Jaina Philosophers On Nature Of Liberation

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Journal of Hindu Studies
The Journal of Hindu Studies, Volume 12, Issue 1, May 2019, Pages 28-48, https://doi.org/10.1093/jhs/hiz001
Published: 29 July 2019
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Like a Castor Seed: Jaina Philosophers on the Nature of Liberation
Ana Bajželj
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This article examines the nature of the spatial transition of liberated jīvas, a special episode in the life of jivas that according to Jaina philosophy takes place between the destruction of all karman that binds them to samsara on the one hand and their dwelling in the space of liberated beings on the other. As the place of karmically bound jīvas that are capable of attaining liberation is located far below the space of liberated beings, the disembodied liberated jīvas must travel upwards to reach it. Focused on Umāsvāti's Tattvärtha-sūtra with four commentaries, the article describes and analyses the discussions and issues that developed around the doctrine of the jiva's final journey.
STUDIES

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very middle of it. Above the middle realm (madhya-loka) is the heavenly realm (ürdhva-loka), occupied by various kinds of heavenly beings (deva), and above the heavenly realm, at the very top of the cosmos, is the realm of liberated or perfected beings (siddha-loka). Liberation (mokşa) is attainable only in the middle realm, and, more specifically, in the human form. What gets liberated are individual living selves (jīva, ātman) and what they get liberated from is samsāra, a beginningless and potentially endless succession of embodied existences. Jivas are understood to be substantial in nature, meaning that they persist as jīvas throughout the various rebirths as well as after their embodied existences come to an end. This led Jaina authors to deliberate on how upon attaining mokṣa disembodied jīvas move from the middle realm to the realm of liberated beings at the top of the cosmos. This article explores how the process of the transition of liberated jīvas is understood by Umāsvāti, one of the most important systematisers of the Jaina doctrine, and his commentators. It will focus on Umāsvāti's magnum opus, the Tattvārtha-sūtra (TS), two Svetāmbara commentaries, the Tattvārthādhigama-bhāşya (TBh) and Siddhasenaganin's Tattvārthādhigama-tikā (TT), as well as two Digambara commentaries, Pūjyapāda Devanandin's Sarvārtha-siddhi (SS) and Akalanka's Tattvārtha-vārttika (TV). The topic of this article has been scarcely researched. Even though the basic outline of what happens to the jīva at the moment of liberation is well known, the nature and mechanics of its travel have not been thoroughly explored. Some scholars, such as Nathmal Tatia and Sukhlal Sanghavi, draw on classical commentaries in their brief comments to the sutras of TS that refer to the travel of the liberated jīvas, but they neither systematically examine this specific topic nor explore the commentaries side by side. They, furthermore, present the commentaries as conveying a uniform view on the topic. This article provides a close analysis of how the selected texts approach and interpret the topic and identifies their commonalities and differences.
Moksa as Svātantrya
In SS 1.4 $19 Pujyapāda declares mokṣa to be the principal subject of discussion of TS.' This is supported by the fact that the text begins and ends with a reference to mokşa-it starts by outlining the path to mokṣa and ends by describing the state of mokṣa. In SS 10.2 $922 Pūjyapāda presents these topics relating to mokṣa in the form of two basic questions: 'From what cause (hetu) is mokṣa (achieved) and what are its characteristics (laksaņa)? This is Skexpiataču netentAs the topic of the travel of liberated jīvas relates to both of these
questions, it is important to briefly touch upon them first. TS 10.3 defines mokṣa in the following way: 'The exhaustion of all karman is mokşa.'This basic definition of the Jaina

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distinctiveness of the Jaina approach, with one of the most pronounced differences being that Jainas understand karman to be material. As matter, karman affects jīvas in various ways, including how well they can comprehend reality and the nature of the bodies that they occupy throughout their samsaric existence. The fact that moksa represents a complete exhaustion of karmic matter differentiates it from the attainment of omniscience or perfect knowledge (kevala-jñāna), where according to Jainism only the karmic matter that impedes the functioning of the jīva is eliminated. Kevala-jñāna arises while the jiva is still embodied and is defined as the attainment of the unpolluted and infinite operation of knowledge (jñāna), which occurs along with the attainment of the unimpeded operation of the other essential qualities of the jiva, that is, perception (darśana), energy (vīrya) and bliss (sukha)." Even though an omniscient (kevalin) stays in samsāra and continues to occupy a material body due to the operation of the remaining karmic matter that determines its embodiment, these qualities remain perfectly functional until and throughout mokşa. In that sense moksa is a continuation of kevala-jñāna. Akalanka refers to both features of mokṣa in TV 1.4 $20:
Just as a human being is blissful upon the arising of freedom (svātantrya) because of the liberation (mokşa) from the [material] substance of the shackles (nigada) and so forth (and) the attainment of the wished for place (abhipreta-pradeśa) and so forth, so also upon the separation from all karman (krtsna-karma-viyoga) the self exists in endless knowledge and perception as well as incomparable bliss, all of which are independent (svādhina) [from any other factors).14
As this excerpt indicates, mokṣa is not merely a negative state (that is, a state that is defined as independence from all karman), but also a positive state that is characterised by endless and incomparable qualities. It is attained by following an ardous path of purification that cultivates the right world-view (samyag-darśana) and knowledge (samyag-jñāna) regarding reality as well as the right conduct (samyak-caritra) that manifests the right comprehension of reality. The attainment of kevala-jñāna is a necessary condition of mokşa. It also guarantees the realisation of mokṣa in the same lifetime in which it occurs, and in order to become liberated the kevalin only needs to wait for all the remaining karman to naturally run its course. Once it does, the jīva is finally rid of all karmic matter. TS Svet 10.4
points out that this is the result of the elimination of all karmically influenced states of jīvas Skdescribed abovetas well as one of its innate states: '[Moksa occurs) owing to the absence of
the states (of the jīva), such as those due to the suppression of the deluding karman (aupaśamika) and the state of being capable of attaining liberation (bhavyatva), except perfect

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his commentators, jīvas have several innate states (pāriņāmika-bhāva), some, such as being a jiva (jīvatva), that are peculiar to it, and others, such as existence (astitva), that are characteristic of other substances (dravya) as well. The state of being capable of attaining liberation is the innate state that ceases at liberation as its aim is achieved.
Upon the attainment of liberation, the jīva is free from further rebirths. And owing to the absence of a cause (hetu)', says TBh 10.3, 'there is no manifestation (aprādurbhāva) of the next [birth]',19 with TT 10.3 adding that the cause is the cause of [karmic) bondage (bandhahetu).20 'However, does the liberated self', asks TT 10.4, 'stay where it was liberated from all [kinds of] karman or [does it go) elsewhere?:21 According to Umāsvāti, the liberated jīva changes location: 'Immediately after that (tad-anantaram) (the jiva] moves upwards (ürdhvam) to the border of the cosmic space (loka-anta). 22 Instead of again being reborn in a material body the liberated jīva, then, travels from the middle realm to the 'wished for place? at the top of the cosmos. There are several questions to consider regarding Umāsvāti's description of this transition, and the next sections of the paper will investigate them in the following order: (i) What does 'immediately after that' mean? (ii) How much time does the jīva need to reach the border of the cosmic space? (iii) How is it possible for a jiva to move? (iv) Why does it move upwards? (v) Does it move in a straight line? (vi) Why does it stop moving at the border of the cosmic space?
Concurrence of events
This section will explore the first two questions about the meaning of the phrase 'immediately after that' and the time period that passes from the moment of liberation to the jīva's reaching of the border of the cosmic space. The meaning of the word 'that' (tad) is not difficult to work out, especially with the guidance of the commentaries. SS 10.5 8930 writes that 'immediately after that' refers to 'release from all karman' (sarva-karma-vipramokşa),23 meaning that TS 10.5 logically follows TS 10.2. TV 10.5 S1 specifically comments on the word 'that', stating: 'The word "that" is (added) in order to indicate the principal subject of discussion. [...] And what is the principal subject of discussion? Release from all karman.24 The explanation of 'that' in TBh and TT 10.5 is similar, except that it also includes a reference
to the absence of the already mentioned states of the jiva (TS Svet 10.4/TS 10.3-4). TȚ 10.5, Skfurtheajpoints out that the transition happens after the jiva's expansion, most likely
referring to the kevalin's spreading to the borders of the cosmos (kevali-samudghāta),

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While SS and TV do not comment on what 'immediately after' means temporally, TBh 10.5 clearly states that the movement takes only one moment and that it happens at the same time as two other events: 'When karman is exhausted, it [i.e. the jīva) concurrently (yugapad), in the course of one moment (eka-samaya), attains the separation from the body (dehaviyoga), the motion of one achieving perfection (sidhyamāna-gati) and the border of the cosmic space (loka-anta). This means that as soon as karman is exhausted, the jīva, in a single moment, simultaneously separates from the body, obtains extraordinary speed of a liberated being and, darting upwards, reaches the top of the cosmos. TT 10.5 attributes the fact that the three events of the liberated jīva occur concurrently and in a single moment to the power of the jiva, emphasising that in the course of this activity, there are no temporal or spatial intervals: 'The motion (gati) is without touching (asprśat) the intermediate moments (samaya-antara) or intermediate space units (pradeśa-antara). And owing to its (i.e. jīva's] inconceivable power (acintya-sāmarthya), all this occurs concurrently.29
TBh 10.5 explains the concurrence of the events involved in the following way: 'For instance, in the case of the activity of motion (gati-karman), occasioned by the impetus (prayoga), modification (pariņāma) and so forth, the occurrence (utpatti), the beginning of the effect (kārya-ārambha) and the destruction (vināśa) happen concurrently, in the course of one moment. So it is also here.:31 In his translation of the chapter 10 of TBh, Robert J. Zydenbos indicates that this explanation refers to the description of the liberated jīva, translating it as:
That is to say, in one samaya there is concurrently the arising, the activity and the perishing of karma which creates motion, that has arisen through activation, modification etc (Zydenbos 1983, p.25). Another explanation, however, might be that TBh here provides an example of how motion in general happens, suggesting that like in the case under discussion, also in the case of motion in general, the end of the previous state (be it rest or another kind of motion), the beginning of the new state of moving and the activity of motion itself all occur concurrently. TȚ 10.5 supports this interpretation when it says: 'With "for instance" (tad yathā) and so forth is offered an example. With the well-known subject-matter of the example, the concurrence of the origination and so forth of a perfected being is established. 132 Next it describes how impetus is generated from the thinning of the energyobstructing karman, but then it goes on to illustrate the generation of motion through the natural modification of material particles (paramāņu), which further indicates that TBh is
referring to motion in general rather than just the motion of jīvas: Skip to Main Content

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(that is, born from it), the time of the occurrence (utpatti-kāla) is with regard to the effect the beginning of the effect (kārya-ārambha) and the destruction of the cause (kāraṇa-vināśa). The destruction with regard to the previous mode (pūrva-paryāya) is the beginning of the effect of a diad of basic material particles (dvyaņuka) and so forth with regard to another mode (paryāya-antara). So it is also in the case of a perfected being (siddha), where the sevents of the separation of the body and so forth, owing to the exhaustion of karman, occur at the same time, in one moment. Such is the meaning. It is like the (pattern of) origination, cessation and duration (utpäda-vigama-sthāna). Such is good knowledge.33
The passage refers to the Jaina doctrine of matter (pudgala), 34 according to which material particles join into diads due to their own natural modification, or, more precisely, due to the modification of their essential quality of touch (sparśa) along the levels of viscosity (snigdhatva) and dryness (rūkşatva). A viscuous and a dry material particle are attracted to each other, which causes them to move and join into a diad. This is, then, an example of motion generated through natural modification. When the motion of material particles happens, various events' take place at the same time, that is, the cessation of the previous mode, where a material particle was single, the arising of a new mode, where it is joined with another material particle, and the occurrence of the motion of joining. TȚ closes the passage with a common Jaina description of the nature of existents and, thereby, connects the specific cases discussed with the general categories of Jaina metaphysics. The Jaina doctrine proposes that existence is expressed through substances. As substances these are eternal and, therefore, persist in time, but their essential qualities also continually and momentarily undergo modal modification. The origination (utpada) of a new mode (paryāya) of a certain quality overlaps with the cessation (vigama) of the old mode of that quality, yet also expresses the duration (sthāna) of the substance in the domain of which this modal dynamics occurs. In this manner TȚ establishes not only that certain events can occur concurrently, in a single moment, but that the fact that they do merely reflects reality that is inherently characterised by the concurrent occurrence of seemingly contradictory events.
Innate and non-innate motion
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In all the commentaries the statement about the jiva's rapid upward motion is followed by a pertitent question regarding the cause of this motion. TBh specifically asks how a jīva can

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enumerates four reasons for the occurrence of the jiva's distinctive upward motion despite the fact that all of its karman has been exhausted: 'Its motion is due to the preceding impetus (pūrva-prayoga), freedom from (karmic) ties (asangatva), severance of the (karmic] bondage (bandha-cheda) and due to that being its [innate) modification (pariņāma).' In TSD 10.741 he then proceeds to give everyday examples of the dynamics involved in each of these cases: 'It is like a potter's wheel (kulāla-cakra) set in motion, like a gourd (alābu) the dirt around which has fallen away, like a castor seed (eranda-bīja) and like a flame of fire (agni-śikha).'42 This section will investigate the four reasons for the motion of the liberated jiva and explore why liberation is directed upwards.
Turning to the first case of the potter's wheel, SS 10.7 $933 elaborates:
The turning around (of the wheel occurs) with the contact of a potter's hand, a stick and a wheel producing the impetus. Even upon the cessation of it [i.e. the contact), it [i.e. the wheel] turns around on account of the preceding impetus until the exhaustion of the contact's] influence. In the same way, the self (trapped) in worldy existence repeatedly endeavors (pranidhāna) for the attainment of liberation (apavarga-prāpti), and even in the absence of these sendeavors), a liberated being (mukta) moves [upwards) because of their influence (āveśa).43
Pujyapāda indicates that the impetus is produced by the jiva's previous attempts at mokşa, in the sense that its earlier efforts at attaining freedom accumulate into a momentum that propels the jīva upwards, towards the place it had been striving to reach.
Svetāmbara commentaries, however, explain that the 'preceding impetus', leading to the upward motion of the jīva, is produced by karman. TBh 10.6 uses the same example of the potter's wheel to elucidate this:
Just as a potter's wheel, set in motion due to the contact of the joined (potter's] hand, stick and wheel and due to human effort, turns around on account of the preceding impetus even upon the cessation of the contact of the [potter's] hand,
stick and wheel and human effort until the exhaustion of its) influence, in the same Skp to way the impetus previously generated by its (i.e. jīva's] karman is the cause of the
motion, even when karman is exhausted. The motion is produced by it.44

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nirodha-abhimukha) is, on account of (its] continual influence, the cause of the motion (gatihetu), even when karman is exhausted and in the absence of activity (yoga). The motion is produced by that cause. Such is the meaning.946
It should be noted that in TS 6.1 Umāsvāti defines activity (yoga) as action (karman) of the body, speech and mind, and in TS 6.2 equates it with karmic inflow (āsrava). This means that bodily, verbal and mental actions result in the inflow of karman, and, as indicated by TT 10.6, even when there is no more karman and no more activity, the impetus generated by the actions that the embodied living beings nearing liberation perform, continues to exert influence upon liberation and propels the disembodied living beings upwards, in the same way that the impetus generated by the factors that jointly bring about the turning of the wheel continues to turn the wheel even when those factors are no longer in contact.
Even though both, the Digambara and the Svetāmbara explanation, associate the generation of the liberated jīva's motion with the jīva's embodied state, they offer slightly different interpretations. The first proposes that the jiva's upward motion is supported by its previous efforts to get liberated, meaning that the embodied jīva's attempts to leap out of samsāra propel it upwards upon the destruction of karman that confined it there. It depicts karman as something that is in direct opposition to the upward motion characteristic of liberation. According to the second interpretation, the motion of the liberated jīva is generated by the embodied jīva's actions in a more general sense, even though it is specified that they are the actions of a living being nearing liberation. This means that it is ordinary karmic actions, rather than extraordinary efforts to overcome them, that generate the impetus which pushes the jiva upwards.
Umāsvāti uses the next example of the gourd to illustrate freedom from (karmic) ties (asangatva) as a reason for the upward motion of the liberated jīva. SS 10.7 $933 explains the case of the gourd in the following way: 'Just as a gourd that is weighed down by a layer of dirt, sinks in water, [but] with the binding of the dirt removed by the wetness of water, being light, moves upwards, in the same way the self, subdued by the overpowering burden of karman, owing to the power of its influence, wanders aimlessly in samsāra, but when it is freed from these [karmic) ties, moves upwards.'48 Pūjyapāda indicates that-like a clean gourd in water-jīvas naturally move upwards, but burdened by karman, they remain in the polluted waters of samsāra. Far, then, from assisting the jiva's upward motion, karman s instead obstructs it. TV 10.7 84 repeats the example with the gourd in water, but also considers a possible objection by referring to the previous example of the potter's wheel: This might be (true): "Just as a stick, stable when it is joined with other things, in their

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modified to upward gravitation, soars up."50 The opponent maintains that karman is the instrument that keeps the jīva steady in its vertical direction, like the potter's hand and wheel secure the stable upright orientation of the stick. Without karman, the opponent argues, the jīva falls down into directionless wandering, like the stick without support. Akalanka is quick to point out, however, that as soon as the jiva is modified in such a way that its own gravitation is manifested, it soars up, meaning that the direction of its natural movement is upwards. Karman is, he indicates, not something that makes the jīva truly stable and vertically positioned, but rather causes it to wander aimlessly through worldly existences.
In deliberating on the freedom from karmic ties as a reason for the jiva's upward motion, TBh 10.6 does not employ the example of the gourd. Instead it discusses the idea of the 'natural' or innate motion of things, clarifying any confusion as to what the innate motion of jīvas is:
It has already been said that material substances (pudgala) and jīvas possess motion. The other substances do not. Among them, material substances have downward gravitation (adho-gaurava) and jīvas upward gravitation (ūrdhvagaurava). This is their own-nature (svabhāva). Hence, (their) motion occurs without ties and so forth to another. Just as the natural motions of earth, wind and fire are seen, by the definition of (their) essential disposition (jāti-niyama), as downwards (adhas), sidewards (tiryañc) and upwards (ūrdhvam), even though there are other causes of motion (gati-kāraņa), such as impetus and so forth, in the same way one who is liberated from ties (sanga-vinirmukta) has the motion of one achieving perfection (sidhyamāna-gati), which is upwards, owing to the upward gravitation. But worldly beings (samsārin), owing to the ties of karman, (move) downwards, sidewards and upwards.51
First of all, TBh points out that both material substances and jīvas possess motion, and that they are the only kinds of substances that do. Both of these classes of substances have their characteristic or natural (svābhāvika) motion, that is, motion that is inherent or innate to them. Whereas material substances, like earth, innately gravitate downwards, jīvas, like fire, innately gravitate upwards. Emphasising that not only matter, but also immaterial jivas have inherent motion, TȚ 10.6 states: 'Jīvas also have such gravity (gaurava). Their specific modification (pariņāma-višesa) is lightness (lāghava). "52 Skip to Main Content
TT 10.6 also further elucidates the idea of existents having an essential disposition for a certain kind of motion:

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earth, the state of being wind and the state of being fire a definition is made. Therefore, earth is that whose motion is downward by the definition of the state of being earth. Whatever is gross with the modification of earth, all has downward motion. In the same manner, there is wind with the sideward motion. [And] fire with the upward motion."
Existents are, then, essentially disposed to move in a certain way, depending on what classes and subclasses of substances they belong to. It is important to highlight that the jivas' essential disposition, as pointed out by TBh 10.6 above, occurs independently of or without ties to the other kinds of motion. In line with this, other factors may join and potentially influence the force of the substance's natural motion, but they do not constitute the substance's essential disposition. This means that the previously discussed impetus, for example, is simply an additional factor that stimulates the jiva's upward motion. The same holds true for karman. As noted, TBh states that the weight of karman transforms the jīva's innate motion into motion in various directions, namely, downwards, sidewards and upwards, with TȚ 10.6 adding that these kinds of motion go against the definition of its essential disposition: 'Because of the deviation occasioned by karman motion, countering the definition (aniyama) (of its essential disposition), becomes downward, sideward and upward.154
After their discussions about the cause of the freedom from (karmic) ties, both Digambara and svetāmbara commentaries use the example of the castor seed to demonstrate how severance of the [karmic) bondage (bandha-cheda) functions as a cause of the upward motion of the liberated jīva. SS 10.7 $933 states: 'Just as the motion of a castor seed is seen, owing to the severance of the bondage of a seed-shell, in the same way a liberated being obtains upward motion, owing to the severance of the bondage of all karman (sakalakarman), such as nāma-karman, (which determines) the birth-state (gati) and the class (jāti), leading to such states of existence (bhava) as a human being. 55 Why the castor seed? When the fruit of the castor oil plant dries, the carpels holding the seeds open and forcibly eject the seeds into the air. Jaina authors draw a parallel between this rapid expulsion of the seeds after the severance of the bondage of the carpels and the jiva's fast soaring upwards after cutting its bondage with karman. TBh 10.6 adds the example of the basket on the rope to the
example of the castor seed: 'Just as the motion of a basket, owing to the severance of the skbondage of the rope, and a castor seed and so forth, owing to the severance of the binding of
the seed-shell, is seen, in the same way there is motion of one achieving perfection, owing to the severance of the karmic binding. '56 These two examples stress that the only thing keeping

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The second and the third reason for the jiva's upward motion, that is, freedom from (karmic] ties and severance of (karmic) bondage seem rather similar. Why, then, list them separately? This is a question that Akalanka also considers, anticipating an opponent asking whether 'this is a case of repetition (anuvāda-prasanga), because there is no distinction in the meaning (artha) of "freedom from (karmic) ties" and "severance of [karmic) bondage").57 Akalanka answers: 'This is not so. Why? Because there is distinction in meaning. If they were imitating (anupraveśa) each other, there would be no distinction between stability (avasthāna) and bondage (bandha). “[Karmic] ties" means merely "meeting each other (paraspara-prāpti-mātra), therefore there is a difference in meaning.'»58 The meaning of Akalanka's objection is not entirely clear, but he seems to be referring back to the idea of karmic ties providing stability for the jiva, like the potter and the potter's wheel provide stability for the stick, albeit in samsāra and therefore against the jiva's natural impulse of upward motion. He indicates that the discussion about karmic ties is primarily about the samsāric stability that ensues from the jīvas and karman coming together, 'meeting each other', an ensnaring and deceptive stability that upon its destruction gives way to the jīvas' eternal stability at the top of the cosmos. On the other hand, the discussion about the severance of the karmic bondage is not at all about stability, but rather about bondage itself.
The last reason that Umāsvāti lists for the liberated jīva's upward motion is that the upward motion is jīva's [innate] modification (pariņāma). SS 10.7 $933 explains: 'Just as a flame of a lamp, owing to its own-nature (svabhāva), darts up, undisturbed with regard to the wind that is by its own-nature blowing sidewards, in the same way a liberated self without the hindrance of karman, which causes transformations into different birth-states, also soars upwards because upward motion is its own-nature. This reason approaches the issue of the motion of the liberated jīva from the point of view of own-nature, that is, the inalienable character of an existent. As the own-nature of jīvas is such that they move upwards, they move upwards as soon as the manifestation of their own-nature is no longer hindered. As pointed out above, this innate motion can be assisted by other factors, which TBh 10.6 indicates in the following way: 'Owing to the upward gravitation as well as the causes of the previous impetus and so forth, originates a modification of its (i.e. jīva's] motion (gatipariņāma) through which there occurs the motion of one achieving perfection (sidhyamānagati). It is upward, not downward or sideward. While the Digambaras use the example of
the flame in order to illustrate the manifestation of the innate motion of existents, TBh Skinterestingly chooses the same example that the Digambaras use to illustrate the second reason for the upward motion of the liberated jiva, that is, freedom from (karmic) ties. Śvetāmbara commentaries evidently see a strong connection between these two reasons, as

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following way:
For example, a gourd, farmed on a high-quality piece of land, grown in the [right] season, ripened through maintaining work of attentive watering, caring and so forth during the time of its being a sprout, a young shoot, [having) leaves, flowers and fruit, after its first germination, cut on time, (when) dry does not sink in the water. The same (gourd), plastered with many thick layers of heavy dirt, with alien gravitation generated by the covering of layers of thick dirt, resists in that same water when thrown (into it), but when its layer of dirt gets wet and removed with water, then, immediately after the liberation, having been liberated from the ties of the layers of dirt, (the gourd) moves upwards to the surface of the water. 2
What do these four reasons for the upward motion of the liberated jīva reveal about the nature of the spatial transition of the liberated jīva? They most importantly disclose that jivas are independently moving substances and that like matter, that is, the other substance that has the capacity to move, they move in accordance with their own-nature. While the innate motion of matter is downwards, jīvas are, as the discussions under the second and the fourth reason emphasise, innately disposed to move in only one specific way, which is upwards. The fact that they cannot do so while they are in samsāra is because they are, as the discussions developed around the third reason illuminate, weighed down by karmic matter. When jivas are weighed down in such a way, they move in various ways, that is, downwards, sidewards or upwards, all of which are deviations from their innate manner of moving. Once jīvas get rid of all the karmic burden, their innate ability to move is no longer inhibited, and they soar up. The material cause of this liberated motion is, then, only the jīva, but when looking at the broader causal dynamics of the process, the previous impetus, freedom from [karmic) ties and severance of [karmic) bondage can be interpreted as the instrumental causes that assist the motion.
Stopping at the top
In the second section of this article, the liberated jīva's motion was described as upward Skmpotipnithat does not touch any spatial intermediate units, which indicates that after
exhausting all karman the jiva moves in a completely straight line from the area in which it was liberated to the top of the cosmos. This is corroborated by TS Svet 2.28/TSDE 2.27, which

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motion does not have it, is motion in a straight line (avigraha-gati). Whose motion is it? [It is the motion] of jivas. What kind (of jivas)? Liberated ones.16 TBh 2.28 emphasises that this is always the motion of the liberated jiva: 'The jiva's motion of the one achieving perfection (sidhyamána-gati) is always (niyatam) in a straight line.165
Liberated jivas, then, move upwards and in a straight line, but at a certain point they stop. Jaina philosophers understand that the stopping of the jivas might seem illogical. SS 10.7 $934, for example, asks: 'If the upward movement is the own-nature (ürdhva-gati-svabhava) of the liberated being, why does it not soar upwards from the border of the cosmos?
other words, if the jiva's innate motion is upwards, why does the liberated jiva not move, potentially eternally, in the upward direction beyond the top of the cosmos? In SS this question is followed by Umäsväti's reply: 'Owing to the absence of the extensive substance of the medium of motion (dharma-astikaya). SS 10.8 $935 elaborates: 'In acosmic space (aloka) there is no movement (gamana), because up there there is no extensive substance of the medium of motion, which is the supporting cause of motion (gati-upagraha-kāraṇa). And if there was, there would be no difference between cosmic and acosmic space. According to this explanation, the substance of the medium of motion is the supporting or instrumental cause of motion, meaning that it does not directly cause motion to occur but rather enables it to do so. In TS 5.17 Umäsvāti pairs the medium of motion with the medium of rest (adharma), the substance that enables moving existents to come to a stop. The media of motion and rest are single substances that are extremely vast, but nevertheless limited, and their limits define the borders of cosmic space. Travelling upwards, any substance would, thus, eventually hit the border beyond which motion (and rest) is no longer possible.
TBH 10.6 neatly links the stopping of the liberated jiva to the example of the gourd in the water, water being a common example that Jaina philosophers use for illustrating the operation of the medium of motion:
Why is there no motion of the liberated one upward from the border of the cosmic space? This is explained here. Because of the absence of the extensive substance of the medium of motion. Because the extensive substance of the medium of motion offers assistance by supporting the motion of jivas and material substances. It [i.e. the medium of motion] does not exist there. Thus, owing to the absence of the Skip to supporting cause of motion (gati-upagraha-kāraṇa), there is no motion beyond
[cosmic space], like [in the case of] the gourd in the water. It has been said: "Not downwards, not sidewards." Therefore, the liberated being, whose movement is in a

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Like the gourd that upon the removal of heavy layers of dirt ascends to the surface of the water and cannot move further up, the liberated jiva stops at the border of the cosmos. The very structure of reality prevents its innate disposition to move upwards from being manifested any further.
Conclusion
This article examined the Jaina textual discussions about the spatial transition of a liberated jiva, a special episode in the life of jivas that takes place between the destruction of all karman that binds them to samsāra on the one hand and their dwelling in the space of liberated beings on the other. As the place of karmically bound jivas that are capable of attaining liberation is located far below the space of liberated beings, the disembodied liberated jīvas must travel upwards to reach it. Umāsvāti's Tattvārtha-sūtra and four of the commentaries written on it that were explored contain a surprising abundance of detail about this transition. First of all, they point out that the travel occurs incredibly fast, that it, in fact, happens in the course of a mere moment. During this moment, three events take place concurrently: the jiva's separation from the body, the jiva's attainment of remarkable speed characteristic of one that is achieving perfection, and the jiva's reaching of the top of the cosmic space.
The texts, further, deliberate on why the liberated jīva even moves and propose four reasons for it. The first reason that they list is the preceding impetus, which is demonstrated with the example of the potter's wheel. Just as the wheel keeps turning even after the cessation of the contact between the potter's hand and the stick, in the same way the jīva is propelled by previous activity. The Digambara and Śvetāmbara commentaries offer different interpretations on the source of this propulsion, with Digambaras maintaining that it is the jīva's efforts at attaining liberation and Śvetāmbaras that it is the actions of the one nearing liberation. The second reason for the jīva's upward motion that the texts propose is the freedom from karmic ties, which Digambara commentaries illustrate with the example of the gourd in the water. Once the heavy coating of dirt that keeps the gourd submerged in the water is removed, the goard floats up. In the same way, the jīva soars up once it attains
freedom from karmic ties. Instead of offering an example for this second reason, Śvetāmbara skommentaries introduce and explain the notion of natural or innate motion. They point out
that motion is not something that jīvas procure from their karmic bodies, but that it is rather their essential disposition or their innate nature to move, with matter being the only other

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jīvas upwards, which is the reason why the jīvas that are entangled with karmic matter are kept down' in samsāra, where they move in various directions. The third reason for the upward motion of the liberated jīva that the texts propose is the severance of the karmic bondage, which all commentaries explain with the help of the example of the castor seed. A castor seed is propelled into the air only once the castrel that encases it opens. In the same way, the jīva cannot attain liberation until it is released from all karmic matter. Here, the question was raised whether the second and the third reason were not overly similar to be listed separately, but it was indicated that they are listed as distinct reasons because they approach the topic of the liberated jīva's motion from two different angles, one from the perspective of stability and the other from the perspective of karmic bondage. The fourth reason that the texts discuss is the innate modification, in line with which jīvas move in the upward direction because that is simply their own-nature, much like the own-nature of the flame of a lamp guides it to be directed upwards. This reason is comparable to the Svetāmbara deliberation on the freedom from karmic ties, the second reason discussed. In fact, in order to illustrate the fourth reason, Svetāmbaras use the example of the gourd in the water that the Digambaras use to illustrate the second reason. Causes like the impetus are indicated to be secondary or additional forces acting upon the foundational dynamics of the liberated jīva's innate motion. The material cause of the liberated jīva's motion is, therefore, always only the jīva itself, with the other factors acting as external instruments that can affect its operation. At the moment of the jīva's liberation, the full capacity of its innate disposition to move upwards is manifested.
This manifestation is, however, only short-lived as the jīva's travel is limited to the area where motion is possible, that is, the cosmic space. Even though the jiva's essential disposition to move upwards remains intact throughout liberation, the ability for any substance to move is determined by the presence of a special substance called the medium of motion that defines the limits of the cosmos. The liberated jīva reaches its upper edge from the middle realm in the course of a single moment. Since it cannot travel beyond it into acosmic space, it stays there forever, surrounded by the other liberated jīvas that undertook the same journey.
Acknowledgement
Skithte Manorowtout like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on
the article.

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1 It should be noted that the field of Jaina cosmology has not been static, but has undergone various developments, much like the rest of the Jaina doctrine. See, for example: Balcerowicz (2011).
2 Only some parts of the middle realm are occupied by human beings. In some of those parts, liberation is always attainable, while in others it is attainable only during specific time-cycles. Generally speaking, the possibility of the attainment of liberation is related to the presence of the Jaina fordmakers (tirthankara), although Jainas pose further restrictions on the attainment of liberation by maintaining that even when the teaching of the fordmakers is present, some living beings that they refer to as 'those who are incapable of attaining liberation' (abhavya) will never be able to exit samsāra. See: Jaini (2000b).
3 See: Pujyapāda Devanandin (1997) for the Digambara recension and Umāsvāti (1926 and 1930; 1903, 1904 and 1905) for the Švetāmbara recension. Where the versions of TS preserved by the Digambara and the Śvetāmbara traditions vary, I will mark TS as TSC and TS vet. In this method, I follow an approach similar to that of Piotr Balcerowicz. See, for example: Balcerowicz (2008).
4 See: Umāsvāti (1926 and 1930; 1903, 1904 and 1905). The authorship of this text is still debated, with some proposing that Umāsvāti himself is the author. See: Ohira (1982, pp.24-53) and Zydenbos (1983, pp.9-13).
5 See: Umāsvāti (1926 and 1930).
6 See: Pūjyapāda Devanandin (1997).
7 See: Akalanka (2008 and 2013).
8 See: Tatia (2011) and Sanghavi (2000).
9 iha moksah prakrtah. SS 1.4 $19.
10 Umāsvāti dedicates the whole final chapter of TS to moksa.
11 kasmad dhetor moksah kim-laksanaś cety atrocyate. SS 10.2 $922. Unless otherwise indicated, all translations are my own.
12 krtsna-karma-kşayo mokşah / TS 10.3. See also: 'Mokşa is characterised by the separation from Skablikarraian dkttsna-karma-viyoga-laksano moksah. SS 1.4 $18) and 'Moksa is characterised by the
exhaustion of all karman' (krtsna-karma-kşaya-laksaņo mokso bhavati. TBh 10.3).

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(1962) and Soni (1996).
14 yathā nigadādi-dravya-mokṣāt sati svātantrye abhipreta-pradeśa-gamanādeḥ pumān sukhi bhavati, tathā krtsna-karma-viyoge sati svādhinātyantika-jñāna-darśanānupama-sukha ātmā bhavati. TV 1.4 $20. For more on siddhas, see: Ohira (1975-1976).
15 Umāsvāti lists moksa as one of the tattvas or reals, which represent categories that a person with the right world-view (samyag-darśana) has belief in. 'The right world-view is believing in the meaning of the tattvas. The tattvas are living substance, non-living substance, inflow [of karman], bondage (of karman), stopping the inflow of karman), falling away [of karman) and moksa! (tattvārtha-śraddhānam samyag-darśanam / [...] /jīvājīvāsrava-bandha-samvara-nirjarā-mokṣās tattvam / TS 1.2, 1.4). For more on the inflow, bondage, stopping and falling away of karman, see chapters 6, 8 and 9 of TS with commentaries. See also: Glasenapp (1942), Jaini (1998), Jaini (2000c), Johnson (1995) and Wiley (2000).
16 ‘Right world-view, right knowledge and right conduct are the path to mokşa' (samyag-darśanajñāna-cāritrāņi moksa-mārgah/TS 1.1).
17 aupaśamikādi-bhavyatvābhāvāc cānyatra kevala-samyaktva-jñāna-darśana-siddhatvebhyah/ TS Svet 10.4. TS DIS 10.3-4 is nearly identical to TS ve 10.4 (aupaśamikādi-bhavyatvānām ca/ anyatra kevala-samyaktva-jñāna-darśana-siddhatvebhyah /).
18 For the various states of jīvas see: TS 2.1 and TS 2.7 with commentaries.
19 hetv-abhāvāc cottarasyāprādurbhāvah. TBh 10.3.
20‘And owing to the absence of the cause of [karmic) bondage, there is no manifestation of the next birth. This state is characterised by] the cutting off of the previous birth and no manifestation of the next birth' (bandha-hetv-abhāvāc cottara-janmano 'prādurbhāvah. eşāvasthitih pūrva-janmana uccheda uttara-janmāprādurbhāvah. TT 10.3). The terminology used here reminds of TS 10.2: 'Owing to the absence of the cause of [karmic] bondage and the falling away (of karman), the release from all karman is mokşa' (bandha-hetv-abhāva-nirjarābhyām krtsna-karma-vipramokso mokṣaḥ /). See also: Tsvet 10.2 and the already mentioned TS Svet 10.3 (bandha-hetv-abhāva-nirjarābhyām / krtsna-karma-ksayo mokşah /), which are nearly identical to TS Dig 10.2.
21 sa punar mukțātmā yatra muktah samasta-karmabhih kim tatraivāvatisthate utānyatra [...]. TT Skip to Main Content
10.4.
22 tad-anantaram ürdhvam gacchaty ā lokāntāt / TS 10.5.

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24 tad-vacanam prakrta-nirdeśārtham. [...] kaś ca prakrtah. krtsna-karma-vipramoksa. TV 10.5 $1.
25 'The meaning of "immediately after that” is immediately after the exhaustion of all karman and immediately after the absence of the states [of the jīva], such as those due to the suppression of the deluding karman' (tad-anantaram iti krtsna-karma-kşayānantaram aupaśamikādyabhāvānantaram cety arthah. TBh 10.5). 'The word "that” refers to the exhaustion of all karman and the absence of the states (of the jīva), such as those due to the suppression of the deluding karman and the state of being capable of attaining liberation' (tac-chabdena krtsna-karma-kşayaḥ parāmrsyate aupaśamikādi-bhavyatvābhāvo vā. TT 10.5).
26 'After having expanded, the liberated one moves upwards' (anu san tatam eva muktaḥ sann urdhvam eva gacchati. TT 10.5).
27 TBh 4.15 defines one moment as the time that a material particle (paramānu) takes to cross the space that it occupies.
28 karma-kşaye deha-viyoga-sidhyamāna-gati-lokānta-prāptayo hy asya yugapad eka-samayena bhavanti. TBh 10.5.
29 gatiś ca samayāntaram pradeśāntaram vāsprśantī bhavati. tasya acintya-sāmarthyāc caitat sarvam yugapad bhavati. TȚ 10.5.
30 The terms 'impetus' and 'modification' will be explained in detail in the next section.
31 tad yathā prayoga-pariņāmādi-samutthasya gati-karmana utpatti-kāryārambha-vināśā yugapad eka-samayena bhavanti tadvat. TBh 10.5.
32 tad yathety-ādinā drstāntayati. prasiddhena drstānta-vastunā siddhasya utpādādinām ekakālatā sādhyate. TT 10.5.
33 paramāņv-ādīnām gati-pariņāmas tat-samutthasya tasmāj jātasya gati-karmaṇo gati-kriyavišeşasya kārya-dvārenotpatti-kālaḥ kāryārambhaś ca kārana-vināšaś ca paryāyāntarena dvyanukādi-kāryārambhaḥ pūrva-paryāyeņa vināśas tadvat siddhasyāpi karma-ksaya-dehaviyogādayah sama-kālā eka-samayena bhavantīty arthaḥ. utpāda-vigama-sthānavad iti sujñānam. TỊ 10.5.
34 For the Jaina doctrine of matter, see: TS 5.23-28 and TS Svet 5.32-5.36/TSDię 5.33-5.37 with
Skip to Main Content
Commentaries.
35 See, for example: 'The joining (of the material particles) is due to viscosity and dryness'

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36 See, for example: 'Existence is endowed with origination, cessation and persistance' (utpādaSvet vyaya-dhrauvya-yuktam sat/ TS
5.29/TS Dig 5.30).
Dig
37 See, for example: TS 5.29 with commentaries.
38 For the nature of the relationship between these events, see: Bajželj (forthcoming). For more on Jaina metaphysics, see Bajželj (2013), Bhattacharya (1966), Dixit (1971), Jhaveri (1990), Matilal (1977), Matilal (1981), Padmarajiah (1963), Ramaiah (1978), Soni (1991), Soni (1997) and Soni (2003).
39 'How does one who has cast away karman and has no karmic influx have [motion]?' (prahīṇakarmano nirāsravasya katham bhavati [...]. TBh 10.5). TT 10.5 glosses 'how' (katham) with 'how is there motion' (kena prakāreņa gatiḥ). SS 10.5 $931 similarly asks: 'The cause of this upward movement has not been specified. How can it be determined?' (anupadista-hetukam idam ūrdhva-gamanam katham adhyavasātum śakyam [...].).
40 pūrva-prayogad asangatvād bandha-cchedāt tathā-gati-parināmāc ca tad-gatih / TS 10.6. 41 TS 10.7 is preserved only in the Digambara recension, but very similar content is discussed in TBH 10.6.
42 āviddha-kulāla-cakravad vyapagata-lepālābuvad eraṇḍa-bījavad agni-śikhāvac ca / TS 10.7. 43 kulāla-prayogāpādita-hasta-danda-cakra-samyoga-pūrvakam bhramaṇam. uparate 'pi tasmin pūrva-prayogādā saṁskāra-kṣayād bhramati. evam bhavasthenātmanāpavarga-prāptaye bahuso yat pranidhānam tad-abhāve 'pi tad-āveśa-pūrvakam muktasya gamanam avasiyate. SS 10.7 $933. TV repeats this passage word for word.
44 yathā hasta-daṇḍa-cakra-samyukta-samyogāt puruṣa-prayatnataś cāviddham kulāla-cakram uparateṣv api purușa-prayatna-hasta-danda-cakra-samyogeṣu pūrva-prayogad bhramaty evā samskāra-parikṣayāt. evam yaḥ pūrvam asya yat-karmaṇā prayogo janitaḥ sa kṣine 'pi karmani gati-hetur bhavati. tat-kṛtā gatiḥ. TBh 10.6.
45 Before that, TT 10.6. explains the notion of the preceding impetus (pūrva-prayoga) as the 'setting in motion through the operation of the hand and so forth' (hastādi-vyāpāra-prerana), referring to the example of the potter's wheel that all the four commentaries use.
46 yoga-nirodhābhimukhasya yat karma kriyā tena karmaṇā yaḥ prayogo janitaḥ sa kṣine 'pi Skip to Main Content Karmani avicchinna-samskāratvāt yogābhāve 'pi gati-hetur bhavati. tena hetunā kriyate gatir ity arthaḥ. TT 10.6.

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48 yathā mrttikā-lepa-janita-gauravam alābu-dravyam jale 'dhah-patitam jala-kleda-vislistamrttikā-bandhanam laghu-sad urdhvam eva gacchati. tathā karma-bhārā-krānti-vašīkrta ātmā tad-āveśa-vaśāt samsāre aniyamena gacchati. tat-sanga-vipramuktau tūpary evopayāti. SS 10.7 $933.
491 here follow the translation of Zydenbos (Zydenbos 1983, p.27, fn. 23). TT 10.6 glosses gaurava (gravity) as bhārikatva (the state of being heavy).
50 syād etat. yathā dravyāntara-samsakto dando 'vasthitas tad-abhāvo 'niyamena patati tathā karma-sangābhāve 'niyamenātmano'pi gamanam prāpnotīti. tan na. kim kāraṇam. ūrdhvagauravāt. urdhva-gaurava-pariņāmo hi jīva utpataty eva. TV 10.6 $4.
51 pudgalānām jīvānām ca gatimattvam uktam, nānyeșām dravyānām. tatrādho-gauravadharmāṇaḥ pudgalāḥ ūrdhva-gaurava-dharmāņo jīvāḥ. eșa svabhāvaḥ. ato ’nyāsangādi-janitā gatir bhavati. yathā satsv api prayogādişu gati-kāranesu jāti-niyamenādhas tiryag ürdhvam ca svābhāvikyo losta-vāyv-agnīnām gatayo drstās tathā sanga-vinirmuktasyordhva-gauravād ūrdhvam eva sidhyamāna-gatir bhavati. samsāriņas tu karma-sangād adhas tiryag ürdhvam ca. TBh 10.6. In line with this TT 10.6 glosses sanga (tie) as skhalana (stumbling, falling or deviating from the right path).
52 jīvānām api tādrśam gauravam pariņāma-višeso lāghavam yeşām iti. TȚ 10.6.
53 jātih prthivy-anilānala-vyakti-bhedena bhinnā. prthivītva-vāyutvāgnitvākhyā tayā niyamah kriyate. tatra prthivītva-niyamenādho-gatir lostaḥ. yo hi bādarah prthivi-pariņāmaḥ sa sarvo 'dhogatih. evam tiryag-gatir vāyuh. urdhva-gatir dahanah. TT 10.6.
54 karma-janita-skhalanād adhas tiryag ürdhvam cāniyamena gatir bhavati. TȚ 10.6.
55 yathā bija-kośa-bandha-cchedād eranda-bījasya gatir drstā tathā manusyādi-bhava-prāpakagati-jāti-nāmādi-sakala-karma-bandha-cchedān muktasyordhvam gatir avasiyate. SS 10.7 $933.
56 yathā rajju-bandha-cchedāt pedāyā bija-kośa-bandhana-cchedāc cairanda-bījādinām gatir drstā tathā karma-bandhana-cchedāt sidhyamāna-gatih. TBh 10.6.
57 asangatva-bandha-cchedayor arthāvišesād anuvāda-prasanga iti cet. TV 10.7 $7.
58 tan na. kim karanam. arthānyatvāt. anyonyānupraveśe saty avibhāgenāvasthānam bandhaḥ, Skip to Main Content
paraspara-prāpti-mātram sanga ity asty artha-višeṣaḥ. TV 10.7 $7.
59 yathā tiryak-plavana-svabhāva-samīrana-sambandha-nirutsukā pradipa-śikhā svabhāvād

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60 ürdhva-gauravāt pūrva-prayogādibhyaś ca hetubhyas tathāsya gati-pariņāma utpadyate yena sidhyamāna-gatir bhavati, ārdhvam nādhas tiryag vā. TBh 10.6.
61 Cf. Zydenbos (1983, p.45, fn. 24).
62 tad yathā gunavad-bhūmi-bhāgāropitam stu-kāla-jātam bijodbhedād ankura-pravāla-parnapuspa-phala-kālesu avimānita-seka-daurhrdādi-posaņa-karma-pariņatam kāla-cchinnam śuskam alābv apsu na nimajjati. tad eva guru-krsna-mrttikā-lepair ghanair bahubhir āliptam ghana-mrttikā-lepa-veștana-janitāgantuka-gauravam apsu praksiptam taj-jala-pratistham bhavati. yadā tv asyādbhiḥ klinno mrttikā-lepo vyapagato bhavati tadā mrttikā-lepa-sanganirmuktam moksānantaram evordhvam gacchati ā salilordhva-talāt. TBh 10.6.
63 avigrahā jīvasya / Ts Svet 2.28/TSDİ& 2.27.
64 vigraho vyāghātaḥ kautilyam ity arthah. sa yasyām na vidyate 'sāv avigrahā gatih. kasya. jīvasya. kidrśasya. muktasya. SS 2.27 $314. TV repeats this passage nearly word for word. TT glosses avigraha (in a straight line) as rju (tending in a straight line, straight).
65 sidhyamāna-gatir jīvasya niyatam avigrahā bhavati. TBh 2.28.
66 yadi mukta urdhva-gati-svabhāvo lokāntād ürdhvam api kasmān notpatatīty [...]. SS 10.7 $934.
67 dharmāstikāyābhāvāt / TSC 10.8. While this sūtra is not found in the Śvetāmbara recension of TS, TBh and TT discuss the issue under 10.6.
68 gaty-upagraha-kārana-bhūto dharmāstikāyo nopary astīty aloke gamanābhāvah. tad-bhāve ca lokāloka-vibhāgābhāvah prasajyate. SS 10.8 $935. TV 10.8 repeats it word for word.
69 'The function of the medium of motion and the medium of rest is to support motion and rest' (gati-sthity-upagraho dharmādharmayor upakāraḥ / TS 5.17).
70 See: TS 5.18 with commentaries.
71 lokāntādūrdhvam muktasya gatih kim artham na bhavatīti. atrocyate. dharmāstikāyābhāvāt. dharmāstikāyo hi jīva-pudgalānām gaty-upagrahenopakurute. sa tatra nāsti. tasmād gatyupagraha-kāranābhāvāt parato gatir na bhavaty apsu alābuvat. nadho na tiryag ity uktam.
tatraivānusreni-gatir lokānte 'vatisthate mukto niskriya iti. TBh 10.6. Skip to Main Content
References

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Jnanpith, 2008 (Part I: Chapters I-IV, 8th edn), 2013 (Part II: Chapters V-X, 9th edn).
Pūjyapāda Devanandin. (Sarvārtha-siddhi, includes the Digambara recension of the Tattvārthasūtra] Ācārya Pujyapada's Sarvarthasiddhi (The commentary on Acharya Griddhapiccha's Tattvartha-sūtra). Edited and translated into Hindi by Shastri Phoolchandra. New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith, 1997 (7th edn).
Umāsvāti. [Tattvārtha-sūtra with Svetāmbara commentaries, includes the Svetāmbara recension of the Tattvārtha-sūtra] 1. Tattvārthādhigamasūtra (A treatise on the fundamental principles of Jainism) by his Holiness Śrī Umāsvāti Vāchaka, together with his connective verses commented upon by Śrī Devaguptasūri & Śrī Siddhasenagani and his own gloss elucidated by Śrī Siddhasenagaņi. 2 vols. Edited by H. R. Kapadia. Sheth Devchand Lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar Fund Series Nos. 67 and 76. Bombay: Jivanchand Sakerchand Javeri, 1926 (Part I: Chapters 1-V), 1930 (Part II: Chapters VI-X). 2. Tattvārthadhigama by Umāsvāti being in the original Sanskrit with the Bhāsya by the author himself. Edited by K. P. Mody. Bibliotheca Indica New Series 1044, 1079, 1118. Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1903, 1904, 1905.
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