction (vinasa) happen concurrently, in the course of one moment. So it is also here.:31 In his translation of the chapter 10 of TBh, Robert J. Zydenbos indicates that this explanation refers to the description of the liberated jiva, translating it as: That is to say, in one samaya there is concurrently the arising, the activity and the perishing of karma which creates motion, that has arisen through activation, modification etc (Zydenbos 1983, p.25). Another explanation, however, might be that TBh here provides an example of how motion in general happens, suggesting that like in the case under discussion, also in the case of motion in general, the end of the previous state (be it rest or another kind of motion), the beginning of the new state of moving and the activity of motion itself all occur concurrently. TT 10.5 supports this interpretation when it says: 'With "for instance" (tad yatha) and so forth is offered an example. With the well-known subject-matter of the example, the concurrence of the origination and so forth of a perfected being is established. 132 Next it describes how impetus is generated from the thinning of the energyobstructing karman, but then it goes on to illustrate the generation of motion through the natural modification of material particles (paramanu), which further indicates that TBh is referring to motion in general rather than just the motion of jivas: Skip to Main Content

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Article Navigation (that is, born from it), the time of the occurrence (utpatti-kala) is with regard to the effect the beginning of the effect (karya-arambha) and the destruction of the cause (karana-vinasa). The destruction with regard to the previous mode (purva-paryaya) is the beginning of the effect of a diad of basic material particles (dvyanuka) and so forth with regard to another mode (paryaya-antara). So it is also in the case of a perfected being (siddha), where the sevents of the separation of the body and so forth, owing to the exhaustion of karman, occur at the same time, in one moment. Such is the meaning. It is like the (pattern of) origination, cessation and duration (utpada-vigama-sthana). Such is good knowledge.33 The passage refers to the Jaina doctrine of matter (pudgala), 34 according to which material particles join into diads due to their own natural modification, or, more precisely, due to the modification of their essential quality of touch (sparsa) along the levels of viscosity (snigdhatva) and dryness (ruksatva). A viscuous and a dry material particle are attracted to each other, which causes them to move and join into a diad. This is, then, an example of motion generated through natural modification. When the motion of material particles happens, various events' take place at the same time, that is, the cessation of the previous mode, where a material particle was single, the arising of a new mode, where it is joined with another material particle, and the occurrence of the motion of joining. TT closes the passage with a common Jaina description of the nature of existents and, thereby, connects the specific cases discussed with the general categories of Jaina metaphysics. The Jaina doctrine proposes that existence is expressed through substances. As substances these are eternal and, therefore, persist in time, but their essential qualities also continually and momentarily undergo modal modification. The origination (utpada) of a new mode (paryaya) of a certain quality overlaps with the cessation (vigama) of the old mode of that quality, yet also expresses the duration (sthana) of the substance in the domain of which this modal dynamics occurs. In this manner TT establishes not only that certain events can occur concurrently, in a single moment, but that the fact that they do merely reflects reality that is inherently characterised by the concurrent occurrence of seemingly contradictory events. Innate and non-innate motion Skip to Main Content In all the commentaries the statement about the jiva's rapid upward motion is followed by a pertitent question regarding the cause of this motion. TBh specifically asks how a jiva can

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Article Navigation enumerates four reasons for the occurrence of the jiva's distinctive upward motion despite the fact that all of its karman has been exhausted: 'Its motion is due to the preceding impetus (purva-prayoga), freedom from (karmic) ties (asangatva), severance of the (karmic] bondage (bandha-cheda) and due to that being its [innate) modification (parinama).' In TSD 10.741 he then proceeds to give everyday examples of the dynamics involved in each of these cases: 'It is like a potter's wheel (kulala-cakra) set in motion, like a gourd (alabu) the dirt around which has fallen away, like a castor seed (eranda-bija) and like a flame of fire (agni-sikha).'42 This section will investigate the four reasons for the motion of the liberated jiva and explore why liberation is directed upwards. Turning to the first case of the potter's wheel, SS 10.7 $933 elaborates: The turning around (of the wheel occurs) with the contact of a potter's hand, a stick and a wheel producing the impetus. Even upon the cessation of it [i.e. the contact), it [i.e. the wheel] turns around on account of the preceding impetus until the exhaustion of the contact's] influence. In the same way, the self (trapped) in worldy existence repeatedly endeavors (pranidhana) for the attainment of liberation (apavarga-prapti), and even in the absence of these sendeavors), a liberated being (mukta) moves [upwards) because of their influence (avesa).43 Pujyapada indicates that the impetus is produced by the jiva's previous attempts at moksa, in the sense that its earlier efforts at attaining freedom accumulate into a momentum that propels the jiva upwards, towards the place it had been striving to reach. Svetambara commentaries, however, explain that the 'preceding impetus', leading to the upward motion of the jiva, is produced by karman. TBh 10.6 uses the same example of the potter's wheel to elucidate this: Just as a potter's wheel, set in motion due to the contact of the joined (potter's] hand, stick and wheel and due to human effort, turns around on account of the preceding impetus even upon the cessation of the contact of the [potter's] hand, stick and wheel and human effort until the exhaustion of its) influence, in the same Skp to way the impetus previously generated by its (i.e. jiva's] karman is the cause of the motion, even when karman is exhausted. The motion is produced by it.44

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Article Navigation nirodha-abhimukha) is, on account of (its] continual influence, the cause of the motion (gatihetu), even when karman is exhausted and in the absence of activity (yoga). The motion is produced by that cause. Such is the meaning.946 It should be noted that in TS 6.1 Umasvati defines activity (yoga) as action (karman) of the body, speech and mind, and in TS 6.2 equates it with karmic inflow (asrava). This means that bodily, verbal and mental actions result in the inflow of karman, and, as indicated by TT 10.6, even when there is no more karman and no more activity, the impetus generated by the actions that the embodied living beings nearing liberation perform, continues to exert influence upon liberation and propels the disembodied living beings upwards, in the same way that the impetus generated by the factors that jointly bring about the turning of the wheel continues to turn the wheel even when those factors are no longer in contact. Even though both, the Digambara and the Svetambara explanation, associate the generation of the liberated jiva's motion with the jiva's embodied state, they offer slightly different interpretations. The first proposes that the jiva's upward motion is supported by its previous efforts to get liberated, meaning that the embodied jiva's attempts to leap out of samsara propel it upwards upon the destruction of karman that confined it there. It depicts karman as something that is in direct opposition to the upward motion characteristic of liberation. According to the second interpretation, the motion of the liberated jiva is generated by the embodied jiva's actions in a more general sense, even though it is specified that they are the actions of a living being nearing liberation. This means that it is ordinary karmic actions, rather than extraordinary efforts to overcome them, that generate the impetus which pushes the jiva upwards. Umasvati uses the next example of the gourd to illustrate freedom from (karmic) ties (asangatva) as a reason for the upward motion of the liberated jiva. SS 10.7 $933 explains the case of the gourd in the following way: 'Just as a gourd that is weighed down by a layer of dirt, sinks in water, [but] with the binding of the dirt removed by the wetness of water, being light, moves upwards, in the same way the self, subdued by the overpowering burden of karman, owing to the power of its influence, wanders aimlessly in samsara, but when it is freed from these [karmic) ties, moves upwards.'48 Pujyapada indicates that-like a clean gourd in water-jivas naturally move upwards, but burdened by karman, they remain in the polluted waters of samsara. Far, then, from assisting the jiva's upward motion, karman s instead obstructs it. TV 10.7 84 repeats the example with the gourd in water, but also considers a possible objection by referring to the previous example of the potter's wheel: This might be (true): "Just as a stick, stable when it is joined with other things, in their

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Article Navigation modified to upward gravitation, soars up."50 The opponent maintains that karman is the instrument that keeps the jiva steady in its vertical direction, like the potter's hand and wheel secure the stable upright orientation of the stick. Without karman, the opponent argues, the jiva falls down into directionless wandering, like the stick without support. Akalanka is quick to point out, however, that as soon as the jiva is modified in such a way that its own gravitation is manifested, it soars up, meaning that the direction of its natural movement is upwards. Karman is, he indicates, not something that makes the jiva truly stable and vertically positioned, but rather causes it to wander aimlessly through worldly existences. In deliberating on the freedom from karmic ties as a reason for the jiva's upward motion, TBh 10.6 does not employ the example of the gourd. Instead it discusses the idea of the 'natural' or innate motion of things, clarifying any confusion as to what the innate motion of jivas is: It has already been said that material substances (pudgala) and jivas possess motion. The other substances do not. Among them, material substances have downward gravitation (adho-gaurava) and jivas upward gravitation (urdhvagaurava). This is their own-nature (svabhava). Hence, (their) motion occurs without ties and so forth to another. Just as the natural motions of earth, wind and fire are seen, by the definition of (their) essential disposition (jati-niyama), as downwards (adhas), sidewards (tiryanc) and upwards (urdhvam), even though there are other causes of motion (gati-karana), such as impetus and so forth, in the same way one who is liberated from ties (sanga-vinirmukta) has the motion of one achieving perfection (sidhyamana-gati), which is upwards, owing to the upward gravitation. But worldly beings (samsarin), owing to the ties of karman, (move) downwards, sidewards and upwards.51 First of all, TBh points out that both material substances and jivas possess motion, and that they are the only kinds of substances that do. Both of these classes of substances have their characteristic or natural (svabhavika) motion, that is, motion that is inherent or innate to them. Whereas material substances, like earth, innately gravitate downwards, jivas, like fire, innately gravitate upwards. Emphasising that not only matter, but also immaterial jivas have inherent motion, TT 10.6 states: 'Jivas also have such gravity (gaurava). Their specific modification (parinama-visesa) is lightness (laghava). "52 Skip to Main Content TT 10.6 also further elucidates the idea of existents having an essential disposition for a certain kind of motion:

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Article Navigation earth, the state of being wind and the state of being fire a definition is made. Therefore, earth is that whose motion is downward by the definition of the state of being earth. Whatever is gross with the modification of earth, all has downward motion. In the same manner, there is wind with the sideward motion. [And] fire with the upward motion." Existents are, then, essentially disposed to move in a certain way, depending on what classes and subclasses of substances they belong to. It is important to highlight that the jivas' essential disposition, as pointed out by TBh 10.6 above, occurs independently of or without ties to the other kinds of motion. In line with this, other factors may join and potentially influence the force of the substance's natural motion, but they do not constitute the substance's essential disposition. This means that the previously discussed impetus, for example, is simply an additional factor that stimulates the jiva's upward motion. The same holds true for karman. As noted, TBh states that the weight of karman transforms the jiva's innate motion into motion in various directions, namely, downwards, sidewards and upwards, with TT 10.6 adding that these kinds of motion go against the definition of its essential disposition: 'Because of the deviation occasioned by karman motion, countering the definition (aniyama) (of its essential disposition), becomes downward, sideward and upward.154 After their discussions about the cause of the freedom from (karmic) ties, both Digambara and svetambara commentaries use the example of the castor seed to demonstrate how severance of the [karmic) bondage (bandha-cheda) functions as a cause of the upward motion of the liberated jiva. SS 10.7 $933 states: 'Just as the motion of a castor seed is seen, owing to the severance of the bondage of a seed-shell, in the same way a liberated being obtains upward motion, owing to the severance of the bondage of all karman (sakalakarman), such as nama-karman, (which determines) the birth-state (gati) and the class (jati), leading to such states of existence (bhava) as a human being. 55 Why the castor seed? When the fruit of the castor oil plant dries, the carpels holding the seeds open and forcibly eject the seeds into the air. Jaina authors draw a parallel between this rapid expulsion of the seeds after the severance of the bondage of the carpels and the jiva's fast soaring upwards after cutting its bondage with karman. TBh 10.6 adds the example of the basket on the rope to the example of the castor seed: 'Just as the motion of a basket, owing to the severance of the skbondage of the rope, and a castor seed and so forth, owing to the severance of the binding of the seed-shell, is seen, in the same way there is motion of one achieving perfection, owing to the severance of the karmic binding. '56 These two examples stress that the only thing keeping

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Article Navigation The second and the third reason for the jiva's upward motion, that is, freedom from (karmic] ties and severance of (karmic) bondage seem rather similar. Why, then, list them separately? This is a question that Akalanka also considers, anticipating an opponent asking whether 'this is a case of repetition (anuvada-prasanga), because there is no distinction in the meaning (artha) of "freedom from (karmic) ties" and "severance of [karmic) bondage").57 Akalanka answers: 'This is not so. Why? Because there is distinction in meaning. If they were imitating (anupravesa) each other, there would be no distinction between stability (avasthana) and bondage (bandha). "[Karmic] ties" means merely "meeting each other (paraspara-prapti-matra), therefore there is a difference in meaning.'>>58 The meaning of Akalanka's objection is not entirely clear, but he seems to be referring back to the idea of karmic ties providing stability for the jiva, like the potter and the potter's wheel provide stability for the stick, albeit in samsara and therefore against the jiva's natural impulse of upward motion. He indicates that the discussion about karmic ties is primarily about the samsaric stability that ensues from the jivas and karman coming together, 'meeting each other', an ensnaring and deceptive stability that upon its destruction gives way to the jivas' eternal stability at the top of the cosmos. On the other hand, the discussion about the severance of the karmic bondage is not at all about stability, but rather about bondage itself. The last reason that Umasvati lists for the liberated jiva's upward motion is that the upward motion is jiva's [innate] modification (parinama). SS 10.7 $933 explains: 'Just as a flame of a lamp, owing to its own-nature (svabhava), darts up, undisturbed with regard to the wind that is by its own-nature blowing sidewards, in the same way a liberated self without the hindrance of karman, which causes transformations into different birth-states, also soars upwards because upward motion is its own-nature. This reason approaches the issue of the motion of the liberated jiva from the point of view of own-nature, that is, the inalienable character of an existent. As the own-nature of jivas is such that they move upwards, they move upwards as soon as the manifestation of their own-nature is no longer hindered. As pointed out above, this innate motion can be assisted by other factors, which TBh 10.6 indicates in the following way: 'Owing to the upward gravitation as well as the causes of the previous impetus and so forth, originates a modification of its (i.e. jiva's] motion (gatiparinama) through which there occurs the motion of one achieving perfection (sidhyamanagati). It is upward, not downward or sideward. While the Digambaras use the example of the flame in order to illustrate the manifestation of the innate motion of existents, TBh Skinterestingly chooses the same example that the Digambaras use to illustrate the second reason for the upward motion of the liberated jiva, that is, freedom from (karmic) ties. Svetambara commentaries evidently see a strong connection between these two reasons, as

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Article Navigation following way: For example, a gourd, farmed on a high-quality piece of land, grown in the [right] season, ripened through maintaining work of attentive watering, caring and so forth during the time of its being a sprout, a young shoot, [having) leaves, flowers and fruit, after its first germination, cut on time, (when) dry does not sink in the water. The same (gourd), plastered with many thick layers of heavy dirt, with alien gravitation generated by the covering of layers of thick dirt, resists in that same water when thrown (into it), but when its layer of dirt gets wet and removed with water, then, immediately after the liberation, having been liberated from the ties of the layers of dirt, (the gourd) moves upwards to the surface of the water. 2 What do these four reasons for the upward motion of the liberated jiva reveal about the nature of the spatial transition of the liberated jiva? They most importantly disclose that jivas are independently moving substances and that like matter, that is, the other substance that has the capacity to move, they move in accordance with their own-nature. While the innate motion of matter is downwards, jivas are, as the discussions under the second and the fourth reason emphasise, innately disposed to move in only one specific way, which is upwards. The fact that they cannot do so while they are in samsara is because they are, as the discussions developed around the third reason illuminate, weighed down by karmic matter. When jivas are weighed down in such a way, they move in various ways, that is, downwards, sidewards or upwards, all of which are deviations from their innate manner of moving. Once jivas get rid of all the karmic burden, their innate ability to move is no longer inhibited, and they soar up. The material cause of this liberated motion is, then, only the jiva, but when looking at the broader causal dynamics of the process, the previous impetus, freedom from [karmic) ties and severance of [karmic) bondage can be interpreted as the instrumental causes that assist the motion. Stopping at the top In the second section of this article, the liberated jiva's motion was described as upward Skmpotipnithat does not touch any spatial intermediate units, which indicates that after exhausting all karman the jiva moves in a completely straight line from the area in which it was liberated to the top of the cosmos. This is corroborated by TS Svet 2.28/TSDE 2.27, which

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Article Navigation motion does not have it, is motion in a straight line (avigraha-gati). Whose motion is it? [It is the motion] of jivas. What kind (of jivas)? Liberated ones.16 TBh 2.28 emphasises that this is always the motion of the liberated jiva: 'The jiva's motion of the one achieving perfection (sidhyamana-gati) is always (niyatam) in a straight line.165 Liberated jivas, then, move upwards and in a straight line, but at a certain point they stop. Jaina philosophers understand that the stopping of the jivas might seem illogical. SS 10.7 $934, for example, asks: 'If the upward movement is the own-nature (urdhva-gati-svabhava) of the liberated being, why does it not soar upwards from the border of the cosmos? other words, if the jiva's innate motion is upwards, why does the liberated jiva not move, potentially eternally, in the upward direction beyond the top of the cosmos? In SS this question is followed by Umasvati's reply: 'Owing to the absence of the extensive substance of the medium of motion (dharma-astikaya). SS 10.8 $935 elaborates: 'In acosmic space (aloka) there is no movement (gamana), because up there there is no extensive substance of the medium of motion, which is the supporting cause of motion (gati-upagraha-karana). And if there was, there would be no difference between cosmic and acosmic space. According to this explanation, the substance of the medium of motion is the supporting or instrumental cause of motion, meaning that it does not directly cause motion to occur but rather enables it to do so. In TS 5.17 Umasvati pairs the medium of motion with the medium of rest (adharma), the substance that enables moving existents to come to a stop. The media of motion and rest are single substances that are extremely vast, but nevertheless limited, and their limits define the borders of cosmic space. Travelling upwards, any substance would, thus, eventually hit the border beyond which motion (and rest) is no longer possible. TBH 10.6 neatly links the stopping of the liberated jiva to the example of the gourd in the water, water being a common example that Jaina philosophers use for illustrating the operation of the medium of motion: Why is there no motion of the liberated one upward from the border of the cosmic space? This is explained here. Because of the absence of the extensive substance of the medium of motion. Because the extensive substance of the medium of motion offers assistance by supporting the motion of jivas and material substances. It [i.e. the medium of motion] does not exist there. Thus, owing to the absence of the Skip to supporting cause of motion (gati-upagraha-karana), there is no motion beyond [cosmic space], like [in the case of] the gourd in the water. It has been said: "Not downwards, not sidewards." Therefore, the liberated being, whose movement is in a

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Article Navigation Like the gourd that upon the removal of heavy layers of dirt ascends to the surface of the water and cannot move further up, the liberated jiva stops at the border of the cosmos. The very structure of reality prevents its innate disposition to move upwards from being manifested any further. Conclusion This article examined the Jaina textual discussions about the spatial transition of a liberated jiva, a special episode in the life of jivas that takes place between the destruction of all karman that binds them to samsara on the one hand and their dwelling in the space of liberated beings on the other. As the place of karmically bound jivas that are capable of attaining liberation is located far below the space of liberated beings, the disembodied liberated jivas must travel upwards to reach it. Umasvati's Tattvartha-sutra and four of the commentaries written on it that were explored contain a surprising abundance of detail about this transition. First of all, they point out that the travel occurs incredibly fast, that it, in fact, happens in the course of a mere moment. During this moment, three events take place concurrently: the jiva's separation from the body, the jiva's attainment of remarkable speed characteristic of one that is achieving perfection, and the jiva's reaching of the top of the cosmic space. The texts, further, deliberate on why the liberated jiva even moves and propose four reasons for it. The first reason that they list is the preceding impetus, which is demonstrated with the example of the potter's wheel. Just as the wheel keeps turning even after the cessation of the contact between the potter's hand and the stick, in the same way the jiva is propelled by previous activity. The Digambara and Svetambara commentaries offer different interpretations on the source of this propulsion, with Digambaras maintaining that it is the jiva's efforts at attaining liberation and Svetambaras that it is the actions of the one nearing liberation. The second reason for the jiva's upward motion that the texts propose is the freedom from karmic ties, which Digambara commentaries illustrate with the example of the gourd in the water. Once the heavy coating of dirt that keeps the gourd submerged in the water is removed, the goard floats up. In the same way, the jiva soars up once it attains freedom from karmic ties. Instead of offering an example for this second reason, Svetambara skommentaries introduce and explain the notion of natural or innate motion. They point out that motion is not something that jivas procure from their karmic bodies, but that it is rather their essential disposition or their innate nature to move, with matter being the only other

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Article Navigation jivas upwards, which is the reason why the jivas that are entangled with karmic matter are kept down' in samsara, where they move in various directions. The third reason for the upward motion of the liberated jiva that the texts propose is the severance of the karmic bondage, which all commentaries explain with the help of the example of the castor seed. A castor seed is propelled into the air only once the castrel that encases it opens. In the same way, the jiva cannot attain liberation until it is released from all karmic matter. Here, the question was raised whether the second and the third reason were not overly similar to be listed separately, but it was indicated that they are listed as distinct reasons because they approach the topic of the liberated jiva's motion from two different angles, one from the perspective of stability and the other from the perspective of karmic bondage. The fourth reason that the texts discuss is the innate modification, in line with which jivas move in the upward direction because that is simply their own-nature, much like the own-nature of the flame of a lamp guides it to be directed upwards. This reason is comparable to the Svetambara deliberation on the freedom from karmic ties, the second reason discussed. In fact, in order to illustrate the fourth reason, Svetambaras use the example of the gourd in the water that the Digambaras use to illustrate the second reason. Causes like the impetus are indicated to be secondary or additional forces acting upon the foundational dynamics of the liberated jiva's innate motion. The material cause of the liberated jiva's motion is, therefore, always only the jiva itself, with the other factors acting as external instruments that can affect its operation. At the moment of the jiva's liberation, the full capacity of its innate disposition to move upwards is manifested. This manifestation is, however, only short-lived as the jiva's travel is limited to the area where motion is possible, that is, the cosmic space. Even though the jiva's essential disposition to move upwards remains intact throughout liberation, the ability for any substance to move is determined by the presence of a special substance called the medium of motion that defines the limits of the cosmos. The liberated jiva reaches its upper edge from the middle realm in the course of a single moment. Since it cannot travel beyond it into acosmic space, it stays there forever, surrounded by the other liberated jivas that undertook the same journey. Acknowledgement Skithte Manorowtout like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on the article.

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Article Navigation 1 It should be noted that the field of Jaina cosmology has not been static, but has undergone various developments, much like the rest of the Jaina doctrine. See, for example: Balcerowicz (2011). 2 Only some parts of the middle realm are occupied by human beings. In some of those parts, liberation is always attainable, while in others it is attainable only during specific time-cycles. Generally speaking, the possibility of the attainment of liberation is related to the presence of the Jaina fordmakers (tirthankara), although Jainas pose further restrictions on the attainment of liberation by maintaining that even when the teaching of the fordmakers is present, some living beings that they refer to as 'those who are incapable of attaining liberation' (abhavya) will never be able to exit samsara. See: Jaini (2000b). 3 See: Pujyapada Devanandin (1997) for the Digambara recension and Umasvati (1926 and 1930; 1903, 1904 and 1905) for the Svetambara recension. Where the versions of TS preserved by the Digambara and the Svetambara traditions vary, I will mark TS as TSC and TS vet. In this method, I follow an approach similar to that of Piotr Balcerowicz. See, for example: Balcerowicz (2008). 4 See: Umasvati (1926 and 1930; 1903, 1904 and 1905). The authorship of this text is still debated, with some proposing that Umasvati himself is the author. See: Ohira (1982, pp.24-53) and Zydenbos (1983, pp.9-13). 5 See: Umasvati (1926 and 1930). 6 See: Pujyapada Devanandin (1997). 7 See: Akalanka (2008 and 2013). 8 See: Tatia (2011) and Sanghavi (2000). 9 iha moksah prakrtah. SS 1.4 $19. 10 Umasvati dedicates the whole final chapter of TS to moksa. 11 kasmad dhetor moksah kim-laksanas cety atrocyate. SS 10.2 $922. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations are my own. 12 krtsna-karma-ksayo moksah / TS 10.3. See also: 'Moksa is characterised by the separation from Skablikarraian dkttsna-karma-viyoga-laksano moksah. SS 1.4 $18) and 'Moksa is characterised by the exhaustion of all karman' (krtsna-karma-ksaya-laksano mokso bhavati. TBh 10.3).

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Article Navigation (1962) and Soni (1996). 14 yatha nigadadi-dravya-moksat sati svatantrye abhipreta-pradesa-gamanadeh puman sukhi bhavati, tatha krtsna-karma-viyoge sati svadhinatyantika-jnana-darsananupama-sukha atma bhavati. TV 1.4 $20. For more on siddhas, see: Ohira (1975-1976). 15 Umasvati lists moksa as one of the tattvas or reals, which represent categories that a person with the right world-view (samyag-darsana) has belief in. 'The right world-view is believing in the meaning of the tattvas. The tattvas are living substance, non-living substance, inflow [of karman], bondage (of karman), stopping the inflow of karman), falling away [of karman) and moksa! (tattvartha-sraddhanam samyag-darsanam / [...] /jivajivasrava-bandha-samvara-nirjara-moksas tattvam / TS 1.2, 1.4). For more on the inflow, bondage, stopping and falling away of karman, see chapters 6, 8 and 9 of TS with commentaries. See also: Glasenapp (1942), Jaini (1998), Jaini (2000c), Johnson (1995) and Wiley (2000). 16 'Right world-view, right knowledge and right conduct are the path to moksa' (samyag-darsanajnana-caritrani moksa-margah/TS 1.1). 17 aupasamikadi-bhavyatvabhavac canyatra kevala-samyaktva-jnana-darsana-siddhatvebhyah/ TS Svet 10.4. TS DIS 10.3-4 is nearly identical to TS ve 10.4 (aupasamikadi-bhavyatvanam ca/ anyatra kevala-samyaktva-jnana-darsana-siddhatvebhyah /). 18 For the various states of jivas see: TS 2.1 and TS 2.7 with commentaries. 19 hetv-abhavac cottarasyapradurbhavah. TBh 10.3. 20'And owing to the absence of the cause of [karmic) bondage, there is no manifestation of the next birth. This state is characterised by] the cutting off of the previous birth and no manifestation of the next birth' (bandha-hetv-abhavac cottara-janmano 'pradurbhavah. esavasthitih purva-janmana uccheda uttara-janmapradurbhavah. TT 10.3). The terminology used here reminds of TS 10.2: 'Owing to the absence of the cause of [karmic] bondage and the falling away (of karman), the release from all karman is moksa' (bandha-hetv-abhava-nirjarabhyam krtsna-karma-vipramokso moksah /). See also: Tsvet 10.2 and the already mentioned TS Svet 10.3 (bandha-hetv-abhava-nirjarabhyam / krtsna-karma-ksayo moksah /), which are nearly identical to TS Dig 10.2. 21 sa punar muktatma yatra muktah samasta-karmabhih kim tatraivavatisthate utanyatra [...]. TT Skip to Main Content 10.4. 22 tad-anantaram urdhvam gacchaty a lokantat / TS 10.5.

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Article Navigation 24 tad-vacanam prakrta-nirdesartham. [...] kas ca prakrtah. krtsna-karma-vipramoksa. TV 10.5 $1. 25 'The meaning of "immediately after that" is immediately after the exhaustion of all karman and immediately after the absence of the states [of the jiva], such as those due to the suppression of the deluding karman' (tad-anantaram iti krtsna-karma-ksayanantaram aupasamikadyabhavanantaram cety arthah. TBh 10.5). 'The word "that" refers to the exhaustion of all karman and the absence of the states (of the jiva), such as those due to the suppression of the deluding karman and the state of being capable of attaining liberation' (tac-chabdena krtsna-karma-ksayah paramrsyate aupasamikadi-bhavyatvabhavo va. TT 10.5). 26 'After having expanded, the liberated one moves upwards' (anu san tatam eva muktah sann urdhvam eva gacchati. TT 10.5). 27 TBh 4.15 defines one moment as the time that a material particle (paramanu) takes to cross the space that it occupies. 28 karma-ksaye deha-viyoga-sidhyamana-gati-lokanta-praptayo hy asya yugapad eka-samayena bhavanti. TBh 10.5. 29 gatis ca samayantaram pradesantaram vasprsanti bhavati. tasya acintya-samarthyac caitat sarvam yugapad bhavati. TT 10.5. 30 The terms 'impetus' and 'modification' will be explained in detail in the next section. 31 tad yatha prayoga-parinamadi-samutthasya gati-karmana utpatti-karyarambha-vinasa yugapad eka-samayena bhavanti tadvat. TBh 10.5. 32 tad yathety-adina drstantayati. prasiddhena drstanta-vastuna siddhasya utpadadinam ekakalata sadhyate. TT 10.5. 33 paramanv-adinam gati-parinamas tat-samutthasya tasmaj jatasya gati-karmano gati-kriyavisesasya karya-dvarenotpatti-kalah karyarambhas ca karana-vinasas ca paryayantarena dvyanukadi-karyarambhah purva-paryayena vinasas tadvat siddhasyapi karma-ksaya-dehaviyogadayah sama-kala eka-samayena bhavantity arthah. utpada-vigama-sthanavad iti sujnanam. TI 10.5. 34 For the Jaina doctrine of matter, see: TS 5.23-28 and TS Svet 5.32-5.36/TSDie 5.33-5.37 with Skip to Main Content Commentaries. 35 See, for example: 'The joining (of the material particles) is due to viscosity and dryness'

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Article Navigation 36 See, for example: 'Existence is endowed with origination, cessation and persistance' (utpadaSvet vyaya-dhrauvya-yuktam sat/ TS 5.29/TS Dig 5.30). Dig 37 See, for example: TS 5.29 with commentaries. 38 For the nature of the relationship between these events, see: Bajzelj (forthcoming). For more on Jaina metaphysics, see Bajzelj (2013), Bhattacharya (1966), Dixit (1971), Jhaveri (1990), Matilal (1977), Matilal (1981), Padmarajiah (1963), Ramaiah (1978), Soni (1991), Soni (1997) and Soni (2003). 39 'How does one who has cast away karman and has no karmic influx have [motion]?' (prahinakarmano nirasravasya katham bhavati [...]. TBh 10.5). TT 10.5 glosses 'how' (katham) with 'how is there motion' (kena prakarena gatih). SS 10.5 $931 similarly asks: 'The cause of this upward movement has not been specified. How can it be determined?' (anupadista-hetukam idam urdhva-gamanam katham adhyavasatum sakyam [...].). 40 purva-prayogad asangatvad bandha-cchedat tatha-gati-parinamac ca tad-gatih / TS 10.6. 41 TS 10.7 is preserved only in the Digambara recension, but very similar content is discussed in TBH 10.6. 42 aviddha-kulala-cakravad vyapagata-lepalabuvad eranda-bijavad agni-sikhavac ca / TS 10.7. 43 kulala-prayogapadita-hasta-danda-cakra-samyoga-purvakam bhramanam. uparate 'pi tasmin purva-prayogada samskara-ksayad bhramati. evam bhavasthenatmanapavarga-praptaye bahuso yat pranidhanam tad-abhave 'pi tad-avesa-purvakam muktasya gamanam avasiyate. SS 10.7 $933. TV repeats this passage word for word. 44 yatha hasta-danda-cakra-samyukta-samyogat purusa-prayatnatas caviddham kulala-cakram uparatesv api purusa-prayatna-hasta-danda-cakra-samyogesu purva-prayogad bhramaty eva samskara-pariksayat. evam yah purvam asya yat-karmana prayogo janitah sa ksine 'pi karmani gati-hetur bhavati. tat-krta gatih. TBh 10.6. 45 Before that, TT 10.6. explains the notion of the preceding impetus (purva-prayoga) as the 'setting in motion through the operation of the hand and so forth' (hastadi-vyapara-prerana), referring to the example of the potter's wheel that all the four commentaries use. 46 yoga-nirodhabhimukhasya yat karma kriya tena karmana yah prayogo janitah sa ksine 'pi Skip to Main Content Karmani avicchinna-samskaratvat yogabhave 'pi gati-hetur bhavati. tena hetuna kriyate gatir ity arthah. TT 10.6.

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Article Navigation 48 yatha mrttika-lepa-janita-gauravam alabu-dravyam jale 'dhah-patitam jala-kleda-vislistamrttika-bandhanam laghu-sad urdhvam eva gacchati. tatha karma-bhara-kranti-vasikrta atma tad-avesa-vasat samsare aniyamena gacchati. tat-sanga-vipramuktau tupary evopayati. SS 10.7 $933. 491 here follow the translation of Zydenbos (Zydenbos 1983, p.27, fn. 23). TT 10.6 glosses gaurava (gravity) as bharikatva (the state of being heavy). 50 syad etat. yatha dravyantara-samsakto dando 'vasthitas tad-abhavo 'niyamena patati tatha karma-sangabhave 'niyamenatmano'pi gamanam prapnotiti. tan na. kim karanam. urdhvagauravat. urdhva-gaurava-parinamo hi jiva utpataty eva. TV 10.6 $4. 51 pudgalanam jivanam ca gatimattvam uktam, nanyesam dravyanam. tatradho-gauravadharmanah pudgalah urdhva-gaurava-dharmano jivah. esa svabhavah. ato 'nyasangadi-janita gatir bhavati. yatha satsv api prayogadisu gati-karanesu jati-niyamenadhas tiryag urdhvam ca svabhavikyo losta-vayv-agninam gatayo drstas tatha sanga-vinirmuktasyordhva-gauravad urdhvam eva sidhyamana-gatir bhavati. samsarinas tu karma-sangad adhas tiryag urdhvam ca. TBh 10.6. In line with this TT 10.6 glosses sanga (tie) as skhalana (stumbling, falling or deviating from the right path). 52 jivanam api tadrsam gauravam parinama-viseso laghavam yesam iti. TT 10.6. 53 jatih prthivy-anilanala-vyakti-bhedena bhinna. prthivitva-vayutvagnitvakhya taya niyamah kriyate. tatra prthivitva-niyamenadho-gatir lostah. yo hi badarah prthivi-parinamah sa sarvo 'dhogatih. evam tiryag-gatir vayuh. urdhva-gatir dahanah. TT 10.6. 54 karma-janita-skhalanad adhas tiryag urdhvam caniyamena gatir bhavati. TT 10.6. 55 yatha bija-kosa-bandha-cchedad eranda-bijasya gatir drsta tatha manusyadi-bhava-prapakagati-jati-namadi-sakala-karma-bandha-cchedan muktasyordhvam gatir avasiyate. SS 10.7 $933. 56 yatha rajju-bandha-cchedat pedaya bija-kosa-bandhana-cchedac cairanda-bijadinam gatir drsta tatha karma-bandhana-cchedat sidhyamana-gatih. TBh 10.6. 57 asangatva-bandha-cchedayor arthavisesad anuvada-prasanga iti cet. TV 10.7 $7. 58 tan na. kim karanam. arthanyatvat. anyonyanupravese saty avibhagenavasthanam bandhah, Skip to Main Content paraspara-prapti-matram sanga ity asty artha-visesah. TV 10.7 $7. 59 yatha tiryak-plavana-svabhava-samirana-sambandha-nirutsuka pradipa-sikha svabhavad

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Article Navigation 60 urdhva-gauravat purva-prayogadibhyas ca hetubhyas tathasya gati-parinama utpadyate yena sidhyamana-gatir bhavati, ardhvam nadhas tiryag va. TBh 10.6. 61 Cf. Zydenbos (1983, p.45, fn. 24). 62 tad yatha gunavad-bhumi-bhagaropitam stu-kala-jatam bijodbhedad ankura-pravala-parnapuspa-phala-kalesu avimanita-seka-daurhrdadi-posana-karma-parinatam kala-cchinnam suskam alabv apsu na nimajjati. tad eva guru-krsna-mrttika-lepair ghanair bahubhir aliptam ghana-mrttika-lepa-vestana-janitagantuka-gauravam apsu praksiptam taj-jala-pratistham bhavati. yada tv asyadbhih klinno mrttika-lepo vyapagato bhavati tada mrttika-lepa-sanganirmuktam moksanantaram evordhvam gacchati a salilordhva-talat. TBh 10.6. 63 avigraha jivasya / Ts Svet 2.28/TSDI& 2.27. 64 vigraho vyaghatah kautilyam ity arthah. sa yasyam na vidyate 'sav avigraha gatih. kasya. jivasya. kidrsasya. muktasya. SS 2.27 $314. TV repeats this passage nearly word for word. TT glosses avigraha (in a straight line) as rju (tending in a straight line, straight). 65 sidhyamana-gatir jivasya niyatam avigraha bhavati. TBh 2.28. 66 yadi mukta urdhva-gati-svabhavo lokantad urdhvam api kasman notpatatity [...]. SS 10.7 $934. 67 dharmastikayabhavat / TSC 10.8. While this sutra is not found in the Svetambara recension of TS, TBh and TT discuss the issue under 10.6. 68 gaty-upagraha-karana-bhuto dharmastikayo nopary astity aloke gamanabhavah. tad-bhave ca lokaloka-vibhagabhavah prasajyate. SS 10.8 $935. TV 10.8 repeats it word for word. 69 'The function of the medium of motion and the medium of rest is to support motion and rest' (gati-sthity-upagraho dharmadharmayor upakarah / TS 5.17). 70 See: TS 5.18 with commentaries. 71 lokantadurdhvam muktasya gatih kim artham na bhavatiti. atrocyate. dharmastikayabhavat. dharmastikayo hi jiva-pudgalanam gaty-upagrahenopakurute. sa tatra nasti. tasmad gatyupagraha-karanabhavat parato gatir na bhavaty apsu alabuvat. nadho na tiryag ity uktam. tatraivanusreni-gatir lokante 'vatisthate mukto niskriya iti. TBh 10.6. Skip to Main Content References

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Article Navigation Jnanpith, 2008 (Part I: Chapters I-IV, 8th edn), 2013 (Part II: Chapters V-X, 9th edn). Pujyapada Devanandin. (Sarvartha-siddhi, includes the Digambara recension of the Tattvarthasutra] Acarya Pujyapada's Sarvarthasiddhi (The commentary on Acharya Griddhapiccha's Tattvartha-sutra). Edited and translated into Hindi by Shastri Phoolchandra. New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith, 1997 (7th edn). Umasvati. [Tattvartha-sutra with Svetambara commentaries, includes the Svetambara recension of the Tattvartha-sutra] 1. Tattvarthadhigamasutra (A treatise on the fundamental principles of Jainism) by his Holiness Sri Umasvati Vachaka, together with his connective verses commented upon by Sri Devaguptasuri & Sri Siddhasenagani and his own gloss elucidated by Sri Siddhasenagani. 2 vols. Edited by H. R. Kapadia. Sheth Devchand Lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar Fund Series Nos. 67 and 76. Bombay: Jivanchand Sakerchand Javeri, 1926 (Part I: Chapters 1-V), 1930 (Part II: Chapters VI-X). 2. Tattvarthadhigama by Umasvati being in the original Sanskrit with the Bhasya by the author himself. Edited by K. P. Mody. Bibliotheca Indica New Series 1044, 1079, 1118. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1903, 1904, 1905. Bajzelj A. 2013. 'The Jain ontological model according to Kundakunda and Umasvati'. Asian Studies , 1,3-16. Google Scholar Crossref Bajzelj A. Forthcoming. 'Clay pots, golden rings, and clean upper garments: causality in Jaina philosophy. In den Boer L. and Cecil E. (eds.) Confrontations in context: intellectual and lived spaces across South Asia and beyond. Berlin: De Gruyter. Balcerowicz P. 2008. 'Some remarks on the opening sections in Jaina epistemological treatises? In Slaje W. (ed.) Sastrarambha: inquiries into the preamble in Sanskrit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, pp. 25-81. Skip to Main Content Balcerowicz P. 2011. 'The body and the cosmos in Jaina mythology and art In Balcerowicz P. (ed., in collaboration with Jerzy Malinowski) Art, myths and visual culture of South Asia. Delhi:

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